BERK BlEY 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
Ecclesiastical Dictionary 
 
 CONTAINING, IN CONCISE FORM, 
 INFORMATION UPON 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL, BIBLICAL, ARCH^OLOG- 
 ICAL, AND HISTORICAL SUBJECTS 
 
 BY 
 
 RBV. JOHN THEIN 
 
 Priest of the Diocese of Cleveland 
 
 Author ofCHKISriAN ANTHROPOLOGY,* ''ANSWER TO DIFFICULTIES 
 OF THE BIBLE* "THE CATECHISM OF RODEZ* etc. 
 
 New York, Cincinnati, Chicago 
 BKNZIGE^R BROTHERS 
 
 Printers to the Holy Apostolic See 
 1900 
 
Copyright, 1900, 
 
 BY 
 
 REV. JOHN THEIN 
 
 IDAN STACtC 
 
T3I 
 
 llmprtmatur 
 
 ^ MICHAEL AUGUSTINE 
 
 Archbishop of New York 
 
 New York 
 March 21, 1900 
 
 •Wtbtl ®b0tat 
 
 ►^ IGN. F. HORSTMANN 
 
 Bishop of Cleveland 
 
 Cleveland, Ohio 
 March 9, 1900 
 
 509 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 
 in 2008 with funding from 
 
 IVIicrosoft Corporation 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/ecclesiasticaldiOOtheirich 
 
(iii) 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 [HE closing century has been a century of Dictionaries of all 
 kinds. Many of these works comprisG several large volumes 
 and are quite expepsive. Very fevv^ can aflFord to make an out- 
 lay of fifty or one hundred dollars in order to procure an Encyclopedia. 
 Hence, it has been the object of the author of the present Ecclesias- 
 tical Dictionary to furnish, in concise form, information upon eccle- 
 siastical, biblical, archaeological, and historical subjects, and bring the 
 work within reach of everybody by making a small outlay of money. 
 
 The more than three thousand articles, contained in our Dictionary, 
 have been culled from various standard and up-to-date works. In order 
 not to render the work too bulky, by always giving credit to the au- 
 thors and their works throughout the text of the book, it was deemed 
 best to confine them to a separate list, as can be seen on page v. The 
 quotations of Scripture are mostly made from the Latin Vulgate. As 
 it was later decided to make the size of the pages somewhat longer and 
 wider, in order to give the book a nicer form, the total number of pages 
 has not quite reached the original number as advertised. 
 
 The subjects treated in the Ecclesiastical Dictionary, may be 
 classified under the three following heads : — 
 
 Mixed Theology 
 
 Historic Theology 
 
 Pure Theology 
 
 Mixed Theology answers especially to the wants of our time. It 
 consists of articles whose characteristics are philosophical, scientific, 
 artistic, and literary. This class of articles has for object to urge our 
 contemporary adversaries, with the help of demonstrative resources that 
 are offered by philosophy, the sciences, arts, and belles-lettres, to admit 
 the great truths, continually attacked by them. They address them- 
 selves to all kinds of readers, and, by studying them carefully, may they 
 put into practice the declared proposition of Pope Pius IX., before it 
 was taken up again and embodied into the decrees of the Vatican Coun- 
 cil: "The use of reason precedes faith and leads man to it with the 
 help of revelation and grace"; Rationis usus jidem prcecedit, et ad earn 
 kominem ape revelationis et gratice conducit. If some of the articles 
 appear to have been given too much space, then the importance of the 
 subjects makes up for this. 
 
iv PREFACE 
 
 Historical Theology has for its object, as the name implies, Theologico- 
 Historic Generalities and Varieties. It comprises Popes, Councils, 
 Particular Churches, Religious Orders, Famous Schools, Biographies and 
 Bibliographies, Religious Sects, Ecclesiastical Dignities, etc. 
 
 Finally, Pure Theology consists of Theological and Exegetical Gen- 
 eralities and Varieties ; God and the Creation ; Christ and all that is 
 directly connected with Our Lord ; the Church and the Ecclesiastical 
 Hierarchy ; Grace and the Sacraments ; Ecclesiastical Morals and Pre- 
 cepts, etc. 
 
 These are, in great outlines, the subjects treated in the Ecclesias- 
 tical Dictionary. We shall be judged in the future. For to-day, our 
 only ambition is to be appreciated in the simple exposition of the sub- 
 jects contained in our work ; and we trust that the book will find many 
 readers, who are solely animated by the love of truth. 
 
 The Author. 
 
 On the Feast of St. Joseph, March 19th, 1900. 
 
WORKS USED IN COMPILING THE 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL DICTIONARY 
 
 A Catholic Dictionary^ by Addis and Arnold. 
 
 American Ecclesiastical Review^ New York. 
 
 Catholic Doctrine atid Discipline Explained, by Philip Bold. 
 
 Christian Apology (English translation), by Paul Schanz, D.D.D.Ph. 
 
 Concise Dictionary of Religious Knowledge, by Rev. Samuel M. Jackson. 
 
 Dictionary of the Bible, 3 vols. (1860-63), ^y Sir William Smith. 
 
 Dictionnaire de la Bible, by F. Vigouroux. 
 
 Dictionnaire des Dictionnaires, 6 vols. (1886), by P. Guerin. 
 
 Dictionnaire de Theologie, 12 vols. (1876), by Bergier. 
 
 Elements of Ecclesiastical Latu, by Rev. S. B. Smith, D.D. 
 
 Encyclopedia Britannica, with Revised Atnerican Supplement (1899). 
 
 Grand Catechisme de la Perseverance Chretienne, 14 vols, by P. 
 
 D' Hauterive. 
 Handbook of the Christian Religion (1891), by Rev. W. William Wil- 
 
 MERS, S.J. 
 Histoire Universelle de V Eglise Catholique, 12 vols. (1872), by Rohr- 
 
 BACHER. 
 
 History of the Catholic Church, 2 vols. (English translation), by Dr. 
 
 Heinrich Brueck. 
 History of the Church (fifth edition), by Rev. J. A. Birkhaeuser. 
 Hoffmann'' s Catholic Directory of 1899. 
 
 Introduction to the Scriptures (1889), by Rev. John MacDevitt, D.D. 
 Kir chen- Lexicon (second edition), by Wetzer and Welte. 
 Manual of Catholic Theology, by Joseph Wilhelm, D.D., Ph.D., and 
 
 Thomas B. Scannell, B.D. 
 Origine du Culte Chretien (1898), by L' Abbe L. Duchesne. 
 Outlines of Church History (English translation 1894), by Rev. H. Wed- 
 
 EWER, D.D. 
 Outlines of Dogmatic Theology, 3 vols, by Sylvester Jos. Hunter, S.J. 
 The Century Dictionary, 7 vols. 
 Universal Church History, 3 vols. English translation (1876), by Dr. 
 
 John Alzog. 
 
 (V) 
 
Ecclesiastical Dictionary 
 
 Aachen (Lat. Aquis-granum; Fr. Aix- 
 la-Chafelle). — City in Rhenish Prussia; 
 population in 1890, 103,470. It was a 
 Roman city, favorite abode of Charle- 
 magne, and crowning-place of the Ger- 
 man emperors (803-1558). Its cathedral 
 consists of the famous polygonal monu- 
 ment founded by Charlemagne in 796-804, 
 and a beautiful Gothic choir of the four- 
 teenth century. Charlemagne's structure 
 was inspired by St. Vitale at Ravenna, 
 which he had seen in his expedition into 
 Italy. The cathedral of Aachen possesses 
 a very rich treasure of precious objects, 
 magnificent reliquaries and numerous 
 relics, particularly relics of our Lord, the 
 Blessed Virgin, and St. John the Baptist: 
 a robe of the Blessed Virgin of yellow- 
 white wool, the swaddling-clothes of the 
 Child Jesus of dark-yellow wool, the blood- 
 stained winding-sheet of our Saviour, and 
 the fine linen into which the body of 
 St. John the Baptist had been infolded. 
 Among the so-called smaller relics are 
 pieces of the Cross and the Passion- 
 instruments, girdle and hair of the Blessed 
 Virgin, remains of many Apostles, martyrs 
 and other saints. The most of these relics 
 had been given to Charlemagne by Eastern 
 princes. They are solemnly exposed, to 
 the veneration of the faithful, every sev- 
 enth year. Several ecclesiastical synods 
 were held in Aachen : that of 798, in which 
 Felix of Urgel renounced anew his Adop- 
 tionism ; that of 809, which acknowledged 
 the doctrine and practice of the Frankish 
 Church, approved the insertion of the 
 Filioqne in the Symbol of Faith and the 
 custom of singing it at Mass; that of 817 
 decreed regulations for canons and female 
 congregations. 
 
 Aaron (Hebr. enliffhtened) (1574-1452 
 B.C.). — First high-priest of the Jews, of the 
 tribe of Levi and elder brother of Moses. 
 
 He assisted the latter in the work of deliv- 
 ering the Israelites, and was the spokes- 
 man before Pharao. Guilty of weakness, 
 during the sojourn of Moses on Sinai, by 
 permitting the people to cast and adore a 
 golden calf, he soon acknowledged his 
 fault and God preserved to him the priest- 
 hood, which became hereditary in his 
 family. In punishment for not having 
 shown sufficient confidence in the Lord, 
 when He told him to strike the rock at 
 Cades, like Moses, he did not enter the 
 Promised Land, and died on Mount Hor. 
 
 Abaddon (Hebr. extermination, destruc- 
 tion). — In the New Testament, Abaddon 
 is the angel of the abyss (Apoc. ix. 11), or 
 Satan, and this name designates his power 
 of destruction, his zeal of extermination. 
 
 Abarbanel. — Rabbinic Doctor, of Lis- 
 bon, Spain (1437-1508). Minister of 
 finances of Alphonso V. of Portugal and of 
 Ferdinand of Aragon. Banished in 1492; 
 he died at Venice. Besides commentaries, 
 he wrote in Hebrew, The Herald of Sal- 
 vation, which is an examination, in a 
 bitter tone, of the principal Messianic 
 prophecies, in order to refute the Christian 
 doctrine df the Messiasship of Christ. 
 
 Abarim. — A mountainous region of 
 lofty table- lands in Palestine, east of the 
 Dead Sea, on the northern border of Moab 
 and within the limits of the tribe of Ruben, 
 The mountains Nebo, Pisga and Peor are 
 summits of the Abarim (Num. xxvii. 12; 
 xxxiii. 47, 48; Deut. xxxii. 49). 
 
 Abasement of Christ. — The state of 
 abasement of Christ consists in the as- 
 sumption of humanity and the simul- 
 taneous occultation of the Divinity. The 
 assumption of our nature by the Logos, if 
 accompanied by a complete manifestation 
 of His power and glory, would not be an 
 
 (I) 
 
Abba 
 
 Abbot 
 
 abasement, but an act of gracious con- 
 descension. But He, to whom perfect 
 glory was due from the beginning, chose 
 to lower Himself not only to the position 
 of our first parents before the Fall, but to 
 the condition of " the sons of man." He 
 began life as an infant, lowly, weak, and 
 dependent on others, and only gradually 
 attained the ripeness of manhood in which 
 Adam was created. Placed by His birth 
 among sinners. He renounced some of the 
 privileges of His original justice and in- 
 tegrity, and submitted — as far as consis- 
 tent with His dignity and conducive to the 
 salvation of man — to the imperfections of 
 human nature, and to the ordinances and 
 laws to which human nature is subject. 
 He thus did homage to God sufficient to 
 redeem His brethren ; He ennobled lowli- 
 ness and showed its value in the service of 
 God ; He set us a perfect example of all 
 virtues, but especially of humility, pa- 
 tience, and mercy; He acquired a perfect 
 title to our love. 
 
 Abba(aChaldaicwordsignifyingyrt///er). 
 — When the Jews began to speak Greek, 
 this word was probably retained from their 
 ancient language, being easier to pro- 
 nounce, especially for children, than the 
 Greek pater. Our Lord used it in His 
 prayer in the Garden of Gethsemane 
 (Mark xiv. 36). St. Paul uses it twice 
 (Rom. viii. 15; Gal. iv. 6) in referring to 
 our adoption as Sons of God through the 
 Holy Ghost. 
 
 Abbadie (James). — A noted French Prot- 
 estant theologian (1654-1727). He went 
 to Berlin about 1680 as minister of the 
 French Church there, and thence to Eng- 
 land and Ireland ; was for a time minister 
 of the French Church in the Savoy; and 
 finally settled in Ireland as Dean of Killaloe 
 in 1699. His chief work is the Traite de 
 la Verite de la Religion Chretienne (1684), 
 with its continuation, Traite de la Divin- 
 ity de notre Seigneur Jesus Christ (1689). 
 
 Abb6. — A purely honorary title, given 
 in France for about two centuries to all the 
 clerics from tonsure to the vicar-general. 
 This custom, abusive in principle, is de- 
 rived from the royal courts. As most of 
 the clerics who frequented the courts were 
 richly provided with abbeys, one would 
 have considered it an insult to appear there 
 vested in an ecclesiastical garment and not 
 in possession of some abbatial title. Since 
 that time, French politeness required the 
 
 cleric to be called Monsieur V Abbe. As a 
 rule, to-day, all the clerics in France are 
 called Abbe. See Abbot. 
 
 Abbess. — The mother superior of a nun- 
 nery. According to the Council of Trent, 
 the abbess should be elected by the secret 
 votes of the religious. She should belong, 
 as much as possible, to the monastery 
 where she was elected, be forty, or at least 
 thirty years old, and have made profession 
 eight or at least five years before. Should 
 a case of doubtful election arise, the ordi- 
 nary intervenes and selects from among 
 the nuns the one whom he thinks best 
 qualified for the office. Without the bish- 
 op's sanction, the abbess cannot select a 
 father confessor, neither for herself nor for 
 her nuns; nor can she dispense a nun 
 from the obligations of the Rule by her 
 own authority; neither suspend nor dis- 
 miss any one. 
 
 Abbey signifies both the corporate body 
 of monks or nuns under an abbot or ab- 
 bess, and the building in which they live 
 and worship. There were royal abbeys, 
 which were under the patronage of kings, 
 and episcopal abbeys, directly controlled 
 by bishops. In the course of time their 
 wealth often became very great. In Eng- 
 land, in the time of Henry VIII., there 
 were 190 of them. Henry suppressed them 
 all, and confiscated their property, which 
 was valued at £2,850,000. See Monas- 
 tery. 
 
 Abbo of Fleury(ST.) (945-1004).^ — Abbot 
 of Fleury, born near Orleans. One of the 
 most learned religious of his time, who 
 founded the famous Abbey of Fleury. 
 His most remarkable work is an Epitome 
 de vitis Romanorum Pontijicum, first pub- 
 lished at Mayence, 1602. F.Nov. 13th. 
 
 Abbot (Lat. abbas).— This title, which 
 is equivalent to that of father (chief of a 
 family), was given in early days to every 
 superior of a monastery, in both the East 
 and the West. Later on, in the East, this 
 title gave way to that of Hegumen (guide, 
 chief of a house). In the West, since the 
 tenth century, the name is more strictly 
 reserved in certain monasteries or religious 
 orders to the superior of the principal 
 monasteries, or to those who enjoy a more 
 or less unlimited autonomy and independ- 
 ence. The new orders, the Carthusians, 
 Dominicans, Franciscans, and those which 
 have been founded since, do not assume- 
 this title. 
 
Abbreviator 
 
 Ab^lard 
 
 The abbots have taken an important 
 part in Church matters and also in the 
 progress of European civilization. The 
 respect and veneration which their posi- 
 tion inspired, the confiding trust reposed 
 in them by the weak and lowly, and their 
 great influence among all ranks of society, 
 enabled them to become the ordinary pro- 
 tectors of the people against the inroads 
 of Feudalism and Barbarism. The gifts 
 and privileges bestowed on them by the 
 Holy See, the right to wear the crosier, 
 miter and ring, to sit in councils and 
 synods, also in the counsels of the Sover- 
 eign Pontiff, bishops, kings, and vassals, 
 surrounded them with enlarged advantages, 
 which greatly added to their influence. 
 Though the number and influence of ab- 
 bots have greatly diminished in our time, 
 there are still many in Europe as well as in 
 America, whose zeal for good works and 
 religion are no less marked. 
 
 Abbreviator. — One who abbreviates or 
 reduces to a smaller compass ; specifically, 
 one who abridges what has been written 
 by another. Abbreviators is also the 
 name by which we designate a number 
 of secretaries in the chancery of the Pope 
 who abbreviate petitions according to 
 certain established and technical rules, 
 and draw up the minutes of the apostolic 
 letters. Their number is now reduced 
 to eleven. They sign the apostolic Bulls 
 in the name of the cardinal vice-chan- 
 cellor. The abbreviator of the curia is 
 a prelate not belonging to the above col- 
 lege, but attached to the oflSce of the apos- 
 tolic datary; he expedites bulls relating to 
 pontifical laws and constitutions, such as 
 for the canonization of saints, and the like. 
 
 Abdenago. — Babylonian name which 
 signifies servant of Nago, sun or morning 
 star, given by an officer of the Babylonian 
 king to Azarias, one of the three compan- 
 ions of Daniel, who was thrown into a fiery 
 furnace and miraculously delivered, in the 
 year 600 b. c. 
 
 Abdias. — i. Steward of the house of 
 Achab, king of Israel. Secreted the proph- 
 ets whom queen Jezabel wished to put to 
 death. 2. The fourth of the twelve minor 
 prophets ; lived during the captivity of the 
 Jews and foretold their return ; wrote one 
 single chapter against the Idumeans. 3. 
 Famous impostor of Babylon who wrote 
 the life of the Apostles and wished to pass 
 as one of the 72 disciples of Jesus Christ. 
 
 Abdon and Sennen. — Noble Persians, 
 martyrs, at Rome, under the persecution 
 of Decius. F. July 30th. Their veneration 
 is very ancient. In the third room of the 
 Pontica Cemetery at Rome a painting 
 can be seen, which goes back at least to 
 the seventh century. It represents the 
 Saviour enfolded to the waist in a cloud and 
 deposing from each hand a crown upon the 
 head of St. Abdon and St. Sennen, who 
 are in Persian costume, wearing the Phryg- 
 ian bonnet. 
 
 Abecedarians. — Anabaptists, who 
 claimed that in order to be saved, we must 
 ignore even the letters of the alphabet, be- 
 cause, according to Luther, each Christian 
 will be judged about the meaning of 
 Scripture, for God instructs all men im- 
 mediately and by Himself. 
 
 Abecedarian Psalms. — The name ap- 
 plied to those Psalms, which, according tO' 
 the proceeding of the 119th Psalm, are sa 
 arranged that the letters of each verse fol- 
 low the alphabetical order. 
 
 A Becket (Thomas). See Thomas A 
 Becket. 
 
 Abel. See Cain. 
 
 Abelard (Peter) (1079-1142). — French 
 scholar, born near Nantes. After study- 
 ing under Roscelin, betook himself to 
 Paris, and became the pupil of the learned 
 William of Champeaux, founder of the 
 celebrated Abbey of St. Victor, and after- 
 ward Bishop of Chalons. His progress 
 was so rapid, that he soon outstripped his 
 master. In two public disputations, which 
 he held with William, he came off trium- 
 phant. Abelard, though then only twenty- 
 two years old, opened a school of his own, 
 at Melun, and subsequently at Paris, Cor- 
 beil, and at "the Paraclete," a monastery 
 founded by him near Troyes. Everywhere 
 large numbers of scholars thronged to his 
 lectures, as his eloquence was indeed won- 
 derful. He surprised his contemporaries 
 by the brilliancy of his genius, the ready 
 flow of his language, and the subtlety of his 
 reasoning. Among those who sought his 
 instructions was feloise, the niece of Canon 
 Fulbert. But the acquaintance with this • 
 accomplished lady proved fatal to his 
 honor. To cover his ignominy, the un- 
 happy man retired to the monastery of St. 
 Denis, and became a monk, while filoise 
 took the veil at Argenteuil. Abelard 
 opened a school at St. Denis, which was 
 
Abelites 
 
 Abimelech 
 
 soon frequented by crowds of eager stu- 
 dents from all parts. But his novel views 
 on the subject of the Holy Trinity, brought 
 him into conflict with the Church. His 
 foremost opponent was St. Bernard. Of the 
 novel doctrines advanced by Abelard, we 
 quote: i. The Father alone is all-power- 
 ful; the Son is inferior in power to the 
 Father, and the Holy Ghost is inferior to 
 the Son. 2. The Holy Ghost proceeds 
 from the Father and the Son; but He is 
 not of their substance; He is the soul of 
 the world. 3. God cannot accomplish 
 more than He has accomplished and in- 
 tends yet to accomplish. 4. Christ as- 
 sumed flesh, not to redeem man from the 
 bondage of the devil, but to instruct him 
 by word and example. 5. Not the guilt, 
 but only the punishment of the sin com- 
 mitted by Adam, is propagated in his pos- 
 terity. 6. Man can do good by his own 
 free will, and without the assistance of 
 divine grace. 7. No sin is committed 
 through concupiscence or ignorance. His 
 errors were condemned by the Council of 
 Sens, in 1140. Abelard appealed to the 
 Pope, but, on his way to Rome, he took 
 sick and sought refuge with Peter the 
 Venerable, Abbot of Clugny. Here he 
 spent his last days, and died peacefully, 
 reconciled with St. Bernard and the 
 Church. 
 
 Abelites. — Heretics of Africa, in the 
 time of St. Augustine, who condemned 
 marriage and kept continence in order not 
 to bring forth creatures soiled with original 
 sin. They founded themselves on the be- 
 lief that Abel had never been married. 
 Each couple adopted a boy and a girl, and 
 made them heirs on condition that they 
 married each other, but likewise restrained 
 themselves. 
 
 Abgar. — A name, like Pharao or Caesar, 
 borne by the kings of Edessa, a small king- 
 dom in the southwest of Mesopotamia. 
 Eusebius (Ch. Hist. i. 13), gives the re- 
 puted correspondence between (the fif- 
 teenth) Abgar and our Saviour, relative to 
 the cure of a former leprosy. Christ 
 promises to send, after His crucifixion, 
 one of His disciples to heal him. Thad- 
 deus was sent, and Abgar and his subjects 
 were converted to Christianity. A later 
 legend is that Christ sent Abgar his por- 
 trait. 
 
 Abia. — King of Juda, son of Roboam 
 (958-955 B. c). Abia is a proper noun and 
 frequently mentioned in Holy Scripture. 
 
 Abiathar. — Son of Achimelech, and 
 high-priest of the Jews. When Saul sent 
 his emissaries to Nob, to destroy all the 
 priests there, Abiathar, who was young, 
 fled to David in the wilderness, with whom 
 he continued in the function of high- 
 priest. Saul, it would appear, transferred 
 the dignity of the high-priesthood from 
 Ithamar's family to that of Eleazar, by 
 conferring the office upon Sadoc. Thus, 
 there were, at the same time, two high- 
 priests in Israel; Abiathar with David, 
 and Sadoc with Saul. This double priest- 
 hood continued from the death of Achim- 
 elech till the reign of Solomon, when 
 Abiathar, attaching himself to Adonias, 
 was deprived by Solomon of his priest- 
 hood. 
 
 Abib. — The first month of the ecclesias- 
 tical year of the Hebrews ; afterward 
 called N'tsan. It answered to our March 
 and April. Abib signifies green ears of 
 grain, or fresh fruits. It was so named 
 because corn, particularly barley, was in 
 ear at that season. 
 
 Abigail. — Formerly the wife of Nabal 
 of Carmel, and afterward of David. Upon 
 receiving information of Nabal's ingrati- 
 tude to the king (I. Ki. xxv. 14, etc.), 
 she loaded several asses with provisions, 
 and, attended by some of her domestics, 
 went out to meet David. Her manners 
 and conversation gained for her his esteem, 
 and, as soon as the days of mourning for 
 Nabal's death were over, he made her his 
 wife. 
 
 Abilene. — The name of a district of 
 country on the eastern declivity of Antili- 
 banus, from twelve to twenty miles north- 
 west of Damascus. So called from the city 
 Abila, and also called Abilene of Lysanias, 
 to distinguish it from others. This terri- 
 tory had formerly been governed as a 
 tetrarchate by a certain Lysanias ; after- 
 ward it fell to Herod the Great. 
 
 Abimelech. — Name of three personages 
 in the Old Testament : i. King of Gerara 
 of the Philistines, who took Sara into his 
 harem ; but being warned by God in a 
 dream, he restored her to Abraham (Gen. 
 XX.). 2. Another king of Gerara, prob- 
 ably son of the former, and contemporary 
 with Isaac (Gen. xxvi. 6-31). 3. Son of 
 Gedeon, by a concubine; made himself 
 king of Sichem after his father's death, 
 and slew his father's seventy sons on one 
 stone, only Joatham, the youngest, being 
 
Abiu 
 
 Abortion 
 
 left. Joatham reproached the Sichemites 
 for their conduct in his celebrated fable of 
 the trees. Three years afterward they 
 rose against Abimelech ; he defeated them, 
 and destroyed their city, but as he was at- 
 tacking Thebes, a woman threw a piece 
 of a millstone on his head, which so in- 
 jured him, that he called to his armor- 
 bearer to slay him (Judg. ix.). 
 
 Abiu. — Levite, son of Aaron, devoured 
 by fire from heaven for having offered in- 
 cense with a profane fire, instead of taking 
 it from the altar of holocausts. 
 
 Abjuration. — A solemn act of renounc- 
 ing all false or heretical doctrines which a 
 person had formerly held. There is an 
 authorized form of abjuration in use in the 
 Catholic Church. 
 
 Ablution. — This word, in Catholic lit- 
 urgy, has several meanings. Baptism, as- 
 persion with blessed water, the washing of 
 feet, that of the altars in Holy Week, the 
 washing of hands at Mass after the OflFer- 
 tory, are ablutions. We speak here only of 
 those that take place after communion. The 
 word ablution is now in use in liturgy to 
 designate the wine and water received by 
 the priest into the chalice and upon his 
 fingers to purify them. After the receiv- 
 ing of the most precious Blood, the cel- 
 ebrant presents the chalice to the Mass 
 servant, saying the words: '^ ^uod ore 
 stimpsimus,'^ etc. While the priest recites 
 these words, the servant pours wine into 
 the chalice. Properly speaking, this first 
 ablution is only that of the cup. The ablu- 
 tion of the fingers of the priest takes place 
 only after he has taken the wine, and when 
 he presents the chalice to the servant. He 
 extends, over the opening of the chalice, 
 the thumb and index finger of each hand, 
 with which, only, he has touched the sacred 
 Eucharist, and pronounces the following 
 words: '* Corpus tuum Domine quod 
 sumpsi,'^ etc., while the servant pours wine 
 and water into the chalice. In the first ten 
 centuries of the Church, they threw the 
 wine and water of the ablutions into the 
 piscina. About the year 1200, priests, 
 guided by a sentiment of respect, judged 
 it becoming to take the ablution, and this 
 practice soon became a general law. 
 
 Abner. — General of Saul ; embraced the 
 party of David, and was treacherously slain 
 by Joab, either to avenge the death of 
 Asael, Joab's brother, whom Abner had 
 formerly killed, or more probably from 
 jealousy. 
 
 Abortion. — The premature expulsion of 
 the foetus by criminal means. Direct and 
 voluntary abortion is always a grievous 
 sin, a criminal act. No distinction is made 
 between the animated and inanimated 
 foetus, hence the condemnation by Pope 
 Innocent XI. of the following proposition: 
 " It is permitted to procure the abortion 
 before the animation of the foetus, in order 
 to avoid that a young girl, taken unaware 
 with child, might be killed or disgraced." 
 Such is the principle. Now behold the 
 application : — 
 
 A woman dangerously sick is permitted 
 to take a remedy, with the view of being 
 cured, and at the risk of an abortion, when 
 the sickness is mortal, and when the remedy 
 is judged necessary for her cure. A 
 woman is not permitted to take a remedy 
 with the view of being delivered from her 
 pregnancy, except in such case where the 
 foetus is corrupted. A physician, treating 
 a sick pregnant woman, must, if he has 
 the choice between two remedies, employ 
 the one which will heal the mother with- 
 out hurting the child ; if there be only one 
 remedy at his disposition, then, he can 
 employ it, even at the risk of hurting the 
 child ; that is, supposing the mother's 
 sickness is a grave one, and that the rem- 
 edy employed does not tend directly to- 
 ward the death of the child, and, con- 
 sequently, that the abortion, if it take 
 place, is only an indirect accident to be 
 deplored, and far from having been held in 
 view, was judged only probable or possi- 
 ble. The direct abortion, under whatever 
 circumstances it may have taken place, be- 
 ing an actual or anticipated homicide, is 
 always guilty. It is clear that all those 
 who co-operate thereto, like physicians, 
 surgeons, druggists, or midwives, sin mor- 
 tally. But in exceedingly grave cases, 
 when both mother and child incur an equal 
 danger, and when it can save the one only 
 by killing the other, which has to be sacri- 
 ficed .? The child, according to the opinion 
 of a certain class of savants. 
 
 This reasoning, however, is not accepted 
 by theology, which says: "The foetus is 
 a living human being. Now, it is never 
 permitted to take the life of any one in 
 order to preserve that of another; there- 
 fore, the child cannot be killed to save the 
 mother. " 
 
 On this point we will add, that the child 
 would be unduly deprived of the spiritual 
 regeneration and supernatural advantages 
 resulting therefrom, and to which it has 
 
Abraham 
 
 Absolution 
 
 received a right through redemption. 
 One must not, in palliation of a crime, say 
 that, " between two evils we must choose 
 the lesser one." The principle or moral, 
 which is applicable here, is, that it is never 
 permitted to do evil in order to obtain the 
 good. Now, to kill, willingly and directly, 
 a human being is an evil. 
 
 Several Doctors of the Theological Fac- 
 ulty of Paris, in 1733, consulted on this 
 question, answered: "That, if one only 
 regards justice, one can sacrifice the child 
 in order to save the mother, each one 
 having the right to defend his life against 
 the one that wishes to deprive him 
 thereof." 
 
 This answer has, since then, beerj fre- 
 quently refuted ; and the Sacred Congre- 
 gation has forbidden it to be taught in the 
 seminaries. Hence, one has to follow the 
 principle laid down by St. Ambrose (3 De 
 Offic. c. q.) Si alteri subvenire non potest, 
 nisi alter laedatttr, comtnodius est neutrum 
 adjuvare, Paris, April 24, 1648. The ques- 
 tion, however, points toward a solution, 
 which may bring harmony between the two 
 opinions, namely, to surgery, to which we 
 must look for the best results. Three op- 
 erations promise the possibility of saving 
 both mother and child : the Caesarean 
 operation, Symphysectomy, and premature 
 artificial birth. 
 
 Abraham (Hebrew word, which signi- 
 fies Father of Nations). — Son of Thare 
 and eleventh descendant of Sem, was born 
 at Ur, in Chaldea, about the year 2000 
 B.C., and died in Palestine, at the age 
 of 175 years. He is surnamed the Father 
 of the Faithful, because having been the 
 man whom God separated from the com- 
 mon mass, to make him the father, through 
 generation, of the people of Israel, Jesus 
 Christ Himself is a descendant of his, and 
 consequently all the Christians are re- 
 garded as having come forth from Abraham 
 in a spiritual manner. The burial place of 
 Abraham, at Hebron, honored by both 
 Jews and Christians, is to-day in the hands 
 of the Turks. The Greek Church, built 
 over the sepulchre, was turned into a 
 mosque. 
 
 Abraham a Sancta-Clara. — Augustinian 
 monk of Germany (1644-1709); one of the 
 most popular preachers of his time. He 
 mingled everything in his imaginative 
 style: fables, stories of all kinds, pedantic 
 quotations, jocose traits, picturesque, triv- 
 ial, and burlesque plays on words. Aside 
 
 from all this, he was a man of great piety 
 and had a profound knowledge of men. 
 One can judge, by the titles, of the caprice 
 of his sermons : " Judas the Archrascal " ; 
 " Kek, Kek, Kek, Kek, e Ke, or, The 
 Wonderful Chicken of Bavaria." 
 
 Abrahamites. — i. Heretics of the ninth 
 century, innovators of the Paulinianist 
 doctrines, under the empire of Nicephorus 
 in the East and of Charlemagne in the 
 West. 2. Bohemian peasants, who, about 
 the end of the eighteenth century, admit- 
 ted no other dogma than the divinity of 
 God, and adopted Abraham as the father 
 of their belief. 
 
 Abraxas. — A sort of stone upon which 
 were engraved cabalistic characters and 
 which were worn as amulets. This word 
 signifies God in Persian. 
 
 Absalom.— Son of David, revolted against 
 his father; was conquered ; in fleeing, re- 
 mained suspended by his long hair in the 
 branches of a tree, and was killed by Joab, 
 commander of the armies of David, 1030 b.c. 
 
 Absolon or Axel. — Born on the Isle of 
 Seeland, archbishop of Lund, primate of 
 Denmark, Sweden, and Norway ; statesman, 
 minister under Waldemar I. and Canute 
 IV. (1128-1201). He converted the Riigen 
 Islanders. 
 
 Absolution ( action to absolve) . — In re- 
 gard to the sacraments, the absolution 
 designates the action by which the Cath- 
 olic priest remits the sins in the name 
 of God, to the sinner that is before him 
 and who comes to make the avowal of his 
 faults. It is always given individually; 
 however, in imminent and unforeseen dan- 
 gers, for instance, before a battle, the 
 priest can give a general absolution, which 
 benefits all those who are well disposed. 
 — Absolution /w articulo mortis, we call 
 t,he action by which a priest, finding him- 
 self in the presence of a dying person that 
 has lost the use of his senses, supposes 
 him well disposed by the desire which he 
 has to save his soul, and applies to him 
 the plenitude of the reparative graces, 
 whose dispensation Jesus Christ has left to 
 His Church. — Absolution in Liturgy, we 
 call the prayers and ceremonies which end 
 the office of the dead and are performed 
 round the coffin or catafalque, — The priest's' 
 absolution in the sacrament of Penance has 
 been defined to be a judicial act, and not a 
 mere pronouncing or declaring that the 
 
Abstainers 
 
 ACACIANS 
 
 penitent's sins are forgiven (Council of 
 Trent, sess. xiv. chap. 6, can. 9). This is 
 clear from the words of Christ: "Whose 
 sins ys shall forgive," etc.; "Whatsoever 
 ye shall loose," etc. The exact formula of 
 absolution to be used was not expressly 
 stated by Christ or His Apostles. It is 
 certain that for upward of a thousand years 
 a precatory form ("May Christ absolve 
 thee," or similar words) was in general 
 use, as indeed is still the case in the East. 
 The indicative form ("I absolve thee") 
 came into vise in the Western Church dur- 
 ing the early Middle Ages, and gradually 
 supplanted the other. At the present day, 
 a priest of the Western Church using the 
 precatory form alone would grievously 
 sin, and would expose the sacrament to 
 the danger of nullity. 
 
 Abstainers. — By this word we under- 
 stand those persons who have a repugnance 
 for wine, and cannot drink it. In the 
 primitive Church, the abstainers received 
 holy communion only under the species of 
 bread. 
 
 Abstinence, — Among Catholics, a reli- 
 gious practice which consists in abstaining 
 from flesh-meat on Friday, in Lent, and 
 on various other days of the year. The 
 abstinence of Friday and Saturday was in- 
 stituted in the first centuries of the Church, 
 in honor of the death and burial of Jesus 
 Christ, and to prepare for the Sunday. 
 Abstinence is a virtue which assists the 
 spirit not to be the slave of matter, to sub- 
 due the senses, and the disordinate appe- 
 tites. Finally, it is a practice of penance 
 for the expiation of sins committed. See 
 Lent; Fast. 
 
 Abstinents. — Gnostic or Manichean 
 heretics, who appeared in Gaul and in 
 Spain, about the end of the third century. 
 They proscribed marriage and the use of 
 flesh-meat. 
 
 Abucara (Theodore). — Metropolitan 
 of the province of Caria, in the eighth cen- 
 tury. Wrote : Treatises against the yeivs, 
 the Mohammetans and Heretics, translated 
 into Latin by Genebrard and the Jesuit 
 Gretzer; De unione et incarnatione. 
 
 Abuna. — (Ethiopic or Ar. our father'). 
 Title of the head of the Christian Church, 
 in Abyssinia. 
 
 Abyssinia. — The evangelization of an- 
 cient Ethiopia, called Abyssinia, was com- 
 
 menced by St. Frumentius and his fellow- 
 laborer ^desius, though some writers 
 attribute that honor to the chamberlain of 
 the Ethiopian queen, Candace, whose bap- 
 tism by Philip the Deacon is recorded in 
 the Acts (viii. 38). In 316, Frumentius 
 and his companion were taken captives into 
 Abyssinia while accompanying Meropius 
 of Tyre on a journey, and were presented 
 to the king as slaves. They eventually 
 rose to influential positions at court, and 
 were permitted to practice and announce 
 their religion without restraint. After the 
 death of the king, Frumentius became tlie 
 instructor of the hereditary prince Aizana 
 and administered the government. When 
 the prince became of age, .^desius re- 
 turned to Tyre, and was ordained priest. 
 St. Frumentius went to Alexandria, where 
 St. Athanasius consecrated him bishop of 
 Abyssinia (328). Returning to that coun- 
 try, Frumentius baptized the king, together 
 with a great portion of the people, and 
 firmly established the Abyssinian Church, 
 whereof Axom became the metropolitan see. 
 The Abyssinian Church continues to the 
 present day, though deformed by heresy and 
 Judaism. Cut off for ages from the Cath- 
 olic communion, it presents a curious and 
 almost unique amalgam of religious senti- 
 ments. Customs analogous to the Jewish 
 rites still prevail among the Abyssinians. 
 Of these customs we mention circumci- 
 sion, the observance of the Jewish Sabbath, 
 the distinction of clean and unclean food, 
 and even the Levirate law. When, in the 
 seventh century, the Mohammedans took 
 possession of Egypt, their rulers supported 
 the Jacobite or Monophysite party, against 
 the Melchites or Catholics, and contributed 
 strength and permanence to the Abyssinian 
 schism. Great efforts have been made, in 
 the last fifty years, to convert the Abys- 
 sinians, and the labors of the Catholic 
 missionaries were attended with the best 
 results, in spite of almost incessant perse- 
 cutions. See Oriental Rites. 
 
 Acacians. — Followers of -^cac«'«.s .bishop 
 of Csesarea. In turn Catholic, Arian un- 
 der the Emperor Constantius, Catholic 
 under Jovian, he became Arlan again un- 
 der Valens. After having caused the depo- 
 sition of St. Cyril of Jerusalem and the 
 banishment of Pope Liberius, he estab- 
 lished the antipope Felix. — There were 
 several other bishops by the name of Aca- 
 citis, whom we must not confound with 
 the above: Acacius of Constantinople, 
 
ACARON 
 
 ACHAB 
 
 follower of Eutyches (died 363) ; Acacius of 
 Amida, famous for his charity toward the 
 poor (sth century) ; and Acacius of Berea 
 opponent of St. Chrysostom (died 432). 
 
 Acaron.— City of Palestine, where they 
 kept the Ark of the Covenant taken by the 
 Philistines. 
 
 Acceptants. — The term applied to French 
 bishops and clergy who accepted the Bull 
 Unigenitus, issued in 1713 by Pope Cle- 
 ment XI. against the Jansenists. 
 
 Access (Jhe approach). — i. The tenor of 
 those prayers which are recommended to 
 the priest to be said before saying Mass. 2. 
 In canoti law, a right to a certain benefice at 
 some future time, now in abeyance, through 
 lack of required age or some other condi- 
 tions : if, in abeyance through actual pos- 
 session of another, it is equivalent to the 
 right of succession. Ingress is a right, of 
 some previous stipulation, to a benefice 
 resigned before entered upon ; regress, to 
 a benefice actually renounced. The Coun- 
 cil of Trent and succeeding Popes abol- 
 ished such titles, as tending to make 
 benefices hereditary; since then they have 
 existed in Roman Catholic countries only 
 in particular instances and by a special 
 Pontifical privilege. 
 
 Accidents {Eucharistic). — Name given 
 by theologians to the sensible species 
 that remain of the bread and wine after 
 the words of consecration, when the sub- 
 stance of the bread and wine is destroyed 
 and changed into the body and blood of 
 Jesus Christ. 
 
 Accho. — A city of the tribe of Aser, in 
 Palestine. In the New Testament Accho 
 is called Ptolemais (Acts xxi. 7) from one 
 of the Ptolemies, who enlarged and beau- 
 tified it. The Crusaders gave it the name 
 of Acre, or St. John of Acre. It is still 
 called Akka by the Turks. It sustained 
 several sieges during the Crusades, and 
 was the last fortified place wrested from 
 the Christians by the Turks. Population, 
 8,000. 
 
 Accolti (PiETRo) (1455-1532). — Born at 
 Florence. An Italian Cardinal and legate 
 in Ancona commonly called *' Cardinal of 
 Ancona." He drew up, in 1519, the Bull 
 of condemnation of Luther. 
 
 Accommodation. — In Exegesis, accom- 
 modation gives rise to the accommodating 
 meaning, which is opposed, first : to the 
 literal (historic or prophetic) sense; sec- 
 
 ondly, to the spiritual (mystic, moral or 
 allegoric) sense, and consists in accommo- 
 dating, individually, the words of Scripture 
 to their proper meaning, though profiting 
 to this effect by a real accidental resem- 
 blance. This accommodative sense not 
 being desired by the sacred authors, has, 
 consequently, no proving or demonstrative 
 value in theology and controversy; it 
 would not be praiseworthy to use it too 
 frequently, even in profane subjects, but 
 in itself it is legitimate, and we can invoke 
 in its favor the example of the Apostles 
 and saints. 
 
 Accommodation {Controversy of). — 
 By this term we understand a controversy 
 which arose in the seventeenth century, be- 
 tween the Jesuits and other missionaries of 
 China, in relation to certain allowances 
 and rites practiced by the natives of the 
 Celestial Kingdom from time immemorial, 
 in honor of the memory of their ancestors 
 and of Confucius. The Jesuits held the 
 opinion that these usages, identified 
 with national customs, should be tolerated 
 in order to avoid greater evil; that they 
 were purely civil or political and had noth- 
 ing religious or sacred in their perform- 
 ance. On the other hand, the Dominicans 
 held that these rites are superstitious and 
 idolatrous, and could not be tolerated 
 without sinning. The Holy See reserved 
 to itself the decision of such a perplexing 
 controversy. After having carefully ex- 
 amined the case in all its bearings, a defi- 
 nite decision was given by Clement X., in 
 1715, whereby the Chinese ceremonies 
 in question, were condemned, as being 
 tainted with idolatry. This decision gave 
 rise to a bloody persecution of the mis- 
 sionaries, but the evil consequences which 
 followed were justly attributed to the mal- 
 ice of men. The Church and her Chief 
 fulfilled their mission and duty, which is 
 to guard the deposit of truth, faith, and 
 morals. 
 
 Acephali (literally, those who have no 
 head or chief). — In Church history, those 
 members of the Council of Ephesus, who 
 refused to follow either St. Cyril or John 
 of Antioch. 
 
 Achab. — King of Israel, whose crimes 
 and those of his wife Jezabel, as cruel as 
 himself, are related in tVie First Book of 
 Kings ; persecuted the Prophet Elias, and 
 caused the death of Naboth, to get posses- 
 sion of his vineyard. Achab was killed in a 
 
ACHAIA 
 
 Acts of the Saints 
 
 combat and the dogs came to lick his blood, 
 according to the prediction of the Prophet 
 (889 B. c). 
 
 Achaia. — Taken in the largest sense, 
 included the whole region of Greece, 
 or Hellas, now called Livadia. Achaia 
 proper, however, was a province of Greece, 
 of which Corinth was the capital, and em- 
 braced the whole western part of the 
 Peloponnesus. 
 
 Achaz.— King of Juda (737-723 »• c-), 
 famous on account of his cruelties, his 
 profanations and crimes ; was detested dur- 
 ing his life, and deprived, after his death, 
 of royal burial. He was a contemporary 
 of the Prophet Isaias. 
 
 Achimelech.— High-priest of the Jews, 
 was falsely accused of conspiracy and put 
 to death by Saul. He gave to David, who 
 was fleeing from Saul, the sacred bread 
 and the sword of Goliath from the taber- 
 nacle. 
 
 Achitophel. — Friend and counselor of 
 David, and, later, of Absalom in his revolt 
 against his father. He was famous for his 
 political wisdom, and his defection caused 
 David great apprehension. 
 
 Acoemeti. — An order of monks and 
 nuns in Constantinople, under the Eastern 
 Empire, so named because they divided 
 their communities into relays for keeping 
 up perpetual worship. In the sixth cen- 
 tury, the monks embraced Nestorianism, 
 and the order became extinct. The order 
 of nuns, however, existed till the conquest 
 of Constantinople by the Turks, in the 
 fifteenth century. 
 
 Acolyte (from the Latin acolythus, 
 formed from the Greek akolouthos, folloiv- 
 ing, one who accompanies'). — Thus were 
 called, after the third century, in the Latin 
 Church, and after the fifth, in the Greek 
 Church, the young men who aspired to the 
 ecclesiastical ministry and who accom- 
 panied and generally followed the bishops, 
 either to serve them, or to be witnesses of 
 their conduct. St. Cyprian himself tells 
 us that he had acolytes. To-day, the func- 
 tions of acolytes are of a very different 
 character from their first institution. 
 Acolyte is the name now given to the 
 one who has received the first and most 
 considerable of the four Minor Orders. 
 Their employment is to light the candles, 
 an office formerly performed by the accens- 
 
 ores. In processions and ceremonies at 
 the altar, the acolyte carries the lights; 
 this was formerly done by the ceroferrarii. 
 He holds the censer and incense-box, pre- 
 pares the wine and water for the sacrifice 
 of the Mass and renders other services at 
 the altar. These services to-day are often 
 performed by seminarists or others who 
 have not received Minor Orders. Also, 
 at present, it is customary to confer con- 
 secutively the four Minor Orders at the 
 same ordination. 
 
 Acre. See Accho. 
 
 Actor Ecclesiae.— This was formerly 
 the name of an officer charged to adminis- 
 ter the revenues of the church ; he is often 
 confounded with Advocatus ecclesice. 
 
 Acts of the Apostles. — The Acts of the 
 Apostles contain the history of the rising 
 Church during the space of twenty-nine to 
 thirty years ; that is, from the Ascension of 
 Christ until the end of the first captivity 
 of St Paul at Rome, in the year 63 of the 
 Christian era. They were written in 
 Greek, by St. Luke, the author of the 
 third Gospel. The book is divided into 
 two parts. In the first, the author depicts 
 the wonderful morals of the first Chris- 
 tians, and all that passed in the primitive 
 Church until the dispersion of the Apos- 
 tles. The second commences with the 
 appearance of St. Paul. Then omitting the 
 history of the other Apostles, from whom 
 he was too far away, St. Luke relates the 
 apostolic labors of St. Paul, of which he 
 has been an eye-witness, having been 
 chosen by the great Apostle to be his dis- 
 ciple and companion. With right, this 
 book is called the first history of the 
 Church. 
 
 Acts of the Martyrs, are works wherein 
 we find inscribed, ordinarily, according to 
 the official records, the heroic confession 
 and death of those who gave their life's 
 blood for the sake of Christ. There are 
 several Acts of the Martyrs ; the best 
 known are those of Ruinart, in Latin, and 
 of the Benedictines of Solesmes, in French. 
 See Martyrology. 
 
 Acts of the Saints or Bollandists. — By 
 this collective title we understand a gigan- 
 tic collection, which leaves far behind all 
 other analogous collections and in which 
 we find, first : condensed, — day by day, and 
 according to the order of the months, then 
 verified and approved by diligent and 
 
Adalbert 
 
 lO 
 
 Adam 
 
 learned criticism, — all the original docu- 
 ments regarding the lives of the Saints of 
 the whole world. This collection, — pre- 
 pared by the Jesuit Rosweyde (died 1629), 
 then by his confreres, Bollandus, whose 
 name it carries, and Henschenius, — counts 
 not less than 61 volumes in folio. The first 
 appeared in 1643, the last in 1881, and 
 finishes the month of October. 
 
 Adalbert (St.). — Apostle of the Prus- 
 sians, born in 955. Received his education 
 at Magdeburg. Archbishop of Prague in 
 983, resigned in order to devote himself to 
 the evangelization of the pagan Prussians ; 
 was murdered April 23, 997. His remains, 
 buried first at Gnesen, were transferred to 
 Prague. 
 
 Adalbert of Bremen. — Appointed by the 
 Emperor Henry III. Archbishop of Bre- 
 men and of Hamburg in 1043; legate of 
 the Pope in 1050. He was a man of gen- 
 ius, but domineering and violent. After 
 the death of Henry III., he was for some 
 time tutor of Henry IV., whom he wished 
 to acquire absolute power, in order that 
 he might obtain the patriarchate of the 
 North. The opposition of the German 
 princes hindered him from attaining this 
 double end. He died at Goslar, May i6th, 
 1072. 
 
 Adam (from a Hebrew word, signifying 
 earth, as in Latin homo, from humus). — 
 God formed the body of the first man from 
 matter, and communicated life to this 
 body, by giving to it an intelligent and 
 reasonable soul, or rather an immortal 
 spirit ; for the reasonable soul created by 
 God is the principle of the life of the body 
 (Gen. i. and ii.). Thus, the first man was 
 created. Then God formed from him the 
 companion which He wished to give to 
 him for life. Adam, beholding in Eve 
 flesh of his flesh, realized the intimate 
 union which ought to reign between hus- 
 band and wife. The Bible fully accords 
 with science on this point, as it establishes 
 the unity of the human species. All men 
 arise from one single marriage, in order to 
 be forever, however dispersed and multi- 
 plied they may be, one unique and the 
 same family. God, who appointed man to 
 be the complement and the king of earthly 
 creation, created him to His image and 
 likeness. By his body, man is, so to say, 
 the abridgment of the triple physical 
 world : animal, vegetable and mineral. By 
 the nature of his soul and the natural and 
 supernatural gifts with which God endowed 
 
 him, he shares the characteristics of the 
 angels, of the pure spirits, and even carries 
 within himself the image and resemblance 
 of God. The natural gifts, the proper, es- 
 sential attributes of the reasonable nature 
 of the human spirit, are immortality, 
 and the sublime faculties, reason and lib- 
 erty. The supernatural gifts, which God 
 was pleased to bestow also upon man, 
 were the enlightenment of his understand- 
 ing by a divine light, and the raising of 
 his will, by the divine assistance, to the 
 state of justice and holiness, the harmony 
 between the faculties and the natural in- 
 stincts, through the subordination of the 
 inferior powers of the soul to its superior 
 powers. This supernatural state compre- 
 hended also the incorruptibility of the cor- 
 poral existence, that is, the exemption of 
 pains and sufferings. The preservation of 
 this primitive state of perfection, inno- 
 cence, peace, and blessedness, were con- 
 ditioned by God to the observance of 
 His law or will. This trial was neces- 
 sary in order that the reasonable and free 
 man might unite himself freely, with the 
 help of grace, to God the supreme good. 
 " Thou who hast created me. Thou couldst 
 not save me without Thee." Eve, seduced 
 by the cunning of the rebellious angel, 
 who himself had fallen during the period 
 of trial of the angels through the tempta- 
 tion of pride in presuming to become equal 
 to God. Adam, seduced by his spouse, dis- 
 obeyed God grievously in wishing, in spite 
 of His formal forbidding, to know too 
 much and elevate themselves by them- 
 selves. Thus man lost the peace and 
 blessedness which he enjoyed until then, 
 and which were the consequences of his 
 faithfulness. He became subject to suffer- 
 ings, to the death of the body, to the re- 
 bellion of the flesh against the spirit, to 
 all kinds of miseries, of which he had been, 
 until then, a stranger through the grace of 
 God. He lost both his holiness and jus- 
 tice. This great fall from his supernatural 
 state extended itself, also, over his natural 
 faculties, which were deteriorated ; his rea- 
 son become obscured, his will weakened 
 and inclined toward evil. But, since the 
 day of our loss, God discovered, also, our 
 future deliverance ; He announced to man- 
 kind, that the woman would crush the 
 head of the infernal serpent, by the divine 
 offspring that she would produce. — Jesus 
 Christ, the incarnate Word, the Redeemer. 
 The state of the primitive man, a state of 
 perfection and happiness (Golden Age), the 
 
Adamites 
 
 II 
 
 Adoptionism 
 
 state of degradation which followed, the 
 efTect of sin or of the revolt of man against 
 God, the idea of a redemption, are found in 
 the traditions of all nations of antiquity ; 
 all the religious books contain, in a more 
 or less altered manner, the antique tradi- 
 tions, the primitive revelation, which we 
 find more precise and more complete in the 
 Bible. The mixture of the good and the 
 evil upon earth, and especially in man, is 
 an insoluble problem without the accounts 
 which revelation furnishes to us. After 
 their fall, Adam and Eve had several chil- 
 dren, sons and daughters. The Bible has 
 preserved us the names of three sons : Cain, 
 Abel, and Seth. Adam lived 930 years. 
 See Man. 
 
 Adamites. — Gnostic heretics of the 
 second century, who pretended to have 
 shared, in an inadmissible manner, the 
 original innocence of our first parents. 
 They practiced all kinds of turpitudes and 
 among others that of the community of 
 women. — Adamites was also the designa- 
 tion of a sect of Manicheans, which appeared 
 in France, Holland and Bohemia, about the 
 end of the fourteenth century, and revived 
 the errors and immoralities of the Gnostics 
 of the second century. This society has 
 maintained itself until our time, especially 
 in Bohemia, in a more or less latent state. 
 
 Adalbert or Aldebert. — A sadly famous 
 episcopus vagus of the eighth century in the 
 Prankish kingdom. This enthusiast assem- 
 bled the people for divine worship in the 
 fields and in the open air, and imposed upon 
 their credulity by pretending to have re- 
 ceived relics from the hands of an angel, 
 and distributed among them copies of a let- 
 ter which, he said, had fallen from heaven 
 and alighted in the center of the city of 
 Jerusalem. With empty vanity he com- 
 pared himself to the Apostles, whose equal 
 he pretended to be; caused houses of 
 prayer to be dedicated to his honor, be- 
 cause, as he claimed, God would infallibly 
 grant a request made in his name ; and as- 
 serted that, as he knew by intuitive vision 
 the secrets of every man's conscience, con- 
 fession was wholly useless. Confession 
 was, therefore, abolished by him, venera- 
 tions of saints reprobated, and pilgrimages 
 to holy shrines discontinued. St. Boni- 
 face, the apostle of Germany, used every 
 available means to counteract the influence 
 of this visionary. He preached against 
 him, drew the attention of the First Coun- 
 cil of Soissons (744), and of a council held 
 
 at Rome the following year, to his doc- 
 trines, and finally caused his imprison- 
 ment at Fulda. Having escaped from this 
 place of confinement, he was seized by 
 shepherds, robbed, and murdered. 
 
 Adelm or Aldhelm* (St.). — Abbot of 
 Malmesbury and first bishop of Sherborne, 
 in England. Died May 25, 709. He was 
 a near relative of Ina, East-Saxon king. 
 Abbot during 30 years, he was consecrated 
 bishop in 705. His poetical and prose 
 works were published by J. A. Giles 
 (Oxford), 1844. 
 
 Adelheid (St.) (931-999). — Widow of 
 Lothaire, king of Italy. She married the 
 Emperor, Otho the Great and governed 
 the empire with great success during the 
 minority of her nephew, Otho III. F- 
 Dec. 16. 
 
 Adelphians. See Euchites. 
 
 Ademar of Chabannes. — Monk of St. 
 Cybard of Angouleme, then of St. Martial 
 of Limoges (9S8-1030) ; author of a his- 
 tory of the Franks, published for the first 
 time by Labbe, and which extends to the 
 year 1029. 
 
 Adeodat (A Deo datus), Pope (672- 
 676). — He was a monk of Rome, fought 
 zealously for the Catholic faith against the 
 Monothelites. Since some call a former 
 Pope, Deusdedit (615-618) also Adeodat, 
 he is sometimes called Adeodat II. 
 
 Adiaphorists. — Name given in the six- 
 teenth century to those Lutherans, who 
 ranked themselves on the side of Melanch- 
 thon, whose opinions, more mitigated than 
 those of Luther, approached nearer the 
 Catholic belief. 
 
 Adonai (Hebr. lord, sovereign, mas- 
 ter). — Habitual name of which the Jews 
 made use to designate God, not daring to 
 pronounce his proper name which is Je- 
 hovah. They claim that the latter name 
 was pronounced only once a year, on the 
 day of expiation, by the high-priest, in 
 the Holy of Holies. 
 
 Adoptionism. — Theological doctrine. 
 Adoptionists was the name given to the 
 followers of Elipandus, archbishop of 
 Toledo, and of Felix, bishop of Urgel 
 (about 770), according to whom Christ, in 
 His humanity, is only the adoptive Son of 
 God, and not His real Son. The Adop- 
 tionists of the eighth century attributed 
 
Adoration 
 
 12 
 
 Adultery 
 
 natural Sonship to the Logos alone, the 
 Man Christ being only son by adoption. 
 Their doctrine, a badly disguised form of 
 Nestorianism, was condemned by Pope 
 Adrian I. and the Council of Frankfort 
 (792), defining that Christ as man is, by 
 reason of His personality, which is the 
 personality of the Word Incarnate, the 
 true and natural, and not the adopted, Son 
 of God. 
 
 Adoration. See Worship. 
 
 Adoration (Perpetual). — Permanent ex- 
 position of the Blessed Sacrament, in the 
 same Church, or successively, in several 
 Churches. 
 
 Adoration {Religious of The). — Anne 
 of Austria, mother of Louis XIV., desir- 
 ous of promoting the perpetual adoration 
 of the Blessed Sacrament, tried to found, 
 with the assistance of Catharine of Bar, 
 surnamed Sister of the Blessed Sacrament 
 and Abbess of the Benedictines of Ram- 
 bersillers, in Lorraine, a distinct con- 
 gregation (1654). With the cooperation of 
 the king and prelates it was erected, ap- 
 proved at first by Papal legates and finally 
 by Pope Innocent XI. (1676). Clem- 
 ent XI. drew up its constitution in 1705, 
 and called from France some religious to 
 Rome, where they established a convent. 
 The religious of the Adoration (adorici) 
 wore the emblem of the Blessed Sacrament 
 upon their breasts. 
 
 Adramelech. — i. Son of Sennacherib,king 
 of Assyria, who, upon returning to Ninive, 
 after his fatal expedition against Ezechias, 
 was killed by his two sons, Adramelech 
 and Sarasar, who fled to the mountains 
 of Armenia, 713 B.C. 2. Adramelech, one 
 of the gods adored by the inhabitants of 
 Sepharvaim, who settled in Samaria, whose 
 inhabitants had been banished beyond the 
 Euphrates. 
 
 Adrian (name of six Popes). — Adrian 
 J. (772-795). — Appealed to Charlemagne 
 against Desiderius, king of the Lombards; 
 received Charlemagne at Rome, named him 
 Patrician and obtained from him the con- 
 firmation of the donations made by Pepin 
 the Short to the Holy See. He presided 
 by his legates over the Second Council of 
 Nice, in 787.' Adrian II. (867-872).— He 
 deposed Photius, but could not hinder the 
 Schism of the East. Adrian III. — Pope 
 only one year (884-885). Adrian IV. 
 (1154-1159). — He was a man of great 
 
 virtue, famed for learning and re- 
 markable eloquence. He had to flee from 
 Rome to escape the adherents of Arnold 
 of Brescia; returned thither under the 
 protection of Frederick Barbarossa, after 
 the death of Arnold ; successively upheld 
 a legitimate war against William of Sicily. 
 The supposed Bull of Adrian IV., purport- 
 ing to grant the investiture of Ireland to 
 Henry II., of England, from the latest 
 researches on the subject, must be pro- 
 nounced a forgery. Adrian V. — A na- 
 tive of Genoa ; was Pope only one month 
 (1276). Adrian VI. (1522-1523). — A 
 humble, but learned and holy priest of 
 Utrecht, who had formerly been the pre- 
 ceptor of Charles V. He took up, with 
 great earnestness, the subject of reform 
 wnthin the Church, and devoted all his 
 energy to the religious pacification of 
 Germany. Seeing all his cherished pro- 
 jects frustrated by human malice, Adrian 
 died, it is said, of excessive grief. 
 
 Adollam. — The name of the cave in 
 which David and his followers found ref- 
 uge from the vengeance of Saul (I. Ki. 
 xxii. 1, 2). 
 
 Adultery. — Violation of the conjugal 
 union. The punishments for this grave 
 offense have been severe or moderate in 
 various countries and ages, mainly de- 
 pending on the state of morality of society. 
 Among the Jews the adulteress was pun- 
 ished more severely than the adulterer; the 
 guilty one was stoned to death. In India, 
 the Code of Manu, enjoined the severest 
 punishments; the woman was cast to the 
 dogs and the man was burned on a bed of 
 hot iron. At Athens, the laws of Solon de- 
 clared it legitimate on the part of the hus- 
 band to kill the paramour if found in the 
 act ; the husband should repudiate his wife, 
 and she could not again appear in public 
 except when dressed in the coarsest gar- 
 ments, and her entering the temples was for- 
 bidden. In Rome, under the Republic, the 
 husband, in certain cases, was permitted 
 to kill the paramour, and the father might 
 sometimes kill both. The corruption of 
 morals at the end of the Republic prompted 
 Augustus to publish a special edict for the 
 suppression of adultery, the famous law, — 
 '^ulia, de adulteriis coercendis, which for 
 the first time in Rome, considered adultery 
 a public crime, — imposed special penalties, 
 consisting of forfeiture of goods and ban- 
 ishment, both on the adulteress and the 
 paramour. Among the Barbarians, in the 
 
Advent 
 
 13 
 
 Aegidius Colonna 
 
 Middle Ages, adultery was sometimes pun- 
 ishable by death, or ignominious chastise- 
 ments. In modern times, the legislation 
 on adultery is more lenient. The adul- 
 teress was often condemned to be locked 
 up in a convent and wear secular garments 
 for two years, during which time the 
 husband could receive her back, but if 
 the time passed and the husband deter- 
 mined not to receive her, she was con- 
 demned to be shorn of her hair and veiled 
 for life. In English law, the act is punish- 
 able only by ecclesiastical censure. A 
 civil action for damages by the common 
 law may be brought by the husband 
 against the adulterer. This is called an 
 action for "criminal conversation," and is 
 also a ground for divorce. In some of the 
 States, adultery is a crime, while in others 
 it is the same as in the English law, only 
 civil proceedings being allowed. Adultery, 
 proved before an ecclesiastical court, ap- 
 pointed by the bishop, the latter may decree 
 continual separation from bed and board. 
 The Greek Church, as well as the Protes- 
 tant, may dissolve the marriage union, so 
 that the parties are individually at liberty 
 to marry again. See Marriage. 
 
 Advent (Lat. Adventus — arrived). — 
 The time appointed by the Catholic Church 
 to prepare for the feast of Christmas — the 
 coming of Christ the Son of God. The 
 season of Advent is as ancient in the 
 Church as is the feast of Christmas. This 
 -we know by a decree of the Council of 
 Saragossa (380). It is a time during 
 -which we should prepare ourselves through 
 prayer, fasting, etc., for the spiritual arri- 
 val of Jesus Christ; hence, the word Ad- 
 vent. This season is also known as the 
 Lent of Christmas, for, indeed, in former 
 times, the faithful fasted forty days. In 
 certain Churches they fasted every day, 
 from the day following the feast of St. 
 Martin(Nov. 11), on which they rejoiced, — 
 as they still do in many countries the day 
 before Lent. In others, Advent began in 
 the month of November, but they fasted 
 only three times a week, which did not 
 always comprise forty days of fast. There 
 are yet other differences regarding the 
 duration and manner of spending the time 
 of Advent, as we can see from the ancient 
 commentaries. It is many years since the 
 season of Advent has ceased to be a time 
 of fast and abstinence for all the members 
 of the Church throughout the world. 
 To-day, only certain religious orders follow 
 
 the ancient custom. For the Catholics in 
 the United States, the general rule for 
 fast and abstinence during the time of 
 Advent is only on Friday. All nuptial 
 solemnities or festivals are prohibited dur- 
 ing Advent. 
 
 Adventists. — A Protestant sect chiefly 
 found in the United States. It was founded, 
 in 1833, in New York and Boston, by 
 William Miller (born at Pittsfield, Massa- 
 chusetts, in 1782). The distinctive char- 
 acteristic of the sect is the belief in the 
 speedy advent or second coming of Christ. 
 At first, most of them believed in various 
 dates fixed for the second coming of Christ 
 from 1843 to 1861, but afterward aban- 
 doned the attempt to determine the date. 
 There are several divisions or sects of Ad- 
 ventists, the principal of which are : the 
 Advent (or Second-Advent) Christians, 
 the most numerous ; the Seventh-Day Ad- 
 ventists not so numerous, but better organ- 
 ized ; and the Evangelical Adventists, the 
 least numerous. The members of the first 
 believe in the final annihilation of the 
 wicked, which those of the other two reject. 
 The second observe the seventh day as the 
 Sabbath, and believe in the existence of the 
 spirit of prophecy among them ; they 
 maintain missions in various parts of the 
 world, and a large institution at Battle 
 Creek, Michigan, their headquarters. 
 William Miller died in 1849. 
 
 Advocates of St. Peter. — The name of 
 a society of Jurists and Counselors-at-law, 
 formed on the occasion of the Golden 
 Jubilee of Pope Pius IX. as Bishop. The 
 object of this union is to combat the at- 
 tacks against the Catholic religion, to 
 defend the rights of the Church and es- 
 pecially those of the Holy See. Pope Leo 
 XIII. confirmed the statutes of the society 
 by a Brief dated July 5, 1878. 
 
 Advocate of the Devil. — A phrase ap- 
 plied in the Church to a person whose 
 business it is to magnify the faults, or de- 
 tract from the merits, of those who are 
 proposed for canonization as saints. He 
 is opposed to "God's Advocate." An 
 Advocate of the Devil nearly succeeded in 
 preventing the canonization of St. Charles 
 Borromeo. 
 
 yEdesius. See Frumentius. 
 
 .^gidius Colonna. — Died in 1316. A 
 monk of the Augustinian Order and a dis- 
 tinguished disciple of St. Thomas Aqui- 
 nas. He taught philosophy in Paris and was 
 
Aelana 
 
 14 
 
 Agag 
 
 preceptor to the sons of Philip III. Gen- 
 eral of his Order from 1292 to 1295 ; Arch- 
 bishop of Bourges, in 1296. Surnamed 
 "Doctor Fundatissimus." He left quite 
 a number of philosophical and theological 
 works. 
 
 ^lana. — Ancient city of Arabia, on the 
 Red Sea, whence the vessels of Solomon 
 departed for Ophir, about 20 miles north 
 of Sinai. 
 
 JEneas Sylvius. See Pius II. 
 
 Brians. — Heretics of the fourth cen- 
 tury, who derived their name from ^rius, 
 an Arian priest of Sebaste. He main- 
 tained the equality of bishops and priests, 
 rejected prayers for the dead and observ- 
 ance of Easter, and all appointed feasts, 
 as Jewish superstitions. 
 
 .£tlus. — Heretic of the fourth century; 
 was a deacon of Antioch. His followers 
 were called ^tians. From his denial of 
 the Divinity of Christ, ^tius was sur- 
 named the "Atheist." At the instigation 
 of the Semi-Arians, he was banished under 
 Constantius, but recalled under Julian, and 
 made bishop, ^tius died in 370. 
 
 Affinity. — According to the laws of the 
 Church, affinity is a relationship con- 
 tracted between a man and his wife's 
 kindred and between a wife and her hus- 
 band's kindred. Baptism establishes a 
 spiritual affinity between the godfather 
 and the godmother on the one hand, and 
 their godchildren on the other, and the 
 parents of the latter. See Marriage, 
 Matrimony. 
 
 Afifre (Denis-Augustk) (1793-1848). — 
 Archbishop of Paris, a man of benevo- 
 lence and learning, who did much to im- 
 prove education in his country. While 
 endeavoring to mediate in the disturbances 
 of 1848, he was mortally wounded by the 
 insurgents. 
 
 Africa {Evangelization of). — The 
 Christian faith was carried into Africa, 
 during the first century, probably, by St. 
 Matthew, who passes for having evangel- 
 ized Ethiopia, but certainly by St. Mark, 
 who founded the great Church of Alexan- 
 dria. As to Carthage and the northern 
 coast of the African continent, they re- 
 ceived the faith through the intermediary 
 of Rome in the course of the second cen- 
 tury, if not sooner. During the years 200- 
 230 the Christian religion was extremely 
 
 flourishing in those countries. Unfortu- 
 nately, the venom of heresy was early spread 
 there by the Donatists, the Pelagians, the 
 Arians, etc. Afterward came Mohammed- 
 anism. However, Christianity always 
 preserved some disciples there, and espe- 
 cially since the conquest of Algiers, Rome 
 has sent there numerous missionaries, 
 founded bishoprics and apostolic prefec- 
 tures, who powerfully second the civiliza- 
 tion carried there by France. Algeria, the 
 largest and most important of the colonial 
 possessions of France, contains upward of 
 380,000 Catholics, nearly all French, Span- 
 ish and Italian emigrants, distributed 
 among three sees — the Archdiocese of 
 Algiers, and the sufiFragan sees of Oran 
 and Constantine. The ancient Archbishop- 
 ric of Carthage, which was re-established 
 in 1884, and includes the former vicariate 
 of Tunis, has a Catholic population of 
 50,000, while the prefectures of Tripoli and 
 Morocco count together some 1 1,500 Cath- 
 olics. The rest of Africa is fringed around 
 on both coasts with Catholic missions, 
 which are rapidly developing and extend- 
 ing over the whole of the "Dark Conti- 
 nent." Where forty years ago existed 
 only two bishoprics (Loanda and the Two 
 Guineas), there are to-day fifteen vicariates 
 and fourteen prefectures apostolic, man- 
 aged by missionaries of Algiers, Fathers of 
 the Holy Ghost, Jesuits, Lazarists, and other 
 religious Orders. Adding to these the 
 bishoprics of Northern Africa (including 
 Egypt), and those of the islands of Ma- 
 deira and St. Thomas, the Azores, Canaries, 
 and Cape de Verde islands, we obtain 
 thirty-two dioceses or vicariates, and seven- 
 teen prefectures apostolic, with a Catholic 
 population of over 2,642,000. This includes 
 the prefectures of Madagascar and May- 
 otta, the vicariate of the Seychelles, and 
 the bishoprics of St. Denis and Port Louis 
 in the islands of Bourbon and Mauritius, 
 respectively, which together have a Cath- 
 olic population of more than 400,000. The 
 mission of Madagascar, which dates from 
 1855, contains some 42,000 Catholics in 
 charge of French Jesuits. With a view to 
 supplying the African missions with native 
 priests, colleges have been founded at 
 Cairo, Brussels, Louvain, and in Malta, in 
 which young negroes are educated for the 
 clerical state. 
 
 Agag. — King of the Amalecites, con- 
 quered by Saul, who spared him, in spite 
 of the order of the Lord ; but put him to 
 
Agapae 
 
 15 
 
 Agnes 
 
 death when Samuel reproached him for his 
 disobedience. 
 
 Agapae. — The Agapae were feasts or 
 repasts held by the early Christians before 
 the celebration of the mystery of the 
 Blessed Eucharist, in which the rich sat 
 with the poor at the same table, in com- 
 memoration of the Last Supper when 
 Christ instituted the Blessed Eucharist. 
 The Agapae, however, gave rise to some 
 abuses from the beginning, as St. Paul 
 points out in his First Epistle to the Cor- 
 inthians (xi. 20-21.) Later, on account of 
 the disorders which they occasioned, the 
 Council of Carthage (397) suppressed them 
 altogether. The Agapae owed their ori- 
 gin to the fact, that all the faithful, who 
 wished to partake of the Sacrament of the 
 Eucharist, brought bread and wine into 
 the assembly. They consecrated only 
 what was needed, the remainder being 
 distributed among those who assisted. A 
 trace of this custom still lingers in some 
 countries, that is, in the distribution of 
 blessed bread, after the Offertory. 
 
 Agapetae. — In the primitive Church, 
 virgins, who, without making any vows, 
 lived in common or assisted the ecclesias- 
 tics in the service of the Church and the 
 relief of the poor. Some scandal arose 
 from these communities and the Councils 
 abolished the Agapetae about the fourth 
 century. 
 
 Agapetae. — A sect of Gnostics which 
 appeared about a.d. 395, and was princi- 
 pally composed of women, who went as- 
 tray on an exaggerated interpretation of 
 the principle, that "to the pure all things 
 are pure." 
 
 Agapetus (name of two Popes). — Sf. 
 Agapetua I. Pope, successor to John IL 
 in 535, died in 536. To obtain peace ac- 
 cording to the request of Theodat, king of 
 the Ostrogoths, he went to see Emperor 
 Justinian; refused to ordain Anthimus for 
 the bishopric of Constantinople, because 
 he was Eutychian; consecrated Mennas, 
 with the title of patriarch. — Agafetus II. 
 Successor to Martin IL from 946 to 956. 
 
 Agareneans. — Name given in the sev- 
 enth century to the apostate Christians in 
 Arabia who had embraced the religion of 
 Mohammed; also, to the Arabians, de- 
 scendants of Ismael, son of Agar. 
 
 Agatha (St.). — Born at Palermo, Sicily, 
 was martyred on Feb. 5th, 251, at Catanea, 
 
 during the persecution of Decius. Quin- 
 tianus, the governor of Sicily, seeing his 
 love for her repudiated, took revenge by 
 accusing her of being a Christian, and 
 caused her to suffer most cruel torments. 
 She was scourged, burned with hot irons, 
 torn with hooks, and then placed on a bed 
 of live coals and glass. From all these 
 tortures St. Agatha went forth triumphant, 
 and finally died in her prison. The in- 
 habitants of Catanea invoke her, especially 
 during an outbreak of Mount ^tna. F. 
 Feb. 5th. 
 
 Agatho (St.) Pope (678-681).— Born at 
 Palermo, Sicily. His legates presided at 
 the Sixth Ecumenical Council (Constanti- 
 nople), which condemned Monothelism, in 
 the year 680, and which had assembled at 
 the request of Constantine I V. (Pogonatus), 
 to whom the Pope had written a re- 
 markable letter to refute the new heresy. 
 F. Jan. loth. 
 
 "Age {cajtoniral). — The canonical age is 
 the number of years attained by a person 
 from birth and required by Canon Law, to 
 be eligible for certain duties, responsi- 
 bilities, callings and sacred offices. Such, 
 as for instance, the age of reason ; the age 
 at which a person may receive the sacra- 
 ments ; to observe such or such precept ; to 
 exercise a certain function. 
 
 Agelli (Anthony). — Hellenist, and 
 Theatine religious ; director of the Vatican 
 printing institute. Bishop of Acerno, in 
 1693 ; but soon resigned his office and re- 
 turned to his monastery, where he died 
 in 1608. Author of esteemed commen- 
 taries on Holy Scripture. 
 
 Agenda {dispute concerning the). — In 
 i8i6, the king of Prussia introduced a new 
 Agenda for the Protestant divine service 
 which gave rise to a general opposition in 
 Prussia and in Baden, and which, instead 
 of uniting, only spread-.the discord among 
 the different factions of Protestantism. 
 
 Aggeus {Yi^hr. feast, solemnity) —One 
 of the twelve minor Prophets; prophesied 
 520 B. c. Was born during the Babylonian 
 captivity. At the return, he exhorted the 
 people to rebuild the temple, whose glory 
 he foretold in announcing that the Messias 
 would enter therein. 
 
 Agnes (St.). — A Roman virgin and 
 martyr, 12 or 13 years of age, beheaded 
 during the reign of Diocletian. She was 
 slain after having been exposed to the 
 
Agnoetae 
 
 i6 
 
 AlLERANUS 
 
 vilest outrage in a brothel. F. Jan. aist. 
 A magnificent Church was erected in her 
 honor, at Rome, by Constantine the Great. 
 There, every year on the feast of the saint, 
 they bless two lambs, which Religious have 
 carefully raised. The lambs' wool serves 
 to make the f alliums which the sovereign 
 Pontiff sends, as a sign of their jurisdic- 
 tion, to all the patriarchs and all the met- 
 ropolitans. 
 
 Agnoets (from the Gr. agncein, to be 
 ignorant). — i. Name given to heretics 
 of the fourth century, followers of Theo- 
 phronius of Cappadocia, who attacked 
 God's science on future, present and past 
 things. 2. Sect of Eutychians in the 
 sixth century, of which Themistius was 
 the author. They maintained that Jesus 
 Christ, as man, ignored certain things, 
 and especially, the hour of the last judg- 
 ment. 
 
 Agnus Dei {Lamb of God). — i. Any 
 image or representation of a lamb, which 
 represents meekness. Symbolic name of 
 Christ, the Redeemer of the world. 2. A 
 prayer at Mass, before Communion. 3. 
 A figure of a lamb stamped on the wax 
 which remains from the paschal candles, 
 and solemnly blessed by the Pope on the 
 Thursday after Easter, in the first year 
 of his Pontificate and then every seventh 
 year. 4. A heart-shaped article of de- 
 votion, covered with woolen cloth or silk, 
 to be worn about the person. 5. Part of 
 the Mass between the Pater Noster and 
 Communion where the celebrant says 
 three times the words which St. John the 
 Baptist said, when he pointed out Christ. 
 This part of the Mass was introduced 
 therein about the end of the seventh cen- 
 tury or the beginning of the eighth. 
 Before this time, only the choir sang it. 
 
 Agobard (St.). — Archbishop of Lyons, 
 born very probably in Spain, in 779. We 
 have esteemed treatises by him against the 
 ordeals and judicial duels, against idola- 
 try, witchcraft, on the priesthood, etc. 
 See his works in Migne's Pat. Lat., civ. 
 Died in 840. F. June 6th. 
 
 Agonistici (from the Gr. agonistika; 
 agonidzein, to combat). — Name by which 
 Donatus and his followers designated 
 the preachers which they sent to spread 
 their doctrine. 
 
 Agricius (Agrcecius, St.). — Bishop of 
 Treves in the fourth century ; died about 
 332. He was a cleric of the Church of 
 
 Antioch, whom Pope St. Sylvester, at the 
 request of the Empress St. Helena, sent to 
 assure the conquests of Christianity at 
 Treves. Agricius turned the palace of St. 
 Helena into a metropolitan basilica and 
 deposited therein precious relics which 
 his illustrious protectress had intrusted to 
 him. He rooted out the remainder of 
 paganism at Treves and made the Chris- 
 tian religion flourish around him in Gaul, 
 Belgium, and Germany. F. Jan. 19th. 
 
 Agricola (John). See Antinomians. 
 
 Agrippa. — Name of two of the Herodian 
 family. i. A grandson of Herod the 
 Great, was raised by Caligula from a prison 
 to a throne, and ultimately became king 
 of all Palestine. He affected to be a Phari- 
 see, and to please the Jews he caused St. 
 James to be beheaded, and threw St. Peter 
 into prison, whence he was miraculously 
 delivered. But the king, shortly after- 
 ward, died a miserable death (Acts xii., 
 etc.). 2. A son of the former, who several 
 years after his father's death was made 
 tetrarch of northern Palestine with the 
 title of king. It was before him that 
 St. Paul made his famous defense (Acts 
 xxvi.). After the fall of Jerusalem he re- 
 tired to Jerusalem, where he died about 
 100 A. D., the last of the race of Herod 
 commemorated in history. See Herod. 
 
 Aguirre (Joseph S^nz). — Spanish Bene- 
 dictine, professor of theology at Sala- 
 manca, then cardinal ; born at Logrono, 
 1630; died at Rome, 1699. The most im- 
 portant of his works is the Collection of 
 the Councils of Spain, Rome, (4 vol. in fol. 
 1693-1694). Bossuet called him "the light 
 of the Church, the model of morals, the 
 example of piety." 
 
 Aidan (St.).— Irish monk of Hy or lona, 
 then Bishop of Lindisfarne (Holy Island). 
 By his prudence, conciliating disposition, 
 and affable manners, he won the hearts and 
 gained the souls of his barbarous people. 
 Aidan, following the practice of his 
 country, erected a monastery by the side 
 of his cathedral, on the island of Lindis- 
 farne. Between Aidan and King Oswald, 
 there always existed the warmest sympathy 
 and the most intimate friendship. Aidan 
 died in 651. The Church reveres him as 
 a martyr, and the English nation, as one of 
 its most glorious saints. F. Aug. 31st. 
 
 Aileranus. — Irish monk and ecclesias- 
 tical writer of the eighth century. He 
 
AlLLY 
 
 17 
 
 Alb 
 
 was superior of the convent school at 
 Cluainerard, which was visited by thou- 
 sands of scholars ; on account of his extra- 
 ordinary erudition they surnamed him 
 " The Wise." Of his writings, under which 
 Gesta S. Patritii are mentioned, the only 
 one extant is his Interfretatio mystica 
 de frogenitoribus Christi ; it was pub- 
 lished together with the writings of St. 
 Columban by Patricius Flemming (Ord. 
 Minor., Louvain 1667, in fol.) and is also 
 found in Biblioth. PP. Lugd. xii. 37; 
 Migne, PP. Lai. Ixxx. 337. 
 
 Ailly (Peter d') (i 350-1 420) .— French 
 prelate and theologian. Born at Com- 
 piegne of a poor family. Chancellor of 
 the University in 1389 ; confessor of Charles 
 VI. ; Bishop of Puy, in 1395, then of 
 Cambrai, in 1397. He did all in his power 
 to extinguish the schism which then des- 
 olated the Church. In the Council of 
 Pisa he energetically declared himself 
 against the Hussites as well as for certain 
 reforms. In regard to the latter subject 
 he published his views in a work entitled, 
 Libellus de emendatione EcclesicB. His 
 philosophical and theological doctrines 
 are especially found in a Commentary on 
 the Book of Sentences, and in his work 
 De Anima, which indicates a mitigated 
 Nominalism. His vigorous logic caused 
 him to be surnamed " The Eagle of 
 France" and "The Hammer of Heretics." 
 
 Aix-Ia-Chapelle. See Aachen. 
 
 A-Kempis ( Thomas ) ( 1380-1471 ). — 
 Canon regular, born at Kempen, diocese 
 of Cologne, died in the convent of Mount 
 St. Agnes, near Zwoll, in the Upper 
 Yssel. His principal occupation was to 
 copy works of piety, and particularly the 
 Bible. They have also attributed to him 
 the incomparable work, which has for 
 title Imitation of fesus Christ. Critics 
 have claimed this honor for John Gerson, 
 chancellor of the University of Paris, 
 others for John Gerson, Abbot of Verceil. 
 The Benedictine Celestin Wollsgriiber, 
 in his work Giovanni Gersen (1880), 
 brings forth a peremptory argument 
 against Thomas a Kempis; it is a manu- 
 script bearing the date of 1384, a time 
 when Thomas a Kempis was 4 years old. 
 Hence, he would be only a copyist and not 
 the author of the Imitation. 
 
 Akiba-Ben-Joseph. — Jewish rabbi ; died 
 in the year 135 a. d. During forty 
 years he directed the Israelitic College of 
 2 
 
 Jasne or Tiberiades. Gave in a book the 
 explanation of the tables of the law, and 
 the first compilation of the Jewish tra- 
 ditions. It is to be regretted that he 
 falsified some sacred texts, to prove that 
 the Messias had not yet come. H,e em- 
 braced the cause of Barchochebas who 
 passed himself for the Messias, was cap- 
 tured by the troops of Emperor Hadrian 
 and flayed alive. 
 
 Alanus-ab-Insulis(^/rt/» de Lille){iiiJ^- 
 1203). — Learned ecclesiastic, born at Lille, 
 France; Abbot of Bivoux of the Order of 
 Citeaux; Bishop of Auxerre, theologian, 
 philosopher, literator and poet. His prin- 
 cipal tvorks are : Regtilae de sacra theo- 
 logia ars catholicae fidei ; Anticlaudianus 
 (encyclopaedia); Liber farabolartim. Ac- 
 cording to some authors, Alanus ab Insulis 
 would not have been Bishop of Auxerre. 
 
 Alanus (Anglicus). — An English can- 
 onist at the beginning of the thirteenth 
 century, compiled a collection of Papal 
 Decrees of the twelfth century, which com- 
 pleted that of Gilbert, his countryman, and 
 was also soon united with it. 
 
 Alb. — Church vestment. The alb is 
 an ample linen tunic reaching to the feet, 
 and so called from the Latin word alba, 
 ■white. Long garments were usually worn 
 not merely in the States of ancient Greece 
 and by the separate nations of the East, 
 but throughout the Empire of Rome. 
 Some, however, were plain and made of 
 common stuff, as they were employed for 
 ordinary use; others were more costly, 
 and used exclusively on days of religious 
 ceremony and on state occasions. The 
 priests and Levites, under the Mosaic dis- 
 pensation, were undistinguished in ordi- 
 nary life from the rest of society by any 
 particular garments. They assumed, how- 
 ever, a different and official attire to 
 distinguish them while discharging the 
 functions of their sacred ministry. This, 
 no doubt, the Church of Christ, together 
 with several other things, borrowed from 
 the synagogue. The Church has now 
 consecrated the alb or linen tunic for the 
 use of her priests, her deacons and her 
 subdeacons, who are ministering at the al- 
 tar. The lower edge of the alb and the 
 wrist bands were anciently ornamented 
 with stripes of scarlet attached to them. 
 A remnant of the scarlet border is still pre- 
 served by some of the religious orders, that 
 trim the bottom and the sleeve-cuflfs of the 
 
Alban 
 
 i8 
 
 Albigenses 
 
 alb with lace, under which they attach 
 scarlet silk. In the Middle Ages the alb 
 was adorned with emblems embroidered in 
 silk and gold, sometimes enriched with 
 pearls and precious stones, or with four 
 pieces of rich silken stuff, t«o at the 
 wrists and two at the bottom, one in front 
 and one behind. Still later the custom of 
 contracting the alb, bv plating it in long 
 folds, was introduced and is still observed. 
 This long linen garment, which is called 
 the alb in the Latin or Western Church, is 
 also used among the Oriental Christians 
 by priests, deacons, and subdeacons in the 
 celebration of Mass. 
 
 Alban (St.)- — First English martyr, 
 scion of a noble Roman family and lived 
 as a highly esteemed citizen at Verulam in 
 Britain (now St. Albans in Hertfordshire). 
 St. Amphibalus, a learned and pious 
 ecclesiastic, who had come to England at 
 the beginning of the Diocletian persecu- 
 tion, and whom he had received in his 
 house, gained him for Christ. When it 
 became known that St. Alban concealed 
 a messenger of the faith in his house, he 
 exchanged clothing with him, in order 
 to assure his flight and life. Hereupon 
 our Saint was brought before the court, 
 and as he refused to sacrifice to the idols, 
 he was first scourged, then imprisoned 
 and after half a year executed by the 
 sword. Miracles glorified his death and 
 moved many to accept the faith. These 
 new converts, as well as St. Amphibalus, 
 soon also died for the faith. After ten 
 years (313) a Church was erected over the 
 tomb of St. Alban, which became a much 
 frequented place of pilgrimage. Alban 
 died in the year 303. F. June 22d. 
 
 Albanians {Conversion of the'). — See 
 Iberians. 
 
 Albanians. — Heretics of the seventh cen- 
 tury, who appeared principally in Asiatic 
 Albania and in the eastern part of Georgia. 
 They had borrowed their doctrine from 
 the Manicheans. 
 
 Albert the Great (i 193-1280). — Born at 
 Lauingen on the Danube ; died at Cologne. 
 The most remarkable man of his time for 
 varied acquirements was Albertus Magnus, 
 the celebrated master of St. Thomas 
 Aquinas. Born of a noble family, he stud- 
 ied at Paris, Padua and Bologna. Upon 
 entering the Dominican Order, he was em- 
 ployed as teacher in various places, 
 especially at Cologne. In 1260, he was 
 
 unwillingly promoted to the bishopric of 
 Ratisbon, which he relinquished after two 
 years, when he returned to public teach- 
 ing. His contemporaries, marvelling at 
 his extensive learning, called him the 
 "Universal Doctor" and the "Second 
 Aristotle." He left numerous works, which 
 fill twenty-one folio volumes. 
 
 Albigenses. — Noted heretics of the 
 sixteenth century, who multiplied rapidly 
 in the neighborhood of Albi and in the 
 country of Lower Languedoc, France, 
 and named Albigenses by contemporary 
 writers. Their doctrine was of Oriental 
 origin, a mixture of Manicheism, Gnos- 
 ticism and Christianity. This heresy 
 seems to have spread first in the Slav coun- 
 tries, then passed into Lombardy, from 
 whence it penetrated into the southern 
 parts of France, where it took deep root 
 among the ignorant people. They called 
 themselves Cathares, that is, the pure, and 
 were condemned in the Council of Lom- 
 bez, 1 176, under the name Bans Hommes, 
 and again in the Lateran Council, 1179. 
 However absurd their doctrines and pre- 
 tensions, they found protectors among 
 many of the lords of the South, particu- 
 larly Raymond VI., Count of Toulouse, 
 his nephew Raymond-Roger, vice-Count 
 of Beziers and Carcassonne. After the as- 
 sassination of the papal legate, Peter de 
 Castelnau (1208), Pope Innocent HI. or- 
 dered a crusade in which the people of 
 northern France took part. The crusaders, 
 led by Simon de Montfort, took Beziers 
 and then Carcassonne, in 1209. And in 
 1213, they defeated the army of the Count 
 of Toulouse and his ally Peter of Aragon, 
 at Murat. But, in 1218, Simon de Mont- 
 fort, to whom was given the earldom of 
 Toulouse, was killed in the siege of that 
 city, and Raymond VII. reconquered a 
 part of the earldom of his father. In 1226, 
 Louis VIII. directed a new expedition 
 against the South, but he died after taking 
 Avignon. Finally, in 1229, the Treaty of 
 Manx put an end to these long wars ; the 
 Count of Toulouse ceded to the king of 
 France the senechals of Beaucaire and 
 Carcassonne, and betrothed his daughter, 
 heiress of most of his domains, to Al- 
 phonse of Poitiers, brother of Louis IX. 
 From this time little was said or done by 
 the Albigenses, except, in 1243, at the siege 
 of the Castle of Montsegur, in the diocese 
 of Toulouse, where some of the sect had 
 retreated. See Bogomilbs. 
 
Alcantara 
 
 19 
 
 Alexander 
 
 Alcantara {Knights of). — One of the 
 three religious and military orders of 
 Spain. It was founded in 1156. In 1218, 
 King Alphonse VI. gave to it the city of 
 Alcantara; hence its name. The order 
 was suppressed in 1835 ; and to-day it is 
 only an order of military merit. 
 
 Alcuin (Lat. Albinus). — Famous Anglo- 
 Saxon scholar (725 or 735-804), born at 
 York in England ; made the most brilliant 
 studies in the Episcopal School of that city. 
 He had for teachers the learned Aelbert, a 
 disciple of the Venerable Bede, who taught 
 all the branches of literature, science, and 
 the fine arts, explained, simultaneously, 
 the Greek and Latin authors. Holy 
 Scripture and the Fathers of the Church. 
 Alcuin, after having accompanied Aelbert 
 in a voyage to Rome, became his successor. 
 In 782, he became master of the school of 
 the palace of Charlemagne and served as 
 his general superintendent in educational 
 affairs. At the Council of Frankfort, in 
 794, he led the opposition to Adoptionism, 
 which the council condemned; and at the 
 synod of Aachen, in 799, he persuaded 
 Felix, the leader of the Adoptionists, to 
 recant (his second recantation). Alcuin 
 wrote on a great variety of subjects, in- 
 cluding theology, history, grammar, rhet- 
 oric, orthography, dialectics, etc. The 
 doctrine of Alcuin is very sound. 
 
 Alexander (name of eight Popes). — Al- 
 exatider I. (109-117). — Successor of Evar- 
 istus, is counted among the martyrs. 
 Alexander II. (1061-T073). — Formerly 
 Anselm, bishop of Lucca. He had given 
 proof of his virtue, and of his zeal for 
 clerical celibacy, while yet only a priest 
 at Milan, where the practice of simony 
 and marriage was quite general among 
 the clergy. He boldly denounced clerical 
 corruptions, especially against the anomaly 
 of a married clergy. He had to wrestle 
 with the anti-pope Honorius II., upheld by 
 Henry IV., Emperor of Germany, and 
 opposed himself to the persecutions of 
 the Jews, in France. Alexander III. 
 (1159-1181). — Formerly Cardinal Roland 
 of Siena. He was opposed by three anti- 
 popes : Victor IV., Pascal III., and Calix- 
 tus III., willing instruments of Emperor 
 Frederick's ambitious designs. He pro- 
 nounced excommunication against the 
 emperor, the anti-popes, and their adher- 
 ents. Strict Catholics no longer regarded 
 Frederick Barbarossa as emperor, and 
 looked upon Alexander III. as the only se- 
 
 cure asylum of the liberties of the Church. 
 The contest between the Pope and the 
 emperor ended in the decisive defeat of 
 the latter at the battle of Legnano, May 
 29th, 1 176. In 1 177 a reconciliation took 
 place at Venice, and in 1178 the anti-pope, 
 Calixtus III. abdicated. Pope Alexander 
 III., in order to remedy the evils produced 
 by the late schism, convoked, in 1179, the 
 Third Lateran, or Eleventh Ecumenical 
 Council. Alexander IV. (1254-1261). — 
 Formerly Bishop of Ostia; opposed him- 
 self to the encroachments in Italy of Man- 
 fred, natural son of Barbarossa, and made 
 efforts for the reunion of the Greek and 
 Latin Churches. Alexander V. (1409- 
 1410). — Formerly Archbishop of Milan; 
 he was elected by the Council of Pisa, 
 after the deposition of Benedict XIII. and 
 Gregory XII., with the understanding 
 that he would reform the abuses of the 
 Church. Alexander VI. (1492-1503). — 
 The Pontificate of Alexander VI. was a 
 time of degradation for the Holy See, and 
 a calamity to the Church. This Pope was 
 of the Borgia family, and his mother was a 
 sister of Calixtus III. When he became 
 Pope he made his nephew, then a military 
 officer, Bishop of Valencia, and shortly 
 after created him cardinal and vice-chan- 
 cellor of the Roman Church. Before his 
 elevation to the Papacy, he became the 
 father of four children, by a Roman lady 
 of noble family. His election to the Pa- 
 pacy was accomplished by bribery. Alex- 
 ander possessed, indeed, all the qualities 
 of an able and valiant ruler, but utterly 
 lacked the virtues of a Pontiff. When 
 raised to the Papacy, he availed himself of 
 every means to enrich and elevate his fam- 
 ily. He formed a league with the King 
 of Naples, against Charles VIII. of France, 
 who laid claim to the Neapolitan Crown. 
 It was under the reign of this Pope that 
 the eloquent, but eccentric Dominican, 
 Jerome Savonarola, made war upon tem- 
 poral rulers, including the Pope, de- 
 nouncing their corruption and excesses. 
 Alexander's Pontificate was contemporary 
 with the Discovery of America, by Chris- 
 topher Columbus, and one of the Pope's 
 first acts was the publication of a Bull, 
 known as the "Bull of Partition," which 
 provided for the propagation of the Chris- 
 tian faith in the recently discovered re- 
 gions, or regions to be discovered in the 
 future, between Spain and Portugal. A 
 Bull of this Pontiff, forbidding the publica- 
 tion of new books, without the approbation 
 
Alexander of Alexandria 20 
 
 Alexandria 
 
 of the ecclesiastical authority, tended to 
 check the spread of heretical and other 
 obnoxious writings. 
 
 The hatred entertained, for the rule of 
 Alexander VI. led men to charge him with 
 imaginary crimes, and to greatly exagger- 
 ate his real failings. The horrible crimes 
 of which this Pope and his children, es- 
 pecially Lucretia, stand accused were but 
 the inventions of malice; these atrocious 
 calumnies, as W. Roscoe, an eminent Pro- 
 testant historian, has shown, are traceable 
 to the revengeful journalists of the day. 
 The implacable hostility of the Reformers, 
 and the resentment of France, because of 
 the political attitude of Alexander VI. to 
 that country, have contributed, not a little, 
 to blacken his memory. Besides, the 
 deeds of violence committed by Caesar 
 Borgia in the Pope's name, added much 
 to bring disgrace on his father's Pontifi- 
 cate. Yet enough is known, which com- 
 pels us to acknowledge that the elevation 
 of Alexander VI. was disgraceful, and his 
 government calamitous. But the errors 
 of his private life never affected his con- 
 duct as Pope. He made several wise de- 
 crees and patronized learning; in his 
 many constitutions, he never taught or 
 commanded anything contrary to faith 
 and morals. Alexander VII. (1655-1667). 
 — Formerly Cardinal Chigi, was a man of 
 great talents and virtues. The arbitrary 
 proceedings of Louis XIV. of France 
 against the Holy See, gave Alexander 
 much annoyance and greatly embittered 
 his life. It was in his Pontificate that the 
 Swedish Queen, Christina, daughter of 
 Gustavus Adolphus, abjured Lutheranism, 
 and, sacrificing her crown, embraced the 
 Catholic faith. Alexander confirmed the 
 Bull of his predecessor. Innocent X., against 
 the five propositions of Jansenius. Alexan- 
 der VIII. (168^1691).— A Pontiff highly 
 extolled for his moderation and prudence, 
 obtained from Louis XIV. the restoration 
 of Avignon, which had been occupied by 
 the French under the preceding Pontificate. 
 Published the Bull " Intermultiplices" 
 against the four articles of the French clergy 
 of 1682, which proclaimed Gallicanism. 
 
 Alexander of Alexandria (St.). — Patri- 
 arch of Alexandria, combated the heresy 
 of Arius, whom he caused to be con- 
 demned in the Council of Nice (325), and 
 died in the year 328. F. Feb. 26th. 
 
 Alexander of Hales. — Bom in Glouces- 
 tershire, England ; was one of the great- 
 
 est theologians that the Middle Ages 
 produced. He was reared in the monas- 
 tery of Hales, where he derived his sur- 
 name, while he received his higher 
 education at Oxford and Paris. In 1222 
 he became a Franciscan monk, and was 
 the first of his order that lectured in the 
 University of Paris, where he taught phi- 
 losophy and theology with great success. 
 Of the Schoolmen, Alexander was the 
 earliest acquainted with all the works of 
 Aristotle, whose philosophy he was also 
 the first to apply to the treating and solv- 
 ing of theological questions. Besides his 
 commentary on the Metaphysics of Aris- 
 totle, the first of the kind on that work, he 
 constructed, by order of Pope Innocent 
 IV., a Sum of Theology, which, having 
 been examined by a committee of seventy 
 doctors, was recommended by the Pope 
 as a complete manual to all masters and 
 students of theology. On account of his 
 extensive and deep erudition, his contem- 
 poraries called him the "Irrefragable 
 Doctor" and the " Monarch of the Theolo- 
 gians." He died in 1245. 
 
 Alexander (St.). — Surnamed the "coal- 
 seller" ; lived poor at Comana, Italy, was 
 named bishop of that city about the year 
 248. He discharged his office with as 
 much zeal as prudence, and died for the 
 faith. The year of his death is unknown. 
 F. Aug. nth. 
 
 Alexander (St.) (317-337 or 340). — 
 Patriarch of Constantinople, had to wrestle 
 against Arianism. He was the first that 
 insisted on the convocation of a General 
 Council. In the year 336, when it was ex- 
 pected that Arius with his followers would 
 be solemnl}' introduced into the Church of 
 Constantinople, Alexander prayed to God 
 either to let him die or hinder such a scan- 
 dal from his Church. God listened to his 
 prayers ; Arius died suddenly during the 
 procession. Alexander occupied the See 
 of Constantinople during 23 years. F. 
 Aug. 28t'h. 
 
 Alexander (St.) . — Bishop of Jerusalem ', 
 he left to that city a beautiful library, was 
 the defender of Origen, and died in prison, 
 under the Emperor Decius, in 251. F. 
 March 18th. 
 
 Alexandria ( Councils of) . — The Church 
 held several Councils at Alexandria 
 (Egypt) in the early ages of Christianity. 
 The first two (230 and 231) condemned 
 Origen. The Council of 320 condemned 
 
Alexandria 
 
 21 
 
 Alexandrian Schools 
 
 Arianism, one hundred bishops uniting in 
 judgment. In that of 339, the Egyptian 
 bishops declared themselves in favor of St. 
 Athanasius, driven away by the Eusebians. 
 The Council held about the end of 430 by St. 
 Cyril, condemned Nestorianism. Finally, 
 in that of 633, the Patriarch Cyrus tried to 
 reconcile the Theodosians, a sect of the 
 Monophysites, with the Church. 
 
 Alexandria (^Patriarchate of). — The 
 Alexandrian patriarchate is held by the 
 Monophysite heretics (Copts), since the 
 dominion of the Saracens, in the seventh 
 century. The schismatic Greeks have a 
 patriarchate of Alexandria at Cairo. In 
 November, 1895, Pope Leo XIII. created a 
 patriarch styled " Patriarch of Alexandria 
 of the Copts," to govern the Catholics of 
 that country. See Copts. 
 
 Alexandrian Christian School. — This 
 School was one that shed a luster on the 
 early Christians of the East. Amidst the 
 storms of persecution, the Christian youth 
 thronged its academic halls to drink the 
 teaching which fell from the eloquent lips 
 of Origen or St. Clement. The teachers, 
 in order to meet the votary of Plato 
 or Aristotle on his own ground, were 
 compelled to study the subtilities of both ; 
 they were obliged to mingle with the 
 elementary and catechetical, teaching 
 more scientific lessons on Christianity, 
 and ended in giving a complete doc- 
 trine on the whole of the philosoph- 
 ical sciences. The latter was made to 
 shine from light borrowed chiefly from the 
 former. Side by side with theology, they 
 taught the Platonic and Aristotelian philo- 
 sophies. At that period, Plato was in the 
 ascendant, and exclusive partiality for 
 Plato betrayed the eloquent Origen into 
 some errors and extravagances. Besides 
 these, geometry, rhetoric, grammar, etc., 
 were amongst the regular courses of in- 
 struction, and all molded to the Christian 
 standard. The Christian School of Alex- 
 andria did produce illustrious represent- 
 atives: Athenagoras, Clement, Origen, 
 Dionysius, Peter the Martyr, Didymus the 
 Blind, Athanasius, Cyril, etc. One dis- 
 tinguishes between the ancient (St. Clem- 
 ent, Origen) and the later school of 
 Alexandria (Sts. Athanasius, Cyril) ; the 
 first had to combat Gnosticism, the second 
 Nestorianism. 
 
 Alexandrian Library. — History and tra- 
 dition assures us that the Alexandria 
 
 Library was the most famous and valuable 
 one of antiquity. It was founded by 
 Ptolemy Soter, and during its most flour- 
 ishing period, it is said to have contained 
 400,000, or, according to another authority, 
 700,000 volumes or rolls. During the siege 
 of Alexandria by Julius Caesar (48 b. c.) 
 a great deal of the library was destroyed 
 by fire ; but it was partly restored by Mark 
 Antony. A second library of 43,000 vol- 
 umes was kept in the Serapeum, the 
 temple of Jupiter Serapis, which for the 
 most part were ordinary works ; the most 
 valuable collection was stored in the Mu- 
 seum, in the quarter called Brucheium. 
 During a revolt in 391, a portion of the 
 library was destroyed, but at the taking of 
 Alexandria by the Arabians, under the 
 Calif Omar (641), the remainder was com- 
 pletely ruined. Orosius, a writer of the 
 fourth century, and some modern infidel 
 writers, would fain accuse the Christians 
 under Archbishop Theophilus of destroy- 
 ing the library, but if this were the case, 
 the library would have ceased to exist two 
 hundred and fifty years before the Arabs 
 fired and sacked Alexandria, which was 
 not the case. 
 
 Alexandrian Schools. — After the decline 
 of literature and art in Greece, Alexandria 
 in Egypt became one of the most brilliant 
 centers of antique civilization. Under the 
 Ptolemies, founders of the Library, Mu- 
 seum, and other munificent improvements, 
 a vast field of intellectual wealth arose 
 from this center. The first school of 
 Alexandria (323-30 b.c.) consisted prin- 
 cipally of savants, grammarians, and poets. 
 There it was that the first inquiries were 
 made about human anatomy, in which the 
 illustrious names of Erasistratus and 
 Herophilus shine forth. From these halls 
 Galen went forth equipped to practice the 
 healing art. Euclid founded the school 
 of mathematics which produced an Ar- 
 chimedes, Eratosthenes, Aristarchus of 
 Samos, and later on Claudius, Ptolemaeus, 
 Diophantus, and Pappus. The school of 
 grammarians, were both philologists and 
 literateurs, in the sense that they ex- 
 plained things as well as words; they 
 devoted themselves to the critical study of 
 the texts of antiquity, particularly to re- 
 vising the poems of Homer and preserving 
 corrected texts of the earlier Greek poetry 
 for future generations. The most noted 
 of this school were Philetas, Zenodotus, 
 Aristophanes of Byzantium, Aristarchus 
 
Alexians 
 
 22 
 
 Alleluia 
 
 of Samothracia, Crates of Mallus, Diony- 
 sius the Thracian, etc. 
 
 In the second century of the Christian 
 era, Apollonius Dyscolus summed up, in 
 a series of treatises, the grammatical 
 science such as it was understood in his 
 time. From the attention paid to the 
 study of language, correctness, purity and 
 elegance of expression followed. Of the 
 poetic school, may be mentioned Philetas, 
 Aratus, Callimacus, Asclepiades of Samos, 
 Apollonius of Rhodes, Euphorion, Lyco- 
 phron, and, before all, Theocritus. The 
 second School of Alexandria, which ex- 
 tended from the fall of the Ptolemies 
 (30 B. c), to the Arab conquest (a. d. 640), 
 was especially one of philosophers, who 
 undertook to unite the mystic doctrines of 
 the Orient with the principles of Greek 
 philosophy, particularly to the ideas of 
 Pythagoras and Plato. The distinguished 
 names of this eclectic or syncretic school 
 were Ammonius Saccas, Philo the Jew, 
 Photinus, Porphyry, Jamblicus, and 
 Proclus. The amalgamation of the reli- 
 gious notions of the East with Greek 
 dialectics, represent the struggle of an- 
 cient civilization with Christianity,* and 
 gave rise to the system of the Gnostics 
 which was elaborated in Alexandria, 
 against which the Christian Fathers of 
 the Church of Alexandria had to con- 
 tend. 
 
 Alexians or Cellites. — A religious Con- 
 gregation, who have chosen for their pa- 
 tron St. Alexius, distinguished for his 
 great charity and self-denial. They are 
 also called Cellites, from cella (tomb), be- 
 ing disposed and often destined to fill an 
 early tomb. Owing to the nature of their 
 vocation, they are called to care for the 
 victims of all kinds of diseases, even the 
 most loathsome and contagious. In many 
 cities of Europe as well as in the United 
 States, the Alexians have houses wherein 
 they care for the sick and all that apply, 
 without distinction of creed or nationality. 
 The Alexians came to the United States in 
 1867, and have now several houses in this 
 country. 
 
 Alfred the Great. — King of the Anglo- 
 Saxons from 871-901 ; was born in 849, 
 in the Villa Wanading, in Berkshire. 
 He was the youngest son of Ethelwulf, 
 king of the West Saxons, succeeded on 
 the death of his brother Ethelred to a 
 throne threatened by invasion from with- 
 out and dissension within. His first 
 
 care was to drive off the Danes, whom 
 he is said to have encountered in fifty- 
 six battles by land and sea. The great 
 victory of Edington (878) led to the peace 
 of Wedmore, and Alfred was thus for a 
 time free to devote himself to the peaceful 
 reform for which his name is renowned. 
 Prominent among these are the establish- 
 ment of social order, the encouragement 
 of learning, and the founding of a national 
 fleet. Alfred was highly esteemed as a 
 religious and industrious man, and a wise 
 and learned king. He himself composed 
 several works, among others a Collection 
 of Chronicles ; translated into Anglo- 
 Saxon the Church History of Bede, the 
 Epitome of Paul Orosius, the Pas- 
 toral and the Dialogues of St. Gre- 
 gory, etc. Under him, England had 
 become, by its clergy and monasteries, a 
 center of Christian civilization. 
 
 Algiers {The Church in). — See Africa; 
 Australia. 
 
 Allatius (Leo) (1586-1669). — Born on 
 the island of Scio ; died in Rome. Scholar 
 in the Greek College at Rome, he became 
 a Catholic and Librarian of the Vatican in 
 1661. Has left numerous and learned 
 works on theology, archaeology and phil- 
 ology. His principal works are: JDe 
 Ecclesiae occidentdlis et orientalis perpetua 
 consensione, — wherein he proposes to prove 
 that the Roman Church and the Greek 
 Church have always been united in the 
 same faith, — De Libris ecclesiasticis Grce- 
 corum. 
 
 Allegorical. — Theologians generally dis- 
 tinguish two kinds of meaning in Holy 
 Scripture : the literal and mystical mean- 
 ings. They subdivide the mystic sense 
 into allegorical, tropological and anagogi- 
 cal. The allegorical sense is that which 
 results from the explanation of a thing 
 accomplished literally, but which is, how- 
 ever, only a figure of another thing: thus 
 the brazen serpent raised by Moses in the 
 desert to heal the Israelites from their 
 wounds, represented in an allegorical 
 sense, Jesus Christ, raised up on the Cross 
 for the redemption of mankind. 
 
 Alleluia, is a Hebrew word which means 
 Praise God! but at the same time ex- 
 presses an emotion, a joyous transport, 
 that no Greek or Latin word is found 
 capable of conveying. Wherefore it has 
 been left unchanged. From the time of 
 Pope Damasus, this word was introduced 
 
Allen 
 
 23 
 
 Alms 
 
 from the Jerusalem Church into the Latin 
 Church, and not from the Greek Church, 
 as some authors falsely affirm. 
 
 Allen (Cardinal) (1532-1594). — Born 
 at Rossall ; died in Rome. To prevent 
 the dying out of the true faith in England, 
 Dr. William Allen, formerly principal of 
 St. Mary's Hall, Oxford, opened, in 1568, 
 a seminary in the new University of 
 Douay, in order to train priests for Eng- 
 land. Aided by liberal contributions, he 
 was enabled to send thither, in the course 
 of five years, no fewer than a hundred 
 missionaries. He was created cardinal, 
 in 1587, and two years later, Archbishop of 
 Malines, Belgium, but he never left Rome. 
 
 Allies (Thomas William). — English 
 ecclesiastical writer, born at Bristol in 1813, 
 became a convert to the Catholic Church 
 in 1850. His principal works are : The 
 Efiglish Church Purified from the Sin of 
 Schism (before his conversion) ; The See 
 of St. Peter (1850) ; Dr. Pusey and the 
 Ancient Church; The Formation of Chris- 
 tendom . 
 
 Allioli ( Joseph Franz) (1793-1873). — 
 Theologian and Catholic scholar, born at 
 Sulzbach, in Bavaria; died at Augsburg. 
 Priest and doctor in theology at Landshut, 
 1816; professor ol Holy Scripture in the 
 University of Munich, 1825; Provost of 
 the Chapter of Augsburg. We have of 
 him a German translation and a Com- 
 mentary on the Bible; Biblical Antiqui- 
 ties; Manual of Biblical Archceolog-y; On 
 the Internal Motives of the Canonical 
 Hours, etc. 
 
 All-Saints' Day (in old English All 
 Halloivs). — The feast of All Saints; is al- 
 ways held on the ist of November. This 
 feast was instituted, not only to honor the 
 Saints, as the friends of God, but also to 
 return thanks to Him for the benefits He 
 has deigned to bestow upon them — the 
 reward of eternal happiness, — in order to 
 animate us to imitate their virtues, and to 
 obtain their intercession with God ; to ren- 
 der veneration to all the Saints we do not 
 know in particular, but whose lives were 
 consecrated to God alone. On the cessa- 
 tion of the persecutions of the Christians, 
 Pope Boniface IV., in 607, dedicated the 
 Pantheon, at Rome, to the Invocation of 
 the Blessed Virgin Mary and all the Mar- 
 tyrs which caused this ancient temple of 
 idols to be called : Our Lady of the 
 Martyrs or of the Rotunda. Boniface 
 
 appointed tIW!l|ft|h of May for the observ- 
 ance of this tea^t. About the year 731, 
 Gregory III., consecrated a chapel in 
 the Church of St. Peter, in honor of 
 all the saints, which increased the sol- 
 emnity of the feast from that time on. 
 Gregory IV., in 837, instituted the feast 
 in France, under the reign of Louis the 
 Kind, and appointed the ist of November 
 for the celebration of the feast, which be- 
 came generally adopted. Father Men- 
 ard has, however, proved that the observ- 
 ance had already taken place in several 
 Churches, though there had not been a de- 
 cree published to that effect. The Greeks 
 celebrate this festival on the Sunday after 
 Pentecost. See Pantheon. 
 
 All-Souls' Day. — A day of devotion on 
 which the Church solemnly commemo- 
 rates and prays for all the souls in purga- 
 tory, that they may be speedily released 
 from their sufferings, and which takes 
 place on the 2d of November. Amalarius, 
 Deacon of Metz, has placed the Office of 
 the Dead, in a work of the Ecclesiastical 
 Offices, dedicated to Louis the Kind, in 
 827. But it seems that this office was not 
 performed for the dead in particular in 
 the ninth century. St. Odilo, Abbot of 
 Cluny, in 998, instituted in all the monas- 
 teries of his congregation, the feast of all 
 the faithful departed, an Office for all in 
 general. This devotion, approved by the 
 Popes, soon spread all over the West. 
 
 Almoner. — i. An ecclesiastic attached 
 to the personage of kings, princes, and 
 bishops, to perform service in their chapels 
 and distribute their alms. — 2. An ecclesi- 
 astic charged with the religious service in 
 certain bodies and certain establishments : 
 Almoner of a regiment, of a hospital, of a 
 college, etc. They are also called Chap- 
 lains. 
 
 Alms. — The records of pagan antiquity 
 will be searched in vain for any institution 
 to support those who are unable to main- 
 tain themselves. But the words of Christ, 
 that he that gives a cup of cold water 
 should not lose his reward (Matt. x. 42), 
 that what was done to one of His least 
 brethren was done to Him (Matt. xxv. 40), 
 sank deep into the hearts of His disciples, 
 and led in some cases to the community of 
 goods described in the Acts of the Apos- 
 tles (ii. 44-46). The administration of 
 relief was not without its difficulties (Acts 
 vi. i), but the system was persevered in, 
 
A LOG I 
 
 24 
 
 Altar 
 
 and became a regular part of the polity 
 of the Church. St. Ambrose, in the sec- 
 ond of his three Books on the Duties of 
 the Ministers of the Church, argues that 
 even the consecrated vessels that serve for 
 the use of the altar must be sold, when 
 money is needed for the redemption of 
 captives {De Off. 2, 28), and he tells the 
 famous story of St. Lawrence, the deacon, 
 who, being required to surrender the treas- 
 ures of the Church to the tyrant, pointed 
 to the poor, by whose hands all his wealth 
 had been carried to the storehouses of 
 Heaven. 
 
 Alogi. — Heretics in the early Church. 
 The Alogi denied the doctrine of St. John 
 with regard to the Word {Logos), as well 
 as the active co-operation of the Holy 
 Ghost in all gratuitous gifts, but partic- 
 ularly that of prophecy. Not satisfied 
 with unwarranted denials, the Alogi also 
 changed the Biblical canon to suit their 
 own purposes. 
 
 Alpha and Omega. — ^The first and last 
 letters of the Greek alphabet. Thus 
 united, they are employed by St. John in 
 the Apocalypse (i. 8; xxii, 13; xxi. 6) to 
 designate the divine wisdom, origin, and 
 end of all things. The Alpha and Omega, — 
 the first and the last, the beginning and 
 the end. These two letters were also used 
 by the early Christians, as symbols of 
 faith, and are sometimes found on coins, 
 tombs, and Church vestments. 
 
 Altar (Lat. altare, from altutn, elevated, 
 and ara, altar, a place for sacrifice) . — In 
 ancient times, the altar was a sort of 
 pedestal or table of stone, whereon offer- 
 ings were laid by both Jews and heathen. 
 With the pagans, an altar was a hearth of 
 stone, raised in a place before a temple or 
 before an idol, but always in the open air, 
 destined to burn thereon the flesh of the 
 victims, and pour out wine, milk, honey 
 ancl other kinds of libations. 
 
 With the Christians, the altar is the 
 table whereon is celebrated the sacrifice 
 of the Mass. If we examine the various 
 monuments of antiquity, we shall discover, 
 that everywhere throughout the Christian 
 world, from the apostolic era down to the 
 present time, the same idea has prevailed 
 that the temples of the Christian faith 
 were erected for the express purpose of 
 offering up, in their sanctuaries, the sac- 
 rifice of the body and blood of Jesus Christ, 
 and that the table on which this offering 
 
 was made became a true, a hallowed altar, 
 while the spot on which it stood was re- 
 garded as a consecrated sanctuary, the holy 
 of holies, of the New Testament, sacred 
 from'the tread of an^- other save the priest 
 of God and his lawfully appointed minis- 
 ters. If we turn to the several liturgies in 
 use throughout the universal Church we 
 shall find that they clearly demonstrate 
 both the existence and the necessity of an 
 altar, for the purpose of the true and 
 proper sacrifice peculiar to the Christian 
 dispensation. With regard to the liturgy in 
 use throughout the Latin Church, the cor- 
 rectness of this assertion is so conspicuous, 
 and such pbvious proofs present them- 
 selves in every page of the Roman Missal, 
 that we do not need to stop to discuss this 
 question. We will proceed at once to the 
 Oriental liturgies. That which passes un- 
 der the denomination of St. James's is re- 
 markable for its antiquity. In this liturgy 
 the priest is frequently instructed to speak 
 of the holy, the divine altar, and the sacri- 
 fice which he is going to offer upon it. It 
 would be impossible to select clearer or 
 more expressive terms of insistence upon 
 the obligation of erecting an altar for the 
 purpose of sacrifice than those employed 
 in their respective liturgies by the Oriental 
 Christians in general, — whether Greeks, 
 Copts, Syrians, Jacobites, Maronites, Nes- 
 torians, or Armenians. 
 
 For the first three centuries, the altar 
 was generally, though not always, of 
 wood, as is evident from a variety of testi- 
 monies. Tradition has handed down the 
 altar in the form of a wooden table, upon 
 which St. Peter, as it is said, was accus- 
 tomed to offer up the Eucharistic sacrifice 
 of the Mass, in the house of the Patrician 
 Pudens, at Rome, where it is still pre- 
 served with much respect in the Church 
 of St. Pudentiana. From the earliest 
 times, however, it is certain that it was 
 customary to celebrate Mass in the cata- 
 combs upon the tombs of the Apostles and 
 martyrs, not only in Rome, but in every 
 other portion of the Church of Christ. 
 The slab of marble which covered the 
 sepulchre was made to ser\'e as the altar- 
 table, and the low-browed arched recess 
 that spanned it merely left sufficient space 
 for the priest to perform the sacred Eucha- 
 ristic mysteries. When the altar was not 
 the tomb of a martyr, it was sometimes 
 an oblong, cubic figure ; at others, it re- 
 sembled a quadrangular table, supported 
 in the center by a single column, or upheld 
 
Altar Bread 
 
 25 
 
 Altar of Holocausts 
 
 at its extremities by two, or at its angles 
 by four low columns. For more than 
 fourteen centuries it has been a universal 
 custom to have the table of the altar of 
 stone or marble. It should be one piece, 
 judging from the piety of the primitive 
 Christians, it is more than probable that, 
 from the apostolic times no altar was ever 
 used for offering up the holy sacrifice of 
 the Mass without having been previously 
 consecrated by a solemn rite peculiar to 
 that holy purpose. We have the most 
 authentic documents to prove the use of 
 such a rite at the commencement of the 
 fourth century. The ceremony of dedica- 
 tion, which must have been performed in 
 secrecy during the times of persecution, 
 began to be celebrated with much public 
 magnificence during the tranquil reign of 
 £;onstantine. It was then a gratifying 
 spectacle, as Eusebius informs us, "to 
 witness how the ceremony of consecration 
 and dedication of the recently erected 
 Churches was solemnized in every city." 
 St. Ambrose has left us a prayer which he 
 employed in the dedication of Churches 
 and altars which he erected. According 
 to Genesis (xxviii. 17, 18), not only did 
 the Church bear in mind the divine com- 
 mand issued to Moses (Ex. xxx. 23, 24) of 
 celebrating the dedication of the altar, but 
 she also remembered that the holy table 
 was more particularly consecrated to the 
 purposes of religious worship by being 
 anointed with rich and precious unguents. 
 The Church conceived that the anointing 
 of her altars was an emblematical cere- 
 mony which she could appropriately bor- 
 row from the Old Law. At what precise 
 period the Church adopted the ceremony 
 of anointing the altar at its consecration is 
 uncertain. It is certain that toward the 
 commencement of the sixth century it be- 
 came an ordinance enacted by several 
 councils. It is a firmly established law 
 not to consecrate an altar without placing 
 some relics therein. 
 
 Altar Bread. — The matter, as it is called, 
 of the sacrifice of the Mass is composed of 
 wheaten bread, and wine of the grape. 
 Whether the bread employed be leavened 
 or unleavened, is a circumstance of pure 
 discipline, which does not touch the essence 
 of the Eucharist. That our Divine Re- 
 deemer, however, used unleavened bread 
 at its institution, is a fact concerning which 
 no doubt can be for a moment entertained ; 
 for the Evangelists particularly notice 
 
 that Christ instituted the Blessed Eucharist 
 on the first day of the Azymes, or of the 
 unleavened bread (Matt. xxvi. 17; Mark 
 xiv. 12; Luke xxii. 7), and after He had, 
 with his Apostles, partaken of the paschal 
 lamb, at which sacrifice it was unlawful to 
 make use of any other than unleavened 
 bread. See Host. 
 
 Altar Cards. — These cards contain a 
 printed copy of a certain portion of the 
 prayers of Mass, which the priest cannot 
 conveniently read from the Missal. They 
 are placed at the center and at each end of 
 the altar. They are of modern introduction 
 and are not at all essential to the service. 
 
 Altar Cloths. — Anciently, as now, the 
 table of the altar was overspread with 
 linen cloths. Throughout the Latin 
 Church, the altar is at all times covered 
 with a cere or waxed cloth and three linen 
 cloths, the uppermost of which should 
 reach to the ground. Over this is laid, 
 at the celebration of the man, a second 
 species of altar cloth, called the corporal, 
 and is used for such a purpose, not only in 
 the Western but throughout the Greek and 
 all the Oriental Churches. The corporal, 
 in the Latin Church, continued for many 
 ages of such dimensions that it completely 
 covered the table of the altar; but the 
 gradual curtailments through which it 
 passed, reduced it to its present size of 
 about eighteen inches square, merely suffi- 
 cient to cover the spot more immediately 
 before the priest upon which he consecrates 
 the Eucharist. 
 
 Altar {Main or High A/iar.)— The 
 altar placed in the sanctuary or choir of 
 the Church. 
 
 Altar (Mosaic). — Before the time of 
 Moses, the Jews sacrificed upon altars, 
 constructed from rough stones unsoiled by 
 fire, which they raised in localities where 
 they sojourned or temporarily resided. 
 But the law of Moses ordained that there 
 should be only one place of sacrifice, which 
 at first was the Tabernacle and afterwards 
 the Temple of Jerusalem. 
 
 Altar of Holocausts. — That which Moses 
 built in the desert was a kind of chest, of 
 setim wood, overlaid with plates of copper, 
 five cubits (eight feet) square, and three 
 cubits (five feet) high. It had a horn at 
 each corner, and was carried about by 
 means of staves. Upon this altar they 
 kept up a perpetual fire, and burned the 
 
Altar of Incense 
 
 26 
 
 Amalecites 
 
 victims thereon. It was placed in the east, 
 and before the entrance of the Tabernacle, 
 in the open air, in order that the smoke 
 might not damage the interior of the Tab- 
 ernacle. This portable altar was replaced 
 in the temple of Solomon by an altar of 
 holocausts of much larger dimensions. It 
 was 10 cubits square, or about 18 feet high, 
 and in the first temple 20 cubits square, 
 and in the second 24 cubits. The tradition 
 of the Jews is, that it was 32 cubits (about 
 50 feet) square at the base, contracting to 
 24 cubits at the top, by several steps en- 
 circling it at different heights, each step 
 a cubit broad. The highest of these steps 
 was three feet below the top of the altar, 
 so that, standing upon it, the priest was 
 able to arrange the sacrifice upon the fire, to 
 supply it with fuel, and remove the ashes. 
 The lower steps were to enable him to 
 sprinkle the blood on the sides of the altar. 
 The lowest step had a raised ledge on the 
 outside, by which the blood poured upon the 
 altar, was confined till it ran through an 
 aperture into a subterranean pipe. It must, 
 therefore, have been an immense structure, 
 and though called " an altar of brass," 
 was probably built of stone, and merely 
 covered with plates of that metal. 
 
 Altar of Incense. — In the old Testament, 
 this is described as a small altar of setim 
 wood, overlaid with gold plates, one cubit 
 in length, one in width and two in height. 
 In the morning and evening, the priest of 
 the week, chosen by lot, offered upon 
 this altar a perfume of a particular com- 
 position. For this, he entered with the 
 smoking-censer, filled with fire from the 
 altar of holocausts, into the Holy, where 
 this altar was placed opposite the altar of 
 the "loaves of proposition." After hav- 
 ing placed incense in the censer, the priest 
 retired outside the Holy. 
 
 Altar of the Show Breads. — In the Old 
 
 Testament a table of setim wood, overlaid 
 with gold plates, being two cubits long, 
 one cubit wide, and one and one-half cub- 
 its high. It was placed in the Holy and 
 on the northern side of this receptacle. 
 Upon this table were placed twelve loaves 
 of bread renewed every week, with incense 
 and salt. 
 
 Altar {Portable). — This is a square plate 
 of stone, generally of marble, blessed or 
 consecrated according to the ordinary 
 forms of the Church, to celebrate Mass 
 thereon, anywhere, as for instance, in pri- 
 
 vate houses, public halls, camps, etc. Most 
 of the altars in this country contain simply 
 this plate of stone or marble, which is 
 placed in the middle of the wooden altar. 
 Travels to the Holy Land, the wars of 
 the Middle Ages, and the constant jour- 
 neys, in missionary countries, have neces- 
 sarily given rise to this kind of altar. 
 
 Altar {Privileged). — By privileged al- 
 tar, we understand an altar to which the 
 Apostolic See has attached, as a special 
 favor, a plenary indulgence applicable only 
 to the souls in purgatory by way of suf- 
 frage {per modum .<!uffragii), which indul- 
 gence is gained if the celebrant offers upon 
 this altar the sacrifice of the Mass for these 
 souls. This privilege is a double one : 
 local and personal, and both may be either 
 perpetual {ad perpetcum) or for only a 
 limited time {ad quinquennium, septeti- 
 nium, decennium, etc.). According to a 
 decree of the Sacred Congregation of 
 Rites (Sept. 2d, 1741), all the altars pos- 
 sess the foregoing privilege on All Souls' 
 Day. 
 
 Altar Stone. — The portable altar, upon 
 which the celebrant places the chalice and 
 host during the Mass. It can be used only 
 after it has been consecrated by the bishop. 
 
 Alvarez (Diego). — Spanish Dominican 
 of the seventeenth century. Professor of 
 theology in Spain and in Rome; Arch- 
 bishop of Trani (kingdom of Naples) ; 
 zealous defender of the cause of the Thom- 
 ists against the Molinists. His principal 
 works are : De auxiliis divinae gratiae; 
 Concordia liberi arbitrii cum praedestina- 
 tio7te. Died in 1635. 
 
 Alzog (J. Baptist) (1808-1878). — 
 Learned German. Born at Ohlau, Silesia; 
 died at Freiburg, Baden. Studied in the 
 College of Brieg, and in the Universities 
 of Breslau and Bonn. Priest at Cologne, 
 1834; doctor of theology; professor in the 
 great seminary of Posen ; Canon of Hilde- 
 sheim (Hanover) ; professor in the Uni- 
 versity of Freiburg-in-Breisgau (1853) ; 
 called to Rome for the Vatican Council. 
 Has written the following works : Univer- 
 sal History of the Church; Compendium 
 of Patrology, etc. 
 
 Amalecites. — Ancient Arabic people of 
 Arabia Petrsea, in the south of Palestine. 
 They were at continual war with the Jews, 
 who conquered them under Josue (1491 
 B.C.), under Saul (1079), under David 
 
Aman 
 
 27 
 
 Amice 
 
 (1058-1056). They were entirely subdued 
 only by the Simeonites, under Ezechias 
 (715 B. c). 
 
 Aman. — Amalecite ; minister and favor- 
 ite of Assuerus, king of Persia. Impious, 
 proud, and cruel, he desired to destroy 
 Mardochai and the Jews. Queen Esther 
 saved her uncle and all her compatriots, 
 and Aman was hung (510 b. c.) on the very 
 scaffold which he had erected for Mardo- 
 chai. 
 
 Amasa. — Son of Abigail, sister of 
 David. He commanded the troops of 
 Absalom, during his revolt ; was conquered 
 by Joab, general of David. The latter 
 pardoned Amasa, and even promised to 
 give to him the command of his army, 
 instead of Joab, whom he detested on ac- 
 count of his insolence, and the murder of 
 Absalom. But Joab treacherously mur- 
 dered him. 
 
 Amasias (839-810 b. c.) — Eighth king 
 of Juda, son and successor of Joas. He 
 reigned twenty-nine years. He did good 
 in the sight of the Lord, but not with a 
 perfect heart (IV. Ki. xiv. 1-20). 
 
 Ambo. — In the early Christian churches 
 and basilicas, a raised desk or pulpit from 
 which certain parts of the service were 
 read or chanted and sermons preached. 
 It was often an oblong inclosure with 
 steps at both sides, and was generally 
 richly decorated. It was very common 
 to place two ambos in a church, from 
 one of which was read the Gospel, and 
 from the other the Epistle. A tall, or- 
 namental pillar for holding the paschal 
 candle is sometimes associated with the 
 ambo. 
 
 Ambrose (St.). — Father and Doctor of 
 the Church, born at Treves in 340; died 
 Archbishop of Milan in 397. Was Roman 
 governor, when, upon the death of the 
 Arian Auxentius, he was, though then 
 only a Catechumen, chosen Bishop of 
 Milan, in 374. Rising at once to the full 
 height of his office, Ambrose distributed 
 all his goods among the poor, and with 
 unwearied zeal, devoted, himself to the 
 performance of his pastoral duties. With 
 great mildness and moderation, he united 
 a wonderful firmness and inflexibility 
 wherever the divine law was concerned. 
 He resisted the attempts of the Arian 
 Emperor Justinian to obtain from him one 
 of the churches of Milan for the use of 
 
 the Arians; and with fearless zeal, he 
 compelled Emperor Theodosius I. to a 
 humilating penance for the indiscriminate 
 massacre of about seven thousand persons, 
 which, in a moment of irritation, he had 
 ordered at Thessalonica, in 390. Such 
 was his zeal and success in rooting out 
 heresy and propagating the orthodox 
 faith, that it caused St. Jerome to write, 
 that, when Ambrose became Bishop of 
 Milan, all Italy was converted to the faith. 
 To him, also, in part, is to be ascribed the 
 conversion of the great St. Augustine. 
 The writings of Ambrose are numerous 
 and various, comprising dogmatical, ex- 
 egetical, and ascetic treatises, besides a 
 number of letters and hymns. See Migne, 
 Pat. Lat. XIV— XVII. The best edition 
 of his works is that of the Benedictines 
 (Paris 1686-1690). F. April 4th. 
 
 Ambrosian Chant. See Plain Chant. 
 
 Amen. — At Mass, the acolyte in the 
 name of the people answers "Amen" at 
 the end of the Collect, Secret and Post- 
 Communion, and thus ratifies what the 
 priest has been saying, according to the 
 custom of the Jews and primitive Chris- 
 tians. Amen is a Hebrew word, employed 
 to confirm what has been announced, and, 
 according to the tenor of the discourse to 
 which it is appended, signifies either 
 that is true, or may it be so, or / 
 agree to that. It is, in reality, a form of 
 speech indicative of an assertion, a desire, 
 or a consent. i. When the Amen is 
 uttered after a declaration of the truths 
 of faith, as for instance the Creed, it is a 
 simple assertion, and signifies "That is 
 true." 2, When it follows a prayer for 
 some blessing or spiritual good, such as 
 the conversion of nations, health of soul 
 and body, or rest to the souls of departed 
 brethren, the Amen expresses a wish. 
 3. After a prayer pledging us to the per- 
 formance of anything, the Amen declares 
 our determination to comply with the 
 engagement. 
 
 America ( The Church in). See Church ; 
 Missions ; Christianity in America. 
 
 Amice {^ecclesiastical vestment). — The 
 amice is an oblong piece of fine white linen. 
 The priest places it for a moment, like a 
 veil, upon the crown of his head, and then 
 adjusts it around his neck so that it hangs 
 down over his shoulders, reciting, mean- 
 while, the prayer recommended for this 
 
Ammonites 
 
 28 
 
 Ampulla 
 
 purpose. The amice is not without a mys- 
 tic signification. The act of resting it for 
 a moment on the head, as well as the 
 prayer which the priest is directed to pro- 
 nounce on assuming it, render it strikingly 
 illustrative of that helmet of salvation with 
 which each Christian warrior should arm 
 himself to extinguish and repel the fiery 
 darts of the wicked one. Formerly the 
 amice was worn upon the head in the man- 
 ner of a hood while vesting, and until the 
 priest arrived before the altar, when it was 
 lowered and thrown back upon the shoul- 
 ders, a custom which is still retained in 
 some churches of Europe, as well as by the 
 Dominican and Capuchin friars. The cor- 
 responding vestment in the Coptic liturgy 
 of St. Basil is called efomis and the ancient 
 liturgies termed it anabolagitim. Amices 
 were formerly richly embroidered with 
 gold and silk, or adorned with an oblong 
 piece of silken material called an apparel. 
 Appareled amices were in use until the 
 end of the sixteenth century, since which 
 time they have gradually dropped out of 
 use. The term amice is derived from the 
 Latin verb amicire, to cover; being intro- 
 duced in the eighth century as a covering 
 for the neck, which until that period was 
 usually bare. 
 
 Ammonites. — People descended from 
 Ammon, son of Lot. They dwelt east of 
 the Dead Sea and the Jordan, and north of 
 the Moabites. Allied with the latter, they 
 were almost always at war with the Israel- 
 ites. Their capital was Rabbath-Ammon. 
 They were reduced to bondage and trans- 
 ported from their country by Nabuchod- 
 onosor, in the year 583 b. c. 
 
 Ammonius Saccas. — This philosopher 
 received his surname on account of having 
 been a sack-carrier. Born at Alexandria, 
 taught philosophy in that city, about the 
 end of the second century or the beginning 
 of the third. It is said that he abandoned 
 Christianity, in which he had been raised, 
 for the pagan philosophy. It is believed 
 that he had Pantaenus for teacher. He en- 
 trusted his principles to only a few of his 
 disciples, and under the veil of mystery. 
 He is looked upon as the founder of Neo- 
 Platonism. Longinus, Erennius, Plotinus, 
 and Origen the pagan were his disciples. 
 Ammonius died about 243. 
 
 Ammonius (St.). — Cenobite of the 
 fourth century. He was a friend of St. 
 Anthony, and, like him, he established 
 
 monastic communities in the Nitrian des- 
 erts in Upper Egypt, where 5,000 Ceno- 
 bites soon assembled under his direction. 
 
 Amorites. — People of Palestine, of gi- 
 gantic stature, descendants of Amor or 
 Amorrheus, son of Chanaan. They lived 
 west and northeast of the Dead Sea. 
 They were driven away from their country 
 by Moses, and their territory was divided 
 among the tribes of Gad, Ruben and 
 Manasses. 
 
 Amort (EusEBius) (1692-1775). — Born 
 near Tolz, Bavaria; died at Polling. 
 Canon of St. Augustine; entered the or- 
 der of Canons Regular and taught the- 
 ology in his convent. He composed, in 
 Latin, a great number of works on differ- 
 ent subjects. 
 
 Amos. — The third of the minor proph- 
 ets, was a herdsman of Thecue, a small 
 town of Juda, about twelve miles southeast 
 of Jerusalem. His prophecies, contained 
 in nine chapters, are distinguished for their 
 poetic simplicity. We remark, therein, 
 the employment of Aramaic forms ap- 
 proaching the popular language. He re- 
 ceived his mission about the year 785 b. c, 
 and prophesied at Bethel, the principal 
 seat of idolatry. 
 
 Amphilochius. — Bishop of Iconium in 
 375. He proved his brilliant talents in sev- 
 eral Councils; held a Council at Iconium, 
 against the Macedonians, in 376. He as- 
 sisted in 381 at the Council of Constanti- 
 nople and presided over that of Sida in 388 
 or 390, in Pamphylia, wherein the rising 
 heresy of the Messalians was condemned. 
 We do not know the date of his death. 
 All the works, carrying the name of St. 
 Philochius, are contained in the Biblioth. 
 Gallandii; in Migne, Pat. gr. XXXIV. 
 F. Nov. 23d. 
 
 Amphipolis. — A city of Macedonia, situ- 
 ated a short distance from the mouth of 
 the river Strymon, which flowed around 
 the city, and thus occasioned its name. 
 The village, which now stands upon the 
 site of the ancient city, is called Empoli 
 or Yamboli, a corruption of Amphipolis. 
 (Acts xvii. I.) 
 
 Ampulla. — I. In Roman antiquities, a 
 vessel with a narrow neck and a body more 
 or less nearly globular in shape, usually 
 made of glass or earthenware, — rarely of 
 more valuable materials, — and used, like 
 
Amri 
 
 29 
 
 Anabaptists 
 
 the Greek aryballos, bombylios, etc., for 
 carrying oil for anointing the body and for 
 many other purposes. — 2. In the Catholic 
 Church a cruet, generally made of trans- 
 parent glass, for holding the wine and 
 water used at Mass. — 3. A vessel for hold- 
 ing the consecrated oil or chrism used in 
 various Church rites and at the coronation 
 of kings. The ampulla used at the coro- 
 nations in England is in the form of an 
 eagle, of pure gold, richly chased. The 
 famous ampulla formerly used at the coro- 
 nation of the French kings, was kept at 
 Rheims, and which tradition reported as 
 having been brought from heaven by a 
 dove for the baptism of Clovis I., was 
 broken in the Revolution; but a portion 
 of its oil is said to have been preserved and 
 to have been used at the coronation of 
 Charles X. — 4. In the Middle Ages a small 
 bottle-shaped Hask, often of glass, used by 
 travelers and especially by pilgrims. 
 
 Amri. — Commander of the army of Ela, 
 king of Israel; but, being at the siege of 
 Gabaon, and hearing that his royal master 
 had been assassinated by Zambri, who had 
 usurped his kingdom, he raised the siege, 
 and, being elected king by his army, 
 marched against Zambri, attacked him at 
 Thersa, and forced him to burn himself 
 with his whole family in the palace in which 
 he had shut himself up. After his death, 
 half of Israel acknowledged Amri as king, 
 the other half adhered to Thebni, son of 
 Gineth ; this division continued four years. 
 When Thebni died, the people united in 
 acknowledging Amri as king of all Israel, 
 and he reigned twelve years, — six years at 
 Thersa, and six years at Samaria. 
 
 Amsdorfians. — Lutheran sect of the six- 
 teenth century, so called from Nicholas 
 Amsdorf (1484-1565). In 1542, Amsdorf 
 forcibly obtruded himself into the bishop- 
 ric of Naumburg, in place of Julius Pfiug, 
 the lawfully elected bishop. Luther as- 
 sumed to consecrate his friend Amsdorf, 
 and profanely boasted of the uncanonical 
 manner in which he had performed that 
 rite, as he said, "without lard, or tar, or 
 grease, or incense, or coals." Amsdorf 
 denied the necessity of good works, and 
 even maintained that they were a hind- 
 rance to salvation. He combated, ener- 
 getically, the attempts made to modify the 
 Lutheran doctrine of the Last Supper in 
 the Calvinistic sense. 
 
 Amula. Same as Ampulla. 
 
 Amulets. — Something worn about the 
 person to ward off disease or other evils. 
 The superstitious character of Oriental 
 nations led them to the use of charms of 
 this nature, sometimes in the form of 
 carved gems, or in that of words on parch- 
 ment tightly rolled up. Christianity, 
 which is opposed to all superstitious prac- 
 tices, could not destroy these customs 
 completely. In all ages, certain Christian 
 sects have preserved the use of amulets, 
 and we find that many Councils condemned 
 them. 
 
 Anabaptists. — Heretics who believe in 
 rebaptism ; specifically, those who hold 
 baptism in infancy to be invalid, and re- 
 quire adults, who have received it, to be 
 baptized on joining their communion. 
 The name is best known, historically, as 
 applied to the followers of Thomas Miinzer,' 
 a leader of the peasants' war in Germany, 
 and who was killed in battle in 1525 ; and 
 also to those of John Mathias and John 
 Bockhold, or John of Leyden, who com- 
 mitted great excesses while attempting to 
 establish a socialistic kingdom of New 
 Zion, or Mount Zion, at Miinster, in West- 
 phalia, and were defeated in 1535, their 
 leaders being killed and hung up in iron 
 cages, which are still preserved in that 
 city. The name has also been applied to 
 bodies of very different character in other 
 respects. It is most frequently applied to 
 the Mennonites. 
 
 History of the Anabaptists. — The 
 principles which Luther had formulated 
 and caused to prevail in theory, were soon 
 taken up and put in practice by some of 
 his disciples, who pushed them to the ex- 
 treme limits of logic. Luther had been 
 teaching that the Sacraments were effi- 
 cacious only through faith. Nicholas 
 Stork, of Stolberg, accepting this teach- 
 ing, refused the sacrament of baptism to 
 children and rebaptized the adults ; hence 
 his followers were called Anabaptists. 
 
 This sect soon spread among the com- 
 mon people, and was strengthened by the 
 turbulent and fanatical spirit of the times ; 
 their leaders exciting the peasants against 
 the nobles, so that the history of the 
 movements of this sect at the time was in 
 a certain measure a repetition of the revo- 
 lutionary movement begun by the peas- 
 ants, and in which the nobles had taken 
 part. The religious unrest which Luther 
 and his followers stirred up, was fol- 
 lowed by every species of excesses and 
 
Anabaptists 
 
 30 
 
 Anabaptists 
 
 aggression. Ulrich of Hutten, Goetz of 
 Berlichingen, and several Protestant min- 
 isters, among whom Carlostadt merits 
 special mention, fired the passions of the 
 people and led them to combat and 
 slaughter. During the same period, Pfeiffer 
 stirred up the people of Franconia to war, 
 but it was Thomas Miinzer of Zwickau, 
 in Saxony, who styled himself the 
 "Prophet of Zwickau," who gave ana- 
 baptism a political character in 1520. 
 Having succeeded in penetrating the mines 
 at Mansfeld, he preached to the miners 
 and dragged them into the movement. 
 Soon the whole people of Franconia were 
 in the throes of revolution, and had taken 
 a white cross for the sign of gathering. 
 Excited to bloodshed by the fanatical 
 Miinzer, they attacked the noblemen, with 
 the resolve not to spare a single one of 
 these " lazy fellows." On their march they 
 destroyed several churches, but were met 
 by the regular troops, who cut them down 
 or sent them to the gallows. One hundred 
 thousand perished in 1524. Miinzer, how- 
 ever, had taken possession of Miilhausen, 
 in Thuringia, established there a govern- 
 ment, which he called Theocracy, based 
 on the community of goods, and sum- 
 moned princes to join them, on pain of 
 losing their temporal power. The bat- 
 tle of Frankenhausen crushed their prog- 
 ress in Saxony and Franconia, Miinzer 
 was captured (May 15th, 1525) and tortured 
 to death. 
 
 After, these reverses, the scattered ad- 
 herents of the new doctrine were brought 
 together by self-assumed traveling preach- 
 ers. They spread themselves in Bavaria, 
 Silesia, Moravia, Prussia, Livonia, Swe- 
 den, along the Rhine, especially In Swit- 
 zerland and the Netherlands, and, though 
 persecuted, did not fail in making pros- 
 elytes. Since their general defeat in 1533, 
 the Anabaptists concentrated at Miinster 
 in Westphalia. This city had already 
 been gained for Luther, and it was not safe 
 to preach Catholic dogma, even in the 
 Cathedral, for fear of causing revolt. The 
 religious frenzy of these deluded people 
 was augmented by a dry goods' merchant 
 named Knipperdolling, who, after a lively 
 opposition against the Bishop of Miinster, 
 destroyed the churches and appointed 
 twelve judges over the tribes, as among 
 the Israelites ; and one Bockhold, a tailor 
 of Leyden, had himself crowned king of 
 the " New Zion," under the name of John 
 of Leyden. 
 
 The Anabaptist madness in Miinster 
 now went beyond all bounds. The city 
 became the scene of the wildest licen- 
 tiousness and turbulence. The scattered 
 fanatics flocked to the city to hear the 
 Lutheran minister Rottmann, who had 
 adopted the new doctrine. When suffi- 
 ciently numerous, they began to preach in 
 public "that the time had arrived when 
 the elect would go and unite themselves 
 from the four corners of the world to lead, 
 under the immediate conduct of Christ, 
 their God, a happy life, without laws, 
 without superiors, without marriage ; that 
 everything would be in common among 
 them. The baptism of children," they 
 added, "is an abomination before God. 
 Papists and Lvitherans are equally impious 
 We must have no relations with any of 
 them; we cannot obey pagan authorities.' 
 
 The Lutheran preachers tried in vain to 
 crush the new doctrine, but the sect still 
 persevered in gaining new adherents, and 
 being reinforced by the Anabaptists of 
 Holland, headed by their 'bishop,'' one 
 John Mathiesen, a baker of Haarlem, in- 
 stalled by the visionary preacher Melchior 
 Hoffmann, a furrier of Swabia, they took 
 entire possession of Miinster, by the elec- 
 tion of a council pledged to their interests 
 (Feb. 23d 1534). Four days afterwards, 
 they drove from the city all those who 
 refused rebaptism, compelling them to 
 leave all their property and goods behind. 
 Miinster was then delivered to a mob of 
 fanatics who pretended they were inspired, 
 and giving full reins to the most shameful 
 excesses. Men and woinen rolled them- 
 selves on the streets, jumped and danced, 
 with hands raised toward heaven ; one 
 moment in supplication, and the next in- 
 voking maledictions on their aggressors. 
 Knipperdolling, Rottmann, and Mathie- 
 sen pretended to have prophetic visions, 
 the latter, however, was killed in a sally 
 against the Bishop of Miinster John of 
 Leyden assumed full power; selected six- 
 teen of the most beautiful women of Miin- 
 ster for his wives, instituted a kind of 
 Oriental court, and named Knipperdolling 
 viceroy and sword-bearer, that is, hang- 
 man. Whoever resisted him was sent to 
 the gallows. Meanwhile the city was be- 
 sieged, and all the horrors of bloodshed 
 and famine stared them in the face. Moth- 
 ers ate their own children, fiends rioted 
 on the blood of their victims, and finally 
 on a June night (1535) Miinster was cap- 
 tured in spite of the desperate resistance 
 
Anabolagium 
 
 31 
 
 Ananias 
 
 of the Anabaptists, and those who did not 
 perish by the sword were tortured to 
 death. The final disruption of the new 
 kingdom, and cessation of excesses and law- 
 lessness, was hailed with rejoicing by both 
 Catholics and Lutherans. 
 
 It is no easy task to point out the real 
 creed of the Anabaptists. Menno Simons 
 collected the scattered adherents of the 
 sect and expounded their principles. He 
 called the members of the community 
 "God's Congregation, poor, unarmed 
 Christians, brothers" ; later they took the 
 name of Mennonites, and at present they 
 call themselves in Germany, Taufgesinnte ; 
 in Holland, Doopsgezinden. However, 
 their principal tenets showed they were 
 millenarians. They expected, after the 
 destruction of the impious, a perfect com- 
 munity without any exterior law. Holy 
 Scripture itself would become useless, 
 owing to the fact of its being engraved on 
 the hearts of the children of God. The 
 community should compose itself of pure 
 members, only those of sanctified lives 
 being worthy ; proselytes had to be 
 baptized with the new baptism, — the 
 baptism of fire and the spirit of Christ, 
 whilst the other Christians baptize only 
 with the baptism of St. John. The Last 
 Supper with them had only a symbolical 
 meaning; it was a great popular feast at 
 which they ate and drank to satiety. They 
 opposed the Lutheran doctrine on justifi- 
 cation, and held that good works were 
 necessary to salvation. For fear of the im- 
 possibility of keeping themselves in a state 
 of impeccability before God, they taught 
 that the body of Christ was created by the 
 Holy Ghost and only nourished in the 
 womb of the Blessed Virgin Mary. They 
 attached so much value and weight to 
 their communications with God, and con- 
 sequent inspiration, that often when fail- 
 ing to accord with Holy Scripture, they 
 declared the latter in error. They op- 
 posed the erection of temples for wor- 
 ship, declaring the custom idolatrous. 
 They made severe use of excommunica- 
 tion; no brother was allowed to accept 
 any public office; they rejected the taking 
 of oaths, war, and every kind of revenge. 
 After various vicissitudes and persecu- 
 tions, chiefly by the Lutherans, this sect 
 of Anabaptists, with other sects more 
 modified in doctrine and discipline, still 
 exist in Germany, Switzerland, Holland, 
 England, and especially in the United 
 States. See Baptists. 
 
 Anabolagium. — One of the ecclesiastical 
 vestments in the sacred functions. It de- 
 signates what we now call Amice, which 
 see. 
 
 Anacletus (St.). — Pope, died about the 
 year 91. Very ancient martyrologies give 
 him the title of martyr. He is named, by 
 the ancients, among the first successors of 
 St. Peter to the See of Rome. But they 
 are not in accord about the order which 
 they assign to him in this succession. 
 According to St. Irenseus, and also given 
 by Eusebius, the following is the catalogue 
 of the first Popes : Peter, Linus, Anacle- 
 tus, Clement. According to St. Augustine, 
 Clement was the successor of Linus, 
 and Anacletus succeeded Clement. There 
 are catalogues which mention a Cletus 
 instead of Anacletus. Others name Cletus 
 and Anacletus as two different personages. 
 It would appear, according to the chronicle 
 of Damasus, and according to St. Epiph- 
 anius and Rufinus, that Linus and Clem- 
 ent were charged by St. Peter, as his 
 representatives, to govern the Church of 
 Rome, — without any of them becoming 
 Pope in the proper sense of the word, — as 
 successor of Peter. In this case, Peter's 
 immediate successor was Clement, who 
 would have been succeeded by Anacletus. 
 As to the distinction between Cletus and 
 Anacletus, we find it indicated in many 
 old catalogues and especially in a notice 
 of the " Pontifical," according to which 
 Cletus was a Roman by birth, and Anacle- 
 tus an Athenian. 
 
 Anagnost. — The Greek term correspond- 
 ing to the Latin lector. 
 
 Anamelech and Adramelech. — Deities 
 of the Sepharvaim, a people who settled in 
 Samaria, instead of those Israelites who 
 were banished beyond the Euphrates. The 
 Sephar\'aim made their children pass 
 through fire in honor of these false deities. 
 The general opinion is, that Adramelech 
 represented the sun and Anamelech the 
 moon. At any rate, they seem to have been 
 personifications of the heavenly bodies. 
 
 Ananias. — Three persons of this name 
 are mentioned in the New Testament. 
 I. A Jew of Jerusalem, the husband of 
 Saphira, who attempted to join the Chris- 
 tians, but died instantly on being convicted 
 of falsehood by St. Peter (Acts v. i, 3, 5). 
 — 2. A Christian of Damascus, who re- 
 stored the sight of St. Paul after his 
 vision (Acts ix. 10-17). — 3- A high-priest 
 
Anaphora 
 
 32 
 
 Anathema 
 
 of the Jews, the son of Nebedaeus. He was 
 sent as a prisoner to Rome bj Quadra- 
 tus, the governor of Syria, and Jonathan 
 was appointed in his place ; but being lib- 
 erated by the Emperor Claudius, he re- 
 turned to Palestine, and Jonathan being 
 murdered, through the treachery of Felix, 
 Ananias appears to have performed the 
 functions of the high-priest, as a substitute, 
 until Ismael was appointed by Agrippa 
 (Acts xxiii. 2; xxiv. i). 
 
 Anaphora or Prosphora. — Signifies, in 
 the Greek liturgy, what the Latin liturgy 
 understands by cation, that is, the stable 
 part found in most of the liturgies of the 
 Mass, and wherein the words of conse- 
 cration are found. In antiquity there was 
 a special book containing the canon. 
 
 Anastasia (name of several saints). — i. 
 Anastasia the Ancient. — Patrician of 
 Rome, instructed in the faith by St. Peter 
 and St. Paul, suffered and died for the faith 
 together with her friend Basilissa. F. 
 April 15th. 2. Anastasia the Younger. — 
 Noble Roman lady, persecuted by her 
 husband Publius and burned alive under 
 Diocletian on the island Palmeria, in 303 
 or 304. F. Dec. 25th. 7,. Anastasia. — Mar- 
 tyr at Rome, together with St. Cyril, in 303. 
 We have preserved to our time some letters 
 written by her in prison and addressed to 
 Chrysogonus, her confessor. F. Oct. 28tb- 
 
 Anastasius (name of four Popes). — 
 St. Anastasius I. (398-402). Combated 
 and condemned the errors of Origen. St. 
 Jerome calls him a man of great sanctity 
 and apostolic solicitude. — Anastasius II. 
 (496-498). Combated Arianism, and made 
 attempts at Constantinople to put an end to 
 the Eastern schism. Sent legates to Con- 
 stantinople with letters to the Emperor 
 Anastasius, in which he insisted upon the 
 removal of the name of Acacius from the 
 diptychs, and the recognition of the Coun- 
 cil of Chalcedon, yet declaring valid the 
 sacraments conferred by that schismatic. 
 Anastasius III. (911-913). Anastasius 
 I^- (1153-1154)- — His administration was 
 disturbed by the movements of Arnold of 
 Brescia and his followers. 
 
 Anastasius (surnamed Bihliothecarius, 
 The Librarian). — Died 886. Librarian 
 of the Vatican and Abbot of Sta. Maria, 
 Trans-Tiberim, at Rome. Cardinal in 
 847. He assisted, in 869, at the Eighth 
 Ecumenical Council of Constantinople, 
 
 wherein Photius was condemned ; and he 
 translated the acts of the seventh and 
 eighth Councils. The translation of the 
 acts of the sixth Council is also attributed 
 to him, and the lives of the Popes from St. 
 Peter to Nicholas I. 
 
 Anastasius of Constantinople. — Died 
 753. Patriarch of Constantinople in 730. 
 He was elected by the influence of the 
 Emperor Leo IH., and favored the Icono- 
 clasts, for which he was excommunicated 
 by Gregory VIII. 
 
 Anastasius (St.). — Patriarch of Antioch 
 (559-599), banished for a time under the 
 Emperor Justinian, because he defended 
 the right doctrine on the body of Christ, 
 against heretical arbitrariness. F. April 
 21st. 
 
 Anastasius Sinaita (St.). — A priest and 
 monk in the celebrated monastery on 
 Mount Sinai, whence his surname. Here 
 he passed the main portion of his life from 
 640 to 700. At times, however, he would 
 leave his solitude and traverse Egypt and 
 Syria, and hold, wherever an opportunity 
 oflFered itself, disputations with heretics 
 (Monophysites and Monothelites). He also 
 wrote in defense of the orthodox doctrine 
 of the Church. He lived to an advanced 
 age, but the precise dates of his death and 
 birth are unknown. 
 
 Anathema. — The word anathema is of 
 Greek origin, and exists in that language 
 in two forms, distinguished by a very 
 trifling difference of spelling, but very 
 distinct in use. Both are derived from a 
 verb meaning to set aside, and in one form 
 the word is used to denote something pre- 
 cious, set aside for the service of God, such 
 as the gifts with which the Temple in Jeru- 
 salem was adorned (Luke xxi. 5; see also 
 II. Mach. ix. 16). But the word occurs 
 also in another form, and is employed to 
 signify a penal setting aside, whether of a , 
 thing which has been used as the instru- 
 ment of wickedness, or of a person who 
 has lost his social rights by crime. It 
 occurs in both senses, in a verse of Deuter- 
 onomy (vii. 26). St. Paul uses the word 
 more than once to signify that a person is 
 not worthy to be admitted into the society 
 of Christians (I. Cor. xvi. 22; Galat. i. 8, 9). 
 In the language of the Church the phrase, 
 "Let him be anathema," is used in the 
 same manner as by St. Paul, and is a form 
 of assigning the penalty of excommuni- 
 cation for an offense ; when used, as it often 
 
Anatolius 
 
 33 
 
 Andrew of Crete 
 
 is, to enforce definitions of faith, it means 
 no more than this ; but sometimes an 
 Anathema seems to mean an excommuni- 
 cation pronounced against an offender with 
 solemn and impressive ceremonies, which, 
 however, do not alter the nature of the 
 punishment. No anathema or other act of 
 human judge can take away the grace of 
 God from the soul, if by any error the 
 judgment has been pronounced against an 
 innocent man. In one place (I. Cor. xvi. 
 22) St. Paul adds to the word Anathema, 
 "Maranatha," and the same is sometimes 
 done by councils of particular Churches, 
 but the usage has not passed into the 
 general Canon Law. It has been supposed, 
 but wrongly, that the addition of this word 
 signifies that the censure will never be 
 relaxed. Maranatha is in truth an Aramaic 
 word, belonging to a language familiar to 
 St. Paul and most of his readers. It means 
 the Lord is at hand, and has the same 
 force as when this expression is used in its 
 Greek form (Phil. iv. 5). The phrase 
 enhances the force of that to which it is 
 appended, by solemnly reminding the 
 reader that Christ will come again, to 
 judge the world. 
 
 Anatolius (St.). — Born at Alexandria, 
 about 230 ; died in 283. Was named Bishop 
 of Laodicea, in Syria, about the year 270. 
 He was one of the most learned men of 
 his age. Of his works, which were not 
 numerous but very valuable, only meager 
 portions have been preserved. 
 
 Anchor. — This was a symbol of hope 
 among the early Christians. St. Clement 
 of Alexandria, says the anchor was one 
 of the principal symbols which the first 
 Christians engraved upon their rings. They 
 considered it a sign of hope, of firmness 
 in their faith, of a conscience always on 
 the lookout, in order to avoid shipwreck, — 
 may it be during the storms of the human 
 passions, or may it be during the tempests of 
 persecution. To show that their hope was 
 anchored in Jesus Christ, the first Chris- 
 tians (as we can see by the inscriptions on 
 tombs and in cemeteries), associated the 
 figure of the anchor, with the fish or 
 dolphin, which was the symbol of the Son 
 of God. See Fish. 
 
 Anchorite. — A religious hermit who 
 seeks the solitude of the desert, in prefer- 
 ence to living, like the monk or cenobite, 
 in communities. Anchorites began to ap- 
 pear in the Christian Church about the 
 3 
 
 second century. The hermits of Thebaid 
 were renowned for their sanctity, absti- 
 nence and austerity. In the two following 
 centuries, anchorites became numerous and 
 peopled the deserts of Egypt and Syria. 
 The most renowned were Paul the Hermit, 
 or Thebean, A. d. 250, whose example was 
 followed by St. Anthony, St. Pachomius, 
 St. Simeon Stylites, and many others famed 
 in legend and song. The fame of their 
 sanctity drew many to visit them, become 
 their disciples and live under their direc- 
 tion. This was the origin of the cenobitic 
 life, but it was not till the end of the fourth 
 century, that the hermitical life began in 
 Italy and Gaul. The persecutions to which 
 Christians were subjected, and the desire 
 to withdraw from amusements and the 
 general corruption of society, caused many 
 pious and earnest persons to seek the soli- 
 tude of deserts where they could more 
 freely give their thoughts to God; after- 
 ward the glory of a life spent in loneliness 
 and austerity became a substitute for that 
 of the martyr's death. For further infor- 
 mation, see MoNASTiciSM. 
 
 Ancient. — A title of dignity bestowed 
 on aged persons, because they were chosen 
 from among men to fill important func- 
 tions. Among the Jews, the ancients of 
 the people of Israel were the chiefs of the 
 tribes and of the great families who, at the 
 beginning, formed a kind of government, 
 and had authority over the whole people 
 as well as that of their family. Moses es- 
 tablished seventy Ancients of Israel (Num. 
 xi. 16-17), whose government perpetuated 
 itself until the time of Josue, and even 
 Judges. 
 
 Ancyra. — An ancient town of Galatia 
 (originally of Phrygia), in Asia Minor, 
 founded, according to the legends, by 
 Midas, son of Gordius, — the modern An- 
 gora. An ecclesiastical council was held 
 here in the year 314, which passed twenty- 
 five canons relating chiefly to the treat- 
 ment of those who had betrayed their 
 faith or delivered up the sacred books 
 during the Diocletian persecution. 
 
 Andre'w of Crete. — Born at Damascus, 
 660 ; died 720 or 723. An Archbishop of 
 Crete; favored for some time the error of 
 the Monothelites ; but having read the 
 acts of the Sixth Ecumenical Council, he 
 found himself deceived and acknowledged 
 in Jesus Christ two wills and two oper- 
 ations. 
 
Andrew 
 
 34 
 
 Angel 
 
 Andrew (St.). — The first disciple of 
 Christ, and afterward an Apostle, was, like 
 his brother Peter, a fisherman. Previous 
 to his recognition of Christ as the Mes- 
 sias, he had been numbered among the 
 disciples of John the Baptist ( John i. 40, 
 41). The career of Andrew, as an Apostle 
 after the death of Christ, is unknown. 
 Tradition tells us that after preaching the 
 Gospel in Scythia, Northern Greece, and 
 Epirus, he suffered martyrdom on the 
 cross at Patrse, in Achaia, 62 or 70 A. D. 
 A cross formed of beams, obliquely placed, 
 is styled St. Andrew's cross. St. Andrew 
 is the patron saint of Scotland. He is 
 also held in great veneration in Russia, 
 and according to a tradition, preached the 
 Gospel in that country. In both countries 
 there is an order of knighthood named in 
 his honor. 
 
 Angel. — This word is from the Greek 
 aggelos, which signifies messenger, a word 
 which indicates not the nature of the 
 angels, but the office they often exercise. 
 Angels are spiritual creatures. When 
 angels, according to the Old and New 
 Testaments, have appeared under sensible 
 forms, these were forms which they had 
 borrowed to put themselves into relation 
 with men, and to fulfill the purpose of 
 their mission to them. The Fifth Lateran 
 Council teaches: "There is only one 
 principle of all things, — Creator of all that 
 is visible and invisible, spiritual and 
 corporal; which at the beginning of time 
 has drawn both from nothing, through its 
 almighty, powerful virtue, the spiritual 
 and the corporal creation, that is, the 
 angels and matter; and afterward the 
 human nature, which is like a common 
 nature, composed of spirit and body. 
 These incorporal beings have a superior 
 intelligence and a well regulated will. 
 Their knowledge of the divine decrees and 
 of the government of Providence, although 
 very extensive, is, however, limited. There 
 are mysteries for them, and the future is 
 often hidden from them. They were created, 
 not only in a great natural perfection, but, 
 also, in a state of supernatural justice and 
 holiness, an habitual and sanctifying grace, 
 subject to the trial of liberty for the good 
 and the evil; the one, with the help of 
 grace, persevered in the good and ac- 
 quired thus by their personal activity and 
 decision, with God's help, the definitive 
 holiness and eternal beatitude. Others, 
 succumbing to this trial, lost themselves 
 
 by their own fault. Lucifer, who became 
 the chief of the rebellious angels, or the 
 first of the demons, did not wish to submit 
 himself." Speaking of this, St. Augustine 
 says: "They turned from the Sovereign 
 Being and returned toward themselves." 
 Our Saviour has said of the bad angels, 
 that they "did not remain in the truth" 
 (John viii. 44). 
 
 Scripture makes allusion to numberless 
 hosts of angels, but gives no complete and 
 systematic account of them. The belief 
 of the Church respecting them, except in 
 a few points, has never been exactly de- 
 fined. It has always been held that angels 
 and human souls, notwithstanding the 
 high origin of the latter, are distinct; only 
 Dionysius, Areopagita, and a few modern 
 speculators have maintained the contrary. 
 The Church in the Second Council of 
 Constantinople (553), has expressed her- 
 self against the opinion of Origen, after 
 which all these spirits would be equal in 
 substance, virtue, attributes, etc. Indeed, 
 Holy Scripture speaks of nine classes of 
 choirs of angels, whom the Fathers and 
 theologians divide into three hierarchies, 
 and these are again subdivided into three 
 classes as follows : first hierarchy: Choirs 
 of the Seraphim, Cherubim, Thrones; 
 second hierarchy : Choirs of the Domina- 
 tions, Virtues, Powers; third hierarchy: 
 Choirs of the Principalities, Archangels 
 and simple Angels. 
 
 Initiated in the plan of Providence, the 
 angels act on mankind in order that the 
 designs of God may become realized and 
 humanity accomplish its destiny. We be- 
 hold them many times on errands of great 
 import, and often interfering in the great 
 phases of humanity, to second the di- 
 vine power; they will appear at the uni- 
 versal Judgment to close, in the name of 
 God, the history of the world. What the 
 angels are, and do for all mankind, the 
 angel is and does in particular for each 
 person, like the Guardian angel. Each of 
 us is placed under the auspices of an angel ; 
 angels, also, according to the opinion 
 of the most ancient theologians, preside 
 over just laws which rule the world, 
 watch over the diverse kingdoms of na- 
 ture, such for instance as plants, animals, 
 etc. Nations and societies are under the 
 patronage or care of certain angels. 
 Whatever is great, worthy, holy, in a min- 
 istry consecrated to the service of God 
 and to the happiness of mankind, merits 
 our respect and veneration. Therefore, 
 
Angela de Mericia 
 
 35 
 
 Anglicanism 
 
 nothing is more justified than the honor 
 rendered the angels, and the invocation of 
 those whose names are so familiar in Holy 
 Writ, special bearers of tidings of great joy 
 to all people ; defenders of the majesty, 
 power, and glory of God ; instruments of 
 averting danger, disaster, distress and 
 misfortune; guardians ever ready to 
 prompt to good actions, and to avert evil. 
 We can present them, to our eyes, only 
 under human form. They give them the 
 figure of man instead of woman, though 
 they are sexless, being pure spirits, be- 
 cause this is the more noble and powerful of 
 the sexes. They are usually represented as 
 young, because youth is symbolic of grace 
 and beauty, and to mark their innocence 
 and eternal freshness. The rapidity with 
 which they fulfill their mission is symbol- 
 ized by the wings. When they wish to 
 represent them in the act of praising God, 
 harps and other musical instruments are 
 placed in their hands. 
 
 The creation of the angels was placed by 
 the Platonizing Church Fathers before 
 that of the material world ; others assigned 
 it to one of the six genetic days, and not a 
 few modern theologians see in the primor- 
 dial creation the wisdom of God, in mak- 
 ing those spiritual beings witnesses of all 
 His works of creation, — their matter and 
 development, their order and harmony, 
 their perfection and purposes, all proclaim- 
 ing His power, wisdom and glory, now 
 and forever. 
 
 Angela de Mericia (St.) — Foundress of 
 the Order of the Ursulines. Born at Des- 
 enzano, in the diocese of Verona (1511- 
 1540). To this woman, hidden in God 
 and crucified in Jesus Christ, Heaven pre- 
 served the high mission to found the Insti- 
 tute of the Ursulines, Sisters whose lives 
 are devoted to the education of young girls. 
 In 1537 she laid the foundation thereof, and 
 soon it spread all over Europe. Her Life, 
 the most complete, was published by Mgr. 
 Postel (1878, 2 vols.). See Ursulines. 
 
 Angelicals. — Name adopted by an Order 
 of nuns, following the Rule of St. Augus- 
 tine. Founded in Milan, about the year 
 1530, by Luigia de Forelli, Countess of 
 Quastalla. Each nun prefixes to her fam- 
 ily name that of a saint, with the word 
 Angelica, which when uttered is to remind 
 her of angelic purity. Their statutes, re- 
 vised by St. Charles Borromeo, were ap- 
 proved by Pope Urban VIII., May 12th, 
 1625. 
 
 Angelics. — Sectarians in the early ages 
 of the Church, who regarded the angels 
 as creatures of the world, to whom they 
 rendered worship due to God alone. 
 
 Angelic Salutation (Lat. Angelus Dom- 
 ini). — Words which the Angel Gabriel ad- 
 dressed to the Blessed Virgin Mary, when 
 he announced to her that she would be- 
 come the mother of the Redeemer, and 
 the prayer which is composed of three 
 verses, each one followed by a Hail Mary 
 and an oration. The Angelic Salutation 
 is repeated three times a day : at sunrise, 
 noon, and sunset, when the so-called " An- 
 gelus bell" is rung. This pious practice 
 can be traced, we are assured by some au- 
 thors, to Pope Urban II. See Ave Maria. 
 
 Angelites. — Heretics of the fifth cen- 
 tury, thus named from Angelium, their 
 place of meeting in Alexandria. They 
 taught that none of the Three Divine Per- 
 sons was God by nature. The Father was 
 one, the Son another, and the Holy 
 Ghost another; that none of the Three Di- 
 vine Persons was God by His nature, but 
 that there was in the Three the divine nature 
 which was common to Them, and that by 
 partaking of this divinity, in an indivisible 
 manner, each One of Them was God. 
 
 Anglicanism or Anglican Church. — The 
 
 official and established religion of England! 
 Anglicanism embraces the Protestant Epis- 
 copal Church in Ireland, the Episcopal 
 Church in Scotland, and all the colonial 
 Episcopal Churches,since the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. Anglicanism is, as to its doctrines, one 
 of the forms of Protestantism, but in its 
 constitution and exterior forms of worship, 
 it assumes an intermediary state between 
 Catholicity and German Protestantism. It 
 receives the general appellations : Church 
 of England, EstablishedChurch, Episcopal 
 Church and High Church, to distinguish 
 it from other Protestant Churches of Great 
 Britain. 
 
 The Anglican Church was founded by 
 Henry VIII. Wycliffe had, in the preced- 
 ing century, tried to draw every malcon- 
 tent from the Church by his abuse of 
 ecclesiastical power and influence, and pre- 
 tense of reform, but sensible people seeing 
 that he was a fire-brand in society, and that 
 his principles led directly to sedition, and 
 to the breaking up of all social order, of- 
 fered him no encouragement in his mad 
 career. But when Luther forced a separa- 
 tion from the Church, in Germany, the 
 
Anglicanism 
 
 36 
 
 Anglicanism 
 
 principles of the Reformation soon found 
 sympathizers in England, and though 
 Henry wrote a book against Luther, he 
 soon became inoculated with the same 
 virus, and found a pretext to establish him- 
 self Pope in England. Tired of an aged 
 and virtuous wife, the royal founder of 
 Anglicanism panted for new nuptials with 
 another, — Anne Boleyn, whose youthful 
 charms had already captivated his sensual 
 heart, and whose wily arts had rendered 
 her inexorable to his wishes, except on the 
 condition of supplanting the lawful queen, 
 and becoming, herself, his queenly con- 
 sort. The Pontiff was appealed to, to 
 second the plan of the English king, and 
 to grant the necessary dispensation ; but 
 the Popes never flattered the vices of 
 princes; and in this particular instance, 
 Clement VII. would not consent to sacri- 
 fice his consience, to trample upon the 
 holy laws of God, and to be recreant to his 
 duty toward a virtuous and much injured 
 woman, who, for eighteen long years, was 
 the most faithful of wives. After pro- 
 tracting the affair for some years, during 
 which he tried every possible means to dis- 
 suade Henry from his purpose, the Pope 
 was, at length, compelled to decide against 
 the divorce, on which the English king 
 had already resolved. Henry became in- 
 dignant ; he sacrilegiously usurped the of- 
 fice of head of the Church in England ; 
 and the majority of the English bishops, 
 won over by intrigue, worn out by har- 
 assing solicitations, or intimidated by men- 
 aces, were weak enough to sanction his 
 wicked conduct. In this sacrilegious 
 usurpation of the office of Pope in Eng- 
 land, and seizing on the first fruits of the 
 benefices which had hitherto been paid 
 to the Roman Pontiffs, he was ably sec- 
 onded by the sycophant Thomas Cranmer, 
 whom Lord Macaulay sketches in his 
 history of the English Reformation: 
 "They (the English Reformers) were, — 
 a king, whose character may be best de- 
 scribed by saying that he was despotism 
 itself, personified; unprincipled ministers; 
 a rapacious aristocracy; a servile parlia- 
 ment. Such were the instruments by which 
 England was delivered from the yoke of 
 Rome ! The work, which had been begun 
 by Henry, the murderer of his wives, was 
 continued by Somerset, the murderer of 
 his brother; and completed by Elizabeth, 
 the murderer of her guest. 
 
 " If we consider Cranmer merely as a 
 statesman, he will not appear a much 
 
 worse man than Wolsey, Gardiner, Crom- 
 well, or Somerset ; but when an attempt is 
 made to set him up as a saint, it is scarcely 
 possible for any man of sense, who knows 
 the history of the times well, to preserve 
 his gravity. The shameful origin of his 
 history, common enough in the scandalous 
 chronicles of courts, seems strangely out 
 of place in a hagiology. Cranmer rose 
 into favor by serving Henry in the dis- 
 graceful affair of his first divorce. He 
 promoted the marriage of Anne Boleyn 
 with the king. On a frivolous pretense 
 he pronounced it null and void. On a 
 pretense, if possible, still more frivolous, 
 he dissolved the ties which bound the 
 shameless tyrant to Anne of Cleves. He 
 attached himself to Cromwell, while the 
 fortunes of Cromwell flourished ; he voted 
 for cutting off his head, without a trial, 
 when the tide of royal favor turned. 
 He conformed, backwards and forwards, 
 as the king changed his mind. While 
 Henry lived, he assisted in condemning to 
 the flames, those who denied the doctrine 
 of transubstantiation ; when Henry died, 
 he found out that the doctrine was false. 
 He was, however, not at a loss for people to 
 burn. The authority of his station, and 
 of his gray hairs, was employed to over- 
 come the disgust with which an intelligent 
 and virtuous child regarded persecution." 
 
 Is it possible, that a Church which 
 originated under these circumstances, was 
 the Church of Christ? Is it credible, 
 that that was the Church of Christ, which 
 came into existence at the bidding of a 
 man, who was subsequently the murderer 
 of his wives, and the unmitigated tyrant 
 over his people? The man, of whom it 
 has been truly said, "that he never spared 
 man in his anger, nor woman in his 
 lust!" Is that the Church which unbiased 
 Protestant historians say was engendered 
 by beastlv lust, brought forth by hypocrisy 
 and perfidy, and cherished by national 
 blood ! 
 
 On the death of Henry VIII., in 1547, 
 and the accession of Edward VI., many 
 changes had taken place in the English 
 liturgy. First, the idea of the real pres- 
 ence and of a true sacrifice, which had 
 been deemed essential to every previous 
 liturgy, whether Latin, Greek or Oriental, 
 was carefully excluded ; and, secondly, 
 the liturgy itself was studiously amended, 
 at least three times, just as the English 
 parliament happened to become more en- 
 lightened. Here is presented the ludi- 
 
Angustia Loci 
 
 37 
 
 Animals 
 
 crous spectacle of a boy king and Pope 
 making changes in the ancient liturgy and 
 discipline of the Church, and subscribing 
 to forty-two articles of faith of which he 
 had not the slightest knowledge. It was a 
 religion of the crown and parliament, and 
 changed to suit the caprice of rulers and 
 ministers. 
 
 After the fruitless attempt to restore 
 Catholic unity under Mary, Elizabeth re- 
 vived the former laws, rejected the Papal 
 supremacy and restored the Anglican 
 ritual, and formulated the Act of Uni- 
 formity, or thirty-nine articles of faith, 
 which was approved by the Synod of 
 London in 1562. As a natural consequence 
 of this separation from the true Church of 
 Christ, and rejection of her ancient liturgy, 
 and adoption of private interpretation 
 of Holy Scripture, new sects sprung from 
 this diseased branch, which struggled for 
 place and power. The Puritans triumphed 
 for a moment under Cromwell, who was a 
 sort of theocratic dictator. The Catholic 
 dynasty of the Stuarts, re-established in 
 1660, was dethroned anew in 1668. The 
 new king, William of Orange, published 
 the Act of Tolerance, which somewhat 
 mitigated the rigors of previous laws 
 against the Catholic and Protestant dis- 
 senters ; but many of the previous statutes 
 remained in force until 1828 and 1829. 
 The repeal of those odious laws that in- 
 terdicted the Non-Conformists, and the 
 Catholics in particular, from offices of 
 public trust, and the holding of certain 
 property, was not received as a gracious 
 and voluntary act of government, but as 
 wrung from it by agitation and strong ap- 
 peals to justice. 
 
 The Anglican Church has a temporal 
 sovereign for its head, whether it be man, 
 woman, or child. The Act of Parliament 
 empowers the sovereign to name the per- 
 sons for episcopal sees, but the dogmas, 
 administration and discipline of the clergy 
 are under the direction of the archbishops. 
 The Anglican Church has preserved, al- 
 most entire, the ancient Catholic hier- 
 archy and part of the exterior ceremonies 
 of the worship. There are two arch- 
 bishops, Canterbury and York. The Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury carries the title of 
 Primate of the United Kingdom and First 
 Peer of the Realm. He crowns the sov- 
 ereign, and has twenty-one suffragan 
 bishops. The Archbishop of York, Primate 
 of England, has seven suffragan bishops. 
 All the bishops, with the exception of two. 
 
 sit in the House of Lords, as spiritual lords. 
 Besides these, there are fifty-three bishops 
 in the Colonies, appointed by the Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury. The inferior clergy 
 comprises the Chapters and those of the 
 parishes. The Church of Ireland (sup- 
 pressed as Established Church by Act of 
 July 26, 1869), the Episcopal Church of 
 Scotland and that of the United States are 
 embraced in the Anglican Church, and 
 use the English Book of Common Prayer; 
 in America, this has been slightly altered. 
 Anglicanism acknowledges the symbol 
 of the Apostles' Creed, that of Nice and 
 also that of St. Athanasius. It admits the 
 Trinity, the Incarnation of Jesus Christ, 
 the Resurrection, the divinity of the Holy 
 Ghost, the sacrament of baptism, the 
 Eucharist, purgatory, indulgences, the 
 veneration of the Blessed Virgin Mary, of 
 the saints and of images. Auricular con- 
 fession is optional ; the communion, which 
 has become a mere symbol, is given under 
 two kinds ; celibacy is not imposed upon 
 their clergy. The Book of Common 
 Prayer contains the prayers and liturgical 
 offices, Puseyism (see Puseyism), which 
 arose in our times at the University of 
 Oxford, promises to approach more closely 
 to the Roman liturgy, as it has re-estab- 
 lished altars, crosses, stations of the cross, 
 veneration of the Blessed Virgin Mary, 
 and many other ceremonies repudiated 
 since the reign of Elizabeth. 
 
 Angustia Loci {the smallncss of the 
 place). — Is one of what theologians call 
 " oonest causes for dispensation," in mar- 
 riage. A place is held to be small, when 
 it contains no more than three hundred 
 hearths, which would be equivalent to about 
 twelve hundred souls. A maiden, who is 
 of such a place, can ask dispensation from 
 the impediment of relationship, if she 
 does not find, outside of her family in this 
 place, a husband suitable to her, with re- 
 gard to her patrimony, condition, or ^ge. 
 
 Anicetus (St.). — Pope from 157 to 168. 
 Syrian by birth, suffered martyrdom under 
 Marcus Aurelius. He was visited at 
 Rome by St. Polycarp of Smyrna. These 
 two Saints had some dispute in regard to 
 the date of the feast of Ea.ster, a dis- 
 cussion which did not alter their friend- 
 ship. F. April 17th. 
 
 Animals {pure and impure). — This reg- 
 ulation explains itself in the dietary code 
 of Moses, which prescribed the pure ani- 
 mals for food for the Hebrew people, and 
 
Animism 
 
 38 
 
 Animism 
 
 the impure animals, which they were to 
 reject. The permission to eat the flesh of 
 certain animals, while that of others is 
 strictly forbidden, has been a subject for 
 ridicule and attacks of all kinds. Those 
 who have judged that the distinction be- 
 tween pure and impure animals had no 
 foundation in fact, did so in ignorance, for 
 this law was made by Moses for well 
 known hygienic reasons. 
 
 Animism' (Lat. anima, soul.) — By this 
 word we designate the doctrine which ad- 
 mits the identity in man with the thinking 
 soul and vital principle. The real ani- 
 mism has been taught in antiquity only by 
 Aristotle. The lonians and other philoso- 
 phers before Plato, recognized, it is true, 
 that the soul is the principle of life, but 
 according to them, the soul was a subtile 
 matter — air, fire, etc. Plato supposed 
 that there were in the same body several 
 souls having different operations and seats. 
 The nutritive soul was seated in the liver, 
 the concupiscent soul in the heart, and the 
 cognitive soul in the brain. Galen ad- 
 mits the Platonic distinction of three souls ; 
 attributes only to the inferior soul the 
 principle of life, and does not consider the 
 reasonable soul immaterial and immortal. 
 The Pantheistic animism of the Stoics 
 was materialistic, like that of the lonians ; 
 Parcelsus, Robert Fludd, Van Helmont, 
 approach Plato a good deal. 
 
 Aristotle distinguishes four kinds of 
 souls : the nutritive soul, the sensible soul, 
 the locomotive soul, and the reasonable 
 soul. They are not different substances 
 which superadd themselves in the same 
 living being, but are diverse and hier- 
 archal functions, of which the soul of a 
 vegetable fulfills the first, the soul of a 
 zoophyte the first and second, the soul of 
 an animal the first three, and the soul of a 
 man all four at once. 
 
 We regain this real animism in the 
 scholastic philosophy of which St. Thomas 
 is the most illustrious and most exact 
 representative. According to him, man is 
 composed of a body and soul. The first 
 principle of life of the body is the soul, 
 since life manifests itself through diverse 
 operations in the various degrees of the 
 living beings ; the first principle by which 
 we operate each of these vital works is the 
 soul. The soul is the first principle by 
 which we nourish ourselves, we feel, we 
 go from one place to another, just as she 
 is also the first principle of the intellectual 
 
 operations. The soul, being, not only 
 united with the body as its motor, such as 
 Plato believed, but as its substantial form, 
 it is impossible that in one sole man there 
 are several essentially distinct souls ; there 
 is in man no other substantial form but 
 the intellective soul; as it contains, virtu- 
 ally, the sensitive soul and nutritive soul, 
 so also it contains, virtually, all the 
 inferior forms and produces in it alone 
 what more imperfect forms produce in 
 the other beings. We have to say the 
 same of the sensitive souls in beasts, 
 and the nutritive souls in plants, and uni- 
 versally of all the most perfect and im- 
 perfect forms. 
 
 The doctrine of St. Thomas, which is 
 cited here, is also that of the Church. 
 The Ecumenical Council of Vienne (1312), 
 in Dauphine,and Pope Clement V., in 131 1, 
 decided against Peter-John of Oliva, and 
 Ubertin of Casal, successively superiors of 
 the " Spiritual Franciscans," that the prop- 
 osition " the reasonable or intellective sub' 
 stance is not really and by itself the form 
 of the human body," is erroneous, con- 
 trary to Catholic truth; they classed as 
 heretics, those who uphold it with stub- 
 bornness. In our days the Holy See has 
 recalleci to mind and confirmed this article 
 of faith, June 15th, 1857. Pius IX., in his 
 letter to the Archbishop of Cologne, speak- 
 ing of the writings of the German priest 
 Giinther, censured and condemned by the 
 Congregation of the Index, with the ap- 
 probation of the Pope, says: "We know 
 that it is a blow to the- Catholic sentiment 
 and doctrine, touching the nature of man, 
 which is composed of a body and soul, but 
 of a rational soul, which is by itself the 
 real and immediate form of the body." 
 
 Among modern philosophers, Stahl has 
 adopted the most precise, and we might 
 add, the most complete exposition of ani- 
 mism. He tells us that the soul, even in 
 physiological operations, knows what she 
 is doing. This appears to be a too hasty 
 conclusion and bold assertion. To-day, 
 animism holds first place among spiritual- 
 istic philosophers, but they are not willing 
 to grant to the soul, like Stahl, the knowl- 
 edge of what she does, as vital principle ; 
 it is in virtue of an instinct which ignores 
 that the thinking soul accomplishes its 
 functions as principle of life. The physi- 
 ologists and philosophers opposed to ani- 
 mism are : those who pretend that the 
 vital phenomena are explainable by the 
 play of the sole forces which govern brute 
 
Annas 
 
 39 
 
 Anomoeans 
 
 matter without having to recur to any 
 principle of life (they are the Anti-Vital- 
 ists). And among the Vitalists, those 
 who explain the principle of life, by either 
 the double Dynamism, or by the Organ- 
 icism (see these two terms) ; finally, 
 those who affirm life as a special phenome- 
 non, and in so affirming pretend that sci- 
 ence is yet powerless to refer it to its real 
 cause. 
 
 Anna (St.). — According to old tradi- 
 tions, the saintly mother of the Blessed 
 Virgin, whose name, Anna, signifies 
 grace, was descended on her father's side 
 from the tribe of Levi, and on her mother's 
 side from the tribe of Juda. She was 
 born in Bethlehem and was married, 
 while still a pure and pious virgin, to 
 Joachim, a man of position, with whom 
 she lived, occupied in pious works, and 
 patiently conforming to the will of God in 
 all things. When the pious couple had 
 reached a very advanced age, in which 
 they could scarcely expect to have chil- 
 dren, an angel announced to them that 
 they were to be blessed with a daughter 
 whom they were to name Mary. And it 
 occurred as foretold. In the fall (Sept. 
 8th) following the announcement was 
 born the holiest of God's creatures, the 
 Queen of angels and of men, the 
 chosen Mother of the Son of God, not so 
 much the fruit of the body as she was the 
 fruit of grace. Joachim and Anna brought 
 this child Mary, at a very tender age, to 
 Jerusalem, presenting her to the high- 
 priest as an ofTering to God, to be brought 
 up in the service of the temple. How 
 long Anna lived after this sacrifice is not 
 known, but she is now enthroned among 
 the elect in heaven with her beloved child 
 in glory. F. July 26th. The devotion 
 towards St. Anna is very great among the 
 faithful. Her remains, first buried at 
 Bethlehem, in the tomb of her parents, 
 then transferred by the faithful into the 
 Church of the Sepulchre of Notre-Dame, 
 in the valley of Josaphat, were, finally, 
 transferred into the Church of Apt, in 
 Provence. From the city of Apt, all the 
 relics of St. Anna are derived. 
 
 Annas. — A high-priest of the Jews. He 
 is mentioned in St. Luke as being high- 
 priest along with Caiphas, his son-in-law. 
 He was first appointed to that office by 
 Cyrenius, or Qiiirinus, proconsul of Syria, 
 about A. D. 7 or 8, but was afterwards de- 
 prived of it. After various changes, the 
 
 office was given to Joseph, also called 
 Caiphas, the son-in-law of Annas, about 
 A. D. 27 or 28, who continued in office until 
 A. D. 35. In St. Luke iii. 2, therefore, it is 
 apparent that Caiphas was the only actual 
 and proper high-priest ; but Annas, being 
 his father-in-law, and having been for- 
 merly high-priest himself, and being, also, 
 perhaps, his substitute, had great influence 
 and authority, and could, with propriety, 
 be still termed high-priest along with 
 Caiphas. 
 
 Annats. — The first fruits, consisting of 
 a year's revenue, or a specific portion of 
 the revenues of vacant benefices which 
 ought to be paid to the Pope, but which 
 now form a scarcely appreciable portion of 
 the papal revenues. See Peter's Pence. 
 
 Anna the Prophetess. — Daughter of 
 Phanuel, of the tribe of Aser, became 
 widow after a marriage of seven years, 
 and consecrated her life to God in the 
 temple. She received the Saviour when 
 He was presented there by His mother. 
 
 Anniversary, — Feast or ceremony which 
 takes place every year on a certain day. 
 The dedication of a church is an anniver- 
 sary festival. — An anniversary service is 
 the yearly commemoration of th# day of 
 a person's death, by a Mass offered for his 
 soul. 
 
 Annunciade. — Literally, the Annunci- 
 ate, that is, the Blessed Virgin Mary as 
 the receiver of the Annunciation. A name 
 which designates several religious orders 
 founded in honor of Mary. 
 
 Annunciation {Feast of the). — The an- 
 nunciation of the Angel Gabriel to the 
 Blessed Virgin. — Festival which the Church 
 celebrates in honor of this mystery, March 
 25th. The institution of this feast dates 
 back to the first centuries of Christianity. 
 St. Athanasius mentions it in one of his 
 sermons. For a long time they com- 
 menced the civil year with the feast of the 
 Annunciation. The custom of commencing 
 the year on the ist of January was intro- 
 duced in France in 1564, in Scotland in 
 1579, in England in 1752. 
 
 Anomoeans. — Members of an extreme 
 sect of Arians, in the fourth century, who 
 held that the Son is of an essence not 
 even similar to that of the Father (whence 
 their name), while the more moderate 
 Arians held that the essence of the Son is 
 similar to that of the Father, though not 
 
Anscharius 
 
 40 
 
 Anthem 
 
 identical with it. Also called .titans, 
 JSudoxians, and Eunomians. 
 
 Anscharius (St.) (surnamed the Apostle 
 of the North). — Born near Amiens, in 
 Picardv, in 801. In 829 he accom- 
 panied the imperial embassy to Sweden, 
 where he made many converts and built 
 several churches. In 832, Pope Gregory 
 made him Archbishop of Hamburg and 
 apostolic delegate for the North ; to this 
 appointment the See of Bremen was added 
 in 849. Anscharius, with immense toil 
 and privations, and amidst many dangers, 
 succeeded in firmly establishing Christian- 
 ity in Denmark and Sweden. After an 
 apostolate of thirty-four years, he died in 
 865. F. Feb. 3d. 
 
 Anseltn (St.). — Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury ; born at Aosta, Italy, in 1033. "Wil- 
 liam II., during a dangerous illness, re- 
 solved to restore the estates which he had 
 taken from the different churches; and, 
 urged by his nobles, he nominated the 
 learned Anselm, Abbot of Bee, in Nor- 
 mandy, to the See of Canterbury. Only 
 on the king's promise to resign the tem- 
 poralities belonging to the See of Canter- 
 bury, to follow his counsels in things 
 spiritual, and to acknowledge Urban II. as 
 rightful Pope, did Anselm, at last, consent 
 to receive consecration, in 1093. But, 
 when restored to health, the king, by his 
 renewed rapacity and despotism, soon gave 
 much trouble to the new Primate. The 
 refusal to acknowledge Urban II. and per- 
 mit Anselm to receive the pallium from 
 the Pontiff, led to a complete rupture. In 
 his struggle with the king, Anselm was 
 forsaken by the bishops, whilst the nobles 
 of the realm earnestly supported him. 
 Shortly after, William acknowledged 
 Urban, and was reconciled with Anselm. 
 But fresh aggressions compelled Anselm 
 to have recourse to the Holy See. He set 
 out for Rome, in 1097, and was received 
 by Urban with signal marks of respect; 
 but his resignation, the Pope refused to 
 accept. While in Italy, Anselm took part 
 in the Councils of Lateran and Bari. At 
 the latter Council, he defended, in a 
 masterly oration, the " Procession of the 
 Holy Ghost" against the Greeks. Anselm 
 remained a voluntary exile, living chiefly 
 at Lyons, till the year iioo, when, upon 
 the sudden death of William and the acces- 
 sion of Henry I., he repaired to England. 
 Although the new king had promised to 
 respect the liberties and immunities of the 
 
 Church, he was engaged in a sharp con- 
 flict with Anselm concerning the right of 
 investiture. As Henry would not give up 
 his pretensions, Anselm went into exile a 
 second time. Pope Paschal II. threatened to 
 excommunicate Henry; but, at the instance 
 of Anselm, the Pontiff contented him- 
 self with pronouncing excommunication 
 against the venal prelates who had re- 
 ceived investiture from the king. At last, 
 the good sers'ices of Henry's sister, Adela, 
 led to a compromise. Anselm returned to 
 England in 1106, and henceforth lived in 
 peace till his death, in 1109. Anselm is 
 regarded as the earliest of the Scholastic 
 theologians, and is sometimes called the 
 "Father of Scholasticism." He did not, 
 indeed, construct a complete sum, or sys- 
 tem of theology, but his various works are 
 so many formal treatises on the principal 
 parts of theological science. He composed 
 elaborate tracts On the Freedom of the 
 Will, On Original Sin, On the Fall of 
 Satan, On the Procession of the Holy 
 Ghost, and On the Agreement of Divine 
 Fore-knoiulcdge, Predestination,and Grace 
 with Free Will. His Monologium and 
 Prosologium, respectively, treat of the 
 Existence of God, and of the Holy Trinity 
 and the Divine Attributes, while his work, 
 entitled Why God ivas made Man, is a 
 learned exposition of the Incarnation and 
 Redemption. Against the Nominalistic 
 theory of Roscelin, he wrote his work On 
 the Belief in the Trinity, and the Incar- 
 nation of the Word. In the works of St. 
 Anselm is found the celebrated Ontolog- 
 ical argument for the existence of God, 
 deduced from the idea of an infinitely per- 
 fect Being. His extraordinary erudition 
 won for him the surname of "the Augus- 
 tine of the Middle Ages," and, in 1720, the 
 honor of being numbered among the Doc- 
 tors of the Church, by Pope Clement XI. 
 F. March i8th. 
 
 Antependium. — The hanging by which 
 the front of an altar is covered. It is 
 frequently made of silk or velvet, and 
 ornamented with embroidery. 
 
 Anterus (St.). — Greek by birth, elected 
 Pope after the death of Pontianus, on 
 November 21, 238. Occupied the Holy 
 See only one month and a few days. He 
 died on January 3, 239, and had for suc- 
 cessor St. Fabian. 
 
 Anthem. — Originally, a hymn sung in 
 alternate parts ; in modern usage, a piece 
 
Anthonists 
 
 41 
 
 Anthropophagy 
 
 of sacred music, set to words, usually 
 taken from the Psalms or other parts of 
 the Scriptures. See Antiphon. 
 
 Anthonists. — Members of a religious 
 Community. This Congregation was 
 founded on the occasion of the visitation 
 of the "Sacred Fire," or "St. Anthony's 
 Fire," a terrible plague which was brought 
 into Europe from the East in the eleventh 
 century. Among those attacked by this 
 disease was one Guerin, the son of a 
 wealthy nobleman by the name of Gaston, 
 who had also been stricken by it. Both 
 had recourse to St. Anthony, the Hermit, 
 and obtained their recovery. Out of grati- 
 tude for this blessing, the two made a 
 pilgrimage to Didier-la-Mothe, where the 
 saint was particularly venerated, and there 
 consecrated their entire fortune to the 
 foundation of an order whose work was to 
 consist in serving and caring for those 
 who were stricken with that and similar 
 maladies. They were approved in 1096 
 by Pope Urban II., after which they took 
 the name of Anthonists, or Hospitalers. 
 The order, which was at first entirely of 
 laymen, but subsequently, by permission 
 of Boniface VIII., included canons, ob- 
 served the Rule of St. Augustine, under 
 the direction of a superior called a Master 
 {mag-ister). 
 
 Anthony (St.). — Founder of Monasti- 
 cism. Born in Egypt, of rich and virtuous 
 parents, in 251, he, after dividing all his 
 possessions among the poor, retired into 
 the desert, where he lived, for twenty 
 years, the life of a hermit. The fame of 
 his miracles, and still more the power 
 of his words and example, drew about him 
 many followers, who, under his guidance, 
 desired to devote themselves to this new 
 life. He became the director of a number 
 of anchorites who dwelt in detached cells, 
 forming a community called a "Laura." 
 This venerable patriarch of the Cenobites, 
 died in 356, at the age of one hundred and 
 five. There are extant, seven authentic 
 letters and an "Exhortation to the Monks" 
 by St. Anthony. His life was written by 
 St. Athanasius. F. Jan. 17th. 
 
 Anthony of Padua (St.).— Born at Lis- 
 bon, in 1195; died at Padua, in 1231. 
 Entered the order of St. Francis, who was 
 still alive, and who gave him the mission 
 to preach. He preached with wonderful 
 success in Italy, France, and Spain. "His 
 sermons," says his biographer, " were 
 
 flames, impossible to withstand, which 
 aroused numbers of sinners and criminals 
 to penance." He died at the age of only 
 thirty-six. F. June 13th. 
 
 Anthropomorphism. — In theology, the 
 conception or representation of God with 
 human qualities and affections, or in a 
 human shape. Anthropomorphism is 
 founded in man's inability to conceive 
 beings above himself otherwise than in 
 his own likeness. It determines the growth 
 and form of all human religions, from the 
 lowest up to the highest : as where the 
 Scriptures speak of the eye, the ear, and 
 the hand of God, of His seeing and hear- 
 ing, of His remembering and forgetting, of 
 His making man to His own image, etc. 
 
 Anthropophagy. — The habit of eating 
 human flesh. This horrible and repulsive 
 habit may be traced to many tribes and 
 peoples of the Old and New World, though 
 it does not appear, however, that the cus- 
 tom was general or practiced at all among 
 the primitive races, as we learn from the 
 attentive study of the bones which have 
 been preserved from remote times, and 
 which G. de Mortillet seems to have es- 
 tablished. Everything goes to prove that 
 primitive man was a vegetarian ; the or- 
 ganization and the form of his teeth, the 
 length and structure of the digestive tube, 
 are, indeed, more in his favor as a vegeta- 
 rian than as a carnivore. This is also cor- 
 roborated by the fact that the taste for 
 flesh meat is rather acquired than natural, 
 and in general man shows repugnance to 
 raw food and will relish it when cooked. 
 
 The depraved taste for human flesh is 
 due to several causes, the principal one is 
 the want of religious ideas and a gross 
 conception of the same. Man, after hav- 
 ing become accustomed to slay animals 
 and use them for food, finds himself at 
 certain times without game or other sub- 
 stitute, and none immediately in prospect, 
 may hunger for human flesh and become 
 a cannibal. In tales of shipwreck and 
 destitution, even in modern times, the sad 
 spectacle is presented of hunger forcing one 
 person to eat another. On the other hand, 
 we find most of the heathen forms of wor- 
 ship agreeable to the deities by sacrifices 
 of animals, and, in grave circumstances, of 
 human victims, which they ate, as it was 
 the custom for the ordinary victims. They 
 usually selected enemies and those cap- 
 tured in battle for sacrifices, and from this 
 idea grew the general immolation of the 
 
Antichrist 
 
 42 
 
 Antimensium 
 
 conquered for the occasion of feasts and 
 special gratification of the deities. 
 
 Whatever may have been the origin of 
 cannibalism, it has been in practice with 
 most of the people in a savage state, and 
 in some instances with people already 
 civilized, but in the latter case, it is true, 
 only so far as isolated facts show. Every 
 student of ancient history remembers the 
 account of Josephus concerning the Jewish 
 woman who, during the memorable siege 
 of Jerusalem by Titus, cooked and ate her 
 own child. In France, in the year 1030, 
 during a terrible famine, some of those in 
 want took to hunting men to appease their 
 hunger, and even human flesh was for sale 
 at Tournay. In 1590, during the siege of 
 Paris by Henry IV., a rich lady, if we 
 may credit the story of Peter de I'Estoile, 
 salted and ate her two children who died 
 of hunger. Numerous cases of shipwreck 
 go to prove the old adage that hunger will 
 break through stone walls, and that civi- 
 lized people will sometimes, when pressed 
 by hunger, and no other alternative before 
 them, devour their companions. 
 
 The facts of anthropophagy do not refer 
 strictly to victims intentionally strangled 
 for nourishment of others. There are 
 people who have at times devoured the 
 corpses of individuals who died a natural 
 death, and to bury within one's self, as it 
 were, the bodies of old parents, is looked 
 upon as something praiseworthy. The mor- 
 bid desire to eat corpses goes sometimes so 
 far with some of the native races of Austra- 
 lia, that, as we are assured by Mgr. Sal- 
 vado, who resided many years among the 
 Australians, they unearth the bodies and 
 use them for nourishment. Certain facts 
 could be brought forward of isolated cases 
 of a similar kind which have taken place 
 in civilized countries, but as a rule, these 
 could be traced to a morbid taste for human 
 flesh, the consequence of aberration of 
 mind. 
 
 Among the people most addicted to 
 cannibalism, we will mention the New 
 Caledonians, who regard human flesh as 
 the greatest of delicacies, and were continu- 
 ally at war to procure a supply. In 1868, 
 the fact became known that a tribe of 
 Basuto-CafTres lived mostly by hunting 
 men for food. The Fans of Africa buy 
 from their neighbors those who die from 
 disease, and the Niam-Niam treat them- 
 selves to the flesh of their prisoners and 
 at times those who are useless and indigent 
 among their own people. The New Zea- 
 
 landers and Noukahivians have practiced 
 cannibalism to a great extent. In America 
 the practice had been spread among the 
 Moxos; the Guaranis fattened their pris- 
 oners in cages before eating them, and 
 the Mexicans made human flesh an article 
 of commerce. In Asia, the accounts of 
 cannibalism are far from being rare. The 
 Battas of Sumatra, through filial love, it is 
 said, eat their aged parents, and the crimi- 
 nals through a desire to satisfy vengeance. 
 Ancient historians attest the presence of 
 cannibalism in parts of Europe at an early 
 day. St. Jerome tells of having seen in 
 Gaul, Scotchmen addicted to this habit. 
 
 Thus it is seen that the causes which 
 have led to the eating of human flesh are 
 many ; notably, pressing hunger, religious 
 ideas, captured enemies of battle, respect 
 for aged parents, and finally an aberration 
 of mind approaching the bestial state. 
 
 Antichrist. — It is the belief of the 
 whole Church, that before our Lord comes 
 again, a real individual being will appear in 
 the world, who will become an evil power, 
 persecute the Church, and lead many into 
 apostasy. The general notion of anti- 
 christ, as a power opposing itself to the 
 reign of the Messias, may be traced back 
 be^'ond the Christian era. Its origin is, 
 perhaps, to be found in the prophecy of 
 Ezechiel, concerning the doom of Gog 
 and Magog. The ancient Jews conceived, 
 that immediately before the Messias's' 
 reign, national adversity must be experi- 
 enced in an extreme degree, and that an 
 angel of Satan would appear, who must be 
 overcome before prosperity could be re- 
 stored. This was antichrist. The idea is 
 adopted in the New Testament, although 
 the term antichrist occurs in no place of 
 Scripture, except in the First and Second 
 Epistles of St. John. 
 
 Antidicomarianites. — Name given about 
 the end of the fourth century to the adver- 
 saries of the divine maternity and of the 
 perpetual virginity of Mary. They include 
 in their number the following: Helvidius, 
 Jovinian, Bonosus, and Paul of Samosata. 
 At all times they were looked upon as 
 heretics. 
 
 Antidoron. — Name given by the Greeks 
 to blessed bread which they distribute to 
 those who do not communicate. 
 
 Antimensium is in the Greek Church a 
 silk cloth blessed by the bishop for use 
 where there is no altar, corresponding. 
 
Antinomians 
 
 43 
 
 Antipas 
 
 therefore, to the portable altar of the 
 Latin Church. 
 
 Antinomians. — Sectarians of the six- 
 teenth century, who pretended to reject 
 all moral law through motives founded 
 apparently on Christian truths. They 
 made use, for the first time, of this name, 
 in the discussion of Luther against John 
 Agricolaof Eisleben (died 1566). The latter 
 passes for the chief of the sect. He taught 
 that the law, whatever it might be, has 
 no share in justification, for the Holy 
 Ghost is given without it; that the law 
 has no longer any sense for the just, nor 
 for those who desire to become just. It 
 was a simple consequence of Luther's 
 doctrine; however, the latter tried to de- 
 fend himself and wrote against Agricola. 
 
 Antioch. — Name of two cities mentioned 
 in the New Testament. The first in im- 
 portance is situated on the river Orontes, 
 and was the metropolis of all Syria. It was 
 founded by Seleucus Nicanor and named 
 after his father Antiochus. It was a noted 
 city at an early day. Cicero says it was 
 opulent and abounding in men of taste 
 and letters, hence it became a great resort 
 for the Jews and afterwards for the Chris- 
 tians, as encouragements and invitations 
 were held out by Seleucus Nicanor to 
 worthy settlers. The distinctive name 
 Christian was first applied to the fol- 
 lowers of Christ at Antioch (Acts xi. 19- 
 26; xiii. i; Gal. ii. 2). It is now called 
 Antaliieh. Ten Church councils were 
 held in this city from 252 to 380; in the 
 sixth century, it became the seat of a 
 patriarchate, which extended over Syria, 
 Mesopotamia and Cilicia. 
 
 The other city was named Antioch of 
 Pisidta, because it was attached to that 
 province although situated in Phrygia. 
 It was also founded by Seleucus Nicanor 
 (Acts xiii. 14; xiv. 19-21 ; II. Tim. iii. 11). 
 
 Antiochus. — The name of twelve kings 
 of Syria, of whom several have connection 
 with the Old Testament. Antiochus IT. 
 (261-246 B. c.) — He is supposed to be the 
 king of the North whom Daniel mentions 
 (xi. 6) as forming a marriage connection 
 with the king of the South (Egypt). An- 
 tiochus TIT., the Great (224-187). — After 
 being defeated at first (Dan. xi. 11), he 
 conquered Palestine and the adjacent coun- 
 tries, but afterwards advancing into Europe 
 was defeated by the Romans, and obtained 
 peace only on hard terms (Dan. xi. 18). 
 
 After his death, which soon followed, he was 
 succeeded by his brother, Antiochus IV., 
 Epiphanes {illustrious) (176-164), a man of 
 overweening pride (Dan. xi. 36), who en- 
 gaged in an insane attempt to supplant 
 Jewish institutions and usages by Hellenic 
 arts and culture, and was guilty of the most 
 cruel tyranny and the foulest sacrilege. At 
 first he succeeded, and set up the abomina- 
 tion that maketh desolate in the temple 
 (Dan. xi. 31), but in the end he roused the 
 Jews to a successful insurrection under 
 Mattathias, Judas Machabeus, and the 
 other members of that heroic family. The 
 nation achieved its independence, and 
 retained it until, with the rest of Western 
 Europe, it became subject to Rome. The 
 prominence given to Antiochus Epiphanes 
 in Daniel is due to the fact that his attempt 
 was the turning point in Jewish history, 
 deciding whether Greek worldly refine- 
 ments were to stifle Israel's true faith. 
 Persecution was God's method of saving 
 His people from seductions which had 
 well-nigh made them compromise their 
 witness of His truth. 
 
 Antiochus. — Monk of St, Sabas, in Pal- 
 estine. At the request of Eustathius, Abbot 
 of the monastery Attalina near Ancyra, he 
 composed in Greek an abridgment of 
 Holy Scripture, entitled : PandectcE divince 
 Scriptures, in 130 moral discourses which 
 contain precepts and maxims on the prin- 
 cipal duties of a Christian, founded upon 
 various passages of Scripture and ancient 
 Doctors of the Church ; it is, so to speak, 
 a code of moral theology. The work com- 
 mences with an account of the martyrdom 
 of 44 religious of St. Sabas, put to death 
 by the Arabs in the time of the taking of 
 Jerusalem by the Persians (614). The 
 PandectcB have been published by Timan- 
 nus (Paris, 1543), and inserted since into all 
 the Libraries of the Fathers. 
 
 Antipaedo-Baptists. — A term designat- 
 ing one who objects to infant baptism. 
 In this sense, the term has been sometimes 
 applied to the sect known as Baptists, 
 in this country and elsewhere. 
 
 Antipas (St.) — Suffered martyrdom at 
 Pergamum, of which city he was bishop, 
 under the reign of Domitian. He had 
 been one of the first disciples of the Sav- 
 iour. He was burned alive, and in the 
 Apocalypse he is called the faithful wit- 
 ness of Jesus Christ (xi. 13), F. April 
 nth. 
 
Antipatris 
 
 44 
 
 Antitrinitarian 
 
 Antipatris. — The name of a city of Pal- 
 estine, situated about three miles distant 
 from the coast, in a fertile and well watered 
 plain between Caesarea and Jerusalem, on 
 the site of a former city, Cafar-Saba. It 
 was founded by Herod the Great, and 
 called Antipatris, in honor of his father 
 Antipater (Acts xxiii. 31). 
 
 Antiphon. — An alternate chant, sung in 
 the Church at vespers and on feast days. 
 I. In the Liturgy of both the Eastern and 
 Western Churches, as well as in the daily- 
 hours and other Offices, a series of verses 
 from the Psalms or other parts of Scrip- 
 ture, either in their original sequence or 
 combined from various passages, are sung 
 as a prelude or conclusion to some part of 
 the service. It is sometimes especially 
 applicable to the verse sung before or after 
 the Psalms of the office, the tones of which 
 are determined by the musical mode, ac- 
 cording to the Gregorian Chant of their 
 respective antiphons. — 2. A kind of hymn 
 in honor of the Blessed Virgin Mary, which 
 is sung at the end of the Compline : the A Ima 
 Redemptoris Mater is the antiphon from 
 Advent to Purification; the Ave Regina 
 is sung after Purification and during Lent ; 
 the Regina Coeli during the Paschal 
 time, and the Salva Regina from Trinity 
 Sunday- until the time of Advent. 
 
 Antiphonarium. — Book of the Church 
 which contains the anthems of the Breviary, 
 with the notes of Plain Chant, according to 
 which they should be sung ; the verses and 
 hymns are added thereto. The most an- 
 cient Antiphonarium known is that of Pope 
 Gregory the Great. At the time of John 
 the Deacon, called Abbe Fleury, 300 years 
 after St. Gregory, it was yet preserved in 
 St. John Lateran, but the original was de- 
 stroyed by fire. 
 
 Antipope. — A pontiflF elected in opposi- 
 tion to one canonically chosen ; one who 
 pretends to assume the Pontificate to the 
 prejudice of the Pope legitimately elected, 
 and who causes by this pretension a 
 schism in the Church. The following is 
 the list of Antipopes: Novatian, 251; 
 Felix, 356; Ursicinus, 356; Eulalius, 418; 
 Laurentius, 498 ; Dioscorus, 530 ; Vigilius, 
 537; Paschal, 687; Theodorus, 687; 
 Theophylactus, 757; Constantin, 767; 
 Zizimus, 824; Anastasius, 855; Sergius, 
 891; Christophorus, 904; Franco or 
 Bonifacius VII., 973 ; Philagathus or John 
 XVI., 997; Gregory, 1012; John or Syl- 
 vester III., 1044; John, Bishop of Velletri, 
 
 or Benedict, 1058; Cadalons or Honorius 
 II., 1061 ; Guibert or Clement III., 1080; 
 Albert, Theodoric, and Maginulf, iioo; 
 Maurice Bourdin or Gregory VIII., 1118; 
 Peter of Leon or Anaclet, 1130; Gregory 
 or Victor, 1138; Octavian or Victor III., 
 1 159; Guy of Cremoa or Paschal III., 1164; 
 John, Abbot of Strume, or Calixtus III., 
 1 168 ; Lando Sitinos or Innocent III., 1 178 ; 
 Peter of Corbieres, 1328; Gilles Munias or 
 Clement VIII., 1424; Amedeus of Savoy 
 or Felix V., 1439. 
 
 The power which the rulers of Europe 
 exercised in the temporal affairs of the 
 Church, together with appointments en- 
 trusted to their judgment and interest, 
 were very often used to further their am- 
 bition and influence, or to resent some 
 real or fancied reprimand from the Pontiff 
 or prelate in whose kingdom or principal- 
 ity he exercised spiritual authority. Sev- 
 eral emperors of Germany set up Popes 
 against those who were legitimately 
 elected. After the death of Honorius 
 III. France began to intermeddle in the 
 strifes. Sicily and Savoy followed with 
 rival Popes. The Council of Constance 
 in 1415, after nearly three years of patient 
 labor and mature deliberation to compel 
 the three claimants to resign, disposed of 
 the three rival claimants, and proceeded 
 to the election of a new and undoubted 
 Pope. On the nth of November, 141 7, 
 the choice fell upon a noble Roman, Otto 
 di Colonna, who took the name of Martin 
 V. The schism was at an end ; — both the 
 Church and the Papacy came out much 
 stronger than they went into it. 
 
 Antisabbatarian. — One who denies the 
 perpetual obligation of observing the 
 Sabbath (Sunday), and maintaining that 
 it was a part of the ceremonial, not of 
 the moral law, and abolished by Christ. 
 Hence, the word is applied to those who 
 oppose strict observance of the Sabbath. 
 
 Antitactes. — A sect of Gnostics who 
 appeared in the second century, and re- 
 garded God as the involuntary author of 
 evil, though in Himself He was good and 
 holy, but had delivered the world to an 
 evil genius that deceived men, and repre- 
 sented to them as good what was evil, and 
 everything to the contrary. Hence, in 
 order to do good, one must do the contrary 
 of that which is prescribed by the law. 
 
 Antitrinitarian.— One who denies the 
 dogma of the Trinity. Theologians gen- 
 erally agree that the Samosatians, who do 
 
Antitype 
 
 45 
 
 Apocalypse 
 
 not admit the distinction between the Di- 
 vine Persons, the Arians, who deny the 
 divinity of Christ, the Macedonians, who 
 contest that of the Holy Ghost, the 
 Socinians or modern Unitarians, who ob- 
 ject to the Trinity on theological grounds, 
 and the Mohammedans, who are charac- 
 terized by the intensity of their monothe- 
 ism, are antitrinitarians in the general 
 sense of the term. 
 
 Antitype (Gr. Anti, instead of ttifos 
 figure). — Literally signifying a type or 
 figure. In its theological sense it denotes 
 that which is pre-figured or represented 
 by a type, the person in whom any pro- 
 phetic type is fulfilled ; thus, the paschal 
 lamb is called the antitype of Christ; 
 the offering of bread and wine by Mel- 
 chisedech was an antitype of the sacrifice 
 of the Mass. 
 
 Antoninus (St.). — 1389-1459. Born at 
 Florence; Dominican, and then Arch- 
 bishop of Florence; distinguished himself 
 by his piety and learning. Has left: 
 Siimma confessionalis; Stimma tlieologtca, 
 great compilation of moral extracts from 
 the works of the Fathers, scholastics, and 
 councils ; Summa historialis, the greatest 
 chronicle of the Middle Ages, rich in 
 notices on Church history, commencing 
 with the creation of the world and ending 
 with the last year of the saint's life. Best 
 edition of his complete works is that by 
 Mamachi and Remedelli, Florence. 
 
 Aod. — Son of Gera, of the tribe of Ben- 
 jamin, was judge of Israel after Othoniel 
 and before Samgar. Charged to bring 
 Eglon, king of Moab, the tribute which 
 the Israelites had paid him for eighteen 
 years, he profited by this occasion to free 
 his country. He feigned, therefore, to 
 have a secret to communicate to the 
 king, and when they were alone he mur- 
 dered him. Before the guards of Eglon 
 could learn of the death of their master, 
 Aod had time to assemble an army with 
 which he occupied the passes by which 
 the Moabites could fly to their country. 
 Ten thousand were killed, 1496 b. c. The 
 Bible adds that this victory procured 
 eighty years of peace to God's people. 
 Aod was chosen Judge by his grateful com- 
 patriots. We do not know the date of his 
 death. 
 
 Apelles. — A Gnostic of the second cen- 
 tury, the most famous disciple of Marcion ; 
 spread his errors about the year 145 b. c. 
 
 Apelles. — A Roman Christian, to whom 
 St. Paul sends greetings as virum frobum 
 in Christo (Rom. xvi. 10). He became 
 Bishop of Smyrna and died by martyrdom. 
 
 Aphec. — 1. City of the tribe of Aser, 
 undoubtedly the same as Aphaca spoken 
 of by Eusebius and Sozomenus, situated 
 near the Libanon, famous for having a 
 temple of Venus ; known, to-day, under 
 the name of Afka. — 2. Royal city of the 
 Chanaanites, whose king was killed by 
 Josue; situated south of Jerusalem, in the 
 neighborhood of Hebron. — 3. City situ- 
 ated east of the Sea of Galilee, where the 
 Syrian Benadad lost a battle against the 
 Israelites, and where there is still a place 
 called Pheik. — 4. City of the tribe of 
 Isachar, in the neighborhood of which 
 Saul lost against the Philistines a last 
 battle, and his life. — 5. City in the neigh- 
 borhood of Eben-Ezer, where, in Samuel's 
 time, the Philistines came to camp in face 
 of the Israelites, south of Palestine, be- 
 tween Masphat and Sen. 
 
 Aphraates (James). — Syrian writer of 
 the fourth century. We have from him 23 
 treatises or homilies about questions on 
 dogma and morals. 
 
 Aphthartodocetae. — A Monophysite sect, 
 which existed from the sixth to the ninth 
 centuries, or later. They taught that the 
 body of Christ was incorruptible even 
 before the resurrection, and that He suf- 
 fered death only in a phantasmal appear- 
 ance. From this, they are sometimes 
 called Phantasiasts, a name more properly 
 belonging to the Docetce, who denied even 
 the reality of Christ's body. 
 
 Apis. — The bull worshiped by the 
 ancient Egyptians, who regarded it as a 
 symbol of Osiris, the god of the Nile, the 
 husband of Isis, and the great divinity of 
 Egypt. 
 
 Apocalypse. — A Canonical book which 
 contains the revelations of St. John the 
 Evangelist, while on the Island of Pat- 
 mos. The Apocalypse treats of the pro- 
 gressive development of the Kingdom of 
 the Messias upon earth, its victory over 
 its two enemies, Judaism and Paganism, 
 and of its transformation into the eternal 
 Kingdom of heaven, after the second com- 
 ing of Christ at the end of time. The in- 
 structions contained in this book, on all 
 these points, are not given to us in the or- 
 dinary prophetic style, which describes 
 
Apocalypse of Moses 
 
 46 
 
 Apocrypha 
 
 future events almost under the form of a 
 simple narrative, often without any figura- 
 tive expression, but in a series of symbolic 
 visions, which interlink themselves with 
 the greatest art, by wonderful transitions, 
 and oflfer a complete and perfect tableau of 
 the ordeals of God's Church upon earth, 
 from her first combats to her final triumph. 
 After the exposition of the subject in a 
 vision, which serves as a preamble, the 
 book divides itself into two chief parts, 
 the first of which comprises information 
 about the state of the seven Churches of Asia 
 Minor, figure of the entire Church (Apoc. 
 ii. — iii.) ; the second about what is to come, 
 that is, a prophecy concerning the com- 
 bats of the Church and her victories over 
 her enemies (Apoc. iv. — xxii.). In this 
 prophecy the first representation is the 
 combat of the Kingdom of Jesus against 
 Judaism, and the defeat of the latter. 
 A series of symbolic visions make known 
 and describe the swift chastisement which 
 will, by and by, fall upon the country, upon 
 the city, and upon the Temple to its total 
 ruin (Apoc. iv. — xii.). 
 
 After the victory over Judaism, the 
 prophecy passes to the triumph which the 
 Church will achieve over Paganism, though 
 an unequal contest in the beginning; dis- 
 playing greater hatred and rage since the 
 fall of Jerusalem. Paganism — with power 
 and opulence, commanding the world's 
 conquering armies — tries, by every device 
 to annihilate the small body of Christians. 
 Heaven declares in favor of the Christian 
 army — the army of saints and martyrs — 
 and in a series of symbolic visions the 
 destruction of the Roman Empire is 
 pointed out and that of Rome, its capital — 
 designated under the name Babylon, the 
 great prostitute, seated upon the seven 
 hills — is shown to be on the point of f ulfill- 
 ing itself (xiii. — xix.) ; an event after which 
 Christianity reigns for a long time (a 
 thousand years) the Empire of the world 
 (xx. 1-6). Satan having lost power, 
 during this long period, to seduce man, 
 as in the days of Paganism, receives 
 fresh power, about the end of time, and 
 renews his combat. The enemies of the 
 Christian religion make every effort to 
 annihilate the faith in God, and in His 
 Christ, but in vain. Jesus Christ appears ; 
 Satan and all his followers are cast into hell ; 
 the dead arise ; they are judged, and the 
 Church, that was earthly until now, trans- 
 forms herself into the heavenly Kingdom. 
 Thus is the end which this sublime and 
 
 mysterious book has revealed to us. It 
 has been proven that the Apocalypse was 
 written in Greek. 
 
 Apocalypse of Moses. — An apocryphal 
 book, under this name, which some have 
 confounded with the small Genesis. It is 
 a revelation made to Moses by the Arch- 
 angel Michael, when the tables of the 
 law were given to him. It contains the 
 history of Adam and Eve and their chil- 
 dren. Tischendorf places its composition 
 about the time of our Lord. The Assump- 
 tion and the Ascension of Moses is of the 
 same epoch, and can be regarded as a con- 
 tinuation of the Book of the Jubilees. It 
 is a prophecy about Israel, placed in the 
 mouth of Moses and addressed to Josue. 
 
 Apocalyptic Number. — The mystical 
 number, 666, spoken of in the book of 
 Apocalypse (xiii. 18). As early as the sec- 
 ond century, the Church had found that 
 the name, Antichrist, was indicated by the 
 Greek characters expressive of this num- 
 ber; while others believed it to express a 
 date. The most probable interpretation, 
 and the one that has been most generally 
 accepted, is that which found the number 
 in the word Lateinos {Latinus) — the Ro- 
 man nation, the mightiest pagan power on 
 earth. See Antichrist. 
 
 Apocrisarius. — A title formerly given 
 to certain ecclesiastical agents or deputies; 
 but in modern times it has been changed 
 to that of nuncio or ablegate. At Con- 
 stantinople and other European courts, 
 they represented the Holy See and the in- 
 terests of the Church. 
 
 Apocrypha or Apocryphal Writings. — 
 This word is now employed to mean a 
 number of writings which were sometimes 
 considered as an appendage to Holy Scrip- 
 ture, and sometimes as a portion of it, 
 and which the Church does not receive as 
 Canonical. The Apocryphal writings of 
 the Old and New Testaments form quite a 
 considerable literature for the Biblical 
 scholar. The principal works are, for the 
 Old Testament: — The 3rd, 4th and 5th 
 book of Esdras; the book of Enoch, the 
 Small Genesis; the Ascension of Isaias; 
 the Testament of the twelve Patriarchs; 
 the letter of Baruch to the twelve tribes 
 of Israel ; the 3rd book of the Machabees ; 
 the eighteen Psalms of Solomon, etc. For 
 the New Testament : — The Gospel of the 
 Twelve Apostles ; the Gospel of Cerinthus 
 and Carpocrates ; the Gospel of St Peter ; 
 
Apodipne 
 
 47 
 
 Apollonius of Tyana 
 
 the Gospel of the Four; besides numerous 
 Epistles and Acts and apocryphal Apoca- 
 lypses. 
 
 Apodipne. — In the Greek Church, that 
 part of the divine office which we call 
 Compline. 
 
 Apokatastasis. — In theology, accord- 
 ing to the Acts of the Apostles (iii. 3), the 
 word signifies the re-establishment of all 
 things, through the work of Redemption, 
 conformably to the divine promises. To 
 Origen is attributed the teaching of a 
 more radical and more absolute apokatast- 
 asis, in virtue of which everything that 
 comes from God, must be restored to its 
 former state. This would imply the sup- 
 pression of the eternal hell, so clearly 
 taught in the Gospel. This error was re- 
 vived in the ninth century by John Eri- 
 gena, and in the sixteenth by Petersen. 
 
 Apollinaris (St.).— First Bishop of Ra- 
 venna and the only one of this Church 
 who suffered martyrdom, was, it is be- 
 lieved a disciple of St. Peter. He is fa- 
 mous in Church History, although the acts 
 of his life, such as we have them, are not 
 authentic. His panegyric was pronounced 
 by St. Peter Chrysologus, one of his suc- 
 cessors. Hungary claims him as its apos- 
 tle. His remains, formerly kept at Closse 
 (ancient sea harbor four miles from Ra- 
 venna), were transferred in 549 into a vault 
 of the same Church. Pope Honorius 
 founded a Church at Rome in honor of St. 
 Apollinaris about the year 630. We read 
 his name in the Martyrologies; the Ro- 
 man Martyrology commemorates him on 
 July 23rd. 
 
 Apollinaris the Apologist.— Bishop of 
 Hierapolis in Phrygia about the year 160. 
 He addressed to the Emperor Marcus 
 Aurelius an Apology in favor of the Chris- 
 tians. He reminded this prince of the mi- 
 raculous rain which saved his army, a rain 
 obtained through the prayers of the 12th 
 legion, and a miracle of which the emperor 
 himself had been a witness. This Apology 
 is lost. According to Eusebius, Apollin- 
 aris also wrote five books against the 
 pagans, two on truth, two against the 
 Jews, and one against Montanism. All of 
 these works are lost. Fragments thereof 
 can be found in Routh's Reliquice Sacrce 
 (vol. i.), and in Migne's Greek Patrology 
 (vol. v.). 
 
 Apollinarists.— Heretics of the fourth 
 century. Their founder was Apollinaris, 
 
 Bishop of Laodicea in Syria. Adopting 
 the psychological trichotomy of Plato, 
 the doctrine affirming three component 
 parts of man, — spirit, soul, and body — 
 he maintained that Christ had, indeed, a 
 human body and human passions, or a 
 sensitive soul, but not a spirit, or rational 
 soul. This was supplied in Him by the 
 Divine Word ; consequently, Christ had no 
 human will, which would mean that He 
 was not impeccable. The Apollinarists 
 denied that Christ assumed flesh from the 
 Virgin Mary; His body, which was heav- 
 enly and divine, as they maintained, 
 merely passed through her virginal womb. 
 This heresy was ably refuted by St. Athan- 
 asius, and condemned by the Synods of 
 Alexandria in 362 ; of Rome in 368, under 
 Pope Damasus ; and lastly, by the Second 
 Ecumenical Council of Constantinople in 
 381, which proclaimed " Christ is true God 
 and true Man." After the death of Apol- 
 linaris, which occurred about 393, his fol- 
 lowers were divided into two parties — the 
 Timotheans and Valentinians. During 
 the fifth century they were absorbed by 
 the Monophysites. 
 
 Apollo. — A Jewish Christian, born at 
 Alexandria, distinguished for his eloquence 
 and success in propagating the Christian 
 religion. His history and character are 
 given in Acts xviii. 24, etc. 
 
 Apollonia. — A city of Macedonia, situ- 
 ated between Amphipolis and Thessa- 
 lonica, about a day's journey from the 
 former place. (Acts xvii. i.) 
 
 Apollonius. — A very eloquent Church 
 writer and opponent of the Montanists. 
 He lived in the second century. He is the 
 author of an extensive and celebrated 
 work against the Montanists, of which a 
 few passages are found in Eusebius. 
 
 Apollonius of Tyana {in Cappadocia). — 
 Was born about the time of the birth of 
 Christ. This Apollonius, a Neo-Pythag- 
 orean philosopher, may be called the 
 heathen counterfeit of Christ, just as the 
 Neo-Platonic system was the caricature 
 of Christianity. Origen calls him both 
 magician and philosopher, and Dion Cas- 
 sius terms him a skillful wizard. His 
 biographer, Flavius Philostratus, describes 
 him as a great religious and moral re- 
 former, and represents him as a god. But 
 the work of Philostratus, which he com- 
 piled at the bidding of the Empress 
 Domna, wife of Septimus Severus, and 
 
Apologetic 
 
 48 
 
 Apologetic 
 
 from the materials collected by her and 
 Damis, a disciple of Apollonius, has no 
 claim whatsoever to historic truth. This 
 life of the pretender Apollonius, furnishes 
 many striking points of resemblance to 
 the life of Christ, and the design of its 
 author seems to have been to give to 
 paganism a standard bearer and repre- 
 sentative in the same manner as Christian- 
 ity had such a standard bearer and 
 representative in Christ. Carefully ab- 
 staining from every mention of Christ or 
 his religion, Philostratus tacitly imitates 
 both ; he makes his hero depart from the 
 earth in a miraculous manner, ascribes to 
 him the power of working miracles, and 
 the knowledge of not only absent and 
 secret, but, also, of future things, and por- 
 trays him as equal to Christ in wisdom, 
 power, and the practice of every virtue. 
 Thus his work reveals an intense inward 
 antagonism to Christ and the Christian 
 Church. 
 
 Apologetic. — In the broadest sense, apol- 
 ogetic is the science which teaches us how 
 to defend or justify the Catholic religion, 
 in its teaching and practices, against the 
 attacks of infidelity, heresy, and schism. 
 Apologetic furnishes a two-fold demon- 
 stration: I. It proves the divine origin 
 of Christianity in general ; this is what 
 we call Christian or Evangelical demon- 
 stration. 2. It proves that true Christian- 
 ity finds itself entirely and exclusively in 
 the Roman Catholic Church ; this is what 
 we call the Catholic Demonstration or Dis- 
 sertation on the true Church. As to the 
 particular controversies on such or such a 
 point of dogma or moral, ecclesiastical law 
 or history, apologetic relegates them gen- 
 erally to theology itself, which gives the 
 solution thereof in proportion to its ex- 
 position of the dogma, moral, etc. We 
 can see, hereby, that apologetic is rather 
 a preamble or introduction to theology 
 than theology itself. Indeed, it has 
 sometimes rightly been given the title of 
 Religious Philosophy. The History of 
 the Religions, much in vogue for some 
 years past, is nothing more, when it is 
 written in a Catholic spirit, than an apolo- 
 getic work referring to the dissertation of 
 religion. The object of this science is 
 to successfully make partial or universal 
 apologies for Uie Catholic religion. Hereby 
 we understand a real advocacy and plea for 
 the truth, whether it be against rationalism 
 or naturalism, paganism or idolatry, Juda- 
 
 ism or Mohammedanism. Apologies can 
 be traced to the origin of Christianity 
 itself; each assault upon it stimulated the 
 production of new refutations ; and the 
 Church often profited by the works of de- 
 fense made by heretics against those who 
 denied all revelation, or openly confessed 
 themselves opposed to Christianity. The 
 authors of these pleas of sublime power 
 are called Apologists. We divide them 
 into four series for the better understand- 
 ing of the lines of defense, and the 
 character of the adversaries they had to 
 combat. 
 
 Among the most illustrious names of 
 those that fought against the paganism of 
 the ancients and irreligion of the leaders 
 of the people are the following: i. St. 
 Justin, Athenagoras, Tertullian, St. Cy- 
 prian, Origen, St. Athanasius, Lactantius, 
 and St. Augustine, whose City of God 
 is the masterpiece of primitive apolo- 
 getic. 2. Those who arose against the 
 Jews, Mohammedans and Arabian philos- 
 ophers of the Middle Ages : St. Isidore of 
 Seville, Agobard of Lyons, St. Peter 
 Damian, St. John Damascene, Raymond 
 Martin, and especially St. Thomas of 
 Aquinas, whose incomparable Summa 
 against the Gentiles, has been, and is now, 
 an indestructible bulwark of Catholic 
 truth and teaching. 3. Those who battled 
 against the leading spirits misled by the 
 Renaissance, Protestantism, infidelity, and 
 philosophical speculations: Bellarmine, 
 Stapleton, Pascal (who unfortunately was 
 tainted with Jansenism), the great Bos- 
 suet, the learned Feller, Houteville, the 
 industrious Bergier, the Cardinal of 
 Luzern, and Chateaubriand by his Genius 
 of Christianity. 4. Those who stood 
 foremost against the attacks inspired by 
 inexact interpretations of science and false 
 ideas of modern progress, the lecturers 
 at Notre Dame, Paris, who arose "like 
 walls of Israel" — Frayssinous, Lacordaire, 
 Ravignan, Felix, Monsabre. Spain up- 
 holds the truth with her learned Balmes 
 and Donoso Cortes; England with her 
 Cardinals Wiseman and Newman; Italy 
 comes forward with Perone, Nardi, and 
 the celebrated Manzoni ; and Germany 
 stands in line with her Doctors Denzinger 
 and Hettinger, the latter of whom in his 
 Apology for Christianity, has undoubt- 
 edly, reared, one of the strongest bulwarks 
 against the attacks of infidelity. The 
 Catholic Church knows that she will 
 always have adversaries ; and she knows, 
 
Apologist 
 
 49 
 
 Apostle 
 
 too, that she will ever have fearless and 
 learned champions to defend her cause 
 and lead her to victory. 
 
 Apologist. — One who speaks or writes 
 in defense of anything; but, this name was 
 originally used to designate a defender of 
 Christian doctrine against the attacks of 
 pagans, heretics, schismatics, etc. In this 
 sense, the term is applied to the writers who 
 have lived at the time of the Fathers of the 
 Church, and during the great combats be- 
 tween paganism and Christianity, whose 
 special work entitles them to a distinct 
 place in the galaxy of Christian defenders. 
 The principal apologists were Quadratus 
 and Aristides of Athens, who addressed 
 their writings to the Emperor Hadrian ; St. 
 Justin, Martyr ; Meliton, Bishop of Sardes ; 
 Miltiades, Christian philosopher of Asia 
 Minor; Claudius Apollinaris, Bishop of 
 Hierapolis, in Phrygia; Athenagoras, 
 Athenian philosopher; TertuUian, Theo- 
 philus. Bishop of Antioch; Minutius Felix, 
 St. Cyprian, Tatian, Hermias, Origen, 
 Apollonius of Tyre, Apollinaris the 
 Younger, Eusebius, St. Cyril of Alexan- 
 dria,Clement of Alexandria, Lactantius, St. 
 Athanasius, Arnobius, St. Augustine, and 
 Paul Orosus. Otto has published Corpus 
 Afologetarum Christianorum Saeculi Se- 
 cundi (Jena, 1847-1848, 5 vols, in Svo.) ; 
 Freppel, The Christian Afologists (Paris, 
 1866) ; Mereaux, Canon of Orleans, has 
 made a collection of the principal passages 
 from the works of the philosophers of the 
 eighteenth century, in favor of Christian- 
 ity, under the title : The Involuntary 
 Apologists. 
 
 Apolyctic Prayer. — Prayer recited in 
 the Greek Church by the priest at the end 
 
 of Mass. 
 
 Apostate. — Literally this word desig- 
 nates any one who changes his religion, 
 whatever maybe his motive. In its primi- 
 tive sense, the word Apostasy, from the 
 Greek apostasia and the Latin discessio, is 
 employed in the Bible to express the repre- 
 hensible act of one who had abandoned Ju- 
 daism as well as of the one who had 
 renounced the Christian faith. In early 
 Christian times, the word was applied to 
 those who abandoned their faith in order to 
 escape from persecution ; but it was also 
 applied to such as rejected Christianity on 
 speculative grounds (the Emperor Julian 
 for instance). On the decline of paganism, 
 those who had made profession of Chris- 
 
 4 
 
 tianity and were baptized, and who subse- 
 quently assisted at heathen festivals, offered 
 sacrifices or incense to the Roman gods to 
 gain favor or avoid persecution, were 
 deemed apostates, but were styled variously 
 Sacrificati, Thurijicati, etc., according to 
 the modes in which they publicly made 
 known their return to heathenism. The 
 word apostasy now expresses the formal 
 and declarative abjuration of the funda- 
 mental principles of Christianity, which 
 in itself distinguishes unbelief from heresy 
 and schism. One who abjures the Chris- 
 tian religion for Islamism is called rene- 
 gade; Catholicism for Protestantism, per- 
 vert ; and the former name is also applied 
 to the convert who returns to his former 
 religious belief. Entering a religious order 
 by solemn profession, and afterwards lay- 
 ing off the monastic habit, without being 
 authorized by legitimate superiors, is, in 
 canonical language, deemed apostasy; but 
 passing from one religious order into 
 another cannot be called apostasy. An 
 ecclesiastic, who has received the Major 
 Orders, and who afterwards returns to the 
 custom and mode of life of the world, 
 commits apostasy, an action of ecclesias- 
 tical infamy; and if such a one marries, 
 he is excommunicated. 
 
 Apostle. — One ivho is sent, but es- 
 pecially used to denote the twelve per- 
 sons whom Jesus had chosen, from among 
 His disciples, to preach the Gospel and 
 govern His Church after Him. The ones 
 sent by God, in the Old Testament, were 
 the prophets; in the New Testament, they 
 are the twelve men whom the Saviour 
 selected to announce His doctrine, spread 
 His religion, establish His Church, and 
 whom the Holy Ghost endowed with the 
 necessary gifts for this end. Their names 
 were Simon Peter (always named first), 
 Andrew (his brother), James (the son of 
 Zebedee), John (his brother), Philip, 
 Bartholomew, Thomas, Matthew ( sur- 
 named Levi), James (the son of Alphaeus), 
 Thadeus, Simon (of Cana), and Judas 
 Iscariot. Subsequently, Matthias was 
 chosen in the place of Judas; and at a 
 still later period, the number of the 
 Apostles was further increased by the call- 
 ing of Paul and Barnabas to the Apostle- 
 ship. The Apostles were twice com- 
 missioned by their Master to go forth on 
 their work of evangelization. First, 
 during the third year of His public 
 ministry. On this occasion their labors 
 
Apostles' Creed 
 
 50 Apostles, Doctrine of the 
 
 were to be restricted to the Jews, properly 
 so called. The second time was shortly 
 before the Lord's Ascension, when their 
 sphere of labor was indefinitely extended 
 to all the nations of the earth, "Go, and 
 teach all nations," etc. On the day of 
 Pentecost, the Apostles received miracu- 
 lous gifts, fitting them for their arduous 
 work. The spirit who inspired them 
 already spoke in them, as the Saviour Him- 
 self testifies, and according to the promise 
 that had been made to them. They re- 
 ceived the power to bind and to loose ; 
 the power to perform miracles, drive 
 out demons, heal the sick, and raise the 
 dead to life. Not only did the Apostles 
 under their visible Chief, Christ, establish 
 the first Church, but it was also a part 
 of their special mission to establish His 
 Church throughout the world ; and they 
 were the first exponents of the divine prin- 
 ciple which founded and preserved the 
 Church. It was this that Christ wished 
 they should be for the entire world, in His 
 name and place, what they had been for 
 the primitive Church, — the perpetual medi- 
 ators of His doctrine, in the person of their 
 successors. If the principle of Christian 
 knowledge called Tradition, is the liv- 
 ing conscience of the Church, and if the 
 principle of this conscience is the living 
 contemplation of the Person of Christ, this 
 conscience was at first alive in the Apostles 
 and always transmits itself alive to their suc- 
 cessors. They beheld with their own eyes 
 the glory of the Lord, as one among them 
 says (I. John i. 14) : "That which we have 
 seen and have heard, we declare unto you 
 that you always may have fellowship with 
 us, and our fellowship may be with the 
 Father, and His Son, Jesus Christ" 
 (I.John i. 2-4). It is for this reason that we 
 Christians build upon the foundation of 
 the Apostles, and the true Christian Church 
 is necessarily the Apostolic Church. 
 
 Apostles' Creed. See Creed. 
 
 Apostles, Doctrine of the Twelve ( a 
 
 work of the apostolic times). — The author 
 of the Doctrine of the Txvelve Apostles, a. 
 work well known to ancient authors, holds 
 place among the Christian writers of the 
 Apostolic age. Express mention is made 
 of this work both by Greek and Latin au- 
 thors, such as Eusebius, St. Athanasius, 
 St. Jerome, and Rufinus. Many quota- 
 tions, also, from the Doctrine of the Apos- 
 tles are to be found in the second part of 
 the Epistle of Barnabas, in the Pseudo- 
 
 Clementine Apostolic Constitution (book 
 vii.) and very clear traces of the work are 
 apparent in the compositions of Justin, 
 Tatian, Clement of Alexandria, Theophilus 
 of Antioch, Origen, Irenaeus, Lactantius, 
 and John Climacus. But from the twelfth 
 century downwards the Didache disap- 
 peared, and was believed to be utterly 
 lost, until 1873, when Philotheus Bryen- 
 nius, at that time Professor and, since 
 1877, Metropolitan of Nicomedia, discov- 
 ered in a monastic library at Constanti- 
 nople a codex, written by Leo the Notary 
 in the j-ear 1056, which contained, besides 
 the Epistle of Barnabas and two Epistles of 
 St. Clement to the Corinthians and some 
 other writings, the Doctrine of the Twelve 
 Apostles. 
 
 According to its contents, the work con- 
 sists of two parts ; the first, from chapter 
 i. — vi., treats of the two ways of life and 
 death ; that is, of the general duties of a 
 Christian and of whatever is opposed to 
 them ; and from chapter vii. — x., of partic- 
 ular duties, especially the administration 
 of baptism, fasting, and the reception of the 
 Holy Eucharist. The second part gives 
 instruction for the admission of brethren, 
 for discerning true and false prophets, for 
 showing hospitality to Christian pilgrims 
 and strangers, for the maintenance of 
 teachers (apostles), for the choice of 
 "bishops" (priests) and deacons, and for 
 fraternal correction. Chapter x^'i. closes 
 with an admonition to watchfulness, a de- 
 scription of the doings of the antichrist, 
 and the coming of our Lord. 
 
 Concerning the time and place of the 
 origin of the work, opinions differ very 
 considerably. While some place it as early 
 as between 50 and 70, others assign it to 
 the middle, or toward the end of the sec- 
 ond century. The majority, however, of the 
 learned assume the last quarter of the first 
 century to be the time of its composition, 
 on the ground that the work itself con- 
 tains nothing which would point to a later 
 origin, while its author speaks of prophets 
 and apostles in a way that was possible 
 only for a writer of the first century. On 
 other grounds, also, the hypothesis of a 
 later period is untenable. 
 
 In spite of its small dimensions, the 
 work possesses great merits. It is written 
 with admirable simplicity of style, and its 
 subject-matter is of the highest importance 
 to the Catholic theologian, for it places in 
 his hand an excellent weapon wherewith to 
 defend the traditional doctrine of the 
 
Apostleship of Prayer 
 
 51 
 
 Apostolians 
 
 Church on the obligation and merit of 
 good works, the necessity of baptism, con- 
 fession of sins, the Holy Eucharist, both as 
 sacrament and sacrifice. It likewise fur- 
 nishes proof of the lawfulness of baptism 
 fer infusionem, the duty of submission to 
 ecclesiastical superiors, as well as of the 
 divine institution, authority, and visibility 
 of the Church herself. 
 
 Apostleship of Prayer. See Confra- 
 ternity. 
 
 Apostolate ( Catholic). — A name adopted 
 by an ecclesiastical congregation, and by 
 certain societies of piety, founded by 
 Father Vincent Palotti, a priest of Rome, 
 in 1835. This congregation is comprised 
 of communities of secular priests and lay 
 brothers combined, devoted to the work of 
 giving missions; communities of religious 
 women occupied with the instruction and 
 care of poor girls ; associations of pious 
 laymen, of every condition and state, who 
 by alms and prayers assist in aiding this 
 and other good works. 
 
 Apostolate of the Press. — An organiza- 
 tion recently established in New York 
 City, through the instrumentality of the 
 Paulist Fathers, with the approbation of 
 the Archbishop of New York, for co-oper- 
 ation in the spread of printed Truth. 
 This organization is made up of men and 
 women of approved Catholicity, who de- 
 sire to co-operate with the clergy in the 
 dissemination of printed truth regarding 
 the doctrines of the Church, and the atti- 
 tude of Catholic citizens toward the public 
 schools and institutions of the United 
 States; to counteract the baneful influence 
 of secret and organized associations, which 
 flood the country with false and malicious 
 literature prejudicial to the Church. 
 
 Apostolians. — The name adopted by 
 three different sects, who fancied that they 
 followed the customs and practices of the 
 Apostles. The first Apostolians, also 
 called ApotactitcB, arose from the En- 
 cratites or Catharists, in the third century. 
 They professed to abstain from marriage, 
 wine, flesh meat, etc., directed in this by 
 their Gnostic opinions in regard to the 
 corruption of matter. The second sect 
 appeared near the Lower Rhine, neighbor- 
 hood of Cologne, and also at Perigueiax, 
 France, in the twelfth century. Doubt- 
 less, the prevalence of Manichean and 
 Gnostic opinions of former centuries, 
 mingled with sincere aspirations toward 
 
 the Apostolic poverty and simplicity had 
 something to do with the strange and 
 incongruous beliefs which now and then 
 sprung up, wherever the taint of heresy 
 remained. The third sect of the so-called 
 Apostolians appeared in 1261, its founder 
 being Gerard of Sagarelli, of Parma, who 
 was supported by Fra Dolcino of Prato. Ge- 
 rard, a fanatical young man, had been dis- 
 missed from a Franciscan convent. Like 
 many of the heresiarchs who went before 
 him, he believed himself called upon to 
 revive the Apostolical era of the Church. 
 He entered upon his self-appointed mis- 
 sion in 1261 ; and, accompanied by a num- 
 ber of followers, who, though not 
 permitted to marry, were attended by 
 women called " Sisters," went up and 
 down the country, begging, singing, and 
 announcing that the kingdom of God was 
 at hand. The scope and aim of their 
 teaching was for some time kept secret, 
 but gradually came out, when it was dis- 
 covered that they were communistic, 
 subversive of society at large, hostile to 
 the Church, but chiefly opposed to the 
 Papacy. Both Church and State under- 
 took their suppression, and in 1300, their 
 fanatical leader, Gerard, was burned to 
 death at Parma. 
 
 Gerard's death did not put an end to 
 their sect. They found a new leader in 
 Dolcino of Prato — in the county of No- 
 vara — an Italian of considerable culture and 
 remarkable energy of character, and some 
 military talent. He introduced himself to 
 public notice by a circular letter, addressed 
 to all Christendom, in which he claimed a 
 " new age was dawning on the Church, 
 and that he and his followers were the lat- 
 ter prophets who were to immediately 
 precede the great Judgment Day " (1303). 
 After going about for some time in Tyrol 
 and Dalmatia, he returned to Piedmont, 
 and, having gathered together his follow- 
 ers at Novara, formally declared war 
 against Rome (1304). After fighting sev- 
 eral battles, Dolcino and his followers 
 were driven to seek refuge on Mount 
 Zebello, where those who escaped death 
 by famine perished by the sword of the 
 crusaders sent against them. Both Dol- 
 cino and his female companion, Margaret, 
 whom he called his spiritual sister, were 
 taken prisoners, and, after having borne 
 severe torture, the former was executed 
 and the latter burned to death. From this 
 time forth the Apostolians ceased to exist 
 as an organized sect, though small com- 
 
Apostolic Canons 
 
 52 
 
 Apostolicae Sedis 
 
 munities were to be found scattered here 
 and there, in Germany and in the south of 
 France, as late as the beginning of the 
 fourteenth century. 
 
 Apostolic Canons. — Collections which 
 ■ contain the rules of discipline adopted in 
 the Church during the first centuries. 
 They are also called Apostolic Constitu- 
 tions. See Canoxs. 
 
 Apostolic Council. See Coukcil. 
 
 Apostolic Fathers. — The name given to 
 the immediate disciples and fellow-labor- 
 ers of the Apostles, and their successors 
 in the sees founded by them, and, in a 
 more restrained sense, to those of the 
 primitive epoch of the Church who have 
 left writings behind them. The Apostolic 
 Fathers, specially so-called, have left us 
 the following writings: i. A letter of St. 
 Barnabas; 2. Two letters of St. Clement 
 of Rome; 3. Seven letters of St. Ignatius, 
 Bishop of Antioch and Martyr; 4. A letter 
 of St. Polycarp of Smyrna to the Phillip- 
 pians; 5. A letter to Diognetes; 6. The 
 book entitled Pastor of Hennas; 7. Frag- 
 ments of a work of Papias ; 8. The Acts of 
 the Martyrs or the Circulars addressed to 
 the Churches on the death of St. Ignatius 
 and of St. Polj-carp. The writings of the 
 Apostolic Fathers as to their form and sub- 
 ject have been looked upon as a continu- 
 ation of the Apostolic Epistles. Editions 
 were published by Cotelier (Paris, 1672, 2 
 vols. ; Amsterdam, 1720) ; ed. Auctior — the 
 latter not correct — by the Armenian, Le 
 Clerc ; ed. with new inquiries and explana- 
 tions in the Bibliotheca of Gallandius and in 
 Migne, (Greek series, vols. i. and ii.) ; 
 Jacobson (Oxford, 1830 and 1840) ; Hefele 
 (Tubingen, 1839, 1857, 1875) ; Dressel 
 (Leipsic, 1863); another by Zahn, Geb- 
 hardt, and others began to appear in 1875. 
 There are several English translations. 
 
 Apostolic King. — A title given to the 
 kings of Hungary from the time of Stephen 
 I., founder of the royal line, on account of 
 his eflforts to propagate Christianity. 
 Hungary claims the proud title of calling 
 herself Apostolic Kingdom by virtue of 
 the title bestowed upon her Kings by the 
 Pope. 
 
 Apostolic Majesty. — Title of honor, be- 
 stowed on the Pope during the Middle 
 Ages. 
 
 Apostolic Notaries. — Notaries who com- 
 mit to writing, in each diocese, the acts 
 which belong to ecclesiastical matters. 
 
 Apostolic Nuncio or Delegate. — An am- 
 bassador charged with ecclesiastical affairs, 
 sent by the Holy See. See Delegate. 
 
 Apostolic Prefects. See Vicars. 
 
 Apostolic Sees, Churches, and Patriar- 
 chates are those sees and Churches which 
 were founded by the Apostles themselves. 
 The Churches follow in order of date : Jeru- 
 salem, Antioch, Alexandria, and Rome. 
 To-day this title is reserved and attributed 
 only to the See of Rome. A Spanish bishop 
 was excommunicated at the Council of 
 Rheims (1049) for having arrogated to him- 
 self the quality- of "Apostolic," which, by 
 virtue of succession, pre-eminence, and 
 common consent, is reserved to the Pope 
 alone. 
 
 Apostolic Succession. — An u n i n t e r- 
 rupted succession of Popes and bishops in 
 the Church by regular ordination, from 
 the Apostles down to the present day. 
 Leo XIII. is the 259th in the long line of 
 Roman Pontiffs. See Popes. 
 
 Apostolic Times. — The time when the 
 Apostles lived; the first century of the 
 Church. 
 
 Apostolics Sedis. — Latin words which 
 designate a celebrated Constitution or Pon- 
 tifical Decree, dated Oct. 12, 1869. It is the 
 ecclesiastical penal code of excommuni- 
 cations, suspensions, and interdicts lata 
 sententi(E, i. e., incurred by the fact of a 
 fault committed, and before all legal pro- 
 ceeding and judgment against the guilty. 
 This constituent part of canonical legisla- 
 tion, having been in need of revision, Pope 
 Pius IX. provided therefore by the Consti- 
 tution apostolicce sedis, of which we can 
 have an adequate idea when saying that it 
 enumerates first the excommunications 
 lat(B sententic€ specially reserved for abso- 
 lution to the sovereign Pontiff; the ex- 
 communications of the same kind simply 
 reser\-ed to the Pope; those which are 
 reserved to the bishops or ordinaries ; 
 again those which are reserved to no par- 
 ticular authority, and from which a simple 
 confessor can absolve. After this, the 
 Constitution specifies the suspensions latxB 
 sententice reserved to the Holy See, and, 
 finally, the interdicts reserved either to 
 the Pope or to an inferior authority. This 
 important act of the Papal power, belongs 
 to what Canonists call the modern Canon- 
 ical law, the source of which is the Council 
 of Trent. Hence we will not be surprised 
 to learn that it maintains, in a great part, 
 
Apostolicity 
 
 53 
 
 Apparitions 
 
 the spiritual penalties decreed by said 
 Council. This Constitution had several 
 commentaries. 
 
 Apostolicity. — Conformity to the doc- 
 trines of the Apostles, one of the marks 
 of the Catholic Church. — Apostolic suc- 
 cession from the chief Apostle, St. Peter. 
 The marks of the true Church of Jesus 
 Christ are : Authority to teach and in- 
 terpret the word of God, visibility in her 
 chief and universal head, unity in faith 
 and teaching ; universality from the fact 
 that she extends to all time and to all 
 places. 
 
 Apostolicity of the Church. {Fourth 
 mark of the Church.) — By this term, we 
 distinguish two kinds of apostolicity : the 
 apostolicity of the doctrine which the 
 Church has preserved since her origin, 
 and which consists in the belief of all the 
 truths the Apostles have transmitted to us 
 by voice or writing ; and the apostolicity 
 of the ministry, which consists in the un- 
 interrupted succession of pastors since the 
 time of the Apostles. We also distinguish 
 two kinds powers in the apostolic ministry, 
 namely : the power of order and power of 
 jvirisdiction. These two powers emanate 
 from the Apostles who had received them 
 from Jesus Christ. The first, /. e., the 
 power of order, which is inherent in the 
 episcopal power, has perpetuated itself, 
 without interruption, through ordination, 
 which rite has been determined by our 
 Lord Jesus Christ. The Apostles, after 
 receiving their mission from Jesus, dis- 
 persed in different directions, carrying 
 with them the light of faith, preaching the 
 Gospel, baptizing the people, and teaching 
 them all that their Divine Master had 
 taught them. We read, in the Acts of the 
 Apostles, that in each village in which 
 they planted the faith, there they estab- 
 lished bishops, priests, and deacons to 
 govern the faithful, and that it was in this 
 manner that Churches were founded. It 
 must be obvious to every person that the 
 Apostles had, in fulfilling their mission, 
 ordained the first bishops, and they in 
 turn ordained others, and so on, in suc- 
 cession to our own days. The same 
 power of order, like that which the suc- 
 cessors of the Apostles received, has been 
 transmitted from one to the other, and 
 whoever has not been ordained by a 
 bishop, with vested rights, cannot partake 
 in the Apostolic ministry. The power 
 and iurisdiction is that by which one can 
 
 exercise the power of order and take part 
 in the government of the Church. It is 
 attached to the Canonical institution and 
 its mode is determined by the ecclesias- 
 tical laws emanating from the Pope, or, at 
 least, sanctioned by him as the Chief of 
 the universal Church. By this institution 
 each bishop receives the jurisdiction which 
 his predecessors had in line up to the 
 Apostles. 
 
 The new bishoprics, founded by the 
 successors of the Apostles, are as apostolic 
 as those which have been founded by the 
 Apostles themselves, because they are 
 founded by the same apostolic power 
 which was given to the first successors of 
 the Apostles. 
 
 The power of jurisdiction is no less 
 essential than the power of order to the 
 apostolicity of the ministry, and the 
 apostolicity of the ministry is no less es- 
 sential to the Church than the apostolicity 
 of doctrine. Scripture and tradition rep- 
 resent to us the apostolic ministry per- 
 petuating itself through a succession of 
 bishops, like the property of God's 
 Church, and with the mark of vested 
 rights, which has ever distinguished it 
 from all schismatic organizations. 
 
 Apotheosis. — Deification, or the raising 
 of a mortal to the rank of a god. Among 
 heathens generally, and especially among 
 the Romans, every departed spirit became 
 a deity; and as it was common for chil- 
 dren to worship (privately) the manes of 
 their fathers, so it was natural for divine 
 honors to be publicly paid to a deceased 
 emperor, who was regarded as the parent 
 of his country. At the consecraito, as it 
 was called, of a Roman emperor, the body 
 was burnt on a funeral pile, and, as the fire 
 ascended, an eagle was let loose to mount 
 into the sky, carrying, as was believed, the 
 soul of the emperor from earth to heaven. 
 Many medals are found with the word 
 consccratio surrounding an altar, with fire 
 on it, and an eagle rising into the air 
 {Chamb. Encyc). 
 
 Apparitions. — The general belief that 
 the spirits of the departed are occasionally 
 presented to the sight of the living, has 
 existed in all ages and countries, and 
 usually declines only when a people has 
 advanced considerably in the knowledge 
 of physical conditions and laws. " These 
 apparitions are all to be accounted for by 
 peculiar conditions of the organism of the 
 
Apparitions 
 
 54 
 
 Apparitions 
 
 individual sensible of them" is the theory 
 of some of our modern savants. 
 
 To amplify this point and make it more 
 clear, we must understand by apparitions 
 all extraordinary and sensible manifesta- 
 tions, by which an object, be it spiritual 
 or corporeal, is placed in communication 
 with the exterior or even interior senses of 
 a subject which could neither naturally be 
 expected nor known. May it be God, an 
 angel, or a soul who shows itself under a 
 material form ; may it be a body far away, 
 that one hears, feels, or sees, as if present 
 before him. There are many apparitions, 
 and all cannot be due to a diseased or dis- 
 ordered state of the mind. 
 
 The belief of the Catholic Church in the 
 Sacred Scriptures, does not permit us to 
 question numerous apparitions mentioned 
 in them, since it speaks of the apparition 
 of God to the first man in the earthly para- 
 dise; of Jesus Christ descending from 
 heaven at the end of the world, "to judge 
 the living and the dead," as the Apostles' 
 Creed tells us. 
 
 As a logical consequence, the Church 
 believes in the possibility of apparitions, 
 and which have taken place since the Bib- 
 lical revelation, and which have been re- 
 ported in Church history, and in the 
 biographies of the saints. Does she be- 
 lieve, in like manner, in their reality.'' Her 
 conduct in the canonization of the saints, 
 and in the direction of the faithful, her 
 feasts and liturgical prayers, certainly 
 prove that she believes in them, because 
 she examines carefully the facts of this 
 kind, when they are met with in the life 
 of personages for whom one asks for the 
 honors of a public veneration, because she 
 blames or permits certain accounts of ap- 
 paritions, and finally she authorizes and 
 sometimes solemnizes facts of this kind, 
 like the Apparition of the Archangel St. 
 Michael in Sicily (May 8th, 493 or 520). 
 
 But does she impose the obligation of 
 belief, in particular, in the reality of one 
 or the other of these apparitions or non- 
 Biblical visions.? Not at all. These ap- 
 paritions, posterior to revelation, wrthout 
 being outside the sphere of the infalli- 
 bility of the Church, cannot become the 
 object of a definition of faith, nor of an 
 act of faith, properly speaking; hence one 
 would not be a heretic were he to question 
 or deny them. It is true that the Church, 
 by the manner she receives many of them, 
 tells us quite clearly that we can and ought 
 to accept them, prudently, as authentic ; 
 
 but she does not go beyond this; and, 
 while the limits of scientific and Christian 
 prudence should never be overstepped, a 
 respectful and judicious liberty of ex- 
 amination or judgment remains the right 
 of the Catholic faithful. 
 
 1. The general objections against the 
 possibility and reality of every apparition, 
 of every supernatural vision, being the 
 same which one raises against the super- 
 natural, the miracle, the historical value 
 of the Bible, we do not need to occupy 
 ourselves with these here. It is sufficient 
 for us to say that a cause infinite in power 
 and Tvisdom, can very well, through itself, 
 or through secondary causes, which it 
 governs and animates by its own energy, 
 operate the interior or exterior phenomena 
 necessary to an apparition, to a vision, 
 and co-ordain them so perfectly with the 
 regular function of the physical powers, 
 that the order of the world will not be 
 troubled thereby. 
 
 2. They have asked how a pure spirit, an 
 angel, and especially God, would appear in 
 a visible manner } The answer is contained 
 in that which precedes. Certainly it is not 
 the immaterial nature which enters into 
 direct and physical contact with our senses, 
 organic and material faculties; but for 
 this purpose it makes use of an interme- 
 diary instrumental cause, which obeys it 
 and manifests to us its presence, its 
 thoughts, its will. Several philosophers 
 have preferred another explanation of this 
 miraculous communication ; they suppress 
 the intermediary, the instrument, and be- 
 lieve that God, or the appearing spirit, 
 acts upon our interior and exterior senses 
 to prejudice them, as really present and 
 sensible objects do. Although this inter- 
 pretation seems difficult to reconcile with 
 the account of most of the Biblical appa- 
 ritions, it is not indefensible, especially 
 when it applies itself to non-Biblical 
 apparitions; and it maintains quite the 
 objective reality of a superior and super- 
 natural action, for not being rejected 
 entirely. 
 
 3. They have often pretended that the 
 apparitions and the visions are the result 
 of morbid dispositions, of lively and pro- 
 longed excitements of the brain, of great 
 intellectual fatigues, of profound medita- 
 tions or severe fastings, etc. Undoubtedly 
 this may have such effects, and many ap- 
 paritions may have been produced by one 
 or the other of the causes mentioned. 
 Nothing is more interesting than to behold 
 
Appeal 
 
 55 
 
 Appeal as Abuse 
 
 the most minute, careful, and discretionary 
 measures indicated by Pope Benedict 
 XIV., who so earnestly desired that the 
 proofs of the facts of this kind, when they 
 are alleged in a process of beatification, 
 are of a weight equal to those which are 
 required in criminal causes (De Beatif. et 
 Canoniz. Sanctorum ; libr. IIL ch. iii. v. i) ; 
 by the Canonists, who admit, only with 
 difficulty, the testimony of the minors, 
 women, persons whose veracity or good 
 faith may be suspected (Cf. E. Grand- 
 eclaude. Visions and Apparitions in the 
 " Revue des Sc. Eccl." of 1873, and in the 
 "Canonist," May, 1888) ; by the mystic 
 theologians, of which the most celebrated 
 may be mentioned — Cardinal Bona, the 
 Jesuit Godinez, the Benedictine Schram, 
 and quite recently the Sulpician Ribet, 
 show themselves of extreme rigor in the 
 examination of these phenomena. Schram, 
 for example, enumerates nineteen signs by 
 which we can recognize the falseness of a 
 vision, and these among others : whether 
 the person who passes for having had ap- 
 paritions sit super ba, — si visiones deside- 
 ret, — si sit arreptitia, — vel delira, — si 
 sit melancholica, — si sit novitia, — si sit 
 pauper, dives, juvenis, senex; si sit fem- 
 ina, — si visiones suas facile propalet. 
 Certainly these signs are not equally and 
 always certain, and they themselves must 
 be appreciated with a great wisdom. But 
 when, after the most careful examination 
 of the facts, the ecclesiastical authority 
 approves or at least does not disapprove 
 the publication of a supernatural vision, 
 we can say that there are very serious 
 motives in favor of the fact. Besides, the 
 Church permits this publication only after 
 the attentive judgment of the diocesan 
 bishop. The Council of Trent, in its 
 XXVth session, has enacted a very precise 
 decree regarding this matter. 
 
 4. What use, is asked, can there be in 
 these particular visions and apparitions, 
 which do not enter into the official deposit 
 and in the body itself of the Catholic doc- 
 trine? We answer, that God has estab- 
 lished not only His Church; but that He 
 also governs and assists it continually 
 through ordinary or extraordinary helps, 
 among which we have to admit in the first 
 rank certain striking and famous appari- 
 tions ; that the Church does not occupy 
 herself, solely, with the palpable, fixed 
 and bounded, but takes care of the soul in 
 particular; and if some do not wish to 
 profit by the extraordinary signs and 
 
 graces, it is no reason why others should 
 be deprived of such awakening manifesta- 
 tions ; the divine liberality, in the midst 
 of such frightful enormity of wickedness, 
 must not be shackled here any more than 
 human liberty. 
 
 Appeal. — In Canon Law, this is an 
 act by which a layman or cleric, who be- 
 lieves that a wrong or injury has been 
 done to him, or that his rights have been 
 violated by an ecclesiastical superior or 
 judge, demands justice by appealing to a 
 higher court or superior. One can always 
 appeal directly to the Sovereign Pontiff, 
 without first passing through the inter- 
 mediary jurisdiction, such as that of an 
 Archbishop or Primate. 
 
 The ecclesiastical law, however, of the 
 United States is such that, if an ecclesi- 
 astic has any grievance, he can appeal only 
 from his bishop to the Papal Delegate 
 residing in the United States, and from 
 the latter to the Propaganda of Faith. 
 
 One can never appeal from an act of the 
 Sovereign Pontiff (or Propaganda for the 
 United States) to another authority, not 
 even to a future Ecumenical Council, 
 neither to the successor of the actual 
 Pope, nor to this same Pope better in- 
 formed. The Pope has, indeed, the su- 
 preme authority in the Church ; to pretend 
 to revoke one of his acts is a revolutionary 
 temerity which cannot find place in the 
 Catholic Church. Also the appeal one 
 would make from a decree or command of 
 the Pope to a future General Council 
 would incur, ipso facto, the pain of excom- 
 munication, especially reserved for abso- 
 lution to the Holy See. If the appeal is 
 made by a Chapter, University, or Cor- 
 poration, such a society would incur, ipso 
 facto, the interdict, also especially re- 
 served to the Pope. 
 
 Appeal as Abuse. — This means a re- 
 course to civil authority about ecclesiasti- 
 cal affairs. This kind of appeal is not in 
 harmony with the Church, and has served, 
 for a long time, as a protective wall for 
 Gallicanism, having proceeded, probably, 
 from the "Pragmatic Sanction" of Bourges 
 (1438), and is based on the thought that 
 the king, as protector of the Church, can 
 examine and do away with the orders of 
 the Pope and bishops before his court. 
 The French bishops were well enough 
 satisfied with this appeal as long as it was 
 made against the Papal orders; but, 
 finally, when all ecclesiastical obedience 
 
Approbation 
 
 56 
 
 Arabia 
 
 had been destroyed, they remonstrated in 
 such a manner that Louis XIV. imposed 
 some restrictions upon the Parliament. 
 After the kind's death, the evil grew 
 wonderfully. All the disorders and troubles 
 of Jansenism found, in this appeal, their 
 full explanation and support. Priests in 
 the United States cannot have recourse 
 to the civil courts for redress in matters 
 strictly ecclesiastical. Among other proofs 
 this goes forth, clearly, from the instruc- 
 tion of the 5. Congregation de Propaganda 
 Fide, Sept. 2d, 1837, on the decrees of the 
 Third Provincial Council of ^^Itimore. 
 We say in matters strictly ecclesiastical. 
 It is true, that, according to the general 
 law of the Church, as formerly in force, 
 ecclesiastics were not allowed to have 
 recourse to secular tribunals against other 
 ecclesiastics, even in temporal affairs. 
 But this general law no longer exists, 
 having been modified by concordats, or 
 by custom to the contrary. Hence, as 
 the 6'. Congr. de Prof. Fide in the above in- 
 struction indicates, ecclesiastics or re- 
 ligious are no longer forbidden to bring 
 before the civil courts causes mixtcB, that is, 
 those causes where the persons are ec- 
 clesiastics, but the things concerning which 
 there is a controversy are temporal and 
 family matters. This holds, especially, as 
 the Sacred Congregation says, in the 
 above instruction, in non-Catholic coun- 
 tries, where redress can scarcely be ob- 
 tained outside the civil tribunals. How- 
 ever, according to the declaration of the 
 5. Congr. S. Officii., Jan. 23d, 1886, ap- 
 proved by Pope Leo. XIII., ecclesiastics 
 and others must alwaj^s obtain leave 
 from the Holy See before they can have 
 recourse to the secular court against a 
 bishop, even though it be in temporal 
 matters. See S. B. Smith, Elcm. of 
 Eccl. La-iv, vol. I. No. 456. 
 
 Approbation in theology is the power 
 which a bishop gives to a priest to hear con- 
 fession and preach in his diocese. In 
 canon law. Approbation is an act by which 
 the Holy See, the bishop of a diocese, or an 
 inquisitor of faith, authorizes the publica- 
 tion of a book. In virtue of actual discipline, 
 this approbation is required only for the 
 writings referring to religious things. The 
 Church exercises great tolerance in this 
 matter when there is question of Catholic 
 authors and good works, reserving to her- 
 self, however, the right to put on the 
 Index, those books which could not re- 
 
 ceive her approbation if asked for and 
 which present a special danger to morals, 
 etc. 
 
 In moral theology. Approbation is the 
 favorable judgment passed, by the ecclesi- 
 astical authority, on the capacity of a 
 priest with regard to the ministry of 
 hearing confession. Mostly by the fact 
 that the jurisdiction is obtained, also the 
 approbation is included, that is, the effect- 
 ive power to absolve in the tribunal of 
 penance. Formerly, however, the dis- 
 tinction between both was of a continual 
 custom, and to-day it is in vigor for the 
 exempt religious who receive their juris- 
 diction from the Sovereign Pontiff, but 
 who must obtain the approbation of the 
 bishops in whose diocese they hear con- 
 fessions. 
 
 Aquarians. — Heretics who believed that 
 water is a principle coeternal with God, 
 and hence they used water instead of wine 
 in the sacrifice of the Mass. St. Cyprian, 
 who refuted this heresy in his 63rd Letter, 
 states that it was a new sect in his time. 
 They were disciples of Hermogenus, an 
 African heresiarch, about the middle of the 
 third century. 
 
 Aquila and Priscilla. — A Jewish Chris- 
 tian couple, tent-makers, who, driven from 
 Rome, went to Corinth, where St. Paul 
 met them, and where they instructed 
 Apollo (Acts xvi. 3-5). 
 
 Aquileia. — A town in the crownland of 
 Gorz and Gradiska, Austria- Hungary, sit- 
 uated near the head of the Adriatic, 22 
 miles north of Trieste. It was one of the 
 chief cities of the Roman Empire, an em- 
 porium, and the key of Italy on the north- 
 east, colonized by Rome about 181 b. c. 
 In 452 A. D. it was destroyed by Attila's 
 forces. A Synod held at Aquileia, in 558, 
 condemned the Fifth General Council, 
 and thus caused a formal schism, which 
 lasted till the year 700, when the last of 
 the schismatics returned to the unity of 
 the Church. Aquileia became the seat 
 of a Patriarchate in the sixth century. 
 
 Arabia. — A country of Western Asia, 
 Iving south and southeast of Judea. It 
 extends 1,500 miles from north to south and 
 1,200 miles from east to west. It is 
 bounded on the north by Syria, on the east 
 by the Persian gulf and the Euphrates, 
 on the south by the Arabian Sea and the 
 straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, and on the west 
 by the Red Sea, etc. Arabia is divided, by 
 
Arabici 
 
 57 
 
 Arbela 
 
 fjeographers, into three parts — Arabia 
 Deserta, Petrsea, and Felix. The north- 
 eastern portion is called Arabia Deserta. 
 A rabia Peircea, or Stony, is now generally 
 known as the Sinaitic peninsula and lies 
 between the two arms of the Red Sea. 
 Arabia Felix is the larger and the southern 
 portion. Holy Scripture often refers to 
 the country of Arabia. 
 
 Christianity was introduced into Arabia 
 by some of the Apostles, at least it is 
 certain that St. Paul, after his conversion, 
 dwelt for some time in Arabia (Gal. i. 
 17). The seed sown by St. Paul in Arabia 
 bore fruit a hundredfold, for one of the 
 Emirs of that country sent a request to 
 Origen, asking him for instruction in the 
 Christian religion, to which the latter 
 gladly acceded. There was a bishopric at 
 Bostra at a very early date, and at many 
 other places in Arabia about the middle of 
 the third century. About the year 350, 
 the Emperor Constantius sent an embassy, 
 composed of the most distinguished per- 
 sons, to the Sabeans or Homerites, a peo- 
 ple inhabiting southern Arabia, to concili- 
 ate them, if possible, to Christianity. 
 Theophilus, the Arian bishop, an Indian 
 of Diu, who was at the head of the em- 
 bassy, made an effort to obtain from the 
 king certain privileges for the Christians. 
 These were granted. Many inhabitants 
 embraced the faith and three Churches 
 were built at Tapharan, Aden, and Hor- 
 muz. Monks from the frontiers of Pales- 
 tine labored zealously during the fourth 
 and fifth centuries among the nomadic 
 tribes of Arabia, as, for instance, Hilarion, 
 Simeon Stylites, and Euthymius. Through 
 the efforts of these holy solitaries, im- 
 mense multitudes of the tribes we now 
 call Bedouins, embraced Christianity. In 
 40T, Euthymius converted Aspebethos, 
 chief of a Saracenic tribe, and also conse- 
 crated him bishop for his subjects. 
 
 Arabici. — Heretics of the third century, 
 who attacked the immortality of the soul, 
 without, however, denying that it has 
 another life. They maintained that the 
 soul would die with the body, and rise 
 again with it. These heretics held a great 
 assembly, in Arabia, in regard to this 
 question, at which Origen was present. 
 He spoke there with such tirmness and con- 
 viction that many of those who had fallen 
 into this error, immediately abandoned it. 
 
 Aram {elevation) . — Hebrew name of the 
 region situated north and east of Palestine 
 
 reaching to the Tigris. In Scripture, Aram 
 is often distinguished by means of a de- 
 terminative, for example : Aram Naharim, 
 Aram or Syria of the two rivers (the 
 Tigris and Euphrates), is the Mesopotamia 
 of the Greeks (bet-ween the rivers) . — A ram 
 of Soba, of Damascus, of Beth-Rohob, of 
 Maacha. The Septuagint and Vulgate 
 render the name Aram by Syria. In the 
 Assyrian cuneiform inscriptions, the names 
 Aramu, Arimu, and Arumu are used, but 
 only of Mesopotamia, and the peoples on 
 the western bank of the Euphrates. As 
 early as the period of the Judges, an 
 Aramean king extended his conquests to 
 Palestine (Judg. iii. 8, 10). David took 
 Damascus from the Arameans, but Solo- 
 mon was obliged to restore it. The last 
 king of Damascus, Rezin, allied himself 
 with Phacee, King of Israel, against Juda, 
 but succumbed to Teglath-Phalaser of 
 Assyria (745-727 b. c). The Arameans 
 became an important factor in the As- 
 syrian state ; their language seems to have 
 become the common speech of trade and 
 diplomacy, and it gradually supplanted 
 Assyrian in Assyria, and Hebrew in 
 Palestine. 
 
 Ararat. — The ancient name of a district 
 in eastern Armenia between the river 
 Araxes and the lakes Van and Urumiah ; 
 also used for all Armenia, and for the 
 mountain ridge in the south of that coun- 
 try. The usual statement that Noe's ark 
 rested on Mount Ararat, has no foundation 
 in the Hebrew text, which reads, "on the 
 mountains of Ararat." Tradition fixes 
 upon a point called by the Turks "Steep 
 Mountain," as the spot where the ark 
 rested. In the Assyrian cuneiform in- 
 scriptions, the country is mentioned under 
 the name Uratu, and many expeditions of 
 the Assyrian kings against it, are enum- 
 erated. The height of Great Ararat is 
 about 17,000 feet (17,325 according to Par- 
 rot) ; that of Little Ararat, 12,840 feet. 
 
 Arator. — Latin poet, born in Liguria 
 (490-556) ; secretary and steward of Athal- 
 aric, king of the Ostrogoths of Italy; em- 
 braced the ecclesiastical state and became 
 subdeacon at Rome. He put the Acts of 
 the Apostles into Latin verses, published 
 by Aide (Venice, 1502). 
 
 Arbela. — In ancient geography, a town 
 in Assyria, the modern Arbil, Erbil, or 
 Ervil. It was an early seat of the worship 
 of Istar, and a place of considerable im- 
 portance (I. Mach. ix. 2.). 
 
Arbrissel 
 
 58 
 
 Archelaus 
 
 Arbrissel (Robert of) (1047-1117). — A 
 French ecclesiastiCjthe founder of the Order 
 of Fontevrault. He was appointed vicar- 
 general of the Bishop of Rennes, in 1085 ; 
 became professor of theology at Angers, 
 in 1089; and two rears later, retired to the 
 forest of Craon, where he founded the 
 Abbey of De Rota. Later, he founded the 
 celebrated Abbey of Fontevrault, near 
 Poitiers, after which the Order was named. 
 
 Archangel. See Angkl. 
 
 Archbishop. — The title given to a met- 
 ropolitan prelate, who superintends the 
 conduct of suffragan bishops in his prov- 
 ince, and who exercises episcopal author- 
 ity in his own diocese. This title was 
 unknown in the primitive Church, and for 
 the first time was applied in the Orient by 
 St. Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, to 
 his predecessor, Alexander (fourth cen- 
 tury) ; and in the Occident, to St. Isidore 
 of Seville, who died in 636. However, 
 since the Roman epoch, the prelate resid- 
 ing in the capital of a province, exercised 
 over the bishops of the same province a 
 kind of suzerainty, and it was generally 
 the suzerain bishop who, later on, took 
 the name of archbishop. There is no dif- 
 ference between the bishop and the arch- 
 bishop as to order and character, but only 
 in regard to privileges and jurisdiction. 
 The archbishop judges, in his metropoli- 
 tan officiality, the appeals lodged against 
 the sentences rendered by the officials of 
 his suffragans. He possesses the power 
 of convoking and presiding in the pro- 
 vincial synods, superintendence and power 
 of visitation over the bishops of the metro- 
 politan see ; the power of enforcing the 
 laws of the Church as well as the canons 
 and constitutions of his province. He has 
 also the right of having the Cross carried 
 before him in his own archiepiscopate, of 
 giving his blessing, etc. See Metropoli- 
 tan ; Appeal. 
 
 Archbishopric. — The extent of ecclesi- 
 astical territory under the jurisdiction and 
 spiritual authority of an archbishop. In 
 the United States there are at present 
 (1899) fourteen archbishoprics. This term 
 is also applied to the city where there is 
 an archiepiseopal see. 
 
 Archchaplain. — This title was given in 
 the early French monarchy to the court 
 chaplain, often the same as the Papal, or 
 later the imperial apocrisiary, and identical 
 with the grand almoner and archchancel- 
 
 lor. The title became extinct with the 
 Carlovingian dynasty or second line of 
 kings before A. D. 1000. The archchaplain 
 had great privileges over matters concern- 
 ing the Church ; presided as mediator 
 between the bishops and king. The same 
 ecclesiastical office existed at the court of 
 the Emperor of Germany and at other 
 courts of sovereigns and princes. 
 
 Archconfraternity. — As the name indi- 
 dicates, this is, in the Church, a chief 
 confraternit}', having other confraternities 
 affiliated with it, and endowed with 
 special privileges. See Confraternity. 
 
 Archdeacon. — An ecclesiastical digni- 
 tary whose jurisdiction is immediately 
 subordinate to that of the bishop. In 
 early times, the archdeacon was often 
 charged by the bishop with attending and 
 assisting him in the administration of his 
 diocese, wholly, or in part. His duties 
 consisted in attending the bishop at the 
 altar, and at ordinations; assisting him in 
 managing the revenues of the Church, and 
 directing the deacons in their duties. The 
 name archdeacon is found among the 
 ecclesiastical dignities since the fourth 
 century. In the East it ceased with an 
 ecclesiastical officer of the Court of Con- 
 stantinople under the Byzantine Empire, 
 and in the West after the eighth century. 
 Dioceses had begun to be divided into 
 separate territories over which rural arch- 
 deacons were placed, having under them 
 deans or rural archpriests, charged with 
 the supervision of the parish priests of 
 their respective districts ; over these was 
 placed the general or grand archdeacon of 
 the whole diocese, who took precedence of 
 the archpriest and held his own court with 
 its officials distinct from that of the 
 bishop, so that appeals were taken from 
 the former to the latter. The rural arch- 
 deacons were often priests, having care 
 of souls, as was also the grand archdeacon 
 from the twelfth century. The powers 
 and privileges of this office were gradually 
 restricted, and since the Council of Trent, 
 its place is, for the most part, supplied by 
 the bishop's vicar-general, between whom 
 and the parish priests are sometimes placed 
 the vicars forane or present rural deans ; 
 while the archdeacon of the present day, 
 where the office survives, holds it as a 
 position of honor. There are no archdea- 
 cons in the United States. 
 
 Archelaus. — A son of Herod the Great, 
 by his Samaritan wife, Malthace. He was 
 
Archelaus 
 
 59 
 
 Architecture 
 
 educated with his brother Antipas, at 
 Rome, and after his father's death was 
 placed over Judea, Idumea, and Samaria 
 (the cities Gaza, Gadara, and Hippo ex- 
 cepted), with the title of ethnarch or te- 
 trarch ; whence he is said to reign in Judea 
 (Matt. ii. 22). After enjoying his power 
 for ten years, he was accused before the 
 Roman emperor, on account of his cruel- 
 ties, and banished to Vienne, on the 
 Rhone, in Gaul, where he died. 
 
 Archelaus. — Bishop of Kascar, in Meso- 
 potamia, flourished about 278, under the 
 reign of Probus. He is only known by his 
 controversies with Manes or Manicheus. 
 He wrote them in Syriac ; we still pos- 
 sess an ancient Latin translation thereof, 
 made, not according to the primitive text, 
 but according to a Greek version, attrib- 
 uted to Hegomenus. This Latin text has 
 been published by Zaccagni, Librarian of 
 the Vatican, Rome, in 1698. 
 
 Archimandrite. — Formerly, this word 
 signified a superior of a monastery. In 
 the eighteenth century, it was used to 
 denote an abbot-regular. At the present 
 day, the word is applied to the superior of 
 a monastery in the Greek Church, and the 
 title has been retained among the United 
 Greeks, that is, among those who acknowl- 
 edge the Pope supreme Pontiff. 
 
 Architecture (Early Church). — What 
 little is known of the places of worship of 
 the early Christians is found in the patris- 
 tic writings and among the writings of the 
 early Christian historians, while much in- 
 formation is also obtained from the early 
 pagan writers of the age. In the earli- 
 est times, doubtless, there were no fixed 
 edifices, services being held in the houses 
 of Christians; sometimes, as we read in 
 the Scriptures, in an upper room, as when 
 St. Paul was stopping at Troas (see Acts 
 XX. 7-1 1). This is the most particular de- 
 scription of a house of worship that we 
 find in the Scriptures. It is an upper 
 room, as was also that in which our 
 Saviour celebrated the Last Supper. These 
 out-of-the-way places were doubtless se- 
 lected because in those early days a Chris- 
 tian was exposed to the danger of losing his 
 life by proclaiming his religion. In Rome 
 we find them worshiping in the houses of 
 wealthy Christians, in underground chap- 
 els, and in other places where they were 
 least liable to be disturbed, and discovered 
 to be Christians. After the period of perse- 
 
 cutions, in the fourth century, however. 
 Christians already possessed in many 
 places spacious and often beautiful edifices 
 set apart for the worship of God. The 
 form of the primitive Christian Church 
 was generally that of an oblong quad- 
 rangle, divided into three, rarely five, 
 spaces by parallel rows of columns. The 
 middle space, unlike that of the pagan 
 basilicas, was roofed in and called the 
 nave of the building, from its similarity to 
 a ship, while the two or four spaces on 
 either side were called the aisles, or wings 
 of the building. There were, however, 
 many churches built in other forms. The 
 Church built by Constantine over the 
 Holy Sepulchre was round ; the one built 
 by him at Antioch, octagonal; the Church 
 of Nazianzum, built by the father of 
 Gregory Nazianzen, was also octagonal. 
 Others were in the form of a cross, such 
 as that of the Apostles at Constantinople, 
 built by Constantine. The church built 
 by the same emperor at Mambre was, ac- 
 cording to the authority of Valesius, in 
 the form of a quadrangle, or square. There 
 was still another form of church built in 
 the figure of an arch, or hemisphere, re- 
 sembling, if not identical with, the Pan- 
 theon at Rome. This, however, is more 
 properly a description of part of a church, 
 such as that of Saint Sophia at Constanti- 
 nople, the body of which was built in the 
 form of a trulla, or half-globe or cupola, 
 though the general outline of the church 
 was oblong. The churches were com- 
 monly so situated that the front or chief 
 entrances faced at first toward the east, 
 and the sanctuary, or altar, toward the 
 west; but these positions were reversed 
 in the Western world, and the altar was 
 made to face toward the east, and the chief 
 entrances toward the west. But in Ireland, 
 as Bishop Usher, quoting from Jocelin,- 
 observes, the churches built by St. Patrick 
 differed in position from any of these, and 
 faced north and south. 
 
 The interior of the church was com- 
 monly divided into three parts: i. At the 
 western end was the narthex, antetemple, 
 or vestibule, where the penitents and 
 catechumens stood. 2. The naos, from its 
 similarity to a ship, or temple, where the 
 communicants or faithful took their re- 
 spective places. These were separated ac- 
 cording to sex, the men occupying the 
 north side and the women the south. Be- 
 sides this general division, there was still 
 another. In the transept on the side occu- 
 
Archives 
 
 60 
 
 Arianism 
 
 pied by the women, the consecrated vir- 
 g^ins and widows were separated from the 
 others in a di\nsion called the matrovceum; 
 similarily, on the opposite side of the tran- 
 sept, monks and men of rank also held a 
 separate position, called the senatorium . 
 In Eastern churches the women occupied 
 tribunes. And 3. The bema, or choir, or 
 sanctuary, which was raised by a few steps 
 above the nave, and separated from it by 
 a curtain or partition usually of wood, but 
 sometimes of marble. This terminated in 
 a large semicircular hall, at the central point 
 of which, and against the wall, was the bish- 
 op's throne, flanked on either side by the 
 seats for the clergy, which also ran along 
 the wall, and particularly' surrounded the 
 altar. Only the clergy were permitted to 
 enter here. The altar stood in the center 
 of the choir. 
 
 Archives. — Rooms to keep for safety 
 and examination public records and his- 
 torical documents. The principal archives 
 of the Church, from apostolic times to the 
 present day, are those contained in the 
 Vatican at Rome. Pope Leo XIII. has 
 graciously opened the Vatican Archives to 
 public examination. They contain the 
 most rare and most valuable records in the 
 world. 
 
 Archontics. — Heretics of the second 
 century, a branch of the Valentinians. They 
 received this name because they attributed 
 the creation, not to God alone, but to 
 divers powers or principalities, which they 
 called Archontes. They rejected the sacra- 
 ments, and pretended that Sabaofh, an in- 
 ferior archon or principal, was their author. 
 They held that woman was the work of 
 the de\-il ; denied the resurrection of 
 the body, and permitted every excess of 
 sensual indulgence. They had books, 
 which they called Revelations of the 
 Prophets. Their chief was one named 
 Peter, priest and anchorite. This heresy 
 started in Palestine; Eutactus carried it 
 into Armenia, and it was refuted by St. 
 Epiphanus of Salamia. 
 
 Archpriest. — A title of ecclesiastical 
 dignity which gives to certain priests a 
 pre-eminence over others. Called by 
 the Greeks protopresbyter, and later 
 frotopope. The title dates from the fourth 
 century, and was originally given to the 
 senior by ordination in a diocese, a rule 
 long observed in the West. The arch- 
 priest, or dean of the Cathedral, assisted 
 
 the bishop in solemn functions as well as 
 in the spiritual adminstration, though 
 without ordinary jurisdiction; the rural 
 archpriest, or dean, had a limited superin- 
 tendence over the parish priests of his 
 deanery or district of the diocese, and 
 formed with them the rural Chapter, as 
 the bishop with his canons formed the 
 Cathedral Chapter. The archpriest, in 
 the Catholic Church, at the present time, 
 is merely a title of honor, the former 
 duties of the office being now performed 
 by the auxiliary bishop or dean of the 
 Cathedral Chapter. The duties of rural 
 archpriests, since the Council of Trent, 
 have generally devolved on the vicars 
 forane, still called rural deans, or directly 
 on the bishop's vicar-general. 
 
 Aretas. — Name of several kings of 
 Arabia Petraea. One of them, at the in- 
 stigation of the Jews, attempted to put St. 
 Paul into prison (I. Cor. iL 32; Cf. 
 
 Acts ix. 24, 25). 
 
 Arianism. — Name of the most formid- 
 able heresy of ancient times, having for 
 its founder one Arius, a native of Cyre- 
 naic LibA-a, and generally supposed to 
 have been born about the year 296. In 
 early life, we find him mixed up in the 
 religious disputes going on at Alexandria. 
 Having studied under Lucian, at Antioch, 
 he was well instructed in matters of exe- 
 gesis, eloquent, subtle, and ambitious for 
 fame. Degraded from the deaconate for 
 having taken part with Meletius, Bishop of 
 Lycopolis, in Upper Egypt, in strenuously 
 opposing certain rules of discipline enter- 
 tained by Peter, Bishop of Alexandria, 
 but afterwards became reconciled to the 
 latter. The reconciliation, however, was 
 brief. Arius once more took part with 
 Meletius, and was excommunicated by 
 Peter in consequence ; but the latter 
 dying soon after, Achillas, his successor, 
 restored Arius to his office and raised him 
 to the priesthood. His new function 
 opened vast resources to his already gifted 
 intellect, and it is no wonder that his 
 preaching became f>opular, and his erro- 
 neous opinions vehemently embraced. In 
 a conference held in 313 with his bishop, 
 Alexander, Arius, while speaking of the 
 Trinity, rejected the eternal generation of 
 the Word and its equal divinity to that 
 of the Father. In a word, he denied 
 that the Word was consubstantial to 
 the Father, and alleged that such a con- 
 ception was impossible to the human 
 
Arianism 
 
 6i 
 
 Arianism 
 
 mind, and accused Alexander of Sabellian- 
 ism, /. e., of destroying the distinction of 
 persons. In maintaining his ground Arius 
 went beyond his first statement of the 
 absolute distinctness of person between 
 the Father and the Son ; he maintained 
 that the Son was not coequal or coeternal 
 with the Father, but only the first and 
 highest of all finite beings, created from 
 nothing, by an act of God's free will, and 
 that He ought not to be ranked with the 
 Father. 
 
 In holding these opinions, we find that 
 Arius had embraced the principles of 
 Philo. Later on, he expressed himself 
 more fully before his adherents and in 
 public: The Father alone is not produced. 
 He alone has the being by Himself; if 
 such is the character of the divine. Being, 
 if this is a condition of the divine unity, 
 the Son cannot be but having been pro- 
 duced ; the basis of His Being and of His 
 essence is outside of Him ; He is not God, 
 but of an essence different from that of 
 the Father; He is a creature, but the first 
 of the creatures, the most eminent, mani- 
 fested before every other by the free will 
 of God, who through Him creates all 
 things; hence there has been a time when 
 the Son was not. Thus it was that Arius 
 denied, with the Monarchians, the distinc- 
 tion of the Persons in God, maintained, 
 with Sabellius, that God has not been 
 eternally Father, that He became this only 
 in time, when He created the world 
 through His Son; finally he taught, with 
 the Manicheans, that Christ has delivered 
 man only through His doctrine and 
 example. 
 
 Arius, not heeding the admonitions of 
 his bishop nor the supplications of the 
 priests who wished to see him reconciled 
 to the Church, was excommunicated at 
 the Council of Alexandria, in 321. Per- 
 sisting in his opinions and in open defiance 
 of the excommunication, he succeeded in 
 securing the adherence of a number of the 
 clergy and laity in Egypt, Syria, and Asia 
 Minor, by his subtle and equivocal expla- 
 nations. To escape persecution, Arius re- 
 tired to Palestine, where he wrote a letter 
 to his friend Eusebius, who was Bishop of 
 Nicomedia, a city of Bithynia, and not far 
 from Constantinople. Eusebius, one of 
 the most influential Christians of his time, 
 warmly sympathized with him ; wrote in 
 his behalf to Paulinus, Bishop of Tyre, 
 and others ; absolved him from the Alex- 
 andrian Council's excommunication; and 
 
 in 323 convened another Council in Bithy- 
 nia, which pronounced favorably on Arius. 
 He even enlisted Constantine on the side 
 of the latter to the extent, at least, that the 
 emperor addressed admonitions to both 
 Alexander and Arius, assuring them that 
 the point in dispute was a trifling one, and 
 ought not to provoke a serious quarrel. 
 While Arius was residing at Nicomedia, 
 he wrote a theological work in verse and 
 prose, called Thalcia, some fragments of 
 which remain, but they contain expres- 
 sions which could not but pain a believer 
 in the divinity of Christ. The Thaleia is 
 said to have been sung by the Arian 
 neophytes, who thus kindled the passions 
 of their adversaries, and increased the 
 virulence of the contest. The comedians, 
 who were pagans, took advantage of the 
 occasion to ridicule the Christian religion 
 in the theaters. The officers of the em- 
 peror, in several cities, wished to repress 
 the profane temerity, but the insolence of 
 the Arians added to the confusion. 
 
 It now became impossible for the em- 
 peror to remain neutral or indifferent to 
 the spread of Arianism and its fatal conse- 
 quences. Hosius, Bishop of Corduba, 
 whom he had appointed mediator between 
 Alexander and Arius, took part with the 
 former and reported unfavorably of the 
 doctrine of Arius. Seeing the tranquillity 
 of his empire threatened and dissensions 
 among the eastern Christians growing 
 more numerous through the efforts of 
 Arius and his adherents, he listened to the 
 advice of the most eminent bishops and, 
 with the full approbation of the Pope, con- 
 voked the Ecumenical Council of Nice, 
 in 325. Three hundred and eighteen bish- 
 ops from all parts of the world were pres- 
 ent, besides numerous priests and deacons 
 well versed in theology. Arius was allowed 
 to explain his doctrines, and the utmost 
 freedom and facilities were provided for 
 him at each session, to plead his case be- 
 fore attentive listeners. He boldly ex- 
 pounded and defended his opinions. He 
 declared in the most unambiguous manner 
 that the Son of God was created out of 
 nothing; that He had not always existed; 
 that He was not immutable or impeccable; 
 that it was through His free will He re- 
 mained good and holy; that if He had 
 chosen. He could as easily have sinned as 
 not ; in a word, that He was a mere creature 
 and a work of the Deity. He further af- 
 firmed that the Son of God was not of the 
 same substance with the Father; that He 
 
Arianism 
 
 62 
 
 Arianism 
 
 was not the "Word" or "Wisdom," prop- 
 erly speaking; and that the Scriptures 
 only attribute these names to Him as they 
 do to other created intelligences. 
 
 These propositions were listened to with 
 great calmness by all the bishops until he 
 had done. Then the document containing 
 his confession of faith was torn to pieces 
 before his face and consigned to the flames. 
 The zealous young deacon, Athanasius, 
 more than the equal of Arius in eloquence 
 and logic, ably seconded Bishop Alex- 
 ander in controverting the opinions of 
 Arius, word for word. The logical effect 
 of the argument was so precise and clear 
 that the Council defined in the most pre- 
 cise manner the doctrine of the Godhead, 
 founded on that of the Apostles, and 
 signed by all the bishops except two, 
 Theonis of Marmarica, and Secundus of 
 Ptolemais. 
 
 The definition of the Godhead, declaring 
 the absolute unity of the divine essence, 
 and the absolute equality of the Three 
 Persons ; that the Son of God is true God, 
 i. e., being necessarily of the essence of 
 the Father, and not made from a substance 
 equal to the Father, unmasked the errors 
 of Arius, and was a clear admonition to 
 his friend Eusebius, and their adherents. 
 Even in exile Arius planned various am- 
 biguous definitions of his doctrines to 
 betray Constantine into the belief that 
 in substance he acknowledged the Nicene 
 symbol of faith. He went so far as to 
 promise to conform to the decisions of the 
 Council. Disappointed in his expectations, 
 Arius, in 336 A. D., proceeded to Con- 
 stantinople, where he presented the em- 
 peror with another apparently orthodox 
 confession of faith. The bishops Eusebius 
 and Theonis were also recalled from exile. 
 Constantine thought by this declaration 
 that it would surely tend to restore peace 
 and unity to the Church, but immediately 
 on their return, the Arians became bolder 
 and continued to persecute the most faith- 
 ful defenders of the Nicene Creed : Eusta- 
 chius of Antioch, Athanasius, etc. Atha- 
 nasius was one of their most formidable 
 antagonists, and they sought every means to 
 influence the emperor against this saintly 
 champion of the Church. Believing that 
 peace and concord would more readily be 
 restored by yielding to their presentations, 
 he banished Athanasius to Treves, where 
 his voice and pen could not exert such in- 
 fluence among eastern Christians against 
 the errors of Arianism. 
 
 The new formula of faith presented by 
 Arius to Constantine was so ingeniouslv 
 put together that the emperor accepted 
 his adherence to the Nicene dogma, and 
 requested Alexander, Bishop of Constanti- 
 nople, to administer to him Holy Com- 
 munion on the Sunday following. This 
 was considered a grand triumph by Euse- 
 bius and his friends, and, when the day 
 arrived, they escorted the heresiarch 
 through the streets of the metropolis. 
 When about to enter the Church of the 
 Apostles, to sacrilegiously partake of the 
 Body and Blood of our Lord and Saviour 
 Jesus Christ, whom he denied being co- 
 eternal and coequal, he was seized with 
 violent colic and forced to seek a private 
 closet to relieve nature, where he died of 
 a painful hemorrhage in a few moments. 
 
 Arianism did not cease after the death 
 of its founder. On the contrary, it spread 
 rapidly in the East under the Emperor 
 Constantius, and conquest over Magnen- 
 tius gaining dominion over the West, 
 spread there also. The Nicene doctrine 
 had strong support on its side, and was 
 strictly maintained by the banished Athan- 
 asius, and all in communion with the Holy 
 See. The Arians soon became divided on 
 points of doctrine and split into many 
 parties. The old Arians, also styled Ano- 
 moeans, or Heterousians, asserted, in the 
 boldest style, their doctrine of "distinct 
 substances." The semi- Arians modified 
 the former doctrine by acknowledging 
 that the Son of God was similar to the 
 Father, at least by grace. Instead of 
 homousian, which means consubstantial — 
 of the Same sub.stance, they said hotnoiou- 
 sian — of a similar substance. Morally, 
 the victory was leaning to the side of the 
 Niceans. Other parties qualified the doc- 
 trines of the others till the verbal differ- 
 ence between them and the orthodox doc- 
 trine was in some instances quite slight. 
 Each sect carried the name of its chief. 
 There were Eusebians, Eunomeans, Pho- 
 tians, Apollinarists, Accacians, Macedon- 
 ians, etc. 
 
 Julian the Apostate (361-363), in his 
 hatred of the Christian religion, left all 
 parties at liberty to contend as they pleased 
 with one another, so that they did not in- 
 terfere with his plans. Indeed, it is said 
 that he favored the Arian heresy to weaken 
 the true Christians. Arianism, at last, 
 was virtually abolished in the Roman 
 empire under Theodosius in the East 
 (379-395), and Valentinianus II. in the 
 
Arias Montanus 
 
 63 
 
 Ark of the Covenant 
 
 West. Among the German nations, how- 
 ever, it continued to spread. The Van- 
 dals carried it into Africa, the Burgundians 
 into Western Gaul, the Visigoths into 
 Southern Gaul and Spain. The Arian 
 controversy has never excited any great 
 interest in modern times, though Eras- 
 mus was accused in the sixteenth cen- 
 tury of wishing to revive this doctrine in 
 his Commentary on the Ne%v Testament, 
 while it is known that Michael Servetus 
 published a work against the mystery of 
 the Trinity later on, which served as a 
 basis for a new system of Arianism. This 
 modern heresy degenerated in the course 
 of time into Socinianism. Dr. Samuel 
 Clarke (1675-1729) and Whiston, who died 
 in 1752, tried to revive it in England. 
 Recently, a part of the Arian doctrine, the 
 denial of the "eternal sonship," was 
 broached in the Wesleyan Methodist Society 
 by Dr. Adam Clarke and a few followers, 
 but it was soon suppressed by the Confer- 
 ence. Pure Arianism can hardly now he 
 said to exist. It has gradually lapsed into 
 Unitarianism. 
 
 Arias Montanus (Benedictus) (1527- 
 1598)- — Spanish Orientalist and philoso- 
 pher; born at Frejenal, in the mountains 
 of Estremadura, whence his surname 
 Montanus. He took a distinguished part 
 in the Council of Trent, and was the editor 
 of the Antwerp Polyglot Bible (1568-73). 
 
 Ariel (Hebr. lion of God). — Name given 
 by Isaias to Jerusalem, because the moun- 
 tain on which it was built resembles a 
 lion at rest. 
 
 Arimathea or Rama. — A city of Pales- 
 tine, near Jerusalem, now called Nebi- 
 Sahamuil, because the people there claim 
 that they possess the tomb of Samuel. 
 Country of Joseph of Arimathea, a disci- 
 ple of Christ. 
 
 Arioch (Chald. servant of the moon-trod). 
 — I. King of Ellasar, one of the four kings 
 who, at the time of Abraham, made an at- 
 tack on the cities in the valley of Sodom 
 (Gen. xiv.). In the book of Judith (i. 6) 
 he is called king of Elam ; identified by 
 some with Erim-agu, king of Ellasar. — 2. 
 A captain of the guard of Nabuchodonosor 
 (Dan. ii. 14 f.). 
 
 Aristides (St.). — Christian apologist, 
 of the first half the second century, was 
 an Athenian by birth, and wore, after 
 having become a Christian, the gown of 
 
 the philosophers. The Emperor Adrianus, 
 staying in Athens in 125, Aristides pre- 
 sented to him an apology for the Chris- 
 tians, filled with passages selected from 
 philosophers. Adrianus was struck by it 
 and mitigated the lot of the Christians. 
 Of this long lost Apology, a considerable 
 f ragment,in an Armenian translation dating 
 from the tenth century, was found in 1878 
 in an old codex by the Mechitarist monks in 
 Venice, together with an oration ascribed 
 to Aristides. But in the year 18S9, J. Ren- 
 del Harris, an American palaeographer, 
 found in the Convent of St. Catharine, on 
 Mount Sinai, the entire Apology of Aris- 
 tides in a Syrian manuscript of the sev- 
 enth century; and, soon after. Professor 
 Robinson made the surprising discovery 
 that the Greek text also was to be found, 
 not only in manuscript, but actually 
 printed, since 1832, in the Vita Barlaam et 
 Joasafh, found among the writings of St. 
 John Damascene. Though the three texts 
 agree on the whole, they differ from each 
 other in many particulars, but the Syrian 
 seems to be preferable. 
 
 Aristo of Pella. — A Jewish Christian 
 and apologist of the second century, of 
 whose life we know very little. He wrote 
 Disputatio yasonis et Papisci, a dialogue 
 on the Christian religion between Jason, 
 a converted, and Papiscus, an unconveited 
 Jew. It was written in Greek, and trans- 
 lated into Latin; both the original and the 
 translation are lost. Its object was to 
 show the fulfillment of the ancient prophe- 
 cies in Jesus Christ. 
 
 Aristobolus. — Name of princes and high- 
 priests of the Jews. Aristobolus I. Son of 
 John Hyrcanus, and King of Judea (106-105 
 B.C.). His Hebrew name was Judah. Aris- 
 tobolus II. — Son of Alexander Jannaeus ; 
 died about 48 b. c. Aristobolus III. — A 
 Jewish prince, who was made high-priest 
 by Herod I. Herod had him assassinated 
 aljout 30 B. c. 
 
 Ark of the Covenant. — One of the most 
 important parts of the furniture of the 
 Tabernacle, which, by divine direction, 
 the Israelites constructed in the wilderness, 
 and afterwards of the Temple, built by 
 Solomon, at Jerusalem, to be used as a 
 sacred depository for the Tables of the 
 Law. It was a chest of setim wood, 
 covered with gold within and without, two 
 cubits and a half in length, one cubit and 
 a half in breadth and in height (according 
 
Arles 
 
 64 
 
 Arnauld 
 
 to the common estimate of the length of 
 the cubit, three feet nine inches in length, 
 and two feet three inches in breadth and 
 height). The lid was formed of pure 
 gold, with a crown or raised border of 
 gold. Within the Ark was deposited 
 the "testimony," consisting of "the two 
 Tables of the Law," /. e., the stone 
 tablets upon which the ten command- 
 ments were inscribed. The golden lid of 
 the Ark was called mercy seat or propitia- 
 tory, and above it were the Cherubim made 
 of the same piece of gold with it, and be- 
 tween them was the place of the Sheckinah 
 or manifestation of the Divine presence. 
 The Ark had also golden rings, through 
 which thej passed staves of setim wood, 
 overlaid with gold, for carrying it in the 
 journeyings of the Israelites (Ex. xxv. 10- 
 22). At first it was placed in the part of 
 the Tabernacle called the Holy of Holies, 
 and later on in the Temple of Solomon. 
 It was carried before the people when 
 they marched to battle. The Philistines 
 got possession of it but restored it shortly 
 after. Before the Babylonian captivity, 
 Jeremias secreted it in a cave of Mount 
 Nebo. There is no mention of it being 
 deposited in the second Temple, and the 
 general belief, current in early times, was 
 that it was burned at the destruction of 
 Solomon's Temple. 
 
 Aries. — One of the oldest towns in 
 France, situated on the left bank of the 
 principal branch of the Rhone, after it has 
 divided into a delta, in the department 
 of Bouches du Rhone. In the early 
 Christian times several important synods 
 were convened at Aries (314, 354, 452, and 
 475)- 
 
 Armenia. — An extensive country of Asia, 
 having Media on the east, Cappadocia on 
 the west, Colchis and Iberia on the north, 
 Mesopotamia in the south and the Eu- 
 phrates and Syria on the southwest 
 (IV. Ki. xix. 37). 
 
 Armenia (^Christianity in). See Grkg- 
 ORY THE "Illuminator." 
 
 Arminius and Arminians. — A r m i n i u s 
 (1560-1609), a preacher in Amsterdam, and, 
 in 1603, a professor in Leyden, dissented 
 from Calvin's severe doctrines on Free 
 Will and Predestination, and adopted a 
 system which he deemed less revolting to 
 the reason of man. He was opposed by 
 Gomar, one of his colleagues. The con- 
 troversy between the Arminians, also 
 
 called "Remonstrants," from their Re- 
 monstrance, which in 1610 they presented 
 to the States-General, and the Gomarists, 
 known also as Anti-Remonstrants, led, 
 early in the seventeenth centur}-, to civil 
 commotions. Repeated, but ineffectual, 
 attempts were made on the part of the 
 civil authorities to bring about a recon- 
 ciliation between the contending parties. 
 The National Synod of Dort, in 1618, 
 upheld Calvin's doctrines, and condemned 
 the Arminians as heretics, who, in con- 
 sequence, were deprived of their position, 
 and even banished from the countrv. 
 Though much persecuted, the Arminians 
 continued as a distinct organization and 
 are chiefly confined to the Netherlands, 
 where they number only about twenty con- 
 gregations and a few thousand adherents. 
 The doctrine of Arminius, and of Epis- 
 copius, his successor, against that of Cal- 
 vinism and that proclaimed by the " Synod 
 of Dort," was as follows: — i. Conditional 
 election and reprobation in opposition to 
 absolute predestination as taught by Cal- 
 vin. 2. Universal redemption, or that the 
 atonement was made by Christ for all 
 mankind, though none but believers can 
 be partakers of its benefits. 3. That man, 
 in order to exercise true faith, must be 
 regenerated and renewed by the operation 
 of the Holy Ghost, which is the gift of 
 God. 4. That this grace is not irresistible. 
 5. That believers are able by the aid of the 
 Holy Ghost to resist sin, but that there is 
 always in this life the possibilit}'^ of the fall 
 from grace, in opposition to the Calvinistic 
 doctrine of the perseverance of the saints. 
 Protestants in general shared in the con- 
 troversy excited by the promulgation of 
 these doctrines, and all opponents of Cal- 
 vinism are still often characterized as 
 Arminians. In the Church of England 
 Arminianism was esp>ecially favored by the 
 High Church party. The Methodist de- 
 nomination was divided on the subject, 
 the followers of Wesley being Arminians 
 and those of Whitefield, Calvinists. 
 
 Arnaujd (Angelica). — Daughter of the 
 following, born in 1591 ; died in 1661. When 
 only 14 years old, she became Abbess of 
 Port- Royal des Champs, where she revived 
 the spirit of the Institute of St. Bernard. 
 She also reformed the Abbey of Maubuisson. 
 Arnauld {"jfeanne Catharine Agnes de 
 St. Pauiy — Sister of the preceding (1694- 
 1671), became coadjutress of her eldest 
 sister,and ruled Port-Royal after hersister's 
 
Arnauld 
 
 65 
 
 Art 
 
 death. She wrote : The Image of the Per- 
 fect and Imperfect Religious ( Paris, 1660) ; 
 The Rosary of the Blessed Sacrament 
 (1663), suppressed at Rome, without being 
 censured. — The four other daughters of 
 Antoine Arnauld were also religious of 
 Port-Royal and attached to the Jansenist 
 party. 
 
 Arnauld (Antoine) (1560-1619). — 
 Famous lawyer, son of the general advo- 
 cate of Catherine de Medici. He com- 
 posed works against the Jesuits and against 
 Philip II. King of Spain. He had by 
 Catharine Marion twenty children, of 
 whom ten survived him. 
 
 Arnauld (Antoine). — Son of the pre- 
 ceding and youngest of his children, born 
 at Paris in 161 2. By the advice of Abbe 
 St. Cyran, director of Port-Royal, and 
 friend of his family, he embraced the eccle- 
 siastical state and joined the cause of Jan- 
 senism. Doctor of the Sorbonne in 1643, 
 he published his book on Frequent Com- 
 munion^ to which he might have given 
 just the opposite title. Violent disputes 
 broke out in regard to this subject. A 
 priest of St. Sulpice having refused abso- 
 lution to the Duke of Liancourt, who had 
 taken up, with an extraordinary zeal, the 
 defense of the book of Jansenius, Arnauld 
 wrote in favor of Jansenism two lively 
 letters. The Sorbonne censured the two 
 following propositions : The Fathers show 
 us a just man in the person of St. Peter, in 
 whom grace, without which we can do 
 nothing, was wanting on one occasion, 
 where we cannot say that he did not sin. — 
 We can doubt whether the five proposi- 
 tions condemned by Innocent X. and Alex- 
 ander VII. are those of Jansenius, Bishop 
 of Ypres, and whether they are contained 
 in the book of this author. Arnauld, re- 
 fusing to subscribe to the censure, was 
 excluded from the Faculty. A transaction 
 between tlie parties, concluded in 1669, 
 under the name of " Peace of Clement 
 VII.," permitted him to leave without 
 disgrace. He devoted this time of peace 
 to the defense of Catholic orthodoxy, 
 against the Protestant ministers Claude 
 and Jurieu. Then he published (in French) : 
 Perpetuity of Faith ; The Destruction of 
 the Morals of fesus Christ by the Calvin- 
 ists, and several other works of contro- 
 versy. But his relations with Port-Royal 
 and the Jansenists rendered him suspicious 
 once more. He was obliged to leave France ; 
 he went to Belgium, where in spite of his 
 
 5 
 
 advanced age and infirmities he did not 
 cease to write and to fight. He died at 
 Liege in 1694. See Jansenism. 
 
 Arnobius. — A distinguished rhetorician. 
 He was a native of Sicca, in Africa, and 
 flourished in the beginning of the fourth 
 century. He was a zealous advocate of 
 paganism, until, as St. Jerome relates, he 
 was warned by heavenly admonitions to 
 embrace Christianity. To give some pub- 
 lic proof of the sincerity of his conversion, 
 Arnobius, about 304, wrote, probably at 
 the bidding of the bishop to whom he ap- 
 plied for admission into the Church, his 
 seven books of Disputations against the 
 Gentiles, in which he exposes the falla- 
 cies of heathenism and the immorality of 
 idolatry. He dwells in particular on the 
 reproach made by the pagans that the 
 Christians, by despising the ancient gods, 
 were the cause of all the calamities that 
 befell the empire. As he wrote this work 
 while a novice in the faith, his expressions 
 are somewhat inaccurate regarding certain 
 doctrines of the Gospel. He died in 325. 
 
 Arnoldists. — Heretics of the twelfth 
 century, who took their name from the 
 impetuous Arnold of Brescia. They are 
 said by some writers to have held the 
 errors of the Petrobusians, regarding infant 
 baptism and the Holy Eucharist. Their 
 special doctrine was, that secular and re- 
 ligious power ought not to be vested in the 
 same person ; that salvation was impossible 
 to a priest holding property, or to an 
 ecclesiastic exercising temporal power; 
 and, consequently, that Church property 
 might be lawfully seized by laymen. They 
 are branded as heretics by Pope Lucius 
 III., and also in the law of Frederick II. 
 
 Arnon {Oued-Modjel). — River of Pales- 
 tine, which descends from the mountains 
 of Galaad into the Dead Sea. It separates 
 Palestine from Arabia. 
 
 Arphaxad. — x. Son of Sem, born two 
 years after the Deluge, and father of 
 Cainan. According to Josephus, he set- 
 tled in Chaldea. — 2. King of the Medes, 
 mentioned in Judith, where it is said that he 
 built Ecbatana. It is believed that he is 
 the Phraortes or Phrartes of Herodotus, 
 who subdued all the peoples of Asia, and 
 was finally conquered and killed by Nabu- 
 chodonosor. 
 
 Art {Christian). — Christian art was 
 born in the Catacombs of Rome. It com- 
 
Art 
 
 66 
 
 Artemon 
 
 prises three periods : The first answers to 
 the age of primitive Christianity; the sec- 
 ond produced in the Orient the Bjzantine 
 style, and the third produced in the Occi- 
 dent the Latin and Roman style. From 
 the first century, the history of art and 
 the Church are inseparable. The early 
 Christians employed painting in the dec- 
 oration of their places of worship, as 
 abundant evidence in the Catacombs bears 
 witness. Among them is a head of 
 Christ, the type to which all succeeding 
 artists have adhered. There are also sev- 
 eral representations of the Blessed Virgin 
 and a head of St. Peter and of St. Paul. 
 (See Painting). In the fourth century, 
 after the recognition of Christianity, art 
 received new life and some remains may 
 be traced to that time ; but it relapsed after 
 the Western Empire, and would, most 
 probably, have been forgotten had it not 
 been for the monks. Those patient toilers 
 preserved, through the illustration of the 
 Bible, and the illumination of missals, the 
 germs which in the thirteenth century 
 waxed strong, and budded and bloomed 
 into beauty, in the matchless work of 
 Cimabue, Nicholo, Pisano, and Giotto, 
 whose names will remain landmarks in 
 the history of art for all time. 
 
 At this time, art completely abandons the 
 ancient traditions to take a new form — all 
 Christian in expression. The thought 
 which dominates in the monuments of the 
 thirteenth century is the transporting to- 
 wards heaven. This new architecture, so 
 improperly called Gothic, arose in the 
 bosom of France, perfected by French 
 workmen and artists. So, too, with 
 sculpture ; it creates from itself a new 
 type, essentially Christian, through which 
 it is in harmony with the temples it 
 decorates ; the plastic beauty was all in 
 the pagan statuary ; in the statues of the 
 Middle Ages it is the expression of 
 the moral sentiment which is predomi- 
 nant. Finally, a new art, encouraged and 
 nurtured by the French — the painting on 
 glass — developed during this time and 
 largely contributed toward the decoration 
 and solemnity of the churches ; touching 
 the vaulted ceilings, aisles, altars, paint- 
 ings and statuary with a mellow and sub- 
 dued coloring, which is both touching and 
 elevating to the soul and to the artistic sense. 
 And now alter the great architects come 
 the great painters; the latter arose in Italy 
 at the end of the thirteenth century. In 
 the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 
 
 the master works of the Middle Ages were 
 not so highly prized as they are to-day. 
 The advancement in all departments of 
 knowledge has cultivated a higher ap- 
 preciation of the classic works of art which 
 will stand alone in their perfection for all 
 time. 
 
 Art {Christian) and Protestantism. — 
 Protestantism, says Cardinal Wiseman, 
 presents no types of Christian art. It 
 has destroyed the types of the past. It 
 excludes as legendary all the most beau- 
 tiful histories of the early saints; it has 
 quenched all sympathy for the favorite 
 themes of mediaeval painting — the Fathers 
 of the Desert, St. Benedict, and the great 
 monastic heroes; and, still more, the in- 
 spirer and the maturer of art and of its 
 poetry, the glorious St. Francis of Assisium. 
 And as to the present, it allows no com- 
 munion with saints in heaven, and conse- 
 quently no interest in having their effigies 
 before our eyes; no loving intercourse 
 with blessed spirits, and therefore no right 
 to bring them visibly in action. All 
 ecstasy, supernatural contemplation, vision, 
 and rapturous prayer, with the only ap- 
 proach to heavenly expression that earth 
 can give; all miracles and marvelous 
 occurrences, with the store of incident 
 which they supply ; all mingling, in any one 
 scene, of the living and the blessed, the 
 past and the present ; in fine, all the poetry 
 of art, is coldly cut out — nay, strangled 
 and quenched — by the hard hand of 
 Protestantism. 
 
 Furthermore, Protestantism lacks essen- 
 tially all religious tenderness and affection- 
 ateness. It has no sympathy with the 
 mysteries that touch the feelings. The 
 crucifix is to it, what it was in St. Paul's 
 time dividedly to Jew and Gentile, both a 
 stumbling block and foolishness. The 
 Mother of sevenfold grief is a superstition. 
 Meditation on the Infancy or Passion of 
 Our Lord is not part of youthful training 
 in its schools; it has not produced a 
 tender writer on these subjects. 
 
 Artemon and Artemonites. — Artemon, 
 the founder of the Artemonites, taught in 
 Rome, at the end of the second and the 
 beginning of the third century. He de- 
 clared the doctrine of the Divinitj' of 
 Christ to be an innovation, and main- 
 tained that the belief of his party, with re- 
 gard to Christ, was the primitive one in 
 the Church during the first two centuries, 
 
Articles of Perth 
 
 ^7 
 
 Articles 
 
 till the faith was perverted by Pope 
 Zephyrinus. This bold assertion was ably 
 refuted by a Roman presbyter (Cajus or 
 Hippolytus) from the sacred Scriptures, 
 the writings of the Fathers and the Apolo- 
 gists ; by the prayers and hymns of the 
 early Church, and by the condemnation of 
 Theodotus the Tanner. 
 
 Articles of Perth. — The five articles 
 agreed upon at a General Assembly of the 
 Church of Scotland, convened by James 
 VI., in 1618, enjoining certain episcopal 
 observances, such as the observance of fast 
 days, kneeling at the Lord's Supper, etc. 
 They were ratified by the Scotch parlia- 
 ment in 1621, and became a subject of bit- 
 ter controversy between the king and the 
 people. 
 
 Articles of Schmalkald. — Articles of 
 Protestant faith, drawn up by Luther, and 
 submitted to a meeting of Protestant elec- 
 tors, princes, and States, at Schmalkald, 
 Germany, in 1537, intended to bring them 
 into closer union and form a league against 
 the Catholic States and Charles V. 
 
 Articles {The Lambeth). — Nine articles 
 drawn up at Lambeth, England, in 1595, 
 which were intended to deiine the Calvin- 
 istic doctrine with regard to predestination, 
 justification, etc. 
 
 Articles {The Six). — These are often 
 mentioned in the ecclesiastical his- 
 tory of England as the "whip with six 
 strings," or " bloody statute," as they were 
 called from the bloody persecutions to 
 which they gave rise. These articles were 
 imposed by act of parliament in 1539, when 
 Henry VIIL, was displeased with some of 
 the bishops most favorable to the Reforma- 
 tion. They upheld the doctrine of Tran- 
 substantiation, declared communion in one 
 kind only necessary, condemned the mar- 
 riage of priests, enjoined the continued 
 observance of vows of chastity, and sanc- 
 tioned private Masses and auricular con- 
 fession. Severe penalties were appointed 
 for writing or speaking against them, and 
 for abstaining from confession or Com- 
 munion at the accustomed times, for priests 
 failing to put away their wives, and for 
 persons writing or speaking against the 
 doctrine of Transubstantiation. Arch- 
 bishop Cranmer vainly opposed the act 
 in the House of Lords as a "blow to the 
 Reformation" ; the king was resolved to 
 have it passed. Its severity was mitigated 
 
 by a subsequent act of Henry's reign 
 (1544), and repealed in 1549. 
 
 Articles {The Thirty-Nine).— Kre the 
 articles of religion of the Church of Eng- 
 land, which were agreed upon by the 
 archbishops and bishops of both provinces 
 and the whole clergy, in the Convocation 
 held in London in the 4th year of Eliza- 
 beth, 1562, under Archbishop Parker. In 
 the reign of Edward VI. the original arti- 
 cles were forty-two in number, and were 
 set forth by the King's authority in 1552. 
 To these articles was prefixed the Cate- 
 chism, nearly all of which was the work 
 of Cranmer, for he acknowledged before 
 Queen Mary's commission that they were 
 his doing. After Edward's death, one of the 
 first acts of the Convocation was to reject 
 these forty-two articles. In 1558, Eliza- 
 beth succeeded her sister, and in the fol- 
 lowing year Parker was installed in the 
 see of Canterbury, and then came a fresh 
 opportunity for drawing up some articles 
 of faith which might be binding on the 
 Anglican Church. Parker revised the 
 forty- two articles of King Edward, reject- 
 ing four of them entirely, and introducing 
 four new ones, viz. : the 5th, 12th, 29th, 
 and 30th, as they now stand, and altering 
 more or less seventeen others. This draft 
 Parker laid before the Convocation, which 
 met in 1562, where further alterations were 
 made; and the 39th, 40th, and 42d of 
 King Edward, which treated of the resur- 
 rection, the intermediate state, and the 
 doctrine of the final salvation of all men, 
 were finally rejected. The 41st of King 
 Edward's articles, which condemned the 
 Millenarians, was one of the four which 
 Parker omitted. Thus the articles were re- 
 duced to thirty-nine. They were drawn up 
 and ratified in Latin, but when they were 
 printed, as was done both in Latin and 
 English, the 29th was omitted, and so the 
 number was further reduced to thirty- 
 eight. From these thirty-eight there was 
 a further omission, viz., of the first half of 
 the 20th article, which declares that "the 
 Church hath power to decree rites and 
 ceremonies, and hath authority in contro- 
 versies of faith." As all the records of 
 the Convocation perished in the great fire 
 of 1666, it is difficult to tell who author- 
 ized Parker to make the omissions, altera- 
 tions and additions, and to place a num- 
 ber of clergy " under ban" for accepting 
 the original draft instead of the revised 
 and altered one. However, the commis- 
 
Asa 
 
 68 
 
 Ascension Day 
 
 sion had found some of the bishops and 
 clergy adhering to the 42 articles, while 
 others maintained the original draft. This 
 was leading to different beliefs among the 
 professed members of the Church, some 
 holding to the doctrine of purgatory, and 
 others to the final salvation of all men by 
 receiving the last rites prescribed by the 
 Church to the dying. In 1571, the articles 
 once more underwent revision and altera- 
 tion. Some clamored for a radical change 
 in doctrine and for a complete elimination 
 of Catholic doctrine. Parker and Jewel 
 made some alterations to satisfy the ex- 
 treme Churchmen, and an act of parlia- 
 ment was passed, in that year, compelling 
 the clergy to subscribe to " such of them as 
 only concern the confession of the true 
 Christian faith, and the doctrine of the 
 sacraments." The question now arose, 
 which was the authorized copy, some of 
 the copies being printed with, and others 
 without, the disputed clause of the 20th 
 article and the restoration of the whole of 
 the 29th. The articles in dispute were set- 
 tled, and the whole thirty-nine, as they now 
 stand, were approved in 1604 ; and adopted 
 by the Convocation of the English Church 
 in Ireland in 1635, and by the Scotch Epis- 
 copal Church in 1804, and, with certain 
 modifications, by the Protestant Episco- 
 pal Church of the United States. 
 
 Theologians find in the thirty-nine arti- 
 cles of faith a curious admixture. Some 
 of them have been taken from the Confes- 
 sion of Augsburg, others from Melanch- 
 thon's Afology and Luther's writings, and 
 not a few from the articles drawn up by a 
 commission appointed by Henry VIII., 
 which contain some points of Catholic 
 doctrine. Cranmer framed the nth arti- 
 cle, on justification; three of the bishops 
 of the Convocation which ratified said 
 articles were accused of Arianism, and no 
 two wholly agreed on certain clauses 
 which were added from time to time. Is 
 it possible that a Church which came into 
 existence at the bidding of a lecherous 
 t3'rant and murderer, which changed its 
 confession of faith in each successive reign 
 according to the royal pleasure and the 
 will of the parliament, that promulgated 
 its liturgy by the force of the halter and 
 the stake, was the Church of Christ.? 
 
 Asa. — Son and successor of Abia, king 
 of Juda (944-904 B. c). Restored the wor- 
 ship of the true God, conquered the Moab- 
 ites and Ethiopians. He united with the 
 
 king of Syria against the kingdom of Is- 
 rael, and imprisoned the Prophet Ananias, 
 who reproached him for that alliance; but 
 he repented and reigned happily during 41 
 years. Josaphat was his successor. 
 
 Asael. — Son of Sar\'ia, brother of Jacob ; 
 one of David's thirty heroes, and extremely 
 swift of foot. He was killed by Abner, in 
 the battle of Gabaon. 
 
 Asaph. — A celebrated musician in 
 David's time, and one of the precentors of 
 the Temple music. Some Psalms are at- 
 tributed to him, but it is probable that he 
 only set them to music. 
 
 Ascalon. — One of the five chief cities in 
 the land of the Philistines, on the coast of 
 the Mediterranean, 39 miles southwest of 
 Jerusalem. After the death of Josue, the 
 tribe of Juda took Ascalon. Its site is 
 marked by the modern village of Asgalan. 
 
 Ascension Day (sometimes called Holy 
 Thursday). — One of the greatest festivals 
 in the Catholic Chun h. It is celebrated on 
 the fortieth day after Easter, and is intended 
 to commemorate the Ascension of Christ 
 into heaven. Ascension Day has been ob- 
 served from the earliest times of the 
 Christian Church. St. Augustine believes 
 it to have been instituted by the Apostles 
 themselves or the primitive bishops suc- 
 ceeding them. Christ having remained 
 with His Apostles forty days after His 
 resurrection, and having them sufficiently 
 instructed to go forth and preach His Gos- 
 pel to all nations, He led them outside the 
 citj of Jerusalem; then, extending His 
 hand to bless them, He raised Himself up 
 to heaven in their presence, and seated 
 Himself at the right hand of God, His 
 Father, from whence He shall come to 
 judge the living and the dead, and render 
 to each according to his works (Acts i. i 
 II.). Several ancient writers assure us that 
 Christ left the impress of His feet upon 
 the ground when He raised Himself up to 
 heaven. In order to preserve every re- 
 membrance of our Saviour's Passion, Res- 
 urrection and Ascension, the Empress 
 Helena caused a magnificent Church — the 
 Church of the Ascension — to be built 
 over the place, leaving unpaved the spot 
 where the imprint of the Saviour's feet 
 was visible ; and in closing the vault, a 
 part was left open to indicate the direc- 
 tion the Redeemer took in ascending to 
 heaven. St. Augustine is of the opinion 
 that the ascension took place at the hour 
 
Ascetic 
 
 69 
 
 Ash Wednesday 
 
 of noon. The Apostolic Constitutions or- 
 dain that the Church shall celebrate the 
 feast on Thursday, the fortieth day after 
 His resurrection. 
 
 Ascetic (Gr. Asketes, from Askein, to 
 exercise oneself). — Name given to those 
 Christians who practiced penance, fasts, 
 abstinence, self-mortification, etc. Among 
 the Greeks asceticism denoted the exer- 
 cise and discipline practiced by athletes or 
 wrestlers who had to harden their bodies 
 by exertion and to avoid all sensual and 
 effeminating indulgences. In modern 
 times the name is also applicable to one 
 who retires from the ordinary bustle and 
 business of life to engage in pious exer- 
 cises, or who withdraws from society to 
 practice the austerity of the recluse or 
 hermit. 
 
 Ascetical. — That which has reference to 
 the exercise of the spiritual life and bodily 
 mortification; ascetical theology which 
 treats of the mastering of the desires and 
 passions and the practice of severe virtue; 
 the ascetics of the Fathers of the Church, 
 V. ff., of St. Basil. The word has been 
 adopted by modern Protestants to desig- 
 nate that part of ethics which treats of the 
 practice of virtue, or, in other words, the 
 essence of asceticism is to hold self-denial 
 and suffering to be meritorious in the 
 sight of God, in and for itself, without 
 regard to whether it promotes in any way 
 the good of others or the improvement of 
 the ascetic's individual character. Though 
 the fundamental principle of the Reforma- 
 tion is that salvation is secured by justifi- 
 cation through faith, and not through 
 "dead works," yet, the ascetic spirit often 
 shows itself still animate under various 
 disguises of Protestantism. 
 
 Asceticism. — The life or practice of an 
 ascetic ; the principles and historic customs 
 of ascetics. In the Christian sense, ascet- 
 icism signifies, in general, the exercise of 
 every action which furthers the self-perfec- 
 tion of man, especially self-command, self- 
 denial, and mortification of the lower sensual 
 nature. In this sense, asceticism is the duty 
 of every Christian. The teaching of St. 
 Paul in comparing the Christians to wrest- 
 lers who had to contend with Satan, the 
 world, and the flesh, contributed to the 
 mastering of the passions, though the phi- 
 losophy of the time exercised an influence 
 toward it, as it held the freeing of mind from 
 matter to be the means of union with God ; 
 
 or, at least, that the refraining from all lux- 
 urious pleasure was the way to restore the 
 soul to its original purity. In a more re- 
 stricted sense, asceticism designates an un- 
 measured degree of self- victory, like the 
 renouncing of earthly possessions, pleasure, 
 abstinence in eating and drinking, exercise 
 of penance, abstinence from marriage, and 
 submission of our own will to that of a 
 superior. The ascetic is one who wishes 
 to obtain, through such means, a higher 
 state of holiness than is generally attained. 
 Towards the beginning of the second 
 century, the ascetic spirit began to show 
 itself in the practice of poverty, celibacy, 
 and abstinence from all sensual gratifica- 
 tion. Some of the ascetics remained 
 among men, and others dwelt apart as 
 hermits. The union of scattered hermits 
 into separate communities, was first made 
 by Pachomius in 340 a. d. Afterwards, 
 each community followed the rule of its 
 founder, and this virtually led to the 
 institution of monasticism. See Monas- 
 
 TICISM. 
 
 Ashdod (Gr. Azottis). — One of the five 
 cities of the Philistine confederacy, and a 
 seat of the worship of Dagon, the fish-god 
 (I. Ki. V. 5), between Gaza and Jaffa. It was 
 assigned to the tribe of Juda, but was never 
 subdued by the Israelites. It was de- 
 stroyed by the Machabees (I. Mach. v. 68; 
 X. 84). Its site is marked by the modern 
 village of Esdud. 
 
 Ashima or Asima. — A deity adored by 
 the people of Hamath, who settled in Sa- 
 maria. It means, probably, the same as 
 the Persian word asuman, heaven; and 
 signifies the host of heaven, that is, the 
 stars, or perhaps the sun alone. 
 
 Ashtoreth (plural AsktarotJi, called by 
 the Greeks Astarte). — A goddess of the 
 Phoenicians, whose worship was also intro- 
 duced among the Israelites and Philis- 
 tines. She is more commonly named in 
 connection with Baal. Another Hebrew 
 name for the same goddess is AsheraJi, that 
 is, the happy, the fortunate; or more 
 simply, fortune. In connection with the 
 worship of Astarte, there was much of 
 dissolute licentiousness; and the public 
 prostitutes of both sexes were regarded as 
 consecrated to her. 
 
 Ash Wednesday is the first day of 
 Lent, so called from the Catholic cere- 
 mony of blessing ashes and strewing it 
 upon the forehead of the clergy and laity 
 
Asia 
 
 70 
 
 Aspersion 
 
 as a sign of penance. The Fathers of the 
 Church, especially St, Gregory, call the 
 first day of Lent the " head of the fast," 
 caput jejunii, because it is on this day 
 that the fast of Lent begins. This custom 
 is very ancient, for we know it was ob- 
 sers-ed in the time of Pope Gregory the 
 Great (590-604). The covering of the 
 head with ashes has long been a common 
 sign of mourning among eastern nations, 
 indicative of the deepest sorrow and dis- 
 tress. Instances of this are mentioned in 
 Scripture. Jeremias advises the people 
 of Jerusalem to cover themselves with 
 ashes to escape the wrath of Nabuchodo- 
 nosor ( Jer. xxv. 34). The Nini^•ites dressed 
 in sackcloth and put ashes upon their heads 
 to avert the heavenly vengeance (Jonas iii. 
 6). The Christian Church has adopted a 
 symbol so potent to excite in the soul senti- 
 ments of humility, compunction, and pen- 
 ance, by reminding us that we are but dust 
 and unto dust shall return. Penitents, in 
 the early Christian Church, testified their 
 sorrow and humiliation at times by stand- 
 ing at the door of the Church in " sack- 
 cloth and ashes." The ashes are blessed 
 at the altar, immediately before Mass ; the 
 celebrant marks on the heads of the clergy 
 and the assembled people, with the blessed 
 ashes, and to each person he thus marks, 
 he addresses the words which God an- 
 nounced to the first sinner: "Remember, 
 O man ! that thou art dust and that thou 
 shalt return untodust " (Gen. iii. 19). The 
 ashes that are used on Ash Wednesday 
 should be dry ; this the Sacred Congrega- 
 tion of Rites specifies (May 23d, 1693, 
 afud Gardellint, vol. I, p. 19). They 
 should be made from the branches blessed 
 on Palm Sunday, the year previous. The 
 Rubric of the Missal is formal on this 
 point. These ashes, are indeed the re- 
 mains of the glory of the God-Man, and 
 as the seed of that which is reserved for us 
 in heaven. Hence we should receive them 
 in accordance with the sentiments of the 
 Church. 
 
 Asia. — The largest division of land on 
 the globe, generally regarded as the birth- 
 place of the human race, and the most 
 ancient seat of civilization. The same Asian 
 characteristic of variety and wide con- 
 trast is found in the religious creeds as in 
 the countries and tribes of people : The 
 Brahminical religion of India; the doctrines 
 of Buddha, Confucius, and of I.,avtse in 
 China ; the worship of the Grand Lama in 
 
 Tibet ; the creed of Islam in several varie- 
 ties in Arabia, Persia, and India; the rude 
 heathenism of the north ; the various 
 sects of native Christians in Armenia, 
 Syria, Kurdistan, and India; the Greek 
 Church in Siberia, — these and other forms 
 of belief or religious profession, display 
 diversities and contrasts nearly as striking 
 as Asian geography. 
 
 Christianity, however, has spread with 
 the European populations. The so-called 
 orthodox religion in the Russian Empire ; 
 Anglicanism, and other denominations of 
 Protestantism, are mostly found in English 
 possessions, while Catholic missionaries, 
 besides preaching the Gospel in Asia, have 
 founded flourishing missions in Syria, India, 
 Japan, and China. The Catholic Hier- 
 archy of Asia at the present time, com- 
 prises six patriarchates ; 26 archbishoprics ; 
 51 bishoprics; five apostolic delegations; 
 26 apostolic vicariates ; six apostolic pre- 
 fectures, with a Catholic population of 
 about nine millions. 
 
 Asia Minor. — The ancient name of what 
 is now called Anatolia. Many of its cities 
 were famed as seats of civilization, litera- 
 ture, and commerce. Since the Christian 
 era it has been divided into numerous 
 sects, and many of the heresies which have 
 antagonized the Church from apostolic 
 times found many adherents among the 
 people. To-day, pure Christianity has to 
 contend against Mohammedanism, Armini- 
 anism, and the Russian Church. 
 
 Asiongaber (the modern Akabak). — An- 
 cient port of Arabia, on the Elamitic Gulf, 
 whence the Hebrews and Phoenicians de- 
 parted to trade with Ethiopia and Arabia 
 Felix. 
 
 Asmodeus (from the Hebr. samad, de- 
 stroyer). — Demon of which there is men- 
 tion in the Book of Tobias and in the 
 Talmud. The Rabbis call him " the 
 prince of demons." He is generally looked 
 upon as the demon of licentiousness. 
 
 Asmoneans. — Name given to the Mach- 
 abees, natives of Amson, in the tribe of 
 Simeon, or descendants of a certain Asmo- 
 neus. 
 
 Asor. — Musical instrument of the He- 
 brews, formed of 10 strings mounted on 
 an oblong square ; they played on it either 
 with the fingers or a plectrum. 
 
 Aspersion (from the Lat. aspergere, 
 from ad and spar go, I spread). — The 
 
Assar-Haddon 
 
 71 
 
 Assumption 
 
 religious ceremony of spreading or sprink- 
 ling water over the people or objects which 
 are to be blessed. Aspersion is found al- 
 most among all nations. The Jews had 
 different aspersions ordained by the Law 
 of Moses. Our blessed water has evi- 
 dently replaced the lustral water of the 
 Romans. The rite of aspersion goes back 
 to the first centuries of the Church. Pope 
 St. Clement prescribes aspersions with 
 water mixed with oil. Alexander substi- 
 tuted the salt for the oil ; we bless water 
 and salt to be used in sprinkling the people. 
 The prayers said in the blessing of the 
 water consist in exorcisms over the water 
 and salt; they are found in almost all the 
 missals. The custom of blessing water 
 every Sunday before Mass is of the high- 
 est antiquity; it is evidently connected 
 with the custom that the early Christians 
 had of washing their hands and faces in 
 blessed water to purify themselves be- 
 fore entering the church. See Blessed 
 Water. 
 
 Assar-Haddon. — King of Syria, of the 
 second dynasty, successor to his father Sen- 
 nacherib in 681 B. c. He commanded an 
 army in Armenia when he learned the 
 news of the assassination of his father by 
 his eldest sons. Assar-Haddon hastily re- 
 turned, defeated his two brothers at 
 Khanir-rabat, in January 680, and was pro- 
 claimed king. He invaded Syria, de- 
 stroyed Sidon, and transported the skilled 
 laborers to Babylon. He went south into 
 the heart of Arabia, and north as far as the 
 Caucasus, subduing the Cimmerians and 
 Medes. In 672, he invaded Egypt, eflfected 
 its conquest, and defeated the Ethiopian 
 prince Tirhaka. He divided Egypt into 
 20 governments. In 669, Assai'-Haddon 
 fell sick. In 668 he associated his son 
 Assurbanipal with the government, and 
 died at Babylon in 667. Under his rule, all 
 Western Asia formed one single empire. 
 
 Assemani. — Name of a famous family of 
 United Maronites. i. Giuseppe Aloys to, 
 A. Born at Tripoli, Syria, about 1710; 
 died at Rome, 1782. A Syrian Orientalist 
 and professor of Oriental languages at 
 Rome. 2. Sif/ione A. — Born at Tripoli, 
 Syria, 1687; died at Rome, 1768. A Syr- 
 ian Orientalist, custodian in the Vatican 
 library; author oi Bibliof/ieca Orientalis, 
 Clementino-Vaticana (1719-1728). 3. Ste- 
 fano Evodio, A. — Born at Tripoli, Syria, 
 1707; died 1782. A Syrian Orientalist 
 and custodian in the Vatican library. 
 
 His works include Bibliothecce Mediceo- 
 LaurentiancB ct Palatince cod., etc.{i']^2) \ 
 Ada Sanctorum Martyrum (1748), etc. 
 
 Assuerus (more correctly Ahasuerus, or 
 Achasverosch, derived from the Sanscrit 
 kchatra, king, which became kchesche in 
 the cuneiform inscriptions). — i. Assuerus. 
 — King of the Medes, mentioned in Daniel 
 ( ix. I.) . This ruler has been identified with 
 Cyaxares, father of Astyages, who con- 
 quered Ninive. 2. Assuerus. — King of the 
 Medes mentioned in Esdras (iv. 6), to 
 whom the enemies of the Jews, — desirous of 
 hindering the rebuilding of Jerusalem, sent 
 accusations against the latter, — is the Cam- 
 byses of history, who waged war and died 
 in Egypt. 3. Assuerus. — The best known, 
 is the potentate who figures in the Book of 
 Esther. Having repudiated Queen Vasthi, 
 who had refused to appear at a court festival, 
 Assuerus married, four years afterwards, 
 a young Jewess named Esther, a ward of 
 Mardochai. Five years after this mar- 
 riage, the minister Aman, on account of 
 some insult he had had to suffer, persuaded 
 the king to murder all the Jews of the 
 empire. But a few days before the fatal 
 date, Esther and Mardochai succeeded in 
 so completely overthrowing the influence 
 of Aman that the latter was executed in- 
 stead of the Jews, and the king permitted 
 them to defend themselves against their 
 enemies, whom they murdered by thou- 
 sands. This Persian king has been identi- 
 fied with the historic Xerxes according to 
 two concordances between Scripture and 
 Herodotus (Her. vii. 7, and Esther, i. 3; 
 Her. ix. 108, and Esther, x. i). 
 
 Assumption. — Term employed to-day 
 in the language of the Church to signify 
 the miraculous removal into heaven of 
 the Blessed Virgin Mary, body and soul. 
 Jesus Christ, before dying, having recom- 
 mended His Mother to St. John, this Apostle 
 took care of her, and it is believed that she 
 followed him to Asia, and finally settled at 
 Ephesus where she died. The Church 
 honors her death under the name of depo- 
 sition, rest, sleep, passage, since the be- 
 ginning of the fifth century, as it appears 
 from a letter of the Ecumenical Council of 
 Ephesus, of the year 431. Since the cen- 
 tury following, the Faithful commenced to 
 distinguish the Assumption from the other 
 solemnities of the Blessed Virgin. About 
 the end of the seventh century, the belief 
 in her resurrection became current. We find 
 this pointed out under the name of Assump- 
 
Assyria 
 
 72 
 
 Assyria 
 
 tion in an ancient Martjrology attributed 
 to St. Jerome, and in the Sacramentaries 
 of Popes St. Gelasius and St. Gregory. 
 The Feast of Assumption is celebrated on 
 August 15th. In regard to this assump- 
 tion or resurrection of body and soul of 
 the Blessed Virgin into heaven, it is no 
 article of faith, but only a common opin- 
 ion which it would be rash to contradict. 
 
 Assyria. — In the Old Testament Assur. 
 An ancient Asiatic state, which, at the 
 period of its greatest power, covered a 
 territory of 75,000 square miles; bounded 
 by Armenia on the north, the Lower Zab 
 on the south, the Zagros mountains on the 
 east, and the Tigris on the west. In Gen. 
 X. 2, the name is given to a small district 
 (about 25 by 17 miles in extent) on the left 
 bank of the Tigris. The name of the country 
 is derived from that of the city Assur. situ- 
 ated about 50 miles south of the modern 
 Mosul, and marked by the ruins of Kileh- 
 Shergat. The city is not mentioned in 
 the Old Testament, but it survived Ninive, 
 being still in existence in the time of 
 Cyrus, the conqueror of Babj^lon. The 
 name, besides being given to the city and 
 country, was also applied to the national 
 god, always spelled Asur in this con- 
 nection. The Persians called the city 
 Athura. The Greeks comprised in the 
 name Assyria, or its shortened form Syria, 
 the entire territory between Babylonia and 
 the Mediterranean, sometimes applying it 
 even to Babylonia. The northern and 
 eastern portions of the country were 
 mountainous, but the greater part was flat, 
 being an extension of the Babylonian 
 plains. Its principal rivers were the Ti- 
 gris and Euphrates, with their tributaries, 
 the Choser and the Upper and Lower Zab. 
 Assyria was a fertile country, and abounded 
 in all sorts of animals; among others the 
 stag, roebuck, wild bull, and lion. The hunt- 
 ing of the lion was the favorite sport of the 
 Assyrian kings. According to Genesis (x. 
 8-12, 22), the Assyrians were descendants of 
 Sem, and emigrants from Babylon. Their 
 Semitic-Babylonian origin is fully attested 
 by sculptures and inscriptions. Their lan- 
 guage is, apart from new dialectical and 
 orthographical variations, identical with 
 Babylonian, and akin to Hebrew. Assyria, 
 derived its civilization from Babylonia. 
 Its religion was the same as that of 
 the mother-country, with the exception 
 of the national god Asur, which was placed 
 at the head of the pantheon. Assyrian 
 
 architecture was a slavish copy of that of 
 Babylonia. Although stone abounded in 
 Assyria, bricks continued to be used in 
 imitation of the practice in Babylonia, 
 where no stone existed. The Babylonian 
 emigrants who settled Assyria, probably 
 set out about 2000 b. c. The first Assyrian 
 rulers, of whom we have knowledge, were 
 Belkapkapu, Ismi-Dagan, and his son 
 Samsi-Ramman (1816 B. c). For the next 
 300 years nothing is known of the con- 
 dition of Assyria. In the fifteenth century 
 B.C. Assyria was involved in a war with 
 Babylonia, then under the rule of the Sem- 
 itic Kassites. War continued between the 
 two countries for a long time with var}Tng 
 fortunes. Finally, however, Assyria be- 
 came supreme and Babylonia the vassal 
 state. The chief makers of Assyria's 
 glory were Theglath-Phalassar I. (1120- 
 iioo), who conquered the city of Babylon, 
 other cities of Babylonia, and penetrated 
 as far as the Mediterranean. His more 
 important successors were Assur-Nasir- 
 Hapal (Sardanapal) (930-911); he built 
 the palace of Nimroud, and his expeditions 
 into Armenia, Asia Minor, Syria and Phoe- 
 nicia are related to us b}' numerous in- 
 scriptions; Asurnazirpal (884-860); Sal- 
 manasar II. (860-824), who came in 
 contact with Damascus and Israel ; The- 
 glath-Phalasser III. {Pliu/in the Old Testa- 
 ment, 745-727), whose power extended to 
 the confines of Egypt, and who put the 
 crown of Babylon on his head. Sargon 
 (722—705), the conqueror of Samaria, who 
 defeated the Egyptians at Raphia ; Senna- 
 cherib (705-681). We are in possession of 
 an inscription relating his war against 
 Hiskia (Ezechias), of Juda, and his siege 
 of Jerusalem. He did not succeed in tak- 
 ing the city, but, after having devastated 
 all Palestine, he transported 200,000 Jews 
 into Assyria. He had for successor, Assar- 
 haddon (680-668). These last two kings 
 mark the height of Assyrian power, and 
 Assarhaddon was enabled, by his conquests, 
 to add to his titles that of king of Upper 
 and Lower Egypt and Ethiopia. Under 
 Asurbanipal (the Sardanapalus of the 
 Greek writers, 668-626 b. c), the decline 
 of the empire began. In some respects, 
 this reign was most prosperous and bril- 
 liant; it was the golden age of art and lit- 
 erature. During this reign, too, Susa was 
 conquered and destroyed. But signs of the 
 approaching ruin were seen in the constant 
 uprisings of the oppressed nations. The 
 downward course was rapid. Once, about 
 
ASTARTE 
 
 73 
 
 Astronomy 
 
 625, Assyria succeeded in repelling the at- 
 tack of the Medes and Persians under 
 Phraortes, but when his son Cyaxares, in 
 union with Nabopolassar of Babylon, re- 
 peated the attack (608 b. c.) Ninive fell, 
 and the Assyrian power entirely disap- 
 peared. 
 
 Astarte. See Ashtoreth. 
 
 Asterius. — Metropolitan of Emesa, in 
 Pontus, about the end of the fourth cen- 
 tury. Distinguished orator; he has left 
 us twenty-one homilies. 
 
 Asterius (Urbanus). — A presbyter or 
 bishop, in Asia Minor, in the first half of 
 the third century. Published a treatise 
 against the Montanists, in which he gives 
 an account of the tragic end of their 
 founder. 
 
 Astrology. — Originally meant much the 
 same as astronomy, the kno-tvledge of the 
 stars, but was at length restricted to the 
 cabalistic art of predicting future events, 
 especially the fortunes of men, from the 
 positions of the heavenly bodies. It as- 
 sumes that the heavenly bodies exert, 
 according to their relative positions at 
 certain times, a direct influence upon hu- 
 man life and destiny, and proposes to 
 determine in any given case what this in- 
 fluence is, and thus foretell the future. 
 Astrology is one of the most ancient 
 forms of superstition, and is found pre- 
 vailing among the nations of the East 
 (Egyptians, Chaldeans, Hindus, Chinese) 
 at the very dawn of history. Understood 
 in this sense, we find that the ancient 
 Babylonians were astrologers as well as 
 astronomers. They professed to cast 
 nativities, to expound dreams, and to fore- 
 tell events by means of the stars (Is. 
 xlvii. 13; Dan. ii. 2). The Babylonian or 
 Chaldaic astrology was primarily and 
 mainly genethliacal. It investigated under 
 what aspect of the heavens persons were 
 born or conceived, and from the posi- 
 tion of the celestial bodies at one or other 
 of these moments, it professed to deduce 
 the future life and fortunes of the in- 
 dividual. Chaldaic astrology was not, 
 however, limited to genethlialogy. The 
 Chaldeans professed to predict from the 
 stars changes of the weather, high winds 
 and storms, excessive heat and cold, pes- 
 tilential diseases, appearance of comets, 
 eclipses, earthquakes, wars, and similar 
 phenomena. The science was brought from 
 
 Greece to Rome during the reign of Augus- 
 tus, and astrologers played an important 
 part there, and were known as Chaldeans 
 and Mathematicians. Though often ban- 
 ished by the senate and emperors under 
 pain of death, they continued to hold their 
 ground. Astrology had always a fertile 
 field in the East; it accords well with the 
 predestinarian doctrines of Mohammed- 
 anism, and was accordingly cultivated 
 with great ardor by the Arabs from the 
 seventh to the twelfth centuries. Many of 
 the early Fathers of the Church argued 
 strongly against this false science. Em- 
 peror Constans caused an edict to be pro- 
 mulgated against astrologers, decreeing 
 one of the most severe punishments 
 against them, that of being torn to pieces 
 with iron hooks. Charlemagne also en- 
 acted severe laws against them, perceiving 
 that their false divinations of the stars had 
 disturbed the tranquillity of rulers and 
 countries. Popes Urban VIII. and Sixtus V. 
 condemned the system of astrology, and the 
 Church, at various times, raised her voice 
 against believing and aiding such false 
 predestinations. Henry III., Louis XIII., 
 and Louis XIV., vigorously endeavored to 
 crush the science within their realms, but 
 some of the Christian rulers and nobles 
 either cultivated it or accepted it in a 
 modified form. Louis XI., Charles V., 
 and Catherine de Medici protected pro- 
 fessionals in their practice, and in the 
 sixteenth century several princes had 
 astrologers at their courts. On the birth 
 of a royal child, or on contemplation of 
 war or conquest, their duty was to con- 
 sult the stars as to destiny or victory. The 
 Copernican system gave the death blow to 
 astrology. 
 
 Astronomy (Gr. astron, a star, noinos, 
 a law) . — The science of the heavenly 
 bodies. From the earliest period man 
 loved to gaze on the starry firmament, and 
 watch the movements of the whole planet- 
 ary system with mingled astonishment 
 and awe. " The heavens show forth the 
 glory of God, and the firmament declareth 
 the work of His hands" (Ps. xviii. 2). The 
 Chinese, Hindus, Chaldeans, Egyptians, 
 and even the Greeks, are known to have 
 investigated the heavens in times remote 
 from the Christian era. The first four na- 
 tions respectively claim the honor of being 
 the first students of astronomy. The claim 
 of the Chinese has been questioned by mod- 
 ern scientists, as their tables conclusively 
 
Astronomy 
 
 74 
 
 Astronomy 
 
 prove a later period than that assigned to 
 them. The same may be said of the 
 Hindu tables, which, as far as date is con- 
 cerned, have been proved to be fictitious. 
 
 The mass of evidence seems in favor of 
 the plains of Chaldea being the primal 
 seat of observative astronomy. The ris- 
 ings and settings of the heavenly bodies 
 and eclipses were subjects of observation 
 and notation by their priests at a very 
 remote period. Simplicius and Porphyry 
 mention that Aristotle had transmitted to 
 him from Babylon, by order of Alexander 
 the Great, a catalogue of eclipses observed 
 throughout 1903 years preceding the con- 
 quest of that city by the Macedonians. Ptol- 
 emy gives six of the eclipses from this cata- 
 logue, but the earliest does not extend 
 further back than 720 b. c. The prob- 
 ability is, therefore, that the statement of 
 Simplicius, as to their early date, is an 
 exaggeration. However, it is remarkably 
 illustrative of their habit of diligent ob- 
 ser\'ation, that the Chaldeans were ac- 
 quainted with the cycle of 6585^/^' days, 
 during which the moon makes about 223 
 synodical revolutions, and passes through 
 the same number of eclipses, — alike, too, 
 in order and magnitude, comparing cycle 
 with cycle. The clepsydra as a clock, the 
 gnomon for determining the solstices, and 
 the hemispherical dial for ascertaining the 
 positions of the sun, were used by the 
 Chaldeans, and they are credited with 
 the invention of the zodiac and the 
 duodecimal division of the day. 
 
 Although it is supposed that the Egyp- 
 tians were the first instructors of the 
 Greeks in astronomy, we have every 
 reason to believe that their knowledge 
 was meagre and crude. The Greeks have 
 the honor of elevating it into a reliable 
 history, and to the dignity of a science. 
 Thales (640 b. c.) laid the foundation of 
 Greek astronomy. He it was who first 
 propagated the theory of the earth's 
 sphericity. The sphere he divided into 
 five zones. He predicted the year of a 
 great solar eclipse, but this it is now sup- 
 posed he must have accidentally succeeded 
 in doing — the Greeks at this time having no 
 observations of their own to guide them — 
 by means of the Chaldean Saros, or 
 period of eighteen years and ten days, 
 which gives a regular recurrence of 
 eclipses. He made the Greeks, who, prior 
 to his time, were content to navigate their 
 vessels by the Great Bear — a rough ap- 
 proximation to the north — acquainted 
 
 with the lesser constellation of that name, 
 and a much better guide for the mariner. 
 
 Pythagoras (500 b. c.) was the next 
 astronomer of eminence. He promulgated, 
 on grounds fanciful enough, the theory, 
 the truth of which, however, has been 
 since established, that the sun is the center 
 of the planetary system, and that the earth 
 revolves round it. He, also, first taught 
 that the morning and evening stars were 
 in reality one and the same planet. Be- 
 tween Pythagoras and the advent of the 
 Alexandrian School, about two centuries 
 later, the most prominent names in as- 
 tronomical annals are those of Meton 
 (432 B. c), who introduced the lunar-solar 
 cycle, and in conjunction with Euctemon, 
 observed a solstice at Athens in the year 
 424 B.C.; Callippus (330 b. c), who im- 
 proved the Metonic cycle ; Eudoxus of Cni- 
 dus (370 B.C.), who introduced into Greece 
 the year of 365^^ days, and Nicetas of Syra- 
 cuse, who is reported to have taught the 
 diurnal motion of the earth on its axis. 
 
 The Alexandrian School originated a 
 connected series of observations relative 
 to the constitution of the universe. The 
 positions of the fixed stars were deter- 
 mined, the orbits of the planets carefully 
 traced, and the solar and lunar inequalities 
 more accurately ascertained. Angular 
 distances were calculated with instruments, 
 suitable to the purpose, by trigonometrical 
 methods, and the School presented to the 
 world the first system of theoretical astron- 
 omy, and attempted to determine the 
 distance of the earth from the sun, and 
 the magnitude of the terrestial globe. 
 Hipparchus of Bithynia, catalogued no 
 less than 1081 stars. He also determined 
 the mean motion of the moon, her eccen- 
 tricity, the equation of her center, and 
 the inclination of her orbit. He invented 
 processes analogous to plane and spherical 
 trigonometry, and was the first to use 
 right ascensions and declinations, which 
 he afterwards abandoned in favor of lati- 
 tudes and longitudes. 
 
 Ptolemy (130-150 a. d.) is the next who 
 rises above the mass of mediocrities. 
 Besides being a practical astronomer, he 
 was accomplished as a musician, geo- 
 grapher, and mathematician. His most im- 
 portant discovery in astronomy was the 
 libration or evection of the moon. He 
 was also the first to point out the effect of 
 refraction. 
 
 With Ptolemy closes the originality of 
 the Greek School. It is to the Arabs that 
 
Asylum 
 
 75 
 
 Asylum 
 
 we owe the next advances in astronomy. 
 For four centuries, the Arabs prosecuted 
 the study of the science with assiduity, 
 but they are chiefly meritorious as ob- 
 servers. The most illustrious of the 
 Arabian School was Albategnius or Al- 
 Batani (800 a. d.) who discovered the mo- 
 tion of the solar apogee, and who was also 
 the first to make use of sines and versed 
 sines instead of chords ; he corrected the 
 Greek observations, and was altogether the 
 most distinguished observer between Hip- 
 parchus and the Copernican era. 
 
 We now come to the illustrious priest, 
 Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543) to whom 
 was reserved the distinction of explod- 
 ing the Ptolemaic ideas, and of promul- 
 gating a correct theory of the universe, 
 appropriately called after him the Coper- 
 nican, which is now generally accepted, 
 and which led to the brilliant discoveries 
 of Kepler and Galileo, and formed the 
 basis of the splendid mathematical demon- 
 strations of Newton and Laplace. 
 
 Following Copernicus, we must mention 
 the eminent Tycho Brahe (1546-1601), 
 who compiled a catalogue of 777 fixed 
 stars, more perfect than any that had pre- 
 viously been tabulated. He made the first 
 table of refractions, and discovered the vari- 
 ation and annual equation of the moon, the 
 inequalities of the motion of the nodes, and 
 the inclination of the lunar orbit. His re- 
 searches made possible the brilliant discov- 
 eries of Kepler (1571-1631), and of those 
 famous laws which have rendered his 
 name immortal. Kepler is also said to 
 have had some idea of gravitation. 
 
 Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) in a measure 
 revolutionized the system of astronomy by 
 his discovery and application of the tele- 
 scope. He was rewarded by the discovery 
 of the inequalities on the moon's surface. 
 The important discoveries of the four 
 satellites of Jupiter, the ring of Saturn, 
 the spots on the sun, and the crescent 
 form of Venus, followed in quick succes- 
 sion. 
 
 Galileo was followed by the epochal New- 
 ton (1642-1727). In the interval, astron- 
 omy profited largely by the researches of 
 Descartes, Gascoigne, Auzout, and Picard. 
 Newton's fame rests upon his discovery of 
 the law of gravitation. The discovery is 
 perhaps the grandest achievement of human 
 genius of which we have any record. New- 
 ton also made the important discovery of 
 the revolution of comets round the sun in 
 conic sections, proved the earth's form to 
 
 be an oblate spheroid, gave a theory of the 
 moon and tides, invented fluxions, and 
 wrote upon optics. 
 
 If the eighteenth century opened with 
 lustre derived from the physical demon- 
 strations of Newton, and the numerous 
 observations of Flamsteed, Halley, Dr. 
 Bradley, and others, it closed magnifi- 
 cently with the telescopic discoveries of 
 Sir William Herschel, which added to our 
 universe a primary planet (Uranus) with 
 its satellites, gave two more satellites to 
 Saturn, resolved the milky way into count- 
 less myriads of suns, and unraveled the 
 mystery of nebulae and of double and triple 
 stars. Laplace, in his great work, the 
 Mecanique Celeste (1799-1808), gave what 
 further proof was needed of the truth and 
 sufficiency of the Newtonian theory. 
 
 Leverrier, Gall, Challis, Lord Ross, 
 Father Sechi, S. J., and many others, have, 
 by means of powerful telescopes, spectrum 
 analysis, and photography, made many 
 important discoveries, corrected and sys- 
 tematized former observations, added sev- 
 eral small planets and planetoids to the 
 already extensive catalogue of stars, double 
 stars, and nebulae. Optical and other in- 
 struments have been brought to what ap- 
 pears almost a state of perfection. In more 
 recent years, research has been directed, 
 chiefly, toward the physical nature of the 
 sun and other heavenly bodies, by means 
 of spectrum analysis. These scientific ex- 
 plorations and discoveries in the regions 
 and laws of the universe all tend to show 
 and conclusively prove that the visible 
 creation is a mirror in which God reflects 
 to intelligent beings His infinite perfec- 
 tion, power, goodness, wisdom, and jus- 
 tice. Man is created for God ; and the 
 cause of the happiness and joy man feels 
 in contemplating the visible creation, is 
 because it reflects the infinite beauty and 
 perfections of the Creator. 
 
 Asylum (a place of refuge) . — In ancient 
 times, sacred places, especially the temples 
 and altars of the gods, were appointed as 
 asylums to which criminals, as well as per- 
 secuted individuals, might flee for refuge ; 
 and to molest them in such places, was re- 
 garded as an impiety. They were, how- 
 ever, sometimes surrounded and watched 
 until the refugees died of starvation. The 
 Jews set apart six cities of refuge for per- 
 sons guilty of manslaughter (Ex. xxi. 13 
 sq.; III. Ki. ii. 28-31 ; i. 50). Romulus, 
 according to popular legend, attracted 
 
Athanasian Creed 
 
 70 
 
 Atheism 
 
 many persons from other places to Rome 
 by offering the city as an asylum for crimi- 
 nals. The Emperor Tiberius abolished all 
 places of refuge from the law, except those 
 in the temples of Juno and Esculapius. The 
 custom of allowing to real or supposed 
 criminals a place of safety in temples, was 
 also adopted by the Christian Church. In 
 the reign of Constantine the Great, all 
 Christian churches were asylums. The 
 privileges were afterwards extended to con- 
 vents, but they were much abused by 
 criminals during the Middle Ages. Several 
 Popes, in order to prevent this abuse, ex- 
 cluded murderers and some other classes of 
 offenders from the privilege of the sanctu- 
 ary. The word asylum is now applied to 
 places of shelter for unfortunate and desti- 
 tute persons, and especially the blind, 
 insane, etc. 
 
 Athanasian Creed. See Creed. 
 
 Athanasius (St.). — The greatest lumi- 
 nary' among the Oriental Doctors was St. 
 Athanasius, sumamed the Great, whom 
 God had chosen to be the champion and 
 defender of His Church against the Arian 
 heresy. Athanasius was born at Alexan- 
 dria, about the year 296, ordained deacon 
 in 319, and was chosen by Alexander, his 
 bishop, to accompany him to the Council 
 of Nice. To his acuteness, learning, and 
 eloquence in that Council, was principally 
 owing the condemnation of Arianism. On 
 the death of Alexander in 328, Athanasius 
 became Patriarch of Alexandria, and dur- 
 ing forty-five years, he withstood, often 
 almost alone, the whole brunt of the Arian 
 assault. He stood unmoved against four 
 Roman emperors, was banished five times, 
 was the butt of every wrong and calumny 
 the Arians could devise, and lived in con- 
 stant peril of death. Firm and unbending 
 in defense of the Catholic faith, he merited 
 the honorable title of " Father of Ortho- 
 doxy. " He closed his stormy life in 
 peace, in 373. With few exceptions, the 
 numerous works of St. Athanasius have an 
 apologetical and polemical tenor, having 
 been written in defense of Catholicity 
 against paganism and heresy. His dicta- 
 tion and style are clear, full of deep sense, 
 strength, and solid reasoning. The first 
 of his works are his two discourses 
 " Against the Gentiles " and " On the 
 Incarnation," which form one work ad- 
 dressed to a convert from heathenism, and 
 which were written before the Arian con- 
 troversy had broken out. Most of his 
 
 other works have a direct bearing upon 
 that heresy. The most noted of them are : 
 I. Four Orations against the Arians, 
 which he wrote while concealed in the 
 desert (356-361) ; 2. An Apology against 
 the Arians, containing thirty-six au- 
 thentic documents relative to the history 
 of Arianism ; 3. Two encyclical letters 
 to the orthodox bishops, one against the 
 illegal intrusion of Gregory the Cappado- 
 cian into his see ; the other a warning 
 against the wiles and stratagems of the 
 Arians; 4. An Apology to the Emperor 
 Constantius and An Apology for his 
 Flight, both of which were written in 
 the desert. Against the heresies of the 
 Macedonians and the Apollinarians, St. 
 Athanasius wrote : Four Letters to Serap- 
 ion bishop of Thumis ; a treatise " On 
 the Incarnation and against the Arians " ; 
 A Book on the Trinity and the Holv 
 Ghost; T1V0 Books against the Apolli- 
 narians; a treatise "On the Incarnation 
 against Appollinaris," and another "On 
 the Advent of Our Lord Jesus Christ." 
 St. Athanasius is, however, not the author 
 of the famous Creed bearing his name, as 
 it was compiled in Latin in the fifth or 
 sixth century. F. May 2d. 
 
 Atheism. — A word of modern formation 
 from Gr. Atheos, -without God, signifies 
 the doctrine of those who deny the existence 
 of a God. Atheism is not a system, it is a 
 negation ; and although it is found in the 
 logical consequences of certain doctrines 
 which pervert completely the idea of 
 God, there is not, in the whole history of 
 philosophy, any great school which has 
 professed atheism. The first Greek phi- 
 losophers, who believed in the eternity of 
 matter and sought in material elements 
 the first principle which strikes the senses, 
 did not deny, formally, the existence of 
 God. Neither did the ancient philoso- 
 phers deny the existence of a divinity, 
 though accused of atheism, but only re- 
 jected the common notions of a plurality 
 of gods. We have proof in the instance 
 of Protagoras, who declared he could 
 affirm neither that God is, nor that He 
 is not; this doubt explicitly expressed is 
 sufficient to banish him from Athens, where 
 the Ionian philosophy flourished at that 
 time. Epicurus, whose system, perhaps 
 more than any other, implies the negation 
 of God, nevertheless speaks of the gods. 
 Who does not know the beautiful verses 
 his disciple Lucretius composed, in his 
 
Athenagoras 
 
 77 
 
 Atomism 
 
 invocation of the goddess, " who alone gov- 
 erns all nature '? 
 
 St. Thomas teaches that whoever be- 
 lieves in the direction of the world is 
 no atheist. Spinoza, in spite of his 
 promises, concludes his ethics in proclaim- 
 ing as the end of our actions the knowl- 
 edge and love of God, and as sovereign 
 good, God himself. Consequently, neither 
 the Materialists nor the Pantheists are 
 ifso facto atheists. It is, therefore, in 
 vain that some atheists in our days, de- 
 sirous of finding themselves a numerous 
 body, have claimed for their negative sys- 
 tem whole schools and nations. They 
 wish, in the name of science, to attack the 
 ancient proof of the existence of God, 
 founded upon the universal testimony. 
 Science has answered them through the 
 words of a conspicuous authority in similar 
 matters, — De Quatrefages : " Bound by my 
 teaching to pass review of all the human 
 races, I have sought atheism, but have met 
 with it nowhere, except, perhaps, in an in- 
 dividual state, or in the state of more or less 
 limited schools. Atheism is found no- 
 where except in an erratic state ; always, 
 and everywhere, the mass of the populations 
 escape it." Anthropology, the science 
 which made it a law to make use only of 
 experimental method, repeats after Aris- 
 totle that " Man is a religious animal " ; an- 
 thropology even confirms that the sentiment 
 of the divine is natural to man, that it 
 is his distinctive characteristic. Besides 
 atheism is directly refuted by the demon- 
 stration of the existence of God. See God. 
 
 Athenagoras. — Born at Athens ; flour- 
 ished about 176 A. D. A Greek Platonist, 
 philosopher, and Christian. Author of an 
 apology or intercession in behalf of the 
 Christians, addressed to the Emperors 
 Marcus Aurelius and Commodus. He ex- 
 pounds and refutes the accusations of athe- 
 ism, cannibalism, and incest, made against 
 the Christians in his day. A treatise on 
 the resurrection of the dead is also attrib- 
 uted to him. 
 
 Athos or Monte Santo, that is, the 
 Holy Hill, the principal mountain of a 
 chain extending, in a peninsular form, 
 from the coast of Macedonia into the 
 ^gean Sea, between the Gulf of Contessa 
 and Monte Santo, and connected with the 
 mainland by a narrow isthmus. The time 
 of the first establishment of hermitages on 
 this romantic spot is uncertain, though the 
 origin of some may be traced to the days 
 
 of Constantine the Great, and others to 
 the reign of the Emperor Basil, in 885. 
 One convent was "restored" 900 years 
 ago. The monks follow the Rule of St. 
 Basil, and lead an ascetic life, engaged 
 chiefly in agriculture, gardening, and the 
 care of bees. 
 
 Atomism. — The philosophical system, 
 which in modern times has been brought 
 forward to account for the formation of 
 the universe, and known as the atomic or 
 corpuscular theory. The diverse atomic 
 systems have one common basis; they ad- 
 mit that matter, to whatever degree it 
 might be divisible, is not this infinitely, 
 and that its primordial elements, the atoms, 
 furnish us with the explanation of the 
 origin of the world and of natural phenom- 
 ena. But, upon this common basis, contra- 
 dictory doctrines have reared themselves. 
 Are the atoms eternal.'' Do they contain 
 in themselves the principle of movement, 
 indispensable to their existence, their com- 
 bination, and to their development.? Are 
 they of one sole species, or of an in- 
 definite number of species, or do they exist 
 in such varied quantity as the bodies.? 
 Can they be made to agree with the funda- 
 mental dogma of religions, the existence 
 of a being or principle outside of them, or 
 do they exclude it absolutely.? So many 
 questions, necessarily bearing and bound 
 up with the atomic theory, have been 
 solved differently by the atomic philoso- 
 phers. Granting, however, that the chem- 
 ist can prove that his simple and compound 
 forms of matter are built up of chemical 
 atoms, the problem still remains to be 
 solved as to the possible identity of physi- 
 cal and chemical atoms. What the chem- 
 ist regards as an atom in his science, may 
 not be an ultimate and indivisible atom 
 from a physical point of view ; the chemical 
 atom, though incapable of division as a 
 chemical atom, may still be composed or 
 built up of many physical atoms, and may 
 be capable of being subdivided into such. 
 Indeed, while the atomic theory of Dal- 
 ton, when first announced, was eagerly 
 seized upon as the best possible evidence 
 for the existence of both chemical and 
 physical atoms, the tendency of recent in- 
 vestigations and experiments in chemistry 
 has been to show that the chemical atom 
 is difTerent from the physical. 
 
 The origin of the atomic theory goes 
 back to the Hindoo speculative system 
 called Vaiseshika, and which was founded 
 
Atonement 
 
 78 
 
 Augustine 
 
 hy the philosopher Kanada, a mysterious 
 and legendary personage. Kanada, meta- 
 physician like all the thinkers of his race, 
 does not content himself with a purely 
 physical explanation of the world, and 
 acknowledges the existence of an imma- 
 terial principle. We do not know that his 
 system was known to the Greeks. How- 
 ever, we find quite evident traces in the 
 theories of Empedocles and that of Anaxa- 
 goras, who both admit atoms, but equally 
 acknowledge the existence of independent 
 principles, and, aside from their physical 
 properties, leave room for a theology. 
 Democritus and Leucippus adopted their 
 doctrine, but declared that nothing exists 
 outside the void and the atoms ; the atoms 
 meet together in the void, and combine 
 themselves by chance ; it is thus that they 
 have formed the world. Epicurus re- 
 mains the faithful disciple of Democritus 
 and Lucretius, without adding anything 
 to the theory such as it manifests itself in 
 antiquity, gives to it its distinctive form 
 and all the development of which it is 
 susceptible. After Lucretius, the theory 
 of atoms was abandoned until the time of 
 Gassendi, who, besides trying to place 
 it in harmony with the Christian dogma, 
 removes from the atoms the character of 
 eternity and of necessity, in order to make 
 them, so to say, the contingent elements 
 of creation. After Gassandi, atoms ceased 
 to play an important role in philosophy, 
 until Hugius, Richter, Dalton, and others 
 took them up to support their theories or 
 hypotheses of the physical nature of 
 matter. See Cosmogony. 
 
 Atonement. See Redemption. 
 
 Attila ( sumamed " the scourge of 
 God"). — King of the Huns, ravaged Gaul, 
 was defeated near Chalons-sur-Marne, by 
 .^tius, with the aid of the West-Gothic 
 Theodoric (434-453). See Leo I. 
 
 Attributes of God. See God. 
 
 Attrition. — An imperfect sorrow for sin, 
 fear of disgrace, fear of hell, etc. ; distinct 
 from contrition, yet good in itself as com- 
 ing from God and leading to contrition, 
 but without actual confession will not 
 avail to justify the sinner. See Con- 
 trition. 
 
 Audians. — Heretics in the early Church. 
 Their name is derived from their founder 
 Audius, whose home was in Mesopotamia. 
 They refused to hold communion with 
 
 Catholics, rejected canonical penances, 
 obsers'ed the Jewish manner of celebrating 
 Easter, and were Anthropomorphites, be- 
 lieving that God exists in a human form. 
 Audius, who had himself been irregularly 
 consecrated bishop, was banished by Em- 
 peror Constantius; but in spite of repeated 
 persecutions, they maintained their sect 
 till the close of the fifth century. 
 
 Audients. — In the early Church, those 
 not yet baptized, but receiving instruction 
 preparatory to baptism ; catechumens of 
 the first grade. Such persons were per- 
 mitted to hear the Psalms, lessons, and 
 sermon, but were not present at the more 
 sacred services which followed. 
 
 Augsburg Confession. — Formulary 
 which the Protestants presented at the 
 Diet of Augsburg. It contained their con- 
 fession of faith in 28 articles, drawn up by 
 Melanchthon, approved by Luther, and 
 signed by the Protestant princes. The 
 Diet rejected this formulary and the Re- 
 formers did not unanimously admit it. 
 Hence, in order to come to an understand- 
 ing, Melanchthon modified it, and the 
 formulary was called confessio variafa. 
 
 Augsburg Peace, declared September 15, 
 1555, in which Charles V. granted to the 
 Reformers the free exercise of their re- 
 ligious convictions. 
 
 Augustine (St.). — The most illustrious 
 among the Doctors of the Church, Au- 
 gustine, was born in 354 at Tagasta, in 
 Africa. He received his literary educa- 
 tion in the schools of Madaura and Car- 
 thage, and was reared by his mother, St. 
 Monica, in the Christian faith ; but, as 
 his own Confessions tell us, his conduct 
 was far from exemplary ; he early lost his 
 faith and innocence. At the age of twenty 
 he embraced the Manichean heresy, and 
 for a space of nine years, remained more 
 or less under its influence. From Maniche- 
 ism he turned to Neo-Platonism without, 
 however, finding a resting-place in that 
 system. The reading of Hortensius, by 
 Cicero, roused him to a diligent search 
 after truth. Setting out for Rome and 
 thence to Milan, he was, by God's grace, 
 rescued from the errors of his youth, and, 
 together with his son Adeodatus, and his 
 friend Alypius, baptized by St. Ambrose, 
 in 387. He was then thirty-three years of 
 age. From this time forth, Augustine de- 
 voted himself with his whole mind and 
 soul to the service of truth and the Church. 
 
Augustine 
 
 79 
 
 Australia 
 
 His mother having died at Ostia, Augus- 
 tine returned to Carthage and lived for 
 three years with several friends in monastic 
 retirement. He was ordained priest by 
 Valerius, Bishop of Hippo, who also, 
 about the year 395, appointed him coadju- 
 tor and successor in his see. For thirty- 
 five years Augustine was the center of 
 ecclesiastical life in Africa, and the 
 Church's mightiest champion against 
 heresy; he bore the great burden of the 
 controversy against the Donatists, Mani- 
 cheans, and Pelagians. His death oc^ 
 curred in 430, while Hippo was besieged 
 by the Vandals. These barbarians en- 
 tered and burned the city, but the library 
 of Augustine was providentially saved. F. 
 Aug. 28th. — Of his multitudinous works, St, 
 Augustine gives a critical review in his Re- 
 tractions, which he wrote towards the end of 
 his life, to correct whatever seemed doubt- 
 ful or extravagant in his writings and to 
 harmonize discordant opinions. The most 
 famous of his works are the Confessions, 
 and the twenty books of the City of God. 
 In the former he gives a history of his own 
 life up to the year 400, when the work ap- 
 peared. This extraordinary work is classed 
 as one of the choicest of ascetic books. 
 The City of God, which was begun in 413 
 and finished in 427 — thus engaging the ma- 
 turest years of the author's life — is Augus- 
 tine's masterpiece and one of the noblest 
 apologetical works of which the ancient 
 Church can boast. It is a learned defense 
 of the Christian religion against the ab- 
 surd calumnies of the pagans, who accused 
 the Christians of having brought about all 
 the calamities then befalling the empire, 
 by renouncing the time-honored deities of 
 ancient Rome. Augustine was a philos- 
 opher and dogmatical theologian, as well 
 as a mystic, and a powerful controversial- 
 ist. For his other works, see Migne Pat. 
 Lat. XXXII-XLVII. 
 
 Augustine or Austin (St.). — Apostle of 
 England. Died in 605. A Benedictine 
 monk, sent by Pope Gregory I. in 596, 
 with thirty-nine of his brethren, to under- 
 take the conversion of Anglo-Saxons in 
 Britain. The eflFect of their preaching 
 was accompanied with most wonderful 
 success; on the following Christmas, ten 
 thousand, following the example of King 
 Ethelbert of Kent, were baptized. On 
 learning of the wonderful and prosperous 
 mission of Augustine, Pope Gregory ap- 
 pointed him the first bishop, and, in 601, 
 
 metropolitan of the Anglo-Saxons with 
 the authority to found twelve suffragan 
 sees, and, when the Northern English 
 should have embraced the faith, also to 
 consecrate a bishop for York, which 
 should, likewise, be a metropolitan with 
 twelve suffragan sees. Augustine chose 
 Dovernum, now Canterbury, for his metro- 
 politan see. St. Augustine died, after 
 having chosen Lawrence, one of his faith- 
 ful fellow-laborers, to succeed him in the 
 See of Canterbury. 
 
 Augustinian Hermits. — These hermits 
 regard the great St. Augustine of Hippo 
 as their patron and composer of their rule, 
 if not their founder. In 1256, Pope Alex- 
 ander IV. united several existing com- 
 munities under the title of " Hermits of 
 St. Augustine," giving to them the rule 
 ascribed to that Father. Lanfranco Sep- 
 tola, of Milan, became their first General. 
 A colony of Augustinians from Dublin, 
 Ireland, came to the United States in 1790, 
 and settled in Philadelphia, where they 
 largely contributed to the spread and 
 progress of Catholicity. They have quite 
 a number of establishments in this country. 
 
 Aureola Sanctorum. — In Christian art 
 it is used to designate the glory of the 
 figure represented. In painting and statu- 
 ary, the golden aureola which surrounds 
 the head and sometimes the whole body of 
 saints and martyrs. The circle or nimbus, 
 when it encloses a cross, belongs to Christ ; 
 without the cross, it designates canonized 
 saints. There is also a form of aureola 
 which designates the beatified, — those 
 whose heads are encircled with golden 
 lines. See Nimbus. 
 
 Auricular Confession. See Confession. 
 
 Australia. — The religious history of 
 Australia or Australasia, which term in- 
 cludes the British colonies of Australia, 
 Tasmania, and New Zealand, begins with 
 the year 1787, when these islands became 
 penal colonies of England. Among the 
 convicts transported to Australia were 
 many Irish Catholics, whose religion, 
 joined with patriotism, was their only 
 crime. Instead of being ministered to, as 
 they requested, by Catholic priests, they 
 were driven, even with the whip, to assist 
 at the Anglican service, as no other reli- 
 gion was then tolerated in the colonies. 
 In 1818, Pius VII. established the Vicariate 
 Apostolic of Mauritius, with jurisdiction 
 
Australia 
 
 80 
 
 Austria 
 
 also over the Australian islands. Fcm- the 
 Australian colonies the Rev. Mr. Flynn 
 was appointed, on whom the Holy See had 
 conferred the title of Archpriest .with 
 power to administer confirmation. But 
 the colonial government, which consisted 
 mostly of Protestant ministers, could ill 
 brook the presence of a Catholic priest in 
 the islands : so, when Father Flynn arrived 
 in Australia, he was at once seized, put in 
 prison, and finally sent back to England. 
 This intolerance of the colonial authori- 
 ties gave great offense, even in Protestant 
 England. To reconcile public feeling, the 
 English Government was obliged, in 1820, 
 not only to permit two Catholic priests to 
 serve the Irish exiles in the Australian 
 colonies, but also to grant them a yearly 
 support. Meanwhile, Catholic emancipa- 
 tion in England had borne its fruits — it had 
 also secured liberty to the Catholics in the 
 British colonies. In 1832, the Rev. W. Ul- 
 lathorne, a Benedictine, late Bishop of 
 Birmingham, England, was appointed Vi- 
 car General and Visitor Apostolic of the 
 desolate mission by the Holy See. There 
 were, then, in all Australia and New 
 Zealand, only one partly-finished Church, 
 two chapels, and four free schools, in 
 charge of only three priests. The result 
 of his zeal and activity soon became mani- 
 fest. In 1835, the Holy See named the 
 Rev. Bede Folding, a Benedictine from 
 England, Vicar Apostolic of " New Hol- 
 land," which then comprised the whole 
 of Australia, besides Tasmania, Norfolk, 
 and other islands. This prelate's first care 
 was to secure fellow-laborers for his exten- 
 sive vineyard. Soon twenty-three priests 
 came to join him, and in 1840 the first 
 Sisters of Mercy arrived from Ireland, who 
 took charge of the orphans and female 
 prisoners. Five years after the arrival of 
 Bishop Folding, the Catholics already 
 formed one-third of all the inhabitants of 
 the colonies. In 1842, Gregory XVI. 
 raised the vicariate of "New Holland" 
 to an ecclesiastical province. Sydney 
 became a metropolitan see with two suf- 
 fragan bishops, one at Adelaide, in New 
 South Wales, and the other Hobart Town, 
 in Tasmania. In 1844, Archbishop Folding 
 held his First £cutnenical Council; it was 
 attended by two suffragan bishops and 
 thirty-three missionaries from all parts of 
 the Australian Continent. The most im- 
 portant decrees adopted by this Council 
 bore upon the life and manners of the clergy, 
 the founding of Catholic schoc^ in all the 
 
 missions, and on the pMreservation and ad- 
 ministration of Church property. 
 
 Australia {The Church in). — According 
 to the Census of England, etc., Fourth Gen- 
 eral Report of 1873, there are in Australia 
 proper, two archdioceses : The ecclesiasti- 
 cal province of Sydney, with the following 
 suffragans : Armidale, Bathurst, Brisbane, 
 Gaulbourn, Maitland, and Port Victoria; 
 and the province of Melbourne with the 
 following suffragans : Adelaide, Ballarat, 
 Hobart Town, Perth, and Sandhurst. To- 
 tal population of both provinces, 2,000,000 ; 
 Catholic population, 271,000. New Zea- 
 land contains the following bishoprics: 
 Auckland, Dunedin, and Wellington, with 
 a population of 400,000; Catholic popula- 
 tion, 51,000. Oceania comprises seven Pre- 
 fectures Apolostic, with a population of 
 435,000; Catholic population. 80,000. 
 
 According to the Alissiones Catholicce 
 of 1892, the Church in Australia and New 
 Zealand numbers about 750 priests, some 
 1,700 churches and chapels, over 900 paro- 
 chial schools, which are attended by 95,- 
 000 pupils. The Catholic population is 
 about 700,000, and this flock is ruled by a 
 hierarchy of five archbishops, — Sydney, 
 Melbourne, Adelaide, Brisbane, and Wel- 
 lington, in New Zealand, — seventeen bish- 
 ops, and four vicars apostolic. 
 
 Austria { Christianity in). — Christianity 
 was introduced into Austria in the fourth 
 century. The Roman colony of Trent had 
 a bishop as early as A. D. 381, named Abun- 
 dantins. His successor, 'STigilius, among 
 other extant works, left a letter addressed 
 to St. Chrysostom. But the real apostle 
 of Southern Rhaetia, or the Tyrol, was St. 
 Valentinus, a Belgian Bishop. He died in 
 the year 470. His famous contemporary, 
 St. Severinus, preached the Gosp>el in 
 Noricum, principally in the neighborhood 
 of Vienna, where he built a monastery. 
 For many years this extraordinary man 
 was the guide and refuge of all the tribes 
 in those parts. He extended his mission 
 as far as Pannonia, embracing then parts 
 of Hungary, Styria, Croatia, and Lower 
 Austria, with the whole of Slavonia. St. 
 Severinus died in the year 483. ' 
 
 Austria {Worship in). — The religious 
 hierarchy is represented, in the Austrian 
 Empire, by 26 Catholic bishop>s, 9 Evan- 
 gelical superintendencies, 2 Greek-Oriental 
 bishoprics, a superintendence and upper 
 consistory of the Unitarians. In the king- 
 
Authenticity 
 
 8i 
 
 Ave Maria 
 
 dom of Hungary by 25 Catholic bishops, 
 ID Evangelical superintendencies, and 8 
 Greek-Oriental bishops. The different 
 worships of the total population are as 
 follows: I. Austrian Countries, Roman 
 Catholics, 17,808,530; Greek and Armen- 
 ian Catholics, 2,593,618; Oriental Greeks 
 and Armenians, 493,542 ; Protestants, 
 401,479; Israelites, 1,005,394; Others, 14,- 
 004. — 2. Countries of the Hungaria7i 
 Cro-wn, Roman Catholics, 7,849,692 ; Greek 
 Catholics, 1,497,268; Armenian Catholics, 
 3,223; Onental Greeks, 2,434,890; Evan- 
 gelicals, 1,122,849; Calvinists, 2,031,803; 
 Unitarians, 33,792. Other Christian sects, 
 4,645; Israelites, 683,314; Others, 3,626. 
 See Census of the year 1890. 
 
 Authenticity {Holy Scripture). — A 
 book is credited as authentic that was 
 written by the author whose name it car- 
 ries and to whom it is generally at^trib- 
 uted. A history, or narrative may be true 
 or conformable to facts without being 
 authentic, that is without having been 
 written by the author to whom it is attrib- 
 uted. It is sufficient that it was the work 
 of a writer adequately informed and sin- 
 cere, whoever he may have been. Be- 
 cause the author of a book is unknown, it 
 does not follow that all it contains is false 
 and fabulous, and it may have as much 
 weight and authority as if the author were 
 certainly known, the subject matter being 
 the final criterion of the value of the work. 
 In fact, among the Sacred Books there are 
 some, especially in the Old Testament, 
 whose authors are not authentically known ; 
 we only know that they proceed from an 
 inspired hand, because the ancients, bet- 
 ter enabled than we to discover their 
 origin, have believed in them and have 
 quoted them as historic authority. In re- 
 gard to this point, tradition is the only 
 guide we have. As to the books of the 
 New Testament, we know for certain that 
 they are authentic, and that they were 
 written by the authors whose names they 
 carry. 
 
 In order that a book may be held ca- 
 nonical, inspired, divine, reputed as the 
 word of God, it is not enough that it is 
 authentic, that it was written by one of the 
 Apostles, or by one of their immediate suc- 
 cessors ; but the Church must have adopted 
 it as such, and ancient tradition must tes- 
 tify in its favor. The Church would not 
 be in a condition to guarantee the Christian 
 doctrine, if she had not the authority to 
 6 
 
 teach us, without danger of error, what 
 are the books we must regard as rules of 
 our belief. The rules of criticism may 
 serve to discover whether a book was writ- 
 ten by such or such an author, but they can- 
 not inform us whether this book is or is not 
 a rule of faith ; it remains for the Church to 
 judge whether it contains the doctrine of 
 Christ or not. This holy society was 
 instructed by word of mouth by the Apos- 
 tles before she had received their writ- 
 ings, and no book can entirely supply the 
 public with the never varying teaching of 
 the Church. 
 
 Authority. See Law; Pope {Preroga- 
 tives of the) ; Jurisdiction. 
 
 Autocephali. — Name given by the Greeks 
 to bishops who are not subject to the 
 jurisdiction of the patriarchs. 
 
 Auto Da Fe {Act of Faith). — Name 
 given to the ceremony that took place 
 when the Inquisition had rendered its 
 judgment on the person brought before it 
 for trial. It was especially applied to the 
 execution of the judgment by fire. See 
 
 iNqUISITION. 
 
 Ave Maria or the *' Angelical Saluta- 
 tion." Catholics, after having said the 
 " Our Father," almost invariably add the 
 "Ave Maria." It has always been cus- 
 tomary among Christians to imitate the 
 example of the archangel Gabriel, and 
 salute our Blessed Lady in his words. The 
 devotion to Mary was not introduced by a 
 decree of a Council, nor at the behest of 
 any Pope; at all times the faithful have 
 been wont to pay their devout homage to 
 the Queen of heaven. She herself foresaw 
 that this would be so; that all generations 
 would call her blessed (Luke i. 48). The 
 "Ave Maria" is also called the Angelical 
 Salutation, because it commences with the 
 words of the archangel. It consists of 
 three parts : The salutation of the arch- 
 angel Gabriel, the greeting of St. Eliza- 
 beth, and the words of the Church. The 
 salutation of the archangel runs thus : 
 " Hail, full of grace, the Lord is with 
 thee; blessed art thou among women" 
 (Luke i. 28). The greeting of Elizabeth 
 is this : " Blessed art thou among women, 
 and blessed is the fruit of thy womb " 
 (v. 42). The remaining words were added 
 by the Church. The first and second parts 
 were recited by the faithful in the earliest 
 ages of Christianity in their present form, 
 while the concluding words were varied. 
 
Avignon 
 
 82 
 
 Babylon 
 
 St. Athanasius used to add : " Pray for us, 
 Patron and Lady, Queen and Mother of 
 God." From the time of Luther it was 
 customary to end with the words : " Holy 
 Mary, Mother of God, pray for us." The 
 final clause now in use dates from the reign 
 of Pope St. Pius v., who directed it to 
 be printed in all the authorized prayer 
 books. 
 
 Avignon (.The Popes at). See Captiv- 
 ity OF THE Popes. 
 
 Aviz ( Order of St. Benedict). — An Order 
 of knighthood, instituted in 1134-1147, by 
 Sancho I., king of Navarre. Its purpose 
 was to aid in the suppression of the Moors. 
 It received the papal confirmation as a re- 
 ligious Order under the Rule of St. Bene- 
 
 dict in 1 162. In 1187 the seat of the Order 
 is said to have been placed at Aviz. In 
 1550 Pope Paul III. united the grand mas- 
 tership to the Portuguese crown, and in 
 1789 it was changed into an honorary order 
 for the reward of military merit. 
 
 Azarias. — King of Juda. He began his 
 reign at the age of 16 years, 812 b. c. The 
 first part of his reign was prosperous and 
 happy; but presuming to offer incense in 
 the temple, he was smitten with leprosy, 
 and continued a leper till his death, in 758 
 B. c. 
 
 Azimites. — A name signifying users of 
 unleavened bread, applied to the Roman 
 Church, by the Patriarch of Constanti- 
 nople, Michael Caerularius, in 1053. 
 
 B 
 
 Baader (Franz Xavervon)(i765-i84I). 
 — Born at Munich. A German scholar, ap- 
 pointed honorary professor of philosophy 
 and speculative theology at the University 
 of Munich in 1826; chiefly known from 
 his philosophical writings. He devoted 
 himself at first to the study of medicine 
 and the natural sciences, held the position 
 of superintendent of mines in Munich 
 (1797) and published various scientific and 
 technical works. Catholic and profound 
 thinker, Baader had the misfortune to fall 
 into the errors of mystics, such as J. 
 Bochum, Paracelsus, Van Helmont, and 
 St. Martin. He imagined a democratic 
 Catholicism, enfranchised from the su- 
 premacy of the Pope and governed in a 
 parliamentary manner by councils. He 
 believed in having found his ideal in the 
 Greek Church, which he maintained to be 
 superior to the Roman Church. However, 
 Baader died a Catholic, at Mimich. 
 
 Baal or Bel, signifies lord, and was 
 the name of an idol, god of the Phoeni- 
 cians and Chanaanites, which is very com- 
 monly mentioned along with Ashtaroth, 
 or Astarte. The word Baal, in the Old 
 Testament, when employed without further 
 addition, denotes an idol of the Phccnici- 
 ans, and particularly of the Tyrians, whose 
 worship was also introduced, with great 
 solemnities, among the Hebrews, and 
 especially at Samaria, along with that of 
 Astarte ( Judg. vi. 25; IV. Ki. x. 18). In 
 the plural, Baalim, the word signifies 
 
 images or statues of Baal. Of the extent 
 to which the worship of this idol was 
 practiced among the Phoenicians and 
 Carthaginians, we have an evidence in the 
 proper names of persons ; as, among the 
 former, Ethbaal, Jerubbaal; and among 
 the latter, Hannibal, Asdrubal, etc. Also 
 the name Baal is often joined to the name 
 of a city where Baal is adored : Baal-Bek, 
 Baal-Hazor, Baal-Pharasim, etc. ; with the 
 name of another false deity, like Baal- 
 Phegor, Baal-Berith, that is "lord of the 
 covenant," Beel-Zebuth. Among the Bab- 
 ylonians, the same idol was worshiped 
 under the name of Bel, which is only 
 another form of the word Baal. 
 
 Baalah or Cariath-Yarim. — City of Pal- 
 estine, in the tribe of Juda, where they 
 deposited the Ark of Covenant brought 
 back from the country of the Philistines. 
 
 Baanites. — Heretics of the ninth cen- 
 tury. They were followers of Baanes, a 
 Paulician, and who founded a separate 
 sect of the Manicheans. 
 
 Babel. — Same as Babylon (which see). 
 
 Babylon. — In ancient geography, the 
 capital of Babylonia, situated on the Eu- 
 phrates. Its original foundation is re- 
 ferred, in the Bible, to the attempt of tlje 
 descendants of Noe to build "a city and a 
 tower," on account of which their lan- 
 guage was confounded, and they were 
 scattered by the interposition of God Him- 
 
Babylonian Captivity 
 
 83 
 
 Ballerini 
 
 self (Gen. xi.). Hence the name Babel, 
 that is, confusion. Babylon is now a mass 
 of ruins, but once, according to Herodo- 
 tus, it included within its walls 200 square 
 miles. It is named 250 times in the 
 Bible. Babylon rose to great glory under 
 Nabuchodonosor. Thither the Jews were 
 carried into captivity. Cyrus captured it 
 (Dan. v.), as did also, later, Alexander the 
 Great, who died there. Its overthrow was 
 frequently foretold (Is. xiii, 4-22; Jer. 
 XXV. 12; Hab. i. 5-10). 
 
 Babylonian Captivity. See Captivity. 
 
 Bacon or Baconthorp (John). — English 
 monk and theologian, born at Baconthorp, 
 in the province of Norfolk, England, died 
 at London about 1346. Provincial of the 
 Carmelities. They surnamed him the 
 " Resolute Doctor " on account of the great 
 facility with which he answered the pro- 
 posed questions. H e is the author of a Com - 
 mentary on the Master of Sentences. 
 
 Bacon (Roger). — Born at or near Ilches- 
 ter, Somersetshire, about 1214; died, prob- 
 ably at Oxford, in 1294. A celebrated 
 English philosopher. He was educated at 
 Oxford and Paris, and joined the Francis- 
 can Order. In 1227 he was sent by his su- 
 periors to Paris, where he was kept in close 
 confinement for several years. About 1265 
 he was invited by Pope Clement IV. to 
 write a general treatise on the sciences, in 
 answer to which he composed his chief 
 work, the Ofus Majus. In 1278 his 
 writings were condemned as heretical by a 
 Council of his Order, in consequence of 
 which he was again placed in confinement. 
 He was set at liberty in 1292. Besides the 
 Opus Majus, his most notable works 
 are Opus Minus, Opus Tertium, and 
 Compendium Philosophies. 
 
 Baden ( Worship in). See Germany. 
 
 Baius (Michael) (1513-1689). — Doctor 
 and professor of theology at Louvain. 
 Misinterpreting the doctrine of St. Augus- 
 tine, he advanced new opinions on original 
 justice, grace, and freedom of will. His 
 lectures on these subjects excited much 
 opposition among his academic colleagues, 
 especially among the Franciscans. The 
 principal errors couched in the doctrine of 
 Baius are, that original justice is an in- 
 tegral part of human nature, and not a free 
 gift of Guod; that fallen man, being utterly 
 depraved in his nature, is incapable of do- 
 ing good ; that all actions of man in the 
 
 natural order are sinful ; and that divine 
 grace constrains man to be and to do good. 
 In 1567 Pope Pius V. condemned seventy- 
 six propositions, representing the teaching 
 of Baius, as erroneous and heretical, which 
 sentence Gregory XIII. renewed in 1579. 
 Baius submitted to the papal decision. 
 His tenets, which are hardly distinguish- 
 able from those of Calvin, took root and 
 passed from his disciples to Jansenism in 
 the next century. See Jansenism. 
 
 Balaam. — Prophet or diviner of the city 
 of Pethora,on the Euphrates. Balak, king 
 of Moab, having seen the hosts of Israel, 
 and fearing they would attack his country, 
 sent for Balaam to come and curse them. 
 His messengers having declared their 
 errand, Balaam, during the night, con- 
 sulted God, who forbade his going. Balak 
 afterward sent others, whom Balaam 
 finally accompanied, contrary to the will 
 of God, who sent an angel to stop him on 
 the way. Here occurred the miracle of 
 Balaam's ass. But instead of cursing he 
 blessed the children of Israel. See Num. 
 xxii. Balaam and Balak were killed in 
 the year 1461 b. c. 
 
 Baldachin. — A canopy of various kinds : 
 I. A portable decorative covering, borne 
 in ceremonial processions, as a sign of 
 rank or dignity; particularly, the dais-like 
 canopy carried over the Pope, which is 
 supported on eight poles and carried by 
 distinguished personages. — 2. A portable 
 canopy borne over the Blessed Eucharist, 
 carried processionally, as on the feast of 
 Corpus Christi. — 3. A stationary covering, 
 of baudekin, silk, or other rich material, 
 stretched above the seat of a dignitary. — 
 4. A fixed canopy, often of metal or stone, 
 above the isolated high altar, in many 
 churches, especially in Italy and the East. 
 From its center, according to the old 
 ritual, usually hung by a chain the vessel 
 containing the Sacred Host; but this usage 
 has been superseded. 
 
 Ballerini (-Anthony) (1803-1881). — Ital- 
 ian theologian, born at Bologna, entered 
 the Society of Jesus in 1826, and was suc- 
 cessively professor of philosophy at Feren- 
 tino, of Church History at Rome and at 
 Fermo. He occupied the chair of moral 
 theology at the Gregorian University of 
 Rome when he died. He published the 
 Compendium Theologies Moralis, of R. P. 
 Gury, and Tractatus de Justitia et Jure ; 
 Tractatus de Actibus Humanis ; Sylloge 
 
Ballerini 
 
 84 
 
 Baltimore 
 
 Monumentorutn adMysterium Conceptionis 
 Immaculate Virginis Deifarce; yuris 
 Offlcium Episcoforum in ferendo suffragio 
 pro Infallibilitate, Romani Pontificis, etc. 
 
 Ballerini (Jerome) (1720-1770). — Priest 
 ax»d theologian, brother of the following, 
 born at Verona. His knowledge of eccle- 
 siastical history was very extensive. He 
 was the fellow-laborer of his brother in 
 his various works, and he himself pub- 
 lished a complete edition of the Works of 
 Cardinal Noris, with notes and disserta- 
 tions. 
 
 Ballerini (Peter) (1698-1764). — Italian 
 theologian and canonist, born at Verona; 
 priest and savant, published an excellent 
 edition of the works of St. Leo the Great; 
 of the Theological Summa, of St. Anthony, 
 and of Raymond of Pennafort. More- 
 over, we have from him a small treatise 
 entitled : *' Methods of Studying, Drawn 
 from tbe Works of St. Augustine" (1724), 
 a work which became one of the causes 
 of the quarrel of Probabilism. 
 
 Balmes (Jaime Luciano). — Born at 
 Vich, in Catalonia, 1810; died there, 1848. 
 A Spanish publicist and philosophical 
 writer. He founded a journal '*// Pensa- 
 miento de la Nacion," to defend religion 
 and monarchy. But Balmes especially 
 owes his great fame to his Protestantism 
 and Catholicity Compared in their Effects 
 on the Civilization of Europe, a work 
 translated into English. Other works of 
 his in English are : Fundamental Philos- 
 ophy ; The Foundations of Religion Ex- 
 plained ; Letters to a Skeptic, on Religion. 
 
 Balsam. — An oily, aromatic, resinous 
 substance, exuding spontaneously from 
 trees of the genus Balsamodendron. The 
 balsam from the tree of the species opo- 
 balsamum was anciently plentiful in Judea, 
 and particularly in Galaad, hence called 
 the "Balsam of Galaad" (Jer. xlvi. 11). 
 It was considered very valuable as a cure 
 for external wounds. In oiSr days, it is 
 collected chiefly in Arabia, between Mecca 
 and Medina. Its odor is exquisitely fra- 
 grant and pungent. It is very costly, and 
 it is still in the highest esteem among the 
 Turks and other Oriental nations, both as 
 a medicine and as a cosmetic. The bal- 
 sam used in the Catholic Church in the 
 confection of chrism is, by the rubrics, that 
 of Syria or Mecca; but from difficulty in 
 obtaining this, concessions have been made 
 
 by the Popes for the use of balsam of 
 Brazil, Tolu, Peru, etc. 
 
 Balthasar. — Son of the last Chaldean 
 king of Babylon, Nebu-Nehid or Nabon- 
 idus. Intrenched by his father in Babylon, 
 when besieged by Cyrus, he trusted in the 
 strength of the place, and spent the time 
 in debaucheries. The Bible relates (Dan. 
 V.) that at a great festival he profaned the 
 sacred vessels of the temple of Jerusalem. 
 The same night Cyrus took Babylon and 
 put an end to the Chaldean empire, which 
 had lasted 200 years. 
 
 Baltimore Councils. — Three plenary 
 councils were held in the city of Balti- 
 more, Maryland. The First was held in 
 1852. Thirty-two archbishops and bishops 
 took part in its deliberations. The decrees 
 of this Council related chiefly to ecclesi- 
 astical discipline, the school question, and 
 other important matters, and proposed the 
 creation of eight new sees. Bishop Fr. P. 
 Kenrick, Archbishop of Baltimore, pre- 
 sided over the First Plenary Council. — 
 The Second took place in 1866. It had 
 been convened by Archbishop Spalding, 
 as Apostolic Delegate, and was attended 
 by seven archbishops and thirty-eight 
 bishops. One of the decrees of the Coun- 
 cil recommended to the Holy See the 
 erection of fifteen new episcopal sees. — 
 The Third took place in the year 1884. 
 No such gathering had been witnessed in 
 the history of the American Church. 
 Among its attendants were fourteen arch- 
 bishops, sixty bishops, five visiting bishops 
 from Canada and Japan, one prefect apos- 
 tolic, and seven mitred abbots. The ap- 
 pointed task of the Council was to promote 
 uniformity of discipline, and provide for 
 the exigencies and a closer organization 
 of the Church of America. 
 
 Baltimore (Lord), or Sir Cecil Calvert 
 (1613-1676). — An English Catholic noble- 
 man, known as Lord Baltimore. Having 
 obtained from Charles I. a charter for the 
 settlement of Maryland, in 1634, sent out 
 his brother, Leonard Calvert, and two 
 hundred English emigrants, chiefly Cath- 
 olics, to establish a colony in his new pos- 
 session. The new settlement, to which 
 the name of St. Mary's was given, began 
 with Catholics and Protestants living to- 
 gether in peace, neither interfering with 
 the religious rights of the other. Thus 
 "religious liberty," says Bancroft, "ob- 
 tained a home, its only home in the wide 
 
Banner 
 
 85 
 
 Baptism 
 
 world, in the humble village which bore 
 the name of St. Mary's." To insure the 
 continuance of peace and mutual confi- 
 dence among the colonists, the Assembly 
 of Maryland, at the instance of Lord Balti- 
 more, in 1649, passed the famous Act con- 
 cerning Relisrion, which provided that no 
 person believing in Jesus Christ should be 
 molested in respect to their religion, or 
 the exercise thereof, or be compelled to 
 adopt the belief of any other religion, 
 against their consent. 
 
 Banner. See Standard. 
 
 Banns of Marriage. — Proclamations 
 which are solemnly made in the Church, 
 in order to make known an intended mar- 
 riage, so that those who know of any im- 
 pediment, may state it to the proper 
 authorities. Banns were made a part of 
 ecclesiastical legislation by the Fourth 
 Council of the Lateran, in 1215, whose 
 decrees were confirmed by the Council of 
 Trent. In the Catholic Church the cele- 
 bration of marriage, without previous proc- 
 lamation of the banns, is, unless by 
 special dispensation, gravely illicit, but not 
 invalid. The proclamations of the banns 
 are made by the parish priest of the con- 
 tracting parties, on three consecutive Sun- 
 days at high Mass. 
 
 Baptism. — Baptism is the first of the 
 sacraments, because without it we can re- 
 ceive no other sacrament ; and if we were 
 to participate in any other sacrament, it 
 would be void ; and we, knowingly and wil- 
 fully unbaptized, would commit a sacrilege. 
 God might accord persons so acting sancti- 
 fying grace, but it would not be conferred 
 through the bestowal of the sacrament. 
 
 The word "baptism" is a Greek word 
 which signifies ablution or immersion. 
 This was the manner of baptizing in 
 the primitive Church, symbolizing puri- 
 fication, and expressive of the spiritual 
 effect of this sacrament. Although St. 
 John baptized, his baptism was but the 
 figure of the real baptism, — the sign of 
 heartfelt penitence, in preparation for re- 
 ceiving the grace of the remission of sins; 
 but it neither contained nor conferred that 
 grace. 
 
 According to some theologians, our 
 Lord instituted the sacrament of baptism 
 on receiving from St. John the figurative 
 baptism. In the opinion of others, it was 
 after the resurrection of our Saviour, when 
 He said to His Apostles: "Teach ye all 
 nations, baptizing them in the name of the 
 
 Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy 
 Ghost" (Matt, xxviii. 19). 
 
 In the sacrament of baptism, instituted 
 by our Lord Jesus Christ, He eflF^ces the 
 stain of original sin, and communicates to 
 our souls the supernatural life of sanctify- 
 ing or habitual grace, rendering us Chris- 
 tians, children of God, members of His 
 Church, and inheritors of the kingdom of 
 heaven. Baptism imprints an ineffaceable 
 character on the soul, as St. Paul explains 
 by saying : " Grieve not the Holy Spirit of 
 God, whereby you are sealed unto the day 
 of redemption" (Eph. iv. 30). In adults, 
 having the necessary dispositions, the 
 grace conferred by the sacrament of bap- 
 tism effaces actual sin as well as original 
 sin, and remits the temporal punishment 
 due to sin. St. Paul aflSrms this in ex- 
 horting sinners to contrition and baptism, 
 in these words: "Be penitent, therefore, 
 and be converted, that your sins may be 
 blotted out" (Acts. iii. 19). " Do penance 
 and be baptized, every one of you, in the 
 name of Jesus Christ, for the remission of 
 your sins ; and you shall receive the gift of 
 the Holy Ghost " (Acts ii. 38). To those 
 who sin after baptism, but who do not die 
 in mortal sin, there remains expiation of 
 purgation in this world, or of purgatory 
 in the next, for there is " no condemnation 
 to them that are in Christ Jesus, who walk 
 not according to the flesh " (Rom. viii. i). 
 Those who die undefiled by any kind of 
 sin, are numbered among the just, and 
 immediately enter heaven. By baptism 
 we are made Christians, for those who 
 " have been baptized in Christ have put 
 on Christ " (Gal. iii. 27). We are " chil- 
 dren of God by faith in Jesus Christ " 
 (Gal. iii. 26) ; and members of His Church, 
 having entered by baptism, that great re- 
 ligious society established by our Lord, 
 and being designated in Scripture as " Be- 
 lieving " (i Cor. vii. 14). We are inheri- 
 tors of the kingdom of heaven, " for the 
 Spirit Himself giveth testimony to our 
 spirit, that we are the sons of God. And 
 if sons, heirs also; heirs indeed of God, 
 and joint heirs of Christ; yet so, if we 
 suffer with Him" (Rom. viii. 17). Al- 
 though baptism blots out the stain of sin, 
 it does not absolve us from the temporal 
 consequences of original sin, but leaves us 
 ever subject to suffering, ignorance, con- 
 cupiscence, and death. This is in order to 
 prove our virtue and steadfastness toward 
 God, to afford us opportunities of expiat- 
 ing our own faults by resistance to tempta- 
 
Baptism 
 
 86 
 
 Baptism 
 
 tion, and by patience and forbearance, 
 thereby giving us occasion for increasing 
 sanctifying grace in our souls, and of 
 gaining new merits wherewith to add to 
 our heavenly glory and happiness. 
 
 In cases of necessity, when ecclesiastical 
 administration of the sacrament of bap- 
 tism cannot be procured, any person of 
 either sex, of any age or religion, may 
 baptize. Indeed, it is obligatory to bap- 
 tize, when an unbaptized child or adult is 
 in danger of death, and no priest is at 
 hand ; but otherwise it is not permissible 
 under pain of sin. In any case, the cere- 
 monies must, as soon as convenient, be 
 supplied by a priest, and the baptism 
 itself must be renewed, conditionally, if 
 there be any doubt as to its having been 
 validly administered. 
 
 To baptize validly, water must be poured 
 on the forehead, while the person baptiz- 
 ing says at the same time, with the in- 
 tention of carrying out the precept of the 
 Church : " I baptize thee in the name of 
 the Father, and of the Son, and of the 
 Holy Ghost." In conferring this sacra- 
 ment, great care should be taken, while 
 pronouncing these words, that the water 
 should be poured on the forehead three 
 times, forming the sign of the cross at each 
 pouring — to bring more clearly to mind 
 the sacrifice of our Saviour, the source 
 of baptismal grace, and the Holy Trinity. 
 If there be any doubt as to whether the 
 person has been already baptized, and 
 dangerous illness does not afiFord time to 
 make proper inquiries, the baptism must 
 be made "conditional," by the person who 
 administers it, saying: "If thou art not 
 baptized, I baptize thee," etc. In the same 
 manner, if there be doubt as to whether 
 the person be still alive, the words should 
 be in a conditional form : *' If thou art 
 living, I baptize thee," etc. 
 
 Baptism is absolutely necessary for sal- 
 vation, for our Lord said : "Unless a man 
 be born again of water and the Holy 
 Ghost, he cannot enter into the kingdom 
 of God" (John iii. 5). "He that believeth 
 and is baptized, shall be saved ; but he 
 that believeth not shall be condemned " 
 (Mark xvi. 16). 
 
 But when the baptism of water cannot 
 possibly be effected, it may be supplied by 
 the baptism of desire: "For whosoever 
 shall call upon the name of the Lord shall 
 be saved" (Rom. x. 13). This, however, 
 neither gives the character of the true 
 baptism, nor the right of participating in 
 
 the other sacraments of the Church ; and 
 will remit temporal punishment due to 
 sin only when the desire and devotion are 
 sufficiently ardent. The baptism of de- 
 sire is the perfect love of God, with the 
 strong resolve of obedience to all that God 
 has commanded, including the desire of 
 baptism. But after Aie passing away of 
 the circumstances that have called forth 
 the desire, baptism must voluntarily be 
 sought for on the first available oppor- 
 tunity, and be administered according to 
 the rites of the Church ; otherwise, by the 
 clear evidence of the desire having ceased 
 to exist, a grievous sin is committed. 
 
 The baptism of water may also be sup- 
 plied by the baptism of blood, or martyr- 
 dom ; which, properly speaking, is death 
 endured in the name of our Lord, to pre- 
 serve faith, chastity, or some other Chris- 
 tian virtue. This baptism of blood, in 
 which man manifests the greatest proof of 
 love for the Creator, remits all punish- 
 ment due to sin, as in ordinary baptism. 
 This is distinctly so explained in the sense 
 of the words of Christ: "He that shall 
 lose his life for my sake, shall save it " 
 (Luke ix. 24). But if the martyrdom is a 
 torture that does not result in death, bap- 
 tism of water must be administered as 
 soon as procurable, as in the case of bap- 
 tism of desire, to ratify and increase the 
 gifts received. 
 
 No avoidable delay is admissible in the 
 baptism of a child ; and parents are greatly 
 and sometimes grievously at fault in thus 
 exposing a soul to exclusion from heaven, 
 for it is written : " There shall not enter 
 into it anything defiled" (Apoc. xxi. 27). 
 It is, therefore, according to faith, that 
 every child, though of itself sinless, so far 
 as actual sin is concerned, is deprived, if 
 dying unbaptized, of the sight of God and 
 glory of heaven. In the opinion of some 
 theologians, they are taken to the place 
 called Limbo, where the souls of the just 
 went, who died before our Saviour's com- 
 ing on earth. It is evident, that by the 
 justice of God, these children enjoy a 
 greater degree of happiness, though how 
 far their exclusion from heaven is realized 
 by them, to the tempering of that happi- 
 ness, is unknown. Probably not at all. 
 
 For the baptism of children who have 
 not attained the age of reason, or of adults 
 who have always been deprived of that 
 faculty, or who have lost the use of it be- 
 fore being baptized, any disposition for 
 the reception of the sacrament is neces- 
 
Baptism 
 
 87 
 
 Baptism 
 
 sarily dispensed with, because they are in- 
 capable of judging for themselves on such 
 matters, and consequently cannot oppose 
 the grace of God working in the sacra- 
 ment. For the baptism of adults in pos- 
 session of reason, their full consent is 
 indispensable to its validity. They should 
 also have sufficient knowledge of the prin- 
 cipal truths of religion, and adequate con- 
 victions of faith, hope, love of God, and 
 sincere repentance of sin, at least from the 
 motive of attrition. With consent, but 
 without the necessary dispositions, bap- 
 tism would be valid, but would not efface 
 the stain of original and actual sin, nor give 
 sanctifying grace to the soul until such 
 time as the requisite knowledge and fitting 
 dispositions should drive away all obstacles 
 to the full reception of sanctifying grace. 
 
 The promises, solemn, sacred, and irrev- 
 ocable, exacted by the Church from the 
 catechumen, or from the godfather or god- 
 mother in the name of the infant to be 
 baptized, are the renouncing of Satan, his 
 pomps and his works. That is to say, the 
 embracing the law of our Saviour, and de- 
 claring adherence henceforth to God and 
 His holy will; and the rejecting the vani- 
 ties of the world, over-indulgence in out- 
 ward show, and flattering deceptions of 
 pride, which can be of little avail in this 
 life, and are compromising to the interests 
 of our eternal happiness. Further, the 
 repudiation of the wicked and false maxims 
 of the world, including all that selfish 
 love of luxuries and all those worldly dis- 
 positions so totally opposed to the doc- 
 trines and examples of our Lord. It is 
 important for parents or godparents to ex- 
 plain to children, as soon as they are ca- 
 pable of understanding them, the value and 
 consequences of the promises that have 
 been made in their name, the grace that 
 has been accorded to them by God, the 
 privileges with which they have been en- 
 dowed in having been made members of 
 the Holy Catholic Church, and the neces- 
 sity of their remembering in whose ser- 
 vice they are to pass their lives. They 
 should teach children to celebrate worthily 
 the anniversary of that day on which they re- 
 ceived the life of sanctifying grace through 
 the sacrament of baptism; instructing 
 them to ask pardon, with all sincerity of 
 heart, for sins meanwhile committed, and 
 to renew, with ardent fervor, the solemn 
 pledges given in baptism, praying for the 
 help of divine grace in carrying out their 
 resolutions. 
 
 For the solemn administration of the 
 sacrament of baptism, the godfather or 
 godmother may, if necessary, be repre- 
 sented by someone else, who, however, 
 contracts none of the obligations of the 
 godparents. The Church exacts that 
 every child to be baptized should have a 
 sponsor to act in its name in making the 
 required promises, and to see to the due 
 carrying out of the same by the child who 
 receives this sacrament. Godparents 
 must at least have attained the age of dis- 
 cretion, and be in full possession of the use 
 of reason. They must be Catholics, be- 
 cause the Church admits none but her 
 followers to assume this position. They 
 must be of good faith and morals, and 
 adequately versed in the knowledge of our 
 holy religion, that their teaching may be 
 pure, and their instruction sufficient for 
 those intrusted to their spiritual direction. 
 Of course, neither the father nor the 
 mother of the child to be baptized can act 
 as sponsor. According to the laws of the 
 Church, the godparent contracts a spirit- 
 ual affinity with the child, which prevents 
 the sponsor's marriage with the child or 
 with its mother or father, in case of the 
 death of either. This spiritual alliance, 
 however, is only formed in the solemn ad- 
 ministration of the sacrament of baptism, 
 and not in connection with ceremonies of 
 the Church performed for a baptism that 
 has already been conferred without the 
 ceremonies prescribed. 
 
 The duty of godparents is to love their 
 godchildren in a spiritual manner, to 
 teach them, or have them taught, in de- 
 fault of their natural parents, the prin- 
 ciples of the Christian faith, and to remind 
 them of the serious and sacred promises 
 and obligations contracted on their behalf 
 before Holy Church. The duty of god- 
 children is to respect and to love, in a 
 spiritual manner, their godparents, and to 
 receive, with gentleness and grateful 
 recognition, their good counsel and char- 
 itable corrections. 
 
 The custom of giving the children to be 
 baptized one or several names of saints of 
 the Old or New Testaments, in order that 
 they may be especially protected by them, 
 is very ancient, especially in several 
 Churches of the West. The ritual makes 
 it an obligation upon the priest not to 
 impose upon the children profane bap- 
 tismal names, or such as have a ridicu- 
 lous meaning, or are contrary to decency. 
 See Catechumenate, 
 
Baptism 
 
 88 
 
 Baptism 
 
 Baptism {Ceretnonies of). — The person 
 to be baptized waits at the entrance of the 
 Church, to indicate that until he has thrown 
 off the yoke of sin, and submitted to Christ 
 and His authority, he is unworthy to enter, 
 because baptism is the portal to God's 
 grace, to the kingdom of heaven, and to 
 the communion of saints. The person to 
 be baptized receives a saint's name ; that 
 by this name he may be enrolled, through 
 baptism, among the number of Christians 
 whom St. Paul calls saints ; that he may 
 have a patron and intercessor, and that the 
 saint whose name he bears may be his 
 model and example, according to which 
 he may order his own life. The priest 
 breathes in the face of the one to be bap- 
 tized, in imitation of Christ who breathed 
 on His Apostles when He gave them the 
 Holy Ghost (John xx. 22). The priest im- 
 poses his hand upon the head of the person 
 to be baptized, to signify that he is now the 
 property of God and is under His protec- 
 tion. The numerous exorcisms signify that 
 the evil spirit, which, previous to baptism, 
 holds the unbaptized in bondage, is now 
 commanded in the name of God to depart 
 that a dwelling place may be prepared for 
 the Holy Ghost. The one to be baptized 
 is often signed with the sign of the cross, 
 to signify that through the power of 
 Christ's merits and of His death on the 
 Cross, baptism washes away original sin ; 
 that he is henceforth to be a follower of 
 Christ the Crucified, and as such must 
 fight valiantly under the banner of the 
 Cross against the enemies of salvation, 
 and must follow Christ on the way of the 
 Cross, even unto death. The salt which is 
 put into his mouth, is an emblem of 
 Christian wisdom and of preservation 
 from the corruption of sin. Then the ears 
 and nostrils are touched with spittle, to sig- 
 nify that as Christ put spittle on the eyes 
 of the man born blind, thus restoring his 
 sight, so by baptism the spiritual blind- 
 ness of the soul is removed, and the mind 
 receives light to behold heavenly wisdom. 
 The priest asks the question: "Dost thou 
 renounce the devil, and all his works, and 
 all his pomps.'"' — in order that the Chris- 
 tian may know that his vocation requires 
 him to renounce and combat the devil, his 
 works, suggestions, and pomps. The per- 
 son is anointed on the shoulders and 
 breast with holy oil, in order to strengthen 
 him to fight bravely for Christ. As the 
 combatants of old anointed themselves with 
 oil before they entered the arena, so is 
 
 he anointed on the breast, that he may 
 gain courage and force, bravely to com- 
 bat the world, the flesh, and the devil ; 
 and on the shoulder that he may be strong 
 to bear constantly and untiringly the yoke 
 of Christ's commands, and pursue the toil- 
 some course of life in unwavering fidelity 
 to God and His holy law. The Lord's 
 Prayer and the Apostles' Creed are said 
 at baptism, in order that, when the child 
 is a grown person an acknowledgment 
 of faith may by this means be made in 
 the face of the Church. When children 
 are baptized, these prayers are said by the 
 sponsors who are thus admonished to see 
 that their godchildren are well instructed 
 in these as in all other Christian truths. 
 The priest expressly asks the person if he 
 will be baptized, because as man, through 
 Adam, of his own free will obeyed the 
 devil, so now when he would be received 
 among the number of Christ's children, 
 he must, to obtain salvation, of his own free 
 will obey the precepts of God. Water is 
 poured three times upon the head, in token 
 that man after this thrice-repeated ablution 
 rises from the death of sin, as Christ, 
 after His three days' burial, rose from the 
 dead (Rom. vi. 4, 5). In early times the 
 candidate for baptism was immersed three 
 times in the water. For divers reasons 
 this custom has been abolished. The per- 
 son is anointed on the head with chrism, 
 because this anointing is, so to speak, the 
 crown of the young Christian. As in the 
 Old Law the kings were anointed (I. Ki. 
 X. r), as Jesus is the anointed One, and as 
 the Apostle St. Peter calls the Christians 
 a chosen race, a kingly priesthood, a holy 
 people (L Pet. ii. 9), so the baptized by 
 means of this unction is embodied in 
 Christ, the anointed One, and participates 
 in His priesthood and kingly dignity. 
 The white robe represents the glory to 
 which by baptism we are born again; the 
 purity and beauty with which the soul, 
 having been washed from sin in the sacra- 
 ment of baptism, is adorned, and the inno- 
 cence which the baptized should preser\'e 
 through his whole life. The lighted can- 
 dle placed in his hand, is an emblem of 
 the Christian doctrine which preserves the 
 baptized from error, ignorance, and sin, 
 illumines his understanding, and leads 
 him safel}' in the way of virtue ; it repre- 
 sents the flame of love for God and our 
 neighbor which the baptized should hence- 
 forth continually carry, like the five pru- 
 dent virgins (Matt. xxv. 13) on the path to 
 
Baptistery 
 
 89 
 
 Baptists 
 
 meet the Lord, that when his life is ended 
 he may be admitted to the eternal wedding 
 feast. It signifies also the light of good 
 example which he should keep ever burn- 
 ing. 
 
 Baptistery (a place for baptizing.) — The 
 baptisteries, in the first centuries of the 
 Church, were usually buildings of a cir- 
 cular form, apart from the Church, and 
 sometimes so spacious that large assem- 
 blies might be held in them. The faith of 
 our forefathers was attentive to every- 
 thing that could add to the embellishment 
 of these places, in which the great mystery 
 of regeneration was accomplished. The 
 purest gold and the most exquisite marble 
 shone on all sides. But nothing can give 
 us a better idea of the magnificence of 
 early baptisteries, than the description of 
 that of St. John Lateran, at Rome, built 
 by the Emperor Constantine. It was a 
 magnificent square hall, with walls of 
 marble and porphyry. In the center was 
 to be seen a basin of porphyry, adorned 
 with silver, in which the baptismal waters 
 were preserved ; from the middle of the 
 basin rose a column of porphyry, sup- 
 porting a golden vase of fifty pounds 
 weight, which contained the holy chrism 
 for the unctions of the newly baptized. 
 On one side of the basin were steps to de- 
 scend into it. At the two extremities were 
 silver statues, one of our Lord, the other 
 of St. John the Baptist, each weighing a 
 hundred and seventy pounds. Around the 
 sides of the basin were seven large silver 
 hearts, emblems of souls that pant after 
 the salutary fountains; each of them 
 weighed eighty pounds and jetted water 
 into the basin. In the center of every 
 baptistery was the font. (See Font.) 
 
 Baptistines (religious). — The hermits 
 of St. John the Baptist, or Baptistines, 
 were founded by Mary Antonia, called 
 later Mary Battista Solimani, born at Al- 
 baro, near Genoa, in 1688. In 1730, at 
 Moneglia, Battista commenced with some 
 virgins a congregation of very austere life ; 
 established at Genoa in 1736 a similar 
 society, and in 1742 went to Rome, where 
 Pope Benedict XIV. approved the rules 
 which she had drawn up (January, 1744). 
 Having returned to Genoa and occupied 
 with the foundation of a new convent, 
 Mary received, with twelve companions, 
 the habit from the hands of the archbishop 
 and became the first Abbess of the Institute. 
 She died in the odor of sanctity April 8th, 
 
 1758. These religious make a novitiate of 
 eighteen months, observe a rigorous fast, 
 never use any fiesh-meat, and say the 
 office in choir during the night. There was 
 also a community of male members called 
 Baptistines, which was suppressed during 
 the French Revolution. 
 
 Baptists. — Members of a Protestant de- 
 nomination. The Baptists appeared in 
 history at the beginning of the seventeenth 
 century. They condemned baptism by 
 sprinkling as an innovation. They baptize 
 by immersion, and administer the sacra- 
 ment only to adults. They reject the 
 communion with the Christians of other 
 Churches, who, according to them, are not 
 Christians, because the baptism they re- 
 ceived before they were grown up is null 
 and void. The religious affairs are treated 
 in assemblies, where all the Faithful, men 
 and women, have a deliberative voice. In 
 the United States the Baptists owe their 
 origin to Roger Williams, and his settle- 
 ment at Providence, Rhode Island, in 1639. 
 To Mark Lucar, an immigrant in 1644 
 from England, is attributed the introduc- 
 tion of immersion as the characteristic 
 rite of this denomination. He was a " Par- 
 ticular Baptist," as those religionists were 
 called who held to the high Calvinistic 
 doctrine of an atonement particularly for 
 the elect. It is from these "Particular 
 Baptists" that the many different denomi- 
 nations of Baptists developed, brief men- 
 tion of which is made below. The first 
 division took place in 1652, in Providence, 
 when Chad Brown established a congrega- 
 tion of "General Baptists"; the term 
 "General" implying adherence to the 
 doctrine of a general atonement for the 
 sins of mankind. These General Baptists 
 were largely tinctured with Arminianism, 
 if not wholly adherent to that body of 
 theology. " Freewill Baptists," who are 
 Arminian in theology and open commu- 
 nists in practice; and " German Baptists," 
 popularly called " Dunkers " (see this 
 subject), "Old School Baptists," sometimes 
 called "Anti-Mission" or " Hard-Shell 
 Baptists," from their extreme Calvinism, 
 which leads them to oppose all active 
 measures for the conversion of the world 
 (a sect numbering 40,000) ; " Seventh-Day 
 Baptists " who keep the seventh day instead 
 of the first, as the Sabbath; "Sixth-Prin- 
 ciple Baptists," so called from the six 
 principles which constitute their creed ; 
 "Disciples of Christ," also called "Chris- 
 
Barac 
 
 90 
 
 Barnabites 
 
 tians" or " Campbellites." See Disci- 
 ples, WiNEBRENNARIANS, WlNEBREN- 
 
 NER, Christians, or the Christian 
 Connection, an American sect of Unita- 
 rian Baptists which arose about the begin- 
 ning of the present century. The Baptists 
 of the world numbered, in 1895, 4,447,074, 
 and had 46,520 Churches, and 32,447 min- 
 isters. The greatest number of Baptists 
 are in North America, where they enu- 
 merate : 41,227 Churches, 28,475 ministers, 
 and 3,856,584 members. See Anabaptists. 
 
 Barac. — Fourth Judge of Israel (1396- 
 1356 B.C.); with the help of the prophetess 
 Debbora, he delivered the Hebrews from 
 the bijndage of the Chanaanites, in attack- 
 ing and routing the army of King Jabin, 
 which was under the command of his 
 general, Sisara. 
 
 Barabbas. — A Jew condemned for theft, 
 murder, and revolt, who was preferred to 
 Jesus Christ when Pilate proposed to the 
 people to deliver a prisoner at the occasion 
 of the feast of the Pasch. 
 
 Baraga (Frederick). — Austrian Cath- 
 olic missionary (1797-1868). Bishop of 
 Marquette, Michigan, in 1853. He com- 
 piled a Grammar and a Dictionary oi the 
 Chippewa language (Detroit, 1849 and 
 1853) ; and wrote a History of the Indians 
 of North America. 
 
 Barbara (St.). — Virgin and martyr of 
 the third century ; daughter of Dioscorus, 
 ardent defender of paganism, who, being 
 unable to make his daughter abandon the 
 faith in Jesus Chrjst, became himself her 
 executioner, by beheading her, at Nico- 
 media, about 240. F. Dec. 4th. 
 
 Bar-Cochebas (Aram, son of the star) . — 
 A Hebrew whose real name was Simeon 
 from the town of Coziba. The heroic 
 leader of the Jewish insurrection against 
 the Romans (122-135 a.d.). He was be- 
 lieved by many Jews to be the Messias, 
 was proclaimed king, and maintained his 
 cause against Hadrian for two years, but 
 was overthrown amid the slaughter of 
 over half a million Jews, and the destruc- 
 tion of 985 villages and 50 fortresses. Jeru- 
 salem was destroyed and yElia Capitolina 
 founded on its ruins. After this failure 
 his name was interpreted " son of lies." 
 
 Bardesanes. — Syrian philosopher, born 
 about A. D. 154; we find him at Edessa 
 in 174. He was a man of great learning. 
 A convert from Valentinian Gnosticism, 
 
 he soon relapsed into Gnostic heresies, 
 and became himself the founder of a num- 
 erous sect. He and his son Harmonius 
 were noted composers of beautiful hymns. 
 He is said to have held the following 
 Gnostic theories: "Satan cannot be said 
 to have derived his origin from God," 
 and " Our body being the prison of the 
 soul, can never rise again." He held that 
 Christ was clothed with a celestial and im- 
 material body, and that He taught man to 
 subdue the sensual passions, and enjoined 
 fasting, abstinence, and contemplation, as 
 a means of shaking ofJ the fetters of evil 
 matter ; that thus freed from grosser bonds, 
 the body might return to heaven after the 
 death of the flesh, as an ethereal substance, 
 etc. The poetic beauty of his hymns drew 
 to his side so many followers, and so great 
 was their influence among the people that, 
 in the fourth century, Ephrem of Syria 
 was obliged to compose others of an or- 
 thodox nature to counteract it. 
 
 Barnabas (St.). — Follower of Christ 
 and one of the seventy-two disciples. Qf 
 his apostolic labors, beyond what is con- 
 tained in the Acts of the Apostles, nothing 
 certain is known. He accompanied St. 
 Paul on his first missionary journey to 
 Cyprus and Asia Minor (45-48.) In the 
 year 53, Barnabas and Paul proposed 
 another missionary expedition, Barnabas 
 wished to take with him his nephew John, 
 surnamed Mark, to which Paul objected. 
 The two Apostles thereupon parted, and 
 Barnabas taking Mark with him, sailed to 
 Cyprus, his native land. Here the Acts 
 say nothing further about him. His life 
 is reported to have been ended by martyr- 
 dom, between 55 and 57. A letter which 
 Origen calls " Catholic Epistle," has been 
 handed down under the name of St. Barna- 
 bas, and to him it is ascribed by the most 
 eminent Christian writers of the first 
 centuries. F. June nth. 
 
 Barnabites. — Religious of the Clerks 
 Regular of St. Paul. This Congregation 
 was founded at Milan, about the beginning 
 of the sixteenth century, by St. Zaccaria, 
 priest of Cremona (died 1539), together 
 with two priests of Milan. By a bull of 
 Feb. iSth, 1533, Pope Clement VII. author- 
 ized them to follow particular rules. Their 
 constitutions were approved, Nov. 7th, 
 1579, by Gregory XIII. The Barnabites 
 were austere preachers of penance, who, 
 at the same time, took charge of semina- 
 ries for the priesthood. 
 
Baronius 
 
 91 
 
 Bartolomites 
 
 Baronius(C^SAR)(i538-i6o7). — Ecclesi- 
 astical historian, born at Sora, Campania; 
 died at Rome. Pope Clement VIII. named 
 him pronotary apostolic, cardinal, and 
 librarian in the Vatican. He rendered great 
 services by his Church History, h\xX.\\\'i, chief 
 work is his A finales Ecclesiastici a Christo 
 Natum ad Annum (1198), which appeared 
 in Rome in 12 volumes, from 1588 to 1593. 
 It is a reply to the Protestant Magdeburg 
 Centuries, a history of the Church written 
 in an intensely Protestant and hostile 
 spirit. 
 
 Barsabas (Joseph) (surnamed "the 
 Just"). — Disciple of Christ, was presented 
 together with Matthias to replace Judas 
 Iscariot; the lot designated Matthias. We 
 do not know any particulars either of his 
 life or death. 
 
 Barsabas. — Surname of Jude, a disciple 
 of Christ, who was chosen to accompany 
 Paul and Barnabas to Antioch. 
 
 Barsanians. — Heretics of the sixth cen- 
 tury. Their doctrine was a mixture of the 
 errors of the Guianites and Theodosians. 
 They celebrated the Eucharist by dipping 
 the iinger into fine wheaten flour, and then 
 putting it into the mouth. Their name 
 was derived from their bishop, Barsanes, 
 whose consecration was hotly contested. 
 
 Bartholomew's Day {or Massacre of St.). 
 — In order to cement the peace of St. Ger- 
 main-en-Laye (1569), which put an end to 
 the third civil war in France, a marriage 
 was concluded between the young king of 
 Navarre (Henry IV.) and Margaret, the 
 sister of Charles IX. The Huguenot 
 chiefs who had gone to Paris to assist at 
 the wedding, availed themselves of the oc- 
 casion, and on August 23d, concerted a 
 plan for murdering the whole royal family 
 and proclaiming Henry of Navarre king 
 of France. To anticipate the bloody and 
 traitorous designs of the conspirators, 
 Catherine de Medici, who was as unscru- 
 pulous as she was adroit in the management 
 of affairs, persuaded her son, the king, to 
 command the horrible Massacre of St. 
 Bartholomew. Coligny and his chief coun- 
 selors were slain. The populace joined in 
 the work of blood, and not only Paris, but 
 several of the provincial towns that suf- 
 fered most from the Huguenots, now took 
 a fearful reckoning. When the tidings of 
 the tragic event reached the Papal court, 
 Gregory XIII., the then reigning Pontiff, 
 congratulated King Charles IX., on his 
 
 escape from the plot against his life, and a 
 service was held in thanksgiving for the 
 preservation of the royal family, because 
 the deed had been represented to the Pope, 
 as to the other sovereigns, as a necessary 
 act of self-defense against the machina- 
 tions of Coligny and the Huguenots. But 
 when he afterwards learned the true state 
 of affairs, Gregory expressed his horror at 
 the deed, even with tears. All Europe ab- 
 horred the terrible slaughter, the German 
 Lutherans excepted, who regarded the 
 massaacre as a just punishment of God upon 
 the Huguenots. The number of victims 
 in the cruel massacre cannot be ascertained 
 with accuracy ; but it has been much ex- 
 aggerated by hostile writers. The most 
 reliable account, corroborated by docu- 
 mentary evidences, estimates the number, 
 for all France, at less than two thousand. 
 According to an old record of Paris, the 
 gravediggers of that city at the time 
 buried eleven hundred bodies. Foxe, the 
 martyrologist, in his Acts and Monuments, 
 commonly known as the Book of Martyrs, 
 gives the names of 786 who perished in the 
 inhuman slaughter. This bloody tragedy 
 was but a political scheme, and had noth- 
 ing whatever to do with religious interests. 
 
 Bartholomew (St.). — One of the twelve 
 Apostles. He is generally supposed to be 
 identical with Nathanael ; carried the Gos- 
 pel into India, i. e., Arabia Felix or 
 modern Yemen. A century later, traces 
 of Christianity were found in those coun- 
 tries by Pantaenus of Alexandria, who also 
 discovered a copy of St. Matthew's Gospel 
 in Hebrew which had been left there by 
 St. Bartholomew. Armenian writers in- 
 form us that he afterwards traversed Persia, 
 Babylonia, Mesopotamia, Syria, and Asia 
 Minor. Thence he passed into Greater 
 Armenia, and there, after making numer- 
 ous conversions, suffered a cruel martyr- 
 dom at Albanopolis. By order of King 
 Astyages, whose predecessor and brother, 
 Polymius, had been converted by him, the 
 Apostle was flayed alive and beheaded. 
 F. Aug. 24th. 
 
 Bartholomites. — i. Members of the com- 
 munity of Basilian monks of the Armenian 
 rite who took refuge in the West and were 
 assigned the Church of St. Bartholomew, 
 in Genoa, in 1307. The community was 
 finally suppressed in 1650. — 2. Members of 
 a congregation of secular priests following 
 a rule drawn up by Bartholomew Holz- 
 hauser (died, 1658) in Germany in 1640. 
 
Baruch 
 
 92 
 
 Basilians 
 
 They spread into Hungary, Poland, and 
 Spain, but, under this name, became ex- 
 tinct in the eighth century. 
 
 Baruch. — One of the twelve minor 
 Prophets, offspring of a noble family of 
 the tribe of Juda, disciple and secretary 
 of Jeremias, whose prophecies he wrote 
 and read to the people, and whom he fol- 
 lowed into Egypt. After the death of his 
 master, he rejoined the Jews, captive at 
 Babylon, to make known to them prophe- 
 cies which he himself had composed, and, 
 according to tradition, died there in the 
 twelfth year of the captivity. The Book 
 of Baruch, inserted in the canon of the 
 Scriptures, exists no longer in Hebrew, 
 hence the reason why the Jews do not ac- 
 knowledge it as canonical. We have two 
 Syriac versions thereof, but the Greek text 
 appears to be more ancient. In the first 
 centuries of the Church, several Fathers 
 and Doctors understood and quoted the 
 prophecies of Baruch under the name of 
 Jeremias. 
 
 Baruli. — Heretics of the twelfth cen- 
 tury, who maintained that Christ had 
 assumed a chimerical body, and that souls 
 were created before the creation of the 
 world, and all committed sin together 
 after the creation. The^ only renewed 
 the opinions of the Origenists. 
 
 Basan or Batanea. — Country of ancient 
 Palestine of Perea, that is, beyond the 
 Jordan, situated in the half tribe of Ma- 
 nasses. It was bounded on the east by 
 the mountains of Galaad, north by Mount 
 Hermon, south by the brook Jabok, west 
 by the Jordan. It contained several forti- 
 fied cities and passed as one of the most 
 fruitful countries of the world. 
 
 Baselian Manuscript. — The name given 
 to two Greek manuscripts of the New Tes- 
 tament. One is a nearly complete Qopy 
 of the Gospels written at Constantinople, 
 in uncical characters, about the eighth 
 century, and lacking only Luke iii. 4-15; 
 xxiv. 47-53. The other is a copy of the 
 whole Testament, excepting the Apoca- 
 lypse, and is written in the cursive charac- 
 ters of the tenth century. These valuable 
 manuscripts are preserved in the library at 
 Basel; hence their name. 
 
 Basil of Ancyra.-i- A native of Ancyra, 
 and bishop of that city (336-360). One of 
 the leaders of the Semi-Arians. He was de- 
 posed in 360 by the Council of Constanti- 
 
 nople, and exiled to Illyricum, where he 
 probably died. 
 
 Basil the Great (St.). — Archbishop of 
 Caesarea, in Cappadocia ; was born at 
 Csesarea, about the year 330. Two of his 
 brothers, Gregory and Peter, became bish- 
 ops, the former of Nyssa, the latter of Se- 
 baste, and are also honored by the Church 
 as saints. Basil studied with great success 
 at Athens, where he became intimate with 
 Gregory Nazianzen. The two friends vied 
 with each other both in learning and in 
 the practice of virtue. " We know but 
 two streets in the city," said Gregory, " the 
 one leading to the Church and the other 
 leading to the schools." They remained 
 at Athens four or five years, where they 
 also made the acquaintance of Julian, who- 
 afterwards earned the evil name of apos- 
 tate. Having received baptism in 357, 
 Basil visited the monastic institutions of 
 Syria and Egypt, and founded several 
 monasteries in Pontus and Cappadocia. 
 He became father of monasticism in the 
 East. The Basilians are to this day the 
 principal religious order in the Oriental 
 Church. In 364, Basil was ordained priest 
 by Bishop Eusebius, successor of Dianius, 
 and, on the death of that prelate, was 
 chosen Bishop of Csesarea, in 370. He 
 was an instrument in the hand of God for 
 beating back the Arian and Macedonian 
 heresies in the East. His energy and 
 zeal, learning and eloquence, and the ex- 
 ceeding austerity and holiness of his life, 
 have gained for him the reputation of one 
 of the greatest bishops of the Church, and 
 his character and works have earned for 
 him the surname "Great." Basil died in 
 379. His works are of a theological or an 
 ascetical and ethical character, and em- 
 brace also sermons and commentaries. 
 See Migne, Pat. Gr. XXIX-XXXII. The 
 liturgy ascribed to St. Basil is still used in 
 the Eastern Church, both by Catholics 
 and schismatics. F. Jan. 14th. 
 
 Basil the Heretic. See Bogomiles. 
 
 Basilians. — Monks and nuns following 
 the Rule of St. Basil the Great. This 
 saint exercised so great an influence on 
 monastic life in the East that the monks 
 there were usually called after him, Basil- 
 ians. Besides giving them a new rule, he 
 founded a cloister in the neighborhood of 
 Neo-Caesarea, which formed at once a bul- 
 wark against the Arian heresy, and an 
 
Basilica 
 
 93 
 
 Basle 
 
 asylum for the persecuted during the so- 
 cial disturbances of that age. This cloister 
 served as a pattern for many others, which 
 were now usually built within easy dis- 
 tances of some city. The monks took part 
 in the controversies on the faith, and were 
 frecfuently driven to fanatical excesses by 
 the advice of ambitious leaders. More- 
 over, they sometimes lived together in 
 parties of two and three, and, recognizing 
 no superior, soon lost all traces of the 
 monastic spirit and discipline. These 
 were called Sarabites and Gyrovagi, or 
 lazy, worthless fellows, who, by their con- 
 stant quarreling, their vain pretensions 
 and excesses — the last frequently alter- 
 nating with their fasts — lost all dignity 
 and became disreputable. The Basilians 
 comprise nearly all the Greek and Orien- 
 tal monasteries, and are found in com- 
 munion with Rome in Sicily, and in the 
 Grseco-Ruthenian and Armenian rites. 
 There are several Basilian monasteries in 
 Canada and in the United States. 
 
 Basilica. — The ancient basilica was a 
 court of commerce or justice. Many of 
 these halls were appropriated for Christian 
 churches and new churches were built 
 upon a similar plan, whence basilica be- 
 came a usual name for a church. Major 
 Basilica, Minor Basilica are honorary 
 titles to which are attached certain canon- 
 ical privileges. There are Major Basilicas 
 only in Rome ; these are the five principal 
 churches of St. John Lateran, St. Peter of 
 the Vatican, St. Paul without the Walls, 
 San Croce of Jerusalem, and St. Lawrence 
 without the Walls. They are also called 
 Patriarchal Churches, because they answer 
 to the five great patriarchates of the Cath- 
 olic Church. St. Mary Major and St. 
 Sebastian on the Appenine road, are 
 ranked among the number of Major Basil- 
 icas. The title of Minor Basilicas is 
 granted, in Rome and outside of Rome, to 
 other churches famous on account of their 
 antiquity or the devotion which the faithful 
 have toward them. In Rome there are six 
 of these: St. Mary de Travestevere, St. 
 Lawrence in Damaso, St. Mary's in Cos- 
 medin, St. Peter in Chains, St. Mary in 
 Monte Sancto, and the Church of the 
 Twelve Apostles. The Roman States con- 
 tain some Minor Basilicas. In France 
 there are three Minor Basilicas : The 
 Church of Notre Dame in Paris, the 
 Cathedral of Valence, and Our Lady of 
 Lourdes. See Church (Building). 
 
 Basilidians. — So called from their 
 founder Basilides. He was a citizen of 
 Alexandria, and Syrian by birth. He 
 taught in Alexandria betweeen the years 
 125 and 130, and his sect existed as late as 
 the fourth century. Basilides and his son 
 Isidore, based their doctrines on the pre- 
 tended prophecies of certain Oriental 
 prophets and boasted of a secret tradition 
 which they claimed to have from the 
 Apostle Matthias, and a certain Glaucias, 
 the interpreter of St. Peter. Jesus was to 
 Basilides not the Redeemer; he was dis- 
 tinguished from other men only in degree. 
 The Redeemer was the highest ^Eon, who 
 was sent down from the Supreme God and 
 united himself with the man Jesus at His 
 baptism in the Jordan, but left Him again 
 in His passion. The Basilidians were 
 grossly immoral. 
 
 Basle or Basel ( Council of) (1431-1442). 
 — The object of this Council was to complete 
 the work commenced by the Council of Pisa 
 and continued by the Council of Constance. 
 The Council of Basle was convoked by Pope 
 Martin V. ; but he died the day before the 
 opening. Eugenius IV., his successor, 
 confirmed the convocation of the Council 
 of Basle, as well as the appointment of 
 Cardinal Julian Cesarini, as papal Legate 
 and president of the assembly. The Coun- 
 cil opened under John of Polemar and 
 John of Ragusa, delegates of Cardinal 
 Cesarini, who was at the time engaged in 
 endeavoring to effect a reconciliation with 
 the Hussites. But very few prelates were 
 in attendance. On his arrival in Basle, 
 Cesarini sent a messenger to Rome, to ac- 
 quaint the Pope with the state of affairs. 
 In the meantime, the prelates at Basle, con- 
 sisting only of three bishops and fourteen 
 abbots, held their first public session ; they 
 declared their assembly a lawfully convened 
 Council whose object was defined to be : 
 I. The extirpation of heresy. 2. The es- 
 tablishment of peace among Christian 
 princes. 3. The reformation of the Church 
 in its head and members. The small at- 
 tendance of bishops at Basle, but especially 
 the proposals for a reunion made by the 
 Greeks, who, however, desired the Coun- 
 cil to meet in some Italian city, induced 
 the Pope to dissolve the Council and con- 
 voke a new one to open at Bologna, eigh- 
 teen months later. The cardinal legate 
 obeyed, and declined to take his seat as 
 president of the Council then in session. 
 But the bishops at Basle vehemently op- 
 
Bassians 
 
 94 
 
 Bavaria 
 
 posed the removal of the Council. They 
 continued their sessions and proceeded to 
 act, at first, independently of the Pope, 
 and, soon after, against his authority and 
 person. A serious conflict between the 
 Pope and the Fathers at Basle now ensued. 
 In its second session, which was attended 
 by only fourteen bishops, they renewed 
 the decrees of the Council of Constance, 
 proclaiming the superiority of an Ecu- 
 menical Council over the Pope. In its 
 subsequent sessions, the recalcitrant con- 
 venticle commanded the Pope to withdraw 
 his Bull of dissolution; cited him and his 
 cardinals to appear at Basle, and threatened 
 him with further action, if they, in three 
 months, did not obey the summons. Fi- 
 nally, in the tenth session, the Fathers of 
 Basle, who, in the interval, had increased 
 to the number of five cardinals and forty- 
 one prelates, proceeded to declare Eugenius 
 contumacious ! Eugenius sent four legates 
 to Basle with authority to negotiate with 
 the assembled Fathers, on the continuance 
 of the Council. But his legates were ill 
 received, and his overtures rejected as un- 
 satisfactory. The refractory prelates, in 
 the eleventh session, went so far as to 
 menace the Pope with suspension and dep- 
 osition, for refusing to recognize the ar- 
 rogant pretensions of their conventicle. 
 Pope Eugenius, revoking his Bull of dis- 
 solution, consented to acknowledge the 
 assembly of Basle as a lawfully convened 
 Council, under the express condition, 
 however, that his legates would be admit- 
 ted to preside at its sessions, and that all 
 decrees derogatory to his person and the 
 prerogatives of the Holy See, would be 
 repealed. From the period (Feb. 5th, 
 1434, to May 7th, 1437), all sessions, from 
 the sixteenth to the twenty-fifth, were held 
 under the presidency of the papal legates. 
 A number of decrees w-as passed by the 
 Council, which apply to the extinction of 
 heresy, the establishment of peace among 
 Christian rulers, and the reformation of 
 the faithful. These are the only Acts of 
 the Council that are recognized as truly 
 synodical, and that were approved by the 
 Holy See. Still, before long, the Council 
 again engaged in a contest against the 
 Pope. Returning to their former schism, 
 the Fathers renewed the declaration of the 
 supremacy of a General Council over the 
 Pope. This caused Eugenius to once 
 more dissolve the Council of Basle, and 
 to transfer its sessions to Ferrara, Sept., 
 1437. The cardinals, excepting L'Alle- 
 
 mand, and nearly all the prelates of rank, 
 in obedience to the Pope's mandate, re- 
 paired to Ferrara. The malcontents, ex- 
 asperated by the general defection from 
 their conventicle to the Council of Fer- 
 rara, now proceeded to revolutionary ex- 
 tremes. The following propositions were 
 defined by them as articles of faith: i. 
 That a General Council is superior to the 
 Pope. 2. That the Pope cannot dissol\-e, 
 or transfer, or adjourn a General Council. 
 3. That whoever denies these articles is a 
 heretic. They, furthermore, excommuni- 
 cated the Council of Ferrara, and cited its 
 members to appear before the Basle tribu- 
 nal ; finally in their thirty-fourth session, 
 which was attended by only seven bishops, 
 they presumed to depose Eugenius, in 
 whose stead they thrust forward Amadeus 
 of Savoy. The antipope took the name of 
 Felix V. After playing his miserable part 
 for ten years, Felix abdicated, and his 
 party put an end to the schism by recog- 
 nizing the Pontificate of Nicholas V. Fe- 
 lix, who is the last antipope recorded in 
 history, died in 1451. 
 
 Bassians. — Disciples of Bassus, heretic 
 of the second century, who, supporting 
 himself on the word of our Saviour: "I 
 am the Alpha and the Omega,^' pretended 
 that the perfection of all things consists 
 in the letters of the alphabet. 
 
 Bath or Ephah. — A Hebrew measure, 
 containing seven gallons, two quarts, liquid 
 measure, or three pecks, one quart, one 
 pint, dry measure. 
 
 Bautain (Louise Eugene Marie). — 
 French Catholic philosopher (1795-1867). 
 Was professor of philosophy at Strasburg. 
 He denied that human reason could attain 
 to certainty on religion and religious 
 truths. He did not place the source of 
 certainty in the ^'■sensiis communis,'''' as De 
 Lamennais had done, but considered divine 
 revelation to be the sole ground of re- 
 liance ; and the trustworthiness of this, he 
 thought, could not be proved by reason. 
 Pope Gregory XVI. condemned this doc- 
 trine, and Bautain, together with his disci- 
 ples, submitted to the judgment of the 
 Church. 
 
 Bavaria( C//r/j/;fl»/7v in). — The Baioarii, 
 or Bavarians, in Northern Rhsetia, were 
 chiefly converted to Christianity by the 
 Frankish bishops, St. Rupertus and St, 
 Emmeramnus. St. Rupertus, who was 
 bishop of Worms, baptized the Duke 
 
Bavaria 
 
 95 
 
 Beatitudes 
 
 Theodon of Ratisbon, restored the Bishop- 
 ric of Salzburg, and founded the Monas- 
 tery of St. Peter near that city, and another 
 for women under the direction of his 
 niece, Ehrentrudis. He died in the year 
 620. About the same time St. Emmer- 
 amnus, a bishop of Aquitaine, appeared 
 in Bavaria, and for three years zealously 
 preached the Gospel. Falsely accused of 
 a great crime, he was ruthlessly slain by 
 Lambert, Theodon's son, in 654. The work 
 of these holy men was continued by 
 another Frankish missionary, St. Corbin- 
 ianus. He founded the Bishopric of 
 Freising and died as its first bishop, in 
 730. In the North of Bavaria, the country 
 now known as Franconia, the Gospel was 
 first preached by St. Kilian. See Kilian. 
 
 Bavaria ( Worship in). — In the year 1885 
 the population of Bavaria was 5,284,798. 
 The division in regard to worship was as 
 as follows : Catholics, 3,748,253; Protes- 
 tants, 1,477,952; other Christians, 5,017; 
 Jews, 53,526; those professing no religion, 
 30. Hence per 1,000 inhabitants there were 
 709 Catholics and 280 Protestants. See 
 Germany. 
 
 Bayley (James Roosevelt). — A Roman 
 Catholic prelate ; born in New York city, 
 Aug. 23d, 1814; died at Newark, New 
 Jersey, Oct. 3d, 1877. He graduated at 
 Trinity College, Hartford, in 1835. After 
 a year's study of medicine he turned his 
 attention to theology, and was, in 1840, 
 established as rector in Harlem. Becom- 
 ing dissatisfied with Episcopal doctrines, 
 he resigned his charge, went to Europe, 
 and in 1844 was ordained a priest of the 
 Catholic Church. He was made vice- 
 president and then president of St. John's 
 College, Fordham ; was pastor of a Church 
 on Staten Island ; private secretary to 
 Bishop Hughes; and in 1S53 was created 
 first Bishop of Newark. In 1872 he was 
 made Archbishop of Baltimore, which 
 placed him at the head of the hierarchy in 
 the United States. Archbishop Bayley 
 was a philanthropic man, an untiring 
 worker, and the author of historical works 
 relating to the Catholic Church. 
 
 Bdellium. — Generally supposed to be a 
 gum from a tree common in Arabia and 
 the East. But this substance, whatever 
 it is, is mentioned with gold and gems; 
 while a gum is certainly not so remarkable 
 an object of nature as to deserve this classi- 
 fication, or that the production of it should 
 
 confer on Havilah a peculiar celebrity. 
 Hence the opinion of the Jewish writers is 
 not to be contemned, namely , that pearls are 
 here to be understood, of which great quan- 
 tities are found on the shores of the Per- 
 sian Gulf and in India, and which might 
 not, inaptly, be compared to manna, as in 
 Num. xi. 7. 
 
 Beads. See Rosary. 
 
 Beatific Vision. See Vision. 
 
 Beatification. — Act by which the Pope, 
 after the death of an individual, declares 
 that he is numbered among the blessed. 
 Beatification differs from canonization in 
 this, that in beatification, the Pope does 
 not act as judge, who decides about the 
 state of the one who is beatified, but grants 
 only to certain persons the privilege to 
 honor with a form of religious worship the 
 one who is beatified, without incurring the 
 punishments pronounced against those who 
 render a superstitious worship. In can- 
 onization, the Pope speaks as judge, and 
 as we say, he pronounces " ex cathedra " the 
 state of the one whom he canonizes. 
 Beatification has been introduced since the 
 time when it was judged proper to allow 
 a longer interval of time to elapse before 
 the canonization of the saints. Beatifica- 
 tion is regarded as the preliminary step 
 to canonization. It is a provisory permis- 
 sion to render public veneration to the 
 blessed, granted to a diocese, a city, or a 
 religious order. Pope Urban VIII. for- 
 bade the rendering of any veneration to any 
 person who has not been beatified, whether 
 the person may have died in the odor of 
 sanctity, or wrought miracles during life 
 or after death. The same Pope prescribes 
 that every biographer, who makes use of 
 the terms blessed, saint, or martyr, in 
 speaking of a person that has not yet been 
 beatified, ought to declare, that he does 
 this, only to acknowledge the innocence 
 of his life and the excellence of his virtues, 
 without any prejudice to the authority of 
 the Church, the only sovereign judge 
 about these questions. 
 
 Beatitudes (The Eijrht).—]esus behold- 
 ing the multitude, spoke to them from a 
 certain mount, and this discourse has been 
 called " The Sermon on the Mount." In 
 this sermon of our Lord was contained 
 "The Eight Beatitudes," which are as fol- 
 lows: — "Blessed are the poor in spirit 
 [i. e., those who have the spirit of poverty, 
 the sincere and Christian detachment 
 
Beaton 
 
 96 
 
 Bede, The Venerable 
 
 from the goods of this world], for theirs 
 is the kingdom of heaven." — "Blessed 
 are the meek [who try to avoid all quar- 
 rels], for they shall possess the land 
 [heaven]." — "Blessed are they that 
 mourn, for they shall be comforted." 
 Christ, according to the Gospel of St. John 
 (xvi. 20), has expressed the same thought 
 in these terms: "Amen, Amen, I say to 
 you, that you shall lament and weep, but 
 the world shall rejoice ; and you shall be 
 made sorrowful, but your sorrow shall be 
 turned into joy, [in a better world]." — 
 " Blessed are they that hunger and thirst 
 after justice [who are deprived of justice, 
 who are robbed of their rights here be- 
 low], for they shall have their fill [they 
 will obtain a glorious reparation in the 
 land of heaven].'' — " Blessed are the merci- 
 ful [towards their neighbor], for they shall 
 obtain mercy [by God]." — "Blessed are 
 the clean of heart, for they shall see God." 
 — " Blessed are the peacemakers [who 
 avoid quarrels, discord, and seek to main- 
 tain, and to restore union among men], for 
 they shall be called the children of God 
 [who is the God of peace] "(Rom. xvi. 20). 
 St. John has said in the same sense : "The 
 Father has given us love for one another, 
 in order that we may be called children of 
 God and that we be this in reality." — 
 "Blessed are those that suffer persecution 
 for justice sake [who are persecuted be- 
 cause they do not wish to betray their duty, 
 nor do anything that is contrary to justice 
 and honesty], for theirs is the kingdom 
 of heaven" (Matt. v. i-io). 
 
 Beaton (Cardinal) (1494-1546) . — 
 Scotch prelate and statesman. During 
 the minority of James V., he was sent to 
 negotiate an alliance with Francis I. against 
 Charles V. and Henry VIII. On his re- 
 turn, he became keeper of the seals. In 
 1533 he was charged to ask for James V. 
 the hand of Magdelen, daughter of Francis 
 I. ; but this princess having died, Beaton 
 asked for his master the hand of Mary of 
 Lorraine, widow of the Duke of Longue- 
 ville. He succeeded, and the marriage 
 took place in 1538. — Francis I. gave him 
 the bishopric of Mirepoix, and at the same 
 time asked for him the cardinal's hat, 
 which Paul III. gave to him the same 
 year. — In 1539, he succeeded his uncle 
 James as archbishop of St. Andrews. De- 
 voted to a national politic, and dreading 
 for his country the example and influence 
 of England, from the double point of view 
 
 of religion and patriotism, he employed 
 all his strength to keep James V. away 
 from Henry VIII., and succeeded in pre- 
 venting a projected interview between the 
 two kings. A war followed, and James V. 
 was killed in the battle of Solway (1542). 
 Beaton produced a will which gave to him 
 the title and power as regent during the 
 minority of Mary Stuart. The nobility 
 declared this document as apocryphal, and 
 appointed as regent the Duke of Arran. 
 Beaton was arrested and thrown into 
 prison ; but soon left this, and, in accord 
 with Mary of Lorraine, he appointed, in- 
 stead of the Duke of Arran, the Count of 
 Lennox, who left the whole power to the 
 Cardinal (1543). His line of conduct was 
 clearly Scotch. Convinced that England 
 was the enemy, he energetically combated 
 this country with all the power of his 
 political ambition and religious influence. 
 Perhaps, in his pursuit, he committed ex- 
 cesses, but it is impossible to doubt the 
 sincerity of his intentions and the grandeur 
 of his views. His conduct and memory 
 have been sharply attacked by English 
 writers who cannot pardon him his pa- 
 triotism and faith. It is certain that the 
 Cardinal pursued the Protestants and used 
 against them violent means which the 
 legislation furnished to him, and which 
 the customs of the time tolerated. He 
 tried, at the same time, to reform the dis- 
 cipline and morals of his clergy. Beaton 
 became a victim of the hatred of Protes- 
 tants and of the adherents of the English 
 alliance. Surprised in his castle of St. 
 Andrews, he fell under the strokes of as- 
 sassins, who were never punished. 
 
 Bee. — A ruined abbey at Bec-Helloin, 
 near Brionne, France. Bee may be con- 
 sidered the origin of universities, which 
 soon began to be established in every 
 country, after the model of that renowned 
 institution. Many eminent scholars issued 
 from this school, among whom were Pope 
 Alexander II. ; the learned Guitmund, 
 Archbishop Averse; Ives, Bishop of Char- 
 jtres, the restorer of Canon Law in France; 
 and the celebrated St. Anselm. 
 
 Becket (Thomas A). See Thomas A 
 Becket. 
 
 Bede, The Venerable. — Anglo-Saxon 
 monk, historian, and theologian. Bede, 
 who from his superior learning and ad- 
 mirable virtues received the appellation of 
 "Venerable," was born about the year 673. 
 
Beelphegor 
 
 97 
 
 Belgium 
 
 He was educated by the monks of Jarrow 
 and Weremouth, his first instructor being 
 Benedict Biscop himself. The proficiency 
 of Bede in all branches of learning was 
 considerable, and the diversity, as well as 
 the extent of his reading, remarkable. 
 His ardent and comprehensive mind em- 
 braced every science which was then 
 studied. In his own catalogue of books, 
 which he composed, we find commentaries 
 on most of the books of the Scripture, 
 treatises on physics, geography, astronomy, 
 and all the sciences of the period, lives of 
 saints, and sermons. But his Ecclesiastical 
 History of the Anglo-Saxons, in five 
 books, from the landing of Julius Caesar 
 to the year 731, is the most celebrated of 
 his works. Venerable Bede died in 735. 
 
 Beelphegor, Baalphegor, Baal-Peor. — 
 
 Syrian god, adored especially by the Am- 
 monites and Madianites, was the same as 
 Priapus according to Origen ; as Saturnus, 
 according to St. John Chrysostom, Theod- 
 oret, Apollinaris and Suidas. But it would 
 appear that Dom Calmet has shown that it 
 was the same god as Adonis or Horus, 
 adored by the Egyptians. "Phegor or 
 Peor," he says, "is the same as Or or 
 Horus, by cutting off from this word the 
 article Pe, which signifies nothing. Horus 
 is the same as Adonis or Osiris." The 
 Israelites, in the desert of Sin, permitted 
 themselves to be dragged into the worship 
 of Phegor and committed lewd actions 
 with the daughters of Moab (Num. xxv. 
 3-3), and the Psalmist adds that they par- 
 took in the sacrifices for the dead. Now 
 we know that the feasts of Adonis were 
 celebrated as funeral feasts, and that they 
 abandoned themselves to all kinds of de- 
 baucheries. 
 
 Beelsamen and Baal-Samen. — Assyrian 
 deity, adored also at Carthage. It is be- 
 lieved that it was the sun,' king of heaven, 
 or the personification of heaven itself, the 
 King-Heaven, the Uranus of the Greeks. 
 At Carthage, they made a goddess thereof, 
 identical with Minerva. 
 
 Beelzebub. — Deity of the Philistines; 
 ^'the prince of the devils " (Matt. xii. 24, 
 etc.). The Jews seem to have applied this 
 appellation to Satan, as being the author 
 of all the pollutions and the abominations 
 of idol worship. 
 
 Beghards or Spiritualists, also called 
 " Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit." 
 A sect of mediaeval heretics. They spread 
 
 7 
 
 in the thirteenth century, chiefly through 
 France, Italy, and Germany. Owing to 
 their professional character as beggars, 
 they were called Beghards. They de- 
 nied the difference between good and 
 evil works and maintained that the soul, 
 which is a portion of the divine sub- 
 stance, could not be stained by sensual 
 excesses. Thus they committed acts of 
 the coarsest licentiousness and in their 
 wanderings they were accompanied by 
 women called " Sisters." Hence the name 
 "Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit." 
 
 Beguines. — An association founded 
 about 1 180 for pious widows and single 
 women desirous of consecrating their lives 
 to God. They did not take any vows and 
 had no convents proper, but dwelt in small 
 houses within the same enclosure, with 
 the church or chapel in the center (to 
 which the name of Beguinage was given), 
 and devoted themselves to works of piety 
 and mercy. The institution was approved 
 by Urban VIII. Beguine communities 
 still exist in Belgium, France, and the 
 Netherlands. Similar institutions existed 
 for laymen who were called " Beghards." 
 
 Bel. See Baal. 
 
 Belgium {Christianity in). — St. Aman- 
 dus of Aquitaine, after a pilgrimage to 
 Rome, where he was consecrated mission- 
 ary bishop, preached the Gospel with 
 much success in modern Belgium. The 
 principal scene of his missionary labors 
 was the neighborhood of Antwerp and 
 Ghent. About the year 646, he was ap- 
 pointed to the Episcopate of Mastricht, 
 and there devoted himself with unceasing 
 energy to the work of evangelizing the 
 surrounding tribes. He died about the 
 year 661. St. Omer, or Audomar, contem- 
 poraneously labored with him in the same 
 country. After thirty years of missionary 
 labors, which converted the heathen tribes 
 of Morinia from their idolatries, St. Omer 
 died about 667. St. Livinus, an Irish 
 bishop, is called the Apostle of Brabant. 
 He suffered martyrdom about the year 
 656. The work of these apostolic men 
 was continued by St. Elipandus, Bishop 
 of Noyon, and the bishops St. Lambertus 
 and Hubertus of Mastricht. 
 
 Belgium ( Worship in). — In Belgium the 
 religious hierarchy is represented by one 
 Catholic archbishop, residing at Malines, 
 the metropolis, and by five bishops of the 
 same religion at Bruges* Gand, Liege, 
 
Bellarmin 
 
 98 
 
 Benedict 
 
 Namur, and Tournay. The population is, 
 in fact, almost entirely Catholic, both 
 Flemish and Wallonish. They estimate the 
 number of Protestants to be about 15,000, 
 and that of the Jews 3,000. The lat- 
 ter reside especially at Antwerp, and 
 are of German nationality. Both the 
 Protestant and Israelitish worship are ac- 
 knowledged by the State. The majority of 
 the Protestants are subject to a synod 
 which has its seat at Brussels, and its 
 members assemble once a year. The cen- 
 tral synagogue at Brussels has branches of 
 minor importance at Liege, Antwerp, 
 Gand, Arlon, and Namur. 
 
 Bellarmin (Robert). — Italian cardinal 
 and theologian. Archbishop of Capua, 
 born at Montepulciano (Tuscany), in 1542, 
 and entered the Society of Jesus in 1560. 
 Extremely severe toward himself, an 
 enemy to all indulgence, and an indefati- 
 gable worker, he left behind him writings 
 so numerous and valuable that no better 
 evidence of the holiness and self-sacrifice 
 of his life could be required. He was a 
 successful preacher, but was especially 
 distinguished for the ability with which he 
 taught the various branches of theology. 
 In 1602 he was appointed Archbishop of 
 Capua, and died Sept. 17th, 1621. The 
 principal works of Bellarmin are : Dis- 
 puttones de controversis Chrisiiance jidei 
 Arttcults, libri, IV; De Scripforibus ec- 
 clesiasticis (a sort of patrology or bio- 
 grapical sketches of ecclesiastical writers) ; 
 De Ascensione Mentis in Deujn per Scalas 
 rerum Creatarutn, and De Gemitu Coltimbce, 
 seu de bono Lacrymarum, etc. 
 
 Bells. — Bells were known to the He- 
 brews, Egyptians, and Romans. But the 
 employment of bells in churches to an- 
 nounce the hours of office does not go 
 back beyond the reign of Constantine the 
 Great. During the heathen persecution it 
 was of course impossible to call the faith- 
 ful by any signal which would have at- 
 tracted public notice. After Constantine's 
 time, monastic communities used to sig- 
 nify the hour of prayer by blowing a 
 trumpet, or by rapping with a hammer at 
 the cells of the monks. The use of bells 
 was spread only in the time of St. Paul- 
 inus. Bishop of Nola (409-431). The cus- 
 tom of blessing bells goes back to the 
 year 750. The bishop or his delegate 
 first blesses salt and water, then he washes 
 the bell within and without; makes seven 
 unctions in the form of a cross on the bell 
 
 outside, and four inside. For the outside 
 unctions he uses " Oleum Catecfiumenorum," 
 and for those inside " Holy Chrism." 
 Then the bishop names the saint under 
 whose invocation the bell is blessed. After 
 this the censer-bearer places under the 
 bell a censer filled with incense, a passage 
 of the Gospel is sung and the celebrant 
 ends the ceremony in making the sign of 
 the Cross over the bell. 
 
 Belphegor. See Beelphegor. 
 
 Benedict (name of 14 Popes). — Benedict 
 I. — Surnamed Bonosus; Pope, Roman by 
 origin (574-578). Successor of John III., 
 after a vacancy in the Holy See which had 
 lasted ten months. In his Pontificate the 
 Longobards extended their conquests in 
 Italy and threatened Rome. Benedict II. — 
 Priest of Rome, succeeded, in 684, Leo II. 
 in the Chair of St. Peter. He occupied it 
 only 10 months and 12 days, but with so 
 much zeal and virtue that he was admitted 
 among the number of saints. Benedict 
 III. (855-858). — Roman priest. His elec- 
 tion was opposed by the ambassadors of 
 Emperor Louis II., who supported the 
 pretensions of the antipope Anastasius. 
 But the constancy of both clergy and laity 
 obliged the imperial messengers to recog- 
 nize the lawful Pontiff. Benedict III. is 
 praised for his meekness and forbearance 
 toward his adversaries. He beautified 
 many churches, and reopened the English 
 college in Rome. Benedict I V^. — Roman 
 by birth, successor of John IX. (900-903). 
 He crowned Louis, King of Provence, em- 
 peror, in 901. Benedict V. — Roman by 
 birth,successor of John XII. (964-965). He 
 was elected by the Romans, in opposition 
 to Leo VIII., the choice of the Emperor 
 Otto I. The emperor reduced Rome, and 
 secured the person of Benedict, who was 
 kept till his death in confinement under 
 the charge of Bishop Adaldag at Hamburg. 
 Benedict VI. — Roman by birth, succes- 
 sor of John XIII. (972-974). He was 
 dethroned, imprisoned in the Castle St. 
 Angelo, and finally strangled. Benedict 
 VII. — Roman by birth, successor of 
 Domnus II. (975-983). He 'excommuni- 
 cated Cardinal Franco, the antipope, and 
 governed the Church with vigor and great 
 prudence. Benedict VIII. — Bishop of 
 Porto, successor of Sergius IV. (1012-1024). 
 Proved a most worthy Pontiff, who spared 
 neither weariness nor exertion to restore 
 to his high office the prestige it had lost. 
 An antipope, named Gregory, set up by 
 
Benedict Biscop 
 
 99 
 
 Benedict 
 
 the opposite faction, forced Benedict to 
 leave Rome. He was restored to his See by 
 the Emperor St. Henry H. of Germany, 
 who with his wife, the sainted Cundigunda, 
 received from him the imperial crown in 
 1014, The indefatigable Pontiff labored 
 strenuously for Church reform, and held 
 several councils, the decrees of which the 
 emperor confirmed as laws of the empire. 
 Benedict IX. (1033-1044). — He obtained 
 his elevation to the Papacy by simony, 
 when a youth of eighteen. During the 
 eleven years of his reign, under the protec- 
 tion of the emperor, and supported by the 
 power of his family, this youth harassed 
 the people by his capricious tyranny, and 
 disgraced the Apostolic See by the wanton 
 conduct of his life. The Romans, disgusted 
 with his disorders, expelled him, but he 
 was restored by Emperor Conrad. In 
 1044, he was driven away a second time, 
 when an antipope, styled Sylvester HI., 
 was intruded on the throne for three 
 months. To free the Holy See from the 
 degradation to which it had sunk in con- 
 sequence of the bribery and tyranny of the 
 nobles, Gratian, a distinguished and re- 
 spected Roman archpriest, by offering a 
 large subsidy in money, induced Benedict 
 to resign and withdraw to private life. 
 Gratian was then himself canonicallyelected 
 Pope, under the name of Gregory VI. 
 Benedict X. — Bishop of Velletri, placed 
 in the Holy See by a faction at the death 
 of Stephen IX. (1058). He resigned ten 
 months afterwards, and the Romans elected 
 Nicholas II. By several authors he is 
 regarded as an antipope. Benedict XI. 
 {^Nicholas Boccasini). — Italian by birth 
 (1303-1304). He annulled the Bulls of Boni- 
 face VIII. against Philip the Fair of France. 
 Benedict XII. — Cistercian monk, succes- 
 sor of John XXII. (1334-1342). He was 
 an eminent canonist and theologian, and a 
 severe reformer. He meditated the res- 
 toration of the Holy See to Rome, but was 
 resisted in this effort by the cardinals. 
 Benedict XIII. — Successor of Innocent 
 XIII. (1724-1730). A Dominican; accepted 
 with reluctance the papal dignity; held a 
 provincial council in the Lateran (1725), 
 which enacted wise laws for the suppres- 
 sion of abuses and the reformation of 
 morals, and terminated the dispute con- 
 cerning the "Spiritual Monarchy of Sic- 
 ily." But he was rudely treated by the 
 Catholic courts, on account of inserting 
 an historical fact in the office of St. 
 Gregorv VII. Benedict XI V. — Successor 
 
 of Clement XII. (1740-1758). One of the 
 most learned Popes that ever filled the 
 Papal Chair, yielded in the extreme to- 
 ward civil rulers, and thus succeeded in 
 preserving friendly relations with most of 
 them. However, he gained little by the 
 great concessions he made. He saw the be- 
 ginning of the warfare against the Society 
 of Jesus. 
 
 Benedict Biscop (628-690). — An English 
 ecclesiastic, founder of two celebrated 
 monasteries of Wearmouth and Jarrow. 
 He made several journeys to Rome, and 
 each time brought back a valuable col- 
 lection of books, as well as a large supply 
 of relics and images for his monasteries. 
 His memory has been transmitted to 
 posterity by his disciple. Venerable Bede, 
 in his Lives of the Abbots of Wearmouth. 
 England, and even Europe, owes much to 
 the zeal of Benedict Biscop ; for the civi- 
 lization of the eighth century may be said 
 to have rested on the monasteries he 
 founded, which produced Bede, and 
 through him the School of York, Alcuin, 
 and the Carolingian School, on which the 
 culture and learning of the Middle Ages 
 were based. In 690, he also brought bells 
 from Italy, and was the first person who 
 introduced into England constructors of 
 stone edifices, as well as makers of glass 
 windows. 
 
 Benedict of Aniane ( St. ). — Born in 
 Languedoc about 750; died 821, A re- 
 former of monastic discipline. Encour- 
 aged by Louis the Mild, he conceived and 
 carried out the idea of restoring among 
 his monks the severity of the ancient 
 discipline. They soon became models of 
 order and piety for other monasteries, and 
 contributed much to the revival of letters. 
 But owing to the disturbances arising 
 from the strife of contending factions 
 within the Frankish empire, the reforms 
 of Benedict did not exert any permanent 
 influence. F. Feb. 12th. 
 
 Benedict (St.) and the Benedictines. — 
 
 Founder of monachism in the West. 
 Benedict, born in 480 at Nursia in Umbria, 
 of noble parents, at the age of fourteen 
 withdrew into the wilds of Subiaco, in the 
 Apennines. Here he lived for three years 
 in a deep and almost inaccessible cavern. 
 His reputation for sanctity and his mira- 
 cles soon gathered a number of disciples 
 around him, for whom he erected two 
 monasteries. In 529, he retired with a 
 
Benediction 
 
 lOO 
 
 Benjamin 
 
 few monks to Monte Cassino, where, on 
 the site of an ancient temple of Apollo, he 
 founded a monastery, which became the 
 glorious monastic center of the West. Sev- 
 eral other monasteries were also founded by 
 St. Benedict ; among these, one for women, 
 which he placed under the direction of his 
 sister St. Scholastica. St. Benedict, who is 
 called the patriarch of the Western monks, 
 died in 543. F. Mch. 21st.— The Rule of St. 
 Benedict,which very appropriately has been 
 called a " Summary of the Christian Relig- 
 ion," is a masterpiece of enlightened wis- 
 dom and prudence. Its precepts are few and 
 simple. In seventy-three chapters, it con- 
 tains a collection of regulations intended 
 to train men in retirement from the world, 
 and in the acquisition of Christain per- 
 fection, through the practice of the evan- 
 gelical counsels. In it we find the duties 
 and observances of the monastic life clearly 
 defined. The evils, arising from the cus- 
 tom of monks continually passing from 
 one convent to another, are prevented 
 by the "vow of stability," binding each 
 member to remain constantly in the same 
 community. The Benedictine Rule grad- 
 ually superseded all other rules in the 
 West, as, for example, the Irish Rule of St. 
 Columban, that of St. Martin in France, 
 and those of Sts. Fructuosus, Csesarius, 
 and Isidore in Spain. In the ninth cen- 
 tury, it was formally adopted throughout 
 the dominions of Charlemagne, and later 
 on, it was received in all the Cathedral 
 monasteries of England. The order 
 founded by St. Benedict spread rapidly 
 and widely. It was established in Sicily 
 by St, Placidus, in Gaul by St. Maurus, 
 both disciples of St. Benedict ; in Britain 
 by St. Augustine, and in Germany by St. 
 Boniface. No other religious order can 
 claim to have accomplished so much for the 
 conversion and civilization of the world. 
 The monks planted Christianity in Eng- 
 land, Friesland, and Germany; and the 
 Scandinavian North received with the true 
 faith its first monasteries as well. For 
 centuries the Benedictines were the prin- 
 cipal teachers of youth in all branches of 
 sciences and art. The oldest establish- 
 ment of Benedictines in the United States 
 is that of St. Vincent's Abbey at Latrobe, 
 in Westmoreland county, Pennsylvania, 
 founded by a colony of monks from Bava- 
 ria, in 1846. It was raised to the dignity 
 of an Abbey in 1855. The Abbey of St. 
 Meinrad, Indiana, which was founded in 
 1853, *s a filiation of the celebrated Bene- 
 
 dictine abbey at Einsiedlen, in Switzer- 
 land. The first convent of Benedictine 
 nuns in the United States was established 
 at St. Mary's, Pennsylvania, in 1853. 
 
 Benediction (from the Lat. benedicere, 
 to speak well). — Signifies a solemn invoca- 
 tion of the divine blessing upon men or 
 things. The ceremony in its simplest form 
 may be considered almost coeval with the 
 earliest expression of religious feeling. 
 We know from Holy Writ that the Jewish 
 patriarchs, before they died, invoked the 
 blessing of God on their children ; but at 
 a later period the priests were commanded 
 to implore the divine blessing upon the 
 people. Christ sanctioned the custom, 
 which was consequently grafted into the 
 primitive Church, where it gradually de- 
 veloped itself in different forms. See 
 Blessing. 
 
 Benefice {Ecclesiastical). — A Church 
 office endowed with a revenue for its 
 proper fulfillment. We have no such bene- 
 fices in the United States. 
 
 Benignus (St.). — Apostle of Bourgogne 
 and martyr. He was a native of Smyrna, 
 and disciple of St. Polycarpus, who or- 
 dained him priest and sent him into Gaul, 
 under the reign of Marcus Aurelius. His 
 mission was confirmed by Pope St. Anicet. 
 Benignus evangelized Autun, Langres, 
 and Dijon, the latter of which he selected 
 as the center of his apostolic labors. Ar- 
 rested by the soldiers of Terentius, gov- 
 ernor of the province, in a village near 
 Epagny, nearly eight miles from Dijon, he 
 was put to death by order of Marcus Aure- 
 lius, about the year 178. The Cathedral 
 church of Dijon bears the name of St. 
 Benignus, and was built in his honor. 
 F. Nov. ist. 
 
 Benjamin (Hebr. son of the right hand) 
 — The youngest son of Jacob, he was called 
 Benoni {son of my sorrow), by his mother, 
 Rachel, who died in giving him birth; 
 but this was changed into Benjamin by 
 Jacob. The Benjamites occupied a terri- 
 tory about 26 miles long and 12 miles 
 wide, between Ephraim (on the north) 
 and Juda, containing Jerusalem and Jeri- 
 cho. The Benjamites became famous 
 for their skill in using the sling. During 
 the period of the Judges they were nearly 
 all slain by the army of the other tribes, 
 on account of an outrage committed 
 against a Levite of Ephraim. Only 600 
 Benjamites were spared and repeopled the 
 
Berengarius 
 
 lOI 
 
 Bernard 
 
 country. After the death of Saul, who 
 was a Benjamite, the tribe of Benjamin 
 remained faithful to his son Isboseth, until 
 the definitive installation of David. Dur- 
 ing the schism of the tribes, that of Benja- 
 min remained united with the tribe of 
 Juda. 
 
 Berengarius {Heresy of). — Up to the 
 tenth century, the Real Presence had not 
 really been called into question. Beren- 
 garius of Tours, was the first who im- 
 pugned the Presence of our Lord in the 
 Holy Eucharist and the doctrine of Tran- 
 substantiation, and thus anticipated the 
 Sacramentarians of a later age. He was 
 born about A. d. iooo, and was made Arch- 
 deacon of Angers, and appointed Scholas- 
 ticus, or Master, of the Cathedral school of 
 Tours, Berengarius held that Christ was 
 only spiritually present in the sacred ele- 
 ments, which in every respect remained 
 unchanged, and that a certain efficacy was 
 imparted to them by the faith of the com- 
 municant. The matter having been re- 
 ferred to Rome, his errors were condemned 
 by Pope Leo IX. in the councils, which 
 were held at Rome and Vercelli, in 1050. 
 Berengarius was excommunicated until he 
 would recant. In 1054, a synod was held 
 at Tours by the cardinal-deacon, Hilde- 
 brand, and there Berengarius made and 
 signed a confession of faith, acknowl- 
 edging that " bread and wine after the 
 consecration are the Flesh and Blood of 
 Christ." As he continued, however, to 
 teach his heresy, he was, in 1059, cited 
 to appear at Rome, by Pope Nicholas 
 II., and there, before a council of 113 
 bishops, Berengarius made a new re- 
 cantation, and signed a new confession of 
 faith, affirming that " the bread and wine 
 placed on the altar, are, after the conse- 
 cration, not only the Sacrament, but also 
 the true Body and Blood of our Lord." 
 Nevertheless, the fraudulent heretic, hav- 
 ing returned to France, relapsed into the 
 condemned errors, and spoke detractingly 
 of the Pope, and of the Roman See, which 
 he called the '* See of Satan." Pope Alex- 
 ander II. in vain exhorted him no longer 
 to scandalize the Church. Cardinal Hilde- 
 brand, who in the meantime had ascended 
 the papal throne as Gregory VII., sum- 
 moned Berengarius once more to Rome, 
 and, in the councils held in 1078 and 1079, 
 obliged him to confess that he had till then 
 erred on the mystery of the Eucharist, and 
 to declare under oath, that the " Bread of 
 
 the altar is, after consecration, the true 
 Body of Christ, the same which was born 
 of the Virgin, and was offered on the 
 Cross, and is now seated at the right 
 hand of the Father in heaven." But the 
 obstinate heretic continued to teach as be- 
 fore, and accused Gregory VII. of incon- 
 sistency and partiality. He made the last 
 recantation at the Council of Bordeaux, in 
 1080, after which he became silent. He is 
 said to have died in communion with the 
 Church, in 1088. 
 
 Bernard (St.) (surnamed the "Last 
 Father of the Church ").— Born in the 
 Castle Fontaines, near Dijon, France, in 
 1091, of an old patrician family ; he entered, 
 in his twenty-second year, with some 
 thirty of his kinsmen and friends, the 
 Order of Citeaux, of which he is sometimes 
 regarded as the second founder. After two 
 years, the abbot, St. Stephen Harding, an 
 Englishman, sent Bernard to found a new 
 abbey at Clairvaux, which soon rose to 
 great celebrity. He was consecrated abbot 
 by William of Champeaux, the great dia- 
 lectician and teacher of Abelard. The 
 fame and influence of Bernard spread 
 rapidly. " He united in himself," as the 
 learned Hurter well observes, "the qualities 
 of the most perfect contemplative monk 
 with those of the most profound politician. 
 . . . His judgment decides who is the 
 rightful successor of St. Peter ; and he it 
 is who shields the Church from new 
 dangers engendered by rash teaching. 
 Popes follow his counsels like humble 
 monks. He is proffered and refuses bishop- 
 rics and archbishoprics ; but, wherever he 
 appears, greater honors are shown to him 
 than to the bishops and archbishops of the 
 most famous sees." Bernard died in 1153. 
 The works which St. Bernard has left be- 
 hind him are as various as they are numer- 
 ous, and consist of sermons, epistles, and 
 moral treatises. His letters, which num- 
 ber no less than 404, record many historical 
 facts, interspersed with sage reflections and 
 salutary advice. Of his sermons he de- 
 livered 86 on the Book of Canticles to his 
 monks. His most famous work is his 
 treatise De Consider atione, addressed to 
 Eugenius III., who had been his pupil, in 
 which he states, without disguise, what 
 are the duties of the chief pastor, and 
 urges the necessity of reforms. He ac- 
 quired the appellation of the " Mellifluous 
 Doctor" and, on account of the value of 
 his writings, he was numbered among the 
 
Bernardin 
 
 1 02 
 
 Bethlehem 
 
 Doctors of the Church, by Pius VIII. 
 F. Aug. 20th. 
 
 Bernardin (St.) of Siena (1380-1444). — 
 Franciscan reh'gious. Famous preacher 
 of penance; he preached in nearly all the 
 cities of Italy, and the effect which his 
 sermons everywhere produced, is said to 
 have been overwhelming. He was sur- 
 named the "Trumpet of Heaven," the 
 " Evangelical Preacher." F. May 20th. 
 
 Bernardines. — Religious of the Order 
 of St. Benedict, reformed by St. Bernard. 
 See Cistercians. 
 
 Bernice. — Eldest daughter of king Herod 
 Agrippa I., and sister to the younger 
 Agrippa (Acts nscv. 13, 23). She was first 
 married to her uncle Herod, king of Chal- 
 cis ; and after his death, in order to avoid 
 the merited suspicion of incest with her 
 brother Agrippa, she became the wife of 
 Polemon, king of Cilicia. This connec- 
 tion being soon dissolved, she returned to 
 her brother, and afterwards became mis- 
 tress of Vespasian and Titus. 
 
 Beryl. — The name of a precious stone, 
 of a sea-green color, found principally in 
 India (Apoc. xxi. 20). 
 
 Beryllians. — Members of a sect founded, 
 in the third century, by Beryllus, Bishop 
 of Bostra in Arabia. This heresiarch de- 
 nied that there was in Jesus Christ a per- 
 sonal divine essence, and maintained that 
 there was in Him no other divinity than 
 that of the Father. 
 
 Besor. — River of Judea, which watered 
 the territory of the tribe of Simeon, to 
 Oued - Cheria. Watered Gerara (Oum- 
 D/erar), and emptied into the Mediterra- 
 nean south of Gaza. 
 
 Bessarion (John or Basil). — Born at 
 Trebizond, in 1403; died at Ravenna, 1472. 
 A Greek scholar and a Roman Catholic 
 ecclesiastic, notable as a patron of learn- 
 ing and a collector of manuscripts. He 
 entered the Order of St. Basil in 1423 ; 
 studied under the Platonic scholar George 
 Gemistus Pletho; became Archbishop of 
 Nice in 1437 ; accompanied John Palaeolo- 
 gus to Italy, in 1438, to assist in effecting 
 a union between the Greek and Latin 
 Churches; supported the Roman Church 
 at the Councils of Ferrara and Florence, 
 whereby he gained the favor of Pope Eu- 
 genius by whom he was made cardinal in 
 1439, and successively invested with the 
 
 Archbishopric of Siponto and the bishop- 
 rics of Sabina and Tusculum ; and received 
 the title of Patriarch of Constantinople 
 ( 1463). He wrote AdversusCalumniatorem 
 Platonis, libr. IV.; Responsio ad quatuor 
 argument a Afaximi Planudis de proces- 
 sione Spiritus Sancti ex solo Pat re; Epis- 
 tola catholica sive generalis ad omnes, qui 
 sedi Patriarchal!' Constantinopolitance sub- 
 sunt, etc. 
 
 Bethany (Hebr. house of grace). — A 
 place about forty minutes' ride from Jeru- 
 salem, on the road to Jericho, southeast of 
 the Mount of Olives. It is often men- 
 tioned in the New Testament as the home 
 of Lazarus, Martha and Mary, and of Si- 
 mon the Leper. It is identified with the 
 modern El-Azariyeh, a village of forty 
 huts, inhabited by Mohammedans exclu- 
 sively. 
 
 Beth- Arab (Hebr. house of passage). — 
 Locality of Palestine, where the Israelites 
 crossed the Jordan, under the leadership 
 of Josue. In sight of this place, situated 
 on the right shore of the Jordan, in the 
 tribe of Juda, St. John was baptizing. 
 
 Bethel (Hebr. house of God). — A town 
 (originally named Luza) in Palestine, 
 twelve miles north of Jerusalem, the rest- 
 ing-place of the Ark, and later, a seat of 
 idolatrous worship ; the modern Beitin. 
 
 Beth- Heron (Hebr. place of the hollow). 
 — Two villages of Palestine, about twelve 
 miles northwest of Jerusalem. At the pass 
 between them Josue defeated the kings of 
 the Amorites. It was also a scene of a vic- 
 tory of Judas Machabeus in the second 
 century b. c. 
 
 Bethlehem (Hebr. house of bread). — A 
 town in Palestine, six miles south of Jeru- 
 salem; the modern Beit-Lahm. It was 
 the birth-place of David, and, according to 
 St. Matthew, St. Luke, and St. John, of 
 Christ. The Convent of the Nativity at 
 Bethlehem is a complex body of structures 
 distributed between the Greek and Latin 
 creeds, and grouped around the church is 
 a basilica of five naves, with apse and 
 apsidal transepts, built by the Empress 
 Helena and the Emperor Constantine. 
 There are four long ranges of monotho- 
 litic Corinthian columns 19 feet high, 
 above which rise the walls of the nave, 
 with round arched windows. The choir is 
 richly ornamented with illustrations of the 
 Greek rite; beneath it is the tortuous 
 
Bethlehemites 
 
 103 
 
 Bible 
 
 Grotto of the Nativity. The church meas- 
 ures 86 by 136 feet. The population of 
 Bethlehem is about 5,000. 
 
 Bethlehemites. — i. Old religious order 
 whose only known monastery was founded 
 about the year 1257 at Cambridge, Eng- 
 land. The religious wore a habit similar 
 to the Dominicans, and on the breast a red 
 star to remind them of the star that ap- 
 peared to the .Magi. — 2. A religious order 
 founded in Guatemala, in 1653. Extended 
 to Mexico a few years later, and ulti- 
 mately to other parts of Spanish-America. 
 The members lived according to the mon- 
 astic rules of the Augustinians. 
 
 Bethphage (Hebr. house of unripe figs). 
 — A village in Palestine, situated on the 
 Mount of Olives eastwards from Jerusalem 
 and near Bethany. The exact site is in 
 dispute. " The traditional site is above 
 Bethany, halfway between that village and 
 the top of the mount." — William Smith. 
 At Bethphage Jesus mounted an ass in 
 order to make His triumphant entry into 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 Bethsaida (Hebr. fishing-place). — The 
 name of two cities in Palestine: i. Beth- 
 saida of Galilee was situated in Galilee, 
 on the western shore of the lake Gennesa- 
 reth, a little south of Capharnaum, and 
 was the birthplace of the Apostles Philip, 
 Andrew, and Peter. — 2. The other Beth- 
 saida lay in Gaulonitis, on the eastern site 
 of the same lake, and near the place where 
 the Jordan enters it. This town was en- 
 larged by Philip, tetrarch of that region 
 (Luke iii. i), and called Julias in honor 
 of Julia, the daughter of Augustus. Near 
 by Jesus wrought the miracle of the multi- 
 plication of the five loaves of bread and 
 two fishes (Luke ix. 10-17). 
 
 Bethsan (Hebr. house of rest) — More 
 generally known by the name of Scythop- 
 olis, was situated on the west of the Jor- 
 dan, at the southern extremity of the great 
 plain of Esdrselon, on the high ground 
 between that plain and the valley of the 
 Jordan. The place is now called Bysan. 
 The bodies of Saul and Jonathan, killed in 
 the battle of Gelboe, were hung on the 
 wall of Bethsan by the Philistines; but the 
 inhabitants of Jabes Galaad removed the 
 remains during the night and buried them 
 in the wood of Jabes (L Ki. xxxi. 10). 
 
 Bethsur. — Town of Palestine, in the 
 tribe of Juda, twelve miles south of Jerusa- 
 
 lem, fortified by Roboam. Besieged by 
 Lysias, regent of the kingdom of Syria, it 
 was delivered by Judas Machabeus who 
 routed the Syrians (L Mach. vi. 6). 
 
 Bethulia. — City of Palestine, in the 
 tribe of Zabulon, famous through the siege 
 of Holofernes, who was killed by Judith. 
 Some authors believe that the existent 
 small town of Saour, situated about 17 
 miles north of Naplouse, near the plain of 
 Esdrselon, arose on the site of the ancient 
 Bethulia. 
 
 Baza (Theodore). — One of the princi- 
 pal chiefs of the so-called reformers (1519- 
 1605). Born in Burgundy; died at Geneva. 
 In 1548 he fled to Geneva, where he ab- 
 jured his Catholic faith and became the 
 successor of Calvin in this city on the lat- 
 ter's death in 1564. 
 
 Bible (from the Gr. biblion, biblios, a 
 letter or paper). — The Sacred Books of 
 the Jews and Christians. St. Paul has di- 
 vided the Bible into the Old and New 
 Covenant, because it sets forth the cove- 
 nant which God made with the Jews, when 
 He constituted them His chosen people, 
 and afterwards with the Jews and Gentiles 
 when Christ redeemed the world. This 
 Covenant of St. Paul is translated Tcsta- 
 mentum in the Latin Vulgate, and Testa- 
 ment in English. In the reading of the 
 Old Testament, the early Christians gener- 
 ally used the Septuagint (see this subject) 
 version, which was considered divinely in- 
 spired. This version was held in high 
 veneration, even by the Jews until the 
 Christians quoted it against them, when 
 the Rabbins affected to condemn it. Three 
 new Greek versions were produced, which 
 were intended to supersede the Septuagint. 
 The first by Aquila, a Jewish proselyte of 
 Sinope in Pontus, under Hadrian; a sec- 
 ond by Symmachus, an Ebionite of Eph- 
 esus, under Severus ; and a third by 
 Theodotion, another Ebionite, who lived 
 in the reign of Commodus. These ver- 
 sions Origen republished in his famous 
 Hexapla, which contained, besides the 
 original Hebrew, the same in Greek text, 
 and the Septuagint. Of the Hexaplarian 
 Septuagint, a new edition, published by 
 Pamphylus and Eusebius, was adopted in 
 the Churches of Palestine. Other edi- 
 tions of the Septuagint appeared, one by 
 Lucian of Antioch, and another by He- 
 sychius, an Egyptian bishop ; the former 
 being used in the Churches of Asia 
 
Bible 
 
 104 
 
 Bible 
 
 Minor and Constantinople, the latter in 
 those of Egypt. One of the oldest and 
 most important renditions of the Bible, 
 the Syriac version, called the Peshito or 
 "Simple," appeared, probably at Edessa, 
 about the middle of the second century; 
 some refer it even to the time of St- Jude, 
 the Apostle. The Peshito, which was 
 made from the original text, that is, the 
 Old Testament from the Hebrew, and the 
 New from the Greek, was held in high re- 
 pute by all the Christians of Syria. Latin 
 versions are known to have existed in the 
 earliest ages of Christianity. Of these the 
 most famous was the ancient Vulgate, 
 also called Italic, although it is believed 
 to have been made in Africa. It was 
 made, if not in the age of the Apostles, 
 at least in the second centur}-, and was 
 translated from the Greek copy (Septua- 
 gint) of the Old Testament and from Greek 
 copies of books of the Old Testament not 
 found in the Septuagint, as well as from 
 the Greek copies of the books of the New 
 Testament. This version was used in the 
 Latin Churches till the sixth century, when 
 it was superseded by the New Vulgate of 
 St. Jerome. See Canon of the Scrip- 
 tures. 
 
 Believing the Sacred Scriptures to be di- 
 vinely inspired writings, the Church, at all 
 times, recommended their perusal and study 
 to the people. In no instance did the Church 
 ever prohibit the reading of the Bible in 
 the original text, or in authentic versions; 
 neither did she ever forbid translations to 
 be made into the language of any country. 
 But when the heresies of the Waldenses 
 and Albigenses arose, there was danger 
 from corrupt translations. These heretics 
 appealed to the Bible, in justification of 
 their assaults upon civil and ecclesiastical 
 authority, and insisted that the people 
 should judge the Church by their own 
 interpretation of the Scriptures. These 
 evils elicited restrictions from the Councils 
 of Toulouse (1239) and Tarragona (1234) 
 with regard to vernacular versions. "The 
 lawless political principles of WyclifTe," 
 says Blunt, "and the still more lawless 
 ones of his followers, created a strong prej- 
 udice against vernacular translations of 
 the Scriptures, on the part of the rulers of 
 England, both in Church and State. The 
 Bible was quoted in support of rebellion 
 and of the wildest heresy." {Reform of 
 the. Church of England, vol. I. p. 504.) 
 That the Bible was scarce, or its reading 
 neglected, is historically imtrue. "There 
 
 has been much wild and foolish writing," 
 the same author observes, "about the 
 scarcity of the Bible in the age preceding 
 the Reformation. It has been taken for 
 granted that Holy Scripture was almost a 
 sealed book to clergy and laity, until it was 
 printed in English by Tyndale and Cover- 
 dale, and that the only real source of 
 knowledge respecting it, before them, was 
 the translation made by WyclifTe. The 
 facts are that the clergy and monks were 
 daily reading large portions of the Bible, 
 and had them stored up in their memory, 
 by constant recitation; that they made 
 very free use of Holy Scripture in preach- 
 ing, so that even a modern Bible reader is 
 astonished at the number of quotations 
 and references contained in mediaeval 
 sermons ; that countless copies of the 
 Bible were written out by the surprising 
 industry of cloistered scribes; that many 
 glosses or commentaries were written 
 which are still seen to be full of pious and 
 wise thoughts ; and that all laymen who 
 could read were, as a rule, provided with 
 their Gospels, their Psalter, or other de- 
 votional portions of the Bible. . . . The 
 clergy studied the word of God, and made 
 it known to the laity ; and those few 
 among the laity who could read had 
 abundant opportunity of reading the Bible 
 either in Latin or in English, up to the 
 Reformed period." {Ibid. p. 501.) 
 
 It has been asserted by Protestants that 
 WyclifTe's and Luther's translations of the 
 Scriptures first made them accessible to 
 the laity. This is not true. For it is a 
 well ascertained fact, that long before the 
 Reformation of Luther, the people of 
 almost every country in Europe had the 
 Bible already translated into their own 
 vernacular tongues. In most nations there 
 was not only one, but there were even 
 many different versions. We begin with 
 Germanv, the theatre of the Reformation. 
 The Germans had no less than five dif- 
 ferent translations of the Scriptures into 
 their own language, of which three were 
 previous to that of Luther in 1530, and 
 two were contemporary with or immedi- 
 ately subsequent to it. The oldest was 
 that made by Ulphilas, Bishop of the 
 Maeso-Goths (now Wallachians), as early 
 as the middle of the fourth century. This 
 version seems to have been used for sev- 
 eral centuries by many of the older Gothic 
 and Germanic Christians. The second 
 version was that ascribed to Charlemagne 
 (beginning of the ninth century) — proba- 
 
Bible 
 
 105 
 
 Bible 
 
 bly because it was made by some erudite 
 translator under his direction. It was 
 translated into the old German, or Teu- 
 tonic dialect. Besides, there was a very- 
 old rhythmical paraphrase of the four Gos- 
 pels, much used in Germany from the time 
 of the first Emperor Louis (814-840). The 
 third German version was a translation 
 from the Latin Vulgate by some person 
 unknown, an edition of which was printed 
 as early as the year 1466. Two copies of 
 this edition are still preserved in the sena- 
 torial library at Leipsic. Before the ap- 
 pearance of the German Bible of Luther, 
 the version last named had been published 
 in Germany at least sixteen times: once at 
 Strasburg, five times at Nuremberg, and 
 ten times at Augsburg. Add to these the 
 three editions of Wittenberg, mentioned 
 by Seckendorf (published in 1470, 1483, 
 and 1490), and not included in this esti- 
 mate, and we ascertain that the Bible had 
 already been reprinted in the German lan- 
 guage no less than twenty times before 
 Luther's translation appeared. In 1534, John 
 Dietemberg published his new German 
 translation from the Latin Vulgate at May- 
 ence, under the auspices of the Archbishop 
 and Elector, Albert. It passed through up- 
 wards of twenty editions in the course of 
 one hundred years, four of which appeared 
 at Mayence, and seventeen at Cologne. 
 Though somewhat unpolished in style it 
 was generally esteemed as a faithful trans- 
 lation. In 1537, another Catholic version 
 appeared under the supervision of Doctors 
 Emser and Eck, the two learned champions 
 of Catholicity against Luther. This ver- 
 sion likewise passed through many edi- 
 tions. The facts already stated clearly 
 prove how utterly unfounded is the state- 
 ment, that before the Reformation "the 
 Bible was an unknown book ! " 
 
 Other Catholic countries were not be- 
 hind Germany in the sincere desire to 
 translate the Scriptures into the vernacu- 
 lar tongues, and to circulate them among 
 the people. In fact there is not a country 
 in Europe in which the Bible had not been 
 repeatedly translated and published long 
 before the Reformation. In Italy, there 
 were two versions anterior to that of Lu- 
 ther: that by the Dominican, Jacobus a 
 Voragine, Archbishop of Genoa, which 
 version, according to the testimony of 
 Sixtus Senensis, was completed as early as 
 1290 (see Bibliotheca sacra, torn. I. p. 397) ; 
 and that by Nicholas Malermi, a Camal- 
 dolese monk, which was first printed sim- 
 
 ultaneously at Rome and Venice, in the 
 year 1471, and which passed through as 
 many as thirteen different editions before 
 the year 1525. This translation was after- 
 wards reprinted eight times before the year 
 1567, with the express permission of Santa 
 Uflizio, or Holy Office, at Rome. Almost 
 simultaneously with that of Luther, there 
 likewise appeared two Italian trans- 
 lations of the Bible: that by Antonio 
 Bruccioli, in 1532, which in twenty years 
 passed through ten editions ; and that of 
 Santes Marmochino, which was succes- 
 sively printed in 1538, 1546, and 1547. 
 The oldest French version of the Bible 
 was that by Des Moulins, whose Bibly 
 Historyal — almost a complete transla- 
 tion of the Bible — appeared, according 
 to Usher, about the year 1478. A new 
 edition of it, corrected by Rely, Bishop of 
 Angers, was published in 1487, and was 
 successively reprinted sixteen different 
 times before the year 1546, four of these 
 editions apypearing at Lyons and twelve at 
 Paris. Le Fevre published a new French 
 translation, which passed through many 
 editions. A revision of this version was 
 made by the divines at Louvain, in 1550, 
 and was subsequently reprinted in France 
 and Flanders thirty-nine times before the 
 year 1700. According to Mariana, the 
 great Spanish historian, the Scriptures 
 were translated into Castilian by order of 
 Alphonso the Wise (1252-1282). The 
 whole Bible was translated into the Valen- 
 cian dialect of the Spanish, in the year 
 1405, by Boniface Ferrer, brother of St. 
 Vincent Ferrer. This version was printed 
 in 1478, and reprinted in 1515, -with the 
 formal consent of the Spanish Inquisition. 
 In 1512, the Epistles and Gospels were 
 translated into Spanish by Ambrosio de 
 Montesma. This work was republished at 
 Antwerp in 1544, at Barcelona in 1601 and 
 1608, and at Madrid in 1603 and 1644. In 
 England, besides the translation made by 
 the Venerable Bede in the eighth century 
 and that of the Psalms ascribed to Alfred 
 the Great, in the ninth century, there was 
 also another translation of the whole Bible 
 into the English of that early period, 
 which was completed about the year 1290— 
 long before the version of WycliflFe in the 
 fifteenth century. In the year 706, Ad- 
 helm, first Bishop of Salisbury, according 
 to the testimony of the Protestant bibli- 
 cist Horn, translated the Psalter into 
 Saxon. At his persuasion, Egbert, Bishop 
 of Lindisfarne, also translated the four 
 
Bible 
 
 io6 
 
 Bible 
 
 Gospels. In the fourteenth century, a 
 new English version of the whole Bible 
 was made by John Trevisa. In the year 
 905, Elfric, Archbishop of Canterbury, 
 translated into English the Pentateuch, 
 Josue, Job, Judges, Ruth, part of the books 
 of Kings, Esther, and the Machabees. 
 
 The Bible was translated into Flemish, 
 as Usher admits, by Jacobus Merland, 
 before the year 1210. This version was 
 printed at Cologne in 1475, and it passed 
 through seven new editions before the ap- 
 pearance of Luther's Bible in 1530. The 
 Antwerp edition was published eight times 
 in the short space of seventeen years. 
 Within thirty years there were also pub- 
 lished, at Antwerp alone, no less than ten 
 editions of the New Testament translated 
 by Cornelius Kendrick in 1524. In the 
 course of the seventeenth century, there 
 also appeared in Flanders several new 
 Catholic versions by De Witt, Laemput, 
 Schum, and others. All these were re- 
 peatedly republished. A Slavonic version 
 of the Bible was published at Cracow in 
 the beginning of the sixteenth century. 
 As early as the fourteenth century the Bi- 
 ble had been translated into the Swedish, 
 by the direction of St. Bridget. Accord- 
 ing to the testimony of Jonas Arnagrimus, 
 a disciple of the distinguished Tycho 
 Brahe, a translation of the Bible was made 
 in Iceland as early as 1297. A Bohemian 
 Bible appeared at Prague in 1488, and 
 passed through three other different edi- 
 tions ; at Cutna in 1498, and at Venice in 
 1506 and 1511. 
 
 Finally, to complete this hasty summary 
 of bibliographical facts, we may state, as 
 an evidence of the solicitude of Rome for 
 the dissemination of the Bible, that many 
 editions of Syriac and Arabic Bibles have 
 been printed at Rome and Venice for the 
 use of the Oriental Churches in commun- 
 ion with the Holy See. A translation 
 of the Bible into Ethiopic was published 
 at Rome, as early as 1548. The famous 
 convent of Armenian monks, called Mech- 
 itarists, at Venice, has more recently pub- 
 lished exquisitely beautiful versions of the 
 Bible translated into Armenian. 
 
 The bishops at present recommend the 
 German version of AUioli. which is very 
 faithfully rendered word for word from 
 the Latin Vulgate, and is furnished with 
 very fine explanatory notes. It appeared 
 in 1830. So, too, in French there are many 
 Catholic versions, dating as far back as 
 1294.; but the latest and best is that 
 
 published with excellent notes in 1861, by 
 the Abbe Glaire, who has faithfullj' ren- 
 dered the text of the Latin Vulgate. In 
 Italy, of all the Catholic versions, the one 
 that holds the highest place was translated 
 literally from the Vulgate, in 1779, by 
 Anthony Martini, Archbishop of Florence, 
 who has also added valuable notes. The 
 Spanish Catholics have a favorite version 
 on the same plan, by Don Felipe de San 
 Miguel, published in 1793, and the Portu- 
 guese possess one by Antonio Pereira, 
 which appeared in 1781 ; while the Belgian 
 or Dutch Catholics have the version of 
 Nicholas Van Winghe, printed in Louvain 
 as early as 1548. In short, there is no 
 Catholic country without its native ver- 
 sion of the Scriptures, approved and 
 circulated by episcopal authority. In the 
 sweet and expressive language of Ireland 
 there is a Catholic Bible, as old as 1347, 
 which emanated, it is supposed, from the 
 pen of Richard Fitz-Ralph, Archbishop 
 of Armagh. Dr. McHale, the late Arch- 
 bishop of Tuam, was actually engaged in 
 correcting the old Irish translation ac- 
 cording to the Latin Vulgate; but fail- 
 ing health prevented the completion of 
 the undertaking. English-speaking Cath- 
 olics use the Douay Bible. It is an Eng- 
 lish translation, made in the English Col- 
 lege at Rheims, France, about 15S2, and 
 taken directly from the Vulgate; but as 
 the Old Testament part was not published 
 until 1610, in the English College at Douay, 
 the whole was given the name Douav 
 Bible. Dr. Challoner, Catholic Bishop of 
 London, revised it in 1750, and the Catholic 
 hierarchy of Ireland soon circulated it 
 among their flocks. The Catholic bishops 
 of America adopted it in 1810, and Scriv- 
 ener, the learned Protestant editor, in his 
 supplement to the Authorized Protestant 
 Version, says the "Douay translation is 
 highly commendable for its scrupulous 
 accuracy." 
 
 Bible (Canon of the). See Canox of 
 THE Scriptures. 
 
 Bible (Geneva or Breeches). — This work 
 is the joint production of Gilby, Witting- 
 ham, probably John Knox, and other prom- 
 inent divines of the Puritan stamp, who, 
 when the Catholic Qiieen Mary ascended 
 the throne of England, fled to the more 
 congenial atmosphere of their Calvinistic 
 center, in Switzerland. It is saturated 
 with Swiss Protestantism, and derives its 
 most familiar name from the rendering it 
 
Bible 
 
 107 
 
 Bigamist 
 
 gives of Genesis (iii. 7) to this effect: 
 " Then the eyes of them both were opened, 
 and they knew that they were naked, and 
 they sewed fig-tree leaves together, and 
 made themselves breeches.''^ 
 
 Bible {King '^atnes's). — Version of the 
 Bible authorized by the Church of Eng- 
 land. When King James I. (1603-1625) as- 
 cended the throne of England, an address 
 was presented to his majesty by the clergy 
 of Lincoln diocese, with the request to re- 
 vise the English versions of the Bible. In 
 consequence of this, and other representa- 
 tions, the king ordered fifty-four of the 
 most eminent divines from Oxford and 
 Cambridge to produce a new version of 
 the Hebrew and Greek Testaments. Four 
 years were devoted to the task, and the 
 outcome was the present Authorized Prot- 
 estant Version, which received the royal 
 sanction in 1605. It is the version ap- 
 pointed by the Crown to be used in all the 
 Churches belonging to English commun- 
 ion, so that no Anglican clergyman can 
 use any other in public worship. This 
 " Authorized Version," after a long inter- 
 val of over 260 years, was lately revised by 
 a learned company, under the presidency of 
 Dr. Ellicot, Protestant Bishop of Glouces- 
 ter and Bristol. These distinguished schol- 
 ars devoted ten years to their arduous work, 
 and some of their corrections are in har- 
 mony with the Catholic Vulgate. 
 
 Biblia Pauperum (Bible of the Poor). — 
 Collection of the principal passages of the 
 Bible, engraved on wood, before the in- 
 vention of printing, for the instruction 
 and use of the people. This work, which 
 dates from the fourteenth century, is one 
 of the first monuments of xylography. 
 The text has been drawn up by Bona- 
 ventura. General of the Franciscans, in 
 1260. A fac-simile has been published 
 by J. Russel Smith, in 1859. 
 
 Bible Societies. — Protestant associations 
 established to propagate the Bible among 
 all the peoples and in all the languages. 
 The first regular Bible Society was consti- 
 tuted at London, England, in 1804. Pope 
 Leo. XII., in his Encyclical of May 3d, 
 1824, condemned the Bible Societies. The 
 same was done by Pope Pius VIII., May 
 29th, 1S29; by Gregory XVI., May 8th, 
 1844; and by Pius IX., Nov. 9th, 1846. 
 
 The annual report of the British and 
 Foreign Bible Society for the year ending 
 March 31st, 1895, showed a total issue for 
 
 that year by the Society of 3,837,222 copies 
 of the Holy Scriptures. The great in- 
 crease of the work of the British and 
 Foreign Bible Society during the last few 
 years may be seen by the following tabular 
 statement of its total issues by decades : — 
 
 Total issues to March 31, 1820 2,843,291 
 
 For ten years to March 31, 1830 3,710.507 
 
 For ten years to March 31, 1840 51768,673 
 
 For ten years to March 31, 1850 10,787,778 
 
 For ten years to March 31, :86o 14,417,778 
 
 For ten years to March 31, 1870 21,868,843 
 
 For ten years to March 31, 1880 28,771,748 
 
 For ten years to March 31, 1890 35,760,627 
 
 For March 31, 1890, to January i, 1895 19,467,184 
 
 Grand total from organi-) ~ 
 
 zation to January i, 1895 I '43.390.429 
 
 The receipts for the year ending March 
 31st, 1895, aggregated $1,166,815; total ex- 
 penditure for the year, $1,074,850. The 
 American Bible Society issued during the 
 year ending March 31st, 1896, an aggregate 
 number of 1,750,283 copies, — an increase 
 over the preceding year of 169,155. Its 
 total issues from 1816, the date of its or- 
 ganization, to March 31st, 1896, aggregated 
 61,705,841. The cash receipts for the year 
 aggregated $437,223. The number of is- 
 sues of the two Societies (British and 
 Foreign and American Bible Societies) 
 during 1895 aggregated 5,418,350 copies, 
 an average of about 17,366 copies of the 
 Scriptures for every working day of the 
 year. The grand total of issues to Jan. ist, 
 1896, circulated by all the societies, was 
 256,647,008. 
 
 The British and Foreign Bible Society 
 reported, March 31st, 1890, a list of 3,279 
 auxiliary and branch Bible societies. The 
 American Bible Society at the same date 
 reported a list of 2,034, aggregating a total 
 of 5,313 auxiliary and branch societies 
 which are connected with those two parent 
 societies. 
 
 Bigamist and Bigamy. — The term ap- 
 plied to a person who has committed the 
 crime of bigamy, that is, who has more 
 than one wife or husband at the same time. 
 In Canon Law a bigamist is defined as one 
 who has married two wives successively, 
 or who, having been married but once, has 
 married a widow. In both cases such a one 
 cannot hold a bishopric without dispensa- 
 tion. This point of discipline is founded 
 upon what St. Paul says in his Epistle to 
 Titus, (Tit. i. 6). " Husband of one wife." 
 Hence it was that bigamists were not ad- 
 mitted to sacred orders : either because big- 
 amy was real, for having married two wives ; 
 
BiNATION 
 
 io8 
 
 Bishop 
 
 or because it was interpretative, for having 
 married a widow or daughter, who had been 
 corrupted before her marriage. Even those 
 were declared as bigamists who had made 
 a vow of celibacy before their marriage ; 
 and the Church observed such a great 
 rigor in regard to bigamists, that Pope 
 Leo I. never wished a bishop of Mauri- 
 tanea to ordain them. Father Doucin, in 
 his History of Nestor ianism, says that 
 Irenaeus being a bigamist, because he had 
 been married twice, had been elected 
 Bishop of Tyre against the canons. St. 
 Jerome, Gennadius, and the Greeks re- 
 garded as bigamists only those who had 
 married two wives successively, after they 
 had received baptism ; but St. Ambrose, 
 St.Innocent, and St.Augustine regarded — • 
 with the Latin Church — as bigamists those 
 who had married two wives, even when 
 they had married the first before being 
 baptized (see Father Thomassin). St. 
 Epiphanius says {Hcer. 59, n. 4), that the 
 Church strictly observes the rule not to 
 ordain bigamists, although they had mar- 
 ried the second wife only after the death 
 of the first. In the sixth, seventh, and 
 eighth centuries, bigamists were excluded, 
 both in the East and West, from the epis- 
 copate, priesthood, and deaconate; they 
 could receive inferior orders with the 
 dispensation of their bishop, according to 
 several theologians and canonists, who 
 quote in their favor St. Thomas; but 
 Father Thomassin says that the interpret- 
 ing cardinals of the Council of Trent, and 
 Sixtus IV., have declared that, even in 
 this case, one must have recourse to the 
 Pope. See Matrimony. 
 
 Bination. — By bination we understand a 
 priest saying two Masses on the same day. 
 Formerly priests were allowed to cele- 
 brate several times a day. But at present 
 this is prohibited, except on Christmas 
 and in the case of necessity. Cases of 
 necessity are held to be when either an 
 entire congregation, or a large portion of 
 a congregation, is debarred from hearing 
 Mass on Sunday and holydays, unless the 
 pastor says two Masses on the same day. 
 Hence : i. A pastor who has two parishes at 
 so great a distance from each other that the 
 people residing in one of the places cannot 
 conveniently go to the other place for Mass, 
 can say two Masses a day, one in each 
 parish. 2. A pastor can say two Masses a 
 day in the same church, if a considerable 
 number, v. g., thirty, would otherwise be 
 
 deprived of Mass on Sundays and holydays, 
 V. ff., because the church is too small to 
 hold the entire congregation at the same 
 time. 3. We say on Sundays and holy- 
 days; that is, the necessity for saying two 
 Masses can occur only on those days on 
 which the faithful are bound to hear Mass, 
 — but not on week-days, nor on Holy Thurs- 
 day or Good Friday. The permission of 
 the bishop, as a rule, is required for the . 
 bination even in the above circumstances. 
 On Christmas every priest is allowed to say 
 three Masses without the permission of the 
 bishop. 
 
 Biretta. — Originally, any small cap 
 worn as distinctive of a trade or profes- 
 sion ; afterwards, a scholastic cap, or such as 
 was worn indoors by members of the learned 
 professions ; and at present in the Catholic 
 Church the ecclesiastical cap. This last is 
 square, and has three, and sometimes four, 
 ridges or projections on top, crossing it at 
 equal angles, frequently having a tuft or 
 tassel where the ridges meet in the middle. 
 For priests and the lo-wer orders of the 
 clergy its color is black, and for bishops 
 who are resident at Rome, though else- 
 where they commonly wear one of violet, 
 corresponding with the color of the cas- 
 sock; for cardinals it is red. It seems to 
 have been introduced in the offices of the 
 Church, when the amice ceased to be worn 
 over the head in proceeding to and from 
 the altar at Mass. 
 
 Birgit (St.). See Bright. 
 
 Bishop. — The word bishop, etymolog- 
 ically, means overseer, and priest means 
 elder. The Greek originals of both words 
 {episcopos, presbyteros) are of frequent 
 occurrence in the New Testament, and do 
 not seem to be always used with precision ; 
 the verbal distinction was not fixed. But 
 in the second and following centuries, we 
 find that the distinction between bishops 
 and priests is no less marked than that be- 
 tween priests and deacons. Bishops have 
 always been regarded as the chief pastors, 
 and as superior to the priests in authority 
 and jurisdiction, as well as in order. This 
 distinction between the episcopate and the 
 simple priesthood, with the superiority of 
 bishops, which is clearly pointed out in the 
 Sacred Scriptures (I. Tim. v. 19; Tit. i. 5; 
 Phil. iv. 3; Col. iv. 17), was uniformly 
 taught by the early Fathers. St. Clement 
 of Rome writes: "The Apostles, foresee- 
 ing that contentions would arise regarding 
 
Bishop 
 
 109 
 
 Bishops 
 
 the dignity of the episcopacy, appointed 
 bishops, instructing them to appoint others, 
 that when they should die, other approved 
 men would succeed them in their ministry." 
 Nothing can be plainer than the language of 
 St. Ignatius the Martyr, who ventures to say, 
 that in the Church the bishop presides in the 
 place of God, and the priests represent the 
 College of the Apostles (Ad Magnes, n. 
 6), and this saint's epistles are full of 
 similar expressions. The Presbyterians 
 find no answer to this argument, except to 
 call in question the genuineness of the let- 
 ters. St. Irenseus and St. Cyprian affirm 
 the same truth. That this gradation of 
 dignity and authority had existed in the 
 first ages, appears from the fact that the 
 early Fathers, in their controversies with 
 heretics, often appealed to the catalogue 
 of bishops, which existed in nearly all the 
 principal churches, and had come down 
 unbroken from the days of the Apostles. 
 Nor have the early heretics ever denied 
 the apostolic appointment of bishops, or 
 their superiority over priests. If, in the 
 New Testament, the words "bishop" and 
 "presbyter" are sometimes indifferently 
 applied to the same person, it does not 
 follow, that there existed no distinction 
 between the episcopacy and the priesthood. 
 St. John, though an Apostle, calls himself 
 an ancient, i.e., a presbyter (II. John i.); 
 and thus also with the bishops of the sec- 
 ond and third centuries, whose right to 
 exercise authority over priests was cer- 
 tainly never called into question at that 
 period. The same ecclesiastics, indeed, 
 passed often for bishops and priests; yet 
 as to the power or dignity, a distinc- 
 tion was always recognized between the 
 two, even from the very beginning of the 
 Church. See Clergy and Laity. 
 
 Bishop {Auxiliary). — Auxiliary bishop 
 is a titular bishop appointed by the Holy 
 See to assist an ordinary bishop, not in the 
 exercise of his jurisdiction, but merely of 
 the episcopal order, v.g:, to give confirma- 
 tion. He is called first, titular bishop {epis- 
 copus titularis, efiscopus in partibus infi- 
 delium) ; for he is consecrated with the 
 title of some diocese in the hands of the 
 infidels ; and, secondly, appointed by the 
 Holy See. At present titular bishops are 
 appointed only: i. When they are really 
 needed. 2. Where it is customary to have 
 them. 3. On condition that a proper sal- 
 ary be assigned to them. The reasons for 
 which they are usually appointed are : i. 
 
 Where a bishop does not reside in his see. 
 2. Or cannot perform the episcopal func- 
 tions of order on account of old. age, in- 
 firmity, or the great extent of his diocese. 
 Auxiliary bishops are not bound to make 
 the visit ad limia. Their office lapses as 
 soon as the bishop whom they assist dies 
 or in some other way relinquishes his see. 
 They exist at present chiefly in Prussia, 
 Austria, Spain, etc. The Pope makes use 
 of titular bishops in the discharge of his 
 apostolic duties. 
 
 Bishop {Suffragan). See Suffragan. 
 
 Bishops {Appointment of in the United 
 States).— Frior to the "Third Plenary 
 Council of Baltimore," held in 1884, the 
 candidates for a vacant diocese were pre- 
 sented to the 6\ C. de Prof. Fide by 
 the bishops of the province to which 
 the vacant diocese belonged. The priests 
 of the vacant diocese had no share or 
 voice in this presentation or nomination. 
 The " Third Plenary Council of Balti- 
 more " amended this mode of appoint- 
 ment and made the following enactments, 
 which now form the law in this country : 
 I. When a diocese falls vacant, whether 
 by the death, resignation, transfer, or re- 
 moval of the bishop, and when, in conse- 
 quence, three candidates are to be chosen, 
 the consultors and the irremovable rectors 
 of the vacant diocese shall be called to- 
 gether, V. ff., thirty days after the vacancy 
 occurs. It will be the right and duty of 
 these consultors and rectors, thus properly 
 assembled, to select three candidates for 
 the vacant see. The candidates thus 
 chosen shall be submitted to the bishops 
 of the province, whose right it will be to 
 approve or disapprove of them. 2. The 
 meeting of the consultors and irremovable 
 rectors is called and presided over by the 
 metropolitan of the province to which the 
 vacant diocese belongs ; or, if the metro- 
 politan be lawfully hindered, then the 
 meeting may be presided over by one of the 
 suffragan bishops of the same province, to 
 be deputed for this purpose by the metro- 
 politan. Where there is question of choos- 
 ing three candidates for a metropolitan see 
 which is vacant, the meeting of the con- 
 sultors and irremovable rectors of the 
 vacant metropolitan see is called and pre- 
 sided over by the senior suffragan bishop, 
 or, if he be hindered, by another bishop to 
 be deputed by him. 3. Before they cast 
 their votes, the aforesaid consultors and 
 rectors shall swear that they are not in- 
 
Bishop's Coadjutor 
 
 I lO 
 
 Blasius 
 
 duced to cast their votes for a candidate 
 because of unworthy motives, such as that 
 of expecting favors or rewards. They 
 shall vote by secret ballot. This vote is 
 merely consultive, /. e., it is simply equiva- 
 lent to a recommendation that one of the 
 candidates be appointed to the vacant see. 
 4. The president of the meeting shall 
 cause two authentic copies of the min- 
 utes of the meeting containing an ac- 
 curate list of the candidates chosen, to be 
 drawn up and signed by the secretary. He 
 shall forward one copy directly to the S. 
 C. de Prop. Fide, the second to the other 
 bishops of the province. A third copy 
 may also be drawn up and kept in the dioc- 
 esan archives, as is done in England. 5. 
 Thereupon, on a day fixed beforehand, 
 V. g-., ten days after the above meeting of 
 consultors and rectors, the bishops of the 
 province shall meet and openly discuss 
 among themselves the merits of the candi- 
 dates selected by the consultors and rec- 
 tors, or of others to be selected by them- 
 selves. Afterwards they make up their 
 list of three candidates to be sent to Rome. 
 From this it will be seen that the bishops 
 have a right to approve or disapprove of 
 the candidates chosen by the clergy. But 
 if they disapprove of them, they are bound 
 to give the reason upon which they base 
 their disapproval to the 5. C de Prop. 
 Fide. 6. In everything else the bishops 
 shall observe the instruction of the 5'. C. 
 de Prop. Fide dated Jan. 21st, 1861, and 
 given in the Second Plenary Council of 
 Baltimore, n. 106, 107. In other words, 
 the bishops shall state in writing the qual- 
 ifications and merits of the various candi- 
 dates, according to the questions given in 
 the Second Plenary Council of Baltimore, 
 n. 107. The minutes of the meeting of the 
 bishops shall then be sent to the 5. C. de 
 Prop. Fide by the archbishop, or senior 
 bishop of the province. 7. When there 
 is question of appointing a coadjutor- 
 bishop, with the right of succession, the 
 rules laid down above under Nos. i, 3, 
 4, 5 and 6 shall be strictly adhered to. 
 Rule 2 will, however, be changed thus: 
 The meeting of the consultors and irre- 
 movable rectors will be presided over, 
 not by the archbishop of the province, or 
 his deputy, but by the archbishop or 
 bishop for whom the coadjutor is to be 
 chosen; or, where he is hindered, by the 
 vicar-general, or other priest, deputed by 
 him. Moreover, in this case, the bishop 
 for whom the coadjutor is to be named 
 
 can, if he desires, suggest or point out 
 the names of the candidates who would 
 be most acceptable to him for the coad- 
 jutorship. 8. When there is question 
 of electing a bishop for a diocese newly 
 erected, the rules given above under 
 Nos. 2, 3, 4 and 6 shall be observed. 
 However, Rule 1 shall be changed thus : 
 When there is question of proposing to the 
 Holy See the names of candidates for the 
 new diocese, the consultors of the diocese, 
 or dioceses, from which the new see has 
 been formed, and the irremovable rectors 
 of the newly erected diocese, shall be 
 called together, and it will be their right 
 and duty to select three candidates for the 
 new bishopric. This rule is based on the 
 fact that a newly erected see will, of 
 course, have no consultors until after the 
 first bishop, having been confirmed, ap- 
 points them. Hence, the consultors of the 
 old diocese properly take the place of the 
 future consultors of the new diocese, for 
 the purpose of naming the first bishop. 
 
 Bishop's Coadjutor. See Coadjutor 
 Bishop. 
 
 Bithynia ( TJie Faith in). See Ethiopia. 
 
 Black Friars. See Dominicans. 
 
 Blanc (Anthony). — Catholic prelate; 
 Archbishop of New Orleans ; born in Surry, 
 France, Oct. nth, 1792. He left his native 
 country in 1817, a year after his ordina- 
 tion to the priesthood, and came to the 
 United States ; was created Bishop of New 
 Orleans in 1835; archbishop in 1850. He 
 founded a theological seminary, introduced 
 several religious orders into his diocese, 
 and was instrumental in founding many 
 educational institutions and orphan asy- 
 lums. He died at New Orleans, June 20th, 
 i860. 
 
 Blanchet (Francis Norbert) (1795- 
 1883). — American prelate; was born in the 
 parish of St. Pierre, Canada; died in Ore- 
 gon. Ordained priest in 1819, he came to 
 the United States in 1838 to labor among 
 the Canadians who had settled in Oregon. 
 Bishop of Oregon in 1S45 ; Archbishop of 
 Oregon in 1846. 
 
 Blasius (St.). — Martyr; was Bishop of 
 Sebaste, in Cappadocia, when Licinius be- 
 gan a bloody persecution of the Christians. 
 Blasius left the town and concealed him- 
 self in an unknown chasm in the rocks; 
 but his abode was discovered by Agricola, 
 the governor, while out hunting. The 
 
Blasphemy 
 
 III 
 
 BOGOMILES 
 
 saint was conveyed to Sebaste ; and as he 
 steadfastly refused to deny Christ, and to 
 worship the heathen gods, he was put to 
 death in 316. The wool-combers claim 
 him as their patron saint, for the singular 
 reason that he was tortured, among other 
 instruments, with a wool-comb. The prac- 
 tice of invoking St. Blasius in cases of sore- 
 throat is said to have originated in the 
 circumstance that, when imprisoned, he 
 saved the only son of a rich widow from 
 being choked by a fish-bone. 
 
 Blasphemy. — An offense against God 
 and religion, by denying the Almighty, His 
 being and providence, or by contumelious 
 reproaches of our Lord and Saviour Jesus 
 Christ; also all profane scofBng at the 
 Holy Scriptures, or exposing them to 
 ridicule and contempt. 
 
 Blessing. See Sacramentals. 
 
 Blood-Avenger. — Among the Hebrews, 
 a wilful murderer forfeited his own life, 
 and it was the duty of the next of kin to 
 inflict the penalty, since the crime was 
 committed against God as well as society, 
 and no ransom could be allowed (Num. 
 XXXV. 31-33). But cities of refuge were 
 provided for the accidental homicide, who 
 could flee thither and have his case de- 
 termined by the assembl}'- (Num. xxxv. 
 12, 24), when, if guilty, he was surrendered ; 
 but if not, was required to remain there 
 till the death of the existing high-priest. 
 
 Blood {Congregation of the Most Pre- 
 cious). See Precious Blood. 
 
 Blue La^ws. — A code of laws passed by 
 Puritans for the regulation of religious 
 and personal conduct in the colonies of 
 Connecticut and New Haven, in the seven- 
 teenth century. Among the Blue Laws 
 of Connecticut we find one enacting that 
 "no priest shall abide in this dominion; 
 he shall be banished, and suffer death on 
 his return. Priests may be seized by any- 
 one without a warrant." They also em- 
 braced the following provisions: "No 
 one shall travel, cook, make beds, sweep 
 house, cut hair, shave, on the Sabbath day. 
 No woman shall kiss her child, and no 
 husband shall kiss his wife, or wife her 
 husband, on the Lord's day. No one shall 
 read common Prayer, keep Christmas or 
 Saints' days, make mince pies, dance, play 
 cards, or play on any instrument of music, 
 except the drum, trumpet, and jews' harp." 
 See Archbishop Spalding's Miscellanea. 
 
 Bockhold (John). See Anabaptists. 
 
 Boehme (James). See Rosecruciani. 
 
 Boethius. — Senator and philosopher, 
 called "the last of the Romans," was born 
 between the years 470 and 480. He was 
 one of the most accomplished scholars of 
 his age. He was consul from the year 508 
 to 510, and enjoyed the friendship of King 
 Theodoric. His strict honesty and advo- 
 cacy of the cause of the innocent and weak, 
 had made him many enemies by whom he 
 was accused of plotting with the Byzantine 
 emperor to free Rome from the Ostro- 
 gothic rule. He was imprisoned by order 
 of King Theodoric, and ultimately exe- 
 cuted, in 524 or 525, in the fiftieth year of 
 his age. A magnificent mausoleum, with 
 an epitaph by Pope Sylvester H., was 
 erected to the memory of Boethius by the 
 Emperor Otto HL The works of Boethius 
 are chiefly philosophical, containing trans- 
 lations with notes of the works of Plato, 
 Aristotle, and other Greek philosophers. 
 His principal literary relic. Consolation of 
 Philosophy in five books, Boethius com- 
 posed in prison at Pavia, shortly before his 
 execution. It is a dialogue between the 
 author and philosophy, showing the incon- 
 stancy and insufficiency of earthly happi- 
 ness, and that true happiness is to be 
 sought in God alone. Its tone is elevated, 
 its style eloquent and pure, but the fact 
 that the name of Christ or of the Christian 
 religion is not even once mentioned in the 
 work, has led many to question the 
 author's belief in Christianity. The sev- 
 eral theological tracts written against the 
 Arian, Nestorian, and Eutychian heresies, 
 which are attributed to our author, are by 
 many regarded as not genuine. 
 
 Bogomiles. — Heretics of the twelfth 
 century. Had for founder one Basil, a 
 Bulgarian monk. Their tenets resembled 
 very much those of the ancient Manicheans. 
 They believed that God had two sons, 
 Satanael, the seducer and chief of the fallen 
 angels, and creator of the material world ; 
 and Christ, whom He sent into this world 
 to destroy the power of Satanael. They 
 rejected the Old Testament and part of the 
 New, abhorred the Holy Eucharist, con- 
 demned the invocation of the saints and 
 the use of images and churches, repudiated 
 marriage, and would not recognize any 
 liturgy, except the Lord's Prayer. They 
 were detected at their impious work in the 
 Greek Empire, during the reign of Alexius 
 
Bohemian Brethren 
 
 112 
 
 Boniface 
 
 Comnenus, by whom Basil was condemned 
 to the flames, in 1119. From the East, the 
 New-Manicheans flocked into Western 
 Europe, where they appeared under a va- 
 riety of names, such as Bulgarians, Pur- 
 itans, Paterines, Good Men, and, above all, 
 Catharists. See Albigensks. 
 
 Bohemian Brethren. — Heretics of the 
 fifteenth century. They sprang from the 
 Utraquists in Bohemia and Moravia. 
 Their first head was Michael Bradacz, 
 Utraquist parish priest at Zamberg. The 
 members of this sect, who wished to re- 
 store the Church to its ancient simplicity, 
 rejected Transubstantiation and some other 
 dogmas. The sect spread throughout 
 Germany, principally, however, in Saxony. 
 At a later period its adherents made com- 
 mon cause with the Protestants. 
 
 Boleyn (Annk) (1507-1536). — Queen of 
 England ; the second wife of Henry VIII. of 
 England, — whom she married on or about 
 Jan. 25th, 1533, — and mother of Queen Eliza- 
 beth. She was the daughter of Sir Thomas 
 Boleyn, later Earl of Wiltshire and Ormond. 
 She was condemned to death on a charge 
 of adultery and incest, and decapitated. 
 See Henry VIII. 
 
 Bollandists. See Acts of the Saints. 
 
 Bolsena {Mass of). See Mass of Bol- 
 
 SEXA. 
 
 Bona (Giovanni) Cardinal. — Born at 
 Mondovi, Piedmont, Oct. 12, 1609; died at 
 Rome, Oct. 28, 1674. General of the Or- 
 der of the Feullants (1651), cardinal in 
 1669; he failed to be elected Pope at the 
 death of Clement XI. and then it was said 
 that Pafa Bona had been Pa fa Bonus. 
 He was distinguished for piety and learn- 
 ing. His principal works are De rebus 
 liturgicis, a work full of learned inquiries 
 about the rites, prayers, and ceremonies 
 of Mass; Manductio ad Cxlunt; Hor- 
 logium asceticum ; De Principiis vitce 
 Christiance, which work has been com- 
 pared to the Imitation of Christ; Psallen- 
 tis ecclesicB hartnonia; De sacra Psalmo- 
 dia. 
 
 Bonaventure (St.). — Surnamed "Doctor 
 Seraphicus " ; Franciscan, distinguished 
 for his learning and piety. He was born 
 in 1 22 1, at Bagnarea, in Tuscany, and was 
 educated at the University of Paris, where, 
 as early as 1253, he obtained a professor- 
 ship of theology, and at the age of thirty- 
 five years he became the general of his 
 
 order, the internal disorders and conten- 
 tions of which he brought under due reg- 
 ulation. Pope Clement IV. wished to 
 make him Archbishop of York, but de- 
 sisted at the request of Bonaventure; on 
 the other hand, Gregory X., in 1273, com- 
 pelled him to accept the bishopric of Al- 
 bano. In the year following Bonaven- 
 ture attended the Ecumenical Council of 
 Lyons, and died while it was in session, 
 July 15th, 1 274. Bonaventure acquired great 
 fame by his mystical writings. But both 
 his philosophical and scholastico-theologi- 
 cal works, of which the principal ones are 
 the Breviloquium, and the Certiloquium, 
 are highly esteemed, although their author 
 does not on these subjects reach the level 
 of St. Thomas. As a mystic, however, he 
 surpasses him. 
 
 Boniface (name of 9 Popes). — Boniface 
 J. — Successor of Zosimus I. (418-422). 
 Was for a time opposed by the Antipope 
 Eulalius till the latter was banished by the 
 Emperor Honorius. He was an unswerv- 
 ing supporter of orthodoxy and a strenuous 
 defender of the prerogatives of the Holy 
 See. Boniface II. — Successor of Felix 
 IV. (530-532). His election was disputed 
 by one Dioscorus; but the Church was 
 saved from schism by the death of the 
 antipope a few weeks afterwards. At a 
 Synod held in Rome, Boniface appointed 
 his own successor in the person of the 
 Deacon Vigilius, but annulled the act in 
 a subsequent Council. Boniface III. — 
 Successor of Sabinianus (607). Died ten 
 months after his election. Obtained from 
 the Emperor Phocas (602-610), a decree 
 acknowledging the Roman Church the 
 " Head of all the Churches," and forbid- 
 ding the bishops of Constantinople to 
 usurp the title of " Universal Patriarch." 
 The assertion that from this epoch dates 
 the Papal Supremacy is too absurd to 
 need refutation. Boniface I V. — Successor 
 of the foregoing (608-615). Obtained the 
 grant of the famous Pantheon, which he 
 dedicated to divine worship under the in- 
 vocation of the Blessed Virgin and all the 
 holy martyrs. Boniface V. — Successor of 
 Deusdedit (619-625). He evinced great 
 zeal, especially for the Anglo-Saxon 
 Church. Boniface VI. — Elected Pope 
 after Formosus, by a popular faction, died 
 or was driven away 14 days afterwards, in 
 896. He had been previously deposed 
 from the priesthood, and some writers re- 
 gard him as an antipope. Boniface VII. — 
 
Boniface 
 
 113 
 
 Boniface 
 
 Cardinal-deacon Franco. They rank him 
 among the antipopes. Irregularly elected, 
 on August 20th, 974, while Benedict VI. 
 was yet alive, he was accused of having 
 taken part in the assassination of this 
 Pontiff. A creature of the Cescentians, 
 when Otto II. drew near to the city of 
 Rome, the pseudo-Pope fled to Constanti- 
 nople. Returned to Rome in 985, threw 
 John XIV. into the castle Michael Angelo, 
 where he caused him to be killed. But in 
 the month of December following, he died 
 quite suddenly, and his corpse, pierced 
 with a lance, was left on the public place 
 in front of the statue of Constantine; 
 finally, some priests buried his remains. 
 Boniface VIII. — Successor of Celestine 
 V. (1294-1303). He was of a noble family 
 in Anagni. The Pontificate of this truly 
 great, but much calumniated. Pope oc- 
 curred when the political aflfairs of Eu- 
 rope were extremely complicated. The 
 policy of Boniface was to establish peace 
 among the States of Europe and unite 
 them in a great crusade for the recovery 
 of the Holy Land. He issued, Feb. 25th, 
 1296, the Bull Clericis laicos, which was 
 directed against Philip the Fair, of France, 
 who had imposed taxes on the French 
 clergy, and which forbade the clergy of 
 any country to pay tribute to the secular 
 government without the papal permission ; 
 but was forced by an enactment of Philip, 
 which stopped the exportation of money 
 from France, to concede that the French 
 clergy might render voluntary contribu- 
 tions. He opened at Rome, Oct. 30th, 1302, 
 a synod in which he promulgated, Nov. 
 i8th, 1302, the Bull Unam Sanctam. 
 This Bull, after explaining the relations 
 between Church and State, between the 
 Spiritual and Temporal power, affirms 
 that the temporal power is, of its na- 
 ture, subordinate to the ecclesiastical, as 
 earthly are to heavenly things, and defines 
 the obligation, which is incumbent on 
 rulers as well as their subjects, of sub- 
 mitting in spiritual matters to the author- 
 ity of the vicar of Christ. " We declare to 
 every creature, we afiirm, define, and pro- 
 nounce, that it is altogether necessary for 
 salvation to be subject to the Roman 
 Pontiff." No more is taught in this docu- 
 ment, as of faith, than what all Catholics 
 in every age have held, namely, that sub- 
 jection to the Bishop of Rome in matters 
 of salvation is a necessary duty. He was 
 made prisoner at Anagni, Sept. 7th, 1303, 
 by Nogaret, vice-Chancellor to Philip, and 
 
 Sciarra Colonna ; and, although released by 
 the inhabitants of Anagni, he died at 
 Rome of a violent fever. Boniface IX. — 
 Successor of Urban VI. (1389-1404). A 
 pious and mild Pontiff, but too indulgent 
 to his relatives, re-established the papal 
 authority at Rome, restored the cardinals 
 deposed in the preceding reign, and has- 
 tened to make terms with the royal family 
 of Naples. He recognized young Ladis- 
 laus, son of Charles III., as the legitimate 
 king, and energetically supported him 
 against Louis of Anjou, who was com- 
 pelled to withdraw to France. 
 
 Boniface (St.). — Surnamed " Apostle of 
 Germany." Was born of noble parents in 
 Wessex, at Crediton, 680. At an early 
 age he developed a strong predilection for 
 the monastic profession and was educated 
 in the monastery of Adescanceaster. His 
 name was then Winfrid. At the age of 
 thirty he was ordained priest, and being 
 eminent among his brethren for learning 
 and ability, had the prospect of future 
 greatness before him. Having heard of* 
 the spiritual conquests of St. Willibrord and 
 other missionaries, he desired to con- 
 tribute, like them, to the progress and 
 diffusion of Christianity. His longings 
 turned particularly to the old country, the 
 fatherland of the Anglo-Saxons. In 716, 
 Winfrid, accompanied by three other mis- 
 sionaries, sailed from the port of London 
 to the coast of Friesland. But his attempt 
 was singularly inopportune. Ratbod, 
 King of the Frisians, was then at war with 
 Charles Martel. The missionaries fled; 
 the churches and monasteries in Friesland, 
 which had been founded by the Franks, 
 were demolished, and paganism recovered 
 the ascendancy. This state of affairs com- 
 pelled Winfrid to return to England, hav- 
 ing accomplished nothing. Two years 
 later, Winfrid was again permitted to pur- 
 sue his apostolic labors. Fortified with a 
 commendatory letter from his ordinary, he 
 went to Rome and there obtained from 
 Pope Gregory II., an apostolic mission to 
 all Northern Germany. He began his 
 apostolic career in Thuringia, in 719, which 
 had been Christianized in part by the dis- 
 ciples of St. Columbanus ; but the clergy, 
 as well as the people, were demoralized. 
 He instructed the people and reformed the 
 clergy. His missionary efforts, however, 
 in this direction were interrupted by the 
 tidings of the death of Ratbod, and the 
 subsequent success of the Franks. He 
 
BONOSIANS 
 
 114 
 
 BoRROMEO Union 
 
 repaired at once to Friesland, and offering 
 his services to Willibrord, then Archbishop 
 of Utrecht, labored three years under the 
 direction of that apostolic prelate. In 722, 
 declining to become the coadjutor and suc- 
 cessor of Willibrord, Winfrid returned to 
 Thuringia, and thence went to Hesse, 
 where he made many converts. Being in- 
 formed of the conquests of our Saint, Pope 
 Gregory II. summoned him to Rome, 
 consecrating him regionary bishop, and 
 sent him back with honor to his converts, 
 in 723. On that occasion our Saint also 
 assumed the name " Boniface," by which 
 he is known in history. Returning to 
 Germany, he resumed his mission among 
 the Hessians and Thuringians. With his 
 own hands, and in the presence of an 
 assemblage of heathens, he felled the 
 Sacred Oak of Thor, at Geismar, and 
 of its wood built a chapel which he dedi- 
 cated to St. Peter. As the number of 
 conversions daily increased, zealous as- 
 sistants from England joined Boniface. 
 Pope Gregory III. sent Boniface the pal- 
 lium (732), made him vicar apostolic with 
 full power to consecrate bishops and erect 
 dioceses, and appointed him superior, not 
 only of German, but also of Gallic prelates. 
 In 738 Boniface made his third and last 
 pilgrimage to Rome. Returning with in- 
 creased powers, he proceeded to settle the 
 ecclesiastical divisions of Germany. The 
 next object of the apostolic archbishop was 
 to insure a permanent supply of mission- 
 aries. With this view he erected several 
 monasteries. The most famous among 
 these was that of Fulda. Between the 
 years 742 and 746, Boniface held several 
 synods, at which he reformed abuses and 
 established excellent rules for the govern- 
 ment of the churches in Germany. In 
 747, Pope Zacharias appointed Boniface 
 Archbishop of Mentz and Primate of Ger- 
 many. By order of the same Pope, the 
 Saint, in 752, crowned Pepin the Short, 
 king of the Franks. For more than thirty 
 years, Boniface had devoted himself to the 
 salvation of Germany. Having completed 
 his greal task, he resigned his archiepisco- 
 pal see to his disciple Lullus, in order to 
 undertake the conversion of the Frisians. 
 He had already converted several thou- 
 sands of this nation, when the great 
 Apostle of Germany terminated his holy 
 and useful life by a glorious martyrdom. 
 He was attacked and slain, together with 
 his companions, by a band of pagan Frisi- 
 ans, in 755. The remains of the illustrious 
 
 martyr were deposited in the monastery of 
 Fulda. F. June 5th. 
 
 Bonosians. — Macedonian heretics about 
 the end of the fourth century, who had for 
 founder Bonosus, Bishop of Sardica. He 
 maintained that Mary did not always re- 
 main a Virgin. He was suspended and 
 his error condemned in the Council of 
 Capua, in 389, and finally excommunicated 
 by the Macedonian bishops. 
 
 Book of Common Discipline. — The lit- 
 urgy of the Church of Scotland. In 1562, 
 the Book of Common Discipline, com- 
 monly termed "Knox's Liturgy," was 
 partially- introduced in place of the Book 
 of Common Prayer, and in 1564 its use was 
 authoritatively ordained in all the churches 
 in Scotland. This liturgy was taken from 
 the order or liturgy used by the English 
 Church at Geneva. 
 
 Book of Common Prayer. — The service- 
 book of the Church of England, or a sim- 
 ilar book authorized by the other branches 
 of the Anglican Church, It is popularly 
 known as the Prayer Book. It was nearly 
 all taken from mediaeval liturgical books. 
 English was substituted for Latin, and a 
 uniform use was established for the whole 
 Church of England. The first Book of 
 Common Prayer was issued in 1549; and 
 revisions were made in 1552, 1559, and 1662. 
 
 Borborites. — A nickname for certain 
 Ophite Gnostics, and also in general for one 
 who holds or is supposed to hold filthy and 
 immoral doctrines ; in modern times, espe- 
 cially applied to a branch of the Men- 
 nonites. 
 
 Borromeo (St. Charles) (1538-1584). 
 — An Italian Cardinal, archbishop of Milan, 
 born at Arona, near Lago Maggiore; died 
 at Milan. Noted as an ecclesiastical re- 
 former and philanthropist. He was a 
 model bishop and his life is full of ex- 
 amples to all Christians. Especially did 
 he show his courage and great trust in God 
 by staying in Milan during the fearful 
 plague of 1576. He founded the "Col- 
 legium Helveticum " for the education of 
 priests to labor in Switzerland, and to 
 prevent the introduction of Protestantism 
 from that quarter. 
 
 Borromeo Union, founded in Coblenz, 
 1844, for the circulation of Roman Cath- 
 olic literature ; up to 1890, numbered over 
 50,000 members and had distributed more 
 than $3,000,000 worth of books. 
 
BOSSUET 
 
 115 
 
 Brahmanism 
 
 Bossuet(jAcquEsBKNiGNE)(i627-i7o4). 
 — A French prelate, and celebrated pulpit 
 orator, historian, and theological writer; 
 was born at Dijon ; died at Paris. He was 
 preceptor to the Dauphin in 1670-81, and 
 became Bishop of Meaux in 1681. His 
 chief works are Exposition of the Catholic 
 Doctrine; Discourseon Universal History ; 
 History of the Variations of the Protes- 
 tant Churches, 
 
 Bourdaloue (Louis) (1632-1704). — A 
 famous French theologian and preacher, 
 born at Alencon; died at Paris. He was 
 a member of the order of the Jesuits, pro- 
 fessor of rhetoric, philosophy, and the- 
 ology in the Jesuit College of Bourges, 
 court preacher (1670), and one of the most 
 illustrious pulpit orators of his time. His 
 sermons have been published in 16 volumes 
 (1707), in 17 volumes (1822-26). 
 
 Bourignists. — Members of a sect founded 
 by Antoinette Bourignon (1616-1680), a 
 religious enthusiast who assumed the Au- 
 gustinian habit, and traveled in France, 
 Holland, England, and Scotland. She 
 maintained that Christianity does not con- 
 sist in faith and practice, but in the inward 
 feeling and supernatural impulse. 
 
 Bradwardine (Thomas). — Born at Hart- 
 field, Sussex, England, about 1290; died at 
 Lambeth, England, in 1349. A celebrated 
 English prelate, theologian, and mathema- 
 tician, surnamed "Doctor Profundus." 
 Chancellor of the University of Oxford 
 and Archbishop of Canterbury in 1349. His 
 works include De Causa Dei, De ^uadra- 
 tura Circuli, Geometria Speculativa, Ars 
 Meniorativa, etc. 
 
 Brahmanism. — Doctrine of the Brah- 
 mans. The word Brahmanism does not in- 
 dicate a formal religion with certain fixed 
 dogmas, but asystem of beliefs and practices 
 superseding other and older forms. It com- 
 prises a kind of slow evolution among the 
 many religious systems of India, from 
 pantheistic, anthropomorphous, and poly- 
 theistic, up to a sacerdotal and hierarchical 
 form. The first phasis of Hindoo religion 
 is shown to us in a body of writings called 
 Veda {science) or Sruti {revelation). 
 These writings are subdivided into four col- 
 lections : Riff- Veda, Sama - Veda, Tayur- 
 Veda, and Atharva -Veda. To each of 
 these parts is attached a series of Brahma- 
 nas, i. e., rites and ceremonies, then a 
 second class of writings, the Aranyakas, 
 
 and, finally, a series of speculative and 
 philosophical writings, called Upanishads. 
 
 Of this whole body the Rig-Veda is 
 evidently the most ancient. It appears to 
 be composed of hymns, whose origin goes 
 back to the first migrations of the Aryians 
 in India, and in this Rig-Veda the first 
 eight books, are anterior to the ninth. The 
 religious views set forth in the Rig-Veda 
 are purely pantheistic, consisting of the 
 adoration of the great phenomena of 
 nature, conceived as endowed with a soul, 
 whose power is greatly superior to that of 
 man, and which is not unmindful of praise. 
 This personification of the elements is 
 hardly sensible. We have here the first 
 phasis of polytheism, without having yet 
 a well-arranged pantheon and deities with 
 definite attributes. For the Vedic wor- 
 shiper, the different departments of nature 
 are so mingled together that we are con- 
 tinually in the presence of confusion and 
 repetitions, and the author of the hymns, 
 in his adoration for the power which he 
 implores, constantly forgets that there are 
 other powers existing. The word devas, 
 the brilliant, by which the Vedas designate 
 the gods, proves that it is the phenom- 
 enon of light which most lively struck 
 the primitive Aryian. Also this is the 
 name of the personification of the atmo- 
 sphere, Indra, which is so often repeated 
 in the Rig- Veda hymns, and which plays 
 the greatest role in the allegorical ac- 
 counts, the solar myths, figuring the rising 
 and setting of the sun, its wrestling with 
 the clouds and night. Besides all this, 
 the deities were divided into gods of the 
 air, water, and earth, without that each of 
 these elements was ruled by a special deity. 
 Gradually the deities which were not ab- 
 solutely distinct became commingled into 
 one body, and, as some among them were 
 supposed to exercise important creative 
 and cosmic functions, there was formed a 
 god the creator of the other gods, and of 
 all things. This god was called Prajapati 
 {king of creatures) or Visvakarman {the 
 creator of all things) . At the same time, 
 concluding from the spirit which animates 
 men on a universal spirit spread in whole 
 matter, they succeeded in reconciling this 
 pantheistic idea with the preceding mono- 
 theistic one, and made of Prapati the prin- 
 cipal creative god of Brahma. 
 
 This evolution of the Vedic theology 
 took place in the tenth century b. c, 
 while the preceding phasis dates since the 
 thirteenth century B.C. About the same 
 
Brahmanism 
 
 ii6 
 
 Brahmanism 
 
 epoch — on account of the necessity of sep- 
 arating the Aryan conquerors from the 
 conquered black tribes and by reason of 
 the formation of a sacerdotal class, in- 
 terested in separating itself from the rest 
 of the people — the division, self-eflFected, 
 of the Hindoo people into four classes or 
 castes took place : the Brahmans, the 
 Kchattryas {warriors), the Vaicyas {la- 
 borers), and the Soudras {slaves). After 
 many and long struggles, which the great 
 epic poem Mahabharata relates, finally 
 the Brahmans overcome the warriors, and 
 consolidated their power by a vigorous 
 theocratic legislation, of which the laws 
 of Manu are a recent reproduction. All 
 the Vedic writings are declared to be of 
 divine origin. The respective rights and 
 conditions of the four castes were codified ; 
 all the acts of the Hindoo families became 
 subject to a rigorous ceremonial, of which 
 no rite could be performed without the 
 service of a priest. The three superior 
 castes were united and separated from the 
 Soudras by a particular ceremony ; the in- 
 vesture of the sacred cord, which was of 
 distinct material for each class, composed 
 of priests, warriors, and husbandmen, out- 
 side of which was only the caste of Parias, 
 required a solemn religious rite. The 
 teaching of the law is reserved to the 
 priests, who were to explain it to the war- 
 riors and husbandmen only. Regarding 
 the Soudras, it was forbidden even to teach 
 them the manner of expiating their sins. 
 Marriage between the different castes was 
 prohibited. This strict distinction of 
 caste, which appears shocking to us, was, 
 however, a necessary outcome of a belief 
 of a universal world-god in Brahma. In 
 fact, the Brahmanic priest who considers 
 the entire human race as an emanation 
 of the same force, conceives their different 
 forms as a kind of gradation in which the 
 divine spirit manifests itself more and 
 more clearly. Every relapse of an elevated 
 being towards a lower one, must therefore 
 be avoided. Every being being a spirit, 
 and every spirit being immortal, each 
 being possesses a spiritual family, or 
 Manes, as well as a human family. The 
 pantheistic monotheism of the period of 
 composition of the Brahmana, was hardly 
 a period of transition. The ancient poly- 
 theistic notion of the gods of the air, earth, 
 and water continued to exist. Gradually 
 the number of these deities became defi- 
 nite. Thirty-three were enumerated, eleven 
 in each of the three kingdoms, or elements, 
 
 being presided over by Agni {the fire) for 
 the earth, Indra {the atmosphere) for the 
 air, and Sour y a {the sun) for the kingdom 
 of the cloudy heaven. This attempt at clas- 
 sification, which dates from the end of the 
 Vedic epoch, was united to the cosmogonic 
 conceptions which the laws of Manu de- 
 veloped about the period of the institu- 
 tion of castes and the supremacy of the 
 Brahmans. The laws of Manu teach that 
 in the beginning spirit alone existed, un- 
 perceptible, indivisible, yet floating, as it 
 were, throughout space. The primal 
 spirit, by contemplating itself, created the 
 nature, and deposited in this creation a 
 golden egg, from which came forth 
 Brahma, the aboriginal god of all things. 
 To this purely philosophic doctrine, which 
 probably affected the common people very 
 little, is joined, in order to form the 
 Brahmanic pantheon, the influence of the 
 popular worship of the deities especially 
 adored in such a region and by such a 
 people. From all these religious elements 
 and different deities, the Vedic gods, 
 local, national, and purely speculative 
 gods, the Brahmans constituted a great 
 pantheon. Siva or Mahadeva — the great 
 god — and Vishnu seem to have been wor- 
 shiped by the people in the time of 
 Ramayana. From these two deities which 
 were evidently evolved by the union of a 
 great number of local gods, and from 
 Brahma, was formed the superior Triade, 
 Brahma being the Creator, Vishnu the 
 preserver, and Siva the destroyer. To 
 each of these male energies or powers was 
 associated a female energy. Vach or 
 Sarasvati {science), was the wife of 
 Brahma; Sai or Lakschmi {the beauty), 
 that of Vishnu; and Parvati {death), that 
 of Siva. The latter god transformed him- 
 self into a phallic and genetic deity, while 
 the distinctive functions were assigned to 
 his wife, surnamed Kali { the black ), 
 Durya {the terrible). It is said that 
 Vishnu, in his quality of benevolent deity, 
 appeared ten times on earth in different 
 incarnations, or avataras, in order to be 
 useful to men. To unite this supreme 
 Triade with the Vedic gods, it was taught 
 that the deities had become created like 
 men, by an emanation of the spirit of 
 Brahma, that they live in a material 
 heaven — the air — and tend towards per- 
 fection. 
 
 Indria governed the region of the Orient ; 
 Agni the Southeast; Sourya the South- 
 west ; Tama had the South ; Varuna, 
 
Bread 
 
 117 
 
 Brethren and Sisters 
 
 god of the sea, the West; Vayu {the 
 -^vind), controlled the Northwest; Kiibera 
 {zvealfli), the North; Soma {drunkenness), 
 the Northeast. Besides these many gods, 
 Hindoo mythology knew genii, Gandhar- 
 vas ; nymphs, Apsaras. Varada serves 
 as a messenger of the gods to men. Kam- 
 adeva or Ananga is the god of love. 
 Gatteka, the god with the head of an ele- 
 phant, presides over wisdom ; Skanda 
 leads the heavenly armies, and the six 
 Krittikas resemble the Greek pleiades. 
 
 The moral precepts of Brahmanism are 
 very simple in theory. The sovereign 
 good is the perfect knowledge of the di- 
 vine essence. This knowledge can be at- 
 tained only by close, intense, meditation, 
 which, in its turn, is possible only by the 
 mortification of the senses and all sensual 
 instincts, gained by a life of religious as- 
 ceticism. Those who, being thus detached 
 from their bodies, have entered into com- 
 munion with the divinity, escape, in dying, 
 all corporal or material life, and enter im- 
 mediately into the Great All. The others 
 enter into one of the forms of life, inferior 
 or elevated, according to the degree of 
 victory they have gained over themselves. 
 These moral and theological doctrines 
 were regulated into coherent systems by 
 the different schools of philosophy which 
 succeeded each other in India, as Chris- 
 tian metaphysics and ethics were elabor- 
 ated by the Scholastics. The school of the 
 Vedantas, the most orthodox, was led to 
 deny matter, the creation of which it was 
 unable to explain. The school Sankhia 
 affirmed the eternity of matter, and united 
 indissolubly to it a spiritual principle, 
 similar to the god of Spinoza. Finally, 
 comes Buddhism, whose doctrine is ex- 
 plained elsewhere. It drove out, during 
 the centuries of our era, Brahmanism from 
 the greater part of India. But later Brah- 
 manism again became victorious, although 
 considerably altered and weakened from 
 the struggle. Owing to the distances of 
 the provinces from each other, as also 
 to the permanency of the common classes 
 for particular devotions and superstitious 
 beliefs, Brahmanism has resolved itself 
 into a number of sects. The worship of 
 Siva, of Vishnu, and of Parvati, has re- 
 placed the ancient religious unity. The 
 priests have adopted the Buddhist custom 
 of being united into religious communities. 
 The four original castes are each subdi- 
 vided into eighteen new ones. To-day 
 the precepts concerning the life of the 
 
 Brahmans and the several ethical doctrines 
 are no longer followed, except by a small 
 number of ascetics. The great majority 
 of the people contents itself with quite a 
 material worship offered to some particu- 
 lar idol. Divine worship is even now 
 given to irrational animals, as is shown by 
 the honors given, in many parts of India, 
 to the cow. 
 
 Bread {Liturgical). — The matter, as it 
 is called, of the sacrifice of the Mass, is 
 composed of wheaten bread and wine of 
 the grape. The Latin Church, in imi- 
 tation of our Divine Saviour, employs un- 
 leavened bread in the celebration of the 
 Blessed Eucharist; a practice which is 
 mentioned by Alcuin, in a letter written in 
 the year 798. However, whether the 
 bread employed at the sacrifice of the 
 Mass be leavened or unleavened is a cir- 
 cumstance of pure discipline, which does 
 not touch the essence of the Eucharist. 
 The Maronites and Armenians also em- 
 ploy unleavened bread ; while the Greeks 
 and other Oriental Churches, orthodox 
 and schismatical, use leavened bread. 
 
 Breads of Proposition. See Altar of 
 Show Breads. 
 
 Brebeuf (Jean de). — A noted French 
 Jesuit missionary among the Huron In- 
 dians in Canada; born at Bayeux, France, 
 March 25th, 1593; killed by the Hurons 
 March i6th, 1649. He translated the Cat- 
 echism into the Huron language. 
 
 Brendan (St.). — Born atTralee, County 
 Kerry, Ireland, in 484; died in 577. An Irish 
 monk, a contemporary of St. Brendan of 
 Birr, and called " Son of Finnloga," or 
 St. Brendan of Clonfert, to distinguish 
 him from the latter. After completing his 
 studies at Tuam he set forth on the ex- 
 pedition known as the "Navigation of St. 
 Brendan." According to the legendary 
 account of his travels, he embarked with a 
 company of followers to seek the terres- 
 trial paradise, which was supposed to exist 
 in an Island of the Atlantic. Various mir- 
 acles are related of the voyage, but they 
 are always connected with the great island 
 where the monks are said to have landed. 
 The legend was current in the time of 
 Columbus and long after, and many con- 
 nected St. Brendan's island with the newly 
 discovered America. F. May i6th. 
 
 Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit 
 (also called "Spiritualists"). — Fanatics 
 
Brethren 
 
 ii8 
 
 Bridget 
 
 who spread, in the thirteenth century, 
 chiefly through France, Italy, and Ger- 
 many. Owing to their professional char- 
 acter as beggars, they were also called 
 Beghards and Beguines. See these sub- 
 jects. 
 
 Brethren {Apostolic). See Apostolians. 
 
 Brethren of Our Lord. — Those persons 
 whom the Gospel calls " Brethren of 
 Jesus Christ," were not His brethren, 
 properly speaking, but His first cousins. 
 These personages are in the number of 
 four, of which the most famous is James, 
 not a son of Mary the Mother of Jesus, and 
 consequently no brother of Jesus, but a 
 son of Mary, the wife of Cleophas, who 
 was a sister of the Blessed Virgin. The 
 simple careful reading of the Gospel is 
 sufficient to do away with this difficulty. 
 What gave rise to this misunderstanding 
 is that our word brother had, in Hebrew, 
 besides the meaning which it still has 
 among us, another broader signification, 
 and which indicated the kinship to all the 
 degrees, such as those of cousin, uncle, 
 nephew, etc. Thus Lot, who was only a 
 nephew of Abraham, is called his brother 
 by the sacred writer (Gen. xiv. 14-16). So 
 also Laban calls Jacob his brother, who 
 was really only his nephew (Gen. xxxi. 
 15); Tobias calls Sara his sister, although 
 she was only a distant relative of his (Tob. 
 viii. 9). 
 
 Brethren {Plymouth). See Plymouth. 
 
 Breviary. — The breviary is a formulary 
 of prayers and sacred reading which priests 
 recite and read daily. Formerly the 
 psalms, hymns, orations, and spiritual 
 selections, which all priests and religious 
 were obliged to recite were of consider- 
 able length. Pope St. Gregory VII. 
 abridged this "office," for those of his 
 pontifical court who were under the obli- 
 gation of saying it. This abridgment 
 soon became of common use throughout 
 the Church, under the name of " Roman 
 Breviary." According to some authors, 
 it takes its name from the fact of its form- 
 ing, as it were, a summary of religion, a 
 compendium of Christian teaching. Ac- 
 cording to Benedict XIV., breviary signi- 
 fies a short, brief order of the divine office. 
 It was also called ^^OJficium divinum, opus 
 ad agenda Dei,'' because its recitation is a 
 sacred work which has God for its object. 
 *' Pensujn servitutis," because it is a debt, 
 a duty to be paid to God by those who are 
 
 in a special manner consecrated to Him. 
 " Cursus," because it should be said, in its 
 different parts, according to the hours of 
 the day. " HorcB Canonicce," either be- 
 cause the sacred canons ordain its recita- 
 tion or because it obliges the regular Can- 
 ons in particular. '■' Synaxis" or '■' Col- 
 lecta," because in monasteries it is recited 
 in common. 
 
 The breviary contains the divine office, 
 or the formal prayers which the Church 
 puts into the mouths of her priests and 
 religious. It is composed of seven parts, 
 called canonical hours, viz.: Matins, 
 Lauds, Prime, Terce, Sext, None, Ves- 
 pers, and Compline. The part called Mat- 
 ins, which are said towards the break of day, 
 is also called Nocttirn or Vigils, because 
 formerly it was chanted during the night. 
 Lauds are said after Matins. The custom 
 to-day is to recite these parts on the eve of 
 the feast or feria to which they belong. 
 There are yet certain religious orders which 
 recite them during the night, beginning at 
 2 A. M. Prime is said at sunrise ; Terce, at 
 the third hour, or 9 a. m. ; Sext, at the sixth 
 hour, or noon; None, at the ninth hour, or 
 three o'clock in the afternoon. The gen- 
 eral custom to-day is to recite these " little 
 hours," as they are called, in the morning. 
 Vespers followed by Compline form the 
 evening prayers. This division of the di- 
 vine office is not an obligatory one. The 
 Church has made these divisions in order 
 to imitate David, who sang the praises of 
 God seven times a day. A reform being 
 found necessary, the Council of Trent 
 made it the object of a special decree. 
 The breviary was restored to its primitive 
 purity, and thus first edited by Pope Pius 
 v., and then by Urban VIII., who pre- 
 scribed the new edition for the entire 
 Church. However, the Churches of the 
 Oriental rite, as also the dioceses of Milan, 
 Italy, and Toledo, in Spain, were exempted 
 by the papal rescript from the use of this 
 edition. In the United States the Roman 
 Breviary is obligatory. 
 
 Brethren {United). See Moravians. 
 
 Brethren ( White). — Visionaries who ap- 
 peared in Prussia in the fourteenth century 
 and who pretended to have particular 
 revelations to go and deliver the Holy 
 Land from the hands of the infidels ; they 
 wore a white cloak with a cross of St. An- 
 drew thereon. 
 
 Bridget (St.). — Virgin and patron saint 
 of Ireland, born in 453, died in 523. Found- 
 
Bridgittines 
 
 119 
 
 Brothers 
 
 ress and abbess of several nunneries, the 
 first and most celebrated of which was 
 that erected at Kildare Feb. ist, 490. F. 
 Feb. ist. According to an ancient Irish 
 account of her life, she was born at Fo- 
 chart (now Faugher) and was the daugh- 
 ter of Dubhthach, by his bondmaid 
 Brotsech or Broiceseach. She obtained 
 her freedom through the intervention of 
 the king of Leinster, who was impressed 
 by her piety. 
 
 Bridgittines (Religious). — So called 
 from St. Bridget of Sweden, by whom they 
 were founded. St. Bridget was born about 
 the year 1302, of the royal family of Swe- 
 den. The state of marriage which she 
 embraced by the advice of her parents, 
 did not cause her to lose her fervor for 
 the pious exercises she had shown from 
 her tenderest years. After having be- 
 come a widow (1343), she consecrated her- 
 self entirely to works of charity and to 
 exercises of piety and founded the Monas- 
 tery of Wadstena (1344), on the shores 
 of Lake Vettern. The order was con- 
 firmed, under the title of "Order of the 
 Saviour," by Urban V., in 1370. The re- 
 ligious followed the Rule of St. Augustine 
 and the particular constitutions which 
 their holy foundress is said to have re- 
 ceived by divine revelation. 
 
 Brief {AfosioHc). — A letter of the Pope 
 or of the great-penitentiary concerning 
 brief, minor, and concise affairs, without 
 preface or preamble. The briefs which 
 are sent through the Datary's and Secre- 
 tary's offices are generally written upon 
 ordinary paper, but sometimes on parch- 
 ment, sealed with red wax and stamped 
 with the Fisherman's ring. The diflFer- 
 ence between a brief and a bull consists 
 in the fact that the latter is more ample, 
 that it is always written on parchment 
 and sealed with lead or green wax. The 
 Brief is subscribed by the Secretary and 
 not by the Pope. At its heading it con- 
 tains the name of the Pope separately, and 
 following this, ^'' Dilecto filio salutem et 
 apostolicain benedictionem" etc. {To our 
 beloved son salutation and apostolic bless- 
 ing) ; then without any preamble, it simply 
 explains what the Pope says or grants. 
 Pope Alexander VI. considerably ampli- 
 fied the matter of briefs, and it was this 
 Pope who instituted the College of Secre- 
 taries. Formerly briefs treated only of ju- 
 dicial affairs; to-day they are employed 
 
 in the granting of favors, dispensations, 
 etc. See Bull. 
 
 Brothers ( Congregations of) . — Reli- 
 gious communities whose number is con- 
 siderable : I. Most prominent among 
 them is the Congregation of the Broth- 
 ers of the Christian Schools, founded in 
 1684 by Blessed John de la Salle and con- 
 firmed in 1725 by Benedict XIII. This 
 congregation has to-day over 1,400 houses 
 with 13,000 brothers, not counting the 
 novices and aspirants, and is in charge of 
 2,500 schools. In France there are 1,100 
 houses, in Belgium 53, in Spain 42, in Eng- 
 land and Ireland 14, in Austria and Ger- 
 many 13, in Italy 22, in the Levante 27, in 
 the extreme Orient 10, in Madagascar and 
 the Island of St. Maurice, 5. Their mother 
 house is in Paris, where the Superior Gen- 
 eral resides. 
 
 In the United States the Brothers of the 
 Christian Schools have four provinces : 
 Baltimore, with 220 brothers; New York, 
 with 446; St. Louis, with 206; San Fran- 
 cisco, with 106. 
 
 2. The second largest congregation of 
 brothers is that of the Marists or Brothers 
 of Mary. Their mother house is in Saint 
 Genis-Laval in the Diocese of Lyon. It is 
 one of the few congregations of the kind 
 that have priests among their members. 
 Founded by the Ven. Abbe Chaminade in 
 the beginning of the present century, it 
 has grown rapidly, so that it now has 6,500 
 members, 740 houses, 14 novitiates, and 23 
 juvenates, so called, distributed as follows : 
 7 in Belgium, i in Denmark, 21 in Spain, 
 7 in England, i in Italy, 2 in Switzerland, 
 3 in Turkey, 16 in Canada, 2 in Brazil, 4 in 
 the United States, 13 in Colombia, 7 in 
 Africa, 10 in Asia, 8 in Australia, 9 in New 
 Zealand, 7 in New Caledonia, 3 in Central 
 Oceanica, and the others in France. The 
 American provincial mother house is in 
 Dayton, Ohio. 
 
 3. The Congregation of the Marianists 
 also has its seat in Paris. Its members 
 wear lay garb and are distributed not only 
 over France (in 30 dioceses), but likewise 
 in other European countries, America, 
 Japan, and Oceanica. 
 
 4. A flourishing congregation is that of 
 the Brothers of Christian Instruction 
 (called Petits-frires), which sprang from 
 the union of two different societies, that of 
 the Abbe Deshayes and that of the Abbe 
 J. M. R. de Lamennais, Vicar Capitular, 
 in 1819, and was canonically approved by 
 
Brothers 
 
 1 20 
 
 Brothers 
 
 Leo XIII., on March 13th, 1891. It has 
 380 houses with some 2,000 members, in- 
 structing nearly 100,000 children, in 
 France, Canada, Havti, Senegal, Marti- 
 nique, etc. They have rules similar to 
 those of the Brothers de La Salle. 
 
 5. The Brothers of the Holy Ghost, or of 
 St. Gabriel, date back their foundation to 
 the year 1705. Their spiritual father was 
 the Blessed Maria Grignon de Montfort. 
 The congregation did not grow strong 
 till after the storms of the Revolution. Re- 
 suscitated by the Abbe Deshayes in 1835, 
 it now has schools in 23 dioceses of France, 
 in Canada, Egypt, and Italy. The mother 
 house is at St. Laurent-sur-Sevre in 
 France. It also has priests among its 
 members. 
 
 6. The Congregation of the Brothers of 
 the Sacred Heart, of Puy, established in 
 1821, has its main seat in Paradis, France, 
 and houses in 20 French dioceses, as well 
 as in North America and Algiers. They 
 are credited with 140 members in the 
 United States. 
 
 7. In the Diocese of Puy there is the 
 small Congregation of St. Francis Regis, 
 called the Brothers of Agriculture, with 
 their mother house at La Roche-Arnaud. 
 This society was founded by P. de Bussy, 
 S. J., in 1850; has 7 houses and 60 mem- 
 bers employed in the training of orphans, 
 especially in agricultural pursuits. 
 
 8. The Clerics of St. Viateur, established 
 by the Abbe Querbes at Lyons, conduct 
 schools, assist the clergy in giving reli- 
 gious instruction, direct church choirs, etc. 
 Their mother house is in Paris. The 
 members are* scattered over 24 French dio- 
 ceses. Mother house at Vourles in the 
 Diocese of Lyon. 
 
 The first house in the United States was 
 opened in 1865 by Vy. Rev. P. Beaudoin and 
 Brothers A. Martel and J. B. Bernard, at 
 Bourbonnais, Illinois. It grew into the pres- 
 ent St. Viateur's College. In 1882 the first 
 and so far only American province was 
 erected, with headquarters at Bourbonnais. 
 The number of priests in this province is 11, 
 that of Brothers, 34, according to Hoff- 
 mann's Directory for 1899. 
 
 9. In Nancy there is a congregation called 
 the Brothers of Christian Doctrine, of 
 Lorraine, dating back to the year 1822, and 
 having the Bishop of Nancy for its Supe- 
 rior-General. It has branches in 9 French 
 dioceses. 
 
 10. Thejosephites (or Fathers and Broth- 
 ers of the Holy Cross) were founded in 
 
 182 1 by the Abbe Dujarrie in the Diocese 
 of Le Mans, France. They have some 40 
 institutions in France and Africa, in which 
 they devote special attention to manual 
 training, and several industrial schools and 
 orphanages in North America. 
 
 11. The Brothers of St. Vincent de Paul 
 have their mother house in Paris. We 
 have no data regarding their development 
 and work. 
 
 12. The Brothers of St. Joseph, foimded 
 in Oullins, France, by the Abbe Rey, de- 
 vote their attention to neglected boys, and 
 such as have been in houses of refuge,, 
 striving, with much success, to bring them 
 up as good Christians, able to make their 
 living as fai-mers or mechanics. 
 
 13. The Brothers of the Christian Schools 
 of Mercy, founded in 1842 by the Abbe 
 Delamarre, later Archbishop of Auch, have 
 their mother house at Montebourg, in the 
 Diocese of Coutances. They direct between 
 40 and 50 schools in three French dioceses. 
 
 14. The School Brothers of the Holy 
 Family, approved in 1874, have their mother 
 house at Belley, France. Their founder 
 was P. Gabriel Taborin. They work in 13 
 French dioceses and, we are told, also in 
 America, though we are quite sure not in 
 the United States. They are very popular 
 among the French clergy as sacristans and 
 organists. 
 
 15. The School Brothers of Christian 
 Doctrine of Matzenheim in Lower Alsace 
 were founded in 1845 by Eugene Mertian. 
 There are about a hundred of them. It 
 seems they are connected with the Nancy 
 Brothers of the same name. 
 
 16. The School Brothers of St. Anthony 
 were canonically approved in 1823. Their 
 mother house is in Paris. 
 
 17. The School Brothers of Ireland, 
 founded in Waterford, A. D., 1802, by E. 
 Rice, after the model of the Congregation 
 of Blessed de la Salle, have their mother 
 house in Dublin and branches in various 
 parts of Ireland, England, Australia, and 
 East India. 
 
 18. The Josephites of St. Fuscien, estab- 
 lished in 1756 by Bishop de Chabons in 
 Amiens, conduct primary schools in sev- 
 eral French dioceses and act as organists 
 and sextons. 
 
 19. The Congregation of the Sons of St. 
 Joseph in the Diocese of Gand was estab- 
 lished A. D. 1817, at Grammont, in Flanders, 
 by Canon van Crombugghe. It consists 
 of priests and brothers, the former teach- 
 ing the higher, the latter the elementary. 
 
Brothers of Charity 
 
 121 
 
 Brownson 
 
 branches. In 1880 this congregation had 
 168 members. The mother house is at 
 Grammont. 
 
 20. The Indian Brothers of St. Joseph 
 are recruited from among^ the natives of 
 East India for the instruction of the young 
 and the training of tefichers for them. 
 
 21. The Society of the Brothers of St. 
 Joseph of Klein-Zimmern (Diocese of May- 
 ence) were founded in 1864 by the great 
 Bishop Ketteler. So far as we are aware, 
 this congregation has no branches outside 
 the Diocese of Mayence. 
 
 22. The Brothers of the Cross of Jesus 
 originated in the Diocese of Belley, France, 
 in 1832. The novitiate is at Menestruel. 
 They are in charge of about fifty odd 
 schools and hospitals in the Dioceses of 
 Grenoble, Lyon, and Saint-Claude. This 
 order also has a branch for females. 
 
 23. The Brothers of the Christian Schools 
 of the Holy Infant Jesus were founded in 
 the seventeenth century by P. Nicholas 
 Barre. They devote themselves to the in- 
 struction of the yoimg, especially poor 
 children. They have a house in Paris, and 
 are spread over eight provinces of France. 
 There is also a branch for females of this 
 congregation. 
 
 24. The Congregation of the Brothers 
 of the Holy Cross is likewise of French 
 foundation, dating from the year 1856. It 
 consists of priests and lay brothers ; they 
 are especially active in the United States 
 (Notre Dame University, etc.) and the 
 British colonies. 
 
 25. The School Brothers of Tilburg 
 {Freres de Charite de Notre Dame, Mere 
 de mtsericorde), founded in 1844 by J. 
 Zwysen later Archbishop of Utrecht. 
 They have ten houses with about 300 mem- 
 bers, and among these about twenty priests. 
 
 26. The Xaverian Brothers, founded 
 in 1839 at Bruges, Belgium, have their 
 mother house there. The novitiate of the 
 American province is at Baltimore, Mary- 
 land. There are 159 of these Brothers in 
 the United States, instructing 5,729 pupils 
 in colleges, high schools, academies, in- 
 dustrial and parochial schools. 
 
 27. The Brothers of Our Lady of 
 Lourdes, who conduct a college at South 
 Park, Washington, and a protectory for 
 homeless boys in Pittsburg, having 16 mem- 
 bers in all in this country, and have their 
 mother house in Oostacker, Belgium. 
 
 28. The Brothers of Charity of St. Vin- 
 cent de Paul, who conduct the House of 
 the Angel Guardian in Boston, are quite a 
 
 modern institution, having only recently 
 received the Roman approbation. 
 
 29. In the Archdiocese of New York 
 and the Diocese of Brooklyn there are 88 
 Franciscan Brothers, in charge of 6 acade- 
 mies, I college, and 11 schools. HofTmann's 
 Directory tells us they were founded in 
 1858 by brothers from Mt. Bellew, County 
 Galway, Ireland.* 
 
 Brothers of Charity. See JohnofCtod. 
 
 Brothers of the Common Life. — An In- 
 stitute of Clerks, established at Deventer, 
 by Gerhard Groot (died in 1384). It spread 
 rapidly in the Netherlands and Germany, 
 and produced a number of distinguished 
 men, among them Thomas a Kempis. 
 They made no vows, and devoted them- 
 selves to preaching and instructing the 
 youth. There existed a branch for females 
 of this order. 
 
 Brown (Robert) (1549-1630). — A Puri- 
 tan, known as the founder of the " Brown- 
 ists." In 1561, while at Cambridge, was 
 cited to appear before Archbishop Parker 
 for heterodoxy, and before he died he was 
 imprisoned thirty-two times. In 1580, he 
 accepted a ministry at Norwich, and later 
 went to Holland. In 1585, he returned to 
 England and was excommunicated. See 
 Puritans. 
 
 BroTvnson (Orestes August). — Ameri- 
 can writer, born at Stockbridge, Vermont, 
 Sept. i6th, 1803. Agitated, from his child- 
 hood, by religious questions, his opinions, 
 in these matters, varied a good deal. He was 
 a Presbyterian in 1822, then a Universalist 
 and Deist in 1825 ; three years later, he 
 united himself with the " Workingmen's 
 Party," and became a passionate admirer 
 of the contemporary French philosophers. 
 Then he published, in the " Christian Ex- 
 aminer," a series of very keen articles; it 
 was the prelude of the little volume which 
 appeared in 1836 under the title. New Views 
 on Christianity, the Society of the Church. 
 In 1837 there is a new change ; he entered the 
 " Society for Christian Union and Progress 
 for Christianity," and delivered very re- 
 markable lectures. The year following, he 
 published a romance : Charles Elivood or 
 The Infidel Converted, which contains the 
 history of his philosophical and religious 
 ideas. Finally, in 1844, convinced, un- 
 
 *See "The Review," St. lyOuis, Missouri, Sept. 
 15th, 1899. 
 
Bruno 
 
 122 
 
 Buddhism 
 
 doubtedly, of the impotency of man to 
 build his own beHefs, he entered the bosom 
 of the Catholic Church. From that time, 
 until his death he defended the Church in 
 his " Review," which he published under 
 the name of " Brownson's Quarterly Re- 
 view," with the vigor and sincerity that 
 characterized him. He died a Catholic, in 
 Detroit, Michigan, April 17th, 1876. 
 
 Bruno (Giordano) (1548-1600). — Born 
 at Nola, near Naples, entered, at the age of 
 fifteen years, the novitiate of the Domini- 
 cans. Accused of heresy before the Roman 
 Inquisition, he threw, it is said, his accuser 
 into the Tiber, discarded the habit of his 
 Order and fled (1576). After having erred 
 in Italy, France, England, and Germany, 
 he landed in Venice, where his religious 
 opinions again brought him into trouble. 
 The Roman Inquisition claimed him, and, 
 after a few years' imprisonment, he was 
 condemned to degradation and to be 
 burned alive on account of obstinate 
 heresy. Bruno received little sympathy 
 among his contemporaries, and, in the 
 course of the seventeenth and eighteenth 
 centuries, the scholars who occupied them- 
 selves with researches concerning his char- 
 acter, or his works, were unanimous in re- 
 garding him with disfavor. In our days, 
 on the contrary, he is praised for his knowl- 
 edge of mathematics and astronomy; in 
 philosophy, it is stated, he opened new ave- 
 nues, and, as to his death, it was that of a 
 martyr, immolating himself for the tri- 
 umph of liberty of thought. Certainly no 
 great sagacity is required to discover the 
 motives of this sudden enthusiasm. The 
 enemies of the Church feel that they have 
 to change, from time to time, their mode 
 of warfare ; when they have shouted them- 
 selves hoarse against the pretended respon- 
 sibility in the Massacre of St. Bartholo- 
 mew, they agitate the phantom of the 
 Inquisition ; after having exhausted the 
 subject of Galileo, they resurrect Giordano 
 Bruno. This time, however, their choice 
 is a somewhat unfortunate one. The un- 
 bounded eulogies heaped upon an apostate 
 monk have provoked the critical inquiry 
 of his doctrines, and Bruno has not gained 
 anything thereby. In his philosophy, 
 Bruno adopted the pantheistic hypothesis ; 
 but this was known and refuted a long 
 time before him. In astronomy he ex- 
 pressed some new and correct ideas; but 
 he did not master this science sufficiently 
 to enable him to speak correctly of the 
 
 sideral world. Bailh' regards him as a 
 rash innovator, misled by his imagination. 
 
 Bruno (St.). See Carthusians. 
 
 Bruys (Peter). See Petrobrusians. 
 
 Buchanites. — A sect of fanatics which 
 sprang up in the west of Scotland in the 
 last quarter of the eighteenth century. Its 
 foundress was Elspeth Buchan, born in 
 173S, the daughter of John Simpson, a way- 
 side innkeeper near Banff. Separating 
 from her husband, she began to preach, 
 and in 1783, in conjunction with the Rev. 
 Hugh White, founded the sect which bore 
 her name. She claimed to be the woman 
 mentioned in the first six verses of the 
 twelfth chapter of the Apocalypse. Ex- 
 pelled from the town by the magistrates in 
 1784, they established themselves near 
 Thornhill with a few followers. The poet 
 Burns, in a letter (August, 1784) speaks 
 of their idleness and immorality. Mrs. 
 Buchan died in May, 1791 ; the last sur- 
 vivor of her sect died in 1848. 
 
 Buddhism (from Buddha, seventh cen- 
 tury B.C., name of the reformer). — A 
 philosophical and religious doctrine; 
 founded in India. Buddhism is rather a 
 reformation of Brahmanism than an orig- 
 inal, independent system. It admits of no 
 distinction of Caste in religious matters, 
 and insists on an ascetic life of contempla- 
 tion. Buddhism, banished from India, 
 after an existence of a thousand years, 
 propagated itself in Thibet, Tartary, 
 China, and Japan. It would appear that 
 this doctrine played in the history of Asia 
 something of the role of Christianity in 
 Europe, by effecting a reform or rather a 
 total overthrow of former paganism. 
 
 History. — We must distinguish in 
 Buddhism the doctrine which Buddha 
 himself expounded from that taught by 
 his disciples. The primitive doctrine of 
 Buddha is found best elucidated in the 
 "Treatise on the Four Truths." This 
 small manual teaches: i. That pain is an 
 effect of existence, which is itself an illu- 
 sion, a thing void and unsubstantial. 2. 
 That pain is produced in life by the con- 
 tinued desire of living and by the joy 
 thereof. 3. That pain ceases when life 
 ends, or on the cessation of the joy of liv- 
 ing. 4. That to end pain it is necessary to 
 cease taking pleasure in living. The cause 
 of life, says Buddha, is evil, which can be 
 expiated only by suffering. The one who 
 walks in the way of renunciation will avoid 
 
Buddhism 
 
 123 
 
 Buddhism 
 
 sin and its punishments, will discern the 
 motives of existence and of pain, will be 
 delivered from all future existence, and will 
 merge his individuality into annihilation. 
 The Nirvana, or the state of non-being or 
 of blissful repose is self-produced. The 
 one who attains the Nirvana is freed from 
 existence and from the necessity of being 
 reborn. Brahmanism admitted Metempsy- 
 chosis. Buddhism lays down rules to attain 
 this annihilation, or perfect moral inertia. 
 In the first place it is necessary that the 
 Buddhist gives up all impure desires and 
 all desires of vengeance or of any kind of 
 evil. He finally must give up all doubt, 
 all heresy, and every kind of wickedness. 
 "Let my disciple," says Buddha, "pour 
 out, as it were, his good will over all be- 
 ings." Then will he have attained the 
 last stage of perfection. He will be free 
 from ignorance, passion, and sin. Freed 
 from the laws of material existence, know- 
 ing all things by their causes, he will pass 
 from this life into absolute and eternal 
 annihilation, the Nirvana, or negation of 
 all life, where exists neither soul nor God. 
 In fact, the cosmogony and philosophy of 
 primitive Buddhism, are essentially mate- 
 rialistic. Without occupying itself with 
 material things, it affirms that all things 
 are subject to the laws of cause and eflfect, 
 to change, death, decline, and regeneration. 
 The world, as well as everything that sur- 
 rounds it, must be destroyed periodically 
 by fire, air, or water, and must always be 
 reconstituted by the sum of sin (desire to 
 live) of its inhabitants. The number of 
 the latter will never increase, except when 
 one escapes to life in attaining the Nir- 
 vana. 
 
 The 24 heavens and the 8 hells which 
 surround the earth and which are inhabited 
 by mystic beings are equally subject to the 
 la'ws of decline, death, and regeneration. 
 (For the Buddhists the human soul is 
 nothing but a vital force which perishes 
 with the body.) An old person is regen- 
 erated into a new being only in the sense 
 that his body is substituted for the soul, 
 and represents in the world the desire to 
 live which the soul manifested, sinning 
 thereby. The Karma, the desire to live, 
 does not pass as an immaterial and per- 
 manent substance from the one to the other, 
 but the Karma of the one succeeds the 
 Karma of the other as two identical phe- 
 nomena, peculiar to every being. The 
 holy Buddhist must not trouble the pure 
 inertia of his soul, by desiring eternal hap- 
 
 piness after life. When he speaks of the 
 Nirvana as the Christian books speak of 
 heaven, he does so by the Oriental custom 
 of exaggeration. Eugene Burnouf has 
 clearly proved that the Nirvana of Budd- 
 hism is nothing else but absolute annihila- 
 tion. 
 
 This void and desolate system of reli- 
 gion, in spite of the nobility of its chari- 
 table precepts, would not have obtained 
 more disciples than the philosophy of the 
 Sankhyas to which it approaches, if Bud- 
 dha had not joined to his theological teach- 
 ing social doctrines which rendered it dear 
 to the people. He boldly attacked the 
 Brahmans and openly separated himself 
 from them, denounced the inanity of their 
 ceremonial .regarding their prescriptions 
 of living, ridiculed their pantheon peo- 
 pled by an infinity of gods, but over and 
 above all, he pleased the people by denying 
 the Brahmanic priesthood, who pretended 
 to be the only ones called to salvation. To 
 this must be added his effective contempt 
 for any distinction of caste, a distinction 
 absolutely insisted on by Brahmanism and 
 under which India groaned. He preached 
 as a mendicant monk, sought to do good 
 among the outcasts of society, the poor, 
 the unfortunate, the unclean, and hurled 
 against the pharisaism of the Brahmans 
 anathemas which recall to mind the de- 
 nunciations of Christ. 
 
 From the third century b. c. Buddhism 
 was spread throughout all India, This was 
 mainly eflFected through the monastic and 
 preaching method, by the Sangha, or order 
 of mendicant monks. The opinion which 
 Cakyamuni held of life, necessarily led 
 him to a life of asceticism, to which h» ob- 
 ligated his disciples. He recommended to 
 them to free themselves from all family 
 relations, from all riches and power, and to 
 leave the world. However, these rules did 
 not originally imply the creation of a 
 sacerdotal class. For the Sramana {those 
 who contain it) or Bikschou (the mendi- 
 cants), as they called them, had no power 
 of regeneration, confirmation or absolution. 
 To enter their society, it was sufficient for 
 the monk to shave himself and to observe 
 their manner of living, the rule of which 
 is expounded in the Patimohhha, which 
 dates from 250 b.c. The monks should 
 eat only between the rising of the sun and 
 noon time. They should beg their nourish- 
 ment in going from house to house without 
 saying a word, abstain from all flesh-meats 
 and even filter the water for fear of swal- 
 
Buddhism 
 
 124 
 
 Buddhism 
 
 lowing some animalcule Thev should 
 travel from place to place during the fair 
 season, and retire during the season of 
 rains into the house of the community. 
 Their costume, which they never should 
 lay off, was composed of three yellow gar- 
 ments. All sexual relations were forbid- 
 den to them, as well as theft and murder. 
 They could possess only eight objects : the 
 three garments, a cincture, a bowl, a razor, 
 a needle, and a filter. But the community 
 could receive as a gift landed property, 
 houses, and books. As to the laymen, 
 Buddha recommends to them the observ- 
 ance of the ordinary moral precepts, never 
 to exterminate life, and to prepare as much 
 as possible for a sinless regeneration. 
 
 The disciples of Buddha assembled in 
 councils, immediately after the death of 
 their chief; one hundred years afterwards, 
 at Naisali, and again in 250 b.c, at Patna, 
 under the Buddhist Emperor Asoka. The 
 latter ordered the drawing up of the sacred 
 books, containing the teaching of Buddha. 
 These books, the most of which were un- 
 known until then, reproduce exactly the 
 doctrine of the master. The history of 
 Buddhism in India is little known. In 400 
 A. D., the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hian found 
 it flourishing very generally in that coun- 
 try. The pilgrim Hiouen-Tsang pointed 
 out its decay. In the eighth and ninth cen- 
 turies the Hindoo kings, probably irritated 
 at the wealth and corruption of the monks, 
 organized a great persecution and entirely 
 destroyed the sect in the whole peninsula. 
 Buddhism was introduced at Ceylon in the 
 third century, A. D., by the son of Emperor 
 Asoka. From here, in the fifth century, 
 it passed into Burmah, then, in the seventh 
 century, into Siam. From Kaschmir it was 
 introduced into China in 68 A. D. and 
 from there into Thibet. Mr. de Schagin- 
 weit estimates the number of disciples of 
 this religion at 341 millions, or one-fourth 
 of humanity. Recent calculations seem 
 to reduce this figure. Buddhism, at pre- 
 sent, little resembles the doctrine taught 
 by Gautama, its real founder. From the 
 time of the first century after his death, 
 divergences of doctrine manifested them- 
 selves. In the second Council of Buddhism, 
 it is said that the assembly decided that 
 " all that is not contrary to reason must 
 be considered as belonging to the teaching 
 of Cakyamouni." Later on it was ad- 
 mitted that Buddha had adapted his teach- 
 ing to the capacity of his hearers, and 
 since that time the different sects of 
 
 Buddhism sought to interpret the real 
 meaning of the doctrines of their master. 
 The principal sects are : i. The Hina- 
 f'anists, or "School of the small Council," 
 which holds as sufficient for salvation a 
 moral life, united with reflections on the 
 causes and inanity of life. 2. The Mahaj- 
 anists, or "School of the large Council," 
 which appeared in the second century b.c. 
 This School pretended that the chief du- 
 ties were asceticism and meditation, which, 
 according to them, give to man super- 
 natural powers. 3. The Mystic Schools, 
 Kala Tchaktra, or " Schools of the Wheel 
 of Time," which arose in Central Asia and 
 spread throughout India, being dissemi- 
 nated by the teaching of the Cachmir, 
 who asserted that neither meditation nor 
 virtue is sufficient for salvation, holding 
 that man needs the aid of supernatural 
 beings to shield- him from demons. This 
 aid is obtained by the use of certain for- 
 mulas, amulets, and ceremonies. This 
 sect, which developed itself in the ninth 
 century a. d., offers a striking analogy to 
 Gnosticism. This school, which eventually 
 prevailed over all the others, includes in its 
 system the whole Brahmanic pantheon. It 
 flattered the people by its belief in magic 
 and by its worship of the dead ; instituted 
 a ritual, a number of prayers and conjura- 
 tions, a hierarchy of priests endowed with 
 mystic powers, all of which have continued 
 to exist in Mongolia and Thibet. In the 
 latter countries Buddhism has taken the 
 name of Lamaism, and has become, in 
 fact, a religion greatly different from the 
 doctrine — half-philosophical, half-ethical — 
 preached by Gautama. The essence of 
 this religion consists in a slight modifica- 
 tion, introduced into the doctrine of Bud- 
 dha, concerning the perfect life. The 
 latter recommended his disciples to attain 
 perfection by meditation and the practice 
 of virtue, diminishing the joy of desiring 
 to live, and to reach Nirvana by annihila- 
 tion of self. The new egoistical doctrine 
 requires that its best disciples, in order to 
 save the world from iniquity, must trans- 
 form themselves into Buddhists, or into be- 
 ings capable of becoming Buddhists. The 
 primitive books of Buddhism do not treat 
 of precepts necessary to attain this perfec- 
 tion, while the new form of religion is ex- 
 pounded in nine books, two of which have 
 been translated and published, the Lalita 
 Visiara, bj' M. Foucaux, and Saddharma 
 Pundarika, by M. E. Burnouf. The most 
 ancient of these dates from the second 
 
BUGENHAGEN 
 
 125 
 
 BUGENHAGEN 
 
 century A. i>. The chief apostles of this new 
 doctrine called themselves Nagasena and 
 Vasumitra. 
 
 To explain the wonderful power of the 
 Buddhists it was asserted that they were 
 the emanation of spiritual Buddhas, of 
 Dhyani Buddhas. From these emanations 
 the new school founded a Trinity and from 
 this Trinity were reproduced several other 
 Buddhas. But in the Trinity formed by 
 Gautama, Amithaha (wisdom) and Ana- 
 lokitesvara {^conquering love) remained 
 dominant. Asanga, a monk of the sixth 
 century, was the first to corrupt this doc- 
 trine by attaching to it magical practices 
 and joining to the Buddhic Triades the 
 bloody gods of India. About the seventh 
 century, king Srong Tsang Gampa intro- 
 duced this corrupted form of Buddhism 
 into Thibet, assisted by his minister, 
 Thumi Sambhota, worshiped since in this 
 country as the incarnation of Amithaha, 
 and by his two wives, the queens Bribsun 
 and Wen-Ching, whose worship still exists 
 in the monasteries of Thibet, under the 
 name of " Glorious mothers, incarnations 
 of the wife of Siva." Moreover, the Mon- 
 golians and the Siberians adopted the 
 worship of a holy and miraculous virgin, 
 whom the sacred images of these peoples 
 often represent with a child in her arms. 
 Owing to the continual additions which 
 the Lamaic pantheon received, this reli- 
 gion threatened to be dissolved into a 
 vague Gnosticism, when it was consoli- 
 dated by a powerful, sacerdotal, and tem- 
 poral hierarchy. Kublai-Khan, nephew of 
 Genghis-Khan, founder of the Mongolian 
 empire, gave to the chief of the convent 
 Cakya, the title of sovereign tributary of 
 Thibet, chief of the Buddhist religion and 
 suzerain of all the other abbots. This 
 event took place in the year 1006. Not- 
 withstanding a sort of schism which took 
 place in 1390, at the instigation of the monk 
 Tsongkapa, whose reforms were directed 
 particularly against the dissolute and luxu- 
 rious life of the monks, and whose follow- 
 ers henceforth distinguished themselves 
 by a yellow bonnet from the red bonnet of 
 their adversaries, the power of the abbots 
 of Cakya at Lhassa only increased the 
 more. Since the fifteenth century, Dalai 
 Lama,chiefoftheYellow-Bonnets, Abbot of 
 Gedun Dubpa, near Lhassa, and Pantschen 
 Lama, chief of the Red-Bonnets, Abbot of 
 the Convent of Kraschis Jumpo, were ac- 
 knowledged by the emperors of China as 
 sovereigns of Thibet. Gradually the fol- 
 
 lowers of Dalai Lama increased in power 
 and influence over their rivals, the follow- 
 ers of Pantschen Lama. 
 
 The spiritual power of Lama extends 
 over Bhutan, Sikkim, Mongolia, the 
 country of the Kalmuks and Burets, and 
 the Buddhist convents of Pekin. This 
 Lama is believed to be immortal and is 
 considered as the earthly incarnation of 
 Buddha. At his corporal death, his spirit 
 passes into a new depository. 
 
 The third class of ecclesiastical function- 
 aries is formed by the Chubilchanes. 
 Then come the conventual authorities, the 
 abbots {Khanpo), the monks, ordained 
 priests {Gelong), the new monks {Gethul), 
 and the lay brothers {Boudi). The secu- 
 lar clergy is composed of Tchoidsche 
 (scribes), and of Rabdschamfas (doctors) . 
 All these ecclesiastics live in monasteries 
 and are bound to celibacy. There exist 
 also nunneries, governed by abbesses, in 
 whom the saints are incarnated. The con- 
 vents are very rich. These ecclesiastics 
 are intercessors, astrologers, exorcists, and 
 physicians. They copy and print books, 
 make religious images, and sell relics. They 
 have the privilege of transmitting and cul- 
 tivating both divine and human science. 
 The temples are quadrangular, pointing 
 toward the four cardinal directions and 
 are divided into a vestibule, nave and 
 iconostasis or sanctuary. Besides these 
 places of worship there are chapels, sacred 
 pyramids, columns upon which prayers are 
 engraved, prayer mills, and sacred trees. 
 The religious wear and say the rosary. 
 Their ceremonies end by distributing 
 leavened bread among the faithful. They 
 also use blessed water. The ceremonies 
 must be celebrated every day by the eccle- 
 siastics, and they have recourse to them 
 to assure the repose of the dead. In one 
 word, the Lamaic worship and institu- 
 tions resemble so much the Catholic cere- 
 monial, that the first missionaries held 
 them as a diabolical imitation of their re- 
 ligion. 
 
 Bugenhagen (John). — Protestant minis- 
 ter, born at Wollin (Pomerania) in 1485, 
 died at Wittembergin 1558. At first, priest 
 and adversary of Luther, he became his 
 follower and one of his missionaries, taught 
 theology at Wittemberg, and made him- 
 self known by his oratorical talent, which 
 contributed a good deal towards the pro- 
 gress of the Reformation in a great part of 
 Germany, Denmark and Norway. 
 
Bull 
 
 126 
 
 BUSENBAUM 
 
 BulL — The Bull is a papal decision on im- 
 portant matters, rendered in a most solemn 
 manner. They are written on parchment, 
 in Gothic letters' and sealed with a leaden 
 seal, and most carefully guarded in the 
 Chancellor's office. When the object of 
 the Bull is to proclaim graces granted, the 
 bands are of silk ; when the object is to pro- 
 nounce decisions of justice, the bands are 
 of hemp. The following are the distinc- 
 tions drawn between the great and small 
 Bulls : the great Bulls are given for affairs 
 which decree permanent rules of a general 
 character; they contain the words: "yl</ 
 ferpeiuam ret mentor iam." The Pope as- 
 sumes therein the title of "Serz'us servo- 
 rum Deiy The small Bulls are given for 
 the expedition of current affairs, and do 
 not contain the formula indicating the per- 
 petuity. The Bulls are designated, gen- 
 erally, by their initial words; thus, we say 
 the Bull '■'■Unigenitus,^^ ^'■Unam Sanc- 
 tam," " Viftcam Domini," " In Ccena Dom- 
 ini," etc. The appointment of bishops is 
 made by Bulls. 
 
 Bullarium. — Collection of several papal 
 Bulls. The Great Roman Bullarium is 
 divided into three parts: i. Until Urban 
 VIII., /. €., until the year 1623 (Rome 1634). 
 2. From Urban VIII. to Clement XIII., or 
 from 1623 to 1758 (Luxemburg, Geneva, 
 1747 to 1758, eleven volumes). 3. From 
 Clement XIII. to Gregory XVI., or from 
 1758 to 1831 (Rome 1837-1843, eight vol- 
 umes). Under the supervision of Cardinal 
 San Felice, Archbishop of Naples, they 
 actually print at Naples a new edition of 
 the Bullarium Diplomatum et Privile- 
 giorum. 
 
 Burgundians {Conversion of the). — The 
 Burgundians, whose original territory lay 
 on the shores of the Baltic Sea, penetrated 
 into Gaul in the beginning of the fifth 
 century, and, settling between the Alps, 
 Saone, and the Rhone, established the 
 Burgundian kingdom, of which Lyons was 
 the capital. At that time they were still 
 pagans, but soon afterwards embraced the 
 Catholic faith. The priest Orosius, in 417, 
 commended the mildness and modesty of 
 these Burgundians, who treated their sub- 
 jects of Gaul as their Christian brethren. 
 In 450 they were found professing Arian- 
 ism,' which was probably owing to their 
 Arian neighbors, the Visigoths. However, 
 Arianism was not generally adopted by the 
 Burgundians. King Sigismund returned 
 to the Catholic Church in the year 516, 
 
 and Arianism entirely disappeared from 
 among the Burgundians, after their king- 
 dom had passed under the dominion of the 
 Franks, in 534. 
 
 Burial {Christian). — The early Chris- 
 tians, when sick or in danger of death, 
 following the precept of St. James, called 
 in the priests of the Church, who strength- 
 ened and sustained them with the holy 
 sacrament of Extreme Unction in the last 
 and trying conflict of the soul. The mortal 
 remains of men were no longer burned, as 
 was the custom among the pagans. The 
 Christians, following the Jewish practice 
 of funeral service, placed the body in the 
 earth, accompanying the ceremony with 
 prayer and singing of hymns, taken from 
 the sacred liturgy, deeming this the most 
 fitting way of paying the last tribute of re- 
 spect to the earthly remains of man which 
 had been the temple and dwelling place of 
 the Holy Ghost, and which was to rise 
 again immortal and impassible. See 
 Cemetery. 
 
 Ecclesiastical burial must be denied in 
 the following instances. 1. To pagans, 
 Jews, and infidels. 2. To apostates. 3. 
 To notorious heretics and schismatics. 4. 
 To those publicly excommunicated and 
 interdicted. 5. To those who committed 
 suicide, if " before dying, they did not 
 manifest any repentance." Those, how- 
 ever, who committed suicide while in- 
 sane, or deranged in mind, can be buried 
 b}- the Church. 6. To those killed in a 
 duel. 7. To public and notorious sinners 
 who die in final impenitence. 8. To 
 those who died in the act of some grievous 
 crime. 9. Finally to those who refused 
 the sacraments when at the point of death. 
 See Cremation. 
 
 Bursa (Latin word which means apurse, 
 a bag). — Specifically, a receptacle for the 
 corporal and chalice cover. It is square 
 and flat, made of cardboard, covered gen- 
 erally with the same material as the 
 chasuble ; is open on one side only, and 
 placed over the chalice veil when the sacred 
 vessels are carried to and from the altar. 
 The bursa was introduced in the fourteenth 
 century. 
 
 Busenbaum (Hermann). — German Jes- 
 uit and theologian, born in 1600 at Noth- 
 elen, Westphalia, died in 1668. He wrote 
 Medulla Theologi(E moralis, which work is 
 an abstract from various authors (Munster, 
 1645). It passed through more than 50 
 
Butler 
 
 127 
 
 Caesarea 
 
 editions. Lacroix, Collendall, and St. 
 Liguori, made additions and commentaries 
 thereon. 
 
 Butler (Alban) (1711-1773). — Born at 
 Appletree, Northampton, England ; died 
 at St. Omer, France. An English Catho- 
 lic hagiographer. Yie wrote Lives of the 
 Saints (1745, 5 vols.), 
 
 Byrne (Andrew). — Roman Catholic 
 prelate ; born in Navan, Ireland, in 1802 ; 
 died at Little Rock, Arkansas, 1862. He 
 was educated at the college of his native 
 town, and came to America in 1820 with 
 
 Bishop England, who visited Ireland for 
 the purpose of securing Catholic mission- 
 aries for the work in America. Byrne was 
 ordained in 1827, and assigned to duty in 
 North and South Carolina. In 1830 he 
 was appointed to pastoral work in New 
 York city, and in 1844 was made the first 
 bishop of the Diocese of Little Rock. He 
 made three visits to Ireland, on the last 
 two of which he secured the services of 
 priests and sisters of mercy to assist in his 
 work. Through his efforts the Catholic 
 schools and churches increased in num- 
 bers, and their prosperity was greatly pro- 
 moted. 
 
 Cab. — A Hebrew measure for both dry 
 and liquid substances. It was equal to two 
 quarts, four-sevenths pints. 
 
 Cabala {reception). — The secret tradi- 
 tion of the Jews, the origin of which may 
 be traced to pre-Christian times, but which 
 grew up mainly after the beginning of 
 the tenth century, and flourished for many 
 generations. The Cabala was employed 
 first in a mystic explanation of the Deity 
 and cosmogony, and in the creation of 
 hidden meanings for the sacred Hebrew 
 writings, thus drawing into its province all 
 the Hebrew law and theology. Later, 
 Cabalists pretended, to find wonderful 
 meanings even in the letters and forms of 
 the sacred texts, and made for themselves 
 elaborate rules of interpretation. 
 
 Cades (more fully Cades Barnea). — i. 
 A place on the southern boundary of the 
 East Jordan territory, the modern Ain Ka- 
 dish, in the country of the Azarime. It 
 was the headquarters of the Israelites in 
 their wanderings in the desert. Miriam, 
 the sister of Moses, died here; the episode 
 of the "waters of strife" took place here; 
 and whence the spies were sent to explore 
 Chanaan. — 2. The capital of the Hittites, 
 on the Orontes, near Tel Nebi Mende. In 
 the year 1380 b. c. Rameses II. of the 19th 
 dynasty, gained there a decisive victory 
 over the Hittites. 
 
 Caecilia (St.). — A Christian martyr. 
 Died at Rome, 230. According to the leg- 
 end, she was compelled, in spite of a vow 
 of celibacy, to marry a young nobleman. 
 Valerian. She succeeded in converting 
 
 him to her views and also to Christianity, 
 for which they suffered death. She is 
 generally considered the patron saint of 
 music, and is represented in art as sing- 
 ing and playing on some musical instru- 
 ment, or as listening to the music of an 
 angel who has been drawn from heaven by 
 her harmony. F. Nov. 22d. Through the 
 care of Pope Urban I., the remains of St. 
 Caecilia were first buried in the cemetery 
 on the Appian Way, and then transferred 
 to the Cemetery of St. Callistus. The 
 palace which she had inhabited having 
 been erected into a church. Pope Paschal 
 I., in 821, rebuilt the ancient basilica, 
 whose walls threatened to fall down, and 
 transferred the remains of our saint into 
 this Church. In 1599, her tomb having 
 been opened, they established the com- 
 plete integrity of her body, which can be 
 seen in the same position until to-day. (Cf. 
 Sainte Cecile et la Societi Romaine, by 
 Dom Gueranger, Paris, 1878.) 
 
 Caelestius. See Ccelestius. 
 
 Caesar. — Originally the surname of the 
 Julian family at Rome. After being dig- 
 nified in the person of Julius Csesar, it be- 
 came the usual appellation of those of the 
 family who ascended the Roman throne. 
 The last of these was Nero ; but the name 
 was still retained by his successors, as a 
 species of title belonging to imperial dig- 
 nity. 
 
 Caesarea (the name of two cities in Pal- 
 estine). — I. Caesarea of Palestine, or sim- 
 ply Caesarea, situated on the coast of the 
 Mediterranean sea, between Joppa and 
 
Caesarius of Arles 
 
 128 
 
 Cajetan 
 
 Tjre, It was anciently a small place, 
 called the "Tower of Strato," but was re- 
 built with great splendor, and strongly 
 fortified by Herod the Great, and named 
 Caesarea in honor of Augustus. It was in- 
 habited chiefly by Greeks. This city was 
 the capital of Judea during the reigns of 
 Herod the Great and of Herod Agripp>a I., 
 and was also the seat of the Roman power, 
 while Judea was governed as a province of 
 that empire. It is often mentioned in the 
 New Testament. About the end of the 
 second century it became the residence of 
 a bishop, and possessed a Christian school 
 in which Origen was teaching. The mod- 
 ern Kaisariyeh is a desolate place of 
 ruins. — 2. Csesarea Philippi, a town in 
 northern Palestine, situated at the foot of 
 Mount Hermon. The modern village is 
 called Banias, formerly Paneas. 
 
 Caesarius of Aries (St.). — Archbishop 
 of Aries. Was born of pious parents, about 
 470, at Chalons-sur-Saone ; and studied for 
 the priesthood at the Monastery of Lerins. 
 As his health became enfeebled by the aus- 
 terity of his life, the Abbot of Lerins sent 
 him to Aries where, in 499 he was ordained 
 priest by his relative, Bishop yEonius, 
 whom he succeeded in 502. As bishop, he 
 exercised a truly apostolic ministry by 
 preaching, by attending to the sick and 
 prisoners of war, by promoting the divine 
 service, ecclesiastical discipline, and mon- 
 astic observance. Owing to the false ac- 
 cusation of some unscrupulous priests, 
 among them his own secretary, Caesarius 
 was, in 505, driven into exile by Alaric, 
 King of the Visigoths ; but was recalled 
 again as soon as the king became convinced 
 of his innocence. Somewhat later he was 
 likewise accused of disloyalty to Theodoric, 
 King of the Ostrogoths, but he completely 
 cleared himself of the charge. Pope Sym- 
 machus took advantage of his presence at 
 Rome to confer upon him the pallium. 
 Caesarius held several synods in which 
 many important disciplinary decrees were 
 enacted. He presided over the Council of 
 Orange (529), at which Semi-Pelagianism 
 was condemned. He died in 542. 
 
 Cahenslianism. — A term applied to an 
 apparent agitation (since 1891) in the 
 Catholic Church In the United States for 
 the purpose of inducing the Pope to ap- 
 point bishops and priests, for Catholics in 
 the United States, as much as possible of 
 their own nationality : so called from a 
 memorial addressed to the Vatican in 1891 
 
 by Herr Cahensly, president of the Society 
 for Immigrants and other Europeans. 
 
 Cain (Hebr. acquisition). — The firstborn 
 of the human race and the first murderer. 
 Presenting to God an offering of fruits, his 
 sacrifice was rejected, while that of his 
 brother Abel was accepted. Hence, through 
 envy, he slew his brother and was ban- 
 ished by God, and made a fugitive and a 
 wanderer. Cain received from God a 
 sign to protect him from the avenger of 
 blood. He withdrew into the land of Nod, 
 east of Eden, and built a city, which he 
 called Enoch, after the name of one of his 
 sons. (Gen. iv.) 
 
 Cainan. — i. The fourth of the ten Pa- 
 triarchs anterior to the Deluge. He was the 
 son of Enos, father of Malaleel, died in 
 the year 2769 b. c, at the age of 910 years. 
 — 2. In the Septuagint (Gen. x. 24, and 
 xxxi. 12), and in St. Luke (iii. 36), son of 
 Arphaxad, consequently great-grandson of 
 Noe, father of Sale. Several commenta- 
 tors believe him interpolated, because his 
 name is found neither in the Vulgate nor 
 in the Hebrew text, which makes Sale a 
 son of Arphaxad. 
 
 Cainites. — A Gnostic sect, a branch of 
 the Valentinians, in the second century; 
 so called because they revered Cain, Cham, 
 the Sodomites, and other persons branded 
 in Holy Scripture. They despised Jesus 
 as the Messias of the Psychites ; Judas 
 Iscariot was to them the only true Apostle. 
 
 Caiphas. See Annas. 
 
 Caius or Gaius. — A disciple of St. Paul, 
 received the Apostle into his house when 
 he went to Corinth, and followed him to 
 Ephesus. According to Origen, he after- 
 wards became Bishop of Thessalonica. (I. 
 Cor. i. 14.) 
 
 Cains (St.). — Pope (283-296), born in 
 Dalmatia ; was a near relative of Diocletian 
 whose niece and wife he converted to the 
 faith. 
 
 Cajetan (Cardinal) (1469-1534). — Ital- 
 ian Dominican born at Syracuse ; died in 
 Rome. Cardinal in 1517. Professor of 
 Holy Scripture and philosophy in the 
 Sapiencia ; defended the Papal authority 
 against the Council of Pisa ; wrote, among 
 other works, a treatise on Indulgences; 
 sent, as papal Legate to the Diet of Augs- 
 burg, where he had three fruitless inter- 
 views with Luther. He became Bishop of 
 
Cajus 
 
 129 
 
 Calixtus 
 
 Gaeta (Cajeta, whence his surname) in 
 1519- 
 
 Cajus. — A learned Roman priest of the 
 third century. The time and place of his 
 birth are unknown, was most probably a dis- 
 ciple of St. Irenaeus, and lived at Rome 
 under Pope Zephyrinus. He held a dis- 
 putation with the Montanist leader Proclus, 
 which he afterwards published in the form 
 of a controversial dialogue. 
 
 Calatrava ( Order of). — A religious and 
 military order, founded in Castile, in 1158, 
 for the protection and extension of the 
 Christian cause in that kingdom. Mem- 
 bership in the Order is now conferred as a 
 reward of merit. 
 
 Calderon de la Barca (Pedro) (1600- 
 1681). — A celebrated Spanish dramatist 
 and poet. Was born at Malaga. After 
 having borne arms as a gallant soldier, he 
 became a priest and canon of Toledo. He 
 sang in sweet and graceful numbers of the 
 heroism of Christians and the unfading 
 crown of glory they shall receive on wak- 
 ing from " the dream of this life." Much 
 of his fertile dramatic genius and glowing 
 religious enthusiasm was expended in il- 
 lustrating in his Autos Sacratnentales, or 
 Corpus Ckristi, the mysteries of the Chris- 
 tian religion. These dramatic productions, 
 designed to be played in the open air on 
 Corpus Christi Day and other feasts of the 
 Church, were allegorical in character, be- 
 ing based on Scriptural events, but com- 
 bining, in their composition, references to 
 incidents related in the history of the peo- 
 ple or consecrated in their folklore. 
 
 Caleb ( Hebr. the brave) . — Son of Jephone, 
 of the tribe of Juda. He was one of those 
 who were sent by Moses as spies into the 
 land of Chanaan. 
 
 Calendar {Ecclesiastical). — An arrange- 
 ment of the civil year employed by the 
 Church to designate the days set apart for 
 particular religious celebration. As many 
 feasts of the Church depend upon Easter, 
 the date of which varies from year to year, 
 either the calendar must vary every year 
 or must contain simply the matter from 
 which a true calendar can be computed 
 for each year. In the Catholic Church, 
 special circumstances in the history of each 
 nation affect its liturgical calendar; hence 
 every nation, and to some extent every re- 
 ligious order, and even every ecclesiastical 
 province, has its own calendar. See Ordo. 
 9 
 
 Calendar (Gresforian). — The reformed 
 Julian Calendar introduced by the Bull of 
 Pope Gregory XIH., in February 1582, and 
 adopted in England in September, 1752. 
 By the " new style " of distributing and 
 naming time the length of the year of the 
 Gregorian Calendar is regulated by the 
 Gregorian rule of intercalation, which is 
 that every year whose number is the com- 
 mon reckoning, since the birth of Christ, 
 is not divisible by 4, as well as every year 
 whose number is divisible by 100, but not 
 by 400, shall have 365 days, and that all 
 other years, namely, those whose numbers 
 are divisible by 400, and those divisible by 
 4, and not by 100, shall have 366 days. 
 The Gregorian year, or the mean length 
 of the years of the Gregorian Calendar, is 
 365 days, 5 hours, 49 minutes, and 12 
 seconds, and is too long by 26 seconds. 
 The Gregorian rule has sometimes been 
 stated as if the year 4000 and its multiples 
 were to be common years : this, however, 
 is not the rule enunciated by Pope Greg- 
 ory. The Gregorian Calendar also regu- 
 lates the time of Easter, upon which that 
 of the other movable feasts of the Church 
 depend. See Easter. 
 
 California {Missions in). See Mis- 
 sions. 
 
 Calixtines. See Hussites. 
 
 Calixtus (name of three Popes). — Calix- 
 tus I. — Successor of Zephyrinus (218-222). 
 Born a slave, he governed the Church 
 under the reign of Heliogabalus. He con- 
 demned the Antitrinitarian heresy of Sabcl- 
 lius, as also the ditheistic doctrine of 
 Hippolytus, who, falling into the opposite 
 extreme, made the Son inferior to the 
 Father. CalixtusII. — Successor of Gelasius 
 II. (1119-1124). One of the first actsof Cal- 
 ixtus was to convoke a Council at Rheims, 
 which, after fruitless attempts on the part of 
 the Pope to induce Emperor Henry V. of 
 Germany to abandon his claims, solemnly 
 excommunicated the emperor and his Anti- 
 pope Gregory VII., and released the Ger- 
 mans from the oath of allegiance until their 
 sovereign should adopt better sentiments. 
 At length, the charitable admonitions and 
 prayers of Pope Calixtus prevailed on 
 Henry to come to an agreement with the 
 Holy See. The Concordat of Worms, or 
 Calixtian Treaty, as it was called, was 
 solemnly ratified by the First Council of 
 Lateran, or Ninth Ecumenical Council, 
 which Calixtus had convoked for that pur- 
 
Calmet 
 
 130 
 
 Calvin and Calvinism 
 
 pose, in 1123. The same Council renewed, 
 in twenty-three canons, the censures against 
 simony and clerical marriages. Calixtus 
 III. — Successor of Nicholas V. ( 1455-1458) . 
 A Pontiff of remarkable firmness; em- 
 ployed all his endeavors to unite all Chris- 
 tendom in an expedition against advancing 
 Mohammedanism. He himself raised and 
 equipped an army to aid the Hungarians 
 against the Turks ; and, to obtain the Di- 
 vine assistance for the Christian warriors, 
 he ordered the Lord's Prayer and the 
 Angelic Salutation to be recited by the 
 Faithful at noon; whence originated the 
 "Angelus." To his efforts mainly is at- 
 tributed the great victory of the Christians 
 at Belgrade, in 1456. 
 
 Calmet (Augustine) (1672-1757). — A 
 noted French Benedictine scholar and bib- 
 lical critic. He was the author of numer- 
 ous works, including Commentary on all 
 the Books of the Old Testament (1707-1716), 
 and Historical, Critical and Chronological 
 Dictionary of the Bible. These works are 
 written in French. 
 
 Calotte. — A plain skull-cap or coif of 
 hair, skin, or other fabric, worn by some 
 clergymen, to cover the tonsure when ex- 
 posed to draft. 
 
 Caloyers (monks of the Order of St. 
 Basil). — The Caloyers lived particularly 
 on Mount Athos and administered to nearly 
 all the Churches of the East ; they occupy, 
 to-day, only a few monasteries. 
 
 Calumny and Slander. — Calumny is, cor- 
 rectly speaking, a false and injurious charge 
 against another, such as imputing to him 
 habits that he does not possess, or sins 
 which he has not committed. — Slander 
 consists in spreading or exaggerating evil 
 reports, unjustly tending to injure our 
 neighbor's reputation ; detraction is the 
 making known, without just cause, the 
 faults of another's character. Slander and 
 calumny are, therefore, the most pernicious 
 of lies, because they falsely ruin another's 
 good name; and unless excusable, from 
 ignorance or inadvertence, and other ex- 
 tenuating circumstances, are serious, and 
 may be mortal sins. 
 
 Calvary or Golgotha (Hebr. the place 
 of a skull). — A little hill northwest of 
 Jerusalem, and so called, it is supposed, 
 from its skull-like form, or else because it 
 was a place of execution. It formerly 
 
 stood outside the walls of Jerusalem, and 
 was the spot upon which our Saviour was 
 crucified. Hadrian, having taken Jerusa- 
 lem, entirely destroyed the city, and settled 
 a Roman colony there, calling it "^lia 
 Capitolina." The new city was not built 
 exactly on the ruins of the old, but farther 
 north ; so that Calvary became almost the 
 center of the city of ^lia. Hadrian pro- 
 faned the mount, and particularly the place 
 where Jesus had been crucified and His 
 body buried ; but the Empress Helena, the 
 mother of Constantine the Great, erected 
 over the spot a stately church, which still 
 exists. 
 
 Calvary (Daughters of). — Benedictine 
 religious, founded at Poitiers by Antoi- 
 nette of Orleans, of the House of Longue- 
 ville. Pope Paul V. confirmed the order 
 in 1617. The object of this institute is to 
 honor the mystery of the Compassion of 
 the Blessed Virgin with the dolors of Jesus 
 Christ. 
 
 Calvary {Priests of). — Religious Con- 
 gregation founded near Paris, upon Mount 
 Valerien, in 1634 by Hubert Charpentier 
 (died, 1650). On Good Friday the mem- 
 bers of this congregation made to the 
 Calvary, which they had erected on the 
 Mount, a pilgrimage which was inter- 
 dicted in 1697. The Congregation, sup- 
 pressed in 1791 and restored under Na- 
 poleon I., soon disappeared. Under the 
 Restoration the Jesuits established there a 
 house and a cemetery which were de- 
 stroyed in 1830. 
 
 Calvin and Calvinism. — John Calvin 
 (Chauvin) was born July loth, 1509, at 
 Noyon, Picardy; died at Geneva, May 
 27th, 1564. Ha\ing received the tonsure, 
 he was early provided with an ecclesias- 
 tical living, but he was never admitted 
 to any of the holy orders. He studied 
 philosophy and theology at Paris. At 
 the request of 4ais father he went to study 
 law at Bourges. There the influence of 
 the Lutheran Volmar won him over to 
 the heresy of the "Reformers." In 1533, 
 he appeared at Paris, openly advocating 
 the new teachings. Being obliged to leave 
 France, he fled to Basle, where, in 1535, 
 he published his principal work, The 
 Institutions of the Christian Religion. 
 In this work, Calvin, with much skill and 
 learning, elaborates his religious system, 
 which is based on the stern theory of pre 
 
Camaldolites 
 
 131 
 
 Camisards 
 
 destination. At the instance of Farel, Cal- 
 vin, in 1536, settled at Geneva, as preacher 
 and professor of theology. Here he exer- 
 cised a controlling influence, even in 
 temporal aflfairs. He compelled the people 
 to abjure the Papacy, abolished all Church 
 festivals, and introduced rigid regulations 
 of discipline. His arbitrary and despotic 
 measures aroused a strong opposition 
 against him, which resulted in his expul- 
 sion from the town. He went to Stras- 
 burg, where he married, and organized a 
 congregation which adopted his tenets and 
 discipline. His party at Geneva, having 
 meanwhile gained the ascendancy, recalled 
 him, in 1541, and from this time Calvin 
 ruled Geneva with supreme command, 
 exercising an absolute power in temporal 
 as well as spiritual matters. He estab- 
 lished a Consistory, or tribunal of morals, 
 composed of twelve laymen and six minis- 
 ters, whose office it was to take cognizance 
 of all infractions of morality, including 
 even dancing and similar amusements. 
 Imprisonment and severe penalties were 
 inflicted for slight offenses. Public wor- 
 ship was organized with extreme simplic- 
 ity, preaching and instruction forming the 
 chief part thereof. Images and all sorts 
 of decorations were excluded from the 
 churches. The constitution of the Calvin- 
 istic sect was rigidly Presbyterian. The 
 distinguishing characteristic of Calvinism 
 is the doctrine of absolute predestination. 
 According to this doctrine, God ordains 
 some to everlasting life, others to ever- 
 lasting punishment. The decree of pre- 
 destination, the consequence of Adam's 
 fall, is eternal and immutable. The whole 
 nature of fallen man is utterly corrupt, and 
 devoid of all goodness; man has an uncon- 
 querable tendency to do wrong. As man 
 is acting under Divine impulse, which is 
 irresistible, it follows that there can be no 
 question of merits foreseen on account of 
 which God predestines some to salvation, 
 others to eternal damnation. With Luther, 
 Calvin taught justification by faith alone, 
 which, according to him, consisted not in 
 man's real sanctification, but in the guilt 
 of sin not being imputed to him. With 
 Zwingle, he agreed in teaching that the 
 Lord's Supper was a figure, only, of the 
 Body and Blood of Christ. He denied 
 Transubstantiation, but held that at the 
 moment of communion, a divine power, 
 emanating from the Body of Christ, which 
 is now in heaven, is communicated, but 
 only to those predestined to eternal life. 
 
 Camaldolites. — Religious order founded 
 at Camaldoli, near Arezzo in Tuscany, by 
 St. Romuald in 1018. Its members observed 
 the Benedictine Rule in its stricter form, 
 were divided into cenobites, living in ordi- 
 nary monasteries, and hermits, who passed 
 their lives in lauras and recluses and who 
 never quitted their cells. The Camaldo- 
 lites wear white robes. Pope Alexander 
 II., approved the order in 1072. St. Ro- 
 muald died June 19th, 1027, at the age, 
 some claim, of 120 years. 
 
 Camerarius. — Name given to Chamber- 
 lains of the Pope, of a cardinal, or any Ital- 
 ian prelate. The Pope has two camerarii. 
 One has charge of the alms and the other 
 keeps watch over the silver plate, jewels, 
 and reliquaries. These prelates wear a 
 violet cassock with hanging sleeves, but 
 without a cloak. 
 
 Camerlengo. — The chamberlain of the 
 Pope, having charge of the secular interests 
 of the Papacy. He takes rank as one of 
 the four chief officers of the Pope, the 
 others being the cardinal-vicar, the cardi- 
 nal-patron and the cardinal-penitentiary. 
 The camerlengo is always chosen from 
 the College of Cardinals, and is, therefore, 
 usually called cardinal camerlengo. Dur- 
 ing a vacancy in the Holy See he takes 
 charge of all the temporalities and pre- 
 sides over the apostolic chamber or palace. 
 
 Cameronians. — Followers of Richard 
 Cameron in Scotland, who refused to ac- 
 cept the indulgence granted to the Presby- 
 terian clergy in the persecuting times of 
 Charles II., lest, by so doing, they should 
 be understood to recognize his ecclesiasti- 
 cal authority. They were known at first 
 as "The Societies," but were afterwards or- 
 ganized as the Reformed Presbyterian 
 Church of Scotland, most of the members 
 of which, in 1876, were merged into the Free 
 Church. 
 
 Camillians or Fathers of a Good Death. 
 
 — Members of a religious order founded at 
 Rome by St. Camillus of Lellis, priest of 
 the Diocese of Theate, and approved by the 
 Holy See, March 8th, 1585. These religious 
 take care of the sick and wounded in hos- 
 pitals and on the battlefield. St Camillus 
 died July 14th, 1614, at the age of 65 years, 
 and was canonized by Benedict XIV. 
 
 Camisards. — Name given to the French 
 Protestants in the Cevennes, who took up 
 arms in defense of theii* civil and religious 
 
Campbellites 
 
 132 
 
 Candle 
 
 liberties early in the eighteenth century; 
 so called from the white blouses worn by 
 the peasants who were the chief actors in 
 the insurrection. 
 
 Campbellites. — i. A Protestant denom- 
 ination, otherwise known as the "Disciples 
 of Christ," founded by the Rev. Alexander 
 Campbell (who died in 1866). He came to 
 America in 1809. The Campbellites were 
 also called "New Lights." — 2. The fol- 
 lowers of Rev. John McLeod Campbell, a 
 minister of the Church of Scotland, who, 
 when deposed, in 1831, for teaching the uni- 
 versality of the atonement, founded a sep- 
 arate sect. 
 
 Campeggio (Lawrence) Cardinal. — 
 The eldest of five sons, born at Bologna, 
 Nov. 7, 1472, died in Rome, July 25, 1539. 
 Professor at Padua; after the death of his 
 wife he embraced the ecclesiastical state; 
 was appointed by Julius IL Auditor of the 
 Rota, Bishop of Feltri, and Nuncio of Ger- 
 many. Leo X. created him cardinal and 
 sent him into Germany to try to win back 
 Luther; then into England to implore the 
 assistance of that country against the 
 Turks. In spite of his skill he failed in 
 these two missions ; but Henry VHI. was so 
 pleased with him that, in 1518, he gave him 
 the Bishopric of Salisbury. Under Clem- 
 ent Vn., he was sent as legate to the Diet 
 of Nuremberg, but could not unite the 
 German princes against Luther (1524). 
 Sent back to England (1528), he was un- 
 able to prevent the divorce of Henry VIIL 
 from Catherine of Aragon. In spite of 
 all his failures, he retained the favor of the 
 Pope and continued to exercise a great in- 
 fluence over him until the end of his life. 
 Towards the close of his career, he was 
 named Archbishop of Bologna. 
 
 Cana. — A city of Galilee in which our 
 Lord performed his first miracle, and be- 
 longed to the tribe of Zabulon. It has 
 been identified with Kefre-Kenna and with 
 Kana-el-Jelil, both near Nazareth. At 
 the present day it contains 300 schismatic 
 Christians and as many Mohammedans. 
 On the site where it is claimed our Sav- 
 iour wrought his first miracle is pointed 
 out the remnants of a Christian Church 
 transformed into a mosque. In the actual 
 Church, which belongs to schismatic 
 Greeks, two large stone vases can be 
 seen, which are, it is asserted, two of the 
 six vases which contained the water that 
 was changed into wine M. de Saulcy, who 
 
 has carefully examined them, believes that 
 they are at least contemporary with the 
 time of our Saviour. 
 
 Ccinada {Missions in). See Missions. 
 
 Canada {Statistics of the Church in) in 
 1898. (See opposite page.) 
 
 Candace. — Queen of Ethiopia of whom 
 there is mention in the Acts of the Apos- 
 tles (viii. 27), and who introduced Chris- 
 tianity' among her people. She had been 
 converted by her treasurer, the eunuch 
 Judas, who, in a voyage which he made to 
 Jerusalem, was converted by St. Philip. 
 
 Candle {Paschal). — A candle blessed on 
 the eve of Easter. That its origin is very 
 ancient may be unhesitatingly asserted, 
 when we remember that St. Jerome and St. 
 Augustine respectively make mention of its 
 usage. That, in Rome, in the fifth cen- 
 tury, a candle was solemnly blessed upon 
 the eve of Easter, and kept burning at Di- 
 vine service during Paschal time, — or the 
 period which elapses between the feasts of 
 the resurrection and ascension, — is ascer- 
 tained by a permission which, the Liber 
 Pontificalis informs us, was conceded by 
 Pope Zosimus (417-418), in favor of the 
 several parish Churches throughout Rome, 
 by which they were authorized to bless the 
 Paschal candle, in imitation of the prac- 
 tice then observed in the basilicas of that 
 metropolis of Christianity. The Paschal 
 candle is of unusual size, being, generally, 
 many feet in height and several inches in 
 diameter. It is regarded as an emblem of 
 Christ. While it is unlighted, it is figura- 
 tive of His death and repose in the tomb ; 
 when lighted, it represents the splendor 
 and glory of His resurrection. Before it is 
 blessed, the officiating deacon inserts the 
 five grains of incense, to signify that the 
 sacred body of our Divine Redeemer was 
 bound in linen cloths with spices, and 
 thus consigned to the grave. The five in- 
 cisions made to receive the grains of in- 
 cense, which are so arranged as to form 
 the figure of a cross, represent the five 
 wounds that were inflicted on the bod}' of 
 Christ at His crucifixion. See Exultet. 
 
 Candle ( Triple^ . — In the service peculiar 
 to Holy Saturday, or Easter eve, is in- 
 cluded the ceremony of the lighting of the 
 triple candle, the branches of which all 
 arise from one stem. This stem is affixed 
 to the top of what is denominated the reed. 
 This three-branched candle is intended to 
 
Candlemas 
 
 133 
 
 Canisius 
 
 Statistics of the Church in Canada in 1898. — General Summary 
 
 Archdioceses and 
 Dioceses. 
 
 Halifax 
 
 Antigonish . . . 
 
 Charlottetown 
 
 Chatham 
 
 St. John 
 
 Kingston 
 
 Alexandria . . . 
 
 Peterborough 
 
 Montreal 
 
 St. Hyacinth . . 
 
 Sherbrooke . . . 
 
 Valleyfield . . . 
 
 Ottawa 
 
 Pembroke .... 
 
 Quebec 
 
 Chicoutimi , . . 
 
 Nicolet 
 
 Rimouski .... 
 
 Three Rivers. 
 
 P. -A. St. Lau- 
 rent 
 
 St. Boniface . . . 
 
 New Westmin- 
 ster 
 
 St. Albert 
 
 A. Athabaska 
 V.-Mackenzie 
 
 V.-A. Saskatch- 
 
 ewan 
 
 Toronto 
 
 Hamilton 
 
 London 
 
 Vancouver's Is- 
 land 
 
 Total 
 
 24 
 
 Clergy 
 
 24 
 
 241 
 
 18 
 
 3 
 91 
 II 
 
 35 
 6 
 
 3 
 50 
 
 26 
 
 28 
 
 30 
 
 4 
 
 32 
 
 16 
 
 683 
 
 40 
 80 
 45 
 52 
 49 
 40 
 16 
 29 
 
 369 
 
 184 
 
 94 
 64 
 96 
 
 25 
 424 
 
 83 
 105 
 "3 
 
 7 
 44 
 
 5 
 6 
 
 17 
 56 
 42 
 
 S3 
 
 2236 
 
 51 
 87 
 
 45 
 52 
 68 
 
 45 
 16 
 
 53 
 610 
 202 
 
 94 
 
 67 
 187 
 
 36 
 459 
 
 89 
 
 105 
 
 116 
 
 86 
 
 10 
 94 
 
 31 
 34 
 
 30 
 
 60 
 69 
 
 14 
 
 2919 
 
 3 a 
 
 103 
 
 96 
 
 49 
 62 
 61 
 64 
 
 23 
 162 
 
 285 
 
 "S 
 69 
 
 58 
 no 
 
 83 
 
 245 
 
 III 
 
 58 
 
 200 
 
 44 
 
 17 
 93 
 
 90 
 
 32 
 
 51 
 85 
 81 
 
 78 
 44 
 
 2589 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 272 
 
 42 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 28 
 
 3 
 
 87 
 
 29 
 
 22 
 
 142 
 
 742 
 
 High 
 Schools 
 
 25 
 
 17 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 96 
 
 44 
 23 
 3 
 14 
 II 
 
 4 
 19 
 
 4 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 32 
 
 7 
 3 
 
 248 
 
 *a 
 
 4 
 22 
 6 
 4 
 4 
 10 
 
 239 
 
 50,000 
 73,000 
 55>ooo 
 55.000 
 58,000 
 37,000 
 18,000 
 40,000 
 
 415,000 
 
 119,000 
 65,000 
 56,125 
 
 128,000 
 40,000 
 
 320,000 
 57, 000 
 
 79,369 
 84,500 
 60,568 
 
 7,000 
 27,800 
 
 28,000 
 15,000 
 
 8,000 
 
 8,200 
 65,000 
 50,000 
 60,000 
 
 9,000 
 
 2,088,562 
 
 indicate a Trinity of persons in one God, 
 or the light and glory of the Triune God 
 beaming forth upon mankind through the 
 person of our Redeemer Jesus Christ. 
 
 Candlemas or the feast of the Purifica- 
 tion of the Blessed Virgin is observed on 
 the 2d of February. The Festival of Puri- 
 fication, a festival common to the Latin and 
 Greek Churches, is rendered peculiar by 
 the blessing of wax tapers which are 
 carried burning by those who form the 
 procession which takes place afterwards. 
 The symbolical meaning attributed to this 
 ceremony is, that the faithful should, with 
 the holy Simeon, recognize in the Infant 
 Jesus the salvation which the Lord had 
 
 prepared before the face of the people, — 
 "A light to lighten the Gentiles, and the 
 glory of the people of Israel" (Luke ii. 31- 
 32) and be admonished by the burning 
 tapers which they are carrying in their 
 hands, that their faith must be fed and aug- 
 mented by the exercise of good works, 
 through which they are to become a light 
 to shine before men (Matt. v. 14-16). 
 
 Candles Used in Church. See Lights. 
 
 Canisius (Peter), latinized from De 
 Hand (1524-1597). — Born at Nimwegen, 
 in the Netherlands, died at Freiburg, Switz- 
 erland. Jesuit and the first provincial of 
 his order in Germany. He founded the 
 College of Freiburg. Was at once an apos- 
 
Canonical Hours 
 
 134 
 
 Canonization 
 
 tie and theologian; distinguished himself 
 in the Council of Trent; converted numer- 
 ous heretics and composed highly esteemed 
 works. Among others, a Larger and a 
 Smaller Catechism, the former bearing 
 the title Sumt/ia Doctrince Christiance ; 
 and the latter, an abridgment of the former, 
 published in 1561. It was not long before 
 the Summa was translated into every liv- 
 ing language. 
 
 Canonical Hours. See Breviary. 
 
 Canonist. — Doctor in canon law, or au- 
 thor who has written on the laws of the 
 Church. See Canon Law. 
 
 Canonization. — A solemn declaration by 
 which the Pope places in the catalogue of 
 the saints, a person who has died in the 
 odor of sanctity. Du Gauge informs us 
 that, in the early Church, canonization was 
 but a mandate of the Pope by which he com- 
 manded that the names of those who were 
 remarkable for their sanctity- should be in- 
 serted in the Canon of the Mass. Father 
 Mabillon, in the preface of the Acfa SS. 
 Bened. (p. 88), remarks, very correctl}-, that 
 the term canonization is not as ancient as 
 the act which it signifies. The word was 
 not in use before the thirteenth century, 
 and we first meet the term in the letter of 
 Udalric, Bishop of Constance, to Pope 
 Calixtus II., referring to the canonization 
 of Bishop Conrad. We also find the word 
 used by Pope Alexander III., in the canon- 
 ization of St. Edward, King of England, in 
 1 161 ; also in that of St. Thomas of Canter- 
 bury in 1 173. Father Mabillon distin- 
 guishes between a general and a particular 
 canonization. The first is that which took 
 place by a general council or by the Pope; 
 the second, — that which was performed by 
 a bishop, by a particular Church, or by a 
 particular council. There are some in- 
 stances of canonization, or of a kind 
 of canonization, pronounced by abbots. 
 Thus St. Viboradus, killed by the Bar- 
 barians, May 2d, 925, — many miracles 
 having been wrought on his tomb, — Abbot 
 Engilbert, on the anniversary of his death, 
 enrolled him among the saints, and, after 
 having consulted his monks, composed an 
 "Office" in his honor, and celebrated the 
 Mass Commune Virginum. (See Mabillon, 
 Prcef. et S(ec. I, n. 91.) Fleury adds that 
 he did this by the authority of the bishop. 
 
 The first saints which the Church hon- 
 ored were the holy martyrs. She com- 
 menced later on to canonize the confessors. 
 
 The first authentic instance of a canoniza- 
 tion by a Pope is that of St. Uldric or 
 Udaric, Bishop of Augsburg ; this was per- 
 formed by Pope John XV., June nth, 983, 
 in the eighth year of his Pontificate. This 
 canonization occurred twenty years after 
 the saint's death. The final process is 
 signed by the Pope, five bishops of the 
 vicinage of Rome, nine priests, and three 
 cardinal-deacons. Even in the solemn and 
 formal act the word " canonization " is not 
 used. The process is found in Baronius, 
 in the collection of the Councils by Labbe 
 {tom. IX, p. 741), and in the Propyl<Eum 
 ad Acta SS. Mail. Canonization consisted 
 formerly in putting the name of the saint 
 in the sacred diptychs or in the canon, that 
 is, in the catalogue of the saints ; to erect, 
 under their invocation, churches, or ora- 
 tories, with altars, and to offer thereon the 
 holy sacrifice of the Mass ; to remove their 
 remains from their first burial place, etc. 
 This manner of canonizing is very ancient. 
 In the early ages of Christianity, as we 
 have seen, the Pope was not the sole au- 
 thority in canonizing. This privilege was 
 enjoyed by the ordinaries, especially the 
 metropolitans and primates. This was 
 sometimes exercised on the occasions of 
 their official visits, or in a council of their 
 province. We do not know exactly at 
 what period the right of canonization was 
 reserved solely to the Pope. Some believe 
 Alexander III. to be the author of this 
 restriction. The Jesuits of Antwerp in 
 their learned Profylceum ad Acta Sanc- 
 torum Mail {p. 471) (173 B.C.), conjecture 
 that it had been established for two or 
 three centuries, by a custom which had 
 passed into law, but which, in the tenth 
 and eleventh centuries, was not energet- 
 ically enforced. Father Mabillon {Acta 
 SS. Bened. scec. V. Prcef. ^6), also refers it 
 to the tenth century. It is certain, however, 
 that it was absolutely and generally received 
 before Alexander III.; for the Archbishop 
 of Vienne, in France, and his suffragans, 
 acknowledged it authentically in the year 
 1231, in a letter which they wrote to Greg- 
 ory IX., petitioning him for the canoniza- 
 tion of Stephen, Bishop of Die, who died 
 in 1208. 
 
 The ceremonies of canonization were not 
 instituted at once, but were of gradual 
 growth. The first and most ancient form 
 of canonization consisted in the simple act 
 of the Pope in declaring an individual 
 worthy of public honor and ordering his 
 feast to be celebrated on the anniversary 
 
Canon 
 
 135 
 
 Canon Law 
 
 of his death. This declaration was ordi- 
 narily made in a council, though it was 
 sometimes pronounced by the Pope alone, 
 as in the qase of St. Edward. Again, the 
 declaration was made in a great assembly 
 of Faithful, as in the case of the canoniza- 
 tion of St. Francis of. Assisi. To render 
 this ceremony still more imposing. Pope 
 Honorius III., in 1225, added days of in- 
 dulgences. Even a plenary indulgence 
 could be gained, as in the instance of the 
 canonization of St. Bennon in 1523, under 
 Pope Adrian IV. An ancient ceremonial, 
 which had succeeded the Roman Ordo, 
 and which had been in use until Leo X. 
 (1513-1521), under whose Pontificate, Mar- 
 cellus. Archbishop of Corcyra, published 
 the new Ceremonial, is the first book in 
 which we find the ceremonies of canoniza- 
 tion. These ceremonies had not been in- 
 serted in the Roman Ordo, because at that 
 time they were not performed in the Church 
 during the celebration of the sacred mys- 
 teries, but in the meeting place of the 
 council. Thus, it is believed, that Alex- 
 ander III. was the first who canonized St. 
 Thomas of Canterbury during the cele- 
 bration of the Mass. Baronius, in his Notes 
 on the Martyrology, and after him Phce- 
 baeus, remark that at the canonization of 
 St. Rochus, performed in the Council of 
 Constance in 1414, they bore for the 
 first time the picture of the saint in pro- 
 cession through the city; and Phcebseus 
 believes that this was the origin of the 
 banners of the canonized saint and of the 
 procession made at the canonization. (See 
 Bollandist, Propyl, ad Acta SS. Mali Dis- 
 sert. XX, p. 171, etc., and the Preface on 
 the Acta Sanct. Bened. scec. V. § vi.) A 
 mode of canonizing the saints in use in the 
 tenth and eleventh centuries was to erect, 
 with the permission of the Holy See, an 
 altar over their remains ; this was the case, 
 for instance, in regard to St. Romuald, 
 who died in 1027. The honors which the 
 Church renders to canonized saints have 
 been reduced to seven, i. The names of 
 those saints are inscribed in the martyr- 
 ologies and litanies. 2. They are invoked 
 publicly. 3. Churches and altars are dedi- 
 cated under their patronage. 4. The sac- 
 rifice of the Mass is oflfered in their honor. 
 5. The day of their feast or the anniversary 
 of their death is celebrated. 6. Their pic- 
 tures are exhibited and are represented with 
 an aureola. 7. Their relics are venerated. 
 Beatification precedes definitive canoniz- 
 ation. It is the duty of the Congregation 
 
 of Rites to institute the process of canoni- 
 zation. This takes place only after the 
 examination and verification of facts and 
 necessary petitions have been made by the 
 diocesan authorities. Then are discussed 
 four questions, or doubts ; the first three 
 before the process of beatification and the 
 resumption of proofs of new miracles, which 
 latter must have occurred after the first 
 process has been taken. The first question 
 to be inquired into is : i. Whether the re- 
 quired degree of heroic virtue is well at- 
 tested. 2. Whether the required number 
 of miracles (two at least) is adequately 
 proved. 3. Whether it is expedient to 
 proceed to the beatification, in view of 
 the proceedings, proofs, and answer to the 
 objections. 4. Whether the canonization 
 should be proceeded with. When the 
 deceased has left any written works, these 
 are to be scrupulously and rigorously ex- 
 amined, in order to ascertain whether they 
 are in accordance with the rules and obli- 
 gations of morality and truths of religion. 
 See Beatification. 
 
 Canon. For the meaning of this word, 
 see Canon of the Scriptures. 
 
 Canon Law (rules or laws relating to 
 faith, morals, and discipline, enjoined on 
 the members of the Catholic Church by 
 its lawful ecclesiastical authority). — In the 
 early ages, the Sacred Scriptures, tradition, 
 and the disciplinary rules laid down by the 
 Apostles, or by apostolic men, constituted 
 the law of the Church in the East as well as 
 in the West. Later on, however. Church 
 synods formed numerous canons for the 
 regulation of ecclesiastical discipline and 
 the government of the particular churches. 
 Thus, the Council of Nice, besides its dog- 
 matic decrees, framed a number of canons, 
 which, with those of subsequent councils, 
 were translated into Latin and widely cir- 
 culated in the West. The celebrated and 
 very ancient collection referred to in the 
 Council of Chalcedon (451) contained 66 
 canons, enacted respectively by the Coun- 
 cils of Nice, Ancyra, Neo-Cssarea, Gangra, 
 Antioch, Laodicea, and Constantinople. 
 Up to this period, there existed various 
 other collections of canons and papal decre- 
 tals in the Latin Church. Of these, that 
 of Dionysius Exiguus was most generally in 
 use. The work is divided into two parts : 
 the first part contains the canons of coun- 
 cils ; the second the decretal epistles of the 
 sovereign Pontiffs from Siricius to Anas- 
 tasius II. This collection, though never 
 
Canon of the Mass 
 
 136 Canon of the Scriptures 
 
 expressly approved by the Holy See, at- 
 tained great influence throughout the 
 whole Church. Pope Adrian I. presented 
 it, with some additions, to Charlemagne, 
 in order that it might serve as the code of 
 laws for the government of the Church 
 in the Frankish empire. The collection 
 wrongly attributed to St. Isidore of Seville 
 contained, besides the canons and decretals 
 of Dionysius, additions from the Fathers 
 and Spanish councils. About the middle 
 of the ninth century, a new and largely in- 
 creased code of canons came into use ; first 
 in the Frankish empire, and then in 
 other countries. It appeared under the as- 
 sumed name of Isidore Mercator, or Peca- 
 tor, and is now generally known as the 
 Pseudo-Isidorian Collection, or False De- 
 cretals. This collection contains, besides 
 questions of ecclesiastical l4w, also treat- 
 ises on dogmatical and moral theology, 
 liturgy, and penitential discipline. It is 
 divided into three parts, of which the first 
 contains the canons of the Apostles, and 
 sixty decretals of the earlier Popes, from 
 Clement I. to Melchiades. The second 
 part contains a number of conciliar canons, 
 beginning with the Council of Nice, and 
 ending with the second Council of Seville 
 (619), Many of these canons are unau- 
 thentic. The third part is made up of the 
 decretal letters of the Popes, from Sylves- 
 ter I. to Gregory II. Of these, about forty 
 were compiled by the author himself. The 
 Pseudo-Isidorian Collection was regarded 
 as genuine during the whole of the Middle 
 Ages, that is, from the ninth to the fifteenth 
 centuries ; no one thought of questioning 
 the genuineness of the papal decretals 
 which it contained. The first doubts as to 
 their authenticity were raised about the 
 year 1400 by Laurentius Valla, Canon of 
 the Lateran. As early as 143 1, Nicholas 
 of Cusa proved the forgery of the Donation 
 of Constantine as well as the writings at- 
 tributed to Popes St. Clement, St. Anas- 
 tasius, and St. Melchiades. That the Isi- 
 dorian Collection is a forgery, at least in 
 part, there can be no doubt at present. 
 The Pseudo-Decretals wrought, however, 
 no material change in the discipline of the 
 Church. So much is certain, that the 
 Popes had nothing to do with the compila- 
 tion ; and their authority derived no con- 
 firmation, much less an increase of power, 
 from the False Decretals. 
 
 As to the jurisdiction of the ecclesias- 
 tical tribunals extending over a variety of 
 persons and causes, it became necessary to 
 
 establish a uniform system for the regula- 
 tion of their decisions. Hence Gratian, a 
 Benedictine monk, and professor of canon 
 law at Bologna, published, in 1151, his 
 celebrated Manual, entitled Concordantia 
 discordantinm Canonum, but which is now 
 commonly known as Decretum Gratiani. 
 This work is di^^ded into three parts, 
 treating respectively of ecclesiastical per- 
 sons, ecclesiastical jurisdiction, and the 
 Liturgy of the Church. Gratian's collec- 
 tion of the canon laws, though never re- 
 ceiving the formal approbation of the Holy 
 See, acquired great authority in the schools, 
 and superseded all other collections in the 
 West. It fell short, however, of what was 
 required, in the progress of ecclesiastical 
 judicature. Hence, Pope Gregory IX. 
 caused the Five Books of Decretals, which 
 bear his name, to be published by St. Ray- 
 mond of Pennafort, in 1233. These con- 
 sist almost entirely of decretals, issued by 
 the Popes, from the time of Gregory I. to 
 that of Gregory IX. himself. Boniface 
 VIII., in 1298, added a Sixth Book of De- 
 cretals, containing papal constitutions, 
 promulgated since the time of the Pontifi- 
 cate of Gregory IX. New collections of 
 papal constitutions were published by sub- 
 sequent Pontiffs under the name of Clem- 
 entintF, containing the decretals of Clem- 
 ent V. and of Extrazagantes of John XII., 
 which contain the constitutions of that 
 PontiflF. 
 
 Canon of the Mass. — The Canon begins 
 with the words " Z'^ igitur," and closes 
 with the ^^ Pater Noster." The whole is 
 recited in an inaudible tone of voice by 
 the celebrant of the Mass. It is called 
 Canon, because as the meaning of the 
 Greek word imports, this prayer has been 
 laid down as the Rule, or Canon, which 
 is to be rigidly followed by the priest who 
 offers the holy sacrifice. The minutest 
 variation from it can never be tolerated. 
 The Canon of the Mass, according to the 
 use of Rome, was certainly written before 
 the middle of the fifth century, probably, 
 as early as 416; prior to which time it had 
 been handed down by oral tradition. 
 
 Canon of the Scriptures. — The word 
 canon, which is of Greek origin, means a 
 rod or stick, with which lines were drawn, 
 and quantities measured. The name of 
 this instrument denoted the standard by 
 which the quality of things was fixed, and 
 in the middle of the fourteenth century it 
 was employed to distinguish the collection 
 
Canons 
 
 137 
 
 Canons 
 
 of the Old and New Testament Scriptures, 
 accepted by the Church as the Word of God 
 or inspired. The Scriptures were revered 
 by the Jews as holy, as God's word, or as in- 
 spired by God. For, according to Jewish 
 tradition, they contained the deposit of the 
 divine wisdom that God revealed to Moses 
 and the Prophets, to the Psalmist, Solomon, 
 and others. Our Lord and the Apostles 
 found the Jewish Canon in existence, and 
 used it to establish the mission of the Mes- 
 sias, and the divine origin of Christianity. 
 It was the Messianic prophecies that made 
 the Old Testament so valuable in the New 
 Law ; and as the need arose, the Apostles 
 and their disciples composed the Scrip- 
 tures of the New Testament. The two 
 Testaments are placed side by side, and 
 together constitute "Holy Scripture." 
 Before Christ the Old Testament num- 
 bered thirty Books as seen in the Septua- 
 gint. In the first century after Christ, Jose- 
 phus tells us the number had been reduced 
 to twenty-two. Later on, at Babylon, the 
 number had been fixed at twenty-four. 
 This last enumeration is retained by the 
 Jews to this day. The Christian Church 
 adopted the Septuagint Canon, the text of 
 which is used almost throughout the new 
 Testament. But, in controversy with the 
 Jews, the place of honor was assigned to the 
 Hebrew Canon. Finally, according to the 
 division in the Vulgate, the Old Testament 
 comprised thirty-six books. The Church 
 made decrees concerning the Canon of 
 Scripture in a Roman synod under Pope 
 Damasus (374), and in the synods of 
 Hippo (393), and Carthage (397). The 
 first general council to make the Canon 
 universally obligatory, was the Council of 
 Trent, which in its fourth session enumer- 
 ated the following books in the Old Testa- 
 ment : — 
 
 The books of the New Testament were 
 written at different times and in different 
 places. Hence time was required to col- 
 lect the books, and to complete the Canon. 
 In the above-named early synods, the 
 Church declared twenty-seven books of the 
 New Testament canonical. The Council 
 of Trent also declared twenty-seven books 
 of the New Testament canonical, and its 
 decision is final. The Council arranged 
 the Canon of the New Testament imme- 
 diately after that of the Old. It enumerates 
 the following books : — 
 
 The Gospel according to St. Matthew; 
 the Gospel according to St. Mark; the 
 Gospel according to St. Luke; and the 
 Gospel according to St. John. The Acts of 
 the Apostles written by the Evangelist, St. 
 Luke. The fourteen Epistles of St. Paul : 
 One to the Romans ; two to the Corinth- 
 ians; one to the Galatians; one to the 
 Ephesians; one to the Philippians; one to 
 the Colossians; two to the Thessalonians ; 
 two to Timothy; one to Titus; one to 
 Philemon; one to the Hebrews; two of 
 Peter, the Apostle. The three Epistles of 
 St. John, the Apostle; the one Epistle of 
 James ; the one of Jude, the Apostle ; and 
 the Apocalypse of St. John, the Apostle. 
 
 Canons (Catiedra/). ^DignitaTies who 
 possess a prebend or revenue allotted to 
 them for the performance of divine service 
 in a cathedral or collegiate Church. Can- 
 ons were formerly divided into three 
 classes : regular, secular, and honorary. 
 The regular canons lived in monasteries, 
 and added the profession of the three evan- 
 gelical vows to their other duties. Secular 
 or lay canons did not live in monasteries, 
 but were bound to keep the canonical 
 hours. Honorary canons were not obliged 
 to keep the canonical hours. Collectively, 
 
 Genesis ^ « „• 
 Exodus 1 
 
 Tobias 
 
 Osee 
 
 
 Judith 
 
 Joel 
 
 <n 
 
 Leviticus r'^S 
 
 Esther 
 
 Amos 
 
 
 Numbers >^ 
 
 Job 
 
 Abdias 
 
 §• 
 
 Deuteronomy J b 
 
 Psalms (150) 
 
 Jonas 
 
 u 
 
 Josue 
 
 Proverbs 
 
 Micheas 
 
 u 
 
 Judges 
 
 Ecclesiastes 
 
 Nahum 
 
 a 
 
 Ruth 
 
 Canticle of Canticles 
 
 Habacuc 
 
 S 
 
 1st Book of Kings 
 
 Wisdom 
 
 Sophonias 
 
 u 
 
 2d Book of Kings 
 
 Ecclesiasticus 
 
 Aggeus 
 
 V 
 
 3d Book of Kings 
 
 Isaias 
 
 Zacharias 
 
 ^ 
 
 4th Book of Kings 
 
 Jeremias (with Baruch) 
 
 Malachias 
 
 1st Book of Esdras 
 
 Ezechiel 
 
 1st Book of Machabees 
 
 3d Book of Esdras (or 
 
 Daniel 
 
 2d Book of Machabees 
 
 Nehemias) 
 
 
 
Canons 
 
 138 
 
 Captivity of the Jews 
 
 with the dean at their head, the canons 
 formed the Cathedral Chapter. We have 
 no canons in the United States. See Con- 
 
 SULTORS OF THE BiSHOP. 
 
 Canons {Penitential). — The nature and 
 duration of penances to be performed in 
 the first and second centuries were deter- 
 mined by the bishops after consulting their 
 diocesan counselors ; in the more impor- 
 tant cases, bishops also asked by letter 
 {epistola canonica) the advice of their 
 brother bishops. When crimes became 
 more frequent, the Church became very 
 severe, and established through her sacred 
 canons proper regulations determining the 
 nature and time of the penance to be im- 
 posed. The collection of these regulations, 
 which appointed the manner and duration 
 of penances for different sins, was called 
 Penitential Canons or simply ^^Peniten- 
 iiale:' 
 
 Canticle of Canticles. — Canonical book 
 of the Old Testament. It is allegorically 
 under the symbol of a chaste spouse, rep- 
 resented as a shepherd, and his wife as the 
 keeper of a vineyard, or the King's daugh- 
 ter, that Solomon, who is believed to be 
 the author, describes the love with which 
 God cherishes the Synagogue, as well as 
 the Christian Church of which the Syna- 
 gogue was but the figure. The words of 
 this Canticle of Canticles are applied as 
 descriptive of the union of Christ with all 
 the just members of His Church, and es- 
 pecially with our Blessed Lady. 
 
 Cantor. — An officer whose duty it is to 
 lead the singing in a cathedral, or in a 
 collegiate or parish church ; a precentor. 
 
 Canus (Melchior). — Spanish theolo- 
 gian, born at Tarancon, diocese of Toledo, 
 1509, died at Toledo, 1560. Dominican, 
 professor at Alcala and Salamanca, 1546; 
 sent to the Council of Trent under Paul 
 III. Appointed Bishop of the Canaries in 
 1552, he did not take possession of his see. 
 He was a friend of Philip II. ; Provincial 
 of Castile, and had some trouble with the 
 Jesuits. His theological works are : Lo- 
 corum theologicorum, libri XII (Sala- 
 manca, 1562, often reprinted) ; Prcelec- 
 tiones de Poeniteniia; De Sacramentis. 
 Complete works, Cologne (1605 and 1678), 
 and Lyons (1674). 
 
 Capharnaum. — In the time of Christ, an 
 important place on the western shore of 
 the Sea of Galilee, about three miles dis- 
 
 tant from where the Jordan falls into the 
 sea. It was the scene of many incidents 
 and actions in the life of Christ. It is iden- 
 tified with the modern ruins of Tel Hum, 
 by some with Khan Minyeh. 
 
 Caphtor. — The name of a country in the 
 Old Testament, mentioned as the starting 
 point of the migrations of the Philistines, 
 whence they are also called Caphtorim 
 (Deut. ii. 23; Jer. xlvii. 4; Amos ix. 7). 
 Formerly identified with Cappadocia or 
 Cyprus, but considered by the majority of 
 modern scholars as identical %vith Crete. 
 This view is favored by many passages in 
 which the Philistines are called Cretans 
 (Cherethites) (Ez. xxv. 16; Soph. ii. 5; 
 I. Ki. XXX. 14), and is supported by ancient 
 writers who connected the Philistines with 
 the island of Crete. In Gen. x. 14, the 
 Caphtorim are enumerated among the 
 descendants of the Egyptians (Mizraim), 
 and it is therefore assumed that a portion 
 of the Philistines emigrated from Crete by 
 way of Egypt to Palestine. 
 
 Capital Sins. See Sin. 
 
 Capitularies. — The body of laws or stat- 
 utes of a Chapter or of an ecclesiastical 
 council. This name is also given to the 
 laws, civil and ecclesiastical, made by 
 Charlemagne and other princes in general 
 councils and assemblies of the people. 
 They are called Capitularies because they 
 are divided into chapters or sections. 
 
 Cappadocia. — An ancient province and 
 kingdom of Asia Minor, now part of Asi- 
 atic Turkey. Jews resident in this place 
 were among St. Peter's hearers on the day 
 of Pentecost, and Christians were among 
 those addressed by him in his First Epistle. 
 
 Captivity of the Jews. — The most fa- 
 mous captivities in history are those of the 
 Jews in Egypt under the Pharaos ; at Nin- 
 ive under Salmanasar; and in Babylonia 
 under Nabuchodonosor, in 606 B.C., who 
 transported into Babylonia 18,000 Jews ; in 
 :;99 B. c. a second and greater transporta- 
 tion took place; in 588 b.c, Nabuchodono- 
 sor destroyed Jerusalem, and led away into 
 captivity the great mass of the people. 
 The exile lasted until 535 b. c, when, after 
 the conquest of Babylon by Cyrus, the 
 Jews were permitted to return to their 
 country of Palestine. Thus, from 606 to 
 535 B. c, the Babylonian captivity lasted, 
 exactly 70 years, as it had been foretold 
 by the Prophet Isaias (lii. 28). See Jews. 
 
Captivity of the Popes 
 
 139 
 
 Carmelites 
 
 Captivity of the Popes. — We thus char- 
 acterize the period from 1305 to 1378, when 
 seven Roman Pontiffs took up their resi- 
 dence at Avignon, France ; also called the 
 " Captivity of seventy years." These 
 Popes were Clement V., 1305-1314; John 
 XXII., 1314-1334; Benedict XII., 1334- 
 1342; Clement VI., 1342-1352; Innocent 
 VI., 1352-1362 ; Urban v., 1362-1370; and 
 Gregory XL, 1370-1378. All these Popes 
 were natives of France. 
 
 Capuchins. — A branch of the great 
 Franciscan Order, instituted by Matteo di 
 Bassi of Urbino, in 1528, and named from 
 their long pointed capoch or cowl which 
 is the distinguishing mark of their dress. 
 Their special object is the strict observance 
 of monastic poverty as prescribed in the 
 Rule of St. Francis. They were to have 
 no revenues, but to live by begging. In 
 1528, they obtained from Clement VII. 
 permission to wear beards. The new Or- 
 der spread rapidly and became very popu- 
 lar. The Capuchins labored, with much 
 success, in reclaiming to the true faith 
 numberless Protestants in Germany, Savoy, 
 and Switzerland. The Capuchins are most 
 numerous in Austria. In the United States 
 they have convents in the Dioceses of New 
 York, Pittsburg, Green Bay, Milwaukee, 
 etc. See Franciscans. 
 
 Capuciati. — A short-lived, semi-politi- 
 cal, and communistic sect, devoted to the 
 Blessed Virgin Mary, which appeared in 
 Burgundy about 1182 ; so called from their 
 hood or capoch. 
 
 Carchemis. — The ancient capital of the 
 Hittites. It was formerly identified with 
 the Circessium of the Greeks and Romans, 
 a fortified place near where the Chaboras 
 empties into the Euphrates. Is now repre- 
 sented by the ruins of Jerablus. In 605 
 B.C., the battle between Nabuchodonosor 
 and Nechao of Egypt took place under its 
 walls (Jer. xlvi. 12; 2 Par. xxxv. 20), in 
 which the Egyptian was disastrously de- 
 feated. 
 
 Cardinals. — Members of the Sacred Col- 
 lege; a body of ecclesiastics who rank in 
 dignity next to the Pope and act as his 
 counselors in the government of the 
 Church. From early times the chief coun- 
 selors and assistants of the Pope were, be- 
 sides the regionary deacons and archpriests 
 of the principal Churches at Rome, the 
 bishops of adjacent sees. Thus in the proc- 
 ess of time an ecclesiastical senate — the 
 
 College of Cardinals — was formed, to ad- 
 vise and assist the Pope in the government 
 of the Church. As early as 769, seven 
 cardinal-bishops were recorded. The title 
 of cardinal, however, has been in use only 
 since the seventh century. At first it was 
 applied to all ecclesiastics permanently in 
 charge of churches, particularly to those 
 attached to .cathedrals. Pope Pius V., in 
 1567, ordained that it should henceforth be 
 exclusively applied to the members of the 
 Sacred College, or cardinals of the Roman 
 Church. The cardinals are appointed by 
 the Pope, and are divided into three 
 classes, whose full titles are as follows : 
 cardinal-bishops (6), cardinal-priests (50), 
 and cardinal-deacons (14). A cardinal- 
 priest may be a bishop or an archbishop, 
 and a cardinal-deacon may be of any eccle- 
 siastical grade below bishop. The dress 
 of a cardinal is a red soutane, or cassock, 
 a rochet, a short purple mantle, and a low- 
 crowned, broad-brimmed red hat (not 
 actually worn), with two cords depending 
 from it, — one from either side — each hav- 
 ing fifteen tassels. See Congregations 
 OF Cardinals. 
 
 Cardinal Virtues. See Virtues. 
 
 Carmel. — i. A mountain ridge in Pales- 
 tine which branches off from the mountains 
 of Samaria, and stretches in a long line 
 toward the Mediterranean sea. It fell with- 
 in the lot of the tribe of Aser, and is fre- 
 quently mentioned in the Old Testament. 
 It was the scene of many of the deeds of 
 the two great Prophets Elias and Eliseus. 
 The mountain is formed of hard gray lime- 
 stone with nodules and veins of flint; it 
 abounds in caves, and is covered with rich 
 vegetation. The highest part of the 
 mountain, its northwestern end, rises 1,742 
 feet above the sea. Its grottoes were the 
 abodes of Christian hermits from the early 
 times of Christianity. In 1207 these her- 
 mits were organized into the Order of 
 Carmelites, and their monastery is situated 
 480 feet above the sea, where the mountain 
 slopes down to a promontory in the direc- 
 tion of the sea. — 2. A city in the mountains 
 of Juda (Jos. XV. 55). The modern ruins 
 of Kurmul are situated about seven miles 
 below Hebron, in a slightly southeastern 
 direction. 
 
 Carmelites (religious order). — A 
 crusader, Berthold of Calabria, is regarded 
 as the founder of the Carmelite Order. 
 With a few companions, he retired, in 1156, 
 
Caroline Books 
 
 140 
 
 Cartesianism 
 
 to the Mount of Carmel, in Palestine, where 
 they lived as hermits in separate cells. 
 The increasing number of his followers 
 made it necessary to build a monastery. 
 The rule composed for the use of the order 
 by Albert, Patriarch of Jerusalem, was 
 approved by Pope Honorius III., Jan. 30, 
 1226. The conquest of Palestine by the 
 Saracens, made it impossible for the Car- 
 melites to live there in peace ; they passed 
 into Europe and established themselves in 
 various countries. In 1245, Innocent IV. 
 confirmed them as a Mendicant Order under 
 the title of " Order of Friars of our Lady 
 of Mount Carmel." From their white 
 cloak and scapular, they became popularly 
 known as "White Friars." Under St. 
 Simon Stock, an Englishman, its sixth 
 general, the order was rapidly extended. 
 To this saint is ascribed the introduction 
 of the scapular. See this subject. In the 
 United States there are convents of the 
 order in the Dioceses of Leavenworth, 
 Newark, Pittsburg, Baltimore, St. Louis, 
 New Orleans, etc. The three convents 
 last named follow the Rule of St. Theresa, 
 who instituted the " Discalced Carmelites," 
 or reformed branch of the order, consist- 
 ing of both monks and nuns. The new 
 institute was approved by Pope Gregory 
 XIII., in 1580. 
 
 Caroline Books. — Name given to four 
 books composed by order of Charle- 
 magne, to refute the Second Council of 
 Nice. They contain 120 accusations 
 against the Council of Nice. Pope Adrian 
 I. had a Latin translation of the Seventh 
 Council made, which he sent to Charle- 
 magne. An unfortunate mistake of the 
 translator was the cause of grave misunder- 
 standing on the part of the Prankish 
 bishops regarding the real doctrine of the 
 Council. In their reply to the Pope, they 
 severely censured and protested against 
 the supposed errors of the Nicene Synod. 
 Misled by this same faulty translation, the 
 Great Western Council of Frankfort, in 
 794, in its second canon, repudiated the 
 doctrine wrongly imputed to the Fathers 
 of Nice, and charged Pope Adrian with 
 having favored the Iconoclastic supersti- 
 tion of the Greeks. A fuller refutation of 
 the Seventh Council is given in the Caro- 
 line Books. From this work, however, it 
 is clear beyond doubt, that the Council of 
 Frankfort never condemned the true doc- 
 trine defined at Nice. What it did con- 
 demn was the opinion falsely attributed to 
 
 Bishop Constantine, in Cyprus, for which 
 it held the Fathers of Nice responsible, 
 T'iz.: that Latria, the homage of adoration, 
 the same as that due to the Trinity, was to 
 be given to images. Pope Adrian, to set 
 right the erroneous apprehension of the 
 Prankish bishops, forwarded to Charle- 
 mange a dignified reply defending the 
 Council of Nice, and explaining the true 
 doctrine on the veneration of images. 
 
 Carpocratians. — Egyptian Gnostics ; fol- 
 lowers of Carpocrates, a native of Alex- 
 andria who flourished under the reign of 
 Hadrian. He taught the pre-existence of 
 human souls, the community of property, 
 the indifference of all moral actions and 
 perfect abandonment to an antinomian or 
 lawless life. His son Epiphanes, devel- 
 oped the system of his father, introduced 
 community of wives on the Ionian Isle of 
 Cephalonia, where also a temple was dedi- 
 cated to his honor. 
 
 Carroll (John) (1735-1815). — American 
 prelate; was born in Maryland. He was 
 educated in France and was a member of 
 the " Society of Jesus " until its suppression 
 by Pope Clement XIV., when he returned 
 to America. Pius VI., appointed him Pre- 
 fect Apostolic, and five years later, in 1789, 
 made him Bishop of Baltimore. On the 
 breaking out of the Revolution, he, with 
 his relative, the also illustrious Charles Car- 
 roll of Carrollton, at once took sides with his 
 own country. During the war he was ap- 
 pointed one of four commissioners to visit 
 Canada for the purpose of gaining over the 
 Canadians to the American cause. To 
 provide more effectually for the religious 
 wants of his flock, Bishop Carroll, in 1791, 
 convoked a diocesan synod. From the 
 first, he directed his efforts toward the 
 education of the young and the establish- 
 ment of religious institutions. Under the 
 impulse of his apostolic zeal arose colleges 
 and convents. The number of Catholics 
 having considerably increased in the large 
 towns on the Atlantic coast, Pius VII., in 
 1808, raised Baltimore to metropolitan rank, 
 and John Carroll became its first arch- 
 bishop. 
 
 Cartesianism. — Philosophical system 
 pertaining to the French philosopher, 
 Rene Descartes (1596-1650). Cartesius, sur- 
 named "the father of modern philosophy," 
 disdained, according to the example of the 
 Humanists, Lutherans, and Jansenists, the 
 Peripatetic philosophy, made doubt the 
 
Carthage 
 
 141 
 
 Castelnau 
 
 starting point and the first condition of all 
 inquiry; repudiated skepticism, and estab- 
 lished, as a fundamental proposition: "I 
 think, therefore, I am." Animated with 
 religious sentiments, Descartes wished to 
 combat materialism and the abuses of 
 empiricism by placing in the conscience 
 the immutable point to which one must at- 
 tach himself in case of doubt, and in the 
 existence of God, the guarantee of the ob- 
 jective truth of our knowledge. The sys- 
 tem of Descartes was put on the Index at 
 Rome until corrected (Nov. 20th, 1663). 
 
 Carthage. — An ancient city and country 
 in northern Africa situated on the Medi- 
 terranean, a few miles east of modern Tunis. 
 The modern Bizerta is located on its site. 
 It was founded by Phoenicians in the mid- 
 dle of the ninth century, b. c. It had two 
 harbors, one naval and one mercantile, and 
 was a commercial and colonizing center. 
 Several Church councils were held in the 
 city of Carthage. 
 
 Carthagh (St.) (surnamed "the Early"). 
 — Bishop of Ireland, died in 657. Founder 
 of the Monastery of Kathenin, famous 
 school of the seventh century, and of an- 
 other in the province of Munster. He is 
 looked upon as the first bishop of Lismore, 
 where he founded a monastery, cathedral, 
 and school. 
 
 Carthusians (religious). — The founder 
 of the Carthusian Order was St. Bruno of 
 Cologne. With six companions, Bruno 
 retired into the desert of Chartreuse, near 
 Grenoble, France, and laid the foundation 
 of his new Order. This was in 1086. Fol- 
 lowing the Benedictine Rule, the Carthu- 
 sians were famed for the severity of their 
 discipline. They lead a contemplative life, 
 and devote a portion of their time to 
 manual labor. Bruno was summoned to 
 Rome by Pope Urban II., who had been 
 his pupil. After founding two new con- 
 vents in Calabria, he died in iioi. Guigo, 
 the first Prior of the Chartreuse, made a 
 compilation of the customs and statutes 
 observed by the Carthusians. — The Car- 
 thusian nuns originated about 1230, and, 
 with some modifications, follow the rules 
 of the Carthusian monks. 
 
 Casas. See Las Casas. 
 
 Cassianus (John). — Priest and Abbot 
 of Marseilles. Was born about 360, prob- 
 ably in Gaul (or according to Gennadius, 
 in Scythia), of wealthy and pious parents. 
 
 He received his early education in a mon- 
 astery at Bethlehem. In 390, he went with 
 his friend German us to Egypt, and lived 
 for seven years with the solitaries of the 
 Nitrian desert. After a short visit to Beth- 
 lehem, he returned to Egypt, and then 
 set out for Constantinople. There he was 
 ordained deacon by St. John Chrysostom, 
 who, a second time condemned to exile, 
 chose him to be the bearer of a letter to 
 Pope Innocent I. The lamentable state of 
 affairs in the Byzantine Church induced 
 him to leave the East and withdraw into 
 Southern Gaul, where he was ordained 
 priest. In 415 he founded two monasteries 
 at Marseilles, one for men and one for 
 women, which served as models for similar 
 institutions, and as places of refuge for in- 
 nocence and learning. Cassianus died, rich 
 in merit and ripe in years, about 435. His 
 Institutions of the Monastic Life, and his 
 Conferences of the Fathers, were written 
 for the instruction of monks. In the thir- 
 teenth " Conference," some Pelagian prin- 
 ciples are unwittingly favored. By the 
 request of the Roman deacon, afterwards 
 Pope Leo the Great, he also wrote On the 
 Incarnation of Christ in seven books, a 
 work directed against Nestorius. 
 
 Cassiodorus (477-570) . — Born at Scylla- 
 cium, in Calabria. A distinguished states- 
 man under Odoacer and Theodoric, filling, 
 under various titles, the highest offices of 
 the State. When seventy years of age, he 
 retired to the Monastery of Viviers {mon- 
 asterium Vivariense), which he had 
 founded in Calabria. Here he spent the 
 remainder of his days in religious and lit- 
 erary pursuits. Under his direction his 
 monks devoted themselves to the copying 
 of the Sacred Scriptures and ancient manu- 
 scripts of Christian and classical writers. 
 He himself wrote numerous philosophical 
 and theological works. 
 
 Cassock. — A clerical garment reaching 
 to the feet. It has an upright collar. That 
 worn by priests is black, by the bishops 
 purple, by the cardinals scarlet, and by the 
 Pope white. The cassock is generally con- 
 fined at the waist by a broad sash. 
 
 Castelnau (Peter of). — Monk of Cit- 
 eaux, legate of Pope Innocent III., who 
 charged him to combat the heresy of 
 the Albigenses. Having excommunicated 
 Raymond VI., Count of Toulouse, who re- 
 fused to abandon the party of the heretics, 
 he was assassinated in an inn on the shores 
 
Casuistry 
 
 142 
 
 Catacombs 
 
 of the Rhone (1208), by two noblemen, 
 followers of the Count. This crime be- 
 came the signal for the crusade against the 
 Albigenses. 
 
 Casuistry. — Part of moral theology which 
 treats of matters of conscience. We find 
 traces of Casuistry in the acts of the 
 Apostles, the Epistles of St. Paul and in the 
 Letters of St. Cyprian, who decided the 
 diflferent cases that were submitted to him. 
 The penitential canons emanated either 
 from the councils or from important per- 
 sons in the Church. These canonical rules 
 and regulations determined the various 
 penances which had to be undergone for 
 violations of law, both of divine and ec- 
 clesiastical origin. They were, in their 
 application, abundant sources of casuistic 
 decisions. The different degrees of pen- 
 ances, being distinguished in time, one 
 from another, made it necessary to estab- 
 lish parallel classifications of faults. The 
 rigorous discipline and severity of the 
 early Church disappeared with the circum- 
 stances that called them forth and made 
 them necessary and applicable. This 
 modification of ancient discipline distinctly 
 made its appearance in the time of Pope 
 Leo the Great. What had been preserved 
 until then perished almost entirely in the 
 ruin of the old world and its civilization 
 by the invasion of the Barbarians. But 
 just as soon as the Church arose again, she 
 sought to strengthen the Christian life by 
 new penitential canons. 
 
 This was the work of the Casuist and 
 moral theologian, who, having revived 
 for a time, the ancient rigor of Church 
 disciplinary laws, were obliged to modify 
 this rule as the laws gradually fell into 
 disuse. In time, indulgences, granted 
 even in the early days of the Church, 
 through the intercession and charity of the 
 martyrs and confessors, became of more 
 frequent and usual application. In place 
 of the former severe canonical penances 
 were substituted acts of charity, good 
 works, such as the liberation or redemption 
 of slaves, protection of pilgrims, donations 
 toward the building of churches, schools, 
 and convents, visiting the poor and 
 afflicted, and supporting widows and or- 
 phans. Casuistry endeavored to determine 
 the particular merit of each of these good 
 works, and their proportionate value in 
 accordance with the degree of guilt in- 
 curred by those whose reparation and 
 penance seemed worthy of mitigation 
 
 through the application of indulgences. 
 It is thus that the various labors of the 
 Casuists and others produced the Peniten- 
 tial Books, which first appeared in the 
 Greek Church. These works later on be- 
 came even more numerous in the West. 
 
 Casuistry received a new impetus and a 
 more scientific development through the 
 labors of the great collector of Decretals, 
 Raymond of Pennafort, who, in the thir- 
 teenth century, transformed the Penitential 
 Books into a Casuistic Sum ma, and made, 
 in a scholastic sense, a science of this 
 department of moral theology. The vigor- 
 ous impulse given to this work incited, in 
 the two following centuries, an active em- 
 ulation among the Casuists. These ques- 
 tions and discussions, after having been for 
 a long time in abeyance on account of the 
 controversies of princes brought on by the 
 Reformation, were taken up again, toward 
 the end of the sixteenth century, by the 
 new religious Order of the Jesuits and 
 carried on with zeal. The Jesuits suc- 
 ceeded in making of Casuistry one of the 
 most fruitful branches of theological sci- 
 ence. The practical system of the sons of 
 St. Ignatius of Loyola induced them to cul- 
 tivate in a special manner moral theology 
 and Casuistry. The doctrine of probabil- 
 ism gave rise to heated discussions. The 
 Jesuits were fiercely attacked by Pascal, 
 Nicole, and the whole tribe of Jansenists. 
 This continued up to the middle of the last 
 century, when the controversy seemed to 
 be exhausted. It was taken up again and 
 continued even to our day by several Prot- 
 estant writers. The best work on this intri- 
 cate question of Casuistry is Busembaum's 
 Medulla Theologice,3.x\d St. Liguori's The- 
 ologia Moralis, who made Busembaum's 
 book the basis of'this great work. 
 
 Catabaptists. — Name of heretics, who, 
 like the Socinians, denied original sin, and 
 consequently rejected the sacrament of 
 baptism, especially of children, and main- 
 tained that it had only a power to excite 
 faith. 
 
 Catacombs. — Subterraneous chambers 
 and passages, formed generally in rock 
 which is soft and easily excavated, such as 
 iu/a. Catacombs are to be found in almost 
 every country where such stone exists, and 
 in most cases, probably, originated in mere 
 quarries, which afterwards were used either 
 as places of sepulture for the dead or as 
 hiding pfaces for the living. The most cele- 
 brated catacombs in existence, and those 
 
Catafalque 
 
 143 
 
 Catechism 
 
 which are generally understood when cata- 
 combs are spoken of, are those on the Via 
 Appia, a short distance from Rome. To 
 these dreary crypts it is believed that the 
 early Christians were in the habit of repair- 
 ing, in order to celebrate their new wor- 
 ship in times of persecution ; and in them 
 were buried many of the saints and martyrs 
 of the primitive Church. They consist of 
 long, narrow galleries, usually about eight 
 feet high and five feet wide, which twist and 
 turn in all directions, very much resembling 
 mines. The graves were constructed by 
 hollowing out a portion of the rock^ at the 
 side of the gallery, large enough to contain 
 the body. The entrance was then walled up 
 with stone, on which usually the letters, D. 
 M. {Deo Maximo) orX. P. (the first two let- 
 ters of the Greek name of Christ) were in- 
 scribed. Other inscriptions and marks, such 
 as the cross, are also found. Though in later 
 times devoted to the purposes of Christian 
 interment exclusively, it is believed by 
 some authorities that the Catacombs were, 
 at an earlier period, used as burying places 
 by pagans also. At irregular intervals, 
 these galleries expand into wide and lofty 
 vaulted chambers, in which the service of 
 the Church no doubt was celebrated, and 
 which still have the appearance of churches. 
 It has been calculated that the Catacombs, 
 found in every direction around the walls 
 of Rome, numbered about forty in all, and 
 that the united length of the passages is 
 300 leagues or 900 miles, and their walls 
 lined with from five to six million tombs. 
 When Rome was besieged by the Lombards 
 in the eighth century, many Catacombs were 
 destroyed ; and the Popes afterwards caused 
 the remains of many of the saints and martyrs 
 to be removed and buried in the churches. 
 The discovery of the Catacombs bear 
 important testimony both as to the 
 practice and the belief of the early Chris- 
 tians. They illustrate to us the belief of 
 the early Church in the Primacy of St. 
 Peter, the various orders of hierarchy, 
 the sacrament of baptism, the forgiving of 
 sins, the Blessed Eucharist, the veneration 
 of the holy Mother of God, and of the 
 saints, supplication for the departed, etc. 
 Thus the Catacombs are lasting monu- 
 ments, affording the most unmistakable 
 evidence, that the Catholic Church of to- 
 day is one in faith and dogma with the 
 Church of the first century. 
 
 Catafalque. — An oblong, bin-shaped 
 erection used during the celebration of 
 
 Masses for the dead, when the deceased 
 has not been brought to the Church. It is 
 suitably placed in a position near the altar, 
 surrounded by lights, and draped in black. 
 
 Cataphrygians. See Montakists. 
 
 Catechism (instruction in the principles 
 and mysteries of faith). — The Council of 
 Trent recommended the use of Cate- 
 chisms, and ordered that a special book 
 should be published on the matter. 
 Children, especially those who are pre- 
 paring to receive their first communion, 
 should be instructed in the Catechism of 
 their parish or diocese. They may not, 
 without special authorization, receive any 
 other religious instruction. There must 
 be a grave reason in order to obtain per- 
 mission to have children instructed at 
 home or in another parish. When chil- 
 dren are attending a college or religious 
 institution it is the duty of the chaplain to 
 teach them the Catechism. Those schools 
 which have no chaplain must conduct the 
 pupils to the respective parishes to which 
 they belong, or to the parish church of the 
 institution. There are in most parishes 
 three kinds of Catechisms : the first, 
 called the elementary Catechism, in- 
 tended for children between the ages of 
 eight and 10 years ; the second, which is 
 most important, is the preparatory Cate- 
 chism, used by those about to make their first 
 communion. To study this Catechism is 
 obligatory on children between the ages of 
 ID and 12 years, when after, at least one 
 year's study, they are supposed to be suffi- 
 ciently instructed to receive holy commun- 
 ion. Parents are expected to be present 
 at some of these instructions in order to 
 learn what is necessary for their children's 
 moral training, and the conditions which 
 are required before their children are ad- 
 mitted to holy communion. The Church 
 requires great exactitude in this matter, 
 and all nonattendance at such catechetical 
 instruction must be accounted for. The 
 third, or Catechism of Perseverance, is 
 less obligatory; nevertheless, its study 
 should be pursued for at least one year. 
 In many parishes children are permitted 
 to receive their first communion only on 
 condition of their making a promise to 
 attend Catechism classes for one year after 
 they have made their first communion. 
 In the study of Catechism, three years are 
 generally employed in order to obtain a 
 thorough religious training. 
 
Catechism of Trent 
 
 144 
 
 Catherine of Siena 
 
 Catechism of the Council of Trent. — This 
 Catechism, which is the most esteemed of 
 all, was not composed by the Fathers of 
 the Council, whose name it bears, but in 
 obedience to their order. Father Alby, a 
 Jesuit, assures us in the Life of Cardinal 
 Sirlet, that this cardinal was the author of 
 the Catechism of the Council of Trent. 
 Anthony Fabrice of Liege, in a preface 
 which he wrote for this Life, insinuates 
 that Cardinal Sirlet is not the only one 
 who composed the Catechism, but that he 
 was assisted by several theologians. The 
 author of a work printed in 1607 and again 
 in 1647, entitled ^uestio theologica, etc., 
 says that the principal theologians who 
 edited the Catechism of the Council of 
 Trent, were Leonard Marin, Archbishop 
 of Lanciano, a Dominican, Gilles Fus- 
 caratio. Bishop of Modena, and Francis 
 Forerius, also a Dominican. When these 
 theologians, with others named by the 
 Pope, had composed the whole body of the 
 Catechism, they selected tliree learned men 
 to write it in pure, elegant Latin. These 
 were Paul Manuce, Julius Poggianus, and 
 Cornelius Amaltheus, — the latter a physi- 
 cian by profession. Thus this famous Cate- 
 chism is not only highly instructive as 
 regards its subject-matter — religion — but 
 it is also an agreeable book to read on ac- 
 count of its beauty of style. This Cate- 
 chism was printed by order of Pope St. 
 Pius, and approved by a Brief of Gregory 
 IIL in 1583. St. Charles Borromeo ap- 
 proved of it in five synods, held at Milan. 
 
 Catechumenate. — The state or condition 
 of a catechumen, ». e., a person under in- 
 struction to prepare him for baptism. In 
 the apostolic age, as appears from the New 
 Testament, baptism was administered at 
 once to every one professing an earnest be- 
 lief in Christianity, and a sincere sorrow 
 for past sins. Since the second century, 
 however, instruction preceded reception 
 into the Church, and no one was admitted 
 without previous probation. By prayer, 
 imposition of hands, and the signing of 
 the Cross, the neophyte was received 
 among the Catechumens. Under this de- 
 nomination all those were classed who were 
 undergoing instruction previous to the re- 
 ception of baptism. 
 
 Since the fourth century, there were 
 three orders of Catechumens: i. The 
 " hearers " (audienfes), or those who were 
 allowed to remain at the divine service till 
 after the sermon, when they were dismissed 
 
 as the Mass of the Faithful began with 
 closed doors. 2. The "kneelers" {ffenu- 
 flectentes), or those who remained after the 
 sermon to participate in the prayers and 
 receive the bishop's blessing. 3. The " ap- 
 proved " or " elected " {compctentes, electi), 
 who had passed through the regular course 
 of instruction and training, and who at the 
 next approaching festival (Easter, Pente- 
 cost, and, among the Greeks, also Epiph- 
 any), were admitted to baptism. The time 
 of probation varied according to the charac- 
 ter or the age of the individual; but the 
 Council of Elvira (305) determined that it 
 should commonly last two years. In the 
 Apostolical Constitution three years are 
 prescribed. 
 
 Catena. — A methodized series of selec- 
 tion from different authors to elucidate a 
 doctrine or a system of doctrines; espe- 
 cially such a set of quotations from the 
 Church Fathers to assist in the studj' of 
 Christian dogmas or biblical exegeses : as 
 the Catena Aurea\ii St. Thomas Aquinas. 
 
 Catharine of Alexandria (St.). — Virgin 
 and martyr about the year 312. Daughter 
 of Cestus, governor of Alexandria and 
 pagan. She was converted by a hermit. 
 Christ appeared to her in a dream, and 
 said to her, that He would select her for 
 His spouse ; then He put a ring upon her 
 finger which she found when she awoke. 
 (Certain biographers and painters have 
 applied this legend to St. Catharine of 
 Siena). After this, Catharine, seized bj- a 
 mystical love for Christ, ardently tried to 
 gain followers to the Saviour. According 
 to tradition, she even disputed with philos- 
 ophers, her ancient teachers, whom she 
 confounded by her wisdom. She suflFered 
 martyrdom under Maximin Daja, whose 
 love she repudiated. Placed on a wheel of 
 knives and sharp iron hooks, she was de- 
 livered by an angel ; but afterwards she 
 was beheaded. Her remains were buried 
 by angels on Mount Sinai, where, in the 
 eighth century, they were found by the 
 Christians. St. Catharine is the patron saint 
 of schools and philosophers. F. Nov. 25th. 
 
 Catherine of Siena (St.) . — Born at Siena 
 March 25th, 1347, died at Rome April 30th, 
 1380. OfiFspring of an artisan family, she 
 entered, in spite of her parents, the Domin- 
 ican Order about 1364. Her spirit, elo- 
 quence, austerity, zeal, ecstasies, and reve- 
 lations, soon rendered her name famous. 
 Catharine played an important political 
 
Catharists 
 
 145 
 
 Catholics 
 
 role. In the war which the united Guelphs 
 and Ghibellines made on Pope Gregory 
 XI., she retained the cities of Arezzo, 
 Lucca, and Siena in the Pope's party. 
 After that she went to Avignon to see the 
 sovereign Pontiff, reconciled him with the 
 Florentines, and induced him to return to 
 Rome. She was canonized by Pius II. in 
 1461. F. April 30th. 
 
 Catharists. — Heretics, called thus from 
 the Greek word kataros {pure), because 
 they believed themselves purer than the 
 rest of the Christians. The name was 
 applied principally to the Apostatics, Mon- 
 tanists, Patarini, Bulgari, and Albigenses. 
 
 Cathedra. — The throne or seat of a 
 bishop in the cathedral or episcopal 
 Church of his diocese. Formerly the 
 bishop's throne or cathedra was generally 
 situated at the east end of the apse, behind 
 the altar, and was often approached by a 
 flight of steps ; but it is now almost univer- 
 sally placed on one side of the choir, usu- 
 ally the gospel side. That of St. Peter's at 
 Rome is especially honored as reputed to 
 have been the chair of St. Peter, and it is 
 now enclosed in a bronze covering. 
 
 Cathedral. — The principal church of a 
 diocese, which is especially the church of 
 the bishop ; so called from the fact that it 
 contains the episcopal chair or cathedra. 
 Many cathedrals, particularly the French 
 and Italian, furnish the most magnifi- 
 cent examples of the architecture of the 
 Middle Ages. Those in England are the 
 most interesting; though, unlike the con- 
 tinental cathedrals, they were originally 
 designed, almost without exception, not 
 as metropolitan, but as monastic churches. 
 
 Cathedral Schools. See Schools. 
 
 Catholic. — The meaning of the word 
 "Catholic" is of Greek origin, signifying 
 throughout the -vhole, universal, and is 
 used in this sense in various connections by 
 both Greek and Latin pagan writers. The 
 word is found in the same general sense in 
 the earliest Christian writers. The Roman 
 Catholic Church possesses universality of 
 doctrine and communion in the world-wide 
 area of its dissemination and in time. On 
 the other hand, although Protestants may 
 be found in divers parts of the world, they 
 hold opinions heretical, and beliefs never 
 universally identical ; nor have they Catho- 
 licity of time, since they date only as far 
 back as the sixteenth century. Our right 
 
 to the title Catholic is amply demon- 
 strated by the designation given in all 
 ages to the Church of Christ, through its 
 diffusion in universality of communion 
 throughout the Christian world. Further, 
 Protestantism not only varies in its teach- 
 ing, but is not unfrequently so limited in 
 range as to be confined to the particular 
 nationality where, for the time being, it 
 happens to find acceptance. The very 
 name "Protestant," in its antagonism to 
 the Catholic Church, is expressive of ab- 
 sence of universality. 
 
 Catholic Emancipation Act. — An Eng- 
 lish statute of 1829 repealing former laws 
 which imposed disabilities upon Roman 
 Catholics, and allowing them (except 
 priests) to sit in parliament, and to hold 
 civil and military offices with certain ex- 
 ceptions. This measure had reference 
 especially to Ireland. 
 
 Catholic Epistles. See Epistles. 
 
 Catholicos. — i. In the later Roman 
 Empire, a receiver-general or deputy- 
 receiver in a civil diocese. — 2. In Oriental 
 countries, a primate having under him 
 metropolitans, but himself subject to a 
 patriarch. — 3. The head of an independent 
 or schismatic communion. The general 
 force of the title seems to have been that 
 of a superintendent-general of missions or 
 of churches on and beyond the borders of 
 the Roman Empire. It is also the title of 
 the head of the Armenian Church, and has 
 been used by the Jacobites, and for the 
 Metropolitan of Ethiopia. 
 
 Catholic (Roman ) Relief Act. — A series 
 of English statutes removing the political 
 disabilities of Roman Catholics: as (1829) 
 permitting them to sit in parliament; en- 
 abling their clergymen to perform mar- 
 riages between Protestants and Catholics ; 
 abolishing a certain oath as a qualification 
 for Irish voters; repealing statutes against 
 them; making all subjects eligible to the 
 office of lord chancellor, etc. 
 
 Catholics {German). See Ronge. 
 
 Catholics {Number of). — The whole 
 number of Catholics in the world has been 
 variously estimated. Some claim there 
 are 250,000,000; others, depending largely 
 on statistics compiled from reports made 
 to the Propaganda, place the number at 
 about 235,000,000. The fact should not be 
 overlooked, that in diocesan reports only 
 
^ 
 
 Catholics 
 
 146 
 
 Celestine 
 
 those who are known to be Catholics are 
 counted, many thus remaining unenu- 
 merated. This is especially true of such 
 places as the United States, Canada, Aus- 
 tralia, Asia, and Africa. Distributed in 
 round numbers, in Europe there are 158,- 
 000,000; in South America, 33,000,000; in 
 Mexico and Central America, 15,000,000; 
 in the West Indies, 3,000,000; in the 
 United States, 12,000,000; in Canada, 
 2,200,000; in Asia, 8,312,000; in Africa, 
 2,656,000; in Australia and adjacent is- 
 lands, 700,000 ; making a total of 234,868,000 
 Catholics throughout the world. It seems 
 unnecessary to state that all Catholics owe 
 full civil allegiance to the governments of 
 the countries wherein they dwell. It may 
 be matter of interest to note that there are 
 under the flags of republics, more Catho- 
 lics than all other believers of any kind, 
 also including those who profess no re- 
 ligious belief. In the republics of Europe 
 and Africa there is a total population of 
 about 43,550,000, of which all but 4,456,000 
 are Catholics. The total population of all 
 the republics of North and South America, 
 estimating the United States at 63,000,000, 
 is about 113,000,000, of which at least 
 61,500,000 are Catholics, 51,500,000 being 
 non-Catholics, or about the proportion of 
 15 Catholics to 13 who are not Catholic. 
 In the whole world there are under repub- 
 lican forms of government, about loi ,000,000 
 Catholics to about 55,500,000 who are not 
 Catholic. Under the various monarchical 
 governments of Europe there are 119,000,- 
 000 Catholics, and, including Russia, 170,- 
 000,000 who are not Roman Catholics. See 
 American Supplement to Encyclopcedia 
 Britannica. 
 
 Catholics {Old). — i. The name used by 
 a small body of believers in Jansenism in 
 Holland, with an archepiscopal see in 
 Utrecht. They have continued since 1723 
 to recognize the authority of the Pope by 
 sending him notice of each new election 
 of a bishop, which he alwa^-s ignores. — 2. 
 A party in the Roman Catholic Church, 
 founded after the proclamation of, and in 
 opposition to, the dogma of Papal Infalli- 
 bility proclaimed by the Vatican Council 
 in 1870. A schism with the Roman Cath- 
 olic Church was not intended, but it 
 resulted ; the leaders were excommunicated 
 and new congregations formed. No bishop 
 having joined the movement, the ordina- 
 tion of a bishop was obtained from the Old 
 Catholic Bishop of Deventer in Holland. 
 
 Old Catholics have departed in several 
 respects from their former ecclesiastical 
 customs as Roman Catholics. Auricular 
 confession and fasting are voluntary with 
 them, and priests are allowed to marry. 
 Mass is permitted to be said in the vernac- 
 ular. They are found chiefly in Germany 
 and in Switzerland, where they call them- 
 selves "Christian Catholics." 
 
 Cecilia. See Cecilia. 
 
 Cedron. — A brook of Palestine that passes 
 to the north and east of Jerusalem, and 
 empties into the Dead Sea. Its source is 
 north of Jerusalem. Its banks are lined 
 with tombs, ancient and modern. It was 
 crossed by David in his flight from Absa- 
 lom and by our Lord on His way to Geth- 
 semane. 
 
 Celebrant. — One who celebrates; the 
 priest who actually offers Mass, as distinc- 
 tive from his assistants at the altar. 
 
 Celebret (Latin word). — Testimonial let- 
 ter delivered to a priest by his bishop or 
 ordinary, testifying that there is no canon- 
 ical impediment that hinders said priest 
 from saying Mass, or discharging other 
 ecclesiastical functions, in places where he 
 is sojourning or passes through. 
 
 Celestine (name of five Popes). — Celes- 
 tine I. Successor of Boniface I. (422-432). 
 Was zealous in suppressing Pelagianism ; 
 confirmed the decrees of the General Coun- 
 cil of Ephesus and the sentence of deposi- 
 tion pronounced by that body against Nes- 
 torious. This Pope sent St. Palladius and St. 
 Patrick to convert the Scots and the Irish. 
 Celestine II. — Pope from 11 43 to 1144. 
 He removed the ecclesiastical censures from 
 Louis VII. king of France, which he had 
 incurred under Innocent II. Celestine III. 
 — Successor of Clement III. (1191-1198). 
 Crowned Henry VI. of Germany, but soon 
 had grounds for complaint against him. 
 Henry's tyranny and the oppressions of his 
 officials exasperated all parties. Pope Cel- 
 estine threatened to excommunicate him if 
 he did not release Richard Cceur de Lion, of 
 England, who, when returning from Pales- 
 tine, had been barbarously seized, and who, 
 in further violation of the law of nations, 
 was imprisoned by the emperor. Celestine 
 /F.— Pope from Sept. 20th to Oct. 3d in 
 1241. Died before he was consecrated. — 
 Celestine V. (Peter Morrone, a pious re- 
 cluse). Pope from July 5th to December 
 13th, in 1294. A stranger to the world 
 
Celestinians 
 
 147 
 
 Ceubacy 
 
 and its workings and intrigues, the 
 holy Pontiff lacked knowledge of men and 
 acquaintance with temporal matters. He 
 transferred his residence to Naples, and 
 thus came completely under the influence 
 of Charles II., king of Sicily. He at once 
 created twelve cardinals, seven of whom 
 were French and three Neapolitans, and 
 appointed the king's son, a youth of twenty- 
 one years, Archbishop of Lyons. He lav- 
 ished dignities and offices with a profuse 
 hand, and inconsiderately bestowed bene- 
 fices, sometimes giving the same benefice 
 to three or four persons at once. The loud 
 complaints of the confused state of affairs, 
 which reached his ears, and the conscious- 
 ness of his own unfitness for his exalted po- 
 sition, induced the sainted Pontiff to ab- 
 dicate, after having occupied the Papal 
 Chair five months. Before taking this final 
 step, Celestine re-enacted the Conclave 
 Law of Gregory X., and issued a new con- 
 stitution, declaring that the Pope might 
 resign his dignity, and that the Sacred 
 College was competent to receive such 
 resignation. 
 
 Celestinians {^Religious Congregation) . 
 — This austere order, which adhered to the 
 Rule of St. Benedict, was instituted, about 
 1254, by the holy hermit, Peter of Mor- 
 rone, who afterwards became Pope Celes- 
 tine V. 
 
 Celibacy {Clerical). — At the beginning 
 of the rite for the ordination of subdeacons, 
 the bishop addresses a solemn warning to 
 the candidates, to consider well how great 
 is the burden which they offer to take upon 
 themselves; he warns them that they are 
 still free ; but that when once the Order 
 has been received they will be free no 
 longer, but will be perpetually bound to 
 serve God in chastity; and the candidates, 
 taking a step forward, signify that they un- 
 derstand and accept the obligation. 
 
 This obligation of chastity has from the 
 earliest days been regarded in the Latin 
 Church as belonging to the higher grades 
 in the Hierarchy; and at present, it is at- 
 tached to the Subdiaconate. No marriage 
 can be validly contracted by a subdeacon ; 
 nor can a married man lawfully receive the 
 Order, unless his wife consents to perpetual 
 separation from him, and herself vows per- 
 petual chastity. The Order is a dire impedi- 
 ment to marriage. 
 
 This law insisting on chastity, is of hu- 
 man institution, and it can be dispensed by 
 authority of the Holy See. Such a dispen- 
 
 sation, however, is very rarely granted. 
 Celibacy seems to have been practiced by 
 the higher clergy before it was enjoined by 
 law ; it is suggested by the favor promised 
 by Christ to such as leave wife for His sake 
 (Matt. xix. 27, 29) ; and by the doctrine of 
 St. Paul, that there is danger lest care for 
 a wife call a man away from the service of 
 God (I. Cor. vii. 32-33). In another pas- 
 sage of the same Epistle ( ix. 5) , the Apostle 
 claims for himself the privilege to carry 
 about a woman, a sister, as well as the rest 
 of the Apostles; and writing from Rome 
 to the Philippians, he sends a message 
 (Phil. iv. 3) to his "sincere companion"; 
 and we read of the care of St. Peter's 
 wife's mother (Luke iv. 38) at an early 
 period of the ministry of our Lord. These 
 are all the Scriptural passages which the 
 opponents of clerical celibacy have been 
 able to bring together in support of their 
 views. It is scarcely worth while to deal 
 with them, but we may remark that be- 
 cause St. Peter had a mother-in-law at one 
 time, it does not follow that he lived with 
 his wife two years later ; it is hardly prob- 
 able that St. Paul had a wife living in 
 Philippi while he was at Rome; that if 
 the word translated " companion " means 
 "wife," then the epithet "sincere" must 
 mean " genuine " or " lawful," — a true wife 
 and not a concubine ; and, what seems to 
 conclusively demonstrate that the " com- 
 panion " was not a woman, but a man, is 
 that the adjective "genuine" is in the 
 masculine gender ; lastly, it is hardly likely 
 that St. Paul would have furnished his op- 
 ponents at Corinth (I. Cor. i. 12, etc.), with 
 an effective argument against him, if he 
 urged others to adopt a celibate life while 
 he himself enjoyed the companionship of 
 a wife. St. Jerome is doubtless right in 
 believing that the "woman, a sister," was 
 a Christian woman who accompanied St. 
 Paul in his laborious journeys, and minis- 
 tered to his wants, according to a practice 
 approved by Jewish public opinion and 
 adopted by Christ Himself (Matt, xxvii. 
 55, and St. Jerome on the passage; PP. 
 Lat. xxvi. 214). When St. Paul requires 
 (I. Tim. iii. 2) that a bishop should be the 
 husband of one wife, the meaning is that 
 no one is fit for the dignity who has taken 
 a second wife after the death of the first. 
 
 That celibacy was the practice of the 
 clergy in the earliest times is proved by 
 the absence of any indications to the con- 
 trary. One of the earliest laws upon the 
 subject is, perhaps, the thirty-third canon 
 
Cellites 
 
 148 
 
 Cemetery 
 
 of a Council held at Elvira in 305, which 
 requires "bishops, priests, and deacons and 
 all clerics" to abstain from their wives; 
 and in the course of the same century we 
 find the same law enforced in other places 
 in the Church. It is therefore altogether 
 false to saj, as some writers do, that cler- 
 ical celibacy was a novelty introduced into 
 England by St. Dunstan, and forced upon 
 the whole Church by Pope St. Gregory 
 VIII. It is true that the ravages of the 
 Barbarians had led to great relaxation of 
 discipline throughout Christendom, and 
 that these saints incurred much odium 
 through their zeal in restoring primitive 
 discipline ; but the existing monuments of 
 history prove that what they insisted on 
 was nothing new. 
 
 It is true that not all who have taken 
 this solemn obligation upon themselves 
 have been faithful in obser\-ing it; but 
 their frailty merely illustrates the weak- 
 ness of human nature ; and in the most 
 corrupt times the morality of the clergy 
 has stood pre-eminent when contrasted 
 with the practices of the laity. 
 
 Cellites. See Alkxians. 
 
 Celsus. — An eclectic philosopher, who 
 flourished in the latter part of the second 
 century. He was the first pagan who at- 
 tempted to oppose the advancing Chris- 
 tian faith with the arms of science. His 
 work entitled. The Word of Truth is re- 
 plete with vulgar and blasphemous asser- 
 tions against Christ, His religion, and His 
 followers. The strength of Celsus's argu- 
 ments lies in shameless slanders and 
 cowardly insults. He introduces a Jew in 
 whose mouth he puts the \-ilest calumnies 
 against the person of Christ and his Apos- 
 tles. Then, again, acting as arbitrator, he 
 attacks both the Christian and Jewish 
 religion. Christ Himself is represented 
 as an impostor, justly crucified by the Jews 
 for calling Himself God. His reputed 
 birth of a virgin as well as His miracles, 
 prophecies, and resurrection, are described 
 as mere fictions. The charges which Cel- 
 sus brings against the Christians are full 
 of contradictions. The work of Celsus is 
 not extant, but is sufficiently well known 
 from the masterly refutation, in eight books, 
 written by Origen about a century later. 
 
 Cemetery (the word cemetery means a 
 dormitory). — It was Christianity that first 
 gave this name to the place where the de- 
 ceased rest ; it is full of philosophy. In the 
 
 eyes of the Catholic Church, death is only 
 a sleep; hence the place in which they who 
 have lived, repose, is called a dormitory. 
 Sleep necessarily supposes an awakening. 
 Henceforth it will be impossible to pro- 
 nounce the name cemetery without ex- 
 pressing the most consoling dogma for the 
 good and the most terrible for the wicked, 
 — the dogma of the Resurrection. From 
 the beginning, the Church showed the 
 greatest respect for the mortal remains of 
 her children. See Burial. It has even 
 been the desire of the Church that the 
 dead .should be assembled in one place near 
 her temple; that she might watch over 
 bygone generations as the mother watches 
 over the cradle of her sleeping child. The 
 first temples of the Catholic Church were 
 actually cemeteries ; the catacombs were 
 nothing else. It was amid the dead that 
 the living met to pray, and to offer up the 
 sacred mysteries. Later on, when peace 
 came, and it was lawful to build Christian 
 temples, the Church hastened to conse- 
 crate a place for the burial of her children. 
 She wished that this place should be near 
 her temple, in order to preserve the mem- 
 ory of her cradle, and to teach men that a 
 mother does not forget her children, even 
 when they are no more. It is said that the 
 custom of burying in or near churches has 
 become dangerous in large cities. This 
 supposition is more or less gratuitous. 
 Until it is proved, it would be well to let 
 us hold it as at least doubtful. We are so 
 much the more authorized in doing this, 
 as it tends to impeach the Catholic Church, 
 and comes from persons whose levity, to 
 say nothing else, is clear to a demonstra- 
 tion. It would also be well to let us bear 
 in mind that at Rome, burials take place 
 in churches, and that, notwithstanding the 
 heat of the climate, no inconveniences are 
 found to arise therefrom. We will next 
 inquire if a single instance can be cited 
 from history, of an epidemic engendered 
 by the practice of burying in cities. Be it 
 as it may in cities, we maintain that in the 
 country, where the air has free circulation 
 and there is no danger, the established 
 custom should not be changed. It is most 
 proper that, before entering the temple of 
 the Lord, the faithful should have an op- 
 portunity of resting their eyes on some 
 scene that will awaken in their minds a 
 thought of the shortness of this life, a hope 
 of a happier future, and tender recollec- 
 tions of their departed relatives and friends. 
 See Cremation. 
 
Cenites 
 
 149 
 
 Censure of Books 
 
 Cenites. — A people who dwelt west of 
 the Dead Sea, and extended themselves far 
 into Arabia Petraea. Jethro, the father-in- 
 law of Moses, was a Cenite. The lands of 
 the Cenites were in Juda's lot. 
 
 Cenobite (word formed from two Greek 
 words, which signify life in common). 
 — A religious who lives in community 
 under a rule. In the eighteenth Con- 
 ference of Cassian, the Abbot Piammon, 
 speaks of three different orders of monks 
 who were resident in Egypt: the "Ceno- 
 bites," who lived in common; the "An- 
 chorites," who, after having formed them- 
 selves into communities, retired into soli- 
 tude; and the "Sarabites," who were false 
 monks and roamers. See Convents. 
 
 Censer. — A vessel in which incense is 
 burned. See Incense. 
 
 Censure {Ecclesiastical). — The eccle- 
 siastical censure, the usage of which goes 
 back to the time of the Apostles, is a 
 spiritual punishment, or infliction by 
 which a Christian who is a contumacious 
 sinner is deprived, in whole or in part, 
 of the spiritual goods and benefits at the 
 disposition of the Church. These are, 
 principally, the sacraments, indulgences, 
 spiritual jurisdiction, sacred functions, as- 
 sisting at Mass, prayers, or public suffrages. 
 But the sinner cannot be deprived of grace 
 coming immediately from God. ' 
 
 There atre three classes of censure: ex- 
 communication, suspension, and inter- 
 dict. The censures are either incurred or 
 made active by law, that is a jure, or by sen- 
 tence or a particular ordinance, when the 
 latter is called censura ab Jiomine. The first 
 class of censures are explicitly laid down by 
 the general laws of the Church, or made by 
 particular laws of each diocese, or by gen- 
 eral and particular ordinances, published 
 by the bishop for the reformation of morals 
 and the general good of the diocese. Those 
 called a5 homine are promulgated or made 
 effective by the superior or ecclesiastical 
 judge against a particular individual. These 
 latter censures are pronounced judicially 
 in the form of a sentence or command on 
 the part of the superior. The censures a 
 jure are as permanent as the laws which 
 evoked them ; consequently they exist after 
 the death or demission of the legislator or 
 executive; while the special ordinance, 
 command, sentence, by which a censure 
 becomes effective, passes away with the 
 officer who issued the sentence or censure 
 
 ab homine. Yet this does not mean that 
 in a particular case where a censure ab 
 homine was actually incurred it is taken 
 away by the fact of the superior's death. 
 Nothing but absolution from the censure 
 can effect this. Again, censures are said 
 to be incurred or pronounced latcB senten- 
 , tiee ; or ferendce sententicB. The former are 
 incurred ipso facto; that is, by the fact 
 alone of the violation of the law. Cen- 
 sures ferendce sententice are threatening, 
 and are incurred when sentence is promul- 
 gated by the superior. The terms in 
 which the law is conceived and published, 
 make known whether the sentence is latcB 
 or ferendice sententice. 
 
 The sovereign Pontiff, having plenary 
 jurisdiction over the entire Church, has ple- 
 nary power in the matter of promulgating 
 censures. The bishop's authority extends 
 only to his diocese. During the vacancy of 
 the see, this power passes to the Cathedral 
 chapter, or, in the absence of such, to the 
 administrator, as in this country. The 
 vicar-generals can inflict censures by virtue 
 of delegated authority which they hold from 
 the bishop. Finally, superiors of religious 
 orders enjoy the right to punish with cen- 
 sures those subject to their authority or 
 jurisdiction. The metropolitan cannot in- 
 flict censures on subjects of his suffragans, 
 except in cases of appeal or when he vis- 
 its the dioceses of his province. In order 
 to incur censure there must be contumacy 
 and this contumacy exists only as far as the 
 delinquent has a positive knowledge of the 
 punishment to which he is liable. When 
 a suspension or an interdict is pronounced 
 for a determinate time, at the expiration 
 of this time the censure ceases, without 
 the necessity of an absolution. 
 
 The censure ab homine can be removed 
 only by the officer who pronounced it, or 
 by his superior, delegate, or successor. 
 Among the censures a jure, some are re- 
 served to the sovereign Pontiff, or to the 
 bishop, while others are not. Every priest 
 empowered to hear confession can absolve 
 from unreserved censures. He also 
 can absolve from all censures the penitent 
 who is at the point of death. 
 
 Censure of Books. — The right which 
 ecclesiastical superiors have to remove 
 every influence contrary to the unity and 
 purity of faith and the life of the Church, 
 implies also the right to censure writings 
 concerning religion, morals, and the 
 Church, if such writings be found con- 
 
Central America 
 
 150 
 
 Ceremonial 
 
 trary to good morals or to the teachings of 
 the Church, or even against its liturgical 
 and disciplinary laws. From the begin- 
 ning of Christianity, the bishops of the 
 Church exercised this right, founded on 
 the command of the Apostle : " Keep 
 that which is committed to thy trust, 
 avoiding the profane novelties of words, 
 and oppositions of knowledge so called " 
 (I. Tim. vi. 20). When we read the his- 
 tories of heresies and schisms, we find 
 traces and examples of this kind of cen- 
 sure. The Church redoubled her vigi- 
 lance in this respect when the invention of 
 printing multiplied the number and in- 
 creased the circulation of books. Pope 
 Alexander VI. required for the printing of 
 books the authorization, or imprimatur, of 
 the bishop. Leo X. in the tenth session of 
 the Fifth Lateran Council (May 4th, 1515) 
 renewed this rule of discipline. The 
 holy Council of Trent forbids the print- 
 ing, sale, and reading of books treating on 
 religious matters, if such books have not 
 obtained the ecclesiastical imprimatur. 
 It likewise forbids the obtaining of any tax 
 for the censure, or the receiving of any 
 gift for the required ecclesiastical permis- 
 sion or imprimatur to print or to sell 
 books (Sess. iv. Dec. de edit, et usu 
 Script.). Pope Pius V. (1566) instituted 
 at Rome a supreme tribunal for such cen- 
 sures, the "Congregation of the Index," 
 and which Sixtus V. definitively organized. 
 There is, therefore, from a religious point 
 of view, an obligation on all writers, au- 
 thors, and publishers of works treating on 
 religious matters or on morals, to submit 
 such works to the judgment of ecclesiasti- 
 cal authority' and to abide by its decision. 
 The same obligation extends to those 
 whose duty it is to thoroughly examine all 
 such works, and return them with ap- 
 proval, or correction, or condemnation, as 
 each case may require. This is to be done 
 gratuitously. 
 
 Central America (Missions in). See 
 
 Missions. 
 
 Centuries of Magdeburg. — A history of 
 the Christian religion divided by cen- 
 turies, of which each century forms a vol- 
 ume. The object of the " centuries " was 
 to combat the Roman Church, and espe- 
 cially the Papal authority, in trying to 
 show the accordance of Lutheran doc- 
 trine with that of the primitive Church. 
 This compilation is replete with errors, 
 caused by the partisan spirit which di- 
 
 rected the pen of the writers, and induced 
 them to alter the facts and the texts, and 
 also because of the inadequacy of their 
 learning and criticism. Cardinal Baronius 
 opposed to the Centuries his Ecclesiasti- 
 cal Annals, which are a solid refutation 
 thereof. See Annals. 
 
 Centurion. — A Roman officer command- 
 ing one hundred men (Matt. viii. 10). 
 
 Cerdonians. — A Gnostic sect of the sec- 
 ond century. It derived its name from 
 Cerdo, a Syrian, who had come to Rome 
 in the time of Pope Hyginus. Cerdo 
 maintained that the God of the Old Law 
 and the Prophets was not the Father of 
 Jesus Christ. He was a teacher of Marcion 
 and was associated with him at Rome in 
 the publication of his peculiar ^^ews. See 
 Marcion. 
 
 Ceremonial or Ceremonies. — The cere- 
 monial is a system of rites or ceremonies 
 enjoined by law or established by custom in 
 religious worship. If man were a disem- 
 bodied spirit, like the angels, he might 
 worship with his soul only; but he has 
 superadded to his spirit a body characteris- 
 tic of his mortal existence. As long, there- 
 fore, as his spirit is the tenant of this 
 earthly tabernacle, and animates a portion 
 of the visible creation ; as long as his spirit 
 receives the impress of its ideas, and ac- 
 quires its impressions through the medium 
 of the physical senses, and explains its own 
 sensations by their instrumentality, so long 
 must the use of some exterior ceremonial 
 be necessary for man to exhibit a becom- 
 ing religious reverence toward his Maker, 
 who requires that all His creatures, both 
 visible and invisible, should pay Him the 
 homage of their adoration. 
 
 So consonant is this with the sentiments 
 of nature, that we discover her dictating 
 to the human race in the earliest period 
 of its existence, certain rites and ceremon- 
 ies to be observed for the outward worship 
 of Almighty God. Abel offered sacrifice ; 
 Enoch invoked the name of the Lord ; and 
 the patriarchs erected altars. 
 
 God Himself was pleased to promulgate 
 those ritual obser\ances which were to be 
 practiced by the Jews. Our divine Re- 
 deemer, though He could have wrought 
 His miracles with the same facility with 
 which He called forth the world from noth- 
 ing, by a single word, still, however, con- 
 descended to employ certain ceremonies 
 while He performed them. He mingled 
 
Cerinthus 
 
 151 
 
 Chalice 
 
 spittle with the clay (John ix. 6) with 
 which He restored sight to the man born 
 blind ; He groaned in spirit and troubled 
 Himself before He called forth Lazarus 
 from the tomb (John xi. 33) ; He blessed 
 and broke the bread before He converted 
 it into His body and gave it to His dis- 
 ciples to eat. The example which the 
 Saviour has furnished was imitated by His 
 disciples. We find St. Paul exhorting the 
 Corinthians to "do all things according to 
 order" in the Church (xiv. 40); and St. 
 John, to impress upon our minds the 
 grandeur of the heavenly Jerusalem, de- 
 scribes in fervent language the splendor of 
 the awful ritual of which he Avas a witness, 
 as he saw in vision the throne of the Lamb 
 in the celestial city ; and particularly 
 noticed the four-and-twenty elders, with 
 their harps and fragrance-breathing vials, 
 full of the prayers of the saints, as pros- 
 trate before the Lamb without spot, who 
 was reclining upon the golden altar. 
 
 Cerinthus. — Heresiarch of the first cen- 
 tury. This heretic, coming from Alex- 
 andria, resided at Ephesus while St. John 
 the Apostle dwelt in that city. He denied 
 the identity of Jesus with Christ, and main- 
 tained that Jesus, " the son of Joseph and 
 Mary," was but a mere man, who in 
 baptism received the Holy Ghost, /. <?., 
 the Christ; and that Christ withdrew from 
 the man Jesus at the crucifixion. God, 
 being immaterial, could not, he said, be 
 the Creator of the material world, which 
 was made by an angel called Demiurge. 
 Cerinthus believed in the coming of the 
 millennium on the earth, when Christ 
 would found an earthly kingdom, which 
 would consist in the enjoyment of sensual 
 pleasures. 
 
 Cerularius (Michael). — Patriarch of 
 Constantinople from 1043 to 1059. Ceru- 
 larius was an ambitious and turbulent man. 
 He revived the Photian schism. At his 
 instigation Leo of Achrida, Metropoli- 
 tan of Bulgaria, circulated a document in 
 which the following charges were brought 
 against the Latins as grievances: i. The 
 use of unleavened bread in the holy sacrifice. 
 2. Fasting on Saturdays in Lent. 3. The 
 eating of blood and things strangled. 4. 
 The omission of the "Alleluja " in Lent. 
 Condemned by Pope Leo IX., excommun- 
 icated by the papal legates, in 1054, he ex- 
 communicated the Pope and tried to 
 separate from Rome the patriarchs of An- 
 tioch, Alexandria, and Jerusalem. His 
 
 pride and pretensions caused him, finally, 
 to be exiled by the Emperor Isaac Comne- 
 nus on the island of Proconesus, where 
 he died in 1059. 
 
 Cesarini (Julianus). — Roman prelate, 
 created cardinal by Martin V. in 1426. 
 Was sent to Poland, Hungary, and Bohe- 
 mia, to preach the crusade ; then charged 
 by Pope Eugenius IV. to combat the 
 heresy of the Hussites. Opened and pre- 
 sided at the Council of Basle, in 1431, 
 transferred afterwards to Florence. He 
 upheld, against the Greeks, the doctrine of 
 the Roman Church. 
 
 Cesena (Michael). See Fratricelli. 
 
 Cetura. — Abraham's second wife (Gen. 
 XXV. 1-2) ; is held by the Jews to be the 
 same as Agar. We know nothing of her 
 except as the mother of Zamran, Jecsan, 
 Madan, Madian, Jesboc, and Sue. Abra- 
 ham gave presents to these children and 
 sent them to Arabia Deserta. 
 
 Chair of St. Peter.— The See of Rome, 
 
 or the office of the papacy ; so called from 
 the fact that St. Peter was the first bishop 
 of Rome. — St. Peter's Chair is also the 
 name of two festivals, held on February 
 22d and January i8th, in commemoration 
 of St. Peter founding the Episcopal sees of 
 Antioch and of Rome. 
 
 Chalcedon {Council of). — The Fourth 
 Ecumenical Council held in this city, in 
 451, condemned Eutychianism and Mono- 
 physitism. This council also conferred 
 high privileges on the See of Constanti- 
 nople, confirming and extending those 
 given by the Second Ecumenical Council, 
 and putting it nearly on an equality with 
 the See of Rome. 
 
 Chalice (Lat. calix, a cuf). — The cup 
 used at Mass for the wine which is to be con- 
 secrated. The chalices and sacred vessels 
 used for offering up the Eucharistic sacri- 
 fice were, in the early Church, not unfre- 
 quently employed on great solemnities to 
 ornament the sacred table, upon which 
 they were arranged in rows, together 
 with the Diptychs or carved ivory tablets 
 (see Diptychs). Although the service 
 to which these vessels were dedicated, 
 and not the richness of the materials 
 composing them formed the criterion of 
 their value in the estimation of the pious 
 Christian from his reverence toward the 
 tremendous sacrifice — yet, wherever cir- 
 
Challoner 
 
 152 
 
 Chancellor 
 
 cumstances permitted, the most costly sub- 
 stances were used in making them, and 
 chalices, not only of glass, and of silver, 
 but sometimes of crystal, onyx, sardonyx, 
 and the purest gold, were appropriated to 
 the altar service. Like the altar, they 
 were anciently, as they are at present, con- 
 secrated and anointed before being used 
 in the ser^•ice of religion throughout the 
 Church, whether Latin or Greek. At 
 present the Rubrics require that the 
 chalice be of gold or silver, or at least a 
 silver cup which is gilt on the inside. It 
 must be consecrated by the bishop with 
 chrism, according to a form prescribed in 
 the Pontifical. It may not be touched 
 except by persons in holy orders. We 
 know nothing about the chalice which our 
 Lord used at the Last Supper. 
 
 Challoner (Richard) (1691-1781). — 
 Born at Lewess, Sussex ; died in London. 
 Born of Protestant parents, he embraced 
 the Catholic faith, received holy orders, and 
 was made Bishop of Debra in 1740, and vicar 
 apostolic of London in 1758. He was edu- 
 cated at the English College at Douay, and 
 was professor of philosophy there (1713— 
 1720), and vice-president and professor of 
 theology (1720-1730), returning to London 
 in the latter 3-ear. He published a large 
 number of polemical and theological works, 
 including The Rheims Ne-M Testament 
 and the Douay B(ble, with Annotations 
 (1749-1750). His version of the Douay 
 Bible is substantially that which has since 
 been used by English-speaking Catholics. 
 
 Chanaan. — i. The fourth son of Sem 
 (Gen. ix. 25flf; x. 6-15). — 2. More fre- 
 quently " Land of Chanaan," interpreted 
 to mean loivland, from the Semitic cana 
 {to humble, subdue). It generally denotes 
 the country west of the Jordan and the 
 Dead Sea to the Mediterranean. As the 
 name " lowland " would indicate, it origi- 
 nally comprised only the strip of land, 
 from ten to fifteen miles in breadth and 
 one hundred and fifty miles in length, shut 
 in between the Libanon and the Mediterra- 
 nean, and extending from the Bay of An- 
 tioch to the promontory of the Carmel, that 
 is, southern Phoenicia. To this maritime 
 plain of the Phoenicians and Philistines 
 passages like Isa. xxiii. 11; Soph. ii. 5, re- 
 fer. Later the name was extended to the 
 whole west-Jordanic territory. Thus, also, 
 in the Tel-el-Amarna tablets, which date 
 back a century before the Exodus, Kinakk, 
 or Chanaan, designates the district between 
 
 the cities of Philistia and the country 
 northward of Hebal (Byblos) . — 3. The non- 
 Israelitish inhabitants of Palestine. The 
 origin and affinity of the various tribes are 
 still disputed. 
 
 Chanaanites. See Chanaan. 
 
 Chancel. — The enclosed space in a 
 church, surrounding the altar, and railed 
 off from the choir; the sanctuary. In 
 small churches having no separate choir, 
 the altar-rails (and, in some churches, the 
 screen or lattice work) separate the chancel 
 from the body of the church. In a wider 
 sense, the word chancel and choir are some- 
 times used to include both the sanctuary 
 and the choir proper. In Greek churches 
 the bema answers to the chancel or sanc- 
 tuary, and the iconostasis (as the choir 
 does not intervene between the sanctuary 
 and nave) corresponds, in some measure, 
 to both altar-rails and rood-screen, — to the 
 former as separating the altar from the 
 rest of the church, and to the latter, as 
 constituting a marked boundary to the 
 nave. 
 
 Chancellor and Chancery. — Chancellor 
 is an officer in charge of records. Under 
 the Roman emperors, the chancellor stood 
 at the latticed railing inclosing the judg- 
 ment-seat, to keep back the crowd and to 
 introduce such persons as were entitled to 
 pass inside. The name chancellor seems, 
 however, to have been introduced only 
 about the year 850. From the custom of 
 the Roman empire, the ecclesiastical court 
 at Rome introduced the oifice. From the 
 first ages the Roman Pontiffs had in their 
 service some clerics who wrote and expe- 
 dited letters in their name. St. Jerome tes- 
 tifies that he thus assisted Pope Damasus. 
 These clerics were not called chancellors, 
 but were designated by the name of notaries, 
 regionaries, and librarians. In the ninth 
 century, however, the word chancellor was 
 introduced. It was derived, as some claim, 
 from the fact that the chancellor cancelled 
 every letter with a line drawn through it; 
 or, as others maintain, from the grate be- 
 hind which he sat and gave audience. 
 Each diocese, and frequently each of the 
 great monastic houses, had its chancellor. 
 The Council of Trent permits the bishop 
 to receive a stipend for the expenses of the 
 Chancery, or for the expedition of letters 
 of ordination, dimissorials, dispensations, 
 etc. Its rights are fixed by Canon Law. 
 See Taxes. 
 
Chancery 
 
 153 
 
 Chapters 
 
 Chancery {Roman) . — The Roman Chan- 
 cery is the oldest tribunal of the Court of 
 Rome. Through it are issued letters or 
 acts relative to affairs discussed and ar- 
 ranged in consistories, viz.: appointments 
 of archbishops, bishops, abbots, and other 
 dignitaries. It expedites, at the present 
 time, only those Pontifical letters which are 
 made out in the form of bulls. It is pre- 
 sided over by the Cardinal of San Lorenzo 
 in Damaso, who is assisted by a director of 
 chancery and other subaltern officials. The 
 cardinal-chancellor is called vice-cancel- 
 larius, probably because the chancellor- 
 ship is not properly a cardinal's office ; his 
 jurisdiction lapses with the death of the 
 Pope, when also the seal of the chancery 
 is broken in the presence of the cardinals. 
 The mode of procedure of this tribunal is 
 regulated in strict accordance with the 72 
 regulce cancellarice. 
 
 Chant. See Plain Chant; Music. 
 
 Chapel. — A subordinate place of wor- 
 ship. The right to grant the erection of 
 chapels or oratories in private houses is re- 
 served to the Pope. When this is done by 
 the bishop, it is in virtue of a papal indult. 
 The oratory must be surrounded by walls 
 which separate it from the household in- 
 terior, and from all domestic usages ; it must 
 beinspected by the bishop, who assures him- 
 self that all its accessories are becomingly 
 and decently arranged. The bishop alone 
 can grant permission to say Mass therein. 
 Mass cannot be said in a private oratory or 
 chapel on the days of Easter, Pentecost, 
 Christmas, Ascension, Annunciation, As- 
 sumption, the feasts of the Apostles Peter 
 and Paul, the feast of Transfiguration, nor 
 on the day of the patron saint of the parish. 
 
 Chaplain. — Chaplains are priests at- 
 tached to hospitals, prisons, and similar 
 places for the purpose of exercising the 
 sacred ministry. Their peculiar rights and 
 duties are usually determined by the ordi- 
 nary, according to the requirements of the 
 institutions or places with which they are 
 connected. There are various kinds of 
 chaplains, namely: chaplains of nuns or 
 convents ; of colleges or other similar insti- 
 tutions ; of hospitals, asylums, protectories, 
 prisons, and the like; of military com- 
 panies, etc. Chaplains of nuns or sisters 
 should be of mature age. Military chap- 
 lains, in order to be able to administer the 
 sacraments of penance. Holy Eucharist, 
 and extreme unction to soldiers in garrison, 
 
 stationary camps, or forts, must, as a rule, 
 be approved by the bishop of the place 
 where the quarters are situated, unless they 
 have special faculties from the Holy See. 
 Exempted nuns (or rather, their regular 
 superiors) have the right to nominate their 
 chaplains. As there are no exempted nuns 
 in the United States, the chaplains of con- 
 vents are all appointed by the bishop. 
 
 Chapter (an assembly of canons or reli- 
 gious). — In diocesan organizations, the 
 chapter is a body of priests attached to a 
 cathedral church for the celebration of the 
 divine office, with the charge to assist the 
 bishop in the government of his diocese 
 when the see is occupied, or to supply his 
 place during the vacancy, and in certain 
 cases of impediment. Chapters can, at 
 present, be established only by the Pope, 
 and not by the bishop. This applies not 
 merely to chapters of cathedrals, but also 
 to those of collegiate churches. We have 
 no cathedral chapters in the United States. 
 See CoNSULTORS. 
 
 Chapters {The Three).— ''Three Chap- 
 ters " was a term applied to : i. The per- 
 son and writings of Theodore, Bishop of 
 Mopsuestia. 2. The writings of Theodoret, 
 Bishop of Cyrus, in favor of Nestorius and 
 against St. Cyril, as well as the Synod of 
 Ephesus. 3. The Letter of Ibas, Bishop 
 of Edessa, to the Persian Bishop Maris. 
 Emperor Justinian, with his usual eager- 
 ness to engage in theological disquisitions, 
 published, in 544, an edict, in which, under 
 the name of the "Three Chapters," he 
 condemned the works of the above named 
 authors. The imperial edict usurped the 
 form of a confession of faith, and trans- 
 gressed on the exclusive prerogative of 
 the Church to anathematize the expounders 
 of erroneous doctrines. The authors of 
 these writings had subscribed to a confes- 
 sion of orthodox faith and rejected the er- 
 rors which had been attributed to them ; 
 the Council condemned neither their per- 
 sons, nor their writings, the errors of which 
 latter it, however, rejected. Hence the im- 
 perial edict appeared as an attack on the 
 Council of Chalcedon. The bishops of the 
 East subscribed to the edict through fear of 
 being deposed. Those of Illyricum, Spain, 
 Gaul, and especially of Africa, vigorously 
 resisted. Justinian proposed a Council at 
 Constantinople, whither Pope Vigilius went 
 himself. The latter, in a document, "■Judi- 
 ca/i^w," condemned the "Three Chapters" 
 under the saving clause, "without prejudice 
 
Charity 
 
 154 
 
 Charlemagne 
 
 to the Council of Chalcedon." Then it 
 was agreed to withdraw both the edict and 
 the yudicatum, and to allow full liberty to 
 the future Council. But before the Council 
 assembled, Justinian, in 551, issued a second 
 edict against the "Three Chapters" ad- 
 dressed to the whole Christian world, and 
 the Pope drafted anew his own, in the 
 Constitutum. Vigilius did not assist at 
 the Council, was banished, and died in 
 Sicilj. The decisions of the Council of 
 Constantinople, however, were confirmed 
 by Vigilius shortly before his death. His 
 successor, Pope Pelagius, also confirmed 
 its decrees, and, under Pope Sergius, in 619, 
 the last dissidents in regard to this Coun- 
 cil were in the West. The schism of 
 Aquileja held out longest. It was not until 
 700, that the last of the schismatics re- 
 turned to the unity of the Church. 
 
 Charity. — A virtue which moves us to 
 love God above all things, and to feel con- 
 tented with what it has pleased Providence 
 to bestow upon us. Also to love our neigh- 
 bor as ourselves ; thereby wishing good to 
 him as earnestly as to ourselves; and it 
 diverts our ambition from earthly success 
 toward the attainment of heavenly treas- 
 ures. 
 
 Charity (Sisters of). — A congregation 
 which owes its origin to a confraternity 
 founded at Chatillon-les-Dombes, France, 
 under the title of "Servants of the Poor," 
 by Louise de Marillac, widow of Antoine 
 le Gras, secretary of the Queen. Trans- 
 ferred to Paris in 1633. St. Vincent of 
 Paul transformed it into a community, to 
 which he gave a rule and constitutions 
 which were approved in 1655 by the Car- 
 dinal of Retz, Archbishop of Paris. They 
 are also called "Gray Nuns" and "Sisters 
 of St. Vincent of Paul." As a rule, they 
 attend to the sick in hospitals and have 
 charge of orphans. They have many 
 houses in the United States and Canada. 
 See Sisters. 
 
 Charlemagne or Charles the Great. — 
 
 King of the Franks and Emperor of the 
 West, born in 742, died at Aachen in 814. 
 He was the son of Pepin the Short, king 
 of the Franks, at whose death in 768, he 
 succeeded to the throne, conjointly with a 
 brother, Karlmann. On the death of the 
 latter, he became master of the entire 
 government (771). Having become mas- 
 ter of all the countries that had formed the 
 empire of the West, he seems to have had 
 
 a triple policy: r. To organize the Ger- 
 manic tribes under his rule. 2. To es- 
 tablish a close alliance between Church 
 and State, " For I cannot believe," he 
 said, "that those who are disobedient to 
 the priests of God, can be loyal to the 
 State." 3. To secure for his people the 
 twofold benefit of a Christian civiliza- 
 tion. 
 
 Being desirous to continue the work of 
 St. Boniface, he endeavored to propagate 
 Christianity among the Saxons. The 
 latter, a cruel and treacherous people, 
 made frequent predatory inroads on the 
 kingdom of the Franks. This, together 
 with their refusal to embrace Christianity, 
 led to a war which lasted for a period of 
 thirty-three years. Their complete subju- 
 gation being necessary to the security of 
 the empire, Charlemagne cut down 45,000 
 of the insurgents near the river Aller. 
 His forcing the Saxons to embrace Chris- 
 tianity was a political measure disapproved 
 by the Church and by his distinguished 
 friend, Alcuin. His conduct toward the 
 conquered Saxons was otherwise mild ; he 
 left them their laws and liberties ; he de- 
 manded no taxes from them, but merely 
 tithes for the support of churches and 
 schools. On Christmas Day (800) Pope 
 Leo in. bestowed on Charlemagne the im- 
 perial crown and saluted him " Emperor of 
 the Romans." This act revived the em- 
 pire of the West, which had been extinct 
 since the time of Augustulus, 324 years be- 
 fore. It was an ideal empire, one which 
 imposed upon the emperor a twofold right 
 and duty: i. To propagate and direct 
 the Church. How well Charlemagne un- 
 derstood his duty is manifest from the 
 manner in which he inscribed his name: 
 " Charles, king and most faithful protector 
 of the Apostolic See in all things." 2. To es- 
 tablish a universal Christian monarchy. 
 As the Church creates spiritual unity 
 among the nations, so should the em- 
 peror establish temporal unity, not by 
 subjugating princes and peoples, but by 
 superior direction over the union of 
 Christian states. For this reason the em- 
 pire was, after 962, called the Holy Roman 
 Empire of the German nation. The rela- 
 tion between Pope and emperor was that 
 of mutual support and dependence. The 
 Pope was subject to the emperor as the 
 latter was the supreme temporal ruler; 
 the emperor being a member of the 
 Church was subject to the Pope, its head. 
 Both exchanged oaths of fealty. 
 
Chastity 
 
 155 
 
 Cheverus 
 
 Chastity. — The virtue opposed to lust is 
 chastity, which renders us circumspect in 
 all that might tend to impurity, and induces 
 us to abstain from what is immoral. Chas- 
 tity is obligatory on all in a general sense, 
 but it is a special duty for ecclesiastics and 
 those in religious communities, who have, 
 by their vow, bound themselves to an in- 
 creased obligation of obedience to the 
 sixth commandment. It is a virtue of ex- 
 ceeding rarity when accorded as a peculiar 
 privilege to the few who may be said to 
 possess angelic chastity; for " incor- 
 ruption bringeth near to God " ( Wis. vi. 20) . 
 Man is under moral obligation to cultivate 
 purity of thought and action by avoiding 
 any occasion of defilement; fleeing from 
 the world of dissipation, and devoting him- 
 self to serious occupations; seeking help 
 by prayer, mortification of the senses, and 
 penance. 
 
 Chasuble. — The sixth and last vestment 
 which the priest, who is about to offer up 
 the holy sacrifice of the Mass, puts on, is 
 called the chasuble, from the Latin casula 
 diminutive of casa. This upper garment 
 consists of a broad flat back piece, and a 
 narrower front piece, the two being con- 
 nected over the shoulders only. The chas- 
 uble is generally ornamented with a cross 
 and flowers. It derives its origin from a 
 species of cloak which, among the ancient 
 Romans was caWedfcenula, and is supposed 
 by many commentators on the Scriptures 
 to be the same kind of mantle as that left 
 by St. Paul at Troas with Carpus, and which 
 he requested Timothy to bring with him 
 to Rome (II. Tim. iv. 13). The pienula, 
 which was substituted for the toga, was per- 
 fectly circular in shape, with an aperture in 
 the center of the garment to admit the 
 head, and it enveloped the entire person 
 of the wearer; and precisely similar was 
 the chasuble worn by the priest at Mass 
 during more than twelve hundred years. 
 In the Greek Church this vestment still re- 
 tains its ancient form of a large round 
 mantle covering the whole figure, and is not 
 unfrequently starred all over with a multi- 
 tude of small crosses. Up to the sixth 
 century the paenula was a civic habit, worn 
 without discrimination by laymen and 
 ecclesiastics. Its reservation for use within 
 the sanctuary seems to have been formally 
 adopted toward the close of the sixth cen- 
 tury. 
 
 Chateaubriand (FRANgois Augustk, Vi- 
 COMTK de) (1769-1848). — French writer, 
 
 born at St. Malo in the Bretagne ; was in- 
 tended for the navy, studied for the Church 
 and finally entered the army. He was in 
 Paris during the early part of the Revolu- 
 tion, but in 1791 sailed to America, where 
 he wandered among the Indians. Return- 
 ing the following year, he joined the first 
 emigration and took refuge in London, re- 
 maining there till 1800. His chief works 
 are Atala and Rene (1802) ; Le Genie du 
 Christianisme (1803), and Memoirs. 
 
 Chatel (FRANCib) Abbe (1795-1857). — 
 French schismatic priest, born at Gannat 
 (Allier). Founder of a so-called "French 
 Catholic Church." Successively vicar of 
 the Cathedral of Moulins, curate of Mone- 
 tay-sur-Loire, and chaplain of the army 
 from 1823 to 1830. He wrote in the "/?<?- 
 fortnatettr," and in the ^^Echo de la Reli- 
 gion ei du Siecle," articles of an equivocal 
 orthodoxy, which caused his suspension. 
 After the July revolution, he recruited 
 some followers among the clergy, settled 
 in a house in the rues des Sept- Voies, 
 where he said Mass in French and ended 
 by proclaiming himself bishop and primate 
 of his Church. Since a consecrator was 
 necessary for this dignity, he found a more 
 or less authentic one in Dr. Fabre-Palaprat, 
 who claimed to have received the episcopal 
 consecration from the Bishop of San Do- 
 mingo. But division soon entered among 
 the chiefs of the French Church. The Abbe 
 Auzon, who had joined Chatel, ashamed 
 of his error, retracted and went to ex- 
 piate his fault in a Carthusian convent. 
 Abbe Chatel had only partial success, and, 
 involved in financial erribarrassment, left 
 Paris to settle at Clichy-la-Garenne. The 
 quondam bishop and primate finally found 
 employment in the post office of Saone-et- 
 Loire where he died in oblivion. 
 
 Chemos. — Deity of the Ammonites and 
 Moabites. St. Jerome {On Tsaias L. V.) 
 tells us that there was an idol of this name 
 upon Mount Nebo. The Moabites are 
 called people of Chemos. It was to Chemos 
 that Mesa offered his son (II. Ki. iii. 27), 
 and in the inscription on the Moabite 
 stone the same king attributes to Chemos 
 his victories. 
 
 Cherubim. — Supernatural beings who 
 guarded the entrance to Paradise, after the 
 Fall. Angels of the second choir of the 
 first hierarchy. See Angels. 
 
 Cheverus (John Louis Lefebvre) 
 (1768-1836). — A French prelate; was born 
 
Chili 
 
 156 
 
 Christian Alliance 
 
 at Mayenne, France; died at Bordeaux. 
 Refusing the constitutional oath, he was 
 cast into prison, but escaped in June, 1792, 
 and reached England. He landed at Bos- 
 ton in 1796, and, receiving facuhies from 
 Bishop Carroll, set to work among the 
 scattered Catholics in Maine. Became 
 the first Roman Catholic Bishop of Bos- 
 ton, Massachusetts, in 1808. Archbishop 
 of Bordeaux (1827), and cardinal (1837). 
 
 Chili {Missions in). See Missions. 
 
 Chiliasm. See Millennium. 
 
 China ( Christianity in). See India. 
 
 Chodorlahomor. — King of Elam, who 
 for twelve years made the five cities of the 
 Plain his tributaries, and on their rebel- 
 ling in the thirteenth year, went with four 
 allied kings and overran the whole country 
 south and east of the Jordan. Lot was 
 among his captives, but was rescued by 
 his uncle Abraham with his own depend- 
 ents and neighbors (Gen. xiv). Chodor- 
 lahomor's name is found on Chaldean 
 bricks recently discovered. 
 
 Choir. — That part of a church which is 
 appropriated to the use of the singers. In 
 churches built according to ancient archi- 
 tecture (see Architecture) it is that part 
 between the nave and the apse which is 
 reser\'ed for canons, priests, monks, and 
 choristers, during divine service. In cruci- 
 form churches, the choir usually begins 
 at the transepts and occupies the head of 
 the cross, including the altar; but some- 
 times, especially in monastic churches, it 
 extends bej-ond the transepts, thus en- 
 croaching upon the nave. In churches 
 without transepts the choir is similarly 
 placed. In mediaeval examples, especially 
 after 1250, it was usually surrounded by 
 an ornamental barrier or grating, and sep- 
 arated from the nave by a rood-screen. 
 See Chancel. 
 
 Choir Bishops (also called rural bishops). 
 — Ecclesiastical dignitaries in the early 
 Church, some of whom had received epis- 
 copal consecration, but the majority of 
 whom remained simply priests. Although 
 assistants, and subordinate to the bish- 
 ops of cities, or sees, the choir bishops 
 must not be confounded with suffragan 
 bishops. The choir bishops could ordain 
 readers, exorcists, and subdeacons ; but not 
 deacons or priests, without the permission 
 of the bishop of the city. 
 
 Chosroes II. See Cross. 
 
 Chrism. — A compound of oil and balsam 
 consecrated by a bishop, and used for 
 anointing with the sign of the cross at con- 
 firmation, as well as in baptism, ordina- 
 tion, consecration of altar-stones, chalices, 
 churches, and in the blessing of baptismal 
 water. The component parts of chrism — of 
 olive oil and balsam — signify the two na- 
 tures in Christ; the oil symbolizes the 
 human nature, the balsam the divine na- 
 ture. 
 
 Christ. See Jesus Christ. 
 
 Christian. — It was about the year 40 
 A. D. when the first Pagano-Christian com- 
 munity was formed at Antioch on the 
 Orontes, and it was also there, about the year 
 43, that the Faithful were first called Chris- 
 tians. The Acts of the Apostles relate this 
 fact (Acts xi. 26), and it is evident that the 
 Christianoi meant nothing else than the 
 disciples, the adherents of Christ. It is 
 very probable that the name Christians 
 was first used by the pagans, and very prob- 
 ably by the Romans. They called the fol- 
 lowers of Christ, Christiant, as they called 
 the followers of Caesar, Casariani, those 
 of Pompey, Pompeiani. It is not prob- 
 able that the Christians themselves adopted 
 this name, for they generally called them- 
 selves Disciples, Brethren, the Saints, the 
 Faithful ; besides the word Christianoi, at 
 the beginning, was applied as an epithet of 
 contempt, as can be seen from the texts 
 (Acts xxvi. 28; I. Pet. ix. 14, 16). Neither 
 were the Jews the authors of this name; 
 for certainly they did not give to a race so 
 odious to them a title of honor such as, 
 "followers of the Messias," " Disciples of 
 the Anointed or of the Christ." We know 
 that they generally made use of such ex- 
 pressions as Nazarenes, Galileans, or of 
 other disrespectful terms. 
 
 Christian Alliance. — A religious asso- 
 ciation organized in 1887, with its head- 
 quarters at 692 Eighth avenue. New York 
 city. It was founded by Rev. A. B. Simp- 
 son, who has been its president from the 
 date of its organization. Its membership, 
 as described b>- its founder, " consists of 
 all professing Christians who subscribe to 
 its principles and enroll their names." Its 
 objects are stated to be " the wide diffusion 
 of the Gospel in its fullness, the promo- 
 tion of a deeper and higher Christian life, 
 and the work of evangelization, especially 
 among the neglected classes, by highway 
 
Christian Brothers 
 
 157 
 
 Christianity 
 
 missions and any other practical methods." 
 At the end of 1895 the organization is 
 said to have established 265 missions in 
 China, India, Japan, Haiti, and Congo 
 Free State. In New York city special 
 work is done for fallen women by means 
 of "The Door of Hope," a branch "home" 
 opened by the Alliance. 
 
 Christian Brothers. See Brothers. 
 
 Christian Endeavor {The United So- 
 ciety of) . — A Protestant association formed 
 at Wiliston Church, Portland, Maine, in 
 the year 1881, and which, in 1896, had in- 
 creased to 44,596 societies, with a member- 
 ship of 2,630,000 in the United States, Can- 
 ada, Great Britain, and missionary lands. 
 The purpose of the association is to pro- 
 mote an earnest and useful Christian life 
 on the part of each member, to increase 
 mutual acquaintance between members, 
 and to train young converts in the practi- 
 cal duties of Christianity. 
 
 Christianity (Christendom, the totality 
 of the Christian nations). — The four Gos- 
 pels, written according to St. Matthew, St. 
 Mark, St. Luke, and St. John, give us the 
 details of the divine mission of the Saviour 
 from His birth to His passion, death, and 
 resurrection. This is the basis of Chris- 
 tianity, taught by the lessons and precepts 
 of Christ, developed afterwards by His 
 Apostles, and formulated in an abridgment 
 in their Symbol or Apostles' Creed. But in 
 'ts source, Christianity goes further back; 
 it is intimately connected with the divine 
 facts related in the Old Testament. The 
 Bible, in its entirety, is the exposition of 
 the Christian religion, based upon the 
 primitive revelation which followed the 
 creation of man, and which Christ came to 
 complete in fulfilling the Old Testament 
 prophecies. Thus both Testaments unite 
 in a grand and wonderful harmony. The 
 religious needs and aspirations of the soul, 
 and an unbiased, complete examination of 
 facts and proofs, certainly lead to the re- 
 ligion of Christ, to the divine faith which 
 He came on earth to establish. This divine 
 religion, expounded by Christianity, alone 
 answers to the cries and needs of our nature, 
 — a nature both corporal and spiritual ; this 
 alone victoriously combats the principle of 
 evil which is within us as an original stain; 
 this alone can sanctify the individual, the 
 family, and society ; this alone is the voice 
 of truth and life ; finally, this alone, regu- 
 lates with authority the duties, guides faith 
 
 in its hesitations, hope in its waverings, 
 charity in its works, and is the source of 
 all good and of expiation, in view of eternal 
 life. 
 
 Let us read the Gospels, in order to ar- 
 rive at the starting point of Christian 
 preaching, at the foundation of Christian- 
 ity. The Messias who was announced from 
 the beginning of the world, and again and 
 again foretold by the Prophets, has fulfilled 
 His divine mission. In His "Sermon on 
 the Mount," He has given us a summary 
 of His sublime doctrine ; He has spread the 
 good news, and transmitted to His Apos- 
 tles the doctrine which should be taught by 
 them to the whole world : ^^ Docete omnes 
 genfes.'" He has established among them a 
 chief, to whom He said : "Thou art Peter, 
 and upon this rock I shall build my 
 Church." This chief will represent the 
 unity and authority, and his successors will 
 continue in possession of this deposit of 
 unity and supreme authority until the end 
 of time. The power to bind and to loose 
 will be given to them. Jesus Christ dies 
 upon the Cross : '■^consummatum est.'^ Tri- 
 umphantly He comes forth from the grave, 
 and appears to His disciples in order to 
 confer on them His divine mission and 
 confirm them in the truths thereof. Soon 
 the effects of the Redemption make them- 
 selves felt. The Jews who denied and 
 crucified Him are no longer the chosen and 
 privileged, the only repository heretofore 
 of the faith revealed by God. The Old 
 Law must give place to a new covenant of 
 grace and love ; all nations and peoples, 
 tribes and tongues are called to share in 
 its benevolent effects. The Holy Ghost 
 who descended in the Upper-Room upon 
 the Apostles, loosened their tongues, and 
 communicated to them the divine spirit. 
 Two sermons of Peter at Jerusalem make 
 eight thousand converts, who gladly con- 
 fess the faith of Christ, and thus the first 
 Church of Christians is founded. These 
 new Faithful, in their fervor and zeal, de- 
 posit their goods at the feet of the Apos- 
 tles for equitable division among the 
 Community. 
 
 Soon, however, the Synagogue becomes 
 suspicious and wrathful ; the Apostles are 
 put into prison, scourged, and forbidden to 
 preach. They answer that " they must obey 
 God rather than man," and continue to 
 preach Christ crucified. Seven deacons are 
 chosen bj' the Apostles ; the first of these is 
 Stephen, who became the first glorious mar- 
 tyr. Paul, struck with blindness on his way 
 
Christianity 
 
 158 
 
 Christianity 
 
 to Damascus, whither he was going to per- 
 secute the Christians, beholds the scales fall 
 from his eyes, and from a relentless per- 
 secutor becomes the great Apostle of the 
 Gentiles. Reunited with Peter in that Capi- 
 tal which groans under the tyranny of a 
 Nero, they together seal with their blood the 
 faith of Christ. Rome will become the See 
 of the universal Church. John teaches and 
 labors in Asia Minor, Philip in Upper 
 Asia, Andrew among the fierce Scythians. 
 Thomas preaches among the Parthians, 
 and even pushes his labors till he embraces 
 the Indies, whither he is followed bj- 
 Bartholomew ; Matthew labors in Ethiopia, 
 and Simon in Persia. The pagan world is 
 shaken, astonished, amazed, by the new 
 doctrine which affirms only one God, a 
 God made man in order to save man ; 
 which proclaims men equal and brethren ; 
 which preaches renouncement, mortifica- 
 tion, fasts, devotedness, the despising of 
 this world in order the better to win a 
 celestial one. The wise and the powerful 
 wrap themselves up in their pride and 
 folly, but the poor, the humble, the miser- 
 able, feel themselves carried along by these 
 words of peace and love which show to 
 them beyond their life of trials, a reward 
 of eternal happiness. The pagans believe 
 that they can smother the divine voice by 
 torments and death. '* The Christians to 
 the lions ! " and the wild beasts, fire, the 
 most cruel torments, were employed in 
 vain on these resigned victims. But, says 
 Tertullian, " The blood of the martyrs be- 
 came the seed of Christians." They 
 hid in the Catacombs the mysteries of 
 their precious worship; and here, too, they 
 buried the victims of imperial barbarity. 
 There are counted, during the first three 
 centuries, ten general persecutions di- 
 rected against the Christians (see Perse- 
 cutions). However, the Christians were 
 not enemies of the empire ; on the con- 
 trary, obedience to all laws not contrary to 
 morality or conscience was to them a re- 
 ligious duty. But to the blinded and 
 hardened pagans, liberty of conscience 
 was revolt and disloyalty ; and paganism, 
 with all its revolting rites and ceremonies, 
 was an integral part of the constitution 
 and of social life. Even the emperors, be- 
 sotted voluptuous tyrants, were deified, 
 and to kill Christians appeared to them 
 a measure of public safety. But truth 
 always ends in triumph, and the Chris- 
 tian Church in the person of Constantine, 
 after his victory over Maxentius, was 
 
 triumphant, but she had not completed 
 her work. She had to strengthen and ex- 
 tend herself, to give herself, after three 
 centuries of struggle, an organic constitu- 
 tional form of government. She had, too, 
 to prepare herself to enter upon a new, 
 and though bloodless, yet more dangerous 
 struggle, — the combat within her fold, 
 against error and heresy. There had 
 already commenced in the desert of The- 
 biad that wonderful institution of Monas- 
 ticism, based upon the spirit of penance 
 and the desire to more closely approach 
 heaven by means of contemplation, prayer, 
 and the strict practice of ascetic virtues. 
 St. Paul, St. Anthony, and St. Pachomius, 
 were the first Apostles and models of this 
 eremitic life — a mode of life soon to be re- 
 placed by that of the cenobitic or com- 
 munity life. The East became covered 
 with monasteries to which St. Basil gave 
 his Rule. When the monks passed into 
 the West, following St. Athanasius, they 
 strengthened and consolidated themselves 
 by the aid of a new force. This auxiliary 
 was the joining to prayer and contempla- 
 tion of manual labor. Indefatigable in 
 all kinds of labors, they soon became the 
 pioneers of European civilization. " They 
 cleared it in great part," says Guizot, *' in 
 joining agriculture with preaching." 
 This religious militia was one of the great- 
 est forces of Christianity and a vigorous 
 element of civilization. The monasteries 
 became the nurseries of priests, asylums 
 of study, centers of schools, and barriers 
 against the inroads of Barbarians. 
 
 In proportion as the Church established 
 the hierarchy of patriarchs, metropolitans, 
 bishops, and pastors, to oversee and propa- 
 gate her doctrine, she beheld rising around 
 her errors which she was bound to com- 
 bat and suppress. From the first century, 
 at her very cradle, she had to confute and 
 confound Simon, the Magician, Apollon- 
 ius of Tj-ana and the Ebionites. The Gnos- 
 tics and the Montanists appeared in the 
 second century, and in the third and fourth 
 the Manicheans and the Arians. The latter, 
 though powerful and numerous, and having 
 the support of several emperors, failed, in 
 spite of craft, power, and numbers, to over- 
 throw the Church. They, indeed, cor- 
 rupted and won over a part of the Episcopate 
 court prelates, and many of the Barbarians 
 who had recently been converted from 
 paganism. Then arose the Donatists, Pe- 
 lagians, Nestorians, and Eutychians, all of 
 whom, in various ways, denied some of the 
 
Christianity 
 
 159 
 
 Christianity 
 
 Christian dogmas, and tried to destroy the 
 purity, unity, and integrity of the Church. 
 To all of these heresies and heresiarchs, 
 the Church opposed her victorious cham- 
 pions, — St. Justin, Athenagoras, Tertul- 
 lian, and others. To these apologists was 
 added the lofty and powerful eloquence of 
 the early Fathers : St. Athanasius, St. 
 Basil, St. Chrysostom, St. Jerome, St. 
 Ambrose, and St. Augustine. She affirmed 
 and established her dogmas with incom- 
 parable authority in the assemblies of her 
 Ecumenical Councils, where all the bish- 
 ops, supported by the authority of the Ro- 
 man Pontiff, formulated their decisions 
 and anathematized, in such a manner as to 
 leave no subterfuge unexposed, nor its 
 abettors unmasked. 
 
 In the second century, Gaul had re- 
 ceived Christianity through the teaching 
 and labors of St. Pothinus, who was mar- 
 tyred at Lyons under Marcus Aurelius, to- 
 gether with a number of the Faithful. The 
 Church of the Gauls flourished by the 
 great learning, wisdom, and virtues of 
 her bishops, when Clovis and his Franks 
 came to bow their heads and received the 
 faith from St. Remigius, at Rheims. The 
 other Barbarians, who had been infected 
 with Arianism were brought back to the 
 true faith. Ireland, converted by St. Pat- 
 rick, became a home and a center of Mon- 
 astic zeal and all Christian virtues. From 
 her famous Monastery of Bangor, St. Co- 
 lumbanus and St. Gall went forth to evan- 
 gelize the regions of the Vosges and of Hel- 
 vetia. In 596, the Anglo-Saxons were con- 
 verted by St. Augustine. In 690, twelve 
 English monks, led by St. Willibrord, went 
 to convert the Frieslanders, while another 
 Irish monk, St. Killian, spread the faith 
 in Franconia. In the year 716, St. Win- 
 frid (or Boniface) went to destroy the 
 idols and plant the faith in Thuringia, 
 Saxony, and Bavaria, establishing, wher- 
 ever he came, bishoprics, churches, and 
 schools. 
 
 The religious faith and spirit, so alive 
 and active in the West, had grown cold in 
 the East. Here a general relaxation of 
 morals and the subtleties of heresies had 
 produced woeful effects. On the other 
 hand, Mohammed inflamed with fanati- 
 cism the Arabian race, and with it marched 
 to victory and made conquests which ex- 
 tended from the shores of the Euphrates 
 and Nile to the Pyrenees. From this point, 
 his followers after penetrating Gaul, threat- 
 ened Christian civilization with ruin. The 
 
 sword of Charles Martel, fortunately, ar- 
 rested their progress on the plains of Poi- 
 tiers, in 732. It required eight centuries 
 of heroic struggle on the part of the Chris- 
 tians of Spain to drive forever from her 
 soil the Moslem power. This power was 
 eventually shaken in the Orient, and the 
 Holy Sepulchre was restored to the Chris- 
 tians. 
 
 The benevolent action of Christianity 
 had continued to exercise its influence and 
 agencies upon the Western nations. Char- 
 lemagne, in the eighth century, had by 
 his power and example strengthened it in 
 Germany, and introduced It into several 
 provinces hitherto unenlightened by its 
 beneficient rays. In the following century 
 Denmark and Sweden received the faith 
 through the preaching and labors of St. 
 Ansgar. St. Cyril and St. Methodius ef- 
 ected the conversion of the Slavs. The Nor- 
 man Pirates brought into France by Rol- 
 lin also bowed their necks under the sweet 
 yoke of Christ. 
 
 But schism and heresy were still very 
 active in the East. In the eighth century, 
 the Church was afflicted by the Iconoclast 
 heresy, and still more by that of Photius, 
 who effected the separation of the Eastern 
 Churches from the center of authority — 
 Rome. The Papacy had ever, and has 
 still, to war for the cause of that divine 
 faith, the integrity of which it must pro- 
 tect and preserve. It triumphed in the 
 twelfth century over the errors of the 
 Waldenses and Albigenses, and again in 
 the long and bitter quarrel concerning the 
 right of Investiture. It finally forced the 
 emperors of Germany to respect the 
 rights and dignities of the priesthood. It 
 also created for its work and defense mili- 
 tant orders of monks : The Knights and 
 Hospitalers of St. John of Jerusalem 
 (1100); the Templars (11 18); the Teu- 
 tonic Knights ( 1190) ; the Knights of Avis, 
 in Spain and Portugal (1146); of Cala- 
 trava (1158); of Alcantara (1213) ; and, 
 finally, the Sword Bearers of Livonia 
 (1202). On the other hand, the great mon- 
 astic orders had received from St. Bene- 
 dict of Monte Cassino, the famous Bene- 
 dictine Rule, which became in time the 
 basis of all conventual institutions. The 
 great "Schism of the West" (1378-1449) 
 arose to trouble the Church, and, by its 
 sorrowful effects, lessened the prestige of 
 the Papacy. Religious unity received an 
 almost fatal blow. The spirit of revolt 
 manifested itself in the heresies of Wycliffe, 
 
Christianity in America 
 
 1 60 
 
 Christianity in America 
 
 of John Huss, and of Jerome of Prague. 
 These heresiarchs, with their errors, pre- 
 pared the way for the separation finally 
 completed by Luther in Germany, Zwingli 
 in Switzerland, Calvin in France, and 
 Henry VIII. in England. The Councils 
 of Basle and of Constance were powerless 
 to heal the schisms which now divided 
 Europe, and brought in their train bloody 
 wars. By God's providence, a new re- 
 ligious order, that of the Jesuits, sprung 
 up, and soon became famous for its loyalty 
 to the Holy See, giving to it stanch de- 
 fenders, men remarkable for their learn- 
 ing and sanctity. These men devoted 
 themselves principally to the education 
 of youth and to the defense of Christian 
 dogmas. The Council of Trent (1545- 
 1563) assembled to fix the dogmas, regu- 
 late the discipline, establish the infalli- 
 bility of the Church, and correct the abuses 
 with which they reproached her. The 
 "Peace of Augsburg," in 1555, granted to 
 the Protestants liberty of conscience, but 
 yet division continued to remain among 
 the Christian bodies. In pretending to 
 bring back Christianity to its primitive 
 purity, the Protestant Reformation had 
 essentially altered its essence and shaken 
 its very foundation. It introduced the ra- 
 tionalistic element as a negation of author- 
 ity, for where there is no authority, disorder 
 and anarchy must inevitably prevail. While 
 Catholicity remained firm and unchange- 
 able. Protestantism became split into a 
 multitude of sects, — Lutherans, Calvinists, 
 Anabaptists, Moravians, Anglicans, Presby- 
 terians, Puritans, Independents, Quakers, 
 Methodists, Pietists, Unitarians, etc., hav- 
 ing their common foundation in Rational- 
 ism, under the cloak of liberty of conscience. 
 To-day, the sovereign Pontiff has lost his 
 temporal power, which protected and 
 guaranteed his independence; neverthe- 
 less, he remains all-powerful and absolute 
 in his spiritual sway, and never was the 
 matchless unity of Christ's mystical body 
 — the Church — so great and true as to- 
 day. The temporal powers still gladly 
 make the successor of St. Peter the um- 
 pire of their many disputes. He, and he 
 alone, in undiminished power, is the living 
 representative and vicegerent of Christ, 
 who lives, reigns, and commands. 
 
 Christianity in America. — The discov- 
 ery of America (1492), by the pious 
 Christopher Columbus, opened a new 
 field for the missionary labors of the 
 
 Church. Pope Alexander VI. commis- 
 sioned Ferdinand the Catholic to have 
 Christianity introduced into the New 
 World. The first missionaries were Bene- 
 dictines, Hieronymites, Franciscans, and 
 Dominicans. Their labors were in great 
 measure frustrated by the avarice and 
 cruelties of the Spanish settlers, who com- 
 pelled the natives to work as slaves. The 
 missionaries stoutly denounced the en- 
 slavement of the Indians as being a vio- 
 lation of their natural rights and the laws 
 of Christianity. At an early period, 
 negroes were brought from Africa, to re- 
 place the Indian slaves. After the death 
 of Ferdinand, Cardinal Ximenes, regent 
 of Spain, prohibited this practice. Bar- 
 tholomew de Las Casas, a member of the 
 Dominican order, wished, under cer- 
 tain restrictions, to have the negroes who 
 were slaves, employed in the labors of the 
 colonies, instead of the weaker Indians. 
 For this reason, he has been unjustly ac- 
 cused of introducing the slave trade, 
 whereas he was the true apostle of the 
 Indians, the stanch defender of their per- 
 sonal freedom. He crossed the Ocean 
 sixteen times to defend their rights. (See 
 Las Casas). The friends of slavery as- 
 serting that the Indians were but irrational 
 beasts and born to slavery. Pope Paul III., 
 in a Bull issued in 1537, vindicated the 
 liberty of the Indians and maintained 
 that, as they belong to the human race, 
 they are heirs to the rights of man. The 
 decrees of the Bull were frequently re- 
 newed by succeeding Popes. Their ex- 
 ample was followed by the kings of Spain. 
 The missionaries were the zealous apostles 
 of peace and true friends of the persecuted 
 natives. They compiled grammars, dic- 
 tionaries, and other works in the native 
 tongue of the aborigines, and thus won 
 the most savage tribes to Christianity. 
 Together with the other religious orders, 
 the Jesuits labored in Peru, Chili, and 
 Mexico. Bishoprics were established in 
 the different parts of Spanish America, 
 seminaries founded, and provincial and 
 diocesan synods held to promote the cause 
 of religion. The clergy and religious were 
 animated with zeal for souls. St. Louis 
 Bertrand labored in Columbia, St. Francis 
 Solano in La Plata and Peru. St. Peter 
 Claver became the apostle of the slaves. 
 St. Rose of Lima is the first canonized 
 saint of America. To the Catholic 
 Church America owes her discovery and 
 her civilization. See Missions. 
 
Christians 
 
 i6i 
 
 Chronology 
 
 Christians or Christian Connection. — 
 
 The name adopted by a religious denomi- 
 nation in the United States, which origi- 
 nated, in 1793, in a secession from the 
 Methodists of Virginia and North Caro- 
 lina, led by the Rev. J. Q'Kelley, and at 
 first called "Republican Methodists." The 
 name was changed that it might express 
 their renunciation of all sectarianism. 
 This sect must not be confounded with the 
 "Christian Churches" or "Disciples of 
 Christ." They are widely scattered 
 throughout the United States, and in 1895 
 had 1,300 Churches, 1,380 ministers, and 
 9,500 communicants. Their principles 
 create each congregation into an inde- 
 pendent body and the Bible is their only 
 rule of faith, which every person is at 
 liberty to interpret for himself. Member- 
 ship is obtained by a simple profession of 
 belief in Christianity. As a rule they are 
 antitrinitarians and immersionists. 
 
 Christians {Chaldean). — The Chaldean 
 Christians, or converted Nestorians, are 
 to be found chiefly in Persia, Kurdistan, 
 Mesopotamia, and Turkish Armenia. 
 They are ruled by the " Chaldean Patri- 
 arch of Babylonia," who resides at Mosul 
 and Bagdad. He has under him two arch- 
 bishops and ten bishops. In 1892, the Nes- 
 torian patriarch Marchisnu, with the last 
 remnants of his sect, sought union with the 
 Holy See, thus putting an end to what was 
 once known as the Nestorian schismatic 
 Church. In Persia and the surrounding 
 countries the Catholics of various rites 
 number about 63,000. See Oriental 
 Rites. 
 
 Christians of St. Thomas. — Name given 
 to the ancient Christians which the first 
 Portuguese conquerors found spread around 
 Calicut, and who pretended to be descend- 
 ants of the people whom St. Thomas con- 
 verted in his apostolate of the Indies. They 
 are Nestorians of the Chaldean rite and 
 belong to the Nestorian patriarchate of 
 Babylonia. 
 
 Christmas (Feast of the Nativity of our 
 Lord). — The institution of this feast, which 
 is celebrated on December 25th, is attrib- 
 uted to Pope Telesphorus, in the year 138. 
 Originally, Christmas Day was often con- 
 founded with the feast of Epiphany. On 
 the feast of Christmas Day, the Catholic 
 priest is permitted to say three Masses, 
 in commemoration of the temporal, spirit- 
 ual, and eternal birth of Christ. When- 
 II 
 
 ever Christmas Day falls on Friday, it is 
 permitted to eat flesh-meat. 
 
 Christology. — That part of theology 
 which treats of the person and work of 
 Christ. Dogmatic theology is divided into 
 Ontology and Christology. 
 
 Christolytes. — Name given to heretics of 
 the sixth century who pretended that Christ 
 descended into hell with both body and soul, 
 that He left both therein, and ascended into 
 heaven only with His divinity. 
 
 Christopher (St.). — A martyr of the 
 third century. He is said to have lived in 
 Syria, and to have been of prodigious 
 stature and strength. As a penance for 
 having been a servant of the devil, he de- 
 voted himself to the task of carrying pil- 
 grims across a river where there was no 
 bridge. Christ went to the river one day, 
 in the form of a child, and asked to be car- 
 ried over, but his weight grew heavier and 
 heavier till his bearer was nearly broken 
 down in the midst of the stream. When 
 they reached the shore, the child said, 
 " Marvel not, for with Me thou hast borne 
 all the sins of the world." Christopher is 
 usually represented as bearing the infant 
 Christ and leaning upon a great staflf. F. 
 July 5th. 
 
 Chrodegang (St.). — Bishop of Metz; 
 was born in Brabant, in 712. Kinsman of 
 Pepin the Short; became chancellor of 
 Charles Martel, to which office was joined 
 that of Bishop of Metz (742). He was a 
 great statesman and ecclesiastic. We owe 
 to him a famous rule concerning the can- 
 ons of his cathedral. He died March 6th, 
 766. 
 
 Chronicles. See Paralipomena. 
 
 Chronology. — There is nescience so full 
 of difficulties as that which treats of events 
 lost in the night of ages. It strikes against 
 uncertain periods, where it is fain to de- 
 pend upon inference and conjecture. 
 Where written documents are wanting, 
 we are reduced to calculate the number of 
 generations, to invoke astronomical ac- 
 counts, the eclipses, and to examine mon- 
 uments. A passage of Confucius which 
 indicates thirty-five eclipses of the sun, 
 has permitted us to calculate that the 
 facts of which he speaks must have taken 
 place between the years 720 to 481 b. c, 
 but this is only one point in the space of 
 ancient times. The first people of Italy, 
 
Chronology 
 
 162 
 
 Chronology 
 
 Gaul, and Germany, had no chronology 
 properly speaking. We find a limited 
 ancient chronology, beginning with the 
 tenth century b.c. Thanks to the discov- 
 ery of the "Marbles of Paros," we have 
 been enabled to recover the chief events of 
 the annals of Greece, from the foundation 
 of Athens, about 1558 b.c, until the year 
 200 of our era. The Roman chronology 
 has been determined according to the 
 "Consular Fathers" or "Capitoline Mar- 
 bles," which were unearthed in the ancient 
 Forum in 1547. For Egypt we have the 
 "History of Manetho" in the extracts 
 transmitted to us by Julius Africanus and 
 Eusebius ; moreover, the hieroglyphics re- 
 cently deciphered, the continual excava- 
 tions and the discoveries made in the 
 hypogene of the land of the Pharaos, have 
 furnished new secrets to chronology. 
 Finally, the Bible offers to chronology 
 the most authentic and precise sources, and 
 according to the accounts it furnishes has 
 been established the era followed by all the 
 Christian peoples. 
 
 The first thing to obser\-e in the chron- 
 ological calculations, is the measure of 
 time, the year which has served to estab- 
 lish the calendar, either according to the 
 solar month, or according to the lunations. 
 It is requisite also to study the cycles 
 •which are periods of time succeeding one 
 another in determined intervals. Among 
 the Romans, the cycle of indication was 
 composed of fifty jrears or three lustres, 
 but without connection with the astronom- 
 ical movements. The word era desig- 
 nates a memorable epoch which serves as 
 a starting point for the calculation of the 
 years, anterior and posterior to the event 
 which it designates. History mentions at 
 least twenty different eras, the best known 
 of which are : the Era of the Olympiads, 
 776 B. c. ; the Era of the Foundation of 
 Rome, 752 B.C.; the Julian Era, 45 b. c. ; 
 the Era of Mohammed or Hegira, 622 a.d. ; 
 finally the Christian Era or the Incarna- 
 tion of Jesus Christ. The latter, to which 
 is referred all the others, is based upon the 
 text of the Bible, but since we have three 
 principal ones (the Hebrew, the Samaritan, 
 and the Greek of the Septuagint) notable 
 divergences have resulted from it in regard 
 to certain dates, so that from the creation 
 of the world till the birth of Jesus Christ 
 is counted, according to the Septuagint 
 and Vulgate, 5228 years ; according to the 
 Samaritan, 4293 years, and according to 
 the Hebrew, 3992 years. A learned chro- 
 
 nologist of the sixteenth century, Usserius, 
 has modified these calculations and fixed 
 the period before Christ at 4000 years. 
 Then came the Benedictines of the eight- 
 eenth century, who, in their learned work, 
 Art to Verify the Dates, fixed the dura- 
 tion of the world before Christ at 4963 
 years. Finally, in our time, a new system 
 has been established by the Abb6 Chev- 
 alier, who, by means of observations, en- 
 deavors to bring into agreement the 
 diflferent texts of our Sacred Books, and 
 reconcile them with the accounts given by 
 the most ancient authors, as well as with 
 those that result from modern discoveries 
 in Assyria and Egypt ; thus he attempts to 
 fix the origin of the world in the year 
 5949 B- c. 
 
 Chronology (Biblical). — We do not 
 find in the Bible a complete chronology, 
 nor a fixed era or epoch at which the 
 numeration of the years commences, and in 
 this sense we can say, repeating the words 
 attributed to Silvestre de Sacy : " There 
 is no Biblical chronology." But there 
 are in the Scriptures some figures, dates, 
 and chronological accounts, which may 
 serve to form a system of Biblical chro- 
 nology. It is the same with the Egyptian 
 monuments, which only indicate the years 
 of a reign, with the help of which the 
 chronologists calculate the dates of Egyp- 
 tian history. We have, therefore, as much 
 right to speak of a Biblical chronology as 
 of an Egyptian chronology. 
 
 But the Bible does not contain an ordi- 
 nary history : it is the work of God ; it has 
 been written under the inspiration of the 
 Holy Ghost. Hence we may ask whether the 
 Biblical chronology is inspired and whether 
 it forms a part of the divine revelation. 
 Certainly, the sacred writers have written, 
 under divine impulse, some dates, and fur- 
 nished chronological accounts which were 
 inspired by God, and consequently exact. 
 These teachings which formed part of the 
 di^^ne revelation, would constitute a re- 
 vealed chronology, if it were certain that 
 the inspired authors desired to point out 
 the age of the world and the regular suc- 
 cession of time and historic events in Israel, 
 and that they have indicated all the neces- 
 sary dates. Some, undoubtedly, had the 
 design to fix chronologically the epoch of 
 the events which they related ; but not all 
 took this care, and the chronographers 
 establish in their writings many breaks 
 or simple chronological approximations. 
 
Chronology 
 
 163 
 
 Chronology 
 
 The Bible contains, therefore, chronolog- 
 ical accounts which are incomplete and 
 insufficient to form a revealed and certain 
 chronology. We might arrange them 
 systematically, but the calculation result- 
 ing therefrom would remain doubtful 
 and faulty. It would not enforce the as- 
 sent of any Catholic, who would always 
 have the right to discuss and reject it. 
 Moreover, all the figures of the Bible 
 have not reached us in their primitive 
 integrity, and the dates present themselves 
 to us with such variations that criticism is 
 unable to restore with any certainty the 
 original text. This evident alteration of 
 dates still further increases the uncertainty 
 of chronological calculations. Further- 
 more, the Catholic Church never had an 
 official chronology. She has always per- 
 mitted discussion of the numerical varia- 
 tions of the sacred text, and liberty of 
 reckoning the duration of the Biblical 
 periods. We shall set forth briefly the re- 
 sults obtained by the chronologists, pass- 
 ing successively over the principal epochs 
 of the Biblical history. 
 
 I. Date of the Creation of the 
 World. — The Bible does not fix the era 
 of this supreme event; it narrates only 
 that God created heaven and earth " in 
 the beginning," without fixing precisely 
 the epoch of this "beginning." It also 
 describes the primordial condition of the 
 terrestrial globe as a state of chaos, of 
 confusion, and of disorder, during which 
 dense darkness covered the surface of the 
 chaotic elements (Gen. i. i, 2). It does 
 not inform us as to the duration of this 
 primeval period. Until the nineteenth 
 century, critics generally did not dis- 
 tinguish the date of the creation of the 
 world from that of the creation of man, 
 from which it was separated, they com- 
 monly believed, only by six days of 
 twenty-four hours. Previously, however, 
 some more perspicuous writers, such as 
 St. Justin, St. Gregory of Nazianz, Gen- 
 nadius of Marseilles, and Petavius, had ad- 
 mitted an indefinite period between the 
 creation of primordial matter and its defin- 
 itive organization. (Cf. Motais, Origine 
 du Monde d'apres la Tradition, c. ii., pp. 
 17-42.) The present interpreters acknowl- 
 edge almost unanimously that Moses is 
 silent as to the space of time that elapsed 
 between the primitive creation and the 
 production of the light on the first geneti- 
 cal day. Several even consider the days 
 of creation as periods of an indeterminate 
 
 duration (see Cosmogony), and all critics 
 leave to the astronomers and geologists 
 the task of determining the time neces- 
 sary for the formation of the planetary 
 bodies and the geological strata. Besides, 
 science, no more than exegesis, possesses 
 the means of estimating this time with 
 precision and certainty. Reliable time 
 gauges are wanting. However, geolo- 
 gists, in accord with astronomers, allow 
 centuries to the igneous state of the 
 earth, and it is a fact demonstrated 
 beyond question that its planetary phase 
 goes back to a very ancient origin. The 
 earthly stratifications, the configuration 
 of the continents, the changes of the 
 flora and fauna, have required centuries. 
 The geologists who venture to fix by fig- 
 ures the age of the world arrive at very 
 dififerent conclusions. Their calculations, 
 which start from diiTerent hypotheses, are 
 based on the time necessary for the action 
 of existing causes. But, while always iden- 
 tical in their essence, the forces of nature 
 must certainly have varied in their mode 
 of action. Their intensity has been more 
 or less powerful, and their associations, 
 more or less complex, have deviated in a 
 large measure from the combinations at 
 present existing. Hence we can admit 
 only with great reserve the numerical re- 
 sults at which different scientists have 
 claimed to arrive. Reputable geologists 
 do not believe they exaggerate in estimat- 
 ing at some millions of years the time 
 necessary for the geological formations. 
 According to this the figures might vary 
 from I to 20, sometimes from i to 100, 
 millions of years without any one of the 
 extreme results meriting less confidence 
 than another. Hence, it would not be un- 
 reasonable to place between 20 and 100 
 millions of years as the duration of time 
 involved in the sedimentry formations. 
 
 II. Date of the Creation of Adam. 
 — The Biblical times can be measured only 
 from the appearance of man upon earth. 
 However, the sacred text does not deter- 
 mine chronologically the origin of man in 
 a formal and precise manner. Nowhere is 
 it said : Adam was created at such a date. 
 This date is the result of the calculation of 
 all the chronological references contained 
 in the Old Testament. Now, with the 
 same data and employing the same proc- 
 esses, chronologists have arrived at very 
 divergent figures. Alphonse des Vignolles 
 has collected more than two hundred dif- 
 ferent calculations, " of which the shortest 
 
Chronology 
 
 164 
 
 Chronology 
 
 counts onlj 3,483 years from the creation 
 of the world to Jesus Christ, and the long- 
 est counts 6,984 years. This is a difference 
 of thirty-five centuries." Ricoli has drawn 
 up a table of seventy of these systems. 
 Father Tournemine, at the end of his edi- 
 tion of Menochius, gives the ninety-two 
 most famous. The Art of Verifying- 
 Dates notes one hundred and eight. The 
 modern Jews place the creation in 3761 be- 
 fore our era; Scaliger, in 3950; Petavius, 
 in 3983; Usserius, in 4004; Clinton, in 
 4138; the new edition (1820) of the Art of 
 Verifying Dates, in 4963; Hales, in 541 1 ; 
 Jackson, in 5426 ; the Church of Alexandria, 
 in 5504; the Church of Constantinople, in 
 5510; Vossius, in 6004; Panvinio, in 631 1 ; 
 the Alphonsine tables, in 6984. These very 
 different conclusions result from the fact 
 that chronologists follow diverse accounts 
 of the sacred text and combine after their 
 own fashion the chronological data of the 
 Bible. Further on we shall discuss the bases 
 of these systems, and we shall have to deter- 
 mine whether there is reason to increase, 
 as many of our contemporaries believe, the 
 age of man upon earth. Our discussion 
 will not be hampered by any dogmatic de- 
 cision. The Roman Church, which has 
 chosen the Vulgate as the official edition 
 of the Bible, has kept in the Martyrology, 
 which forms a part of her liturgy, the date 
 of 5199, drawn from the Septuagint, for 
 the creation of man. The Fathers and the 
 Catholic exegetists have differed on this 
 subject, and nobody disputes the right of 
 geologists, paleontologists, and chronolo- 
 gists to search out scientifically the time 
 that elapsed from the creation of man to 
 the birth of Jesus Christ. 
 
 Certain supporters of prehistoric arch- 
 aeology have abused this liberty and as- 
 signed a very remote antiquity to mankind. 
 Abbe Hamard, a great authority on this 
 subject, is of the opinion that neither ge- 
 ology nor prehistoric archaeology obliges 
 lis to fix the date of the creation of man 
 many thousands of years earlier than is 
 commonly thought. Yet we must ac- 
 knowledge that, while rejecting the fan- 
 tastic figures of some writers, Catholic 
 scholars admit the appearance of man upon 
 earth at a more remote date than that which 
 results "from the highest Biblical chronol- 
 ogy. M. de Lapparent, a noted French 
 authority, believes that the origin of man 
 is interglacial and that it goes back, as far 
 as it can be expressed in figures, to thirty 
 or thirty-two thousand years. Others be- 
 
 lieve that man is of postglacial origin, 
 and the Marquis de Nadaillac has repeat- 
 edly attributed to the existence of man 
 upon earth a duration from ten to twelve 
 thousand years. Be this as it may, we shall 
 have to examine further back, whether, 
 in default of geology and paleontology, 
 history obliges us to raise the date of the 
 origin of man and to increase the duration 
 of the existence of mankind upon the earth. 
 We have also to determine in what Biblical 
 epoch the chronological increase can and 
 ought to be made. 
 
 III. From Adam TO THE Deluge. — The 
 time which elapsed in this interval is cal- 
 culated according to the genealogy of the 
 descendants of Adam in the line of Seth 
 (Gen. v. 1-31). This genealogy comprises 
 ten patriarchs and nine generations; it 
 notes the age of the patriarch at the 
 time of his paternity, the number of years 
 he lived after the birth of his son, and 
 the total duration of his life. By adding 
 the ten figures of the age of the patriarchs 
 to the birth of their sons, we easily obtain 
 the duration of the period. This simple 
 calculation gives, however, notably diver- 
 gent sums, because it is computed from dif- 
 ferent dates. We possess, indeed, three 
 accounts of the Pentateuch ; the first is 
 represented by the version of the Septua- 
 gint, the second by the massoretic Hebrew 
 text and the Vulgate of St. Jerome, and 
 the third by the Hebrew text of the Samari- 
 tans. The following table will enable us 
 to judge at a glance the difference in the 
 figures : — 
 
 Age at the Birth 
 OF THE Sons 
 
 Names of the 
 Patriarchs 
 
 Adam 
 
 Seth 
 
 Enos 
 
 Cainan 
 
 Malaleel 
 
 Jared 
 
 Henoch 
 
 Mathusala 
 
 Lamech 
 
 Noe 
 
 From Noe to the Deluge, 
 
 Total 
 
 Greek 
 
 230 
 205 
 190 
 170 
 165 
 163 
 J65 
 167 
 188 
 500 
 100 
 
 2,242 
 
 130 
 105 
 90 
 70 
 65 
 162 
 65 
 187 
 182 
 
 500 
 100 
 
 1,656 
 
 Samar- 
 itan 
 
 130 
 105 
 90 
 70 
 65 
 62 
 65 
 67 
 53 
 500 
 100 
 
 1.307 
 
 We see here that the Hebrew and Sa- 
 maritan computations are generally in 
 
Chronology 
 
 165 
 
 Chronology 
 
 accord, and present with the Septuagint a 
 divergence of one hundred years for the 
 epoch of paternity of the several patriarchs, 
 except for Noe, about whom the three texts 
 are in accord. But there are among them 
 differences of detaiL The Samaritan di- 
 minishes by one hundred years the age of 
 Jared at the birth of Henoch ; by 120 years, 
 that of Methusala at the birth of Lamech, 
 and by 129 years that of Lamech at the birth 
 of Noe ; it differs, therefore, from the He- 
 brew by 349 years and from the Septua- 
 gint by 935 years. On the other hand, the 
 manuscripts of the Septuagint present dif- 
 ferences. We have adopted the figures of 
 the Vaticanus; the Alexandrintcs has 
 twenty years more, and this total coincides 
 with the calculations of Julius Africanus. 
 Josephus arrived at a total of 2,156. We 
 are reduced to conjecture to explain the 
 origin of these divergences. They are too 
 numerous to make us believe that they are 
 due to the carelessness or ignorance of the 
 copyists. Undoubtedly, nothing is altered 
 in the transcription of manuscripts so 
 easily as figures. But if we had to attribute 
 the established divergences solely to this ac- 
 cidental cause, we could not account for 
 the almost regular process of increase or 
 subtraction of one hundred years. It is 
 also necessary, it seems, to suspect, with 
 St. Augustine (De Civ. Dei, xv. 13), a 
 willful juggling with the figures, without 
 our being able to say when, where, by 
 whom, and how it was done. Whom shall 
 we hold responsible, the Jews of Palestine 
 or the Alexandrine Jews .? Was the process 
 one of addition or subtraction.? All these 
 hypotheses are admissible. Certain critics 
 have supposed that the Jews of Palestine 
 reduced the age of the first men. "One 
 might say that the Israelite desired, by 
 systematically abridging the duration of the 
 succession of the patriarchs, to cut short 
 the numberless genealogies, which were 
 nothing else but cosmogonies, like that of 
 Berosus and of Sanchoniathon, and thus to 
 combat polytheism, of which they were a 
 constant source." (Ph. Berger.) And F. 
 Lenormant adds : "Perhaps it would be 
 permissible to suppose that it was about 
 the epoch of the Captivity that the 
 Hebrews, just when they had knowledge of 
 the fabulous periods, begotten by the spec- 
 ulative imagination of the Chaldeans, begap 
 to feel scruples about the figures of their 
 own books, and, wishing to guard against 
 the possible danger of an analogous tempta- 
 tion, shortened their primitive chronology 
 
 in order to prevent its indefinite extension 
 like that of the Gentiles." Paul Pezron, 
 thought that the Rabbi Akiba had dared to 
 set hand on the divine Scriptures and had 
 abridged the years in the Hebrew text. 
 Other critics have made analogous suppo- 
 sitions. Lenormant, who admits the willful 
 shortening of the Hebrew account, also be- 
 lieves in a systematic lengthening of the 
 Septuagint. The authors of the Alexan- 
 drine version revised the Hebrew text to 
 put it in accord with the calculations of the 
 Chaldeans, and increased by one hundred 
 years the age of the patriarchs at the birth 
 of their first son. St. Augustine {loc. cit.) 
 recognized these intentional revisions ; but 
 instead of making the Septuagint respon- 
 sible, he attributes them to a later scribe, 
 who is supposed to have introduced them 
 intr. his copy of the Greek version of the 
 Pentateuch. The Samaritan version might 
 be no more exempt from willful alteration, 
 and its chronology might be the result of 
 an artificial combination. The shortening 
 of the Hebrew text is clear, and its purpose 
 is to square the dates thus obtained with 
 the cycle of the sabbatic years. ( Lenormant, 
 Les Oriffines.) 
 
 We may admit that the figures of the 
 three versions of the Pentateuch are not 
 certain, and that its true version may never 
 be known. But we cannot admit with 
 Lenormant that the figures of duration of 
 life of the antediluvian patriarchs are 
 "cyclic numbers." We maintain their 
 historical character which they had in the 
 original text, and which they would still 
 have if the text had come down to us in its 
 entirety. Some critics have thought they 
 found it in one of the three versions. 
 Pezron followed the version of the Septua- 
 gint. Father Hummelhauer regards it as 
 certainly faulty, because it makes Mathu- 
 sala survive the Deluge fourteen years. 
 Its figures are less certain than those of the 
 Hebrew text. The Samaritan version ap- 
 pears preferable even to that of the Masso- 
 rets. They differ only for Jared, Mathu- 
 sala, and Lamech. Now, while the 
 Hebrew dates the death of Mathusala 
 only from the year of the Deluge, the 
 Samaritan makes Jared and Lamech die in 
 the same year. According to the opinion 
 of Father Hummelhauer, the Hebrews re- 
 vised the figures in regard to these two 
 patriarchs in order not to confound them 
 with the impious generation swallowed up 
 by the waters. But we are also permitted 
 to suppose that the Samaritans arranged 
 
Chronology 
 
 1 66 
 
 Chronology 
 
 these figures in order to terminate the life 
 of the three patriarchs in the last year of 
 their chronological system. Mgr. Lamy 
 favors the massoretic text, which represents 
 the text received in Palestine and is proven 
 to be not less ancient than the version of 
 the Septuagint. One conclusion is forced 
 upon every impartial reader, namely, that 
 for this period the Biblical chronology is 
 altogether uncertain. Critics even discuss, 
 as we shall see very soon, the chronological 
 meaning of the patriarchal genealogies, 
 which they suppose to be incomplete. 
 
 IV. From the Deluge to Abraham. 
 — The duration of this period is measured 
 by the genealogy of Sem, son of Noe 
 (Gen. xi. 10-26), and is reckoned by the 
 same method as the length of the pre- 
 ceding period. Here, also, we possess 
 three versions, which differ from one an- 
 other and have not the same relation be- 
 tween them as in the preceding. The 
 following table sums up the data which 
 serve for calculation : — 
 
 of Alexandria, until the vocation of Abra- 
 ham, 1250. 
 
 The figures of the genealogy of Sem are 
 still more corrupted than those of the gen- 
 ealogy of Seth, and criticism is powerless 
 to restore them to their pristine state. Ac- 
 cording to Father Hummelhauer, the Sa- 
 maritan text is less sure and less authentic 
 at this point than previously, because it pre- 
 sents only the total duration of the lives of 
 the patriarchs of this line. The diflference 
 of one hundred years in the age of the ances- 
 tor at the birth of his son is the result of a 
 subtraction or addition. The subtraction 
 must have been wrought in the Hebrew 
 text, it is said, in order that the postdi- 
 luvian patriarchs, whose lives are dimin- 
 ished, might not have begotten their sons 
 at a more advanced age than the antedilu- 
 vian patriarchs. The reason is futile, for 
 the genealogical list of Sem may omit the 
 first generation of this patriarch, to speak 
 only of that of the ancestors of Abraham. 
 One may maintain, for a stronger reason, 
 that the figures of the Hebrew have been 
 
 Names of the 
 
 Age AT THE Birth 
 OF Their Sons 
 
 diminished. While this text gives to Na- 
 chor only 29 years at the birth of Thare, 
 both the Samaritan and Greek attribute to 
 
 Patriarchs 
 
 Greek 
 
 Samar- 
 itan 
 
 He- 
 brew 
 
 him 79 years. Why this inferior number 
 and not 129 years, if an addition of one 
 hundred years had been made to the pre- 
 
 Sem (after the Deluge) . . . 
 
 2 
 
 135 
 130 
 130 
 134 
 130 
 132 
 130 
 79 
 70 
 
 75 
 
 2 
 35 
 
 130 
 134 
 130 
 132 
 130 
 
 79 
 70 
 
 75 
 
 2 
 35 
 
 30 
 34 
 30 
 32 
 30 
 29 
 70 
 
 75 
 
 ceding figures.? We can understand better 
 the different reading in the hypothesis of a 
 
 Cainan 
 
 subtraction. If they have cut off a hundred 
 years from the figures above one hundred. 
 
 Sale 
 
 Heber 
 
 Phaleg 
 
 this operation has been found impossible 
 on the figure 79. The calculator re- 
 
 Reu 
 
 Sarug 
 
 
 moved only fifty years and obtained the 
 number of 29 years. The authenticity of 
 Cainan in the Septuagint has been dis- 
 
 Thare 
 
 Abraham (until his voca- 
 
 
 TOTAL 
 
 1,147 
 
 917 
 
 367 
 
 puted. The affirmative is supported on 
 the presence of this personage in the gen- 
 
 Thus the three texts a 
 the years of Thare 
 Samaritan, which in t 
 was generally in accor 
 follows it now only or 
 age of Arphaxad. It 
 Septuagint for six ge 
 five have each one hun 
 the Hebrew, and one, 
 fifty years. The Gree 
 ation more than the 
 Cainan ; finally, its 
 variations which have 
 results. Eusebius cou 
 until Thare, 945 years 
 tioch, 1070 ; Julius Af r 
 
 re in a< 
 ind Al 
 le pre( 
 d with 
 ice, na 
 
 coinci 
 neratic 
 dred ye 
 that of 
 k coun 
 two ot 
 manusc 
 
 prodi 
 nts fro 
 ; Thee 
 Lcanus, 
 
 ;cord 
 jraham 
 "eding 
 
 the H 
 tnely, i 
 des w 
 )ns, of 
 ars mo 
 
 Nacho 
 ts one 
 hers, 1 
 ripts ] 
 iced di 
 m the ■ 
 philus 
 
 993; c 
 
 nly for 
 . The 
 period 
 ebrew, 
 or the 
 th the 
 which 
 re than 
 r, only 
 gener- 
 hat of 
 jresent 
 flferent 
 )eluge 
 of An- 
 lement 
 
 ealogy of Jesus, drawn up by Luke (iii. 
 36). Although the textual criticism of the 
 Gospels is favorable to the insertion of 
 Cainan in this genealogy by the Evangelist 
 himself, several Catholic exegetists pre- 
 sume that the name of Cainan was inter- 
 polated quite early into the text of St. 
 Luke by a copyist who desired to make the 
 Evangelist agree with the Septuagint. 
 However it may be as to this particular 
 point, we are forced once more to the con- 
 clusion that we are not certain of possess- 
 ing the true figures written by Moses in 
 Genesis, and that we cannot draw from 
 them a sure chronology. 
 
 While the commentators have always 
 believed that Moses had the intention of 
 
Chronology 
 
 167 
 
 Chronology 
 
 giving in the genealogies of Seth and of 
 Sem a real chronology, which it is impos- 
 sible to recover to-day, modern apologists 
 have maintained that the author of Genesis 
 had not the intention of furnishing the 
 elements of a general chronology. The 
 ancient chronologists were persuaded that 
 there were no breaks in the chain of the 
 patriarchal generations, and that the gene- 
 alogical lists were continuous. Now, the 
 Bible presents examples of intentional 
 omissions and missing links in the gene- 
 alogies. In order to have three series of 
 fourteen names in the genealogy of Jesus, 
 St. Matthew (i. 8) omits three kings — 
 Ochozias, Joas, and Amasias — between 
 Joram and Ozias. The list of the high- 
 priests (I. Esdr. vii. i) is certainly short- 
 ened, and to convince ourselves of this it 
 is enough to compare it with I. Par. vi. i. 
 Esdras himself (I. Esdr. vii. 1-5) shortened 
 his own genealogy, and between Azarias, 
 whom he calls son of Maraioth, and Marai- 
 oth himself, he omits five members, Jo- 
 hanan, Azarias, Achimaas, Achitob, and 
 Amarias, named in I. Par. vi. 7-14. 
 
 Now, in these fragmentary genealogies, 
 the disjoined members are, however, re- 
 united in the generative account, "he be- 
 got," or by the name of "son." The 
 consequence of this is that in the Bible, as 
 might be proved by other examples, the 
 verb "to beget" and the name "son" 
 mark the relation between a grandfather 
 and a remote descendant as naturally as 
 between a father and his son. The use of 
 the verb "to beget" in the genealogy of 
 Sem is, therefore, not necessarily a proof 
 of the continuity of the generations, and 
 it permits the insertion of omitted mem- 
 bers there as well as in the genealogy of 
 Jesus in St. Matthew. It has been ob- 
 jected, it is true, to this conclusion that 
 the particular form of the patriarchal 
 genealogies, in which the names are in- 
 cluded in two or three series of numbers, 
 excludes the idea of a lapse of continuity, 
 and it appears contrary to the obvious and 
 natural sense of the Mosaic account to 
 translate Gen. xi. 10 by : " Sem, at the age 
 of 100 years, begot a son from ivhom is 
 descended Arfhaxad,^' when in verses 12 
 and 13 his very name designates Arphaxad 
 himself. To this objection Father Brucker 
 answers judiciously that in this interpreta- 
 tion the same signification, perfectly deter- 
 mined,is attributed to the name of Arphaxad 
 in the whole context. The metonymy is 
 not in the names, which always remain the 
 
 names of distinct individuals; it is in the 
 v&rh genuit, "he begot," which we must 
 understand in the sense genuit mediate, 
 " he begot mediately." Therefore, the 
 genealogies may be discontinued and pass 
 generations, even when the mention of a 
 patriarch is accompanied by figures of 
 years. Against the hypothesis of breaks 
 Mgr. Granclaude has appealed to all tradi- 
 tion. According to him, all the Fathers 
 of the Church, in the quality of authorized 
 interpreters of the Bible, and after them 
 all the Catholic exegetists down to our 
 days, have received the Biblical genealo- 
 gies as the absolute rule of chronological 
 calculations and have never supposed the 
 least omission therein. Hence, there is 
 here a common sentiment, which cannot 
 be abandoned without rashness, unless it 
 is clearly indefensible. This unanimous 
 opinion of the Fathers does not exist, be- 
 cause they have diflferently interpreted the 
 figures of Genesis, and their view does not 
 constitute a traditional teaching against 
 which we may not be permitted to go. 
 Therefore, we can without rashness main- 
 tain that the Biblical genealogies are not 
 continuous. 
 
 Moreover, this lack of sequence in the 
 genealogy of Sem, in itself possible and 
 probable, must necessarily be admitted if 
 we wish to put sacred history, from the 
 Deluge to Abraham, in accord with pro- 
 fane history. Compared with the antiq- 
 uity of the ancient peoples, the chronol- 
 ogy drawn from the Hebrew text is 
 insufficient with its 367 years; the longer 
 one of the Septuagint is certainly very 
 restricted, if not too much so. We shall 
 not insist on the great antiquity of the 
 Chinese and Hindoos, for their traditions 
 are certainly fabulous. Father Gaubil has 
 commenced the dated history of the Chi- 
 nese with the reign of the Emperor Yao, 
 in the year 2357 before our era. Yet, in 
 this epoch China had already been thickly 
 inhabited and much advanced in civiliza- 
 tion ; but the time necessary for the estab- 
 lishment of the Celestial Empire is easily 
 reconciled with the Septuagint. The con- 
 nected history of the Hindoos goes back 
 only to the fifteenth century before our era. 
 Assyriologists generally admit that the 
 first kings of Chaldea existed about thirty 
 or even forty centuries before our era, that 
 is, one thousand or even two thousand 
 years before the epoch of Abraham. Al- 
 though the chronological accounts fur- 
 nished by Berosus may be in great part 
 
Chronology 
 
 1 68 
 
 Chronology 
 
 fabulous, the high antiquity of Chaldean 
 history is revealed to us by monuments 
 recently brought to light. Assurbanipal 
 (668-628) relates that in his conquest of 
 Susiana, in 633, he brought back to Erech 
 a picture of the goddess Nana that Kudur- 
 Nakhundi had carried off 1,635 years be- 
 fore, consequently 2,274 years before our 
 era. A more ancient date is inscribed on 
 a cylinder of Nabonidus, King of Babylon. 
 While repairing the Temple of the Sun, at 
 Sippara, this prince found, thirty-two feet 
 under ground, the dedication composed 
 by the first builder, Naram-Sin, son of 
 Sargina, 3,200 years previously. Since 
 Nabonidus reigned about 550 b. c.,his cal- 
 culation carries back the reign of Naram- 
 Sin to about the year 3800 b. c. The Del- 
 uge, which was known to the Chaldeans 
 and Babylonians, therefore goes back more 
 than 4,000 years, for Naram-Sin had pre- 
 decessors posterior to this cataclysm. 
 (Cf. Lenormant, Histoire Ancienne de 
 ihOrient.) The postdiluvian chronology of 
 the Septuagint, which is the highest, is 
 therefore insufficient. The same conclu- 
 sion is deduced from the history of Egypt. 
 Manetho, a Sebennytan priest of the third 
 century before our era, attributed to Egypt 
 an antiquity of 30,000 years before Alex- 
 ander the Great. Passing by the mythic 
 reigns, there still remain thirty historical 
 dynasties, which begin with Menes and 
 ■which fill a space of about 5,000 years. 
 Now, the history of Manetho, beginning 
 with the eighteenth dynasty, has been 
 confirmed by the royal lists reproduced in 
 the papyrus of Turin and the tables of 
 Abydos, of Saqqarah, and of Karnak. 
 Nevertheless, Egyptologists still disagree 
 on the subject of the total duration of the 
 Egyptian history, because they adopt dif- 
 ferent starting points, and dispute about 
 the continuity or the simultaneousness of 
 the dynasties. If all have been successive, 
 their history goes back 5,000 years ; if 
 many have been contemporaneous or col- 
 lateral, their history may be reduced to the 
 limits of the chronology of the Septuagint. 
 But it appears that if some have reigned 
 simultaneously, the majority of them have 
 succeeded one another, and the duration 
 of their existence exceeds that of the fif- 
 teen generations which the Bible places 
 between the Deluge and Moses. Besides, 
 were it absolutely impossible to determine 
 in a precise manner the beginning of his- 
 torical times in the valley of the Nile, it 
 remains proven that the beginnings of this 
 
 country are very ancient. From the period 
 that it becomes known to us, Egypt ap- 
 pears with a very advanced civilization, 
 highly developed pol3-theistic religion, and 
 every indication of an already lengthy exis- 
 tence. Considering it only as it was in the 
 time of Moses, "can we (without suppos- 
 ing omissions in the genealogies of chapter 
 xi. of Genesis) comprise within the space 
 of fifteen generations the multiplication 
 of mankind after the Deluge; the disper- 
 sion of the peoples ; the forgetting of re- 
 vealed or natural religion; the rise of 
 polytheism and of idolatry; the coloniza- 
 tion of Egypt; the formation of a civiliza- 
 tion different from the Asiatic, wnth its 
 language, its writing, and peculiar religion ; 
 the differentiation of the races, white, 
 black, colored ; the succession, generally 
 from father to son, of more than one hun- 
 dred kings known by their monuments to 
 have governed the whole of Egypt, without 
 taking into account a much larger number 
 that reigned over that country, but of 
 whom we have not yet discovered any 
 monuments or inscriptions.?" (E. Pan- 
 nier, JLa Chronologic des Temps Primi- 
 tifs.) 
 
 If profane history obliges us to lengthen 
 the Biblical history, it is in the period 
 which extends from the Deluge to Abraham 
 that the increase should take place. To 
 what extent this is necessary we cannot ex- 
 actly tell. Some Egyptologists find them- 
 selves only "somewhat inconvenienced" 
 to make the history of Egypt coincide with 
 the chronology of the Septuagint. Others 
 require an increase of thousands of years. 
 The exegetists cannot say between what 
 links of the genealogy of Sem they should 
 insert those that are missing. It cannot be 
 between Noe and Sem, nor between Thare 
 and Abraham, whose direct relations of 
 paternity and filiation are expressly marked 
 in Scripture ; it may be between other links 
 of the genealogical chain, whose bonds are 
 less close. 
 
 V. From the Call of Abraham to 
 THE Departure from Egypt. — The Bible 
 expressh' marks the principal dates of this 
 period. Abraham was 75 years old when 
 he left Haran to go into the country of 
 Chanaan (Gen. xii. 4). He was 100 years 
 old when the birth of Isaac was announced 
 to him (xN-ii. i, 17; xxi. 5). At the age of 
 40, Isaac married Rebecca, and 20 years 
 afterAvards Esau and Jacob were born (xxv. 
 20, 26). Hence, 85 years had elapsed be- 
 tween the arrival of Abraham in Palestine 
 
Chronology 
 
 169 
 
 Chronology 
 
 and the birth of his grandsons. Jacob was 
 130 years old when he went to Egypt 
 (xlvii. 9). His sons dwelt in this coun- 
 try 430 years (Ex. xii. 40). All these fig- 
 ures added give to this period a total of 
 645 years. 
 
 The date of the sojourn of the Israelites 
 in Egypt alone is contested. The version 
 of the Septuagint and the Samaritan Pen- 
 tateuch present (Ex. xii. 40) a notable dif- 
 ference, which is confirmed by the Targums 
 of the pseudo- Jonathan and of Jerusalem : 
 "The time which the children of Israel 
 and their fathers dwelt in Egypt and in 
 the country of Chanaan was 430 years." 
 This computation has, therefore, for its 
 starting point the arrival of Abraham in 
 Palestine. Now, as from this epoch until 
 the coming of Jacob into Egypt 215 years 
 elapsed, the sojourn of the Hebrews in the 
 land of Gessen had also a duration of 215 
 years. Josephus reproduces this calcula- 
 tion, and, according to Calmet,most of the 
 commentators adopt this view and follow 
 the reading of the Septuagint. But this 
 reading was not found in all the ancient 
 manuscripts of the Greek, version, for St. 
 Theophilus {Ad Autolycnm) wrote that the 
 Israelites sojourned 430 years in Egypt. 
 St. Chrysostom, who proposes the period 
 of 215 years (/« Genesim, Horn, xxxvii.), 
 admits, however, elsewhere (/« Act. Afost. 
 Horn, xvi.), that the Hebrews remained in 
 the country of the Pharaos 400 years and 
 more. The Talmud of Jerusalem, treatise 
 on Meghilla, points out verse 40 of chapter 
 xii. of Exodus as one of the thirteen pass- 
 ages which the Septuagint has modified 
 in its translation of the Pentateuch on 
 account of King Ptolemy. Besides, the 
 words, " and their fathers," . . . "and 
 in the land of Chanaan," are hardly in 
 agreement with the context, which speaks 
 only of Egypt, and appear to be glosses 
 added to the original text. 
 
 The adherents of the shortest date con- 
 firm their opinion by the testimony of St. 
 Paul (Gal. iii. 17) and by the less extended 
 genealogy of Moses. The Apostle, indeed 
 speaks incidentally of the date of the pro- 
 mulgation of the Law, made 430 years after 
 the promise. But he does not fix precisely 
 the starting point of these 430 years, and 
 instead of putting it at the first promise of 
 God to Abraham, on his entry into the land 
 of Chanaan, we might refer it to the later 
 promises repeated to Abraham, Isaac, and 
 Jacob. As to the genealogy of Moses, we 
 may properly consider it as one of those 
 
 abridged genealogies of which we have 
 spoken. 
 
 The Hebrew text which gives a duration 
 of 430 years, does not stand alone. It is re- 
 produced in the Targum of Onkelos, the 
 Peshito, the Latin Vulgate, the Arabic ver- 
 sion of Saadias, and the Greek version of 
 Venice. It is confirmed by other Biblical 
 accounts. The time of the captivity of the 
 Hebrews had been foretold by God to Abra- 
 ham : "Know thou beforehand that thy 
 seed shall be a stranger in a land not their 
 own, and they shall bring them under bond- 
 age and afflict them four hundred years." 
 (Gen. XV. 13.) This prophecy recalled by 
 St. Stephen (Act. vii. 6-7), is also found in 
 the version of the Septuagint, as well as 
 in the Hebrew text, and announces in round 
 numbers, the length of the sojourn of the 
 Israelites in Egypt. God adds (verse 16) 
 that the posterity of Abraham shall return 
 into Palestine in the fourth generation (He- 
 brew : dor). The word dor signifies "period 
 of the human life," and may be understood 
 as the space of one century. Interpreters 
 refer also to this prophecy the words of 
 St. Paul in his discourse in the synagogue 
 of Antioch of Pisidia (Act. xiii. 19-20). 
 They adopt the reading of the Vulgate, 
 which, from the critical pointof view, isthe 
 best, and they understand the number of 
 about if^o years in the 400 years of Genesis 
 XV. 13, plus the 40 years of sojourn in the 
 desert and the seven years of the conquest 
 of Palestine by Josue. Achior, general of 
 the Ammonites, reported later on to Holo- 
 fernes that the Israelites had multiplied 
 in Egypt during four hundred years to such 
 an extent that they formed a numberless 
 army (Judith v. 9). According to some 
 interpreters, Ezechiel (iv. 5-6) foretold a 
 second bondage of Egypt, the duration of 
 which is estimated at 390, plus 40 days, that 
 is 430 years, for the days designate years. 
 
 To these exegetical proofs we may add 
 in favor of the figure 430 an argument 
 drawn from the history of Egypt. It is 
 very probable that Joseph was led away 
 into Egypt under the Shepherd Kings, and 
 it is generally believed that it was under 
 the Pharao Apapi II., whom Manetho 
 calls Apophis. Now, between the reign of 
 this king and that of Menephtah, under 
 whom the exodus took place, " we must 
 place the 150 years which at least, accord- 
 ing to the Egyptologists, were necessary 
 for the indigenous chiefs to destroy the 
 domination of the Shepherds ; then the 
 whole duration of the eighteenth dynasty 
 
Chronology 
 
 170 
 
 Chronology 
 
 and of a portion of the nineteenth, that is, 
 more than sixteen reigns, of which two 
 (those of Thotmes III. and of Rameses 
 II.) alone embraced 121 years." (J.Brucker, 
 in The Controversy of Sept. 15th, 1886.) 
 The duration of the sojourn of the He- 
 brews in Egypt has been, therefore, really 
 430 years. Consequently, if, as Oppert be- 
 lieves, the exodus took place in 1493 b. c, 
 the entering of the Israelites into Egypt 
 goes back to 1923, Jacob was born in 2053, 
 and Abraham arrived in Palestine in 2138. 
 But these figures are far from being certain. 
 
 VI. From the Exodus to the Build- 
 ing OF the Temple of Solomox. — All 
 the Egyptologists, guided by the synchro- 
 nism of the epochs and by the entirety of the 
 facts, are agreed in placing the departure 
 of the Hebrews under the nineteenth dy- 
 nasty, but they are divided as to the name 
 of the king under whom this great event 
 took place. Some, like Maspero, say it was 
 Seti II.; Lepsius, Rouge, and Chabas, fol- 
 lowed by almost all the learned investiga- 
 tors of France, England, and Germany, by 
 Lenormant, Sayce, Brugsch, Ebers, etc., 
 think it was Menephtah I. This divergence 
 of opinions does not notably aflFect the date 
 of the exodus. In fact, we cannot fix it ex- 
 actly according to the chronology of the 
 kings of Egypt, which is yet too uncertain. 
 We have to determine it according to the 
 Bible and the history of the kings of Juda 
 and Israel. Oppert refers it to the month 
 of April, 1493 B.C. The other chronologists 
 deviate from him only by a few years. 
 
 The intervi'al that separates the exodus 
 from the building of the temple of Solo- 
 mon is measured in precise figures (III. 
 Ki. vi. i) ; it was 480 years according to the 
 Hebrew text and 440 years according to 
 the Septuagint. This date has been much 
 discussed. Critics have contested its au- 
 thenticity; they have-wished to make this 
 a cyclic figure, because 480 is twelve times 
 forty. Some chronologists found it too 
 low and wished to raise it ; others regard it 
 too high and wish to lower it. The former 
 support their contention on the chro- 
 nology of the Book of Judges. The dura- 
 tion of each judicature is indicated by the 
 sacred writer, and the total sum of the 
 Biblical figures is 410 years. If we add 
 the judicature of Heli, which was 40 years 
 (I. Ki. iv. 18), and the interval from Heli 
 to the fourth year of Solomon (an interval 
 of 84 years) , we obtain the sum of 534 years. 
 With the 65 years, which elapsed from the 
 going out of Egypt until the death of Josue, 
 
 by omitting the two unknown figures of the 
 judicature of Samuel before the coming of 
 Saul and from the time that separates 
 Othoniel from Josue, we reach, at the low- 
 est figure, a total of 599 years. It coin- 
 cides close enough with the calculation of 
 592 years which Josephus counts from the 
 going out of Egypt until the building of 
 the temple. The commentators of the 
 Acts, who in this book (xiii. 20) adopt the 
 reading of the " text received," grant to 
 the period of the Judges a duration of 450 
 years and reject the date of III. Ki. vi. i. 
 In order to reconcile these apparently con- 
 tradictory accounts, Danko has gratui- 
 tously supposed that the author of the 
 Book of Kings, writing in the theocratic 
 sense, passed over in silence the years dur- 
 ing which the Israelites had given them- 
 selves up to idolatry and had been reduced 
 to bondage. The only valid reconciliation 
 is to admit that several judges were contem- 
 poraneous. A careful study of the text, 
 moreover, suggests this solution, although 
 we can only conjecture which judges 
 have lived contemporaneously. Some 
 Egyptologists have pushed still further the 
 hypothesis of the simultaneousness of the 
 judicatures, and with the design of estab- 
 lishing a perfect synchronism between 
 sacred history and the history of Egypt, 
 they have reduced from 300 or 350 years the 
 period of the wanderings in the desert, of 
 Josue, the Judges, and David. But Egyp- 
 tian chronology beyond the twenty-second 
 dynasty is not certain enough to weaken the 
 account of the Book of Kings, which we 
 uphold until there is proof to the contrary. 
 If, therefore, the exodus took place in 
 1493, Solomon would have commenced the 
 building of the Temple of the Lord in 
 1013 B. c. ; but the synchronisms of ancient 
 history seem to establish that it was only 
 some years later that Solomon undertook 
 this great work. 
 
 VII. From the Building of the 
 Temple of Solomon Until its De- 
 struction BY the Chaldeans. — The 
 dates of this period have been carefully 
 noted in the last Books of Kings. The 
 author, who had consulted sources lost to- 
 day, gives two royal lists, that of the kings 
 of Israel and that of the kings of Juda. 
 Their reconciliation is extremely difficult, 
 and the difficulties arising are not yet 
 solved. St. Jerome, who had noticed 
 them, wrote to the priest Vitalis {Epist. 
 lii. 5) that to stop at these questions was 
 rather the affair of an idle man than that 
 
Chronology 
 
 171 
 
 Chronology 
 
 of a busy student. On the throne of Juda, 
 Roboam reigned 17 years (IH. Ki. xiv. 21 ; 
 II. Par. xii. 13) ; Abias (III. Ki. xv. 2 ; II. 
 Par. xiii. 2); Asa 41 (III. Ki. xv. 10; II. 
 Par. xvi. 13) ; Josaphat 25 (III. Ki. xxii. 
 42 ; II. Par. xx. 31) ; Joram 8 (IV. Ki. viii. 
 17; II. Par. xxi. 20); Ochozias r (IV. Ki. 
 viii. 26; II. Par. xxii. 2); Athalia 6 (IV. 
 Ki. xi. 3; II. Par. xxii. 12); Joas 40 (IV. 
 Ki. xii. i; II. Par. xxiv. i) ; Amasias 29 
 (IV. Ki. xiv. 2; II. Par. xxv. 1); Ozias 52 
 (IV. Ki. XV. 2; II. Par. xxvi. 3); Joatham 
 iff (IV. Ki. XV. 33; II. Par. xxvii. i) ; 
 Achaz 16 (IV. Ki. xvi. 2 ; II. Par. xxviii. i) ; 
 Ezechias 29 (IV. Ki. xviii. 2; II. Par. 
 xxix. i) ; Manasses 55 (IV. Ki. xxi. i ; II. 
 Par. xxxiii. i) ; Amon 2 (IV. Ki, xxi. 19; 
 II. Par. xxxiii. 21) ; Josias 31 (IV. Ki. 
 xxii. I ; II. Par. xxxiv. i) ; Joachaz, 
 3 months (IV. Ki. xxiii. 31; II. Par. 
 xxxvi. 2) ; Joakim, 11 years (IV. Ki. xxiii. 
 36; II. Par. xxxvi. 5); Jechonias, or Joa- 
 chin, 3 months and 10 days (IV. Ki. xxiv. 
 8; II. Par. xxxvi. 9); Sedecias, 11 years 
 (IV. Ki. xxiv. 18; II. Par. xxxvi. 11). In 
 the kingdom of Israel, Jeroboam I. reigned 
 22 years (III. Ki. xiv. 20) ; Nadab 2 (t'bt'd. 
 XV. 25) ; Baasa 24 (xv. 33) ; Ela 2 (xvi. 8) ; 
 Zambri, 7 days (xvi. 15) ; Amri, 12 years 
 (xvi. 23); Achab 22 (xvi. 29) ; Ochozias 2 
 (xxii. 52); Joram 12 (IV. Ki. iii. i); Jehu 
 28 (ibid. X. 36) ; Joachaz 17 (xiii. i) ; Joas 
 16 (xiii. 10) ; Jeroboam II. 41 (xiv. 23) ; 
 Zacharias, 6 months (xv. 8) ; Phaceia 2 
 (xv. 23) ; Phacee 20 (xv. 27) ; Osee 9 (xvii. 
 i). Several of these figures do not agree 
 with other chronological data of the Books 
 of Kings and of Paralipomena, but it does 
 not enter into our design to discuss them 
 here. 
 
 A more general difficulty springs from 
 the difference which the totals of these 
 lists present in the period of their coinci- 
 dence. In fact, if we add the figures from 
 the first years of Roboam, when the sepa- 
 ration of the two kingdoms commences, 
 until the sixth year of Ezechias, during 
 which Samaria was taken (IV. Ki. xviii. 10), 
 we find for the kings of Juda a sum of 261 
 years, and for those of Israel only 240 years. 
 Hence there is a disagreement between the 
 two lists of about twenty years. Numerous 
 theories of reconciliation have been sup- 
 posed. Recent critics have diversely 
 lengthened the reigns of Jeroboam II. and 
 of Phacee; others have admitted associa- 
 tions of kings on the throne of Juda. More 
 generally it is believed that the succession 
 was regular and constant on the throne of 
 
 David, and critics have introduced into 
 Israel two inter-reigns or periods of an- 
 archy. The first, which lasted eleven years, 
 is placed between the reign of Jeroboam 11. 
 and that of his son Zacharias, who com- 
 menced to reign only in the thirty- eighth 
 year of Azarias or Ozias of Juda (IV. Ki. 
 XV. 8). The second, of nine years, is sup- 
 posed to have existed between Phacee and 
 Osee. But the sacred text seems to state 
 that these princes succeeded one another 
 consecutively, and it is hardly probable that 
 the throne of Israel remained unoccupied 
 at two difTerent times during several years. 
 These inter-reigns, which have no direct 
 foundation in the Bible, are therefore 
 hypotheses, invented by embarrassed chro- 
 nologists, and they may be an indication 
 that the ordinary chronology of the Jewish 
 kings is too long. 
 
 There has been discovered at Ninive an 
 Assyrian chronological canon, which agrees 
 with the Biblical figures only on condition 
 of reducing about forty years the total 
 period of the reigns of the kings of Juda. 
 It is a list of personages called litnmu or 
 eponyms, who gave their names to the year 
 like the archons at Athens and the consuls 
 at Rome. It commences in the reign of 
 Binnirar II., in 893 b, c, and extends at least 
 to 647. It therefore permits us to check the 
 corresponding Biblical data. If the two 
 chronologies are in perfect harmony for 
 the taking of Samaria by the Assyrians in 
 721, there is manifest disagreement be- 
 tween them on several points. The critics 
 until now have been unable to agree on 
 the reconciliation of the divergent figures. 
 Some defend the Biblical chronology, 
 others abandon it. As it is artificial, and 
 as the disagreement of the figures of the 
 existing text of the Bible is certainly the 
 result of the faults of copyists in the trans- 
 cription of the numbers, we may hold, " at 
 least provisionally, that the persons whose 
 names are found mentioned together in 
 the cuneiform inscriptions and which cor- 
 respond with the Biblical names have been 
 contemporaries, whatever embarrassment 
 may be experienced in reconciling the 
 dates furnished by the Bible, on the one 
 hand, and by the Assyrian monuments, on 
 the other." (F. Vigouroux, La Bible et 
 les Decouvertes Modernes.) Let us ex- 
 amine the points of contact that create 
 difficulty. 
 
 According to the Biblical chronology 
 generally received, Achab, king of Israel, 
 died in the year 897 b. c. Now the As- 
 
Chronology 
 
 172 
 
 Chronology 
 
 Syrian inscriptions record that he was de- 
 feated with the confederate kings at Kar- 
 kar, by the king of Ninive, Salmanasar II., 
 in 854, that is, more than forty years after 
 the date usualh' assigned to his death. The 
 declaration of the cuneiform texts is clear 
 and precise, while the calculations of the 
 Biblical chronologists may be erroneous. 
 Therefore we have to admit, it seems, that 
 Achab and Salmanasar II. were contem- 
 poraries. 
 
 Ozias, king of Juda, reigned, it is asserted, 
 from 809 to 758. Now, the inscriptions of 
 Theglathphalasar II. chronicle him as be- 
 ing at war with the latter king in the j-ear 
 742 or 740, sixteen or eighteen years after 
 his death. Manahem, king of Israel, oc- 
 cupied the throne from 770 to 759, and 
 twenty-one years after the end of his reign 
 in 738, the same Theglathphalasar enumer- 
 ates him among his tributaries. To uphold 
 the Biblical chronology Oppert believes 
 that the Azriyahu of the inscriptions is 
 not Azarias or Ozias, father of Joatham 
 and grandfather of Achaz, but a usurper, 
 the son of Tabeel, of whom Isaias speaks 
 (vii. 6). As to Manahem, who paid tribute 
 to Phul, he is distinct from Manahem II., 
 tributary of Theglathphalasar. This ex- 
 planation is inadmissible, and we have to 
 acknowledge that Azarias, king of Juda, 
 Manahem, king of Israel, and Theglath- 
 phalasar, king of Ninive, whom it seems we 
 have to identify with Phul (IV. Ki. xv. 19- 
 20; I. Par. V. 26), are contemporaneous. 
 
 The Biblical and cuneiform documents 
 are found in disagreement on another point. 
 The fourth Book of Kings (x^•iii. 13) tells 
 us that Sennacherib marched against the 
 cities of Juda in the fourteenth year of the 
 reign of Ezechias, that is, in 713, because 
 the Jewish king had mounted the throne in 
 727. Now, according to the canon of the 
 eponyms, Sennacherib became king in 705, 
 and his expedition against Palestine took 
 place in 701. The sickness of Ezechias and 
 the embassy of Merodach-Baladan, king 
 of Babylon, would have taken place only 
 after the disaster of Sennacherib (IV. Ki. 
 XX. I, 12). Now, Merodach-Baladan, would 
 have reigned from 722 to 710. The best 
 answer to this difficulty is to acknowledge 
 that the Biblical account has disarranged 
 the order of events. The sickness of Eze- 
 chias really took place in the fourteenth 
 year of his reign, because the king lived 
 fifteen years after his recovery, and his 
 reign lasted 29 years. The embassy of 
 Merodach-Baladan is posterior to Ezechias 
 
 and may be placed in 703 or 702, when 
 Merodach-Baladan, a native of Lower 
 Chaldea, after having been driven away 
 from Babylon, had again taken possession 
 of the throne of this city. The invasion 
 of Sennacherib took place in 701. If the 
 Fourth Book of Kings put these three 
 facts in an inverted order, it is probably 
 because its author adopted the unchrono- 
 logical arrangement of the prophet Isaias 
 (xxxvi.-xxxix.). The date (IV. Ki. xviii. 
 13) ought to be changed and put at the 
 head of the account of the sickness of 
 Ezechias. 
 
 It was the empire of Babylon that over- 
 threw the throne of Juda. Before entering 
 on his reign, Nabuchodonosor made a 
 campaign against Nechao, king of Egypt; 
 Joakim, king of Juda, acknowledged him- 
 self as his tributary. But he revolted and 
 refused to pay the tribute. When Nabu- 
 chodonosor arrived at Judea, Joakim was 
 dead and replaced by his son Jechonias. 
 At the end of a three months' reign the lat- 
 ter was led away into captivity at Babylon. 
 His uncle Sedecias was placed on the 
 throne; he also revolted. Nabuzardan 
 besieged Jerusalem, which, reduced by 
 famine, capitulated in 599, after a long re- 
 sistance. This date ends the period which 
 we are studying. 
 
 Thus it is seen that the chronology of 
 the kings of Israel and of Juda is not so clear 
 and certain as is commonly believed. It 
 needs to be brought into agreement with 
 the Assyrian chronology. Father Bru- 
 nengo has made the attempt to do this, 
 and he has set the beginning of the schism 
 of the ten tribes in the year 930 b.c, in- 
 stead of 976 B. c, the date ordinarily as- 
 signed to it. Adopting this view, we will 
 reproduce here the chronological list of 
 the Jewish kings, adopted by Lenormant 
 and Babelon : Saul, 1050-1012; David, 
 1012-973 ! Solomon, 973-932. In the king- 
 dom of Israel: Jeroboam I., 932-911; Na- 
 dab, 911-909; Baasa, 909-886; Ela, 886- 
 885; Zambri, 885; Amri, 885-873; Achab, 
 873-843; Ochozias, 843-842; Joram, 842- 
 830 ; Jehu, 830-802 ; Joachaz, 802-785 ; Joas, 
 785-769; Jeroboam II., 769-744; Zacharias, 
 744; Sellum, 744; Manahem, Phaceia, and 
 Phacee, overthrown and restored one after 
 another, 744-732; Osee, 732-724. Fall of 
 the kingdom of Israel, in 721. In the 
 kingdom of Juda : Roboam, 932-915 ; Abia, 
 915-912: Asa, 912-870; Josaphat, 870-836; 
 Joram, 836-831 ; Ochozias, 831-830; Atha- 
 lia, 830-823; Joas, 823-783; Amasias, 783- 
 
Chronology 
 
 173 
 
 Chronology 
 
 764; Ozias, or Azarias, 764-739; Joatham, 
 739-735; Achaz, 735-729; Ezechias, 729- 
 688; Manasses, 688-645; Amon, 645-643; 
 Josias, 643-612; Joacaz, 612; Joakim, 612- 
 600; Jechonias, or Joachin, 600-599; 
 Sedecias, 599. 
 
 VIII. From the Babylonian Captiv- 
 ity Until the Birth of Jesus Christ. 
 — For this period a first date is furnished 
 by Jeremias (xxv. 11) ; but the commenta- 
 tors are not in agreement as to the starting 
 point of the duration of the seventy years' 
 captivity. Some date it from the first de- 
 portation, which took place in the fourth 
 year of Joakim, in 606 (or 608), according 
 to the ordinary calculations, and find sev- 
 enty years until the edict which Cyrus pub- 
 lished in 536 (or 538), giving to the Jews 
 the right to rebuild the Temple of Jeru- 
 salem (I. Esdr. i. i). Others take as first 
 date the destruction of Jerusalem (II. Par. 
 xxxvi. 21-23) , in 599, and as last the resump- 
 tion of the building of the Temple, which 
 took place in the second year of Darius, 
 son of Hystaspes (Aggeus i. 1-14; I. Esdr. 
 V. I), in 519. 
 
 Be it as it may in regard to the com- 
 mencement of the captivity of Babylon, as 
 foretold by Jeremias, in the first year of 
 Cyrus at Babylon, in 536, many captives 
 returned into Judea, under the leadership 
 of Zorobabel and of the high-priest Josue, 
 and as soon as they had arrived they made 
 the necessary preparations to rebuild the 
 Temple of Jerusalem. But, on account of 
 numerous obstacles, the building could be 
 completed only in the sixth year of Darius, 
 that is, in 516 (I. Esdr. vi. 15). In the sev- 
 enth year of Artaxerxes, Esdras brought 
 other captives back into Judea (I. Esdr. 
 vii. 7). In the twentieth year of Arta- 
 xerxes, Nehemias, cupbearer of this prince, 
 obtained the permission to rebuild the 
 walls and gates of Jerusalem (II. Esdr. ii. 
 1-8). The identity of this king is disputed. 
 Most of the exegetists admit that Es- 
 dras and Nehemias were able to gain, thir- 
 teen years apart, the favor of the same 
 king, whom they identify with Artaxerxes 
 I., called Longo-Manus, who reigned from 
 464 to 424. Therefore, Esdras could have 
 brought back his caravan in 457, and Ne- 
 hemias could have restored the walls of 
 Jerusalem in 444, and he would have re- 
 mained in Palestine until 433, the thirty- 
 second year of the reign (II. Esdr. v. 14). 
 Saulcy and Kaulen hold that it was Arta- 
 xerxes II., surnamed Mnemon. VanHoon- 
 acker claims a distinction between the two 
 
 kings. He believes that Nehemias returned 
 to Judea the twentieth year of Artaxerxes 
 I., but that Esdras, instead of having ef- 
 fected his return thirteen years previously, 
 revived the Jewish religion only fifty- 
 nine years afterwards, under Artaxerxes 
 Mnemon (404-358). 
 
 From Nehemias, whose end is unknown, 
 until the Machabees, there elapsed a period 
 of 260 years about which we know very lit- 
 tle and the chronology of which the Bible 
 has not fixed. But the two Books of the 
 Machabees date the events which they re- 
 late after the era of the Seleucides. This 
 era starts with the autumn of 312 B.C. It 
 is easy, then, to determine the dates of the 
 Books of the Machabees. Mathathias rose 
 against Antiochus Epiphanes in the year 
 145 of the Seleucides, consequently in the 
 year 167 b.c. ; he died in the year follow- 
 ing (I. Mach. ii. 70). His son Judas was at 
 the head of the revolt until his death in 
 161 (I. Mach. ix. 3, 18). Jonathas, brother 
 of Judas, continued the struggle until 143. 
 In the year 142, the first year of Simon, 
 the Jewish nation became again independ- 
 ent (I. Mach. xiii. 41-42). Simon, who 
 died in 135, was succeeded by his son, 
 John Hyrcanus (I. Mach. xvi.). For the 
 remainder of the Jewish history the Bible 
 notes no other date except the death of 
 Herod the Great. In the interval, the 
 princes or kings who governed Judea 
 were John Hyrcanus I., 135-107; Aristo- 
 bolus I., 107-106; Alexander Janneus, 106- 
 79; Hyrcanus II., 79-66; Aristobolus II., 
 66-63; Hyrcanus II., restored, 63-40; 
 Herod I., 40-4 b. c. 
 
 IX. Duration of the Life of Jesus. 
 — The beginning of the Christian era was 
 fixed, in the sixth century, by a monk, 
 Dionysius the Small, as occurring in the 
 year 754 of the foundation of Rome. Ac- 
 cording to him, our Lord was born on 
 December the 25th of the year of Rome 753. 
 But he was mistaken in his calculations, 
 and made the Christian era begin too late. 
 The date of the birth of our Lord is con- 
 troverted. What is certain is that Jesus 
 Christ was born under Herod (Matt. ii. i), 
 at the time when a census was taken, as 
 ordered by Augustus (Luke ii. 1-5). The 
 determination of these two facts of the 
 evangelical account marks the precise 
 epoch of the birth of Jesus. According 
 to Josephus, Herod reigned thirty-seven 
 years, if we count the years of his reign 
 from the acknowledgement of his royalty 
 by the Roman senate, and thirty-four, if 
 
Chronology 
 
 174 
 
 Chronology 
 
 we calculate his effective reign beginning 
 with his entry into Jerusalem. Now the 
 senate declared Herod king of Palestine 
 under the consulate of Domitius Calvinus 
 and of Asinius Pollion, in the jear of 
 Rome 714, or 40 b. c. Herod took Jeru- 
 salem under the consulate of Vipsanius 
 Agrippa and of Caninius Gallus, in the 
 year of Rome 717, or 37 B.C. The last 
 year of the reign of Herod was, therefore, 
 in the year of Rome 750, or four years be- 
 fore our era. According to the duration 
 of the reigns of his sons and successors, 
 we can conclude that Herod died before 
 the 7th Nisan or the 2d of April of this 
 year. If Jesus were bom on December 
 the 25th, it could not have been later than 
 on December the 25th, 749. 
 
 Other dates will inform us whether the 
 birth of Jesus goes back a few years 
 earlier. St. Luke (ii. i) says that it took 
 place when the first census of the Roman 
 world was made, Quirinius (Vulgate: 
 Cyrinus) being governor of Syria. Now, 
 according to Josephus, Quirinius was sent 
 into Syria, with the mission of taking the 
 census of Jndea, the thirty-seventh year 
 after the tattle of Actium, that is, about 
 ten years after the death of Herod, when 
 Archelaus was deposed from the throne 
 and Jndea reunited with the empire. To 
 'reconcile these apparently contraditory 
 accounts, all kinds of hypotheses have 
 been imagined. Some have translated the 
 text thus : " This census took place before 
 the one that was made when Quirinius 
 governed Judea." But Th. Mommsen has 
 proved that an inscription found at Tivoli 
 in 1764 could refer only to Publius Sulpicius 
 Quirinius. Now, it affirms that he was 
 twice legate to Syria. Hence it is no 
 longer necessary to have recourse to an 
 apparently forced interpretation. How- 
 ever, the difficulty remains, for the first 
 legation of Quirinius into Syria can have 
 taken place only in the year of Rome 751, 
 or, at the earliest, about the end of 750, 
 consequently after the death of Herod. 
 To solve this difficulty, it has been thought 
 that the census of which St. Luke speaks 
 had been commenced before the year of 
 Rome 750, by the governor at that time, 
 who might have been Sentins Satuminus, 
 mentioned by Tertullian ( Contra Marcion, 
 IT, 19) ; but, interrupted by the death of 
 Herod, it could be completed only about 
 751, when Quirinius took possession of his 
 province. Thus understood, the text of 
 St. Luke would confirm the opinion which 
 
 places the birth of the Saviour before the 
 year of Rome 750. In fact, the edict of 
 the general census of the empire must have 
 been posterior to the universal pacifica- 
 tion, marked by the closing of the temple 
 of Janus, at Rome. This fact took place 
 only in the middle of summer of the year 
 746, eight years before the present era. 
 Hence the birth of Christ ought to be fixed 
 on December the 25th of one of the three 
 years 747, 748, or 749. 
 
 Most of the chronologists select one of 
 these three years and justify their prefer- 
 ence by the relation which they establish 
 between the birth of the Saviour and the 
 other chronological accounts of the Gospel. 
 Now, St. Luke further informs us (iii. i, 
 23) that St. John the Baptist commenced 
 his mission in the fifteenth year of Tiberius, 
 and that Jesus was about 30 years old when 
 He received baptism from the hands of His 
 precursor. But the years of Tiberius have 
 been computed in two different ways. If 
 we adopt the ordinary fashion of counting, 
 the reign of Tiberius begins with the death 
 of Augustus, which took place on Aug. 
 19th, in the year of Rome 767. The fif- 
 teenth year of Tiberius runs, therefore, 
 from Aug. 19th, 781, to Aug. 19th, 783, or 
 28-29 of our era. By cutting off exactly 
 thirty years the birth of Jesus would fall in 
 751 ; but this date would not agree with the 
 death of Herod, which took place in 750. 
 Therefore, we must understand the words 
 "about thirty years " in a broader sense, 
 and, according to the opinion of Keppler, 
 they may be said of a man who is more 
 than twenty-five years old and less than 
 thirty-five years. If we suppose Jesus bom 
 in 747, He would have been from thirty- 
 four to thirty-five years of age in the fif- 
 teenth year of Tiberius; if He was bom 
 only in 749, then He would have been from 
 thirty-two to thirty-three years of age. 
 Several chronologists have counted the 
 fifteenth year of Tiberius not from the 
 death of Augustus, but from the associa- 
 tion of Tiberius to the tribunitial power, 
 in the year of Rome 765 or 764. Thus it 
 would fall in 779 or 778. Consequently, 
 Jesus, had He been bom about 747, would 
 have been at the time of His baptism 
 about thirty-one years old. 
 
 As to the duration of the public life of 
 Jesus, it has been reduced to one year by 
 some ancient writers for reasons having lit- 
 tle foundation, and which St. Iraeneus has 
 ably refuted. Eusebius extended it to three 
 and one-half years. Some modem com- 
 
Chronology 
 
 175 
 
 Chronology 
 
 mentators adopt this estimate bj- support- 
 ing themselves upon the Paschs expressly 
 mentioned by St. John, and understanding 
 by this solemnity " the festival of the 
 Jews," of which there is mention in John 
 V. I. However, many give to the preach- 
 ing of the Saviour only a duration of two 
 and one-half years, and, with St. Irseneus 
 and St. Jerome (/« /saiam, I. ix.), they 
 acknowledge only three Paschs. The first 
 soon followed the baptism (John ii. 13) ; 
 the second was immediately preceded by 
 the multiplication of the loaves of bread 
 (vi. 4) ; the third was that of the Passion 
 (xiii. j). If, therefore, our Lord were 
 baptized in the fifteenth year of Tiberius, 
 the first Pasch of His ministry took place 
 in the year of Rome 782, the twenty-ninth 
 of the present era, and the last, that of 
 the Passion, in the year a. d. 31 or 32; of 
 Rome, 784 or 785. 
 
 Thus the date of the death of Jesus would 
 almost be fixed to a year, and we could 
 verify it by determining in which year the 
 day of Jesus's death was found to be a Fri- 
 day (Mark xv. 42; Luke xxiii. 54; John 
 xix. 31). Unfortunately, this very simple 
 question is rendered very complicated, be- 
 cause there is question whether this Friday 
 was the 14th or 15th Nisan. Now, on this 
 point the chronologists and commentators 
 are divided into two camps. If the Friday 
 of the death of the Saviour was the 14th 
 Nisan, we have to eliminate the year 32, 
 during which the 14th Nisan commenced 
 on Saturday evening, and to accept the 
 year 33, during which this day fell, accord- 
 ing to the Jewish method of counting, from 
 Thursday evening to Friday evening. If 
 we prefer the 15th Nisan, in order to re- 
 strict the inquiry to the years 28 1034, this 
 day of the first month happened to be a 
 Friday only in the years 30, 31, and 34 of 
 the popular era. We can see. then, by this 
 short summary, that the dates and the 
 duration of the life of Jesus Christ are un- 
 certain. However, the labors of the 
 learned have notably reduced the limits of 
 uncertainty. The result seems to be that 
 we must fix the time of the birth of the 
 Saviour between the years of Rome 747 
 and 749, or 7 and 5 before the Christian 
 era, and those of His death between the 
 years 29 and 33 of our era. The duration 
 of the life of Jesus will range between a 
 minimum of thirty-three and a maximum 
 of thirty-eight years. 
 
 X. Chronology of the History of 
 THE Apostles. — To fix this we have only 
 
 some dates of the Acts of the Apostles and 
 of the Epistles of St. Paul. The apostolic 
 history commences with the ascension of 
 Jesus, which took place forty days after 
 His resurrection. Ten days later the Holy 
 Ghost descended upon the Apostles (Act. 
 ii. i). These facts occurred within the 
 same year of the death of the Saviour; 
 their date varies, therefore, according to 
 that adopted for the latter event. The 
 death of Herod Agrippa I., related in Acts 
 xii. 19-23, determines the time of the mar- 
 tyrdom of St. James and of the imprison- 
 ment of St. Peter. According to Josephus, 
 this king was then celebrating games in 
 honor of the Emperor Claudius. This was 
 in the year 44 of our era. It is not neces- 
 sary, however, to say that the persecution 
 of Herod Agrippa against the Christians 
 took place in the same year as his death, 
 and we may suppose with Patrizi and 
 Fouard that there elapsed several years in 
 the interval. These critics also place the 
 death of St. James and the imprisonment 
 of St. Peter in the j-ear 42. 
 
 The first mission of Saul and Barnabas 
 is posterior to the death of Herod Agrippa. 
 Hence we have to fix it at the earliest 
 about the end of the year 44. This date 
 may serve as the starting point in the life of 
 St. Paul. The Apostle of the Gentiles, 
 before his voyagje to Jerusalem, had passed 
 one year at Antioch (Act. xi. 26). If we 
 keep account of his return to Tarsus and 
 his three years in Arabia and Damascus 
 (Act. ix. 30; Gal. i. 17, 21), we have to re- 
 fer his conversion to five or six years 
 previous. Other considerations confirm 
 these conclusions, which are only approx- 
 imate. Aretas, king of Arabia, reigned 
 at Damascus when St. Paul had to leave 
 this city (II. Cor. xi. 32). Now, it is gen- 
 erally believed that this king re-took this 
 city after the death of Tiberius, which oc- 
 curred March i6th, in the year 37. On 
 the other hand, the persecution of the 
 Christians bv the Jews, in which Saul took 
 part (Act. viii. 57), could have taken place 
 only after the departure of Pilate. 
 
 Another certain date is furnished to us 
 by the relations of St. Paul with the pro- 
 curator Felix. The Apostle was captive at 
 Ca^sarea for two years, when Felix was re- 
 placed by Portius Festus (Act. xxiv. 37). 
 Now, Felix was recalled to Rome by Nero 
 in the year 60 or 61. Before Festus, St. 
 Paul appealed to Ciesar ; he traveled the 
 whole winter and arrived in Rome in the 
 spring of the year 61 or 62. He remained 
 
Chronology 
 
 176 
 
 Chronology 
 
 a prisoner for two years (Act. xxviii. 30). 
 Hence it was in 63 or 64 when the last 
 events related in the Acts took place, and 
 when this history probably was composed. 
 Such is the extreme date of the inspired 
 history of the Apostles. But the date of 
 the departure of Felix assists us in deter- 
 mining the chronological position of the 
 anterior events. If St. Paul left Caesarea 
 in 61, his captivity in this city had com- 
 menced in 59. He had left Ephesus one 
 year before (Act. xx, i; I. Cor. xvi. 8), 
 and his sojourn in tliat city lasted nearly 
 three years (Act. xix. 8, 10; xx. 31). 
 After his second mission, which extended 
 over one year at least, the Apostle stayed 
 one year and six months at Corinth (Act. 
 xviii. 11). Therefore, six years had elapsed 
 before the Council of Jerusalem (Act. xv. 
 4-6), which thus convened in the year 52. 
 If we count the fourteen years that pre- 
 ceded the presence of St. Paul at this 
 Council (Gal. ii. i), and the three years 
 that separated his conversion from his 
 first voyage to Jerusalem (Gal. i. 18), we 
 would conclude in dating the conversion 
 in the year 34. While estimating an in- 
 terval of seventeen years to have elapsed 
 between the Council of Jerusalem and the 
 conversion of St. Paul, we can place this 
 latter in 37, when we remember " that 
 the Jews are in the habit of counting the 
 unfinished and incomplete year as if it 
 were a full one." (Fouard, Sf. Pierre, p. 
 527.) By counting thus, the first voyage 
 of St. Paul to Jerusalem would have taken 
 place in 39 and the second in 52. The 
 dates of the composition of the Epistles 
 and of the Apocalypse are matter for the 
 domain of Biblical Introduction and do 
 not belong to sacred chronology, strictly 
 speaking. 
 
 XI. Chronological Table of the 
 Principal Biblical Events. — This 
 table will give a summary of the present 
 article and will present the principal dates 
 of the Bible. All those dates that precede 
 the taking of Samaria are more or less un- 
 certain. We will indicate them, beginning 
 with the call of Abraham, according to 
 the chronology usually accepted ; although 
 it is doubtful to the establishment of the 
 monarch}-. Even in this epoch, there is 
 reason to believe that it locates too early 
 the reigns of the kings of Juda and of Israel 
 before the taking of Samaria, which date 
 is assured and incontestable: — 
 
 Creation of the world and of man . . Dates unknown 
 Deluge Date unknown 
 
 B. c. 
 
 Arrival of Abraham in Palestine 2138 
 
 Birth of Isaac 2113 
 
 Birth of Esau and Jacob 2053 
 
 Descent of Jacob into Egj'pt 1923 
 
 Exodus and the promulgation of the Decalogue 1493 
 Death of Aaron and of Moses. End of the 
 
 sojourn in the desert 1453 
 
 Conquest of the Promised Land by Josue. 1453-1446 
 
 Death of Josue 1428 
 
 Bondage under Chusan Rasathaim 1409-1401 
 
 Othoniel and the peace which followed. . 1401-1361 
 
 Bondage under the Moabites 1361-1343 
 
 Aod and peace in the south of Palestine. . 1343-1263 
 Bondage of the north of Palestine. Debora 
 
 and Barac 1323-1263 
 
 Bondage under the Madianites 1263-1256 
 
 Gedeon and peace 1256-1216 
 
 Abimelech 1216-1213 
 
 Thola 1213-1190 
 
 Jair iigo-1168 
 
 Heli and bondage under the Philistines (west 
 
 of Palestine) 1168-1128 
 
 Exploits of Samson 1148-1128 
 
 Samuel until the battle of Masphath .... 1128-1108 
 Bondage under the Ammonites (east of the 
 
 Jordan) 1168-1150 
 
 Jephte 1150-1144 
 
 Abesan 1144-1137 
 
 Abialon 1 137-1 127 
 
 Abdon 1127-1119 
 
 Samuel from the battle of Masphath until 
 
 Saul 1108-1095 
 
 Saul 1095-1055 
 
 David 1055-1015 
 
 Solomon 1015- 975 
 
 Building of the Temple loii 
 
 Accession of Roboam and of Jeroboam 1 975 
 
 Death of Roboam and accession of Abia 958 
 
 Death of Abia and accession of Asa 955 
 
 Nadab succeeds to Jeroboam 1 954 
 
 Assassination of Nadab and accession of Baasa 953 
 
 Ela succeeds Baasa 930 
 
 Zambri reigns seven days 930 
 
 Amri replaces him 930 
 
 Accession of Achab gi8 
 
 Accession of Josaphat in Juda 914 
 
 Accession of Ochozias, son of Achab 897 
 
 Accession of Joram, son of Achab S96 
 
 Accession of Joram in Juda 889 
 
 Accession of Ochozias 884 
 
 Accession of Jehu 884 
 
 Accession of Athalia 883 
 
 Accession of Joas 877 
 
 Accession of Joachaz, son of Jehu * 856 
 
 Accession of Joas, son of Joachaz 840 
 
 Accession of Amasias 838 
 
 Accession of Jeroboam II 824 
 
 Accession of Ozias, or Azarias 809 
 
 Accession of Zacharias, son of Jeroboam II. . . 772 
 
 Accession of Sellum 772 
 
 Accession of Manahem 771 
 
 Accession of Phaceia. his son 761 
 
 Accession of Phacee 759 
 
 Accession of Joatham 757 
 
 Accession of .\chaz 74' 
 
 Accession of Osee 7*9 
 
 Accession of Ezechias 726 
 
 Taking of Samaria 7*1 
 
 Accession of Manasses 697 
 
 Accession of Amon 642 
 
 Accession of Josias 640 
 
 Accession of Joachaz 609 
 
 Accession of Joakim 609 
 
 First deportation to Babylon 606 
 
 Accession of Jechonias or Joachin 598 
 
Chrysologus 
 
 177 
 
 Chrysostom 
 
 B.C. 
 
 Accession of Sedecias 598 
 
 Taking of Jerusalem 587 
 
 Edict of Cyrus to rebuild Jerusalem, and re- 
 turn of Zorobabel 536 
 
 Finishing of the second Temple 516 
 
 Return of Esdras 457 
 
 Return of Nehemias 445 
 
 Definitive departure of Nehemias for the court 433 
 
 Alexander visits Jerusalem 332 
 
 Era of the Seleucides 312 
 
 Antiochus Epiphanes takes Jeru-salem 170 
 
 Insurrection of Mathathias 167 
 
 His death and the accession of Judas Macha- 
 
 beus 166 
 
 Restoration of the Temple 164 
 
 Death of Judas Machabeus 161 
 
 Jonathas, high-priest 161- 143 
 
 Simon, ethnarch and high-priest 143- 135 
 
 Independence of the Jewish nation 142 
 
 Death of Herod the Great and birth of Jesus. 4 
 
 A. D. 
 
 Deposition of Archelaus and Coponius, first 
 
 procurator of Judea 6 
 
 Jesus in the midst of the Doctors 8 
 
 Marcus Ambivius, second procurator 9 
 
 Annius Rufus, third procurator 12 
 
 Death of Augustus Tiberius, emperor 14 
 
 Valerius Gratus, fourth procurator 15 
 
 Pontius Pilate, fifth procurator 26 
 
 Beginning of the public life of Jesus 26 
 
 Death of Jesus ; Ascension and Pentecost 29 
 
 Death of Philip the tetrarch 33 
 
 Conversion of St. Paul 34 
 
 Removal of Pilate, who is replaced by Marcel- 
 
 lus, sixth procurator 36 
 
 Death of Tiberius and accession of Caligula. . 37 
 Herod Agrippa becomes tetrarch of Trachoni- 
 
 dis 37 
 
 Exile of Herod Antipas 39 
 
 Herod Agrippa becomes tetrarch of Galilee 
 
 and of Perea 39 
 
 First voyage of St. Paul to Jerusalem 39 
 
 Murder of Caligula and accession of Claudius 41 
 
 Herod Agrippa is king of Judea 41 
 
 Death of St. James and imprisonment of St. 
 
 Peter 42 
 
 Death of Herod Agrippa. Juda is placed un- 
 der the direct domination of Rome ; Cus- 
 
 pius Fadus, seventh procurator 44 
 
 First mission of St. Paul 44 
 
 Tiberius Alexander, eighth procurator 45 
 
 Cumanus, ninth procurator 48 
 
 Felix, tenth procurator 52 
 
 Council of Jerusalem and second mission of 
 
 St. Paul 52 
 
 Herod Agrippa II. becomes tetrarch 53 
 
 Accession of Nero 54 
 
 Third mission of St. Paul 55 
 
 St. Paul leaves Ephesus after a sojourn of 
 
 three years 58 
 
 Captivity of St. Paul at Csesarea 59 
 
 Fortius Festus, eleventh procurator 60 
 
 St. Paul leaves Csesarea for Rome 61 
 
 Albinus, twelfth procurator 62 
 
 St. Paul at Rome, and end of the account of 
 
 the Acts 63 
 
 Gessius Floras, thirteenth procurator 64 
 
 Vespasian, imperial legate to Syria 67 
 
 Martyrdom of St. Peter and of St. Paul at 
 
 Rome 67 
 
 Accession of Galba .68 
 
 Accession of Otho, Vitellius, and of Vespasian 69 
 
 Taking of Jerusalem by Titus 7° 
 
 12 
 
 Chrysologus (St. Peter) (406-450). — 
 Peter, surnamed on account of his elo- 
 quence Chrysologus, was born at Imola, 
 and baptized by Bishop Cornelius, from 
 whom he also received his ecclesiastical 
 training and ordination to the deaconate. 
 After studying the spirit of Asceticism in 
 a monastery, he was consecrated Bishop of 
 Ravenna by Pope Sixtus III., in 433. By 
 his ever watchful solicitude, his untiring 
 practice of prayer, and his constant fidelity 
 to the duties of his office, he was a shining 
 disciple of the Good Shepherd. His method 
 of life was that of an ordinary priest, and 
 he labored successfully in converting the 
 pagans, as well as in combating the Manich- 
 ean, Novatian, Pelagian, and Nestorian 
 errors. By word and example he encour- 
 aged the practice of Christian virtue, and in 
 his sermons freely denounced prevailing 
 vices, and exhorted the Faithful to avert, 
 by works of penance, the divine chastise- 
 ment. The Archmandrite Eutyches, who 
 was trying to win supporters for his new 
 heresy in the West, he entreated to submit 
 to the authority of the Pope, "because 
 through him St. Peter, who continues to 
 sit in the Chair of Rome, makes known the 
 true faith to the sincere inquirer." St. 
 Chrysologus was on intimate terms with 
 Pope Leo I. He died and was buried at 
 Imola. F. Dec. 4th. St. Peter Chrysolo- 
 gus left quite a number of works which can 
 be found in Migne, Pat. lat. LII, 9-680. 
 
 Chrysostom (St. John) (347-407). — The 
 incomparable John of Constantinople, from 
 his sanctity and eloquence called "Chrysos- 
 tom" or "Golden-mouthed" was born at 
 Antioch. After spending six years in 
 monastic solitude, where he devoted him- 
 self to prayer and the study of the Sacred 
 Scriptures, he was baptized in 369. In 386, 
 he became a priest and in 397 he was ad- 
 vanced to the see of Constantinople. In 
 his new post, John displayed a wonderful 
 zeal and energy. Greatly loved as he was 
 by the people, his bold denunciation of 
 vice made him numerous enemies, espe- 
 cially at court, who in 403, procured his 
 banishment. Although almost instantly re- 
 called, he was, at the instigation of the 
 licentious Empress Eudoxia, again exiled 
 the following year to Cucusus in Armenia. 
 Three years after, a new decree banished 
 John to Pityus, in Colchis, the farthest 
 limits of the empire; but before reaching 
 that place, he died at Comana in Pontus. 
 F. Jan. 27th. 
 
Church 
 
 178 
 
 Church 
 
 Of all the Greek Fathers, the writings of 
 St. Chrysostum are the most voluminous. 
 They consist of numerous commentaries 
 and homilies on the Bible, of sermons, dog- 
 matical and moral treatises, and of a mass 
 of letters. His homilies and commentaries 
 on the Bible alone fill nine volumes, and 
 embrace nearly all the sacred books of both 
 Testaments. Besides these, our saint com- 
 posed a number of excellent sermons and 
 homilies on Christian doctrine and Chris- 
 tian virtues and duties. Most of his hom- 
 ilies he preached at Antioch while yet a 
 presbyter. Of his moral works, must be 
 mentioned his incomparable treatise on the 
 Priesthood in six books, which he com- 
 posed to excuse himself to his friend Basil, 
 for whom, by his flight, he had left open 
 the way to episcopal dignity. With the 
 exception of a few, his letters to the num- 
 ber of 243, were written during his exile. 
 Of these, two are addressed to Pope Inno- 
 cent I. The Liturgy bearing the name of 
 St. Chrysostom is used to this day through- 
 out the East, by the Catholics and Schis- 
 matics alike. 
 
 Church. — The assembly of Christians in 
 general, and, in a more restricted sense, 
 every assembly or communion of persons 
 united by the same Christian faith. Both 
 the words and acts of Jesus prove that He 
 wished to perpetuate His teaching in a 
 doctrinal society or organized body, which 
 is the Church. He speaks explicitly of this 
 Church which will be founded upon the 
 chief of the Apostles as the corner stone. 
 He promises to him divine assistance which 
 should continue till the end of the world. 
 The Apostles show us how they understood 
 the realization of the divine plan. With 
 them the first Christian community unites 
 itself at Jerusalem. They rule and direct 
 this community, which constitutes the 
 primitive Church. They receive the prize 
 of the goods of the Faithful, judge their dif- 
 ferences, and hear their complaints. They 
 found the hierarchy by the imposition of 
 hands, that is, through ordination ; punish 
 by excommunication, instruct by their 
 preaching and by letters. Finally, all an- 
 tiquity proclaims the Bishop of Rome the 
 successor of St. Peter and heir of his 
 power. St. Clement of Rome, St. Igna- 
 tius, St. Polycarp, immediate disciples of 
 the Apostles, assume every^^•here in their 
 letters the episcopal and sacerdotal author- 
 ity and the submission of the Faithful to 
 this power. Such a constitution existing 
 
 in fact implies the institution of Christ 
 and proves it historically. From that 
 time, the Church appears to us as a per- 
 fect society. It has its peculiar aim, 
 which is the sanctification of souls, and 
 also the means to realize this end, namely, 
 the sacraments. It is an obligatory so- 
 ciety for all men to whom it is sufficiently 
 known, and it is in this sense that outside 
 the Church there is no salvation. We dis- 
 tinguish in the Church a threefold min- 
 istry : the doctrinal ministry, or the word 
 of God taught by the members of the hier- 
 archy; the decision of controversies be- 
 longing only to the successors of the 
 Apostles, to the bishops and Pope; the 
 sacerdotal ministry, or the application of 
 the grace of the sacraments to the indi- 
 viduals ; finally, the disciplinary or admin- 
 istrative ministry, by which the exterior 
 life of the members of the Church is di- 
 rected so that the whole Church really 
 represents the society or community 
 founded by Christ, in the march to God. 
 The Church, being, therefore, an exterior, 
 visible, hierarchical, and doctrinal society, 
 must be recognizable, and it will be this by 
 means of marks, namely : unity, holiness, 
 apostolicity, and catholicity. The Church 
 is one, because we cannot speak of several 
 churches without contradicting Christ, 
 who speaks of only one flock, and of only 
 one pastor. She is one, by one and the 
 same Lord, Jesus Christ, by one and the 
 same Gospel, by one and the same baptism, 
 by one and the same Holy Ghost — who 
 operates in the souls, — and by one and the 
 same visible head, the Pope. The Church 
 is holy by her vocation, by the means she 
 offers to efface sin, by the heroic virtues 
 which, in all centuries have been the at- 
 tributes of many of her members, and 
 which have been proved by the miracles 
 wrought by their sanctity. The Church is 
 catholic, because she is destined to become 
 the universal religious society, and carries 
 within herself all that is necessary to be- 
 come universal; because, in fact, she is 
 spread all over the world and is accessible 
 in all regions to men of good will, who are 
 anxious about their salvation. In such a 
 manner, however, is she catholic that on ac- 
 count of the liberty of each one in the order 
 of salvation, the catholicity of the number 
 may be changeable in the different coun- 
 tries, — now superabundantly enlightened 
 by the light of the Gospel, anon more or less 
 abandoned by that same light whose lumin- 
 ousness reveals itself in other places. The 
 
Church 
 
 179 
 
 Church 
 
 Church is apostoHc, not only because his- 
 torically she dates back to the Apostles, but 
 also because she perseveres in the spirit and 
 essential form which she received from 
 the Apostles, and because she is always 
 the same, in the presence of the mutabil- 
 ity of earthly things. The Church is a 
 doctrinal society, because she is not only 
 the guardian of a morality more perfect 
 than that of philosophers, but the deposi- 
 tary of truths or dogmas which she incul- 
 cates into all generations. Christ has taught 
 His divinity, and founded upon this dogma 
 the mission of His Church. He has 
 taught the prophetic relation of the Old 
 Testament with the Gospel and with His 
 person; the mystery of the Most Holy 
 Trinity; the dogma of the responsibility 
 for works ; of the resurrection of the dead 
 and of the judgment ; the dogmas of grace, 
 of human liberty, of redemption, and of 
 man's communication with God through 
 prayer. He has taught the existence of 
 a Church, destined to pursue her work of 
 sanctification, and, consequently, the in- 
 defectibility of the Church, whose corol- 
 lary is her infallibility. This infallibility 
 is exercised in the progress of the centuries 
 by the decision of controversies, remitted to 
 the judgment of the pastors, and especially 
 to the chief of the Apostles. Thus there 
 exists in the Church an always living mag- 
 istery, destined to guide and direct the 
 Faithful. The Church had always a creed, 
 or confession of faith, to which she at- 
 tached herself. 
 
 Church (Greek). See Schism. 
 
 Church ( The, in the United States). — 
 The first Catholic bishop in the United 
 States was Most Reverend John Carroll of 
 Baltimore, appointed in 1790. Under him, 
 at that time, were 20 priests and 30,000 
 laity scattered throughout the thirteen 
 states, but particularly in Maryland, Penn- 
 sylvania, and the territory northwest of 
 Ohio. Most of these were native born. 
 Bishop Carroll's calculation fixes the num- 
 ber at 44,000. In 1803, with the annexa- 
 tion of Louisiana, 30,000 Catholics, born in 
 that state, were added to the natural in- 
 crease, so that in 1810 there were 90,000 
 native born and 30,000 foreign born Catho- 
 lics. In 1830, the Catholics born in the 
 United States had gained, by natural in- 
 crease, 81,000, making 231,500 out of a total 
 population of 361,000. In 1850 the Catho- 
 lic population was about 1,876,470, of whom 
 not more than 800,000 were of foreign 
 
 birth. In 1S60 the Catholic population 
 was 3,000,000, of whom at least 1,701,470 
 were natives, the natural increase by births 
 over deaths being at least 625,000. In 1870 
 there were 4,685,000 Catholics, of whom 
 2,786,470 were born in the United States. 
 The total foreign born population that 
 year was 5,567,229, of whom 1,898,530 were 
 Catholics. In 1880, out of 7,000,000 Cath- 
 olics, 4,468,470 were native born. The 
 foreign born Catholics were 2,531,530, out 
 of a total foreign born population of 6,679,- 
 943, as reported by the census. In 1890 
 the Catholic population was certainly 10,- 
 000,000. Of these, over 6,750,000 were na- 
 tives and 3,250,000 of foreign birth. These 
 figures are substantiated, also, by a calcu- 
 lation made according to the English 
 tf bles of morality ; for, taking the number 
 of Catholic births from the year 1800, and 
 enumerating the survivors, there must 
 have been, not including Indians and ne- 
 groes, over 6,000,000 native born Catholics 
 in 1890. In 1896 there were surely 12,000,- 
 000 Catholics in the United States, of 
 whom no fewer than 8,250,000 were native 
 born. From those figures it will be seen 
 that the great body of Catholics in the 
 United States is, and always has been, 
 mostly native born and English speaking, 
 and that those of American parentage far 
 outnumber those born in America of for- 
 eign parentage. Cf. Art. " Roman Cath- 
 olic Church," by Cardinal Gibbons, in 
 Supplement to Encyclofcedia Britannica. 
 On the following pages will be found a 
 General Summary of the Catholic Church, 
 taken from Hoffmann's Catholic Directory 
 of the year 1898. According to our Sum- 
 mary, it is far from being complete, at 
 least in regard to the number of Catholics 
 in the United States. 
 
 Church ( The) and Basilica as Place of 
 Worship. (The name basilica is derived 
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 house. A royal palace, or public building 
 where judgment was rendered, or where 
 the merchants assembled for the consid- 
 eration of affairs). — During the early times 
 of Christianity, many basilicas were util- 
 ized as churches, some of which retained 
 the ancient name of these edifices after 
 their transformation into places of wor- 
 ship. Among the Romans, the basilica 
 was a large building of an elongated form, 
 divided inside by colonnades surmounted 
 by galleries. The most famous and also 
 the most ancient of Roman basilicas were 
 
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Church and Civilization 
 
 182 
 
 Church and Civilization 
 
 that of Porcius Cato, which history re- 
 cords as having been erected in the year 
 184 B. c. ; the Julian, Emilian, Ulpian ba- 
 silicas, and, finally, that of Constantine, the 
 latest in date and the most solid in struc- 
 ture, for it was entirely arched, whereas 
 the more ancient basilicas were merely 
 roofed with ceilings. Aside from the pub- 
 lic basilicas, the wealthy Roman patricians 
 and the principal citizens of other Italian 
 cities possessed private basilicas where the 
 master of the house granted audience to 
 his dependents and adjudicated their af- 
 fairs. 
 
 The edifices for worship of the Christian 
 Church originated from the private basil- 
 ica. When the Faithful left the Cata- 
 combs, and were destitute of the means for, 
 or could not as yet venture, in those pagan 
 times the erection of public buildings con- 
 secrated to their worship, they found in 
 the basilicas of the converted patricians 
 structures eminently fitted for their assem- 
 blies, and which they reproduced, by 
 slightly modifying them, in their first tem- 
 ples. For this reason, the latter were also 
 called basilicas, a name which was still 
 employed in the Middie Ages and also in 
 our days to designate either large churches, 
 or churches venerated under various titles 
 or enjoying certain liturgical privileges. 
 The ancient basilicas were composed of 
 three parts. See Architecture. Ma- 
 jor Basilicas and Minor Basilicas are hon- 
 orary titles to which correspond certain 
 canonical privileges. There are Major 
 Basilicas only in Rome ; these are the five 
 principal churches: St. John Lateran, St. 
 Peter of the Vatican, St. Paul Without 
 the Walls, Santa Croce in Gerusalemme, 
 and St. Lawrence Without the Walls. 
 They are also called patriarchal churches, 
 because they correspond to the five great 
 patriarchates of the Catholic Church. 
 Santa Maria Majore and St. Sebastian, on 
 the Apennine road, are also counted among 
 the number of Major Basilicas. The title 
 of Minor Basilicas is granted, in Rome 
 and outside of Rome, to other churches 
 famous for their antiquity or on account 
 of the veneration the Faithful have toward 
 them. In Rome, there are six Minor Ba- 
 silicas : Santa Maria de Transtevere, St. 
 Lawrence in Damaso, Santa Maria in Cos- 
 medin, St. Peter in Chains, Santa Maria 
 in Monte Santo, and the Church of the 
 Twelve Apostles. The Roman States also 
 contain some Minor Basilicas. In remem- 
 brance of the coronation of Napoleon I., 
 
 Pius VII. raised, by a Bull of Feb. 28th, 
 1805, the Church of Notre Dame de Paris 
 to the rank of a Minor Basilica. There are 
 two other churches in France which share 
 the honor of the metropolis of Paris : the 
 cathedral of Valence, where there is pre- 
 served the heart and bowels of Pius VI. 
 who died in that city, and the Church of 
 Our Lady of Lourdes. 
 
 Church and Civilization.— Christianity 
 in general, and the Catholic Church in 
 particular, have been the most influential 
 factors in civilizing the world. Modern 
 civilization proves herself ungrateful toward 
 the mother that bore her. No other religion 
 has exercised such a mighty civilizing in- 
 fluence as Christianity. Its chief influence 
 lay in the direction of mind and will, that 
 is to say, of intellectual and moral prog- 
 ress, both of which, especially the latter, 
 are most closely bound up with the great 
 social problem. 
 
 Neither the false religion of the heathen 
 nor even the true, but imperfect religion 
 of Israel, were able to regenerate the world. 
 To heal the woes and miseries of mankind, 
 a new covenant, a nobler religion, was 
 needed. That religion is Christianity and 
 the Spirit of God. It alone goes to the 
 root of the evil. Embracing all people and 
 classes without distinction, it brings re- 
 demption from error, sin, and death. It 
 sets before all, the life to come as their 
 true end ; it views this life as a stepping 
 stone to eternity, and earthly goods as a 
 means for laying up treasures in heaven. 
 It thus overcomes the base charms of 
 sensual enjoyment, and plants in the hearts 
 of men a new and indestructible principle 
 of life — divine charity (Rom. v. 25). The 
 Incarnation of the Son of God has changed 
 the face of the earth ; the very name of 
 its founder, Jesus (Saviour, Redeemer) 
 suggests the deliverance of mankind from 
 the bondage of sin, death, and the devil. 
 By His example He has taught us in the 
 most elevated way how to sacrifice our 
 lives. He was meek and humble, and 
 emptied Himself, took the form of a serv- 
 ant. He called none of this world's goods 
 His own, for He had not where to lay His 
 head. And yet, He healed the sick, fed 
 the hungry, and comforted the sorrowful. 
 He spoke as one having authority, and 
 His words struck a chord in the heart 
 of suffering humanity. From sheer love 
 of men. He chose to suffer, to be perse- 
 cuted, and to endure a most cruel death. 
 
Church and Civilization 
 
 183 
 
 Church and Civilization 
 
 Jew and Gentile united to strike Him 
 down. But He who was thus sacrificed, in 
 the simple words of the Apostle, was the 
 Author of Life (Acts iii. 15), and the Cross 
 became henceforth the tree of life to 
 mankind. All eyes would now be turned 
 to Calvary (John xix. 37) ; thither all 
 hearts would be drawn (John xii. 32). 
 
 The disciples and Faithful generally imi- 
 tated the example of Jesus, and put in 
 practice His teaching. They evinced their 
 Christian charity by their good deeds 
 in lending a helping hand to the unfor- 
 tunate, and to those in bodily and spiritual 
 distress. When the neglect of widows 
 gave rise to dissatisfaction at Jerusalem, 
 deacons were appointed for the special 
 purpose of ministering to the poor (Acts 
 vi. iff.). St. Paul, who maintained him- 
 self by the work of his hands, ordered 
 collections to be made in all the Churches 
 he had founded for the poor in Jerusalem. 
 He also urged the Faithful in the several 
 Churches to esteem and support one an- 
 other. And he rebuked the Corinthians 
 for not keeping the Agape or love-feasts 
 in common (L Cor. xi. 21-22). He admon- 
 ishes the Romans to minister to the neces- 
 sities of the saints, pursuing hospitality 
 (Rom. xii. 13). 
 
 The most wretched and abject class of 
 the poor were the slaves, who swarmed not 
 only in the East, but also among the Greeks 
 and Romans, and even amongthe Germans. 
 They were not accounted as men, but as 
 implements, chattels, and beasts, destined 
 from their birth to bear the yoke. Their 
 physical and moral wretchedness clamored 
 to heaven for vengeance. So hard was the 
 condition of the slave that one year of 
 slavery would suffice to thrust him into 
 the rank of a veterator, that is, to cast him 
 aside as a worn-out commodity. The 
 least offense might entail loss of life or 
 limb. He was subject to the most cruel 
 outrages. Husbands were torn away from 
 their wives, children from their parents. 
 Where were they to look for comfort in 
 their misery, or for strength to endure 
 their sufferings.? Not in the religion of 
 their masters. The hearts of men were 
 closed against them. The asylums and 
 sanctuaries erected for their benefit, hardly 
 produced a noticeable mitigation of their 
 lot. A master, like Pliny, who treated his 
 slaves humanely, was a phenomenon. 
 Those who treated them with every refine- 
 ment of cruelty were far more numerous. 
 Slaves were even thrown as food for fishes ! 
 
 Yet Christianity was able to deal with the 
 inveterate canker that had been gnawing 
 at the vitals of the social life of those 
 times. It strove to elevate these unhappy 
 beings, spiritually and morally, to temper 
 their harsh lot, and gradually to abolish 
 slavery as a blot on Christianity and a dis- 
 grace to mankind. Nor was the manner 
 in which Christianity accomplished this 
 great social revolution less admirable. On 
 the one hand, the Apostles exhorted slaves, 
 for the love of God, and in the hope of an 
 eternal reward, to bear their hard lot with 
 patience, and to be faithful even to cruel 
 and froward masters. On the other hand, 
 they entreated and enjoined on masters, to 
 consider their slaves as brethren in Christ, 
 since all had been redeemed by the same 
 precious blood of Jesus Christ. Only when 
 society had been penetrated with the spirit 
 of Christianity, could slavery as an insti- 
 tution be wholly abolished without danger 
 of a social upheaval. But it was owing to 
 the Christian spirit that a great portion of 
 mankind recovered their full human rights 
 and dignity, and domestic life was estab- 
 lished on a new basis. See Slavery. 
 
 In the heathen world, sympathy with 
 suffering and charity to the poor, were un- 
 known. The attempts which it was con- 
 strained to make toward alleviating the 
 most frightful misery, were utterly inade- 
 quate. The few attempts made in Greece 
 and Rome to care for the poor cannot 
 compare, either in comprehensiveness or 
 in motive, with the works of Christian 
 chacity. They were essentially for giving 
 State support to citizens incapacitated from 
 work, and for distributing free supplies of 
 corn to the poor. In the reign of Nerva 
 and Hadrian spasmodic efforts were made 
 to establish schools for the education of 
 foundlings. The collegia, or brotherhoods, 
 were each supposed partly to care for their 
 own poor. No one, in the vast Roman 
 empire, dreamt of almshouses or hos- 
 pitals. 
 
 How different was the action of the 
 Christian Church ! The care of the sick 
 and poor, from religious motives, for 
 God's sake, was a Christian work in which 
 every Christian community was occupied. 
 Widows and orphans, the poor and the 
 sick, were tended and supported as re- 
 deemed in Christ, and made conformable 
 to Him in suffering. The pagans, who 
 treated poverty with contempt, and closed 
 their eyes to the wretchedness of their 
 fellow-men, frequently flung in the teeth 
 
Church and Civilization 184 Church and Civilization 
 
 of Christians the taunt that none but the 
 outcasts and scum of society and credulous 
 women were found to listen to their teach- 
 ing. Tertullian goes so far as to say that 
 there was hardly a rich man in the house 
 of God. Consequently, poverty and dis- 
 tress found a place of refuge in the Chris- 
 tian Church. Besides receiving relief for 
 the bodily wants, the unfortunate pariahs 
 of society learned how to bear their 
 wrongs patiently, for they felt that they 
 were redeemed, elect, and brethren. How 
 those blunted, deadened hearts must have 
 beat with joy when they learned that even 
 they were the object of that pre-eminently 
 Christian virtue of brotherly love, and 
 that God the Son had shed His blood even 
 for them ! 
 
 According to the Canons of Hippolytus, 
 the bishop has charge of the poor. The 
 Apostolic Constitutions likewise enjoin on 
 the bishop to care for the widows and 
 orphans. He is to distribute the offerings 
 of the Faithful, and he will have to render 
 to God an account of his stewardship in 
 this matter. The Synod of Orange, held 
 in 511, decreed (c. i6) : " The bishop shall 
 provide for the sick and poor, who are in- 
 capacitated from work, %vith food and cloth- 
 ing, as far as it is in his power." When 
 it was a question of relieving the distress 
 of the poor or of ransoming captives, not 
 even the sacred vessels of the Church 
 were spared. To provide a wider scope 
 and application and greater efficiency in 
 the works of mercy, the Christian bishops 
 made early attempts at the organization of 
 charity by establishing hospitals and alms- 
 houses, as was done by St. Basil in 
 Caesarea. The establishment of houses for 
 the poor and for strangers was mentioned 
 at the Synod of Chalcedon. The Synod 
 of Tours (567) ordered every city to make 
 provision for the poor. Pope Gregory the 
 Great took active measures, both by his 
 personal action and by his decrees, in pro- 
 viding for the poor. 
 
 The wider Christianity spread, and the 
 more it penetrated with its spirit the 
 masses and classes of men, the greater and 
 more flourishing became the work of 
 Christian charity. The rise of monas- 
 teries marks a new epoch in this respect. 
 They became the homes of the poor. For 
 not only did a poor man never knock in 
 vain at the monastery door, but the mon- 
 asteries frequently maintained poorhouses, 
 hospitals, and schools. In these works, 
 Benedictines, Cistercians, and Premon- 
 
 stratensians vied with one another. More- 
 over, numerous guilds or brotherhoods 
 were established, which devoted them- 
 selves in a special manner to ministering 
 to the sick and poor, v. g-., the Brothers of 
 the Holy Ghost, the Brothers of St. An- 
 thony, the Beguines, the Orders of Knights, 
 etc. In our time, hundreds of religious 
 institutions were established for the same 
 purpose. Reformation, on the other hand, 
 destroyed many of these houses, confis- 
 cated the goods of the poor, and handed 
 them over to the rich. The poor were de- 
 prived of their asylums, and the unselfish 
 exercise of Christian charity and brotherly 
 devotion was rendered impossible. 
 
 The position of woman and wife in an- 
 cient times, was often very little better 
 than that of female slaves, and in this respect 
 non-Christian nations of to-day resemble 
 pre-Christian heathen. The Church, how- 
 ever, took the doctrine of Holy Scripture on 
 the equality of woman and the sanctity of 
 family and married life and erected it into 
 a maxim : Una lex est de viris et feihinis. 
 Marriage, invested with the sacramental 
 blessing, has rights and duties, which are 
 correlative. The object of marriage became 
 mutual sanctification and the bringing of 
 children to heaven — a duty shamefully 
 neglected by Greeks and Romans. Mar- 
 riage might not be dissolved. Fidelity and 
 chastity were held in high honor. Even 
 second marriage was looked upon as a spe- 
 cies of incontinency. The detestable prac- 
 tices of abortion and the exposure of infants 
 were stringently condemned. The oldest 
 Christian writings contain a prohibition 
 against child-murder, either by procuring 
 abortion or by infanticide. It also incul- 
 cated on women their duties as Christian 
 housewives. St. Chrysostom, for example, 
 severely denounced the unworthy and cruel 
 behavior of mistresses to their female slaves. 
 The same saint has also recorded how 
 high, as a rule. Christian women stood 
 in the estimation of their heathen neigh- 
 bors, by reason of their continency and 
 chastity. The reverse of the picture is 
 given in Rottiger's Sabina and Wiseman's 
 Fabiola. The glimpse which they give 
 into the home life of heathen women is by 
 no means pleasant reading. 
 
 The effects of this sanctification of family 
 life on social and economic science cannot 
 be appraised too highly. Both public and 
 private life were ennobled. The social 
 intercourse of men and women with one 
 another could not but be governed by a 
 
Church and Civilization 185 Church and Civilization 
 
 gentler and nobler spirit, as St. Jerome's 
 letters to noble Roman ladies abundantly 
 testify. This accession of dignity to the 
 married state also healed the gaping wounds 
 which lax morals had inflicted on the social 
 fabric of Greece and Rome. Lasciviousness, 
 adultery, and slavery, are largely responsi- 
 ble for the devastation and depopulation of 
 countries that were once flourishing. In 
 this respect, too, the countries blighted by 
 Islamism render conspicuous by contrast 
 the blessings that Christianity has brought 
 in its train. 
 
 Christian Science has ever been unfold- 
 ing her banner for fresh victories. How- 
 ever much her fortunes may vary, her 
 conquests are as assured as they are unde- 
 niable. No matter how philosophers, 
 especially modern ones, may have cast 
 themselves adrift from Christian philoso- 
 phy, they cannot wholly emancipate them- 
 selves from its influence. Even they are 
 indebted to Christianity for what they 
 have. Consciously or unconsciously, they 
 have drawn whatever of merit there is in 
 them from the well-spring of Christianity. 
 The very fact that the condition of modern 
 philosophy grows hopeless in proportion to 
 its abandonment of Christianity is a proof 
 of it. Society is shaken to its very founda- 
 tion because of the intellectual confusion of 
 the age. Skepticism and infidelity have 
 passed from the classes to the masses. What 
 wonder, then, that the highest authority 
 in Christendom has uttered the watch- 
 word : "Go back to St. Thomas ! " 
 
 The study of philosphy was likewise fa- 
 vorable to the study of the classics. That 
 the Fathers, especially the Greek Fathers, 
 were well versed in them goes without say- 
 ing. St. Chrysostom's style is, not with- 
 out reason, called the Attic style of St. 
 Paul. In the West, St. Jerome is a model 
 classic. In the monasteries the ancient 
 masterpieces were carefully preserved, 
 copied, and studied. Had it not been for 
 the monasteries, the rich literature of the 
 ancients would have been lost in the stormy 
 ages that followed. The Humanists, in- 
 deed, revived classic studies, collated man- 
 uscripts, and rendered them generally 
 accessible. But who preser\'ed them but 
 that Church which, for centuries, had 
 been almost the exclusive gvtardian of 
 science? The Popes, even in the days of 
 Humanism, were among the most vigorous 
 promoters of these studies. And the mon- 
 asteries were as solicitous for education 
 as for science. The Church established 
 
 upper and lower schools. The most 
 famous libraries, notably the Vatican, owe 
 their origin and maintenance to the 
 Church. 
 
 Nowadays all scientific studies center in 
 the Natural Sciences. The great strides 
 made in theory and practice in modern 
 times are due to them. Our present in- 
 dustrial and commercial system is of their 
 creation. And it is often maintained that 
 this triumph of realism is a protest against 
 ideal Christian science, and the religious 
 life inculcated by Christianity. This con- 
 tention seems to derive confirmation from 
 the bent of these sciences, which is natural- 
 istic and materialistic. The history of 
 these natural sciences, from first to last, 
 is represented as a series of skirmishes and 
 conflicts, in which science vindicates the 
 right of free inquiry against the Church 
 and finally emerges from the conflict 
 triumphant. No matter how much the 
 changes are rung and the theme varied, the 
 contention is untrue in the main, and exag- 
 gerated in detail ; moreover, its ultimate 
 consequence would be the rejection of all 
 religion, and with it the downfall of civili- 
 zation. 
 
 The abuse which modern historians and 
 scientists have heaped upon the Church, 
 as if she were opposed to social and 
 scientific progress, induced the Vatican 
 Council to declare itself in the Chapter on 
 Faith and Reason. It teaches: "Not only 
 can faith and reason never be opposed to 
 one another, but they are of mutual aid, 
 one to the other. For right reason demon- 
 strates the foundations of faith, and, en- 
 lightened by its light, cultivates the 
 science of things divine; while faith frees 
 and guards reason from errors, and 
 furnishes it with manifold knowledge So 
 far, therefore, is the Church from opposing 
 the cultivation of human arts and sciences, 
 that it in many ways helps and promotes 
 it. For the Church neither ignores nor 
 despises the benefits to human life which 
 result from the arts and sciences, but con- 
 fesses that, as they came from God, the 
 Lord of all science, so, if they be rightly 
 used, they lead to God by the help of His 
 grace. Nor does the Church forbid that 
 each of these sciences, in its sphere, should 
 make use of its own principles and its own 
 methods; but, while recognizing this just 
 liberty, it stands watchfully on guard lest 
 science, setting itself against the divine 
 teaching, or transgressing its own limits, 
 should invade and disturb the domain of 
 
Church History 
 
 Circumcision 
 
 faith." Christianity, then, and the Church 
 have no reason to fear the history of 
 civilization and progress. 
 
 Church History. — The history of the 
 Christian religion and of the Church 
 forms the most important part of the gen- 
 eral history of mankind, and is intimately 
 connected not only with the political his- 
 tory of the world, but also with the history 
 of philosophy, literature, and civilization. 
 The sources and authorities of this history 
 are extremely various, and their due ap- 
 preciation often requires as much judgment 
 as their exploration requires toil. Church 
 history is either general, — embracing a 
 view of the affairs of the Church in the 
 whole world, from the beginning to the 
 present day; or particular, — relating to 
 some particular country, or time, or por- 
 tion of the Church. By some authors 
 Church history has been treated chiefly 
 with regard to the outward affairs of the 
 Church, and by others with reference to 
 doctrine, morals, and the evidences of 
 spiritual life; while still others have de- 
 voted their attention chiefly to the forms 
 of worship, the constitution of the Church, 
 and other subjects generally comprehended 
 under the name of ecclesiastical antiquities. 
 
 Churching of Women. — In the Jewish 
 law (Lev. xii.) women, for forty days after 
 the birth of a boy, and for eighty days 
 after the birth of a girl, were regarded as 
 unclean, excluded from the temple and re- 
 quired, at the expiration of such time, to 
 bring a lamb as a holocaust, and a dove as a 
 propitiatory sacrifice to the temple, and 
 then be pronounced pure by the prayer of 
 the priest. This law does not, it is true, ap- 
 ply to Christian women, because the Church 
 has abolished the Jewish ceremonies. But, 
 the Church, nevertheless, permits them to 
 remain absent from divine service for six 
 weeks, or as long as circumstances conse- 
 quent upon the birth of a child may require. 
 This should be remembered by husbands, 
 who should see that their wives have the 
 necessary quiet and attendance which na- 
 ture requires for their recovery after giving 
 birth to a child. The Church desires that 
 at the end of this time the mother, follow- 
 ing the example of the Blessed Virgin 
 Mary, should resort to the Church to ob- 
 tain the blessing of the priest, and thank 
 God for her delivery, offer the child to 
 God, praying with the priest for the grace 
 to train her offspring in sanctity and piety. 
 This comprises the Churching of Women, 
 
 which is a very old and praiseworthy cus- 
 tom and should not be neglected. This 
 practice was not instituted to prevent 
 mothers from being harmed by the devil, 
 by malicious persons, or by ghosts, and it 
 would be not only a foolish fear, but an ab- 
 surd superstition to be condemned, if one 
 were to suppose that a woman were liable 
 to harm if she should go abroad before she 
 were churched. 
 
 Ciborium. — A vessel used in Catholic 
 Churches to hold the sacred Host; it is 
 made of gold or silver, and generally 
 ornamented with a cross. There anciently 
 prevailed a custom of enclosing the Blessed 
 Sacrament, reserved under the form of 
 bread, for administration to the dying, in 
 a vessel of gold or silver, made in the form 
 of a tower or of a dove, which was sus- 
 pended by a chain from the center of the 
 altar-canopy or ciborium, beneath a small 
 tent or tabernacle of silk or other rich ma- 
 terial. In process of time this custom was 
 changed in many churches, and the Blessed 
 Sacrament, deposited in a pyx, was placed 
 within a tabernacle erected on the altar, 
 and which was accessible only to the priest 
 who possessed the key to its miniature 
 portal. In France the use of the suspended 
 dove or pyx was retained in many churches 
 until the middle of the eighteenth century ; 
 and in the cathedral of Amiens and a" 
 few other churches the custom was ad- 
 hered to up to a quite recent date. The 
 ancient practice of keeping the Blessed 
 Eucharist reserved for the communion of 
 the sick, and for the perpetual adoration 
 of the people, in a pyx suspended above 
 the altar was observed in Catholic England 
 down to the fifteenth century, and in many 
 churches until the schism. 
 
 Cingulum. See Girdle. 
 
 Circumcelliones (or " Hut-rovers " ). — A 
 sect of fanatics which sprang up among 
 the Donatists. In the name of religion 
 they committed all kinds of excesses and 
 depredations against the Catholics, pillag- 
 ing and burning their houses, blinding 
 and murdering their priests. 
 
 Circumcision {Feast of). — Festival cele- 
 brated on the 1st of January to remind us 
 of the humility of our Lord in allowing 
 Himself to be seemingly numbered among 
 sinners, by submitting to the law of the 
 Jews. Circumcision was a religious prac- 
 tice among the Jews in the observance of 
 which a distinctive mark was placed on 
 
Cistercians 
 
 187 
 
 Clement 
 
 male children the eighth day after their 
 birth, and on all adults who embraced their 
 religion. It was established as a distinc- 
 tive sign of the people of God, a sign of 
 the covenant made by God with Abraham, 
 and as the figure of baptism in the New 
 Law. The feast of Circumcision is very 
 ancient in the Church, as is proved by the 
 homilies and sermons of the Fathers of 
 the Church. 
 
 Cistercians. — Religious order, founded 
 by St. Robert of Molesme (died in mo). 
 Robert left the monastery which he had 
 founded at Molesme, and with twenty zeal- 
 ous monks retired into the thick forest of 
 Citeaux, where he formed a new order. 
 Its statutes received the approbation of 
 Calixtus II. in irig. The austerities prac- 
 ticed at Citeaux seemed at first to threaten 
 the community with extinction. The ac- 
 cession of St. Bernard with thirty young 
 men, mostly of noble birth, gave it new 
 life. By the middle of the twelfth century, 
 the number of abbeys had increased to 
 five hundred ; a century later, to eighteen 
 hundred. About the end of the eighteenth 
 century, the Order counted 1,800 monas- 
 teries for men and 1,400 for women. The 
 Cistercians have abbeys in the United 
 States at Gethsemane, in Kentucky, and 
 near Dubuque, in Iowa. 
 
 Clarendon ( Constitutions of). — A coun- 
 cil of the kingdom summoned by Henry 
 II. of England at Clarendon, in 1164. Six- 
 teen ordinances, known as " The Consti- 
 tutions of Clarendon," and purporting to 
 declare the Ancient Customs of the realm, 
 were submitted to the assembly as the 
 " Laws of the Realm," for the settlement 
 of the relation between Church and State, 
 in matters of jurisdiction. These consti- 
 tutions, by restraining the jurisdiction of 
 the bishops and bringing the clergy under 
 secular jurisdiction, by inhibiting canoni- 
 cal censures, appeals to the Pope, and all 
 intercourse with the Holy See, save with 
 the royal permission, and by other odious 
 provisions, tended to destroy all ecclesi- 
 astical liberty, and to reduce the English 
 clergy to perfect subjection to the Crown, 
 even in spiritual matters. 
 
 Clares {Poor). — Besides his order for 
 men, St. Francis founded one also for wo- 
 men, commonly called Poor Clares, after 
 St. Clara of Assisi, who was the first of 
 her sex to embrace this manner of life. In 
 1224, St Francis gave a written rule to St. 
 
 Clara and her community, which was ap- 
 proved by Innocent IV., in 1246. Within 
 a few years the order had many houses in 
 Italy, France, and Spain. The Poor Clares 
 also have several houses in the United 
 States. St. Clara died in 1253, and was 
 canonized already in 1255. F. Aug. 12th. 
 
 Claudius. — Iconoclast bishop of Turin, 
 born in Spain, died in 839. Wrote an 
 Apology against Theodomir, which was 
 condemned by a council of Paris. 
 
 Claudius Apollinaris (St.). — Bishop of 
 Hierapolis, highly esteemed by his con- 
 temporaries on account of his great knowl- 
 edge and virtues, wrote an Apology to the 
 Emperor Marcus Aurelius, which was 
 much praised by St. Jerome. He also 
 wrote, as we learn from Eusebius, five 
 books against the heathen, and two on 
 truth against the Montanists. All these 
 writings, however, with the exception of 
 a few fragments, have been lost. 
 
 Claver (Peter). See Peter Clavkr. 
 
 Clemangis (Nicholas of). See Nich- 
 olas. 
 
 Clement. — Heretic ; a native of Scotland ; 
 lived in the eighth century and was an epis- 
 copus vagus. He was an adversary of St. 
 Bonifice, apostle of Germany. He assailed 
 some of the teachings and practices of the 
 Church with great vigor and pretentious 
 display, but with little, if any, real ability. 
 He objected to the Judaico-theocratic con- 
 stitution of the Church, denied that the 
 canons of councils and the writings of the 
 Fathers are a safe rule of faith, and, drift- 
 ing still further from the true spirit of 
 Catholic teaching, held erroneous opinions 
 on some doctrines of the Church, such as 
 predestination. He also held that, when 
 Christ descended into the regions of the 
 dead, He set free all those who had been 
 confined in hell, whether believers, infidels, 
 or idolaters. He advocated and practiced 
 lax principles of morality, rejected celi- 
 bacy, and continued to exercise episcopal 
 functions, though living with a concubine, 
 by whom he had two sons. He was con- 
 demned to a life of confinement, by order 
 of the Synod of Rome (745). 
 
 Clement (name of fourteen Popes). — 
 Clement I. — Pope from 91 to 100. A dis- 
 ciple and third successor of St. Peter. He 
 is supposed to be the same Clement men- 
 tioned by St. Paul (Phil. iv. 3) as one of 
 
Clementinae 
 
 Cleobians 
 
 his fellow-laborers. By another account 
 Clement was the immediate successor of 
 St. Peter, St. Linus and St. Cletus being 
 only the Apostle's vicars at Rome in his 
 absence. St. Clement, in 96, wrote an 
 Epistle to the Corinthians, "in the name 
 of the Roman Church," which for a long 
 time continued to be read in the ancient 
 Churches. He suffered martyrdom under 
 Trajan, Clement II. — Pope from 1046 to 
 1047. Formerly Suidger of Bamberg. 
 Reigned only nine months. Clement III. — 
 Pope from 1187 to 1191. Was elected at 
 Pisa and entered Rome March 13th, 1188. 
 He reconciled the Papacy with the Roman 
 city, which had for fifty years disputed its 
 authority. Clement IV. — Pope from 1265 
 to 1568. Clement V. — Pope from 1305 to 
 1314. Formerly Bertrand de Got, Arch- 
 bishop of Bordeaux ; was elected through 
 the influence of the French King, Philip 
 the Fair. Notwithstanding the urgent in- 
 vitations of the cardinals, he declined to live 
 in Rome, had the ceremony of his coro- 
 nation performed at Lyons, and fixed his 
 residence at Avignon, He absolved Philip 
 from all censures, allowed him an ecclesi- 
 astical tithe for five years, and created nine 
 French cardinals. He convoked the Fifth 
 General Council, which opened at Vienne, 
 in 131 2. In the same year he dissolved 
 the Order of the Templars. Clement VI. — 
 Pope from 1342 to 1352. He established 
 the Jubilee for every fifty years, and pur- 
 chased Avignon in 1342. During his 
 Pontificate, Lola de Rienzi attempted to 
 re-establish the republic at Rome. Clem- 
 ent VII. — Pope from 1523 to 1534. He was 
 the posthumous son of Julian de Medici, as- 
 sassinated in the conjuration of the Pazzi. 
 The legitimacy of his birth, contested at 
 first, was acknowledged under Leo XL He 
 entered into a league with France, England, 
 Venetia, and other Italian States, against 
 the emperor, Charles V., of Spain, and, 
 being besieged in Rome by the imperial 
 army under the Constable de Bourbon, 
 was compelled to capitulate, Jan. 5th, 1527. 
 He fled to Orvieto, but concluded a peace 
 with Charles in 1529, and crowned him 
 emperor, at Bologna, in 1530. He forbade 
 (1534) the divorce of Henry VIII. of Eng- 
 land from Catharine of Aragon. Clement 
 VIII. {Aldobrandini). — Pope from 1592 to 
 1605, Called Baronius, Bellarmin, and 
 other learned celebrities into the College 
 of Cardinals, undertook the publication of 
 the revised edition of the Vulgate, and 
 appointed the so-called " Congregation de 
 
 Auxiliis." Clement IX. {Rospigliosi). — 
 Pope from 1667 to 1669. Negotiated the 
 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1668, restored 
 diplomatic intercourse between Portugal 
 and the Apostolic See, and assisted the 
 Venetians against the Turks. Clement 
 X. — Pope from 1670 to 1676. At the re- 
 quest of France, he raised the Church of 
 Qiiebec to a bishopric. Clement XI. — 
 Pope from 1700 to 1721. A learned man, 
 and an able prince of the Church ; had a 
 difficult Pontificate. He was compelled to 
 place the kingdom of Sicily under inter- 
 dict, and published bulls directed against 
 the Jansenists : '* Vincam Domini^^ (1705), 
 and" Uniffenitus^' (1713). Clement XII. 
 — Pope from 1730 to 1740. Restored the 
 good understanding with Portugal; 
 founded the Museum of Roman antiquities, 
 and sent the learned Assemani into the 
 East to buy manuscripts. This Pope, in 
 1738, pronounced excommunication on the 
 Order of Freemasons. Clement XIII. — 
 Pope from 1758 to 1769. Agitation against 
 the Jesuits reached a high pitch of excite- 
 ment under the Pontificate of this Pope. 
 Yet he firmly refused to accede to the de- 
 mands of Portugal and of the Bourbon 
 courts for the suppression of the oraer. 
 Clement XIII. conferred on the Empress 
 Maria Theresa and her successors, the 
 title of "Apostolic Majesty" {Rex apos- 
 iolicus). Clement XIV. — Pope from 1769 
 to 1774. Had less firmness of character 
 than his predecessor, Clement XIII. He 
 created the brother of Pombal, minister 
 of Portugal, cardinal ; abolished the prac- 
 tice of annually reading the Bull "/« Ccena 
 Domini,^' and suppressed the Order of the 
 Jesuits. 
 
 Clementinae, See Canon Law. 
 
 Clement of Alexandria. — Was born at 
 Athens and was a disciple of Pantaenus, 
 through whose influence he embraced 
 Christianity. When Pantaenus went as 
 missionary to India, in 180, Clement, who 
 in the meantime had been ordained priest, 
 succeeded his master at the head of the 
 Catechetical School of Alexandria. The 
 persecution under Severus, compelled him 
 to withdraw, first to Cappadocia and after- 
 wards to Jerusalem, where he is said to 
 have opened another school. Little is 
 known of the later years of his life. He 
 died in 217. 
 
 Cleobians. — Members of a Christian sect 
 at Jerusalem in the apostolic times. Their 
 
Clergy 
 
 189 
 
 Cloister 
 
 chief was a certain Cleobulus, or Clobius, 
 Avho denied the authority of the prophets, 
 God's almighty power, and the resurrec- 
 tion. They attributed the creation of the 
 world to an angel. 
 
 Clergy and Laity.-:-The priesthood is 
 described in the Sacred Scriptures as two- 
 fold : internal and external. The former 
 extends to all the Faithful, whom St. Peter 
 calls a "holy priesthood to offer up 
 spiritual sacrifices, acceptable to God 
 through Jesus Christ" (I. Pet. ii. 5). The 
 external priesthood, however, does not 
 extend to the great body of the Faithful, 
 but is appropriated to a certain class of 
 persons, who, by the imposition of hands 
 and the solemn rite of ordination, "are set 
 apart for the Gospel of God," and devoted 
 to some particular office of the sacred min- 
 istry. Hence appears the distinction in 
 the Church between teacher and people, 
 ruler and subjects, clergy and laity. Those 
 ecclesiastics who filled the office of the 
 priesthood were, as St. James says, called 
 "Clergy," clerici, from klerus {lot or ker- 
 itage), "either because they are chosen by 
 lot to be the Lord's, or because the Lord is 
 their lot or heritage." This distinction was 
 clearly pointed out by our Lord, when, 
 selecting His Apostles from the crowd. He 
 ordained them and authorized them to 
 teach all nations and rule His Church. 
 The discrimination between the clergy and 
 laity, therefore dates from the very begin- 
 ning of the Church ; it was strongly marked 
 even in the time of the Apostles, as appears 
 from the Epistle to the Romans (i. i), 
 and from the Acts (vi. and xiii.) where 
 mention is made of the election of the 
 seven deacons and the appointment of Paul 
 and Barnabas, who by order of the Holy 
 Spirit were set apart for the ministry of 
 the Gospel. The same truth is manifest 
 from the fact that the power of the priest- 
 hood, ever since the time of the Apostles, 
 is conferred in the Church by prayer and 
 the imposition of hands. St. Clement of 
 Rome, speaking of this distinction between 
 the clergy and laity, says: "A bishop has 
 a particular charge laid upon him, and the 
 priest exercises functions special to his 
 office ; the Levite has his own proper min- 
 istry, but laymen are concerned only with 
 the laws that pertain to their own order." 
 
 Next to the bishops ranked the presby- 
 ters or priests, who had the power to 
 preach, to offer up the Holy Sacrifice, and 
 to administer the sacraments (excepting 
 
 ordination) to the Faithful. They were 
 considered the bishop's vicars, or assistants, 
 and constituted his advisory council 
 (presbyter ium). After the priests came 
 the deacons, who constantly accompanied 
 the bishop, attended him when preaching, 
 and assisted him at the altar and in the 
 administration of the sacraments ; they 
 also administered Holy Communion and 
 baptism. To the deacons was committed 
 the distribution of the goods of the Church. 
 The office of .subdeacons, who are first 
 mentioned by St. Cyprian, was to serve 
 the deacons in their sacred ministrations. 
 The inferior officers of the Church were 
 the acolytes, lectors, exorcists, and ostia- 
 ries, or porters (see these subjects). Pope 
 Cornelius enumerates all these grades, or 
 ranks of the hierarchy, in his Letter to 
 Bishop Fabius of Antioch, stating " that 
 there were at that time (250) in Rome 46 
 priests, 7 deacons, and as many sub- 
 deacons, 42 acolytes, 52 exorcists, lectors, 
 and ostiaries." To the deaconesses, who 
 originated in the time of the Apostles 
 (Rom. xvi. i; Tim. v. 9), was entrusted 
 the instruction of females and the various 
 offices in connection with their baptism. 
 Aged widows were generally selected for 
 this office. See Order {Holy). 
 
 Clerks Regular. — Are in general, those 
 ecclesiastics bound, by solemn profession, 
 to the rules of religious orders, in con- 
 tradistinction to secular ecclesiastics. In 
 a more restricted sense, those ecclesiastics, 
 leading a life in common, according to 
 the example of the Clergy of St. Augustine. 
 The discipline introduced into many 
 Churches since the twelfth century, gave 
 rise to Canons Regular. Since the six- 
 teenth century, a great many congrega- 
 tions of Clerks Regular have been founded : 
 Theatines, Piarists, Lazarists, Mechitar- 
 ists, etc. ; or quasi Clerks Regular (less 
 austere in discipline and without particular 
 vows) ; Oratorians, Bartholemites, etc. 
 
 Cletus. — See Anacletus. 
 
 Clinic Baptism, or baptism on a sick bed. 
 In the early Church given only to those at 
 the point of death, and hence were called 
 clinici. 
 
 Cloister (from the Lat. claustrum, an 
 enclosing -wall). — Originally an archway 
 encircling a monastic establishment, which 
 was usually located in the center of the 
 group of buildings. The purpose of the 
 
Clovis and Clotilda 
 
 190 
 
 Coat 
 
 cloister was to afford a place in which the 
 monks could take exercise and recreation. 
 See MoNASTiciSM. 
 
 Clovis and (St.) Clotilda.— St. Clotilda 
 was born about 475, died at Tours, France, 
 545. Queen of the Franks, daughter of Chil- 
 peric, king of the Burgundians. Her 
 father, mother, and two brothers, were 
 murdered by her uncle Gundebald, joint 
 king of the Burgundians, by whom she was 
 educated in the Christian faith. She mar- 
 ried (493) Clovis I., king "of the Franks, 
 whose conversion from heathenism was ac- 
 complished chiefly through her instrumen- 
 tality. Clovis, by reason of his great victory 
 over the Alemanni at Zuelpich, near Bonn, 
 in 496, was induced to embrace the Cath- 
 olic faith. Within the same year, Clovis, 
 true to the vow which he had made on the 
 occasion, was instructed in the Christian 
 religion by St. Vedastus of Toul, and 
 baptized at Rheims on Christmas day, by 
 St. Remigius. With him were baptized 
 three thousand of his followers. Clovis 
 died in 511. 
 
 Cluny {Abbey of). — One of the most 
 famous monasteries of the West, founded 
 in 909 by William the Pious, Duke of Ac- 
 quitaine, and by Bernon, its first abbot. St. 
 Odon, successor of Bernon, establshed in 
 his house a reform of the Benedictine insti- 
 tute, which was soon adopted by nearly two 
 hundred abbeys that affiliated themselves 
 with Cluny. As a sign of vassalage, the 
 superiors of the latter took the title of 
 simple Priors. From the Abbey of Cluny, 
 which, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, 
 acquired great celebrity, always flowed 
 forth, as from a fountain, an eager desire 
 for learning and literary pursuits. It was 
 especially famous as a center of ecclesias- 
 tical training. The Abbot Peter the Ven- 
 erable, contemporary and friend of St. 
 Bernard, was recognized by two thousand 
 monasteries, all dependent on the Abbey 
 of Cluny. 
 
 Coadjutor Bishop. — Coadjutors are 
 those ecclesiastical officers who are ap- 
 pointed by the proper superior to assist 
 bishops in the administration of the dio- 
 cese. Coadjutors, therefore, must be dis- 
 tinguished from auxiliary bishops. The 
 latter assist bishops in the discharge of 
 the functions of the episcopal order; the 
 former in the exercise of the episcopal 
 jurisdiction. By reason of their duties, 
 coadjutors are divided into two classes, 
 temporal and spiritual. The latter are ap- 
 
 pointed to assist the bishop in the per- 
 formance of his spiritual duties, whether 
 of order or jurisdiction, and not unfre- 
 quently also in the management of Church 
 property. In order to be able to exercise 
 ^'■pontificalia,''^ they are consecrated as titu- 
 lar bishops ; the temporal coadjutors assist 
 only in the administration of the tempor- 
 alities of the diocese, and consequently 
 need not be consecrated. Again, by reason 
 of their tenure of office, they are divided 
 into two classes, those who hold office tem- 
 porarily, — until the bishop's death or re- 
 covery, — and those who hold office perma- 
 nently, that is, who are appointed with the 
 right of succession at the death of the 
 bishop. The right of appointing coadjutors, 
 belongs solely to the Holy See. In certain 
 exigencies, however, x'.^., if the diocese be 
 at a great distance from the Holy See, a 
 bishop, who, by reason of age or infirmity, 
 is unable to discharge his duties, may 
 himself, by virtue of papal authority, select 
 a temporary coadjutor, with the advice and 
 consent of his chapter; and, in case of the 
 insanity of the bishop, the chapter itself, •' 
 provided two-thirds of the canons consent, 
 may appoint such a coadjutor ; but a report 
 of the whole case should be sent to Rome 
 as soon as possible. In the United States, 
 when appointing coadjutors to bishops or 
 archbishops, with the right of succession, 
 the rules laid down for the appointment 
 of a bishop must be observed. Where, 
 however, a coadjutor bishop or archbishop 
 is to be appointed who shall have the right 
 of succession, it is sufficient for the bishop, 
 who wishes the appointment of such a co- 
 adjutor, to present to the Holy See the 
 name and credentials of the ecclesiastic 
 whom he wishes to have appointed. 
 
 Coat {The Holy). — The world-famous 
 relic in the cathedral of Treves, is the 
 seamless coat of Christ, for which His 
 executioners cast lots at the crucifixion 
 (Matt, xxvii. 35). The Empress Helena, 
 having obtained possession of it in the Holy 
 Land, is said to have given it to the city of 
 Treves, where she resided for a considerable 
 time. In 1196, the coat was deposited in 
 the main altar. It was exposed repeatedly 
 for veneration in the sixteenth century. 
 On account of the disastrous events of the 
 time, it was carried to Augsburg, in 1794, 
 but was brought back to Treves in 1810. 
 A multitude of pilgrims, numbering over 
 two hundred thousand, visited Treves to 
 celebrate this joyful restoration. But the 
 
Codex 
 
 191 
 
 Color of Vestments 
 
 most striking and successful exposition 
 was that of 1844, when eleven bishops and 
 more than a million of the laity flocked to 
 Treves from all sides during the period 
 that the holy coat was exhibited. Its last 
 exhibition took place in i8qi. 
 
 Codex. — A name applied to ancient man- 
 uscripts, especially of the classics or of the 
 Scriptures. Of the latter class the princi- 
 pal are the " Codex Sinaiticus," discov- 
 ered in 1844 and 1859 in the Monastery of 
 Mount Sinai by Tischendorf, and the 
 "Codex Vaticanus," both of the fourth 
 century; the "Codex Alexandrinus" and 
 the "Codex Ephraemi" of the fifth cen- 
 tury. 
 
 Ccele-Syria. See Syria. 
 
 Ccena Domini (/«). — A celebrated papal 
 Bull ; is the work of several Popes. Its first 
 composition dates from the fourteenth 
 century. Pope Urban VIII., in 1627, had 
 it revised, since which time it has received 
 no essential alteration. It contains a cata- 
 logue of such crimes as subject the of- 
 fender to excommunication. It especially 
 condemns public heretics, schismatics, 
 apostates, falsifiers of Pontifical writings, 
 pirates, etc. ; those who appeal from the 
 Pope to an ecumenical council, or from 
 the spiritual to the secular courts; those 
 who are robbers of Church property, or 
 who plunder pilgrims ; those who assist the 
 enemies of religion, especially the Turks, 
 with implements of warfare ; those who levy 
 unjust taxes, etc. Pope Pius V. (1566-1572), 
 the original author of the Bull, decreed that 
 it should be proclaimed every year through- 
 out Christendom on Holy Thursday ; hence 
 thename/w Ccena Domini. In i77oClement 
 XIV. suspended the proclamation of this 
 Bull and Pius IX. abolished many censures 
 thereof. 
 
 Ccenobites. See Monasticism. 
 
 Collation. — i . Term for the gift of a bene- 
 fice by a bishop, either as patron, or one 
 which came to him by lapse. 2. Also for 
 the spare meals on days of abstinence, con- 
 sisting of bread or fruit, but no meat. 3. 
 The readings from the lives or collations 
 of the Fathers in a monastery before Com- 
 pline. 
 
 Collect. — Certain short prayers of com- 
 prehensive brevity, collected together, and 
 said in the Mass at different times. See 
 Station. 
 
 Colleges. See Missions. 
 
 Collegiants. — Members of a sect founded 
 near Leyden, Holland, in 1619, the soci- 
 eties of which are called "colleges." The 
 sect spread rapidly in the Netherlands, and 
 is still maintained there and in Hanover. 
 In doctrine and in practice the Collegiants 
 resemble the Quakers, having no creed or 
 organized ministry; but they believe in the 
 necessity of baptism, which they admin- 
 ister by immersion. 
 
 Collegiate Churches, in England. One 
 of those churches which, while not being 
 a cathedral, nevertheless possess a college 
 or chapter, consisting of a dean or provost 
 and canons, attached to them. They date 
 from the ninth century, when such foun- 
 dations in large towns became frequent. 
 They are under the jurisdiction of the 
 bishop of the diocese in which they are 
 situated, and he exercises visitorial powers 
 over them. Examples of such are West- 
 minster Abbey and St. George's Chapel, 
 Windsor. In the United States the term 
 is applied to a collection of churches 
 having their pastors in common, as the 
 Dutch Collegiate Church of New York. 
 
 Collydrians. — An Arabian sect of the 
 fourth century. They worshiped the 
 Blessed Virgin as a goddess, offering sac- 
 rifice to her in the form of small cakes 
 {colly dria). 
 
 Color of Vestments. — In her vestments 
 the Church employs five different colors. 
 On the feasts of our Lord, of the Blessed 
 Virgin, of the angels, and of those saints 
 who were not martyrs, she makes use 
 of white, not only to signify the stain- 
 less purity of the Lamb and of His Vir- 
 gin Mother, but also to symbolize the 
 "great multitude, which no man could 
 number, of all nations, and tribes, and 
 peoples, and tongues, standing before the 
 throne and in sight of the Lamb, clothed 
 with white robes" (Apoc. vii. 9). On the 
 feasts of Pentecost, of the Finding and the 
 Exaltation of the Cross, of the Apostles 
 and martyrs, she employs red, to signify 
 those fiery tongues that alighted on the 
 heads of the Apostles when the Holy Ghost 
 rested visibly upon them and in reference 
 to the effusion of blood by Christ and His 
 followers. On some Sundays (when the 
 office is of the day) the vestments are green. 
 Purple is the color assigned for the peni- 
 tential times of Advent and Lent, for the 
 
COLUMBA 
 
 192 
 
 COLUMBANUS 
 
 Ember days, and for several vigils through- 
 out the year; while black is reserved for 
 the office of Good Friday and Masses for 
 the dead. Rose color is used on Gaudet 
 and Laetare Sundays; and on the fourth 
 Sunday in Advent, when it falls on the 
 24th of December. Cloth of gold may be 
 substituted for white. Yellow {color flavus) 
 and heavenly blue {color ccBruleus) are ex- 
 pressly forbidden (S. R. C. 16 Mart. 1833 
 in Veron). 
 
 Columba or Columkil (St.). — Apostle of 
 the Caledonians or Northern Picts. This 
 remarkable man, who was a scion of the 
 royal houses of Ireland, was born at Gar- 
 tan, in the county of Donegal, Dec. 
 7th, 521, and was educated in the famous 
 school of St. Finnian of Maghbile, who 
 had himself studied at Rome. Before 
 Columba had reached his twenty-fifth 
 year he had founded a great number of 
 monasteries in Ireland, the most cele- 
 brated of which was that of Derry, in his 
 own native province, which was long the 
 seat of a great Catholic bishopric, and is 
 now known under the modern name of 
 Londonderry. He had received deacon's 
 orders from St. Unnian, and in the year 
 550 was raised to the priesthood, but his 
 humility was such that he would never 
 consent to take upon him the episcopal 
 office and dignity. In the year 563, when 
 in the forty-second year of his age, Co- 
 lumba set out from his native land, accom- 
 panied by twelve companions, and, in one 
 of those large osier boats, covered with 
 hide, which the Celtic nations used for 
 purposes of navigation, sailed to the north, 
 and landed on the shores of the island of 
 lona, or Hy, to which, in memory of the 
 saint, the name of Hy-Columkil was after- 
 wards given. He and his companions im- 
 mediately set about building a monastery, 
 which was of the rudest description, con- 
 sisting only of a frame covered with the 
 interlaced branches of trees. It was not 
 till some years later that a more substan- 
 tial edifice was erected, with much danger 
 and labor, as the large oaks to be used in 
 its construction were brought across the 
 waters from the neighboring shores. Such 
 was the beginning of the great monastic 
 center whence issued those devoted heroes 
 who carried the blessing of religion and 
 civilization to Scotland and Great Britain. 
 God deigned to give the divine sanction to 
 the mission of Columba by granting him 
 the grace of miracles. Purity of life and 
 
 humility were his two distinguishing vir- 
 tues. In the year 590, Columba returned 
 to Ireland. In virtue of his privileges as 
 founder of the Church in both Northern 
 and Southern Scotland, he exercised eccle- 
 siastical jurisdiction throughout both of 
 these countries. After a long and labo- 
 rious life, Columba died as he had lived. 
 After journeying over the entire island and 
 taking a tender farewell of the monks at 
 work in the field, and praying in the cloister, 
 he withdrew to his own cell, and, when the 
 bell rang at midnight for matins, rose and 
 preceded his brethren to the Church. 
 Here he was found by his faithful children, 
 prostrate before the altar, and in a dying 
 condition. Raising his right hand, he 
 blessed the community, and expired, June 
 9. 597- F. June 9th. 
 
 Columbanus (St.). — Irish monk, born in 
 545 in the province of Leinster, died in 
 615. Well educated in literary pursuits, 
 he wished to fly the temptations of the 
 world and retired into the monastery of 
 Bangor, then famous through the zeal of 
 its monks. An inner voice moved him to 
 leave his country. Accompanied by twelve 
 companions, he came to Gaul, preaching 
 on his route the Christian virtues. In 
 Bourgogne, King Gontran induced him to 
 settle in his country. He gave him the 
 old Roman Castle of Annegray, and here 
 Columbanus passed some years in the 
 practice of austere penance. The number 
 of his disciples increased continually. 
 Gontran offered to him the ancient castle of 
 Luxeuil, at the foot of the Vosges, which 
 became the center of his order. After- 
 wards he established a third community 
 at Fontaines. Labor alternated with prayer 
 in these pious asylums which the strong 
 hand of Columbanus directed. Twentj' 
 years he spent thus with his religious. 
 His reputation and influence became very 
 great. However, he had disagreements 
 with the Gaulish episcopate, especially in 
 regard to the feast of Easter, which he 
 always wished to celebrate according to 
 the Irish custom, — the fourteenth day of 
 the moon, — even when the feast came on 
 Sunday, instead of the custom of the Latin 
 Church which celebrated it the Sunday 
 after the fourteenth day. The favor which 
 Columbanus enjoyed was followed by 
 hatred and persecution. After the death 
 of Gontran, he was banished from the 
 country. He was led to Nantes, and put on 
 board a boat bound for Ireland. But land- 
 
Columbus 
 
 193 Commemoration IN Liturgy 
 
 ingon the shores of the Rhine, he preached 
 the Gospel to the Alemanni in the neigh- 
 borhood of the lake of Zurich, and to- 
 gether with his companion Gall, con- 
 verted many idolaters. Gall remained 
 in Helvetia to continue his apostolate, 
 while Columbanus went to Lombardy, 
 where he founded the famous monastery 
 of Bobbio. Finally, Columbanus retired to 
 a cave on the shores of the Trebbia, there 
 to devote himself to the austerities of 
 penance. Here he died, leaving to his 
 religious a stricter rule than that of St. 
 Benedict. In ten chapters it prescribed 
 perpetual silence, complete abstinence 
 from flesh-meat, daily fast, labor, reading, 
 prayer, poverty, humility, and chastity. 
 The tenth chapter, entitled ^^Penitenitale,^' 
 punished the infractions of the rule with 
 200 strokes of the whip, which was the 
 maximum. F. Nov. 27th. 
 
 Columbus (Christopher). — Born at or 
 near Genoa, Italy, probably in 1446; died 
 at Valladolid, Spain, May 20th or 21st, 
 1506. The discoverer of America. His 
 parents were wool-combers. He was 
 educated at Pavia, and after many years of 
 seafaring life, settled at Lisbon in 1470 as 
 a maker and seller of maps. Becoming 
 convinced of the existence of land beyond 
 the Atlantic, he vainly sought assistance 
 from Portugal and England, but finally 
 set sail from Palos with three ships under 
 the auspices of Ferdinand and Isabella, 
 king and queen of Spain, and after two 
 months of despair and mutiny on the part 
 of the sailors, on October 12th, 1492, 
 sighted Guanahani, or San Salvador, one 
 of the Bahama islands. Sailing on, he 
 discovered several of the West India 
 islands, including Hispaniola (St. Dom- 
 ingo), where he founded a colony. On 
 his return he was received with honor at 
 the courts of Portugal and Spain. He 
 made several other voyages of discovery, 
 but through the calumnies of his enemies 
 was deprived of the government of 
 Hispaniola and sent back to Spain in 
 chains. He died in poverty at Valla- 
 dolid. 
 
 The providential discovery of America 
 obtained for Columbus the title of Am- 
 bassador of God. His mission, virtues, 
 and the services which he rendered to the 
 Church and the world, and other facts 
 about which religious authority has not 
 yet pronounced itself, have caused to be 
 introduced at the court of Rome (as an 
 
 13 
 
 extraordinary and exceptional case) his 
 process of Beatification. 
 
 Commandments. — The Commandments 
 of the Christian religion were taken from 
 the Mosaic religion, with modifications 
 made by the divine authority of our Lord 
 Jesus Christ and of His Church. They 
 are laws expressing the will of our Creator, 
 and are imposed by Him on all men 
 throughout the universe. They are the 
 twofold fundamental precepts of God ; the 
 development of the great law of Charity. 
 They are obligatory, general, just, useful, 
 permanent, legitimate, and promulgated 
 for the well-being of our transitory exist- 
 ence in this world with a view to our ulti- 
 mate salvation. Therefore, the violation 
 of one commandment may involve for- 
 feiture of attainment of eternal happiness, 
 for it is written, " Whosoever shall keep 
 the whole law, but offend in one point, is 
 become guilty of all " (James ii. 10). The 
 Commandments of God are called the 
 Decalogue, which is a word derived from 
 the Greek, meaning ten words; they are 
 also called the Tables of the Law, because 
 God gave them to Moses on Mount Sinai, 
 engraved on two tables of stone. The first 
 three concern our duties toward God, and 
 the seven others our duty toward our 
 neighbor; and they were ratified by our 
 Lord when He said, " On these two com- 
 mandments dependeth the whole law and 
 the prophets" (Matt. xxii. 40). All Chris- 
 tians, having reached the age of reason, are 
 required to know the words of the Deca- 
 logue, and the meaning of the Command- 
 ments, at least as to substance. Among 
 other ecclesiastical lawsof various descrip- 
 tions regarding hierarchical superiors, 
 parish priests, religious orders, etc., cer- 
 tain commandments have been constituted 
 by the legislative power of the Church, 
 through the divine authority of govern- 
 ment and teaching established by our Lord 
 Jesus Christ, when He said, '* Whatsoever 
 thou shalt bind upon earth, it shall be 
 bound also in heaven ; and whatsoever thou 
 shalt loose upon earth, it shall be loosed 
 also in heaven" (Matt. xvi. 19; xviii. 18). 
 These commandments are for the direction 
 of all the members of the Church, and 
 to help us in the better accomplishment of 
 the Commandments of God and the maxims 
 of the Gospel. For the Commandments of 
 God and of the Church, see Decalogue. 
 
 Commemoration in Liturgy. — The men- 
 tion which the Church makes of a saint. 
 
COMMODIANUS 
 
 194 
 
 Communion 
 
 whose proper office cannot be celebrated, 
 because there is a more important feast on 
 that day. The commemoration consists of 
 a Collect, Secret, and Post-Communion, 
 at Mass, and in an Antiphon, verse, and 
 oration, at Lauds and Vespers. We make 
 also a commemoration of the octaves of 
 the major feasts. By commemoration is 
 also meant the remembrance in prayer of 
 the living and the dead. In the Canon of 
 the Mass before the Consecration, there 
 is a commemoration for the living, and 
 later on in the service another for the 
 dead. 
 
 Commodianus. — Christian poet of an un- 
 certain period, probably of the third cen- 
 tury, very possibly a native of Gaza, in 
 Africa. Commodianus is the author of two 
 important poems for the history of the 
 Latin language and Latin meter. In- 
 structiones adxersus Gentium Deos, pro 
 Christiana disciflina, and Carmen Apolo- 
 geticum adversus yud(Bos et Gentcs. The 
 Instructions are contained in Migne's 
 Patrology. The Apology (of 1,020 verses 
 in 47 sections) was published for the first 
 time in 1852, in the Spicilegium Solis- 
 mense of Dom Pitra (vol. I). 
 
 Communion {Eucharistic) (the receiv- 
 ing of the Blessed Eucharist). — The re- 
 ceiving of Communion is obligatory for all 
 members of Christ's Church who have at- 
 tained an age when they fully possess the 
 requisite qualifications alluded to in the 
 fourth commandment of the Church to '• re- 
 ceive communion annually, at Easter or 
 thereabouts." Wilful disregard of this 
 commandment is a mortal sin. It was our 
 Lord Himself who established communion 
 as a means necessary for our salvation, 
 when he said : " Except you eat the flesh 
 of the Son of Man, and drink his blood, 
 you shall not have life in you " (John vi. 
 54). Communion is obligatory on mem- 
 bers of the Church who have attained the 
 age of twelve years, according to St. Al- 
 phonsus ; though they may be admitted 
 earlier, and as soon as they can " discern 
 the body of our Lord," that is, are capable 
 of understanding the importance and so- 
 lemnity of the act, and of appreciating the 
 requisite dispositions of respect and hu- 
 mility with which all should approach the 
 Blessed Sacrament. " Whosoever shall 
 eat this bread, or drink the chalice of the 
 Lord unworthily, shall be guilty of the 
 body and the blood of the Lord " (I. Cor. 
 xi. 27, 28, 29). Therefore, "let a man 
 
 prove himself, and so let him eat of that 
 bread." 
 
 Our Lord Jesus Christ said : " Unless 
 you eat the flesh of the Son of Man and 
 drink His blood, you shall not have life in 
 you" (John vi. 54). Therefore, we can 
 scarcely accomplish this divine precept 
 unless by receiving holy Communion at 
 least once a year; and, indeed, how can 
 we expect to be received by our Saviour 
 into the eternal happiness of heaven, if we 
 give ourselves so little trouble to receive 
 Him here on earth, and with Him, His 
 promise and pledge of that everlasting 
 life? The partaking of the holy commun- 
 ion at Easter is an obligation inseparable 
 from the commemoration of the institution 
 of the most Blessed Sacrament by our Lord 
 Jesus Christ; and to impress us with a vivid 
 remembrance of our Saviour's passion 
 and death, of which the Holy Eucharist is 
 the perpetual and living memorial, accord- 
 ing to Christ's own words as given to us 
 by St. Paul : "As often as you shall eat 
 this bread, and drink the chalice, you shall 
 show the death of the Lord, until He 
 come" (I. Cor. xi. 26). It is desirable, 
 but not obligatory, that the Easter Com- 
 munion should be received in the Church 
 of the parish to which we belong, for, by 
 doing this, we can ofTer good example, 
 one to another; we strengthen the union 
 that should exist between ourselves and 
 the minister of Christ under whose super- 
 vision we are placed, by public acknowl- 
 edgment of his authority; and enable him 
 to recognize those who have acquitted 
 themselves of their duty, that he may 
 strive to bring defaulters to repentance. 
 
 As the Holy Eucharist is a sacrament of 
 the living, the necessary dispositions for 
 rightly receiving communion, consist in 
 being in a state of grace, that is, con- 
 scious of being entirely free from mortal 
 sin. Otherwise we should commit a sac- 
 rilege, and expose ourselves to severe 
 spiritual and temporal physical punish- 
 ments. For, according to the words of 
 St. Paul : "Whosoever shall eat this bread, 
 or drink the chalice of the Lord, unworth- 
 ily, shall be guilty of the body and blood 
 of the Lord . . . For he that eateth 
 and d r i n k e t h unworthily, eateth and 
 drinketh judgment to himself, not discern- 
 ing the body of the Lord" (I. Cor. xi. 27, 
 29). Dispositions not strictly obligatory, 
 but nevertheless most expedient, are the 
 purifying of the soul from venial sins with 
 a strong desire to avoid falling into temp- 
 
Communion 
 
 195 
 
 Communion 
 
 tation, and the making serious effort to 
 correct ourselves of faults displeasing to 
 God, and to adorn our souls with holy 
 thoughts, firm resolves of good, and the 
 meritorious actions performed in the 
 strength of faith, the confidence of hope, 
 the generous love of charity, as well as 
 other virtues springing from these three 
 theological virtues. As to the requisite dis- 
 positions of our bodies, it is absolutely 
 essential that we should be fasting from 
 midnight, scrupulously avoiding anything 
 whatsoever to eat or drink, either by inten- 
 tion or inadvertence ; leaving no possible 
 chance of violating the precept, not to 
 swallow any substance that has entered 
 the mouth from without. Our outward 
 behavior should be such as is suitable, 
 and should be eminently consistent with 
 reserve, propriety, modesty, and purity, 
 both in our attire and deportment. We 
 should approach the altar-rail with the 
 utmost gravity of demeanor, receiving 
 the Holy Host from the hand of the 
 priest, without unnecessary contact with 
 the lips or teeth, and retiring, without pre- 
 cipitation, to quiet meditation, adoration, 
 and other prayer, in which we should spend 
 some length of time, say, a quarter of an 
 hour. For what moment can be so pro- 
 pititious for the supplications we have to 
 make, and for offering grateful recognition 
 of the favors we have received, as when we 
 are, temporarily, the living tabernacle of 
 our Lord Jesus Christ? We should ex- 
 press to Him the worship and gratitude of 
 our whole hearts, imploring aid for our 
 own spiritual and temporal needs, for those 
 of the living and the dead who share our 
 prayers, and for all the Faithful of Holy 
 Church ; making good resolutions for our 
 future conduct, and asking help of grace 
 in the accomplishment of our desires and 
 resolves. It is furthermore well to keep, 
 throughout the day, a devout remembrance 
 of the inestimable favor received, and 
 even a pious recollection of our First Com- 
 munion. 
 
 Communion {Liturgical). See Post- 
 Communion. 
 
 Communion of Saints. — By "Commun- 
 ion of Saints" is understood the belief in 
 the communication of spiritual goods be- 
 tween the members of the Church here 
 upon earth, those in purgatory, and those 
 in heaven, all of whom form one body : 
 " For the body also is not one member, but 
 many. If the foot should say, because I am 
 
 not the head, I am not of the body ; is it 
 therefore not of the body?" (I. Cor. 14- 
 15.) " For as in one body we have many 
 members, but all the members have not 
 the same office; so we, being many, are one 
 in Christ, and every one members, one of 
 another" (Rom. xii. 4-5). See Saints. 
 
 Communion under Both Kinds. — The 
 
 disciplinary regulations of the Western 
 Church at the present day forbid the 
 Faithful to receive the Holy Eucharist 
 under the form of wine, except in the case 
 of the priest who is saying Mass. All the 
 sects which arose out of the Protestant 
 Reformation, allow all who share in their 
 eucharistic rites to receive the cup, and 
 even in the fifteenth century the obligation 
 of receiving communion under both forms 
 was urged by John Huss and his Bohemian 
 followers. They received the name of 
 Utraquists, from the Latin word uterque, 
 signifying both. The point has, in fact, 
 for nearly five centuries, been a test ques- 
 tion between the Catholic Church and her 
 heretical opponents. 
 
 It is a curious fact that in the fifth 
 century it was a badge of heresy in a lay- 
 man to refuse to partake of the Eucharistic 
 chalice. Some sects of the Manicheans 
 held that wine was created by an evil being 
 and not by God ; in consequence, they 
 refused to taste it, and extended their ob- 
 jection even to the Precious Blood under 
 the form of wine. These heretics, never- 
 theless, desired to be reputed as belonging 
 to the Catholics, whose assemblies they fre- 
 quented ; and St. Leo bade the Faithful to 
 observe if there were any who habitually 
 communicated under the form of bread 
 alone. (Serm. 42.) This abstinence from 
 the cup would betray the lurking Mani- 
 chean. It seems clear from this anecdote, 
 that in the days of St. Leo, the Faithful 
 were at liberty to receive communion 
 in their public assemblies, in the form of 
 bread and wine, or with but one of those 
 forms, as they preferred ; in earlier times 
 communion under the form of bread alone 
 was certainly held to be valid, for we read 
 stories of the Sacred Host being carried to 
 confessors of the faith in prison, which 
 could not be done with the wine. After- 
 wards, the mode of communicating con- 
 tinued to be optional, but the superior 
 convenience of receiving the sacred em- 
 blem under the form of bread alone caused 
 this mode to prevail exclusively, although 
 not enjoined by any express law. This 
 
Communism 
 
 196 
 
 CONCURSUS 
 
 practice prevailed in England as early as 
 616, and it was fully established through- 
 out the West by the end of the twelfth 
 century, although it was a custom long 
 after, to give to each communicant an 
 ablution of unconsecrated wine, to assist 
 him in swallowing the Host. The fif- 
 teenth century saw the rise of the Hussite 
 heresy, which, among other things, taught 
 that partaking under both emblems was a 
 divine ordinance. In opposition to this 
 error, the Council of Constance, in 1418, 
 passed a decree establishing the present 
 law. This was a disciplinary enactment. 
 The doctrine that there is no divine com- 
 mand for receiving communion under 
 both sacred emblems, was declared to be 
 of faith by the Council of Trent. 
 
 Communism. See Property. 
 
 Competentes. See Catechumenatb. 
 
 Compline. See Breviary. 
 
 Concanen (Richard Luke). — Ameri- 
 can prelate; was a native of Ireland, died 
 in Naples, Italy. Entered the Order of 
 St. Dominic in the convent of the Holy 
 Cross in Lorraine. Became distinguished 
 for his learning and virtue, and after his 
 ordination was Prior of the Irish Domin- 
 icans in Lisbon and at Rome. At the re- 
 quest of Bishop Carroll, he was appointed 
 bishop for the newly erected see of New 
 York, in 1808. The French, however, 
 then had full sway in Italy, and all British 
 subjects were liable to arrest. In vain did 
 he try to obtain passage to America. The 
 anxiety and difficulty brought on a danger- 
 ous illness, and Bishop Concanen closed 
 his edifying life in the great convent of St. 
 Dominic in Naples. 
 
 Conception {Immaculate). See Immac- 
 ulate Conception. 
 
 Conceptualism. — Philosophical system. 
 The adherents (Conceptualists) of this 
 system drew a distinction between objec- 
 tive reality, intellectual conception, and 
 the word expressing the idea formed by 
 the mind. They held that as the intellect 
 could not adequately comprehend all the 
 component parts of an object, so neither 
 could language adequately express them, 
 and that the intellectual comprehension 
 held a place midway between an object 
 and the word by which it was designated. 
 Abelard, it appears, was the author of 
 Conceptualism. 
 
 Conclave. See Pope (Election of the). 
 
 ConcoTaitaince(Sacramental). — Doctrine 
 of the Catholic Church, as established by 
 the Council of Trent, that the Body and 
 Blood of Christ are given either under the 
 form of bread or under that of wine ; 
 hence that Christ is received whole and 
 entire when received under the species of 
 bread alone or wine alone. 
 
 Concordance (from the Lat. concordare, 
 to agree). — .Denotes a collection of pas- 
 sages which in some respects agree with 
 one another. Such collections can, of 
 course, be made from the works of any 
 author. But the idea originated from the 
 study of the Bible, and developed gradually 
 with the increasing demands of that study. 
 The very first work of the kind was the 
 Concordantia S. yacobi, made in Latin 
 upon the Vulgate by Cardinal Hugo de S. 
 Caro, in 1244, and named after its place of 
 preparation, the convent of St. Jacques, in 
 Paris. There now exist complete Hebrew 
 concordances to the Old Testament, Greek 
 to the New Testament, and French, Ger- 
 man, English, etc., to the respective trans- 
 lations oif the whole Bible. 
 
 Concordats. — A concordat is in the na- 
 ture of a treaty between the sovereign Pon- 
 tiff as supreme governor of the Catholic 
 Church and the head of a State, whereby, 
 in consideration of certain undertakings on 
 the part of a civil ruler, the Pope expresses 
 himself content to abstain from urging, for 
 the present, certain rights to which he is 
 entitled ; with the result, that all Catholics 
 may, with a safe conscience, act in accord- 
 ance with the concordat. The real effect 
 of a concordat, according to the intention 
 of the Pontiff, is often wider than the 
 words ; and if any doubt arises concerning 
 the binding effect of the Canon Law in any 
 country, it must be solved by application 
 to the bishop, who if he sees fit, will obtain 
 instructions from Rome. It is a settled 
 doctrine of Catholic canonists that the 
 Pope never absolutely cedes purely spirit- 
 ual powers. Thus, in the presentation to 
 bishoprics, while a king might nominate 
 or elect, the Pope always reserved to him- 
 self the power of "canonical institution." 
 
 Concupiscence. See Sin (Original). 
 
 Concursus. — An examination into the 
 qualifications of candidates for ecclesiasti- 
 cal benefices with cure of souls. The Coun- 
 cil of Trent, desirous that parishes should 
 
CONDIGNITY, CONGRUITY 
 
 197 
 
 Confession 
 
 be provided with worthy and competent 
 pastors, ordained that appointments to par- 
 ishes must be made by concursus or compet- 
 itive examination. Hence, it ordained 
 that when a parish becomes vacant, the 
 bishops shall fix a day for the competitive 
 examination. On the day appointed, all 
 those whose names have been entered for 
 examination shall be examined by the 
 bishop or his vicar-general, and by at 
 least three synodal examiners. The vacant 
 parish can be conferred by the bishop only 
 on one of those who have successfully 
 passed the examination. If several have 
 been approved or passed by the exami- 
 nation, the bishop must confer the parish 
 on the one who is the senior or most 
 worthy among them. All appointments 
 made contrary to these prescriptions, are 
 irregular, and are, therefore, null and 
 void. 
 
 This is the general rule. However, there 
 are exceptions, partly indicated by custom, 
 and partly sanctioned by the Holy See. 
 Thus, no concursus is required: 1. In the 
 appointment of rectors or parish priests 
 ad nutum amovibtles; for the Council of 
 Trent speaks merely of beneficia curata 
 which are perpetual, that is, those parishes 
 which have irremovable rectors. 2. Nor 
 in appointments to parishes whose rev- 
 enues are so small as not to admit of the 
 trouble of such examination. 3. Nor if 
 there be danger of grievous quarrels and 
 tumults resulting from the concursus. 4. 
 Nor in the appointment of vicars of par- 
 ishes united to monasteries, chapters, and 
 the like. See Rector. 
 
 Condignity, Congruity . — T h e o 1 og i ca 1 
 
 terms, having reference to meritorious 
 works. Theologians distinguish two kinds 
 of merit pleasing to God, — merit, strictly 
 so called {de condiffno), which rests upon 
 the performance of the action ; and merit 
 of a wider sense {de cong-ruo), which is 
 not grounded on justice, but on a certain 
 fitness. See Merit; Grace. 
 
 Conferences. — Reunions of priests of a 
 certain district, ordained by the bishop, 
 who determines their programme, in order 
 to preserve and increase in the clergy the 
 necessary knowledge for the exercise of 
 their ministry. It was only after the Coun- 
 cil of Trent, that St. Charles Borromeo 
 regulated the Conferences in their actual 
 form. The Third Plenary Council of Balti- 
 more also prescribes them for the clergy 
 of the United States. 
 
 Confession, as part of the sacrament of 
 penance, is the self-accusation, made to a 
 duly authorized priest, of all grievous sins 
 committed after baptism, or since the last 
 confession. Our Lord instituted Confession 
 when He gave power to His Apostles to 
 remit sin. The necessity of confession, 
 being implicitly included in the words: 
 "Whose sins you shall forgive, they are 
 forgiven them ; and whose sins you shall 
 retain, they are retained" (John xx. 23). 
 The priest, acting in God's name, can only 
 judge from what the penitent makes known 
 to him, whether a sinner is worthy or un- 
 worthy of absolution, and can forgive or 
 retain only those sins of which he is given 
 full knowledge. Therefore, he cannot ful- 
 fill his office, except through the means of 
 the penitent's self-accusation in confession. 
 
 In the Catholic Church, it has always 
 been understood that our Lord Jesus Christ 
 Himself, instituted Confession for the re- 
 mission or retention of sins, through the 
 instrumentality of His ministers. It is 
 evident, that through so many ages, this 
 practice, so naturally repugnant to human 
 sensibilities, would not have been followed, 
 had it not been certainly instituted by our 
 Saviour, who, in His infinite goodness, 
 gave us this means of healing the wounds 
 of venial sin and of curing the more ma- 
 lignant injury of mortal sin. Confession 
 is, according to the regulations of the 
 Church, strictly obligatory once a year, 
 and before receiving any sacrament of "the 
 living," when one has had the misfortune 
 to commit a mortal sin. It is more in ac- 
 cordance, however, with the spirit of the 
 Church's teaching to confess any mortal 
 sin without delay, that by so doing we neg- 
 lect not an indispensable means of salvation 
 and voluntarily risk death, while a crime, 
 rendering us an enemy of God, is upon our 
 conscience. "The beginning of the pride 
 of man, is to fall from God " (Ecclus. x. 14), 
 and confession humbles that pride which 
 "is the beginning of all sins "(Ecclus. x. 15). 
 Humility before God in the self-accusation 
 of our sins to a minister of Christ's Church 
 brings honor to the soul ; for an humble 
 avowal of sin, and sincere repentance is 
 always deserving of a sentiment of esteem 
 for the penitent sinner. "Before destruc- 
 tion, the heart of man is exalted ; and before 
 he be glorified, it is humbled" (Prov. xviii. 
 12). Confession improves the character, 
 redoubles our energy in the correction 
 of our faults, and saves us from the 
 shame of acknowledging our weakness by 
 
Confession 
 
 198 
 
 Confirmation 
 
 falling anew into the same sin ; and that we 
 may persevere in a state of grace, and begin 
 new life in peace with God and man. It 
 comforts the heart, soothes the conscience, 
 infuses new hope, and lightens the burdens 
 of sin that weighed down our souls and 
 rendered us more ready to yield to fresh 
 temptations. The confessor instructs us 
 in our ignorance; enlightens us in our 
 doubts, scruples, or illusions; calms our 
 remorse or desolation ; counsels us in temp- 
 tation or apprehension of danger; encour- 
 ages us to bear our trials with patience, and 
 with willingness to incur sacrifices that 
 insure our sanctification and eternal sal- 
 vation. 
 
 A sincere confession should be marked 
 with completeness, humility, prudence, 
 and simplicity. Confession is marked with 
 completeness when the penitent confesses 
 at least all grievous sins which he remem- 
 bers, together with their number and the 
 necessary circumstances. With humility, 
 that is, the penitent ougTit to be humble 
 in his exterior ; ought to appear at the con- 
 fessional with plain and modest dress, 
 kneeling as criminal and suppliant, with- 
 out arms, without gloves, without gaudy 
 finery. With prudence, that is, confession 
 must be made in terms as respectful and 
 pure as the subject admits of. With 
 simplicity, that is, the penitent ought to 
 declare his sins without exaggerating them, 
 modifying or excusing them, but in plain 
 language, unadulterated with purposeless 
 and profuse phrases, and without the ob- 
 scurity of meaning that often leads us, 
 though not intentionally, to a misrepresen- 
 tation of facts we desire to communicate, 
 thereby deceiving the confessor in his 
 judgment of us, whether favorable or un- 
 favorable. 
 
 A worthy confession must be especially 
 marked with contrition. See Penance. 
 
 Confession (the tomb of a martyr or con- 
 fessor). — In the early Church if an altar was 
 erected over the grave of a martyr or confes- 
 sor, the name was extended also to the altar 
 and to the subterranean chamber in which it 
 stood. In later times, a basilica was some- 
 times erected over the chamber ; the high 
 altar was placed over the altar on the tomb 
 below, and so this high altar also, and sub- 
 sequently the entire building, was called 
 Confession. Several of such Confessions 
 may be seen in European countries, espe- 
 cially in Rome, of which the most famous 
 is that of St. Peter in the Vatican basilica. 
 
 Confessional. — The place where the 
 priest hears confessions. Originall}- this 
 was an open chair, upon which the priest 
 sat to hear the confession of the penitent 
 who was kneeling before him. This cus- 
 tom still exists in certain religious com- 
 munities. In monasteries of women, there 
 is often a special room in which to hear 
 confession. This is so arranged that, while 
 the confessor is sitting in the confessional 
 of the church, the religious may make her 
 confession to him from this room, a closely 
 grated opening serving for the communi- 
 cation of the word. The Monastery of 
 Martorana, at Palermo, affords an example 
 of this arrangement. It was only in the 
 sixteenth century, that the custom was in- 
 troduced, according to the ordinances of 
 councils, of placing between the chair of the 
 confessor and the penitent a grated sepa- 
 ration, which became the origin of the 
 actual confessional. Shortly the priest was 
 sitting between a double partition, which 
 generally was left open ; and later on this 
 was covered by a movable veil. The most 
 remarkable sculptured confessionals are 
 found in Belgium. 
 
 Confession of Augsburg. See Augs- 
 burg. 
 
 Confessor. — i. One who hears con- 
 fessions; specifically an approved priest 
 who has received jurisdiction from the 
 bishop to hear confession and grant abso- 
 lution; distinctively, as a title of office, a 
 priest employed as a private spiritual di- 
 rector, as of a king or other great person- 
 age. Formerly, at European courts, the 
 office of confessor was a very important 
 one, giving its incumbent great privileges 
 and influence, and often great power 
 politically. — 2. One who makes a pro- 
 fession of his faith in the Christian re- 
 ligion; specifically, one who avows his 
 religion in the face of danger, and adheres 
 to it in spite of persecution and torture. 
 It was formerly used as synonymous with 
 martyr. Afterwards it was applied to 
 those who, having been persecuted and 
 tormented, were permitted to die in peace; 
 and it was used also for such Christians as 
 lived a good life and died with the repu- 
 tation of sanctity, as Edward the Con- 
 fessor. 
 
 Confirmation. — A sacrament, instituted 
 by our Lord Jesus Christ, which com- 
 municates to us the plenitude of the gifts 
 of the Holy Ghost, renders us perfect 
 
CONFITEOR 
 
 199 
 
 Confraternities 
 
 Christians and soldiers of Jesus Christ, 
 and gives us strength to confess the faith, 
 even at the peril of our lives. This sacra- 
 ment was conferred upon the first converts 
 to Christianity immediately after baptism, 
 but it was always held to be a sacra- 
 ment different from baptism. It is of 
 faith that confirmatjon is a true sacrament, 
 instituted by Jesus Christ. The Holy 
 Scripture furnishes proofs of this doctrine, 
 as can be seen from the Acts(viii. 14; xix. 
 5, etc.) where it is said that Peter and 
 John were sent to Samaria, in order to 
 communicate the Holy Ghost to those 
 whom the deacon Philip had baptized, 
 which they did by laying their hands upon 
 them. St. Paul did the same for the dis- 
 ciples at Ephesus. Thus was this sacra- 
 ment administered by the Apostles by a 
 sensible sign, which conferred the Holy 
 Ghost, showing that it is an institution of 
 Jesus Christ, who only could give to a 
 sensible sign this power. It is, therefore, 
 really a sacrament, and, as such, has been 
 in constant use in the Church since the 
 days of the Apostles. The Council of 
 Trent declares: "If any one saith that 
 the confirmation of those who have been 
 baptized is an idle ceremony, and not a 
 true and proper sacrament, let him be 
 anathema" (Sess. vii., can. i. on Confirm.). 
 According to the present discipline of 
 the Western Church, the ordinary minister 
 of the sacrament of confirmation is a 
 bishop, but a simple priest may also act 
 by special delegation from the Holy See. 
 The matter involves the use of chrism, and 
 also certain manual acts of the minister. 
 This sacrament is not absolutely indispen- 
 able for salvation, as a necessary means, 
 for the person who receives confirmation 
 is supposed to be already in the state of 
 grace, but it is in some way necessary, 
 from the very fact of its having been in- 
 stituted by the Saviour as a means of sal- 
 vation, and in adults the neglect to receive 
 it, when opportunity is offered them, is 
 sinful. Only persons who have been bap- 
 tized can receive this sacrament. All 
 baptized persons, even infants, may validly 
 receive it, but, in our times, it is con- 
 sidered proper to wait until children have 
 attained the use of reason before admitting 
 them to be confirmed. See Gifts of the 
 Holy Ghost. 
 
 Confiteor. — A form of prayer adopted in 
 the ecclesiastical rite for the general and 
 public confession of siMS, which we call 
 
 simply Confiteor. It begins : " I confess 
 to Almighty God, to Blessed Mary ever 
 Virgin," etc. The first trace of our Con- 
 fiteor is found in Egbert, Archbishop of 
 York (735), who prescribed it as an instruc- 
 tion for sacramental confession, and in 
 Chrodogang, Bishop of Metz (743). The 
 present form of the Confiteor came into 
 general use during the thirteenth century. 
 A Council of Ravenna (1314) mentions 
 that a variety of forms were current, and 
 imposed the present one. 
 
 Confraternities or Associations {Re- 
 ligious). — Religious associations are vol- 
 untary societies formed among the Faithful, 
 with the object of furthering their own 
 salvation or the salvation of their fellow- 
 men. They may be divided into confra- 
 ternities or sodalities, and charitable 
 societies. Confraternities are, as a rule, 
 exclusively for purposes of devotion ; 
 charitable societies are for the relief of the 
 spiritual and temporal needs of others. 
 Religious associations are in all spiritual 
 matters subject to episcopal authority; in 
 some countries the legislature exercises a 
 certain control over them. The formation 
 of religious associations has always been 
 highly recommended by the Holy See, and 
 large indulgences have been granted to 
 them, because they are of great benefit 
 both to the individual members and to the 
 community in general. 
 
 Our holy father, Leo XIII., in his en- 
 cyclicals of 1884 and 1891, expressed high 
 approval of religious associations, espe- 
 cially of the Society of St. Vincent of Paul, 
 and the guilds of artisans and workingmen. 
 Pope Pius IX. says they are an army set 
 in battle array, to combat the adversaries 
 of faith, not with the clash of arms, but 
 with the silent weapons of prayer. Con- 
 fraternities maybe compared to Noe'sark, 
 because persons living in the world seek in 
 them a refuge from the rising tide of crime 
 and corruption. The members of these 
 confraternities, as a rule, lead a more de- 
 vout and well-ordered life than the rest of 
 the world. They are not as apt to neglect 
 prayer, because their rule prescribes cer- 
 tain prayers to be recited daily; they 
 approach the sacraments more frequently, 
 because days are marked for them on 
 which a plenary indulgence can be gained ; 
 they learn obedience because they submit 
 to the decisions of their director. In a 
 word, they tend to keep a high standard of 
 faith and morals in the parish to which 
 
Confraternities 
 
 200 
 
 Confraternities 
 
 they belong, and bj their good example 
 lead others to the fulfillment of their duties 
 as Christians. And if some members give 
 scandal, the rules of the confraternity are 
 not to blame, but the neglect of them ; and 
 it must be remembered that cockle always 
 grows among the wheat. There is also 
 this advantage in such societies, that the 
 rules enjoining the performance of certain 
 good works, are not binding under pain of 
 sin. 
 
 The number of confraternities is very 
 great. We can quote : Confraternity of 
 the Child yesus. — Its object is to provide 
 funds to enable missioners to receive and 
 educate in a Christian manner heathen 
 children who are abandoned by their par- 
 ents. Society for the Propagation of the 
 Faith. (See Propaganda of Lyons.) 
 Confraternity of the Blessed Sacrament, 
 also called Eucharistic League. — The ob- 
 ject of this confraternity is to adore our Di- 
 vine Saviour in the most Holy Sacrament 
 of the altar. Each member pledges himself 
 to spend an hour every week in adoration 
 of the Blessed Sacrament. Many indul- 
 gences have been granted to this confrater- 
 nity. Confraternity of the Sacred Heart 
 of yesus. — Its object is to venerate and 
 adore the Sacred Heart of Our Lord, and 
 participate in the abundant graces He 
 promises to those who practice this devo- 
 tion. The members of this confraternity 
 are required to recite an Our Father, Hail 
 Mary, and the Creed daily, with the prayer : 
 "O sweetest Heart of Jesus, I implore that 
 I may ever love Thee more and more." 
 They are, moreover, to approach the sac- 
 raments every month, if possible on the 
 first Sunday or Friday of the month; to 
 keep the feast of the Sacred Heart (on the 
 Friday or Sunday after the octave of Cor- 
 pus Christi) with all solemnity, and to pray 
 for the members of the association both 
 living and dead. Many rich indulgences 
 are attached to this confraternity; among 
 others, an indulgence of sixty days is 
 granted for every good work performed 
 during the day. See Heart (Sacred). 
 Confraternity of the Holy Rosary. — Its 
 object is to promote the devotion of the 
 Rosary. To form the "living rosary" 
 fifteen individuals unite every month to ap- 
 portion among themselves (generally by 
 drawing lots) the fifteen decades of the 
 Rosary ; each one recites the decade which 
 falls to his share daily throughout the 
 month. This confraternity is under the 
 direction of the Dominicans. A plenary 
 
 indulgence may be gained by the members 
 on the third Sunday of every month, on 
 Trinity Sunday, on the principal feasts of 
 Our Lord and of His Blessed Mother. 
 The recitation of the Rosary is also in- 
 dulgenced in a special manner. The Con- 
 fraternity of the Holy Rosary was estab- 
 lished in the lifetime of St. Dominic ; the 
 members are required to recite all the fif- 
 teen decades of the Rosary every week, but 
 not all on one and the self-same day. This 
 confraternity is affiliated to the Dominican 
 Order; its members share in the good 
 works of the whole order, and are placed 
 under the special protection of Our Ladv. 
 A plenary indulgence is granted on the 
 first Sunday of the month, on all feasts of 
 Our Lady, on the three great festivals of 
 the Church, and in the hour of death. 
 (See Rosary.) Confraternity of the Holy 
 Scapular of Mount Carmel. — Its object is 
 to implore the protection and intercession 
 of the Blessed Mother of God in all the per- 
 ils of this life, in the hour of death, and in 
 the flames of purgatory. ( See Scapular.) 
 There are other Scapular Confraternities : 
 that of the Holy Trinity, of the Seven 
 Dolors, of the Immaculate Conception, 
 and of the Passion. The five are often 
 worn altogether. For each of these cer- 
 tain prayers are prescribed to be repeated 
 daily. Confraternity of the Bona Mors. — 
 The object of this confraternity is to ob- 
 tain for its members who are yet on earth 
 the privilege of a happy death, and for the 
 departed a sjjeedy release from the cleans- 
 ing fires. The members of this confrater- 
 nity are bound to have a Mass said once 
 every month for the intention of their fel- 
 low-members, that the one who is the next 
 to die may have a happy death, and those 
 who are already gone before may experi- 
 ence a mitigation of the pains of purgatory. 
 They are also exhorted to approach the 
 sacraments frequently, to entertain a 
 special devotion to the Immaculate Con- 
 ception, to St. Joseph, the patron of a good 
 death, and often to make acts of the theo- 
 logical virtues and of contrition. This 
 confraternity is very richly indulgenced. 
 For every visit to a sick person, twenty 
 years; for every visit to a Church, seven 
 years, etc. All these indulgences are ap- 
 plicable to the souls in purgatory, llie 
 Apostleship of Prayer. — A league in union 
 with the Sacred Heart of Jesus. The 
 Apostleship of Prayer is not a confrater- 
 nity or sodality, but a pious organization, 
 whose object is to give an apostolic char- 
 
Congregationalism 
 
 201 
 
 Congregations 
 
 acter and power to all our prayers, works, 
 and sufferings. This object it attains by 
 the union of its members with the unceas- 
 ing pleading of the Sacred Heart in the 
 sacrifice of the Mass ; and this union is 
 effected by the morning offering, which 
 constitutes the First Degree of the Apos- 
 tleship of Prayer and the only essential 
 duty of its members. The morning offer- 
 ing is thus worded : " O Jesus, through the 
 immaculate heart of Mary, I offer Thee 
 the prayers, work, and suffering, of this 
 day in union with the intentions of Thy 
 Divine Heart in the holy Mass." Two 
 things are necessary for membership: i. 
 Registration of the candidate's name by a 
 local director in an affiliated center. 2. 
 A certificate of admission. Centers are 
 affiliated by diplomas from the director 
 general (a father of the Society of Jesus, 
 residing at Toulouse, France) and trans- 
 mitted to them by the diocesan directors, 
 whom, with the license and in accordance 
 with the nomination of the ordinary, he 
 has appointed for that purpose. The 
 Second Degree consists in the daily re- 
 cital of one Our Father and ten Hail Marys 
 for the monthly intention approved by the 
 Holy Father ; and the Third Degree, in 
 offering a communion of atonement to the 
 Sacred Heart, once a week, or at least once 
 a month on a day or days fixed by arrange- 
 ment with a promotor of the Apostleship 
 of Prayer. The organ of the association 
 is called " The Messenger of the Sacred 
 Heart," published by the authorized edi- 
 tors in various countries under the direc- 
 tion of the director general. There are 
 thirty-seven distinct editions of the "Mes- 
 senger." The members of the Apostleship 
 of Prayer in the whole world number some 
 twenty to thirty millions. 
 
 For other confraternities and congrega- 
 tions, see articles, Third Orders, Joseph 
 (St.), Brothers, Sisters. 
 
 Congregationalism. — Form of polity 
 among certain Protestant denominations. 
 They maintain the independence of each 
 congregation and the competency to fulfill 
 all the ecclesiastical acts. The creator of 
 this system, was, it is claimed, John Rob- 
 inson, who, in 1608, left England to be- 
 come a Brownist pastor in Holland. He 
 modified Brownism. His followers, at first 
 called Independents, emigrated to America 
 in 1620. The Congregationalists are very 
 numerous in Great Britain, but more so in 
 the United States. 
 
 Congregations {Sacred). — The sacred 
 congregations are committees to whom 
 the sovereign Pontiff refers certain mat- 
 ters that relate in a special manner to the 
 Church. These congregations are six- 
 teen in number, as follows: i. Congre- 
 gation of the Holy Office. — This congrega- 
 tion erected and constituted by Pope Paul 
 in., in 1542, was approved and enriched 
 with many privileges by his successors, 
 Pius IV., Pius v., and Sixtus V. Its object 
 was to combat heresy and false doctrines, 
 and to restrain heretics from injuring 
 religion and the Church. (Office : Palazzo 
 della S. Uffizio.) 2. Congregation of the 
 Consistorial. — This congregation was 
 founded by Sixtus V., in 1588. Its office 
 is to examine and discuss the questions 
 which call for a formal pronouncement of 
 the Pope at a private or public Consistory. 
 It inquires, particularly, into the applica- 
 tions for the erection of new churches, 
 patriarchal, metropolitan, and cathedral ; 
 regulates all about chapters, the number 
 of canonicates, etc., and decides contro- 
 versies arising therefrom. (Office: Pal- 
 azzo della Cancelleria Afostolica.) 3. 
 Congregation of the Apostolic Visitation. 
 — This congregation was established to 
 regulate the visits to the Churches and 
 holy places in the city of Rome. (Office : 
 Palazzo della Cancelleria Afostolica.) 
 4. Coftgregation of Bishops and Regu- 
 lars. — This congregation was founded by 
 Gregory XIII., and appointed by Sixtus 
 V. for the arrangement of the rights and 
 privileges of bishops and of the regular 
 orders established in the Church. Hence 
 all classes of appeal against the bishop's 
 decisions, whether by seculars or regulars, 
 is referred to it. It is also entrusted with 
 the revision and approbation of the rules 
 of religious bodies. (Office: Palazzo della 
 Cancelleria A postolica.) 5. Congregation 
 of the Council. — This congregation was 
 founded by Pius IV., for the purpose of 
 promoting the observance of the Council 
 of Trent. To this Pius V. added the in- 
 terpretation of these decrees and the 
 decision of all controversies arising from 
 them. In 1587, the congregation was also 
 commissioned by Pope Sixtus V. to revise 
 the decrees of all provincial councils, and 
 to see that all bishops paid their visits at 
 the time required by the canons, and sub- 
 mitted to the Holy See a report of their 
 dioceses, ad limina apostolorum. Bene- 
 dict XIV., however, appointed a special 
 congregation in connection with the coun- 
 
Congregations 
 
 202 
 
 Congregations 
 
 cil for the purpose of examining the 
 decrees of national and provincial coun- 
 cils, and a similar one was constituted by 
 Pius IX., for the special purpose of attend- 
 ing to the visits and reports of patriarchs, 
 archbishops, and bishops. (Office: Palazzo 
 della Cancelleria Aposiolica.) 6. Congre- 
 gation of Residence of Bishops. — Many 
 laws exist, differing according to circum- 
 stances, obliging bishops to reside in their 
 diocese. Urban VIII. established this 
 congregation for the purpose of seeing 
 that these laws were obser^^ed. The rules 
 to be followed by the congregation were 
 laid down by Benedict XIV., and are now 
 part of the Canon Law. (Office : Palazzo 
 della Cancelleria Apostolica.) 7. Con- 
 gregation of the State of Regulars. — Pope 
 Pius IX. restricted the jurisdiction of the 
 Congregation of Regular Discipline to 
 Italy and the adjacent islands, and estab- 
 lished the new Congregation of the State 
 of Regulars to perform similar duties for 
 countries outside of Italy. (Office : Pal- 
 azzo della Cancelleria Apostolica.) 8. 
 Congregation of Ecclesiastical Immunity. 
 — Instituted by Urban VIII. to protect and 
 defend lawful ecclesiastical immunities 
 against the encroachments and attacks of 
 civil magistrates and secular communities. 
 Most of the cases submitted to this con- 
 gregation for examination and judgment 
 arose in the Papal States. Conflicts and 
 controversies regarding concordats with 
 other countries are now generally decided 
 by the Cardinal Secretary of State, assisted 
 by the members of the Congregation of 
 Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs. This 
 congregation is, by special disposition of 
 his holiness the Pope, temporarily con- 
 nected with the Congregation of the 
 Council. ( Office : Palazzo della Cancelleria 
 Apostolica.) 9. Congregation of the 
 Propaganda. — This congregation was 
 founded by Pope Gregory XV., in 1622. 
 The Pope in his Constitution Inscrutabili 
 conferred upon it the most ample powers 
 for the propagation of the faith, and espe- 
 cially for the superintendence of missions in 
 countries where heretics or infidels had to 
 be evangelized. For this purpose it could 
 not only appoint and change the necessary 
 ministers in the countries specially sub- 
 mitted to its care, but also perform every- 
 thing else it considered necessary or 
 opportune for the advancement of religion 
 in such districts and provinces. The juris- 
 diction proper of the congregation ex- 
 tends to all territories which are governed 
 
 wore w?.s.?zo«««;, or as missionary countries, 
 i. e., not by bishops constituted in the reg- 
 ular hierarchy, but by prefects and vicars 
 apostolic. Certain countries, even where 
 the regular hierarchy is established, such 
 as Ireland, England, Scotland, and the 
 . United States, are likewise subject to the 
 congregation, and transact almost all 
 their business with the Roman Curia 
 through it. Hence, applications for dis- 
 pensations, etc., are addressed to this con- 
 gregation through its secretary. The 
 congregation has, moreover, a legislative 
 and judicial power; and by authority con- 
 ferred upon it by Gregory XV., and con- 
 firmed by Urban VIII. and Innocent X., 
 its decrees, signed by the secretary and 
 confirmed by the prefect, have the force 
 and authority of an Apostolic Constitution. 
 All communications should be written in 
 Latin, or, at least, in French or Italian, 
 and addressed to the secretary as follows : 
 "-<4 Sua Excellenza Revma. II Signor 
 Segretario della Congregazione di Prop- 
 aganda Fide: Rome." 10. Congregation 
 of the Index. — This congregation was 
 founded by Pope Pius V., and confirmed 
 by Gregory XIII., Sixtus V., and Clement 
 VIII. Its office is to examine books sub- 
 mitted to its judgment by bishops or 
 others, and to proscribe those it finds op- 
 posed to faith and morals. An index or 
 catalogue of wicked and dangerous books 
 had been drawn up at the Council of Trent, 
 and approved by Pope Pius IV. (Office : 
 Palazzo della Cancelleria Apostolica.) 1 1 . 
 Congregation of Rites. — This congregation 
 was instituted by Sixtus V. for the pur- 
 pose of promoting the observance of the 
 sacred rites and ceremonies of the Church, 
 and of restoring and reforming them when 
 necessary. It was also charged with the 
 process of the canonization of saints, and 
 with the regulation of the days to be ob- 
 served as feasts in the Church, and was 
 also bound to see that all kings, princes, 
 ambassadors, and other exalted personages, 
 whether lay or clerical, were received with 
 becoming dignity and honor at the papal 
 Court. These are the duties which it still 
 performs. (Office : Palazzo della Cancel- 
 leria Apostolica.) 12. Congregation of 
 the Ceremonial. — This congregation ar- 
 ranges all the Pontifical ceremonies and 
 decides questions of participation and 
 precedence in them. (Office: Via Principe 
 Umberto 0.) 13. Congregation of Regular 
 Discipline. — This congregation was estab- 
 lished by Innocent XII. to promote the 
 
CONGRUITY 
 
 203 
 
 Conscience 
 
 observance of discipline in monasteries and 
 convents ; to regulate the time to be spent 
 in novitiates, to grant licenses for the re- 
 ception of postulants, and for their training 
 and profession, etc. (Office: Palazzo 
 della Cancelleria Apostolica.) 14. Con- 
 gregation of Indulgences and Sacred 
 Relics. — Founded by Pope Clement IX. in 
 1669, for the purpose of solving all doubts 
 and difficulties concerning indulgences 
 and relics, correcting abuses relating 
 thereto, forbidding apocryphal, false, or 
 indiscreet indulgences, examining relics 
 newly discovered, etc. General indul- 
 gences obtained directly from the sov- 
 ereign Pontiff are null and void, unless 
 a copy of such concession be deposited 
 with the secretary of this congregation.-^— 
 Decretum Benedicti XIV., Jan. 28th, 1756. 
 (Office : Palazzo della Cancelleria Apos- 
 tolica.) 15. Congregation of Examination 
 of Bishops. — This congregation was estab- 
 lished for the examination in Theology 
 and Canon Law of Roman priests named 
 for the Episcopate. (Office : Palazzo della 
 Cancelleria Apostolica.) 16. Congrega- 
 tion of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical 
 Affairs. — Founded by Pius VII. in 1814, to 
 assist the Cardinal Secretary of State 
 in maintaining proper relations with 
 foreign countries, especially in times of 
 revolution and disturbance. All concor- 
 dats and relations with foreign governments 
 come under its supervision. (Office : Pal- 
 azzo della Cancelleria Apostolica.) 
 
 Congruity. See Condignity. 
 
 Conon. — Pope from 686 to 687. Gave 
 to St. Kilian, Bishop of Ireland, the mis- 
 sion to preach the faith to the people of 
 Germany. 
 
 Consanguinity. See Marriage. 
 
 Conscience. — Inner light, inner senti- 
 ment by which man renders testimony to 
 himself of the good and evil he does. 
 Psychological conscience, or interior sense, 
 is the power which the soul has to per- 
 ceive its different states without inter- 
 mediary. The testimony of conscience is 
 the last recourse, the supreme criterion of 
 truth, and to its intervention is due that 
 the mind, placed in face of truth, affirms 
 its evidence. The notion of conscience is 
 identical with the notion of being, instan- 
 taneous like the latter, and repugnant as 
 much to the idea of posterity as to that of 
 anteriority. Through conscience we dis- 
 cover in us the existence of a distinct 
 
 principle, if not independent from our 
 body, a principle whose substantial entity 
 resides for the present in its indissoluble 
 union with the body to which it is united 
 as its form, but which, at the destruction 
 of the body, will survive and will exist, 
 although in an incomplete mode, until the 
 integral and definite reconstitution of the 
 human compound. It is through con- 
 science, enlightened by the rays of truth, 
 that we appreciate precisely the facts that 
 appertain to the soul in opposition to the 
 facts that belong to the body. It is 
 through conscience that we distribute 
 these facts into groups and series, and that 
 we attach these series and groups to 
 three primordial powers or faculties : sen- 
 sibility, intelligence, and will. Finally, it 
 is through conscience that, desiring to 
 characterize each of these faculties, we 
 attribute to them sometimes a simple 
 power of perception or reflection (pas- 
 sivity), sometimes a power of spontaneous- 
 ness and action (activity). Moral con- 
 science is the conscience more especially 
 defined by its role as supreme judge of the 
 moral value of its acts. But this judge is 
 not reduced to the sole mission of ap- 
 preciating the nature of such or such an 
 act and its degree of goodness or malice. 
 It penetrates the most inner thought, and 
 finding therein the unavoidable and abso- 
 lute idea of law and duty, it seeks to ex- 
 plain their nature and origin by a rigorous 
 analysis of the more simple idea of good 
 and evil. Hence, since the notion of good 
 corresponds to a transcendent and absolute 
 precept, and since the notion of evil is 
 only that of the derogation of this precept, 
 conscience renders to itself an account of 
 the blame or praise in regard to the acts 
 of the will which it finds reprehensible or 
 praiseworthy. Language translates instan- 
 taneously the testimony which conscience 
 renders to itself, and humanity declares 
 this testimony to be the expression of 
 truth. 
 
 Conscience {Liberty of). — Liberty of 
 conscience constitutes a religio-confes- 
 sional fact, which is founded partly on the 
 psychological study of our faculties. It is 
 attested to each one of us, within ourselves, 
 as an absolutely unobjectionable fact. It 
 is the cause of confessional merit or de- 
 merit, as well as of the religio-confessional 
 remorse, which is also a fact of conscience 
 perceived by us, without a shadow of 
 doubt, if we forsake the confession of faith 
 
Consecration 
 
 204 
 
 CONSOLAMENTUM 
 
 which our intelligence judged conform- 
 able to truth. From the incontestable 
 liberty of conscience must we logically 
 conclude on the liberty of conscience? 
 Liberty of conscience is an internal fact, 
 and liberty of conscience is an external fact 
 which refers to our belief exteriorally in 
 the midst of society. Liberty of con- 
 science can be looked upon as a political 
 right, protected by constitutional guaran- 
 tees. In its relations to the State, as well 
 as to the Church, we have to consider it 
 from an historical, theoretical, and legal 
 point of view. St. Augustine claims for 
 the Church the power of constraint, only 
 in the ages when it had become the social 
 power, absorbing in its unity humanity. 
 He dates this power of constraint only 
 from the day of the incontestable social 
 arrival of the Church (Ep. 204, to Don- 
 atus). He modifies his thesis, restrains 
 or limits it every time the number of the 
 " wicked " happens to increase, or when 
 the contagion of evil invades the multi- 
 tudes (Confr. Parmenion Ubr. IH. c. ii.). 
 He acknowledges that the exterior con- 
 straint, civilly efficacious, was granted by 
 the religion of the emperors in a time 
 when society became and remained Chris- 
 tian. This neat and clear doctrine of St. 
 Augustine has been entered into the public 
 rights of the Christian societies. The 
 United States of North America is the 
 country where liberty of conscience has 
 become most fully established as a political 
 right. The Puritans, who first peopled 
 New England, pushed the intolerance to 
 the most extreme limits. After them, 
 also, the Quakers became intolerant. But 
 when the followers of the different and num- 
 erous sects agreed to acknowledge the most 
 extensive political liberty, the liberty of 
 conscience was the result of political lib- 
 erty. There was not, in the new terri- 
 tories of Northern America, a Church 
 that had become such a social power that 
 it could absorb the State in its unity, as 
 St. Augustine claims. Be this as it may, 
 until quite recently, several countries were 
 made to depend upon the acquisition and 
 preservation of certain rights, either po- 
 litical or social, and upon the acceptation 
 of such or such a confession of faith. 
 Even in the United States, Maryland 
 maintained for a long time the exclusion 
 of Jews, and in Europe, England granted 
 the emancipation of the Catholics only 
 after long struggles. In fact, whatever 
 may be the affirmations of the right of 
 
 conscience, we must always acknowledge 
 
 in a society a certain number of truths, 
 without which no society could exist. The 
 negation of these truths, when it is public, 
 becomes an attack against the existence of 
 society, or at least an evident disturbance 
 of the peace. Hence we can understand, 
 in principle, that a confession of faith may 
 be required as a condition for the full ex- 
 ercise of the rights of citizens. A nihil- 
 istic sect, for instance, may be excluded 
 from it. And to speak in more general 
 terms, we can understand that liberty of 
 conscience, like political liberty, may, or 
 even must, in modern society, suffer some 
 restrictions. 
 
 iConsecration. — i. The formula of 
 words by which the bread and wine in the 
 Mass are changed into Christ's body and 
 blood. 2. The act of solemnly dedicating 
 a person or thing to the ser^'ice of God. 
 See Transubstaxtiatiox. 
 
 Consecration of Churches. See Dedi- 
 cation. 
 
 Consistentes. — In the penitential system 
 of the early Church, especially in the 
 Eastern Church during the second half of 
 the third and the whole of the fourth cen- 
 turies, penitents occupying the fourth or 
 highest penitential station. They were 
 allowed to remain throughout the Euchar- 
 istic service and take their station with the 
 Faithful above the ambo, but not offer ob- 
 lations or be admitted to communion. See 
 Catechumen ATE. 
 
 Consistory. — An ecclesiastical senate, 
 consisting of the whole body of cardinals, 
 which deliberates upon the affairs of the 
 Church. It is presided over by the Pope, 
 or by the dean of the College of Cardinals. 
 The ordinary meetings of the Consistory 
 are secret ; but public consistories are held 
 from time to time, as occasion may re- 
 quire, and are attended by other prelates 
 than the cardinals ; in these public consis- 
 tories the resolutions arrived at in secret 
 session are announced to them. 
 
 Consolamentum ( consolation ) . — Cere- 
 mony of the Cathari, who rejected the holy 
 sacraments, and the dogmas of the Church. 
 Instead of baptism by water, they had 
 what they called baptism of the Holy 
 Ghost, or the Consolamentum, which, ac- 
 cording to their doctrine, freed the receiver 
 from all sin without any kind of contrition. 
 Most of the Cathari put off the Consola- 
 
Constance 
 
 205 
 
 Constitutions 
 
 mentum till their life drew to its close. 
 In case the receiver fell back into sin, as, 
 for example, ate meat, he must again have 
 recourse to this consolation. To avert 
 this danger, the " consoled " frequently 
 had recourse to the *' Endura," a process 
 by which, through starvation, bleeding, 
 poison, or other means, they put an end to 
 their lives. 
 
 Constance {Council of). — The Council 
 of Pisa had been unable to put an end to 
 the great schism of the West in declaring 
 Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII. deprived 
 of the Pontificate, and naming Alexander 
 v., who was succeeded by John XXIII. 
 The latter, in accord with the Emperor- 
 elect Sigismond, convoked the Council of 
 Constance, which was opened Novem- 
 her 5th, 1414. John XXIII. presided over 
 the first two sessions, but the Council hav- 
 ing requested his promise to abdicate the 
 Pontificate, if the good of the Church re- 
 quired this, he gave this promise, but then 
 fled secretly. One of the cardinals assumed 
 the presidency, and, in the fifth session, 
 they proclaimed the famous decree : " That 
 the General Council, once assembled, holds 
 its authority immediately from Jesus 
 Christ, and that, consequently, every per- 
 son, even the Pope, is obliged to obey it, 
 in that which concerns the extinction of 
 the schism and the general reformation of 
 the Church in its head and members." 
 This decree was never approved by Pope 
 Martin V., and is contrary to sound doc- 
 trine. In the subsequent sessions, John 
 XXIII. was deposed and submitted; 
 Gregory XII. abdicated through his am- 
 bassador; Benedict XIII. was not only 
 deposed, but excommunicated, and in 1417 
 (41st session), Martin V. was elected. He 
 confirmed the forty-fifth and last session, 
 and all that the Council had decreed in 
 matters of faith. This Council also con- 
 demned as heretics Wycliflfe, John Huss, 
 and Jerome of Prague. 
 
 Constantine. — Pope from 708 to 715. A 
 Syrian by birth. 
 
 Constantine the Great. — Roman Em- 
 peror (272-337). Son of Constantius Chlo- 
 rus and of St. Helena. Was appointed Caesar 
 at the death of his father in 306; and in 
 307 assumed the title of Augustus. In the 
 spring of the year 312, Constantine, to- 
 gether with Licinius, published a general 
 edict of toleration, granting to every one 
 the right to follow the religion of his 
 
 choice, after which he marched into Italy 
 against Maxentius, whom he defeated near 
 Rome, the same year. Before this battle, 
 according to tradition, the sign of the 
 cross appeared in the heavens, with the 
 inscription " /» hoc signo vtnces,'' which 
 induced him to adopt the labarum as his 
 standard. In 323 he became sole Augus- 
 tus. After this he caused Christianity to 
 be recognized by the State, convened the 
 Council of Nice in 325, and in 330 inaugu- 
 rated Constantinople as the capital of the 
 Roman Empire. Constantine had many 
 faults. He postponed his baptism till his 
 last illness; was at times very passionate 
 and meddled with the freedom of the 
 Church. But he also possessed good qual- 
 ities, — great energy, prudence, and noble 
 aspirations. All in all, he was an illus- 
 trious ruler and is justly styled " The 
 Great. y See Donation of Constantine. 
 
 Constantinople {Councils of). See 
 Councils. 
 
 Constitution {Civil) of the Clergy. — In 
 
 order to un-Catholicize France, the so- 
 called " Civil Constitution of the Clergy" 
 was adopted by the National Assembly, 
 July i2th, 1790. After the insurgents had, 
 on August 24th, extorted the royal signa- 
 ture to this measure, they demanded, on the 
 motion of the Protestant, Barnave, on Jan. 
 4th, 1791, that the clergy should take the 
 oath of the Civil Constitution. Very few of 
 the clergy complied with this demand. On 
 April 13th, Pope Pius VI. condemned the 
 Civil Constitution. The Civil Constitution 
 of the Clergy reduced the number of bish- 
 oprics from 136 to 83, a bishopric for each 
 department into which France was di- 
 vided; it decreed that bishops should be 
 elected by the clergy, and interdicted their 
 appointment by the Pope; abolished re- 
 ligious orders, and made the reception of 
 a papal Bull or Brief, unauthorized by the 
 government, a State offense. Only four 
 bishops, and a very small minority of the 
 priests, adhered to the new constitution. 
 These were the " Jurors," or " Asser- 
 mentes," while those refusing the oath 
 were styled " Nonjurors," or •' Insermen- 
 tes." 
 
 Constitutions {Apostolic). — The laws 
 carried under this name by the sovereign 
 Pontiffs for the entire Church, or for a 
 portion thereof, oblige before all accepta- 
 tion, even the bishops, in matters of dis- 
 cipline as well as in matters of faith. 
 
CONSUBSTANTIAL 
 
 206 
 
 Contemplation 
 
 However, upon points of discipline which 
 interest neither the rites nor the ceremo- 
 nies, nor the life of clerics, the bishop can 
 suspend their execution, by referring to 
 the Holy See and asking for dispensation, 
 at least for a temporary one. 
 
 The Constitutions are not the direct 
 work of the Apostles, and have never 
 figured in Holy Scripture. They are, how- 
 ever, very ancient. The first six books 
 treat of Holy Scripture, the conduct of 
 bishops and priests, of widows, of orphans, 
 the poor, and the solemnities of the 
 Church. The seventh appears to be of 
 posterior date, and the eighth seems to 
 constitute another addition. After the 
 middle of the fifth century, these different 
 parts formed only one whole, and St. Epi- 
 phanus speaks of the Apostolic Constitu- 
 tions as forming only one work, such as we 
 have received it. 
 
 Consubstantial. — From the Latin cum 
 and substantia {substance). A term used 
 in speaking of the Persons of the Most 
 Holy Trinity, to express that they are 
 only one and the same substance. This 
 term was adopted by the Council of Nice, 
 in 325, in order to leave to the Arians no 
 pretext for concealing their errors under 
 equivocal terms ; hence they obliged them 
 to make use of the word "consubstantial" 
 in their profession of faith, and to sign the 
 consubstantiality of the Word. 
 
 Constitutum. — See Chapters ( The 
 Three). 
 
 Consubstantiation. — A term used by 
 the Lutherans to express the manner of 
 the Real Presence of Jesus Christ in the 
 Blessed Eucharist. Since Luther taught 
 that the substance of the Body of Christ 
 was present in the consecrated Host, to- 
 gether with the substance of bread, the 
 change was called consubstantiation, in- 
 stead of transubstantiation, as taught by 
 the Catholic Church. 
 
 Consultors or Bishop's Council. — The 
 
 "Third Plenary Council of Baltimore" 
 ordains that each diocese shall have six, or 
 at least four, consultors; that where this 
 number can in no wise be had, there shall 
 be at least two. As to the mode of their 
 appointment, this Council enacts that one- 
 half of the above number shall be ap- 
 pointed solely by the bishop; the other 
 half also by the bishop, though only on 
 the nomination made by the entire clergy, 
 in the manner laid down by the Council. 
 
 The diocesan consultors thus properly ap- 
 pointed hold their position for three years, 
 after which they must either be reappointed 
 or others chosen in their stead in the same 
 manner as above prescribed. If, however, 
 this term of three years expires during the 
 time when the episcopal see is vacant, the 
 consultors will remain in office until the 
 accession of the new bishop, who will be 
 bound to proceed within six months from 
 the day of his consecration to the new ap- 
 pointment of the consultors in the manner 
 above stated. Finally, where, during the 
 above term of three years, a consultor 
 either dies, or resigns, or is removed, the 
 bishop has the right and duty to appoint 
 another one, though only with the advice 
 of the other consultors. As will be seen, 
 the mode of appointment of our diocesan 
 consultors resembles somewhat that of 
 canons of cathedral chapters. Diocesan 
 consultors, during their term of office, can- 
 not be removed, against their will, except 
 for legitimate and just cause, and by the 
 advice of the other consultors. Diocesan 
 consultors are, like the cathedral chapters, 
 the official and legal senate of the bishop 
 in relation to the government of the 
 diocese. They are to take the place of 
 cathedral chapters until the latter can be 
 properly established. Wherefore, the 
 " Third Plenary Council " enacts that the 
 bishop shall be bound to take the advice of 
 his consultors in a number of cases ex- 
 pressly stated by it. We say advice; for 
 the council does not oblige the bishop to 
 act with the consent of his consultors in 
 any case whatsoever. The case where 
 bishops are bound to proceed with the ad- 
 ^^ce of their diocesan council are : cases 
 that relate to the diocesan statutes, the 
 division of parishes, the placing of missions 
 in charge of religious, the appointment of 
 the deputies for the seminary, of new con- 
 sultors, and of synodal examiners, the 
 alienation of ecclesiastical property, and 
 the imposing of a new tax or assessment by 
 the bishop. 
 
 Contemplation (profound application of 
 the mind to some object, especially purely 
 intellectual objects). — The common char- 
 acteristic of religious contemplation, like 
 that of philosophical contemplation, con- 
 sists in withdrawing the soul from external 
 objects, to absorb it into the things of God. 
 But for some, it is the final end, and for 
 others, the highest degree, which the activ- 
 ity of the mind can attain for the knowledge 
 
Contrition 
 
 207 
 
 Cope 
 
 things in their very essence. A life of 
 contemplation is not a useless life, as some 
 claim. The Fathers of the desert and all 
 the Saints devoted themselves to a con- 
 templative life, and were venerated through- 
 out the Christian world for doing so. How- 
 ever, Christian mystics do not behold in 
 contemplation a fact which solely interests 
 the soul. Fenelon sums up their doctrine 
 as follows: "Contemplation is neither a 
 rapturous transport, nor a lively impres- 
 sion, nor an ecstatic suspension of all the 
 faculties of the soul ; the state of passive 
 contemplation is nothing else but an inner 
 peace and an infinite suppleness, which 
 permit us to be moved by the impressions 
 of grace and to better feel the divine im- 
 pulse." 
 
 Contrition. See Penance. 
 
 Convents (religious houses, monaster- 
 ies). — Convents were established where- 
 ever Christianity penetrated. The ascetic 
 life sprung up in the Orient in the first 
 centuries of the Church. The ascetics 
 fled from the Roman corruption and the 
 persecutions which afflicted the Church 
 during the first three centuries. It was 
 thus that the solitudes of Egypt and of the 
 Thebaid became peopled by those hermits 
 who were the first models of the cenobitic 
 life. Among them figure St. Anthony, 
 St. Paul, St. Pachomius, the two Am- 
 monii, the two Macarii. The life in common 
 soon prevailed over the solitary life. Ac- 
 cording to St. Jerome, there were not less 
 than 50,000 monks in the annual reunion 
 of the congregation, which one single abbot 
 grouped, until A. D. 500, under his direction. 
 Prayer, reading of the Holy Scriptures, 
 meditation, and manual labor occupied all 
 their time ; each convent was a school of 
 charity and of fruitful activity, which 
 served as model in Asia for the foundations 
 of St. Basil and of St. John Chrysostom. 
 When the Arian persecution forced St. 
 Athanasius toward the Thebaid, in the 
 fourth century, he was the guest of the 
 cenobites during six years. On his return 
 to Rome in 340, he sowed there the seed of 
 the religious life, which did not delay to 
 bring forth fruit. The Life of St. An- 
 thony., written by him, represented a model 
 which they strove to imitate. The souls 
 consecrated to God were confirmed in 
 their heavenly detachment by the Treat- 
 ise on Virginity, which St. Ambrose 
 consecrated to them. He, at the same 
 time, drew to God the troubled soul of St. 
 
 Augustine. The latter, having become 
 Bishop of Hippo, established a religious 
 order on the African soil. The impulse, 
 once given, never paused. The monasteries 
 of Liguge and of Noirmoutiers, founded 
 by St. Martin, arose in Gaul ; that of 
 Lerins, by St. Honoratus ; that of St. 
 Victor at Marseilles, by Cassian. These 
 foundations, and many more which we 
 cannot enumerate, had thus far neither 
 unity nor common rule which could assure 
 their future. St. Benedict appeared to 
 accomplish this task. From Mount Cassino, 
 where he founded the capital of the 
 monastic world, went forth that famous 
 Rule which embraced, under its yoke, all 
 the religious orders of the West. Auxil- 
 iaries of the secular clergy, the convents 
 lent to the latter their eminent men and 
 supported them in all their works ; they also 
 furnished to the Papacy a militia always 
 ready and devoted. Many convents of 
 women were also houses of education for 
 the youth, and the confidence of the fam- 
 ilies was justified by the tender cares 
 with which they surrounded their young 
 daughters. This custom has maintained 
 itself with success in the nunneries of the 
 Sacred Heart, the Ursulines, the Sisters of 
 Notre Dame, etc. See Monasticism. 
 
 Conversion of St. Paul. — A festival of 
 the Church, observed on the 25th of Janu- 
 ary, in commemoration of the conversion 
 of St. Paul the Apostle, as related in the 
 ninth chapter of the Acts. 
 
 Convulsionaries. — A class of Jansenists 
 in France, who gained notoriety by falling 
 into convulsions and by other extravagant 
 actions, supposed to be accompanied by 
 miraculous cures, in response to a supposed 
 miraculous influence, emanating from the 
 tomb of a pious Jansenist, Francois de 
 Paris, in the cemetery of St. Medard near 
 Paris, who died in 1727. They continued 
 to exist for more than fifty years. 
 
 Cope. — A Church vestment which re- 
 sembles in its shape an ample cloak. It is 
 open in the front, and is fastened over the 
 breast by a morse, or stiflF band furnished 
 with clasps. To the part which corresponds 
 to the shoulders of the wearer is attached a 
 piece of the same material, in form like the 
 segment of a circle, and resembles a hood, 
 which is usually adorned with lace. The 
 prototype of our cope is easily discoverable 
 among the garments of the ancient Ro- 
 mans. Like the chasuble, it was a mantle 
 
Copernicus 
 
 208 
 
 Corinthians 
 
 deriving its origin from the paenula, which 
 it perfectly resembled, with this variation, 
 that, while it encircled the entire person, 
 the cope was open in front, and adapted to 
 defend its wearer from the severities of 
 the season, the variations of the weather, 
 and from rain, by the addition of a cowl or 
 hood. Necessity introduced this robe 
 among the sacred vestments; and the 
 Latin pluviale, or rain-cloak, the term by 
 which it still continues to be designated, 
 will immediately suggest its primitive use 
 to every learned reader. Its appropriation 
 as a sacerdotal garment may be referred to 
 that epoch when the Popes were accus- 
 tomed to assemble the people, during the 
 penitential seasons of the year, at some 
 particular Church, which had been pre- 
 viously indicated for that purpose, and 
 thence proceed with them, in solemn 
 procession and on foot, to some one or 
 other of the more celebrated basilicas of 
 Rome, to hold what was called a station. 
 To protect the person of the Pontiff from 
 the rain that might overtake the procession 
 on its way, the fluviale, or cope, was on 
 such occasions assumed by him at the com- 
 mencement of the ceremony. It has been 
 employed at the altar ever since, and is 
 worn by bishops and by priests on different 
 occasions, but particularly at vespers. 
 
 Copernicus ( 1473-1543) . — Born at Thorn, 
 Prussia; died at Frauenburg, Prussia. 
 The founder of modern astronomy. He 
 entered the University of Cracow in 1491, 
 studied law at Bologna (i49c;-i50o), was 
 appointed canon of the chapter of Frauen- 
 burg in 1497, lectured on astronomy at 
 Rome in 1500. He published, in 1543, an 
 exposition of his system of astronomy, — 
 which has since received the name of the 
 Copernican, — in a treatise entitled De 
 Orbiutn coelestium Revolutionihus. 
 
 Copiates or Gravediggers. — A class 
 of persons who, in the early Church, were 
 counted among the number of the clergy. 
 They were charged with the burial of the 
 dead, especially of the poor. 
 
 Copts. — Egyptian Christians; the most 
 of them follow the heretical doctrine of 
 Eutyches and are also called Monophy- 
 sites. The Schismatical Copts number 
 about one hundred thousand, and the 
 United Copts about five thousand ; accord- 
 ing to another estimate they are put down 
 to twelve thousand. Great efforts have 
 been made in the last forty years to con- 
 
 vert the Copto-Ethiopians, or Abyssinians, 
 who are closely connected with the Egyp- 
 tian Copts. The labors of the Catholic 
 missionaries were attended with the best 
 results in spite of almost incessant perse- 
 cutions. Including the converted Gallas, 
 there are in Abyssinia to-day over 30,000 
 Christians, living in communion with 
 Rome. The Copts in communion with the 
 Holy See formerly were governed by a 
 vicar apostolic residing at Cairo, but in 
 November, 1895, Pope Leo XIII. consti- 
 tuted for them a regular hierarchy, with a 
 patriarch styled '* Patriarch of Alexandria 
 of the Copts." Besides the patriarch they 
 have two bishops and some forty priests, 
 foreign and native. Educational institu- 
 tions have been opened by the Capuchins. 
 
 Coran. See Koran. 
 
 Corban. — In Judaism, an offering of any 
 sort to God, particularly in fulfillment of a 
 vow. To the rules laid down in Leviticus 
 (xxvii.) and in Numbers (xxx.) concerning 
 vows, the rabbins added the rule, that a 
 man might interdict himself by vow, not 
 only from using for himself any particular 
 object, for example food, but also from 
 giving or receiving it. The thing thus 
 interdicted was considered as corban. A 
 person might thus release himself from 
 any inconvenient obligation under plea of 
 corban — a practice which Christ repre- 
 hended, as annulling the spirit of the law. 
 
 Cordeliers. — Name given in France to 
 the regular Franciscan monks; so called 
 from the girdle of knotted cord worn by 
 the members of that order. 
 
 Core. — A Levite who rebelled against 
 Moses, with Dathan and Abiron, and who 
 together with them was swallowed alive by 
 a miraculous opening of the earth. 
 
 Corinth. — In ancient geography the 
 capital of Achaia, and situated on the isth- 
 mus which separates the Peloponnesus 
 from Attica. It was originally called 
 Ephyre, and was noted in ancient times 
 as a center of commerce, literature, and 
 art. 
 
 Corinthians {Efistles to the). — First 
 Epistle: When St. Paul was at Ephesus, 
 about A. D. 57, prosecuting his third Apos- 
 tolic journey, he heard that an effort was 
 being made by some among the Corinthian 
 converts to divide the seamless robe of 
 Christ by creating a dissentient element 
 within the Catholic body on the pretense 
 
Cornelius 
 
 209 
 
 Corpus Christi 
 
 of following favorite preachers. In order 
 to show the magnitude of this evil he ex- 
 plains the doctrine of the unity of the 
 Church by the familiar illustration of the 
 consummate harmony existing between 
 the members of the human body. The 
 antidote he offers against this tendency 
 toward division is charity, which he eulo- 
 gizes in brilliant language. Turning, 
 then, to the luxurious habits of these Cor- 
 inthians, the Apostle pronounces the sen- 
 tence of excommunication on one who was 
 living publicly in incest. This brought 
 him to discuss the relative merits of vir- 
 ginity and matrimony in answer to a re- 
 quest forwarded to him by this people. 
 He extols the excellence of marriage, but 
 declares it to be inferior to the state of 
 virginity. Lastly, to spur the Corinthians 
 to their duty in these particulars, the 
 Apostle sets forth the cheering doctrine of 
 the resurrection of the body. Second 
 Epistle: Toward the end of this same 
 year, A. d. 57, St. Paul sent Titus to Cor- 
 inth, in order to ascertain on the spot the 
 effect produced by the First Epistle to the 
 Corinthians, and thence to come on direct 
 to Troas. Titus announced that the First 
 Epistle to the Corinthians wrought a most 
 marked change for the better on that 
 people. This, he said, was the more con- 
 soling, because certain jealous intruders 
 did all they could to poison the mind of 
 the Corinthian converts generally against 
 the Epistle. To expose their fraud and 
 malice the Second Epistle to the Corinth- 
 ians was written, which opens with sen- 
 timents of the tenderest charity toward 
 the erring people. Then he turns to his 
 labors in no spirit of vain boasting, but to 
 defend the honor of Jesus Christ whose 
 Apostle he thus fearlessly asserted himself 
 to be. The false teachers who had been 
 calumniating him, he denounced with ter- 
 rible severity. And he concludes by ex- 
 pressing a strong hope of seeing them very 
 soon. 
 
 Cornelius. — A Roman centurion, sta- 
 tioned at Caesarea, whom St. Peter, in con- 
 sequence of a special revelation, received 
 into the communion of the Christian 
 Church, directly by baptism without cir- 
 cumcision (Acts X.). 
 
 Cornelius (Pope, 251-252). — A learned 
 Roman priest; his election was opposed 
 by the ambitious presbyter, Novatian, who, 
 yielding to the wicked counsels of Novatus, 
 a turbulent priest from Carthage, became 
 H 
 
 the rival of Cornelius and the founder of a 
 schismatical sect, called after him the 
 "Novatians." Novatian was excommuni- 
 cated by a council of sixty bishops held at 
 Rome, and the three bishops who had or- 
 dained him were deposed. In 252, Corne- 
 lius was exiled by Emperor Gallus to Cen- 
 tumcellae (Civitta-Veechia), where he died 
 a martyr. 
 
 Cornelius k Lapide (properly van der 
 5^ee») (1568-1637). — Great Biblical scholar ; 
 was born at.Boehaff, near Liege, Bel- 
 gium ; became a Jesuit. Professor of Holy 
 Scripture at Louvain and afterwards at 
 Rome, where he died. His learned and 
 valuable commentaries cover the entire 
 Bible, except Job and the Psalms. (Best ed- 
 ition, Lyons, 1833, 11 vols. Partly trans- 
 lated into English.) 
 
 Corozain. — A city of Galilee, on the 
 western shore of Lake Tiberiades, near 
 Bethsaida. Christ preached often in this 
 city and wrought many miracles therein. 
 
 Corporal. — The corporal is a square piece 
 of fine linen on which the Host is conse- 
 crated. It is so called because it touches 
 the Body of our Lord. It has been known 
 by this appellation for more than ten cen- 
 turies. In the Ambrosian rite, the corpo- 
 ral is likened to the linen cloths in which 
 the Body of our Saviour was shrouded in 
 the sepulchre, and on unfolding it at the 
 Offertory, the priest recites what is termed 
 the "Oratio super sindonem." Anciently 
 the chalice was also covered by the corpo- 
 ral, a practice still retained by the Carthu- 
 sians. The Greeks make use of a similar 
 square piece of linen cloth, which they 
 s|^read out as we do. The corporal must 
 be blessed by a bishop, or by a priest hav- 
 ing special faculties. 
 
 Corpus Christi (Latin words which sig- 
 nify Body of Christ). — The most impos- 
 ing festival of the Catholic Church. Pope 
 Urban IV., in his decree concerning it, 
 gives the following explanation of the 
 institution and grandeur of this festival : 
 "Although we daily, in the holy Sacrifice 
 of the Mass, renew the memory of this 
 holy sacrament, we believe that we must, 
 besides, solemnly commemorate it every 
 year, to put the unbelievers to shame ; and 
 because we have been informed that God 
 has revealed to some pious persons that 
 this festival should be celebrated in the 
 whole Church, we direct that on the first 
 Thursday after the octave of Pentecost, 
 
CORRIGAN 
 
 2IO 
 
 Cosmogony 
 
 the Faithful should assemble in the Church, 
 and join with the priests in singing the word 
 of God," etc. Hence this festival was in- 
 stituted on account of the greatness of 
 the divine mystery; the unbelief of those 
 who denied the truth of this mystery, 
 and the revelation made to some pious 
 persons. This revelation was made to a 
 nun at Liege, named Juliana, and to her 
 devout friends, Eve and Isabella. Juliana, 
 when praying, had frequently a vision in 
 which she saw the bright moon, with one 
 part of it somewhat dark ; at her request 
 she received instructions from God that 
 one of the grandest festivals was yet to be 
 instituted : the festival of the most Blessed 
 Sacrament of the Altar. In 1246, she re- 
 lated this vision to Robert, Bishop of 
 Liege, who, after having investigated the 
 matter with the aid of several men of 
 learning and devotion (among whom was 
 Jacob Pantaleon, Archdeacon of Liege, 
 afterwards Pope Urban IV.), made arrange- 
 ments to introduce this festival in his 
 diocese, but death prevented his intention 
 being carried into efTect. After the bish- 
 op's death the Cardinal Legate Hugh un- 
 dertook to carry out his directions, and 
 celebrated the festival for the first time in 
 the year 1247, in the Church of St. Martin 
 at Liege. Several bishops followed this 
 example, and the festival was observed in 
 many dioceses, before Urban IV., in 1264, 
 finally ordered the celebration by the 
 whole Church. This order was confirmed 
 by Clement V. at the Council of Vienna 
 in 131 1, and the Thursday after the octave 
 of Pentecost appointed for its celebration. 
 In 1317, Pope John XXII. instituted the 
 solemn procession. 
 
 Corrigan (Michael Augustine). — 
 Catholic prelate; born at Newark, New 
 Jersey, Aug. 13th, 1839. He was ordained 
 to the priesthood at Rome in 1863. After 
 filling for a few years the chair of dog- 
 matic theology and Sacred Scripture at 
 Seton Hall College, Orange, New Jersey, 
 he became its president in 1868. In 1873 
 he was appointed by Pius IX. to the see of 
 Newark, and in 1880 was made coadjutor 
 to Cardinal McCloskey, Archbishop of 
 New York, under the title of Archbishop 
 of Petra, and on the death of the cardinal 
 in 1885 he became metropolitan of the dio- 
 cese of New York, recei\'ing the pallium 
 shortly afterwards. 
 
 Corrupticola. — Name of a sect of Eu- 
 tjchian heretics whose chief was a cer- 
 
 tain Severus, false patriarch of Antioch 
 (55^)- Severus, having withdrawn to Al- 
 exandria, maintained there that the Body 
 of Christ was corruptible ; that the Fathers 
 had acknowledged this ; and to deny this 
 was denying the truth of the Passion of 
 the Saviour. On the other hand, Julian 
 of Halicarnassus, also a Eutychian refugee 
 in Egypt, maintained that the Body of 
 Christ had always been incorruptible ; to 
 maintain that it was corruptible, he said, 
 was to admit a distinction between Jesus 
 Christ and the Word, and consequently 
 two natures in Jesus Christ. The followers 
 of Julian were also called PhtJiartolatrce, 
 or Phantasiastes. 
 
 Cosmas and Damianus (Sts.). — Broth- 
 ers, born in Arabia, labored as Christian 
 physicians, and exercised their art gratu- 
 itously. Denounced as Christians, they 
 suffered martyrdom at Eges, in Cilicia, 
 under Diocletian, about the year 286. 
 Their remains were brought to Rome, 
 where a splendid church was dedicated to 
 their memory, and where they are still 
 venerated, September 27th. Patron saints 
 of physicians and druggists. 
 
 Cosmogony ( The Alosaic). — All the re- 
 ligions and all the nations of antiquity 
 have attempted to explain the origin of 
 things. The various cosmogonic systems 
 have common traits which seem to indi- 
 cate a community of origin, perhaps even 
 a primitive revelation; but the most of 
 them have been disfigured in the course of 
 the centuries through the addition of child- 
 ish details, often in flagrant contradiction 
 with the most incontestable accounts of 
 modern science. A single one of these cos- 
 mogonies, — that which figures at the head 
 of our Sacred Books, — has escaped this 
 general corruption in such a manner as 
 to defy still to-day the attacks of infidel 
 scientists. It does notenter into our plan to 
 give here a detailed commentary thereon. 
 To state this cosmogony, to point out 
 briefly its superiority over all others, to 
 say a word on the scientific cosmogony, 
 and finally the accord of both — such is the 
 end which we have proposed to ourselves 
 in this article. 
 
 I. The Mosaic Account of the 
 Creation. — Since we could not discuss 
 the Biblical cosmogony without knowing 
 its text, we will give here the literal trans- 
 lation according to the Hebrew, content- 
 ing ourselves with grouping the works 
 peculiar to each of the six days into so 
 
Cosmogony 
 
 21 I 
 
 Cosmogony 
 
 many special paragraphs : "In the begin- 
 ning God created heaven and earth. And 
 the earth was unformed and empty; dark- 
 ness was upon the face of the deep ; and 
 the spirit of God moved over the waters." 
 
 First Day. — "And God said: Be light 
 made ! And light was made. And God 
 saw the light that it was good, and God 
 divided the light from the darkness. And 
 God called the light Day and the darkness 
 Night; and there was evening and morn- 
 ing: one day." 
 
 Second Day. — "And God said: Let 
 there be a firmament made amidst the 
 waters and let it divide the waters from 
 the waters. And God made a firmament, 
 and divided the waters that were under the 
 firmament from those that were above the 
 firmament, and it was so. And God called 
 the firmament Heaven. And the evening 
 and morning were the second day." 
 
 Third Day. — " And God said : Let the 
 waters that are under the heaven be 
 gathered together into one place, and let 
 the dry land appear. And it was so done. 
 And God called the dry land Earth; and 
 the gathering together of the waters he 
 called Seas. And God saw that it was 
 good. And God said : Let the earth bring 
 forth the green herbj bearing seed after its 
 kind, and the tree yielding of the fruit 
 which had in itself its seed after its kind. 
 And God saw that it was good. And the 
 earth brought forth the green herb, and 
 such as yieldeth seed according to its kind 
 and the tree that beareth fruit, having 
 seed each according to its kind. And 
 God saw that it was good. And the even- 
 ing and morning were the third day." 
 
 Fourth Day. — " And God said : Let 
 there be lights made in the firmament of 
 heaven, to distinguish the day and the 
 night, and let them be for signs and for 
 seasons, and for days and years. And let 
 them be lights in the firmament of heaven 
 to give light upon earth. And it was so 
 done. And God made two great lights: 
 the greater light to rule the day, and the 
 lesser light to rule the night, and he made 
 also the stars. And God placed them in 
 the firmament of heaven to shine upon the 
 earth. And to rule the day and the night 
 and to distinguish the light from darkness. 
 And God saw that it was good. And the 
 evening and morning were the fourth 
 day." 
 
 Fifth Day.— ''And God said : Let the 
 waters bring forth a multitude of living 
 animals and let the fowl fly over the earth | 
 
 under the firmament of heaven. And God 
 created the great marine monsters and 
 every moving animal of which the waters 
 are swarming, according to their kinds, 
 and every winged fowl according to its 
 kind. And God saw that it was good. 
 And God blessed them, saying: Increase 
 and multiply, and fill the waters of the sea, 
 and let the birds be multiplied upon the 
 earth. And the evening and morning were 
 the fifth day." 
 
 Sixth Day. — "And God said : Let the 
 earth bring forth the living animal in its 
 kind, cattle, the creeping being, and the 
 beasts of the earth, according to their 
 kinds. And it was so done. And God 
 made the wild beast after its kind, and the 
 cattle according to its kind, and everything 
 that creepeth on the earth after its kind. 
 And God saw that it was good. And God 
 said : Let us make man to our image, ac- 
 cording to our likeness ; and let him have 
 dominion over the fishes of the sea, and 
 over the fowls of the air, and over the 
 beasts, and over the whole earth, and over 
 every creeping creature upon earth. And 
 God created man to His own image; to 
 the image of God He created him. He 
 created them male and female. And God 
 blessed them, saying : Increase and multi- 
 ply, and fill the earth, and subdue it, and 
 rule over the fishes of the sea, and the 
 fowls of the air, and all living creatures 
 that move upon the earth. And God said : 
 Behold, I have given you every herb bear- 
 ing seed upon the earth, and all trees that 
 have in themselves seed of their own kind ; 
 this will serve you for nourishment. And 
 to all beasts of the earth, and to every fowl 
 of the air, and to all that move upon the 
 earth and wherein there is life, all green 
 herb will serve for nourishment. And it 
 was so done. And God saw all the things 
 that He had made, and they were very 
 good. And the evening and morning were 
 the sixth day." "These are," says the 
 sacred writer in the second chapter of 
 Genesis, "the generations of the heaven 
 and the earth on the day when they were 
 created." 
 
 When there is pointed out in this won- 
 derful drama the successive acts by which 
 the intervention of the Creator reveals 
 itself, nine of them present themselves in 
 the following order: (i) Creation of mat- 
 ter ; (3) Apparition of the light ; (3) For- 
 mation of the firmament or of the atmos- 
 phere by the separation of the condensed 
 lower waters and of the waters remaining 
 
Cosmogony 
 
 212 
 
 Cosmogony 
 
 in the state of vapors ; (4) Emersion of the 
 continents ; (5) Appearance of the plants ; 
 (6) Appearance of the sun, moon, and 
 stars; (7) Creation of the aquatic animals 
 and of the birds; (8) Appearance of the 
 earthly animals ; (9) Creation of man. As 
 can be seen, two distinct works are attrib- 
 uted to the third and to the sixth days. 
 The division of the works of creation into 
 six days cannot be looked upon as arbitrary, 
 and must have had some motive which it 
 is undoubtedly not impossible to discover, 
 that is, the religious institution of the 
 week. As to the order of succession, it is 
 not doubtful, and we shall see further on 
 that, on the whole, it is in accord with the 
 accounts of modem science. 
 
 II. Superiority of the Mosaic Cos- 
 mogony. — Although the cosmogony we 
 have just presented has not escaped the 
 attacks of infidelity, which has pretended 
 to see in it nothing but nonsense and con- 
 tradictions, the most of the Rationalists 
 have acknowledged that it is immensely 
 superior to all the other cosmogonies 
 which antiquity has bequeathed to us. 
 *' It contains not one word," says one of 
 them (Dillman, Genesis (1875), p. 9), 
 "which would appear unworthy of God's 
 thought. From the time that the mystery 
 of creation, which will always remain a 
 mystery for man, was attempted to be 
 sketched, in order to render it conceivable 
 to human intelligence, it was impossible to 
 trace a more magnificent and more worthy 
 tableau. It is with perfect right that they 
 draw from the creative account a proof in 
 favor of its revealed character." ^A fa- 
 mous naturalist, who has become, since 
 the death of Darwin, the principal repre- 
 sentative of the advanced evolutionary 
 school, Haeckel, Professor in the University 
 of Jena, grants the same praises to the Mo- 
 saic history of the creation. He extols in 
 particular " the simple and natural dispo- 
 sition of the ideas exposed therein, which 
 advantageously contrast with the confu- 
 sion of the mythological cosmogonies of 
 most of the ancient peoples. According 
 to Genesis, the Lord God first formed the 
 earth as an inorganic body. Then He 
 separates the light from the darkness, 
 then the waters from the firm earth. And 
 lo, we have the earth habitable for organ- 
 ized beings. Then God forms, in the 
 first place, the plants ; later on, the ani- 
 mals, and even among the latter He fash- 
 ions first the inhabitants of the sea and of 
 the air, and finally those of the firm earth. 
 
 Finally, God creates the last of the organ- 
 ized beings, man ; He creates him accord- 
 ing to his image, in order to be the master 
 of the earth." The illustrious naturalist 
 goes so far as to discover the application 
 of his evolutionary ideas to these suc- 
 cessive and progressive creations. " Al- 
 though," he says, " these great laws of 
 organic evolution . . . may be regarded 
 by Moses as the expression of the activitj' 
 of a creator forming the world, we dis- 
 cover therein, however, the beautiful idea 
 of a progressive evolution, of a gradual 
 differentiation of primitively simple matter. 
 Therefore, we can pay to the grand idea 
 contained in the cosmogony ... of 
 the Jewish legislator a just and sincere 
 tribute of admiration." f^Schopfungsge- 
 schichte). 
 
 In order to fully appreciate the superior- 
 ity of the Mosaic cosmogony, it will not be 
 useless to cast a rapid glance on the 
 others. Aside from some features which 
 seem to have been borrowed from it, or at 
 least drawn from the same source, what 
 exaggerations, what childishness and ex- 
 travagances ! The Chaldean cosmogony, 
 which in many respects approaches ours, 
 shows us, according to Berosus, the su- 
 preme god Bel, cutting into two parts his 
 spouse, of which parts he makes both 
 heaven and earth. Then we have him 
 cutting off his own head, and the other 
 gods modeling men out of the slime im- 
 pregnated with the blood of the divine 
 victim. The Phoenician traditions trans- 
 mitted by Sanchoniaton, represent the 
 primitive world in a state of chaos and 
 wrapped in darkness ; but at the end of 
 a certain number of centuries, they add, 
 the Spirit and the chaos united to produce 
 the world. In India, we have two cos- 
 mogonies: that of Riga-Veda, and the 
 more recent one of the code of Manu. 
 The first, which is rather obscure, shows 
 us still the Deity immolating itself to give 
 birth to the world. 
 
 The code of Manu shows us that the 
 Lord, the supreme and eternal Being, 
 " was self-existent, producing first the 
 waters {nam), into which he deposited a 
 seed." This seed became an egg, brilliant 
 like gold, also sparkling like a star of a 
 thousand rays, and in which the supreme 
 Being himself was born under the form of 
 Brahma, the ancestor of all the beings. 
 *' Hence the name Narayana, the one who 
 moves upon the waters," given to the new 
 being. After having dwelled in this egg one 
 
Cosmogony 
 
 213 
 
 Cosmogony 
 
 Brahmanic year .(that is, 3, 110,400,000,000 
 years like ours), the Lord divided this egg 
 into two parts, of wliich he made heaven and 
 earth, separated by the atmosphere, " the 
 eight heavenly regions and the permanent 
 reservoir for the waters." Then from his 
 mouth, his arm, his thigh, and his foot, he 
 drew forth the divierse castes, commencing 
 with the Brahmans. His body, divided 
 into two parts, tJecame half male and half 
 female, and gave birth to a whole hierarchy 
 of beings, in which the spirit loses itself. 
 There are, according to Manu, ten eminent 
 saints called maharchis; then the gnomes, 
 the giants, the vampires, the nymphs, the 
 Titans, etc. In the Egyptian cosmogony, 
 still little known, we see the creator Phtah 
 modeling man on a potter's wheel. Among 
 the Persians we find the division into six 
 epochs ; but these epochs have a duration 
 which varies from forty-five to eighty days. 
 They beheld successively appearing the 
 heavens, the water, the earth, the trees, the 
 animals, and man. There are seven heav- 
 ens, each of which bears a special name. 
 The bull was created before every other 
 animal and lived alone ; but at its death its 
 seed, transported into the lunar heaven, 
 gave rise to the other animals. Man him- 
 self drew his body from the right arm of 
 the first bull. In his turn he lived alone, 
 and at his death he was transformed into a 
 tree, which, cut into two parts, gave birth 
 to a man and a woman, the ancestors of all 
 mankind. We omit numerous details void 
 of all sense or too childish. In Japan, we 
 find again the chaos of Genesis, chaos which 
 gave rise to heaven and earth ; but the earth 
 is represented as swimming upon the sea 
 like a fish, and above it is shown a flower 
 which becomes a divine spirit. The Occi- 
 dental cosmogonies contain the same mix- 
 ture of truth and error, of probability and 
 of absurdities. Greece furnishes very little 
 on the origin of the world and of man. On 
 tlie contrary, we find in her cosmogony 
 long and tedious details about the origin 
 of the gods, who for the most owe their 
 birth to a series of evolutions, the one more 
 improbable than the other. However, at 
 the beginning of mankind, Hesiod shows 
 us the golden age, which might be an 
 altered remembrance of the earthly para- 
 dise. Among the Latins we find, as in the 
 Bible, chaos — rudis indigestaque moles 
 (Ovidius) — , at the beginning of the things. 
 Then, all the elements are confounded — 
 air, earth, and water. After this they 
 separate themselves, and tlie continents 
 
 appear. In the Germanic cosmogony we 
 see an enormous mass of ice springing forth 
 from the North Pole, which by melting 
 gives rise to the chaos. From this chaos 
 God caused to arise the cow Audumbla, 
 which, in licking the ice to find some nour- 
 ishment therein, forms from it the osseous 
 frame of the giant Bur, father of Bor and 
 grandfather of Odin. Then, from the 
 primitive chaos there are formed nine 
 spheres, which represent the entire universe 
 and its inhabitants, — gods, men, giants, 
 gnomes, etc. 
 
 Incomplete as it may be, this short re- 
 view is sufficient to give an idea of the 
 extravagance of the pagan cosmogonies, 
 and to show that they cannot enter into 
 comparison with the simple, sublime, and 
 rational cosmogony which figures at the 
 head of our Sacred Books. "Compare 
 the Biblical account with these fables," 
 said Mgr. Meignan, " and you will admire 
 how the former bears in all its parts the 
 imprint of historic truth. The entire ac- 
 count is sober, plain, clear, and comform- 
 able to reason. Undoubtedly the history 
 of Genesis breathes the highest poetry; it 
 has magnificent traits, sublime words; but 
 we discover therein neither any philo- 
 sophical system, nor any poetic fancy, no 
 obscure myth or childish fables. To this 
 recital, so grand and so simple, we have to 
 reduce all the exaggerations of the other 
 cosmogonies." 
 
 III. The Scientific Cosmogony. — 
 Before passing to the critical study of 
 the Biblical cosmogony, it is necessary to 
 briefly notice what science teaches us on 
 the same subject. The history of our 
 globe may be divided into two plainly dis- 
 tinct parts, the one anterior, the other 
 posterior, to the appearance of life. The 
 first, eminently conjectural, because it 
 escapes the direct observation, is connected 
 with the astronomical and physical sci- 
 ences ; the second, more precise and better 
 known, belongs to the domain of geology. 
 Let us throw a rapid glance on both. 
 
 I. Cosmic Era. — According to a theory 
 generally admitted and which everything 
 confirms, the earth and the other planets 
 and satellites which form a part of the solar 
 system, were primitively in the gaseous 
 state, and in this state constituted an im- 
 mense sphere, of a radius at least equal to 
 the distance of the sun from Neptune, the 
 most remote planet. This gaseous sphere, 
 which they have called the primitive neb- 
 ula, was endowed with a rotary move- 
 
Cosmogony 
 
 214 
 
 Cosmogony 
 
 ment which by and by became accelerated 
 as a result of the condensation. The cen- 
 trifugal force developing itself in propor- 
 tion, gaseous particles, perhaps even com- 
 plete rings, detached themselves from the 
 surface of the immense sphere, at its equa- 
 torial part, and by concentrating them- 
 selves gave rise to the planets, which 
 themselves still gaseous, produced the satel- 
 lites in the same manner. The nucleus of 
 the nebula, not yet entirely condensed, is 
 nothing else than the sun, whose mass is 
 seven hundred times above that of all the 
 planets united with their satellites. This 
 hypothesis, to which Herschel and Laplace 
 have, attached their names, rests upon 
 numerous facts. It is observed, for in- 
 stance, that the density of matter increases 
 upon our planet from the surface to the 
 center, and undoubtedly also from the 
 most remote planets to the sun itself, which 
 is probably still in a gaseous state. In the 
 second place, the different phases through 
 which our nebula must have passed are 
 again found in our days in our solar system, 
 or in the extraneous systems. The teles- 
 cope here shows us nebulae which seem in 
 the process of becoming condensed ; there, 
 suns on the point of being extinguished 
 in order to become planets; elsewhere, 
 planets or satellites, like the moon, that 
 have attained, it would seem, the extreme 
 point of their transformations and be- 
 come uninhabitable in default of atmos- 
 phere- A last argument appealed to in 
 confirmation of this system consists in the 
 uniformity of the rotary and revolutionary 
 movements of the planets and of their 
 satellites, all of which, or nearly all, are 
 direct, that is, executed from west to east. 
 We say almost all, for it is believed to 
 have been established within the last few 
 years that the movements of the satellites 
 of the two most remote planets, Uranus, 
 and Neptune, are effected from east to 
 w^est; but this exception, if it be real, does 
 not, whatever may be said, run counter to 
 the system attributed to Laplace. It is 
 rather a quite natural consequence of the 
 law of Kepler, who claims that the celestial 
 bodies most remote from the star around 
 which they gravitate have a swiftness the 
 inverse of their distance. But here is not 
 the place to insist on a question of such a 
 technical nature. In spite of the criticisms 
 to which it might have been exposed, the 
 theory which beholds in the heavenly 
 bodies so many fragments more or less con- 
 densed of an ancient nebula is universally 
 
 accepted by the learned world, and although 
 it may not be susceptible of a direct demon- 
 stration, and may be variously understood 
 in the details, it is a very difficult thing to 
 prove it lacking in a foundation of truth. 
 
 But the matter of which the universe is 
 composed could not pass abruptly from 
 the gaseous into the solid state. In the 
 interval there was a liquid or doughy 
 state, which must have sers^ed as tran- 
 sitional. The molecules drawn together 
 through the effect of condensation, which 
 itself resulted from the law of attraction, 
 combined themselves in such a manner as 
 to form solid bodies, and in combining 
 themselves they must have produced heat 
 and light. Nevertheless, the principal 
 source of heat has been the condensation 
 itself of the nebula, condensation which, 
 by continuing before our eyes in the sun, 
 makes of this central astral sphere the 
 radiant heat-giver which sustains life upon 
 our planet. 
 
 Much smaller than the sun, the earth 
 necessarily passed more quickly through 
 the diverse phases through which it seems 
 every heavenly body is called upon to 
 pass. Like its satellite, the moon, which 
 had become detached from its still gaseous 
 mass, our globe needed only a relatively 
 short time to transform itself from a 
 simple nebula into a luminous sun, and 
 from a sun into a cooled planet, capable of 
 being inhabited. To the gaseous state, as 
 we have said, succeeded the liquid state, 
 and to the latter the solid state. In conse- 
 quence of the perpetual radiation that was 
 produced on its surface, the superficial 
 layer became solidified first, so as to form 
 a thin crust similar to that which covers 
 the currents of lava after a volcanic 
 eruption. Often broken at the beginning, 
 on account of its thinness and of the 
 violence of the internal fire, this crust 
 ended by reconstituting, consolidating, 
 and cooling itself, so as to permit vege- 
 table and animal life to develop on its 
 surface. Then commences the geological 
 era, which we have to describe briefly. 
 
 2. Geological Era. — This era has been 
 divided into three long epochs, called 
 Primary (or epoch of Transition), Sec- 
 ondary, and Tertiary. Very often geolo- 
 gists add a fourth epoch, of which the 
 actual age is only the extension of the 
 Tertiary, called the Quaternary epoch; 
 but on account of its short duration, con- 
 fusion, and absence of precise character- 
 istics, the latter epoch cannot, by common 
 
Cosmogony 
 
 215 
 
 Cosmogony 
 
 consent, enter into comparison with the 
 foregoing ones. The characteristics of the 
 geological epochs are as follows : The 
 first has been the era of the vegetables; 
 the second the era of the aquatic animals, 
 especially of the reptiles ; the third the 
 era of the terrestrial animals, and the fourth 
 the human era. But without making here 
 a course of geology, we shall enter some- 
 what more into details. 
 
 a. The Primary epoch is also called, as 
 we have said, the Period of Transition, be- 
 cause the grounds which represent it mark 
 it as a passage between the rocks of fiery 
 origin, which constitute the mass of the 
 earthly crust, and the sedimentary rocks, 
 deposited at the bottom of the waters and 
 often enriched with fossil remains of plants 
 and animals. It is divided into five periods, 
 which correspond to the successive forma- 
 tion of the Cambrtati, Siluriqn, Devonian, 
 Carboniferous, and Permian strata. Life 
 seems to have appeared upon earth at the 
 beginning of the Cambrian period, under 
 the form of the lowest beings, — annelides, 
 polyps, graptolithes, etc., — belonging to 
 the lowest steps of the animal ladder. It 
 developed itself in the period following; 
 but it is still represented only by beings of 
 minute structure, mostly aquatic, the conti- 
 nents having yet hardly made their appear- 
 ance. The species which dominates in this 
 humble fauna is a family of Crustacea called 
 tribolites, on account of the three lobes 
 that characterize them and* distinguish 
 them from the other existing beings. 
 However, in the upper part of the Silurian 
 stratum fishes appear; but they are scarce 
 and of slight dimensions. The Carbonif- 
 erous period, which follows, is the most 
 important of the primary school. On the 
 recently emerged continents, thanks to the 
 humidity, the still intense and uniform 
 heat, and the carbonic acid abundantly 
 spread over the impure atmosphere of the 
 primitive era, there develops a luxuriant 
 vegetation, whose debris, carried along by 
 the waters into the estuaries and lakes, 
 gave rise to immense deposits of coal, which 
 foster modern industry. When, later on, 
 it was represented by plants of a more ele- 
 vated order, at no time in the history of the 
 globe has it been so abundant. This won- 
 derful vegetation continues, while becom- 
 ing weaker, during that Permian period, 
 which is, so to say, only a prolongation 
 of the preceding, although it had its char- 
 acteristics in certain moUusks which then 
 made their appearance. 
 
 b. Four times less extended than the 
 Primary period, when we judge it by the 
 thickness of the strata which are connected 
 with it, the Secondary epoch, divided in 
 its turn into three periods, Triassic, furas- 
 sic, and Cretaceous, has been essentially 
 that of reptiles, and especially of aquatic 
 reptiles. Undoubtedly, the mollusks are 
 always the most numerous in it, as, witness 
 the ammonites and belemnites, which oc- 
 cupy such a large place in the glass cases 
 of our paleontological collections; but the 
 cold-blooded vertebrae, the fishes and the 
 reptiles, attract the attention still more on 
 account of their strange forms or their im- 
 posing proportions. The reptiles, especially, 
 in this period, have dimensions which we 
 no longer find in the existing fauna. Such 
 are the ichthyosaurus, the megalosaurus, 
 animals, more or less amphibious, of the 
 Saurian family, which measured more than 
 thirty feet in length. Others, like the 
 pterodactylns and the ramphorhynchus, 
 had the strange privilege of being provided 
 with wings and with the power of flying, 
 or at least of maintaining themselves in the 
 air for some time. In that time also the 
 birds make their appearance. We can rec- 
 ognize them by the imprints which their 
 feet have left on the strands of the period, 
 and also by their bones, which, however, 
 are very rare. As to the class of fishes, 
 which we have seen making their appear- 
 ance in the Primary epoch, it maintains and 
 develops itself during the Secondary epoch, 
 especially towards the end, during the de- 
 posit of the cretaceous layers, without, how- 
 ever, assuming extraordinary proportions. 
 
 c. The Tertiary epoch, the third of the 
 geological times, much resembles our own 
 from the point of view of the fauna. It is 
 par excellence the era of the earthly ani- 
 mals. All the families of mammifera are 
 represented therein, but none by more 
 gigantic animals than that of the pachy- 
 derms. Aside from the paleotherium and 
 the acerotherium, which seemed to fore- 
 cast our rhinoceros, and aside from the 
 hipparion, whose transformation has made 
 it the ancestor of the horse, we see the 
 dinotherium and the mastodon, "the most 
 imposing of the earthly mammifera which 
 have lived upon our globe." (Albert 
 Gaudry.) The dinotherium attained to 
 fifteen feet in height. The mastodon, 
 which hardly differed from the elephant 
 except by its knobbed dentition, prevailed, 
 however, over the latter through its still 
 more colossal proportions. 
 
Cosmogony 
 
 216 
 
 Cosmogony 
 
 d. Finally, in the superficial strata which 
 represent the Quaternary epoch, or, if you 
 wish, the beginnings of the actual era, we 
 find the real elephant, the mammoth, and, 
 aside from this, the predecessors of our 
 actual species, the rhinoceros, the bear, 
 the stag, the horse, etc., and finally man 
 himself, our ancestor, whom we recognize 
 bj-.the rude implements of stone which he 
 fashioned, more than bj' his bones, which 
 are almost always of a doubtful authen- 
 ticity. 
 
 Such are, in summary, the diverse mani- 
 festations of life on the surface of the 
 globe. In the primary times, there were 
 neither mamraifera nor birds, but low 
 mollusks, crustaceae (tribolites), some 
 fishes, the first batrachians, and especially 
 a luxuriant vegetation which gave us our 
 immense layers of coal. Favored by a 
 warm and cloudy atmosphere, which is 
 not without analogy to that of our tropical 
 regions, this vegetation ended in puri- 
 fying the air, from which it removed the 
 excess of carbonic acid, and perhaps the 
 other impurities which until then un- 
 doubtedly had been an obstacle to the 
 direct action of the solar rays. Hence- 
 forth, terrestrial air-breathing and pulmo- 
 nary animals will be enabled to live upon 
 the earth. They also make their appear- 
 ance in the Secondary epoch, first under 
 the form of more or less amphibious rep- 
 tiles, for undoubtedly the continents are 
 as yet little extended and the air has not 
 acquired its definitive purity. Only toward 
 the end of the Secondary period do the 
 birds appear, whose energetic respiration 
 requires an air rich in oxygen; and some 
 of the lower mammifera. Thanks to these 
 same conditions, the great terrestrial ani- 
 mals arrive in their turn to animate nature, 
 henceforth ready to receive man himself, 
 the last arrival of the createa beings. 
 This is the Tertiary epoch, of which the 
 present era is, so to say, only the contin- 
 uation. 
 
 IV. Accord Between Science and 
 THE Bible. — If we will now go back to 
 the first chapter of Genesis, which we 
 have^ given at the head of this article, we 
 will find there, instead of an alleged dis- 
 cord, a striking resemblance to the pre- 
 ceding cosmogony. To convince ourselves 
 of this, let us examine successively each 
 of the Genetical days. 
 
 Creation of Matter. — The creation of 
 matter preceded every other intervention 
 of the Deity in the production of the vis- 
 
 ible world ; science requires this not less 
 than logic. Science proves, indeed, that 
 matter cannot be eternal. By teaching us 
 that it took successive forms in an uninter- 
 rupted progress from one to another, pass- 
 ing from the simple and gaseous state into 
 the composite and solid state, it shows it 
 to us at the beginning in a state of the 
 greatest simplicity. It is impossible to go 
 back further than to the beginning of the 
 evolutionary period. At this point of the 
 past, w-hich, although extremely remote, 
 cannot have been infinite, creation asserts 
 itself. It is the moment when God 
 launched the material atoms into space, 
 subjecting them to laws which have formed 
 of them our actual world. The ex- 
 pressions of which the sacred writer makes 
 use, seem to indicate that he had an idea 
 about the state of matter as it went forth 
 from the hand^s of the Creator conformable 
 to that of contemporary science. The 
 earth, he tells us, -was unformed and emfty 
 (Gen. i. 2). "Invisible and without con- 
 sistency," says the Septuagint. These 
 words may be applied to the primitive 
 nebula, whose elements were so rarefied 
 that it was inferior in density, astronomers 
 tell us, to the air that remains in the pneu- 
 matic machine after the attempt at a vacuum. 
 
 First Day. — It was marked by the ap- 
 pearance of light. Thus it preceded the 
 light of the sun by three days. This fact, 
 far from being in contradiction with 
 science, denotes, on the contrary, in the 
 sacred writer an extraordinary intuition, 
 which can hardly be explained without a 
 special revelation. To speak of light be- 
 fore pointing out the existence of the 
 hearth which is to-day the only source 
 thereof, must have appeared paradoxical in 
 times of yore, and an ordinary writer 
 would undoubtedly never have even 
 dreamed of this. It needed the progress 
 of modern science to verify the author of 
 Genesis. We know now that the sun did 
 not need to be the first hearth of light to 
 enlighten the earth. 
 
 Geology teaches us that long after life 
 had appeared on the globe under the forms 
 of vegetables and the lower animals, at 
 least until the carboniferous period, our 
 planet was surrounded by an opaque at- 
 mosphere charged with carbonic acid, 
 gaseous matters, and watery vapors, which 
 an elevated temperature hindered from 
 becoming entirely condensed. In conse- 
 quence of these perpetual clouds, very 
 favorable to vegetation when joined with 
 
Cosmogony 
 
 217 
 
 Cosmogony 
 
 heat and dampness, the luminous rays 
 emitted by the stars were intercepted, so 
 to say, and the earth received only a 
 diffusive light. It was only when the tem- 
 perature had become somewhat lower, and 
 when the wonderful vegetation of the car- 
 boniferous times had absorbed the greater 
 part of the carbon with which the atmos- 
 phere was saturated, that the humble 
 inhabitants of the earth could see the solar 
 disk and the other stars. Hence it is not 
 without reason that the sacred account 
 postpones, until this date, posterior to the 
 great vegetable manifestation of the third 
 day, or of the carboniferous period, the 
 appearance of the sun, moon, and stars. 
 For, we must not forget, the sacred writer 
 does not tell us that these heavenly bodies 
 were created on this day. The word bara, 
 which signifies to create in Hebrew, is 
 used by him only in rare circumstances 
 and always with a deliberate intention, for 
 instance, for the first appearance of mat- 
 ter. The word here used, asak, has evi- 
 dently not the same force. It signifies at 
 most to make, and we have no right to ex- 
 aggerate or alter its meaning. Let us 
 conclude from what precedes, on the one 
 hand, that the sun was not the first hearth 
 of light that illuminated the earth; on the 
 other hand, that its disk became visible 
 only quite late, undoubtedly long after it 
 had already fulfilled its actual role, — a 
 double reason why the sacred writer could, 
 even had to, in spite of the sneers of the 
 last century, mention its appearance long 
 after that of the light. 
 
 Second Day. — The first day, joining 
 with it the period that preceded the appear- 
 ance of light, must have been of immense 
 duration. We can consider this epoch as 
 extending from the very creation of the 
 elements of matter until the time when the 
 earthly crust commenced to form itself. 
 Therefore, it comprises the whole time 
 during which the earth remained in the 
 gaseous state. As to the second dav, it ex- 
 tended from the formation of the solid 
 crust to the emersion or appearance of the 
 continents, and will comprise not only the 
 Azoic age of the geologists, but also at least 
 the whole Cambrian period, the first of 
 the geological eras ; for there is every rea- 
 son to believe that the continents did not 
 yet exist in this period. At least the ani- 
 mal and vegetable kingdoms have not fur- 
 nished us until now with any distinctly ter- 
 restrial fossil that dates from these remote 
 times. We can even, it seems, say the 
 
 same of the first part of the Silurian period. 
 
 Be this as it may, on the second day, the 
 Bible tells us, the waters that were above 
 separated themselves from those that were 
 below. What does this mean, if not that 
 the water, maintained until now in the 
 vaporous state through the intense heat 
 which radiated from the globe, and not yet 
 solidified, then became partly condensed .'' 
 All this is conformable to the accounts of 
 science. At the same time that the earthly 
 crust became thicker and cooler, the vapor- 
 ous water evidently must have become 
 condensed, and by condensing have formed 
 round the globe a continuous liquid mass; 
 for if there behereand there inequalities of 
 the soil, such as are to be met with in the 
 cooled volcanic lavas, there are asyet noele- 
 vations or depressions which might merit 
 the name of mountains. However, the tem- 
 perature is still very high, because a part 
 of the vapors remains yet a long time in the 
 state of clouds high in the heavens. This is 
 really the separation of the waters from 
 the waters, of which the sacred writer 
 speaks; it is the formation of the atmos- 
 phere or of the firmament, to use the ex- 
 pression consecrated by the Vulgate. 
 However, the waters become cooler by and 
 by and permit the development of life at 
 the bottom of the seas under the most 
 humble forms. This is the beginning of 
 the Primary Epoch. If the Bible does not 
 tell us anything of these first beings, it is 
 because, buried in the depth of the waters, 
 they have played in the history of the globe 
 a role which may interest science, but not 
 man, generally speaking. 
 
 Third Day. — Until now the waters 
 covered the entire face of the earth, still 
 destitute of sensible life. But behold the 
 mountains and plateaus rising and permit- 
 ting life, until now relegated to the bottom 
 of the seas, to develop itself upon the firm 
 earth. The earthly crust has become 
 thicker. In order to continue to rest on 
 the liquid nucleus, which has diminished in 
 volume, it bends itself, and these bendings 
 form the mountains. This appearance of 
 the continents inaugurates the third part 
 of the creative work. Upon these freshly 
 emerged lands develops, thanks to the 
 dampness, heat, and atmosphere always 
 saturated with carbon and watery vapors, 
 the luxuriant vegetation which character- 
 izes the carboniferous period. Here again 
 everything is rational and conformable to 
 the teachings of science. The dominant 
 trait of the Primary epocli, like that of 
 
Cosmogony 
 
 218 
 
 Cosmogony 
 
 the third genetical day^ is, after the for- 
 mation of the continents, the development 
 of the vegetation, which never in any other 
 epoch attained a similar exuberance. If 
 the sacred writer really intended to seize 
 the characteristics of each of the days of 
 the creation ; to note down in a few words 
 that which would have especially struck 
 every spectator who had assisted at the 
 slow formation of the world, it would have 
 been about the plants, and about the plants 
 alone, he should have instructed us, after 
 having pointed out the emersion of the first 
 continents. Undoubtedly, it was not the 
 vegetable life alone that existed in this 
 period. Animals of an inferior order, 
 mollusks, Crustacea, even some vertebrates 
 of the class of fishes, lived concurrently ; 
 but, buried at the bottom of the waters, 
 these beings passed in some way unper- 
 ceived in the midst of the abundant car- 
 boniferous vegetation. Hence it is that 
 some exegetists have wrongfully appealed 
 to this silence of the inspired author in 
 order to refuse to identify the carboniferous 
 period with the third day of the creation. 
 Their objection would, perhaps, have some 
 value, if Moses attributed the appearance 
 of the fishes to another period ; but he does 
 not do this. He does not even mention 
 them on the fifth day. The aquatic animals 
 which he points out at this date are not 
 fishes, but marine monsters and reptiles of 
 whimsical and imposing forms, — a new 
 proof that the inspired writer contents 
 himself with pointing out at each epoch 
 that which constitutes for the mass of men 
 the striking and characteristic feature. 
 Now, that which constitutes for everybody, 
 even for the learned, the characteristic 
 feature of the Primary epoch, is evidently 
 its vegetation. In view of the mighty 
 spectacle it presents, the humble fishes 
 that were swimming in the seas of that 
 period could be overlooked. 
 
 Fourth Day. — The event referred to at 
 this date by the sacred writer, namely, the 
 appearance of the sun, moon, and stars, 
 does not belong to the domain of geology 
 and almost escapes scientific treatment 
 altogether. However, it is conformable 
 to the accounts of science. It is quite 
 natural, indeed, that the air, purified 
 through the abundant vegetation of the 
 foregoing period, permitted the luminous 
 rays emanating from the heavenly bodies 
 to reach our planet for the first time. 
 Hence it is no longer only a diffusive light 
 which the earth receives; henceforth the 
 
 sun, moon, and stars will be visible, at 
 least at intervals. It is undoubtedly in 
 this sense rather than, as we have said, in 
 the sense of a real creation, that we must 
 understand the sacred text. It would be 
 contrary to the scientific probabilities that 
 all the heavenly bodies should have been 
 created at the same time and in this late 
 period. Also, as we have seen before, 
 Genesis does not speak here of a creation. 
 The word bar a {to create)., which has thus 
 far been employed only once, in regard to 
 the first appearance of matter, will not be 
 epiployed any more except in regard to 
 animals and man ; which is also conform- 
 able to the requirements of sound phi- 
 losophy. 
 
 The fourth genetical day could not have 
 had such a considerable duration as the 
 preceding ones. We can place it geo- 
 logically only between the Carboniferous 
 period and the Secondary epoch, the 
 former of which clearly corresponds to 
 the third Biblical Day, and the latter to the 
 fifth. In fact, the single event to which it 
 is devoted, the appearance of the astral 
 bodies, must have been almost instanta- 
 neous ; a rent produced in the thick clouds 
 that veiled the heavens was sufficient to 
 reveal to the earthly beings, yet of so in- 
 ferior a type, the celestial wonders. How- 
 ever, a considerable length of time must 
 have elapsed before this spectacle, at first 
 exceptional and very rare, was offered al- 
 most constantly to the earth, and this time, 
 which constitutes the fourth day, may be 
 identified with the Permian period, the last 
 of the Primary epoch. The carbonifer- 
 ous vegetation which then continued, it is 
 true, but with less exuberance, must have 
 resulted in completing the purification of 
 the atmosphere and preparing the way 
 for the arrival of pulmonary-breathing ani- 
 mals. 
 
 Fifth Day. — The work of this day is a 
 double one; it consists in the successive 
 creation of the aquatic reptiles and of the 
 birds. It is something remarkable that 
 the Secondary period of geology presents 
 to us the same animals in the same order. 
 Since the Triassic period, which consti- 
 tutes the first part thereof, we see appear- 
 ing various reptiles of the class of the 
 swimming saurians. However, the most 
 monstrous of these reptiles, such as the 
 ichthyosaurus, for instance, appear only 
 later, in the Jurassic epoch. As to the 
 birds, they have found but little of their re- 
 mains or imprints, except in the Creta- 
 
Cosmogony 
 
 219 
 
 Cosmogony 
 
 ceous layers, — that is, on the upper part of 
 the secondary strata. It is true they are 
 not very numerous therein, but they are 
 no more so in the periods following. 
 This comparative rarity is due undoubtedly 
 to the tenderness of their bones, which 
 could hardly resist the destructive action of 
 time. It is due also, according to Pictet, 
 to their specific weight, which being in- 
 ferior to that of water, prevented them from 
 becoming fossilized, as it caused them to 
 float on the surface in* cases of inundation, 
 and thus become a prey to the voracity of 
 fishes and of other carnivorous animals. 
 Besides it is well to remark that the Hebrew 
 word of, employed here, and generally 
 translated bird, is not, however, con- 
 fined to this sense exclusively ; it also signi- 
 fies ^jy/'w^^ creature and consequently may 
 be applied to winged reptiles, such as the 
 fterodactylus and the ramphorhynchus, as 
 well as to birds, properly speaking. 
 
 The same remark applies still more rig- 
 orously to the fishes, whose creation it is 
 customary to refer to the fifth day. In 
 reality, there is no question of fishes at this 
 date, but only of marine monsters and of 
 animals which crawl in the water. More- 
 over, the geological epoch called Second- 
 ary is remarkable, not only for its fishes, 
 but for its marine monsters and aquatic 
 reptiles; so that they have called this 
 period " the age of reptiles." But one fact 
 to which sufficient attention has not until 
 now been paid, is that these reptiles are all, 
 or nearly all, aquatic. Of the various 
 orders which compose this class, a single 
 one only, that of the ophidians (serpents), 
 has almost exclusively earthly habits ; be- 
 sides, it is not represented in the Sec- 
 ondary epoch, while the others are abound- 
 ing in the strata of this age. 
 
 It seems, then, that all the Secondary 
 reptiles frequented the seas, lakes, or 
 rivers : which is in conformity with the 
 Biblical account, which makes the fifth 
 day the era of the aquatic animals. Let 
 us remark, however, that if they should 
 succeed in establishing among these rep- 
 tiles some land species, the veracity of the 
 sacred writer would not suffer on this ac- 
 count. It would always remain true that 
 the marine monsters and the aquatic rep- 
 tiles have constituted, before and contem- 
 poraneous with the birds, the striking 
 feature of the fifth day, and it would be 
 poor grace for us to require from a writer, 
 who devotes his pen to great outlines, to 
 point out such very small exceptions. 
 
 Sixth Day. — The sixth and last part of 
 the creative work undoubtedly corresponds 
 to the Tertiary epoch of the geologists. 
 According to both the Bible and science, 
 this epoch is preeminently the age of the 
 earthly animals. Certainly among the 
 mammifera, then so numerous, there ex- 
 isted some species which, like our present 
 cetacea, lived in the sea ; but, except the 
 group of aquatic animals, which appeared 
 in the preceding period, they are relatively 
 scarce, especially when we consider the 
 facility with which their remains ought to 
 have been preserved at the bottom of the 
 waters. That which dominates in the 
 Tertiary fauna, are before all the pachy- 
 derms and the ruminants. These have 
 given to this period its peculiar physiog- 
 nomy, and it was quite natural for a 
 writer, who neglects the details and has no 
 scientific pretensions, to concentrate his 
 intention upon them. We will not take 
 the trouble to enumerate them. To form 
 an idea of their importance and of their 
 variety, it is enough to glance at any geo- 
 logical treatise. 
 
 But a still more important work is at- 
 tributed to the sixth day: Man is created. 
 Here there is question of a real creation. 
 The expression used is the word bara, 
 which signifies to draw out from noth- 
 ing; and which we have met only twice : 
 first in regard to the appearance of mat- 
 ter, and the second time at the creation of 
 the first animal ; a double circumstance 
 where sound reason, resting upon science, 
 claims, indeed, the creative intervention 
 of God. 
 
 A little difficulty presents itself as to the 
 subject of the identification of the sixth 
 Genetical day with the Tertiary epoch. 
 The Bible refers the creation of man to 
 the sixth day, while geology shows us 
 man only in the Quaternary epoch. We 
 might answer that certain scientists have 
 pretended to find in the Tertiary layers 
 manifest proofs of the existence of our 
 species ; but their opinion is to-day almost 
 unanimously rejected, as we shall see in 
 another place. It will be sufficient for us 
 to remark, in answer to this objection, 
 that the Quaternary epoch has been sepa- 
 rated arbitrarily, and without sufficient 
 reason, from the preceding period. It is 
 so little distinct from it, and has such 
 weak titles to be placed upon the same 
 footing as the great geological epochs, 
 that the English scientists have made of it 
 a simple appendant of the Pliocene period, 
 
Cosmogony 
 
 220 
 
 Cosmogony 
 
 the last of the Tertiary times, and for this 
 reason have called it Postpliocene. 
 
 The very remarkable accord which we 
 find established between the Biblical cos- 
 mogony and the teaching of science has 
 struck, as we have said already, many 
 learned investigators. The chronological 
 sequel of the events is exactly the same in 
 both, says Pfaff, in his Schopfungsge- 
 schickte: ** The primitive chaos ; the earth 
 covered first by the waters, afterwards 
 emerging; the formation of the inorganic 
 kingdom followed by the vegetable king- 
 dom, then by the animal kingdom, which 
 has for first representatives the animals liv- 
 ing in the water, and after them the earthly 
 animals ; man appearing the last of all : 
 such is, indeed, the real succession of the 
 beings ; such are, indeed, the diverse 
 periods of the history of the creation, 
 periods designated under the name of 
 days." In face of a similar accord one is 
 tempted to cry out with Ampere : ♦' Either 
 Moses had a scientific knowledge as pro- 
 found as that of our century, or he was 
 inspired." 
 
 The table below sums up what we have 
 just said on the manner in which we un- 
 derstand the identification of the two cos- 
 mogonies, the scientific and Biblical : — 
 
 received the name of concordistic system, or 
 system of day-periods. The latter name is 
 given to it because, in the days of Genesis, 
 it beholds not ordinary days, but periods 
 or epochs of indeterminate duration. 
 
 That the day may be taken in this sense 
 can hardly be questioned.' In English, 
 this word is sometimes taken in the meta- 
 phorical sense with an analogous meaning; 
 but the Hebrew word row, which they have 
 translated day, has a still broader mean- 
 ing. We have a proof of this in the Bible 
 itself, which often uses it in a figurative 
 sense. (See especially Gen. ii. 4; Ex. x. 6; 
 Lev, vii. 35; Num. vii. 10; Deut. ix. 24.) 
 One may ask, besides, how the first three 
 days could have been days of twenty-four 
 hours. It, is in fact, the sun which regu- 
 lates the duration of our ordinary days ; 
 now, according to the common interpreta- 
 tion, it did not yet exist at this time. But 
 if the first days were not of twenty-four 
 hours, why should those following be so } 
 
 It is customary to appeal to tradition 
 against the concordistic system. The 
 Fathers and Doctors of the Church have 
 always, they tell us, taken the word day of 
 Genesis in its literal sense. We answer 
 that there are numerous and imposing ex- 
 ceptions to this rule. St. Augustine, St. 
 
 AGREEMENT OF THE TWO COSMOGONIES 
 
 Epochs 
 
 1ST Scientific 
 
 Periods 
 
 2d Biblical 
 
 Common Characters 
 
 Cosmic . 
 
 Secoxdary . 
 
 Tertiary 
 
 Quaternary . 
 
 Id. 
 
 Id. 
 Cambrian 
 
 sii-- }^^ghJr:;:::: 
 
 Devonian 
 
 Carboniferous 
 
 Permian 
 
 Triassic ) 
 
 Jurassic > 
 
 Cretaceous J 
 
 Eocene 
 
 Miocene 
 
 Pliocene 
 
 Postpliocene 
 
 First day. 
 
 Second day . 
 
 Third day | 
 
 Fourth day 
 
 Fifth day } 
 
 Sixth day I 
 
 Creation of matter in the gaseous 
 state. Appearance of light. 
 
 Transformation of a part of the 
 waterj' vapors that surround the 
 whole earth ; formatiou of the at- 
 mosphere. 
 
 Emersion of the continents. 
 Kingdom of plants. 
 
 Appearance of the celestial 
 bodies. 
 
 Kingdom of marine monsters, 
 aquatic reptiles, and birds. 
 
 Kingdom of the earthly animals. 
 Creation of man. 
 
 V. Concordistic, Restitutionist, 
 AND Idealistic Systems. — i. Concord- 
 istic System. The opinion which sees in 
 the first chapter of Genesis a page of his- 
 tory and seeks to put it in accord with the 
 scientific accounts, as we have just done, has 
 
 Thomas, and many others are of this num- 
 ber. We may add that if Christian tradi- 
 tion is divided in this respect, pagan 
 tradition is hardly so. The Phcenicians, 
 the Persians, the Hindoos, the Chaldeans, 
 the Etruscans, etc., believed in the division 
 
Cosmogony 
 
 221 
 
 Cosmogony 
 
 of the creation into periods, and generally 
 into six periods of long duration. Does 
 this not tell us that we must understand in 
 the same sense the equivocal word used by 
 the author of Genesis? We may believe 
 that Moses purposely employed a word 
 which signified at once a day of twenty- 
 four hours and a long period. In any case, 
 it cannot be questioned that it was his pur- 
 pose to make of this divine week the sym- 
 bol and type of the ordinary week, which 
 is really composed of days of twenty-four 
 hours. Therefore, we can understand why 
 he preferably employed a word which had 
 a double meaning, even if he had at his 
 disposition another more precise : which 
 is more than doubtful. In view of all 
 these reasons which we can only allude to, 
 the exegetists are evidently free to see in 
 the days of Genesis periods of long dura- 
 tion. 
 
 2. Restitutionist System. — The com- 
 mentators who at the beginning of this 
 century had to explain Genesis conform- 
 ably to the teachings of the rising geology 
 hesitated at first to attribute to the day a 
 meaning diflferent from the literal sense to 
 which they were accustomed. They pre- 
 ferred to place outside the Biblical cosmog- 
 ony, between the creation and the first day, 
 the long series of the geological ages. 
 According to them, after the millions of 
 years required by science for the evolution 
 of our planet and the formation of the 
 earthly strata, a cataclysm should have 
 taken place. All life should have been an- 
 nihilated upon earth, and the Creator 
 should have taken up again His work, this 
 time in six days, each of twenty-four hours, 
 conformably to the saying of the sacred 
 writer. This theory which bears the name 
 of Buckland, an Englishman, and is still 
 called restitutionist or the theory of res- 
 toration, is to-day almost totally aban- 
 doned, for reasons which we can reduce to 
 three: (i) It is difficult to form an idea of 
 a cataclysm which would have overthrown 
 the earth so as to annihilate both plants 
 and animals, to cause the disappearance 
 even of light, and to reduce our globe to 
 the state expressed by the terra inanis et 
 vacua of Moses. (2) It is repugnant to 
 admit that God, who had employed num- 
 berless ages in organizing the world a first 
 time, had gone about the work a second 
 time employing some days of only twenty- 
 four hours, each. (3) Finally, geology 
 nowhere and in no epoch presents traces 
 of the supposed cataclysm. It even con- 
 
 tradicts this hypothesis in the most formal 
 manner ; for if it shows us modifications in 
 both the fauna and flora of the geological 
 times, these modifications are effected 
 quite slowly. Nowhere is there an absolute 
 interruption in the vegetable and animal 
 life. Plants and animals always pass in 
 part from one epoch to the following, thus 
 showing that there has been no complete 
 annihilation in the interval. Therefore, 
 from both the scientific and rational point 
 of view, the restitutionist system is inad- 
 missible. 
 
 3. Idealistic System. — There is another 
 theory which counts a greater number of 
 adherents; this is the idealistic system. It 
 consists in denying the historical character 
 of the genetical account of the creation. 
 Moses had not, they tell us, the intention 
 of relating scientifically the origin of the 
 world. His object was to give to the He- 
 brew people a religious instruction which 
 taught them the existence of a God, Creator, 
 and the duties which they had to fulfill 
 toward God. Hence, they were truths of 
 the philosophical and moral order which he 
 wished to impress upon their mind. But 
 he did not present them under the didactic 
 form, which the people could hardly under- 
 stand, and which is especially in opposition 
 to the spirit of the Orientals ; he had re- 
 course to a dramatic setting. Taking in 
 turn what the Israelites had before their 
 eyes, he represented God creating all this : 
 heaven and earth, the green fields, the 
 seeds man sows, the trees, the animals liv- 
 ing in the water, upon earth, in the air, the 
 sun which enlightens the day, the moon 
 which shines during night, — finally, man 
 himself. Then, as he had to establish a 
 positive law, — the law of the Sabbatic rest, — 
 he distributed into the six days' work of 
 one week the works of the creation. It is 
 very probable that it never entered his 
 mind to ask how much time it needed for 
 God to create the world. This question of 
 mere curiosity did not interest him. What 
 he aimed at, was to give to his people the 
 only teaching that suited them, — a religious 
 teaching. 
 
 We do not adopt this system. Our pref- 
 erences are for the concordistic system, 
 and the best reason we can give for this 
 consists in the wonderful exactitude which 
 we have established from the scientific 
 point of view in the Biblical account of the 
 creation. By refusing to admit the his- 
 torical character of this account, the ad- 
 herents of idealism deprive themselves 
 
Councils 
 
 222 
 
 Councils 
 
 willfully of a great argument in support of 
 the inspiration of our Sacred Books ; for 
 the accord to which they obstinately close 
 their eyes does not appear to us to be an 
 effect of chance. Is it not an astonishing 
 fact that the only three genetical days 
 which can be verified by geology, the third, 
 fifth, and sixth, correspond exactly, as to 
 the characteristics attributed to them, to 
 the three great geological epochs? Also, 
 who could have taught Moses that the 
 world commenced with chaos ? that matter 
 was in the beginning in such a state of rarity 
 that it escaped, so to speak, the sight : 
 inz'isibilis et incomfositaf that, later on, 
 the water covered the whole surface of the 
 globe? that the aquatic animals appeared 
 upon earth in the same epoch as the " fowl " 
 and preceded the terrestrial animals? 
 finally, that the light preceded the appear- 
 ance of the sun? Would the sacred writer 
 have imagined the latter fact, if he had 
 had no other guide but his reason ? The 
 pretended contradictions alleged between 
 the Biblical cosmogony and the scientific 
 teaching have not the least reality. Who- 
 ever adheres to the certain teachings of 
 geology, and, on the other hand, knows 
 the part which imagery and metaphor play 
 in the Oriental languages, is forced to 
 acknowledge the striking accord of the two 
 cosmogonal systems. We repeat it : the 
 Bible does not treat on scientific questions. 
 This is true ; but does it follow from this 
 that it can be deceived in regard to facts 
 that touch upon science? Undoubtedly, 
 no one would dare to maintain this. There- 
 fore, let us conclude that if the division of 
 the works of creation into six days or peri- 
 ods may be considered as arbitrary, it pre- 
 sents itself at least in the chronological 
 order. 
 
 Councils {Ecumenical). — The word ecu- 
 menical means ivorld-ividcy and hence an 
 Ecumenical Council is one gathered from 
 the entire Church, and having authority 
 over the whole. The word general is 
 often used as synonymous with ecumeni- 
 cal, but some writers make a distinction, 
 employing general to signify a council 
 which embraces the whole of the Greek- 
 speaking or the Latin-speaking Church. 
 We shall use the two words indifferently. 
 A general council represents the whole 
 body of the episcopate, and thus cannot 
 fail in the faith. The assembly of a gen- 
 eral council is never absolutely necessary, 
 unless we except the possible case of an 
 
 ex cathedra utterance being absolutely 
 necessary in order to check some grave 
 existing evil, while at the same time con- 
 sultation with the assembled bishops of 
 the whole Church is needed in order 
 that the Pontiff may assure himself of 
 the truth, and for securing the existence 
 of the Church. For the papal authority 
 is, absolutely speaking, sufficient to cope 
 with all difficulties, whether they touch 
 faith or morals, heresy or schism; the 
 Pontiff can teach with infallible authority 
 what men are bound to believe, and he 
 can make such laws as the occasion may 
 demand. No council can do more, for 
 the free wills of men are not constrained. 
 Occasions may, however, arise when the 
 advance of some great evil cannot be 
 effectually stayed by the authority of the 
 Pope alone, and in these circumstances it 
 is in a sense necessary for him to seek the 
 moral support of the episcopate assem- 
 bled in council ; but these occasions are 
 not of frequent occurrence, and will prob- 
 ably be less frequent as time goes on, and 
 the exchange of sentiments more easily 
 facilitated without actual meeting. The 
 Church had existed for nearly three 
 hundred years before the first General 
 Council met at Nice, in 325 ; and more 
 than that period elapsed between the close 
 of the Council of Trent, in 1563, and the 
 opening of the Council of the Vatican, in 
 1869. The right to con%'oke a General 
 Council belongs to the Roman Pontiff 
 alone, for he alone has jurisdiction over 
 the whole Church, entitling him to call all 
 the bishops to meet together. If a num- 
 ber of bishops come together without the 
 papal summons or consent, they do not 
 constitute a General Council ; but their 
 proceedings may subsequently attain to 
 that authority, if they receive the ratifica- 
 tion of the Holy See. 
 
 The general councils, among which is 
 not enumerated the one held by the Apos- 
 tles at Jerusalem, are twenty in number. 
 
 1. The First Council of Nice convened in 
 325. Three hundred and eighteen bishops 
 were assembled at this Council and re- 
 jected the heresy of Arius and fixed the 
 date of the festival of Easter, correcting the 
 error of the Quartodecimans. In several 
 respects, the Council of Sardica (343) is 
 considered a continuation of that of Nice. 
 
 2. The Jirst Council of Constantinople, 
 in 381, proclaimed the divinity of the Holy 
 Ghost, against the Macedonians. There 
 were 150 bishops present. 3. The Council 
 
Cowl 
 
 223 
 
 Cranmer 
 
 of Ephesus, in 431, in which 200 bishops 
 condemned the heresy of Nestorius. 4. 
 The Council of Chalcedon, in 451, in which 
 630 bishops anathematized the error of 
 Eutyches. 5. The Second Council of Con- 
 stantinople, in 553, in which 165 bishops 
 pronounced themselves against the Three 
 Chapters. 6. The Third Council of Con- 
 stantinople, in 681, which condemned, 
 through the mouth of 189 bishops, the er- 
 rors of the Monothelites. 7. The Second 
 Council of Nice, in 787, convened to defend 
 the veneration of images against the Icono- 
 clasts. It comprised more than 350 bish- 
 ops. 8. The Fourth Council of Cottstanti- 
 nople, in 889, where more than 200 bishops 
 put an end to the schism of Photius. How- 
 ever, the schism was revived, and finally 
 led to the separation of the Eastern and 
 Western Churches. Consequently, it was 
 the last General Council held in the East. 
 9. First Lateran Council, in 1123, in 
 which 900 bishops decided on the abo- 
 liton of the investitures of the crosier and 
 ring. 10. Second Laterafi Council, in iiy), 
 in which they condemned the schism of 
 Peter de Bruys and the heresy of Arnold 
 of Brescia. 11. Third Lateran Council, in 
 1 179, in which they condemned the Albi- 
 genses and Waldenses. 12. Fourth Lateran 
 Council, in 1215, in which they condemned 
 the errors of the Abbe Joachim and the 
 heresy of Amaury. 13. The First General 
 Council of Lyons, in 1245, endeavored to 
 eflPect a reunion between the Greek and Ro- 
 man Churches, called the Christians to arms 
 against the Saracens and the Mongolians 
 and excommunicated Frederick II.,emperor 
 of Germany. 14. The Second General 
 Council of Lyons, in 1274, attempted a re- 
 union with the Greek Church, proclaimed 
 anew the dogma of the procession of the 
 Holy Ghost from the Father and the Son. 
 15. The Council of Vienne, in 131 1, which 
 abolished the Order of the Templars and 
 condemned the Fratricelli, the Beghards 
 and the Beguines. 16. T\\e Council of Con- 
 stance, in 1414, was not legitimate at its 
 commencement and only became so by 
 the posterior convocation of Gregory XII. 
 It restored the unity of the Church ; after 
 which Pope Martin V., legitimately 
 elected, confirmed the anterior decrees 
 of the assembly against the doctrines 
 of Wycliflfe and of John Huss. 17. The 
 Council of Basle (1431-1442), which 
 ceased to be legitimate when Pope Eu- 
 genius IV. had transferred the assembly to 
 Ferrara (1438), thence to Florence in 1439, 
 
 where they concluded the reunion with 
 the Greek Church. 18. Fifth Lateran 
 
 Council, in 1512, is not generally acknowl- 
 edged as ecumenical, but this is erroneous ; 
 none of the conditions of legitimacy were 
 wanting to it. The Galileans did not wish 
 to acknowledge it, because it had pro- 
 claimed the abolition of the Pragmatic 
 Sanction. 19. The Council of Trent, con- 
 vened m 1545, and after several interrup- 
 tions, closed in 1563. It restored the ec- 
 clesiastical discipline and condemned the 
 doctrines of Luther, Zwingle, and Calvin. 
 See Trent (C<?««c»7 <?/"). 20. Finally, the 
 
 Vatican Council, which was opened under 
 Pope Pius IX., Dec. 8th, 1869. There 
 were present at this Council 769 bishops. 
 The work actually completed during the 
 first meeting of the Vatican Council con- 
 sisted of two Dogmatic Constitutions. The 
 first, '♦ On Catholic Faith," purposes to 
 affirm and define the existence of a super- 
 natural order as opposed to rationalism 
 and naturalism. Its four chapters, affirm- 
 ing the existence of two orders of truth, 
 are on God, the Creator of all things; on 
 Revelation; on Faith; and on Faith and 
 Reason. To these were added eighteen 
 canons proscribing the errors at variance 
 with divine revelation and faith. The 
 second Constitution — the "First on the 
 Church of Christ," in three chapters, — 
 treats of the institution, the perpetuity, 
 and nature of the primacy of the Roman 
 PontiflF; the fourth and last chapter de- 
 fines the infallible teaching of the Pope in 
 matters of faith and morals. On July 18th, 
 the Fourth Public Session was held and 
 the Constitution, Pastor y^ternus, consti- 
 tuting the definition of Papal Infallibility 
 was promulgated. On the same day that 
 the Vatican Council defined the dogma of 
 the Infallibility, Napoleon III. declared 
 war against Prussia. The withdrawal of 
 the French troops from Rome and the oc- 
 cupation of that city by the Piedmontese 
 king, Victor Emmanuel, caused the Pope 
 (Oct. 2oth) to indefinitely suspend the 
 sessions of the Council of the Vatican. 
 
 CoTvl. — A hood attached to a gown or 
 robe, so adjusted that it may be drawn 
 over the head or worn upon the shoulders. 
 A part of the dress adopted by monks, 
 usually of black, gray, or brown color 
 varying in length in different ages and ac- 
 cording to the usages of different orders. 
 
 Cranmer (Thomas) (1489-1556). — First 
 Protestant Archbishop of Canterbury. 
 
Creation 
 
 224 
 
 Creationism 
 
 Professor of theology at the University of 
 Cambridge, he married there, against the 
 rules, a first wife, became priest, chaplain 
 of the family of Anne Boleyn, whom 
 Henry VIII. had already resolved to 
 marry, and composed a treatise to justify 
 the divorce of the king. Rewarded by the 
 gift of an abbey, he was afterwards sent to 
 Rome to resume the negotiations with the 
 Pope. Through double dealing he ob- 
 tained the title of great Penitentiary. He 
 then went to Germany, to recruit there 
 among the principal heads of the Refor- 
 mation, followers in favor of the project of 
 the king's divorce. At Nuremberg he 
 contracted a secret marriage with the niece 
 of Osiander. On his return he received 
 from Henry the see of Canterbury, and 
 propagated in England the Lutheran doc- 
 trine. Queen Mary imprisoned him in 
 the tower. He was condemned for the 
 crime of heresy, high treason, violation of 
 his ecclesiastical oaths, and perished on 
 the funeral pyre. 
 
 Creation {making- sometking' out of notk-' 
 ing) . — According to Scripture God brought 
 forth the world out of nothing. '* In the 
 beginning God created heaven and earth" 
 (Gen. i. 1). The words immediately fol- 
 lowing : "And the earth was void and 
 empty," plainly exclude the use of all pre- 
 existing matter, and show that creation, 
 not formation, is to be understood. For 
 if the earth had been merely formless, the 
 foregoing words could not signify creation. 
 Again, *' In the beginning was the Word. 
 . . . All things were made by Him, 
 and without Him was made nothing that 
 was made" (John i. 1—2). If the Word 
 made all things, there was no self-existent, 
 uncreated matter. Therefore, the world 
 was called into existence by Him, without 
 the co-operation of any outside cause, not 
 from pre-existing matter, but merely by 
 the act of His will. The error of those 
 who, adopting the opinions of pagan 
 philosophers, believed in the pre-existence 
 of uncreated primitive matter, and, there- 
 fore, acknowledged in God only the Archi- 
 tect, not the Creator of the world, was 
 refuted even by the earliest Fathers of the 
 Church (S. Iren. adv. hceres. II, c. 14, 
 n, 4). They showed that the greatness of 
 God is revealed by the very fact that, 
 whereas man can only mold existing mat- 
 ter, God produces matter itself. And, in 
 fact, God's power would be limited if it 
 required pre-existing matter for the pro- 
 
 duction of things. Hence the Vatican 
 Council {de fide, i. can. 5) declares: "If 
 any one confess not that the world and all 
 things which it contains, both spiritual 
 and material, are, according to their whole 
 substance, brought forth by God from 
 nothing: let him be anathema." Although 
 reason of itself could only with difficulty 
 attain to a definite and clear idea of cre- 
 ation properly so called, yet after revela- 
 tion has once supplied this idea it easily 
 recognizes that the world could not have 
 originated otherwise than by creation, 
 since any other kind of origin is im- 
 possible. See Pantheism. 
 
 The words, " In the beginning God cre- 
 ated heaven and earth," refer to the be. 
 ginning of time. The words of Christ are 
 still more evident : "And now glorify 
 Thou Me, O Father, with Thyself, with 
 the glory which I had before the world 
 was with Thee" (John xvii. 5). The 
 world is not, like the Son of God, from all 
 eternity. It was created in time, or rather 
 at the beginning of actual time; for as 
 there was no real succession of changes 
 before the creation of the world, neither 
 was there any actual time, since time is in- 
 conceivable without real succession of 
 changes (S. Aug. de civ. Dei, xi. 6). Also 
 the Lateran Creed says that God "at the 
 beginning of time created the spiritual 
 and the material world." Biblical chro- 
 nology, however, which begins with the 
 creation of man, affords no sufficient data 
 for determining the age of the world. For 
 it is not certain whether the creation of the 
 earth, as described in Genesis (i. i), was 
 immediately followed by the first day's 
 work, described in the following verses 
 (3—5), or whether an inter^-al elapsed dur- 
 ing which those changes may have taken 
 place which are observable in the crust of 
 our globe. Nor is it by any means cer- 
 tain in what sense the six days are to be 
 understood ; whether they are days of 
 twenty-four hours or longer periods of 
 time; or whether, perhaps, without any 
 reference to time, they signify the work 
 itself. In this latter case, Moses has only 
 related how God gave the earth, which 
 He had created, its present form, and the 
 different orders of creatures their existence. 
 See Cosmogony. 
 
 Creationism. — Opinior of those who 
 believe that God creates each soul at the 
 moment of conception. Concreationism 
 might be a better name, since Pre-exist- 
 
Creationism 
 
 225 
 
 Creationism 
 
 entianism likewise implies a kind of cre- 
 ation. Creationism has as its basis tlie 
 independent, spiritual substantiality of the 
 soul, from which it argues that the soul 
 can be produced only by creation. Human 
 generation, in so far as it must be dis- 
 tinguished from creation, cannot produce 
 anything simple. The system further af- 
 firms that God gives existence to the soul 
 at the very moment when it is to be united 
 to the body produced by generation, be- 
 cause it is primarily designed to form with 
 that body one human nature. Creation- 
 ism is neither more nor less than an ex- 
 planation of the contents of two Catholic 
 dogmas ; the spirituality of the soul and 
 the unity of nature in man. The fact that 
 Creationism has not always been uni- 
 versally held in the Church, must be as- 
 cribed to the difficulty of harmonizing it 
 ^vith other dogmas, e. g-., the transmission 
 of sin, and also with certain expressions 
 of Holy Scripture, e. g., that God rested on 
 the seventh day. We find it questioned 
 only in those times and places in which 
 the controversies on original sin against 
 the Pelagians were carried on. Doubts 
 began to arise in the West, in the time of 
 St. Augustine; two centuries later, when 
 the struggle with Pelagianism was at an 
 end, we hear of them no more. 
 
 Creationism solves the question of the 
 origin of the human soul, but not that of 
 the origin of human nature by generation, 
 at least not completely. On the contrary, 
 it introduces a new difficulty, inasmuch as 
 the creation of the soul by God divides the 
 production of man into two acts, and 
 makes it more difficult to see how human 
 generation is a reproduction and commu- 
 nication of the whole nature, and especially 
 of life, and how there is a relation of de- 
 pendence between the souls of children 
 and those of their parents. This difficulty, 
 much insisted upon by the Generationists, 
 can only be removed by maintaining, not 
 indeed the production of one soul by an- 
 other through emanation or creation, but 
 a certain relation of causality whereby the 
 souls of the parents are, in a certain sense, 
 the principle of the souls of the children. 
 Here, as in the coexistence of grace and 
 free will, we have two principles combined 
 for the production of one effect. In order 
 to understand the combined action of God 
 and of man in the production of the human 
 soul, we must bear in mind that the crea- 
 tion of the soul, although a true creation, 
 is not the creation of a being complete in 
 
 '5 
 
 itself : on the contrary, its tendency is to 
 produce that part of human nature which 
 is destined to give form and life to the 
 body and to constitute with it one 
 human nature. But as this also applies to 
 the creation of the first soul, which was 
 not the product of generation, we must 
 infer this other circumstance that the soul 
 is created in an organic body because of the 
 action of the human generative principle. 
 So far we have two principles and two 
 activities standing side by side and meet- 
 ing in one common product, but we have 
 not yet that unity of the principles, whereby 
 not only a part, but even the whole of 
 the product may be ascribed to each of 
 them. Such a unity is established by the 
 fact that each of the principles, although 
 producing by its own power only part of 
 the product, tends, nevertheless, to pro- 
 duce the whole product as a -whole: the 
 generative principle producing the organ- 
 ism solely for the purpose of being ani- 
 mated by the soul; the creative principle 
 creating the soul merely for the purpose of 
 animating the organism. 
 
 The following considerations will help 
 to illustrate the unity of the combined Di- 
 vine and human actions. Each of the two 
 actions requires the co-operation of the 
 other in order to attain its end; they thus 
 complete one another and are intrinsically 
 co-ordained for common action. As man 
 has received his procreative power and its 
 direction from God, and exercises it with 
 the Divine concurrence, in the act of 
 generation he stands to God as a subordi- 
 nate and dependent instrument ; not, how- 
 ever, as a mere tool, because man's genera- 
 tive power and tendency are natural to 
 him, and are exercised spontaneously. 
 Whence it appears that the common action 
 begins with man, but is supported through- 
 out and completed by God. The Divine 
 co-operation might be called supernatural 
 in so far as it is distinct from and superior 
 to the Divine concurrence granted to all 
 created causes ; but, strictly speaking, it is 
 only natural, because it is exercised in ac- 
 cordance with a law of nature. The pro- 
 duction of the soul is due not to a miracu- 
 lous interference with the course of nature, 
 but to the natural Providence of God, 
 carrying out the laws which He himself 
 has framed for the regular course of nature. 
 
 We can now easily understand: i. How 
 the human generation is a true generation 
 not only of the flesh but of man as a whole. 
 2. How a relation of causality exists be- 
 
Credence 
 
 226 
 
 Creed 
 
 tween the progenitor and the soul of his 
 offspring. 3. How the creation of the 
 soul by God is not a creation in the same 
 absolute sense as the original creation of 
 things. 4. How the natural consequences 
 of generation are safeguarded. 
 
 Credence. — A small table placed against 
 the wall of the sanctuary, near the Epistle 
 side of the altar, on which are placed the 
 cruets holding the wine and water to be 
 used at Mass. 
 
 Creed. — The Creed is an abridgment of 
 the Christian doctrine, and is usually de- 
 nominated the " Symbol of Faith." The 
 word symbol means a sign to distinguish 
 things. To the primitive Christians, the 
 Symbol or Creed was what the watchword 
 is to an army in the field, a sign by which 
 a friend may be immediately discriminated 
 from an enemy. As the Creed was the 
 medium through which the true believers 
 were recognized amidst heretics and Gen- 
 tiles, it became customary to say : '*Z>rt 
 siffnum" " Z>rt Sytnbolutn,^^ (.give the 
 sign), (repeat the Symbol or Creed). 
 
 There are six creeds : the Apostles' 
 Creed, the Nicene Creed, the Constanti- 
 nopolitan Creed, the Athanasian Creed, the 
 Creed of Pius VI., and the Vatican Creed. 
 
 I. Apostles' Creed. — That the Creed 
 which is attributed to the Apostles and 
 bears their name was in reality drawn up 
 by them has been ably demonstrated. (See 
 Noel Alexandre, Hist. Eccl.) This was 
 the only Creed in use among the primi- 
 tive Christians, and for the first three cen- 
 turies was not committed to writing lest it 
 should fall into the hands of unbelievers, 
 but was handed down orally. With the 
 exception of Tertullian, no author, before 
 the reign of Constantine the Great, pre- 
 sumed to note down this Creed. After 
 that period, when the danger of being 
 ridiculed by Jew or Gentile had passed 
 away, it began to be penned, and first of 
 all appeared in the works of St. Athanasius 
 and of St. Basil. 
 
 II. Nicene Creed. — In the fourth 
 century, Arius, a priest of the Church of 
 Alexandria, denied the divinity of the 
 Word made flesh. To condemn the error 
 of this heresiarch, the Church, in the year 
 325, convoked a General Council at Nicaea, 
 a city of Bythinia. The assembled Fathers 
 found it expedient to develop the meaning 
 of the second article of the Apostles' Creed 
 by a more copious explanation of its sense 
 and doctrine. The exposition of the coun- 
 
 cil was ingrafted on the Apostolic Symbol, 
 which, along with the verbal addition, ac- 
 quired a new denomination, and came to 
 be entitled the Symbol of Nicaea, or 
 Nicene Creed. 
 
 III. CONSTANTINOPOLITAN CrEED. — A 
 
 short time afterwards, Macedonius, Bishop 
 of Constantinople, impugned the divinity 
 of the Holy Ghost. The Church was again 
 obliged to call a General Council, which 
 met at Constantinople in the year 381, and 
 delivered to the Faithful the general belief 
 upon this litigated article of faith. The 
 explanation furnished by the council was 
 appended to the Nicene Creed, and this 
 second enlargement of the Symbol of the 
 Apostles was called the Creed of Con- 
 stantinople. 
 
 IV. Athanasian Creed. — About this 
 time a multitude of innovators attempted 
 to pollute the pure stream of Apostolic doc- 
 trine by commingling with it their errors 
 concerning the essence and properties of 
 Christ's humanity. There were in the 
 Church many zealous pastors, who arose 
 to guard the fountain stream of faith from 
 such contaminations, and among them, 
 the unknown author of that Creed which 
 was immediately recognized as so ortho- 
 dox and so beautiful, that it was commonly 
 attributed to the most celebrated champion 
 of the faith, St. Athanasius, and still passes 
 under his name, though ascertained not to 
 be his production. 
 
 The Creed which is now repeated in 
 Liturgy, is in reality the Creed, not of 
 Nicaea, but of Constantinople. It was 
 not until the decline of the eighth century, 
 or the commencement of the ninth century, 
 when the discipline of the Secret was 
 abandoned, that the Creed began to be re- 
 cited at Mass. 
 
 The Creed is said every Sunday during 
 the year, and on all those feasts which are 
 in a manner indicated in it, such as the 
 different festivals instituted in honor of 
 Christ, of His Mother the Blessed Virgin, 
 and of the Apostles and Doctors of the 
 Church, by whose arduous labors and 
 writings the doctrine contained in this 
 Symbol of Christianity has been dissemi- 
 nated through the world. 
 
 V. Creed of Pius IV. — Like the last 
 three Creeds, that of Pius IV. so denomi- 
 nated from the Pope under whose Pontifi- 
 cate it was framed, suggested by the exi- 
 gencies of the period, and was drawn up 
 to exhibit a summary of the genuine 
 doctrines of Christ in an epoch when the 
 
Cremation 
 
 227 
 
 Cremation 
 
 innovators of the sixteenth century were 
 employing every expedient to decoy the 
 Faithful into error. This Creed is also 
 called the Tridentine Creed. 
 
 VI. The Vatican Creed. — The Coun- 
 cil of the Vatican, which met in 1869, de- 
 fined certain points of doctrine especially 
 the Infallibility of the Pope speaking 
 ex cathedra, and in 1877 Pope Pius 
 IX., following the example set by Pius 
 IV., added to the Tridentine formula a 
 clause expressing acceptance of the Vati- 
 can definitions. This put the Creed into 
 the shape in which it is in use at present, 
 supporting the faith of Catholics who re- 
 joice to be provided with a form of words 
 which they can safely trust as expressing 
 the truth which they hold. 
 
 It should be carefully remembered that 
 in these several successive creeds no new 
 doctrines are promulgated, nor is any ad- 
 dition made to the code of faith delivered 
 to the Church by the Apostles' Creed, but 
 these creeds merely unfold its doctrines 
 and present an explanation of its several 
 parts in a more precise and intelligible 
 manner. 
 
 Cremation (action of burning the re- 
 mains of the dead). — Originally the 
 custom of interring the dead in the ground 
 was common to all nations, for the most 
 ancient human remains that have been 
 discovered bear no signs of having been 
 subjected to fire. Vaults containing skele- 
 tons have also been met with, closed by a 
 slab of stone. We know that the Jews 
 buried their dead ; Holy Scripture con- 
 stantly speaks of the burial of kings and 
 prophets. That his corpse should be left 
 unburied was a chastisement threatened 
 to the transgressor (Deut. xxviii. 26). 
 Only during the time of pestilence were 
 the Jews allowed to burn individual corpses 
 (Amos vi. id). The Romans in earlier 
 •times buried their dead. Cicero tells us 
 that their graves were considered sacred, 
 and the profanation pf a tomb was severely 
 punished, even by the loss of a hand. 
 Bodies were often deposited in sarcophagi, 
 where they were reduced to dust. Pliny 
 records that the Romans burned their dead 
 only when they feared they might be out- 
 raged by the enemy. In later times, when 
 manners became corrupt, cremation was 
 practiced among them. The custom of 
 embalmmg the dead prevailed among the 
 Egyptians. It is a noteworthy fact that 
 all barbarous nations, who, in an uncivilized 
 
 state, burned their dead, substituted the 
 grave for the funeral pyre as soon as civi- 
 lization shed its light in their land. 
 Christianity did, in fact, abolish cremation. 
 But in these days, when Christian faith is 
 on the decrease, cremation is once more 
 becoming the fashion. St. Augustine de- 
 nounces the practice as horrible and bar- 
 barous. It offends our Christian instincts. 
 For we are taught to regard death as a 
 sleep; the dead sleep in Christ (I. Cor. 
 XV. 18), for they will rise again; they are 
 laid to rest in peace, and the idea of the re- 
 pose which they enjoy is connected with the 
 churchyard, not with the crematorium. 
 When we commit our dead to the kindly 
 earth, we tacitly express our beliel that 
 our body is like a seed, which is cast into 
 the ground to germinate and spring up. 
 " It is sown in corruption, it is raised in 
 incorruption" (I. Cor. xv. 42). As Chris- 
 tians, we have a higher esteem for the soul, 
 which partakes of the divine nature, and 
 consequently for the body, which is the 
 servant and tool of the soul. No true 
 Christian can fail to shrink from the hor- 
 rors of cremation; only those who are lost 
 to all sense of the dignity of human 
 nature, to all belief in the truths of re- 
 ligion, can desire it for themselves. Let 
 us remember that Christ, our great Ex- 
 emplar, was laid in the tomb and rose 
 again. For pagans such considerations 
 naturally had no weight ; they disliked the 
 sight of the sepulchre, the mound raised 
 over the dead, because it reminded them 
 of death, which would put an end to their 
 earthly enjoyments. For the same reason 
 in our own day infidels advocate cremation. 
 Burial suggests to them too strongly the 
 immortality of the soul, whereas cremation 
 appears to promise the annihilation that 
 they desire as their portion after death. 
 Yet let no one imagine that the Christian 
 dreads the destruction of the body by fire 
 as an impediment to its future resurrection, 
 for God can effect the reintegration of the 
 body after it has been dissolved into 
 gaseous elements. In the interest of jus- 
 tice destruction of the body by fire is 
 highly reprehensible, since, if a body is 
 buried it can afterwards be inspected if this 
 is necessary for the detection of crime, such 
 as murder. By this means many a mur- 
 derer has been brought to justice; after 
 cremation this is impossible. Those, there- 
 fore, who speak in favor of cremation 
 befriend criminals, inasmuch as they aid 
 in the removal of all traces of their crime. 
 
Crib 
 
 228 
 
 Cross 
 
 Crib. — A representation of the manger 
 at Bethlehem, ai.d exhibited in many 
 churches throughout the world from 
 Christmas to Epiphany. The effect is 
 generally heightened by a figure in the 
 crib of the Child Jesus, by figures of an- 
 gels, of the shepherds, of the Magi, etc. As 
 a subject of popular devotion it owes its 
 origin to St. Francis of Assisi, in the early 
 part of the thirteenth centurj'. In the Li- 
 berian basilica, at Rome, is preserved the 
 crib in which Christ was born. It was 
 brought from Bethlehem in the seventh 
 century. 
 
 Crosier. See Staff. 
 
 Cross. — A structure consisting essen- 
 tially of an upright and a crosspiece, an- 
 ciently used as a gibbet for execution by 
 crucifixion, now, in various reduced repre- 
 sentative forms, as symbolic of the Christian 
 faith. There are four principal forms of 
 the cross: i. The Latin cross, crux imissa 
 or capitata (the form supposed to have 
 been used in the crucifixion of Christ), 
 in which the upright is longer than the 
 transverse beam, and is crossed by it near 
 the top. 2. The crux decussata (decussate 
 cross), or St. Andrew's cross, made in the 
 form of an X. 3. The crux comissa, or St. 
 Anthony's cross, made in the form of a T. 
 4. The Greek cross, an upright crossed in 
 the middle at right angles by a beam of the 
 same length. The other forms are, for 
 the most part, inventions for ecclesiastical, 
 hierarchic, or similar objects. 
 
 That the primitive Christians were ex- 
 emplary in the reverence which they mani- 
 fested towards the cross may be gathered 
 from a variety of sources. According to 
 Tertullian they were denominated by the 
 pagans, *^ Cruets relt's^iosi," or, "devout to- 
 wards the cross." Among the fragments 
 of early Christian antiquities which are 
 still preserved, we recognize splendid testi- 
 monials of this respect. In the Christian 
 cemeteries, scarcely one sepulchral monu- 
 ment has been discovered, which does not 
 bear the monogram of Christ, arranged in 
 the form of a cross. The rings that have 
 been found in these tombs display the same 
 emblem, and the fresco paintings peroetu- 
 ally exhibit the same holy sign. That it 
 was customary with the primitive Chris- 
 tians to wear about their persons crosses 
 made of gold and silver, or of wood, is evi- 
 dent from the incident which led to the 
 martyrdom of St. Orestes, a soldier in the 
 Roman legions during the reign of Diocle- 
 
 tian. Orestes was distinguished in his 
 cohort for his agility in every martial ex- 
 ercise, and in particular for the precision 
 with which he cast the disc. Once, as he 
 was displaying his activity in presence of 
 his commander Lysias, a cross which the 
 Christian soldier wore around his neck by 
 accident escaped from between the folds of 
 his garment, where it lay concealed, and 
 proclaimed the religion of Orestes, whose 
 resolute refusal to sacrifice in honor of the 
 gods, was crowned with martyrdom. 
 
 Cross (Congregation of the Holy). — A 
 religious order, founded in France imme- 
 diately after the Revolution, and approved 
 by the Holy See as an educational body. 
 Was introduced into the United States in 
 i8i4by Father Sorin (died in 1892). Besides 
 the Mother House at Notre Dame, near 
 South Bend, Indiana, it has more than 
 twenty houses scattered throughout the 
 United States. The most important edu- 
 cational establishments of the order are the 
 University of Notre Dame, near South 
 Bend, Indiana, St. Mary's College, at 
 Galveston, Texas, and the lately erected 
 College in Washington, D. C, connected 
 with the Catholic University. 
 
 Cross {Daughters of the) (also called 
 "Sisters of St. Andrew"). — A teaching 
 and hospitaler congregation, founded in 
 1806 by Madame Elisabeth Richier des 
 Ages, with the assistance of Abb6 Andrew 
 Hubert Foiirnet, Vicar-general of Poitiers. 
 Destined particularly for the gratuitous 
 instruction of children, this congregation, 
 whose Mother House is at Puye, near 
 Poitiers, comprises to-day several thou- 
 sands of religious, and has many provincial 
 houses throughout France. 2. Daughters 
 of the Cross. Young women living in 
 community, whose occupation is to con- 
 duct Christian schools and to instruct 
 young girls. Their Institute was founded 
 at Roye, in Picardy, in the year 1625. 
 
 Cross (Finding of the). — St. Helena, 
 having gone to Jerusalem, ordered the de- 
 struction of a temple of Venus, built over 
 the tomb of Christ. Then, upon excavat- 
 ing to a great depth, the holy Sepulchre, 
 and near it three crosses, also the nails 
 which had pierced our Saviour's body, 
 and the title which had been affixed to 
 His cross, were found (326). The true 
 Cross was recognized by the miracles 
 which it wrought. St. Helena sent a part 
 
Cross 
 
 229 
 
 Crusades 
 
 of the Cross to Constantinople and left 
 the other part at Jerusalem, where it was 
 encased in a silver box and preserved 
 in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, which 
 had been erected on the spot of the dis- 
 covery (33s). The Church has consecrated 
 this event by the institution of the feast of 
 the " Finding of the Holy Cross," which 
 is celebrated on May 3d. Chosroes H., 
 king of Persia, having taken Jerusalem, 
 carried off the relic (614), which was recap- 
 tured fourteen years later, under Siroes, 
 his son and successor, by the Emperor 
 Heraclius (629). Both the Greek and the 
 Latin Church still celebrate this victory, 
 on September 14th, by the feast of the 
 " Exaltation of the Cross." 
 
 Cross {Sign of ihe). — By making the 
 sign of the Cross, we express the con- 
 viction that our hopes of a joyful resurrec- 
 tion, and of the happiness of eternal life, 
 are founded solely on the merits of Jesus 
 Christ crucified. The custom of making 
 the sign of the Cross dates from the earli- 
 est times of Christianity. TertuUian, writ- 
 ing about the year 202, observes: "At 
 every step and movement, whenever we 
 come in or go out, when we dress our- 
 selves, or prepare to go abroad, at the bath, 
 at table, when lights are brought in, 
 on lying, or sitting down; whatever we 
 be doing, we make the sign of the Cross 
 upon our foreheads " {Liber de Corona 
 Militis, c. iii.). St. John Chrysostom, 
 Archbishop of Constantinople (398-407), 
 thus addressed his auditors : " Everywhere 
 is the symbol of the Cross present to us. 
 On this account we paint and sculpture it on 
 our houses, our walls, and our windows, we 
 trace it on our brows, and we studiously 
 imprint it on our souls and minds" 
 {Rcloga de veneranda Cruce). Similar 
 testimonials are furnished by other Fathers. 
 We make the sign of the Cross, because it 
 was by the Cross that Christ became " our 
 peace . . . and hath reconciled us to God 
 in one body by the Cross, killing the en- 
 mities in Himself, and coming He preached 
 peace" (Ephes. ii. 14-17). We form the 
 sign of the Cross by lifting our right hand 
 to the forehead, and afterwards drawing, 
 as it were, a line to the heart, and then an- 
 other line crossing the former from the 
 left to the right shoulder, at the same time 
 pronouncing, in order to attach a meaning 
 to the action, these words: " In the name 
 of the Father, and of the Son, and of the 
 Holy Ghost" 
 
 Cross ( Way of the). See Stations of 
 THE Cross. 
 
 Crucifix. — A cross, or a representation 
 of a cross, with the crucified figure of 
 Christ upon it. Crosses, with a repre- 
 sentation of the crucified Christ, seem not 
 to have been made previous to the ninth 
 century. Upon those made for similar pur- 
 poses before this date was painted or 
 carved at the intersection of the arms of 
 the cross, the Lamb, with or without a 
 cross-flag, the sacred monogram, or some 
 other emblem. The Crucifix, being the 
 symbol of the Passion of the Saviour, was 
 represented also by the figure of a lamb at 
 the foot of the cross. On the top of the 
 cross was sometimes attached a crown, to 
 express the reward promised to the Faith- 
 ful who suffer as Christ did. Also a stag 
 could be seen at the foot of the cross, the 
 stag being an enemy of the serpent, as 
 Christ is an enemy of the devil. To these 
 various symbols succeeded the picture of 
 Jesus Christ on the Cross. 
 
 Crusades. — Guided by the spirit of St. 
 Helena, mother of Constantine the Great, 
 many Christians visited the sacred places 
 of Palestine. These pilgrims were sub- 
 jected to severe hardships and trials, and 
 especially was this the case under the rule 
 of Seljuk, who, in the year 1072, abused 
 and murdered the pilgrims, and ended by 
 plundering the Holy City. The object of 
 the Crusades was, therefore: i. To secure 
 protection for the Christians. 2. To res- 
 cue the sacred places and guard them 
 against profanation and destruction. 3. To 
 repel the Saracens, who threatened Chris- 
 tian Europe. The idea of the Crusades 
 originated with the Popes, who directed 
 them, and furnished, from the revenues of 
 the Church, the means necessary for their 
 subsistence. They also granted remission 
 of ecclesiastical penalties to all who en- 
 gaged in the religious expeditions. The 
 first Crusade (i 096-1099), was set on foot 
 by Pope Urban H., at the Synod of Cler- 
 mont, where the multitudes, whose en- 
 thusiasm had already been aroused by 
 Peter the Hermit, in one voice cried out : 
 "God wills it." The army, headed by 
 Godfrey de Bouillion, and other gallant 
 princes, numbered from 300,000 to 600,000 
 men. On July 15th, 1099, they took 
 Jerusalem and proclaimed Godfrey king. 
 Six other Crusades were undertaken for 
 the deliverance of the Holy Land. After 
 the fall of Edessa, Louis VII. of France 
 
Crypt 
 
 230 
 
 Crypto-Calvinist 
 
 and Conrad III. of Germany, moved by 
 the soul-stirring words of St. Bernard of 
 Clairs-aux, undertook the second Crusade 
 (1147-1149). They made a vain attempt 
 to take Damascus. The third Crusade 
 (1189-1192), was brought about by the un- 
 fortunate battle near Tiberias in 1187, in 
 ■which 50,000 crusaders were either killed 
 or imprisoned. Saladin conquered Jerusa- 
 lem and seized the Holy Cross. The army, 
 headed by Frederick I. {Babarossa), of 
 Germany, Philip Augustus of France, 
 Richard the Lion Hearted of England, and 
 William of Sicily, took Acre and obtained 
 freedom for the pilgrims. The fourth Cru- 
 sade (1202-1204) was chiefly composed of 
 the French nobility, and resulted in the 
 founding of the Latin empire (1204-1261). 
 In the year 1212, 40,000 children sallied 
 forth to conquer the Holy Land. Many 
 thousands perished by shipwreck, others 
 were enslaved. The fifth Crusade (1228- 
 1229), under the leadership of Frederick 
 II., emperor of Germany, etc., ended in 
 disaster. The sixth Crusade (i 248-1 254) 
 was undertaken by Louis IX. of France, 
 who took Damietta, in Egypt. Soon af- 
 terwards, Louis IX. was taken prisoner 
 and compelled to leave the territory. Eigh- 
 teen years later he engaged in another 
 Crusade which ended in disaster. All the 
 territory, including Acre, was lost to the 
 Mohammedans. 
 
 Although the Crusades did not fully at- 
 tain their immediate object, — the entire re- 
 covery and preservation of the Holy Land, 
 — yet great and invaluable were the advan- 
 tages to religion and society which they 
 produced, i. The crusaders reawakened 
 the faith, slumbering in many, and 
 secured its triumph over the rising ration- 
 alism of the age. These popular expedi- 
 tions, undertaken in the name of religion 
 and humanity, aroused, by the memories 
 the}' recalled, the religious feeling of the 
 Middle Ages. 2. They were not less prof- 
 itable to society, not only by the encour- 
 agement they afforded to science and art, 
 and the impetus they imparted to com- 
 merce, but also in re-establishing and pre- 
 serving peace and concord among Christian 
 nations. Contemporary writers tell us 
 that the preaching of a crusade produced 
 everywhere a marvelous change; dissen- 
 sions were healed ; wars, with their horrors 
 and crimes, were suddenly brought to an 
 end ; strifes among petty princes and 
 chieftains, who were ever quarreling 
 among themselves, or with their sover- 
 
 eigns, and whose restlessness had, until 
 then, brought so many evils on the fairest 
 portions of Europe, gradually disappeared, 
 and other public disorders ceased. The 
 crusades were of the greatest importance 
 in preserving the safety of Europe. They 
 were from their commencement virtually 
 defensive wars, waged to repel Turkish 
 aggression, and preserse the Catholic na- 
 tions from the Mohammedan yoke. They 
 preserved Europe for cfenturies from her 
 hereditary foe. 4. Through the crusades 
 the institution of chivalry attained its full 
 development, as they gave occasion for the 
 establishment of new orders which pre- 
 sented a model of chivalry, and combined 
 all the knightly virtues. 5. That the 
 clergy derived an increase of power and 
 wealth from the crusades, is historically 
 untrue. On the contrary, the clergy, from 
 the Pope down to the lowest ecclesiastic, 
 contributed the greater part of the subsi- 
 dies levied for the recovery and defense of 
 the Holy Land. From those wars, the 
 Popes sought no accession of power or aug- 
 mentation of territory ; they cheerfully left 
 to the crusaders the conquered country, 
 with the spoils and honors of war. The 
 crusades did not and could not add to the 
 papal power; but the pre-eminence and in- 
 fluence of the Pope, which result from his 
 office arid dignity as head of Christendom, 
 were mainly and essentially instrumental 
 in setting on foot these vast movements of 
 the European powers, for the reconquest 
 of the Holy Land. 
 
 Crypt. — A vault under an ecclesiastical 
 building, as a cathedral, church, etc. , below 
 the chief floor, commonly set apart for 
 monumental purposes, and sometimes used 
 as a chapel or a shrine. The first crypts 
 were the subterranean places where the 
 Christians concealed themselves to cele- 
 brate their worship; in the Catacombs 
 chapels divided into two parts for the sep- 
 aration of the sexes and provided with 
 arcosolia, tombs of martyrs serving as 
 altars. The Roman churches were often 
 raised over crypts, where they buried the 
 clergy. The examples of crypts later than 
 the twelfth century are rare. 
 
 Crypto-Calvinist. — One who is secretly 
 a Calvinist ; a term applied in the six- 
 teenth century by orthodox Lutherans to 
 the Philippists or Melanchthonians, fol- 
 lowers of Philip Melanchthon. They were 
 accused of secretly being Calvinists, be- 
 cause they maintained the Calvinistic view 
 
Cubit 
 
 231 
 
 CUSH 
 
 of the Eucharist, rejecting Luther's doc- 
 trine of consubstantiation, as it was called 
 by them. 
 
 Cubit (a measure used among the an- 
 cients). — A cubit was originally the dis- 
 tance from the elbow to the extremity of 
 the middle finger, which is the fourth part 
 of a well-proportioned man's stature. The 
 Hebrew cubit, according to some, is 
 twenty-one inches ; but others fix it at 
 eighteen inches. The Talmudists obser\'e 
 that the Hebrew cubit was larger, by one 
 quarter, than the Roman. 
 
 Culdees {Keledei) (Cel. Ceile De\ Lat. 
 Cultores Dei, that is, servants of God, 
 or, according to another interpretation, 
 men living in a community'). — Culdees are 
 first mentioned in the history of Scotland 
 after the middle of the ninth century. 
 They were evidently secular canons, who 
 served as chapters to cathedrals. The 
 Culdees had the privilege of electing the 
 bishop ; those of the metropolitan see of 
 St. Andrew asserted the right that, with- 
 out their consent, no bishop could be ap- 
 pointed to any see in the country. By 
 degrees the Culdees gave up community 
 life and lived in separate dwellings; some 
 even took wives. Hence, from the twelfth 
 century, the Scottish bishops and mon- 
 archs endeavored to reform them; in sev- 
 eral instances the Culdees were replaced 
 by regular canons coming from England. 
 In Ireland, Culdees are for the first time 
 mentioned at the beginning of the ninth 
 century. They continued in the Church 
 of Armagh down to the seventeenth 
 century. 
 
 Cullen (Paul). — Irish prelate, Arch- 
 bishop of Dublin, born in that city in 
 1803. Studied theology in Italy, and became 
 rector of the Irish College at Rome. In 
 1849 he received from Pius IX. the dignity 
 of Archbishop of Armagh and the rank of 
 IJrimate of Ireland and apostolic delegate. 
 He suggested the idea of a Catholic Uni- 
 versity at Dublin, and caused its realiz- 
 ation. In 1862, his title, Apostolic Dele- 
 gate, was prolonged for life. Cardinal in 
 1866, and commander of the Legion of 
 Honor in 1876. Died in 1878. 
 
 Cultus. See Worship. 
 
 Cummian (St.). — An Irish monk; flour- 
 ished in the first half of the seventh cen- 
 tury ; was instrumental in procuring the 
 adoption by the Irish of the Roman rule 
 
 regarding the celebration of Easter. His 
 well known paschal treatise (634), ad- 
 dressed in the form of an epistle to Segienus, 
 Abbot of Hy, gives us a lofty idea of the 
 erudition of the author, as well as of the 
 solid learning which Ireland could then 
 give her priests. He also left a collection of 
 penitential canons, entitled Liber de 
 Poenitentiariitn Mensura. Cummian died, 
 according to the Four Masters, in the 
 year 661. 
 
 Curate {gtiardian of souls) . — An assistant 
 priest to a pastor or rector. Whenever, 
 owing to the number of parishioners, one 
 rector is not sufficient, the bishop not only 
 can, but should, oblige the parish priest 
 to associate with himself as many assist- 
 ants as are required . Moreover, the bishop, 
 and not the parish priest, is the judge 
 whether or not, and how manj;, assistants 
 are neces.sary. The bishop can assign as- 
 sistant priests a proper salary, to be taken 
 out of the revenues of the Church. 
 
 Curia Romana. — By Curia Romana is 
 meant, in a strict sense, only those officials 
 whom the sovereign Pontiff regularly 
 makes use of to assist him in the govern- 
 ment of the universal Church ; in a broad 
 sense, also those who aid the Pope in his 
 capacity of Bishop of Rome, metropolitan, 
 or primate. All these assistants are ap- 
 pointed by the Pope. The persons com- 
 posing the Court of Rome ( Curia Romano) 
 are divided into three classes, designated 
 respectively Cardinals of the Holy Roman 
 Church, Prelates of the Holy Roman 
 Church, and curiales in the strict sense of 
 the term. The latter are composed of the 
 various magistrates not in prelatical dig- 
 nity, of advocates and procurators, solicit- 
 ors and agents, of notaries and all ecclesi- 
 astical officers who form the cortege of the 
 Pope. These various ministers are either 
 intra curiam, v. g., cardinals; or extra 
 curiam, v. g., legates, nuncios, and similar 
 officers. See Congregations. 
 
 Cusa (Nicholas of). See Nicholas. 
 
 Cush. — A name applied in Scripture to 
 three countries: i. The Oriental Cush, 
 nearGehon (Gen. ii. 13). 2. The southern 
 parts of Arabia and the coasts of the Red 
 Sea, where Nemrod originated and whence 
 the wife of Moses came (Gen. x. 8 ; Num. 
 xii. 12; II. Par. xxi. 16). 3. More com- 
 monly Ethiopia proper and now called 
 Abyssinia (Ps. Ixviii. 31; Is. xviii. i; Jer, 
 xiii. 23). 
 
CUTHBERT 
 
 232 
 
 Cyril 
 
 Cuthbert (St.). — Bishop of Lindisfame, 
 England, died in 687. Shepherd, then 
 monk and prior of the Monastery of Mel- 
 rose. Was a model of the evangelical 
 virtues, and proved his zeal and charity 
 during a plague which desolated all Eng- 
 land. F. March 20th. 
 
 Cutheans. — Inhabitants of Assyria ; were 
 transported into Samaria by Salmanasar 
 (IV. Ki. xvii. 24, etc.). 
 
 Cycle {Easter). See Easter. 
 
 CycTe {Dtonysian). — Method of reckon- 
 ing time and dates, not as the Jews, from 
 the creation, nor as the ancient Romans, 
 from the foundation of their city, but from 
 the birth of Jesus Christ, the Saviour of 
 the world. The Roman abbot, Dionysius 
 Exiguus, was the first who, in the sixth 
 century, introduced this method of dating 
 from the birth of Christ. According to 
 this computation, which is now generally 
 followed, the birth of our Lord occurred 
 in the year of Rome 754. But it is gen- 
 erally conceded that he places this bliss- 
 ful event from four to seven years too late. 
 Christ was born several months, at least, 
 before the death of Herod the Great, 
 which, according to Josephus Fiavius, oc- 
 curred in April, 750 B. c. From other 
 considerations it is more than probable 
 that the Nativity took place in the year 
 747 or 748. See Chronology. 
 
 Cyprian (St.). — Bishop of Carthage. 
 Born in the beginning of the third cen- 
 tury of a wealthy senatorial family; had 
 been an esteemed and successful rhet- 
 orician at Carthage, his native city. His 
 high station, as well as his abilities, made 
 him the pride of his pagan fellow citizens. 
 He was converted to Christianity about 
 the year 246, by Caecilius, a presbyter of 
 Carthage, whose name he added hence- 
 forth to his own ; soon after he was raised 
 to the priesthood, and, on the death of 
 Bishop Donatus in 24S, he was chosen to 
 succeed that prelate. During the perse- 
 cution under Decius in 250, Cyprian con- 
 cealed himself; maintaining, however, 
 from his place of concealment, a constant 
 correspondence with his flock. After the 
 fanatical frenzy had abated, he rettu-ned to 
 Carthage, where, between the years 251 
 and 256, he held several councils to de- 
 termine the validity of baptism adminis- 
 tered by heretics and the manner to be 
 observed in readmitting the schismatics 
 and those who had apostatized in tiie time 
 
 of persecution. Cyprian ended his noble 
 episcopate by martyrdom under Valerian in 
 258. We have his Life written by Pontius, 
 his deacon. St. Cyprian has left eighty -one 
 letters and thirteen other works on various 
 subjects. His letters exhibit an interesting 
 picture of his time, and contain much 
 valuable information regarding the usages, 
 institutions, and doctrines of the early 
 Church. Very important is his admirable 
 treatise On the Unity of the Church, in 
 which he gives a clear statement of the 
 Church's organic unity, which he proves 
 is founded on the Primacy of Peter. F. 
 Sept. i6th. 
 
 Cyprus. — The largest island in the Med- 
 iterranean sea, situated between Cilicia 
 and Syria, the inhabitants of which were 
 plunged in all manner of luxury and de- 
 bauchery. Their principal deity was the 
 goddess Venus, who had a celebrated tem- 
 ple at Paphos. Of the cities in the island, 
 Paphos and Salamis are mentioned in the 
 New Testament. The Apostles St. Paul 
 and Barnabas landed here in 44 (Acts 
 xiii. 4). 
 
 Cyrene. — The chief city of Cyrenaica 
 (now called Tripoli), or the Lybian Penta- 
 polis. It was a Grecian city, but under 
 Roman rule. Many Jews were settled 
 there, and they had a synagogue at Jeru- 
 salem, some of whose members (Acts vi. 9) 
 took part against St. Stephen, but others 
 became heralds of the Gospel (ix. 20). 
 Simon, who helped to carry our Lord's 
 Cross, was of this city. 
 
 Cyriacus (St.) (596-606). — Patriarch of 
 Constantinople. According to the example 
 of his predecessor, John the Faster, he 
 took the title of " Ecumenical Patriarch," 
 and caused it to be confirmed in a Coucil- 
 iabulum. in 599. Pope St. Gregory and 
 Emperor Phocas were opposed to his 
 pretensions; and even the emperor pro- 
 hibited by a decree the bestowal of this 
 title on other bishops than those of Rome. 
 F. June 7th. 
 
 Cyril (St.) of Alexandria (376-444). — 
 Father of the Greek Church and Patriarch 
 of Alexandria, in 412. He took an active 
 part in his uncle's (Tlieophilus) opposition 
 to St. John Chrysostom. He closed the 
 Churches of the Novatians. The Jews 
 having murdered a certain number of 
 Christians, he expelled them from the city, 
 and embroiled himself with the Governor 
 Orestes. He contributed, also, to the con- 
 
Cyril 
 
 233 
 
 Dalmatia 
 
 demnation of Nestorius. St. Cyril has left 
 a large number of writings, mostly of an 
 apologetical, controversial, and doctrinal 
 character, and which can be found in 
 Migne's Pat. Lat. IV. and V. F. Jan. 
 28th. 
 
 Cyril (St.) . — N ative ofjerusalem; 
 Father of the Church ; was born at, or 
 near, Jerusalem about the year 315. He 
 was ordained priest in 345 by Bishop Max- 
 imus who also intrusted him with the 
 charge of the Catechumens, and in his 
 stead appointed him preacher to the people. 
 In 350, Cyril succeeded Maximus in the 
 see of Jerusalem, and was consecrated by 
 Acacius of Caesarea. This Acacius, a 
 bitter Arian, soon became a severe enemy 
 and persecutor of Cyril, and in 358, pro- 
 cured his deposition and exile from Jeru- 
 salem. Cyril was restored by the Council 
 of Seleucia, in 359, but, at the instigation 
 of Acacius, he was banished again, the 
 next year, by Constantius. On the acces- 
 sion of Julian, Cyril returned to Jerusalem. 
 The Emperor Valens, in 367, again 
 banished Cyril from his see, and only after 
 eleven years was he allowed to return. In 
 381, he assisted at the Second General 
 Council of Constantinople. He died in 
 386, after a troubled episcopate of thirty- 
 five years, sixteen of which were spent in 
 exile. F, March i8th. 
 
 Cyril and Methodins (Sts.). — The con- 
 version of the Moravians and other Slavic 
 tribes was the work, especially, of Sts. 
 Cyril and Methodius, deservedly called 
 the " Apostles of the Slavonians." They 
 were brothers, born at Thessalonica, of an 
 illustrious senatorial family. The mission 
 of Cyril and Methodius in Moravia was 
 
 crowned with wonderful results. They 
 baptized Radislav, the king, and securely 
 established Christianity in his country. 
 Cyril invented a Slavic alphabet, called 
 after him the " Cyrillic," and, with the aid 
 of his brother, translated the Holy Scrip- 
 ture into Slavonian. Cyril died at Rome, 
 in 869, and Methodius, in 885. F. Feb. 14th. 
 
 Cyrillus Lucaris. — A native of Candia 
 (ancient Crete). Died in 1638. Patriarch 
 of Alexandria, then of Constantinople. He 
 taught Protestant doctrines in the Greek 
 Church, was deposed from the patriarchate 
 and banished to the island of Rhodes. 
 Recalled a few years afterwards, he pub- 
 lished Catechisms and Confessions of 
 Faith filled with errors. Finally, driven 
 away and restored seven or eight times, he 
 was strangled by order of the Great Lord. 
 
 Cyrinus, or Cyrenius, Quirinius. — Suc- 
 cessor to Qiiintilius Varus in the govern- 
 ment of Syria, about the year A. D. 10. 
 See Chronology (Biblical). 
 
 Cyrus. — Patriarch of Alexandria, died 
 in 640. Bishop of Phasis (620), Patriarch 
 of Alexandria (630), fell into the errors of 
 the Monothelites. His writings were con- 
 demned by the Council of Lateran (649), 
 and in the Sixth General Council (680). 
 
 Cyrus. — Son of Cambyses, king of Per- 
 sia. He aided his uncle Cyaxares (in the 
 Bible, called Darius the Mede) in the con- 
 quest of Asia Minor; and afterwards their 
 joint forces captured Babylon and overran 
 the Assyrian empire. Cyrus was foretold 
 by the Prophet Isaias (xliv. 28; xlv. i, 
 etc.) The Prophet Daniel was his favorite 
 minister (Dan. vi. 28). 
 
 D 
 
 Dabir. — Royal city of the Chanaanites, 
 which was apportioned as the share of the 
 tribe of Juda, and afterwards yielded to 
 the Levites. 
 
 Dagon ifisk). — Idol of the Philistines, 
 the form of which was half man and half 
 fish. Scripture tells us that the Ark of the 
 Covenant, having been captured by the 
 Philistines and placed in the temple of Da- 
 gon, the next day the priests found the 
 head and hands of the idol cut oflf upon 
 the threshold (Judg. xvi. 23; I. Ki. v.). 
 
 Dalmanutha. — Place whither our Sav- 
 iour went after ha\nng embarked with His 
 disciples on the Sea of Tiberiades. In- 
 stead of Dalmanutha, which is found in 
 St. Mark (viii. 10), we read in the Vulgate 
 (Matt. XV. 39), Magedan, and, in the 
 Greek text, Magdala. 
 
 Dalmatia. — Province of Austria, on the 
 Adriatic sea, capital Zara. It is believed 
 that the Gospel was preached in Dalmatia 
 in the time of the Apostles, because it is 
 said in the Second Epistle to Timothy (iv. 
 
Dalmatic 
 
 234 
 
 Dan 
 
 20), that Titus, disciple of St. Paul, went 
 to Dalmatia. 
 
 Dalmatic. — A Church vestment worn 
 by the deacon while ministering at high 
 Mass. It is a long robe, open on each 
 side, and differs from the chasuble by hav- 
 ing wide sleeves, and instead of being 
 marked on the back with the cross, which 
 superseded the senatorial latus-clavus, it 
 is ornamented with two stripes, that were 
 originally the Augusti-clavi, worn upon 
 their garments by the less dignified 
 among the ancient Romans. It derives its 
 name from Dalmatia, the people of which 
 place invented it, and was originally a 
 vestment peculiar to the regal power, and, 
 as such, was adopted and used in pub- 
 lic by several of the Roman emperors. 
 In the earliest ages of the Church the 
 deacons wore a garment called colobium, a 
 kind of tight, narrow tunic with very 
 short sleeves, and which, in the times of 
 the Roman Republic, was worn by the 
 more substantial citizens, but afterwards 
 became a senatorial robe. In the reign of 
 Constantine, Pope St. Sylvester conceded 
 to the deacons of the Roman Church the 
 use of the dalmatic on particular solemni- 
 ties, a privilege which was gradually ex- 
 tended to other Churches by succeeding 
 Popes, as we learn from St. Gregory the 
 Great {Epistola, CVII). The custom 
 of wearing the dalmatic under the chasuble 
 was anciently peculiar to the Roman 
 Pontiff, but was afterwards allowed as an 
 episcopal favor to certain prelates of the 
 Church. For many centuries, however, 
 every bishop has been entitled to assume 
 this, together with his other vestments, 
 whenever he celebrates high Mass. An- 
 ciently the dalmatic was white, and its 
 stripes were narrow and scarlet, according 
 to St. Isidore, and, as may be observed in 
 the fresco-paintings of the Roman Cata- 
 combs, and in the mosaics which decorate 
 so many of the ancient churches of Rome. 
 The Greek dalmatic closely resembles 
 that of the Latin Church. It extends 
 farther down the person, and its sleeves 
 are closer and longer than ours. With 
 the Greeks, as in the Western Church, it 
 is customary to employ purple-colored 
 vestments during the season of fasting. 
 
 Damasus (name of two Popes). -^Z><x/w- 
 asus I. Pope from 366 to 384. Damasus 
 appears as the principal defender of Catho- 
 lic orthodoxy against Arius and other 
 heretics. He condemned the Macedonian 
 
 and Apollinarian heresies, and confirmed 
 the decrees of the General Council of Con- 
 stantinople. He was very solicitous for 
 the preservation of the Catacombs and 
 adorned the sepulchres of many martyrs 
 with epitaphs in verse, which he himself 
 composed. For his secretary he chose St. 
 Jerome, his faithful friend, and induced 
 him to publish a corrected version of the 
 Bible, known as the Latin Vulgate. Dam- 
 asus II. — Pope in 1047. Raised to the 
 Pontificate by Henry the Black, emperor 
 of Germany, without having been elected ; 
 he died twenty-three days after his coro- 
 nation. 
 
 Damianists. — Members of a Christian 
 sect founded by Damian, Patriarch of 
 Alexandria (569). They formed a branch 
 of the Accephali Severians; admitted in 
 God only one nature, but without distinc- 
 tion of persons. In fact, they called God 
 Father, Son and Holy Ghost, but believed 
 these three names to be mere denomina- 
 tions. 
 
 Damianus. See Cosmas. 
 
 Damianus (St. Peter) (988-1072). — 
 Cardinal ; born at Ravenna. He combated 
 the corruptions of his time. The Popes 
 Stephen IX., Nicholas II., and Alexander 
 II. sent him, in turn, into France and Savoy 
 in order to reform there the different re- 
 ligious orders. In Germany, he prevented 
 the divorce of the Emperor Henry IV. 
 from Bertha of Suza. 
 
 Damiende Veuster (Joseph) (1840-1889). 
 — Roman Catholic priest and missionary; 
 was born in Belgium. He devoted his life 
 to the welfare of the lepers in the govern- 
 ment hospital, on the island of Molokai, 
 Hawaii, until he, himself, fell a victim to 
 the disease. 
 
 Dan (Hebr. he has fudged). — Son of Ja- 
 cob and of Bala, ser\-ant-maid of Rachel, 
 born in the year 1788 b. c. Father of the 
 tribe of Dan. The tribe of Dan counted, 
 when they left Egypt, 62,700 warriors. It 
 had for share the lands to the east of Juda 
 and of Benjamin ; the Philistines separated 
 it from the sea. The Danites established 
 a colony in the city of Laish, comprised in 
 the share of Nephtali, but occupied by the 
 Sidonians, and called it Dan. The city at 
 the northern extremity of Israel gave rise 
 to the saying, "From Dan to Bersabee," 
 which meant from one end of the country 
 to the other. 
 
Dance of Death 
 
 235 
 
 Dante-Alighieri 
 
 Dance of Death. — A certain class of al- 
 legorical representations illustrative of the 
 universal power of death, and dating from 
 the fourteenth century. The drama was 
 constructed simply, consisting of short 
 dialogues between Death portrayed by a 
 skeleton figure, and a number of followers. 
 They were enacted originally in churches, 
 and by religious orders. After a time an 
 illustration was attached to each strophe, 
 and these eventually became the chief 
 point of interest. Being transferred from 
 the quiet convent to more public places, 
 they gave a new impulse to popular art, 
 and series of scenes founded upon the 
 Dance of Death are to be found treated in 
 painting, sculpture, and tapestry through- 
 out Europe. The more ancient name was 
 Dance Macabre, a word whose origin has 
 given rise to a great amount of dispute 
 among etymologists. 
 
 Dancers. — Religious enthusiasts of the 
 fourteenth century. They were known as 
 the " Dancers," from a wild and indecent 
 dance (St. Guy's or St. John's Dance), 
 which formed the main feature of their exer- 
 cises. They continued to dance until ex- 
 hausted, and then fell into convulsions. 
 Some derived their origin from King David 
 (II. Ki. vi. 14; I. Par. xv. 29), and others 
 believed them possessed by the devil. The 
 latter opinion seems to have been the 
 more generally accepted, for the ecclesi- 
 astical forms of exorcism were em- 
 ployed to free them from the possession of 
 the evil spirit. They were eventually 
 pursued by the Inquisition. 
 
 Dancing. — A measured rythmical move- 
 ment of the feet, usually accompanied by 
 some musical instrument. Dancing seems 
 to have been originally a religious exer- 
 cise. The Hebrews celebrated by dancing 
 their passage of the Red Sea; David 
 danced before the Ark. The priests of 
 Egypt, like those of China and India, 
 represent by dancing the movements of 
 the stars. Among the Greeks and Romans, 
 dancing {saltatio) comprised: the re- 
 ligious dances, consisting in slow and grave 
 movements round altars; the gymnastic 
 and martial dances, serving as prepara- 
 tion for combat and exciting to chivalry 
 {cybistic, sfheristic, pyrrhic, bellicrepa, 
 etc.) ; the combined military and religious 
 dances, as those of the priests of Cybele 
 in Phrygia and Crete, and that of the 
 Salians at Rome ; the mimic dances, which 
 took place in theatres ; the dances exe- 
 
 cuted during festivals by male dancers, 
 and especially by professional female dan- 
 cers, the latter being dressed only in a long 
 transparent veil. Dancing in churches took 
 place until the twelfth century, and reli- 
 gious dancing continued to exist in Spain 
 until the seventeenth century. Dancing is 
 not illicit in its nature ; therefore, we can- 
 not condemn it absolutely, as though it 
 were essentially evil. The holy Fathers 
 blame only indecent dances and the abuse 
 of dancing. However, even the most de- 
 cent dances are seldom without danger; 
 very often they are more or less dangerous, 
 according to the circumstances and dispo- 
 sitions of those who attend them ; there- 
 fore, it would be imprudent to counsel and 
 approve of them. 
 
 Daniel. — Prophet of Israel during the 
 Babylonian Captivity. He had the gift of 
 explaining visions and dreams; his science 
 procured for him the favor of Nabucho- 
 donosor, who raised him above the magi 
 and the first dignitaries of the kingdom. 
 Daniel either retired later on or lost his 
 high position, for he had to be recalled to 
 the mind of Balthasar when there was 
 question of explaining the mysterious in- 
 scription of the festival. Under Darius 
 the Mede, he was again raised to the rank 
 of one of the first three dignitaries of the 
 State, which caused him to be hated by the 
 courtiers, and, consequently, bad treat- 
 ment, as being thrown into the lions' 
 den, from which he was miraculously de- 
 livered. He preserved an elevated posi- 
 tion at least until the third year of the 
 reign of Cyrus. Daniel was a man of ex- 
 traordinary virtue and wisdom. 
 
 The Book of Daniel is composed of two 
 parts : the first, written in Chaldaic, 
 (twelve chapters), contains historical facts 
 and prophecies ; the second, in Hebrew 
 (two chapters), contains the history of 
 Susanna and that of Bel and the Dragon. 
 The Jews refuse to rank Daniel among the 
 Prophets properly speaking, because he 
 never lived in the Holy Land. The Greeks 
 celebrate his feast on December r7th, and 
 the Latins on July 21st. 
 
 Dante-Alighieri. — This famous epic poet 
 of Italy and of all Europe in the Middle 
 Ages, was born at Florence, in 1265, and 
 died in poverty at Ravenna, in 1321, after an 
 agitated existence. His Divine Comedy, — 
 "Hell," "Purgatory," and "Heaven","— 
 is the great Christian poem of the scholastic 
 times. It is divided into three parts, of 33 
 
Darboy 
 
 236 
 
 Deacon 
 
 cantos each, with a prolog^ue to the whole. 
 " Hell" is the vice punished ; " Purgatory" 
 is the expiation that purifies ; " Paradise " is 
 the triumphant and rewarded virtue. The 
 Divine Comedy has been translated into 
 English by Gary, Longfellow, Norton, and 
 others. "Hell " has remained the most fa- 
 mous part, but the two other f>arts are not 
 inferior to it, except, perhaps, in the mat- 
 ter, which lent less to the imagination. 
 Dante is one of the greatest poets man- 
 kind has produced. He can be placed be- 
 side Homer and Virgil, and above Tasso 
 and Milton. 
 
 Darboy (Ghorgk) (1814-1871). — A 
 French prelate. Born at Fayl-Billot, Haute- 
 Marne; shot at Paris, May 24th, 1871. 
 Archbishop of Paris (1863-1871). He was 
 arrested and assassinated by the Commu- 
 nists. 
 
 Darby ("John). — English sectarian, 
 founder of the Plymouth Brethren. Died 
 in 1882. See Plymouth Brethren. 
 
 Darius (name of three kings). — i. Da- 
 rius, the Mede, son of an unknown Xerxes 
 (Assuerus) and otherwise of whom not 
 much is known. After the taking of Babylon 
 by Cyrus he reigned over Babylonia during 
 two years (Dan. v. 31 ; vi. iff. ; ix. i ; xi. i), 
 and can be identified neither with Cyrus 
 himself nor with Darius Hystaspes, but was 
 a governor upon whom Cyrus had bestowed 
 the rights of a sovereign. Perhaps he was 
 the Gobryas discovered in the cuneiform 
 inscriptions. 2. Darius, son of Hystas- 
 pes, the known Persian king (I. Esd. iv. 
 5, 24; vi. iflF. ; Aggeus i. i; ii. i, 11). 
 3. Darius Codomanus, the last of the 
 Persian kings. (H. Esd. xii. 22; I. Mach. 
 i. I.) 
 
 Darwinism. See Man and Evolution. 
 
 Dataria (a papal oflSce). — The Dataria, 
 so called from the fact that papal conces- 
 sions or favors are properly dated, and 
 the date registered by an official of the 
 Pontifical court, is a tribunal from which 
 are issued dispensations pro foro externo, 
 in matters ^eser^'ed to the Pope. .Hence, 
 it is necessary to recur to this tribunal for 
 dispensations from public impediments of 
 marriage and public irregularities. A car- 
 dinal is generally at the head of this tribu- 
 nal ; he is named Pro daiarius, because 
 the datary is not properly a cardinal's 
 office. 
 
 David. — King of Israel and Prophet, 
 born at Bethlehem, in the eleventh century 
 B.C.; died at Jerusalem at the age of 71 
 years. Eighth and youngest son of Isai, of 
 the tribe of Juda. David was one of the 
 most remarkable men in either sacred or 
 profane history. His first appearance is as 
 a shepherd youth, who alone of all Israel 
 ventures to accept the challenge of the 
 proud Goliath, and vanquishes him in mor- 
 tal combat. God led him on to become a 
 mighty warrior, the ruler and king of all 
 Israel, and the founder of the royal family, 
 which continued till the downfall of the 
 Jewish State. But, notwithstanding his 
 external pomp and power. David is best 
 known and honored for his piety, and as 
 being "the man after God's own heart." 
 He indeed became guilty' of great sins ; but 
 he humbled himself in the dust on account 
 of them, and God forgave him. His royal 
 race was spiritually revived in the person 
 of our Saviour, who was descended from 
 him according to the flesh, and who is, 
 therefore, called "the son of David," and 
 is said to sit upon his throne. His history 
 is chiefly found in the Books of Samuel 
 and the First Book of Chronicles. He 
 was distinguished as the " sweet singer of 
 Israel," and his Psalms are full of ex- 
 pressions of deep devotional feeling. The 
 Church honors David as a penitent saint, 
 a patriarch and a Prophet. 
 
 Deacon {a servant, attendant, minister). 
 — The first seven deacons were not ordained 
 merely to assist the poor, because St. 
 Stephen gave himself up to preaching and 
 St. Philip administered baptism. The 
 Apostles who had received the plenitude 
 of the sacerdotal power, communicated it, 
 in proportionate extent, to the bishops, 
 priests, and deacons. The latter were as- 
 signed to the bishops as associates for the 
 celebration of the sacrifice of the Mass, 
 for the distribution of the Holy Eucharist 
 which they carried to those absent, and 
 even for a part of the power of adminis- 
 tration of the dioceses. The ceremonies 
 for the ordination of the deacon are very 
 ancient ; thev consist especially in the im- 
 position of hands, and the presentation of 
 j the stole and dalmatic. The ordination of 
 the deacon is begun with the following 
 address of the bishop : " Dearest child, 
 who art about to be promoted to the Levit- 
 ical order, consider earnestly to what 
 grade in the Church you ascend. For it 
 is the duty of the deacon to minister to the 
 
Deaconess 
 
 237 
 
 Debora 
 
 altar, to baptize, and preach . ' ' After many 
 prayers, when the moment of ordination 
 has come, the candidate goes up to the 
 altar and kneels before the bishop, who 
 places his right hand on his head, saying : 
 " Receive the Holy Ghost, in order that 
 you may have strength, and to enable you 
 to resist the devil and his temptations. In 
 the name of the Lord." Through the im- 
 position of the hands of the bishop, the 
 candidate has now received the sacred in- 
 delible character of the deacon. He is 
 now permitted to stand near the priest at 
 the altar, to baptize and preach, and sing 
 the Gospel in the Church of God both 
 for the living and the dead, and there- 
 fore the bishop gives him the insignia of 
 his office. 
 
 Deaconess (widow and daughter who, 
 in the primitive Church, were employed 
 in certain ecclesiastical ministries). — 
 Although women have always been con- 
 sidered in the Catholic Church as incapable 
 of receiving sacred orders, they have, how- 
 ever, exercised, since the apostolic times, 
 certain functions that approached the min- 
 istry entrusted to the deacons. They as- 
 sisted the female catechumens at baptism, 
 and also devoted themselves to the care of 
 the sick. They were supported at the 
 expense of the Church if their personal 
 means were insufficient for their mainte- 
 nance. They were called deaconesses or 
 subdeaconesses, episcopals or episcopesses, 
 and presbyteresses. 
 
 Dean (an ecclesiastical title). — Civil 
 officials so called, were known to the Ro- 
 man law, and are mentioned in the codes 
 of Theodosius and Justinian. The title 
 was thence adopted for Christian use. In 
 the monasteries, for every ten monks a 
 decanus or dean was nominated, who had 
 charge of their discipline. The senior 
 dean, in the absence of the abbot or pro- 
 vost, governed the monastery; and since 
 monks had the charge of many cathedral 
 churches, the office of dean was thus intro- 
 duced into them. Custom gradually de- 
 termined that there should be only one 
 dean in a cathedral, and he eventually as- 
 sumed the chief charge of its ecclesiastical 
 and ritual concerns, especially in regard 
 to the choir. He became also general as- 
 sistant to the bishop. These deans often 
 served as deputies of the bishop to expe- 
 dite matters of minor importance in cer- 
 tain districts of the diocese. In the course 
 of time, the name dean was given to eccle- 
 
 siastics placed at the head of a parish. 
 These are called rural deans ; and it is 
 their office to inspect the country curates 
 or to transmit to them the orders of the 
 bishop. Generally, in European countries 
 a rural dean is named for each county. 
 According to the Third Plenary Council 
 of Baltimore, the bishops of the United 
 States are also advised to appoint similar 
 deans in different parts of their diocese. 
 
 At Rome, the Dean of the Sacred 
 College, who is generally the oldest car- 
 dinal bishop according to the date of his 
 ordination, and the cardinal bishop of 
 Ostia, presides at all the reunions of car- 
 dinals, at which the Pope does not preside 
 himself. 
 
 Death (the extinction of life). — The 
 time of man's probation and merit ends 
 with this mortal life. "The dust (shall) 
 return into its earth from whence it was, 
 and the spirit return to God who gave it " 
 (Eccles. xii. 7). Since man's earthly 
 career ends with death, his soul, which is 
 not of the dust, but created immortal by 
 God, returns to God, its Creator and last 
 end, to receive its recompense. Hence 
 Christ exhorts us to work while it is day, 
 before " the night (of death) cometh, when 
 no man can work " (John ix. 4). Besides, 
 there is no reason to believe that a new 
 probation will follow after death. For in 
 that case man, who is now urged on to 
 virtue by the uncertainty of death and the 
 certainty of eternal retribution, would be 
 tempted, by the prospect of a new proba- 
 tion, to indulge his passions in the present 
 life and put off his conversion and the 
 service of God till after death. 
 
 Debora. — Jewish prophetess, judge in 
 Israel. Governed the Hebrew people dur- 
 ing forty years (1396-1356 b. c). In 1392, 
 she assembled the tribes, placed at their 
 head Barac, of the tribe of Ephraim, in 
 order to throw off the yoke of Jabin, king 
 of Asor. The troops of the latter were 
 defeated near Thabor, and Sisara, their 
 general, was killed while asleep, by Jahel. 
 Debora celebrated the victory by a fa- 
 mous canticle, which is found in the fifth 
 chapter of the Book of Judges. Debora. — 
 Nurse of Rebecca, accompanied Jacob on 
 his return from Mesopotamia into the 
 Promised Land, died there, and was 
 buried at the foot of Bethel, under an oak 
 tree, which from that time was called 
 "Oak of Tears." 
 
Decalogue 
 
 238 
 
 Decalogue 
 
 Decalogue (the Commandments of God 
 and the Church). — The Commandments 
 of God are called the Decalogue, which is 
 a word derived from the Greek, meaning 
 ten words; they are also called the Ta- 
 bles of the Law, because God gave them 
 to Moses on Mount Sinai, engraved on two 
 tablets of stone. See the subject Com- 
 mandments. 
 
 First Commandment: "I am the Lord 
 thy God. Thou shalt not have strange 
 gods before me; thou shalt not make to 
 thyself any graven thing to adore it." By 
 the first Commandment it is ordained to 
 us to acknowledge God with sentiments 
 of faith, hope, charity, and religion, ren- 
 dering to Him that devotion and wor- 
 ship He exacts from us. Thus faith, hope, 
 and charity, are the three theological vir- 
 tues, and religion (which occupies the first 
 rank among the moral virtues), belong 
 especially to the first precept of the Deca- 
 logue. 2d Commandment: "Thou shalt 
 not take the name of the Lord thy God in 
 vain." This Commandment forbids blas- 
 phemy, regulates the oath and the vow. 
 (See these subjects.) 3d Commandment: 
 "Remember thou keep holy the Sabbath 
 day." The Church has established the 
 worship and celebration of the Sabbath on 
 the day of Sunday (day of the Lord), in 
 commemoration of the resurrection of our 
 Divine Saviour Jesus Christ. Moreover, 
 the Church can establish and, in fact, has 
 established, feasts for the celebration of the 
 principal mysteries of religion, to honor 
 the Blessed Virgin, the martyrs and the 
 saints. To hear Mass with devotion, assist 
 at Vespers and other exercises of piety 
 that take place in Church, approach the 
 sacraments of penance and the Eucharist, 
 listen with respect and attention to the 
 word of God, make some spiritual reading, 
 visit the sick, relieve the poor, console the 
 afflicted, are the principal acts which the 
 true Faithful are accustomed to perform 
 on Sundays and holy days of obligation. 
 Rigorously speaking, the one who con- 
 tents himself with hearing Mass on Sun- 
 days and holy days, if otherwise he abstain 
 from all servile work, satisfies the third 
 Commandment, at least in the sense that 
 he does not commit a mortal sin. — 4th 
 Commandment: "Honor thy father and 
 thy mother." According to the meaning 
 of the sacred language, the father com- 
 prises not only the one who, after God, 
 has given us life, but also those who, 
 according to the order of Divine Provi- 
 
 dence, are placed over us in both the spirit- 
 ual and temporal order. Their power is an 
 emanation from God's power. Thus, the 
 fourth precept contains the duties of chil- 
 dren in regard to their parents, and of 
 inferiors in regard to their superiors ; as, 
 by a natural reciprocity, it contains the 
 duties of parents in regard to their chil- 
 dren, and of superiors in regard to their 
 inferiors. 5th Commandment : " Thou 
 shalt not kill." (See Homicide, Abor- 
 tion, War, Suicide). 6th and 9th Com- 
 mandments : " Thou shalt not commit 
 adultery." " Thou shalt not covet thy 
 neighbor's wife." These two command- 
 ments forbid all kinds of luxury, that is, all 
 sins against chastity. This offense com- 
 prises not only fornication, adultery, but 
 also the thoughts, the desires, the looks, 
 the words, etc., and generally all the acts 
 that may lead to impurity. — 7th and loth 
 Commandments: " Thou shalt not steal." 
 "Thou shalt not covet thy neighbor's 
 goods." The seventh Commandment for- 
 bids to injure our neighbor in his property 
 by robbery or theft, by cheating, usury, or 
 in any other unjust way. And the tenth 
 forbids all voluntary desire for our neigh- 
 bor's goods. See Justice, Property, 
 Usury, etc. 
 
 The Commandments of the Church 
 have always existed in teaching, in tradi- 
 tion, and in practice; but nothing proves 
 that they were ever formulated into a uni- 
 form text until the Council of Trent, and 
 this Council itself never gave to them a 
 precise form. Father Canisius, a Jesuit, 
 was the first who, in his great Catechism, 
 Sunima Doctrince cliristiance, in 1554, con- 
 ceived the idea of drawing up an abridg- 
 ment of the religious duties imposed by the 
 Church. He reduced them to five. The third 
 Plenary Council of Baltimore reduced them 
 to the following six : i. " To rest from ser- 
 vile work and to hear Mass on all Sundays 
 and holy days of obligation." 2. " To fast 
 and to abstain from flesh-meat on the days 
 appointed by the Church." 3. "To con- 
 fess our sins at least once a year." 4. "To 
 receive worthily the Blessed Eucharist at 
 Easter or within the time appointed." 5. 
 "To contribute to the support of our pas- 
 tors." 6. "Not to marry persons within 
 the forbidden degrees of kindred or other- 
 wise prohibited by the Church, nor to 
 solemnize marriage at the forbidden 
 times." In regard to the sixth precept of 
 the Church, we are commanded to con- 
 tribute willingly, according to our means. 
 
Decapolis 
 
 239 
 
 Deluge 
 
 to the support of our pastors and our 
 Churches, and of religious institutions. 
 St. Paul says : "So the Lord ordained that 
 they who preach the Gospel should live 
 by the Gospel" (I. Cor. ix. 13, 14). For the 
 explanation of the other five Command- 
 ments of the Church, see Confession, 
 Communion, Fast, Abstinence, Lent. 
 
 Decapolis (Gr. ten cities). — A region in 
 Northern Palestine, mainly on the east 
 side of the Jordan, mentioned in Matt, 
 (iv. 25); Mark (v. 20). Writers do not 
 agree as to the names of the cities. 
 
 Decius (Roman emperor) (249-251). — 
 Decius ordered a most violent persecution 
 against the Church, which, in extent and 
 severity, surpassed all preceding perse- 
 cutions. He published an edict, command- 
 ing all Christians throughout the Empire 
 to abandon their religion and to offer 
 sacrifices to the gods. The most exquisite 
 tortures were devised against the Chris- 
 tians in order to induce them to apostatize. 
 The property of those who fled was con- 
 fiscated, and they themselves were obliged 
 to remain in exile. By the imperial de- 
 cree, bishops were to suffer death at once. 
 Decius was slain in battle by the Goths. 
 
 Decretals. See Canon Law. 
 
 Dedication (consecration of a church or 
 chapel). — The dedication of a church is 
 a liturgical solemnity performed only by 
 the bishop, who consecrates the building 
 for divine service to the exclusion of all 
 profane usage. It is believed that the 
 solemn dedication of churches began 
 under the reign of Constantine the Great. 
 St. Ambrose, in the fourth century, tells 
 us that the deposition of relics in the 
 building recently erected, was one of the 
 conditions of dedication. The ceremonies 
 comprise the sprinkling with holy water, 
 special prayers, the anointing of the walls, 
 and the double inscription of the alphabet 
 (Greek and Latin), which the bishop traces 
 on the floor of the church. In the United 
 States, most of the churches are simply 
 blessed. Feast of the Dedication we call the 
 anniversary of the day on which a church 
 has been dedicated ; also the feast of the 
 saint to whom the church is dedicated. 
 
 Defender of the Faith. — A title of honor 
 sometimes bestowed upon sovereigns who 
 protected the Church in both her temporal 
 and spiritual interests. This title was con- 
 ferred by Pope Leo X. on Henry VIII. 
 
 King of England, in 1521, as a reward for 
 writing against Luther. 
 
 Defensor Matrimonii. — A clerical officer, 
 appointed by the bishop, charged with de- 
 fending the validity of marriage, whenever 
 such cases come before the ecclesiastical 
 court. It is his duty to collect and present 
 evidence against the plaintiff. 
 
 Degradation, Deposition (terms in eccle- 
 siastical law). — Degradation is an act de- 
 priving an ecclesiastic of his orders or 
 privileges or of both. There are two kinds of 
 degradation : the simple or verbal; the 
 actual or soletnn. By the first, the accused is 
 deprived of all his orders and benefices. 
 By the second, he is with great ceremony 
 stripped of his ecclesiastical vestments and 
 ornaments and publicly reprimanded by 
 the bishop, deprived of his orders and 
 benefices, as in simple degradation, and of 
 his various privileges. He remains, how- 
 ever, a priest, and can, in special emergen- 
 cies, administer the sacraments. Also the 
 degraded priest is not exempt from the 
 vow of chastity or from saying his brevi- 
 ary. Degradation is now resorted to only 
 in extreme cases. Deposition debars a 
 priest from the privileges and duties of 
 his order, but differs from degradation in 
 that the latter is always perpetual, while 
 the former may be only temporary, and 
 consistent with the hope of restoration. 
 
 Deism. — System of those who, rejecting 
 all revelation, believe only in the existence 
 of God. Certain commentators confound 
 Deism with Theism, seeking to designate 
 thereby only the common foundation of 
 all the philosophical doctrines which pro- 
 fess the belief in a God. But in the 
 general acceptation, the Deist is the one 
 who affects to limit his belief to the faith 
 in a rational, impersonal God, whose attri- 
 butes and providence he does not seek to 
 determine. For him, God is only the 
 first cause, the great indispensable mechan- 
 ism of the world's movement. Deism does 
 not puSh its inquiries any farther, and for 
 the most of its followers the immortality 
 of the soul as well as the divine personality 
 are insoluble problems, about which the 
 human mind should not concern itself. 
 
 Delegate. See Legate. 
 
 Deluge .{the Noachian). — By the Noa- 
 chian Deluge is understood the inundation 
 which took place at an unknown date in 
 ancient times, and which, according to 
 
Deluge 
 
 240 
 
 Deluge 
 
 the account of Genesis, covered the whole 
 earth and caused the destruction of all 
 mankind, with the exception of Noe and 
 his family. After having described this 
 extraordinary phenomenon we shall es- 
 tablish its historic reality, extent, and 
 nature. 
 
 1. Description. — i. Moral Cause and 
 Prophetic Announcement. — The malice of 
 men, descended from the union of the 
 Sethites and Cainites, and their violence 
 increasing continually, and having at- 
 tained its extreme limits, God repented of 
 having created man, and resolved to exter- 
 minate guilty mankind and all the beings 
 that had been the instruments or witnesses 
 of their crimes. Noe alone, who was 
 just, found grace in His eyes, together 
 with his sons, Sem, Cham, and Japheth. 
 The means chosen by God to revenge His 
 outraged justice and to purify the earth 
 was a general inundation, which would 
 destroy the life of all living beings. The 
 instrument of salvation, which should pre- 
 serve the hope of mankind, was an ark or 
 vessel. God Himself indicated its di- 
 mensions and designated the men and ani- 
 mals that should enter therein to repeople 
 the earth. He also ordered Noe to place 
 therein the food necessary for its future 
 occupants (Gen. vi. 1-21). The Deluge 
 was, therefore, in the designs of God, a 
 chastisement for the crimes and perversity 
 of men, and at the same time a means of 
 preservation and of the reconstitution of 
 a new mankind in the true faith and good 
 morals. It was a providential event, willed 
 by God's wisdom as well as by His justice. 
 
 2. Realization. — When Noe had com- 
 plied with all the divine orders, while his 
 contemporaries continued, in spite of the 
 warnings given to them, their indifferent 
 and dissolute life, God ordered him to 
 complete his preparations and to enter 
 into the ark with his wife, his sons, and 
 their wives, eight persons in all (I. Pet. 
 iii. 20). As to the number of animals of 
 each kind that were to be taken into the 
 ark, the commentators have never been in 
 accord. Some believe that God had fixed 
 seven pairs of pure animals and two of 
 impure animals; others have counted only 
 seven pure and two impure individuals, 
 the expressions " seven, seven; two, two," 
 being distributive numbers. Seven days 
 afterwards, all having been done as God 
 had commanded, and the Lord Himself 
 having closed the door of the ark, the 
 waters of the Deluge spread over the 
 
 earth. It was the seventeenth day of the 
 second month and six hundredth year of 
 the life of Noe. "All the fountains of 
 the great deep were broken up and the 
 flood gates of heaven were opened, and 
 the rain fell upon the earth during forty 
 days and forty nights." Thus only two 
 physical causes of the inundation are meta- 
 phorically indicated : the invasion of sea 
 water upon the earth and a torrential 
 rain. It has been believed that " the 
 fountains of the deep" designated the sub- 
 terranean sources abundantly gushing forth 
 their waters, but they are rather the waves 
 of the ocean which, leaving their natural 
 reservoirs, broke over the firm earth and 
 covered it. The Hebrew word tehom, em- 
 ployed here, more often means the sea (Is. 
 li. 10; Ps. xxxvi. 7; Ixxviii. 15; Amos vii. 
 4) than the subterranean fountains ( Job 
 xxxviii. 16; Ps. Ixxi. 20). "The flood 
 gates of heaven," which, being opened, 
 allowed the escape of cataracts, signify in 
 the popular conception of the earthly at- 
 mosphere the clouds which burst and 
 spread a furious rain, gesem. The inun- 
 dation was progressive, and the waters, 
 increasing, raised the ark and submerged 
 the whole surface of the earth. All the 
 living beings and all men, except those 
 shut up in the ark, perished. While the 
 saving vessel floated and the hand of God 
 held its rudder (Wis. xiv. 6), the waters 
 rose, and their height became such that 
 they surpassed by fifteen cubits the sum- 
 mits of all the mountains that are under 
 heaven. They covered thus the earth 
 during one hundred days (Gen vii. 1-24). 
 3. Diminution and Cessation. — At the 
 end of this time God remembered Noe and 
 the beings that were in the ark and He 
 caused the Deluge to cease. The causes of 
 the inundation acted no longer, the foun- 
 tains of the deep and the flood gates of 
 heaven were closed, and the rains stopped. 
 A brisk and warm wind, which God sent 
 upon the earth, gradually diminished the 
 waters by evaporation. They decreased 
 by and by and withdrew into the places from 
 whence they had gone forth. The sea re- 
 gained its bed, and the clouds reformed 
 themselves into atmosphere. On the 
 twenty-seventh day (according to the Vul- 
 gate, or the seventeenth, according to the 
 Hebrew and Samaritan texts, the Targum 
 and several ancient versions) of the seventh 
 month, the ark rested on Mount Ararat, in 
 Armenia. The decrease of the waters 
 continued until the beginning of the tenth 
 
Deluge 
 
 241 
 
 Deluge 
 
 month. On the first day of this month 
 the summits of the mountains appeared. 
 Forty days later Noe, desirous to know 
 whether the surface of the earth was dry, 
 opened the window of the ark and sent 
 forth a raven, which did not return. He 
 also sent forth a dove, which, not findins; 
 where her foot might rest, returned. Seven 
 days afterwards he again sent a dove, and 
 in the evening she came back, carrying a 
 bough of an olive tree, with green leaves, 
 in her mouth. At this sign Noe under- 
 stood that the waters had entirely disap- 
 peared. After seven days more he a third 
 time sent forth a dove, which did not 
 return. Opening the covering of the 
 ark Noe saw that the face of the earth was 
 dried. Then God commanded Noe, to- 
 gether with his family and the animals, to 
 leave the ark. The duration of the Deluge 
 was one year and eleven days. Or, as the 
 months refer, in the Biblical account, to 
 the lunar year, the total duration of the 
 Deluge corresponds to a solar year of 
 three hundred and sixty five days. The 
 rescued patriarch offered to the Lord a 
 sacrifice of thanksgiving. Jehovah was 
 pleased with its odor and promised to 
 punish guilty mankind no more by the 
 waters of a deluge (Gen. viii. 1-22). God 
 blessed Noe and his children, established 
 with them a covenant, and chose the rain- 
 bow as a visible and perpetual sign of His 
 promise to submerge the earth no more by a 
 flood similar to that which had taken place 
 (Gen. ix. 1-17). 
 
 The modern critics see in the Biblical 
 narrative, which we have rapidly analyzed, 
 an awkward combination of two different 
 and contradictory accovmts of the Deluge, 
 the one Elohistic and the other Jehovistic. 
 To believe them, the difference between the 
 documents follows evidently from the con- 
 tradictions, the repetitions that it is easy 
 to remark therein, from the particular style 
 of each source, and especially from the use 
 of the divine names Elohim and Jehovah. 
 The Elohistic account is complete, while 
 the Jehovistic has reached us only in frag- 
 ments. 
 
 These conclusions do not carry the evi- 
 dence that is attributed to them, and the 
 critical analysis of the narrative of the 
 Deluge is far from being as certain as is 
 pretended. The Elohistic parts do not 
 constitute a complete whole ; they present 
 breaks and are not free from repetitions. 
 Notwithstanding its repetitions, the pres- 
 ent narrative forms an harmonic and 
 
 progressive whole, and the repetitions, by 
 insisting on the principal circumstances, 
 define them the more and are very striking 
 in their effect. Besides, they are conform- 
 able to the customs of the Hebrews and 
 to the ample and redundant accounts of 
 the Orientals. The cuneiform legend of the 
 Deluge, of which we shall speak very soon, 
 and which offers no trace of Elohism and 
 Jehovism, has the same repetitions and con- 
 tains the features which are declared to be 
 peculiar to the two original documents. 
 The Biblical narrative is the work of a 
 single compiler, who, if he did employ an- 
 terior sources, has molded them into a re- 
 markable unity. 
 
 II. Historic Reality of the Del- 
 uge. — The Biblical Deluge is no astro- 
 nomical myth ; it is a fact whose historical 
 truth is evident from the Mosaic account 
 alone. This account reproduces the He- 
 brew tradition of the remembrance of the 
 cataclysm. But for this fact we have 
 other proofs, which have been provi- 
 dentially brought to light in a time when 
 the Biblical narrative is most vehemently 
 attacked. 
 
 Diluvtcin Traditions, i. The Chaldean 
 Tradition. — There exist, outside of Gen- 
 esis, many diluvian traditions. The most 
 important, and the one that approaches 
 nearest to the Mosaic account, is the Chal- 
 dean tradition, of which we possess two 
 versions unequally developed : that of 
 Berosus, preserved by Eusebius {Chron., 
 I. I., c. iil.), and that of the poem of Gil- 
 games, deciphered in 1872. According to 
 the interpretation of Berosus, under the 
 reign of Xisuthros occurred the great flood 
 whose history is related in the sacred mon- 
 uments in the following manner: "The 
 great Deluge took place under Xisuthros. 
 The god Ea appeared to him in a dream, 
 and announced that on the 15th of the 
 month Daisios (a little before the summer 
 solstice), all men should perish by a flood. 
 He was therefore to collect all that was 
 consigned to writing, and bury it at Sip- 
 para, the city of the Sun. There he was to 
 build a vessel and to enter into it with his 
 family and dearest friends ; and he was to 
 cause animals, birds, and quadrupeds to 
 enter it with him, taking sufficient pro- 
 vision. He was, moreover, to prepare 
 everything for navigation. And when 
 Xisuthros asked in what direction he 
 should steer, he was told : ' Towards the 
 gods,' and he was enjoined to pray that 
 good might come of it for men. 
 
Deluge 
 
 242 
 
 Deluge 
 
 " Xisuthros, on this, obeyed, and con- 
 structed a vessel five stadia long (3,033 feet, 
 9 inches) and two broad (1,213 f^^t, 6 
 inches) ; and having brought together all 
 that had been ordered, went into it with 
 his wife, his children, and his intimate 
 friends. 
 
 "The Deluge having come, and soon 
 going down, Xisuthros loosed some of the 
 birds ; but these finding no food, nor place 
 to alight, returned to the ship. A few 
 days later he again set them free, but they 
 returned, their feet stained with mud. 
 Sent off a third time, they never came back. 
 Xisuthros from this understood that the 
 earth was bare, and, having made an open- 
 ing in the roof of the ship, saw that it had 
 grounded on the top of a mountain. He 
 then descended with his wife, his daughter, 
 and his pilot, and having worshiped the 
 earth, raised an altar and sacrificed to the 
 gods. At the same moment he vanished, 
 with those who accompanied him. 
 
 " Meanwhile, those who had remained in 
 the vessel, finding he did not return, de- 
 scended and began to seek him, calling 
 him by name. But they saw Xisuthros no 
 more. A voice from heaven, however, 
 was heard, commanding that they should 
 be pious toward the gods, and telling 
 them that he had received the reward of 
 his piety, by being carried away to dwell 
 henceforth in the midst of the gods, and 
 that his wife, his daughter, and the pilot 
 of the ship, shared the same honor. The 
 voice further said that they were to return 
 to Babylon, and dig up the writings buried 
 at Sippara in order to transmit them to 
 after generations. The country in which 
 they found themselves was Armenia. They, 
 then, having heard the voice, sacrificed to 
 the gods and returned on foot to Babylon. 
 Of the vessel of Xisuthros, a portion is 
 still to be found in the Gordyan Mountains 
 in Armenia, and pilgrims bring thence 
 asphalt which they have scraped from its 
 fragments. It is used to keep off the in- 
 fluence of witchcraft." 
 
 The other version, which is still more 
 interesting, is written on cuneiform tables 
 exhumed from the library of Assurbani- 
 pal, at Ninive, and preserved in the 
 British Museum, at London. These tab- 
 lets were copied in the seventh century 
 B. c. from a very ancient copy, which 
 came from Erech, in Chaldea. The date 
 of the original is unknown. However, 
 George Smith makes it go back to at least 
 seventeen centuries b. c. The account of 
 
 the Deluge is only an episode of an epopee 
 in twelve cantos, which relate the exploits 
 of the hero Gilgames. There is a picture 
 of him on the eleventh tablet and it con- 
 stitutes the eleventh chant, which exists 
 almost entirely. Gilgames had gone to 
 his ancestor, Samas-napistim, in a far-away 
 country and difficult of access, whither 
 the gods had transported him to make him 
 enjoy an eternal happiness. Samas-nap- 
 istim relates to his grandson the history of 
 the Deluge and of his own preservation. 
 The city of Surippak, on the Euphrates, 
 was already very ancient, when the gods 
 resolved upon a deluge. Ea revealed his 
 design to Samas-napistim and ordered 
 him to build a vessel, whose dimensions 
 he indicated to him, and he suggested to 
 him the answer to give to the questions of 
 the inhabitants of Surippak. Samas-nap- 
 istim was to tell them that he wished to fly 
 before the wrath of Bel, who soon would in- 
 undate the country. The vessel completed, 
 Samas-napistim offered a sacrifice, gath- 
 ered together his riches and caused to 
 enter into the ship his servants, male and 
 female, the cattle of the fields and seeds of 
 life. As soon as the rain fell, he himself 
 entered into the vessel, and shut its door. 
 The storm raised by the gods was so fright- 
 ful that they themselves were alarmed. 
 Mankind became again the slime of earth. 
 The wind, the deluge, and the storm 
 reigned seven days and seven nights. On 
 the seventh day, at dawn, it stopped raining, 
 the sea became quiet and the wind calm. 
 The light having reappeared, Samas- 
 napistim beheld no land ; the whole was 
 a watery desert. His vessel was stopped 
 by the mountain of Nizir and could not 
 pass over it. After being seven days thus 
 anchored, Samas-napistim sent out a dove, 
 which went, circled about, and, finding no 
 place to alight, came back. A swallow did 
 the same. A raven did not return. Then 
 Samas-napistim sent out the animals 
 from the vessel and offered to the gods 
 a sacrifice of an agreeable odor. Bel was 
 filled with anger against the gods because 
 Samas-napistim had been preserved. Ea 
 reproached Bel for his passion and advised 
 him to punish in future only the guilty, 
 instead of sending upon earth a universal 
 deluge. Bel, becoming appeased, caused 
 to enter into the vessel Samas-napistim 
 and his wife, blessed them, conferred upon 
 them itnmortality, and made them to 
 dwell "at the mouth of rivers." (See 
 George Smith's Assyrian Discoveries.) 
 
Deluge 
 
 243 
 
 Deluge 
 
 This legend presents, with the Biblical 
 account of the Deluge, numerous points of 
 contact. The resemblances existing in the 
 general progress of the narrative, in the 
 order of composition, and sometimes even 
 in the details of the style, render the rela- 
 tionship of both documents unquestion- 
 able. Notable divergences, however, are 
 apparent. Without speaking of the poly- 
 theistic and mythological character of the 
 Chaldean poem, the latter has been com- 
 posed among a maritime people and car- 
 ries the imprint of the morals and customs 
 of the inhabitants of the Persian gulf, 
 while Genesis describes the Deluge for a 
 continental people. If the analogies prove 
 the community of foundation, the diver- 
 gences, which are characteristic, establish 
 the peculiar individuality of both accounts. 
 As to the original relations of both tradi- 
 tions, the critics are not in agreement. 
 Some admit the dependence of both docu- 
 ments, Hebrew and Chaldean, or at least 
 of the two traditions which they represent. 
 In the eyes of certain rationalistic critics, 
 who lower the date of the Pentateuch, the 
 account of Genesis would be a direct and 
 quite late borrowing from the cuneiform 
 poem; it would be only a purified edition 
 thereof, an adaptation to the religious 
 ideas of the Hebrews and a monotheistic 
 and much abbreviated transformation. 
 The borrowing, if there was any, did not 
 take place in a recent epoch, and it is not 
 the work of one man, but the work of sev- 
 eral generations. The transformation of 
 the Chaldean legends was done by the He- 
 brews in their popular tradition before the 
 account was reproduced in the Biblical doc- 
 uments. " Nothing prevents us from as- 
 serting that the history of the Deluge had 
 been known to the ancestors of Israel dur- 
 ing their sojourn in Mesopotamia, and that 
 it had been preserved, becoming modified 
 and purified, among the descendants of 
 Abraham until the moment when we find 
 it fixed in the Biblical texts." (A.Loisy, 
 Les Mythes Chaldeen de la Creation et 
 du DSluge, p. 93.) But other critics 
 acknowledge with more probability in 
 the Chaldean legend and in the Mosaic 
 narrative two parallel accounts, sprung 
 from a common and primitive tradition 
 more or less faithfully preserved. They 
 represent two independent forms, national 
 and localized by the Semitic tradition. 
 They are sister traditions, which, under 
 the empire of physical and moral, ethnical 
 and geographical causes, have become di- 
 
 versified. The mother tradition has been 
 better preserved in the account of Moses 
 than in the Babylonian document, where it 
 became disfigured by the mythological al- 
 terations. 
 
 2. Other Diluvian Traditions. — Tradi- 
 tions in regard to the Deluge are found 
 among most of the nations. All of them 
 bear a likeness to the account of Genesis, 
 but with divergences of views which have 
 given rise to three different interpretations : 
 (i) According to one, the diluvian tradi- 
 tion is universal, and all the nations have 
 kept the remembrance of the Noachian 
 Deluge. The existence of this remem- 
 brance has already been proven among 
 most of them, and if a nation seems to have 
 this no longer, it is because it has not yet 
 furnished all its traditions, or because it 
 has lost that of the Deluge in consequence 
 of migration, mixture with other popu- 
 lations, or on account of some other his- 
 torical circumstance. Now, all these dilu- 
 vian traditions are more or less mutilated 
 fragments of the sole and true primitive 
 tradition. The transformations which they 
 have undergone are explained by the local 
 adaptation of the cataclysm, and were pro- 
 duced by restriction. The event, general 
 and universal as it was, became local, par- 
 ticular, and restricted. (2) A critical and 
 scientific study of these remembrancesof the 
 Deluge enables us to distinguish the real 
 diluvian traditions, which have reference 
 to the Noachian Deluge, from the pseudo- 
 diluvian traditions, which have reference 
 to local inundations. The really diluvian 
 traditions are either original and aboriginal, 
 that is, having their origin in the countries 
 where they are preserved and peculiar to 
 the peoples that hold them, or else imported 
 by foreigners into the region where we find 
 them, and consequently borrowed. Now, 
 if the diluvian tradition is not absolutely 
 universal, it exists in all the great races 
 of mankind, except one, the negro race, 
 among whom researches have been made 
 in vain for some trace thereof. The Aryan 
 or Indo-European races, Semitic or Syro- 
 Arabic, Chamite or Cushite races, have their 
 own diluvian tradition and have not bor- 
 rowed from one another; among them it is 
 primitive. The yellow race possesses it, but 
 by importation. The American populations 
 know it, but we cannot tell with certainty 
 whether their traditions are original or 
 whether they are of Asiatic or European 
 importation. In the number of pseudo- 
 diluvian legends, we can rank the deluges 
 
Deluge 
 
 244 
 
 Deluge 
 
 of Ogyges and of Deucalion, the great in- 
 undation placed by the historical books of 
 China under the reign of Yao, and the 
 legend of Botchica, among the Muyscas of 
 South America. (3) Finally, other critics 
 draw still more rigorously the conclusions 
 from the critical study of the diluvian tra- 
 ditions, and end by acknowledging as 
 really diluvian and aboriginal only the 
 Chaldean tradition. It was imported from 
 Mesopotamia, — they say, — its native coun- 
 trv, into the neighboring countries ; it be- 
 came the stem and has brought forth the 
 Hebrew, Phoenician, Syrian, Arabic, Phryg- 
 ian, and Armenian branches. The antero- 
 Asiatic traditions are the only really 
 diluvian ; all the others are pseudo-diluvian 
 traditions. Be this as it may, even if 
 we reduce the really diluvian traditions 
 to a minimum, the fact of the Deluge re- 
 mains historically certain. Its historical 
 certitude rests upon a group of real tradi- 
 tions, which have transmitted to us the 
 remembrance of the great cataclysm that 
 struck mankind at the beginning of history. 
 3. Geology. — The first geologists be- 
 lieved that in the strata of the terrestrial 
 surface they had direct proofs of the sub- 
 mersion of the globe in an historical epoch, 
 and they attributed to the Mosaic Deluge 
 the formation of alluvial soils, which in 
 consequence thereof they named diluvium. 
 Their opinion is generally abandoned to- 
 day. The contemporary geologists ac- 
 knowledge that an inundation like the 
 Noachian Deluge, which lasted only one 
 year, could not leave on the soil traces 
 durable enough to be recognized with cer- 
 tainty centuries after, nor characteristic 
 enough to be distinguished from those of 
 other foregoing inundations. The phe- 
 nomena which their predecessors regarded 
 as geological proofs of the Deluge they 
 refer to anterior epochs, and explain them 
 through the action of other causes. They 
 have established, indeed, that there are 
 several kinds of diluvium, and in each of 
 them several layers due to different factors 
 and referring to distant epochs. They 
 have been produced by a long series of 
 revolutions in which water plays an im- 
 portant, but not an exclusive role. The 
 alluvial gravels, which constitute the gray 
 diluvium, have been carried away from 
 the mountains into the valleys by water 
 currents more powerful than our existing 
 rivers and flowing under other conditions 
 of slope and level. The loess is due to 
 torrents formed by very heavy rains, which 
 
 graded down the slopes and carried away 
 fine clay and fragments of stone. The red 
 diluvium is the result of alternatives of 
 frost and thaw on the surface of a soil 
 constantly frozen in its depths. (A. de 
 Lapparent, Traite de geologic.) The er- 
 ratic blocks, those immense rocks trans- 
 ported hundreds of miles from the 
 mountains from which they had been torn, 
 have not been rolled b^' the waters, for 
 their angles are neither broken nor 
 rounded, but have been carried along by 
 the immense glaciers which in the Qua- 
 ternary times covered a part of the globe. 
 The caves and fissures of rocks filled 
 with human and animal bones strongly 
 cemented together and mingled with frag- 
 ments of the surrounding rocks were 
 formed in the time when the excessive 
 cold obliged the inhabitants of Europe to 
 seek shelter in the caves. Their bones 
 became heaped up with those of animals 
 for whom these grottoes served as haunts, 
 and the whole became soldered through 
 the action of the water which infiltrated. 
 The bone caves and the osseous breccia are 
 not, therefore, any more than the diluvial 
 grounds and the erratic blocks, certain 
 proofs of the Noachian Deluge. However, 
 geology, which does not confirm directly 
 the existence of the Deluge, does not con- 
 tradict it. It even shows its possibility, 
 when it establishes the traces of consider- 
 able inundations in the Tertiary and 
 Quaternary times. Therefore, the Biblical 
 Deluge cannot be declared unscientific nor 
 impossible. 
 
 III. Extent of the Deluge. — The 
 Biblical text presents the Deluge as uni- 
 versal ; but this universality has been 
 understood in three different ways, and the 
 inundation has been held as universal: (i) 
 As to the surface of the globe. (2) As to 
 the earth inhabited by men. (3) As to the 
 region occupied by only a portion of man- 
 kind. Hence there are three opinions in 
 regard to the extent of the cataclysm : The . 
 first admits the absolute and geographical 
 universality of the Deluge ; the second its 
 anthropological universality; the third its 
 universality restricted to a fraction of 
 mankind. 
 
 I. Absolute and Geographical Uni- 
 versality. — Most of the ancient ecclesias- 
 tical writers, fathers, doctors, theologians, 
 and commentators, believed that the Del- 
 uge had been complete in the widest sense 
 of the word, and that it had covered the 
 whole earth. They gave to the Mosaic 
 
Deluge 
 
 245 
 
 Deluge 
 
 account the meaning which it presents at 
 first sight, and they understood it to be an 
 inundation which had submerged the 
 globe and destroyed every animal and 
 every man. The terms employed by Moses 
 appeared to them as allowing of no other 
 exception than that which they indicate, 
 and which relate to Noe and his family. 
 The absolute universality of the Deluge is 
 described in Genesis in very strong and 
 very precise terms, and the text is so clear 
 that for centuries it has been understood 
 in this sense. Nothing indicates that the 
 universality of the cataclysm must be re- 
 stricted, and the context, from the fact 
 that it excepts Noe and that it excepts no 
 other person, excludes all restrictive inter- 
 pretation. God, in fact, had resolved to 
 produce the Deluge in order to destroy all 
 flesh that was under heaven. Representa- 
 tives of every species of the terrestrial 
 animals were gathered into the ark for the 
 preservation of the species upon earth. 
 The waters inundate everything and cover 
 the highest mountains. All flesh perishes, 
 and the only living beings left are those 
 which are shut up in the ark. God prom- 
 ised to Noe that there shall never be 
 another deluge to destroy all flesh. Now, 
 there have been since partial deluges, that 
 of Deucalion among the Greeks and the 
 great inundation of the Chinese. If the 
 Noachian Deluge had not been universal, 
 God, therefore, would have violated His 
 promise. The pledge which he has given, 
 the rainbow, can be seen in all countries. 
 It is universal. Therefore, the Deluge, 
 whose sign it is, must have been universal. 
 In presence of such a formal text the ob- 
 jections drawn from physical sciences 
 against the absolute universality of the Del- 
 uge have little value; and even if reason 
 could not sufliciently solve them, the faith 
 of the Christian would not be shaken. For 
 God, who had regulated all in view of a 
 universal catastrophe, had power enough 
 to realize eflfects which science is incapable 
 of explaining. Besides, the difficulties 
 which an absolutely universal deluge raises 
 are not as strong as they are sometimes 
 imagined, and it is not certain that the 
 quantity of existing water was not sufficient 
 for the general submersion of the globe, 
 especially if we admit that the irruption of 
 the seas on the continents did not take 
 place everywhere at the same time, but 
 successively covered all the countries of 
 the world. The absolute universality of 
 the Deluge is confirmed by a passage of 
 
 the Second Epistle of St. Peter, iii. 6 and 
 7. The Apostle compares the Deluge with 
 the universal conflagration which will take 
 place at the end of time. Then the world 
 will perish by fire as it perished at a former 
 time by water. The comparison between 
 the two catastrophes exists only under the 
 relation of extent ; it would be inexact if 
 both had not the same universality. These 
 exegetical arguments, joined to the unani- 
 mous interpretation of the ancients and the 
 universality of the diluvial traditions, have 
 determined some modern exegetists to 
 admit that the deluge covered the entire 
 earth and destroyed all men and all 
 animals. 
 
 2. Relative and Anthropological Uni- 
 versality. — Many commentators and theo- 
 logians of our day believe that the 
 Noachian Deluge must be restricted to the 
 portion of the earth that was colonized 
 when it took place. According to them, 
 all men, except the family of Noe, were 
 engulfed in the floods ; but the inundation 
 did not cover the whole globe nor destroy 
 all the animals. The universality of the 
 Deluge is neither geographical nor zoolog- 
 ical; it is only anthropologically univer- 
 sal. 
 
 This interpretation appears to them 
 necessary in order to cut short the grave 
 objections which zoology and physics raise 
 against the absolute universality of the Del- 
 uge. The placing in the ark, which was pro- 
 portionately insufficient, of all the animal 
 species known to-day and of the provisions 
 necessary for their varied nourishment 
 during a year; the care required for their 
 keeping and for the providing of which 
 there were only eight persons ; the neces- 
 sity for the animals that had come from 
 different zones to accommodate themselves 
 to a uniform temperature ; the restocking 
 of the entire globe, at a time when no 
 traces are left of the migrations of animals 
 peculiar to America and Oceania, — for in- 
 stance, at a time in which the fauna has 
 always been localized, and when certain 
 animal species have never existed outside 
 their respective zones ; the preservation of 
 the fresh water fishes and of salt water fishes 
 in the mixture of rain and river water with 
 that of seas, — all this causes insurmount- 
 able difficulties. On the other hand, in 
 the domain of physics, we can hardly ex- 
 plain the production of the immense mass 
 of water necessary to inundate the entire 
 globe. The quantity of the water known 
 is insufficient. Even without keeping 
 
Deluge 
 
 246 
 
 Deluge 
 
 account of the cre^aces and sinkings of the 
 earthly surface, it needed, above the level 
 of the sea, a volume of water of a depth 
 equal to the height of the most elevated 
 peak of the Himalayas, /. e., a height of 
 more than 29,000 feet. Admitting that 
 there was sufficient water, the simultane- 
 ous submersion of both hemispheres would 
 be physically impossible. Such a submer- 
 sion would bring on a change in the atmos- 
 phere that would modify the conditions of 
 life upon earth. To have recourse to the 
 divine almighty power to explain these 
 impossibilities is to multiply the miracles 
 which the sacred account does not mention 
 and which the principles of a wise exegesis 
 do not permit us to introduce uselessly. 
 
 Besides, the text of Genesis can be in- 
 terpreted legitimately b}- restraining the 
 limits of the inundation. The general and 
 absolute expressions, "all living flesh 
 under heaven, all that exists upon earth ; 
 all the high mountains under the whole 
 heaven" (Gen. vi. 17; vii. 19), must be 
 understood according to the genius pe- 
 culiar to the Oriental languages. Now 
 the Orientals often employ the hyperbole, 
 not only in their poetical writings, but 
 even in their historical books, and nothing 
 is more frequent in the Bible than to 
 designate determined countries by the 
 words "the whole earth." The famine 
 which reigned in the time of Jacob in the 
 neighboring countries of Palestine and 
 Egypt prevailed over "the whole earth" 
 (Gen. xli. 54, 56, 57). The entering of the 
 Israelites into Palestine causes fear among 
 all the nations that dwell under the whole 
 heaven (Deut. ii. 25), that is, among all 
 the neighboring peoples. So also in Deut. 
 xi. 25, and in II. Par. xx. 29. All the 
 earth that desired to see Soloman(III. Ki. 
 X. 24) was only the part that had heard 
 mention of him. At the first Christian 
 Pentecost, there were at Jerusalem men of 
 every nation under heaven, that is, Jews of 
 all the countries of the dispersion. The 
 ancient exegetists remarked among the 
 Biblical writers the use of absolute and 
 general terms to express particular facts 
 (St. Jerome, In Isaiam, xiii. 5). It is, 
 therefore, permitted to apply to the ac- 
 count of the Deluge in Genesis this 
 method of restriction, which is necessary 
 in other Biblical passages. Besides, this 
 account presents positive indications of 
 restriction. The dove did not find where 
 her foot might rest, for the waters were 
 upon the whole earth (Gen. viii. 9). The 
 
 traveling bird had evidently not flown over 
 the entire globe, and "all the earth" 
 simply designates here the space which 
 the dove had explored. Finally, in the 
 interpretation of the Biblical account, we 
 must keep account of the subjective point 
 of view of the narrator and readers. Now, 
 Noe and his descendants, as well as Moses 
 and his contemporaries, did not know the 
 entire globe; their geographical knowl- 
 edge was limited. The account of the 
 Deluge, for a long time transmitted by 
 oral tradition and finally consigned to 
 writing, is conformable to their knowledge. 
 It referred only to the country then known 
 by them, to the mountains which they had 
 seen, to the animals which surrounded 
 them and of which they had heard. It is, 
 therefore, legitimate to restrain the sacred 
 text to the lands inhabited, and, in spite 
 of contrary appearances, this restriction is 
 not in contradiction with the narrative of 
 Moses. As to the words of St. Peter, 
 they would signify, if taken rigorously, 
 that the earth was destroyed by water in 
 the time of the Deluge, as it will be 
 destroyed by fire at the end of time. How- 
 ever, the aim of the Apostle is not to com- 
 pare the two catastrophes from the point 
 of view of the extent, but only from the 
 point of view of the certainty of the fact, 
 and of the effects produced. 
 
 The restriction of the universality- of the 
 Deluge to the lands inhabited is not op- 
 posed to ecclesisastical tradition, which 
 has not acknowledged without exception 
 the absolute universality of the inundation. 
 The anonymous author of the ^uestiones ct 
 Responsiones ad Orthodoxos (q. xxxiv.), re- 
 futes some ancient writers who maintained 
 that the Deluge did not invade all the 
 earth, but only the countries which men 
 inhabited at that time. Theodore of Mop- 
 suestia held this opinion, as John Philipon, 
 in the seventh century, tells us (De Mundi 
 Creatione, 1. i., c. xiii., in Gallandius, 
 Bibliotheca Veferum Patrum, Venice, Vol. 
 XII.) (1778), p. 486. Cardinal Cajetan ( In 
 Genrsim, viii. 18) excluded the summits of 
 the highest mountains. In the second half 
 of the seventeenth century, three Protes- 
 tant writers taught the restricted univer- 
 sality of the Deluge. Isaac Vossius {De 
 Vera yEtate Mun'ii) became the champion 
 of this theory and answered the objections 
 of George Horn ( Castigationes ad 
 Ohjecta Georgii Hornii, et Auctuarium 
 CastigatiotiHtn ad Scriptum de yEtate 
 Mundi. The Hague, 1569 ). Abraham 
 
Deluge 
 
 247 
 
 Deluge 
 
 van der Mill put forth the same opinion in 
 a writing published later on (Z>e Origine 
 Animalium et Mtgratione Populorum, 
 Geneva, 1667). His son-in-law, Andrew 
 Colvius, communicated the manuscript of 
 his father-in-law to Vossius, who addressed 
 a letter to him: Ad Andream Colvium 
 Epistola qua Refellunttir Argumenta qucB 
 Diversi Scripto de .^tate Miindi Oppo- 
 suere (The Hague, 1659). An anonymous 
 dissertation {De Diluvii Universalitate 
 Dissertatio Prolusoria, 1667), attributed 
 to George-Gaspard Kirchmeier, restricts 
 the Deluge to all Asia, the only part of 
 the world which men occupied at that 
 time. In 1685, the works of Vossius and of 
 Horn on the Biblical chronology and the 
 Deluge were examined by the Congrega- 
 tion of the Index. Mabillon, who then 
 happened to be staying in Rome, was con- 
 sulted on the subject, and, in the session 
 of January 29th, 1686, he read his Votum 
 de !^uibusdam Isaaci Vossii Opusculis 
 (published in \\.\?, Posthumous Works (1724), 
 Vol. II, p. 59-74). Of the three points 
 incriminated, he studied only the last, the 
 only one contestable, namely, that which 
 concerns the extent of the Deluge. He de- 
 tailed the reasons that were favorable and 
 unfavorable, and concluded that according 
 to his opinion, there was no danger in 
 tolerating the view of Vossius, and that it 
 is best not to censure it. When, however, 
 the Congregation judged it wiser to con- 
 demn it, it had to strike at the same time 
 the works of Horn. The Congregation kept 
 account of the conclusions of Mabillon, and 
 by a decree of July 2d, 1686, condemned 
 at once ten short treatises of Vossius 
 and two of Horn. The motives of the 
 censure are unknown It may be pre- 
 sumed that the opinion of the Deluge re- 
 stricted to the inhabited earth was not 
 directly attacked, and that the decree pro- 
 hibits only the reading of works of Prot- 
 estant writers. Be this as it may. This 
 opinion of the Deluge being restricted to 
 the inhabited earth was taken up again, 
 and is held by many Catholics to-day. 
 Certainly it is maintainable and does not 
 appear to be contrary to orthodoxy. 
 
 3. Universality Restricted to a Part of 
 Mankind. — Other savants, among whom 
 are some Catholic writers, restrict the 
 Deluge still more, and say that not all 
 men perished by the Flood, but that entire 
 races, long ago removed from the theatre of 
 inundation, were preserved. These races 
 would be, according to several, those 
 
 which had sprung forth from Cain, and 
 only the descendants of Seth would have 
 been struck by the Deluge. Some even 
 believe that the populations outside the 
 valley of the Euphrates were spared. This 
 opinion rests upon the same reasons as the 
 second, of which it is only a more rigorous 
 application. It avoids the scientific diffi- 
 culties which paleontology, ethnology, and 
 linguistics, oppose to the existence of a 
 deluge which would have engulfed all 
 men. A multitude of facts, becoming 
 more numerous every day, permits us to 
 affirm that since the Quaternary times man 
 has occupied the four parts of the world, 
 that he reached the extremities of the an- 
 cient world, and that he touched those of 
 the new. Now the paleontologists do not 
 discover, by the fossil bones of men, in 
 the history of the races, the breaks or 
 gaps which the Deluge would necessarily 
 have left therein. As far back as the 
 historic monuments go, the existence of 
 white, yellow, and black races is estab- 
 lished. The negro appears with his dis- 
 tinctive characteristics on the most ancient 
 monuments of Egypt. Since the variations 
 were produced slowly under the influence 
 of the surroundings, "the most ancient 
 races formed themselves, according to all 
 appearance, in consequence of the changes 
 our globe has undergone and of the first 
 migrations." (A. de Quatrefages, His- 
 toire Generale des Races, p. 169.) Lin- 
 guistics confirm the conclusions of 
 ethnology. The languages, if we admit 
 their natural formation, would not have 
 had time to become diversified from the 
 time of the Deluge until the epoch when 
 we see them all formed. The stretching 
 out of the Biblical chronology of the 
 Deluge until Abraham is insufficient to 
 explain entirely the established facts. 
 Therefore, these facts justify the restriction 
 of the Deluge to a portion of mankind. 
 
 Besides, this restriction can be perfectly 
 reconciled with the account of Genesis. 
 If, by the avowal of the followers of the 
 anthropological universality, the expres- 
 sions apparently so absolute, " all the 
 earth, all animals," can be legitimately in- 
 terpreted in a restrictive sense, the similar 
 expression, " all men," in the same con- 
 text, may also be understood of a portion 
 of mankind, of individuals who inhabited 
 the theatre of the catastrophe. To refuse 
 to admit the restriction of the word all 
 when there is question of men, when one 
 admits it for the earth and animals, would 
 
Deluge 
 
 248 
 
 Deluge 
 
 be an inconsequence which nothing could 
 justify. There are as many motives to re- 
 strict the universality to mankind as to the 
 earth and animals. The moral corruption, 
 which was the cause of the Deluge, was 
 not absolutely universal, except in the 
 country where Noe lived. The narrative 
 of Genesis relates the facts according to 
 the ordinary manner of speaking, accord- 
 ing to which " all the earth " designates 
 the country submerged by the waters ; 
 "all men" the inhabitants of this country. 
 On the other hand. Genesis is not the 
 history of mankind, but only that of the 
 ancestors of God's people. For, in its 
 narrative of the Deluge, it left out of its 
 purview entire races descended from the 
 sons and daughters of Adam and the 
 other patriarchs. Its account of the Del- 
 uge, which besides has a well-marked local 
 color, speaks no longer of these races and 
 has in view only the inhabitants of the 
 country where the facts occurred. Finally, 
 by the avowal of all, the ethnographic 
 table of the tenth chapter of Genesis is 
 not complete, and makes no mention of the 
 yellow, red, and black races. These races 
 undoubtedly derive their origin from indi- 
 viduals who did not belong to Noe's line. 
 The Abbe Motais (Le Deluge Bibliquc, p. 
 301-33) believed that he had found in the 
 Pentateuch traces of the survivors of the 
 Deluge, and he named the Cainites, the 
 Amalekites, the Sodomites, and the giant 
 populations of Palestine, the Emim, the 
 Zomzommim, the Avorim and the Horim. 
 But these traces are hardly probable. 
 
 To this interpretation the defenders of 
 the universality of the Deluge as to man- 
 kind object, not without foundation, that 
 the Biblical account contains various 
 features which are directly and positively 
 opposed to all restriction of the cataclysm 
 to a portion of mankind. The man that 
 God desires to destroy by the Deluge is 
 the man that He has created, and whom 
 He repents of having made (Gen. vi. 5-8) ; 
 hence it is all mankind and not merely a 
 portion. Besides, Noe, after leaving the 
 ark, is represented as the father and 
 chief of all men that shall live after the 
 Deluge (Gen. ix. i, 19). Finally, the plan 
 of Genesis does not necessarily eliminate 
 before the sixth chapter the children of 
 Cain and the other descendants of the 
 patriarchs outside the principal line, which 
 must be that of God's people. This line- 
 age is completely isolated only at the he- 
 ginning of the history of Abraham. To 
 
 the third opinion, is also opposed the Bib- 
 lical texts which are quoted outside of 
 Genesis, and which affirm that all men 
 perished in the cataclysm. But " the hope 
 of the world fleeing to a vessel, which was 
 governed by thy hand, left to the world 
 seed of generation " (Wis. xiv. 6), may be 
 understood of Noe, father of the postdilu- 
 vian men, even in the hypothesis of other 
 surviving races. " Noe was found perfect, 
 just, and in the time of wrath he was made 
 a reconciliation. Therefore was there a 
 remnant left to the earth, when the flood 
 came" (Ecclus. xliv. 17, 18). When our 
 Saviour Jesus Christ compares the end of 
 the world with the Deluge, which carried 
 ofT, if not all men, at least all the voluptu- 
 ous of the time (Matt. xxiv. 37-39), His 
 comparison has reference not to the uni- 
 versality of the victims, but to the unex- 
 pected character of the Deluge and of the 
 last judgment, and He only savs : "In 
 spite of the admonitions and certain signs, 
 the contemporaries of Noe were surprised 
 by the Deluge, which exterminated them 
 all." When St. Peter speaks of the eight 
 souls that were saved in the ark (I. Pet. 
 iii. 19, 20), his purpose was not to prove 
 the necessity of universality of baptism, 
 but its efficaciousness. He compares the 
 water of baptism with that of the Deluge 
 in so far as it saves, not in so far as it de- 
 stroys; and he affirms that all the baptized 
 will be saved as certainly as were saved 
 the small number of souls that were con- 
 tained in the ark at the time of the Deluge. 
 When the same Apostle says that God did 
 not spare the primitive world and saved 
 only Noe, the eighth person, that is, seven 
 other persons with him. bringing in the 
 flood upon the world of the ungodly (II. 
 Pet ii. 5-7), we can explain his words as 
 referring to the world in the midst of 
 which was living Noe the preacher of jus- 
 tice. Therefore, these texts neither prove 
 for nor against the ethnographic univer- 
 salit)' of the Deluge. 
 
 If to the third opinion is objected the 
 unanimous accord with which the Fathers 
 acknowledge the anthropological univer- 
 sality of the Deluge, its followers answer 
 that we are permitted to deviate from the 
 common sentiment of the Fathers in re- 
 gard to this point as legitimately as to the 
 subject of the geographical and zoological 
 universality. They say, it is true, that the 
 testimony of the Fathers in regard to the 
 inundation of the globe and to the de- 
 struction of the animals does not consti- 
 
Deluge 
 
 249 
 
 Deluge 
 
 tute an ecclesiastical teaching, while it 
 affirms the destruction of mankind as a 
 point of faith, as a truth connected with 
 faith, because it gives it as a basis to a cer- 
 tain type, to the figurative meaning of the 
 ark, representing the Church, outside of 
 which there is no salvation. The exist- 
 ence of the type is unquestionable. But it 
 is not from the nature of the type that 
 there is an equation between it and the 
 antitype which it represents. A relatively 
 universal fact may serve as type to an abso- 
 lutely universal fact. The house of Rahab 
 is considered by the Fathers as a figure of 
 the Church, outside of which there is no 
 salvation. The eight persons who were 
 in the ark represented all the saved. The 
 contemporaries of Noe, the only inhabit- 
 ants of the country submerged, may rep- 
 resent all those outside the Church who 
 will be damned, without the typical 
 meaning of the Deluge losing any of its 
 value. The relative universality as to men 
 is therefore sufficient to maintain the truth 
 of the type. The Fathers, it is true, sup- 
 port themselves upon the absolute univer- 
 sality of the destruction of men. However, 
 they did not make this a necessary condi- 
 tion of the prophetic type ; they did not 
 expressly exclude the relative universality, 
 and their manner of expressing themselves 
 does not exclude it in an equivalent man- 
 ner. Therefore, they have not authori- 
 tatively decided a question which did not 
 propose itself to them. 
 
 If the third opinion cannot quote in its 
 favor the authority of the ancients, it 
 counts, however, many followers. It is 
 not altogether new. Jerome Oleaster, a 
 Dominican, admitted that the Cinites 
 (Num. xxiv. 21) descended from Cain. 
 Isaac de la Peyrere restricted the Deluge 
 to Palestine. August Malbert, Fredr. 
 Klee, Ch. Schoebel, Omalius d'Halloy, 
 Motais, do the same. A great number of 
 writers, without positively adopting it, 
 hold it as maintainable and probable. If 
 science should be able to establish by a 
 rigorous demonstration, or by an ensemble 
 of precise and convergent indications, the 
 anthropological nonuniversality of the 
 Deluge, we could admit that the Biblical 
 account is not opposed to this view. But, 
 up to the present, science has not estab- 
 lished this fact, and we can satisfy its 
 actual legitimate claims by removing fur- 
 ther back the date of the Deluge. There- 
 fore, it is not necessary to adopt the 
 opinion which restricts the Deluge to only 
 
 a portion of mankind. We would be con- 
 strained to do this only were the non- 
 universality to become an incontestable 
 truth, and we could do so, because faith 
 does not teach anything to the contrary. 
 Meanwhile, it is wise and prudent to ad- 
 here to the second opinion. 
 
 IV. Nature of the Deluge. — As 
 long as people admitted the absolute uni- 
 versality of the Deluge, they beheved in 
 its miraculous character. A direct inter- 
 vention of God was, indeed, necessary to 
 explain the submersion of the entire globe, 
 and the absolute universality of the inun- 
 dation carries with it as the logical con- 
 sequence a miraculous origin. The ancient 
 exegetists might hesitate and fail to agree 
 as to the precise point when the immediate 
 action of God made itself felt; they were 
 unanimous in acknowledging in the Bibli- 
 cal Deluge a fact produced outside the 
 ordinary laws of nature, a miraculous 
 fact. But since they commenced to re- 
 strict the inundation to determined limits, 
 either to the region which men then occu- 
 pied, or to the countries known by the 
 Hebrews, or to some particular land, it 
 has appeared as an event provoked un- 
 doubtedly by a special intention of God, 
 but realized by natural forces ; as a fact 
 providential in its aim, miraculous in its 
 prophetic announcement, but natural in its 
 mode of production. There is room, 
 then, to ask whether the Deluge was pro- 
 duced by a direct intervention of God, or 
 whether it has been the effect of physical 
 causes merely directed by Providence. 
 
 The prophetic' announcement of the 
 catastrophe does not prove that the cata- 
 clysm itself was miraculous. Other events, 
 announced in the Bible as divine ven- 
 geance, as exemplary chastisements, have 
 been phenomena entirely natural in them- 
 selves. The destruction of Jerusalem, 
 foretold by Jesus Christ with details more 
 circumstantial than those of the Deluge, 
 was nevertheless realized by natural and 
 human agencies. All the prophesied facts 
 are not miracles. In order that prophecy 
 may be realized, God does not need to der- 
 ogate from the natural laws ; it is enough 
 that, without affecting their regular func- 
 tions. He directs them towards the end 
 He has in view, and that the physical 
 causes act spontaneously at the moment 
 He has fixed. God certainly intervened, 
 when He directed Noe to leave the ark 
 (Gen. viii. 15-17), and when he contracted 
 with him a new covenant (Gen. viii, 21, 
 
Demas 
 
 250 
 
 Denmark 
 
 22; ix. 1-17). But we can maintain that 
 His direct action did not malie itself felt 
 in the production of the inundation. 
 While the Chaldean legend of the Del- 
 uge makes the gods intervene in the very 
 execution of the inundation, the account 
 of Genesis, which shows God acting be- 
 fore and after the event, does not speak of 
 His action in the realization of the cata- 
 clysm. It expressly indicates the physical 
 causes which entered into play, a torrential 
 rain and the invasion of the sea on the 
 continent (Gen. vii. 11-12), without put- 
 ting them into the hands of God. The 
 progress and the decrease of the inundation 
 are also presented as effecting themselves 
 naturally (Gen. vii. 17-19, 24, and viii. 
 2-14). The whole course of the inundation 
 is therefore described in Genesis as natural. 
 The indications of the direct action of 
 God in the realization of the Deluge, 
 which some have believed they found in 
 the account of Moses, are neither certain 
 nor evident. The reading of the Italic 
 version: '■'■ Intrahunt ad /<?," instead of 
 '■'■liigredientur tecum " (Gen. vi. 20), ac- 
 cording to which St. Augustine (De Civi- 
 tate Dei, xv. 27) made God intervene in 
 the gathering of the animals, does not 
 correspond with the original text, which 
 simply announces the fact, without indi- 
 cating the mode of its execution. The 
 Vulgate shows God shutting the door of 
 the ark (Gen. vii. 16) ; the Hebrew text 
 savs only that " God shut Noe in." This 
 may simply mean that by His providential 
 action God did not permit anybody, out- 
 side the family of Noe, to find a refuge 
 in the ark. Mute as to all miraculous 
 action, the Biblical text is absolutely 
 formal in favor of natural causes of the 
 inundation. From this we may conclude 
 that, although providential in its end, the 
 Deluge was an event natural in the mode 
 of its realization. This conclusion would 
 be certain, if it were shown that the inun- 
 dation was localized within quite narrow 
 limits, or that mankind was yet little 
 spread. It loses much of its logical force, 
 if men were already scattered in divers 
 parts of the earth. In this case, the in- 
 undation seems to have surpassed the 
 measure of ordinary catastrophes, and to 
 have required the miraculous intervention 
 of God, conformably to the general in- 
 terpretation. 
 
 If the Deluge may be considered as a 
 natural event, it is logical to seek to dis- 
 cover the mode of its realization. Investi- 
 
 gations have not been wanting in this task, 
 and the attempts at scientific explanations 
 may be classified, according to their ten- 
 dencies, into four groups, (i) The cos- 
 mic theories appeal to a change in the 
 position of the axis of the poles. The more 
 or less displacement of the earthly axis 
 would have had for an effect the diversion 
 of all the oceans on the continents and the 
 production of a gigantic bar of water 
 which would have 'nade the tour of the 
 world, passing over the highest mountains. 
 It is difficult to indicate an adequate cause 
 for this sudden displacement of the earthly 
 axis. Some have suggested the shock of a 
 comet and the upheaval of mountains, 
 which might have changed the value of the 
 angle of inclination of the earthly axis on 
 the plane of the ecliptic. (2) The ad- 
 herents of the volcanic theories approach 
 the Deluge with the recent catastrophe of 
 the Sunda Isles, and explain the inundation 
 by an upheaval of sea water, produced by 
 the eruption of a volcano. (3) The hold- 
 ers of the orogenic theories connect the 
 cataclysm with mountainous upheavals or 
 to lowerings like that which swallowed up 
 the Atlantides. (4) The sei.smic theory, 
 supporting itself principally upon the 
 scientific interpretation of the cuneiform 
 legend of the Deluge, explains the inunda- 
 tion by a seismic force or earthquake, 
 which took place at the bottom of the Per- 
 sian Gulf and threw on the plains of Meso- 
 potamia the waves of the sea. A terrible 
 cyclone became united with the eagre, and 
 the seismic wave, and carried the ark from 
 the city of Surippak, situated on the shore 
 of the Euphrates, to the mountains of 
 Nizir. It is impossible to tell which of 
 these theories comes nearest to the truth. 
 Each one of them has something in its 
 favor and all have the merit of showing 
 that the Deluge, which is historically cer- 
 tain, is physically possible. 
 
 Demas. — Disciple of St. Paul, followed 
 and served him at Rome during his cap- 
 tivity ; but left him afterwards to return to 
 his own country of Thessalonica. 
 
 Demiurge. See Gnosticism. 
 
 Demon. See Devil. 
 
 Denarius. See Weights. 
 
 Denmark (Christianity in). See An- 
 
 SCHARIIS. 
 
 Denmark, Norway and Sweden ( the 
 Church in). — Until recently the Northern, 
 
Deo Gratias 
 
 251 
 
 Deuterocanonicals 
 
 or Scandinavian, kingdoms appeared to 
 be the most hopeless of all European 
 countries for the propagation of the Catho- 
 lic faith. The moral degradation of the 
 people and the cruel laws against dis- 
 senters, Catholics especially, were insu- 
 perable obstacles to the progress of the 
 Church in these countries. Conversion to 
 Catholicism was a crime involving con- 
 fiscation of property and banishment in 
 Denmark as well as in Sweden and Nor- 
 way. But now the Church has been re- 
 stored its almost complete liberty, a few 
 restrictive laws, only, remaining unre- 
 pealed. In Denmark, for which mission, 
 in 1892, a vicariate apostolic was estab- 
 lished, the Catholics number over 4,000, 
 with about thirty priests, and eighteen 
 churches and chapels. Twenty-two schools, 
 two orphan asylums, and two hospitals are 
 served by over one hundred sisters, while 
 the Jesuits conduct a flourishing college at 
 Copenhagen. In 1868 the mission of 
 Sweden was erected into a vicariate apos- 
 tolic, and that of Norway, in the year 
 1892. In the former country, there are 
 over 1,300 Catholics, mostly converts, with 
 ten priests and as many churches, and 
 some sixty sisters laboring in three hos- 
 pitals and ten boarding and day schools ; 
 while in Norway, where, until 1815, no 
 Catholic priest could reside under pain of 
 death, there are now over twenty Catholic 
 missionaries, having the care of about 
 1,000 souls, nearly all converts. Some 
 twenty-five sisters have the management 
 of two hospitals and ten schools. It seems, 
 indeed, that both in Denmark and in 
 Sweden the people in many places were 
 well disposed towards the Catholic Church, 
 and converts are rapidly increasing in 
 numbers. 
 
 Deo Gratias. — Latin words which sig 
 nify Thanks be to God, and which serve as 
 the response to several liturgical prayers, 
 particularly at the end of Mass, after 
 the last blessing of the priest, and at the 
 end of meals after the words: "Tu autem 
 Dotnine misere nobis." 
 
 Deposition. See Degradation. 
 
 Derbe. — A small town of Lycaonia, to 
 ■which Sts. Paul and Barnabas fled from 
 Lystra (Acts xiv. 20). It was not far from 
 the pass called the "Cilician Gates." 
 
 Descartes. See Cartksiaxism. 
 
 Desecration. See Profanation. 
 
 Desert. — In Scripture, desert usually 
 means an uncultivated tract or pasture 
 ground, though sometimes, as " the wilder- 
 ness of Juda" (I. Ki. xvii. 28), it denotes 
 an utter waste. The " great and terrible 
 wilderness " of the Sinaitic peninsula has 
 some barren wastes of sand, but in many 
 parts there are plain signs of previous fer- 
 tility. This and the Arabah, through which 
 the Jordan runs, and which extends to the 
 Red Sea, were the chief of the Scripture 
 deserts. 
 
 Deusdedit (name of two Popes). — Deus- 
 dedit I. — Pope from 615 to 618, born at 
 Rome. Deusdedit II. or Adeodatus. — Pope 
 from 672 to 676 ; born at Rome. 
 
 Deuterocanonicals and Protocanonicals. 
 
 — For the first five centuries, and more, 
 after Christianity began, the recognized 
 Canon of inspired Scriptures did not find 
 its way into every part of the Church's 
 wide domain. It happened, therefore, 
 that the leaders of the Christian movement 
 were not correctly informed as to the col- 
 lection which the whole Church acknowl- 
 edged to be God's written word. This, 
 and the fear of confounding any of the 
 canonical Scriptures with the Apocrypha, 
 then in circulation, had the eflfect of caus- 
 ing a few of the highest in authority among 
 the ancient Fathers, to support the divine 
 character of several Old and New Testa- 
 ment books. Scriptures thus challenged 
 are Deuteroranonical, because, the fact of 
 their being actually on the Canon was not 
 generally known until the seventh century. 
 These books and parts of books were 
 ranked as secondary, while the first place 
 was assigned to those Scriptures {Proto- 
 canonical) whose inspiration was never 
 doubted by any one in the Church. Both 
 enjoy the same authority, for both are de- 
 clared to be canonical by the infallible de- 
 crees of the Church. In the New Testa- 
 ment, the Deuterocanonical Scriptures are 
 the Epistle of St. Paul to the Hebrews; 
 the Epistle of St. James; the Epistle of 
 St. Jude; the two Epistles of St. Peter; 
 the three Epistles of St. John, together 
 with his Apocalypse ; the last twelve verses 
 of St. Mark's Gospel; the passage regard- 
 ing our Lord's bloody sweat (Luke xxii.) 
 and the history of the woman taken in 
 adultery (John viii.). In the Old Testa- 
 ment the Deuterocanonical Scriptures 
 are : Tobias, Judith, Wisdom, Ecclesiasti- 
 cus, Baruch, the two books of Machabees, 
 the part of the book of Daniel containing 
 
Deuteronomy 
 
 252 
 
 Devil 
 
 the history of Susanna (xii.), of Bel and the 
 Dragon (xiv.), the Canticle of the three 
 children in the fiery furnace (iii.)i and the 
 last seven chapters of Esther. 
 
 Deuteronomy (fifth book of the Penta- 
 teuch). — This Greek term, which means 
 literally the second la-w, was given to the 
 fifth book of the Pentateuch, because it is 
 to some extent a repetition of what is con- 
 tained in Leviticus, Numbers, and Exodus. 
 In it, Moses, finding his end near, de- 
 livered a farewell address, in which he 
 goes over again all the most prominent 
 enactments in the divine legislation, and 
 concludes with a strong exhortation to 
 fulfill these laws to the letter, since upon 
 this faithful obser\'ance would depend 
 God's special care for them. 
 
 Devil (evil spirit, enemy of men). — The 
 devils are fallen angels condemned by 
 God into hell in order to punish them for 
 their revolt. Sat'an is their chief, and they 
 make constant efforts to turn away from 
 God His whole creation, to pervert the 
 will of men to opposition with the will of 
 God and to destroy the sources of sal- 
 vation and beatitude. The>- tempt man 
 and harass his conscience, or sometimes, 
 in the full possession of himself, by ob- 
 session. They seek to corrupt or destroy 
 what sers'es to benefit man. But they 
 have only an effective power in so far as 
 God grants it to them for the fulfillment 
 of the trial imposed upon man, in view of 
 merit or demerit. The devil is a liar and 
 the father of lying. 
 
 The objections raised against the ex- 
 istence of the devil and against this 
 Catholic doctrine are as follows: i. Are 
 there, and can there be, angels, pure spirits, 
 subsisting outside of matter.? 2. How can 
 we admit that the pure spirits, even after 
 having become bad, can act on the material 
 world and produce the physical phe- 
 nomena attributed to them by Christianity.? 
 When they can do this, why are they not 
 hindered by divine goodness and omnipo- 
 tence? This belief in devils is certainly 
 the result of ignorance and superstition. 
 3. Indeed, the pretended magic explains 
 itself through the fraud of the one and the 
 credulity of others; the temptations and 
 passions are only facts of the physical and 
 emotional order, a little more acute and 
 more lively than ordinary. The diabolical 
 possessions of former times are identical 
 with the insanity, hysteria, or epilepsy of 
 the present, the mediums, the spiritists, 
 
 the hj'pnotizers, and the somnambulists of 
 our time were called magicians and sorcer- 
 ers in the Middle Ages. Modern science 
 has carried the light into these infernal 
 darknesses, and demonstrated that the 
 credulity of the common people has been 
 surpassed only through the absurdity and 
 cruelty of the ecclesiastical and civil 
 judges in their procedure against magic 
 and witchcraft. Where the hangman in- 
 terfered, the physician alone should have 
 exercised his benevolent art, but the phy- 
 sician himself was a party to the prevail- 
 ing extravagance. 4. Finally, the Biblical 
 accounts indicating a belief in the Demon 
 can be interpreted in a purely natural 
 manner, equally satisfactory to both reason 
 and science. 
 
 Such are, in summary, the principal ob- 
 jections circulated among us, as to the 
 subject of the Christian doctrine regarding 
 the devil and his works. Let us briefly 
 answer them, and first let us consider the 
 most positive objection which questions 
 the existence, the possibility itself, of 
 the angelic spirits. When the purely 
 spiritual substance is impossible, God can- 
 not exist, nor the human soul, spiritual by 
 its essence, although several of its func- 
 tions are of the sensible and organic order ; 
 and thus we fall entirely into the material- 
 istic mire. The demons certainlv were 
 not bad by nature ; God created them 
 good, had sanctified them by His grace, 
 had destined them to the eternal and per- 
 fect holiness of heaven. But he had created 
 them free and had imposed upon them, 
 like on all the good angels, a trial prepara- 
 tory to perpetual sanctification. 
 
 The failure of Satan and his followers in 
 this trial is differently explained by the 
 theologians, but certified by revelation. 
 Very probably these bad angels had pre- 
 sumed to claim their existence was without 
 the supernatural help of God, and that 
 they were not created for the end He had 
 proposed to them ; and this criminal 
 pride, whose perversity and absurdity 
 is astonishing, was justly punished by 
 damnation. That time and grace were not 
 granted to the guilty, was because of the 
 excellency of the nature and grace they 
 had received from God, and which should 
 have restrained them from all evil and 
 from all voluntary forfeiture. Man, the 
 most fragile and the most inclined to sin, 
 will be treated with compassion and 
 mercy : a Redeemer will be promised and 
 sent to him. 
 
Devil 
 
 253 
 
 Devil 
 
 2. The action of the evil spirits on the 
 material world is certainly possible, be- 
 cause all the angels were originally created 
 by God to play an active role in the uni- 
 verse, and the sin of rebellion committed 
 by certain ones among them has not essen- 
 tially changed their nature. If the angel, 
 because he is spiritual, cannot act on the 
 creatures of the world, how could God 
 create the creatures of the world? How 
 can He control them, direct them, govern 
 them? How can the human soul inform, 
 vivify, and direct its own function? And 
 when God and the soul can act in the 
 physical order, why should the angel be 
 incapable of action? But when God, the 
 soul, and the angel, who occupies an inter- 
 mediary rank between them, cannot do 
 this, nothing exists of the natural religion 
 and revelation, nothing of rational moral 
 psychology, and again we fall into the mire 
 of the most gross materialism : for then, 
 God did not make the world, and the world 
 does not manifest Him; God could not re- 
 veal anything of that which Christianity 
 attributes to Him ; the soul is a simple func- 
 tion of the brain, and the angel a mere 
 imagination of this function. Such con- 
 clusions prove neatly the false structure on 
 which they are founded. 
 
 However, we do not believe that the 
 action of the devils or demons is not at all 
 dependent on and under the government 
 of divine Providence. Certainly it would 
 be inconsistent with divine justice to allow 
 these evil spirits unlimited liberty for dis- 
 order and violence. But restricted within 
 certain limits, controlled and dammed by 
 the infinite wisdom and goodness, their 
 malice must and can only result in final 
 good to man, except when the latter be- 
 comes, by his own fault, a deplorable victim 
 of them. It is of faith that no man is 
 tempted, attacked, above his strength, and 
 the help of grace is never refused the one 
 t^ho sincerely desires it in order to escape 
 sin and remain faithful to God. St. Au- 
 gustine very justly compares the demon to 
 those dogs who guarded the entrance of 
 the Roman houses, and of which an an- 
 cient mosaic proclaimed to the visitor: 
 " Cave canem!" [be careful of the dog). 
 The demon, according to the Bishop of 
 Hippo, is chained and he bites only the im- 
 prudent who go too near him. His furies 
 only serve to the sanctification of the just. 
 
 Undoubtedly, the ignorance and super- 
 stition of the pagans in different epochs, 
 and among diverse nations of antiquity, 
 
 have attributed to the demons, of whom 
 they had a false notion, a number of cruel- 
 ties and sorceries in which they had no 
 part. Certainly, in the Christian world, 
 this ignorance and superstition did not en- 
 tirely disappear, and we find traces thereof 
 in the Middle Ages and even in modern 
 times. But such fallacies are not the 
 source of the simple and true teaching of 
 the Church on the existence of the devil. 
 The absurd exaggerations and the gro- 
 tesque counterfeits cannot confound the 
 truth nor besmirch it with mixture of their 
 muddy floods. The Church deplores the 
 excesses and the errors of those who mis- 
 understand and poorly apply its teaching, 
 but she cannot be held responsible for their 
 lack of knowledge. 
 
 3. We know very well that the history 
 of magic is replete with doubtful statements 
 and exaggerated and misconstrued facts, 
 but there are also many other magic feats 
 indeed possible, which a sound philos- 
 ophy admits, the reality of which a pru- 
 dent criticism acknowledges, and the 
 diabolical character of which a wise the- 
 ology establishes. Theology, indeed, 
 through the application of the principle 
 of causality to the facts duly certified by 
 the historic criticism, can establish them if 
 they do not manifestly pass beyond the 
 sphere of natural agencies, and if they are 
 not evidently repugnant to a supernatu- 
 rally good cause, to God, to His angels, or 
 to His saints. When both conditions have 
 been fulfilled, it is necessary to conclude on 
 a diabdcal action. When the doubt exists 
 as to the intrinsic nature of the effect, it will 
 exist equally as to the nature of the cause. 
 Such is the doctrine officially adopted by 
 the Church in the remarkable chapter, de 
 Exorcisandt's, and inserted under Title X 
 of the Roman Ritual. Such is also the 
 tenor of the doctrine contained in the 
 Bible and tradition in regard to the rela- 
 tions of man with the demon, and as to a 
 proper judgment in their connection. 
 
 Pontifical authority, in its dogmatic 
 teaching, has never deviated from these 
 principles and it cannot be held responsi- 
 ble for the forgetfulness or the abuses to 
 which they have been subjected. It never 
 denied that our temptations are often 
 simply subjective, or that they cannot be 
 explained by the physical and moral sur- 
 rounding in which we live ; but it could not 
 be more liberal, for this would be a denial 
 of the evidence itself, the possibility and 
 the reality of the attacks and the diaboli- 
 
Devolution 
 
 254 
 
 DiDON 
 
 cal violences, theoretically recognizable 
 by certain marks, determined by theology, 
 although practically often difficult to dis- 
 cern. 
 
 That sometimes pathological cases, 
 poorly diagnosed, are confounded wit,h di- 
 abolical possession, we are quite disposed 
 to admit ; but that there has been no real 
 possession and that disease alone explains 
 all that has been established as strange in 
 the history of the mental aberrations and of 
 the extraordinary phenomena of the intel- 
 lectual, moral, physiological and physical 
 order, it is impossible for sound reason to 
 admit. This is especially what faith in the 
 Biblical revelation will refuse to grant to 
 the rationalistic interpretation of the facts 
 in question. Disease alone cannot impart 
 the perfect and immediate knowledge of a 
 foreign language, of a science, before and 
 afterwards unknown to the subject, of se- 
 cret things with which the afflicted has no 
 sensible relations, explainable by the na- 
 ture of the sensorial acts. Neither the 
 mental diseases, hysteria, nor the hyp- 
 notic state exclude the patient from the 
 laws of the physical world, and do not con- 
 fer upon him powers absolutely dispro- 
 portionate to his potentiality. 
 
 Now the facts are there ; related by the 
 Gospels, by the Apostles, by the most in- 
 telligent, and by the most holy among the 
 Fathers of the Church, and these facts are 
 authenticated beyond question : St. Paul- 
 inus attests to having witnessed a pos- 
 sessed walking on the vault of a church, his 
 head downwards ; Sulpicius Severus saw a 
 possessed raised in the air, his arms ex- 
 tended, at the approach of the relics of St. 
 Martin; Kernel, physician of Henry II. 
 of France, and the celebrated Protestant 
 Ambrose Pare, mention a possessed who 
 spoke Greek and Latin without having ever 
 learned these two languages (see Bergier's 
 Dictionnaire de TJieoloffie, Art. Demoni- 
 aques). The History of theConvuhionaries 
 of St. Medard, in the last century, reports 
 no less extraordinary and notorious facts, 
 which absolutely defy natural explanation. 
 Their character appears to be clearly su- 
 pernatural, but is certainly not divine ; it 
 is, therefore, diabolical. 
 
 We desire to say that we do not so con- 
 sider all the spiritists, hypnotizers, me- 
 diums, somnambulists, and magnetizers. 
 Their doings prove considerable ability, 
 however often allied to fraud and purely 
 natural phenomena. But when, in their 
 extraordinary conditions, we meet with 
 
 other phenomena that cannot be explained 
 by natural causes, we are obliged to con- 
 sider them effected by diabolical obses- 
 sion and possession as witnessed in the 
 earlier ages. Because we behold such 
 phenomena, which the philosophic and 
 scientific explanations of our contempo- 
 raries do not explain, is no argument 
 against diabolical possession, but on the 
 contrary, affirms it. It will be asserted, 
 perhaps, that the method and principle 
 of causality, whose usage we maintain, 
 have no longer any scientific value ; we 
 answer that they have more than ever the 
 guaranty of common sense, in virtue of 
 which they have perfectly resisted the 
 tests of modern criticism, and that we ad- 
 mit no kind of superstition or of credulity, 
 nor the claims of a science without com- 
 mon sense and without philosophy, no 
 more than a supernaturalism without con- 
 trol, nor a mysticism without discrimina- 
 tion. See Possessions {Diabolical). 
 
 Devolution. — Right of which the colla- 
 tion of a vacant benefice returns to the 
 superior, in the case where the bishop has 
 neglected to provide beforehand in a de- 
 lay of six months. 
 
 Diaconiutn. — i. In the ancient basilicas, 
 a room near the altar, where the deacons 
 prepared the sacred vessels and ornaments, 
 and where the priests dressed and un- 
 dressed. — 2. A room in the Greek churches 
 corresponding to the sacristy of the West- 
 ern church, usually on the south side of 
 the bema. 
 
 Diana of the Ephesians or Ephesian 
 Artemis. — An ancient Asiatic divinity 
 whose worship was adopted by the Ionian 
 Greeks. She was a personification of the 
 fruitfulness of nature, and was quite dis- 
 tinct from the Greek goddess, though 
 assimilated to her by the Ephesians from 
 some resemblance of attributes. She was 
 represented wearing a mural crown, and 
 with many breasts, and having the lower 
 part of her body cased, like a mummy, 
 in a sheath bearing mystical figures. 
 
 Diatessaron. — A harmony of the four 
 Gospels. The first work of this kind was 
 that of Tatian (latter half of the second 
 century), a Christian Apologist, but after- 
 wards a Gnostic. 
 
 Didache. See Apostles {Doctrine of 
 the Twelve). 
 
 Didon (Henry). — A French priest and 
 author; born at Thouvet, Isere, March 17, 
 
DiDYMUS THE BLIND 
 
 255 
 
 DiOGNETUS 
 
 1840; educated at Grenoble Seminary, and 
 a disciple of Lacordaire; became a mem- 
 ber of the Dominicans in 1862. Having 
 visited Rome, he returned in 1868 and 
 commenced preaching with great effect 
 in Paris and other cities of France. In 
 1871 he delivered the funeral sermon at 
 Nancy on Monseigneur Darboy. His first 
 book was Ma7i According to Science and 
 Faith, and his first printed sermon, " What 
 Is a Monk?" In consequence of some 
 startling sermons in 1879, dealing with the 
 Church and Society, he was sent into tem- 
 porary seclusion in the monastery of Car- 
 bara, in Corsica. A subsequent visit to 
 Germany and the Holy Land furnished 
 liim with themes for The Germans, in 
 which he pointed out that theory and prac- 
 tice have nothing in common in the Father- 
 land ; and for Lcf^ Vie de Jesus (1891), op- 
 posing the views of Renan, which had an 
 immense circulation and was translated 
 into English. 
 
 Didymus the Blind (309-399). — Doctor 
 of the Church of Alexandria, Greek Father, 
 born at Alexandria. Didymus was a 
 writer 6f eminence; but of his numerous 
 writings only a few remain, of which his 
 Three Books on the Trinity, a work on 
 The Holy Spirit, which St. Jerome trans- 
 lated into Latin, and a treatise Against the 
 Manicheans are the principal. 
 
 Dies Irae. — The name generally given 
 (from the opening words) to the famous 
 mediaeval hymn on the " Last Jvidgment." 
 Its authorship is generally ascribed to the 
 Franciscan, Thomas of Celano (died, 1255). 
 At what time the Church adopted it, and 
 made it a portion of the service of the 
 Mass, cannot be ascertained with any ex- 
 actness; but it must have been in any case 
 before 1385. Several alterations were then 
 made in the text ; that, however, is believed 
 to be the original which is engraved on a 
 marble tablet in the Church of St. Francis 
 at Mantua. It has been frequently trans- 
 lated into English. 
 
 Dimissorial. — A letter authorizing the 
 bearer for ordination. It can be issued 
 only by the bishop, or, under special cir- 
 cumstances, by the vicar-general. How- 
 ever, it may be given by the Pope to 
 ordinands from any part of the world. 
 
 Diocese. — The name of a populated ter- 
 ritory under the ecclesiastical government 
 of a bishop, who is assisted by priests 
 
 within his jurisdiction. It is divided and 
 subdivided into parishes, stations, etc. 
 
 Diocletian. — Roman emperor (284), re- 
 signed (305) and refused to resume the 
 scepter. The tenth persecution took place 
 under his reign. 
 
 Diodorus of Tarsus. — Diodorus was 
 born in the beginning of the fourth cen- 
 tury at Antioch, and received his education 
 at Athens. He was appointed bishop of 
 Tarsus in Cilicia and took part in the 
 General Council of Constantinople, A. d. 
 381. Died in the year 390. Of his many 
 writings, apologetical, controversial, doc- 
 trinal, and exegetical, which he composed 
 against the pagans, Jews, and the prevail- 
 ing heresies of the age, only fragments 
 have reached us. 
 
 Diognetus {Letter to). — The author of 
 this Letter is unknown. Up to the seven- 
 teenth century St. Justin was thought to 
 be the author of this remarkable, though 
 long unnoticed Letter. However, it must 
 be considered much older than the writings 
 of St. Justin. For the author calls him- 
 self a disciple of the Apostles (c. 11), and 
 represents Christianity as of quite recent 
 appearance. Again, none of the older 
 Fathers mention it among the works of 
 St. Justin. The view, moreover, taken by 
 the author of the epistle as to Judaism 
 and Christianity, is wholly different from 
 that of St. Justin. Finally, there is a 
 great diflference of style and language 
 between the two. No book of Justin is 
 written so logically, clearly, and elegantly 
 as this epistle. With regard to the person 
 of Diognetus, all we know is that he was 
 a heathen of distinction, who was desirous 
 of a closer acquaintance with the Chris- 
 tian religion. 
 
 In this important Letter the writer 
 answers with great rhetorical skill and 
 warmth the three following questions of 
 Diognetus: i. Why do Christians reject 
 heathenism and Judaism? 2. What God 
 do they adore, who love each other even 
 unto the contempt of the world and death? 
 3. If the Christian religion be the true 
 one, why did it not come sooner into the 
 world ? 
 
 Answer to the first question : Because 
 the gods of the heathen are senseless 
 images of wood, stone, and metal, and the 
 entire Jewish religion consists of empty 
 ceremonies, and contains, moreover, much 
 that is unreasonable. To the second ques- 
 
DiONYSIUS 
 
 256 
 
 DiPTYCHS 
 
 tion : The Christian religion is something 
 supernatural, not like other religions in- 
 vented by men, but revealed by God Him- 
 self, and for this reason it brings forth 
 virtues unknown before. To the third 
 question : It was, first of all, necessary that 
 man should become convinced of his own 
 spiritual poverty and helplessness, from 
 which God alone could deliver him. This 
 God did by sending His only begotten Son 
 into the world, and giving Him up to 
 death, in expiation, and to have a share in 
 the true knowledge of God and in eternal 
 salvation. Chapters xi. and xii. must be 
 considered as a later addition, because they 
 differ both in matter and form from the 
 preceding ones. 
 
 This Letter is also highly important from 
 a dogmatical point of view. It contains, 
 among others, the following doctrinal 
 truths: i. That no man can, through 
 his own endeavors, attain to the perfect 
 knowledge of God, but only through the 
 Logos. 2. That Christ is God's own and 
 only begotten Son and incomprehensible 
 Logos, and far above the angels. 3. That 
 the Son of God became man in order to re- 
 veal to us the divine mysteries and to 
 make satisfaction for our sins by His sacri- 
 ficial death. 4. That justification, besides 
 cleansing from sin, implies also interior 
 sanctification. 5. That the Church alone 
 possesses the doctrine of the Apostles. 
 
 Dionysius (St.). — Pope from 259 to 269, 
 born in Calabria. Successor to Sixtus II. ; 
 reorganized the ecclesiastical circum- 
 scription of Rome. F. Dec. 26. 
 
 Dionysius sumamed Exiguus. — A Ro- 
 man abbot, was a Scythian by birth, and 
 flourished under the Emperors Justin and 
 Justinian in the sixth century. He is the 
 reputed founder of the Christian era, also 
 called Dionysian era, which has been in 
 general use among Christian nations since 
 the tenth century. He likewise laid the 
 foundation of Canon Law by his collection 
 of ecclesiastical canons. His collection com- 
 prises the so-called canons of the Apostles 
 and of several Councils, and the decretal 
 epistles of the Popes from Siricius, who 
 succeeded Damasus (354) to Anastasius 
 II., who succeeded Gelasius (496). His 
 death occurred about 536. 
 
 Dionysius of Alexandria. — Born of a 
 noble and wealthy pagan family at Alexan- 
 dria. He was a pupil of Origen, who con- 
 verted him to Christianity. He succeeded 
 
 Heracles as chief of the Catechetical 
 School in the year 231, and upon the death 
 of the latter, in 248, as Bishop of Alex- 
 andria, which he continued to be until his 
 death in 264. Under Decius he had been 
 condemned to death, but was rescued by 
 Christian peasants ; in the reign of Valer- 
 ian he was exiled from his see. With 
 much success Dionysius defended the or- 
 thodox faith against the heresies of Sabel- 
 lius, Paul of Samosata, and Nepos, an 
 Egyptian bishop, and opposed with vigor 
 the schism of Novatian. 
 
 Dionysius of Paris (St.). — Martyr and 
 first Bishop of Paris; lived in the second 
 half of the third century. He is often 
 confounded with Dionysius the Areopa- 
 gite. By the persecution of the Christians 
 under Septimus Severus, in which St. 
 Irenaeus suffered martyrdom in 202, the 
 Church in Gaul had become terribly dev- 
 astated. Hereupon Pope Fabian sent 
 seven new missionaries (ecclesiastical his- 
 torians generally call them bishops) to 
 gather the scattered Faithful and found 
 new Churches. St. Dionysius was one of 
 these seven apostolic men and he founded 
 upon an island in the Seine a bishopric. 
 God had bestowed upon him the gift of 
 miracles, and he converted many idola- 
 ters and finally built a Church. Our saint 
 suffered martyrdom, it appears, under the 
 Valerian persecution (some claim under 
 that of Maximian Hercules). The legend 
 says that St. Dionysius, after having been 
 beheaded, carried his own head to the place 
 where they then buried him. Later on a 
 chapel was built over his tomb, and this 
 was enlarged by St. Genovefa (469) into a 
 church. F. Oct. 9. 
 
 Dionysius the Areopagite, who after- 
 wards became the first Bishop of Athens, 
 and who, in all probability, was the same 
 that Pope Clement I. sent to Gaul, and 
 was the first bishop of Lutetia (Paris). 
 (Acts xvii. 15-34). What are known as 
 the writings of Dionysius the Areopagite 
 are not genuine, as they were written not 
 earlier than the fourth or fifth century. 
 
 Dioscorus of Alexandria. — Patriarch of 
 Alexandria, died in 454. Successor of St. 
 Cyrillus, in 444, he adopted the heresies of 
 Eutyches and raised a schism to which the 
 Council of Chalcedon (451) put an end by 
 deposing him. 
 
 Diptychs. — In the early Church, a reg- 
 ister in which the monasteries and churche? 
 
DiSCALCED 
 
 257 
 
 Dispensation 
 
 inscribed the names of bishops, benefac- 
 tors, and of the dead and living Faithful, 
 of whom they made commemoration dur- 
 ing divine service. There remains of this 
 ancient custom in the canon of the Mass a 
 Memento of the living and a Memento of 
 the dead whom the priest secretly com- 
 memorates and for whose souls he more 
 particularly wishes to pray. 
 
 Discalced {zvitJiout shoes; barefooted). — 
 A term applied to certain religious orders, 
 whose members are barefooted. 
 
 Disciples of Christ or Campbellites. — 
 An organization of Christians within the 
 United States which in 1894 ^^^ nearly 
 5,000 ministers, 9,000 churches, and 800,000 
 communicants; founded about 1812 by se- 
 ceders from the Presbyterian Church of 
 .western Pennsylvania, who determined to 
 reject creeds and dogmas and to accept the 
 Bible as their only rule, and of whom 
 Thomas and Alexander Campbell were 
 leaders. They have a congregational form 
 of government, believe in immersion as 
 the only true baptism, but administer the 
 Lord's Supper every Sunday without in- 
 quiry as to whether those present have 
 been immersed or not. They believe in 
 the Holy Trinity, in the divine inspiration 
 of the Holy Scriptures, in the moral de- 
 pravity of the human race and its need of 
 a new birth, in the Church of Christ as a 
 divine institution, in the fulness and free- 
 ness of the Gospel to all who will embrace 
 it, and in the everlasting punishment of 
 the wicked. 
 
 Discipline {Ecclesiastical). — The eccle- 
 siastical discipline has a rigorously obli- 
 gatory character on account of the power 
 given to the Church to establish laws. 
 But it is founded not only upon a formal 
 precept, it may also result from custom. 
 There is a distinction between a particular 
 discipline of a certain country and the uni- 
 versal discipline, which is founded upon 
 Scripture, the apostolic traditions, the de- 
 cisions of Councils and the general cus- 
 toms. The prescriptions founded on the 
 divine ordinances are unchangeable, the 
 others may be modified by legitimate 
 authority. 
 
 Discipline {Penitential). See Cate- 
 
 CHUMENATE. 
 
 Discipline of the Secret. — The primi- 
 tive Christians, following the example of 
 Christ and His Apostles (I. Cor. iii. 2), 
 17 
 
 maintained a certain reserve in regard to 
 the doctrines of Christianity. They kept 
 from the pagans and catechumens the full 
 knowledge of the sacred mysteries lest 
 these mysteries might be exposed to ridi- 
 cule and profanation. This practice, 
 called the " Discipline of the Secret," was 
 observed with special care in regard to the 
 Holy Eucharist, which was represented in 
 allegories, parables, and symbols. The 
 early Fathers, speaking of this mystery, do 
 so in the most careful manner, using such 
 expressions as: "I shall be understood by 
 the Faithful." " My meaning is clear to 
 the initiated." This explains, in a certain 
 sense, the evil reports of the pagans re- 
 garding the celebration of the Holy 
 Eucharist, such as : " Drinking of blood," 
 "Eating of the flesh of a child concealed 
 in bread." Wrong as these reports were, 
 they furnished an undeniable proof of the 
 antiquity of the Holy Mass and of the 
 faith in the Real Presence of our Lord 
 under the form of bread. See Catechu- 
 
 MENATK. 
 
 Dispensation. — Exemption, an act by 
 which one dispenses a person from some- 
 thing. The Pope alone has the right to dis- 
 pense from the general laws of the Church, 
 and no bishop can do this, except by ex- 
 traordinary faculties, if recourse to the Holy 
 See will be impossible, and under con- 
 dition to ask later on for the confirmation 
 of the dispensation. The bishop can dis- 
 pense, by ordinary right, in the cases pro- 
 vided by law, or in virtue of special 
 powers received from the Pope and re- 
 newed every five years, or also in virtue of 
 personal indults. Dispensation is granted 
 either for the temporal jurisdiction of the 
 Church, or for spiritual jurisdiction or for 
 conscience. The papal dispensation for 
 the temporal jurisdiction proceeds from the 
 Dataria, and for spiritual jurisdiction from 
 the Penitentiary. The dispensation of 
 justice, in forma fndiciali, requires an in- 
 quiry; the dispensation of grace, in forma 
 gratiosa, requires only the truth of the 
 facts, without inquiry. The general char- 
 acter of gratuity of dispensation must be 
 understood in the sense that the one who 
 grants it draws no personal benefit from 
 it. But the expenses of the chancery, the 
 componendes claimed in certain cases, or 
 sums applied to the needs of pious insti- 
 tutions, are not contrary to gratuity. The 
 componendes are proportionate to the state 
 of the fortune of the applicant. 
 
Dissenters 
 
 258 
 
 PiVORCE 
 
 Dissenters. — Those who refuse to ac- 
 cept the authority or doctrines, or conform 
 to the ritual or usages of an established 
 Church ; a nonconformist : specifically ap- 
 plied in England to those who, while they 
 agree with the Church of England (the 
 Episcopal) in many essential doctrines, 
 differ from it on questions of Church gov- 
 ernment, relation to the State, and rites 
 and ceremonies. 
 
 Ditheism. — Religious system in which 
 is acknowledged two first principles : the 
 principle of the good and that of evil. 
 The religion of Zoroaster is a ditheism. 
 
 Divination (pretended art of foretelling 
 the future). — The Romans believed in 
 their augurs, the Greeks had faith in the 
 Pythoness, the Chaldeans in their astrolo- 
 gers, the Middle Ages and half-civilized 
 nations had recourse to sorcerers, modern 
 times have their spiritualists, somnambu- 
 lists, and soothsayers. The Church has 
 condemned every species of divination. 
 But she believes in prophecy as divine 
 revelation proved by extraordinarj- signs 
 and miracles, having for its object the sal- 
 vation of men, serving as confirmation to 
 religion, in all superior to the power of 
 man and to the forces peculiar to his 
 genius. 
 
 Divorce. — According to the ordinary 
 usage of language, the term divorce signi- 
 fies a dissolution of the marriage bond, 
 which was raised by our Saviour to the 
 dignity of a sacrament. The divorce is, 
 therefore, very different from the sepa- 
 ration of bed and board. In regard to the 
 complete dissolution of the marriage bond, 
 the Catholic doctrine distinguishes three 
 periods, ruled by different laws : — 
 
 I. Before Moses, in virtue of the pri- 
 mordial right supernaturally established by 
 God and conformable to the vow. if not to 
 the formal prescriptions of natural law, 
 marriage is absolutely indissoluble; di- 
 vorce can be engaged in only against the 
 Divine will ; after-marriages are purely 
 and simply adulteries and concubinages 
 for the divorced party. Jesus Christ has 
 declared : " From the beginning there was 
 no divorce " (Matt. xi. 8); and God said 
 in giving Eve as a spouse to Adam : " Man 
 shall cleave to his wife and they shall be 
 two in one flesh" (Gen. ii. 24). There- 
 fore, concludes the Saviour, " what God 
 hath joined together, let no man put 
 asunder" (Matt. xix. 6). 
 
 2. The hard-heartedness of the Jews 
 moved God to mitigate the primitive rigor 
 of matrimonial legislation. Moses permits, 
 in certain cases, the usage of the bill of 
 repudiation and allows second nuptials. 
 Evidently, this concession, without violat- 
 ing the strict natural law, tolerates, how- 
 ever, a lowering of the dignity of marriage, 
 and a diminution of its prophetic significa- 
 tion in regard to the incarnation and the 
 union of the Redeemer and of His Church. 
 Also, Jesus Christ, without condemning 
 the divorce of the past, constates that it 
 does not correspond to the ideal which God 
 had in view from the beginning; and He 
 declares that He does not wish to preserve 
 such an imperfection in mankind ; that He 
 has come to renew and elevate the marital 
 vows to a higher perfection (Matt. xix. 
 4-8). 
 
 3. When the primitive marriage, al- 
 though not a sacrament, was nevertheless 
 indissoluble, how much more justly the 
 Christian marriage, ranked among the 
 sacraments and producing sanctifying 
 grace, should be this in future ! The teach- 
 ing of Christ is absolute on this point: 
 " Man shall cleave to his wife, and they 
 shall be two in one flesh ; God Himself has 
 joined them, and let no man separate them; 
 the man who marries another while his 
 wife is living is an adulterer " (Mark x. 11, 
 etc.; Luke xvi. 18; Matt. xix. 4, etc.; Cf. 
 Rom. vii. 2, etc. ; I. Cor. vii. 10, etc.). 
 
 In case of adultery, there may be a separa- 
 tion from bed and board, says our Saviour 
 again (Matt. v. 31, etc.), but permission is 
 not given to contract another marriage 
 which would be only adultery. In vain do 
 the Greek schismatic Church and the 
 Protestant sects pretend that adultery is 
 a legitimate cause for absolute divorce. 
 The tradition of the Fathers and the prac- 
 tice of the Roman Church, mother and 
 mistress of all the others, maintains indis- 
 solubility even in this case, although one 
 of the texts of the Gospel, where there is 
 question thereof (Matt. xix. 9), is very 
 obscure on account of its extreme con- 
 ciseness. The Council of Trent (Sess. 
 xxiv. can. 7) has anathematized the con- 
 tradictors of the Church on this point; and 
 only a few years ago, the reigning sover- 
 eign Pontiff, Leo XIII., expounded, with 
 great sublimity and energy, the unchange- 
 able doctrine of the Holy See on this sub- 
 ject (Cf. Encycl. Arcanum). 
 
 The objections to this doctrine can be 
 ranked under three principal heads, ac- 
 
Divorce 
 
 259 
 
 Divorce 
 
 cording to the considerations of the natu- 
 ral, ecclesiastical, and divine right in the 
 question of divorce. 
 
 I. They pretend that the indissolubility 
 of marriage is in no way founded on the 
 natural right; that the contrary is the 
 case, when we consider the grievous moral 
 and physical injuries which sometimes 
 result from the perpetuation of the conju- 
 gal tie. That where the divorce is granted 
 proves that the idea of liberty is better 
 understood and more sincerely put into 
 practice, while to hold marriage indisso- 
 luble, proves the predominance of tyran- 
 nical and barbarous theories in the people. 
 Marriage has for its principal basis the con- 
 sent of the parties to the contract ; when 
 this consent is revoked the matrimonial 
 contract is dissolved. This engagement 
 can be perpetual in the intention of the 
 parties contracting, but not by juridical 
 reality, because the individual liberty caIn 
 never be alienated in an irrevocable manner 
 by any agreement whatsoever. The people 
 that admit the divorce are not less moral 
 nor less prosperous than those who reject 
 it. One can even affirm that the possibil- 
 ity to break the marriage becomes its safe- 
 guard. Mere separation of person and 
 property is not sufficient to correct the 
 great evils of an unhappy marriage, but, 
 on the contrary, has a much worse influ- 
 ence on the public morals than the di- 
 vorce itself. 
 
 2. They dispute that the divine teach- 
 ing, soundly interpreted, is hostile to the 
 divorce. Moses, or rather God Himself, 
 had permitted it under the Old Law; but 
 under the New Law Jesus Christ has ad- 
 mitted it expressly in the case of adultery 
 (Matt. V. 32; ix. 9). St. Paul admits it 
 in case that one of the parties, both pre- 
 viously unbelievers, becomes baptized (L 
 Cor. vii. 15). 
 
 3. As to the ecclesiastical right, that of 
 the Orientals is clearly in favor of divorce 
 for adultery; and the interpreters of the 
 Scripture do not hesitate to support this 
 legislation on the authority of Jesus Christ 
 Himself. As to the Occidentals, they un- 
 doubtedly adopted another course, but not 
 all of them, nor at all times, as is clearly 
 proved : (a) From the contradictory de- 
 cisions and practices of the Fathers and of 
 the Councils, (b) The sentences of di- 
 vorce pronounced by the Court of Rome 
 itself, (c) The identity of the results of 
 the ecclesiastical law, which forbids the 
 divorce, but leaves to the spiritual author- 
 
 ity the right to pronounce the nullity of 
 marriage, and of the civil law which ac- 
 knowledges and sanctifies with entire sin- 
 cerity the power to divorce, (d) Conse- 
 quently, and in fact, the contradiction 
 which exists between the very severe doc- 
 trine of the Roman Court and its very 
 indulgent practice in matters of dissolution 
 of marriage, (e) The strange anomaly of 
 a Church denunciating the concessions of 
 the State in the matter, and nevertheless 
 showing itself more lenient than the latter, 
 at least in regard to the rich and powerful 
 of this world. The final objection is, that 
 if the conjugal indissolubility did ever 
 find a particular strength in the religious 
 belief of the sacrament of marriage and in 
 the blessing of the priest, the seculariza- 
 tion of family legislation and the institu- 
 tion of the civil marriage have supplanted 
 this mystic unity and supernatural order. 
 
 We answer these diverse objections in 
 order : — 
 
 I. We grant without hesitation that the 
 natural right is not essentially and abso- 
 lutely opposed to every divorce; the de- 
 cisions of Moses and of St. Paul, above 
 quoted, prove this. It is possible, indeed, 
 that the consequences of the divorce, like 
 the divorce itself, do not necessarily de- 
 stroy completely the existence of the 
 family and of the civil society, their rights, 
 their interests, their most sacred weal. But 
 when the natural right does not absolutely 
 proscribe the divorce, it tolerates it only 
 with great reluctance and in cases where 
 the aggravation is extreme : the honor of 
 conjugal society, the purity of the individ- 
 ual and general morals, the care and good 
 example due to the children, the peace of 
 the families and of the nations, are well 
 maintained by the indissoluble marriage, 
 and, as history proves, are never so greatly 
 threatened as in countries where divorce 
 has been freely practiced. 
 
 That the indissolubility of unhappy 
 unions has disagreeable features and en- 
 tails unfortunate conditions arising from 
 the incompatibility of temperaments or 
 interests, nobody denies ; but the question 
 is to know whether the superior interests 
 of the religious and social order are not 
 more grievously injured by the divorce 
 than by the indissoluble marriage.? Now, 
 simple common sense and the history of 
 all times answer with decided affirmation 
 in favor of the latter. Morality deterio- 
 rates more and more under the influence 
 of divorce; the delicacy of morals dls- 
 
Divorce 
 
 260 
 
 Divorce 
 
 appears to make room to rudeness, to 
 insensibility, to brutality; the calculating 
 and negotiating spirit penetrates freely 
 into the domestic hearth, and marriage 
 becomes a simple contract of society, a 
 mere matter of speculation. 
 
 The Catholic Church could never up- 
 hold it, and she will always contest this 
 obnoxious custom. 
 
 As to the physicians and to the physi- 
 ologists who uphold the divorce in the 
 name of animalism, we oppose to them 
 the rights and dignity of the soul, which 
 taust not be sacrificed to the flesh, and we 
 challenge them to show that their princi- 
 ples do not lead directly to the justification 
 of frequent and regular adultery, and to 
 the replacing of all matrimonial legislation 
 by a regime of prostitution and free love. 
 
 The divorce, indeed, is not, as pre- 
 tended, a distinguishing sign of progress, 
 of liberty, and independence; it is the re- 
 sult and the proof of the overflowing of 
 evil instincts, of license granted to shame 
 ful passions. One can see this among the 
 savage races and attribute to its baleful 
 influence their state of moral and religious 
 decline. But it plaj^ed no part in the cen- 
 turies of faith, of honor, and virtue; chiv- 
 alry and divorce are contradictory terms ,- 
 materialism and divorce attract and sup- 
 port each other. Now materialism is the 
 enemy of liberty and the precursor of 
 tyranny. 
 
 It is true that the contract of marriage 
 is constituted by the free will of the en- 
 gaging parties ; but by a will which con- 
 forms itself to that of God and which for- 
 ever pledges its liberty as to this point. 
 When It refuses to do this and pretends to 
 contract only for a time, it produces a com- 
 pact which is no longer the sacred compact 
 of marriage, but the shameless compact of 
 concubinage. But can one thus alienate his 
 liberty? Certainly, answers sound philoso- 
 phy, in accord with Catholic theology and 
 with revelation. This alienation is so use- 
 ful to the family, to the spouses, to the chil- 
 dren, to the entire society, that it should 
 find grace in the eyes of utilitarianism it- 
 self. 
 
 When the nations, who practice the di- 
 vorce, are also prosperous and sometimes 
 even more flourishing than others, it is 
 because the poison has not had time to 
 produce its effects or because the practice 
 has not become sufficiently general to re- 
 veal its dreadful effects on matrimonial 
 welfare. Let it spread freely, let it enter 
 
 into the whole social body, and then will 
 become manifest the hideous corruptions 
 of the Roman and Mohammedan decline. 
 Besides, we must not conclude from the 
 material prosperity on the moral pros- 
 perity, a thousand times more valuable; 
 nor compare a people which admits di- 
 vorce with a people monogamous, but 
 unfaithful to other laws equally necessary. 
 In order that this comparison may be a 
 legitimate and logical one, we must take 
 two peoples at times when both are ob- 
 servant of the moral law, and see whether 
 the one which practices divorce will re- 
 main as virtuous as the one which does 
 not. This test has not yet been made and 
 appears even impossible, but a clear, im- 
 partial reasoning must admit that the free 
 exchange of husbands and wives is not con- 
 ducive to the sanctification of the family 
 or to the purification of society. Is it not 
 absurd to maintain that the power to di- 
 vorce will contribute protection to the 
 conjugal union ? Could we not say equally 
 well that the suppression of all penal sanc- 
 tion would subserve to the execution of all 
 contracts ? 
 
 We willingly grant that the mere sepa- 
 ration of person and property is no remedy 
 to all the inconveniencies of badly matched 
 unions, especially since it imposes upon 
 them the impossibility of forming new 
 marriages, and that thus it is the occasion 
 of disorders, adulteries, and scandalous 
 concubinages. But the divorce itself, 
 whatever may be done or said, certainly 
 is the cause of great damage to the social 
 peace, to the stability of the family, and 
 to the education of the children. VVhen it 
 facilitates new unions, it does so only at 
 the expense of the preceding unions,^-only 
 by means of the corruption and dissolu- 
 tion of which it is a perpetual provocation. 
 It is, therefore, false to say that the conse- 
 quences of divorce are less evil than those 
 of separation. 
 
 2. God, it is true, through his agent 
 Moses, permitted, or rather tolerated, di- 
 vorce under the Old Law; but He suffi- 
 ciently manifested His disapprobation of 
 this infraction of the regulations of the 
 primitive order. The condescension of the 
 legislator toward morally weak genera- 
 tions, incapable of bearing entirely the bur- 
 den of the law, does not compel Him to 
 abandon forever His first commandments. 
 He can, and even must, under certain cir- 
 cumstances, try to restore the superior 
 level of moral perfection, in which He 
 
Divorce 
 
 261 
 
 Divorce 
 
 had first placed his subjects ; He can, and 
 even must, according to the rules of wis- 
 dom, labor to surpass this level, in elevat- 
 ing more and more the conscience and 
 conduct of His people. Jesus Christ, there- 
 fore, could again take up the perfection of 
 the primordial idea of marriage, and no man 
 can lawfully, to-day, argue against Him 
 and His Church for the tolerance granted, 
 during forty centuries, to mankind in its 
 decline. 
 
 Besides, it is wrong to consider as un- 
 certain and obscure the teaching of Jesus 
 Christ on this important subject. In the 
 famous passages invoked by the Protes- 
 tants to convince us that He admitted the 
 divorce in cases of adultery. He affirms : 
 (i) That it is opposed to the practice tol- 
 erated by Moses (Matt. v. 31-32) ; (2) That 
 whosoever puts away his wife, exposes her 
 to lewdness (Ibid. 32); (3) That every man 
 marrying a woman put away is an adulterer 
 (Ibid.). He admits one exception, — the 
 case of adultery; but He does not admit 
 it, (a) neither in general thesis, for He 
 would fall back into the practice of the 
 ancients, which He wishes to reform; 
 (d) nor to authorize second nuptials, for 
 He states in an absolute manner that to 
 unite with a discarded wife is adultery; 
 (c) but solely to permit a simple repudi- 
 ation, a separation of the persons. His 
 teachi'ng, indeed, is this : The definitive 
 putting away or repudiation of the wife is 
 forbidden, because this measure exposes 
 her to disorder ; if, however, she has fallen 
 into disorder by her adultery, she loses 
 her right to the home of her husband, 
 who, in consequence, can discard her. 
 The texts of St. Mark (x. 11-12) and of 
 St. Luke (xvi. 18), reporting the doctrine 
 of the Master without reservation in re- 
 gard to adultery, permit no doubt of the 
 foregoing interpretation. St. Paul, in his 
 First Epistle to the Corinthians (vii. lo-ii), 
 is still more decided against the practice 
 of divorce among Christians ; it is, indeed, 
 because their marriage has become a sacra- 
 ment and has found in this supernatural 
 consecration a restoration and unquestion- 
 able confirmation of its natural and prim- 
 itive stability. 
 
 As to the pagan marriages, they had 
 certainly the force and stability of the 
 primitive marriage, but without that 
 superaddition which the sacramental dig- 
 nity, among Christians, grants to it. And 
 when it happened that one of the married 
 became converted to Christianity, and the 
 
 other refused, not only to do likewise, but 
 even to live in peace with him or her, 
 without offending his or her God, and with- 
 out grave danger to his or her soul, the 
 converted party, in virtue of a privilege 
 established or at least promulgated by St. 
 Paul (I. Cor. vii. 15), could contract a 
 new union with a person baptized, a 
 Christian, and thus break the tie of the 
 first marriage. But this privilege can in 
 no manner be put into practice when there 
 is question of invalidating sacramental 
 marriage. 
 
 3. Of what consequence is it to the Ro- 
 man doctrine that the Oriental heretics 
 and schismatics, like the Protestants, and 
 other adversaries of the Catholic Church, 
 who admit adultery as cause for divorce, 
 invoke the celebrated text of St. Matthew 
 (xix. 9) before examined ? Is it sufficient 
 to weaken the Church's doctrine, shake her 
 government, because some deny, contra- 
 dict, and revolt against her? Then none 
 of her dogmas, none of her precepts, would 
 be unassailable, because there are none that 
 have not been, at least, attacked. Besides 
 the authority of the Catholic Church is not 
 derived from a public opinion conform- 
 able to its decisions; but it comes from 
 God Himself, wherein it finds its first and 
 irrefragable authority. 
 
 Even in the West, we must admit, there 
 has been more than once, in several coun- 
 tries, especially in epochs of ignorance or 
 moral weakness, unfortunate retrogressions 
 in handling this question of divorce. 
 Through ignorance or through condescen- 
 sion to the often violent demands of the 
 powerful, several writers, several prelates, 
 even several particular councils, have sanc- 
 tioned or permitted the divorce in case of 
 adultery. But history proves that it was 
 always against the will of the Apostolic 
 See. The Pope never ceased to maintain 
 the sacred indissolubility of the family, 
 not as subservient to his own fancies or 
 interests, but according to the laws and 
 the rights which he received from God 
 and the Apostles through tradition. In- 
 deed, tradition grants to the Roman Pon- 
 tiff the right to dissolve, under certain 
 circumstances, the marriage contracted in 
 right but not confirmed by fact : tnatri- 
 moniuin non consummatum, and tradition 
 grants the same Pontifical power to ab- 
 solve from the solemn vows of profession 
 made in a religious order. Let us re- 
 mark, however, these are very peculiar 
 cases and very rare, five or six perhaps, 
 
DOCETAE 
 
 262 Doctors of the Church 
 
 per year, in the entire world. There are, 
 it must again be admitted, cases of nul- 
 lity which, duly established by ecclesias- 
 tical authority ^fter very rigorous inquiry, 
 lead to sentences of separation, not of di- 
 vorce., because the marriage never did 
 exist. These cases are equally rare. Is 
 anyone authorized, we may ask all men of 
 good faith, to state that the Church is 
 practically more favorable to the divorce 
 than the modern nations, which sanction 
 many thousands of divorces every year, 
 and for causes which are often frivolous 
 and contemptible.? Where is the con- 
 tradiction between the teaching and the 
 practice of the Church.? When she re- 
 proaches the modern governments for 
 establishing legislation favorable to the 
 divorce, is this simply on account of jeal- 
 ousy, on account of arrogance, to exercise 
 alone a power which she exclusively arro- 
 gated in times of barbarity.? Is it not, on 
 the contrary, because the Christian mar- 
 riage, sacred and sacramental, can derive 
 its essence only from the divine author- 
 ity of her founder.? Rich and poor in this 
 respect are equal in her eyes ; and it is an 
 atrocious calumny to say that she permits 
 the divorce to the one and refuses it to the 
 other. To become convinced of these facts 
 it is only necessary to consult a collection 
 of decisions of the Sacred Congregation 
 of the Council of Trent, or some review of 
 the sentences promulgated by the Roman 
 Court, for example, the Acta Sanctce Sedis, 
 in course of publication. 
 
 Modern infidelity may deny the reality 
 of the religious and sacramental character 
 of the Christian marriage ; it may declare 
 marriage secularized and laicized; it may 
 destroy the belief of the people in its 
 supernatural dignity : but these things 
 will remain as they are ; the marriage re- 
 mains indissoluble, the divorce culpable, 
 the spiritual authority alone competent to 
 decide in questions of the conjugal tie. , 
 
 The few failings which were noted, from 
 1803 to 1805, in some French officialties, 
 especially in that of Paris, on the subject 
 of the divorce of Napoleon I., have abso- 
 lutely nothing to do with the matter. 
 Rome never had anything to do with the 
 second union of the emperor, and Pope 
 Leo XIII., in his Encyclica Arcanum of 
 Feb. loth, 1880, affirms that Pius VII. 
 most courageously resisted Napoleon who, 
 exalted by his successes and by the gran- 
 deur of his empire, was deaf to the com- 
 mands of the Pontiff; and Pius VII. him- 
 
 self, in 1813, writing to Josephine, 
 Napoleon's first wife, says to her, in speak- 
 ing of the emperor, " your husband." 
 
 Docets. — Heretics in the early Church. 
 They denied the reality of the human 
 form and nature of Jesus Christ, and con- 
 sequently the mystery of His Incarnation. 
 The Docetae, or Phantasiasts, as they were 
 also called, granted to Christ only a seem- 
 ing body and maintained that His suffer- 
 ings and death were only apparent. 
 
 Doctor. — The word doctor signifies 
 primarily a teacher, especially one who has 
 received public license to teach from some 
 university ; thus we have doctors of medi- 
 cine, of law, and of theology. Originally 
 no one was allowed to teach publicly until 
 he had received the degree of doctor, and 
 even now it is obligatory on the holders of 
 certain positions in the Church to qualify 
 themselves by obtaining the degree of 
 Doctor of Theology or of Canon Law; 
 but for the most part, the degree no longer 
 has any special privileges. Some eminent 
 teachers of the thirteenth and following 
 centuries received complimentary epithets 
 which have remained in use, and become 
 a kind of proper name, although the 
 special appropriateness is often obscure. 
 The best known term of this kind is the 
 name of "Angelic Doctor," applied to St. 
 Thomas Aquinas. More loosely, the name 
 of doctor has been applied to all teachers, 
 without reference to academical qualifi- 
 cation ; but in a special sense it is given to 
 certain servants of God who have joined 
 eminent learning to remarkable sanctity, 
 and on whose feasts the Church has 
 sanctioned the use of a special Mass and 
 Office. Four such, belonging to the East- 
 ern Church, have been recognized, — Sts. 
 Athanasius, Basil, Gregory of Nazianzum, 
 and Chrysostom; and as many in the 
 West, — Sts. Ambrose, Augustine, Jerome, 
 and Gregory the Great. It is possible 
 that the selection of this number was 
 primarily the work of Christian artists, 
 but it has been long sanctioned by the 
 Church. The first increase in the number 
 occurred in the sixteenth century, when 
 the title was formally conferred by St. 
 Pius V. upon the Dominican, St. Thomas 
 Aquinas, and by Sixtus V. upon the Fran- 
 ciscan, St. Bonaventure — each Pope pro- 
 moting his religious order. 
 
 Doctors of the Church, we call those 
 men who have rendered eminent service 
 
Dogmas 
 
 26^ 
 
 Dogmas 
 
 to ecclesiastical science. These are : Sts. 
 Athanasius, Basil, Gregory of Nazianzum, 
 Chrysostom, Ambrose, Augustine, Jerome, 
 Gregory the Great, Leo the Great, Thomas 
 Aquinas, Bonaventure, Bernard, Francis 
 of Sales and Alphonse de Liguori. 
 
 Dogmas and Matters of Opinion. — A 
 
 dogma is a point of doctrine, a proposition 
 regarded as incontestable, especially in 
 religion and philosophy. Every truth re- 
 vealed by God, or Christ, or the Holy 
 Ghost is, by that very fact, a divine or 
 Christian dogma ; when authoritatively 
 proposed by the Apostles, it became an 
 Apostolic Dogma; when fully promulgated 
 by the Church, an Ecclesiastical Dogma. 
 In the language of the Church, a dogma 
 pure and simple is at the same time eccle- 
 siastical, apostolic, and divine. But a 
 merely Divine Dogma — that is, one re- 
 vealed by God but not yet explicitly pro- 
 posed by the Church — is called a Material 
 (as opposed to a Formal) Dogma. 
 
 Dogmas may be classified according to 
 their various subject-matters; their pro- 
 mulgation, and the difTerent kinds of moral 
 obligation to know them. 
 
 Dogmas may be divided in the same way 
 as the contents of Revelation (which see) 
 except that matters revealed per accidens 
 are not properly dogmas. It is, however, 
 a dogma that Holy Scripture, in the genu- 
 ine text, contains undoubted truth 
 throughout. And consequently the denial 
 of matters revealed per accidens is a sin 
 against faith, because it implies the asser- 
 tion that Holy Scripture contains error. 
 This principle accounts for the opposition 
 to Galileo. The motions of the sun and 
 the earth are not indeed matters of dogma, 
 but the great astronomer's teaching was 
 accompanied by — or at any rate involved 
 — the assertion that Scripture was false in 
 certain texts. 
 
 With regard to their promulgation by 
 the Church, dogmas are divided into ma- 
 terial and formal. Formal dogmas are 
 subdivided into defined and undefined. 
 
 With regard to the obligation of know- 
 ing them, dogmas are to be believed either 
 implicitly or explicitly. Again the neces- 
 sity of knowing them is of two kinds-: 
 Necessity of means and necessity of pre- 
 cept; that is, the belief in some dogmas is 
 a necessary condition of salvation, apart 
 from any positive command of the Church, 
 while the obligation to believe in others 
 arises from her positive command. The 
 
 former may be called fundamental, because 
 they are most essential. We do not, how- 
 ever, admit the latitudinarian distinction 
 between fundamental articles, that is, 
 which must be believed, and nonfunda- 
 mental articles which need not be believed. 
 All Catholics are bound to accept, at least 
 implicitly, every dogma proposed by the 
 Church. 
 
 The criteria, or means of knowing 
 Catholic truth, may be easily gathered 
 from the principles already stated. They 
 are nearly all set forth in the Brief, " Tuas 
 Libenter,^' addressed by Pius IX. to the 
 Archbishop of Munich. 
 
 The following are the criteria of a dogma 
 of faith : Creeds or symbols of faith gen- 
 erally received ; dogmatic definitions of the 
 Popes or of ecumenical councils, and of 
 particular councils solemnly ratified; the 
 undoubtedly clear and indisputable sense 
 of Holy Scripture in matters relating to 
 faith and morals; the universal and con- 
 stant teaching of the Apostolate, especially 
 the public and permanent tradition of the 
 Roman Church ; universal practice, es- 
 pecially in liturgical matters, where it 
 clearly supposes and professes a truth as 
 undoubtedly revealed ; the teaching of the 
 Fathers when manifest and universal ; the 
 teaching of theologians when manifest and 
 universal. 
 
 Between the doctrines expressly defined 
 by the Church and those expressly con- 
 demned stand what may be called matters 
 of opinion or free opinions. Freedom, 
 however, like certainty, is of various de- 
 grees, especially in religious and moral 
 matters. Where there is no distinct defi- 
 nition there may be reasons sufficient to 
 give us moral certainty. To resist these 
 is not, indeed, formal disobedience, but 
 only rashness. Where there are no such 
 reasons this censure is not incurred. It is 
 not possible to determine exactly the 
 boundaries of these two groups of free 
 opinions ; they shade off into each other, 
 and range from absolute freedom to a 
 morally certain obligation to believe. In 
 this sphere of the approximative theology, 
 as it may be styled, there are: (i) Doc- 
 trines which it is morally certain that the 
 Church acknowledges as revealed ; (2) 
 theological doctrines which it is morally 
 certain that the Church considers as be- 
 longing to the integrity of the faith, or as 
 logically connected with revealed truth, 
 and consequently the denial of which is 
 approximate to theological error; (3) 
 
DOLCINO 
 
 264 
 
 Dominical Letter 
 
 doctrines neither revealed nor logically 
 deducible from revealed truths, but use- 
 ful, or even necessary, for safeguarding rev- 
 elation. To deny these would be rash. 
 See Theology. 
 
 Dolcino (Fra). See Apostolians. 
 
 Dollinger (JoHANN Joseph Ignaz von). 
 — A German theologian ; born at Bamberg, 
 Bavaria, Feb. 28, 1799; died at Munich, 
 Jan. 10, 1890. He was the son of Ignaz 
 Dollinger, the celebrated atonomist and 
 physiologist. He was ordained priest, 
 and for a time was engaged in parochial 
 duties, and in 1826 became professor of 
 Church history and canon law in the Uni- 
 versity of Munich. In 1845 he entered the 
 Bavarian Parliament, representing the Uni- 
 versity of Munich, and four years later 
 voted in the Frankfort Diet for the sepa- 
 ration of Church and State. In 1S61 he 
 advocated the abandonment by the papacy 
 of its temporal power, and in 1870 opposed 
 the action of Vatican Council in decreeing 
 the infallibility of the Pope. April 17, 
 187 1, he was excommunicated by the Arch- 
 bishop of Munich. After this he became 
 the leader of the "Old Catholic" move- 
 ment and presided over its congress. He 
 published Kirche und Kirchen, Papst- 
 thum und Kirchenstaat (1861), Papstfabeln 
 des Mittelalters (1863), etc. 
 
 Dominic (St.) and Dominicans. — St. 
 Dominic (1170-1221), born at Calahorra, 
 in old Castile, was distinguished in his 
 early youth by piety and love of study. 
 Having been ordained a priest, he went, 
 in company with his bishop, to the south 
 of France, where he witnessed the atroci- 
 ties committed by the Albigenses. The 
 sight of so many ruined souls moved him 
 to devote his life to their conversion. It 
 was then that our saint propagated the 
 use of the holy Rosary, which was re- 
 vealed to him in a vision by the Blessed 
 Virgin. After spending ten years in this 
 toilsome mission, St. Dominic, in 1215, 
 founded a new order, the chief object of 
 which was to furnish to the Church zealous 
 preachers and missionaries for the in- 
 struction of the Faithful, and the con- 
 version of the heretics. He selected the 
 Rule of St. Augustine for the use of his 
 order, adding certain statutes, which were 
 borrowed chiefly from those of the Pre- 
 monstratensians. The habit which he gave 
 to his religious consisted of a white tunic 
 and scapular, with a long black mantle, 
 
 from which latter robe was derived their 
 name, "Black Friars." Pope Honorius 
 III., in 1216, approved the new society 
 under the title of "Preaching Friars" 
 {Fratres PrcBdicatores). The same Pon- 
 tiff appointed Dominic " Master of the 
 sacred Palace," which office is to this day 
 held by a member of the order. Also St. 
 Dominic founded an order for women to 
 whom he gave the rule of the Friars, and 
 a Tertiary Order for people living in the 
 world. The order of St. Dominic has 
 contributed to the Church, besides count- 
 less saints, three Popes, sixty cardinals, 
 about a hundred and fifty archbishops, and 
 upwards of eight hundred bishops. F. 
 Aug. 4th. 
 
 The first foundation of the Dominican 
 Order in the United States was made in 
 1807 at Springfield, Ky., by Father Fen- 
 wick, afterwards Bishop of Cincinnati. 
 The Dominican Friars, in the United 
 States, have houses in the States of Ohio, 
 Kentucky, Tennessee, Illinois, California, 
 District of Columbia, Maryland, Maine, 
 New Jersey, New York, etc. 
 
 Dominica in Albis {the Sunday of -white 
 garments). — The first Sunday after Easter, 
 so called because in the early Church 
 those who had been baptized on Holy 
 Saturday appeared for the last time on 
 that day in their white baptismal robes. 
 
 Dominical or Linteum Dominicale. — The 
 
 dominical was a linen cloth on which 
 women formerly received the Blessed 
 Eucharist, while the men received it in the 
 bare hand. In the course of time the 
 " Communion Cloth " was substituted for 
 the dominical. 
 
 Dominical or Sunday Letter. — One of 
 the seven letters. A, B, C, D, E, F, G, 
 used in calendars to mark the Sundays 
 throughout the year. The first seven days 
 of the year being marked by the above 
 letters in their order, the following seven, 
 and all consecutive sets of seven days, to 
 the end of the year, are similarly marked, 
 except that in leap years the 24th and 25th 
 of February receive the same letter; so 
 that on whatever day the first Sunday of 
 the year falls, the letter which marks it 
 will mark all the other Sundays of the year, 
 except in case of leap year, when, after 
 February 24th, the dominical letter for the 
 remainder of the year changes to the one 
 preceding. (Many modern writers make 
 the change of letter to occur after the end 
 
DOMINUS VOBISCUM 
 
 265 
 
 DOXOLOGY 
 
 of February, the 29th taking no letter.) 
 After twenty-eight years the same letters 
 return in their order. The use of the 
 dominical letter is primarily to aid in de- 
 termining the date of Easter; but it may 
 be used, by calculation, for finding the 
 day of the week on which a given date 
 falls in any year, past or future. 
 
 Dominus Vobiscum. — These Latin 
 words, signifying the Lord be -with you, are 
 found in several passages of the Old Testa- 
 ment and are the common salutation in the 
 Mass and office. Booz said to the reapers : 
 "The Lord be with you." And they an- 
 swered him: "The Lord bless thee" 
 (Ruth ii 4). Such, too, was the salutation 
 of the angel Gabriel to the Blessed Virgin 
 Mary (Luke i. 28). The response: "And 
 with thy spirit," is furnished by the words 
 of St. Paul to Timothy (IL Tim. iv. 22). 
 In olden times when travelers met, they 
 greeted thus one another in passing, a cus- 
 tom still kept up in some parts of Ger- 
 many and Spain 
 
 Donation {Pretended) of Constantine. — 
 
 A document, under the Pontificate of Syl- 
 vester (314-335), which purports to be the 
 instrument of the donation, granted to the 
 Bishop of Rome, besides certain marks and 
 insignia of honor, such as the tiara, the 
 lorum, and imperial robes, also the tem- 
 poral sovereignty over Rome and the 
 provinces, towns, and castles of all Italy. 
 The document probably originated in 
 France, in the ninth century, and was pos- 
 sibly intended for the Greeks, by whom 
 the coronation of Charlemagne as emperor 
 was ill received. The assertion that it was 
 fabricated in the interest of the Papacy is 
 without foundation. Up to the twelfth 
 century, the document was never found to 
 have been made use of in Rome, or re- 
 ferred to by the Popes, although its au- 
 thenticity was then universally admitted. 
 While the document is proved to be a 
 forgery, yet, it is certain that Constantine 
 bestowed large possessions on the bishops 
 of Rome. The Roman See has never 
 looked upon the apocryphal document as 
 its strongest bulwark ; the Popes place 
 upon entirely diflferent grounds the foun- 
 dation of the papal prerogatives and the 
 powers exercised by the Apostolic See. 
 
 Donatists. — Schismatics who spread the 
 error of the Novatians on the invalidity of 
 baptism administered by heretics, taught 
 the invalidity of the sacraments conferred 
 
 by unworthy priests, and maintained that 
 the Church must reject the sinners from 
 her communion. This schism, commenced 
 in 311, and, combated by St. Augustine, 
 disappeared in the first half of the fifth 
 century. 
 
 Donus or Domnus L (St.). — Pope from 
 676 until 678. Born at Rome ; obtained the 
 revocation of the edict which declared the 
 Archbishop of Ravenna independent of 
 the jurisdiction of the Holy See. — Donus 
 or Domnus II. Pope, some claim, from 
 974 to 975. But it is proved to-day that 
 there never was a Pope Donus II. 
 
 Dor {The Actual Tentura). — Ancient 
 city and harbor of Phenicia on the Medi- 
 terranean, about nine miles from Caesarea 
 (Jos. xii. 23), belonging to the Persians, 
 Egyptians, Syrians, and Romans. A bishop 
 of Dor assisted at the Council of Constan- 
 tinople in 553. 
 
 Dositheus. — Head of a Samaritan sect 
 spoken of by Origen, St. Epiphanius, St. 
 Jerome, and other Fathers of the Church. 
 His followers pushed the precept of keep- 
 ing holy the Sabbath so far, as to remain 
 in the place and posture in which this day 
 surprised them. They also disapproved 
 of second marriages. 
 
 Douay Bible. See Bible. 
 
 Dove. — In Christian art, the dove is em- 
 ployed as an emblem of the Holy Ghost, 
 no doubt from the fact of this being the 
 form in which the Spirit descended on our 
 Lord at His baptism. The dove being used 
 to symbolize purity, it is generally repre- 
 sented as white, with its beak and claws 
 red, as they occur in nature. In the older 
 pictures a golden nimbus surrounds the 
 head, the nimbus being frequently divided 
 by a cross, either red or black. In stained- 
 glass windows we see the dove with seven 
 stars, significative of the seven gifts of the 
 Holy Spirit. Holding an olive branch, the 
 dove is an emblem of peace. When seen 
 issuing from the lips of dying saints and 
 martyrs, it represents the human soul. 
 
 Doxology. — A Greek word which signi- 
 fies an exclamation or prayer, in honor of 
 the majesty of God, such as St. Paul vises 
 at the close of his Epistles, and sometimes 
 even in the middle of an argument (Rom. 
 ix. 5). The " Gloria in exrelsis" is called 
 the great Doxology, and the " Glory be to 
 the Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy 
 Ghost," the small Doxology. See Gloria 
 
 IN EXCELSIS. 
 
Dream 
 
 266 
 
 DUNKERS 
 
 Dream. — Revery, idea, imagination of 
 a sleeping person. The dream distin- 
 guishes itself from reveries, which leave 
 nothing behind and appear to be a sort of 
 whimsical imagination of the mind during 
 the numbness of the senses. The dream, 
 because it presents a whole, a co-ordained 
 ensemble, approaches more the real. It is 
 also often believed that the dream contains 
 a truth and that it presents a prophetic 
 meaning. We see in Holy Scripture, that 
 on account of these circumstances which 
 strike our mind, God did not disdain, in 
 certain cases, to make use of the dream to 
 make His will known to us. Jacob beheld 
 in a dream the mysterious ladder rising 
 unto heaven ; in a dream God appeared to 
 Moses and the prophets ; the dream of the 
 Pharao explained by Joseph, and that of 
 Nabuchodonosor explained by Daniel are 
 well known. However, if the dreams do 
 not contain a divine element or a concealed 
 truth, we are not permitted to attach any 
 supernatural meaning to dreams. 
 
 Druids. — Ministers of religion among 
 the Gauls. They were divided into three 
 classes : the Priests, called Ovates, studied 
 the phenomena of nature, healed the sick, 
 foresaw the future, and inquired about the 
 divine will by the flight of birds, the en- 
 trails and blood of victims; the Bardes, 
 heroic and religious poets, depositaries of 
 the national traditions, celebrated the 
 memory of the brave fallen in battle, and 
 distributed praise and blame ; above these 
 two corporations were the Druids prop- 
 erly speaking, the most elevated in genius. 
 
 Druses. — The name of a people of Syria, 
 who dwelt on Libanon. It is claimed that 
 they descended from the French, who fol- 
 lowed Godfrey of Bouillion to the conquest 
 of the Holy Land in 1099. 
 
 Drusilla. — Third daughter of Herod 
 Agrippa (Acts xii.) and a woman of great 
 personal beauty, who married the king of 
 Emesa, but forsook him and married Felix, 
 procurator of Judea, and was present at 
 the hearing he gave to St. Paul at Caesarea 
 (Acts xxiv. 24). According to Josephus, 
 she perished in the eruption of Vesuvius, 
 in 79 A. D. 
 
 Du Bois (John) (1764-1842). — Ameri- 
 can prelate; born in Paris, died in New 
 York. Was ordained priest in 1787, and 
 received his appointment of assistant at the 
 great Church of St. Sulpice, Paris. The 
 Revolution brought him to America, and 
 
 he arrived at Norfolk, Virginia, in 1791. 
 At Mount St. Mary's, Maryland, he opened 
 a school, which soon developed into Mount 
 St. Mar3''s College, of which he was long 
 president. His college was also a theo- 
 logical seminary, where some of the great- 
 est bishops and priests of the country were 
 educated. He was appointed Bishop of 
 New York in 1826, where he found but few 
 churches and priests. 
 
 Duel (single combat). — Dueling is 
 strictly forbidden by the Church ; any one 
 concerned in dueling becomes guilty of a 
 grievous sin, and those playing the princi- 
 pal part become guilty of a double crime, 
 by willingly exposing themselves to death, 
 and by attempting to take the Hfe of an- 
 other. The duel is only considered per- 
 missible as preventing greater disaster, or 
 as conducive to public welfare, as was the 
 case when David fought Goliath (I. Ki. 
 xvii. 50). The Church has forbidden duel- 
 ing (also when the contest is not for life 
 or death), and punishes with excommuni- 
 cation, not only the parties themselves, but 
 also all accomplices, counselors, assistants, 
 witnesses, and spectators, who by their 
 presence approve and sanction it He who 
 perishes in a duel is likewise deprived of 
 Christian burial. 
 
 Dulia. See Worship. 
 
 Dungal. — Eminent Irish scholar, lived 
 in the beginning of the ninth centur}'. He 
 was one of the most learned men of his 
 time, was an excellent theologian, poet, 
 and scholar. When Claudius, Bishop of 
 Turin, openly attacked the use of hoh- im- 
 ages, Dungal came forward as a learned 
 apologist in their behalf, in a work entitled 
 Responsa contra Perversas Claudii Sen- 
 tentias, A. D. 827. His reply to Charle- 
 magne on the two solar eclipses which 
 happened in the year 810, proves the writer 
 to have been well acquainted with all that 
 the ancients had taught upon the subject. 
 He was appointed chief teacher in the 
 great school at Pavia by Lothaire II. 
 
 Dunkers. — Members of a sect of Ger- 
 man-American Baptists, so named from 
 their manner of baptism. Their proper 
 name is "Brethren." Driven from Ger- 
 many by persecution early in the eighteenth 
 century, they took refuge in Pennsylvania, 
 and thence extended their societies into 
 neighboring states, and are especially found 
 in Ohio. They condemn all war and liti- 
 gation, acknowledge the authority of the 
 
Duns Scotus 
 
 267 
 
 Easter 
 
 Bible, administer baptism by triple immer- 
 sion, and only to adults, practice washing 
 of feet before the Lord's Supper, use the 
 kiss of peace, laying on of hands and 
 anointing with oil, and observe a severe 
 simplicity in dress and speech. They have 
 bishops, elders, and teachers, and are com- 
 monly supposed to accept the doctrine of 
 universal redemption. 
 
 Duns Scotus (John) (i 274-1308). — 
 Scotch philosopher, the great light of the 
 Franciscans. He was the glorious de- 
 fender of the Immaculate Conception of 
 the Blessed Virgin, a doctrine of which 
 his Order was ever the champion. Al- 
 though dying before his fortieth year, his 
 works comprise twelve folio volumes. For 
 his polemical acuteness, he was called the 
 " Subtle Doctor " {Doctor subtilis). The 
 " Scotists " regarded him as their leader 
 in the disputations with the '* Thomists." 
 
 Dunstan (St.) (Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury). — Born in 924, in the county of 
 Somerset, near the monastery of Glaston- 
 bury, where he was educated. He built 
 a monastery of which he became the first 
 abbot and founded five others in various 
 places. Sent into exile by King Edwy, 
 he was recalled by his successor Edgar, 
 
 who named him Bishop of Worcester, and 
 Archbishop of Canterbury in 961. F. May 
 19th. 
 
 Dupanloup (Felix Antoine Phili- 
 bert). — Born at St. Felix, near Cham- 
 b^ry, France, Jan. 3d, 1802; died Oct. 
 nth, 1878. A French prelate. He was 
 made Bishop of Orleans in 1849; was 
 elected deputy to the National Assembly 
 in 1871 ; and became a life senator in 1875. 
 He was opposed to the dogma of the papal 
 Infallibility, but finally accepted it. 
 
 Durandus of Saint-Pourgain. — French 
 philosopher, born at Saint-Pour5ain (Puy- 
 de-D6me), died in 1326. He entered at the 
 Dominicans, and, after the year 1313, he 
 lectured in Paris, where he was called the 
 "Resolute Doctor" {Doctor resolutissi- 
 mus), and subsequently became Bishop of 
 Meaux. He died in 1333. Durandus ac- 
 quired prominence by his advocacy of 
 Nominalism. According to him, whatever 
 has not determinate notes may indeed be 
 an object of thought, but cannot be said to 
 enjoy true being. In his principal work 
 on the Sentences of the Lombard, he 
 assails the extreme advocacy of the princi- 
 ples of Aristotle, then so universally ac- 
 cepted. 
 
 Eadmer or Edmur. — Benedictine monk 
 and English writer of the twelfth century. 
 Disciple, friend, then director, by order 
 of Pope Urban II., of St. Anselm, Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury. Having been named 
 Bishop of St. Andrew in Scotland, he soon 
 renounced this dignity. 
 
 Easter (Hebr. paschia, passage). — Sol- 
 emn feast celebrated every year by the Jews 
 in memory of their going out of Egypt ; 
 it was the first of the five feasts of the 
 Hebrews, and lasted seven days, beginning 
 with the 14th of the month of Nisan. 
 This feast was called Pasck, because, on 
 the night which preceded the departure of 
 the Hebrews from Egypt, the extermi- 
 nating angel put to death the first born of 
 the Egyptians, but passed and spared the 
 houses of the Israelites, which were marked 
 with the blood of the lamb immolated the 
 evening before, and for this reason called 
 
 Paschal Lamb. The manner in which 
 this feast should be celebrated can be seen 
 in Exodus (xii). As to the Christian 
 Pasch, it was instituted by our Saviour 
 Jesus Christ, when, at the Last Supper He 
 held with His disciples. He gave to them, 
 under the form of bread and wine. His 
 Body to eat and His Blood to drink. This 
 feast which ought to be celebrated in ail 
 sincerity, innocence, and truth (prefigured 
 by the Jewish feast of the unleavened 
 bread) has been kept every year with great 
 solemnity. In the first centuries of the 
 Church, there was great diversity of opin- 
 ions and practices in the celebration of 
 Easter; but the Council of Nice, held in 
 325, decided that Easter should be cele- 
 brated on the Sunday following the four- 
 teenth day of the moon of March. Those 
 who opposed this decree were looked upon 
 as heretics and called ^uartodechnans, 
 that is, followers of the fourteenth day. 
 
Easter 
 
 268 
 
 Easter 
 
 Easter (Computation of). — The Paschal 
 feast was fixed, among the Jews, by a 
 lunar calendar of which the twelve months 
 did not quite reach the duration of a solar 
 year ; the intercalcation of a complemental 
 month was to be made from time to time, 
 rather according to the state of the season 
 at the end of the twelfth month than ac- 
 cording to well established astronomical 
 rules. Easter fell in the full moon, called 
 the 14th of Nisan. But when did the first 
 month or month of Nisan commence? At 
 the end of the twelfth month, or at the end 
 of the thirteenth supplementary month? 
 The Jews were in agreement in regulating 
 this question ; and, at the beginning, the 
 Christians accepted their calculations. 
 There were, however, many debates in re- 
 gard to this subject, in the Church; first, 
 because the Christians were divided about 
 the question to-wit, until what point the 
 new Easter should coincide, as rite and 
 date, with the old one ; then because they 
 were not agreed about the manner to fix 
 the month and the week when the feast 
 should be celebrated. Of these conflicts, 
 the following are the most famous: i. 
 The agitation which arose in the province 
 of Asia, shortly after the middle of the 
 second century, in regard to the subject 
 of maintaining or abandoning the rite of 
 the Paschal Lamb. 2. The conflict be- 
 tween the entire group of the Churches of 
 Asia and those of the other parts of the 
 Empire, as to the day of the week they 
 should end the Paschal fast. The Asiatics 
 ended it on the 14th of Nisan, the others 
 on the Sunday after the 14th of Nisan. 
 This divergence maintained itself until 
 about the end of the second century, then 
 it degenerated into a public quarrel, which 
 ended in a defeat of the ancient Asiatic 
 custom. The Asiatic Churches adopted 
 the common custom, the dominical cus- 
 tom ; the adherents of local custom, the 
 ^uartodeci'mans, organized themselves 
 into a separate sect, which continued to 
 exist until the fifth century. 3. The con- 
 flict between the computations of Antioch 
 and of Alexandria, was solved by the 
 Council of Nice in 325. At Antioch they 
 celebrated the resurrection of Christ on 
 the Sunday which followed the Jewish 
 Pasch, without troubling themselves 
 whether the Jews had correctly fixed the 
 Pasch and the first month. At Alexandria, 
 on the contrary, they reckoned the Paschal 
 feast in a more direct manner and managed 
 that it always fell after the equinox of 
 
 spring time. The Alexandrians having 
 gained their cause in the Council of Nice, 
 the ancient custom of Antioch was no 
 longer upheld except by small sects {Au- 
 dians, Protopaschites) , and all the Eastern 
 Churches conformed themselves to the Pas- 
 chal computations proposed by the Bishop 
 of Alexandria. 4. The continually rising 
 difficulties, in the fourth and fifth cen- 
 turies, between the Alexandrian compu- 
 tation and that of Rome. These difficul- 
 ties had their origin in certain diversities 
 of calculation and custom. The calcula- 
 tion of the age of the moon, such as they 
 practiced it at Rome, was founded upon 
 imperfect cycles ; it was often at variance 
 with that of Alexandria, founded upon the 
 cycle of nineteen years. On the other 
 hand, the Romans did not admit that the 
 Sunday of Easter could fall, in the lunar 
 month, before the i6th of this month, 
 whilst at Alexandria they could celebrate 
 Easter since the 15th. Finally, they be- 
 lieved, at Rome, to possess a tradition 
 according to which Easter could not be 
 celebrated after the 21st of April. This 
 limit was unknown at Alexandria, where 
 they could celebrate Easter till the 25th of 
 April. The conflicts raised as to these 
 differences were mostly regulated in a 
 friendly manner between the Pope and the 
 Greek Church. They ended by disap- 
 pearing when Rome adopted the Alex- 
 andrine computation under the form given 
 by Dionysius the Small (525). 5. The di- 
 vergence between the Paschal tables of 
 Victorius of Aquitaine and Dionysius the 
 Small. The first, drawn up at Rome in 
 457, was hardly ever used in this city; but 
 it was adopted by the churches of Frankish 
 Gaul, which upheld it until the Carolin- 
 gian epoch. In difficult cases they found 
 therein two solutions, two Paschal dates, 
 that of the Alexandrians and that which 
 resulted from the application of the an- 
 cient Roman rules. This duality caused 
 many uncertainties. 6. The quarrel in 
 regard to the British computation in the 
 British Isles. The British Churches and, 
 consequently, the Irish Churches, had pre- 
 served an old Paschal rule, in use at Rome 
 about the beginning of the fourth century, 
 according to which the Sunday of Easter 
 could fall from the 14th to the 20th of 
 Nisan. Rome having repeatedly modi- 
 fied her computation since the time when 
 the Britains had borrowed it from them, 
 the Roman missionaries of the seventh 
 century found themselves at variance with 
 
Easter Communion 
 
 269 
 
 ECCLESTON 
 
 the native Churches as to the manner of 
 reckoning the time of Easter. This differ- 
 ence gave rise to great quarrels. On both 
 sides they claimed to follow apostolic 
 traditions and the Celtic clergy did not 
 refuse to make use of apocryphal books 
 expressly composed to uphold their na- 
 tional custom. 
 
 Easter Communion. — The decisions of 
 the Holy See, the provincial councils, the 
 rituals, establish or suppose the obligation 
 to communicate during Easter time, in 
 the communicant's own parish, that is, 
 parishes canonically erected. There are 
 only a few such parishes in the United 
 States. If a person belongs to such a par- 
 ish, he cannot fully satisfy the precept of 
 the Church, by communicating in a parish 
 in which the recipient is a stranger, ex- 
 cept he has the consent of the proper pas- 
 tor, or of the bishop or of the sovereign 
 Pontiff. However, although a parish may 
 not be canonically erected, it is desirable 
 that the Easter Communion should be 
 received in the church of the parish to 
 which we belong. The time appointed 
 for the receiving of Easter communion, 
 according to the general law of the Church, 
 is from Palm Sunday to the first Sunday 
 after Easter, inclusive. In the United 
 States, however, the time appointed for 
 Paschal communion, is the time between 
 the first Sunday of Lent and Trinity Sun- 
 day 
 
 Easter Confession. — All the Faithful 
 who have attained a sufficient maturity to 
 be capable of committing grievous sin are 
 obliged to confess their sins at least once a 
 year. According to custom, this precept 
 is generally complied with during Easter 
 time, as a preparation for holy com- 
 munion, which is to be received within this 
 space of time. The Fourth Council of the 
 Lateran (1215) decreed as follows: "All 
 the Faithful of both sexes shall, as soon as 
 they have attained the years of discretion, 
 sincerely confess all their sins in secret, at 
 least once a year, to a duly authorized 
 priest, and devoutly receive the sacrament 
 of the Eucharist, at least during Easter 
 time. Otherwise they shall be debarred 
 from entering the Church during life, and 
 from Christian burial after death." See 
 Confession. 
 
 Ebionites. — Heretics in the early 
 Church. The teaching of the Ebionites 
 was an odd mixture of Christianity and 
 
 Judaism. They accepted only the "Gos- 
 pel of the Hebrews," adhered to the Mosaic 
 law, and condemned the Apostle St. Paul 
 as an apostate from the Law. They, in- 
 deed, acknowledged Jesus Christ as the 
 Messias, but denied His divinity. Con- 
 cerning the birth of Christ they were di- 
 vided. Some admitted His supernatural 
 birth of a virgin; others held that Christ 
 was only man and the son of Joseph and 
 Mary. 
 
 Ecce Homo {Behold the man) — The 
 Latin rendering in the Vulgate of the 
 Greek words by which (John xix. 5) Pilate 
 presented Jesus to the people, and which 
 afterwards became the technical term ap- 
 plied to pictures of Christ as the suffering 
 Saviour. 
 
 Ecclesiarch. — In the Greek Church, a 
 Church officer who has charge of the 
 church and its contents and summons the 
 Faithful to divine service. This function- 
 ary lights the candles, and sees that all is 
 done according to order. He corresponds 
 somewhat to our sacristan. 
 
 Ecclesiastes (moral book of the Old 
 Testament). — An exhortation of Solomon 
 addressed to the whole Church (Eklesia), 
 and designed to demonstrate that in this 
 world there is nothing abiding, true, or 
 great, except to fear God and obey His 
 commandments, so as to appear well before 
 His judgment seat. Hence the oft-repeated 
 exclamation : " Vanity of vanities and all 
 is vanity. . . . Fear God and keep His 
 commandments, for this is all man." 
 
 Ecclesiasticus (moral book of the Old 
 Testament). — It was written by " Jesus, 
 the son of Sirach," who was a citizen 
 of Jerusalem, in the third century b. c, 
 and in the time of Simon, the high-priest. 
 The sacred author was remarkable for his 
 piety. Wisdom is declared to consist in 
 the fear of God, and in order to assist in the 
 cultivation of this heavenly virtue, rules 
 adapted to all conditions of life are set 
 forth in the fullest and most impressive 
 manner. 
 
 Eccleston (Samuel) (1801-1851). — 
 American prelate; was born in Kent 
 County, Maryland, of parents belonging to 
 the Episcopal Church. Was ordained priest 
 in 1825. President of St. Mary's College 
 of Baltimore; and in 1834, coadjutor of 
 Archbishop Whitfield of Baltimore, by 
 whom he was consecrated on the 14th of 
 
ECK 
 
 270 
 
 Education 
 
 September. In little more than a month 
 after the archbishop's death, Eccleston suc- 
 ceeded him as archbishop. When the revo- 
 lutionary storms drove Pope Pius IX. from 
 his sacred city, Archbishop Eccleston, in 
 Januar}^ 1849, invited him to Baltimore to 
 preside in the Seventh Provincial Council. 
 It was the privilege of Archbishop Eccle- 
 ston to preside in no less than five pro- 
 vincial councils as metropolitan of the 
 Church in the United States. 
 
 Eck (John) (1486-1543). — German theo- 
 logian and controversialist, born at Eck, 
 Suabia, professor and vice-chancellor at 
 the University of Ingolstadt. Indefati- 
 gable adversary of Luther, as can be seen by 
 his Sermons, his book On the Primacy, 
 Letters, etc. 
 
 Eclectics. — A name given to certain an- 
 cient philosophers who selected from dif- 
 ferent systems what they saw fit and 
 combined it into a system of their own. 
 Their example was followed by the Neo- 
 platonists of Alexandria, whose chief ex- 
 ponents were Plotinus, Porphyry, and 
 Proclus. 
 
 Ecthesis. — The name given to a letter 
 issued by the Emperor Heraclius in 638 to 
 pacify the troubles occasioned by the 
 Eutychian heresy; but as it did not meet 
 with general favor and was condemned by 
 Pope John IV., it was withdrawn by the 
 Emperor Constans II. 
 
 Ecumenical. See Councils. 
 
 Eden (Hebr. a garden). — The primitive 
 home of our first parents (Gen. ii. 8), of 
 uncertain or unknown locality ; probably in 
 the highlands of Armenia, or in the val- 
 ley of the Euphrates. See Paradise. 
 
 Edessa. — A very ancient city of Meso- 
 potamia. Christianity was early intro- 
 duced into it, and the city contained a 
 large number of monasteries. 'It was the 
 seat of Ephraem Syrus and his school. 
 Here the famous portrait of Christ is said 
 to have been painted by St. Luke and sent 
 by the Saviour Himself, with a letter, to 
 Abgar, king of Edessa. Was preserved 
 at Edessa, they claim, till it was brought, 
 in 944, to Constantinople, and thence to 
 Rome. Neither the picture nor the letter 
 appears to have any historical foundation. 
 
 Edmund (St.). — English prelate; born 
 at Abington, England ; died in 1242. Pro- 
 fessor in one of the colleges of Paris, and 
 
 ordained priest; returned into England, 
 preached the crusade by order of Pope 
 Gregory IX., and was raised to the see of 
 Canterbury. Edmund, of acknowledged 
 piety and learning, manifested great zeal 
 in remedying the many evils that were 
 brooding over the Church in England. 
 He urged King Henry III. to dismiss his 
 foreign ministers, especially Peter des 
 Roches. But the endeavors of the saint 
 for reform met with much opposition. 
 Finding his efforts without avail, he re- 
 tired into France, where he died. 
 
 Edom. See Esau. 
 
 Edrai (Hebr. strong). — i. One of the 
 two capitals of Basan, and afterwards in 
 the limits of the lot of Manasses (Jos. xiii. 
 31). Its ruins cover a large space, and 
 are now called Edhra. 2. A town of 
 Nephtali, near Cades (Jos. xix. 37). 
 
 Education. — Process of developing the 
 physical, intellectual, and moral faculties 
 and the result of this process. Moral 
 education, the most important of all, con- 
 sists in training not only the sensibility, 
 the heart (as we commonly express it), but 
 also the will. Its object is to elevate the 
 soul by imparting to it the consciousness 
 of its dignity and beauty. For this end, 
 education points out to the soul its re- 
 semblance to God, which has become the 
 ideal of the Christian life. Instruction 
 comes to the assistance of education. By in- 
 struction, the true, the good, the beautiful 
 become better known and are more cher- 
 ished ; the more cherished, the more sought, 
 and the soul elevates itself more and 
 more toward this threefold form of the 
 ideal, which finds its ineffable reali- 
 zation in God. But science is not virtue. 
 The most learned man is not always the 
 best educated. A simple knowledge of 
 correct limit, which knows how to discern 
 between good and evil, may be joined with 
 an energetic will never to violate the moral 
 law. The mere oral teaching of the 
 Catholic catechism has endowed daily 
 laborers with a strong morality, although 
 very illiterate otherwise; while, on the 
 contrary, the encyclopedic instruction, 
 which pervades at present the schools of 
 the smallest town, void of all moral edu- 
 cation, only prepares the way for the 
 return to barbarism. The Catholic Church 
 is, according to a famous word, the " School 
 of Respect," because it prolongs the edu- 
 cation of the will by its general teaching, 
 
Edward the Confessor 
 
 271 
 
 Elevation 
 
 which emanates each week from the pul- 
 pit, and by the intimate and constant di- 
 rection which instructs each soul in the 
 tribunal of Penance. 
 
 Edward the Confessor (1004-1066). — 
 Anglo-Saxon king. To promote religion 
 and the general welfare of his people was 
 the principal care of this saintly monarch. 
 His virtues and kingly qualities earned 
 him popular respect, and long did the 
 English cherish a grateful remembrance 
 of his peaceful and happy reign. One of 
 the last acts of Edward was the erection 
 of Westminster Abbey. The surname of 
 " Confessor" he obtained from Alexander 
 III., by whom he was canonized in 1161. 
 F. Oct. 13th. 
 
 Edward the Martyr (962-978). — King of 
 the Anglo-Saxons. Succeeded in 975 to 
 Edgar, his father, and was assassinated by 
 order of Elfrida, his mother-in-law. 
 
 Eglon (Hebr. calf). — A king of Moab 
 who held Israel in bondage eighteen years, 
 having Jericho for his seat of government. 
 He was slain by Aod, and his people west of 
 the Jordan were destroyed (Judg. iii. 
 12-30). 
 
 Einsiedeln or Maria Einsiedeln. — City 
 of Switzerland. Ancient Abbey of the 
 Benedictines, founded in 946. Here is 
 found a picture of the Blessed Virgin, 
 which attracts every year, on September 
 14th, an immense number of pilgrims. 
 
 Ela (Hebr. terebinth). — i. The valley in 
 which David slew Goliath, now Wady 
 Sunt, sixteen miles southwest from Jeru- 
 salem. 2. The son and successor of Baasa, 
 king of Israel, 926 b. c, who, after a reign 
 of two years, was assassinated by Zambri, 
 one of his officers (III. Ki. xvi. 6-10). 
 
 Elam (Hebr. highland). — A region which 
 took its name from a son of Sem, and corre- 
 sponded to the Elymais of the Greek and 
 Roman writers. It was a powerful mon- 
 archy in Abraham's day, and long re- 
 tained its own princes, but finally became 
 a province of Babylonia and afterwards of 
 Persia. 
 
 Elath or Ailath. — An Edomite seaport, 
 the modern Akiba, on the northern end of 
 the Gulf of Akiha; an important place un- 
 der Solomon (III. Ki. ix. 26-28) ; taken by 
 the Assyrians (IV. Ki. xvi. 7-9). 
 
 Eleazar. — Name of several Old Testa- 
 ment personages : i. Third son of Aaron, 
 
 and his successor in the dignity of high- 
 priest. He entered the Promised Land 
 with Josue and was buried at Gabaat. 
 2. Son of Aminadab. Guard of the sacred 
 ark when the latter was returned by the 
 Philistines. 3. Brother of Judas the Mach- 
 abee and surnamed Aharon, Auran, or 
 Avran. Was crushed in a battle against 
 Antiochus Eupator by the fall of an ele- 
 phant which he had disemboweled believ- 
 ing it to be mounted by the king. 4. Old 
 man of Jerusalem. Martyr under Anti- 
 ochus Epiphanes. 5. High-priest, son of 
 Onias I. and brother of Simon the Just. 
 He sent to Ptolemy Philadelphus the 
 seventy-two savants who made the version 
 of the so-called Septuagint. 6. Son of the 
 high-priest Ananias. Contributed towards 
 the revolt which brought on the ruin of 
 the Temple and of the Jewish nation. 
 
 Eleutheropolis. — An ancient city of 
 Palestine, twenty miles east-northeast of 
 Gaza, having very extensive ruins with 
 massive vaults. It is identified wrth the 
 village of Beit-Jibrin. 
 
 Eleutherus (St.). — Pope from 177 to 192. 
 A Greek and deacon of Pope Anicetus. 
 Under his Pontificate the sect of the Mon- 
 tanists arose. F. Oct. 9th. 
 
 Eleutherus (St.). — One of the compan- 
 ions of the apostolate of St. Dionysius the 
 Areopagite and of his martyrdom. F. Oct. 
 9th. 
 
 Eleutherus (St.) (454-531). — Bishop of 
 Tournai and martyr. Born at Tournai ; 
 disciple of St. Medard ; was elevated to the 
 episcopal see of his native city (486), which 
 he regenerated almost entirely by the bap- 
 tism of 11,000 pagans (Dec. 26th, 496). 
 This beautiful day was consecrated by a 
 solemn feast, which is still celebrated every 
 year. F. Feb. 20th. 
 
 Elevation. — That part of the Mass, when 
 the priest raises, successively, the conse- 
 crated host and chalice, in order that the 
 Faithful may adore the body and blood of 
 our Saviour. The elevation and adoration 
 of the body and blood of Jesus Christ in 
 the holy sacrifice of the Mass, are to be 
 found in all the Oriental liturgies, whether 
 Greek, Syriac, Egyptian, or Ethiopian, and 
 are distinctly pointed out in the liturgies 
 of St. James, St. Chrysostom, and St. 
 Basil. Up to the eleventh century, the 
 elevation did not take place until toward 
 the end of the Canon of the Mass. 
 
Eliachim 
 
 27^ 
 
 Elizabeth 
 
 Eliachim or Joachim. — King of Juda 
 (608-598 B. c). Son of Jopias, brother and 
 successor of Joachaz. Placed on the 
 throne by Nechao, King of Egypt, he 
 gave himself up to impiety, and persecuted 
 the prophet Jeremias. Dethroned by 
 Nabuchodonosor, he was led away a pris- 
 oner to Babylon, and put to death three 
 months aftertvards. 
 
 Elias. — Prophet of great celebrity and 
 holiness. Born at Thesbe about 900 b. c. 
 He was carried to heaven in a fierj- chariot, 
 without having tasted death. His history, 
 which is full of affecting incidents and 
 verv interesting, is contained in HI. Ki. 
 xvii.-xix. and IV. Ki. i. 2. 
 
 Eligius (St.). — Apostle of the Frisians, 
 inhabiting the northwestern coast of Ger- 
 many (parts of Holland and Hanover). 
 To their conversion and to the permanent 
 establishment of Christianity, by the 
 foundation of churches and monasteries, 
 he devoted himself with unremitting en- 
 ergy till his death, in 568. 
 
 Elim (Hebr. trees). — The second station 
 of Israel after crossing the Red Sea. It had 
 twelve wells and seventy palm trees, and 
 has been identified with Wady Charandel, 
 forty miles southeast of Suez, where there 
 are fountains, brooks, and palms. 
 
 Elipandus. — Archbishop of Toledo, 
 schismatic, died in 799, He declared 
 Jesus Christ to be only the adoptive son of 
 God, whence the name of the sect Adop- 
 tianismy which did not survive its founder. 
 
 Eliseus. — A celebrated prophet, the 
 successor, and after a manner, the pupil of 
 Elias. His history, which is full of in- 
 terest, is contained in I. Ki. ii.-ix. and 
 xiii. 14-21. 
 
 Elishe (Elis^us). — Elishe, a disciple 
 of St. Mesrop, was at one time secretary 
 to St. Wardan, the commander of the 
 Armenian army. Later on he retired into 
 solitude, first to South Armenia, then to 
 the shores of Lake Wan, in order to shun 
 intercourse with men. Here he ended his 
 days in 480. He wrote The History of 
 Wardan and the Armenian War, in a 
 patriotic and enthusiastic strain; also 
 commentaries on Genesis, on the books of 
 Josue and the Judges ; an explanation of 
 the Pater Noster; canons on the treat- 
 ment of enerffumens, also Words of Ad- 
 monition to Hermits, in which he depicts 
 the sufferings and persecutions of the 
 
 Church and ardently exhorts the Armenian 
 monks to a virtuous life. The authenticity 
 of the homilies ascribed to him is doubt- 
 ful, in view of the great difference of 
 style. Elishe's works are distinguished 
 by the purity and elevation of his language, 
 and, from a theological point of view, 
 afford excellent testimony to the doctrines 
 of the Trinity, Incarnation, duality of 
 natures in Christ, the divine institution of 
 the Church, the Primacy of Peter, the 
 Eucharist, and similar dogmas. 
 
 Elizabeth (Qj:een) (1533-1603). — 
 Daughter of Henry VIII. and Anne 
 Boleyn, was, after the execution of her 
 mother, declared illegitimate and inca- 
 pable of reigning, but Henry in his will re- 
 stored to her her rights. During the reign 
 of Mary Tudor, her sister, she was impli- 
 cated in the conspiracy of Thomas Wyat 
 and condemned to close confinement in the 
 Tower. She was twenty years old when 
 the death of Mary called her to the throne. 
 Being endowed with an energetic dispo- 
 sition for the management of affairs and 
 great skill, she really possessed the quali- 
 fications of a ruler ; but her character was 
 otherwise cruel and tyrannical, her temper 
 irritable, and she was possessed with an 
 ambitious vanity and frivolous pretensions 
 to beauty and talent. She surrounded 
 herself with Protestant counselors and 
 founded the Anglican Church by the Act 
 of the Thirty-nine Articles (1562). She 
 caused parliament to declare her queen by 
 divine right, supreme governess of Church 
 and State, and required, from the members 
 of the clergy, an oath endorsing the 
 spiritual supremacy of the crown. All the 
 bishops, except the incumbent of Landaff, 
 refused this oath ; they were arrested and 
 fourteen were replaced by Protestants. 
 The inferior clergy was less courageous. 
 When Mary Stuart crossed the Solway, 
 Elizabeth led her to the Castle of Bolton, 
 Yorkshire, pretending to arbitrate between 
 the Scottish queen and her subjects. After 
 a most unjust trial finally condemned her 
 to death (1587). She completely outlawed 
 the Catholics and exposed them to a con- 
 tinual risk of martyrdom. Communica- 
 tion with Rome, and obedience to the 
 Papal authority, were declared high trea- 
 son. " Recusancy," and attendance at 
 Catholic worship were visited with the 
 severest penalties. In 1584, laws proscrib- 
 ing the whole body of the Catholic clergy 
 were rushed through parliament. All 
 
Elizabeth 
 
 273 
 
 Eloquence 
 
 Jesuits and priests were commanded, on 
 pain of high treason, to leave the country 
 within forty days ; anyone harboring or 
 concealing a priest was adjudged a felon 
 and deserving of death. In 1593, laws 
 were enacted which forbade Catholics to 
 travel five miles from their homes; they 
 were excluded from court parliament, and 
 all offices of trust, and deprived of the right 
 of franchise. Elizabeth, who had been 
 the author of so much grief to others, was 
 destined to close her life in sorrow and 
 despair. She died March 23d, 1603. 
 
 Elizabeth (St.). — A Jewish woman, of 
 the family of Aaron, wife of Zacharias, 
 mother of St. John the Baptist, died about 
 the year 3 a. d. She saluted the mother 
 of the Redeemer by the words which form 
 a part of the " Hail Mary: " " Thou art 
 blessed among women and blessed is the 
 fruit of thy womb." F. Nov. 5th. 
 
 Elizabeth (St.) (Queen of Hungary). — 
 She was a daughter of a king of Hungary, 
 and niece of St. Hedwige. Betrothed in 
 infancy to Louis Landgrave of Thuringia, 
 she was reared with the greatest care at 
 her father's court. Not content with re- 
 ceiving numbers of the poor in her palace, 
 and relieving all in distress, she built sev- 
 eral hospitals, where she ministered to the 
 sick, dressing the most repulsive sores with 
 her own hands. Once, as she was carrying 
 in the folds of her mantle some provisions 
 for the poor, she met her husband return- 
 ing from the chase. Astonished to see 
 her bending under the weight of her bur- 
 den, he opened the mantle which she kept 
 folded closely together, and found in it 
 nothing but beautiful red and white roses, 
 although it was not the season for flowers. 
 Bidding her pursue her way, he took one 
 of the marvelous roses and kept it all his 
 life. On her husband's death she was 
 cruelly driven from her palace, and forced 
 to wander through the streets with her 
 little children, a victim of- hunger and 
 cold ; but she welcomed all her sufferings, 
 and continued to be the mother of the poor, 
 converting many by her holy life. She 
 died in 1231, at the age of twenty-four. F. 
 Nov. 19th. 
 
 Elizabeth (St.) (1271-1326; Q,ueen of 
 Portugal). — She was a daughter of Pedro 
 HL of Arragon, being named after her 
 aunt, St. Elizabeth of Hungary. At twelve 
 years of age she was given in marriage to 
 Denis, king of Portugal, and from a holy 
 
 18 
 
 child became a saintly wife. Her husband 
 caused her much sorrow, both by his un- 
 founded jealousy and by his infidelity to 
 her. Her patience, and the wonderful 
 charity with which she even cherished the 
 children of her rivals, completely won the 
 king from his evil ways, and he became a 
 devoted husband and a truly Christian 
 king. She built many charitable institu- 
 tions and religious houses, among others a 
 convent of Poor Clares. After her hus- 
 band's death, she wished to enter this 
 order; but being dissuaded by her people, 
 she took the habit of the Third Order of 
 St. Francis, and spent the rest of her life 
 in redoubled austerities and almsgiving. 
 F. July 8th. 
 
 Elkesaites. — The only Judaist-Gnos- 
 tics, a branch of the Essenian Ebionites. 
 A certain Elkai or Elkesai, who lived in 
 the first century, is supposed to have been 
 their founder. Their distinctive tenet was 
 that the Spirit of God had become incar- 
 nate repeatedly — first in Adam, then suc- 
 cessively in Enoch, Noe, Abraham, etc., 
 and lately in Christ. They maintained 
 the necessity of a second baptism and ob- 
 served the ceremonial law of the Jews, but 
 rejected all sacrifice, as also portions of 
 the Old and New Testaments. Their 
 vagaries are embodied in the Clementine 
 Homilies, so called from having been at- 
 tributed to Pope Clementine I., from 
 whom the Elkesaites traced their pretended 
 secret revelation. 
 
 Eloham. — Hebrew word which signifies 
 any God, but mostly employed for the true 
 God. The contents of the discourse makes 
 its real meaning known in the- different 
 passages where it is used in the Bible. 
 
 Elohim (plural of the preceding word). 
 — One of the names of God of frequent 
 occurrence in the Hebrew text of the Old 
 Testament. Biblical critics are not agreed 
 as to the reason for the use of the plural 
 form : some regard it as a covert sugges- 
 tion of the Trinity; others as 3 plural 
 of excellence; others as an indication of 
 an earlier polytheistic belief; still others, 
 as an embodiment of the Hebrew faith, 
 that the powers represented by the gods 
 of the heathen, were all included in one 
 Divine Person. 
 
 Eloquence ( Sacred) . — Sapred eloquence 
 comprises all the forms of preaching: the 
 sermon, the homily, the conference, the 
 funeral oration, the panegyric of saints, 
 
Emancipation 
 
 274 
 
 Emancipation 
 
 and the religious conference. Sacred elo- 
 quence, which did not enter the functions 
 of the pagan priesthood, arose with the 
 Apostles. Generally, in the first centuries, 
 onl}- the bishops preached. Their dis- 
 courses, ordinarily short, familiar allocu- 
 tions like those of a father, aiming solely 
 to explain the Scriptures to his children, 
 are noble in their simplicitj-, apparently 
 without art, division, or subtile reasoning, 
 but always within the understanding of 
 their audience. They have no verbosity, 
 no exaggerated figures ; but are always clear 
 and full of affectionate regard. When the 
 sacred orator touches the heart, or per- 
 suades the reason, it is especially by the 
 grandeur of the truths he preaches, by the 
 authority of his office and his pastoral 
 holiness. The sermons of St. Augustine 
 are the most simple of all his works, be- 
 cause he preached in a small city, to 
 mariners and tradesmen. On the contrary, 
 St. Ambrose, St. Cyprian, St. Leo, — preach- 
 ing in larger cities, — spoke with more 
 pomp and ornament. St. Gregory of Naz- 
 ianzum and St. Chrysostom are, among the 
 Fathers of the Church, those who carried 
 the art and genius of eloquence to the 
 highest degree. St. Chrysostom is a 
 model for preachers. St. Leo preached 
 with such an unction and elegance that 
 sometimes he attained the eloquence of a 
 Cicero. During the disintegration of the 
 Roman empire, the Christian pulpit was 
 without an imposing voice for a long time. 
 In vain did Charlemagne recommend the 
 translation and composition of homilies ; 
 uselessly did the Councils attempt to warm 
 up the zeal of an ignorant clergy. In spite 
 of all the efforts of Oddo of Cluny, of 
 Odilon of Abdon, monk of St. Germain- 
 des-Prds, the art of oratory regained its 
 supremacy only toward the end of the 
 eleventh century. The renaissance was a 
 rapid one ; legions of preachers arose. 
 Members of the secular clergy, religious, 
 preachers of the Crusades, more or less 
 inspired reformers and heresiarchs, im- 
 passioned the assemblies. Preaching had 
 an astonishing influence on the ignorant, 
 replete with faith and enthusiasm. Both 
 the vernacular and Latin did good ser\-ice 
 to the preacher, accordingly as he spoke to 
 the people, to laymen, clerics, monks, 
 religious, or scholars. The most celebrated 
 preachers of the twelfth century were : 
 Mauritius of Sully, St. Bernard, Hugh of 
 St. Victor, Raoul, Ardent, Isaac of fitoile, 
 Adam of Perseigne; these men imbued 
 
 preaching with as much elegance as au- 
 thority. But their eloquence, generally 
 embellished with rhetorical ornament, was 
 deep and scholarly, and did not represent 
 the popular preaching. In the thirteenth 
 century, eloquence became more general. 
 The sermons addressed to the Faithful were 
 entirely delivered in the vernacular. The 
 Latin was used only when clerics were ad- 
 dressed. But evidences of decay appear in 
 the middle of that centurj-. Popular ora- 
 tors became dialecticians; mechanical 
 compositions that replaced the natural 
 effusions of inspiration, or, through an- 
 other abuse, the familiarity of the sermons 
 became trivial. For his text, the preacher 
 took some popular song, or the Metamor- 
 phoses of Ovid, and drew from them fan- 
 tastic commentaries, or gave a rhythmic 
 form to his discourse. There were, how- 
 ever, praiseworthy exceptions. The degra- 
 dation of sacred eloquence became complete 
 in the fourteenth century. Among the 
 mass of manuscripts left to us, we find 
 nothing that approached real eloquence. 
 We have to wait for the storms of the fif- 
 teenth century to hear again the vibrant 
 voice of the men of action. The political 
 disasters of the reign of Charles VI. and 
 the religious agitations in the West found 
 an echo in the sermons of every preacher. 
 The pulpit became a school of politics 
 and controversy. Unfortunately, however, 
 burlesque and triviality, which had invaded 
 the province of oratory in the foregoing 
 century, did not entirely disappear. The 
 sermons of the preachers of the Middle 
 Ages were also wanting in form, accuracy 
 and precision. Most of the sermons of the 
 sixteenth century, like those of the fifteenth, 
 were replete with historical characteriza- 
 tion, philosophical thoughts, poetic and 
 fabulous quotations. The "great" Epami- 
 nondas, the "divine" Plato, the "ingen- 
 ious" Homer, appear almost on every 
 page. Mythological allusions are all- 
 per\-ading. It was in the seventeenth 
 century that Christian eloquence shone in 
 its full glory. In that period, sacred elo- 
 quence attained its acme of perfection 
 when the powerful voices of a Bossuet, 
 Bourdaloue, Massillon, and Flechier, were 
 heard. The eighteenth century possessed 
 no such orators. Our century has pro- 
 duced some great preachers ; but we have 
 no equals of Bossuet, Massillon, or Bour- 
 daloue. See Sermon. 
 
 Emancipation( CaMo/fV). SeeCATHOLic. 
 
Ember Days 
 
 275 
 
 Emperors and Kings 
 
 Ember Days. — The ember days are the 
 first Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday of 
 each of the four seasons of the year, set 
 apart as fast days by the Catholic Church. 
 According to the testimony of Pope Leo, 
 they originated in the time of the Apostles, 
 who were inspired by the Holy Ghost to 
 dedicate each season of the year to God by 
 a few days of penance ; or, as it were, to pay 
 three days' interest, every three months, on 
 the graces received from God. The Church 
 always commanded the Faithful to fast 
 at the beginning of each of the four seasons 
 of the year, because it is at this time that 
 she ordains the priests and other servants of 
 the Church, which even the Apostles did 
 with much prayer and fasting. Thus she 
 desires that during the ember days Chris- 
 tians should fervently ask of God by prayer, 
 fasting, and other good works, for worthy 
 pastors and servants, on whom depends 
 the welfare of the whole Christian flock ; «he 
 also desires that in the spring ember days 
 we should ask God's blessing for the fer- 
 tility of the earth ; in summer for the pres- 
 ervation of the fruits of the field ; in 
 autumn when the harvest is ripe, and in 
 winter when it is sheltered, that we should 
 offer to God, by fasting and prayer, a sacri- 
 fice of thanks, petitioning Him to assist us, 
 that we may not use His gifts for our soul's 
 detriment, but refer all praise to Him, the 
 fountain of all good, and assist our neighbor 
 according to our means. 
 
 Eminence. — A title given to cardinals 
 by Urban VHI. Up to the period of his 
 Pontificate, they had been styled most 
 illustrious and most reverend. 
 
 Emmaus (Hebr. Hot Springs'). — A vil- 
 lage seven and one-half miles from Jerusa- 
 lem, where our Lord revealed himself to 
 two of His disciples on the afternoon of the 
 day on which He rose from the dead. Its 
 precise site is rnuch disputed, but at present 
 the most probable view puts it at Kubeibeh, 
 a little town about seven miles northwest 
 of Jerusalem. 
 
 Emmeran (St.). — Apostle of Bavaria. 
 He had been formerly a chorepiscopus of 
 Poitiers. Having started from his home, 
 in the year 652, with the purpose of 
 preaching the Gospel to the Avari, the 
 heathen inhabitants of Pannonfa, he ar- 
 rived, in the course of his journey, at Rat- 
 isbon, where the Duke Theodo was then 
 residing. The duke besought the mission- 
 ary, instead of proceeding further, to 
 
 undertake the labor of instructing the in- 
 habitants of Bavaria, some of whom had 
 but lately embraced the faith, while others 
 still refused to give up the errors of 
 heathenism. After three years of unceas- 
 ing toil, the holy bishop resolved upon 
 making a pilgrimage to Rome; but before 
 setting out, he made an effort to reclaim 
 Ota, the daughter of the duke, from a life 
 of shame. These kind offices brought 
 upon himself the anger of her in whose 
 behalf they were rendered. Ota repre- 
 sented to her brother, Landpert, that she 
 had become pregnant by the bishop, and 
 this information so incensed the young 
 prince that he took a bloody vengeance 
 upon the supposed author of his sister's 
 shame. But, his innocence having been 
 clearly established, his body was at once 
 brought back to Ratisbon and placed in a 
 monastery founded in his^onor and bear- 
 ing his name. F. Sept. 22d. 
 
 EMPERORS AND KINGS (Chrono- 
 logical Table of). 
 
 I. ROMAN EMPERORS. 
 
 First Century. 
 
 Augustus, died a. d 14 
 
 Tiberius 14 — 37 
 
 Caligula 37 — 41 
 
 Claudius 41 — 54 
 
 Nero 54 — 68 
 
 Galba 68—69 
 
 Otho and Vitellius 69 
 
 Vespasian 69 — 79 
 
 Titus 79 — 8i 
 
 Domitian 81 — 96 
 
 Nerva 96—98 
 
 Second Century. 
 
 Trajan 98—1 17 
 
 Hadrian 117 — 138 
 
 Antoninus Pius 138 — i6r 
 
 Marcus Aurelius 161 — rSo 
 
 Gommodus 180—192 
 
 Pertinax 192 — 193 
 
 Third Century, 
 
 Septimius Severus 193 — 211 
 
 Caracalla 211 — 217 
 
 Macrinus 217 — 218 
 
 Heliogabalus 218 — 222 
 
 Alexander Severus 222 — 231; 
 
 Maximin 235 — 238 
 
 Gordian 238—244 
 
 Philip 244 — 249 
 
 Decius 249 — 251 
 
Emperors and Kings 
 
 2'j6> 
 
 Emperors and Kings 
 
 Gallus 251 — 253 
 
 Valerian ^ 253 — 260 
 
 Gallienus 260 — 268 
 
 Claudius II 268 — 270 
 
 Aurelian 270 — 275 
 
 Tacitus 275 — 276 
 
 Probus 276 — 282 
 
 Carus 282 — 284 
 
 Fourth Century. 
 
 t Diocletian 284 — 305 
 
 ( Maximian 285 — 305 
 
 iConstantius Chlorus 305 — 306 
 
 Severus 305—307 
 
 Galerius 305 — 311 
 
 Maximin II 305 — 313 
 
 iConstantine the Great 306 — 337 
 
 Maxentius 306 — 312 
 
 Licinius 307 — 324 
 
 iConstantine II 337 — 340 
 
 Constans 337— 350 
 
 Constantius II 337 — 361 
 
 Julian the Apostate 361 — 363 
 
 Jovian 363—364 
 
 \ Valentinian 1 364 — 375 
 
 \ Valens 364—375 
 
 ( Gratian 375—383 
 
 \ Valentinian II 375 — 392 
 
 ' Theodosius I. (the Great) .... 379 — 395 
 
 Fifth Century. 
 
 Honorius 395 — ^423 
 
 Valentinian III 423 — 455 
 
 Avitus 455—456 
 
 Majorian 457 — ^461 
 
 Severus 461 — 467 
 
 Anthemius 467 — 472 
 
 Nepos 472—475 
 
 Romulus Augustulus (last Ro- 
 man emperor) 475 — 476 
 
 Odoacer, King of Italy 476 — 493 
 
 Sixth Century. 
 
 Theodoric, the Ostrogoth, king 
 
 of Italy .* 493 — 526 
 
 Dominion of the Ostrogoths in 
 Italy under the successors of 
 
 Theodoric 526 — 553 
 
 Italy, a province of the East- 
 Roman Empire 553 
 
 Dominion of the Lombards in 
 
 Italy 568—774 
 
 II. PRINCIPAL EMPERORS OF THE 
 EAST-ROMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 Arcadius 395 — ^408 
 
 Theodosius II 408 — ^450 
 
 Marcian 450 — 457 
 
 ^^° ^ 457—474 
 
 ^^"o 474-491 
 
 Anastasius I 491 — 518 
 
 Justin 1 518—527 
 
 Justinian 1 527—565 
 
 J"stin II 565-578 
 
 Mauritius . 582 — 602 
 
 Phocas 602 — 6io 
 
 Heraclius 610 — 641 
 
 Constans \\ 641—668 
 
 Constantine IV. (Pogonatus) . . 668 — 685 
 
 Justinian II 685 — 711 
 
 Philipicus 711 — 713 
 
 Anastasius II 713 — 716 
 
 Leo III. (the Isaurian) 718 — 741 
 
 Constantine V. (Copronymus) . 741 — 775 
 
 Leo IV 775 — 780 
 
 Constantine VI 780 — 797 
 
 Empress Irene 797 — 802 
 
 Michael 1 811 — 813 
 
 Leo V. (the Armenian) 813 — 820 
 
 Michael II. (Balbus) 820—829 
 
 Theophilus 829 — 842 
 
 Basil I. (the Macedonian) 867—886 
 
 Leo VI. (the Philosopher) 886—911 
 
 Constantine VII. (Porphyro- 
 
 genitus) 911 — 959 
 
 Isaac Comnenus 1057 — 1059 
 
 Baldwin of Flanders (first Latin 
 
 emperor) 1204 — 1206 
 
 Michael VIII. (Palaeologus. The 
 
 Greek empire restored) 1261 — 1282 
 
 Constantine XI. (the last of the 
 
 East-Roman emperors) 1448 — 1453 
 
 III. 
 
 EMPERORS AND KINGS OF 
 GERMANY. 
 
 Ninth Century. 
 
 Charlemagne (Charles I. the 
 
 Great)* 800— S14 
 
 Louis I. (the Mild) 814 — 840 
 
 Lothaire 1 840 — 855 
 
 Louis II. (the German). ...:... 855 — 875 
 
 Charles II. (the Bald) 875—877 
 
 Charles III. (the Fat) 877—887 
 
 Arnulf 896—899 
 
 Tenth Century, 
 
 Louis III. (the Child) 900 — 911 
 
 Conrad 1 9" — 9^8 
 
 Henry 1 919 — 936 
 
 Otho I. (the Great) 936 — 973 
 
 Otho II 973—983 
 
 * The Holy Roman Empire under Charlemagne 
 included all Germany and France, the greater 
 part of Italy, and Northern Spain. 
 
Emperors and Kings 
 
 277 
 
 Emperors and Kings 
 
 Eleventh Century. 
 
 Otho III 983—1003 
 
 Henry II. (the Saint) 1002 — 1024 
 
 Conrad II 1024 — 1039 
 
 Henry III 1039 — 1056 
 
 Henry IV 1056 — 1106 
 
 Twelfth Century. 
 
 Henry V 1106 — 1125 
 
 Lothaire II 1125 — 1137 
 
 Conrad III 1137 — 1152 
 
 Frederick I. (Barbarossa) 1152 — 1190 
 
 Henry VI 1 190— 1 197 
 
 Thirteenth Century. 
 
 Philip of Swabia* 1198 — 1208 
 
 Otho IV 1198— 1215 
 
 Frederick II 1215 — 1250 
 
 Conrad IV 1250 — 1254 
 
 Interregnum 1254 — 1273 
 
 Rudolph of Hapsburg 1273 — ^291 
 
 Adolph of Nassau 1292 — 1298 
 
 Albert 1 1298 — 1308 
 
 Fourteenth Century. 
 
 Henry VII 1308— 1313 
 
 { Louis of Bavaria 13 13 — 1347 
 
 ( Frederick of Austria 1314 — 1330 
 
 Charles IV 1347 — 1378 
 
 Wenceslaus 1378 — 1400 
 
 Fifteenth Century. 
 
 Rupert 1400— 1410 
 
 Sigismund 1410 — 1437 
 
 Albert II 1438— 1439 
 
 Frederick III 1439 — 1493 
 
 Maximilian 1 1493 — i^ig 
 
 Sixteenth Century. 
 
 Charles V 1519 — 1556 
 
 Ferdinand I 1556— 1564 
 
 Maximilian II 1564 — 1576 
 
 Rudolph II 1576 — 16x2 
 
 Seventeenth Century. 
 
 Matthias 1612 — 1619 
 
 Ferdinand II 1619 — 1637 
 
 Ferdinand III 1637 — 1657 
 
 Leopold 1 1657 — 1705 
 
 Eighteenth Century. 
 
 Joseph 1 170S— 1711 
 
 Charles VI 171 1 — 1740 
 
 Maria Theresa and her consort 
 
 Francis 1 1740— 1780 
 
 * Philip and Otho were elected by rival parties. 
 
 Joseph II 1780 — 1790 
 
 Leopold II 1790 — 1792 
 
 Francis II 1792 — 1806 
 
 IV. EMPERORS OF AUSTRIA. 
 
 Francis (II) 1 1806— 1835 
 
 Ferdinand 1 1835 — 1848 
 
 Francis Joseph 1 1848 
 
 V. KINGS OF PRUSSIA.t 
 
 Frederick 1 1701 — 1713 
 
 Frederick William 1 1713 — 1740 
 
 Frederick II 1740 — 1786 
 
 Frederick William II 1786 — 1797 
 
 Frederick William III 1797 — 1840 
 
 Frederick William IV 1840— 1861 
 
 William 1 1861— 1888 
 
 Frederick III 1888 
 
 William II 1888 
 
 VI. KINGS OF FRANCE. 
 
 Carlovingian Dynasty. 
 
 Charles II. (the Bald) 843—877 
 
 Louis II. (the Stammerer) 877 — 879 
 
 Louis III 879—882 
 
 Carloman 879 — 884 
 
 Charles the Fat, of Germany . . 884—887 
 
 Charles III. (the Simple) 893 — 923 
 
 Louis IV. (d'Outre-mer) 936 — 954 
 
 Lothaire 954 — 986 
 
 Louis V. (the Idle) 986—987 
 
 Capetian Dynasty. 
 
 Hugh Capet 987 — 996 
 
 Robert (the Pious) 996 — 1031 
 
 Henry 1 1031 — 1060 
 
 Philip 1 1060 — 1 108 
 
 Louis VI. (the Fat) 1108 — 1137 
 
 Louis VII 1137 — ii8o 
 
 Philip II. Augustus 1 180 — 1223 
 
 Louis VIII 1223 — 1226 
 
 Louis IX. (St. Louis) 1226 — 1270 
 
 PhiHp III. (the Bold) 1270— 1285 
 
 Philip IV. (the Fair) 1285— 1314 
 
 Louis X, , 1314 — 1316 
 
 Philip V. (the Long) 13x6 — 1322 
 
 Charles IV. (the Fair) 1322— 1328 
 
 House of Valois. 
 
 Philip VI. (of Valois) 1328— 1350 
 
 John II. (the Good) 1350 — 1364 
 
 t since 1871 hereditary emperors of the new 
 German Empire. 
 
Emperors and Kings 
 
 278 
 
 Emperors and Kings 
 
 Charles V. (the Wise) 1364 — 1380 
 
 Charles VI 1380—1422 
 
 Charles VII. (the Victorius) . . . 1422 — 1461 
 
 Louis XI 1461 — 1483 
 
 Charles VIII 1483— 1498 
 
 Louis XII 1498 — 1515 
 
 Francis 1 1515— 1547 
 
 Henry II 1547—1559 
 
 F>ancis II 1559 — 1560 
 
 Charles IX 1560 — 1574 
 
 Henrj III 1574—1589 
 
 House of Bourbon. 
 
 Henry IV 1589 — 1610 
 
 Louis XIII 1610 — 1643 
 
 Louis XIV 1643 — 1715 
 
 Louis XV 1715 — 1774 
 
 Louis XVI 1774 — 1792 
 
 First republic 1792 — 1799 
 
 The Consular government ^799 — 1804 
 
 First empire under Napoleon 1. 1804 — 1814 
 
 Louis XVII 1814 — 1824 
 
 Charles X 1824— 1830 
 
 Louis Philip 1830 — 1848 
 
 Second republic 1848 — 1852 
 
 Second empire under Napoleon 
 
 III 1852—1870 
 
 Third republic 1870 
 
 VII. 
 
 KINGS AND QUEENS OF 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 Saxons and Danes. 
 
 Egbert, ist king of all England. 827 — 836 
 
 Ethelwulf 837— 858 
 
 Ethelbald 858— 860 
 
 Ethelbert 860— 866 
 
 Ethelred I , 866— 871 
 
 Alfred (the Great) 871 — 901 
 
 Edward (the Elder) 901 — 925 
 
 Athelstan 925 — 940 
 
 Edmund (the Elder) 940 — 946 
 
 Edred 946— 955 
 
 Edwy 955— 958 
 
 Edgar 958— 975 
 
 (St. Edward (the Martyr) 975 — 979 
 
 Ethelred II 979 — 1016 
 
 Edmund Ironside 1016 
 
 Canute i4i7 — 1035 
 
 Harold 1 1035 — 1040 
 
 Hardicanute 1040 — 1042 
 
 (St. Edward (the Confessor). . .1042 — 1066 
 Harold II 1066 
 
 House of Normandy. 
 
 William I. (the Conqueror). . . .1066 — 1087 
 William II. (the Red) 1087 — 1100 
 
 Henry I noo— 1135 
 
 Stephen 1135 — 1154 
 
 House oS^ Plantagenet. 
 
 Henry II. 1154— 1189 
 
 Richard 1 1189—1199 
 
 John (Lackland) 1 199 — 1216 
 
 Henry III 1216—1272 
 
 Edward 1 1272 — 1307 
 
 Edward II 1307 — 1327 
 
 Edward III 1327 — 1377 
 
 Richard II 1377 — 1399 
 
 House of Lancaster. 
 
 Henry IV. of Lancaster 1399 — 1413 
 
 Henry V 1413 — 1422 
 
 Henry VI 1422 — 1461 
 
 House of York. 
 
 Edward IV. of York 1461— 1483 
 
 Edward V 1483 
 
 Richard III 1483— 1485 
 
 House of Tudor. 
 
 Henry VII., Tudor 1485 — 1509 
 
 Henry VIII 1509 — 1547 
 
 Edward VI 1547 — 1553 
 
 Queen Mary I533— 1558 
 
 Qiieen Elizabeth 1558 — 1603 
 
 House of Stuart. 
 
 James 1 1603 — 1625 
 
 Charles 1 1625 — 1649 
 
 The Commonwealth under 
 
 Cromwell and his son 1649 — 1659 
 
 Charles II 1660—1685 
 
 James II.* 1685—1688 
 
 William III. of Orange 1689^1702 
 
 Queen Anne 1702 — 1714 
 
 House of Hanover. 
 
 George I. of Hanover 1714 — 1727 
 
 George II 1727 — 1760 
 
 George III 1760 — 1820 
 
 George IV 1820 — 1830 
 
 William IV 1830—1837 
 
 Qiieen Victoria 1837 
 
 * Stuart Family. James II. was married twice. 
 
 ( Mary, wife of William m. , 1674. 
 Hlsflrat wife, Anna Hyde, 167W Anne, afterwards queen ofEnK- 
 ( land, ITU. 
 
 IJainee (111.) Edward, known aa 
 the Old Pretender, 1706. Hli 
 wife Clementina, granddangh- 
 ter of King John SobleskI of 
 Poland. 
 fCharlea Edward, known as th« 
 /,« , »,.. J *i- rtij I Young Pretender, 1788. 
 James an.) Edward, the Old J Henry IX. Duke of York, died • 
 Pretender and hi. wife Clem--^ cardinal In 1807. With him the 
 entlna of Poland. male line of the Stitarta became 
 
 ( extinct. 
 
Empire 
 
 279 
 
 Emser 
 
 VIII. PRINCIPAL RULERS OF 
 SPAIN. 
 
 Visigoths. 
 
 Foundation of the Visigothic 
 Monarchy by 
 
 Wallia 415 — 419 
 
 Theodorich 419 — 451 
 
 Eurich 466 — 484 
 
 Leovigild 569 — 586 
 
 Reccared 1 586 — 601 
 
 Roderich 709 — 711 
 
 Moors. 
 
 Moorish dominion established. 711 
 Caliphate of Cordova 756 — 1087 
 
 Christian States. 
 
 1. Kingdom of Asturias, found- 
 ed by Pelagius 725 — 737 
 
 Alfonso I. the Catholic 739 — 757 
 
 Alfonso II. the Chaste 791 — 824 
 
 2. Marca Hispanica, conquered 
 
 by Charlemagne 778 
 
 3. Kingdom of Navarre, founded 
 about 860 
 
 4. Kingdom of Leon, founded 
 about 910 
 
 5. Kingdom of Aragon, founded 
 about 103s 
 
 6. Kingdom of Castile, founded 
 about 1037 
 
 Castile and Aragon united 1479 
 
 Conquest of Granada 1492 
 
 Isabella of Castile died 1504 
 
 Ferdinand V., the Catholic of 
 Aragon, died 1516 
 
 House of Hapsburg. 
 
 Charles I., of Hapsburg (Charles 
 
 V. as emperor) 1516 — 1556 
 
 Philip II 1556— 1598 
 
 Philip III 1598— 1621 
 
 Philip IV 1621— 1665 
 
 Charles II 1665 — 1700 
 
 House of Bourbon. 
 
 Philip V. of Bourbon 1701 — 1746 
 
 Ferdinand VI 1746 — 1759 
 
 Charles III 1759— 1788 
 
 Charles IV 1788— 1808 
 
 Joseph Bonaparte 1808 — 1813 
 
 Ferdinand VII 1814 — 1833 
 
 Regent Christina ; . . . 1833 — 1840 
 
 Regent Espartero 1841 — 1843 
 
 Isabella II 1843— 1868 
 
 Regent Serrano 1869 — 1870 
 
 Amadeus of Sardinia 1870 — 1873 
 
 Republic 1873 — ^874 
 
 Alfonso XII 1874—1885 
 
 Regent Maria Christina of Aus- 
 tria 1885 
 
 Empire ( The Holy Roman). — See Char- 
 lemagne. 
 
 Empiricism. — Philosophical doctrine 
 which allows nothing to be true but what 
 is given by experience, and rejects all a 
 priori knowledge. It sprung out of the 
 system of Heraclitus, which Plato refuted. 
 Its modern founder was Locke, who made 
 experience comprehend both sensation and 
 reflection. Condillac and other French 
 writers pushed this to the extreme, reject- 
 ing reflection. Hence has been developed 
 what has justly been called the Sensualistic 
 Philosophy, which is alike untrue and per- 
 nicious. See Sensualism. 
 
 Ems ( Congress of). — A Congress held in 
 August, 1786, between the representatives 
 of the Archbishops Emmeric Joseph of 
 Mentz, Clemens Wenceslaus of Treves, 
 and Maximilian Frederick of Cologne, 
 which produced the so-called Ems Punc- 
 tuation, in which certain restrictions were 
 laid upon the power of the Pope in the 
 dioceses, and especially the abolition of 
 nuncio in Germany was demanded. The 
 Isidorian decretals also were declared a 
 forgery. 
 
 Emser (Jerome) (1477-1527). — German 
 Catholic theologian, born at Ulm. Emser, 
 aulic chaplain and secretary to Duke 
 George of Saxony, was an eminent scholar, 
 well versed in the ancient and Oriental 
 languages. He was present at the Leipzig 
 discussion, between Eck and Luther, and 
 from that time opposed, in union with Dr. 
 Eck, the increasing influence of Luther, 
 who on that account vilified him in his 
 wonted vulgar style. In reply to Luther's 
 abusive charges he published a series of 
 pamphlets ; he also translated the work of 
 Henry VIII. of England, against the Wit- 
 tenberg " Reformer." Also, to counteract 
 Luther's translation of the Bible, Emser 
 assisted in publishing a new German ver- 
 sion of the Scriptures, and exposed the sys- 
 tematic corruption of the Scripture text by 
 Luther, whose translation of the New Tes- 
 tament he proved to contain no less than 
 1,400 errors and forgeries. Luther retali- 
 ated with his usual coarse epithets, saying 
 that " popish asses were not able to appre- 
 
Encratites 
 
 280 
 
 England 
 
 ciate his labors," and calling Emser "a wild 
 ass, a blockhead, a basilisk, and pupil of 
 Satan." 
 
 Encratites. — Heretics of the second cen- 
 tury, who are said by Theodoret to have 
 been followers of Tatian, a disciple of Jus- 
 tin Martyr. Called thus, because they 
 abstained from wine and meats and used 
 only water for the Holy Eucharist. 
 
 Encyclical. — A circular letter addressed 
 by the Pope to all the bishops in com- 
 munion with him, in which he condemns 
 prevalent errors, and informs them of the 
 attitude of the different peoples in their 
 countries toward the Church. The letter 
 also contains suggestions relating to educa- 
 tional matters, and explanations of the 
 difficulties with which the Church has to 
 contend in particular countries, as well as 
 the means that should be employed by 
 Catholics to aid the Church toward the ful- 
 fillment of her divine mission. 
 
 Encyclion. — An edict of the Emperor 
 Basilicus (475-477), in which he denounced 
 the Dogmatic Epistle of Pope Leo I. and 
 the Council of Chalcedon (451). 
 
 Endor. — A city of Manasses, placed by 
 Eusebius four miles south of Tabor, near 
 Nain, on the way to Scythopolis. Here 
 the pythoness lived whom Saul consulted 
 (HI. Ki. xxviii. 7, etc.). 
 
 Ener^mens. — Name given in the early 
 Church to those who were held as being 
 possessed. They were placed under the^ 
 care of the Exorcist who, by the laying on 
 of hands, had the power of expelling the 
 evil spirit. See Possessioxs. 
 
 Engadi (Hebr. spring of the goaf). — A 
 place abounding in caverns, situated on the 
 western shore of the Dead Sea, 26 miles 
 southeast of Jerusalem : the modern Ain- 
 Jidy. In the desert of Engadi David hid 
 from Saul. 
 
 Rngland (Bvangeh'zaiion of). — It can- 
 not be ascertained, when or by whom 
 Christianity was first preached in Britain. 
 Some writers ascribe it to St. Peter, while 
 Anglican writers (hoping to show that the 
 introduction of Christianity into England 
 was independent of the See of Rome!) 
 claim that St. Paul, the Apostle, planted 
 the Church in Britain. Both conjectures 
 are totally unsupported by any proof. 
 There is no evidence, whatsoever, to show 
 that St. Paul ever preached in Britain. 
 
 The testimonies of the early writers, — St. 
 Clement, Eusebius, St. Jerome, and The- 
 odoret, — who are quoted in support of the 
 Anglican claim, are wholly ambiguous 
 and unsatisfactory. It is certain, however, 
 that there were Christians in Britain at a 
 very early period. Tertullian and Origen 
 refer to the early triumph of the Church 
 among the tribes of Britain as a well- 
 known fact. Of the Romans who, since 
 the subjugation of the island under Clau- 
 dius, came to Britain, and of the Britains 
 who were induced to visit Rome, some, no 
 doubt, were Christians or were made ac- 
 quainted at Rome with the Christian 
 religion. The two celebrated ladies who 
 became Christians at Rome in the time of 
 the Apostles, — Claudia, the wife of the 
 senator Pudens, and Pomponia Graecina, 
 the wife of Aulus Plautius, the first general 
 who made any permanent conquest in the 
 island, — are believed to have been Brit- 
 ains. We are assured by English his- 
 torians that Helena, the saintly mother of 
 Constantine the Great, was also a native of 
 Britain. About the year 182, at the re- 
 quest of a British cTiieftain named Lucius, 
 Pope Eleutherius sent Fugatius and Dami- 
 anus to Britain, by whom Lucius and 
 great numbers of the Britains were con- 
 verted to the faith. A regular hierarchy 
 had alread}' been established in Britain 
 before the close of the third century; for 
 three British bishops, Eborius of York, 
 Restitutus of London, and Adelphius of 
 Lincoln, attended the Council of Aries, 
 314. The persecution of Diocletian also 
 reached the faithful of remote Britain, and 
 St. Alban, who suffered, A. D. 303, is 
 called the protomartyr of England. When 
 the heresy of Pelagius, himself a British 
 monk, began to disturb the faithful of 
 Britain, Pope Celestine I. (429), sent St. 
 Germanus of Auxerre (died in 448), and 
 St. Lupus of Troyes (died in 479), to 
 Britain to silence the heretics. Their mis- 
 sion proved most successful in exterminat- 
 ing Pelagianism. 
 
 However, the honor of bringing the 
 heathen Anglo-Saxons to the fold of Christ 
 is due to Pope Gregory the Great, who, in 
 596, sent thirty-nine Benedictines under 
 the guidance of the holy Abbot Augustine 
 to undertake the conversion of the Anglo- 
 Saxons in Britain. See Augustine. 
 
 England (John) (1786-1842). — Ameri- 
 can prelate; was born in Cork, Ireland; 
 died at Charleston. Dr. England was one 
 
England 
 
 281 
 
 Ennodius 
 
 of the greatest of American bishops. Was 
 ordained in 1808 and soon after he was 
 placed at the head of the St. Mary's Theo- 
 logical Seminary at Cork. When the dio- 
 cese of Charleston was established, Dr. 
 England was selected for the mitre, and 
 was consecrated on the 21st of September, 
 1820. The diocese committed to Dr. Eng- 
 land's charge involved great exertion and 
 labor, from which he never shrunk, but he 
 was alive to the wants of the Church in the 
 whole republic. He founded and con- 
 ducted the "United States Catholic Mis- 
 cellany." Dr. England's articles were 
 read and copied in all parts of the country, 
 producing incalculable good. The writ- 
 ings of Bishop England form six volumes 
 and are highly prized in the libraries of 
 the clergy. A selection of the most re- 
 markable writings of Bishop England, 
 edited by Hugh P. McElrone, was pub- 
 lished at Baltimore in 1884. 
 
 England {Protestantism in). See An- 
 glicanism, Henry VHI., and Eliza- 
 beth. 
 
 England {Statistics of the Church in) in 
 
 Ennodius (Magnus Felix). -^ The de- 
 scendant of a noble but impoverished fam- 
 ily, was born in 473 at Aries (or, according 
 to others at Milan). Died in 521. After 
 the premature death of his parents, he was 
 left to the care of his aunt at Milan, who 
 provided for his education. He loved the 
 study of rhetoric, but tried his talents es- 
 pecially in poetry, and the least success in 
 that line enraptured him beyond measure. 
 His aunt, who seems to have destined him 
 for the ecclesiastical state, committed him 
 to a certain Servilius for instruction in the 
 ecclesiastical disciplines. But she died be- 
 fore Ennodius had reatthed his seventeenth 
 year, and had it not been for an offer of 
 marriage from a wealthy and pious lady, 
 he would have been left in extreme poverty. 
 His new fortune, however, led him on the 
 dangerous path of pleasure and enjoyment, 
 until a serious illness roused him from his 
 worldly slumber. Having been restored 
 to health by the intercession of St. Victor, 
 he embraced the ecclesiastical state, and 
 his devout wife assumed the religious veil. 
 As a priest, he soon rose to high distinc- 
 tion. In the year 494, he accompanied 
 Epiphanius, his bishop, to Burgundy. In 
 
 Dioceses 
 
 Westminster (archdiocese).. . 
 
 Birmingham 
 
 Clifton 
 
 Hexham and Newcastle 
 
 Leeds , 
 
 Liverpool 
 
 Middlesbrough 
 
 Newport and Menevia 
 
 Northampton 
 
 Nottingham , 
 
 Plymouth 
 
 Portsmouth 
 
 Salford 
 
 Shrewsbury 
 
 Southwark 
 
 Vicariate Apostolic of Wales 
 
 Total 
 
 112 
 69 
 62 
 
 34 
 
 20 
 
 107 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 II 
 40 
 46 
 
 47 
 61 
 12 
 
 150 
 50 
 
 278 
 162 
 
 43 
 140 
 96 
 257 
 57 
 37 
 50 
 76 
 
 52 
 
 59 
 
 191 
 
 63 
 
 175 
 
 20 
 
 390 
 231 
 105 
 
 174 
 116 
 
 364 
 79 
 60 
 61 
 
 116 
 98 
 
 106 
 
 252 
 75 
 
 325 
 70 
 
 200,000 
 
 45,000 
 41,400 
 9,990 
 25,000 
 11,000 
 
 223,676 
 
 15 
 
 866 
 
 i»756 
 
 2,622 
 
 As can be seen from the above, the number of Catholics is not always given. 
 Apparently the total Catholic population in England is about 3,000,000. 
 
Enoch 
 
 282 
 
 Ephraim 
 
 502, he was present with his successor, 
 Maximus, at a synod in Rome, where he 
 made such a splendid defense of the lawful 
 Pope, Symmachus, against the accusations 
 of the adherents of the antipope Lauren- 
 tius, that the synod gave it its special ap- 
 probation and ordered it to be preserved 
 among its acts. After the death of Max- 
 imus, in 511, Ennodius became Bishop 
 Pavia. He stood in high favor with Pope 
 Hormisdas, who sent him twice to Emperor 
 Anastasius at Constantinople to heal the 
 rupture caused by the Monophysite trou- 
 bles. Though his mission at the time 
 proved unsuccessful, and only a source of 
 humiliation for him, he yet lived long 
 enough to see, under the Emperor Justin, 
 the restoration of peace to the Church. 
 
 Enoch. — Son of Jared, the seventh patri- 
 arch after Adam. Father of Mathusala. 
 He is represented in the Sacred Books as 
 one of the precursors of Christ. 
 
 Eon or Eudo de Stella. — An uncouth 
 rustic, who revolutionized Bretagne and 
 Gascony, about the middle of the twelfth 
 century. He also gave himself out as the 
 Son of God, and as "he that should come 
 to judge the quick and the dead." He as- 
 sumed almost kingly power and was ac- 
 companied by great numbers of followers, 
 who perpetrated great outrages, plunder- 
 ing churches and monasteries. He was 
 finally seized and cast into prison, where 
 he died shortly after. 
 
 Epaphras (St.). — Bishop and martyr at 
 Colossae, in Phrygia, in the first century. 
 St. Paul calls him the companion of his 
 fetters. His remains were deposited at 
 Rome, in the Basilica of Sancta Maria 
 Majore. F. July 22d. 
 
 Eparchy. — The Greek name for a prov- 
 ince in the Roman empire, and trans- 
 planted over into the Church, it was the 
 division ruled by a metropolitan. 
 
 Ephesians {Epistle to the) . — It was dur- 
 ing St. Paul's first imprisonment at Rome 
 (62), that Epaphras, Bishop of Colossae, 
 came to comfort the Apostle in his chains. 
 The holy prelate, in the course of his visit, 
 mentioned that some designing Jews con- 
 trived to insinuate themselves among his 
 flock, and attempted to weaken their faith 
 by representing that it was necessary to 
 observe the Mosaic ordinances, and that 
 the great mystery of redemption had been 
 effected not by Christ, but by angels. St. 
 
 Paul suspected that the false teachers, who 
 had done so much harm in Colossae, were 
 sure to make their way to Ephesus,and he 
 immediately set about his Epistle to the 
 Ephesians. The beginning or doctrinal 
 part of his Letter is devoted chiefly to re- 
 demption, justification, predestination, and 
 in the end or moral part, the Apostle 
 dwells on the unit}-, charity, obedience, 
 humility, and other virtues demanded by 
 the profession of the Christian faith. 
 
 Ephesus. — A celebrated city of Asia 
 Minor, situated near the mouth of the 
 Gayster, about forty miles south of Smyrna. 
 It was chiefly celebrated for the worship 
 and Temple of Diana ; the last named was 
 accounted one of the seven wonders of the 
 world. St. Paul visited Ephesus about the 
 year 54 (Acts xviii. 19-21). The Apostle 
 St. John passed the latter part of his life at 
 Ephesus, and died there. 
 
 Ephesus (Co««r/7.^ of). — i. The Third 
 Ecumenical Council, called by Theodosius 
 II., in connection with Valentinian III., 
 held at Ephesus, under the direction of St. 
 Cyril of Alexandria in 431. There were 
 present over two hundred bishops. It con- 
 demned the heresy of Nestorius ; defined 
 " that Christ consists of one divine person, 
 but of two distinct natures, one divine, the 
 other human, not mixed and confounded, 
 although intimately (hypostatically) 
 united, so that He, true God and the Son 
 of God by nature, was born according to 
 the flesh of the Blessed Virgin, who con- 
 sequently is truly the Mother of God 
 ( Theotocos)." 2. The so-called " Robber 
 Council," convoked by Theodosius, held 
 at Ephesus under the presidency of Dios- 
 corus of Alexandria in 449. Everything 
 in this Council was carried on with open 
 violence. Dioscorus, supported by the 
 imperial officers and a band of fanatical 
 monks, exercised the most arbitrary des- 
 potism against the assembled prelates. 
 Eutyches was absolved and restored ; his 
 accusers were excommunicated and de- 
 posed, and the doctrine of the two natures 
 in Christ rejected. 
 
 Ephod. — A sort of tunic worn by the 
 high priest of the Jews. This garment 
 was of fine linen, of a heliotrope or purple 
 color, and richly embroidered. 
 
 Ephraim. — i. City of Palestine, in the 
 tribe of Benjamin, anciently called Ophra 
 or Ophera; now called Thayebeh, north- 
 east of and adjacent to Bethel. 2. Tribe 
 
Ephrem 
 
 283 
 
 Epiphany 
 
 of Israel, issue of the second son of Joseph, 
 whom Jacob adopted in giving to him the 
 same rank as to his own sons. 
 
 Ephrem (St.). — Father of the Church. 
 Surnamed " The Syrian," or also " The 
 Edessenian," probably on account of his 
 • long sojourn in Edessa. Was born, accord- 
 ing to his own account, of Christian par- 
 ents, at Nisibis, about 306. As a youth, 
 he appears to have been troubled by 
 doubts and difficulties on divine Provi- 
 dence. He received his education from 
 the learned Bishop Jacob of Nisibis, whom 
 he accompanied, at a later period, to the 
 Council of Nice, and who also appointed 
 him to teach Syriac in the schools he had 
 founded. When Nisibis was repeatedly 
 besieged by the Persian King Sapor II., 
 Ephrem stood by his fellow citizens, help- 
 ing them by wise counsels. But when the 
 city surrendered to the Persians (363), he 
 withdrew and repaired to Edessa, where, 
 uniting the contemplative to the active 
 life, he labored most successfully in com- 
 bating heresies, preaching the Gospel, as- 
 sisting the poor, in the study of Scripture, 
 and the composition of many able and ex- 
 cellent works. In 370 he visited Basil the 
 Great at Caesarea, and journeyed to the 
 monks of Egypt. As he preached a pan- 
 egyric on St. Basil, who died January ist, 
 379, his own death must be placed at a 
 later date. He was held in high esteem 
 in the East on account of the holiness and 
 austerity of his life, as well as because of 
 his learning and good works, and was called 
 " Pillar of the Church " and '' Syrorum 
 Propketa. ' It is questionable whether he 
 was a priest, because, in his last will, he 
 calls himself a deacon. His numerous 
 works, which fill six folios, may be divided 
 into exegetical, dogmatical, moral, and as- 
 cetical, all written in Syriac, but, at an 
 early date, translated into Armenian, Ara- 
 bic, Ethiopian, Greek, and later, though 
 much too freely, into Latin. F. July 9th. 
 
 Epicureans. — A school of philosophers 
 in high repute in ancient times. They 
 held that the atoms of nature existed from 
 eternity and formed the world by chance, 
 that the gods have no concern about the 
 earth and there is no providence, that the 
 soul dies with the body, and that man's 
 chief good lies in pleasures properly regu- 
 lated. Epicurus, their founder (341-270 
 B. c), was a moral man, they say, but his 
 disciples deteriorated and became very 
 corrupt. Their opinions and their life made 
 
 them bitterly opposed to all religion, and 
 especially to the serious and humble doc- 
 trines of the Gospel (Acts xvii. 16-34). 
 
 Epiphanius (St.) (310-403). — Arch- 
 bishop of Salamis (Cyprus). Was born of 
 Jewish parents, in a village of Palestine. 
 After their death, owing to the influence of 
 the monks, especially the Abbot Hilarion, 
 he became a Christian, monk, priest, and 
 abbot of a monastery founded by himself in 
 his own native place. This he governed 
 for the space of thirty years, universally 
 venerated for his piety and learning. In 
 367 he was elevated to the Metropolitan 
 See of Salamis in the island of Cyprus. In 
 382 he journeyed to Rome, for the purpose 
 of putting an end to the schism at Antioch. 
 His almost exaggerated zeal for the purity 
 of the Christian doctrine, the extraordinary 
 restlessness of his character, as well as a 
 want of keen judgment and worldly ex- 
 perience, led him sometimes into injudi- 
 cious actions. He was the most determined 
 opponent of the errors of Origen, and it 
 was he who, by his proceedings against 
 Bishop John of Jerusalem, an admirer of 
 Origen, was the real cause of the Origen- 
 istic controversy. Moreover, he listened 
 to the intriguing Theophilus of Alexandria, 
 and shared in his opposition against St. 
 Chrysostom, a supposed favorer of Ori- 
 genism, and was even ready to take part in 
 a pretended council convened against him. 
 Discovering however that he had been 
 duped by Theophilus, he left Constanti- 
 nople before the council assembled, and 
 sailed for Cyprus, but was overtaken by 
 death during the voyage. He left quite a 
 number of works which can be found in 
 Migne, Pat. gr. XLI.-XLIII. F. May 12th. 
 
 Epiphanius (St.) (438-497). — Bishop of 
 Pavia ; born in this city and successor of 
 St. Crispin, his teacher, in 466. During 
 the troubled period which followed the fall 
 of the Roman Empire of the West, Epiph- 
 anus became the political protector of his 
 country. F. Jan. 21st. 
 
 Epiphanius. — Surnamed the " Scholas- 
 tic." Ecclesiastical writer of the sixth 
 century. Abbot of Viviers and friend of 
 Cassiodorous. 
 
 Epiphany or Apparition of the Lord. — 
 
 Festival celebrated on January 6th. This 
 festival is set apart to solemnly commemo- 
 rate the coming of the three wise men from 
 the East, guided by a miraculous star 
 which appeared to them, and directed them 
 
Episcopacy 
 
 284 
 
 ESDRAS 
 
 to Bethlehem, where they found Christ in 
 the stable ; here they honored and adored 
 Him and offered gifts to Him. 
 
 Episcopacy. See Bishop. 
 
 Episcopals. See Anglicanism. 
 
 Epistle (lesson drawn from the Holy 
 Scripture). — The Jews commenced the 
 public service of their Sabbath bj' reading 
 from Moses and the Prophets. The first 
 Christians followed their example, and 
 during divine worship on Sunday read 
 passages from the Old or New Testament. 
 But as these extracts were more generally 
 made from the Letters of St. Paul, the Doc- 
 tor of the Gentiles, the scriptural lecture 
 received the appellation of " the Epistle." 
 The Epistle of each Sunday is taken from 
 the Letters of St. Paul, or of the other 
 Apostles, and not without a spiritual mean- 
 ing; for in causing the writings of God's 
 envoys to be recited previous to the read- 
 ing of the Gospel, the Church appears to 
 imitate the example of Jesus Christ, who 
 deputed some of His disciples to go before 
 Him into those quarters which He was 
 about to honor with a visit. It is thought 
 that the present distribution of Epistles and 
 Gospels of the Sunday throughout the year 
 was arranged by St. Jerome at the desire 
 of Pope Damasus about the year 376. The 
 number of the Epistles are : 14 addressed 
 by St. Paul to particular Churches and to 
 his disciples; 7 Catholic Epistles, so called, 
 because the majority of them are addressed 
 to all Christianity or to aggregations of 
 Churches. See Canon of the Scrip- 
 tures. 
 
 Era. — See Chronology. 
 
 Erasmus (Desiderius) (1464-1536). — A 
 famous Dutch classical and philosophical 
 scholar and satirist. He was the illegiti- 
 mate son of Gerhard de Praet, and was 
 left an orphan at the age of thirteen. He 
 entered, in 1491, the ser\'ice of the Bishop 
 of Cambray, under whose patronage he 
 was enabled to study at the University of 
 Paris, and was ordained priest in 1492. 
 Erasmus was one of the most polished 
 writers of his age. At first he sided 
 with Luther, expecting that his move- 
 ment would bring about the reform of 
 certain abuses in the Church. Having 
 been drawn into the controversy, he di- 
 rected against the "Reformer" his book 
 On Free Will. Luther replied in his 
 pamphlet "On the Slave Will," attacking 
 Erasmus with so much violence that the 
 
 latter complained, saying that " in his old 
 age he was compelled to contend against a 
 savage beast and a furious wild boar." On 
 Luther's marriage he wrote : " It was 
 thought that Luther was the hero of the 
 tragedy, but, for my part, I regard him 
 as playing the chief part in a comedy, 
 that has ended, like all comedies, in a 
 marriage." 
 
 Erasmus (St.) (also called St. Elmus). 
 — Bishop of Antioch and martyr in Cam- 
 pania, about 301, under Diocletian and 
 Maximian. Patron saint of the mariners. 
 F. June 2d. 
 
 Erastians. — Followers of Thomas Eras- 
 tus, born probably at Baden, Switzerland, 
 died at Basle (1524-1583). The sect of the 
 Erastians, in England, denied that the An- 
 glican Church had the power to excommu- 
 nicate. 
 
 Erigena (John Scotus). — Great Irish 
 scholar of the ninth century. The fame of 
 his talents and learning caused Emperor 
 Charles the Bald to invite him to his 
 court and place him at the head of the 
 Palatine School. He is said to have been 
 master of the Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic 
 languages. He was perfectly familiar 
 with the writings and systems of the 
 Greek philosophers, and with the works 
 of the Fathers of the Church, both Greek 
 and Latin. He became involved in the 
 predestinarian controversy against Gott- 
 schalk. His treatise on the Eucharist, now 
 lost, excited much controversy in a later 
 age ; and his principal work. De Divisione 
 Natures was condemned by Pope Leo IX. 
 in 1050. The wild theories advanced by 
 Erigena, in this and other works, justly 
 exposed their author to the censures of 
 the Church. At what date Erigena died 
 is not clearly ascertained. 
 
 Esau (Hebr. hairy). — Twin brother of 
 Jacob, to whom he sold his birthright for 
 a dish of lentils. Father of the Idumeans. 
 
 Esdraelon. — Plain near Nazareth. See 
 Jezrael. 
 
 Esdras {Books of). — Two canonical 
 books of the Old Testament. In the first 
 of these books it is related that Esdras, or 
 Ezra, "the prince of the Synagogue," 
 revised the Book of the Law and took care 
 that its provisions should be observed. 
 Mention is also made of King Cyrus break- 
 ing up the Babylonian captivity by permit- 
 ting the expatriated Jews to return to Jeru- 
 
ESSENES 
 
 285 
 
 Eucharist 
 
 salem and rebuild their temple. This edict 
 of Cyrus was not, however, acted upon 
 until 458 B. c, in the reign of Assuerus, 
 when Esdras led the emancipated Jews 
 back to the land from which they had been 
 exiled . Nehemias succeeded to Esdras, and 
 how he expounded as well as enforced the 
 law is told in the Second Book of Esdras 
 by Nehemias himself. 
 
 Essenes (a Jewish sect). — The Essenes 
 were a society of piously disposed men, 
 who had withdrawn themselves from the 
 strife of theological and political parties 
 to the western side of the Dead Sea, where 
 they lived together, leading an ascetic life. 
 
 Esther. — The Persian name of the queen, 
 from whom one of the Old Testament 
 books takes its name. She is represented 
 in the book as the daughter of Abigail, 
 cousin and adopted daughter of Mardochai, 
 of the tribe of Benjamin. She was made 
 queen in the place of Vasthi, by King As- 
 suerus (Xerxes, 480-465 b.c), and in this 
 position was able to protect her people 
 from the hostile contrivances of Aman, 
 in memory of which deliverance the feast 
 of Purim is still celebrated. The author- 
 ship of the Book of Esther is generally 
 attributed to Mardochai, because in the 
 ninth chapter it is stated that "Mardochai 
 wrote all these things." 
 
 Ethelbert (that is, the noble and valiant) 
 (545-615) — King of Kent. Had married 
 Bertha, the daughter of Caribert, king of 
 the Franks of Paris. This princess, being 
 a Christian, had been affianced to Ethel- 
 bert only on condition that she should be 
 permitted to observe the practices of her 
 religion. She brought with her as spirit- 
 ual adviser, from her native country, Luid- 
 hard, a Christian bishop, who practiced 
 the offices of his religion in an old Catholic 
 church of the Roman times, situated near 
 Canterbury, which had escaped destruction 
 at the hands of the Barbarians. King 
 Ethelbert, having taken a few days to de- 
 liberate on the course to be pursued with 
 regard to the missionaries, paid them a 
 visit on the island where they had landed, 
 and, having seated himself on an oak 
 stump, listened to their address, and 
 learned their intentions, informed them, 
 that, as they were strangers to him, he 
 could not at once give up the belief of his 
 fathers and of his nation, but assured them 
 that, since they evidently believed what 
 they said, they should be hospitably enter- 
 
 tained, and might go through his kingdom, 
 preaching and converting whom they 
 could. He also gave them the old Roman 
 church at Dorovernum (Canterbury, Kent- 
 ■war-btiry, that is the borough of the men 
 of Kent). This church was dedicated to 
 St. Martin, and thither Augustine and his 
 monks repaired to celebrate Mass, chant 
 the divine office, and perform other offices 
 of the ministry. King Ethelbert, charmed 
 by the holiness of their lives, and won by 
 the purity of their doctrine, asked and ob- 
 tained permission to enter the Church, and 
 was baptized by St. Augustine on the feast 
 of Pentecost (a. d. 597). The example of 
 the king had a very salutary effect upon 
 his countrymen, and on the following 
 Christmas (597) ten thousand of them were 
 received into the Church. King Ethelbert 
 built for Melitus, Bishop of London, the 
 Cathedral of St. Paul, and authorized the 
 erection of a second bishopric in his king- 
 dom of Kent, at the Roman city of Roch- 
 ester, twenty miles west of Canterbury. 
 
 Ethelwold (925-984). — Surnamed the 
 " Father of Monks." Bishop of Winches- 
 ter, and reformer of monastic orders in 
 England. Was born at Winchester. Poet, 
 grammarian, and theologian. 
 
 Ethiopia. — In ancient geography, a coun- 
 try south of Egypt, corresponding to the 
 kingdom of Meroe, from the neighborhood 
 of Khartoum northward to Egypt. In a 
 more extended sense, it comprised Nubia, 
 northern Abyssinia, Sennaar, and Kor- 
 dofan. About the Christian era it was 
 ruled by a female dynasty, the Candaces 
 (Acts viii. 27). 
 
 Ethnarch. — A ruler who, though not in- 
 dependent, yet governed his people accord- 
 ing to their national laws. The term was 
 given to the Jewish ruler Simon (I. Mach. 
 xiv. 47) and his son Hyrcanus. In II. Cor. 
 xi. 32, the deputy of Aretas the king was 
 called the "ethnarch," — in the English 
 version " governor." 
 
 Eucharist (one of the seven sacraments). 
 — The sacrament of the holy Eucharist 
 contains the true body, blood, and divinity 
 of our Lord Jesus Christ, under the appear- 
 ances of bread and wine. It is called the 
 " Eucharist," because this word in the origi- 
 nal Greek, means thanksgiving. It is 
 called the sacred " Host," which word sig- 
 nifies victim, because in it our Saviour 
 is really renewing the sacrifice of Himself 
 for us day by day. It is called the " Blessed 
 
Eucharist 
 
 286 
 
 Eucharist 
 
 Sacrament of the Altar," because the con- 
 secration and mystery of Transubstantia- 
 tion take place nowhere lawfully but on the 
 consecrated stone of the altar; also be- 
 cause the holy sacrament is kept in the 
 tabernacle over the altar, that we may wor- 
 ship our Redeemer under the veil or out- 
 ward appearance of bread, just as He was 
 adored, when on earth, in the form of man, 
 though His divinity was hidden under the 
 veil or appearance of humanity. The holy 
 Eucharist is the central mystery of Cath- 
 olic worship, towards which all the cere- 
 monial service of the Church converges. 
 It contains the essential principle of Chris- 
 tianity and is the very soul of our religion. 
 Our Saviour instituted the blessed sac- 
 rament of the Eucharist as the great 
 means of communicating grace to our souls 
 in the closest union of Himself with us, 
 through the miracle of Transubstantiation. 
 On the eve of His passion. He "took 
 bread, and blessed, and broke; and gave to 
 His disciples and said : Take ye and eat : 
 This is My Body. And taking the chalice, 
 He gave thanks, and gave to them, saying: 
 Drink ye all of this. For this is My Blood 
 of the New Testament, which shall be shed 
 for many unto remission of sins " (Matt, 
 xxvi. 26-28). In establishing the sacra- 
 ment of the Eucharist, our Lord com- 
 manded His Apostles to act in accordance 
 with His words, and gave them power to 
 do that which He Himself had done, by 
 saying: "Do this for a commemoration 
 of me" (Luke xxii. 19). Therefore, His 
 meaning clearly was, that they. His Apos- 
 tles and priests, were to give thanks, con- 
 secrate, break, eat, and distribute to others 
 in the same manner as He had done. It is 
 quite certain that our Lord, knowing the 
 inmost thoughts of His disciples, would 
 not have allowed them to rest under a mis- 
 understanding of His words or the power 
 given them by Him ; and thus not only be 
 misled themselves, but mislead all those 
 who should follow their teaching. Both 
 the belief of our Saviour's Apostles in His 
 Real Presence, and their distinct grasp of 
 the authority given them by Him are 
 plainly demonstrated by St. Paul's words: 
 " The chalice of benediction which we 
 bless, is it not the communion of the blood 
 of Christ? and the bread, which we break, 
 is it not the partaking of the body of the 
 Lord?" (I. Cor. x. 16). It is, conse- 
 quently, an incontestable fact that this 
 most holy sacrament contains the real 
 Body and Blood of our Saviour, together 
 
 with His soul and divinity, united insepa- 
 rably to them. His words were absolute, 
 and admit of no other interpretation than 
 that given by His Apostles, which He .sanc- 
 tioned them to retain, and was made more 
 obvious by the fact that, in the language 
 used in the New Testament, the word 
 "this," employed by our Saviour in say- 
 ing: "This is My Body," is neuter, and 
 therefore could not have referred to the 
 bread as merely bread, which word, in those 
 tongues, is of the masculine gender. There 
 is, accordingly, no reason whatever for 
 doubting that our Lord intended us to un- 
 derstand that the substance of bread and 
 wine held in His sacred hands, on this 
 memorable occasion was, by a miracle of 
 His almighty power, really and truly 
 changed into His precious Body and Blood. 
 If the presence of our Saviour in the 
 blessed sacrament were only figurative, 
 and had been accepted only as such in the 
 beginning, it is more than improbable that 
 during so many ages, the true followers of 
 Christ would have abandoned this simple 
 belief for one so infinitely beyond our 
 reasoning powers. It is, therefore, im- 
 possible that our Lord should have taught 
 His Apostles to regard His presence in the 
 holy Eucharist as merely typical. It is 
 also impossible that in past ages, when 
 the faculties of the mind were as keen as 
 they are now, the members of His true 
 Church should have adopted the belief in 
 the Real Presence of Christ, had His 
 teaching, and the teaching of His Apostle? 
 after Him, been of a presence figurative. 
 Moreover, there has never been found any 
 trace of a change in the belief of the Faith- 
 ful, that He is really present in the sacra- 
 ment of the most holy Eucharist; although 
 it was, no doubt, easy for vast numbers, 
 even w-ith good intentions, to read and ex- 
 plain the Scriptures according to their 
 own fancy, while authoritative and right- 
 ful teaching is rejected for private inter- 
 pretation. 
 
 Before the institution of the holy 
 Eucharist our Lord clearly announced its 
 future establishment as a sacrament for 
 the communication of grace, through His 
 sacred body and blood by saying : " I am 
 the bread of life. ... I am the living 
 bread which came down from heaven. If 
 any man eat of this bread he shall live for- 
 ever; and the bread that I will give is my 
 flesh for the life of the world " (John vi. 48, 
 51, 52). He furthermore confirmed the 
 true meaning of His words in the sense 
 
EUCHERIUS 
 
 287 
 
 EUGENIUS 
 
 already explained, by reiterating the real- 
 ity of His presence in the sacrament of 
 the holy Eucharist, in His answer to the 
 Jews, who asked : " How can this man 
 give us His flesh to eat? Then Jesus 
 said to them : Amen, amen, I say unto 
 you : except you eat the flesh of the Son of 
 Man, and drink His blood, you shall not 
 have life in you. He that eateth my flesh 
 and drinketh my blood, hath everlasting 
 life, and I will raise him up on the last day. 
 For my flesh is meat indeed : and my 
 blood is drink indeed " (John vi. 53-56). 
 In all this, our Saviour's words were abso- 
 lute in declaring His future real presence 
 in the sacrament He was about to establish, 
 and never once referred to the bread as a 
 figurative representation of Himself, nor 
 did He speak of it in the light of a spiritual 
 presence, superinduced by faith alone. 
 See Transubstantiation, Mass, Sacri- 
 fice, and Communion. 
 
 Eucherius (St.). — Bishop of Lyons was 
 descended from an illustrious Lyonese 
 family, and on account of his education 
 and learning, was raised to senatorial rank. 
 He was married and lived happily with 
 his noble and pious wife Galla, and their 
 two sons and daughters. Forsaking, how- 
 ever, his high position, he traveled to the 
 Thebaid, and, on his return, became, with 
 his wife's consent, a monk at Lerins, where 
 his two sons, Salonius and Veranius, had 
 received their education. Simultaneously 
 Galla and her daughters assumed the re- 
 ligious veil. After a short time, seeking 
 still greater facility for a contemplative 
 life, Eucherius went to the neighboring 
 and more lonesome isle of Lero (Ste. Mar- 
 guerite). But the fame of his virtue became 
 so widely extended that, about 434, much 
 against his will, he was chosen Bishop of 
 Lyons. During his episcopate he built 
 many churches, founded various institu- 
 tions and greatly encouraged the monastic 
 life. In 441, he attended as metropolitan 
 the Synod of Orange, and continued to 
 labor assiduously for the good of the 
 Church until his death, about 449. He 
 was a man well versed in sacred learning, 
 mighty in eloquence, and rich in good 
 works. F. Nov. i6th. 
 
 Euchites or Euphemites. — Heretics of 
 the fourth century, so called from their 
 habit of long prayer. Their chief char- 
 acteristic was that they professed to give 
 themselves entirely to prayer ; refusing to 
 do any work, they obtained their living by 
 
 begging. Hence they were also known 
 as Messalians {praying people), and Adel- 
 phians, from Adelphius their leader. Re- 
 jecting all external worship, they laid 
 great stress on continual prayer as the 
 only means of expelling the demon, which 
 every man had, as they said, inherited 
 through original sin. These deluded 
 spiritualists spread over Syria, Palestine, 
 and Mesopotamia. 
 
 Euchology. — A liturgical book contain- 
 ing the prayers and ceremonies of the 
 Greek Church, and corresponding to the 
 Catholic Ritual. 
 
 Eudists. — Members of a religious con- 
 gregation founded in France in 1643, by 
 Jean Eudes, a priest of the Oratory, for 
 educational and missionary purposes. Its 
 official name is "The Congregation of 
 Jesus and Mary." The order was sup- 
 pressed in 1792, and revived in 1826. 
 
 Eudo de Stella. See Eon. 
 
 Eugenius (name of four Popes). — 
 Eugenius I. — Pope from 654-657. Was 
 elected with the consent of his predeces- 
 sor, St. Martin, who had been exiled. 
 Eugenius II. — Pope from 824 to 827, and 
 successor of Paschal I. During the three 
 years of his Pontificate, he had to exercise 
 great prudence in the East where the 
 Iconoclast heresy was being agitated, and 
 to preserve from this error the West, 
 especially France. Eugenius III. — Pope 
 from 1145 to 1 153. Cistercian monk, Ber- 
 nard of Pisa, and Abbot of St. Athanasius 
 at Rome. Owing to the disturbed state of 
 Rome, Eugenius III. was consecrated in 
 the Monastery of Farfa, and took up his 
 temporary abode at Viterbo. He excom- 
 municated the Patrician Jordanes, and 
 finally succeeded in re-establishing his 
 authority at Rome. This Pope commis- 
 sioned St. Bernard to preach the second 
 Crusade. Eugenius IV. — Pope from 1431 
 to 1447. He commenced his Pontificate 
 by a diflScult struggle with Colonna, 
 nephew of his predecessor, Martin V., 
 and he encouraged the continuation of 
 the war against the Hussites. He con- 
 firmed the convocation of the Council of 
 Basle, as well as the appointment of Car- 
 dinal Julian Cesarini, as papal Legate 
 and president of the assembly. He also 
 aroused Poland and Hungary against the 
 Turks, in a war which ended with the dis- 
 aster at Varna, in 1444. 
 
EULOGIAE 
 
 288 
 
 Evangelical Alliance 
 
 Eulogise. — In the Greek Church, name 
 given to the remainders of the Eucharistic 
 bread and wine, which were distributed 
 among the Faithful not yet admitted to 
 communion. 
 
 Eunomians. See Anomceans. 
 
 Eunuch. — A castrated male, usually em- 
 ployed to take charge of women's apart- 
 ments. Sometimes it denotes merely a 
 court officer, as the treasurer of Queen 
 Candace (Acts viii. 27). 
 
 Eusebius (St.). — Pope in 310. Native 
 of Greece. He reconciled the heretics by 
 the sole imposition of hands ; but showed 
 himself more severe toward the Lapsi 
 ( fallen) who had given up to State officers 
 the Sacred Books and sacred vessels. This 
 question divided the people and provoked 
 revolts and bloodshed. Exiled, he died in 
 Sicily in 311. F. Dec. i6th. 
 
 Eusebius of Caesarea (265-340). — Writer 
 and ecclesiastical historian. He was a dis- 
 ciple of the learned priest and martyr St. 
 Pamphylus of CsEsarea. About the year 
 314, he was made Bishop of Caesarea. 
 He attended the Council of Nice, and, not 
 without some hesitation, however, sub- 
 scribed to the Nicene Creed. In the long 
 Arian struggle, Eusebius sided with the 
 opponents of the orthodox bishops, and on 
 account of his equivocal attitude and views, 
 with regard to the leading question of the 
 day, the Divinity of Christ, he was justly 
 suspected of heresy. However, his piety 
 and zeal for the Church are highly praised. 
 Eusebius is called "The Father of Ecclesi- 
 astical History," and was one of the most 
 learned prelates of his age. His Church 
 History is one of his most important 
 works. 
 
 Eusebius of Nicomedia. — Greek heresi- 
 arch ; died in 342. Bishop of Berytus, then 
 of Nicomedia. He made the attempt to 
 justify Arius in the Council of Nice. In a 
 Council of Jerusalem he caused Arius to 
 be received again into communion of the 
 Church and was the declared adversary 
 of St. Athanasius. 
 
 Eusebius of Vercelli (St.) (315-370). — 
 Born in Sardinia, Bishop of Vercelli. He 
 zealously combated the heresy of Arius. 
 F. Dec. 15th. 
 
 Eustathiens. — Heretics of the fourth 
 century. Followers of Eustathius, Bishop 
 of Sebaste. A hyper-ascetic sect, rejected 
 
 matrimony, and ecclesiastical fasts, but 
 fasted on Sundays and festivals. The Coun- 
 cil of Gangres (between 360 and 380) passed 
 twenty canons against them. 
 
 Eusthatius of Antioch. — Bishop of An- 
 tioch from 325. Distinguished himself, 
 both during and after the Council of Nice, 
 by his strenuous resistance against the 
 Arian heresy, and had, on that account, in- 
 curred the hatred of the Arians. Constan- 
 tine banished him into Illyria, where he 
 died, in 337. 
 
 Eutyches and Eutychians. — Foremost 
 among those who combated Nestorianism 
 in Constantinople was one Eutyches, the 
 head of a monastery in that city. Unfor- 
 tunately, he had more zeal in opposing 
 heresy than acuteness to appreciate tlie 
 subtleties of the controversy; and the re- 
 sult was that he misunderstood some ex- 
 pressions used by St. Cyril of Alexandria, 
 the guiding spirit of the Council of Ephesus. 
 Eutyches maintained that he had the au- 
 thority of this great Doctor for a view 
 which in truth destroyed the reality of the 
 Incarnation as thoroughly as did that to 
 which it was opposed, for it represented 
 the Human Nature as being so completely 
 absorbed in the Divine Nature that it 
 ceased to have a distinct existence. This 
 heresy was condemned by the Fourth Ecu- 
 menical Council, held at Chalcedon in 451, 
 but the sect maintained itself under the 
 name of the " Monophysites." See this 
 subject. 
 
 Eutychianus (St.). — Etruscan by birth. 
 Pope from 275 to 285. SuflFered martyrdom 
 under Numerian. F. Dec. 8th. 
 
 Evagrius (surnamed "The Scholastic") 
 (536-600). — Greek historian ; born in Syria. 
 His Ecclesiastical History in six books con- 
 tains the history of the Church from 431 to 
 594- 
 
 Evangeliarium. — Book which contains 
 the Gospels read or sung at each Mass, and 
 which is said to have been composed by St. 
 Jerome. 
 
 Evangelical Alliance. — An association, 
 founded in England in 1815, by High 
 Churchmen and Dissenters, on the broad 
 basis of their common principles of Chris- 
 tianity, in order to check the progress 
 of the Catholic Church in the kingdom. 
 The meetings of these associations, which 
 were also attended by French, German, 
 
Evangelical Association 289 
 
 Evil 
 
 and other Protestants, clearly attest the 
 internal distractions that disturbed Protes- 
 tantism, together with the sentiments of its 
 adherents toward the Catholic Church. 
 
 Evangelical Association. — A Protestant 
 denomination in the United States, com- 
 monly, though erroneously, known as Ger- 
 man Methodists, and sometimes as Al- 
 brights. It was founded by Jacob Albright 
 or Albrecht (1759-1808), a native of Potts- 
 town, Pennsylvania, a tile-burner who, dis- 
 satisfied with the lax morality of the neigh- 
 boring German churches, began to preach 
 in 1790, and in 1800 established a church 
 and was elected pastor or bishop of the va- 
 rious stations where he had made converts. 
 The name Evangelical was adopted, and in 
 1816 the first annual conference was held. 
 They accept the Bible as their only rule of 
 faith, interpret it according to the teach- 
 ing of Arminius, but deny the doctrine of 
 original sin. Their church polity is simi- 
 lar to that of the Methodists, including 
 itinerant preachers. 
 
 Evangelical Counsels, or Counsels of the 
 Gospel, are three : Poverty, Chastity, and 
 Obedience. They have been recommended 
 by Christ in particular as means of perfec- 
 tion. By voluntary poverty, the right of 
 possession and free disposal of property is 
 renounced. Perfect chastity, which volun- 
 tarily renounces not only unlawful pleas- 
 ures but even the married life, is recom- 
 mended by our Lord in the following 
 words : " There are eunuchs who have 
 made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom 
 of heaven. He that can take, let him take 
 it" (Matt. xix. 12). Perfect o3e(//e»r(? under 
 a spiritual superior has for its object the 
 perfect regulation of such actions as of 
 themselves are not prescribed and regu- 
 lated by any law. By such obedience our 
 will is not only preserved from transgres- 
 sions and forced to the performance of 
 many acts of self-sacrifice, but also, by the 
 fact of being subjected to the will of God's 
 representative on earth, it is wholly con- 
 formed with the divine will. 
 
 Evangelical Church. — The abbreviated 
 name of the German United Evangelical 
 Church, founded in Prussia in 1817 by a 
 union of Lutheran and Reformed Churches 
 in Germany. It is the largest of the 
 Protestant Churches in Germany; is Pres- 
 byterian in polity, and is partially sup- 
 ported by the government, which ap- 
 points the consistories or provincial boards. 
 19 
 
 Evangelist {bringer of good tidings). — 
 Author of one of the four Gospels : St. 
 Matthew, St. Mark, St. Luke, and St. 
 John. 
 
 Eve. See Adam. 
 
 Evil {Origin of). — The great question 
 about the origin of evil depends on the 
 principle of causality. God, says St. 
 Thomas, moves all things, but not in the 
 same manner. In the evil, as in all exist- 
 ing things, we must consider two things: 
 the substance and the form. God concurs 
 in regard to evil, only relatively to the 
 substance and not to the form or malitia 
 mali, which is the work of the finite will. 
 The pagans had also stated the question, 
 and the answer approached that of Chris- 
 tianity, in proportion to the development 
 of the idea of a personal God. Zoroaster 
 had admitted dualism, — onnuzd, the prin- 
 ciple of the good, or thought; ahriman, 
 principle of evil or matter. The Stoics 
 based both good and evil on the will. In 
 order to treat this question, we must dis- 
 card, first, the two opposed systems : 
 Optimism, which maintains that this world 
 is the best possible, and Pessimism, which 
 maintains that this world is the worst pos- 
 sible. Optimism has counted numerous 
 defenders, from the time of Socrates 
 and Plato to Leibnitz. The latter says 
 that " the metaphysical evil, properly 
 speaking, is no evil, but only a lesser good, 
 an imperfection which disappears by itself 
 if we raise ourselves to a more general 
 view; only moral and physical evils are 
 possible. Neither metaphysical nor phys- 
 ical evil can be imputed to God. As to 
 the moral evil, God cannot concur to it; 
 He cannot will it, but only permits it. 
 Antecedently, God always wills the good, 
 but consequently. He always wills the 
 best." Although optimism is not opposed 
 to Catholic doctrine, we cannot however 
 admit it absolutely, on account of its con- 
 -sequences. Pessimism was unknown to 
 the ancients ; it was only in the nineteenth 
 century that it appeared, first in Germany, 
 then in France. Leopardi, Schopenhauer, 
 and Hartmann are the chief representatives 
 of this error, whose influence made itself 
 felt in the poetries of Alfred de Vigny and 
 in the philosophical dialogues of Renan. 
 Leopardi places the metaphysical principle 
 in the will, Schopenhauer in the con- 
 sciousness ; his fundamental axiom is : "To 
 live is to wish and to wish is to suffer." 
 The first opposes to evil only a Stoic resig- 
 
Evil-Merodach 
 
 290 
 
 Evolution 
 
 nation : silence and despair. The second 
 tells us that we should work for the deliv- 
 erance of the world, by the total annihila- 
 tion of the beings. The Nihilists pledge 
 themselves to draw the logical conse- 
 quences from this doctrine. Truth is 
 found between both extremes. The relative 
 perfection of the world ought not to ex- 
 clude the existence of evil, existence which 
 is an undeniable fact. But how can we 
 explain this mystery.? Maj- we not say 
 that in the plan of Providence, evil is, in 
 regard to us, a trial, an expiation, a rem- 
 edy.? 
 
 Evil-Merodach (Chaldaic, servant of the 
 god Aferodach). — Son of Nabuchodonosor, 
 king of Babylon, 561-559 b. c. He released 
 the king of Juda, Joachim, from prison, 
 after 37 years' confinement, and honored 
 him above all the vassal kings and also 
 protected the prophet Daniel. He was 
 killed in a rebellion led by his sister's hus- 
 band, Neriglissar (Nergalsharezer), who 
 then seized the Babylonian crown. Ac- 
 cording to Berosus, he rendered himself 
 odious by his arbitrary and unwise rule. 
 
 Evodius. — Latin theologian, born at 
 Tagaste, Africa ; died about 430. Intimate 
 friend of St. Augustine, and Bishop of 
 Uzalis, near Utica. Was a zealous adver- 
 sary of the Donatists and Pelagians. 
 
 Evolution {Theory of). — The theory 
 of evolution has been used as the designa- 
 tion for the doctrine of Charles Darwin 
 (died 1882), which pretends to explain the 
 origin of all beings by successive evolu- 
 tions or transformations. If we speak only 
 theoretically and reason on possibilities 
 and not on facts, it is certain — if we ex- 
 cept the spontaneous generation of the 
 first being, which is impossible — that God 
 could have created the world according to 
 the evolutionary system, that is. He could 
 have created only one being capable of de- 
 veloping itself gradually and of producing 
 the different organisms of all actually ex- 
 isting beings. But this is not the question. 
 We are not concerned with what could 
 have been, but what is in reality. Now 
 the fact contradicts the doctrine of Darwin. 
 He is unable to give any direct proof of the 
 evolution of species ; he was obliged to 
 acknowledge that there exist many breaks 
 between the diflFerent species, and that the 
 passage from one to another is by insensible 
 degrees, a passage which grinds the sys- 
 tem, but which has not been proved ; he 
 
 affirms, then, as real, that which is only 
 possible, although "« fosse ad actum non 
 valet ronsecutioy Not only does Darwin- 
 ism affirm more than it can prove, but it is 
 in plain contradiction with the best authen- 
 ticated facts. It affirms the variability of 
 the specific types; now history and geol- 
 ogy, on the contrary, prove their stability. 
 In the ruins of Herculaneum and Pompeii, 
 buried more than 1,800 years ago under 
 lava from Mount Vesuvius, there has been 
 found, in the house of a painter, a collection 
 of shells, and, in the store of a fruit dealer, 
 vases full of chestnuts, of olives, and nuts, 
 all in a perfect state of preser^-ation. These 
 shells and fruits are no wise different from 
 the shells and fruits of to-day. Aristotle 
 described, more than two thousand years 
 ago, a great number of plants and animals. 
 His descriptions answer exactly to the 
 actual species, and show that, during the 
 interval of time, these species have under- 
 gone neither variation nor change. During 
 this century, there have been discovered 
 in the tombs of ancient Egypt, the seeds of 
 different plants, and many species of em- 
 balmed animals, that had lived long before 
 the epoch of Aristotle, even as far back as 
 the fourth dynasty. These seeds and ani- 
 mals are the same as those of to-day. 
 Geology permits us to go much further 
 back in the past, far beyond the limits which 
 history can reach, and its testimony is the 
 same. Darwin has been obliged to ac- 
 knowledge that the skeletons of animals 
 have not been changed since the glacial 
 period. According to Agassiz, the south- 
 ern extremity of Florida has been formed 
 by the accumulation of the corals of the 
 tropical seas, and, if his calculations are 
 correct, the formation of those coral reefs 
 required no less a period than two hundred 
 thousand years. Now, if we compare the 
 zoophites which have formed the upper- 
 most ledges of these reefs, with those which 
 formed their lowest strata, we cannot verify 
 any difference between them. 
 
 The comparison of the flora of the gla- 
 cial period with that of our era, leads to 
 the same results. There has been dis- 
 covered near Hohenhausen, in the canton 
 of Zurich, in the midst of a peat marsh, 
 quite a collection of the flora of those ages. 
 These debris are imbedded in peat whose 
 formation, according to certain geologists, 
 must have taken place between the two 
 glacial epochs. The yew tree, the wild 
 pine, the larch, the birch, the maple, the 
 nut tree, in its two kinds, have been recog- 
 
Exaltation of the Cross 291 
 
 Excommunication 
 
 nized as having existed in an age certainly 
 anterior to ours. They have been com- 
 pared with the same species as they now 
 grow, and no difference has been found to 
 exist between them. In a word history 
 and natural sciences have proved the sta- 
 bility and permanence of the species: 
 Darwinists cannot cite one historical 
 instance of the gradual transition of one 
 species to another ; their system is there- 
 fore in contradiction with facts. Nature is 
 not " transformist," and Moses spoke the 
 truth when he said that God had created 
 plants and animals according to their 
 kind. 
 
 The great flaw in Darwin's system is 
 that he takes what is accidental or relative 
 in a species for what is substantial or abso- 
 lute. Environment, heredity, natural 
 selection, struggle for life, these serve to 
 give variations to the species, but do not 
 change substantially the original constit- 
 uent type of the same. 
 
 All known living beings^ animal and 
 vegetable are divided into definite groups 
 by the two following characteristics : the 
 genetic and morphologic. Within the 
 groups themselves the fecundity is unlim- 
 ited, but, as passing from one group to an- 
 other, it is not or is limited to certain 
 generations. 
 
 The members of each of these groups 
 can undergo organic variations more or less 
 considerable, but these modifications are 
 as so many oscillations around a type in a 
 state of stable equilibrium. These mor- 
 fhologic variations tend of themselves to 
 disappear, when it is only circumstances 
 that lead to their growth. Each of these 
 groups, commonly called a species and the 
 morphologic oscillations, more or less es- 
 tablished by inheritance and by the con- 
 stancy of the circumstances which pro- 
 duced them, constitute the different races 
 of the same species. It has been calculated 
 that there are more than five hundred 
 thousand groups, distinguished by the 
 characteristics of stability which we have 
 just mentioned. This stability is absolute 
 even in domestic species, the most plastic 
 of all others. Now it has been always the 
 same as far back in the past as our obser- 
 vations can reach in history, in prehistoric 
 times, in the geological ages. There are 
 500,000 facts in direct opposition to the 
 change of species, the fundainental basis 
 of the hypothesis of the transformists, 
 •while they have not one to cite in their be- 
 lief. See Man. 
 
 Exaltation of the Cross. See Cross. 
 
 Exarch. — An ecclesiastical dignitary in 
 the early Church in the Orient. He pre- 
 sided over one of the dioceses, comprising 
 several provinces, formed in imitation of 
 those made by Constantine in the State. 
 The exarchs took rank after the patri- 
 archs, and had quasi-patriarchal juris- 
 diction over the metropolitans of their 
 exarchates. 
 
 Ex Cathedra (Latin words, literally, 
 from the chair; hence, with authority, 
 authoritatively). — In the Acts of the Coun- 
 cil of the Vatican, held in 1870 (Sess. iv., 
 cap. 4), we find the following: "The 
 Roman Pontiflf when he speaks ex cathedra, 
 that is, when in the exercise of his office of 
 pastor and teacher of all Christians, he, in 
 virtue of his supreme apostolic authority 
 defines that a doctrine on faith and morals 
 is to be held by the whole Church, by the 
 assistance of God promised to him in the 
 person of blessed Peter, has that infalli- 
 bility with which it was the will of our 
 divine Redeemer that His Church should 
 be furnished in defining a doctrine on faith 
 and morals, and that therefore these defini- 
 tions of the Roman Pontiflf, of themselves 
 and not through the consent of the Church, 
 are irreformable." See Cathedra. 
 
 Excommunication is a spiritual punish- 
 ment sometimes inflicted by the Church on 
 one guilty of grave crimes, for the good of 
 his soul or the vindication of the law. This 
 censure deprives the person who has in- 
 curred it of the use of the sacraments, of a 
 share of public suffrages, and certain other 
 spiritual privileges; and this deprivation 
 endures until the censure is relaxed by 
 competent authority. It may happen that 
 it has been inflicted unjustly, for the hu- 
 man judge who deals with the case is no 
 way guaranteed against error; or it may 
 be that the censure was just, but the cul- 
 prit has repented of his sin, and been re- 
 stored to the favor of God before he has 
 procured the relaxation of the censure ; but 
 even in these cases the censure produces 
 its effects, as is declared in the Bull Uni- 
 genitus (Prop. 91) ; and the good provi- 
 dence of God can be trusted to hinder any 
 real evil befalling him who incurs this un- 
 deserved loss. Writers differ as to whether 
 one who is under excommunication can be 
 said to belong to the body of the Church. 
 Excommunication is an act of the external 
 court of the Church, dealing directly, not 
 
Exeat 
 
 292 
 
 Exodus 
 
 with sin, but with crime. The full discus- 
 sion of its nature and varieties belongs to 
 Canon Law. It is to be oBser\ed that 
 though excommunication is not inflicted 
 except in cases where grievous sin has 
 been committed or is supposed to have been 
 committed, vet it does not directly affect 
 membership of the soul of the Church : 
 nothing but real grievous sin takes away 
 this privilege or destroys the hopes founded 
 in it. 
 
 In our time, excommunication is called 
 major or minor excommunication. Ac- 
 cording to the discipline of the Middle 
 Ages, the Christians had to avoid all rela- 
 tion with the excommunicated, under pain 
 of personally incurring minor excommuni- 
 cation; Pope Martin V. mitigated the law 
 as to this point. Henceforth. Christians 
 were obliged to avoid only those nomina- 
 tively excommunicated and by public 
 sentence of the judge. The Pope has the 
 right of excommunication in the whole 
 Church, and the bishop only in his diocese. 
 The Bull Apostolicce sedis of Pius IX. 
 (Oct. 1 2th, 1869) contains the latest disposi- 
 tions in regard to excommunication. Ex- 
 communication is necessary as the right to 
 punish, without which there could be 
 neither authority nor society. See Cex- 
 
 SURK. 
 
 Exeat (Lat. let him depart). — It means 
 the permission in writing which a bishop 
 gives to an ecclesiastic, to leave his diocese, 
 to go and exercise his priestly functions in 
 some other diocese. Priests in the United 
 States cannot obtain their exeat unless 
 they are to be received into another dio- 
 cese, or have sufficient means for an honest 
 self-support. 
 
 Exegesis. See Hermenkutic. 
 
 Exile. See Captivity. 
 
 Exodus (Gr. exodos, a going out, a 
 marching out; second canonical book of 
 the Pentateuch). — The Book of Exodus is 
 chiefly devoted to the departure of the 
 Israelites from Egypt, about 143 years 
 after the death of Joseph in that country. 
 Its opening chapter is occupied with a de- 
 tailed description of the hea^•y burden laid 
 by their Egyptian taskmasters upon the 
 Hebrews, in order to break down their 
 spirit and diminish their number. Then 
 follows an account of the birth of Moses, 
 his education, and the events of his early 
 life, marked by his fearless sympathy with 
 
 his oppressed countrymen, whom, in the 
 wonderful providence of God, he was 
 raised up to deliver. This relief came 
 when they had been in Egypt 215 years, for 
 St. Paul says (Gal. iii. 17), that the solemn 
 promulgation of the law happened 430 
 years after the covenant with Abraham, 
 which took place about 215 years before 
 Jacob and his sons went down into Egypt, 
 so that the Israelites could have been in 
 Egypt only 215 years. At the end of this 
 period Moses and Aaron appeared for the 
 last time before the Egyptian monarch 
 with the Divine command to let " the chil- 
 dren of Israel go out of his land." But 
 Pharao again stubbornly refused, for 
 "his heart was hardened," and God sent 
 the tenth plague with all its terrible conse- 
 quences. This awful calamity came at 
 midnight, when the destroying angel went 
 forth and " slew ever}- first-born in the 
 land of Egypt, from the first-born of 
 Pharao, who sat on his throne, unto the 
 first-bom of the captive woman that was 
 in prison, and all the first-born of cattle " 
 (Ex. xii. 29). The groans of the dying in 
 dead of night filled the living with horror 
 and confusion: "And Pharao arose in 
 the night, and all his serv'ants, and all 
 Egypt; and there arose a great cry in 
 Egypt : for there was not a house wherein 
 there lay not one dead. And Pharao call- 
 ing Moses and Aaron in the night said : 
 Arise, and go forth from among my peo- 
 ple, you and the children of Israel" (Ex. xii. 
 30, 31). Accordingly the children of Is- 
 rael went out from bondage, 600,000 " men 
 on foot" with Moses at their head. To 
 prevent His people from straying in the 
 wilderness God placed before them a mi- 
 raculous column of cloud, which at night 
 became a pillar of fire to light up their en- 
 campment. The Egyptians pursuing the 
 Israelites, the Lord directed them to march 
 forward to the sea, when Moses waved his 
 rod over the deep, and instantly the waters 
 divided, leaving a drj- road all the way 
 across to the opposite shore. The Egyp- 
 tians tried to follow; but Moses "stretched 
 forth his hand over the sea," and the 
 heaped up flood rolled down, burying in 
 its depth the whole Egyptian army. The Is- 
 raelites journe>nng through the wilderness 
 for about a month,their provisions gave out. 
 But God rained down manna from heaven, 
 which, when ground like corn, and made 
 into cakes, became to them " a staflF of 
 life " during their protracted wandering. 
 At the foot of Mount Sinai, God gave 
 
Exorcism 
 
 293 
 
 EZECHIEL 
 
 them the Ten Commandments. The Lord 
 also dictated to Moses a regulated series of 
 laws, for the guidance of His people. The 
 tribe of Levi was set apart for the sacred 
 ministry, and a portable temple or taber- 
 nacle was constructed according to a plan 
 given to Moses on the mountain. All 
 these important events make up the sub- 
 ject of the Book of Exodus. 
 
 Exorcism and Exorcists. — Exorcists are 
 those clerics who have received the third 
 minor order. They have the authority to 
 exercise the power which Christ has given 
 to the Church to cast out unclean spirits 
 from persons that are possessed by the devil. 
 Tertullian, the Council of Carthage in 255, 
 and the most ancient monuments mention 
 the exorcism employed in regard to the 
 Catechumens. We need not be surprised 
 that the Church grants power to her infe- 
 rior ministers to cast out devils from the 
 bodies of the possessed, who might disturb 
 the quiet of her services. Simple laymen in 
 the early days of the Church exercised that 
 poAver. In our time, however, exorcisms 
 are reserved to the priests, and even these 
 cannot make use of their faculty, except by 
 special permission of the bishop. The third 
 minor order is conferred by the bishop in 
 this manner : The bishop takes and pre- 
 sents to the candidate the book in which 
 the exorcisms are written, which he touches 
 with his right hand, while the bishop says : 
 "Take this and commit it to memory and 
 have power to impose hands on persons 
 possessed, be they baptized or catechu- 
 mens." See Possessions. 
 
 Extasy. — Rapturous transport of the 
 spirit, suspension of the senses, caused by 
 profound contemplation. Natural extasy 
 is an alienation of the senses caused by 
 catalepsy and consisting in the complete 
 suspension of the sensations and volun- 
 tary movements, and in the faculty which 
 the members have to preserve the position 
 one gives to them. Supernatural extasy 
 is an elevation of the soul towards God 
 with a separation of the outward senses 
 which is caused by the grandeur of this 
 elevation. The rapturous transport of St. 
 Paul into the third heaven was a super- 
 natural extasy. 
 
 Extreme Unction is a sacrament in- 
 stituted by our Lord Jesus Christ, for the 
 spiritual comfort and bodily relief of the 
 sick. This sacrament is called "Extreme 
 Unction" because it is administered when 
 
 persons are thought to be near the close of 
 their existence in this world, that they 
 may by it receive grace and strength for 
 the conflict with death. This unction, 
 made with olive oil, blessed by a bishop on 
 Holy Thursday, is consecrated to the use 
 of this sacrament, and is the outward sign 
 productive of an inward and spiritual 
 grace, thus constituting a true sacrament 
 and ever held to be such by the Catholic 
 Church (Markvi. 12, 13; James v. 14, 15). 
 For the due reception of the sacrament of 
 Extreme Unction, we must be in the state 
 of grace, and accept it with sentiments of 
 contrition for sin, and resignation to the 
 will of God. Extreme Unction effaces 
 venial sin, part or all the temporal punish- 
 ment due to sin, and mortal sin sometimes, 
 according to the disposition of the person 
 anointed. It alleviates bodily sufferings, 
 and gives back health to those whom God 
 wills should continue to live (James v. 15). 
 It renews our spiritual forces in the most 
 decisive moment of our existence, giving 
 us strength to fight against the enemy of 
 our salvation; fortifying us against the 
 terror of death, and against temptations to 
 impatience, despair, and distrust; sooth- 
 ing our troubles, and giving us courage to 
 say with confidence and love, " Father, 
 into Thy hands I commend My spirit." 
 
 Ezechias. — King of Juda, after the 
 death of Achaz, his father, from 725 to 
 696 or from 728 to 699 b. c. He reopened 
 the temple and restored the Mosaic 
 worship. He made war against Sennach- 
 erib whom he forced to retreat. Healed 
 by Isaias, he composed the chant of grati- 
 tude known under the name of Canticle of 
 Ezechias. 
 
 Ezechiel. — Prophet ; son of Busi ; was 
 carried captive to Babylon by Nabuchodo- 
 nosor, with Joachim king of Juda. He 
 began his prophetic ministry in the fifth 
 year of his sojourn in Babylonia and con- 
 tinued it until the twentj'-seventh. His 
 book, which he appears to have drawn up 
 or revised, during the latter years of his 
 mission, comprises four parts. The first 
 relates the consecration of the prophet. 
 The second warns the Jews against foreign 
 alliances and announces the ruin of Juda. 
 The third contains threats against the 
 Ammonites, Moabites, Edomites, Philis- 
 tines, and Egyptians. In the fourth, 
 Ezechiel foretells the events that will take 
 place after the ruin of Jerusalem. 
 
EZNIK 
 
 294 
 
 Faith 
 
 Eznik. — A disciple of St. Mesrop ; was 
 sent to Edessa in 425, to translate the works 
 of the Syriac Fathers into Armenian. 
 After a short sojourn in that city he went 
 to Constantinople, where he continued to 
 occupy himself with translations till after 
 
 the Council of Ephesus, when he returned 
 to his home, taking with him the decrees of 
 that Council together with a long coveted 
 manuscript of the Bible. Some think he be- 
 came Bishop of Bagrevand. The year of 
 his death, as also of his birth, is unknown. 
 
 Faber (Frederick William) (1814- 
 1863). — English Catholic theologian and 
 writer; born atGalverley, Yorkshire, died 
 at the Oratory, Brompton, London. He 
 was educated at Oxford, where he became 
 fellow of University College, 1837 ; in 1839 
 he was ordained minister of the Church of 
 England ; in 1842 accepted the rectory of 
 Elton, Huntingdonshire; but three years 
 later he formally adjured Protestantism in 
 order to become a Roman Catholic — a 
 course he had meditated for many years. 
 He established at Birmingham the com- 
 munity properly named the " Brothers of 
 the Will of God," but generally called the 
 " Wilfridians," as he had taken the name 
 of "Brother Wilfrid." In 1848, the en- 
 tire community went over to the Oratory 
 of St. Philip Neri, and from 1849 until his 
 death he was at the head of the London 
 branch. He was the author of many spir- 
 itual works of great merit. 
 
 Faber (John), surnamed '• Hammer of 
 the Heretics" (1470-1541). — German 
 Dominican, born at Leutkirch, Suabia. 
 Vigorously combated the doctrines of 
 Luther and Zwingli. Confessor to Em- 
 peror Ferdinand ; bishop of Vienna. 
 
 Fabian (St.). — Pope from 236 to 250. 
 Was a contemporary of the Emperors 
 Maximin, Gordian, Philip, and Decius. 
 Under the latter's reign he suffered martyr- 
 dom. He confirmed the deposition of 
 Privatus, an African bishop, who had been 
 condemned by a synod of ninety bishops 
 at Lambesa in Numidia for many grievous 
 faults. He assigned the seven districts of 
 Rome to seven deacons with as many sub- 
 deacons who were to assist the notaries in 
 recording the acts of the martyrs. To 
 Fabian, Origen addressed a letter in de- 
 fense of his own orthodoxy. An ancient 
 tradition ascribes to this Pope the found- 
 ing of the seven Gallic Churches of Tou- 
 louse, Aries, Tours, Paris, Narbonne, 
 Clermont, and Limoges, to which he is 
 
 said to have sent respectively Satuminus, 
 Trophimus, Gratianus, Dionysius, Paulus, 
 Astremonius, and Martialis, as missionary 
 bishops. F. Jan. 20th. 
 
 Facundus. — Heretic, died about 571. 
 Bishop of Hermiane, in Africa; upheld 
 with great zeal the so-called dispute of 
 " The Three Chapters." 
 
 Faith. — A supernatural virtue by which 
 we firmly believe all that God has revealed 
 and all His Church proposes for our belief. 
 Faith requires that we should believe in 
 the existence of God as our Creator and 
 Remunerator ; also in all the truths He has 
 revealed and teaches us by the infallible 
 authority of His Church. '♦ Without faith 
 it is impossible to please God. For he that 
 Cometh to God, must believe that He is, 
 and is a rewarder to them that seek Him " 
 (Hebr. xi. 6). The precept of faith, being 
 an affirmative one, we should from time to 
 time, display our faith in God ; but we are 
 not called upon to show it continually, ex- 
 cept when the occasion demands : As at 
 the hour of death, and when it is necessary 
 to manifest an exterior profession of faith 
 in temptation, in the reception of a sacra- 
 ment, and under all circumstances where 
 silence would be interpreted as a denial 
 (Matt. X. 32, 33). 
 
 Faith {Rule o/). — The rule of faith is 
 determined by that which faith itself re- 
 quires. Neither Scripture nor tradition 
 is the sole rule of faith. In order to be 
 the sole rule of faith, the Scripture should 
 of itself be fit to secure in the Church the 
 perpetual and unchangeable unity of the 
 true faith, to solve with certainty the most 
 important questions regarding our salva- 
 tion, as for instance, the necessity and law- 
 fulness of the baptism of infants, the 
 validity of baptism conferred by heretics. 
 But under what conditions can the under- 
 standing of the Scriptures, and with it the 
 truths of faith, remain unchanged, the 
 
Faithful 
 
 295 
 
 Faithful 
 
 unity of faith be maintained, and the more 
 important questions pertaining to salvation 
 be solved from the Scriptures ? Only in 
 the case that the meaning of Scripture, at 
 least in its most important points, is so ob- 
 vious that it may be understood by all in 
 the same way. For, as we learn from daily 
 experience, the opinions of men in all that 
 does not compel assent by its evidence soon 
 diverge. It is hardly necessary to prove 
 that Scripture does not possess such evi- 
 dence ; it is, on the contrary, very obscure, 
 even in most important points of doctrine. 
 In fact, heretics in every age have sought 
 to prove their conflicting opinions from 
 Scripture. Hence, it is impossible that 
 Scripture alone should secure the perpe- 
 tuity of the Christian religion, maintain 
 unity of faith, and solve all the important 
 problems of salvation. Therefore, it is im- 
 possible that it should be the sole rule of 
 faith. 
 
 The same applies to the tradition. The 
 monuments of tradition are : The Church's 
 liturgical books ; the acts of the martyrs ; 
 inscriptions on tombs and monuments; 
 Church history; the works of the Fathers 
 and of ecclesiastical writers. Although we 
 find many truths more clearly expressed in 
 the monuments of tradition than in the 
 Scriptures, yet they cannot of themselves 
 give a satisfactory solution to all questions 
 that may arise. Consequently, they are 
 not calculated to solve those diflSculties 
 which, if left unsolved, may undermine the 
 truths of revelation, destroy the unity of 
 faith, and endanger the salvation of many. 
 
 But experience furnishes the most evi- 
 dent proof of the insufficiency of Scripture 
 alone as a rule of faith. Since Protestant- 
 ism set up the Scriptures as the sole cri- 
 terion in matters of faith we perceive an 
 ever-growing disunion; the truths of faith 
 have been abandoned one by one, while no 
 means was left to check the evil-proof suf- 
 ficient that unless we recognize some other 
 rule of faith than Scripture alone, neither 
 the preservation of the deposit of faith, nor 
 the unity of the faith itself, nor the security 
 of salvation is possible. 
 
 The necessary attributes of a rule of 
 faith are to be found only in the teaching 
 office of the Catholic Church. From what 
 we have said it follows that there must be 
 another rule of faith different from Scrip- 
 ture and tradition — an authority to direct 
 us in the understanding of these sources of 
 our faith. The attributes of a rule of faith 
 must be determined by its object, which is 
 
 chiefly the preservation of the deposit of 
 faith and of the unity of the Church. The 
 Church and the faith are in most intimate 
 connection with the salvation of man ; and, 
 consequently, another object of the rule of 
 faith is the securing of the salvation of the 
 individual, i. A rule of faith must be visi- 
 ble. Its object is to remove the difficulties 
 which endanger the true faith and the 
 Church's unity. But this is possible only 
 in case, that, being consulted by doubting 
 or contending parties, its voice may be 
 heard. Besides, in every society, in addi- 
 tion to the written law, there is a living, 
 A'isible authority which applies the law in 
 given cases and dispenses justice between 
 litigant parties. Now, if the Church is a 
 visible society, it must naturally have a 
 visible authority to settle doubts and dis- 
 putes in matters of faith. 2. A rule of faith 
 must, as the supreme authority, be such as 
 to compel submission to its decision, for it 
 must be the means of maintaining unity. 
 This cannot be done unless its verdict de- 
 cides all questions and removes all doubts. 
 A final decision, that renders further op- 
 position unavailing, can be given only by 
 such supreme authority as commands the 
 unqualified submission of all. 3. A rule 
 of faith must be infallible. An infallible 
 authority, alone, can in all cases decide in 
 matters of faith in such a way as not to en- 
 danger the integrity of the deposit of 
 faith ; an infallible authority, alone, can 
 maintain unity of faith; for the obli- 
 gation to believe exists only when one 
 is morally certain that what is proposed 
 to his belief is really of divine revela- 
 tion. Only an infallible authority can 
 give this assurance. 4. A rule of faith 
 must be of divine institution. In matters 
 of religion, we must consult, not man's 
 pleasure, but God's ordination. 
 
 From what we have said, it clearly shows 
 that the teaching authority of the Catholic 
 Church possesses all these attributes. 
 Though in many cases it might remain 
 uncertain what is the teaching of the 
 Church dispersed throughout the world — 
 what the Church proposes as revealed 
 truth in its ordinary preaching : yet, there 
 are more ways than one of interrogating 
 this authority, and when the importance 
 of the matter demands, the Church has 
 diverse means of giving a public and final 
 decision in all cases. 
 
 Faithful. — Those who have faith in 
 Jesus Christ. This name, in the early 
 
Faldstool 
 
 296 
 
 Fathers of the Church 
 
 Church, was especially applied to the bap- 
 tized laymen, distinguishing them from 
 the Catechumens, who had not yet received 
 this sacrament. See Christian. 
 
 Faldstool. — A movable folding chair in 
 a church or cathedral, used by the bishop 
 or. other prelate, when officiating in his 
 own church at a distance from the throne, 
 or in a church not under his jurisdiction. 
 
 False Decretals. See Canok Law. 
 
 Familists. — Sectarians called the 
 " Family of Love," founded in Holland and 
 England in the sixteenth century by Hans 
 Niklas, or Nicholas, who was a disciple of 
 David Jores, who taught mystical doc- 
 trines based upon the theory that religion 
 consists wholly in love independently of 
 the form of faith. To them, Moses was the 
 Prophet of hope, Christ the Prophet of 
 faith, and Hans Nicholas the Prophet of 
 love. The sect was prohibited by Queen 
 Elizabeth in 1580, but existed till the mid- 
 dle of the next century. 
 
 Fast Days. — Fast days are those on 
 which the Church commands us to mor- 
 tify the body by abstaining from flesh 
 meat, or by taking but one full meal in the 
 da}'. Those days on which, besides ab- 
 stinence from meat, but one full meal is 
 allowed, are called Fast Days of Obliga- 
 tion; those days on which it is only re- 
 quired to abstain from flesh meat, are 
 called Days of Abstinence. See Absti- 
 NENCK. The Church can institute fast 
 days, because the Church of Christ, as 
 mother of the Faithful, has the power to 
 make all useful and necessary regulations 
 for the salvation of their souls. In doing 
 so she only follows the example of our 
 Lord, her Head, for He fasted, and of the 
 Apostles, who, even ordered the Chris- 
 tians to abstain from blood and things 
 strangled (Acts x\-. 29), in order not to 
 prevent the conversion of the Jews, who, 
 on account of the Old Law, abhorred the 
 blood and meat of strangled animals. This 
 prohibition was removed when this danger 
 no longer existed. •* Fasting is no new 
 invention, as many imagine," writes the 
 Father of the Church, Basil the Great, " it 
 is a precious treasure which our fore- 
 fathers preser\-ed long before our daj'S, 
 and have handed down to us." The Cath- 
 olic Church, from the very beginning, has 
 looked upon external fasting, only as a 
 means of i>enance. Her object in institut- 
 ing fast days, therefore, was and is, that 
 
 by fasting the Faithful should mortify 
 their flesh and their evil desires, seek to 
 pacify God, render satisfaction for their 
 sins, practice obedience to the Church, 
 their mother, and by practicing these vir- 
 tues become more zealous and fer\ent in 
 the ser\-ice of God. Innumerable texts of 
 Scripture, as well as experience prove that 
 fasting aids to this end. The Fathers of 
 the Church praise very highly the useful- 
 ness of fasting, and our Lord predicted 
 that the Church, His spouse, would fast, 
 when He, her Bridegroom, should be 
 taken from her (Matt. ix. 15). The most 
 important fast days are: All the week 
 days of Lent ; the Fridays in Advent ; 
 Vigils of All-Saints, Christmas, Whitsun- 
 day, and the Assumption. If the festival, 
 however, occurs on Monday, the vigil is 
 kept on the Saturday before ; as Sunday is 
 never a fast day. 
 
 Fathers {Apostolic). See Apostolic 
 Fathers. 
 
 Fathers of the Christian Doctrine. — 
 Religious congregation. The aim of this 
 congregation, and the spirit with which it 
 was animated, were in close sympathy 
 with the spirit and aim of the Ursulines. 
 Founded by Caesar de Bus, and approved 
 by Clement VIII. in 1597, it subsequently 
 coalesced with the Somaschans, thus form- 
 ing an association of secular priests living 
 under simple vows (1616). Owing, how- 
 ever, to disputes between the two branches, 
 relative to the observance of their respec- 
 tive statutes ( 1647), Innocent X. commanded 
 them to sever their connection with each 
 other, and form distinct congregations ; 
 and Alexander VII., by decree, ordered 
 both to establish novitiates, and to intro- 
 duce the three monastic vows. The 
 " Fathers of the Christian Doctrine " con- 
 tinued to dress as secular priests. 
 
 Fathers of the Church. — The Fathers of 
 the Church are those Christian writers, 
 who lived in the fourth and fifth centu- 
 ries, and with learning and zeal expounded 
 and defended the doctrines of Christianit}-. 
 At no time was the literary activity of 
 God's chosen servants more wonderful 
 and productive, and never did they arise 
 in greater numbers than during this period. 
 The chief causes contributing to this ad- 
 vancement of Christian learning and the 
 development of Christian doctrine, were : 
 I. The learned schools at Antioch, Alex- 
 andria, Caesarea, Edessa, Nisibis, and 
 
Faustinus 
 
 297 
 
 Feasts of the Church 
 
 Rhinocorura, in Egypt. 2. The contro- 
 versies with pagan writers who continued 
 to assail Christianity. 3. The great here- 
 sies of Arius, Macedonius, Pelagius, Nes- 
 torius, and Eutyches and the various 
 controversies arising from these heresies. 
 4. The numerous councils which met in 
 order to define, under the special guidance 
 of the Holy Ghost, what was to be believed, 
 and what was to be rejected as contrary to 
 Christian truth. Against each of the 
 numerous heresies germinating during 
 this period, a glorious array of the Fathers 
 of the Church came forward and waged a 
 victorious battle. It was they, who at the 
 councils, defined the Catholic doctrine, 
 condemned the false teaching of heretics, 
 laying bare and demolishing their sophist- 
 ries with the most penetrating acuteness. 
 In their divinely inspired writings, they 
 have bequeathed to all nations and ages a 
 rich treasure of solid and profound learn- 
 ing, and most consoling doctrine, while at 
 the same time the incomparable holiness 
 of their lives has merited for them the 
 honorable title of Fathers and Doctors of 
 the Church. The most illustrious among 
 the Fathers of the Church, that is to say, 
 those who wrote most and whose doctrine 
 is most generally authorized and followed, 
 are four Greek and four Latin Fathers. 
 To the first class belong: St. Athanasius, 
 St. Bazil the Great, St. Gregory Nazian- 
 zen, and St. John Chrysostom; to the 
 second : St. Ambrose, St. Jerome, St. 
 Augustine, and St. Gregory the Great. 
 To these are generally added : St. Leo the 
 Great, St. Thomas Aquinas, St. Bonaven- 
 ture, St. Hilary, St. Bernard, St. Alphonse 
 Liguori, and St. Francis de Sales. See 
 Doctors. 
 
 Faustinus. — Deacon, or priest of the 
 fourth century. Wrote against the Arians 
 and Macedonians, and upheld the antipope 
 Urcinus against Pope Damasus. 
 
 Feasts of Fools and Asses was a ludi- 
 crous profanity of those relics of Pagan 
 Saturnalia, celebrated, in the Middle Ages, 
 at Christmas and New Years, before the 
 beginning of Lent and at Easter, in which 
 ecclesiastics participated, thus lending the 
 encouragement of their presence to dis- 
 graceful parodies on the Holy Mysteries 
 and the dignitaries of the Church, From 
 the fact that in the "Feast of Fools" an 
 inferior cleric was chosen bishop, it was 
 sometimes called the "Subdeacon's Feast." 
 The cleric thus chosen travestied the 
 
 pontifical functions ; but when incensed, 
 instead of olibanum, an offensive and foul 
 matter was used. The stalls of the canons 
 were filled by others of the inferior clerics, 
 who sang : "Deposuit potentes etexultavit 
 humiles." At the close of these mock 
 ceremonies, the choir was turned into a 
 banqueting hall, and was the scene of un- 
 seemly antics and disgraceful performances 
 of all sorts. 
 
 The "Feast of Asses" is supposed to 
 have been originally intended to commem- 
 orate the Flight of Jesus into Egypt or His 
 Entry into Jerusalem, and accordingly cel- 
 ebrated about Christmas or Easter. An 
 ass was clad in a surplice, and, when con- 
 ducted into the Church, his entry was 
 greeted with the singing of a ludicrous 
 canticle, the refrain of which was: "Hez, 
 Sire Asnes." A remark of J. P. Richteris 
 here apposite : "It was precisely in the 
 most religious period that the Feasts of 
 Fools and Asses, the representation of the 
 mysteries and mock sermons on Easter 
 Sunday, were most in favor. There was 
 no apprehension of religion suffering any 
 detriment, being too far above anything 
 like a travesty. The same rule holds here 
 as in the case of the Socrates of Xenophon 
 and Aristophanes — the former was not 
 injured by the travesty of the latter. The 
 very fact of a travesty proves the existence 
 of something higher travestied ; a comedy 
 presupposes a tragedy." (Propedeutics of 
 .Esthetics.) 
 
 Feasts of the Church. — A commemora- 
 tion of some mystery of religion or in 
 honor of saints. The Church alone has 
 the right to institute feasts. For to the 
 Church, and to her alone, is intrusted all 
 that bears upon the religious life, and, con- 
 sequently, the celebration of religious fes- 
 tivals. From the earliest ages the Church, 
 made use of this right, as is manifest from 
 the sermons of the Fathers on the various 
 festivals. Nor could the Church lack that 
 power, which, as Scripture testifies, the 
 synagogue of the Jews possessed and exer- 
 cised. The right of instituting feasts nat- 
 urally implies also the right of abolishing 
 existing ones. We distinguish two kinds 
 of feasts : feasts of our Lord and feasts of 
 the saints. By the institution of the feasts 
 of our Lord, the Church intended, in the 
 first place, to bring home to us the chief 
 mysteries of our redemption, and so to 
 instruct us on the chief contents of our re- 
 ligion ; secondly, to awaken our gratitude 
 
Feasts of the Jews 
 
 298 
 
 Felix I. 
 
 for the great benefit of the redemption ; 
 and, finally, by pointing to the virtues of 
 our Lord, and to.inspire the Faithful with 
 a desire to imitate Him. The feasts of the 
 saints were instituted, first, to honor God 
 in His saints, by thanking Him for the 
 graces conferred upon our glorious breth- 
 ren ; moreover, to incite us to the imitation 
 of their virtues ; and, finally, to invoke their 
 intercession. The feasts of obligation are 
 to be celebrated in the same manner as the 
 Sundays ; for the end of the festivals is the 
 same as that of the Sundays : the honor of 
 God and the benefit of our souls, and, con- 
 sequently, it should be obtained by the 
 same means, or manner of celebration. 
 The same may be concluded from the cus- 
 tom of the Church, which at all times cele- 
 brated the feasts of obligation in the same 
 manner as the Lord's day; for the custom 
 of the Church is itself a law. The feasts 
 of obligation in the United States are six 
 in number : Immaculate Conception of the 
 Blessed Virgin, Christmas, Circumcision, 
 Ascension of our Lord, Assumption of the 
 Blessed Virgin, and All Saints' day. 
 
 Feasts of the Jews. See Leviticus. 
 
 Febronianistn. — System of John Nich- 
 olas von Hontheim, coadjutor- bishop of 
 Treves. In 1763, writing under the name 
 of Justinus Febronius, he published a book 
 On the State of the Church and the Legit- 
 imate Authority of the Roman Pontiff, 
 in which he endeavored to show the Ger- 
 mans by historical arguments that the Gal- 
 ilean Articles were defensible, and that the 
 Pope had no right to interfere in the local 
 discipline and Church government of in- 
 dividual dioceses, thus restricting the es- 
 sential jurisdiction of the Holy See. He 
 held that the Pope is in precisely the same 
 relation to the bishops that the presiding 
 officer is to the me'mbers of a parliament ; 
 that the true constitution of the Church is 
 not monarchical ; and that the Church and 
 not Christ, invested the Bishop of Rome 
 with the Primacy he enjoys. The Pope in- 
 deed has authority, but not jurisdiction, 
 over the Universal Church. Clement XIII. 
 condemned the book of Febronius, and or- 
 dered it suppressed by all the bishops of 
 Germany. The author's archbishop be- 
 sought him to retract the errors it con- 
 tained, which he did in the year 1778. 
 
 Feehan (Patrick A.). — An American 
 Catholic prelate, born at Killenaul, County 
 Tipperary, Ireland, Aug. 29th, 1829. En- 
 
 tering Castle Knock College at the age of 
 16 years, he studied there for two years 
 and then entered Maynooth College, where 
 he studied philosophy and theology for five 
 years, and where, upon his graduation, he 
 was offered a professorship. Emigrating to 
 America in 1852 he entered the Ecclesias- 
 tical Seminary at Carondelet, where he was 
 ordained priest November ist of that year 
 He labored as priest and teacher for 12 
 years under Archbishop Kenrick of St. 
 Louis, becoming professor of moral the- 
 ology and Sacred Scripture in the Semi- 
 nary of Carondelet. He became bishop of 
 Nashville in 1865, and found that diocese 
 almost completely demoralized and deeply 
 in debt as a result of the war. Despite the 
 great yellow fever epidemic that swept over 
 the diocese at the very beginning of his 
 incumbency, he rehabilitated and wonder- 
 fully developed the see of Nashville, show- 
 ing such remarkable ability as far surpassed 
 even the expectations of those on whose 
 recommendation he had been assigned to 
 that diocese, and it was in recognition of 
 this that he was appointed the first arch- 
 bishop of Chicago, in 1880. 
 
 Felicissimus. — Deacon of the Church of 
 Carthage. Ordained without the knowl- 
 edge and against the will of St. Cyprian; 
 placed himself at the head of those Chris- 
 tians that had apostatized during persecu- 
 tion and who wished to re-enter into 
 community with the Church without pen- 
 ance (250). The schism which arose as a 
 consequence of this pretension spread quite 
 rapidly. 
 
 Felix. — Heretic ; Bishop of Urgel, Spain, 
 died in 815. He pretended that Jesus Christ, 
 as man, was only the adoptive son of God. 
 His heresy was condemned in the Council 
 of Ratisbon (792) ; he abjured his errors, 
 but soon fell back into them, was con- 
 demned anew in the Councils of Frank- 
 fort (794) and of Rome (799). Summoned 
 by Charlemagne to Aix-la-Chapelle, he re- 
 nounced his errors a second time, at least 
 apparently and was committed to the cus- 
 tody of Bishop Leitrad of Lyons. 
 
 Felix I. — Pope from 269 to 247. Of the 
 acts of this Pope nothing is known with 
 any certainty, except the part he took in 
 the deposition of Paul of Samosata, from 
 the see of Antioch. Felix, who is said to 
 have confirmed the custom of saying Mass 
 on the tombs of the martyrs, suflFered mar- 
 tyrdom under Aurelian. Felix II, — Raised 
 
Felix of Valois 
 
 299 
 
 Fetishism 
 
 to the Papal Chair during the banishment 
 of Liberius, by the Emperor Constantius 
 who favored the Arians (355). After the 
 re-establishment of Liberius he retired; 
 several regard him as an antipope, others 
 say that he became legitimate Pope at the 
 death of Liberius (358) and that he suf- 
 fered martyrdom. Felix III. or //. — Pope 
 from 483 to 492. Under the Pontificate of 
 this Pope began the Acacian schism, the 
 author of which, Acacius, Patriarch of 
 Constantinople, was excommunicated by 
 this Pontiff at the Roman Synod of 484. 
 Felix IV. — Pope from 526 to 530. To this 
 Pope are ascribed the twenty-five canons 
 adopted by the Council of Orange, in 529, 
 against the Semi-Pelagians. 
 
 Felix of Valois (1127-1212). — Born in 
 Valois, France, founded, together with St. 
 John of Matha, the Order of the Trinita- 
 rians for the redemption of captives. See 
 Trinitarians. 
 
 F6nelon ( Franqois dk Salignac de la 
 Mothe) (1651-1715). — French divine and 
 author, born at Perigord, received holy 
 orders in 1675. In 1685, after the revoca- 
 tion of the edict of Nantes, he was sent as 
 missionary among the Protestants of Sain- 
 tonge and Poitou. In 1689, he was ap- 
 pointed by Louis XIV. preceptor of the 
 king's son, the young Duke of Burgundy, 
 and in 1694 was rewarded with the Abbey 
 of St. Valery, succeeding in 1695 to the 
 Archbishopric of Cambrai, He took an 
 active part in the Quietistic controversy. 
 In the condemnation of the writings of 
 Madame Guyon, Fenelon acquiesced ; but 
 as she made a formal submission to the 
 Church, he vindicated her character. 
 Moreover, in a work entitled Maxims of 
 the Saints, Fenelon defended the Quiet- 
 ist idea of "holy indifference as to eternal 
 bliss or woe," springing from a pure and 
 disinterested love of God. Fenelon was 
 answered by many doctors of the Sorbonne 
 and refuted by Bossuet, and his- book was 
 condemned by Innocent XII. in 1699. 
 Fenelon made a most edifying submission 
 by publicly denouncing his own work. 
 
 Fenwick (Benedict Joseph). — An 
 American Catholic prelate; born in St. 
 Mary's County, Maryland, in September, 
 1782 ; educated at Georgetown College 
 and in the Seminary of St. Sulpice, at 
 Baltimore; ordained in 1808; stationed in 
 New York city, where he founded the 
 New York Literary Institute and began 
 
 the erection of St. Patrick's Cathedral 
 from plans prepared by himself. In 1816 
 he was made vicar-general. The following 
 year he was appointed president of George- 
 town College ; in 1825 became bishop of 
 Boston. In 1843 he founded the College 
 of the Holy Cross at Worcester, Massa- 
 chusetts, and placed it in charge of the 
 Jesuits. His diocese extended over the 
 whole of New England, and he left it with 
 fifty churches, an orphan asylum, and many 
 schools. He died at Boston, Aug. nth, 
 1846. 
 
 Fenwick (Edward D. ). — An American 
 Catholic prelate; born in St. Mary's 
 County, Maryland, in 1768; educated at 
 the College of Bornheim, in Belgium, and 
 after ordination became a professor in the 
 college. He was driven from Belgium by 
 the French Revolutionists, and returned to 
 America. Having become a Dominican 
 in Belgium, and being desirous of found- 
 ing a province of the order, he went to 
 Kentucky in 1806, where he bought a farm 
 and built the convent of St. Rose of Lima. 
 He resigned the office of provincial later, 
 became a missionary in Ohio, and built the 
 first church in Cincinnati in 1819. He 
 was made bishop of Cincinnati in 1822. 
 He died at Wooster, Qhio, Sept. 26th, 
 1832. 
 
 Feria. — A name applied to each day of 
 the week with the exception of Saturday 
 and Sunday. Monday is called 2d Feria, 
 Tuesday 3d, Wednesday 4th, Thursday 
 5th, Friday 6th. The ordinary words are 
 used for Sunday and Saturday. We dis- 
 tinguish the Major Ferice, the Church's 
 office of which prevails over any other, 
 like Ash Wednesday, the three last days 
 of Holy Week, the two days after Easter 
 and Pentecost; the Minor Ferice, which 
 do not exclude the office of a saint, but of 
 which we make commemoration ; the Sim- 
 fle FericB which exclude nothing. 
 
 Ferrara {Council of ). See Florence. 
 
 Festus Fortius. — Successor of Felix in 
 the government of Judea, about 60-62. As 
 Roman procurator in Palestine, he refused 
 to put the Apostle St. Paul in the power 
 of the Jews, and, after giving him a hear- 
 ing in the presence of Herod Agrippa II., 
 sent him to Rome in consequence of his 
 appeal to Caesar. 
 
 Fetishism (the practice of worshiping 
 a fetish ; that form of religious belief and 
 
Feuillants 
 
 300 
 
 Fitzgerald 
 
 practice in which fetishes are the object of 
 worship). — Fetishes are any material ob- 
 ject regparded with awe, as having myste- 
 rious .powers residing in it or as being the 
 representative or habitation of a deity to 
 which worship may be paid, and from 
 which natural aid is to be exi>eeted. A 
 fetish may be an animal, as a cock, a 
 serpent, a bear, etc., or an inanimate ob- 
 ject, as a tree, a river, a stone, a tooth, a 
 shell, etc. The worship of fetishes be- 
 longs to a low and brutal stage or form of 
 religion. 
 
 Feuillants. — Members of a religious 
 order. Originally (1577) a branch of the 
 Cistercians; since 1589 an independent 
 monastic order. It derives its name from 
 the Abbey Feuillant, eighteen miles from 
 Toulouse, France. Its founder, Jean de 
 la Barriere (1544-1600), became its first 
 Abbot in 1574. The order came into 
 favor on account of the strictness of its 
 discipline. It still exists in France and 
 Italy. There are also nuns of this order. 
 
 Final Perseverance. See Persever- 
 ance. 
 
 Finding of the Cross. — See Cross. 
 
 Firmilian (St.). — Bishop of Caesarea, 
 in Cappadocia, died at Tarsus in 269. Up- 
 held, in the Council of Iconium (231 ), the 
 invalidity of baptism administered by 
 heretics. Presided at the Council of Anti- 
 och (264) against Paul of Samosata, and 
 combated the schism of Novatian. F. Oct. 
 28th. 
 
 First Fruits. See Annates. 
 
 Fish. — The figure of a fish, as a Chris- 
 tian hieroglyphic, is of very frequent re- 
 currence on the monuments of primitive 
 antiquity. The Greek term of Ichtus, 
 which signifies a fish, is compwjsed of the 
 initial letters of the sacred name and titles 
 of our divine Redeemer, as written in the 
 Greek language : lesous JCristos TeoH 
 
 Yios Zotet Jesus Christ the Son of God, 
 
 the Saviour. It was on account of that 
 spiritual regeneration which man received 
 as being born, as it were, again by water, 
 and initiated into the faith of Jesus, and 
 from the conviction that if they did not 
 continue in that vivifying belief they 
 would be spiritually dead and must infalli- 
 bly lose their salvation, that the first 
 Christians delighted to employ this sym- 
 bol, and designate themselves by the enig- 
 matical appellation of Pisciculi, or little 
 fishes. 
 
 Fisher (John) (1459-1 535). — Bishop of 
 Rochester, England ; was born at Bever- 
 ley. Chancellor of the Universitv at 
 Cambridge, Bishop of Rochester, and pre- 
 ceptor of Henry VIII. Refused to ac- 
 knowledge the king's marriage with Anne 
 Boleyn as '* good and lawful," and for this 
 offense he had to feel the full weight of 
 the royal vengeance. He was arrested for 
 misprision of treason, in that he had heard 
 a woman named Elizabeth Barton, better 
 known as the Holy Maid of Kent^ say that 
 the king would survive his divorce from 
 Catharine only seven months, and had 
 failed to report the conversation. An oath 
 was presented to him, affirming the legal- 
 ity of the king's marriage with Anne, 
 which he declined to take, and was in con- 
 sequence committed to the Tower, April 
 26th, 1534. He was now close to seventy 
 years of age, but neither his gray hairs nor 
 his past ser^•ices could move the heart of 
 the royal despot to mercy. He languished 
 in prison for thirteen months, enduring 
 privations the most severe, and cruelties of 
 the most barbarous nature ; and when he 
 again came forth it was only to appear be- 
 fore a special commission appointed to try 
 him at Westminster, on the charge of high 
 treason, for having refused to take oath 
 that the king was the " Supreme Head of 
 the Church of England." After a hasty 
 trial, he was declared guilty, and beheaded 
 June 22d, 1535. In the preceding May he 
 had been created cardinal by Pope Paul 
 III., but, though he may have appreciated 
 the kindness, he had now ceased to put any 
 value on dignities, and declared that, "if 
 the hat were at his feet, he would not 
 stoop to take it up." His head was set up 
 on London bridge, and his body, after 
 lying naked all day at the place of execu- 
 tion, was carried away by the guards, and 
 laid in the churchyard of All- Hollows, 
 Barking. 
 
 Fitzgerald (Edward) . — A Roman Cath- 
 olic prelate; born in Limerick, in 1833. 
 He emigrated to the United States in 1S49, 
 and was educated at the Catholic schools 
 — the College of Barrens, Missouri, and 
 Emmittsburg Mount St. Mary's College. 
 Upon his ordination to the priesthood in 
 1857, he was stationed at Columbus, Ohio, 
 where he made his influence so felt that in 
 1867 he was chosen bishop of Little Rock, 
 Arkansas. There he was active in inducing 
 emigration and establishing variousChurch 
 orders. 
 
Flagellants 
 
 301 
 
 Florence 
 
 Flagellants. — Fanatics of the thirteenth 
 century. So called from the scourges 
 {^fla gelid), with which they lashed their 
 naked shoulders. They first appeared at 
 Perugia, in 1260, and thence spread with 
 rapidity over the rest of Italy, and into 
 France, Germany, and Poland. A com- 
 pany of a hundred and twenty Flagellants 
 landed in London in the time of Edward III., 
 but they found no sympathy among the 
 English people. Large numbers of per- 
 sons of every age, sex, and rank marched 
 two by two in procession through the 
 streets, and from city to city, publicly 
 scourging themselves, or each other, till 
 their naked backs streamed with blood — 
 to appease, as they pretended, the divine 
 wrath. They were wont to scourge them- 
 selves twice a day, for thirty-three days, in 
 honor of the thirty-three years which Christ 
 lived upon earth. The secular magistrates, 
 finding that the Church did not sanction 
 the movement, began to prohibit the Fla- 
 gellant processions. After the black death, 
 which ravaged all Europe in the middle 
 of the fourteenth century, they again ap- 
 peared. In 1349 Clement VI. condemned 
 their practices. But they refused submis- 
 sion and gave way to many extravagances. 
 As Gerson says, *' contempt of the priest- 
 hood, rejection of sacraments, extortion, 
 robbery, and all manner of vices marked 
 their presence." 
 
 Flaget (Benedict Joseph). — A French 
 American Catholic prelate; born in Con- 
 tournat, France, Nov. 7th, 1763. He 
 was ordained priest in 1788, and in 1792 
 came to the United States. He was at 
 once sent as chaplain to Vincennes, Indi- 
 ana, then a military post in the North- 
 west. From 1795 to 1798 he was a professor 
 at Georgetown College, and for the next 
 three years was in Havana, as a tutor to 
 the sons of a wealthy Cuban. From 1801 
 to 1808 he was engaged in duties at 
 Georgetown College and in missionary la- 
 bors ; in the latter year was appointed 
 bishop of Bardstown, Kentucky, in charge 
 of the district between the Missouri river 
 and the Atlantic States, and the Great 
 Lakes to the 35th parallel. During his 
 life he erected numerous colleges and 
 convents, some of which were built at 
 his own expense. He was the recognized 
 American counselor of the Pope, and was 
 respected by all creeds and classes alike. 
 He died in Nazareth, Kentucky, Feb. nth, 
 1850. 
 
 Flavian (St.) — Patriarch of Constanti- 
 nople (447-449), who caused the condemna- 
 tion of Eutyches. F. Feb. i8th. 
 
 Flavian (St.) — Patriarch of Antioch. 
 Obtained from Theodosius pardon for his 
 people, who had thrown down, during a 
 revolt, the statue of the Empress Pris- 
 cilla. Died in 404. F. Feb. 21st. 
 
 Flavian (St.) — Bishop of Antioch in 
 496. Died in exile at Patras (51S) for hav- 
 ing refused to condemn the Council of 
 Chalcedon. F. July 4th. 
 
 Flavius Josephus. See Josephus. 
 
 Fleury (Claude) (1640-1723). — French 
 ecclesiastical writer, born at Paris. His 
 most famous works are : Mosurs des Is- 
 raelites, Moeurs des Chretiens and Grand 
 Catechisme Historique. 
 
 Florence {Council of). — The desire to 
 reform the Church induced Pope Eugene 
 IV. to convoke a Council at Basle (see 
 Basle). To facilitate the negotiations 
 between the Greek and Latin Churches, 
 the Council was first transferred to Fer- 
 rara (1438). The plague breaking out at 
 Ferrara, the Council was removed to Flo- 
 rence (1439). Some prelates remained at 
 Basle and continued the Ecumenical 
 Council. They renewed the decrees which 
 asserted that the council is superior to the 
 Pope, and they elected an antipope. Only 
 seven bishops were present. The real 
 Council at Florence did very little in the 
 matter of reform, but succeeded in reunit- 
 ing the Greeks with Rome (1439). The 
 Greeks accepted the Primacy of the Roman 
 See, and in conformity with the belief of 
 the Roman Church, they especially ac- 
 knowledged that the Holy Ghost proceeds 
 from the Father and the Son. The decrees 
 were signed by the Pope, the patriarchs, 
 and the other Greek prelates, with the ex- 
 ception of the Bishop of Ephesus, who 
 positively refused to add his signature. 
 The successful termination of the Council 
 spread universal joy throughout the Cath- 
 olic Church, but this, unfortunately, was 
 not of long duration. When the Emperor 
 Paleologus, who also had been present at 
 the Council, and the Greek Fathers re- 
 turned to Constantinople, they found the 
 clergy and people strongly prejudiced 
 against the reunion. They loaded with 
 insults those who had signed the decrees. 
 Hereupon many prelates retracted what 
 they had done, and the schism was thus 
 
Flotte 
 
 302 
 
 Forty Hours' Devotion 
 
 again revived in Constantinople. The 
 Turks put an end to the controversy by 
 taking the city (1453). The first sessions 
 of the Council of Basle, in as far as they are 
 recognized by the Pope and the Council of 
 Florence, as the continuation of that of 
 Basle, together, form the Seventeenth 
 Ecumenical Council (1431-1439). See 
 Basle. 
 
 Flotte (Peter). — French politician of 
 the thirteenth century. Chancellor of 
 Philip the Fair. Killed in the battle 
 of Courtray (1302). He was sent to Rome 
 for the canonization of St. Louis (1292); 
 took part in the controversy of the king 
 and Pope Boniface VIII., drew up the 
 act of accusation against Bernard Saisset, 
 Papal delegate at the French court, carried 
 to the Pope the insqlting answer of Philip 
 the Fair to the Bull Ausculta fili, and 
 falsified this Bull in order to irritate 
 France and to obtain the resolutions taken 
 by the General States in 1302. 
 
 Flo^vers are used as an ornament for 
 altars. The innocent and expressive 
 custom to decorate Churches, especially 
 altars, is derived from early Christianity. 
 St. Augustine particularly mentions this 
 custom as he notices the renunciation of 
 Paganism for Christianity made by the 
 expiring Martial, whose son-in-law, after 
 praying with much fervor for his conver- 
 sion at the foot of St. Stephen's altar, ap- 
 proached as he was going away, and car- 
 ried oflP from it some of the flowers that 
 were placed there (r/e Civitate Dei, lib. 
 xxii. cap. 8), and conveyed tl^pm to the 
 couch of his dying relative. St. Jerome 
 particularly panegyrized his friend Nepo- 
 tian for his devotional assiduity in adorn- 
 ing the walls of the church with a variety 
 of flowers and the boughs of trees (Epist. 
 Ix. ad Heliodorum) ; and St. Paulinus of 
 Nola refers to the same practice as he de- 
 scribes the manner of celebrating the an- 
 nual festival of his patron saint, St. Felix, 
 in the following verses : — 
 
 " Hymn praise to God, ye youths; discharge your 
 vows; 
 Strew flowers around; the threshold wreathe 
 
 with boughs : — 
 Let hoary winter sigh like purple spring. 
 And the young year his earliest garlands bring 
 Before their season; thus shall nature pay 
 A fitting homage to this hallow'd day." {De S. 
 Felice Natalitium. carmen iii. v. 108, et seg.) 
 
 Font {Baptismal). — The vessel contain- 
 ing the water wherewith the sacrament of 
 baptism is administered. It was, as we 
 
 have seen (see Bapistkry), placed in 
 earlier churches in a separate building, 
 but it was later transferred into the church. 
 The Western Church usually used a stone 
 font, but it might be of any convenient 
 material, and it was to be used for the 
 baptism alone. The font in the Eastern 
 Church is movable, of wood or metal, and 
 is seldom if ever possessed of any beauty. 
 The shape of it in the West was generally 
 octagonal, though a fanciful mysticism oc- 
 casionally gave it the form of a sepulchre 
 or of a cross. The font in the baptistery 
 was surrounded by a low wall, entered 
 by steps, usually seven, three without, 
 three within, excluding the top step. 
 
 The blessing of the baptismal font takes 
 place once a year, namely on the eve of 
 Easter. On that day the water destined 
 for baptism is blessed, and the ceremonies 
 observed and all the prayers which the 
 priest recites have reference to the ancient 
 customs of the baptism of the Catechumens 
 on that day. See Baptism. 
 
 Fontevrault {Order of). — This order 
 was founded by Robert of Abrissel, in 1094. 
 Robert was a professor of theology at 
 Paris, and coadjutor to the Bishop of 
 Rennes; but divesting himself of these 
 employments, he retired into the forest of 
 Craon and built a monastery at La Roe. 
 Urban II. confirmed his institution and, 
 appointing him apostolic missionary, or- 
 dered him to preach the First Crusade. In 
 1 100, Robert founded at Fontevrault, on 
 the Vienne, two monasteries — one for 
 men, the other for women — and gave their 
 inmates the Rule of St. Augustine for their 
 guide. He dedicated his order to the 
 glory and honor of the Blessed Virgin ; and 
 following the example of our Lord, who, 
 when dying, committed St. John to the care 
 of His Mother, he placed all his convents, 
 including those of men, under the jurisdic- 
 tion of the abbess of Fontevrault. The 
 order was approved by Pope Paschal II. 
 in 1 1 13, and soon spread over the continent 
 of Europe. It numbered several thousand 
 monks and nuns at the death of the founder, 
 in 1117. 
 
 Formosus. — Pope from 885 to 891. He 
 crowned the Emperor Arnulf, king of 
 Germany. The successor of Formosus; 
 Stephen VII., anathematized his memory, 
 but John IX. restored it in 898. 
 
 Forty Hours' Devotion. — A devotion in 
 honor of the Real Presence of Jesus Christ 
 
FOSSARIANS 
 
 303 
 
 Francis-Xavier 
 
 in the Holy Eucharist. The "Forty 
 Hours' Prayer of Adoration," or more 
 briefly, " the Forty Hours," is thus called, 
 because, during eight-and-forty hours, the 
 Blessed Sacrament is conspicuously ex- 
 posed on the altar, that the Faithful may 
 come and pray before it, and adore it. No 
 pains are neglected to make this sacred 
 rite as solemn and devout as possible. 
 After a solemn Mass and procession, the 
 Blessed Sacrament is enshrined and en- 
 throned above the altar, and around it is 
 arranged a firmament, as it were, of count- 
 less lights, radiating from it, symbolic of 
 the ever wakeful host of heaven, the 
 spirits of restless life and unfading bright- 
 ness, that keep watch around the seat of 
 glory above ; and then the Faithful gather 
 about the altar as about a throne, and 
 adore in silence and in awe. During the 
 time of Forty Hours, the eyes and hearts 
 of those who enter the church should 
 seek no object but the Blessed Sacrament, 
 and for this reason the Mass on the second 
 day should be said on an altar different 
 from that of the exposition. For the same 
 reason, the usual salutations are also 
 omitted. It is proper to have a bench or 
 kneeling desk placed near the railing in 
 front of the altar, and to have one or more 
 persons appointed to replace one another 
 at the desk and remain there in adoration, 
 as the representatives of the parish, while 
 the sacrament is exposed. 
 
 The introduction of this devotion of 
 Forty Hours is due, so far as can be as- 
 certained, to Father Joseph, a capuchin of 
 Miland (died 1556). In 1560, Pius VII. 
 approved the Confraternity of Prayer to 
 the Blessed Sacrament. In 1592, Clement 
 VIII. introduced the public and perpetual 
 adoration of the Blessed Sacrament into 
 the churches of Rome, and soon the 
 devotion spread over the Catholic world. 
 
 Fossarians were certain officers in the 
 Eastern Church, who had charge of the 
 burial of the dead. See Burial. 
 
 France {Evangelization of). See 
 Clovis; Burgundians. 
 
 France {Worship z'»).— The Catholic 
 religion is professed by the great majority 
 of the French ; but the State pays also a 
 salary to Protestant and Jewish ministers. 
 A minister of State is charged with the 
 direction of the different worships, holds 
 relations with the court of Rome, with 
 the archbishops and bishops ; he watches 
 
 over the execution of the laws which as- 
 sure liberty of conscience and protection 
 to the different worships. Catholic France 
 comprises 18 archbishoprics and 72 bish- 
 oprics. The Protestants count from 4 to 
 5,000,000 members, mostly belonging to 
 the Lutheran and Calvinistic Churches. 
 The Jews number about 75,000. 
 
 Frances of Chantal (St.). See Visita- 
 tion {Order of the). 
 
 Francis Borgia (St.), Duke of Candia 
 and Captain-General of Catalonia. — Was 
 one of the handsomest, richest, and most 
 honored nobles in Spain, when, in 1539, 
 there was laid upon him the sad duty of 
 escorting the remains of his sovereign, 
 Qiieen Isabella, to the royal burying place 
 at Granada. The coffin had to be opened 
 for him that he might verify the body be- 
 fore it was placed in the tomb, and so foul 
 a sight met his eyes that he vowed never 
 to serve a sovereign who could suffer so 
 base a change. He entered the Society of 
 Jesus and soon his order chose him to be 
 its head. He died in Rome, Oct. loth, 
 1572. F. Oct. loth. 
 
 Francis (St.) of Assisi (1182-1226). — 
 Founder of the Order of the Franciscans, 
 born at Assisi, Umbria. Ambitious for 
 glory, he tried the profession of arms, then, 
 touched by grace, he left his family, em- 
 braced absolute poverty, and founded in 
 1208, the Order of Mendicants. St. Francis 
 was canonized by Pope Gregory IV. in 
 1228. F. Oct. 4th. 
 
 Francis of Paul (St.). See Minims. 
 
 Francis of Sales (St.) (1567-1622). — 
 Bishop of Geneva and French writer, born 
 in the Castle of Sales, near Annecy, France. 
 Doctor in theology and law, lawyer at 
 Chambery, he left the world in 1595, to 
 enter sacred orders. His life was a model 
 of virtue. In 1610, with the help of St. 
 Frances of Chantal, he founded the order of 
 the Visitation. His wonderful work, Intro- 
 duction to the Devout Life passed through 
 forty editions whilst the saint was still alive. 
 Pope Pius IX., in 1877, declared St. Fran- 
 cis of Sales a " Doctor of the Church." F. 
 Jan. 29th. 
 
 Francis-Xavier (St.) (1506-1552). — 
 Apostle of India and Japan. Was born of 
 a noble family of Navarre, and was one of 
 the first associates of St. Ignatius when 
 founding his order. At the instance of 
 
Franciscans 
 
 304 Free Church of England 
 
 King John III., of Portugal, Pope Paul 
 III. appointed him apostolic missionary 
 and nuncio for India. Francis landed at 
 Goa, the capital of the Portuguese Indies. 
 After working some time in that city, 
 where his preaching wrought a great 
 change, he visited the tribe of the Para- 
 wians on the Fishery Coast. His preach- 
 ing, supported by miracles, produced 
 wonderful effects. He founded forty-five 
 Churches along the coast. After a year's 
 residence among the Parawians, Francis 
 passed into other neighboring countries. 
 In all of them he effected prodigious num- 
 bers of conversions. In the year 1548, he 
 had converted more than 200,000 pagans of 
 India. Xavier's next mission was Japan. 
 He landed at Kangoxima, in 1549. His 
 preaching again was attended with mar- 
 velous results. He converted several 
 princes to Christianity and left the Church 
 of Japan established on a firm footing. In 
 1552, St. Francis set out for China. But 
 his apostolic course was run; he expired 
 on the Island of Sancian, in the forty-sixth 
 year of his age. He was canonized by 
 Urban VIII. in 1623, with the glorious 
 title of *' The Apostle of India and Japan." 
 F. Dec. 2d. 
 
 Franciscans (religious of the Order of 
 St. Francis). — The mendicant order of the 
 Franciscans was based on the principles of 
 absolute poverty and charity, with the 
 object of the evangelical preaching. The 
 members received the name of Minorites 
 {Fratres minores). Their habit was an 
 ashen-gray tunic, a cord for cincture, and 
 sandals for shoes. Their rule was ap- 
 proved in 1223 by Pope Honorius III. ; it 
 imposed the three vows of obedience, 
 chastity, and poverty in the strict sense of 
 the word, for they should possess nothing 
 of their own. They rendered themselves 
 very popular by their piety, austerity, and 
 the vigor of their eloquence. The order 
 spread rapidly. Since the founding of the 
 order they count eight thousand houses in 
 thirty-three countries and about two hun- 
 dred thousand members. A general guard- 
 ian directed all the provinces, and the 
 order was placed under the supervision of 
 a cardinal protector. Devoted to the study 
 of the sciences and especially to philosophy, 
 the Franciscans were bright lights in the 
 universities, and became rivals of the Do- 
 minicans; the latter were Thomists, while 
 the former were Scotists. Their order 
 produced Alexander of Hales, and Roger 
 
 Bacon, as well as the Popes Nicholas IV., 
 Alexander V., Sixtus IV., Sixtus V., and 
 Clement XIV. ; a poet, Jacobonus of Todi, 
 and St. Bonaventure. There were diverse 
 branches under the names of Fathers of the 
 Obser\'ance, Fathers of the Strict Observ- 
 ance, also called Jaccolanti, Observantines, 
 Recollects, Discalced, Reformed Conven- 
 tuals, Capuchins, and Cordeliers. A general 
 division divided the Franciscans into Cis- 
 montanes who had seventy provinces, and 
 Ultramontanes who had eighty-one prov- 
 inces. Besides his order for men, St. Fran- 
 cis of Assisi founded one also for women, 
 commonly called " Poor Clares," after St. 
 Clara of Assisi, who was the first of her 
 sex to embrace this manner of life. In 
 1224, St. Francis gave a written rule to St. 
 Clara and her community, which was ap- 
 proved by Innocent IV. in 1246. Within 
 a few years the order had spread in Italy, 
 France, and Spain. In addition to these 
 two orders, St. Francis founded the Third 
 Order, for persons living in the world and 
 desirous of sharing the privileges and 
 graces of the religious state. St. Louis 
 IX. of France, and St. Elizabeth of Hun- 
 gary belonged to the Third Order. St. 
 Francis, after receiving the sacred stigmata, 
 or marks of our Lord's Passion, died in 
 1226. 
 
 There are many branches of the numer- 
 ous family of the Franciscans in the United 
 States. The "Recollects" who came to 
 Cincinnati, Ohio, in the year 1844, seem to 
 have been the first religious of that order 
 that settled in this country, since the for- 
 mation of the United States. 
 
 Frankfort (Council of). — The Council 
 of Frankfort was convened by Charlemagne 
 at Frankfort-on-the-Main, in 794. It was 
 attended by more than 300 bishops and 
 condemned the heresy of the Adoptionists. 
 
 Fratricelli. — The common designation 
 of a body of reformed Franciscans author- 
 ized by Pope Celestine V. in 1294, under 
 the name of Poor Hermits, who afterwards 
 defied the authority of the Popes, rejected 
 the sacraments, and held that Christian 
 perfection consists in absolute poverty. In 
 spite of persecution, they continued as a 
 distinct sect until the fifteenth century. 
 
 Free Church of England. — A Protestant 
 Episcopal organization, founded in 1844, 
 and enrolled in chancery, in England, in 
 1863, "originated as a counteracting move- 
 ment to the Oxford Tractarians." It is 
 
Freemasons 
 
 305 
 
 Friday 
 
 free from State control, and therefore 
 claims the liberty of entering a parish where 
 ritualistic practices prevail and establishing 
 a liturgical service, on the basis of the evan- 
 gelical party in the national church, with 
 which its ritual is practically identical. It 
 is governed by convocation and bishops 
 consecrated, in the line of the Canterbury 
 succession, by the Rt. Rev. Bishop Cum- 
 mins, who founded the Reformed Episco- 
 pal Church of America in 1873, when he 
 resigned his connection with the Protestant 
 Episcopal Church, while claiming, on its 
 own grounds, the indelibility of his orders. 
 
 Freemasons. See Secret Societies. 
 
 Freppel (Charles Emile) (1827-1891). 
 — A French theologian and prelate. Was 
 born at Obernai, France ; died in Paris. 
 Entered the priesthood, and in 1870 be- 
 came Bishop of Angers. He was returned 
 to the chamber of deputies as a Legiti- 
 mist in 1881 and re-elected in 1885. He 
 wrote a criticism on Renan's Vie de yesus 
 and several other works. 
 
 Friday {Good or Holy). — Good Friday 
 is the day of God's mercy, because it is the 
 day on which Jesus Christ, by an excess of 
 love, incomprehensible to every created 
 mind, suflfered the greatest torments, and 
 expired ignominiously on the Cross, in 
 order that we might be healed through 
 His wounds, washed in His blood, and that 
 in His death we might find the principle 
 of our true life. We call this day Holy or 
 Good Friday; it is also called Parasceve, 
 which means a preparation, it being the 
 day in which the Jews prepared for the 
 celebration of the Sabbath. Our ancestors 
 gave it the name of Adoration Friday, on 
 account of the solemn worship of the 
 Cross which takes place on that day. The 
 Greeks call it the Pasch of Jesus Crucified, 
 and the Sunday following it, they term the 
 Pasch of Jesus Resurrected. In the office 
 of Good Friday, everything inspires com- 
 punction, and all the ceremonies and 
 prayers tend to penetrate the soul with the 
 most profound and salutary affliction. 
 The bells are silent on this mournful day, 
 the candles are extinguished, the altars 
 are stripped of their ornaments ; over the 
 main altar a simple cloth only is extended 
 to symbolize the winding sheet which 
 covered the dead body of the Saviour. At 
 the commencement of the office the cele- 
 brant and his assistants prostrate them- 
 selves upon the floor, testifying by this 
 20 
 
 posture the bitterness in which the heart 
 is plunged at the thought of the ignomini- 
 ous death which Christ suffered in order to 
 take away from us the yoke of the devil. 
 On Good Friday the holy sacrifice of the 
 Mass is not celebrated. Although it is a 
 real living representation and continuation 
 of the Sacrifice on the Cross, it can inspire 
 us only with joy and fill us with consola- 
 tion ; but these sentiments are incompatible 
 with the mourning of the Church on ac- 
 count of the death of Jesus Christ. 
 Nevertheless the order and many cere- 
 monies of the Mass are preserved therein; 
 it is called the Mass of the Presanctified. 
 This Mass was formerly observed on fast 
 days by the Eastern Churches, during 
 which the priest and faithful communi- 
 cated by receiving the hosts which were 
 consecrated the preceding day. The office 
 of Good Friday commences with two les- 
 sons taken from Holy Scripture, which 
 are followed by the reading or chanting of 
 the Passion, according to St. John. After 
 this the celebrant offers solemn prayers 
 for all the states and conditions of life, for 
 the just as well as for the unjust, and 
 even for heretics, schismatics, Jews, and 
 pagans, because Jesus Christ died for all 
 men, and wishes all men to be saved. The 
 foregoing solemn prayers are followed by 
 the adoration of the Cross. The Cross, 
 covered with a veil, to signify that the 
 mystery of the Cross had been hidden for 
 a long time, is now solemnly uncovered. 
 After having uncovered the Cross, the 
 celebrant raises it and shows it to the peo- 
 ple, with these words: ^' Ecce lignum 
 cruets'''' (behold the -wood of the cross); the 
 deacon and subdeacon sing with him : " /« 
 quo salus mundi pependif'' {upon -which has 
 rested the salvation of the -world), to which 
 the choir replies: '■'■Venite adoremus," 
 {Come let us adore). Then the cele- 
 brant and ministers having taken off their 
 vestments, prostrate themselves three 
 times and adore the Cross. The people 
 likewise do the same. After this the cele- 
 brant goes in procession, without singing, 
 to the Repository to take to the altar the 
 sacred Host which had lain in the Reposi- 
 tory from the preceding day. Arriving at 
 the main altar, the priest proceeds with 
 the Mass of the Presanctified, so called, 
 because he consumes the sacred Host 
 which had been consecrated the preceding 
 day. According to the present discipline 
 of the Church, neither clergy nor people 
 may communicate on Good Friday; an 
 
Fridolin 
 
 306 
 
 Gabriel 
 
 exception to this rule is made in favor of 
 those in danger of death. See Holy 
 Wekk. 
 
 Fridolin (St.). — The first apostle of the 
 Alemanni; was a native of Ireland or 
 Scotland. Labored as a missionary in 
 Gaul, where he restored the congregation 
 of St. Hilary at Poitiers, which had been 
 corrupted by Arianism, and in Germany, 
 where he founded a monastery at Seck- 
 ingen, an island in the Rhine, near Basel. 
 St. Fridolin lived in the sixth century. F. 
 March 6th. 
 
 Friends. See Quakers. 
 
 Frisians {Conversion of the). — See 
 WlLLIBRORD (St.). 
 
 Frumentius and Aedesius. See Abys- 
 sinia. 
 
 Fulbertof Chartres (950-1028). — French 
 prelate, born in the province of Poitou. 
 He founded a famous school at Chartres, 
 and was elected bishop of that place in 
 1007. One of the most learned men of his 
 century ; his virtue was at the height of his 
 science ; the kiygs of France and England 
 had recourse to his counsels. He built 
 the actual cathedral of Chartres. His let- 
 ters are of great interest and are found in 
 in Migne, Pat. Lat. CXH. 
 
 Fulgentius (St.). — Bishop of Ruspe, 
 was born in 467 or 468, at Telepte, a town 
 in North Africa, and carefully educated 
 by his widowed mother Mariana. His no- 
 ble character, as well as his knowledge 
 
 and administrative talent earned for him, 
 though still young, the high position of 
 procurator of his native city. A change 
 came over him after reading St. Augus- 
 tine's exposition of the 36th Psalm. He 
 now resolved to renounce his vast posses- 
 sions, and, in spite of his mother's tears, 
 retired to a monastery to lead an ascetic 
 life. Being driven away from his monas- 
 tery by the Arians, at whose hands he suf- 
 fered inhuman treatment, he wandered 
 about foreign countries, but in 500 re- 
 turned once more to his native city, where 
 he built a new monastery, entered the 
 priesthood, and soon after, in 508, in spite 
 of his reluctance, was consecrated Bishop 
 of Ruspe. This step involved direct op- 
 position to King Thrasamund, who had 
 prohibited any further appointments to 
 the Catholic bishoprics, and in conse- 
 quence, Fulgentius and sixty other bishops 
 were banished to Sardinia, where he 
 founded a monastery under the rule of St. 
 Augustine. Twelve years later Thrasa- 
 mund recalled him to Carthage, but exiled 
 him once more in 520, at the instigation of 
 the Arian bishops. The death of Thrasa- 
 mund and the accession to the throne of 
 Hilderic opened the way for the return of 
 the banished bishops to their sees. Amidst 
 the joyful acclamations of the people, Ful- 
 gentius re-entered his episcopal city, and 
 from that time forward lived peacefully, 
 devoting himself with fidelity and zeal to 
 the welfare of his flock. He died in 533. 
 His writings, whose style is clear and con- 
 cise, consists of treaties, letters, and ser- 
 mons. 
 
 G 
 
 Gabaa. — Ancient Levitical town of Pal- 
 estine in the tribe of Benjamin, six miles 
 north of Jerusalem. Country of Saul ; de- 
 stroyed during the war with the Benja- 
 mites, to revenge the Levite Ephraim. In 
 its neighborhood, David defeated the Phi- 
 listines. Gabaa is identified with the 
 modern Gib. 
 
 Gabaon. — In the old Testament, six 
 miles northwest of Jerusalem. The Gaba- 
 onites succeeded by stratagem in making a 
 treaty with the Israelites under Josue. The 
 latter defeated them, together with five 
 Chanaanite princes, who came to besiege 
 
 them three days afterwards. It was in this 
 battle, that Josue commanded the sun to 
 stand still in order to extend the daylight 
 on the combat (Jos. ix.). 
 
 Gabbatha signifies an elevated place, and 
 was the name of a place in Pilate's palace, 
 whence he pronounced sentence against 
 our Saviour. In Greek it is called the 
 pavement. It was properly a tribunal with 
 a checkered marble pavement, or a pave- 
 ment of mosaic work. 
 
 Gabriel. — Archangel sent to the Prophet 
 Daniel to explain his visions and to com- 
 municate to him the prophecy of the sev- 
 
Gabrielites 
 
 307 
 
 Galileo 
 
 enty weeks. Also to Zacharias, to announce 
 to him the future birth of John the Baptist ; 
 six months afterwards, he was sent to Naza- 
 reth to announce to the Blessed Virgin 
 Mary the birth of Jesus Christ. 
 
 Gabrielites. — Members of a sect of Ana- 
 baptists founded in Pomerania in 1530 by 
 one Gabriel Scherling. They refused to 
 bear arms and to take oaths, and preached 
 perfect social and religious equality. 
 
 Gad. — I. A son of the Patriarch Jacob, 
 by Zelpha, servantmaid of Lia. 2. One 
 of the twelve tribes of Israel, occupying 
 the region east of the Jordan, north of 
 Ruben and south of Manasse. 3. A He- 
 brew prophet and chronicler at the court 
 of David. 
 
 Gadara. — In the Old Testament, a city 
 of the Decapolis in Syria, situated about 
 seven miles southeast of the Sea of Galilee, 
 probably the capital of Peraea : the modern 
 village of Um Keis. It was rebuilt by 
 Pompey. Here are remains of a large 
 Roman theatre, not excavated in a hill, but 
 entirely built up of masonry on vaulted 
 substructions and in good preservation ; 
 there is a smaller theatre on the same site. 
 
 Gage (Thomas) (1597-1655). — Irish 
 apostate; was born in Limerick, Ireland; 
 died in Kingston, Jamaica. He was edu- 
 cated for the priesthood in the Order of 
 the Dominicans in Spain. He went to 
 Mexico with a party of friars, and was 
 placed in charge of a wealthy parish, where 
 he devoted himself to getting riches rather 
 than to his ministry. When he had accumu- 
 lated a large fortune, he deserted his 
 people, and after a roundabout journey 
 through Central America, sailed from 
 Costa Rica for England. There he re- 
 nounced Catholicity and wrote an account 
 of his adventures in Mexico and a descrip- 
 tion of the Spanish possessions, under the 
 title English- American Description of the 
 West Indies (1648). 
 
 Gajus. See Cajus. 
 
 Galaad or Mount Galaad. — In biblical 
 geography, a part of Palestine, east of the 
 Jordan, lying between the Hieromax on 
 the north, and the Arnon on the south. In 
 an extended sense, it included Basan. Its 
 chief cities were: Jabes-Galaad and Ramoth- 
 Galaad. 
 
 Galatia. — In ancient geography, a divi- 
 sion of Asia Minor lying between Bithynia 
 
 and Paphlagonia on the north, Pontus on 
 the east, Cappadocia and Lycaonia on the 
 south, and Phrygia on the west : formerly 
 a part of Phrygia. It was conquered and 
 settled by a confederation of Gallic tribes 
 in the third century b. c, and was made a 
 Roman province in 25 b. c. Theodosius sub- 
 divided it into Galatia Prima and Galatia 
 Secunda. The Epistle to the Galatians, 
 which was addressed to them from Ephesus 
 by St. Paul, about the year 55, combats 
 the pretension of Judeo-Christians who 
 wished to add to Christianity circumci- 
 sion, and the ceremonies of the Mosaic 
 Law. 
 
 Galileans. — i . Name which was given to 
 the first Christians, because Christ and 
 His parents came from Galilee. 2. Name 
 of Jewish sectarians who, under the leader- 
 ship of Judas of Galilee, arose against the 
 Romans on account of a general census 
 prescribed by Augustus in order to im- 
 pose a tax upon all his subjects of the em- 
 pire. 
 
 Galilee, in the Roman period, was the 
 most northern division of Palestine. It 
 was bounded by Phoenicia and Cceie-Syria 
 on the north, the Jordan valley on the east, 
 Samaria on the south, and the Mediter- 
 ranean and Phoenicia on the west. It com- 
 prised Upper Galilee (in the north) and 
 Lower Galilee (in the south), and corre- 
 sponded to the ancient territories of Aser, 
 Nephtali, Zabulon, and part of Issachar. 
 It now belongs to Turkey. 
 
 Galileo {Galilei) (1564-1642). — Italian 
 astronomer, mathematician, and scientist. 
 It was during the Pontificate of Urban 
 VIII. that the memorable and often falsely 
 described trial of Galileo occurred, in the 
 courts of the Inquisition. The enemies of 
 the Church, forget only too often, that the 
 system advocated by Galileo had been ad- 
 vanced, without censure, by the learned 
 Cardinal of Cusa nearly two hundred years 
 before; that it had been expressly main- 
 tained, with the encouragement of the Ro- 
 man Pontiffs, by Copernicus, fully ninety 
 years before the Congregation of the In- 
 dex pronounced sentence against the Flor- 
 entine astronomer. They forgot too, that 
 Protestants were the first who vigorously 
 opposed the Copernican system on the 
 ground of Scripture. *' Even such a great 
 man as Bacon," says Macaulay, "rejected 
 with sJorn, the theory of Galileo." 
 "Had," says Kenrick, "Galileo confined 
 
Gall 
 
 308 
 
 Gallitzin 
 
 himself, as he was repeatedly warned, to 
 scientific demonstrations, without med- 
 dling with Scripture, and proposed his 
 system as probable, rather than as indubi- 
 table, he would have excited no opposi- 
 tion." It is rather unfair and ridiculous 
 to call the Church an enemy of science 
 because she forbids writers to adduce the 
 Scripture in support of their views. No 
 corporal punishment was inflicted in the 
 case of Galileo ; and no dungeon was 
 opened to receive him. On the contrary, 
 his disobedience and contempt were vis- 
 ited only with a slight penance — to say 
 once a week, for three years, the seven 
 penitential psalms — and he was put under 
 some restraint — not in a prison — first 
 with the Archbishop of Siena, his per- 
 sonal friend, and afterwards in his own 
 villa, near Florence. The decree of the 
 Index against Galileo proves nothing 
 against Papal Infallibility. In the case of 
 Galileo, the Holy See condemned as heret- 
 ical and opposed to Scripture, an astro- 
 nomical doctrine which is now universally 
 accepted. On this much debated question, 
 it may safely be said, that no man can 
 prove that the note of heresy was attached 
 by the Pope himself to the physical doc- 
 trine. The proof of this would require it 
 to be shown that the Pope acted person- 
 ally, for the gift of Infallibility cannot be 
 delegated to any other person; that he 
 acted with the intention of exercising his 
 supreme apostolic authority to teach the 
 Church ; and, lastly and most especially, 
 that the purpose of the decree was to con- 
 demn the doctrine and not merely to pro- 
 hibit the books containing it. A doctrinal 
 utterance is not proved to be ex-cathedra 
 by its occurrence among the motives for a 
 disciplinary decree; and this appears to 
 have been the case with the decree against 
 Galileo, which therefore does not conflict 
 with our doctrine. The action of the 
 Holy See on this matter may be defended 
 on higher ground than what is here taken ; 
 but what has been said suffices to show 
 that nothing was done in the case that is 
 inconsistent with the doctrine of Papal 
 Infallibility. 
 
 Gall (St.).— Disciple of St. Columban, 
 Native of Ireland ; was the chief assistant 
 of St. Columban in his missionary labors; 
 well educated and eloquent, and able to 
 preach in the German as well as in the 
 Latin language. He laid the foundations 
 of the celebrated Monastery of St. Gall, in 
 
 Switzerland. Refused the Bishopric of 
 Constance, which the Duke Gunzo pressed 
 upon his acceptance. He also refused the 
 prayer of a deputation of Irish monks from 
 Luxeuil, who, in the year 625, on the death 
 of Eustace, requested him to become abbot 
 of that great monastery; because, as he 
 said, he was a stranger to them, and if he 
 accepted their offer, he should be obliged 
 to forsake the Alemanni, who were as yet 
 pagans, or only partially converted. He 
 continued to preach the Gospel to the in- 
 habitants of the country about the monas- 
 tery of St. Gall, and at the time of his 
 death, which occurred at Arbon, Oct. 
 i6th, 646, when he was in the ninety-fifth 
 year of his age, the entire country of the 
 Alemanni had become a Christian prov- 
 ince. F. Oct. i6th. 
 
 Gallandius (Andrew) (1709-1779). — 
 Theologian and oratorian; born at Venice. 
 He is justly famed for his Bibliotheca ve- 
 terum Patrum antiquorumque scriptortim 
 ecclesiasticorum (Venice, 1765-81, 14 vols, 
 fol.), noted for the accuracy of its texts 
 and the excellence of its dissertations. 
 
 Gallicanism. — One of the various forms 
 of opposition to the Papacy was Gallican- 
 ism, which restricted the authority of the 
 Holy See and infringed upon the rights of 
 the Church. The so called Galilean Lib- 
 erties authorized the king to convene 
 French synods and confirm their decrees 
 as well as to enforce the decrees of the 
 Council of Constance which declared the 
 superiority of the Council to the Pope ; 
 they affirmed that the use of the apostolic 
 power is to be restricted by the canons ; 
 that, in matters of faith, the supreme Pon- 
 tiff has the chief part to perform, but that 
 his judgment is not irreversible ('• irre- 
 formabile") unless the Church has formally 
 ratified it by her consent. To further his 
 arbitrary rule, Louis XIV. (1643-1715) 
 made use of these anti-ecclesiastical ten- 
 dencies in his controversy with the Pope 
 and would have precipitated a schism, 
 had not Bossuet opportunely intervened. 
 The latter drew up the celebrated Dec- 
 laration of the French clergy in the Four 
 Articles, which in after years. Napoleon I. 
 endeavored to enforce by law and which 
 were finally condemned by the Ecumenical 
 Council of the Vatican (1870). 
 
 Gallican Liberties. See Gallicanism. 
 
 Gallitzin (Dkmetrius). — Son of Prince 
 Demetrius Gallitzin, was born at The 
 
Gamala 
 
 309 
 
 Garnet 
 
 Hague Dec. 22d, 1770; died at Loretto, 
 Pennsylvania, May 6th, 1840. At the age 
 of tvventy-two years, he came to America 
 in order to instruct himself in his travels 
 and to prepare himself to fulfill a brilliant 
 charge in the world. Providence awaited 
 him here to embrace quite a different career. 
 He became a Catholic and resolved to em- 
 brace the ecclesiastical state. He was ad- 
 mitted into the Seminary of Baltimore and 
 ordained priest March loth, 1793. He was 
 sent to exercise the sacred ministry to Con- 
 ewago, from whence he visited a large dis- 
 trict, and here he fixed his residence in 
 1799. At first there was in this place only 
 a small number of Catholic families, but 
 soon a number of congregations arose. 
 The Abbe prince of Gallitzin devoted him- 
 self entirely to his flock. His charity, the 
 simplicity of his zeal, his perseverance 
 among great privations, gained for him the 
 people's esteem and confidence. From 
 Conewago, where there were many Ger- 
 mans, he went to exercise his ministry at 
 Taney Town. He left this place with a 
 great number of his parishioners to form a 
 settlement at Fort Cumberland, in another 
 county. He became their adviser and 
 guide for both their spiritual and temporal 
 welfare, built a church and provided for 
 the needs of his flock. A pension which 
 he received from his family served to assist 
 his colonists. Amidst these apostolic la- 
 bors and after having even published some 
 writings of controversy, he died near Lo- 
 retto, Pennsylvania. 
 
 Gamala. — A city in Galilee, opposite 
 Tiberias, on the eastern shore of the Sea of 
 Galilee. It stood on a hill which was com- 
 pared to the back of a camel, from which 
 possibly its name is derived (Hebr. gamal 
 camel). It was fortified and formed one of 
 the centers of insurrection during the war 
 of Judea with Rome. It is identified with 
 the modern Qual'at el-Hocn. 
 
 Gamaliel. — There are several Gamaliels 
 mentioned in the Talmud as descendants 
 of Hillel, who held the dignity as president 
 of the Sanhedrin and of patriarch (nasi) of 
 the Jewish community in Palestine after 
 the fall of Jerusalem. Gamaliel " the 
 elder" was the grandson of Hillel. It is 
 believed that he was a secret disciple of 
 Jesus Christ. The laws emanating from 
 him breathe a mild and liberal spirit. He 
 dissuaded the Jews from taking strict 
 measures against the Apostles (Acts v. 34), 
 and is described as '* a doctor of the law, 
 
 respected by all the people." He was a 
 teacher of the apostle St. Paul. Another 
 Gamaliel, grandson of the preceding, presi- 
 dent of the Sanhedrin (80-180 a. d.), was 
 the first to assume the title of patriarch. 
 
 Gardiner (Stephen ). — An English 
 prelate and statesman. Born between 1483 
 and 1495, Gardiner became secretary of 
 state under Henry VIII. In 1531, he was 
 appointed Bishop of Winchester. In the 
 case of Henry VIII. 's disastrous divorce 
 from Queen Catharine, he warmly espoused 
 his master's cause, and acted a prominent 
 part, both as ambassador to the Holy See, 
 and as the king's advocate in the legatine 
 court before- Cardinals Wolsey and Com- 
 peggio. He also accepted the royal 
 supremacy, which he defended in his well- 
 known treatise : On True Obedience. But 
 on becoming fully aware of the evil he had 
 so greatly aided, he devoted his whole 
 energies to make atonement for his error. 
 He offered the most determined resistance 
 to Cranmer's innovations, for which he 
 was deprived of his see and held in close 
 confinement during the reign of Edward 
 VI. In his memorable sermon, which he 
 preached at St. Paul's Cross in the presence 
 of King Philip and the notables of the 
 realm, he lamented his former conduct, 
 and exhorted all who had fallen with him, 
 to return with him to the " one fold" of 
 the "one shepherd." His death, which 
 occurred in November, 1555, was a subject 
 of deep regret to Queen Mary, who lost in 
 him her most faithful minister. 
 
 Garizim. — In Scriptural geography, a 
 mountain of Samaria, Palestine, 2,848 feet 
 high, situated opposite Mount Hebal, 27 
 miles north of Jerusalem. The modern 
 Naplouse. The Samaritans erected on its 
 summit a temple, to oppose that of Jeru- 
 salem. Still to-day the inhabitants of Na- 
 plouse come, three times a year, to cele- 
 brate upon Garizim the feasts of the Pasch, 
 Pentecost and Tabernacles. It is believed 
 that the ruins on its summit are those of a 
 church founded by the Emperor Zeno, and 
 which Justinian had surrounded with a 
 strong wall. M. de Saulcy considers them 
 the ruins of the ancient Samaritan tem- 
 ple, founded by Sanaballat, under the reign 
 of Alexander the Great, and dedicated later 
 on, under Antiochus Epiphanes, to the 
 Hellenic Jupiter. 
 
 Garnet (Henry) (1555-1606). — Jesuit, 
 born at Nottingham, professor of mathe- 
 
Gaza 
 
 310 
 
 Gennadius 
 
 matics and of Hebrew. Provincial of his 
 society in England. Wrongfully accused 
 of having knowledge of the Gunpo-wder 
 Plot, he was hung and quartered. 
 
 Gaza. — A town and important trading 
 place in Syria, situated near the Mediter- 
 ranean. It was one of the five cities of the 
 Philistines. It was taken by Josue and 
 given to the tribe of Juda. An episcopal 
 see was established quite early at Gaza, and 
 Philemon passes for having been its first 
 bishop. 
 
 Gedeon. — A celebrated judge and leader 
 of Israel, who obtained a miraculous vic- 
 tory over the Madianites and freed his 
 nation from their yoke. His history is 
 contained in Judges (vi.-viii.). 
 
 Gehenna. — The valley of Hinnom, or of 
 the children of Hinnom, situated south of 
 Jerusalem ; also, called Hill of the Tombs, 
 of the Field of Blood, or of Evil Counsel. 
 The name of the valley occurs first in the 
 description of the boundaries of Juda and 
 Benjamin (Jos. xviii. 16). In the times of 
 Achaz and Manasses children were offered 
 here to Moloch, in consequence of which 
 the valley was called Topheth (abomina- 
 tion) and was polluted by Josias (IV. Ki. 
 xxiii. 10). In later times it became the 
 prototype of the place of punishment, and 
 was considered as the mouth of hell. In 
 this sense it is used in the Talmud and in 
 the New Testament. 
 
 Gehon. — One of the four rivers in Eden 
 (Gen. ii), variously identified with the 
 Oxus, Araxes, an arm of the Euphrates, 
 Tigris system, etc. 
 
 Gelasius (name of two Popes). — Gela- 
 sius I. Pope from 492 to 496. Was a man 
 of rare piety and great experience. He 
 held a Council of seventy bishops at Rome 
 in 496 which determined : i. The Canon 
 of the Sacred Scriptures of both the Old 
 and New Testaments. 2. The number of 
 Ecumenical Councils, which was set at 
 four — Nice, Ephesus, Constantinople, and 
 Chalcedon; and 3. A list of the Fathers 
 and their books which could be lawfully 
 read, as also a catalogue of forbidden and 
 apocryphal books. To abolish the lasciv- 
 ious feast of the Lupercalia, Gelasius in- 
 troduced in its stead the festival of the 
 Purification. He also revised the Canon 
 of the Mass and enjoined communion un- 
 der both kinds in opposition to the Manic- 
 heans, who condemned the use of wine in 
 
 the holy sacrifice. The Sacramentary 
 which bears his name is by some ascribed 
 to Leo I. the Great. — Gelasius II. Pope 
 from II 18 to 1 1 19. He had to combat 
 against an antipope, set up by Henry V. — 
 the excommunicated Archbishop of Bur- 
 dinus of Braga, as Gregory VIII. Gelasius 
 excommunicated both the emperor and 
 his antipope. Being unable to maintain 
 himself in Rome, he sought refuge in 
 France, where, after holding a synod at 
 Vienne, he died in the monastery of Clu- 
 ney. 
 
 Gelboe. — A mountain range in the ter- 
 ritory of Issachar, 1,717 feet high, which 
 bounds the lower plain of Galilee on the 
 east, running from southeast to northwest. 
 Here Saul and his three sons fell in a bat- 
 tle against the Philistines. The present 
 name of the mountain is Jebel Faku'a, but 
 its old name survives in the village Jelbon, 
 on the southern part of the range. 
 
 General. — In the Catholic Church, the 
 supreme head, under the Pope, of the ag- 
 gregated communities throughout Chris- 
 tendom belonging to a religious order. 
 
 Generatianism. — Opinion according to 
 which the soul transmits itself through 
 generation. Tertullian, admitting the ma- 
 teriality of the soul, was the first who 
 exposed this idea, which has been com- 
 bated by all the Fathers of the Church. 
 See Crkationism. 
 
 Genesareth ( Sea of, also called Lahe or 
 Sea of Tiberias). — A lake in Palestine, 
 traversed by the Jordan ; the modern Bahr 
 Tabariyeh. Its length is about 13 miles; 
 its greatest breadth 6% miles ; its surface 
 680 feet below that of the Mediterranean. 
 Its shores were thickly peopled in the 
 time of Christ, and are associated with 
 many events in the New Testament his- 
 tory. 
 
 Genesis. — The opening book of the 
 Pentateuch, derives its Greek name from 
 the subject of which it treats. This is the 
 creation {Genesis) of the world, and with 
 it the history of man till the death of 
 Joseph in Egypt. Into this narrative, ex- 
 tending over a period of 2,369 years, is 
 woven an account of all that God did to 
 keep alive in the hearts of men the reve- 
 lation He communicated to Adam and the 
 patriarchs. 
 
 Gennadius. — Priest of Marseilles, eccle- 
 siastical writer about the end of the fifth 
 
Gennadius 
 
 311 
 
 Germany 
 
 century. He seemed to have favored Semi- 
 Pellagianism. 
 
 Gennadius (George Scholarius). — 
 Patriarch of Constantinople, born in that 
 city about 1400; died in 1464. First judge 
 of the palace and secretary of John VII. 
 He accompanied this emperor to the 
 Councils of Ferrara and Florence (1439), 
 where they occupied themselves with the 
 reunion ot the Greek and Roman Churches; 
 was in turn adherent and adversary of a 
 reconciliation, became patriarch after the 
 taking of Constantinople by Mohammed 
 II. (1453) and resigned in 1458. 
 
 Gentiles. — This name is derived from 
 the Hebrew Goim, which signifies the na- 
 tions that have received neither the faith 
 nor the law of the Lord. Thus the Jews 
 understood by Gentiles all those who were 
 not of their religion. In St. Paul, ordi- 
 narily, the Gentiles are comprised under 
 the name of Greeks ; yudceus et Grcecus 
 mark the Jews and the Gentiles. St. Luke, 
 in the Acts, expresses himself in the same 
 manner. 
 
 Gentilis ( Valentine ) ( 1520 -1566 ) . — 
 Heretic, born at Cosenza, Italy; died at 
 Bern, Switzerland. Disciple of Socinus, 
 expelled from his country, he led a vaga- 
 bond life. After having with difficulty 
 escaped the fiery death, destined for him 
 by the Geneva Reformers, Gentilis was 
 beheaded as an Antitrinitarian at Bern. 
 
 Genuflectentes. — In the early Church a 
 class of Catechumens who were allowed to 
 remain and join in prayers offered es- 
 pecially for them after the audiences were 
 dismissed by the priest or bishop. 
 
 Genuflection. — Act of religious worship, 
 which consists in bending the knee or 
 knees. The custom of kneeling in prayer 
 is very ancient among the Christians. 
 They always prayed kneeling, except on 
 Sunday and the time from Easter until 
 Pentecost, they prayed erect, in order to 
 honor the resurrection of our Saviour. 
 
 George ( St. ) ( 280-303 ) . — Born at 
 Diospolis or Lydda of Palestine. Tribune 
 in the guard of Diocletian, he suffered 
 martyrdom at Nicomedia. His veneration 
 is much spread in the Orient and in 
 Russia. The saint is generally repre- 
 sented, clad in armor, and riding a white 
 horse, charging the dragon (the devil) and 
 transfixing him with his spear as he turns 
 to flee. F. April 23d. 
 
 Gerah. — A Jewish coin worth about two 
 
 cents. 
 
 Gerara. — An ancient town or place of 
 the Philistines in the time of Abraham 
 and Isaac. It lay not far from Gaza, in 
 the south of Juda ; but is not mentioned in 
 later history (Gen. xx. i ; xxvi. i, 6, 17). 
 
 Gerard {SegarelU). See Apostolians. 
 
 Gerasa. — A city of Decapolis, Palestine, 
 26 miles northeast of Jerusalem. It con- 
 tains many antiquities, and is identified 
 with the modern Djersash. 
 
 Gerbert. See Sylvester II. 
 
 German Catholics. — Sectarians in Ger- 
 many, about the beginning of the present 
 century, who were founded by John 
 Ronge, an apostate priest. Nothwith- 
 standing the thorough Protestant and radi- 
 cal principles they professed, they called 
 themselves the "German Catholics," also 
 the "Christian Catholic and Apostolic 
 Church." Ronge, who was hailed by the 
 Liberal and Protestant factions of Ger- 
 many as another Luther, rejected all but 
 two sacraments. The remnant of this sect, 
 which was largely composed of Protes- 
 tants, subsequently joined the national 
 Protestant Church of Germany. Ronge 
 died impenitent in 1887. 
 
 Germanus. — Patriarch of Constantino- 
 ple (715). Deposed (730) on account of 
 his resistance to the iconoclastic measui-es 
 of the Emperor Leo. Died in 740. 
 
 Germanus (St.). — Born at Autun in 406. 
 Bishop of Paris in 555. A staunch de- 
 fender of the Church against the Mero- 
 vingian despots. F. May 28th. 
 
 Germanus (St.) (380-448). — Governor 
 of Auxerre, his native city, under Hono- 
 rius. He became bishop in 418. Died at 
 Ravenna whither he had gone to ask Val- 
 entinian II. to forgive the Amoricans who 
 had rebelled against him. F. July 31st. 
 
 Germany {Christianity in). See Boni- 
 face (St.). 
 
 Germany ( Worship in). — The dominat- 
 ing religion in Germany is Protestantism 
 (62.5 per cent.). The Catholics form 36 
 per cent. In Southern Germany, the num- 
 ber of Catholics is double that of Protes- 
 tants ; in the North, on the contrary, the 
 proportion is 2^ Protestants to one Cath- 
 olic. The sect of Old Catholics which 
 
Gerson 
 
 312 
 
 Gibbons 
 
 they represented for a time as having the 
 importance of a new Church is of little 
 importance (less than 50,000). It is more 
 a political party than a religious sect. Ac- 
 cording to the statistics of 1875, the divi- 
 sion made by the State of the different 
 worships is as follows : — 
 
 Gessur. — A small district east of the 
 Jordan, and northeast of Basan, allotted to 
 Manasses. David married a daughter of 
 its king (II. Ki. iii. 3), and thither Ab- 
 salom fled after the murder of Amnon. 
 It is supposed to be a part of the rocky 
 region now known as El Lejah. 
 
 States 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Bavaria 
 
 Saxony 
 
 Wurtemberg ,. 
 
 Baden 
 
 Hesse 
 
 Mecklemburg-Schwerin 
 
 Oldenburg 
 
 Anhalt 
 
 Other States 
 
 Alsace-1-.orraine 
 
 Total 
 
 Protestants 
 
 16,712,700 
 
 1,392,120 
 
 2,674,905 
 
 1,296,650 
 
 517,861 
 
 602,850 
 
 548,741 
 
 245,054 
 
 208,238 
 
 2,234,375 
 
 285,329 
 
 26,718,823 
 
 62.5% 
 
 Catholics 
 
 8,625,840 
 
 3,573,142 
 
 73,349 
 
 567,578 
 
 958,916 
 
 251,172 
 
 2,258 
 
 71,743 
 
 3,473 
 
 39,675 
 
 1,204,981 
 
 15,372,127 
 
 36% 
 
 Other 
 Christians 
 
 59,400 
 4,889 
 
 6,541 
 4,167 
 
 3,842 
 
 3,889 
 
 909 
 
 91 
 4,968 
 3.198 
 
 91,894 
 
 0.2% 
 
 Jews 
 
 339,790 
 
 51,33s 
 
 5,. 360 
 
 12,881 
 
 26,492 
 
 25,652 
 
 2,786 
 
 1,578 
 
 1,763 
 
 22,650 
 
 39,002 
 
 529,289 
 
 1-2% 
 
 Others 
 
 4,674 
 904 
 
 431 
 
 229 
 
 60 
 
 655 
 
 30 
 
 8,942 
 19+ 
 
 16,119 
 
 0.1% 
 
 Gerson (Jkaj? Charlikr dk) (1363- 
 1429). — Born at Gerson, Ardennes; died 
 at Lyons. A noted theologian. He was 
 chancellor of the University of Paris, and 
 was prominent in the Councils of Pisa and 
 Constance, striving for the unity of the 
 Church and for ecclesiastical reforms. In 
 1419, he went to Lyons where he died. A 
 great number of critics attribute to him the 
 Imitation of Christ. 
 
 Gertrude (St.) (1264-1334).— Religious 
 of the Order of St. Benedict, born at Eisle- 
 ben. Saxony. Sister of St. Mechtilda. 
 She wrote, in Latin, a book entitled: 
 Revelations, in which she relates her com- 
 munications with God. 
 
 Gervase or Gervaise. — Bom about 1 150 ; 
 died early in the thirteenth century. An 
 English monk and chronicler ; he wrote a 
 history of the archbishopric of Canter- 
 bury to the accession of Hubert; a chroni- 
 cle of the reigns of Stephen, Henry II., 
 and Richard I. ; a Maffa Mundi, showing 
 the episcopal sees, monasteries, etc., in each 
 county of England, etc. 
 
 Gervasius and Protasius (Sts.). — Born 
 very probably at Ravenna. Were mar- 
 tyred under Nero. Twin sons of St. Vi- 
 talius, consular personage, and of St. 
 Valeria. 
 
 Geth. — City of ancient Palestine, in the 
 tribe of Dan, on the Mediterranean sea, 
 conquered by David. Country of Goliath. 
 
 Gethsemani (Hebr. oil press). — In New 
 Testament history, a garden or orchard, 
 east of Jerusalem, near the brook Cedron. 
 
 Ghost {Gifts of the Holy).— The Holy 
 Ghost is in a peculiar manner the Giver of 
 Grace, and the work of sanctificati^on of 
 men is appropriated to him. But besides 
 habitual grace, and the virtues, there are 
 certain supernatural habits, which are 
 called "Gifts of the Holy Ghost," and 
 which are given to man to dispose him to 
 receive influence from God, leading him 
 on to his salvation. These are commonly 
 reckoned as being the seven gifts enumer- 
 ated by Isaias (x. 2, 3) of which wisdom, 
 understanding, counsel, and knowledge be- 
 long the intellect, while fortitude, piety,and 
 the fear of God belong to the will of man. 
 
 Ghost {Holy). See Trinity. 
 
 Gibbons (James). — Born at Baltimore, 
 Maryland, July 23d, 1834. An American 
 Catholic prelate. He was ordained priest 
 at St. Mary's Seminary, Baltimore, in 1861, 
 became assistant priest at St. Patrick's 
 Church, Baltimore, Maryland. A few 
 months later he became pastor of St. 
 Bridget's Church, and then was transferred 
 
GlHON 
 
 313 
 
 Girdle 
 
 to the cathedral, and appointed chancellor 
 of the archdiocese. In 1868 he was made 
 vicar apostolic of North Carolina, with the 
 rank and title of bishop, and in 1872 was 
 assigned to the see of Richmond, Virginia. 
 In 1877 he became Archbishop of Baltimore 
 and cardinal in 1886, being the second 
 American to receive this dignity. He was 
 present at the Vatican Council (1870-71), 
 and presided as apostolic legate over the 
 Council of Baltimore (1884). He wrote 
 Faith of our Fathers (New York, 1874 — 
 enormous sale) ; Our Christian Heritage 
 (Baltimore, Maryland, 1889) ; The Ambas- 
 sador of Christ {Ibid. 1897). 
 
 Gihon. See Gehon. 
 
 Gilbert. — Bishop of Limerick in the 
 twelfth century. At the recommendation 
 of St. Anselm, he was appointed papal 
 legate for Ireland. With the consent of 
 Pope Paschal II., Gilbert, in mi, con- 
 vened a national synod at Aengus-Grove, 
 which was attended by Moelmurry, Arch- 
 bishop of Cashel, fifty bishops, three 
 hundred priests, and about three thousand 
 persons of the clerical and religious orders. 
 By this council, wise rules were framed 
 regulating the life and manners of the 
 clergy and people, and abolishing certain 
 abuses regarding matrimony. 
 
 Gilbert de la Poree ( 1070-r 154) . — Scho- 
 lastic theologian and philosopher, born 
 at Poitiers. Bishop of that city. Gilbert 
 was an extreme Realist, fell into the error 
 of Tritheism, asserting a real distinction 
 between the Divine Essence, or Being, and 
 God, and the three Divine Persons, whom 
 he considered as numerically distinct units. 
 This error was censured, at the instance of 
 St. Bernard, in a synod held at Rheims, in 
 1 148, at which Pope Eugenius III. was 
 present in person. Gilbert submitted to 
 the judgment of the Church, and was al- 
 lowed to return to his diocese. 
 
 Gilbertines. — Religious, so called from 
 their founder, St. Gilbert, parish priest of 
 Springham, England. They embraced 
 canons-regular and nuns, the former fol- 
 lowing the Rule of St. Augustine, the latter 
 that of St. Benedict. The order, which 
 spread rapidly through England, was ap- 
 proved by Pope Eugenius III. 
 
 Gilmour (Richard) (1824-1891). — 
 American prelate ; was born in Glasgow, 
 Scotland; died in Florida. His parents 
 were stanch Covenanters. When he was 
 
 only four years of age his parents emigrated 
 to Canada, and finally settled in Pennsyl- 
 vania. When young Gilmour was about 
 nineteen he, one Sunday, entered a Catholic 
 church some five miles from his home, and 
 was so struck by the sermon and by the 
 devotion of the people that he began to 
 read, and, corresponding to the grace of 
 God, became a Catholic. Entered Mount 
 St. Mary's Seminary, and was ordained 
 priest for the Diocese of Cincinnati, August 
 30th, 1852. He was first appointed to mis- 
 sions in southern Ohio, laboring for five 
 years to give every mission a church and a 
 school. No one took a more active part 
 toward advancing Catholic education. Be- 
 sides his labors in building schools, he 
 compiled School Recreations, a collection 
 of songs and hymns, a Bible History, and 
 a series of Readers. On the resignation of 
 Bishop Rappe, he was elected to the see of 
 Cleveland, and was consecrated on the 14th 
 of April, 1872. From his entrance into his 
 diocese, Bishop Gilmour advanced Catho- 
 lic interests with all the activity and energy 
 of his nature. Catholic education was 
 made paramount, and, to defend the inter- 
 ests and principles of the Church, he 
 founded The Catholic Universe. Died on 
 the 13th of April, 1891. 
 
 Gioberti ( Vincknzo ) ( 1802-1852 ) . — 
 Statesman, philosopher, and writer, born 
 at Turin. Received holy orders. Taught 
 theology at the University of Turin. Was 
 banished in 1833 on account of his repub- 
 lican opinions; called back in 1848, he be- 
 came minister of foreign affairs, then 
 ambassador to Paris. Catholic and Guelph, 
 he dreamed about uniting philosophy with 
 religion, and making Italy one State, of 
 which the Pope should be the head, and 
 the king of Sardinia the Pope's protector. 
 His dangerous writings (condemned by the 
 Index) have contributed a good deal to 
 the present deplorable situation of the 
 Holy See. 
 
 Girdle. — A cord passed around the 
 waist with which the priest or other cleric 
 binds his alb. In more modern times the 
 girdle has been generally made like a cord 
 with tassels at the end ; anciently, it was 
 flat; and, whilst it had the appearance, 
 was indiscriminately denominated by the 
 terms of belt or zone, as well as girdle. It 
 was formerly made of various colored silks, 
 not unfrequently interwoven with gold and 
 decorated with embroidery, and sometimes 
 studded with precious stones. In several 
 
Gloria in Excelsis 
 
 314 
 
 Gnosticism 
 
 passages of Holy Scripture mention is 
 made of the girdle (Is. xi. 5; Ephes. vi. 
 14; Luke xii. 35). The girdle, therefore, 
 is very appropriately made a portion of the 
 ceremonial attire belonging to the sanctu- 
 ary, and is eloquently emblematical of that 
 chastity and unsullied purity with which 
 both priest and people should anxiously 
 endeavor to array themselves before they 
 dare to pass the threshold of a temple 
 sacred to the Lord of spotless holiness. 
 The zone or girdle with which the priest 
 girds himself around the waist, over the 
 alb, is noticed in all the Greek and Oriental 
 liturgies. 
 
 Gloria in Excelsis (Latin words : "Glory 
 be to God in the highest"). — This has been 
 denominated the Angelic hymn, because it 
 commences with words chanted by angelic 
 voices in the midnight air, at the birth of 
 our Divine Redeemer, which was an- 
 nounced to the shepherds by an angel 
 zoned in light, with whom " there was a 
 multitude of the heavenly army, praising 
 God, and saying: "Glory be to God in 
 the highest, and on earth peace to men of 
 good will" (Luke x^-ii. 13). This canti- 
 cle, as the Fathers of the Fourth Council 
 of Toledo (633) observed, consists of the 
 strain sung by the multitude of the heav- 
 enly army, and of pious aspirations com- 
 posed by the pastors of the Church. The 
 Greeks call it the greater Doxology. Its 
 author is unknown, but it is found nearly, 
 though not quite, in its present form in 
 the Apostolic Constitutions. It was intro- 
 duced into the Mass by the Roman 
 Church, first of all on Christmas day, 
 when it was sung at the first Mass in 
 Greek, and at the second in Latin. After- 
 wards, the bishops said it on Sundays and 
 festivals, priests only on Easter Sunday; 
 this restricted use was maintained until 
 the tenth century. The " Gloria in Ex- 
 celcis " is now said in all Masses except 
 those of the Sunday in Advent and from 
 Septuagesima to Palm Sunday inclusive, 
 and of all the feriae not including the 
 Paschal time. It is not said in votive 
 Masses, except in those of the Angels, 
 and of the Blessed Virgin on Saturday. 
 Being a canticle of gladness, it is also 
 omitted in Masses for the dead. 
 
 Gloria Patri (Latin words : "Glory be to 
 the Father"). — The minor doxology, or 
 short hymn of Glory. The first part of it : 
 " Glory be to the Father, and to the Son, 
 and to the Holy Ghost," is presumed to 
 
 have been framed by the Apostles. The 
 second portion: " As it was in the begin- 
 ning, is now, and ever shall be, world 
 without end. Amen," is ascribed to the 
 Council of Nice (325), and was appended 
 by the Nicene Fathers as a contradiction 
 to the doctrines of Arius, who maintained 
 that the Son was not in the beginning, nor 
 equal to the Father. 
 
 Gnosticism (from gnosis, superior kno-wl- 
 edge). — The name Gnostics was given to 
 a variety of sects in the early days of the 
 Church, each claiming a superior knowl- 
 edge of Christianity and things divine. In 
 their attempt to reconcile Christian dogma 
 with human reason, the Gnostics blended 
 with the faith of Christ many obscure 
 and fantastic theories derived from pagan 
 philosophies and the various religious 
 systems of the Orient. Hence, Gnosti- 
 cism is viewed as a fusion of Christian ideas 
 with Hellenic philosophy, chiefly that of 
 Plato and Philo, and of Oriental theosophy. 
 Moehler traces its origin to an intense and 
 exaggerated Christian zeal, seeking some 
 practical solutions of the problem of sin 
 and evil. The underlying principles of all 
 Gnostic systems were " Dualism," or the 
 theory which accepts two original princi- 
 ples, the one good, the other evil; and the 
 " Emanation " theory, or development of 
 the two principles into a series of beings 
 of their nature and kind. The questions 
 which Gnosticism undertook to answer re- 
 garded the origin of the visible world, of 
 matter and evil ; the union of the spiritual 
 and material, or mind and matter; the re- 
 lations between Christianity, Judaism, and 
 paganism. The chief Gnostic ideas may 
 be summed up as follows : They taught 
 that eternal matter is the origin and seat 
 of evil, and necessarily antagonistic to 
 God; that a spirit, called Demiurge cre- 
 ated the world out of matter; the "yEon 
 Christ," who had no material body, re- 
 deemed man by communicating to him a 
 more perfect knowledge. These innova- 
 tors distorted passages of Holy Scripture 
 upon which they based their doctrines; 
 they also claimed to have received private 
 revelations. Gnosticism was a return to 
 paganism. In its practical bearings it re- 
 vealed a false asceticism. While some of 
 its followers were given to repulsive as- 
 ceticism, others practiced every manner of 
 debauchery. There existed more than 
 thirty systems of Gnosticism, chief amongst 
 them being those of Simon Magus, Valen- 
 
GOCH 
 
 315 
 
 Golden Bull 
 
 tinus, Saturninus, Basilides, Marcion, and 
 Carpocrates. St. John in his Gospel and St. 
 Irenaeus in his work against heresies, were 
 the principal adversaries of the Gnostics. 
 
 Goch ( John van ). — Heretic. A native 
 of the Netherlands of the fifteenth century. 
 He asserted that Christianity had been 
 adulterated by error, a defect which it was 
 his mission to correct. He rejected tra- 
 dition and religious vows, and was the first 
 to advance the erroneous doctrine of justi- 
 fication by faith alone. He died in 1475. 
 
 God ( name given to the Creator of 
 heaven and earth). — We know by the 
 Sacred Scriptures that God manifested 
 himself to Adam and Eve, to Moses and 
 the Prophets, as recounted, with other his- 
 torical proofs, in many books of the Old 
 Testament. These writings were not only 
 recognized as authentic by the Evangelists, 
 who continually quoted them, but by our 
 Lord Himself. His references are repeated 
 by the Apostles, and His birth, life, and 
 death were predicted therein. Faith in 
 God is inherent in humanity, springing 
 from nature and reason. It makes us feel 
 the necessity of believing that there must 
 be a Divinity, — who has formed the 
 heavens, the world, and all therein con- 
 tained; for the effect cannot exist without 
 the cause, and it is demonstrable that the 
 world has not always existed. The har- 
 mony, order, and wonders of nature, and 
 of the human race, refute any theory of 
 spontaneous generation, and proclaim the 
 existence of a primary and omnipotent 
 Being, who, as the necessary and inde- 
 pendent cause of all things, possesses in- 
 finite power and perfection, and is therefore 
 God. He, by His own might and Divinity, 
 is, and was, and ever will be, God through 
 all eternity, and from Him emanates all 
 that is good, and beautiful, and true. God 
 is a spirit, pure, immutable, and entirely 
 distinct from anything material, " and they 
 that adore Him, must adore Him in spirit 
 and in truth " (John iv. 24) . We have faith 
 in God through our own conscience, giving 
 us the moral sense to realize duty and 
 guilt, — to distinguish right from wrong, 
 and to acknowledge the just recompense 
 or chastisement our actions deserve. It is 
 a natural law, engraven in our hearts by 
 the hand of God, — coming as a whisper 
 from the soul, — leading mankind to admit 
 that there is a sensible difference between 
 vice and virtue, wrong and right. The 
 soul of man, spiritual and immortal as it 
 
 is, has the faculty of spiritual intelligence 
 as well as of feeling, elevating the whole 
 being above all other living creatures, 
 whose principle of life does not lift them 
 so high. And as we can conceive it, so do 
 we possess an unconquerable desire for 
 perpetual happiness, that we cannot find 
 in this transitory life, — a desire that 
 teaches us there is a God from whom 
 every blessing flows, and toward whom our 
 most holy aspirations tend. Faith in God 
 is manifest in all nations and in all ages, 
 for no country is without religion. " Cast 
 your eyes over the face of the earth, you 
 may there find cities without ramparts, 
 without education, without magistrature ; 
 people without fixed habitation, without 
 property, without money ; but you will 
 nowhere find a city where the knowledge of 
 God does not exist." (Plutarchus.) For 
 Attributes of God, see Trinity. 
 
 Godfrey of Bouillion. See Crusades. 
 
 Godparents are those persons who, ac- 
 cording to the practice of the Church, 
 assist at the solemn administration of 
 baptism to make profession of the Chris- 
 tian faith in the name of the baptized. 
 They are also called " sponsors," and are 
 in no way ministers of the sacrament. 
 They are mentioned by the Fathers under 
 the various names of sponsores, fideijus- 
 sores, susceptores, or offerentes. Concern- 
 ing these, St. Thomas observes that, just 
 as in carnal birth the nurse receives the 
 child and takes care of it, and later on a 
 teacher has charge of it, so in baptism, 
 which is a spiritual birth, the service of 
 similar persons are required for the newly 
 made Christian. See Baptism. 
 
 Goethe (John Wolfgang) (1749-1832). 
 — German poet, born at Frankfort-on-the 
 Main, died at Weimar. The writings of 
 Goethe, who labored to cultivate among 
 his contemporaries a taste for pagan liter- 
 ature and a love of the classic creations of 
 the Greek mind, contributed powerfully to 
 extinguish the spirit of reviving faith. 
 All the faculties of his splendid genius 
 were concentrated on the one task of put- 
 ting nature in the place of God. He de- 
 tested both religion and politics, because, 
 he said, their influence was fatal to art. 
 
 Gog. See Magog. 
 
 Golden BuU. — A Bull so called from the 
 gold case in which the seal attached to it 
 was inclosed. The imperial edict, known 
 
Golden Calf 
 
 316 
 
 Gospel 
 
 in German history under this title, was is- 
 sued by Emperor Charles IV., mainly for 
 the purpose of settling the law of imperial 
 elections. In Hungarian history, there is 
 a constitutional edict called by the same 
 name. 
 
 Golden Calf. — An image of a bullock 
 cast in gold by the Israelites at the foot of 
 Mount Sinai ; destroyed by Moses, but 
 similar ones were set up in later times by 
 King Jeroboam at Bethel and Dan, where 
 they became favorite objects of worship. 
 Calf worship was frequently rebuked by 
 Osee (viii. 5, 6; x. 5; xii. 2). 
 
 Golden Number for any year, is the 
 number of that year in the Metomic Cycle ; 
 and as this cycle embraces nineteen years, 
 the Golden Numbers range from one to 
 nineteen. Since the introduction of the 
 Gregorian calendar, the point from which 
 the Golden Numbers are reckoned is i B. 
 C, as in that year the new moon fell on 
 the first of January; and as by Melon's law 
 the new moon falls on the same day (first 
 of January) every nineteenth year from that 
 time, we obtain the following rule for 
 finding the Golden Number for any par- 
 ticular year : Add one to the number of 
 years and divide by nineteen ; the quo- 
 tient gives the number of cycles, and the 
 remainder gives the Golden Number for 
 that year; and if there be no remainder, 
 then nineteen is the Golden Number, and 
 tliat year is the last of the cycle. The 
 Golden Number is used for determining 
 the epact, and the time for holding Easter. 
 
 Golden Rose. — An ornament blessed by 
 the Pope every year on the fourth Sunday 
 of Lent, and sent occasionally to Catholic 
 sovereigns, celebrated Churches, great 
 generals, and illustrious Catholic cities 
 or republics. 
 
 Golgotha. — See Calvary. 
 
 Goliath. — In Biblical history a giant of 
 Gath, the champion of the Philistines, 
 slain in single combat by David (I. Kings 
 xvii). 
 
 Gomarists. — See Arminians. 
 
 Good Friday. — See Friday. 
 
 Gorden (George) (1751-1793)- — Bom 
 at London. An English agitator, third 
 duke of Gorden. He entered parliament 
 in 1774. In 1779 he became president of 
 the "Protestant Association," formed for 
 
 the purpose of securing the repeal oi the 
 Bill of Toleration, passed in 1778, remov- 
 ing the Catholic disabilities. In June, 
 1780, he headed a large and excited mob, 
 and dreadful riots ensued, in the course of 
 which many Catholic chapels and private 
 dwellings were destroyed. 
 
 Gortonians or Nothingarians. — Protes- 
 tant sect, the founder of which was a cer- 
 tain Samuel Gorton ; born at Gorton, 
 England, about 1600; died in Rhode Is- 
 land, 1677. He was for a time employed 
 by a linen draper of London, but in 1636 
 sought religious freedom in Boston, Massa- 
 chusetts. Becoming involved in disputes, 
 he removed to Plymouth ; was accused of 
 heresy and expelled from the colony ; went 
 with a few followers to Aquidneck (now 
 Newport), Rhode Island, and was there 
 publicly whipped for treating magistrates 
 with contempt. He then settled at Paw- 
 tuxet, Rhode Island, but again became 
 involved in disputes with the colonists, and 
 in 1642 removed to Shawomet (now War- 
 wick), Rhode Island, where he purchased 
 land of the Indians. His claim to the 
 property was contested ; he and his ten 
 followers were taken to Boston, tried as 
 heretics, and sentenced to imprisonment 
 and hard labor ; but the sentence was after- 
 wards commuted to banishment. Gorton 
 then went to England, procured an order 
 giving him possession of the lands of 
 Shawomet, returned there, and subse- 
 quently became -a preacher and magistrate 
 of much consideration. His sect survived 
 him for nearly one hundred years. They 
 were known as *'Gortonians," and termed 
 "Nothingarians," because they refused all 
 set forms in religious worship and had no 
 ministry. 
 
 Gospel. — The word gospel (Anglo- 
 Saxon, god, good, and spell, history, or 
 tidings) answers to the Greek word evan- 
 gelion, good tidings, whence comes the 
 Latin er'angelium, with the derived words 
 in use among us, as evangelist, evangelical, 
 etc. It properly signifies the good message 
 itself, and it is only by a secondary usage 
 that it is applied to the -n'ritten histories of 
 the Saviour's life, as being the embodiment 
 of this message. The titles prefixed to 
 these Gospels from the beginning: "The 
 Gospel according to St. Matthew," "The 
 Gospel according to St. Mark," etc., indi- 
 cate that the written record is not itself 
 the Gospel, but rather an account of the 
 Gospel according to these different writers. 
 
Gospel 
 
 317 
 
 Gospel 
 
 Christ Himself is the author of the Gospel. 
 It existed and was received by many thou- 
 sands before a line of it was put upon 
 record on the written page. 
 
 A first proof in favor of the authenticity 
 of the Gospels is furnished by the titles or 
 inscriprtions which they carry : Gospel ac- 
 cording to St. Matthew, according to St. 
 Mark, according to St. Luke, according to 
 St. John. Since the middle of the second 
 century, Tertullian, Irenseus, and Clement 
 of Alexandria, give them these titles, and 
 it is proven that this formula: according, 
 followed by the proper noun, serves for the 
 designation of the author, according to the 
 Greek custom. Besides, a whole series of 
 direct testimonies, going back to the most 
 remote antiquity, and comprising the apos- 
 tolic Fathers, attest to the same authen- 
 ticity. St. Ignatius, disciple of St. John, 
 declares Christ really present in the Gos- 
 pel ; he makes mention of the prophetic, 
 evangelic, and apostolic Scriptures; he 
 makes a comparison between the law of 
 Moses and the Gospels, etc. St. Polycarp, 
 another disciple of the well-beloved 
 Apostle, exhorts us not to judge others, if 
 we do not wish to be judged, to pardon, in 
 order to obtain pardon; he makes use of 
 the words of the Sermon on the Mount ; he 
 tells us to watch and to pray, to escape 
 temptation, and he borrows words from 
 the history of the Passion. Whence it fol- 
 lows, that if the authenticity of the authors 
 is established, the authenticity of the facts 
 and of the words is this by so much the 
 more. Tatian, a disciple of Justin, wrote 
 a Harmony of the Four Gospels. St. 
 Theophilus of Antioch, composed a Com- 
 mentary on the Four Gospels. St. Ire- 
 naeus, disciple of St. Polycarp, who was 
 a friend of St. John, names the authors 
 of the four Gospels and expresses him- 
 self at length on the composition of these 
 sacred books. Origen, who scrutinized, 
 read, criticised all that had relation to 
 the Gospels, the versions, and the manu- 
 scripts, explains their chronology, genesis, 
 and form. The first heretics and pagans 
 have acknowledged that our Gospels are 
 due to the authors whose name they carry. 
 Also the Gnostics, Valentinus, Basilides, 
 and Heracleon name the Evangelists, in 
 combating them. 
 
 Besides the four Gospels received unani- 
 mously by all the Churches, there ap- 
 peared a great number of others, which 
 never enjoyed a legal and canonical au- 
 thority. However, it is certain, because 
 
 they agree in their great outlines with the 
 evangelical accounts, that they confirm 
 and quite presuppose the four canonical 
 Gospels. The apocryphal gospels had the 
 following titles : gospels according to the 
 Hebrews; according to the Nazarenes; ac- 
 cording to the twelve Apostles ; according 
 to the Egyptians, which appears to have 
 been composed by the Christians living in 
 Egypt, before St. Luke had written his 
 own ; gospel of the birth of the Blessed 
 Virgin, in Greek and in Latin, attributed 
 to St. James the Less; gospel of the child- 
 hood of the Saviour, or of St. Thomas, 
 written in Arabic, etc. 
 
 St. Matthew, surnamed Levi, is the 
 author of the first Gospel, which, accord- 
 ing to Eusebius, he drew up for the Jews, 
 when, having preached for a long time in 
 Palestine, he was ready to go and an- 
 nounce the good news in other countries, 
 probably in Arabia. According to St. 
 Jerome, this Gospel was especially des- 
 tined for the Jews converted to Chris- 
 tianity. It was written in the vulgar 
 language of Palestine. The translator of 
 the Hebrew original is unknown. The 
 occasion of the Gospel of St. Mark, co- 
 laborer of St. Peter, was drawn up accord- 
 ing to the request which the Faithful made 
 to him in order to put down in writing the 
 teachings which the Apostle had given 
 them at Rome. Also, the account of the 
 Evangelist appears to be a summary. It 
 was written in Greek, and composed at 
 Rome for the Christians living in Rome. 
 St. Luke wrote the third Gospel and the 
 Acts of the Apostles. Determined through 
 other attempts of the same kind, he con- 
 ceived the idea of relating the history of 
 our Lord, with the view to give a worthy 
 warranty of faith to what had been ac- 
 complished by Jesus as well as by His 
 Apostles. With this intention, he col- 
 lected information from eyewitnesses, and 
 from the preachers of the Gospel them- 
 selves, and he reported what he learned from 
 the beginning to the day he wrote. The en- 
 tire work was probably completed between 
 the years 59 and 69, and in Rome he 
 finished it. The language is Greek. The 
 three first Gospels are called synoptics ; 
 they agree in the choice of facts which 
 they relate, but leave aside a vast field, 
 from which St. John could draw abun- 
 dantly, almost without touching the syn- 
 optic authorship. St. John wrote his 
 Gospel at Ephesus. He must have known 
 the other Gospels, which he completed. 
 
Gospel 
 
 318 
 
 Grace 
 
 but at the same time he was faithful to his 
 mission in combating the heresies which 
 multiplied around him. He describes the 
 public life of Jesus in Judea, principally at 
 Jerusalem during the festival period, whilst 
 the synoptics relate, with preference, what 
 took place in Galilee, by adding to their 
 account the history of the Passion. In 
 his accounts, the fourth Evangelist did not 
 loose sight of the end which he had in 
 view to present an abridgment of the 
 dogmas on the person of Christ. 
 
 Gospel {The) in Liturgy. — The reading 
 of a passage of the Gospel during Mass 
 certainly goes back to the first ages of 
 Christianity. The readers were charged 
 with this ; to-day the deacons do it. In the 
 time of Sozomenus, in certain Churches, 
 only the priest or the bishop made this sol- 
 emn reading to the people. The deacon 
 asks the blessing from the celebrant before 
 he sings the Gospel, and incenses the 
 Book. The Faithful trace the sign of the 
 cross on the forehead, mouth, and breast. 
 The celebrant kisses the Gospel after hav- 
 ing read it or after the deacon has sung it, 
 and in the latter case he is also incensed. 
 
 Goths. — The Goths, whose ancient 
 home seems to have been Scandinavia, 
 about the beginning of the third century, 
 settled on the shores of the Black sea and 
 in the vicinity of the Danube. They were 
 divided into Ostrogoths and Visigoths, or 
 Eastern and Western Goths. In the latter 
 half of the third century, they began to in- 
 vade the neighboring provinces, extending 
 their incursions over Illyria, Greece, 
 Thracia, and bejond the Hellespont into 
 Asia Minor. The Goths were the first of 
 the Germanic nations who received the 
 light of faith, probably from Christian 
 captives. A Gothic bishop, named Theo- 
 philus, attended the Council of Nice. St. 
 Cyril of Jerusalem, in 347, mentions the 
 Goths among the Christians who had 
 bishops, priests, monks, and holy virgins. 
 Driven from their new homes on the 
 Euxine by the Huns in 376, the Goths re- 
 ceived from Emperor Valens, ample terri- 
 tories in Thracia and Mcesia, where they 
 were induced, mainly by the efforts of 
 their bishop, Ulfilas, to become Arians. 
 They continued to remain Arians until 
 after their victory over Valens at Adriano- 
 ple, in 378. Most of them, however, were 
 Semi-Arians, as was also Ulfilas, who was 
 consecrated bishop of his nation at Con- 
 stantinople, between the years 341 and 
 
 348. Ulfilas rendered himself famous by 
 inventing the Gothic characters of the 
 alphabet, and by translating the Bible into 
 the Gothic language, the greater part of 
 this work being still extant. He died an 
 Arian, in 388. The Visigoths, under 
 Alaric, invaded Italy and sacked Rome in 
 410; but unable to maintain themselves in 
 Italy, they founded a new kingdom, which 
 subsequently extended over the greater 
 part of Gaul and Spain. With few excep- 
 tions, the Visigoths were tolerant of the 
 faith of others. 
 
 Gottschalk. See Lucidus. , 
 
 Grace. — Grace, in general, is a gift 
 which God grants to man through divine 
 beneficence, whether we consider it in 
 connection with this life or the life to 
 come. To merit this gift of God, man 
 can do nothing. The nature of grace, 
 which is the principle of justification, the 
 manner it operates on the soul, its relations 
 with free will are to us so many mysteries. 
 "It is so difficult," says St. Augustine, 
 "to discern the truth where there is ques- 
 tion of man's freedom and God's grace; 
 that, when we defend grace, it seems that 
 we deny free will." 
 
 As certain schools of theology were not 
 sufficiently careful in avoiding this obsta- 
 cle, they fell into grievous errors. For in- 
 stance, the Pelagians, the Semi-Pelagians, 
 and the Socinians, under pretext of de- 
 fending man's free will, denied the neces- 
 sity of grace; while the Predestinarians 
 of the fifth and ninth centuries, whose 
 errors were renewed in a more or less 
 complete manner by WycliflFe, Luther, 
 Calvin, Bajus, Jansenius, and Qiiesnel, in 
 wishing to exalt the operations and power 
 of grace, have denied man's liberty. In 
 order to avoid these two extremes, we must 
 follow in everything the teaching of the 
 Church, which is guided by Scripture and 
 tradition. 
 
 Grace comes to us from God only, but 
 since the fall of Adam, it is granted to 
 man only on account of the merits, actual 
 or foreseen, of Jesus Christ, who offered 
 Himself to God the Father as a victim of 
 propitiation for all mankind. 
 
 Habitual grace is distinguished from 
 actual grace. The first, also called sancti- 
 fying grace, is a quality which, residing 
 in our soul in a fixed and permanent man- 
 ner, purifies it from sin, renders it pleasing 
 to God, and worthy of the happiness of 
 heaven. This grace remains in the soul 
 
Grace 
 
 319 
 
 Grace 
 
 until it is lost by mortal sin. Actual grace 
 is both exterior and interior. Exterior 
 actual grace consists in the preaching of 
 the Gospel, in exhortations, counsels, and 
 examples which influence us for good. 
 Interior grace, in so far as it is actual, is 
 the act itself by which God interiorly en- 
 lightens our understanding and strengthens 
 our will in order to do good or avoid evil, 
 in view of our eternal salvation. This 
 grace is called grace of the understanding 
 or grace of the will, according as it en- 
 lightens our mind with a supernatural 
 light, or gives to our will the power to do 
 good. This same grace is also called pre- 
 venient, concomitant, or subsequent grace, 
 according to the manner in which it in- 
 fluences us to know the good and desire 
 it, or accompanies or assists us in order 
 that we may continue to wish for the good 
 and effect it. Finally, actual grace is di- 
 vided into sufficient and efficacious grace. 
 It is called sufficient grace because it gives 
 sufficient strength to perform the good or 
 avoid the evil, although the actual result 
 may not be forthcoming. Efficacious grace 
 is that which is followed by its effects, 
 that is, it effects what God requires from 
 us. Hence the difference between these 
 two forms of grace as to their effects, con- 
 sists in this, that one may resist the first, 
 while the second indicates non-resistance, 
 although it certainly can be resisted. 
 
 It is of faith that without interior grace 
 we can do absolutely nothing to effect our 
 salvation. Grace is absolutely necessary 
 for the beginning as for the fulfilling of our 
 salvation. Grace is also essentially gratui- 
 tous, otherwise it would be no grace. How- 
 ever, when we say grace is essentially 
 gratuitous, we do not mean to assert that 
 grace is never the reward for a proper use 
 of grace previously granted. Hence the 
 maxim that God does not refuse grace to 
 the one who does what he can, can only 
 signify that God does not refuse a second 
 grace to the one who has done all that was 
 required of him with the help of the first 
 grace. It is also of faith that all the ac- 
 tionswhich precede justification are not evil 
 actions. Not only are the good actions of 
 the sinner not criminal in the eyes of God, 
 not only can they be naturally good, but 
 can be good supernaturally. Faith, the 
 fear of divine justice, hope in the mercy of 
 God, abhorrence of sin, the desire of bap- 
 tism, are certainly dispositions of a super- 
 natural goodness, because they are the 
 effect of grace ; however, they precede sanc- 
 
 tifying grace and perfect charity. They 
 only prepare us for justification, and hence 
 we can perform acts of a supernatural or- 
 der without sanctifying grace. However, 
 these acts are not meritorious, properly 
 speaking, for salvation. Negative infidel- 
 ity, which never was enlightened by evan- 
 gelical revelation, is not criminal. It would 
 indeed be of the heresy of Pelagius, to as- 
 sert that a pagan can, without the help of 
 grace, observe the natural law in a super- 
 natural manner and useful for salvation ; 
 such is far from Catholic belief. The Cath- 
 olic Church, with St. Paul, does not ex- 
 clude Gentiles from grace. The saint 
 makes use of the word grace only in op- 
 position to the law which was unknown to 
 the Gentiles. Man could, even without 
 actual grace, do some good in the moral 
 and natural order. He could of his own 
 strength, resist certain temptations and 
 love God as the author of nature, with a 
 weak and imperfect love. He may even go 
 further. Provided one acknowledges that 
 our intellect, although obscured by the sin 
 of Adam, is not extinguished, and that our 
 free will has been weakened by the same 
 sin, without being lost or annihilated, it 
 matters little to know what man can do of 
 himself and of his own strength in the 
 purely moral and natural order, because 
 this order does not exist and because we 
 distinguish it in thought only from the 
 supernatural order or state in which man 
 had been originally placed by his Creator 
 and since restored thereto by Jesus Christ. 
 The Gentiles, also, had, in virtue of the 
 merits of the Redeemer, the necessary 
 graces for salvation. 
 
 With ordinary grace, the just can avoid 
 all mortal sin, although final perseverance 
 is a special gift of God. The just can also 
 with the aid of special and powerful grace, 
 yet not having the nature of a special privi- 
 lege, preserve themselves from all deliber- 
 ate venial sins, at least for a time, but to so 
 continue to the end of his life, would re- 
 quire a special privilege or gift. 
 
 The Predestinarians admit efficacious 
 grace, but deny that man is free under its 
 influence; and entirely reject sufficient 
 grace. It is of faith that the free will of 
 man was not destroyed by the sin of 
 Adam ; that it exists and subsists even 
 under the influence of sufficient grace, that 
 in the present state man is really free, 
 that he has liberty of choice ; free, ex- 
 empt, not only from all restraint and 
 coercion, but from all simple, absolute or 
 
Gradual 
 
 320 
 
 G RATI AN 
 
 relative necessity, from all propension, 
 impulse, determination, and invincible 
 delectation ; and that he can, at will, obey 
 or resist grace, give or refuse his co- 
 operation. It is of faith that there is in 
 the present state, which is called the state 
 of fallen nature, a really sufficient grace, 
 that is, grace with which we can do good, 
 even under circumstances where we are 
 obliged to fulfill a precept, overcome a 
 temptation, avoid this or that sin, although 
 we do not the good. Sufficient grace is 
 not useless, for it is a gift of God ; it is one 
 of the supernatural helps with which we 
 are enabled to do good. When one does 
 evil it is not to grace or its author that we 
 can affix the responsibility of the act, but 
 to the will which abused God's gifts, by 
 refusing to co-operate with grace. Grace 
 is the total, efficient or co-operating cause 
 of all that is done to obtain salvation. 
 Grace precedes us without us, that is, 
 without our doings. But although it oper- 
 ates in us, it does not, however, operate 
 without us; it operates with us, with our 
 will, which it precedes by its movements, 
 and being thus assisted by grace, gives 
 itself freely to its action. Every time we 
 do a good work, say the Fathers of the 
 Second Council of Orange, God operates 
 in us and with us in order that we may 
 operate ourselves. Man is free to cor- 
 respond or to resist grace ; and this liberty 
 is a true liberty, a liberty of choice, which 
 does not consist solely in the exemption of 
 constraint or coercion, but in the freedom 
 from all necessity, absolute or relative. 
 There are efficacious graces which enable 
 the invariable performance of good, al- 
 though done quite freely, and on the other 
 hand, there are graces which are not 
 followed by their effects, not being co- 
 operated with. 
 
 God wills the salvation of all men, with 
 a true, real, and sincere will ; therefore. 
 He gives to all the necessary means for 
 salvation. God commands all men to ob- 
 serve His law, therefore, all men can ob- 
 serve it, and this they do only by the aid of 
 His grace; therefore, He grants His grace 
 to all men. The observation of God's 
 commandments is possible to the just and 
 the grace necessary and sufficient to ob- 
 serve them will never be wanting to them. 
 Grace is granted not only to the just, but 
 also to the faithful in general, even to those 
 who have committed the most grievous 
 crimes and who lived in sin for many years. 
 The Jews had, under the Old Law, suffi- 
 
 cient graces to observe the commandments 
 of God. So also does God grant to the 
 pagans and heretics the graces necessary 
 for salvation, because He wishes that all 
 men should be saved and arrive at the 
 knowledge of truth. 
 
 Gradual. — After the Epistle at Mass, in 
 order to unite prayer with instruction, part 
 of one of the Psalms is recited; this is 
 called the Responsory, because it answers 
 to the Epistle, or more commonly the 
 Gradual, from the custom which anciently 
 prevailed chanting it whilst the deacon 
 descended the steps (Latin gradus) of the 
 ambo, in which the Gospel used to be read. 
 The versicles composing the Gradual were 
 chanted alternately and by many voices, 
 which responded one to another. The 
 Gradual is always used at Mass, except in 
 Paschal time, from Low Sunday to the 
 octave of Pentecost. 
 
 Gradual Psalms are called the fifteen 
 Psalms (1 19-133), which were chanted by 
 the Jews on the steps of the Temple. The 
 Church chants them, especially during the 
 time of Lent. 
 
 Grammont (Order of). — The Order of 
 Grammont, so called from Grand Mont, 
 near Limoge, in France, whence it took its 
 origin, was founded by St. Stephen of Ti- 
 gerno, in Auvergne. It received the appro- 
 bation of Pope Gregory VII. Stephen, 
 who died in 1124, adopted for his order 
 the Benedictine Rule; he enjoined more- 
 over the absolute observance of poverty, 
 forbidding the community to receive or 
 hold any estates or possessions whatever. 
 Stephen of Lisiac, the fourth prior, framed 
 for the order a new rule, which was ap- 
 proved by Clement III., in 1188. In 1317, 
 Pope John XXII. reformed the rule and 
 raised Grammont to the rank of an abbey, 
 which then had under it thirty-nine prio- 
 ries. 
 
 Gratian. — Canonist. Lived from the 
 eleventh to the twelfth century. Born at 
 Chiusi, Italy. Benedictine monk and pro- 
 fessor of Canon I.^w at Bologna. In 1151, 
 he published his famous Manual, entitled 
 Concordant i a discordantium Canonum, 
 but which is commonly known as the 
 Decretutn Gratiani. The work is divided 
 into three parts, treating respectively of 
 ecclesiastical persons, ecclesiastical judi- 
 cature, and the Liturgy of the Church. 
 Gratian's collection, though never receiv- 
 ing the formal approbation of the Holy 
 
Greece 
 
 321 
 
 Gregory 
 
 See, acquired great authority in the 
 Schools, and superseded all other collec- 
 tions in the West. It lacked, however, 
 what was required in the progress of eccle- 
 siastical judicature. 
 
 Greece ( The Church in) and The Ionian 
 Islands. — In Greece, the State's religion is 
 the Greek-Schismatic Christianity. Until 
 1852, the government acknowledged the su- 
 premacy of the Patriarch of Constantinople. 
 A strong religious agitation, directed by 
 a monk under the name Christophoros Pa- 
 poulaki, decided the government to adopt 
 a law fixing the organization and attribu- 
 tions of a holy synod, instituted Aug. 9th, 
 1852, sitting at Athens and directing the 
 Greek archbishops and bishops. There are 
 twelve archbishoprics and thirteen bishop- 
 rics. There are also in Greece two Roman 
 Catholic archbishoprics and seven bishop- 
 rics. Population : Orthodox Greeks 1,902,- 
 800 ; Roman Catholics 14,677 ; Israelites 
 5,722; Mohammedans 24,165. Census of 
 
 Greek Schism. See Schism. 
 
 Greenland ( Discovery and Evangeliza- 
 tion of). See Iceland. 
 
 Gregorian and Ambrosian Chants (the 
 name given to certain choral melodies). — 
 St. Ambrose and St. Gregory rendered 
 great service to Church music by the in- 
 troduction of what are known as the Am- 
 brosian and Gregorian Chants. The latter, 
 composed of notes of equal duration 
 {cantus Jirmus, Romanus), is, in many re- 
 spects, very similar to our present choral 
 chant. The Ambrosian chant, with notes 
 of unequal duration, has more the charac- 
 ter of a recitative. The Gregorian chant, 
 so dignified and solemn, was taught and 
 brought to perfection in a school founded 
 by the excellent Pope from whom it de- 
 rives its name, whence it gradually spread 
 throughout the whole Church. The eccle- 
 siastical chant departed in some instances 
 from the simple majesty of its original 
 character, became more artistic, and on 
 this account, less heavenly and more pro- 
 fane ; and the Fathers of the Church were 
 not slow to censure this corruption of the 
 old and honored Church song. Finally, 
 the organ, which seemed an earthly echo 
 of the angelic choirs in heaven, added its 
 full, rich, and inspiring notes to the beau- 
 tiful simplicity of the Gregorian chant. 
 See Music. 
 
 Gregorian Calendar. — See Calendar. 
 
 Gregory (name of sixteen Popes.) — i. 
 Gregory I. (St.) — surnamed the Great. 
 Born at Rome in 540. The Pontificate of 
 this Pope (590-604) presents one of the most 
 imposing features in the history of the 
 Church. He adopted the title ^^ servus 
 servorum," which his successors have re- 
 tained. Though a member of a wealthy 
 family, Gregory, following the call of God, 
 exchanged his costly vesture for the habit 
 of St. Benedict, and relinquished his pal- 
 ace for a cloister, in which he lived with 
 some monks, until Pope Pelagius sent him 
 as Apocrisiarius to Constantinople, — a 
 position he occupied for six years, after 
 which he became abbot of his monastery, 
 from which the voice of the clergy and of 
 the people, alike, called him forth to oc- 
 cupy the Chair of St. Peter. As Pope, 
 he was incessantly active in promoting the 
 conversion of the heathen and the welfare 
 of the oppressed people of Italy. He la- 
 bored for the strict observance of the laws 
 of the Church, for the celebration of re- 
 ligious services in a worthy manner; and, 
 notwithstanding the delicacy of his health 
 and his manifold occupations, he found time 
 to conduct personally the instruction in 
 choral chant, of which he is the author, 
 and to leave to posterity valuable writings, 
 in which the classic literature, the pro- 
 foundly religious sensitiveness, the learn- 
 ing and the practical sense of their author 
 is beautifully depicted. The principal 
 work of Gregory is his Expositio in fob, 
 or Libri 35 Moralium, a moral theology. 
 Gregory II. — Successor of the foregoing 
 (715-731). He was a man of rare virtue 
 and equally renowned for learning and ad- 
 ministrative ability. The endeavors of the 
 Iconoclast Leo III. were resisted by Greg- 
 ory with all the force of his apostolic 
 authority. He rebuilt the ruined walls of 
 Rome and restored the Monastery of 
 Monte Cassino, which, one hundred and 
 forty years before, had been destroyed by 
 the Lombards. Gregory III. — Pope from 
 731 to 741. With equal vigor, like his pred- 
 ecessor, he defended the Catholic faith 
 against the heresy of the Iconoclasts, which 
 heresy he solemnly condemned in a Roman 
 Council (732). Under his Pontificate oc- 
 curred the great victory of Charles Martel 
 over the Saracens, near Poitiers, in the year 
 732. Gregory IV. — Pope from 827 to 
 844. He attempted to adjust the quarrel 
 between the three rebellious sons of 
 
Gregory 
 
 322 
 
 Gregory 
 
 Louis le Debonnaire of France and their 
 father, with the resuh that he offended 
 both parties, and also the French bishops. 
 Gregory V. — Pope from 996 to 999. He 
 was the first German Pope. By him, Otho 
 III. was crowned emperor. He was ex- 
 pelled in 997, by the Roman senator, 
 Crescentius, who procured the elevation 
 of the antipope, John XVI. He was re- 
 stored the next year on the appearance 
 of Otho, in Italy, with an army. Pope 
 Gregory labored zealously for the refor- 
 mation of ecclesiastical life ; but his work 
 of usefulness was cut short by premature 
 death. Gregory VI. — Gratian, a distin- 
 guished and respected archpriest. Pope 
 from 1044 to 1046. He had as rival claim- 
 ants to the Papal dignity Benedict IX. and 
 Sj'lvester III. In order to restore peace, 
 Gregory, in the Council of Sutri (1046), 
 disclaiming most solemnly all selfish mo- 
 tives in assuming the Pontificate, abdi- 
 cated of his own free will. Accompanied 
 by his disciple, Hildebrand, he went into 
 exile to Germany, where he died in 1048. 
 Gregory VII. (St.) — Pope from 1073 to lO^S- 
 The condition of the Church at the time 
 of Gregory's election to the Papacy was 
 most deplorable. The bishops, by reason 
 of the fiefs obtained from the emperors, 
 became the emperors' strongest allies 
 against the kings. For this reason, the 
 latter sought to fill the vacant bishop- 
 rics with men, on whose political fidelity 
 they could depend, rather than select men 
 whose vocation and capacity would enable 
 them to govern the Church in the spirit 
 of Christianity. At first, the temporal 
 princes exercised an undue influence upon 
 the election of a bishop ; later, they made 
 arbitrary appointments; still later, they 
 bestowed upon the prelates the insignia of 
 their office, the ring and the crosier. 
 This was called the Right of Investiture. 
 Thus unworthy men, stained with simony 
 and concubinage, were forced upon the 
 Church. As long as this arbitrary rule 
 was exercised, no hope for reform could 
 be entertained. Hence Gregory com- 
 menced his great work with the restora- 
 tion of the liberties of the Church and the 
 reformation of the clergy. Gregory, as 
 Cardinal Hildebrand, had held responsi- 
 ble positions under five Popes. After the 
 death of Alexander II. he was, by the 
 unanimous voice of the clergy and people, 
 called to the Papal throne. No one knew 
 better than he, what a gigantic struggle 
 he would be obliged to undertake to free 
 
 the Church from the evils that beset her. 
 He had as early as 1073 addressed 
 a letter of remonstrance to Henry 
 IV. (1056- 1106), the dissolute king 
 of Germany, advising him to amend 
 his life. At the first Lenten Synod 
 (1074), Gregory restored the ancient laws 
 of the Church, forbidding the clergy to 
 hold benefices, to practice simony or to 
 live in concubinage. He forbade the peo- 
 ple to assist at the ser\'ices of such clerics, 
 thereby making the people the executors 
 of ecclesiastical law. The guilty clergy 
 ofTered the most determined opposition. 
 Bishops, who undertook to force the de- 
 crees were assaulted and threatened with 
 death. Gregory excommunicated the 
 counselors of the King, who had been 
 guilty of simony, and he also forbade in- 
 vestiture by laymen. These measures were 
 necessary to put an end to the crying 
 abuses of ecclesiastical discipline. The 
 majority of the bishops appointed by 
 Henry had been associates in his shameful 
 deeds. Bishoprics were sold to the highest 
 bidders, and the buyers sold the lower of- 
 fices. By reason of his victories over the 
 Saxons, Henry grew arrogant and refused 
 to listen to the representations of the Pope. 
 He treated the laws of the Church with 
 contempt, deposed bishops and bestowed 
 upon his concubines the precious stones 
 stolen from the churches. He assembled 
 the venial bishops at Worms for the pur- 
 pose of deposing the Pope. The sentence 
 of deposition was announced to the Pope 
 by Henry, in a letter addressed to " The 
 False Monk Hildebrand." Gregory now 
 resolved upon severe measures. At the 
 Lenten Synod (1076), sentence of excom- 
 munication was pronounced upon the king. 
 By this decision the king was deposed, but 
 according to the Germanic law, declared 
 incompetent to govern. Even the friends 
 of Henry abandoned him now. Gregory 
 solicitous for the temporal and spiritual 
 welfare of the king made efforts to effect 
 a reconciliation. He prevailed upon the 
 princes, then assembled at Tribur (1076), 
 not to elect a new king. Seeing that he 
 could conciliate the Pope more readily 
 than the princes, Henry, clad in a peniten- 
 tial garb, went in winter to Canossa ( 1077), 
 where the Pope was then staying and 
 prayed to be absolved from the ban of ex- 
 communication. After a three days' pen- 
 ance, absolution was given him. The 
 scene at Canossa has often been repre- 
 sented as an act of cruel severity. It is 
 
Gregory 
 
 323 
 
 Gregory 
 
 true, the winter was exceptionally cold. 
 Henry and his companions stood in the 
 open air for three days, but during the 
 night they retired into the inn, where food 
 and drink were given them ; they were at- 
 tired in the garb of penitents worn over 
 other clothing. There is no dishonor in 
 doing penance by one's own free will, 
 Henry was not then emperor, and was not 
 forced by the Pope, but he prevailed upon 
 the Pope to reinstate him and thus pre- 
 vented the princes from electing another 
 emperor. That the Pope ordered Henry, 
 as an ordeal, to receive the Holy Eucharist, 
 is a fable. Soon after Henry disregarded 
 his promises and united with the ene- 
 mies of the Pope. Thereupon, the 
 princes declared him deposed and elected 
 Rudolph, Duke of Suabia. The Pope 
 again excommunicated him, but Henry 
 disregarded the act of the Pope, appointed 
 an antipope, besieged Rome five times, 
 and amongst other depredations set fire to 
 St. Peter's. Gregory, having been freed, 
 went with Robert Guiscard, Duke of Nor- 
 mandy, to Salermo, where he died 1085. 
 His last words were: " I loved justice and 
 hated iniquity; therefore I die in exile." 
 Gregory's character was truly great. He 
 was noble and magnanimous and gentle, 
 though inflexible when bent on doing 
 good. John von Mueller says of him : 
 "Gregory had the courage of a hero, the 
 prudence of a senator, the zeal of a 
 prophet." Henry IV. died in 1106 with- 
 out having been reconciled to the Church. 
 Gregory VIII. — {Albert of Mora). Born 
 atBenevento; successor of Urban HI. Pope 
 from Oct. 2ist to Dec. i6th, 1187. Greg- 
 ory IX. — Pope from 1227 to 1241. After 
 vainly urging the German sovereign, 
 Frederick H. to start on his long delayed 
 crusade, finally pronounced sentence of 
 excommunication against him, in 1227. 
 As Frederick persisted in his obstinacy, 
 and committed new crimes, Gregory, in a 
 synod held at Rome, renewed his excom- 
 munication, and laid the places, at which 
 he sojourned, under interdict. Frederick, 
 while yet under excommunication, at last 
 entered upon the Sixth Crusade. In 1230, 
 peace was concluded at San Germano be- 
 tween the emperor and the Pope. But the 
 perfidious prince broke his agreement; he 
 incited the Romans to rebellion against 
 the Pope, illtreated and banished faithful 
 bishops, hindered appointments for vacant 
 sees, and allowed, and even employed, 
 Saracens to destroy Christian churches. 
 
 These violations, as well as his many cruel- 
 ties against the Lombards, in 1239 drew 
 upon Frederick, who was, besides, accused 
 of heresy and unbelief, a new sentence of 
 excommunication. Now the animosity of 
 Frederick against the Pope knew no 
 bounds. In the hope of obtaining peace, 
 Gregory summoned a General Council to 
 meet at Rome, in 1241. But Frederick, by 
 a gross outrage, hindered its assembling. 
 He had the Genoise fleet, conveying the 
 prelates to Rome, intercepted through his 
 son Enzio, and in defiance of all interna- 
 tional law, condemned three cardinals, and 
 more than a hundred bishops and dele- 
 gates to imprisonment. Gregory did not 
 long survive the news of this terrible 
 outrage ; he died of a broken heart, at the 
 age of one hundred years. Gregory ^.(St.) 
 — Pope from 1272 to 1276. No sooner had 
 he ascended the Apostolic Chair than he 
 summoned the Fourteenth Ecumenical 
 Council, which met at Lyons, in 1274. 
 The declared objects of the Council were: 
 succor to the Holy Land, the reconcilia- 
 tion of the Greek Church, and reforma- 
 tion of morals. The Council opened with 
 great solemnity, the Pope himself officiat- 
 ing. For the succor of the Holy Land, a 
 tenth of all ecclesiastical revenues was 
 voted for six years. In the fourth ses- 
 sion, the reunion of the Greek Church 
 with the Latin was solemnized; and the 
 Council, besides, passed thirty-two canons 
 regulating the discipline of the Church, 
 and providing for the reformation of 
 morals. Also a new constitution providing 
 for the speedy and concordant election of a 
 Roman PontifT received the approbation of 
 the Council. Gregory XI. — Pope from 
 1370 to 1378. To him belongs the merit of 
 having put an end to the " Babylonian 
 Captivity " of the Popedom in Avignon. 
 To avert, in the event of his death, the dan- 
 ger of an interregnum or schism, Gregory, 
 by a special Bull, empowered the sixteen 
 cardinals, who had accompanied him to 
 Rome, to elect at once a successor by sim- 
 ple majority, without holding a conclave, 
 or awaiting the arrival of the cardinals then 
 at Avignon. Gregory XII. — Pope from 
 ■ 1406 to 1415. Was a man of sterling virtue, 
 and sincerely desirous of peace. His first 
 act was a letter to the antipope Benedict 
 XIII., in which he expressed his willing- 
 ness to resign, if the Avignon claimant 
 would do the same. The Council of Pisa, 
 in 1409, pretending to be the lawful repre- 
 sentative of the Universal Church, with 
 
Gregory Nazianzen 
 
 324 
 
 Gregory Nazianzen 
 
 power to judge and depose the rival Popes, 
 it declared that all Christians ought to re- 
 nounce all obedience to both claimants. 
 It proceeded to depose them as contuma- 
 cious and schismatical, and declared the 
 Holy See to be vacant; lastly, it ordained 
 the holding of a conclave, from which 
 came forth Cardinal Philargi as Alexander 
 V. Now the Church, to her great dismay, 
 instead of two, had three claimants to the 
 Papacy. Alexander,with only a Pontificate 
 of ten months, was succeeded by Cardinal 
 Balthasar Cossa, as John XXIII. In the 
 Council of Constance, in 1414, as a means 
 of restoring the union of the Church, Car- 
 dinal Filastre proposed the simultaneous 
 abdication of the three claimants, and the 
 election of a universally acknowledged 
 Pope. Being the only rightful Pope, Greg- 
 ory, in the fourteenth session of the Coun- 
 cil of Constance, proffered his unreserved 
 resignation of the Papacy; and by doing 
 so, he put an end to the schism. To reward 
 his magnanimity, the synod appointed him 
 to the bishopric of Porto and Legate Apos- 
 tolic of Ancona. He died in the odor of 
 sanctity, in 1417. See Council of Con- 
 STANCK. Gregory XIII. — Pope from 
 1572 to 1585. He directed his attention 
 chiefly to the promotion of ecclesias- 
 tical science. He published a new edi- 
 tion of Canon Law and corrected the 
 Julian Calendar. His love for Catholic 
 education prompted him to found six col- 
 leges at Rome, among them being the 
 Irish and German colleges, and the college 
 for the youth of Rome, usually called the 
 Roman College. He also established nun- 
 ciatures at Luzern, Vienna, and Cologne. 
 Gregory XIV. — Pope in 1590. Reigned 
 only a few months. Gregory XV. — Pope 
 from 1621 to 1623. This Pope founded 
 the famous " Z>« Propaganda Fide." 
 He also gave to papal elections the rules 
 and forms — by "Scrutiny," "Compro- 
 mise, and Quasi-Inspiration " — which 
 have ever since been in force. Gregory 
 XVI. — Pope from 1831 to 1846. A mem- 
 ber of the Order of the Camaldolites. 
 Ascended the Papal throne at a most 
 critical time. With undaunted courage 
 and confidence he combated, during his 
 whole Pontificate, the revolutionary ideas 
 and tendencies that were widespread 
 throughout the States of the Church. 
 Gregory introduced judicial reforms as 
 well as reforms in the administration, tax- 
 ation, etc. He held the revolutionary ele- 
 ments in restraint by severity, rather than 
 
 by concessions. His efforts in behalf of 
 the Church were unceasing; science and 
 art found in him an ardent promoter. He 
 warned the faithful against the errors con- 
 tained in the system of Hermes, Bautain, 
 and Abbe De Lamennais. He protested 
 against the violation of the rights of the 
 bishops, by the king of Prussia ; protected 
 Clement Augustus, the venerable Arch- 
 bishop of Cologne ; and Dunin, Archbishop 
 of Gnesen and Posen, who had been vio- 
 lently thrust from their sees by the Prussian 
 government (1838). Gregory also con- 
 demned in severe terms the slave trade 
 (1839). He erected new bishoprics and 
 extended the influence of the Propaganda. 
 With apostolic zeal, he reproached the 
 Emperor Nicholas I., of Russia, for the 
 tyrannical persecution of the Catholics. 
 In the midst of the approach of a revolu- 
 tionary storm Gregory died, beloved by 
 all Catholics, hated and despised by the 
 Revolutionists. 
 
 Gregory Nazianzen (St.). — Bishop of 
 Nazianzum, in Cappadocia. Was born at 
 Nazianzum, about the year 329. His 
 father, Gregory, who before his conver- 
 sion, had belonged to the Hypistarians (a 
 mongrel sect, partly Jew and partly pagan), 
 became Bishop of Nazianzum, and, with 
 his mother, Nonna, is honored by the 
 Church as a saint. On his return from 
 Athens to Nazianzum, Gregory was bap- 
 tized, and for some years lived in seclusion 
 as a hermit, in company with St. Basil. 
 He was ordained priest in 361, though, in 
 his extreme humility, he was quite reluc- 
 tant to accept that dignity; and he hence- 
 forth assisted in the government of his 
 father's diocese. About the year 372, he 
 was consecrated by St. Basil, Bishop of 
 Sasima, but he was never able to occupy 
 that see. In 381, Gregory was chosen 
 Bishop of Constantinople by the Second 
 General Council, yet, on account of the 
 opposition against him, he resigned this 
 see and retired to Nazianzum, where he 
 died about the year 389. His writings 
 contain: i. Forty-five orations which, 
 properly speaking, are dogmatical treatises 
 on the Holy Trinity. Of these, the most 
 famous are his five theological orations on 
 the Divinity of the Son and the Holy 
 Ghost against the Eunomians and Mace- 
 donians, which acquired for their author 
 the name of " Theologian." 2. Two hun- 
 dred and forty-two letters, which are 
 highly interesting, and are distinguished 
 
Gregory of Nyssa 
 
 32s 
 
 Grotius 
 
 for their clearness and brevity. F. May 
 9th. 
 
 Gregory of Nyssa (St.). — Father of the 
 Greek Church, a younger brother of St. 
 Basil, was born at Sebaste in 331. He was 
 married, but, after the death of his wife, 
 was induced by Basil, and their common 
 friend, Gregory Nazianzen, to dedicate his 
 talents to the sacred ministry. In 371, 
 Gregory was made Bishop of Nyssa in 
 Cappadocia. He was deposed by the 
 Arians and exiled under Valens, but upon 
 the death of that emperor he was restored 
 to his see by the Emperor Gratian. He 
 was deputed in 379, by the Council of An- 
 tioch, to visit the churches of Jerusalem 
 and Arabia. In the Second Ecumenical 
 Council of Constantinople, Gregory held 
 an important place, and the high reputa- 
 tion of his learning procured for him the 
 title of " Pater Patrutn." - He died about 
 the year 395. His works, which are very 
 numerous, contain the most complete ex- 
 position of Christian dogma given by any 
 of the Greek Fathers. See Migne, Pat. 
 ^r. XLIV.-XLVI. F.March 9th. 
 
 Gregory of Tours (St.) — Bishop and 
 historian. Was born of a noble family at 
 Clermont, in the Province of Auvergne, 
 in 539. Members of his father's and 
 mother's families had held high offices 
 in both Church and State. His educa- 
 tion was directed by his uncle, St. Gall, 
 Bishop of Clermont, and by Avitus, at 
 first archdeacon, afterwards Bishop of 
 Auvergne. In 573, he was chosen Bishop 
 of Tours, and as such, he displayed great 
 zeal and courage in vindicating the rights 
 of the Church and the oppressed, against 
 the Merovingian kings. He died on Nov. 
 17th in the year 594. Has left several val- 
 uable historical writings. His principal 
 work, the Ecclesiastical History of the 
 Franks, procured him the name of " Father 
 of French History." His other works are 
 four books On the Miracles of St. Martin, 
 two books On the Glory of Martyrs, and 
 one book On the Glory of Confessors. 
 
 Gregory Thaumaturgus (St.) — Father 
 of the Church ; from his extraordinary 
 miracles surnamed Thaumaturgus {-wonder- 
 worker). He was born in Neo-Csesarea 
 in Pontus about 270, and was educated as a 
 pagan until he came to Csesarea, Palestine, 
 where he and his brother Athenodorus 
 were converted to the faith by Origen. 
 He passed five years in the school of Ori- 
 
 gen and three at Alexandria, during the 
 persecution of Maximian. By Phsedimus, 
 the Metropolitan of Pontus, Gregory was 
 made bishop of his native city, which 
 then numbered only seventeen Christians ; 
 but at his^ death, in 270, only seventeen 
 pagans remained. The works of Gregory 
 contain A Panegyrical Oration on Origen, 
 a Symbolum or Exposition of the Faith, 
 especially on the doctrine of the Holy 
 Trinity, a paraphrase on the Book of Ec- 
 clesiastes and a Canonical Epistle, con- 
 taining the penances to be enjoined on 
 penitents. F. Nov. 17th. 
 
 Gregory the Illuminator (St.). — Apostle 
 of the Armenians. Was born about 257 at 
 Valarshabad, in the province of Ararat, 
 Armenia; was educated at Csesarea, Cap- 
 padocia. In 302, he baptized King Tiri- 
 dates, and, with the aid of Greek priests, 
 propagated the faith throughout the whole 
 country of Armenia. Having been con- 
 secrated bishop by Leontius, Archbishop 
 of Caesarea, in Cappadocia, and constituted 
 Metropolitan of Armenia, he ordained a 
 great number of bishops (it is said about 
 400) for the converted nation. He left the 
 Church of Armenia in a flourishing condi- 
 tion when he died, in 332. F. Oct. ist. 
 
 Grey Nuns. See Sisters of Charity. 
 
 Grosseteste (Robert). — Died in 1253. 
 Bishop of Lincoln, England, in 1235. With 
 unremitting zeal he made exertions for a 
 general renovation of his vast diocese. He 
 fearlessly condemned every abuse, and 
 manfully resisted every interference of the 
 nobility and the Crown, in ecclesiastical 
 affairs. The visitation of the churches and 
 monasteries of his see, though hampered 
 by the opposition of the clergy and the 
 monks, and by the disfavor shown to him 
 at court, he resolutely and canonically per- 
 formed. Grosseteste was a voluminous 
 writer, and long exerted a great influence 
 upon English thought and literature. 
 
 Grotius (Hugo) (1583-1645). — Born at 
 Delft, Netherlands ; died at Rostock, Ger- 
 many. A celebrated Dutch jurist, theolo- 
 gian, statesman, and poet, the founder of 
 science of international law. He was made 
 pensionary of Rotterdam in 1613 ; as a 
 Remonstrant leader was condemned to life 
 imprisonment at Loevestein in 1619; es- 
 caped in 1621 ; and was Sjvedish ambassa- 
 dor to France (1635-1645). He published 
 De jure belli et pads ; De veritate re- 
 
GUALBERT 
 
 326 
 
 Gyrovagi 
 
 ligionis Christiance ; annotations on the 
 Old and the New Testament, etc. 
 
 Gualbert (John). See Valombrosa. 
 
 Guardian Angel. See Angel. 
 
 Gunpcwder Plot. — Under the reign of 
 James I., of England (1603-1625), the great 
 body of the English Catholics, though sadly 
 dashed in their hopes, submitted without 
 opposition to the new inflictions, after so 
 many others they had endured, and patiently 
 awaited the designs of providence. But a 
 few reckless and misguided men, driven to 
 desperation by the tyrannous treatment of 
 their Catholic brethren and the treacher- 
 ous conduct of James, formed the wicked 
 plot of destroying, by one blow, the authors 
 of the persecution. They conceived the 
 atrocious design called "Gunpowder Plot," 
 the execution of which they fixed on the 
 opening of parliament, in November, 1605. 
 The conspirators acted entirely on their 
 own blinded judgment, and their attempts 
 to obtain ecclesiastical approval of the mad 
 scheme had utterly failed. Nor did they 
 receive any encouragement from the Cath- 
 olic party; indeed. Lord Monteagle, a 
 Catholic peer, to whom the plot was re- 
 vealed, at once forwarded the information 
 to the king. The conspirators were appre- 
 hended and executed. Among those who 
 were executed, wrongfully accused of the 
 gunpowder treason, were several Jesuits, 
 who had no knowledge whatever of its ex- 
 istence, or like Father Garnet, who refused 
 to violate the seal of confession. 
 
 GUntherianism. — Doctrine of Anthony 
 Gunther, German Catholic philosopher 
 and theologian born at Lindenau, Bohemia 
 (1783-1863). Ordained priest in 1820, he 
 lived at Vienna, occupying himself with 
 sciences and belles-lettres, then became 
 vice-director of the Faculty of Philosophy 
 of Vienna. His writings were condemned 
 by Pope Pius IX., June 15th, i860. Among 
 other errors, Gunther maintained that the 
 soul is not the real and immediate form 
 of the body. 
 
 Gustavus Vasa (1496-1560). — King of 
 Sweden. He favored Protestantism from 
 political and mercenary motives. First 
 by artifice and misrepresentation, and 
 afterwards by open violence the wily 
 
 monarch succeeded in procuring the tri- 
 umph of Lutheranism over Catholicism. 
 Those of the clergy who offered resistance 
 were made to feel the wrath of the tyrant. 
 The Dominicans were banished from the 
 country, while Archbishop Knut of Up- 
 sala and Bishop Jacobson of Westeroes 
 were put to death, in 1527. Intimidated 
 by the royal despot, the Diet of Westeroes, 
 in 1527, enacted that the pure word of 
 God, as taught by Luther, should be 
 preached in all the churches of the king- 
 dom, and sanctioned the confiscation of the 
 property of monasteries. The king was 
 made supreme in matters ecclesiastical, 
 and the nobles were authorized to take 
 back all the property which their ances- 
 tors, as far back as the year 1453, had be- 
 stowed on the Church. Sweden was thus 
 severed from Catholic unity and the king 
 acted henceforth as head of the Swedish 
 Church. 
 
 Guyon (Jeanne Marie Bouvier de la 
 Motte) (1648-1717). — A French woman of 
 extraordinary piety and purity of life. 
 Her Quietist ideas she gave to the world 
 in a number of mystical treatises, of which 
 the following are the principal ones : " A 
 Short and Easy Method of Prayer," 
 " Spiritual Torrents," and " Mystical 
 Sense of the Canticles." Her writings, 
 giving great offense, were examined and 
 condemned by a commission of bishops 
 which met at Issy, in 1695, ^"^ o^ which 
 the celebrated Fenelon and Bossuet were 
 members. The commission drew up thirty- 
 four articles concerning the sound maxims 
 of a spiritual life — Articles of Issy — 
 which Madame Guyon humbly subscribed. 
 She died a very edifying death. In the 
 condemnation of the writings of Madame 
 Guyon, Fenelon had acquiesced ; but as she 
 made a formal submission to the Church, 
 he vindicated her character. See Fene- 
 lon. 
 
 Gyrovagi. — Vagabond monks who 
 roamed about from monastery to monas- 
 tery, in black robes and with unshorn hair, 
 stopping at each place as long as they 
 could enjoy hospitality, but rather leaving 
 the monastery than conform to its rules. 
 They caused at one time considerable scan- 
 dal and not a little trouble, and were con- 
 demned by the Synod of Trullo (691), when 
 regulating monastic discipline. 
 
Habacuk 
 
 327 
 
 Haydn 
 
 H 
 
 Habacuk. — The eight of the twelve 
 minor prophets ; lived in the sixth century 
 B. c. He foretold the captivity of the 
 Jews and the fall of the Assyrian empire. 
 
 Hadrian. See Adrian. 
 
 Hail Mary. See Ave Maria. 
 
 Hales {Alexander of). See Alex- 
 ander. 
 
 Halo. See Aureola. 
 
 Haman. See Aman. 
 
 Hamilton (Patrick) (1504-1528). — 
 Protestant protomartyr. A Scottish re- 
 former, son of Sir Patrick Hamilton. In 
 1525, the Scottish parliament enacted laws 
 prohibiting the preaching of new doctrines 
 and the importation of heretical books. 
 Hamilton having adopted and advocated 
 the doctrines of the Reformation, was the 
 first that suffered death for heresy under 
 these laws. 
 
 Haran. — A city in Mesopotamia, situ- 
 ated on the Bellas (Belich ancient Bili- 
 chus), a small affluent of the Euphrates, 
 30 miles southeast from Edessa. In the 
 Old Testament it is mentioned in connec- 
 tion with the patriarch Abraham, who dwelt 
 there with his father Thare, and Ezechiel 
 (xxvii. 23) speaks of it as a considerable 
 trading center. It is often mentioned in 
 the cuneiform inscriptions. In the fourth 
 century, it was the seat of a bishop. At 
 present it is a small village inhabited by a 
 few Arab families. 
 
 Hardouin (Jean) (1646-1729). — Jesuit; 
 classical scholar, numismatist, and chro- 
 nologist ; was born at Quimper, France ; 
 died at Paris. In spite of his vast knowl- 
 edge, he fell into strange errors. He 
 maintained in the " Prolegomena ad cen- 
 suram veteruni Scriptorum," the paradox 
 that, with a few exceptions, all the works 
 ascribed to classical antiquity had been 
 forged by monks of the thirteenth century, 
 under the direction of a certain Severus 
 Archontius. He also attacked the genu- 
 ineness of ancient coins and of all Church 
 Councils before that of Trent. He also 
 wrote Chronologia Veteris Testamenti, etc. 
 
 Harmonies of the Gospels. — Numerous 
 attempts have been made to construct 
 
 Harmonies of the four Gospels. One plan 
 is to form out of the whole, in what is sup- 
 posed to be the true chronological order, 
 a continuous narrative embracing all the 
 matter of the four, but without repetitions 
 of the same or similar works. Another 
 plan is to exhibit in chronological order, 
 the entire text of the four Gospels arranged 
 in parallel columns, so far as two or more 
 of them cover the same ground. The idea 
 is very imposing, but the realization of it is 
 beset with formidable, if not insurmount- 
 able difficulties. It is certain that the 
 Evangelists do not always follow the exact 
 order of time, and it is sometimes impos- 
 sible to decide between the different ar- 
 rangements of events in their records. In 
 the four narratives of the events connected 
 with the resurrection, for instance,all Har- 
 monists find themselves baffled. Experi- 
 ence shows that the most profitable way of 
 studying the evangelical narrative is to take 
 each Gospel as a whole, but with continual 
 reference to the parallel parts of the other 
 Gospels, so far as they can be ascertained. 
 
 Harmonists. — Members of a religious 
 community, of communistic character, or- 
 ganized by George Rapp (1770-1847), a 
 German of Wiirtemberg. Disturbed by 
 the authorities, they removed in 1803 
 to Butler county, Pennsylvania, and 
 formed a settlement which they called 
 Harmony. In 1815 they removed to New 
 Harmony, Indiana, but returned to Penn- 
 sylvania ten years later, and formed the 
 township of Economy, a few miles fVom 
 Pittsburg, where they own thirty-five 
 hundred acres of land and carry on impor- 
 tant manufactures. They hold all property 
 in common, do not marry, lead blameless 
 lives, and believe in an early second com- 
 ing of Christ. They make hardly any 
 proselytes and the community is not more 
 than two hundred and fifty strong (1890). 
 Their very valuable estate will finally be- 
 come the property of the last survivor. 
 
 Haydn (Francis Joseph) (1732-1809). 
 — Austrian composer, born at Rohrau, ^ 
 died at Vienna. Son of a wheelwright 
 who was, at the same time, sacristan and 
 organist; he showed from his childhood 
 remarkable dispositions for music. At 
 the age of thirteen years, he wrote a Mass 
 
Heart 
 
 328 
 
 Heaven 
 
 which he showed to his teacher, Reuter. 
 The latter laughed at him, and told him to 
 learn first to write before composing. 
 Sent away on account of his " frolics," 
 Haj'dn found an asylum at a poor wig- 
 maker named Keller, gave some lessons, 
 played the violin in churches, and finally, 
 through the protection of Metastate, en- 
 tered as a domestic of a certain Porpora. 
 After miany other vicissitudes, he repre- 
 sented a comic opera, entitled The Lame 
 Devil (1756). Having become chapel- 
 master of Count Murtzin, he wrote (1759) 
 his first symphony, whose hearing charmed 
 Count Esterhazy in such a manner that he 
 took Haydn in his service, where he lived 
 until sixty-two years old, then retired into 
 a suburb of Vienna, Gumpendorf, and here 
 he peacefully ended his days. Through 
 gratitude he had married the daughter of 
 Keller. In 1791 and in 1793, Haydn went 
 to London, where they overwhelmed him 
 with honors. His works comprise four 
 oratorios: Tobias (1782); The Seven 
 Words of Christ (1785) ; The Creation 
 {1798); The Seasons (1801); 163 pieces for 
 the string barytone; 24 operas; 125 sym- 
 phonies, etc ; in all about 800 compositions. 
 
 Heart {Feast of the Sacred). — hitcr 
 many devout souls had venerated the Sa- 
 cred Heart of Jesus, with sincere devotion, 
 in the solitude of quiet life, our divine 
 Saviour willed that His heart's infinite love 
 should be recognized by all men, and be en- 
 kindled in cold hearts by a new fire of love. 
 For this end He made use of a feeble, ob- 
 scure instrument, that all the world might 
 know, that the devotion of His loving 
 heart, previously almost entirely unknown, 
 was" His own work. This instrument, dis- 
 regarded by the world, was one who shone 
 before God in all the radiance of the most 
 sublime virtues, the nun Margaret Ala- 
 coque, of the Order of the Visitation of 
 Mary, at Paray, in Burgundy. In the year 
 1675, whilst she was one day in prayer be- 
 fore the Blessed Sacrament, our Lord ap- 
 peared to her, and pointing to His heart 
 which He showed to her, surrounded with 
 flames, surmounted by the Cross, enriched 
 with a crown of thorns, and pierced with a 
 gaping wound, He said to her: "Behold 
 this heart which has loved mankind so 
 much, and which receives only ingratitude 
 and coldness in return for its love. My de- 
 sire is that you should make reparation to 
 My heart for this ingratitude, and induce 
 others also to make reparation. " Our Lord 
 
 then designated the Friday after the Octave 
 of Corpus Christi as the special day for 
 this duty. In several subsequent appari- 
 tions our divine Lord repeated this injunc- 
 tion.and made the most unbounded promises 
 in favor of all who would apply themselves 
 to this office of reparation of His Sacred 
 Heart. Margaret obeyed, but found every- 
 where the greatest opposition, even from 
 her sisters in religion, until finally she suc- 
 ceeded in inflaming them with the same 
 love of His Sacred Heart. This devotion 
 soon spread from the convent throughout 
 the adjoining dioceses, where confraterni- 
 ties in honor of the Sacred Heart of Jesus 
 arose, and Pope Clement XIII., after caus- 
 ing the strictest investigation to be made, 
 commanded the Festival of the Sacred 
 Heart of Jesus to be observed throughout 
 the Catholic Church, on the first Friday 
 after the Octave of Corpus Christi. See 
 Heart of Mary. 
 
 Heart of Mary {Immaculate). — Title 
 of a church festival and of several confra- 
 ternities. This devotion rests upon the 
 same principles as those which are the 
 foundation of the Catholic devotion to the 
 Sacred Heart of Jesus. Catholics worship 
 the Sacred Heart of Jesus because it is 
 united to the Person of the Word, just as 
 they venerate and honor Ihe heart of Mary 
 because united to the person of the Blessed 
 Virgin. The physical heart of each sym- 
 bolizes charity and the inner life, while 
 the charity and virtues of Marj' are in- 
 finitely inferior to those of her divine 
 Son. The devotion to the Immaculate 
 Heart was first propagated by John Eudes, 
 founder of a congregation of priests which 
 was named after him. They were called 
 Eudists. Pius IX. extended the feast in 
 1855, and it is celebrated on the Sunday 
 after the Octave of the Assumption. 
 
 Heaven is the kingdom far "above all 
 heavens " (Ephes. iv. 10), where our happi- 
 ness is complete and eternal, in the con- 
 templation of God by the beatific vision, 
 the ever enduring union with our Saviour, 
 and the joy which results therefrom : thus 
 completing our heavenly happiness in this 
 triple recompense of the three theological 
 virtues, of which the one that is everlast- 
 ing in heaven is charity. Faith, which 
 we possess on earth, is the steadfast belief 
 of beholding God, cannot have place in 
 paradise, when there we see what we have 
 here believed without seeing. Likewise 
 the hope we experience in this world. 
 
Heber 
 
 329 
 
 Heiss 
 
 that causes us to await with patience and 
 confidence the realization of our Redeem- 
 er's promises, disappears, when we possess 
 that for which we have hoped. Charity 
 alone remains, to become more and more 
 perfect, and more like the charity of Him 
 who is ever merciful, and ever great in 
 His love for all mankind. See Vision 
 (Beatific) . 
 
 Heber. — Grandson of Sem. In Gen. 
 xiv. 13, the name Hebrew is applied to 
 Abraham. The same name is repeatedly 
 given to the people of Israel (Gen. xliii. 32 ; 
 Exod. i. 15; I. Ki. xiii. 3, 7, etc.). The 
 opinion which derives this appellation from 
 Heber, grandson of Sem, has been con- 
 tested without good reasons. We know 
 that the name Israel was imposed upon 
 Jacob by the angel with whom he had 
 been wrestling; the descendants of Abra- 
 ham and Jacob also received this name, 
 whilst keeping that of Hebrew. Later on, 
 after the schism of the ten tribes, the name 
 Jew was given to the members of the 
 kingdom of Juda. 
 
 Hebre-ws {Epistle to the). — In his letter 
 to the Hebrews, St. Paul, making use of 
 the authority of the Old Testament, de- 
 scribes under the most sublime traits the 
 divinity of Jesus Christ, His quality as 
 Mediator and Redeemer, His eternal priest- 
 hood, the superiority of the New Covenant 
 over the Old, and the intimate relation of 
 both. 
 
 Hebron. — A city in Palestine, situated 
 on a hill among the mountains of Juda, 
 about twenty miles south of Jerusalem. It 
 is one of the oldest existing Biblical towns. 
 According to Num. xiii. 22, it was built 
 seven years before Zoan (/. e., Tanis, the 
 capital of Lower Egypt), and Josephus says 
 that in his day it was 2,300 years old. Its 
 former name was Cariath Arbe (Jos. xiv. 15). 
 It was the burial place of Abraham and of 
 Sara, his wife, of Isaac and of Rebecca, of 
 Jacob and of Lia. Afterwards it became 
 an important city in the territory of Juda. 
 David resided here the first seven years of 
 his reign. Later it was taken possession of 
 by the Idumeans, from whom Judas Mach- 
 abeus captured it (I. Mach. v. 65) . At pres- 
 ent it has about 10,000 inhabitants, of 
 whom 500 are Jews, the rest are Moham- 
 medans. As the city of Abraham it is 
 called by Mohammedans Al-Halil (" City 
 of the Friend of God"). Upon the tradi- 
 tional site of the burial place of the patri- 
 
 archs, Machpelah, a magnificent mosque is 
 erected, accessible only to Mohammedans. 
 Dean Stanley and Major Conder have ex- 
 amined the mosque, and described the sup- 
 posed cave of Abraham's burial place. 
 
 Hacker (Isaac Thomas) . — An American 
 clergyman, founder of the Paulists ; born 
 in New York City, Dec. 18th, 1819. In 
 1843, he joined the Brook Farm Com- 
 munity, near Boston, where for nine 
 months he baked the bread eaten by the 
 members. In 1845 he became a Roman 
 Catholic ; went to Germany to study for 
 the priesthood, joined the Redemptorist 
 Fathers in Belgium in 1847, and was or- 
 dained priest in London in 1849 by Car- 
 dinal Wiseman. After being released from 
 connection with the Redemptorists, he 
 founded, in 1858, the new congregation of 
 the missionary priests of St. Paul (The 
 Paulist Fathers) in New York City. .Its 
 members take no vows, and any priest can 
 leave the order when he chooses. Hecker 
 established The Catholic World, a monthly 
 periodical, in 1865 ; wrote the Questions of 
 the Soul; Aspirations of Nature, and a 
 pamphlet on Martin Luther (1883). Died 
 in New York City, Dec. 22d, 1888. Father 
 Elliot, a mer^ber of the Paulists, wrote 
 Hecker's biography, which was much 
 criticized, and even censured by the Holy 
 See in 1898. 
 
 Hefele (Karl Joseph von) (1809-1893). 
 — German Catholic prelate; Bishop of 
 Rottenburg in 1869, and Church historian. 
 He was appointed to the chair of ecclesias- 
 tical history and Christian archaeology at 
 Tubingen in 1840. His chief work is. 
 History of Church Councils (1855-1874). 
 
 Hegesippus. — A Jew converted to Chris- 
 tianity; died in Rome about 181. He is 
 called the first Church historian. Desirous 
 of learning the doctrines handed down by 
 the Apostles, he made a journey from 
 Jerusalem to Rome,visiting many Churches 
 on the way. The result of his inquiries 
 and collections was his Five Books of 
 Ecclesiastical Events, of which nothing 
 remains but the paragraphs quoted by Eu- 
 sebius. 
 
 Heiss (Michael) (1818-1890). — Ameri- 
 can prelate; born at Phahldorf, Bavaria, 
 died at Milwaukee. He went through a theo- 
 logical course in the University of Munich, 
 entered the ecclesiastical seminary at 
 Eichstadt, and was ordained in 1840. Came 
 
Helena 
 
 330 
 
 Henoticon 
 
 to the United States in 1843, and was ap- 
 pointed to the church of the Mother of 
 God in Covington, Kentucky. On the 
 appointment of Dr. H^nni as bishop of Mil- 
 waukee, Rev. M. Heiss accompanied him as 
 acting secretary, and did mission work as 
 far as fifty miles north of the city. Bishop of 
 La Crosse, Wisconsin, in 1868; coadjutor to 
 Archbishop Henni in 1880. As theologian 
 Dr. Heiss took an active part in the councils 
 of St. Louis and the Second Plenary Coun- 
 cil of Baltimore. He attended the Vatican 
 Council in 1869-70, and was appointed by 
 Pope Pius IX. a member of one of the 
 four great commissions. On the death 
 (1881) of Archbishop Henni he became 
 second archbishop of Milwaukee. Among 
 his published works are the Four Gospels, 
 and a Latin treatise on matrimony. 
 
 Helena (St.). — The mother of Constan- 
 tine the Great. She was, according to 
 some authorities, the daughter of an inn- 
 keeper at Drepanum, Bithynia; according 
 to others, a British or Caledonian prin- 
 cess. She became the wife of Constantius 
 Chlorus, who, on his elevation to the 
 dignity of Caesar in 292, divorced her in 
 order to marry Theodora, the step- 
 daughter of the Augustus Maximianus 
 Hercules. Subsequently on the elevation 
 to the purple, Constantine, her son by 
 Constantius, she received the title of Au- 
 gusta, and was treated with marked dis- 
 tinction. About 325 she made a pilgrimage 
 to Jerusalem, where she built the Church 
 of the Holy Sepulchre, and that of the 
 Nativity, at Bethlehem. Died about 330. 
 F. Aug. 18th. 
 
 Heli. — A Hebrew judge and high-priest. 
 He failed to punish the sins of his two 
 sons, Ophni and Phinees, and the destruc- 
 tion of his house ensued. At the news of 
 the defeat of the Israelites by the Philis- 
 tines, in which his sons were killed and the 
 Ark of the Covenant taken, he fell back- 
 ward from his seat and broke his neck. 
 He judged Israel forty years and was 
 ninety-eight years old when he died. 
 
 Hell is a place of anguish and torment, 
 where those who have voluntarily and 
 finally defied God suffer the everlasting 
 punishment of their sins, proportioned in 
 its violence to their deserts. It consists of 
 absolute and eternal separation from God, 
 enchained in darkness, as ♦' the angels who 
 kept not their principality " (Jude i. 6) ; 
 where the fire of remorse for having vol- 
 
 untarily merited damnation, and of despair 
 for this incomparable and unending an- 
 guish, is unextinguishable ; "where the 
 worm dieth not, and the fire is not 
 quenched" (Mark ix. 47). If sinners die 
 with determined will for evil, they freely 
 place themselves beyond recall of good, 
 and in ceaseless degradation and torture. 
 See Reprobatio:^ and Devil. 
 
 Hellenists. — Jews who had lost their ex- 
 clusive spirit by constant intercourse with 
 the Gentiles, and who habitually spoke 
 Greek and read the Scriptures in Greek. 
 They are not to be confounded with the 
 Hellenes, who were native Greeks alike in 
 religion and language. 
 
 Helvidius. — Heresiarch of the fourth 
 century, disciple of Auxentius, Bishop of 
 Milan, He pretended that Mary had, after 
 the birth of Jesus Christ, several children 
 with St. Joseph, and declared that the state 
 of marriage is as meritorious as that of vir- 
 ginity. St. Jerome refuted him, 
 
 Hemerobaptists. — Members of an old 
 Jewish sect which used daily ceremonial 
 ablutions, or of an early Christian sect 
 which believed in daily baptism ; little is 
 known of either. 
 
 Henni (John Martin) (1805-1881). 
 — American prelate ; was born in Ober- 
 saxen, in the Swiss canton of the Gris- 
 sons ; died at Milwaukee, Wisconsin. After 
 studying at St. Gall and Luzern he pro- 
 ceeded to Rome to complete his theological 
 studies. Moved by the appeal of Bishop 
 Fenwick, Bishop of Cincinnati, he came to 
 America in 1829. He took charge of the Ger- 
 mans in Cincinnati, and also taught philos- 
 ophy in the Athenaeum. His next field of 
 labor was in Northern Ohio, extending 
 from Canton to Lake Erie. Returning to 
 Cincinnati, he established in 1837 the 
 '■^ Wahrheits Freund," the first German 
 Catholic paper in the United States. Was 
 appointed bishop of Milwaukee in 1844. 
 In the very year of his arrival to Mil- 
 waukee he opened a little theological 
 seminary under the direction of Rev. Mr. 
 Heiss, gradually preparing to place it on 
 a solid basis. In 1855, he laid the corner 
 stone of the Salesianum. In 1875, the 
 Holy See created him an archbishop. 
 
 Henoch. See Enoch. 
 
 Henoticon. — An edict which Zeno, 
 Emperor of the East, published in 482, in 
 
Henricians 
 
 331 
 
 Hergenrother 
 
 order to restore unity of belief in the 
 Church and to reunite the Catholics with 
 the Eutychians. 
 
 Henricians. — Sectarians of the twelfth 
 century; followers of a certain Henry the 
 Deacon, an apostate monk of Cluny. 
 The Henricians rejected all kinds of wor- 
 ship and did not even suffer singing in 
 their Churches. For more particulars see 
 Petrobusians. 
 
 Henry IV. See Gregory VII. 
 
 Henry VIII. — King of England (1509- 
 1547). Having defended the Catholic doc- 
 trine against Luther, he received from the 
 Pope the title, " Defender of the Faith." 
 A short time afterwards he wished to 
 marry Anne Boleyn. In order to be free 
 to do so, he pretended that his marriage 
 with Catharine of Aragon, the widow of 
 his brother, was invalid. His court chap- 
 lain, Thomas Cranmer, who was married 
 and a Lutheran in disguise, assisted in 
 preparing England for apostasy. Having 
 been promoted by the king to the see of 
 Canterbury, and taken the oath of alle- 
 giance to the Pope, though actually himself 
 a Protestant, he, for the sake of appear- 
 ance, begged leave to examine the validity 
 of Henry's marriage. Soon after he pro- 
 nounced the marriage with Catharine in- 
 valid and the one with Anne Boleyn to be 
 lawful. Pope Clement VIL, though 
 threatened with the apostasy of the king- 
 dom, condemned the decision of Cran- 
 mer. This action resulted in the complete 
 separation of the king from the Church. 
 In 1534, Henry compelled all the clergy 
 and officers, under the pain of high 
 treason, to take the oath of supremacy. 
 In order to confiscate their property, 
 Henry suppressed 3,219 ecclesiastical in- 
 stitutions, " To please God and for the 
 glory of the kingdom." The profits of 
 this spoliation which amounted to $25,- 
 000,000, were spent in debauchery in the 
 short space of ten years. Magnificent 
 churches, libraries and works of art were 
 demolished ; the tomb of Alfred the Great, 
 was desecrated ; all valuables were confis- 
 cated by the greedy commissioners. In 
 the meantime, the want and misery of the 
 poor were greatly increased; the king's 
 tyranny was directed against all who re- 
 mained true to the Catholic faith. Chan- 
 cellor Thomas More and Archbishop John 
 Fisher, died as martyrs. A prize of 50,000 
 ducats was offered for the head of Cardi- 
 
 nal Pole. The cardinal being in safety 
 on the continent, the king's anger knew no 
 bounds. By a royal mandate, the mother 
 and two relatives of the cardinal were put 
 to death. Even Cromwell, his pliable and 
 servile tool, was executed. Henry was 
 married six times. Two of his wives were, 
 by his order, put to death. During his 
 reign, he ordered the execution of two 
 queens, twelve dukes and earls, 164 noble- 
 men, two cardinals, two archbishops, 
 eighteen bishops, more than 500 abbots 
 and monks, and over 70,000 commoners. 
 Henry adhered to the main points of the 
 Catholic doctrine and even punished the 
 violation of the vow of celibacy. See An- 
 glicanism. 
 
 Heracleon. — Heresiarch of the second 
 century. Fragments of his commentaries 
 on the Gospels of St. John and of St. Luke 
 are found in the writings of Origen. 
 
 Heresy (Gr. haircsis). — The word 
 heresy denotes a choice, a selection, and, 
 in its application to religious belief, it is 
 used to designate the act of choosing for 
 one's self, and maintaining opinions con- 
 trary to the authorized teachings of the 
 religious community to which one's obe- 
 dience is due, as the heterodox opinions 
 thus adopted, and the party which may 
 have adopted them. In the Acts of the 
 Apostles (v. 17; XV. 5; xxiv. 5; xxviii. 22), 
 the word seems to be used for a sect or 
 party, abstracting from the consideration 
 of its character whether good or bad ; but 
 in the Epistles and by the early Christian 
 writers it is almost invariably used in a bad 
 sense, which is the sense uniformly ac- 
 cepted in all subsequent theological litera- 
 ture. The notion of heresy, as understood 
 by theological writers involves two ideas ; 
 first, the deliberate and voluntary rejection 
 of some doctrine proposed by the supreme 
 authority established in any Church as 
 necessary to be believed ; and, secondly, a 
 contumacious persistence in such rejection, 
 with the knowledge that the belief of the 
 doctrine is required of all the members 
 of that particular religious community. 
 Catholic writers regarding the authority 
 of their own Church as supreme and final, 
 apply the name of heresy to any formal 
 denial of a doctrine proposed by the 
 Catholic Church as necessary to be be- 
 lieved. 
 
 Hergenrother (Joseph) (1824-1890) — 
 Bavarian cardinal; born at Wiirzburg; 
 
Herman 
 
 332 
 
 Hermes 
 
 died in Rome. Professor of Canon Law 
 and Church history in the University of 
 Munich, in 1855. In 1868, he went to 
 Rome as one of the committees to prepare 
 for the Vatican Council, and he was from 
 the beginning a zealous defender of Papal 
 Infallibility. Pius IX. made him one of 
 his domestic prelates and Leo XIII. a 
 cardinal (1879) and prefect of the apostolic 
 archives. Of his numerous publications 
 may be mentioned PJiofius, Patriarch of 
 Constantinople, His Life, Writings, and 
 the Greek Schism; Manual of Universal 
 Church History; Catholic Church and 
 Christian State. All these works are in 
 German, but the latter is translated into 
 English. 
 
 Herman (surnamed " Contractus," that 
 is, the Paralytic) (1013-1054). — German 
 chronicler, offspring of the family of the 
 Counts of Vehringen. Benedictine, and 
 Abbot of Reichenau, where he died. He 
 was one of the most learned men of his time. 
 
 Hermas. — A book belonging to the 
 earliest days of Christianity, and most re- 
 markable for its matter, form, and com- 
 prehensiveness, has come down to us under 
 the name of The Shepherd (Pastor). The 
 author calls himself Hermas, and tells 
 us that, when still young, he was sold as a 
 slave to a certain Rhode, and afterwards 
 set free by her. He mariied, and amassed 
 a considerable fortune, partly by dishonest 
 trade, and led with his own family a life of 
 little edification. In punishment of his 
 sins he lost all his possessions, except one 
 field, and had to suffer many hardships, 
 which, however, brought about a moral 
 reform of himself and family. He lived 
 in Rome at the time of Pope Clement, and 
 probably held the office of a lector in the 
 Church. Whether he is the same Hermas 
 to whom St. Paul sent greeting in his 
 Epistle to the Romans (xvi. 14), or whether 
 he is a brother of Pope Pius I. (140-155), 
 is still a much disputed question. In favor 
 of the former opinion may be adduced, not 
 only the testimony of early Christian 
 writers, such as Origen, Irenaeus, Euse- 
 bius and others, but also the circumstance 
 that the writer represents himself ( Vis. II, 
 iv.) as a contemporary of Clement of Rome, 
 and that the book was recognized in the 
 Eastern Church as the work of a disciple 
 of the Apostles, and consequently consid- 
 ered to possess Apostolic authority, like 
 the Epistles of Clement and Barnabas. 
 Against this ancient, and for a long time 
 
 generally prevailing opinion, various ob- 
 jections have been urged in modern times, 
 the chief one being the so-called Muratorian 
 fragment, which is a catalogue enumera- 
 ting the books that are to be consid- 
 ered as canonical or uncanonical, dating 
 from the end of the second century. Here 
 it is quite definitely stated that Hermas, a 
 brother of Pope Pius I., was the author of 
 The Shepherd. We are thus confronted 
 with two directly contradictory opinions, 
 both apparentl}^ well attested. Dr. Nirschl 
 and others have sought to reconcile them 
 by making the older Hermas the real 
 author of the work in Greek, and the 
 younger the translator of it into Latin. A 
 third opinion maintains that it is the work 
 of an entirely unknown person, and written 
 soon after the time of the Emperor Trajan. 
 The work is written in the apocalyptic 
 style, and furnishes precepts and instruc- 
 tions as the way of becoming a Christian, 
 and how to live a truly Christian life. It 
 contains five visions, twelve command- 
 ments, and ten similitudes. In the first 
 four visions, the Church appears to Her- 
 mas under the figure of a matron, and 
 teaches him ; but in the fifth vision, which 
 forms the transition to the commandments 
 and similitudes, as well as throughout the 
 latter, his informant is an angel of pen- 
 ance, appearing in the garb of a shepherd, 
 whence the name of the whole book. The 
 commandments treat of faith in one God, 
 of simplicity, innocence, charity, truthful- 
 ness, lying, the duties of husband and 
 wife, justice, patience, discernment of 
 spirits and their inspirations, and struggle 
 against concupiscence. The similitudes 
 are a series of telling images, illustrating 
 various Christian truths and precepts. 
 
 Hermeneutic or Exegesis is the gram- 
 matical and historical interpretation of the 
 Bible. It is authentic, if it is given by the 
 author himself; doctrinal or traditional, 
 if it is furnished by others ; rational, if it 
 is based upon the proceedings of reason ; 
 revealed, if the interpretation presents 
 itself as coming from God. The Catholic 
 exegesis supports itself upon the decrees 
 of the Councils, the dogmatic decisions of 
 the Popes, and the writings of the Holy 
 Fathers. The Protestant interpretation is 
 individual and has no religious value. See 
 Interpretation. 
 
 Hermes (George) (1775-1831). — Ger- 
 man theologian, born at Dreyerwalde, 
 Westphalia. Professor of theology at 
 
Hermias 
 
 333 
 
 Herrnhuters 
 
 Munster and at Bonn (1819). He fell into 
 the error of rationalism respecting certain 
 dogmas. For instance, he maintained that 
 human reason could attain to certainty on 
 religious and moral truths or that the 
 dogmas could be proved by reason alone, 
 that this was an article of faith, and that 
 besides, the Church has not the right to re- 
 quire belief. He was censured by the 
 Church and his disciples, the " Hermes- 
 ians," were excluded from the Catholic 
 Universities. 
 
 Hermias. — Heresiarch who lived in 
 Galatia in the second century. He taught 
 that God is a corporal being, that matter 
 is eternal, like God, that the human souls 
 are not created by God, but by angels, 
 that they are composed of fire and air, that 
 the evil is derived sometimes from God 
 and sometimes from matter. He rejected 
 the baptism of water and admitted only a 
 baptism of fire and of the Holy Ghost 
 without describing how this was done. 
 
 Hermias The Philosopher. — Christian 
 writer of the second or of the third cen- 
 tury. He left a polemical work entitled 
 Irrisio gentilium philosophorum, in which 
 he ridicules the pagan philosophers by ex- 
 ' posing their errors and contradictions, 
 but without seriously refuting them. The 
 work was written in the second century ; 
 according to some, in the third. In forci- 
 ble and sarcastic language he deals with 
 the doctrines of heathen philosophers on 
 God, the world, and the soul, pointing out 
 their glaring contradictions, but failing at 
 times to grasp or exhibit the pagan doc- 
 trines in their systematic connection. 
 
 Hermits. See Monasticism. 
 
 Hermogenes. — Heresiarch, born in 
 Africa, in the second century. He made 
 the attempt to reconcile the doctrine of the 
 pagan philosophers with those of Chris- 
 tianity and maintained that the world 
 would never come to an end, that matter 
 was coeternal with God, who only put it 
 into operation. He was refuted by Ter- 
 tullian. 
 
 Hermon( The Great) (Djebel eck-Cheikk, 
 chief of the mountains) — Mountain of Pal- 
 estine ; the highest of the mountain chain 
 of Anti-Libanon and which formerly 
 served toward the north as frontier of 
 Palestine. Height 8,400 feet. On its sum- 
 mit considerable ruins can be seen and 
 here very probably, they primitively 
 
 adored the god Baal. This mountain is 
 covered with snow a great part of the 
 year. 
 
 Herod. — Name of several members of a 
 large family of Idumean origin, of whom 
 several reigned over Judea. Herod the 
 Great. — Founder of the dynasty of An- 
 tipater, procurator of Judea. He was 
 named governor of Galilee (b. c. 47), then 
 of Coelo-Syria, and in 41 ethnarch of Judea. 
 Driven away by Antigonus, he fled to 
 Rome, where he obtained a decree from 
 the senate naming him king of Judea, to 
 the exclusion of the Asmonean line (b. c. 
 40), a dignity which was confirmed upon 
 him after the battle of Actium. He killed 
 Aristobolus, the last male descendant of 
 the Asmoneans, put to death his wife 
 Mariamne, on account of jealousy, and the 
 two sons he had from her. The massacre 
 of the children of Bethlehem crowned this 
 series of crimes. Under his cruel and am- 
 bitious reign, Idumea and Trachonitis 
 were added to his kingdom ; he rebuilt 
 Samaria and called it Sebaste, created on 
 the coast the great port of Caesarea, sur- 
 rounded Jerusalem with fortifications, and 
 commenced to repair the great Temple of 
 this city. Herod-Antifas. — Son of Herod 
 by Malthace, one of the two wives of the 
 tyrant; received, by the will of his father, 
 which Augustus confirmed, the tetrarchy 
 of Galilee and of Persia, whilst Judea was 
 reserved to Archelaus. He repudiated his 
 first wife in order to marry Herodiada, 
 wife of his half-brother Herod-Philip. He 
 beheaded St. John the Baptist, and it was 
 before him Jesus Christ was sent by Pon- 
 tius Pilate. Through the intrigues of 
 Herod-Agrippa (38), he was robbed of his 
 States, exiled with his wife to Lyons and 
 then to Spain, where he died. Herod- 
 Philip. — Son of Herod the Great and 
 Mariamne, half-brother of the preceding, 
 first husband of Herodiada. The Evangel- 
 ists repeatedly mention him under the 
 name of Philip. Herod-Agrippa. — See 
 Agrippa. 
 
 Herodians. — Jewish sectarians who had 
 acknowledged Herod the Great as the 
 Messias. Their chief was a certain Men- 
 ahen, of the sect of the Saducees. 
 
 Herrnhuters. — Heretics. The sect of 
 the Herrnhuters includes three different 
 troops or modifications : The Lutheran, 
 Calvinistic, and Moravian, and adnjits 
 Christians of all denominations without 
 
Hesychasts 
 
 334 Hierarchy of the Church 
 
 compelling them to renounce their pe- 
 culiar tenets. In 1741, Zinzendorf, who 
 had himself been ordained a bishop of his 
 sect, by a pretended Moravian bishop, 
 came to America and founded a colony of 
 Herrnhuters at Bethlehem, in Pennsyl- 
 vania. This sect, however, is not very 
 numerous in this country, and even less so 
 in Europe. These sectaries have always 
 been distinguished by a spirit of pride, 
 which has been the fruitful source of fresh 
 divisions. 
 
 Hesychasts. — Members of the Eastern 
 Church in the twelfth century, in the 
 monasteries of Mount Athos, who aimed 
 to attain, by the practice of contemplation 
 and asceticism, entire tranquillity and 
 serenity of mind (hence their name) and 
 hence supernatural insight and divine 
 light, with knowledge of the Deity. See 
 Raskolniks. 
 
 Hesychius (St). — Lived probably in 
 the fifth century. Egyptian bishop, mar- 
 tyred at Alexandria. He published an 
 edition of the New Testament, and revised 
 the edition of the Septuagint. — Hesy- 
 chius of Jerusalem, Greek ecclesiastical 
 writer, born at Constantinople, about 435. 
 — Hesychius of Miletus, Asia Minor, lived 
 at the beginning of the sixth century. 
 Surnamed the " Illustrious " ; a Greek 
 historical writer. 
 
 Hetheans. — Chanaanite people of the 
 mountains of Hebron, comprised in the 
 tribe of Juda. 
 
 Hexaemeron. — Name of the works made 
 by various authors on the first chapters of 
 Genesis and the first six days of creation. 
 
 Hieracites. — Heretics and followers of 
 Hierax (285-375), an Egyptian ascetic; 
 taught Gnostic and Montanistic errors. 
 He also rejected marriage, denied the re- 
 surrection, and believed that children who 
 died before attaining knowledge, did not 
 enter heaven. 
 
 Hierarchy. — A body of persons organized 
 in ranks and orders for the exercise of rule 
 over sacred things ; hence an organized 
 body of ecclesiastics intrusted with the 
 government of the Church. The Council 
 of Trent declares that the divinely insti- 
 tuted Hierarchy in the Church consists of 
 bishops, priests, and ministers. Since 
 deacons are the highest order in the Hier- 
 archy after bishops and priests, it follows 
 that, according to the Council, the order 
 
 of deacons is of divine institution; but the 
 Council does not tell us whether the same 
 can be said of subdeacons and others. 
 
 Hierarchy of the Church throughout the 
 World. — Pope Leo XIII., elected February 
 2oth, crowned March 3d, 1878. 
 
 SUMMARY OF CATHOLIC SEES. 
 
 (Gerarchia Catlolica, 18^.) 
 The Sacred College of Cardinals: 
 
 Suburban sees 6 
 
 Titular Churches 53 
 
 Diaconies 16 
 
 75 
 The Patriarchal Sees: 
 
 I^tin Rite S 
 
 Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, 
 Jerusalem, Lisbon, East Indies, 
 West Indies, Venice. 
 
 Oriental Rites 6 
 
 Antioch of the Melchite Rite, Antioch 
 of the Maronite Rite, Antioch of the 
 Syriac Rite, Cilicia of the Arme- 
 nian Rite, Babylon of the Chal- 
 daic Rite. 
 
 A rchhishoprics: 
 Latin Rite : 
 
 Immediately subject to the Holy See. 19 
 
 With Ecclesiastical Provinces 155 
 
 Oriental Rites: 
 
 With Ecclesiastical Provinces : 
 
 Armenian Rite i 
 
 Greek-Roumenian Rite i 
 
 Greek-Ruthenian Rite i 
 
 Subject to Patriarchates : 
 
 Armenian Rite i 
 
 Greek-Melchite Rite 3 
 
 Syriac Rite 3 
 
 Syro^haldaic Rite .,. a 
 
 Syro-Marooite Rite 6 
 
 192 
 Bishoprics: 
 Latin Rite : 
 
 Immediately subject to the Holy See. 83 
 
 Suffragan Sees in Ecclesiastical Prov- 
 inces 637 
 
 Oriental Rites: 
 
 Immediately subject to the Holy See: 
 
 Greek-Ruthenian Rite 3 
 
 Suffragan Sees in Ecclesiastical Prov- 
 inces: 
 
 Greek-Roumenian Rite 3 
 
 Greek-Ruthenian Rite 6 
 
 Subject to Patriarchates: 
 
 Armenian Rite 16 
 
 Coptic Rite 2 
 
 Greek-Melchite Rite 8 
 
 Syriac Rite 5 
 
 Syro-Chaldaic Rite 9 
 
 Syro-Maronite Rite 2 
 
 773 
 Sedes "Nullius Dioceseos": 
 
 Archabbey i 
 
 Abbeys la 
 
 Archpresbjrteiy 1 
 
 Priory I 
 
 Prelattires 2 
 
 17 
 Grand Totai. of Catholic Sbbs 1071 
 
Hierarchy of the Church 335 
 
 Latin Rite 
 
 In the following tables the sees are given by countries, added up from the special 
 enumeration of sees on pp. 34, etc., of Gerarchia Cattolica for 1898: — 
 
 LATIN RITE 
 
 Countries 
 
 Europe 
 
 Austria-Hungary 
 
 Bosnia and Herzegovina. 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Bulgaria 
 
 France 
 
 German Empire 
 
 Luxemburg 
 
 England 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Colonies 
 
 Greece 
 
 Italy and Islands 
 
 Monaco 
 
 Montenegro 
 
 Holland 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Roumania 
 
 Russia 
 
 Russian Poland 
 
 North America 
 
 Newfoundland 
 
 St. Pierre Island (French) . 
 
 Canada 
 
 Mexico 
 
 United States 
 
 Total 
 
 South America 
 
 Argentine Republic 
 
 Bolivia 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Chili 
 
 Columbia 
 
 Ecuador 
 
 Guyana 
 
 Patagonia (North) 
 
 Patagonia (South) 
 
 Paraguay 
 
 Peru 
 
 Uruguay 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Total 
 
 8-> 
 
 27 
 
 42 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 67 
 H 
 
 24 
 4 
 
 4 
 156 
 
 22 
 69 
 
 109 
 
 7 
 2 
 
 5 
 61 
 
 ostn 
 
 Ej3 
 
 So 
 5 V 
 
Hierarchy of the Church 336 Latin and Oriental Rites 
 
 Countries 
 
 8 
 
 el 
 
 ■c 
 
 n 
 
 < 
 
 B 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 ate 
 -5 .Si. 
 
 ■•33 
 
 h 
 
 01 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 •a 
 
 00 
 
 
 ■| 
 
 Q 
 
 1 
 
 « 
 
 V 
 
 'C 
 S 
 > 
 
 
 
 <: 
 
 n 
 u 
 
 S 
 Or 
 
 Central America 
 West Ind es 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 I 
 
 7 
 4 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 
 Republics 
 Suffragan 
 
 of Central America 
 
 to Bordeaux (France) 
 
 il 
 
 Tot£ 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 13 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 Oceania 
 
 Australia . 
 
 
 5 
 I 
 I 
 
 13 
 3 
 4 
 
 
 
 I 
 ■ ■ 
 
 
 4 
 II 
 
 I 
 2 
 
 New Zealand 
 
 
 Islands . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 7 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 IS 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 Total in - 
 
 f Europe 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 95 
 
 ID 
 
 2 
 27 
 
 4 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 408 
 27 
 10 
 
 109 
 
 13 
 61 
 20 
 
 17 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 82 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 10 
 
 56 
 
 27 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 15 
 
 4 
 10 
 20 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 Asia 
 
 Africa 
 
 North America 
 
 Central America 
 
 South America 
 
 Oceania 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 155 
 
 648 
 
 19 
 
 85 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 121 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 Total of Archbishoprics imtnediateVy subject to the Holy See 19 
 
 Total of Archbishoprics with ecclesiastical provinces 155 
 
 Total of Bishoprics immediately subject to the Holy See 85 
 
 Total of Bishoprics in ecclesiastical provinces 648 
 
 The difference between these totals and those given on page 471 of Gerarchia Cattolica is to be ex- 
 plained that some of the dioceses were united with others and not properly mentioned. 
 
 ORIENTAL RITES 
 
 Europe 
 Armenian Rite 
 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 I 
 
 14 
 8 
 
 5 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 
 Greek Rite * . 
 
 
 Greek-Roumanian Rite 
 
 
 Greek- Ruthenian Rite 
 
 
 Greek-Bulgarian Rite + 
 
 
 Asia 
 Armenian Rite 
 
 
 Greek-Melchite Rite 
 
 Syriac Rite 
 
 Syro-Chaldaic Rite 
 
 Syro-Maronite Rite 
 
 Syro-Malabric Rite X 
 
 Africa 
 Armenian Rite 
 
 
 Coptic Rite 
 
 I 
 6 
 
 Copts of Ethiopia and Abyssinia TP 
 
 Total 
 
 IS 
 
 42 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 
 6 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 * The Catholics of the Greek Rite are dependent on the Apostolic Delegates at Athens and 
 Constantinople. 
 
 t The Catholics of the Greek-Bulgarian Rite are under the jurisdiction of two Bishops as Admin- 
 istrators, with residences in Tracia and Macedonia. 
 
 \ The Catholics of the Syro-Malabric Rite are under the jurisdiction of three Vicars Apostolic of 
 the .same Rite, with residences in Trichoor, Changanacchery, and Ernaculam. 
 
 \ The Catholics of the Ethiopic and Abys.sinian Rite ( in Central Africa ) are under the iurisdic- 
 tion of a Vicar Apostolic of the Xatin Rite, who resides in Abyssinia. 
 
HiEROCLES 
 
 337 
 
 Hilary of Poitiers 
 
 Hierocles. — Governor of Bithynia, and 
 later on of Egypt, in the fourth century. 
 He openly defended the superiority of the 
 pretender ApoUonius of Tyana over Christ ; 
 caused Christian matrons and virgins to be 
 exposed in brothels; wrote a work entitled 
 Address to the Christians from a Friend 
 of Truth, in which he repeated all the 
 slanders of Celsus and Porphyrins against 
 the Christians. Of the work of Hierocles, 
 which has been lost, Eusebius made an am- 
 ple refutation. 
 
 Hieronymites. — Members of a religious 
 order founded in Spain. They were monks 
 of an order of canons regular, founded in 
 1373, in honor of St. Jerome. Their most 
 famous community has been that of St. 
 Lawrence. These religious at first lived as 
 hermits, but afterwards embraced a ceno- 
 bitic life, following a rule collected from 
 the writings of St. Jerome. 
 
 Hieronymus (St.). See Jerome. 
 
 High-Priest. — The chief of the Jewish 
 priesthood. His dignity was hereditary in 
 the line of Eleazar, the son of Aaron ; and 
 many more restrictions were attached to it 
 than belonged to the ordinary office of a 
 priest. His functions consisted principally 
 in the general administration of the sanctu- 
 ary and all that belonged to the sacred serv- 
 ice. He, alone, was allowed to enter the Holy 
 of Holies on the Day of Atonement, and to 
 consult the Urim and Thummim. No less 
 was his costume of surpassing splendor 
 and costliness, comprising more numerous 
 vestments than those of the ordinary priests. 
 This brilliant costume, however, was laid 
 aside by the high-priest when, on the Day 
 of Atonement, he went to perform the 
 most awful service in the Holy of Holies. 
 A simple garb of white linen — the funeral 
 dress of the Jews in later times — was all 
 he wore on that occasion. 
 
 Hilarion (St.) (288-371). — Founder of 
 the monastic life in Palestine, born at 
 Tabathe, near Gaza, became a Christian 
 at Alexandria, and visited St. Anthony in 
 the Thebaid. Returning into his country 
 in 307, he divided all his goods among the 
 poor and retired into the frightful solitude 
 of Majuma, where numerous disciples 
 placed themselves under his direction, 
 founded numerous monasteries in Pales- 
 tine and in Syria, left his solitude and re- 
 tired to the island of Cyprus, in order to 
 escape celebrity. F. Oct. 25th. 
 
 Hilary. — Pope from 461 to 467. Suc- 
 cessor of St. Leo, born in Sardinia. De- 
 fender of Bishop Flavian against the 
 Eutychians in the Second Council of 
 Ephesus, in 449. 
 
 Hilary of Aries (St.). — Hilary, born 
 about 401, in Gaul, received an education 
 befitting his distinguished birth, and made 
 great progress in all branches of human 
 knowledge, particularly in rhetoric and 
 philosophy. After spending most of his 
 youth in worldly pursuits, he resolved, 
 after a hard struggle, to follow the advice 
 of a relative (afterwards Bishop Honoratus 
 of Aries), and enter the religious state. 
 He sold his goods and distributed the pro- 
 ceeds among the poorer monasteries, and 
 then, leaving the land of his birth, repaired 
 to the isle of Lerins, where as a monk, he 
 was soon distinguished for his love of 
 prayer, and self-denial. When Honoratus 
 became bishop of Aries, Hilary, yielding 
 to his constant entreaties, followed him 
 thither. However, he soon returned to 
 his beloved solitude, but on the death of 
 Honoratus he was elected to the vacant 
 see. As bishop, he lived with all the 
 strictness of a monk; his charity toward 
 the poor was extraordinary, and in preach- 
 ing, his zeal was almost excessive. He 
 founded a seminary for the training of his 
 clergy, held numerous synods, and put in 
 force most excellent disciplinary enact- 
 ments. Ever ready to encourage those 
 aspiring to perfection, he founded new 
 monasteries and frequently visited the va- 
 rious monastic institutes. For his extant 
 writings, see Migne, Pat. Lat, L. 1214— 
 1292. F. May 5th. 
 
 Hilary of Poitiers (St). — Hilary, the 
 scion of a noble family of Poitiers, was 
 born between 320 and 325. He received 
 his scientific education in his native town 
 and in Bordeaux, where he more espe- 
 cially applied himself to the study of rhet- 
 oric. The more he saw of the profligate 
 life of his fellow-citizens, the more his no- 
 ble soul was filled with disgust and longed 
 after the knowledge of truth. The pe- 
 rusal of Holy Scripture freed him from all 
 the doubts which heathen philosophy had 
 raised in his mind, and together with his 
 wife and daughter he embraced Christian- 
 ity in 350. On account of his holy life, 
 both the clergy and people demanded his 
 elevation to the bishopric of Poitiers, and 
 he was consecrated shortly before 355. 
 Thenceforth he led a life of continency. 
 
HiLLEL 
 
 338 Holiness of the Church 
 
 devoting himself entirely to his episcopal 
 duties. His uncompromising opposition 
 to Arianism, favored by the Emperor Con- 
 stantius, caused him to be banished by 
 that prince to Phrygia. But as his influ- 
 ence here seemed to be still more dreaded 
 by the Arians, he was allowed, in 359, to 
 return to his bishopric, where he con- 
 tinued, by word and writing, and espe- 
 cially by means of synods, to combat 
 Arianism with such success, that he caused 
 the Galilean bishops completely to re- 
 nounce it. True, he was not able to gain 
 over Auxentius, Bishop of Milan, which 
 city was the stronghold of Arianism, but 
 he forced him to be more cautious. The 
 latter years of his life were spent in quie- 
 tude, occupied with exegetical labors. He 
 died at Poitiers, Jan. 13th, 366. His works 
 are contained in Migne, Pat. Lat. IX, X. 
 F. Jan. 14th. 
 
 Hillel, surnamed the Ancient. — Born in 
 Babylonia, a descendant of the family of 
 David. President of the Sanhedrin (30B.C.- 
 9 A. D.), appointed by Herod I. He lived in 
 poor circumstances, ^nd went to Jerusalem 
 to studythe law under Shemaiyah, becoming 
 there, the organizer of Jewish life and the 
 founder of Talmudic Judaism. By his in- 
 terpretation of the seven dialectical rules 
 for the interpretation of the law, he gave 
 its study a rational basis. He also enacted 
 many reforms which aflfected the whole 
 social fabric of his time. He was the first 
 of the presidents of the Sanhedrin to be 
 honored with the title nasi (^prince, pa- 
 triarch), and the patriarchate remained 
 thenceforth hereditary in his family until 
 its extinction. See Talmud. 
 
 Hincmar of Laon. — Bishop of Laon, 
 nephew of the following, died in 880. He 
 was deposed by the Council of Douzi in 
 871, for excesses committed in the govern- 
 ment of his Church. His own uncle had 
 become his accuser. Two years afterwards 
 he was blinded. 
 
 Hincmar of Rheims (806-882). — States- 
 man and theologian. Monk of St. Denis, 
 Abbot of St. Germain de Compiegne, 
 named Archbishop of Rheims in 845 to re- 
 place Ebbo, with whom he had vehement 
 wrestlings. He played a conspicuous part 
 in the theological movement of his time, 
 notably in the predestinarian controversy, 
 in which he supported Paschasius Rad- 
 bertus. He also enjoyed considerable 
 influence over Charles the Bald, presided 
 
 over the Council of Quierzi wherein 
 Gottschalk was condemned, and upheld 
 the emperor against the Pope. 
 
 Hippolytus. — A Roman presbyter, who 
 flourished in the first half of the third 
 century, was a pupil of St. Irenaeus and 
 the head of a learned school at Rome. He 
 was a valiant champion of orthodoxy 
 against the Patripassians, but afterwards 
 fell into the opposite heresy, maintaining 
 the inferiority of the Son to the Father. 
 He became the bitter opponent of Popes 
 Zephyrinus and Calixtus, and, when the 
 latter ascended the Papal Chair, he figured 
 as an antipope. He was, however, recon- 
 ciled with the Church, and died a martyr 
 about 235 under Maximin. As a writer, 
 Hippolytus was, after Origen, perhaps the 
 most prominent of his age. His writings 
 comprised exegetical, historical, doctrinal, 
 and controversial treatises. His great 
 work entitled Philosophumena, or Refuta- 
 tion of all Heresies, in ten books, which 
 was discovered in a monastery at Mount 
 Athos in 1842, has thrown light on many 
 important questions relating to the early 
 Church. In it, however, the author basely 
 misrepresents the character of Pope Calix- 
 tus and his predecessor, Zephyrinus. His 
 other works extant are On Antichrist; 
 Against the Noetian Heresy; Address to 
 the yews; On Gifts; etc. 
 
 Hiram. — King of Tyre about 1000 b. c, 
 a contemporary with David and Solomon, 
 with whom he entertained amicable re- 
 lations, assisted at the building of the 
 Temple at Jerusalem by furnishing ma- 
 terials and artisans, and entered with 
 Solomon into a commercial alliance. The 
 tomb of Hiram is shown on a hillside east 
 of Tyre. 
 
 Holiness. — A title of the Pope. He is 
 addressed as •' Your Holiness," " His 
 Holiness," ^^Beatissime Pater,^' etc. The 
 insignia of the Pope are the straight cro- 
 sier; the pallium, which he wears con- 
 stantly, and the tiara, or triple cyown. 
 
 Holiness of the Church. — One of the 
 
 four distinctive marks of the true Church 
 of Christ. We maintain that the Catholic 
 Church is holy, because it teaches a holy 
 doctrine, and offers to all means of holi- 
 ness. It surpasses and eclipses every sect 
 by the efficacy of its doctrine and worship, 
 and by its laws for the sanctification of 
 souls. The reality of such holiness is 
 manifest in many of its members by match- 
 
Holland 
 
 339 
 
 Holy Week 
 
 less external effects, such as are evinced 
 through holy teaching, holy acts and mir- 
 acles. For instance, there have been mar- 
 tyrs of all ages, both sexes, all conditions, 
 all nationalities, who have suffered will- 
 ingly for the love of God, giving proof of 
 the sanctity of the Church. The apostle 
 or missionary who voluntarily quits his 
 country and sacrifices all his earthly well- 
 being, even his very life, for the conquest 
 of souls for Christ, is a living proof of the 
 holiness of the Church to which he belongs. 
 Virtues of charity, patience, chastity, or 
 alienation from the world, carried to a de- 
 gree of heroism, prove that holiness exists 
 in that Church, whereof those who practice 
 these virtues are members. Real mir- 
 acles can only be performed by divine 
 power, and consequently it is to the saints, 
 and to no others, that God accords the 
 privilege of working them unceasingly in 
 the true Church ; and this is an undeniable 
 demonstration of its holiness. 
 
 Holland {Church in). See Nether- 
 lands. 
 
 Holy Coat. See Coat. 
 
 Holy Family. — The name given in the 
 language of art, to every representation of 
 the infant Saviour and his attendants. In 
 the early part of the Middle Ages, when 
 the object in view was to excite devotion, 
 the Virgin and Child were usually the only 
 persons represented. At a later period 
 St. Joseph, St. Elizabeth, St. Anna (the 
 mother of the Blessed Virgin), and St. 
 John the Baptist were included. Some 
 of the old German painters have added 
 the Twelve Apostles as children and play- 
 fellows of the infant Christ, as well as 
 their mothers, as stated in the legends. 
 The Italian school, with its fine feeling 
 for composition, was the first to recog- 
 nize of how many figures the group must 
 consist, if the interest is to remain undi- 
 vided, and be concentrated on the figures 
 of the Child Jesus, the Blessed Virgin and 
 St. Joseph. 
 
 Holy Fire. — In the Catholic Church, a 
 light kindled at Easter in remembrance — 
 according to the Missal — of Christ as the 
 great corner stone, and hailed by kneeling 
 ecclesiastics with the words " Light of 
 Christ " (Z«we« Christi). This ceremony 
 takes place on Holy Saturday. 
 
 Holy Ghost. See Trinity. 
 
 Holy Ghost {Orders of Me). — Three 
 orders called by this name were instituted 
 by the Catholic Church (1178, 1588, and 
 1700). The latter, a society of missionary 
 priests, is still alive. Its general mother- 
 house is at Paris. A branch thereof exists 
 at Cornwells, Bucks county, Pennsylvania. 
 
 Holy Office {Sanctum Officium). — A 
 term applied to the spiritual court of the 
 Congregation of Inquisition. 
 
 Holy Orders. See Orders. 
 
 Holy Places, Holy Sepulchre. — The 
 
 name Holy Places of Jerusalem more 
 strictly designates the group of sacred 
 places of which the Church of the Holy 
 Sepulchre is the center, and which are 
 supposed to comprise the sites of the chief 
 events of Our Lord's passion, death, and 
 burial: Ge;thsemane, the Supper- room, the 
 Church of the Ascension, the Tomb of the 
 Blessed Virgin, etc. 
 
 Holy Water. See Water. 
 
 Holy Week. — Holy Week, at the end 
 of Lent, begins with a Sunday, which, in 
 both the Greek and Latin Churches, they 
 designate under the name of Palm Sunday. 
 On this day Mass is preceded with a pro- 
 cession, in which the Faithful hold palm 
 branches, previously blessed, in their 
 hands, in commemoration of the Triumph- 
 ant Entry of Jesus into Jerusalem, six days 
 before His death. This rite, as so many 
 other ceremonies of the same kind, was at 
 first peculiar to Jerusalem. It is described 
 in the Peregrination of Silvius ; Cyril 
 of Scythopolis, writer of the sixth century 
 also mentions it. It was introduced into 
 the West only about the eighth century. 
 The ancient Latin liturgical books do not 
 mention it at all. Amalarius, of Metz, 
 speaks thereof, but in terms which do not 
 indicate that the custom was universal. 
 However, St. Isidore, without explicitly 
 mentioning the procession, speaks of the 
 dies Palmarum, of the custom of carrying 
 on that day branches in the church and of 
 singing " Hosanna." 
 
 Holy Thursday, which in the cycle of 
 the movable feasts, reminds of the anni- 
 versary of the institution of the Eucharist, 
 could not fail to be a day of liturgical re- 
 union. In Africa, the Eucharist was cele- 
 brated, as something unusual, after the 
 repast in the evening, with the view of a 
 greater conformity with the circumstances 
 of the Last Supper. 
 
Holy Week 
 
 340 
 
 Holy Week 
 
 On Holy Friday, consecrated to the re- 
 membrance of the passion and death of the 
 Saviour, they celebrated nowhere the 
 eucharistic liturgy. The service of this 
 day, according to the Roman rite, has pre- 
 served to us, in its first part, the exact type 
 of the ancient non-liturgical reunions. It 
 became complicated, about the seventh and 
 eighth centuries, with the two ceremonies 
 of the adoration of the Cross and of the 
 Mass of the Presanctified. The first is de- 
 rived from Jerusalem, where it was prac- 
 ticed since the fourth century. In the 
 holy city, the wood of the Cross was sol- 
 emnly presented on this day to the Faith- 
 ful, who could approach and kiss it. 
 
 Almost all the ancient Roman liturgical 
 books speak of the adoration of the Cross 
 as forming a part of the religious ser\'ice 
 on Good Friday, but they diflFer a good 
 deal in the manner they combine it with 
 the other ceremonies. The chants exe- 
 cuted at present, during the adoration of 
 the Cross, have certainly a very ancient 
 touch. The "Mass of the Presanctified" 
 is hardly pointed out in the ancient Roman 
 books. It was nothing else but the commun- 
 ion, isolated from the eucharistic liturgy 
 properly speaking. The details of the cere- 
 mony are found only in the books from 
 the eighth to the ninth century ; but it 
 must be much more ancient. In the time 
 when the non-liturgical synaxes were of 
 frequent use, it must have been the same 
 with the "Mass of the Presanctified." In 
 the Greek Church, it is celebrated every 
 day during Lent, except on Saturday and 
 Sunday; in the Latin Church, only on 
 Good Friday. At Rome this ceremony 
 was very simple. They brought on the 
 altar the box (casfa) containing the rem- 
 nant of the consecrated bread ; recited the 
 Pater with its short preface and embolism 
 {Libera nos) ; then they put a fragment of 
 the consecrated bread into a chalice filled 
 with unconsecrated wine, and everybody 
 communicated with the consecrated bread 
 from the casfa and the sanctified wine as 
 described. We may believe that, when the 
 Faithful administered holy communion to 
 themselves at home, as it was frequently 
 the case during the times of persecution 
 for the solitaries in the desert, and, in 
 general, for persons living very far from a 
 church, they followed a ceremony analo- 
 gous to this. 
 
 On Holy Saturday, there is no special 
 reunion. The ceremonies of the Paschal 
 vigil were already, about the eighth cen- 
 
 tury, transferred to the afternoon of Satur- 
 day ; at present, it is celebrated in the 
 morning. Outside the rites that have 
 reference to the baptismal initiation, this 
 solemn vigil offers some particularities: 
 the blessing of the new fire; that of the 
 Paschal candle; and finally the Mass, in 
 which we find preserved certain archaic 
 traits. They arrived to these rites by a quite 
 natural symbolism. The death of Christ, 
 followed by His resurrection, found an ex- 
 pressive image in the fire, the Paschal can- 
 dle, and thflamp.whichisput out andlighted 
 again. We know, still in our day, of the im- 
 portance of the ceremony- of the new fire in 
 the Paschal rite of the Greek Church, at 
 Jerusalem. However, in the East, this cere- 
 mony is peculiar to the holy city; it does 
 not figure in the common Byzantine ritual. 
 In the West, the legend of St. Patrick 
 supposes that, at least since the sixth cen- 
 tury, the Irish were in the habit to light 
 great fires at the beginning of the Paschal 
 night. From the correspondence of St. 
 Boniface with Pope Zacharias, it goes forth 
 that these fires were lighted, not with other 
 fires, but with fire from flints ; they were 
 really new fires. This custom appears to 
 be a peculiarity of British or Irish origin, 
 brought on the continent of Europe by 
 the missionaries of the eighth century. 
 The ancient Merovingian books have no 
 trace thereof. Neither did they know it 
 at Rome. However, they obser\'ed there 
 a rite of analogous sense. On Holy Thurs- 
 da}', at the time of the consecration of the 
 chrism, they gathered from all the lamps 
 of the Lateran basilica a quantity of oil 
 sufficient to fill three large vases which 
 were deposited in a corner of the church. 
 The oil burned therein by means of wicks, 
 until the Paschal vigil. From these large 
 lamps they lighted the candles and other 
 lights which served, during Easter night, 
 to lighten the ceremony of baptism. It is 
 still a foreign custom at Rome to solemnly 
 bless the Paschal candle and, in general, 
 the light of the church, at the beginning 
 of the Paschal vigil. It is useless to say 
 that this custom has the most intimate re- 
 lation with that to preserve as a spark from 
 the old fire or to solemnly produce from 
 it a new fire. At Rome, where the 
 blessing of the Paschal candle was not in 
 use, the large lamps prepared on Holy 
 Thursday ser\'ed on Holy Friday and 
 Saturday to light the two candles which 
 they carried, on these days, in procession 
 before the Pope, instead of the seven can- 
 
Homily 
 
 341 
 
 HONORIUS I. 
 
 dies which generally preceded him. Out- 
 side of Rome, that is, in Upper Italy, 
 Gaul and Spain, the blessing of the Paschal 
 candle was in use quite early. Perhaps it 
 was the same in Africa : St. Augustine 
 (Civ. Dei, XV. xxii.) quotes verses which 
 he had composed in laudem quadam cerei. 
 It is not certain that this Latis Cerei was 
 not composed by some deacon of Milan or 
 of a neighboring Church. This ceremony 
 was so popular that the Popes, without 
 adopting it for their own Church, were ob- 
 liged to permit it for those Churches of the 
 suburbicarian diocese. The Liber pontifi- 
 calis establishes this concession, from the 
 middle of the sixth century, and it is attrib 
 uted to Pope Zosimus. We meet with the 
 Paschal candle at Ravenna, in the time of 
 St. Gregory the Great and at Naples, in 
 the eighth century. Even in Lower Italy, 
 the blessing of the Paschal candle has left 
 the most imposing traces in the liturgical 
 paleography. 
 
 The formula of blessing, there where it 
 was in use, was pronounced, not by the 
 bishop, nor by a priest, but by the arch- 
 deacon, who for this effect ascended the 
 ambo, near which the candle to be blessed 
 was placed. First he announced in a kind 
 of invitatory, the beginning of the great 
 feast; then assuming a tone and style of 
 the most solemn prayer, the eucharistic 
 prayer, he called down the divine blessing 
 upon this luminous column which is going 
 to illuminate the mysteries of the Christian 
 Pasch, as formerly a fiery column guided 
 in the desert the exodus of the children of 
 Israel. Then he poetically celebrated its 
 different elements, the papyrus which 
 formed the wick, the virgin oil and the 
 beeswax, which formed its matter. The 
 formula now in use is the Extiltet. See 
 this Subject. After these ceremonies came 
 the long series of lessons, chants and 
 prayers, then the blessing of the baptismal 
 font, the administration of baptism and 
 confirmation, and finally the Mass. For 
 more particulars, see Thursday, Friday, 
 Saturday. 
 
 Homily (Gr. homilia, converse) primi- 
 tively signifies a discourse held with one 
 or more individuals ; but in ecclesiastical 
 use it means a discourse held in the Church, 
 and addressed by the bishop or priest to the 
 congregation. These discourses employed 
 for this purpose were of the most simple 
 character ; but with the exception of one as- 
 cribed to Hippolytus, we have no sample of 
 
 this form of composition earlier than the 
 Homilies of Origen, in the third century. 
 Taking these as a type, the early Christian 
 homily may be described as a popular ex- 
 position of a portion of Scripture, accom- 
 panied by moral reflections and exhorta- 
 tions. The Schools of Alexandria and 
 Antioch appear to have been the great 
 centers of this class of sacred literature ; 
 and in the early century we find the names 
 of Hippolytus, Metrodorus, Clement of 
 Alexandria, Dionysius, and Gregory Thau- 
 maturgus, as principally distinguished. 
 But it was in the following centuries that 
 the homily received its full development in 
 the hands of the Oriental Fathers : Athana- 
 sius, the two Gregories of Nyssa and of 
 Nazianzum, Basil, the two Cyrils of Jerusa- 
 lem and of Alexandria, and above all 
 Chrysostom; and in the West: Ambrose, 
 Augustine, Peter Chrysologus, Leo and 
 Gregory the Great. The name " homily" 
 is very frequently used as a synonym for 
 sermon. See Sermon. 
 
 Homoosion {of the same substance) Ho- 
 moiousion {of a similar substance) and 
 Heteroosion {of another substance), denote 
 the three different standpoints in the great 
 Christological controversy of the fourth 
 century. The first was employed by the 
 orthodox Athanasius, the second by the 
 great middle party, the Semi-Arians, and 
 the third by the heretic Arius, when defin- 
 ing the relations between the first and the 
 second Person in the Most Holy Trinity. 
 
 Honoratus (St.). — Born probably at 
 Toul, France; died in 429. Converted 
 with his brother Venantius, both distrib- 
 uted their goods to the poor, and embarked 
 at Marseilles for the Orient. Venantius 
 having died in Greece, Honoratus returned 
 to Gaul, founded, on the island of Lerins, 
 about 410, a famous monastery of which he 
 became Abbot, and was named Archbishop 
 of Aries in 426. His Life was written by 
 St. Hilary. F. Jan. i6th. 
 
 Honorius I. — Pope from 625 to 638. 
 Successor of Boniface IV, He sent into 
 England St. Birnus, who baptized the king 
 of Wessex Kynegil and gave the pallium 
 to the Archbishop of Canterbury, exhorted 
 the Irish to follow the Roman custom for 
 the date of celebrating Easter. He built 
 at Rome, magnificent aqueducts and con- 
 structed or ornamented a great number of 
 churches. The Ecumenical Council of 
 Constantinople (see below), in 65o con- 
 
HONORIUS I. 
 
 342 
 
 Hospital 
 
 demned his memory as having impru- 
 dently favored the error of the Monothe- 
 lites. Honorius II. — Antipope, Bishop of 
 Parma, elected Pope in 1061 at Basle, by the 
 lords of Germany and Italy, who declared 
 the election of Alexander II . as illegitimate. 
 He was deposed by the Council of Mantua 
 and died in neglect. Honorius II. — Pope 
 from 1124 to 1130. Successor of Calixtus 
 II. He was elected by a number of 
 cardinals, while others gave the title to 
 Theobald, cardinal-priest of St. Athana- 
 sius, who took the name of Celestine III. 
 To avoid a schism, they both renounced 
 their dignity, and the election of Ho- 
 norius was confirmed by a new vote. 
 He confirmed the Order of the Templars 
 at the Synod of Troyes in 1128. Hono- 
 rius III. — Pope from 1216 to 1227. The 
 primary object of his Pontificate was the 
 organization of a Crusade for the relief of 
 Palestine. He confirmed the Order of the 
 Dominicans in 1216 and that of the Fran- 
 ciscans in 1223. Honorius IV. — Pope 
 from 1285 to 1287. Successor of Martin 
 IV. He confirmed the Order of the 
 Hermits of St. Augustine and that of the 
 Carmelites. 
 
 Honorius I. {Condemnation of). — Pope 
 Honorius was anathematized as a heretic by 
 the Fourth General Council of Constanti- 
 nople (680). Not as a heretic in the proper 
 sense of the word, but as having negligently 
 permitted the spread of heresy of the Mon- 
 othelites, and so being involved in the same 
 condemnation as the actual heretics. Hon- 
 orius wrote a letter to Sergius, the Monothe- 
 lite patriarch of Constantinople, in which, 
 as the event proved, he did not make a suf- 
 ficiently firm protest against the heresy ; 
 but it cannot be shown that the letter it- 
 self contained heresy; and even were it 
 otherwise, the letter was a purely private 
 document, and neither in form nor in 
 substance or in mode of issue, showed any 
 trace of being for the instruction of the 
 universal Church. See Monothelitks. 
 
 Hontheim (Nicholas von). See Fk- 
 
 BRONIANISM. 
 
 Hope is a supernatural virtue, by which 
 we trust with entire confidence, that God 
 will give us possession of the eternal life 
 of happiness with Him, and the means of 
 obtaining it, promised to us through the 
 merits of our Saviour, by God who is 
 truth itself. The principle is represented 
 by the word '* supernatural," significant 
 
 of hope being a direct gift from God, a 
 filial confidence in divine Providence 
 amidst all the events of life. " Possession 
 of the eternal life of happiness with Him, 
 and the means of obtaining it," denotes 
 the double object of our hope ; and " prom- 
 ised through the merits of our Saviour, by 
 God who is truth itself," gives the mo- 
 tive ; expressing the infallibility of God's 
 pledges, without which we cannot obtain 
 salvation. We must, therefore, live " unto 
 the hope of life everlasting, which God, 
 who lieth not, hath promised before the 
 times of the world " (Tit. i. 2). 
 
 Hor, — Mount of Arabia Petraea, on the 
 confines of Idumsea, between the Dead Sea 
 and the gulf of Akabah. A grotto can be 
 seen there which, they claim, contains the 
 tomb of Aaron. 
 
 Horeb. See Sinai. 
 
 Horebites. See Hussites. 
 
 Hormisdas. — Pope from 514 to 523. A 
 quiet reign was alloted to his Pontificate; 
 he effected the restoration of ecclesiastical 
 peace with Constantinople, and was on 
 friendly terms with the imperial court at 
 that palace. 
 
 Hosanna. — A Hebrew word taken from 
 Ps. cxviii. (Vulg. cxvii.) 25: "O Lord, we 
 beseech Thee, save now; save, we pray." 
 A joyous chant. 
 
 Hosius (257-358). — Bishop of Cordova 
 in 296, merited the title of confessor 
 through the firmness which he showed 
 during the persecution of Diocletian and 
 Maximian. Constantine sent him to Alex- 
 andria, where he assembled a Council 
 with a view of composing the difficulties 
 of the Meletians, Arians, and followers of 
 Colluthus (319). He presided over the 
 first Council of Nice (325) and that of 
 Sardica (347). The supposed fall of Ho- 
 sius is untrue, since it is plainly rejected 
 by such authorities as Sulpitius Severus 
 and St. Augustine. St. Athanasius assures 
 us that Hosius, broken down by old age 
 and vanquished by tortures, gave way for 
 a moment and communicated with the 
 Arians, but without subscribing against 
 him or the orthodox faith. Renewing the 
 condemnation of the Arian heresy, the 
 venerable prelate died in exile, or accord- 
 ing to another account, in Spain. 
 
 Hospital (from Lat. hospes, guest). — 
 Hospital is an asylum open to the needy 
 
Hospitalers 
 
 343 
 
 Hughes 
 
 and often where wealth enriches itself at 
 the expense of misery. A house estab- 
 lished to receive and treat gratuitously the 
 needy sick. The first hospitals date from 
 the end of the second century, and served 
 especially for travelers. The first foundation 
 of a hospital for sick persons is attributed 
 to a Roman lady, Fabiola. Constantine 
 the Great, St. John Chrysostom, and St. 
 Basil encouraged the creation of hospitals 
 and gave to these establishments their first 
 regulations. By the impulse of bishops 
 numerous hospitals were created, directed 
 by priests and nourished by alms as well 
 as by a portion of the revenues and rents 
 belonging to the clergy and monastic 
 orders. In the eighth century, Rome 
 counted five hospitals. A magnificent hos- 
 pital was erected by the Arabs at Cordova. 
 The Hospital St. Christopher, now the 
 "Hotel-Dieu" at Paris, dates from the 
 beginning of the ninth century. The 
 spreading of leprosy in Europe imported 
 by the crusades, increased extraordinarily 
 the number of these institutes. The Coun- 
 cil of Trent ordained that the administra- 
 tion of hospitals should be intrusted to 
 laymen of good reputation. In our time, 
 hospitals are generally directed by reli- 
 gious ; this is especially the case in regard 
 to their management in the United States. 
 
 Hospitalers. See Knights. 
 
 Host (from Lat. hosfia, victim. The 
 consecrated bread of the Eucharist). — The 
 unleavened bread destined to be conse- 
 crated, the Body and the Blood of our 
 Saviour Jesus Christ, and His reception in 
 holy communion. The custom to form 
 the Eucharistic host flat and circular, may 
 be traced back to the remotest periods of 
 Christian antiquity. The Greeks prepare 
 their hosts (altar bread) occasionally 
 square as well as circular, for which the 
 following mystic reason is furnished. The 
 circular is allusive to the divinity which 
 the bread and wine receive when they are 
 transubstantiated ; the square expresses 
 that, by the sacrifice of Christ upon the 
 Cross, salvation is imparted to the four 
 quarters of the earth. 
 
 Hours {Canonical). — The canonical 
 hours are vocal prayers, which are to be 
 recited every day, at the appointed time, 
 by the persons obliged to say the divine 
 office. We call them "hours," because 
 they should be recited at certain hours of 
 the day or night, according to the custom 
 
 of the places. We call them *' canonical,'* 
 because they have been instituted by the 
 canons and ought to be recited by ecclesi- 
 astical persons who lead a canonical or 
 regular life. All the clerics in sacred or- 
 ders, although not beneficiaries, are obliged 
 under pain of mortal sin, to the recitation 
 of the canonical hours, even outside the 
 choir. This custom is founded upon both 
 the Eastern and Western Churches as well 
 as upon the words of the twenty-first ses- 
 sion of the Council of Basle : "^uoscttmque 
 beneficiatos in sacris constitutos quum ad 
 horas canonicas tencanfur, admonet syn- 
 odus," etc. The suspended, excommuni- 
 cated, deposed, or degraded clerics are not 
 discharged from this obligation, because 
 nobody is permitted to draw advantage 
 from his perversity. See Breviary. 
 
 Hubert (St.). — St. Hubert's early life is 
 so obscured by popular traditions that we 
 have no authentic account of his actions. 
 He is said to have been passionately ad- 
 dicted to hunting, and was entirely taken 
 up in worldly pursuits. One thing is cer- 
 tain : that he is the patron saint of hunters. 
 Moved by divine grace, he resolved to re- 
 nounce the world. His extraordinary fer- 
 vor, and the great progress which he made 
 in virtue and learning, strongly recom- 
 mended him to St. Lambert, Bishop of 
 Maestricht, who ordained him priest, and 
 intrusted to him the principal share in the 
 administration of his dioceSe. That holy 
 prelate being barbarously murdered in 621, 
 St. Hubert was unanimously chosen his 
 successor. With incredible zeal he pene- 
 trated into the most remote and barbarous 
 places of the Ardennes, and abolished the 
 worship of idols; and as he performed the 
 office of the Apostles, God bestowed on him 
 a like gift of miracles. He died on the 
 30th of May, in 727. 
 
 Hughes (John) (1797-1864). — American 
 prelate; was born at Annalogan, County 
 Tyrone, Ireland ; died in New York. Emi- 
 grating with his family to America in 1817, 
 he applied for entrance to Mount St. 
 Mary's Seminary in order to receive the 
 theological instruction to fit him for 
 the priesthood. After having been or- 
 dained priest in 1826, he was stationed at 
 Bedford, but was soon removed to Phila- 
 delphia, where his abilities were displayed 
 at St. Joseph's and St. Mary's. In 1837, he 
 was selected as coadjutor to Dr. Du Bois, 
 became Bishop of New York in 1842, and 
 archbishop in 1850. He broke the power 
 
Hugh of St. Victor 
 
 344 
 
 HUMILIATI 
 
 of the trustees in his diocese ; restored the 
 credit of the Catholic Congregations, gave 
 a new impulse to the erection of churches, 
 and founded St. John's College at Fordham. 
 In 1858, he laid the corner stone of St. Pat- 
 rick's Cathedral. When the civil war broke 
 out, he gave his earnest support to the 
 national government, and went to Europe 
 on a diplomatic mission with a view to 
 counteract the feeling unfavorable to the 
 United States, which envoys of the seced- 
 ing States had excited in more than one 
 European cabinet. No man ever exercised 
 greater influence in the Catholic Church 
 in the United States than Archbishop 
 Hughes. 
 
 Hugh of St. Victor. — Canon of the Abbey 
 of St. Victor of Paris, born near Ypers 
 about 1090, died in 1140. Surnamed the 
 "Second St. Augustine" ; wrote in Latin 
 several works: Commentaries on Holy 
 Scripture; Summa of the Sentences; 
 Treatise on the Sacrament; Explanation 
 of the Rule of St. Augustine; De Sapientia 
 Christi; and Chronicle, extending until 
 1 128. The best edition of his works is 
 that of Rouen (1648, 3 vols.), reprinted in 
 Migne, Pat. Lat. CLXXV-CLXXVII. 
 
 Huguenots. — Name applied to the Prot- 
 estants in France. According to Theodore 
 Beza, there was not one Huguenot in 
 France in 153;^, while in 1539 there were as 
 many as 400,000. The French King Fran- 
 cis I. (1515-1547) entered into compact 
 with foreign Protestants, while in his own 
 country he persecuted the new sect with 
 great force. The Huguenots soon formed 
 a political party and on the plea of religion 
 instigated several civil wars. They were 
 protected by the Bourbon princes who op- 
 posed the king. Having obtained approval 
 of their plans from their theologians the 
 Huguenots formed the conspiracy of Am- 
 boise (1560), against the king, but this, as 
 well as two subsequent conspiracies, ended 
 in failure. With the hope of satisfying 
 these heretics, an Edict of Toleration was 
 issued in 1562, but the Huguenots did not 
 seek toleration; their object was the total 
 annihilation of the Catholic Church, for 
 which they had the explicit approbation 
 of their preachers who decreed the penalty 
 of death against the "Papists." Churches 
 were pulled down, priests were mutilated 
 and put to death. The Massacre of Vassy, 
 in which sixty Huguenots were killed, was 
 the signal for an open war. The Huguenots 
 headed by the prince of Condd, took up arms, 
 
 sought assistance from the German Prot- 
 estants, and surrendered Havre de Grace 
 to England. Duke Francis de Guise, the 
 eminent Catholic general was assassinated 
 by a Huguenot. Notwithstanding their 
 three defeats, the Huguenots, by the peace 
 of St. Germain-en-Laye in 1570, obtained 
 not only freedom of worship, but also ac- 
 cess to all political offices. They soon 
 acquired influence at the court and excluded 
 the Catholics and even the queen-mother 
 from the affairs of the government. En- 
 raged at this effrontery, the queen-mother 
 took revenge in the massacre of St. Bar- 
 tholomew. See Bartholomew. 
 
 Humanists. — Classical studies, though 
 never neglected during the mediaeval 
 times, received a great impulse during the 
 fifteenth century. This was occasioned 
 by the negotiations made for the union of 
 the Greek and Latin Churches by the 
 Greek refugees, who came west after the 
 conquest of Constantinople. The study 
 of pagan authors, or classical studies, was 
 called " Humanities," its promoters were 
 named " Humanists." These exercised a 
 healthful influence on science and litera- 
 ture, supplanting the awkward language 
 of the later scholastics by a classical Latin. 
 But far greater was their influence for 
 evil, which resulted in a frantic and ridicu- 
 lous preference for classical expression. 
 Christ was called : Minerva a yovis cafite 
 orta; in an overrating of pagan philosophy, 
 Plato and Aristotle were placed on the 
 same level with the Bible ; in bitter strife 
 with scholasticism, it produced a false en- 
 thusiasm for pagan ideas, contempt for the 
 Church, indiflPerentism, and frivolity. 
 Many Humanists ridiculed priests and 
 monks, and by their lascivious writings, 
 undermined religion and morality. Ulrich 
 sung in classical Latin, the consequences 
 of his immorality. We distinguish two 
 periods of Humanism: The ancient and 
 Christian without losing sight of the high 
 value of scholasticism, and the latter a new 
 pagan Humanism, whose advocates used 
 their talents and linguistic acquirements 
 against religion and the Church; they 
 were men of dubious character, servile 
 flatterers and beggars, or shameless calum- 
 niators. This form of Humanism soon 
 gained preponderance. 
 
 Humiliati (religious). — The Humiliati 
 were at first an association of laymen, es- 
 tablished for purposes of religion in the 
 twelfth century. Innocent III., in 1200, 
 
Huss AND Hussites 
 
 345 
 
 Huss AND Hussites 
 
 approved them as a religious order under 
 the rule of St. Benedict. A plot formed 
 by some of its members against the life of 
 St. Charles Borromeo caused Pope Pius V. 
 to suppress them in 1571. 
 
 Huss and Hussites. — From England the 
 heresy of Wycliflfe was, about the beginning 
 of the fifteenth century, transplanted into 
 Bohemia, where John Huss (1369-1415) 
 became its chief propagator. Huss him- 
 self, and at that time professor in the Uni- 
 versity of Prague, translated Wycliffe's 
 writings into Bohemian. In 1408, the Uni- 
 versity condemned the works of Wycliffe 
 and their reading was prohibited by the 
 Archbishop Sbinkc of Prague. Huss hav- 
 ing become rector of the University, he 
 now preached boldly and without reserve 
 the doctrines of Wycliffe — doctrines sub- 
 versive of all order, ecclesiastical and civil. 
 Having obtained a Bull from Alexander V. 
 for the suppression of the Wycliffe doc- 
 trines, Sbinko ordered two hundred vol- 
 umes of the English heresiarch to be 
 burnt, then suspended and, finally, excom- 
 municated Huss. The sentence was con- 
 firmed by John XXHI., and the city of 
 Prague was placed under the interdict so 
 long as Huss should be allowed to remain 
 there. But to this Huss paid no regard; 
 he appealed from the Pope to a General 
 Council, and continued to preach and 
 pour forth his coarse and loose invectives 
 against the Papacy, the hierarchy, and the 
 clergy. The infection of the errors of 
 Huss soon spread throughout Bohemia, 
 and was propogated by Jerome of Prague 
 throughout Poland and Moravia. The 
 Council of Constance having meanwhile 
 assembled, Huss, who had appealed to a 
 General Council was prevailed upon to 
 appear before that assembly by the Em- 
 peror Sigismond. Huss had three public 
 hearings before the Council. Thirty articles 
 extracted chiefly from his " Treatise on the 
 Church," were condemned. In this work 
 the heresiarch asserts: i. The one holy 
 and universal Church consists wholly of 
 the predestined. None but the el^ct can 
 belong to the Church of Christ. 2. Peter 
 never was the head of the holy Catholic 
 Church. The Papacy owes its origin to 
 imperial favor and authority. 3. A priest 
 though excommunicated, provided he be- 
 lieves the sentence unjust, ought to con- 
 tinue to preach and exercise his functions, 
 in spite of ecclesiastical prohibition. 4. 
 The claim of the Church to the obedience 
 
 of her members is a pure invention of 
 priests and contrary to Holy Scripture. 
 5. No ruler, spiritual or temporal, has any 
 power and jurisdiction, if he be in mortal 
 sin. Huss admitted to the day of his death 
 many Catholic doctrines which Wycliffe 
 had rejected, such as the Real Presence, 
 the Sacrifice of the Mass, and some others. 
 The Council called upon Huss to retract 
 his errors. His former friends earnestly 
 besought him to make at least a modified 
 disavowal of his errors. But his indomi- 
 table obstinacy frustrated every well-meant 
 endeavor. At length the Council solemnly 
 declared him an obstinate heretic, degraded 
 him from the priesthood, and transferred 
 him to the civil authorities. In accordance 
 with the penalty of civil law which made 
 heresy punishable with death, Huss was 
 burnt at the stake, July 6th, 1415. His 
 friend, Jerome of Prague, met with a simi- 
 lar fate the following year. 
 
 The news of the death of Huss incited 
 his followers in Bohemia and Moravia to a 
 furious religious war. Ufraquism, or 
 Communion under both kinds, became 
 their distinctive characteristic, and the 
 chalice was adopted by them as the symbol 
 of their cause. In 1419, they rose in arms 
 against the imperial government. Terrible 
 excesses were committed by the Hussites ; 
 during a war which lasted thirteen years, 
 they indiscriminately murdered priests and 
 monks and laid a great number of churches 
 and convents in ashes and many cities waste. 
 All Bohemia was soon in the hands of the 
 rebels. After the death of John Ziska, 
 their leader, in 1424, the Hussites became 
 divided into four conflicting parties — the 
 " Taborites," the "Orphans," the "Horeb- 
 ites," and the " Calixtines," After much 
 negotiation the Synod of Basle succeeded 
 in reconciling the more moderate Calix- 
 tines. By the "Compact of Prague," in 
 1433, the Synod conceded to them Com- 
 munion under both kinds, besides several 
 reforms on certain points of discipline. 
 The Taborites and Orphans, however, re- 
 jected the Compact and continued their 
 incendiary course till 1434, when they suf- 
 fered a crushing defeat near Prague. By 
 the treaty of Iglau, in 1436, the greater 
 number of them returned to the unity of 
 the Church. The united Hussites went 
 under the name of "Utraquists," while the 
 Catholics who adhered to the old discipline 
 of the Church, were called '* Subunists," 
 or communicants under one kind. Never- 
 theless, a great number of the Hussites 
 
Hyacinth 
 
 346 
 
 Hymn 
 
 continued in their separation from the 
 Church until the preaching of the eloquent 
 St. John Capistran (between 145 1 and 1453) 
 effected a general reconciliation. Only a 
 small remnant of extreme Hussites per- 
 sisted secretly in their schism, and formed 
 the sect known under the name of " Bo- 
 hemian "and "Moravian Brethren." 
 
 Hyacinth (St.) ( i 183-1257). — Polish 
 Dominican, apostle of northern Europe, 
 born in the Castle of Sasse (Siberia), died 
 at Cracow. Received at Rome the reli- 
 gious habit from the hand of St. Dominic, 
 who appointed him superior of the mission 
 established in Poland, founded a monastery 
 of Dominicans at Cracow (1217) and sev- 
 eral others in the principal cities of Poland. 
 He made numerous conversions all over 
 northern Europe and preached the Gospel 
 to the Tartary. F. Aug. i6th. 
 
 Hyacinth (Charles Loysox) (known 
 under the name of '* Pere Hyacinth"). — 
 Ex-religious of the Carmelite Order, born 
 at Orleans in 1827. Ordained priest in 
 the Seminary of St. Sulpice (1849), pro- 
 fessor in the great seminaries of Avignon 
 and Nantes, priest attached to the parish 
 of St. Sulpice at Paris, entered at the 
 Carmelites at Lyons about the year i860. 
 Celebrated preacher, he appeared in the 
 pulpit of Notre Dame, at Paris, in 1865, 
 and obtained as orator a real success. His 
 conferences on independent morals (1866) 
 and on the family (1867) commenced to 
 trouble the Catholics. Called to Rome in 
 1869, Hyacinth, on his return to Paris, in 
 the month of June of the same year, lec- 
 tured before the " International League of 
 Peace," comparing the Catholic, Protes- 
 tant, and Jewish religions, and considered 
 them as the three great religions of the 
 civilized nations. On Sept. 20th, 1869, 
 Hyacinth left his Order. Having been 
 excommunicated, he left for the United 
 States. At his return into France, a few 
 months afterwards, he went to reside at 
 Rome, then in London and finally went to 
 Munich (1871), to assist at the Congress of 
 the "Old Catholics," assembled by the 
 ex-canon Dollinger. Having completely 
 broken with the Roman Church, he mar- 
 ried at London, in 1872, a certain widow 
 Merriman ; then he became pastor of the 
 liberal Catholics at Geneva. Here dissen- 
 sions, which soon broke out, forced him 
 to leave. He came to Paris and asked 
 permission from the government (1875) to 
 hold conferences, which was granted to 
 
 him (1877) under condition to conform 
 himself to the regulations for private as- 
 semblies. He finally opened the so-called 
 " Galilean Church " in a building formerly 
 used as a cafe-concert (1879). Financial 
 difficulties forced him to abandon this 
 locality. After different fruitless attempts 
 to find another place and troubles with 
 one of his vicars, the ex-abbe Bichery, 
 Hyacinth made himself an object of ridicule 
 more every day, and at present nobody 
 hardly takes any notice of him. 
 
 Hyacintha (St.) (1585-1640). — Italian 
 religious of the Order of St. Clare, daughter 
 of Mariscotti, Count of Vignanello, born 
 near Viterbo. Founded, under the name 
 of Oblates of Mary, two congregations, for 
 the relief of old people and infirm, shame- 
 ful poor and prisoners. F. Jan. 3d. 
 
 Hyginus (St.). — Pope from 137 to 141. 
 Successor of St. Telesphorus, he combated 
 the heresies of Valentinus and Cerdo, or- 
 dained that there should be only one god- 
 father and one godmother at baptism ; he 
 received the crown of martyrdom under 
 the Emperor Antoninus. F. Jan. nth. 
 
 Hylozoism. — Philosophical system 
 which attributes to matter a primitive and 
 inherent life. 
 
 Hymeneus. — Probably a citizen of 
 Ephesus, converted by some of the earlier 
 discourses of St. Paul. He afterwards fell 
 into heresy which denied the resurrection 
 of the body and said it was already ac- 
 complished (II. Tim. ii. 17, 18). 
 
 Hymn (canticle in honor of the Deity). 
 — The hymn, as we understand it from the 
 religious point of view, existed in Greece 
 (chants of the mysteries of Eleusis) and at 
 Rome (chants of the Salian priests). But 
 this kind of literature was little cultivated, 
 and the first real authors of all hymnology 
 are the Jews ; the Psalms of the Bible con- 
 stitute the models, and the first examples 
 of our liturgical chants. The custom to 
 celebrate the praises of the Lord by music 
 and poetry passed directly from the Israel- 
 ites to the first Christians. It is thus that 
 Jesus and the Apostles chanted a canticle 
 after the institution of the Holy Eucharist 
 at the Last Supper, that St. James and St. 
 Paul recommended to the Christian com- 
 munities to sing Psalms. The Christian 
 Churches of Bithynia possessed hymns to 
 the praise of the Saviour, which the Faith- 
 ful chanted in antiphons. St. Ignatius 
 
Hyperdulia 
 
 347 
 
 Hypnotism 
 
 received in a dream the order to introduce 
 the singing of hymns in the Church of 
 Antioch, from whence this rite was spread. 
 We have from this epoch several Greek 
 hymns, one from St. Clement, King of the 
 Saints, another which is the prototype of 
 the Gloria in Excelsis. In the fourth cen- 
 tury, Ephrem of Syria composed a great 
 number of the hymns which we possess. At 
 the same time Methodius, Bishop of Tyre 
 (died, 311) ; Synesius, Bishop of Ptolemais; 
 and Gregory of Ndzianzum wrote hymns 
 mostly in the anacreontic rhythm, which 
 was still employed by Sophronius, Bishop 
 of Jerusalem, in the fourth century. But 
 from the end of the preceding century, 
 Anatolius, Patriarch of Constantinople, 
 and Romanus, the hymnographer, wrote in 
 Greek religious chants which had noth- 
 ing common any more with the classic 
 prosody and presented the first attempts of 
 modulated hymns which are still in use in 
 the schismatic Church of the East. Among 
 the hymnographers who have developed 
 this free form of the religious chant in the 
 Church of the East, we can quote Leo the 
 Philosopher, Constantine Porphyrogene- 
 tus, Cosmas, John Damascene, Theodore, 
 and Joseph. In the Church of the West, 
 the custom of singing hymns appears to 
 have been introduced in the fourth cen- 
 tury only, in imitation of the Eastern 
 Church, by St. Hilary of Poitiers, and St. 
 Ambrose of Milan. The first would be 
 the author of the hymn Hymnum dicat 
 turba Fratrum . The second composed sev- 
 eral, for instance, the TV Deum laudamus, 
 which the Benedictine monks recasted 
 about the end of the sixth century, and ap- 
 propriated for the liturgical service. It was 
 this Ambrosian ritual, to which Spain op- 
 posed the Mozarabic ritual fixed in the sev- 
 enth century byLeander and Isidore. The 
 Council of Toledo, in 633, approved the 
 use of these rituals in the Churches. Among 
 the hymnographers of this primitive epoch, 
 we must quote Pope Damasus and Pru- 
 dentius. In the fifth and sixth centuries, 
 there was Pope Gelasius; the priest Sedu- 
 lius; Eunodius, Bishop of Pavia; then to- 
 ward the close of the sixth century, Pope 
 Gregory the Great and the poet Venantius 
 Fortunatus of whom we can quote the 
 Vcxilla Regis. Most of these chants 
 were written in iambic meters. But begin- 
 ning with the sixth century, a great modi- 
 fication took place in this kind of literature. 
 They commenced to consult, for the forma- 
 tion of the verses, no longer the quantity 
 
 of words, but their tonic accent, and to 
 give the strophe more harmony, they had 
 recourse to the assonance of the final syl- 
 lables of the verses and to the rhyme." 
 We find traces of the new system in most 
 of the Breviaries of the various national 
 Churches since the beginning of the Mid- 
 dle Ages and one quotes, among their au- 
 thors, the Venerable Bede and Paul the 
 Deacon, the first of which composed the 
 famous hymn Attetide homo; Paulinus, Pa- 
 triarch of Aquileia; Theodulphus, Bishop 
 of Orleans, to whom we owe the Gloria, 
 Laus et Honor Tibi sit, chanted on Palm 
 Sunday. Finally, Fulbert, Bishop Char- 
 tres (died, 1028), author of the Chorus 
 novte Hierusalem, which is perhaps the 
 most remarkable production of this epoch, 
 together with the Veni Creator Spirit us 
 which is anterior and due, perhaps, to 
 Charles the Bald, and the Sancti Spiritus 
 adsit nobis Gratia, which is very probably 
 from Notker. The latter is the first author 
 of Sequences or Proses, which were admit- 
 ted in the Eucharistic service, between the 
 reading of the Epistle and that of the Gos- 
 pel. We can quote among these composi- 
 tions the Vent sancte Spiritus, whose 
 author is uncertain, and the hymns of 
 Adam of St. Victor. The most famous 
 among these Sequences is the Dies Irce, 
 composed by Thomas of Celano, and the 
 Stabat Mater dolorosa, due to Jacobonus 
 or Jacobus de Benedictis. These two hymns 
 have served as text to the masters of music 
 until our days. St. Thomas of Aquin wrote 
 hymns on the occasion of the institution of 
 Corpus Christi by Urban IV. (1261) and 
 St. Bernard of Clairvaux is the author of 
 several canticles, breathing great fervor. 
 
 Hyperdulia. See Worship. 
 
 Hypnotism. — An abnormal mental con- 
 dition characterized by insensibility to 
 most impressions of sense, with excessive 
 sensibility to some impressions, and an ap- 
 pearance of total unconsciousness; espe- 
 cially, that variety of this condition which 
 is artificially induced, usually by concen- 
 trating the attention of the subject upon 
 some object of vision, as a bright bit of 
 glass, or upon the operator, who generally 
 aids in producing the result by making a 
 few slight passes with his hands. When 
 in this condition, the mental action and 
 the volition of the subject are to a large 
 extent under the control of the operator. 
 Whether and how far hypnotism is a lawful 
 practice ? Some grave theologians have 
 
Hypostasis 
 
 348 
 
 Iceland 
 
 condemned hypnotism absolutely, chiefly 
 on account of abuses which they deemed 
 inseparable from it ; but other standard 
 authorities teach that hypnotism may not 
 be universally condemned as evil in itself, 
 although it is unquestionably dangerous. 
 This latter opinion seems to be the more 
 common one. 
 
 Hypostasis. — It is an article of Catholic 
 faith that there is in God one sole sub- 
 stance or nature and three Hypostases or 
 Persons. This word formerly caused 
 lively discussions among the Greeks, and 
 afterwards among the Greeks and Latins. 
 In the language of some Greek Fathers, 
 hypostasis appears to be the same thing as 
 substance ; according to this meaning it 
 was a heresy to say that Jesus Christ was a 
 different hypostasis from that of the 
 Father; but all the Greeks did not under- 
 stand it that way. On their part, the 
 Latins, who held that hypostasis signifies 
 substance or essence, were scandalized, be- 
 lieving that the Greeks admitted in God 
 
 three substances or three natures, like the 
 Tritheists. In a synod of Alexandria, 
 over which St. Athanasius presided about 
 the year 362, each party explained itself, 
 and thus they came to an understanding; 
 it can be seen that under different terms 
 they rendered precisely the same idea. 
 However, at first not all the minds were 
 quieted, because about the year 376, St. 
 Jerome, passing through the Orient, when 
 requested to teach like the Greeks three 
 hypostases in the Most Holy Trinity, con- 
 sulted Pope Damasus about what he should 
 do and in what manner he ought to express 
 himself. 
 
 Hyssop. — A plant which is often men- 
 tioned in Scripture (Ex. xii. 22; Hebr. ix. 
 19), the twigs of which were used for 
 sprinkling in the ceremony of purification. 
 It is supposed by some to have been the 
 caper bush, Capparis spinosa, and by 
 others a plant or several plants growing in 
 Palestine and allied with the European 
 hyssop. 
 
 Ibas. — Bishop of Edessa (436), died 
 about 457. Accused of defending the doc- 
 trines of Theodore of Mopsuestia, he was 
 condemned by the Council of Ephesus 
 (449) and deposed, then restored to his see 
 by the Council of Chalcedon (451). 
 
 Ibirians {Conversion of the). — The Ibe- 
 rians, at the foot of the Caucasus, were won 
 to the faith by a Christian slave, named 
 Nunia. She cured the queen of an illness 
 by her prayers, and by this means lent a 
 powerful impulse to the conversion of the 
 whole nation. The king, named Miraeus, 
 is said to have requested Constantine the 
 Great to send him Christian missionaries. 
 From Iberia the Gospel was carried to the 
 Albanians, and in the sixth century, also 
 to the Lazi (Colchians) and the Abasgi. 
 Tzathus, the chief of the Lazi, was bap- 
 tized at Constantinople in the year 522. 
 St. Maximus and St. Stephen in the seventh 
 century labored successfully among these 
 nations. 
 
 Iceland. — Iceland, which was discov- 
 ered by the Norwegians in 861, is indebted 
 to King Olaf I. of Norway, for the intro- 
 duction of Christianity. In the year 1000, 
 
 the Christian religion was universally re- 
 ceived in Iceland by a popular assembly. 
 In 1056, Adalbert, Archbishop of Bremen, 
 by order of the Pope, consecrated Isleif 
 first bishop of Skalholt ; he died in the 
 odor of sanctity, in to8o. Benedictine 
 and Augustinian monks founded monas- 
 teries in Iceland, and a second bishopric 
 was founded in Hoolum, in 1107. By ty- 
 rannical means, Catholicism was destroyed 
 in Iceland. Protestantism was established 
 against the known and clearly expressed 
 wishes of the people, by the Norwegians. 
 John Areson, Bishop of Hoolum, who op- 
 posed the introduction of Lutheranism 
 with all his might, was put to death, and 
 the disaffection of the Icelanders was 
 overcome by the force of arms. 
 
 The Icelanders, under Eric the Red, dis- 
 covered Greenland in 982, and planted a 
 colony there, comprising two cities, with 
 sixteen churches and two monasteries. In 
 1055, Adalbert of Bremen, consecrated Al- 
 bert first bishop of Greenland, who estab- 
 lished his see at Gardar. From Greenland, 
 Christianity is said to have been propa- 
 gated to America. About the year looi, 
 Leif, son of Eric the Red, discovered 
 
ICONIUM 
 
 349 
 
 IDUMEA 
 
 Helluland, Markland, and Vinland, which 
 are supposed to be modern Labrador, 
 Nova Scotia, and New England. Most of 
 the Northmen in America were converted 
 by the missionaries whom Leif led with 
 him frftm Norway, where he himself had 
 been induced by King Olaf I. to embrace 
 the faith. Of these missionaries, the most 
 celebrated was Eric, who was consecrated 
 first American Bishop at Lund, in Den- 
 mark, by Archbishop Adzer, in 1121. 
 Icelandic historians ascribe the first dis- 
 covery and evangelization of their island, 
 as well as of the North American coast 
 lands, to the Irish, the latter country be- 
 ing named by them" Irland it Mikla," or 
 Greater Ireland. 
 
 Iconium. — A large and opulent city of 
 Asia Minor, now called Konieh. In the 
 time of St. Paul, it probably belonged to 
 Pisidia (Acts xiv. i). A Church Synod 
 was held in this city in the year 230. 
 
 Iconoclasm (The act of breaking or de- 
 stroying images).— The Emperor Leo III., 
 the Isaurian (718-741), desirous either to 
 further the conversion of the Jews and 
 Mohammedans or to interfere with the laws 
 of the Church, forbade the veneration of 
 images. In 726 he published an edict en- 
 acting the immediate removal of all pic- 
 tures of saints, and of all statues and 
 crucifixes from churches and public places. 
 In vain did the whole Christian world rise 
 up against the imperial mandate. This 
 war against images was pursued by Leo's 
 son, Constantine V. Copronymus (741- 
 775), and Leo IV. (775-780). Many costly 
 libraries, monasteries, and sacred vessels 
 were demolished, and churches were 
 robbed of their treasures of art {Icono- 
 clasm). Bishops and monks defended the 
 veneration of images and in consequence 
 were abused, persecuted, or murdered (730- 
 780). More than 300 bishops, creatures of 
 the emperor, and too cowardly to oppose 
 the despotic ruler, assented to his peremp- 
 tory edicts. The greater number of the 
 monks remained faithful. St. John Da- 
 mascene was the chief defender of the 
 doctrines of the Church. The Empress 
 Irene favored the veneration of images, 
 which put an end to the warfare (780). 
 See Images. 
 
 Iconostasis. — In Greek churches a solid 
 high screen, usually of wood, reaching at 
 least halfway and often nearly or quite to 
 the ceiling, and separating the bema. 
 
 chapel of prothesis, and diaconicon from 
 the rest of the church. Its name is derived 
 from its being always ornamented with 
 icons {images) of our Lord and the Blessed 
 Virgin and other saints. 
 
 Idioms {Communication of ) (Interchange 
 of attributes between the God Christ and 
 the Man Christ.) — The divine and human 
 predicates properly belong to the subject 
 connoted by the terms " Christ " and 
 "Word Incarnate"; yet, according to a 
 general rule of logic, they may be con- 
 nected with any other term demonstrating 
 or supposing the same subject, though this 
 ether term does not "formally" represent 
 the subject as bearer of the predicate used ; 
 V. g-., of the Man Christ we predicate di- 
 vine attributes, although " formally as 
 man" He is not entitled to them. Vice 
 versa, of the God Christ we predicate pas- 
 sibility, etc., though as God He is impas- 
 sible. We have thus a transfer of predicates 
 or attributes from one nature to the other, 
 and an exchange of properties, technically 
 known as "Communication of Idioms." 
 The exchange of Idioms in Holy Scripture 
 is the strongest proof for the unity of Per- 
 son in Christ, and the most prominent 
 manifestation of its wonderful character. 
 The law, however, by which in our speech 
 we interchange the predicates, is not pe- 
 culiar to Christ; it is a general law of 
 logic, which finds its application in the 
 human compound and in many others, but 
 nowhere so perfectly as in Christ. 
 
 Idolatry. — By idolatry is meant the in- 
 ward adoration and the outward worship 
 bestowed on some created being, or some 
 passion preferred to God " which is the 
 service of idols" (I. Cor, iii. 5), and 
 distinctly prohibited by God by the First 
 Commandment. Idolatry appears to have 
 been common among all ancient nations, 
 except the Jews. It was most developed 
 among the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. 
 It exists still more or less in all the non- 
 Christian countries. See Paganism. 
 
 Idumea. — The name given by the Greeks 
 to the land of Edom, which extended 
 originally, from the Dead Sea to the Elan- 
 itic gulf of the Red Sea. Afterwards it 
 extended more into the south of Juda, to- 
 ward Hebron. The Idumeans were de- 
 scendants of Esau. Saul attacked them 
 and subdued them (I. Ki. xiv. 27; II. Ki; 
 viii. 13). 
 
Ignatius 
 
 350 
 
 ILLUMINATI 
 
 Ignatius (St.). — Little is known of the 
 life of St. Ignatius, who was also called 
 Theophorus. All we know is, that he was 
 a disciple of St. John the Evangelist, that 
 he occupied the episcopal chair at Antioch 
 (70-107) for thirty-seven years, as succes- 
 sor of St. Peter and Evodius ; that during 
 the persecution of Domitian, he encour- 
 aged and strengthened by prayer, fasting, 
 and teaching the flock, intrusted to him; 
 and that he suffered martyrdom for Christ, 
 according to his own ardent desire, in the 
 Roman ampitheatre on Dec. 20th, between 
 107 and 117, probably 107. We have seven 
 Epistles of St. Ignatius, written on his 
 painful journey to Rome. These Epistles 
 are veritable jewels of ancient Christian 
 literature ; they are full of unction, and 
 every page bears witness to the episcopal 
 fortitude, faithfulness, pastoral solicitude, 
 and the invincible faith of the great martyr. 
 See MiGNE, Pat. gr. V, 10-996. F. 
 Feb. ist. 
 
 Ignatius (St.) (798-877). — Patriarch of 
 Constantinople, in 846. Son of Emperor 
 Michael I., was persecuted, dispossessed 
 of his see by the heresiarch Photius (857) 
 and reinstated by a decree of Pope Nicho- 
 las I. in 867. F. Oct. 23d. 
 
 Ignatius of Loyola (St.). See Jesuits. 
 
 Ignorantines (Fr. Freres Ignorantins). 
 — A religious congregation of men of the 
 Catholic Church, associated for the gratui- 
 tous instruction of poor children in sacred 
 as well as secular learning. It was founded 
 in France, in the early part of the eigh- 
 teenth century (1724), by the Abb6 de la 
 Salle, and has gradually been introduced 
 almost all over the world. See Brothers. 
 
 I. H. S. — These three letters are some- 
 times used as an abbreviation of the Holy 
 Name of Jesus, or symbol of it ; they are 
 sometimes ignorantly explained as if they 
 stood for the Latin words, 'fesus, Hominum 
 Salvator, which means yestts, Saviour of 
 Men; but, in fact, they are of Greek origin, 
 for in the Greek alphabet, the character H 
 has the same sound as the Latin E. The 
 letters I. H. S., therefore, are the first 
 three letters of the Holy Name. 
 
 Ildefonsus (St.) (606-667). — Ecclesias- 
 tical writer, born at Toledo of a noble 
 family. Disciple of St. Isidore; archbishop 
 of his native city in 6*57, the most popular 
 of the saints of Spain. He has left a great 
 number of works, such as : De ferpetua 
 
 Virginitate sanctcB Marice; Liber de 
 Scriptoribus Ecclesiasticis, etc. F. Jan. 23d. 
 
 Illuminati {enlightened). — Illuminati 
 they formerly called the neophytes or 
 newly baptized, because in baptizing them 
 they put a lighted candle into their hand; 
 a symbol of the faith and grace which they 
 received in baptism. 
 
 Illuminati {Sect «?/^^e).— This sect owed 
 its origin to Adam Weishaupt(i 748-1 830), 
 professor of Canon Law at the University 
 of Ingolstadt, Bavaria. Weishaupt tried 
 to withdraw the studying youth from the 
 influence of the Jesuits, overthrow the 
 latter, then, to combat both positive reli- 
 gion and monarchy. In 1776, he founded 
 the secret society of the Illuminati, obliged 
 its members to be strictly obedient to its 
 chiefs, to labor to procure to it new adher- 
 ents, and to address to him frequent 
 reports. Following Freemasonry, he 
 established secret grades and preparatory 
 degrees. The Illuminated {enlightened, in- 
 structed), in the measure he became priest, 
 sage, regent, and king, learned that the 
 evilsof humanity are derived from religion 
 and the power of the mighty, but that 
 providence has procured to him the means 
 to get out of his degradation : these means 
 are the secret schools of wisdom ; no 
 longer any princes, nor acts of violence; 
 reason will become the only code of hu- 
 manity, and men, after having abolished 
 all the social distinctions, will lead quite a 
 patriarchal life without priests and without 
 kings. Such was, they maintained, the 
 hidden sense of the doctrine of the great 
 Master of Nazareth, the mystery revealed 
 to his friends and indicated to others by 
 simple comparisons. The dogmas of the 
 Fall, regeneration, and grace only signify 
 that man lost his primitive liberty and 
 purity through intrigues and passions, and 
 fell into a state of barbarity; that he was 
 reduced to the imperfect condition in which 
 we behold him now through the prifests, 
 statesmen, and legislators, but that he will 
 leave it by the force of his enlightened 
 reason, regain conscience and the free use 
 of his inborn liberty, and will be trans- 
 formed into the kingdom of grace. The 
 flaming star and the letter G symbolize 
 light and grace ; those penetrated with 
 this light and grace are the enlightened 
 {illuminated). In a few years this secret 
 society gained thousands of followers and 
 counted among its number several influen- 
 tial personages, who elevated their asso- 
 
ILLYRICUM 
 
 351 Immortality of the Soul 
 
 dates to the highest charges of both 
 Church and State. The designs of the 
 lUuminati, which were hostile both to the 
 Church and the State, some time after 
 were discovered, when their order was 
 suppressed and Weishaupt banished by the 
 Elector. 
 
 Illyricum. — Orie of the four great pre- 
 fectures into which the later Roman Em- 
 pire was divided. It comprised the 
 Dioceses of Macedonia and Dacia, and cor- 
 responded generally to Greece, Crete, 
 Macedonia, Albania, and Servia. St. Paul 
 preached there (Rom. xv. 19) and Titus 
 visited the country (II. Tim. iv. 10). 
 
 Images. — The use of images in the 
 house of God is authorized by Scripture. 
 Moses was commanded to place the im- 
 ages of two cherubim upon the Ark (Ex. 
 XXV. and xxvi.), and Solomon " carved all 
 the walls of the Temple round about with 
 divers figures and carvings " (III. Ki. vi. 
 29). The primitive Christians were studi- 
 ous to represent a variety of subjects se- 
 lected from Holy Scripture, or allusive 
 to their religion, upon the walls of those 
 subterranean oratories to which they were 
 accustomed to resort in times of persecu- 
 tion. These paintings still remain visible 
 at the present day, and it is demonstrated 
 that some of them are the productions of 
 the second century. These ancient paint- 
 ings triumphantly refute the assertions of 
 Protestants that no pictures or images 
 were allowed in the churches for the first 
 three centuries; and that they were first 
 introduced by Paulinus and his contem- 
 poraries, privately and by degrees, in the 
 latter end of the fourth century. It cannot 
 be denied that the image of Jesus Christ 
 suspended from the Cross must awaken in 
 our minds the most aflfecting remem- 
 brance of Him "who had loved us so, as to 
 deliver Himself up for us " (Gal. ii. 20). 
 As long as the religious sentiments created 
 by this image keep possession of the mind 
 we are naturally prompted to manifest, by 
 some exterior token, the ardor of that 
 grateful piety with which the heart is 
 glowing; and while we humble ourselves 
 in presence of the image, we express our 
 love and testify our submission toward its 
 glorious and heavenly origin. We Catho- 
 lics adorn our altars and our churches 
 with the pictures and images of Christ and 
 His sainted servants, and preserve them 
 with decent and pious respect, not only 
 through a reverence for their illustrious 
 
 prototypes, but that the sight of them may 
 recall to our remembrance their heroic 
 virtues which made their lives so cele- 
 brated, and quicken us, if not to emulate, 
 at least to follow their example at a hum- 
 ble distance, by some faint imitation of 
 their holiness. Not only can sculpture 
 and painting furnish the knowledge, and 
 exhibit the detailed account of every fact 
 recorded in the Old and New Testaments, 
 to the man who cannot read, but not un- 
 frequently the eye, by their assistance, 
 convey to the imagination a more impres- 
 sive and accurate idea than could be im- 
 printed by a perusal of the passage itself 
 in which it is registered, or by listening 
 attentively to a disquisition on the subject 
 from some learned commentator. This is 
 particularly applicable with regard to the 
 Crucifix. To the custom of having pic- 
 tures and images in our churches, they 
 have raised objections, and adduced a pre- 
 cept in the Decalogue in support of their 
 hostility. The commandment, however, 
 does not prohibit the making of images; 
 for, if it really did, God would have been 
 the first to violate His own injunctions by 
 directing Moses to make and set up the 
 figures of the cherubim ; but what it for- 
 bids is the making of idols, that is, of 
 images to be adored and served as gods. 
 Such a caution was necessary for the He- 
 brew people, surrounded as they were by 
 nations that followed the most ridiculous 
 idolatry. See Veneration of Saints. 
 
 Images ( Controversy on ) . See Icono- 
 
 CLASM. 
 
 Immaculate Conception {Feast of the) 
 (of the Blessed Virgin Mary, celebrated 
 on the 8th of December). — By the Im- 
 maculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin 
 Mary, we understand that the Blessed 
 Virgin, from the first moment when her 
 soul was united to her body, was pre- 
 served from original sin and exempted 
 from every stain, by a Divine privilege, in 
 view of the future merits of Jesus Christ. 
 See Mary. 
 
 Immortality of the Soul. — Viewed his- 
 torically, the belief in the immortality of 
 the soul has been interwoven everywhere 
 and at every time with the history of the 
 human race. It is a most prominent fea- 
 ture in the records of the most ancient re- 
 ligions of antiquity, but under three dis- 
 tinctive forms : I. One is the simple idea 
 of the survival of the soul after the death 
 
Immortality of the Soul 352 Immortality of the Soul 
 
 of the body, without, however, any de- 
 termined moral state being assigned to it. 
 2. Another is similar to that taught by 
 Christianity: after death judgment takes 
 place, and the lot of the deceased, accord- 
 ing to the life spent in this world, is settled 
 for good or for evil. 3. And a third form 
 is that of metempsychosis, or the return 
 of souls to actual life, either as men or 
 animals, while their new condition is al- 
 lotted to them in view of their former 
 lives on earth. Relatively, however, this 
 doctrine, it is admitted, is of recent 
 origin. 
 
 In this century, the graves of ancient 
 Chaldea have been made to bear witness to 
 the belief in the immortality of the soul, as 
 held b}' the ancient Assyrians. The ex- 
 plorations of Mr. L. Loftus and others in 
 those ancient lands have shown with what 
 superstitious care the dead were treated in 
 view of their passage to another world. In 
 their coffins or tombs they put provisions, 
 lamps, arms, etc. "The same practice," 
 writes Mr. Loftus, " is, I believe, con- 
 tinued among the Arabs, who conceive 
 that these articles are necessary to give the 
 spirit strength on its long journey." In 
 ancient Egypt, belief in the soul's immor- 
 tality was a fundamental doctrine of 
 religion. A clear proof of this is found in 
 the Book of the Dead, as old, it is said, as 
 the Egyptian nation itself. It consists of 
 prayers, which the dead were expected to 
 recite, in order to secure for themselves a 
 favorable judgment. For this end to re- 
 fresh their memories, a copy of the book, 
 more or less perfect, was laid in the tomb 
 with each mummy. The book also de- 
 scribes how man after death will be con- 
 ducted by the god Horus before the 
 tribunal of Osiris to receive judgment. 
 There he will have to plead his cause be- 
 fore forty-two judges on forty-two different 
 species of sin. This belief in immortality 
 was brought before the eye on all sides in 
 Egypt. It was written on papyrus, and 
 was carved, under some sensible form, on 
 walls, on tombs, and on public monuments. 
 It was also the belief of ancient India, of 
 China, of Greece, and pagan Rome. 
 
 From the early beginning, the Hebrew 
 race steadily adhered to the doctrine of 
 the immortality of the soul as a first prin- 
 ciple. For them, as a people, it required 
 no proof, as being a truth which could not 
 be gainsaid ; moreover, it underlay all He- 
 brew tradition, and was assumed by the 
 Doctors of the Law as an undeniable pos- 
 
 tulate. The Hebrews knew that death was 
 
 a punishment for sin, and not the complete 
 annihilation of man. This, their firm be- 
 lief, they manifested in various ways. In 
 his obituaries of the patriarchs, Moses ends 
 his narrative with these significant words, 
 "and he was gathered to his people," 
 words which Rationalists interpret as mean- 
 ing that the patriarchs were buried in the 
 tombs or among the graves of their fathers. 
 This interpretation, at first sight plausible 
 enough, is, however, contrary to the facts 
 of the Mosaic narrative. Abraham was 
 buried in Hebron, while his father, Thare, 
 died at Haran in Syria, and Abraham's 
 ancestors died and were buried in Chaldea. 
 Jacob died in Egypt, and months elapsed 
 before his body was buried in Mambre, in 
 the land of Chanaan, and yet Moses writes 
 of his death : " and he was gathered to his 
 people." Aaron died on Mount Horeb 
 and was buried there, away from every 
 Israelite; Moses himself died on Mount 
 Nebo, but the place of his burial was not 
 known, and still both Aaron and Moses are 
 said to have been gathered to their people. 
 These and many other such texts clearly 
 prove that for the Hebrew mind the afore- 
 said phrase meant that the soul of the lately 
 deceased friends lived beyond the grave, in 
 the company of the souls of other deceased 
 acquaintances. 
 
 This meaning is determined still more 
 minutely by the fact that in the ancient 
 Hebrew Scriptures a place was designated 
 in which the souls of the departed dwelt. 
 In Hebrew it was called scheol, the Latin 
 infernus, and the English hell. In the 
 books of the Old Testament, written before 
 the captivit}- of Babylon, the word, it has 
 been calculated, occurs 65 times; in the 
 Pentateuch alone, it occurs seven times. 
 The Septuagint version of the Scriptures 
 translates the word scheol by the Greek 
 hades, the place which the Greeks assigned 
 for the dwelling of the souls of the dead ; 
 only twice does the Septuagint translate 
 the word danatos, death. Scheol is, indeed, 
 a general term, — not designating especially 
 the abode of the just or that of the unjust. 
 Hence, even in the Apostles' Creed, we say 
 of Christ that " He descended into hell," 
 that is, into limbo, where the souls of the 
 just under the Old Testament were de- 
 tained. When Jacob, according to the false 
 report given to him, imagined that his son 
 Joseph had been devoured by a wild beast, 
 he exclaimed : " I will go down to my son 
 into hell (scheol) mourning." Not cer- 
 
Immunities 
 
 353 
 
 Imputation 
 
 tainly into the hell of the wicked, since he 
 and his son were just men. And on the 
 other hand, it is written of Core and Abiron, 
 who with their followers, rebelled against 
 Moses, " that the earth broke asunder 
 under their feet, and opening her mouth, 
 devoured them with their tents and all 
 their substance" (Num. xvi. 31-32) — clearly 
 the hell of the damned. But the Hebrew 
 faith in the different states of the just and 
 unj ust in another world and the rewards that 
 are there assigned to them is given at length 
 in the fifth chapter of the Book of Wisdom. 
 In other books of the Old Testament, such 
 as the Books of Kings, Job, the Psalter of 
 King David, Ecclesiasticus, the Prophecy 
 of Isaias, allusions are often made to the 
 doctrine of the immortality of the soul, not 
 of purpose, as it were, a matter of contro- 
 versy, but incidentally, and, as it were, to 
 unquestioned convictions that spring up 
 naturally from a common, settled, national 
 belief. Indeed, so popular and so absorb- 
 ing, even for the Hebrew mind, was the 
 doctrine of immortality, that some persons, 
 in spite of all prohibitions, grossly exag- 
 gerated it and fell into superstition. The 
 Israelites believed not only in the survival 
 of the souls of the dead, but some among 
 them by superstitious rites, evoked and 
 consulted them, and even made offerings 
 to them, as if they were adorable. The 
 practice is expressly mentioned and con- 
 demned in the Book of Deuteronomy; it 
 is also spoken of in the Book of Leviticus, 
 in t^e Books of Kings, in the Prophecy 
 of Isaias. Sinful, undoubtedly, as it was 
 in itself, as being a superstition, the prac- 
 tice points directly to the faith in the soul's 
 immortality ; it was, indeed, a corruption 
 of that faith, but even by its extravagance 
 it speaks to us of the vividness with which 
 men then believed in the future existence 
 of souls. 
 
 The books from which we have just 
 quoted, antedate the Babylonian captivity, 
 but, again those that follow that date bear 
 also the most ample testimony to the He- 
 brew belief in the immortality of the soul. 
 In them, all through the ages, the same 
 voice, in grave, strong undertones, seems 
 continually to repeat: " It is, therefore, a 
 holy and wholesome thought to pray for 
 the dead, that they may be loosed from 
 sin." Considered in time and place, the 
 testimony given, as we have seen, was uni- 
 versal ; belief in a future undying life, 
 seemed to be taken as a postulate of reason, 
 and to live forever in the unseen world was 
 33 
 
 held to be the natural development of hu- 
 man life on earth. Consequently, since 
 this doctrine has been universally held by 
 the human race, it must be inevitably true. 
 
 Immunities. — In ecclesiastical usage, the 
 exemption of certain sacred places and ec- 
 clesiastical personages from secular bur- 
 dens and functions, and from acts regarded 
 as repugnant to their sanctity. This im- 
 munity is of three kinds : i. Local, giving 
 to the sacred place the character of a ref- 
 uge or asylum to any one fleeing to its 
 protection. 2. Real, exempting the prop- 
 erty of the Church and clergy from secular 
 jurisdiction and taxation. 3. Personal, ex- 
 empting the clergy themselves from the 
 civil duties incumbent on other citizens 
 and from lay jurisdiction. These ecclesi- 
 astical immunities, once very numerous, 
 are now very much restricted. 
 
 Impanation. — In theology, the doctrine, 
 held by Lutherans, that the body and blood 
 of Christ are locally included in the bread 
 and wine after consecration. It differs 
 from transubstanfiation, or the doctrine 
 that the bread and wine are actually changed 
 by the consecration into the body and blood 
 of Jesus Christ. 
 
 Impediments of Matrimony. See Mat- 
 rimony. 
 
 Imposition of Hands. — Ceremony much 
 in use among the Hebrews and Christians 
 on several occasions. The Jews imposed 
 the hands upon those for whom they 
 prayed; upon the judges and magistrates 
 in establishing them; upon the priests and 
 sacred ministers in ordaining them, offer- 
 ing them to the Lord. They also imposed 
 hands upon the victims which they pre- 
 sented at the tabernacle for sin. The wit- 
 nesses imposed hands upon the head of the 
 person accused ; Jesus Christ imposed 
 hands upon the children they presented to 
 Him, and He blessed them. The Apostles 
 gave the Holy Ghost to the baptized by 
 imposing their hands, and the Church im- 
 poses hands upon those she ordains to the 
 priesthood. 
 
 Improperia. — Verses which the Church 
 sings on Good Friday and which contain 
 the reproaches which our divine Saviour 
 addressed to the Jews. 
 
 Imputation is one of the most common 
 technical expressions in Christian the- 
 ology. It is meant to denote the trans- 
 ference of guilt or of merit, of punishment 
 
Incarnate Word 
 
 354 
 
 In Coena Domini 
 
 or reward. The doctrine of the imputa- 
 tion of sin, for example, is the doctrine 
 which inculcates that all mankind are 
 sharers in the fact and consequences of 
 Adam's fall from innocence; and the cor- 
 relative doctrine of the imputation of 
 Christ's righteousness is that which incul- 
 cates that the merit or righteousness of 
 Christ is transferred to those who believe 
 in Him, or, in other words, that they 
 become sharers in His merit or righteous- 
 ness. The race, one "with Adam, the be- 
 liever, one -with Christ, are the ideas that 
 are really true in the phrases *' imputation 
 of sin" and "imputation of righteous- 
 ness." The logic of theology has evolved 
 many more applications of the phrases, but 
 these applications are rather the refine- 
 ments of theological pedantry than the 
 expression of true spiritual relations. 
 
 Incarnate Word {Ladies of the'). — A 
 congregation of nuns founded in 1625 for 
 instruction, but afterwards assumed the 
 care of hospitals. Eight of their houses 
 still remain in Texas. 
 
 Incarnation {Mystery of the). — By the 
 mystery of the Incarnation we understand 
 that Jesus Christ, the second Person of the 
 Trinity, took a body and soul like ours. 
 The Incarnation, of course, is a mystery 
 we cannot fathom, still we know that it 
 was the Son, the second Person of the 
 Trinity, who became Man for the Redemp- 
 tion of the world — not the Father nor the 
 Holy Ghost; notwithstanding that the 
 three Persons of the Trinity are but one 
 God. " For God indeed was in Christ, 
 reconciling the world to Himself, not im- 
 puting to them their sins ; and He hath 
 placed in us the word of reconciliation 
 (II. Cor. V. 19). It is evident that God 
 became incarnate for several principal 
 reasons, namely: To make Himself visible 
 to us ; to manifest His love and goodness 
 toward us; to enable us to yield perfect 
 adoration, praise, and obedience ; to atone 
 for our sins; and to obtain the salvation of 
 man by meriting for us sanctifying grace 
 on earth, and eternal glory in heaven. 
 See Jesus Christ. 
 
 Incense (Lat. thus, incensum, an aro- 
 matic material, which exhales perfume 
 during combustion). — By the command of 
 God, the use of incense was very frequent 
 in the service of the Jewish temple and it 
 was thus that Moses received particular 
 injunction from God to employ incense in 
 
 the service of the Tabernacle (Ex. xxx. 34- 
 37; Lev. xvi. 12, 13; III. Ki. vii. 50). The 
 primitive Christians imitated the example 
 of the Jews and adopted the use of incense 
 at the celebration of the Liturgy. By the 
 third of the apostolic canons we find it 
 enacted that, among the very few things 
 which might be offered at the altar while 
 the Eucharistic sacrifice was celebrated 
 were oil for the lights, and incense. The 
 use of incense in all the Oriental Churches 
 is perpetual and almost daily, nor do any 
 of them ever celebrate their Liturgy with- 
 out it, unless compelled by necessity. The 
 Coptic as well as the Eastern Christians 
 observe the same ceremonial as the Latin 
 Church in incensing the altar, the sacred 
 vessels, and ecclesiastical personages. The 
 most ancient of the three Greek liturgies, 
 that of St. James, commences with burning 
 incense, which the celebrant puts into the 
 thurible after he has approached the altar. 
 Immediately afterwards he incenses the 
 Eucharistic bread, the smaller veil with 
 which he covers the chalice, and the larger 
 one which he spreads over the disc and 
 chalice. He then incenses all the altar 
 around, as well as those who are assisting 
 here, meanwhile all reciting a prayer as 
 the officiating priest passes. Among the 
 munificent and truly imperial donations of 
 Constantine the Great to the Churches of 
 Rome, the liber fontificalis mentions two 
 thuribles formed of the purest gold, pre- 
 sented by that emperor to the Lateran 
 Basilica, and a third, likewise of the purest 
 gold and ornamented with a profusion of 
 gems and precious stones, given by him to 
 the baptistery of the same Church. 
 
 Incense is the most appropriate symbol 
 of prayer. In fact, it would be impossible 
 to select any symbol better calculated to 
 signify to us what our prayers should be. 
 The incense cannot ascend on high unless 
 it be first enkindled ; so our prayers, which 
 are in reality the desires of the heart, can- 
 not mount before the throne of heaven, 
 unless that heart be glowing with the fire 
 of God's holy love. Nothing arises of the 
 incense but what is of a grateful odor ; we 
 should, therefore, ask of God, that He 
 would prepare our hearts in a manner that 
 such petitions may be breathed from them 
 as have a holy fragrance; we should ex- 
 claim with the Psalmist: " Let my prayer, 
 O Lord, be directed as incense in Thy 
 sight" (Ps. cxl. 2). 
 
 In Coena Domini. See Ccena Domini. 
 
Index LiBRORUM Prohibitorum 355 
 
 Indulgence 
 
 Index Librorum Prohibitorum. 
 Censure of Books. 
 
 See 
 
 India and China {Christianity in). See 
 Missions. 
 
 India and China {Worship in). — The 
 most of the Hindoos profess Brahmanism, 
 and count about 187,937,450 followers. In 
 Ladakh, Nepaul, Boutan, and in some 
 parts of Assam and Ceylon, Buddhism 
 counts 3,418,875 Faithful. Islamism (50,- 
 121,585) is professed in the provinces of 
 Delhi, Oude, Sindhi, Malabar, Malwah, the 
 Laquedives, and Maldives. The religion 
 of the Sikhs or of Manak is followed in 
 Pendjab by 1,853,385 natives. India counts 
 12,000 Jews, 83,250 Parsis or Guebres; 
 952,058 seem to profess no religion, and 
 6,426,127 natives simply adore nature. 
 The Christians number 1,862,634, of which 
 953>058 are Roman Catholics; 20,135 
 Episcopalians; 373,747 Anglicans; 29,577 
 Lutherans ; 107,886 Protestants, I n d e - 
 pendents, etc. ; some Nestorians, Ana- 
 baptists, etc. — Bishoprics, Vicariates, 
 Prefectures, Apostolic. Archbishopic of 
 Goa, with suffragan bishoprics of Cochin, 
 San-Thome of Meliapour, Macao, Ma- 
 lacca; Vicariates: Agrah, West Bengal, 
 East Bengal, Bombay (missions north and 
 south), Visagap^tam, Koimbatour, Co- 
 lombo, Hayderabad, Jafnapatam, Madras, 
 Madura, Mangalore, Maissur, Patnah, 
 Pondichery, Quilon, Sardhana, Verapolly. 
 Prefecture Apostolic of central Bengal. 
 
 In Farther India, or Indo-China, com- 
 prising the kingdoms of Burmah, Siam, 
 and Annam, Catholicity has been making 
 steady progress, in spite of the hostility of 
 the natives toward foreigners and the re- 
 ligion of Christ. The missions of the two 
 first-named kingdoms have between 60,000 
 and 70,000 Christians under the care of 
 six vicars apostolic, and 120 missioners. 
 In the empire of Annam there were about 
 400,000 Christians in 1820. This promis- 
 ing mission has been the scene of cruel 
 persecutions within the last sixty years. 
 In our own day, under the provocation of 
 the French invasion (1882-1885), Christian 
 blood has flown in torrents. Hundreds of 
 churches and religious institutions have 
 been destroyed and thousands of Catholics 
 have been massacred. But in spite of in- 
 cessant persecutions, the missions of An- 
 nam, which include nine vicariates, may 
 be said to flourish exceedingly. They 
 count some 710,000 Catholics, over 500,000 
 
 in Tong-King, 108,500 in Cochin-China, 
 and about 20,000 in Cambodia. 
 
 In China great efforts have been made 
 within the last fifty years to reconstruct 
 the missions which heathen fanaticism had 
 destroyed. The work of evangelization 
 was much retarded by the official hostility 
 to foreigners and by the persecutions 
 which the "Taiping Rebels," the sworn 
 enemies of everything Christian, raised 
 against the Church. In 1870, a popular 
 outbreak occurred which resulted in the 
 massacre of two Lazarists and forty-six 
 Sisters of Charity. Nevertheless the 
 Church of China is growing every year, 
 especially since 1858, when France and 
 England compelled the Chinese govern- 
 ment to grant the Christians the free exer- 
 cise of their religion. At the present day 
 there are in China Proper over half a 
 million Catholics, governed by 36 bishops 
 and two prefects apostolic, while the de- 
 pendencies of the Chinese Empire — Thi- 
 bet, Manchuria, Mongolia, and Corea — 
 count some 55,000 Christians in charge of 
 six vicars apostolic. 
 
 Indians in America. See Missions. 
 
 Indulgence (The name Indulgence is 
 derived from a Latin word meaning par- 
 don). — An indulgence is an act of mercy 
 exercised by the Church apart from the 
 sacrament of penance, by which we may 
 gain partial or plenary remission, through 
 the merits of our Saviour, of the temporal 
 punishment remaining due for sin; the 
 guilt and eternal punishment having been 
 already remitted in absolution. Through 
 an indulgence is gained the canceling of 
 temporal punishment due for sin, equiva- 
 lent, as some hold, though mistakingly, to 
 that canonical or public penance inflicted 
 on sinners according to the ancient disci- 
 pline of the Church. A partial indulgence, 
 in like manner, is supposed by some to 
 forgive a limited portion of the temporal 
 punishment, represented by a certain num- 
 ber of days or years equal to the chastise- 
 ment enforced by the Church in the early 
 ages of Christianity, which would have 
 lasted that space of time. Such views 
 have been condemned, or are now ex- 
 ploded. A plenary indulgence is not the 
 entire remission of the penalty tnat would 
 have been imposed at the time of canonical 
 penances, but a remission of all penalty 
 due on account of sin, to the end of time. 
 
 It is an article of faith that the Church 
 has power to grant indulgences by au- 
 
Indulgence 
 
 356 
 
 INDULGENCE 
 
 thority of our Lord, who gave that right to 
 His Apostles when He said: "Amen, I 
 say to you, whatsoever you shall bind 
 upon earth, shall be bound also in heaven ; 
 and whatsoever you shall loose upon earth, 
 shall be loosed also in heaven. Again I 
 say to you, that if two of you shall con- 
 sent upon earth, concerning anything 
 whatsoever they shall ask, it shall be done 
 to them by My Father who is in heaven " 
 (Matt, x^'iii. 18, 19). The use of this 
 power may be seen in Scripture where St. 
 Paul absolved the sinner, whom he had 
 before excommunicated, on his doing 
 penance, saying: "To him that is such a 
 one, this rebuke is sufficient, that is 
 given by many : So that contrariwise, you 
 shall rather pardon and comfort him, lest 
 perhaps such a one be swallowed up with 
 over-much sorrow. For which cause I 
 beseech you, that you would confirm your 
 charity towards him. . . . And to 
 whom you have pardoned anj'thing, I also. 
 For what I have pardoned, if I have par- 
 doned anything, for your sakes have I 
 done it in the person of Christ " (H. Cor. ii. 
 6-8, 10). 
 
 Bishops may in their respective diocese 
 accord a partial indulgence of forty days, 
 or of one vear, on the day a new church is 
 consecrated ; but the plenary power of 
 granting indulgences pertains exclusively 
 to the Pope. 
 
 The virtue of indulgence outflows from 
 the infinite merits of our Lord Jesus 
 Christ, and the abundant merits of the 
 ever Blessed and Immaculate Virgin ; as 
 also from the merits of the saints, whose 
 merits, being superfluous in their own of- 
 fering of the satisfaction due to divine 
 justice, have remained in the spiritual and 
 common treasury of the Church. Indul- 
 gences remit not either the guilt or the 
 eternal punishment of sin, and a most 
 wicked calumny it is to assert that they 
 are a permission to commit sin. They re- 
 mit, under given conditions, a part or the 
 whole of the temporary punishment due 
 to sin. They apply directly to those who 
 gain them, and are rendered profitable to 
 those to whom they are made over. They 
 can be applied to the dead, yet benefit 
 them only by the way of suffrage. 
 
 To gain an indulgence we must not only 
 have the intention to do so, either actually 
 at the moment, or virtually by reason of an 
 intention previously fixed upon, but we 
 must be in a state of grace at least when 
 carrying out the ultimate condition to 
 
 which the indulgence is attached, and fullv 
 discharge all the other conditions pre- 
 scribed. To gain a plenary indulgence it is 
 further necessary to be exempt from delib- 
 erate affection even of venial sin. It is not 
 out of place to remark, in reference to 
 plenary indulgences, that communion when 
 prescribed may be received in any Church 
 whatsoever, provided that a contrary ordi- 
 nance be not otherwise attached. No pray- 
 ers of ordinary obligation can serve for the 
 gaining of an indulgence, unless such be 
 declared permissible in the edict connected 
 therewith. As no indulgence can be ob- 
 tained when there is sin unforgiven in the 
 soul, it follows that the desire to obtain an 
 indulgence for ourselves or others is a most 
 powerful incentive to repentance. It should 
 be added that the Council of Trent pro- 
 nounces anathema against those who assert 
 that indulgences are useless, or who deny 
 that the power to grant them abides in the 
 Church. 
 
 Indulgences are in no way compulsory, 
 but we should regard the gaining of them 
 as tantamount to the amassing of untold 
 wealth — a fortune that dies not with us, 
 but is of inestimable value in the future. 
 We, who have such a natural repugnance 
 for all suffering in this world, should un- 
 questionably strain every effort to mitigate 
 or perhaps exempt ourselves from those 
 immeasurably more intense sufferings in 
 the life to come. Of greater merit it un- 
 doubtedly is to gain indulgences for the 
 dead than for ourselves, because charity is 
 most pleasing to God, in whose sight we 
 acquire higher favor by self-abnegation in 
 the heroic act of offering all our deeds of 
 satisfaction and the suffrages, that may be 
 applied to us after death, to the Blessed 
 Virgin, that she may, at will, distribute 
 and bestow such favors on souls in purga- 
 torv. This offering, or donation, called 
 " The Heroic Act," accords us certain very 
 great privileges applicable to the dead, and 
 does not prevent priests from offering the 
 holy sacrifice of the Mass for other inten- 
 tions, nor the laity from praying for whom 
 they will, or from gaining other merit by 
 other and further acts of virtue. 
 
 Indulgence ( yubilee) . — The indulgence 
 of the Jubilee is a plenary indulgence to 
 which are added several extraordinary 
 privileges, i. It is given to the universal 
 Church, while other plenary indulgences 
 are only for portions of the flock of Jesus 
 Christ. 2. Approved confessors have the 
 
Indulgences 
 
 357 
 
 Indulgences 
 
 power of absolving from all censures and 
 reserved cases ; and of commuting vows, as 
 well as the works prescribed for gaining 
 the Jubilee, to those who cannot accom- 
 plish them. These works are usually 
 seven in number : procession, visiting of 
 churches, prayer in churches, confession, 
 communion, fasting, and almsgiving. 
 
 During the Jubilee all the ordinary in- 
 dulgences are suspended, the following 
 and a few others are usually excepted : in- 
 dulgences granted for the hour of death ; 
 those which are attached to the recital of 
 the Angelus, to the pious action of accom- 
 panying the Blessed Sacrament to the 
 sick, to altars privileged for the departed ; 
 and those which are granted directly in 
 favor of the souls in purgatory. 
 
 The Jubilee, properly so called, or the 
 Great Jubilee, is that which returns every 
 twenty-five years, and the year in which it 
 occurs is called the " Holy Year." The 
 word Jubilee means dismissal or remission. 
 Among the Jews, it was the name of every 
 fiftieth year. On the return of this happy 
 year, all prisoners and slaves were restored 
 to liberty, inheritances received were given 
 back to their former masters, debts were 
 annulled, and the land remained unculti- 
 vated. It was a year of pardon and rest 
 (Lev. XXV.; Num. x.). Now, the Jubilee 
 of the Old Law was only a figure of that 
 of the New. The Jubilee of Christianity 
 forgives the spiritual debts with which 
 sinners are laden ; it sets free the prisoners 
 and slaves of the devil ; it enables us to re- 
 cover possession of the spiritual goods 
 which we have lost by sin. 
 
 Indulgences (,Sale of). — It is true that 
 the Catholic Church formerly imposed 
 canonical penances for certain sins ; it is 
 also true that she has shortened the dura- 
 tion and changed the nature of these canon- 
 ical penances by granting, on certain 
 conditions, what is called an indulgence 
 either in consideration of the person of the 
 penitent, or for the furtherance of the pub- 
 lic good. Thus in the time of the Cru- 
 sades, the Popes granted the remission of 
 the temporal punishment due to sins 
 which were already pardoned by the 
 worthy reception of the sacrament of pen- 
 ance, to those who would take part in the 
 expedition for the rescue of the Holy 
 Land. By complying with the conditions, 
 the Crusaders gained the indulgence. 
 Thus again in the fifteenth century, indul- 
 gences were often granted to those who 
 
 gave alms toward the building or endow- 
 ment of hospitals and churches. This 
 was a means frequently and usefully em- 
 ployed by ecclesiastical authority in order 
 to excite its children to the practice of 
 almsgiving. Hence it happened that un- 
 der the Pontificates of Alexander VI., 
 Julius II., and Leo X., indulgences were 
 quite frequently granted. This is what 
 Protestants have not ceased to call " Sale 
 of Indulgences," These accusations were 
 especially brought forth on the occasion of 
 the indulgence granted by Leo X., in the 
 year 1567. We will not inquire here 
 whether the end Leo X. had in view, 
 which was to procure revenues to enable 
 him to complete the great Basilica of St. 
 Peter, perfectly justified the publication of 
 a general indulgence. It is sufficient for 
 us to remark that those who contributed, 
 did so to the erecting of a temple destined 
 for general usefulness and which would 
 forever be the glory of Christian genius. 
 Neither does criticism attack the Bull it- 
 self, for this was drawn up and published 
 according to the ordinary form, nor its ob- 
 ject, but the manner in which the pre- 
 scriptions of the indulgence were applied 
 and observed. Here we must admit real 
 abuses and of a nature to throw discredit 
 on indulgences in general. The effective 
 execution of the Bull of Indulgence de- 
 manded preachers and intermediaries, in 
 order to draw from it those resources 
 which were expected, and to transmit the 
 same to Rome. The Roman chancery, 
 not being able to find among the secular 
 clergy collectors zealous enough, was 
 obliged to use other intermediaries, and 
 transferred to them the power to publish 
 and distribute the indulgences. In Ger- 
 many this right was bought by Albert, 
 Bishop of Mayance, then given by the lat- 
 ter to the banker Fugger of Augsburg. 
 This was certainly a specimen of business 
 transaction, of gain and barter, the result 
 of which inevitably served to discredit re- 
 ligion and to seriously diminish the 
 amount of alms intended by the donors for 
 Rome. Moreover, many of those who 
 preached and published the indulgences 
 used very many improper methods and 
 shifts which gave to their work rather the 
 character of an every day market-sale 
 transaction than an assembly of the Faith- 
 ful bent on fulfilling a pious work. The 
 many accusations against Tetzel are un- 
 doubtedly false. Even the Protestant 
 writer, Leidemann, has conclusively proved 
 
Indult 
 
 358 
 
 Infallibility 
 
 him to be innocent of the charges heaped 
 on him by his enemies and prejudiced his- 
 torians. Tetzel was undoubtedly a good 
 theologian and an honest man. He made 
 mistakes, and lacked prudence in the per- 
 formance of his duties. *' Had Leo X.," 
 says Cardinal Palaviceni, *' surrounded 
 himself with more and better theologians 
 and followed their advice, he certainly 
 would have acted with more precaution 
 and avoided many mistakes which fol- 
 lowed the promulgation and dispensation 
 of the general indulgences." 
 
 Indult. — An indult is an exceptional 
 favor granted by the Sovereign Pontiff to 
 a state, community, or individuals. A 
 familiar instance is that of the Lenten in- 
 dult, by which the Pope authorizes the 
 bishops, according to the circumstances of 
 different countries, to dispense more or 
 less with the rigor of the canons as to the 
 Lenten fast. In former times, indults 
 chiefly related to the patronage of church 
 dignities and benefices. 
 
 Infallibility of the Church and Pope. — 
 
 The Church is infallible, that is to say, she 
 can neither err nor deceive in matters of 
 faith and morals. In fact : i. Jesus Christ 
 has said : " Go, teach all nations ; . . . 
 and behold I am with you all days, even to 
 the consummation of the world." When 
 our Saviour, who is truth itself, is always 
 with his Church, how could she teach any 
 error? 2. Jesus Christ again has said, in 
 speaking to St. Peter: "Thou art Peter 
 and upon this rock I shall build my 
 Church, and the gates of hell shall not 
 prevail against her." But if the Church 
 could err or deceive the Faithful in her 
 teaching, the gates of hell would prevail 
 against her. 3. St. Paul calls the Church 
 the pillar and column of truth. But would 
 she be the pillar and column of truth, if 
 she ever could teach any error.'' The 
 promise of infallibility has been made by 
 Jesus Christ, to the Church and in the 
 Church, first to Peter, and in his person 
 to all his legitimate successors, whence it 
 follows that if the sovereign PontiflF, if 
 from the height of his Pontifical Chair he 
 condemns an error or proclaims a truth, 
 all the pastors, as well as the simple Faith- 
 ful, are bound to submit themselves, with- 
 out fear of being led into any error. How, 
 indeed, could he teach error, to whom it 
 has been said in the person of blessed 
 Peter : " I have prayed for thee in order 
 that thy faith fail not." Again to the one 
 
 to whom it has been said: " Confirm thy 
 brethren." 
 
 The seat of infallibility rests in the Cath- 
 olic bishops in communion with the see of 
 Rome, whether dispersed or united in a 
 general council. The Church is infallible 
 in her work of teaching, and the work of 
 teaching belongs to the governing body of 
 the Church, the Hierarchy. From this it 
 follows that the governed, the Church as 
 learners will never, as a whole, fall from the 
 faith, for this would imply the failure of 
 the teachers in their work. Hence, these 
 teachers, the bishops, are the proper seat 
 of infallibility, but not the whole of them, 
 for history and experience prove that not 
 only do individuals among them make 
 shipwreck of the faith, but at times a large 
 part of the clergy of entire provinces have 
 lapsed, as happened in the days of the 
 Donatist schism, in southern France in the 
 twelfth century, and in various parts of 
 northern Europe at the time of the Refor- 
 mation. History further shows that simple 
 priests, whether charged with the care of 
 parishes or not, have never been con- 
 sidered as ranking with bishops as judges 
 of the faith ; and the doctrine according to 
 which they have in virtue of their ordina- 
 tion a right to judge, is condemned as at 
 least erroneous by Pope Pius VI. 
 
 Thus the gift of infallibility belongs to 
 the divinely appointed official witnesses. 
 It pertains in reality to the apostolic office, 
 and consequently to those with whom the 
 apostolic office and power rests. Now, in- 
 dividual bishops have not full apostolic 
 power; their jurisdiction is limited to 
 their diocese; and, again, that jurisdiction, 
 including the power to teach and testify, 
 is received from an Apostle, and may be 
 taken away by him, and against his will 
 there is no appeal. A bishop, in order to 
 make even his limited jurisdiction truly 
 apostolic, requires missio apostolica. This 
 holds good for all times. Without such 
 connection with an Apostle, no bishop can 
 be reputed in the apostolic succession, and 
 his testimony is of no value whatever. 
 This being so, it clearly follows first, that 
 the testimony of individual bishops in 
 union with him who alone is an Apostle 
 (real successor) is not infallible, because it 
 is not the testimony of the full apostolic 
 power; secondly, that the testimony of all 
 the bishops in union with the Apostolic 
 See is and must be infallible ; thirdly, that 
 the testimony of him who is a true suc- 
 cessor of an Apostle is by itself infallible. 
 
Infidels 
 
 359 
 
 Inneity 
 
 The first two propositions have always 
 been explicitly taught by the Church, the 
 latter only since the Vatican Council. 
 Thus the subject of infallibility is both 
 the Pope as successor of St. Peter by him- 
 self, and the Pope and bishops considered 
 as one body, because the subject in the last 
 analysis is the apostolic office and power. 
 As to the infallibility of the Pope, in the 
 acts of the Vatican Council, held in 1870 
 (Sess. iv. cap. 4), we find the following: 
 " The Roman Pontiff, when he speaks ex 
 cathedra, that is to say, when in the exer- 
 ci.se of his office of pastor and teacher of 
 all Christians, he, in virtue of his supreme 
 apostolic authority defines that a doctrine 
 on faith and morals is to be held by the 
 whole Church, by the assistance of God 
 promised to him in the person of blessed 
 Peter, has that infallibility with which it 
 was the will of our Divine Redeemer that 
 His Church should be furnished in defin- 
 ing a doctrine on faith or morals, and that 
 therefore these definitions of the Roman 
 Pontiff, of themselves and not through 
 the consent of the Church, are irreforma- 
 ble." See Art., Pope and Prerogatives 
 OF THE Pope. 
 
 Infidels. — By infidels we understand 
 those to whom the Catholic religion has 
 never been proposed in such a manner as 
 to bring home to their minds the fact that 
 they cannot prudently decline to embrace it. 
 These are negative infidels, and are to be 
 distinguished from men to whom the truth 
 has been proposed but who have refused it, 
 or having embraced it, have afterwards re- 
 nounced it. These latter are positive in- 
 fidels. See Atheism. 
 
 Infralapsarians. — Sectarians professing 
 that God has destined to damnation, after 
 the fall of Adam, a certain number of men. 
 
 Inneity. — Innate ideas, ideas which are 
 naturally in the mind. Amidst the di- 
 vergence of opinions about the famous 
 question on the origin of ideas, there exists 
 one capital point, namely, that the under- 
 standing possesses an apart order of notions 
 or ideas irreducible to experience and im- 
 agination; first notions or ideas, which 
 Descartes has called innate ideas. Plato 
 had already taught that God contains 
 in Himself the idea of the essential 
 qualities that constitute the species; after 
 this type the individuals were formed. 
 He adds that these same types form an 
 inherent part of man's thought before all 
 
 intellectual development. Be it as it may 
 as to the latter opinion, it is certain that 
 there exist in our mind first ideas whose 
 origin we can attribute neither to the inner 
 nor to the outward senses, whence it fol- 
 lows that we are obliged to admit in the 
 intellect an apart faculty, called reason. 
 It is certain again that the idea of the in- 
 finite, in particular, exists in us, before all 
 intellectual development, an idea which is 
 the basis, the starting point of all others. 
 Reason itself cannot give us this idea, 
 because it is contained in none of the ideas 
 we have from observation. Man, it is true, 
 in presence of the finite, seems to remem- 
 ber the infinite; but he does not take 
 knowledge thereof. By admitting as an in- 
 nate idea, the idea of the infinite, we are 
 far from admitting the system, or rather 
 the hypothesis of Plato, admitted for a long 
 while in philosophy on account of an in- 
 sufficient psychological analysis. The er- 
 ror of Plato was derived because he did not 
 know how to distinguish the idea of the in- 
 finite ; because he could not explain the idea 
 of relationship, and conceive how we can 
 conclude from the particularon the general, 
 he drew the conclusion that man contained 
 at his birth all the ideas in the germ ; but 
 the idea of the infinite is sufficient to ex- 
 plain all these difficulties. At the bottom, 
 there is only one innate idea for him who 
 considers that the idea of the infinite, pro- 
 ducing the accounts of experience, is suf- 
 ficient to raise the edifice of all our knowl- 
 edge. When St. Thomas, after Aristotle, 
 says that the intellect is a kind of tabula 
 rasa (blank tablet) upon which nothing is 
 written, he understands thereby that the 
 species (innate ideas) are not in act or real- 
 ity in the intellect, but he admits that they 
 are therein in power ; whence it follows that 
 the sensible things are not the completecause 
 of our knowledge. St. Augustine teaches 
 that in the present state, the soul knows all 
 things, in the eternal reasons as in their 
 causes. " We can," says St. Thomas, 
 " know one thing in another in two ways : 
 I. Objectively: thus we see in a looking- 
 glass the things the images of which it 
 reflects ; in this sens6 the soul cannot see 
 everything, in this life, in the eternal 
 reasons. 2. In the principle itself of this 
 knowledge : thus we say, to behold in the 
 sun the things which its light makes known 
 to us ; in this sense it is true to say that 
 the human soul knows all in the eternal 
 reasons." (St. Thomas, Prima primae, 
 ^uaest. 84, 5, c.) According to this dis- 
 
Innocent 
 
 360 
 
 Innocent 
 
 tinction of St. Thomas, might we not 
 reconcile the various systems since Demo- 
 critus, who did not distinguish the under- 
 standing from the senses : nihil est in in- 
 tellectu quod non frius in sensu, until 
 Malebranche, who maintained that we see 
 all things in God. Why would it be ab- 
 surd to believe that God placed in the soul 
 some traces of the first ideas.? Man being 
 naturally inclined to adoration, might this 
 not be a necessary and absolute relation 
 between the Creator and the spiritual being 
 which is the breath of His mouth.? We 
 may conclude that there is an innate idea, 
 the idea of the infinite, and which is God 
 Himself eternally subsisting, " In whom," 
 says St. Paul, "we have the being, move- 
 ment, and life." 
 
 Innocent (name of thirteen Popes). — In- 
 nocent I. (St.) — Pope from 402 to 417. He 
 warmly espoused the cause of St. John 
 Chrysostom, who had been unjustly de- 
 posed and exiled. To save Rome from be- 
 ing sacked, he urged Emperor Honorius to 
 treat for peace with Alaric. Innocent con- 
 demned the heresy of Pelagius. Innocent 
 II. — Pope from 1130 to 1143. He had to 
 combat against the antipope Peter de Leone, 
 son of a recently converted Jewish family, 
 ■whose wealth commanded great influence 
 in Rome. He was crowned with the title 
 of Anacletus II. The Romans, who had 
 been gained over by a lavish distribution 
 of money, declared in favor of the anti- 
 pope. Innocent was obliged to flee into 
 France. He returned to Rome in 1136 and 
 crowned Lothaire emperor of Germany, in 
 the Lateran Basilica. To repair the evils 
 and disorders caused by the late schism. 
 Innocent (1139), convened the Second Lat- 
 eran Synod, or Tenth General Council, 
 which was attended by a thousand bishops, 
 countless abbots, and ecclesiastical digni- 
 taries. The Council passed thirty canons, 
 renewing, for the most part, the censures 
 of former synods against simony, clerical 
 incontinence, and lay investiture. Besides, 
 it condemned the errors of Peter Bruis 
 and Arnold of Brescia, deposed all those 
 who had been raised to ecclesiastical dig- 
 nities by the antipope, and excommunicated 
 Roger of Sicily, who still refused submis- 
 sion to Innocent. Innocent III. — Pope 
 from 1 198 to 1216. Of the illustrious fam- 
 ily of Conti, he was endowed with extraor- 
 dinary gifts and talents. His first thoughts, 
 as Pope, were directed to the reformation 
 of the papal court; he established great 
 
 simplicity, reformed the administration of 
 finances and gave public audiences to all. 
 During the Fourth Crusade, he founded 
 the Latin empire at Constantinople (1204- 
 1261) ; he protected the indissolubility and 
 sanctity of marriage in France, and pro- 
 cured the victory of Tolosa in Spain (1212), 
 by means of which the power of the Saracens 
 was destroyed. Innocent exercised his pa- 
 pal authority also in England, Portugal, 
 Aragon, Norway, Hungary, and Bulgaria. 
 Toward the close of his life. Innocent con- 
 voked the Twelfth Ecumenical (Fourth 
 Lateran) Council, in 1215. The Council 
 decided to organize a new Crusade. It 
 also passed several important laws of dis- 
 cipline, such as the obligation of annual 
 confession and Easter communion, etc. 
 The Pontificate of Innocent III. is the most 
 illustrious in history. Innocent IV. — 
 Pope from 1243 to 1254. He inherited 
 from his predecessors a feud with the Em- 
 peror Frederick II., who had been excom- 
 municated by Gregory IX. in 1230. After 
 the death of Frederick in 1250, and of his 
 son, the Emperor Conrad IV. in 1254, the 
 struggle was continued with Manfred, the 
 uncle and guardian of Conrad's son, Con- 
 radin of Sicily, who inflicted a decisive de- 
 feat on the papal troops five days before 
 Innocent's death. Innocent V. — Pope from 
 Jan. 20th to June 22d, 1276. His early 
 death hindered Michael Paleologus to ratify 
 the reunion of the two Churches agreed 
 upon in the Council of Lyons. Innocent 
 VI. — Pope from 1352 to 1362. His 
 first act was to rescind a statute, or 
 compact, of the Conclave, which the 
 cardinals had separately agreed upon. 
 By this compact, which would have 
 raised the Sacred College to an independ- 
 ent, dominant, and autocratic body, the 
 future Pope would bind himself not to in- 
 crease the number of cardinals, nor nomi- 
 nate for, nor depose from, the higher offices 
 of the Roman Church or the papal States, 
 without the consent of two-thirds of the 
 College. He kept his court at Avignon. 
 Innocent VII. — Pope from 1404 to 1406. 
 He was opposed by the antipope Benedict 
 XIII., who resided at Avignon. Innocent 
 VIII. — Pope from 1484 to 1492. The elec- 
 tion of this PontiflF was a disgrace to the 
 Sacred College, and a scandal to the 
 Church. After a loose life in youth he 
 was married. On the death of his wife, he 
 entered the ecclesiastical state, in which 
 his conduct, as well as his ability, won 
 general esteem, and secured his promotion 
 
Innocents 
 
 361 
 
 Inquisition 
 
 to the episcopate under Paul III., to the 
 cardinalate under Sixtus IV., and finally 
 to the government of the universal Church. 
 His successful efforts in effecting a recon- 
 ciliation between the rival houses of the Or- 
 sini and Colonnas, and restoring order in 
 the papal dominions, procured Innocent the 
 title of " Father of the Country." On 
 Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, after their 
 conquest of Granada, in 1492, he conferred 
 the title of *' Catholic Majesty." But much 
 needed reforms were neglected, and crying 
 abuses at the papal court were allowed 
 to continue. To fill his depleted treas- 
 ury. Innocent VIII. increased the number 
 of curialistic offices, which were conferred 
 for high sums. For keeping in custody 
 Prince Dshem, the brother and rival of 
 Sultan Bajazet II. of Constantinople, the 
 latter paid the Pope annually forty 
 thousand ducats. Innocent IX. — Pope 
 from Oct. 30th to Dec. 30th, 1591. During 
 his short Pontificate of two months he oc- 
 cupied himself to lighten the misery of 
 the people by lowering the taxes and creat- 
 ing a treasury for the poor. Innocent X. 
 — Pope from 1644 to 1655. His Pontificate 
 deserves to be numbered among the most 
 fortunate; but its reputation has suffered 
 somewhat from the undue influence which 
 his sister-in-law. Donna Olympia Malda- 
 china, was allowed to exercise over the ad- 
 ministration of ecclesiastical affairs. The 
 charges against his morals on that account 
 are the fabrications of bigotry. His apolo- 
 gist is the Protestant Ranke, who says of 
 him : " In his earlier career, as nuncio and 
 as cardinal. Innocent had shown himself in- 
 dustrious, blameless, and upright, and this 
 reputation he still maintained." He con- 
 demned the Treaty of Westphalia in 165 1, 
 and the Jansenist heresy in 1653. Inno- 
 cent XI. — Pope from 1676 to 1689. Was 
 a man of austere morals and distinguished 
 for his eminent talents and virtues. He 
 applied himself with much zeal to revive 
 ecclesiastical discipline and displayed un- 
 common courage in defending the rights 
 of the Church and the prerogatives of the 
 Holy See. He had scarcely ascended the 
 Papal Chair, when he became involved in 
 warm controversy with the haughty Louis 
 XIV., of France. He annulled the "Dec- 
 laration of the Galilean Clergy," severely 
 censured the bishops who had taken part 
 in drawing up this Declaration, and refused 
 canonical confirmation to such as advocated 
 the so-called "Gallican Liberties." Inno- 
 cent XII. — Pope from 1691 to 1700. He 
 
 succeeded in terminating the great contest 
 with France, which had arisen from the 
 famous "Declaration of the Gallican Lib- 
 erties" of 1682. It was by this Pope that 
 tlie book of the famous Fenelon, Archbishop 
 of Cambray, entitled Maxims of the Saints 
 was condemned. Infiocent XIII. — Pope 
 from 172 1 to 1724. He invested Charles 
 VI. with the kingdom of Naples, upheld 
 the claims of James III. to the throne of 
 England, and maintained the Bull Unigen- 
 itus against the pretensions of seven French 
 bishops who asked for its abolition. 
 
 Innocents {Feast of the Holy). — One of 
 the Christmas festivals, held in the West- 
 ern Church on Dec. 28th, and in the 
 Eastern on the 29th. It is intended to 
 commemorate the massacre of the children 
 "from two years old and under" (Matt, 
 ii. 16) at Bethlehem. The concurrence of 
 the East and the West in celebrating the 
 festival is an evidence of its antiquity. 
 
 Inquisition ( The) called also Holy Of- 
 fice, a tribunal in the Catholic Church for 
 the discovery and repression of heresy, 
 unbelief, and other offenses against reli- 
 gion. From the very first establishment 
 of Christianity as the religion of the Ro- 
 man empire, laws, more or less severe, 
 existed, as in most of the ancient religions, 
 for the repression and punishment of dis- 
 sent from the national creed; and the 
 Emperors Theodosius and Justinian ap- 
 pointed officials called "inquisitors," 
 whose special duty it was to discover, and 
 prosecute before the civil tribunals, offenses 
 of this class. The ecclesiastical cogniz- 
 ance of heresy, and its punishment by 
 spiritual censures, belonged to the bishop 
 or the episcopal synod ; but no especial 
 machinery for the purpose was devised 
 until the spread, in the eleventh and 
 twelfth centuries, of certain sects reputed 
 dangerous alike to the State and the 
 Church — the Cathari, Waldenses,and Al- 
 bigenses — excited the alarm of the civil 
 as well as of the ecclesiastical authorities. 
 In the public mind, at that time, heresy 
 was regarded as a crime against the State, 
 no less than against the Church. An ex- 
 traordinary commission was sent by Pope 
 Innocent III. into the South of France to 
 aid the local authorities in checking the 
 spread of the Albigensian heresy. The 
 Fourth Lateran Council (1215) earnestly 
 impressed, both on bishops and magis- 
 trates, the necessity of increased vigilance 
 against heresy; and a council held at Tou- 
 
Inspiration 
 
 362 
 
 Inspiration 
 
 louse directed that in each parish the priest 
 and two or three laymen of good repute 
 should b2 appointed to examine and report 
 to the bishop all such offenses discovered 
 within the district. So far, however, there 
 was no permanent court distinct from those 
 of the bishops; but under Innocent IV., 
 in 1248, a special tribunal for the purpose 
 was instituted, the chief direction of which 
 was vested in the then recently established 
 Dominican Order. The Inquisition thus 
 constituted became a general, instead of, 
 as previously, a local tribunal ; and it was 
 introduced in succession into Italy, Spain, 
 Germany, and the South provinces of 
 France. 
 
 In Spain, the secret aim of the Inquisi- 
 tion established by Ferdinand and Isabella 
 (1481), was to curb the power of the no- 
 bility, but its avowed office was to ferret 
 out the disguised Jews and Mohammedans, 
 who secretly assailed Christianity. Many 
 of these had been ordained priests and 
 bishops. In the year 1497, about 1,000 
 Franciscan monks, unwilling to yield to 
 ecclesiastical reforms, became Mohamme- 
 dans. The Spanish Inquisition was also 
 directed against immorality, murder, 
 usury, etc. The king appointed the grand 
 Inquisitor, the counselors, and officers. 
 He issued the statutes. In his name the 
 penalties were decreed. Popes and bish- 
 ops were often obliged to reprimand the 
 Inquisitors, who, besides their immediate 
 aim, sought also to increase the power of 
 the monarchy and lessen the independence 
 of the clergy and the nobility. Later on, 
 the king made use of the Inquisition 
 against disagreeable bishops and nobles 
 who could not be summoned before the 
 ordinary tribunals. Even the Pope expe- 
 rienced much difficulty in rescuing Cardi- 
 nal Bartholomew Caranza, Primate of 
 Spain, from the hands of the Inquisitors. 
 The Holy See frequently exercised its full 
 influence and power against the Inquisi- 
 tion. Leo X. excommunicated all the 
 Inquisitors of Toledo. Ranke, Guizot, 
 and other historians maintained that the 
 Spanish Inquisition was a purely local in- 
 stitution. Its most zealous advocates were 
 certainly men who, like Pombal, had made 
 themselves odious to the Church and fos- 
 tered the absolutism of the crown. The 
 number of victims has been greatly exag- 
 gerated. Nearly 99 per cent, of those who 
 went to the Auto da fe, performed merely 
 an ecclesiastical penance. They wore the 
 Sanbenito or blessed penitential garb dur- 
 
 ing the absolution. See Toleration 
 ( Religious) . 
 
 Inspiration. — We call inspiration a su- 
 pernatural help by which God gives to an 
 author the will to write, in suggesting to 
 him at least the foundation and substance 
 what to write. We must not confound 
 inspiration with assistance, which is, really, 
 a supernatural help, but which suggests 
 nothing to the author, and limits itself to 
 preserve him from falling into any error. 
 This notion of inspiration well understood, 
 we profess that all the parts of Holy Scrip- 
 ture, without exception, have been in- 
 spired, for this is a dogma of faith expressly 
 taught by the Church. " The Roman 
 Church," says the Council of Florence, 
 " confesses the sole and same God as 
 author of both the Old and New Testa- 
 ments, that is, of the law of the Prophets 
 and Gospel, because the saints of both 
 Testaments have spoken under the inspira- 
 tion of the Holy Ghost ; she accepts and 
 venerates their books" (Deer, in Jacobit). 
 The Council of Trent (Sess. iv. Deer, de 
 canon. Script.) made use of the same words 
 and the Vactican Council (Const. Dei 
 Filius, cap. 2) has confirmed this teaching 
 in the following manner: "The Church 
 holds as sacred and canonical, the books 
 of both the Old and New Testaments, 
 not only because they contain the reve- 
 lation without error, but because writ- 
 ten under the inspiration of the Holy 
 Ghost, they have God for their author and 
 have been delivered as such to the Church 
 itself." Further on, to point out the im- 
 portance which the Church attaches to 
 this dogma, the same Council strikes with 
 anathema whoever rejects the divine in- 
 spiration of the Scriptures. 
 
 This dogma is founded upon both Holy 
 Scripture itself and tradition, and is con- 
 firmed by reason, r. Upon Holy Scripture. 
 — St. Paul teaches us that every Scripture of 
 the Old Testament was written by inspira- 
 tion : *' Omnis Scriptura divinitus inspir- 
 ata" (II.Tim. iii. 16). St. Peter says about 
 the same thing (Cf. II. Pet. i. 21). In the 
 Acts (i. 16), St. Peter quotes the Scripture 
 which the Holy Ghost spoke by the mouth 
 of David. In Hebrews (iv. 3-9), God is 
 repeatedly treated as speaking by the 
 Scriptures; and in Galatians (iii. 8), the 
 gift of foresight is ascribed to the Scrip- 
 tures ; surely not to the material Book, 
 but to its Author, the all-foreseeing God. 
 2. Upon Tradition, — Among a multitude of 
 
Installation 
 
 363 
 
 Intelligence 
 
 Patristic passages, we maybe content with 
 two : one derived from the East, the other 
 from the West. St. Chrysostom (Horn. 2, 
 in Gen. n. 2) says that God wishing to put 
 an end to a temporary estrangement, has 
 sent letters to His absent friends ; letters 
 written by God and brought us by Moses. 
 And St. Augustine sets forth God's au- 
 thorship and the subordinate part played 
 by the human writer in the following 
 forcible manner : »' All that God wishes 
 us to know concerning his doings and say- 
 ings, He bade be written by man, as by 
 His own hands " (Z><? Consens. Evangel. 
 I, c. 35, n. 54). There is no need to mul- 
 tiply citations, for the point is not dis- 
 puted. 
 
 Reason Confirms This Dogma. — The 
 truth of the facts reported in Scripture be- 
 ing acknowledged, the inspiration of 
 Scripture becomes itself such an incon- 
 testable fact as all the others. Indeed, the 
 law given by God Himself upon Mount 
 Sinai, is a fact identical with the inspira- 
 tion of that part of Holy Scripture. The 
 mission of Moses, proved by his works, 
 the latter themselves proved by so many 
 testimonies ; the promise which God gives 
 to him to put His -word upon his lips, to 
 teach him -what to say, are facts identical 
 with the inspiration of Moses. Each 
 book of the Old Testament would offer 
 similar proofs of its inspiration, or we 
 would find it attested to in another book 
 whose inspiration would be proven in the 
 same manner as the inspiration of the 
 Pentateuch. The descent of the Holy 
 Ghost upon the Apostles and first disciples 
 of Jesus Christ, the gift of tongues they 
 received, are facts identical with the in- 
 spiration of the New Testament; for the 
 inspiration of the author of a book proves 
 the inspiration of the book, or rather is 
 one and the same thing. 
 
 Our doctrine is opposed to that which 
 goes by the name of " Verbal Inspiration," 
 according to which every word of Scrip- 
 ture was as it was dictated by the Holy 
 Ghost to the Prophets and Apostles, so 
 that they acted as mere machines. The 
 doctrine of verbal inspiration preserves 
 the divine authorship to the full ; to a 
 greater extent, in fact, than is needed. It 
 is, therefore, unproved, and it is open to 
 the grave objection that it fails to account 
 for the varieties of style. In regard to 
 style, the Books of Scripture exhibit the 
 same variety as might be expected in purely 
 human books; but if each word was dic- 
 
 tated by the Holy Ghost, there is no way 
 of accounting for these varieties, they 
 would seem to have been introduced for 
 no other purpose than that of misleading 
 the reader. There are cases where there 
 may be room for doubt whether a particu- 
 lar turn of phrase was " intended " by the 
 Holy Spirit — so far as this word can be 
 used of God, to Whom all the results of 
 His acts are known; in these cases it is 
 the business of the critic to determine 
 what teaching is contained in the passage ; 
 the question is often very subtle, and 
 should not be approached except by those 
 who feel themselves to be well equipped 
 with the full array of necessary qualifica- 
 tions ; among which we put in the front 
 rank, thorough grounding in the theology 
 of the Church, long familiarity with the 
 sacred text, and the disposition to be 
 ready to accept the truth from another 
 rather than devise a novel view. In some 
 cases the author himself has pointed out 
 that a true meaning is conveyed by what 
 might otherwise have been judged to be a 
 casual omission, a notable instance of 
 which we find in Hebrews (vii. 3), where 
 we read why it is that in Genesis (xiv. 18), 
 when Melchisedech is mentioned, the 
 names of his parents are not made known. 
 See Interpretation. 
 
 Installation, in Church law, means the 
 ceremonial act or process by which a per- 
 son presented and legally confirmed in a 
 benefice is formally put into possession of 
 his office, and by which he is fully em- 
 powered, not alone to exercise its func- 
 tions, but to enjoy its honors and emolu- 
 ments. 
 
 Intelligence. — Intellectual faculty. If a 
 man understands what is told to him, re- 
 tains what he has understood, and makes 
 use of the knowledge he has retained, we 
 say that this man is intelligent. Therefore, 
 we can say that intelligence, this faculty of 
 the soul, is a complex power, comprising 
 three groups of powers : power of acquisi- 
 tion, power of preservation, power of 
 elaboration and of transformation. These 
 three powers are so many manifestations of 
 the soul, a study of the intelligence is only 
 their study, i. Power of Acquisition. — 
 We know ourselves through conscience, to 
 which we owe a number of ideas, and even 
 the most important ones (see Conscience, 
 Inneity). As to the inner things, we 
 know them through the perception of the 
 different sensations. Conscience and an- 
 
Interdict 
 
 364 
 
 Interpretation 
 
 terior perception are our only means of 
 acquisition. 2. Po-wer of Preservation. — 
 In order that we may be really able to say 
 that we have acquired a knowledge, we 
 must have preserved this knowledge, we 
 must have been able to retain it, even re- 
 cover it and this we can do through mem- 
 ory. Is memory our only means of preser- 
 vation ? Let us remark that a fact of the 
 memory never presents itself in an isolate 
 manner; one remembrance reminds of an- 
 other; between our remembrances there 
 exists a connection. According to what law 
 is this connection, this association, formed ? 
 Behold a question inseparable from the 
 study of the memory. 3. Power of Elabora- 
 tion. — Man has a tendency to form general 
 ideas. Science, we know, is only an ensem- 
 ble of these ideas, and man is capable of 
 science. Man arrives at general ideas, 
 either by induction or by deduction, and 
 this through reasoning. To induct and to 
 deduct, man is in need of language, which 
 serves to put him in relation with his 
 fellow- men and which thus is a means of 
 acquisition and elaboration. Finally, man 
 acquiring knowledge, preserving and elab- 
 orating it, can, in making use of all the 
 resources at his disposal, create a diflPerent 
 world from the real world ; he can imag- 
 ine and the imagination is only a power 
 of elaboration or of transformation. From 
 this explanation we must not conclude 
 that intelligence is a threefold faculty 
 composed of separate powers. The intel- 
 ligence is, on the contrary, essentially one. 
 
 Interdict. — An ecclesiastical sentence 
 which forbids the right of Christian burial, 
 the use of the sacraments, and the enjoy- 
 ment of public worship, or the exercise of 
 ecclesiastical functions. Interdicts may be 
 general, as applied to a country or city ; or 
 f articular, as applied to a Church or other 
 locality ; they may be local, as applied to 
 places ; personal, as applied to a person or 
 some class of persons ; or mixed, as directed 
 against both places and persons. General 
 and local interdicts have rarely been pro- 
 nounced since the Middle Ages. 
 
 Interim. — A provisional arrangement for 
 the settlement of religious differences be- 
 tween Protestants and Catholics in Ger- 
 many during the Reformation epoch, 
 pending a definite settlement by a Church 
 council. There were three interims: the 
 Ratisbon Interim, promulgated by the 
 Emperor Charles V. in i54i,but ineffective ; 
 the Augsburg Interim, proclaimed also by 
 
 Charles V. in 1548, but not carried out by 
 many Protestants ; and the Leipsic Interim, 
 carried through the Diet of Saxony in 
 1548 ; it met with strenuous opposition. 
 
 Interpretation and Some Causes of the 
 Difficulties Found in the Bible. — The 
 Church teaches that Holy Scripture is a 
 book inspired by God, that is, composed 
 under the influence of the Holy Ghost, in 
 such a manner that it emancipated from 
 all error the one He thus empowered to 
 be His interpreter to man. God did not 
 dictate to the prophet the exact language 
 which he should employ in the process of 
 his general teaching, but left him the free 
 use of his natural faculties, so that the pe- 
 culiar character of each writer, his style, and 
 manner, reveals itself in his work. Holy 
 Scripture contains nothing but truth re- 
 vealed for us. But the Holy Ghost did not 
 impart in a supernatural manner to the 
 human instruments of which He made use 
 what they already knew through natural 
 means, either by their personal experience 
 or by the testimony of other men. He 
 taught them by miraculous means only 
 what they could not know by themselves, 
 as, for instance, the secrets of the future. 
 Moreover, it does not matter whether such 
 or such a part of the Sacred Books has 
 been directly revealed to its author or 
 simply inspired. All that they contain is 
 equally true and certain, for, as Catholic 
 theologians teach, the divine inspiration 
 guarded the sacred writer against all 
 error, — not only against all dogmatic and 
 moral — but also against all historical or 
 scientific error. 
 
 The Bible, therefore, has gone forth 
 from the hands of God pure and spotless, 
 worthy of its Author, and obliging human 
 veneration and belief. However, Provi- 
 dence did not judge it proper to fully pro- 
 tect itagainst the lesser and inconsequential 
 injuries of time, and has subjected it, in a 
 limited measure, totheconditionsof human 
 things. Providence has watched over the 
 Sacred Book to preserve it intact as to its 
 foundation, and that the sacred depositary 
 of revelation may be transmitted without 
 grave alterations to the remotest genera- 
 tions, but has not deemed it necessary to 
 perform continual miracles to shelter it 
 from those slight errors and insignificant 
 changes which insensibly enter into all the 
 works of men. The rust of centuries has 
 thus deposited its imprint upon some of 
 the pages of our Sacred Scriptures, and we 
 
Interpretation 
 
 365 
 
 Interpretation 
 
 have no longer a text absolutely comform- 
 able to the autographs of the sacred 
 writers. Passing under the pen of thou- 
 sands of transcribers, in an interval of time 
 extending over from eighteen hundred to 
 thirty-four hundred years, proper names 
 have been disfigured, figures changed, 
 words omitted, rarious passages shifted, 
 obscured, or slightly altered. A compari- 
 son with the most ancient texts and 
 versions furnishes a clear proof of this. 
 The actual Hebrew text, for instance, at- 
 tributes to Lamech, father of Noe, 777 
 years (Gen. v. 31) ; the Samaritan text, 
 653; the Greek version of the Septuagint, 
 753. It is evident that two of these texts, 
 if not all three of them, have been changed 
 by the copyists. We read in the Paralipom- 
 ena (II. Par. xvi. i) that Baasa, king of 
 Israel made war on Juda in the 36th year 
 of the reign of Asa. Baasa reigned only 
 to the 26th year of Asa (III. Ki. xvi. 8). 
 The Septuagint aggregates the difficulty 
 by placing the war in the year 38 of Asa's 
 reign. Not only is there a contradiction 
 between the Greek and the Hebrew, but 
 there is an evident fault in one of the two 
 passages of the Hebrew text. Probably we 
 ought to read 26 instead of 36 or 38. Our 
 actual text (II. Ki. xxi. 8), attributes five 
 children to Michol, daughter of Saul, and, 
 nevertheless, we are formally told in an- 
 other passage of the Second Book of Kings 
 (vi 23), that Michol never had any chil- 
 dren. Here we should read, no doubt, 
 instead of her name, that of another daugh- 
 ter of Saul, Merob, as is conveyed by the 
 word heri in the version corrected by the 
 Massorets, and as appears from what is 
 said in the First Book of Kings (xviii. 19). 
 In the time of St. Jerome there existed so 
 many variances in the copies which circu- 
 lated among the Faithful, that this Father 
 wrote to Pope St. Damasus : " There are 
 almost as many divergent copies as there 
 are manuscripts." 
 
 It is hard for those who have never had 
 any experience in dealing with the manu- 
 scripts of books to understand how diffi- 
 cult, nay, almost impossible, it was in 
 former times to preserve the text from all 
 change. The books published in modern 
 times are intrusted to the printer, the 
 proof sheets are carefully revised by the 
 author, and allowed to be printed only 
 when the latter is satisfied with the correc- 
 tions which he has indicated therein. The 
 work is then issued, and no matter how 
 multitudinous the number of copies, as a 
 
 product of mechanical labor, they are all 
 alike ; they vary neither by a word, nor by 
 a letter, nor by a comma. And indeed 
 this multitude of copies are as exactly 
 alike as though they were the first original 
 work of the author's pen. 
 
 For the ancients, on the contrary, there 
 were as many varying copies as there were 
 reproductions of the same work. The 
 author read his work to the copyists, — 
 each copyist produced a codex; but, with 
 different readings, errors necessarily una- 
 voidable, were incorporated into the 
 transcription of a large work. All writers 
 of books know how often the printers, by 
 some remissness in their manual occupa- 
 tion, alter the meaning by mistaking one 
 word for another, by omissions, additions, 
 and other inaccuracies resulting from lack 
 of attention. The librarii of ancient 
 times were not more perfect than the 
 typographical artisan of our day; but 
 their shortcomings entailed more grievous 
 consequences, because the authors could 
 not correct all the copies which were 
 made of their books. They apprehended 
 the grave results of this technical inac- 
 curacy, which they could foresee only too 
 plainly, and they abjured the scribes, 
 with the most earnest solicitations, not to 
 neglect to compare their copy with the 
 original manuscript. " I conjure thee," 
 wrote St. Irenseus, at the end of his book 
 against the Valentinians, " I conjure thee, 
 whoever thou mayest be that transcribest 
 this book, by Our Lord Jesus Christ and 
 by His glorious coming, when He will 
 come to judge the living and the dead, to 
 realize what thou hast written, and care- 
 fully correct it after the copy from which 
 thou hast transcribed it. I pray thee also 
 to transcribe this conjuration and put it at 
 the end of thy copy " (See Eusebius, 
 Church History, vol. XX.) 
 
 Hence we need not be astonished that, 
 from the first centuries, both the Greek 
 and Latin Fathers complained so often 
 about the corruption of the manuscripts of 
 the Bible. 
 
 This is, however, not the only source of 
 embarrassment for the defender of the 
 Bible. Even had the text been preserved 
 to us in its original integrity, and entirely 
 free from any technical changes, it would 
 still present other and graver difficulties, 
 as, for instance, those of interpretation 
 God, in communicating with man, had to 
 make use of the language of man. Now, 
 all human language is imperfect. It is 
 
Interpretation 
 
 366 
 
 Interpretation 
 
 composed of words, and these words are 
 signs, the invariably incomplete pictures 
 of the realities and ideas they attempt to 
 portray. Words show us only one side of 
 the realities ; they can never succeed in 
 giving us the complete description of the 
 object or idea in all its phases. In this re- 
 spect, also, the Semitic languages are still 
 more imperfect than the Arian languages. 
 They have not been developed, elaborated, 
 polished, modified, and brought to the de- 
 gree of perfection which the idioms of the 
 son of Japhet have attained. The Hebrew 
 vocabulary is very limited. Very often 
 there is only a single word to express many 
 diverse ideas. Thus the Israelite was often 
 obliged to have recourse to the periphrase, 
 and, as a result of this circumlocution, it 
 was frequently impossible for him to ex- 
 press his thought with a rigorous exacti- 
 tude. 
 
 In keeping with the vocabulary, the He- 
 brew syntax is also of a primitive simplic- 
 ity. The particles which conjoin the 
 grammatical sections of the discourse are 
 very rare. The phrases join themselves 
 without any articulation and co-ordination 
 of the various parts. There is no punc- 
 tuation. The thoughts are marked out 
 and dissected, and the phrases used in ex- 
 pressing them juxtaposed rather than joined 
 and united. 
 
 What still further increases the obscu- 
 rity, is that the Old Testament was written 
 in a language which ceased to be spoken 
 many centuries ago. It is only too true, 
 Hebrew is for us a " dead language." 
 Languages are, so to speak, illustrations 
 and representations of the peoples who 
 used them. They abound in allusions to 
 their customs; habits, modes of thought, 
 and manner of living. If, therefore, in- 
 quiry be directed toward a nation which 
 has disappeared from the arena of the 
 world for an extended period of time, and 
 whose customs were different from those 
 with which we are familiar by our personal 
 experience or practice, it is a matter of 
 great difficulty for us to form an exact idea 
 of them. If we are hindered at every step, 
 even when reading the ancient authors of 
 the same race as ourselves, although they 
 composed their works in a language from 
 which our own is derived, and although 
 they lived on the same soil, possessed in- 
 stitutions and customs analogous to those 
 with which we are familiar and which we 
 have in great part inherited, how much 
 greater must be the difficulty encountered. 
 
 if the ancient writers whose works we 
 would peruse not only wrote in a language 
 whose genus is difTerent from ours, but 
 who had also a totally difTerent method of 
 mental conception and habits of thought ; 
 who led a life so far removed trom ours, 
 both in point of time and conditions of ex- 
 istence, and who must have employed their 
 words and expressions in a sense very dis- 
 similar from what is familiar to us in their 
 present usage. A judge in Israel had noth- 
 ing in common with the judges of our civil 
 or criminal courts, and the Temple of Jeru- 
 salem did not resemble our Christian tem- 
 ples. How many readers of the Bible are 
 there, however, that take into account these 
 essential differences ! 
 
 Besides the words of an equivocal or 
 ambiguous meaning, there are those of an 
 unknown meaning. We might say that 
 the term " dead " applies with even greater 
 descriptive force to the Hebrew language 
 than to the so-called classic languages, for 
 we have a far more limited number of mon- 
 uments of the Hebrew language than of 
 the Greek and Latin, and, consequently, 
 less means of understanding it. All that 
 has survived of Hebrew literature is con- 
 tained in one small volume. In this vol- 
 ume a great number of expressions occur 
 but once, and, consequently, their meaning 
 is uncertain. This is the case, sometimes 
 in the most important passages. Particu- 
 larly in the prophecies do we meet with 
 those rare and unique words, whose mean- 
 ing is only partly made known to us by the 
 ancient versions or through comparison 
 with other Semitic idioms. But these ver- 
 sions do not always agree one with the 
 other, and the congeneric idioms do not 
 elucidate all the obscurities. Therefore, a 
 vast field remains open for hypotheses, un- 
 certainties, discussions, and the arbitrary 
 assumptions of infidels and skeptics. 
 
 These are some of the many causes 
 which make it hard to understand the 
 books written by the Hebrews. The man- 
 ner of Oriental composition also aggra- 
 vates the difficulty. No Hebrew Aristotle 
 schooled these writers in the rules of 
 poetry, nor had they a Cicero to crystal- 
 lize the laws of rhetoric. Their literary 
 art, if such it may be called, is obscure 
 and bears no resemblance to ours. They 
 follow paths that are unknown to us and 
 I wherein the Occidental reader oftentimes 
 becomes bewildered. Devoid of a philo- 
 I sophic tongue, restricted to the resources 
 ) of a meager vocabulary, little accustomed 
 
Interpretation 
 
 367 
 
 Interpretation 
 
 to analysis and synthesis, they express 
 their thought exactly as the thought pre- 
 sents itself to their minds. They relate 
 their facts as they remember them. They 
 take small pains about the logic of events, 
 nor do they seek to be particularly clear, 
 placing each fact in its proper place and 
 sequence, and diligently omitting nothing 
 useful. This volume is a rich treasure 
 house, filled with pearls and precious 
 stones, but sadly lacking in precise order 
 and methodical arrangement. 
 
 To all these causes for obscurity and 
 difficulty is added yet another one for the 
 majority of Bible readers, namely: they 
 are unacquainted with the original text, 
 and can only derive their knowledge of it 
 through a translation. Now, no matter 
 how excellent any translation may be, it 
 can never render the true meaning of the 
 original work in its perfection. All the 
 critics acknowledge the eminent merit of 
 the version of the Septuagint, and espe- 
 cially of our Vulgate; but all are also 
 obliged to acknowledge that, in these ver- 
 sions, certain passages are not rendered 
 in an irreproachable manner. There is a 
 considerable number of these faulty pas- 
 sages in the Septuagint, but a smaller 
 number in our Vulgate ; nevertheless, the 
 latter is not free from these faulty renditions 
 which often convey an opposite meaning 
 from that which was; intended by the origi- 
 nal. Fortunately, the original text provides 
 the correction for the errors of transla- 
 tions. But the original text for all the 
 books of the Bible is not now extant; and 
 where it is wanting, as for Tobias, Judith, 
 and some others, it is sometimes impossi- 
 ble to restore with any degree of certainty 
 the primitive reading, and, consequently, 
 to solve the difficulty. 
 
 Independently of the difficulties of lan- 
 guage and alterations of the text, there is 
 another cause which besets with impedi- 
 ments and obscurity the work of the Bible 
 student, namely, our ignorance of an- 
 tiquity. The events of Sacred History 
 transpired in very remote epochs, in times 
 and places little known to us. When the 
 objects of our investigation are at a great 
 distance from us, they appear to us as 
 though enveloped in a fog, and become 
 confused and indistinct. We cannot ab- 
 ruptly seize the surroundings and distin- 
 guish certain characteristics. Not only 
 are we oblivious of many facts that are 
 indispensable to an exact knowledge of 
 persons and things, and the proper appre- 
 
 ciation of their actions, but our political, 
 social, and even religious organizations, 
 our wants, relations, manner of living, 
 and surroundings, in a word, our status as 
 human beings, are so different that, in 
 spite of all the efforts of our imagination, 
 we are unable to reanimate those ancient 
 societies, and see them as they were in 
 reality. The lapse of thousands of years 
 has transported us into a different atmos- 
 phere. How many obscure, unintelligible 
 points, which we judge too easily as in- 
 credible, were natural and clear as day- 
 light for the contemporaries of those past 
 ages ! 
 
 Finally, a last and often most serious 
 source of difficulty in properly under- 
 standing the Bible, are the explanations 
 which exegetists themselves have given 
 thereof, and which have changed the 
 meaning. The commentaries which these 
 latter have written on Sacred Scripture are 
 so numerous that they could well fill sev- 
 eral large libraries. In this mass of books, 
 in spite of the uprightness of the intentions 
 of their authors, in spite of their perspi- 
 cacity and their science, there is many an 
 error and many a falsehood. Neverthe- 
 less, through a convergence of dissimilar 
 circumstances, we accept certain interpre- 
 tations as well founded, and impute crime 
 to the Bible when it is only the commen- 
 tators who are at fault. Thus we reproach 
 the Scripture with teaching, contrarily to 
 astronomy, that the earth is immovable 
 and that the sun turns round the earth. 
 This is wrong; the sacred text does not 
 teach this error. The ancient interpreters, 
 it is true, thus understood the words of 
 Josue to the sun : " Move not, O sun " 
 (Jos. x. 12), but they were deceived. They 
 mistook a popular expression for the ex- 
 pression of a scientific dogma, and we can 
 apply to them the words of St. Augustine : 
 '■'■ Interpres erravtt" {Contra Faustum, 
 xi. 5). 
 
 Thus, ignorance of facts and surround- 
 ings ; the unavoidable imperfection of trans- 
 lations ; loss of the original text of several 
 of the Sacred Books; peculiar character- 
 istics of the Hebrew tongue; inherent im- 
 potency of human language in general to 
 render all the shades of thought and mean- 
 ing and to reproduce a complete represen- 
 tation of the facts ; the errors of the 
 copyists, — result of their false reading, of 
 their negligence or distractions, — and, 
 finally, the errors of interpreters and com- 
 mentators concur in producing the majority 
 
INTROIT 
 
 368 
 
 Ireland 
 
 of the apparent or real difficulties in the 
 study of Holy Scripture, and which give 
 rise to numerous objections on the part of 
 its enemies. See Faith {Rule of). 
 
 Introit. — Words said in the Mass, when 
 the priest begins the celebration of the 
 holy sacrifice. As a rule it consists of an 
 antiphon, a verse or verses, of a Psalm, and 
 the Gloria Patri. Some Introits, called 
 irregular, are taken from other parts of 
 Scripture. This is the case with thirty-five 
 of the one hundred and fifty-nine Introits 
 in the Plan Missal, whilst seven others are 
 by inspired writers. The introduction of 
 the Introits is attributed by some, to Pope 
 St. C destine, by others to St. Gregory the 
 Great. 
 
 Investiture in feudal and ecclesiastical 
 history, means the act of giving corporal 
 possession of a manor, office, or benefice, 
 accompanied by a certain ceremonial, such 
 as the delivery of a branch, a banner, or an 
 instrument of office, more or less designed 
 to signify the power or authority which it 
 is supposed to convey. As to the contest 
 about ecclesiastical investiture see Greg- 
 ory VII. 
 
 Ireland {Christianity in). See Pat- 
 rick St. 
 
 Ireland {Protestantism in). — Christian- 
 ity was introduced into Ireland especially 
 by St. Patrick (see Art. Patrick). Ire- 
 land, at first independent, came gradually 
 under the rule of England. The Protestant 
 kings sought to subjugate and proselytize 
 the whole island. The first seeds of the 
 new heresy were planted by Henry VIII., 
 who was declared by the so-called Irish 
 parliament, the members of which were 
 selected from the English colonists, sole 
 and supreme ruler of the Irish Church. 
 But the Irish as a nation oflFered a vigorous 
 resistance to the introduction of Protes- 
 tantism. During the reign of Elizabeth, a 
 systematic and atrocious persecution was 
 carried on against the Catholics in Ireland. 
 Among those who suffered martyrdom 
 were several bishops and archbishops. 
 Every manner of violence was practiced 
 under the form of law. In order utterly to 
 destroy the Catholic faith, seminaries and 
 colleges were closed by the government. 
 Those who desired a liberal education were 
 obliged to give up their faith or cross over 
 to the Continent where seats of learning 
 were founded for the Irish Church. Lqgs 
 of property, exile, and slavery became the 
 
 lot of Catholics. A wholesale robbery of 
 property was inaugurated. Under Eliza- 
 beth, 600,000 acres of land were confiscated ; 
 under James I., 950,000; under Charles I., 
 1,200,000; under Cromwell, 5,000,000; 
 under William III., 1,060,792. The Irish 
 were barely permitted to remain on their 
 former possessions as laborers and servants 
 of their oppressors. But despite the con- 
 fiscation, rack, and scaffold, priests and 
 people remained loyal to the ancient faith. 
 During the reign of James I., the Irish 
 people hoped to obtain some degree of 
 religious freedom, but their hope was 
 frustrated, when the king in an act of in- 
 demnity which he granted, excluded from 
 its benefits "Papists and assassins." In 
 1605, Catholic services were prohibited and 
 all priests ordered to leave the country 
 under pain of death. 
 
 These persecutions were continued with 
 increased violence under Charles I. (1625- 
 1649). This prince, though married to a 
 Catholic queen, listened to his evil advisers 
 and continued the oppression of the Catho- 
 lics. At last (1641) a formidable uprising 
 took place throughout the whole island. 
 Priests and people united in the defense of 
 their religion. The conflict was maintained 
 with great bitterness until 1643 when an 
 armistice known as " The Cessation," was 
 concluded, by the terms of which Catholics 
 were promised the free exercise of their 
 religion. Through fear of the Puritans, 
 Charles I. did not dare grant the just de- 
 mands of the Irish. Yet at the moment 
 when the king was in dispute with the 
 English parliament and threatened by his 
 Scotch subjects, the Irish came generously 
 for\^'ard to relieve his necessities. But 
 justice to Ireland was no part of the policy 
 of the English government. After the 
 death of Charles I., Cromwell landed in 
 Ireland and immediately entered upon a 
 career of the most violent persecution. 
 Priests, citizens, soldiers, women, and 
 children were put to the sword. Nearly 
 all the lands belonging to Catholics were 
 confiscated and divided among his soldiers. 
 " To Hell or Connaught " was Cromwell's 
 reply to the just demands of the Irish peo- 
 ple. Twenty thousand persons were trans- 
 ported to the West Indies and many 
 thousand more to the American colonies. 
 A prize of five poimds was set upon the 
 head of a priest. But even this atrocious 
 persecution could not suppress the religion 
 of Ireland. The sufferings of the people 
 continued under Charles II. James II., 
 
Ireland 
 
 369 
 
 IRENAEUS 
 
 an avowed Catholic, having ascended the 
 throne of England (1685), granted freedom 
 of worship as well as civil and political 
 rights to the Catholics. But this happy 
 change was of short duration, for James 
 was driven from the throne by William, 
 Prince of Orange, who, by the capitulation 
 of Limerick (1690), became supreme ruler 
 of the entire island. Catholics were prom- 
 ised freedom of conscience and peaceful 
 enjoyment of their possessions, but these 
 conditions of the treaty were soon violated. 
 William of Orange began a persecution 
 which is absolutely without a parallel in 
 the history of civilized nations. The fol- 
 lowing penal laws were enacted by the 
 Irish parliament: i. No Papist shall have 
 the power to bequeath his property. If a 
 son of a Catholic family turns Protestant, 
 he shall become possessed of the whole 
 property of his parents. 2. No Catholic 
 shall be permitted to purchase landed 
 property, he shall not hold in fee any 
 property purchased or inherited. 3. Leases 
 shall not be held for longer than thirty 
 years and the tenant shall leave two-thirds 
 of his income to the owner. 4. No Papist 
 shall own a horse worth more than five 
 pounds. Catholic education was proscribed 
 under penalty of high treason. 5. The 
 property of a child brought up in the 
 Catholic religion on the Continent, shall 
 be confiscated. 6. Papists shall be excluded 
 from parliament and all offices of State. 
 7. Attendance at Catholic service was pro- 
 hibited under pain of banishment. Priests 
 were forbidden, under penalty of death, to 
 solemnize marriages between Catholics and 
 Protestants; a Protestant heiress who 
 married a Catholic was punished by loss 
 of her property; a woman who turned 
 Protestant might separate herself from 
 her husband. In 1697, an act was passed 
 requiring all bishops to leave the country 
 before May, 1698; their return rendered 
 them liable to capital punishment; the 
 priests were allowed to remain, but under 
 the most oppressive supervision. 
 
 During the reign of Queen Anne (1702- 
 1714), a new species of persecution was 
 inaugurated, which reminds one of the 
 Roman persecutions of the early Chris- 
 tians. Parliament enacted a legislation 
 that could not be equaled in cruelty. Sev- 
 eral acts were passed utterly to root out 
 the Catholic faith in Ireland. One of the 
 acts declared guilty of high treason and 
 subject to its penalty, any one who should 
 "harbor, relieve, conceal, or entertain 
 24 
 
 Catholic priests " ; another act was passed 
 entitled, "A bill to prevent the further 
 growth of Papacy," etc. These laws were 
 directed against a people whose only 
 crime was loyalty to the Catholic faith. 
 The Irish were overburdened with taxes. 
 They were compelled to pay tithes to the 
 bishops and pastors of the Protestant High 
 Church, and in addition contribute from 
 their indigence to the support of their own 
 priests who, at the peril of their lives, 
 remained in their midst. Famine and 
 starvation added to the horrors of the per- 
 secution. To be a Catholic was a shame 
 and a crime. The disgraceful laws re- 
 mained in force until the war of Inde- 
 pendence broke out in America (1775). 
 Moved by fear, the English government 
 granted some concessions. By an act of 
 parliament of 1778, the Catholics were des- 
 ignated " Roman Catholics " ; heretofore 
 they had been styled "Papists" or "The 
 common enemy " ; but it was only by the 
 Bill of Emancipation (1829), that the penal 
 laws were abolished. 
 
 Ireland {^The Church in), in 1898. See 
 next page. 
 
 Ireland (John). — An American Catholic 
 prelate; born in Kilkenny, Ireland, Sept. 
 nth, 1838; emigrated to the United States 
 when a child, and settled in Minnesota. 
 On Dec. 21st, 1861, he was ordained at St. 
 Paul, Minnesota. After serving as an army 
 chaplain he became rector of the cathedral 
 at St. Paul, and in 1875 was made coadju- 
 tor bishop. He was a prominent member 
 of the Vatican Council of 1870; engaged 
 in the work of establishing colonies of 
 Catholics in Minnesota and the Northwest; 
 and was made archbishop of St. Paul in 
 1888. 
 
 Irenaeus (St.). — Irenaeus, born between 
 130-140 at Smyrna, in Asia Minor, had, 
 from his earliest youth, the happiness of 
 being instructed by St. Polycarp and other 
 apostolic men. His deep attachment to the 
 Christian doctrine did not prevent him 
 from studying the Greek poets and philos- 
 ophers, especially Homer and Plato. With 
 a view to missionary work, he journeyed to 
 Gaul, where he was ordained priest by 
 Photinus, Bishop of Lyons, who suffered 
 martyrdom in the. persecution of Marcus 
 Aurelius (178). Irenaeus was nominated to 
 succeed him as bishop by Pope Eleutherius, 
 to whom he had been sent on an ecclesias- 
 tical mission. In this office he showed un- 
 
Irene 
 
 370 
 
 Irregularity 
 
 THE CHURCH IN IRELAXD IN It 
 
 -GENERAL SUMMARY 
 
 DIOCESES 
 
 ARMAGH 
 
 Ardagh 
 
 Clogher 
 
 Derry 
 
 Down and Connor 
 
 Dromore 
 
 Kilmore 
 
 Meath 
 
 Raphoe 
 
 DUBLIN 
 
 Ferns 
 
 Kildare and Leighlin 
 
 Ossory 
 
 CASHEL and Emly 
 
 Cloyne 
 
 Cork 
 
 Kerry 
 
 Killaloe 
 
 Limerick 
 
 Ross 
 
 Waterford and Lismore. . . . 
 
 TUAM 
 
 Achonry 
 
 Clonfert 
 
 Elphin 
 
 Galway, Kilmacduagh and 
 
 Kilfenora 
 
 Killala 
 
 Total 
 
 25 
 
 53 
 3« 
 38 
 37 
 51 
 17 
 40 
 64 
 
 23 
 63 
 
 39 
 46 
 
 33 
 44 
 45 
 33 
 49 
 54 
 46 
 
 9 
 36 
 
 44 
 20 
 
 17 
 33 
 
 29 
 20 
 
 1,020 
 
 91 
 53 
 66 
 70 
 87 
 33 
 61 
 78 
 
 45 
 216 
 78 
 84 
 73 
 63 
 92 
 
 "5 
 67 
 
 88 
 
 75 
 18 
 81 
 75 
 30 
 25 
 67 
 
 19 
 
 15 
 
 1,865 
 
 38 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 254 
 18 
 
 25 
 
 42 
 
 7 
 16 
 40 
 
 47 
 
 2 
 
 566 
 
 182 
 
 94 
 104 
 107 
 142 
 
 54 
 
 lOI 
 
 157 
 68 
 
 532 
 135 
 155 
 116 
 118 
 
 137 
 190 
 123 
 158 
 161 
 27 
 164 
 
 131 
 50 
 52 
 
 103 
 
 65 
 
 35 
 
 3.451 
 
 55 
 41 
 40 
 
 38 
 53 
 18 
 42 
 66 
 26 
 65 
 41 
 49 
 40 
 46 
 47 
 35 
 50 
 57 
 48 
 II 
 
 39 
 52 
 22 
 24 
 34 
 
 30 
 
 22 
 
 1,091 
 
 155 
 79 
 87 
 78 
 
 no 
 42 
 90 
 
 144 
 53 
 
 185 
 92 
 
 164 
 96 
 
 84 
 
 103 
 
 70 
 
 99 
 
 H3 
 
 94 
 
 22 
 
 76 
 
 "5 
 
 41 
 
 46 
 
 98 
 
 53 
 39 
 
 2458 
 
 
 164,383 
 112,523 
 1 16,429 
 
 132,731 
 146,319 
 
 47,190 
 
 125,197 
 148,418 
 102,609 
 384,566 
 106,650 
 142,193 
 92,399 
 122,727 
 
 147,381 
 178,972 
 190,017 
 
 153,513 
 119,994 
 52,622 
 128,459 
 212,977 
 
 89,545 
 
 45,526 
 
 139,338 
 
 76,328 
 68,302 
 
 3,547,207 
 
 tiring zeal and energy for the good of the 
 Churches in Gaul. Moreover, by means of 
 his writings, in defense of the unity and 
 purity of the faith, which was endangered 
 by the Gnostics, he made his influence felt 
 far beyond the limits of Gaul. Finally, he 
 proved himself worthy of his name {Eiren- 
 aios, the Peaceful) by effecting a happy 
 compromise between the East and the West 
 in the dispute concerning Easter, which 
 had gone so far as to cause an open rupture 
 between the two sections of the Church. 
 In the great persecution under Septimius 
 Severus, the shepherd suffered martyrdom 
 with many of his flock (June 28th, 202). 
 Of his writings, only fragments remain, 
 with the exception of the work Against 
 Heresies (Adversus Hcereses) in five books, 
 which he wrote principally to refute the 
 Gnostic heresies. The existing Latin ver- 
 sion is very ancient and accurate and was 
 
 used even by TertuUian. In this work the 
 author discusses nearly all the Catholic 
 dogmas; among others, Tradition, the 
 Primacy of the Roman See, the Incarna- 
 tion, the Holy Eucharist, the Sacrifice of 
 the Mass, and the Resurrection. F. June 
 28th. 
 
 Irene (752-803). — Empress of Con- 
 stantinople, born at Athens. She married 
 in 769 the imperial prince Leo, son of 
 Constantine V. Copronymus, who suc- 
 ceeded to his father in 775. Regent at the 
 death of her husband, she stopped the 
 Iconoclast persecution, then assembled, in 
 787, a Council at Nice, which restored the 
 veneration of images. 
 
 Irregularity in the Church, is an infrac- 
 tion of the rules governing admission to 
 the clerical office and discharge of its 
 functions ; a canonical impediment to re- 
 
IRVINGITES 
 
 371 
 
 Isidore Mercator 
 
 ception of orders, exercise of clerical 
 functions, or advancement in the Church. 
 Irregularities are classed as (i) Ex de- 
 fectu, from defect of mind, body, birth, 
 age, liberty, the sacrament (that is, of 
 marriage, including previous bigamy, 
 etc.), lenity (involved in previous military 
 service, homicide, etc.), and reputation 
 (from notorious crime, judicial sentence, 
 etc.) ; and (2) Ex delicto, from reception 
 of heretical baptism or ordination, heresy, 
 murder, etc. 
 
 Irvingites. — Members of a Protestant 
 sect deriving its name from Edward Ir- 
 ving (1792-1834), a minister of the Church 
 of Scotland, who was settled in London in 
 1822, promulgated mystical doctrines, and 
 was excommunicated in 1833. Irving was 
 not the founder of the sect popularly 
 called after him, but accepted and pro- 
 moted the spread of the principles upon 
 which, after his death, the sect was 
 formed. Its proper name is the " Catholic 
 Apostolic Church," and it has an elabo- 
 rate organization derived from its twelve 
 " apostles," the first body of whom was 
 organized in 1835. It recognizes the or- 
 ders of apostles, prophets, evangelists, 
 pastors or "angels," elders, deacons, etc. 
 It lays especial stress on the early creeds, 
 the Eucharist, prophecies, and gift of 
 tongues. It has an extremely ritualistic 
 service and an elaborate liturgy. The 
 adherents are not numerous, and are 
 found chiefly in Great Britain. There are 
 some on the continent of Europe and in 
 the United States. 
 
 Isaac. — A Hebrew patriarch and pas- 
 toral chief ; was the son of Abraham and 
 Sara, and half-brother of Ismael. His 
 birth happened when both his parents 
 were advanced in age. The incidents of 
 his life, as recorded in Genesis (xxi ; xxiv- 
 xxviii ; xxxv, 27), are well known. He died 
 at Hebron, aged 180 years, leaving two 
 sons, Esau and Jacob. 
 
 Isaac of Antioch. — Abbot of a monas- 
 tery near Antioch; flourished in the mid- 
 dle of the fifth century. He has written 
 many works in Syriac: treatises against 
 the Nestorians and Eutychians, and poems 
 on the sack of Rome by Alaric (410), on 
 the overthrow of Antioch by an earth- 
 quake (459), etc. 
 
 Isaac the Parthian. — Patriarch of Ar- 
 menia, from 390 to 440, son of Nerses the 
 Great, born at Constantinople. He trans- 
 
 lated the Bible into the Armenian language 
 and composed hymns which are still sung 
 in the Armenian Church. 
 
 Isaias {Wehx. salvation of Jehovah). — 
 The first of the four great Jewish prophets. 
 Died in the year 700 b. c. We have few 
 details about his life. He must have been 
 of the kingdom of Juda, because, in his 
 prophecies, he has in view only this king- 
 dom, and Jerusalem appears to have been 
 the theatre of his prophetic activity. The 
 Book of Isaias may be divided into two 
 parts. The first occupies itself especially 
 with the present and a near future, al- 
 though sometimes the prophet casts a 
 glance into the most remote future and 
 foresees the time of the Messias. The 
 second part occupies itself entirely with 
 the Captivity of the Jews, the deliverance 
 of the people, the restoration and glorifica- 
 tion of the theocracy by the Messias ; these 
 prophecies have as much importance for 
 the future races as for his contemporaries. 
 
 Isboseth. — Son and successor of Saul, 
 reigned during seven years (1056-1049 
 B. c, while David reigned at Hebron), 
 over the sole tribe of Juda, and perished, 
 assassinated by two Benjamites. 
 
 Isidore (St.) (570-636). — Theologian 
 and chronicler; was born at Carthagena in 
 Spain, of which city his father Severianus 
 was prefect. He was a brother of Ful- 
 gentius of Carthagena and of St. Leander of 
 Seville, succeeding the later as bishop 
 (600). He presided at the synods of Se- 
 ville and Toledo, in 619 and 633. He was 
 declared a Doctor of the Church in 1828. 
 Isidore was undoubtedly the greatest man 
 and most erudite scholar of his time. His 
 most important work entitled Originum 
 sive Ethymologiarum Libri XX, is a kind 
 of encyclopaedia of the arts and sciences 
 then known. His other works deserving 
 mention are Chronicon, or history of the 
 world, from the Creation to the year 626; 
 a Chronicon, or history of the Visigoths, 
 from A. D. 172 to 628; and a Book of Ec- 
 clesiastical Writers, a continuation of a 
 similar work composed by St. Jerome and 
 Gennadius, to which he added the names 
 of thirty-three other authors. The collec- 
 tion of canons, formerly ascribed to him, 
 is not his work. With St. Isidore closes 
 the line of the Latin Fathers of the Church. 
 F. April 4th. 
 
 Isidore Mercator or Peccator. — Com- 
 piler of the ninth century, whose real name 
 
Isidore of Alexandria 
 
 372 
 
 Itinerary 
 
 is unknown and to whom was attributed,for 
 a long time, a collection of canons and 
 decretals, which contains a great number 
 of apocryphal pieces. 
 
 Isidore (St.) of Alexandria (318-404) 
 Surnamed the "Hospitaller." — Born in 
 Egypt, died at Constantinople. Monk of 
 the Thebaid, to whom St. Athanasius, 
 after having ordained him priest, intrusted 
 the care of the poor and strangers in the 
 city of Alexandria ; was a target for the 
 persecution of the Arians. F. Jan. 15th. 
 
 Isidore of Pelusium (St.).— Abbott, was 
 born at Alexandria about 370. He appears 
 to have been a lawyer before he conse- 
 crated himself to the monastic life and the 
 study of Holy Scripture. His profound 
 knowledge and love of dogma, as well as 
 his method of interpretation, together 
 with other circumstances, would point to 
 the fact that he was probably taught, 
 among others, by St. John Chrysostom. In 
 consideration of his excellent qualities, he 
 was elected abbot of the monks who dwelt 
 on a mountain near Pelusium, and whom 
 he guided by word and example in the 
 way of perfection. His strict asceticism, 
 refined education, and profound erudition, 
 earned for him a wide-spread reputation, 
 not only among the clergy, but also among 
 all classes of the laity. He used his great 
 influence for the good of the Church, 
 everywhere upholding the orthodox faith 
 and giving salutary counsels. He admon- 
 ished the Emperor Theodosius II. to main- 
 tain order at the Council of Ephesus, 
 warned Cyril of Alexandria against the 
 proceedings of his crafty uncle, Theophi- 
 lus, and addressed earnest remonstrances 
 even to bishops, a proceeding by which he 
 naturally made some enemies. At the 
 Council of Ephesus, he occupied the posi- 
 tion of a mediator between the two extreme 
 parties. Having labored and suffered 
 much for the faith, he died in 440, in the 
 odor of sanctity. F. Feb. 4th. 
 
 Of St. Isidore's writings there are ex- 
 tant 2,012 epistles, in five books, generally 
 brief, but written with grace, spirit, and 
 unction, and containing excellent counsels 
 and principles, grave admonitions, and 
 rebukes, as well as information on dog- 
 matical and exegetical subjects. 
 
 Ismael. — The son of Abraham by Ha- 
 gar, and the ancestor of the Ismaelites 
 (1056-1049 B. c), from whom are descended 
 the modern Arabs of the desert, or Bed- 
 
 ouins. His history is contained in Gen- 
 esis (xvL and xvii.). 
 
 Islam. See Mohammedanism. 
 
 Israel (Kingdom of). — One of the two 
 kingdoms formed in Palestine in the time 
 of Roboam, when this prince refused to 
 lower the taxes imposed by his father. It 
 comprised ten tribes : Aser, Dan, Ephraim, 
 Gad, Issachar, Manasses, Nephtali, Ruben, 
 Simeon, and Zabulon. TTiey placed at 
 their head Jeroboam, who made Samaria 
 his capital. In 718, Salmanasar, king of 
 Assyria, took Samaria, and reduced its in- 
 habitants into bondage. Thus ended the 
 kingdom of Israel : it had lasted 244 years. 
 For the kings of Israel, see Chronology. 
 
 Issachar. — Fifth son of Jacob and Lia. 
 The tribe of Issachar, whose father he be- 
 came, settled between the tribe of Zabulon 
 in the North, the half-tribe of Manasses in 
 the West and South, and the Jordan in the 
 East. 
 
 Itala. — The name of the oldest Latin 
 translation of the Bible. See Bible. 
 
 Italy ( Worship in). — Almost the entire 
 peninsula belongs to the Catholic worship : 
 some valleys of the Alps, on the side of 
 Pignerol (22,000 inhabitants), are Walden- 
 ses and have a Church at Turin. Some 
 Albanians of the United Greek rite live on 
 the southern shores of the Adriatic; the 
 number of Israelites is hardly 38,000 and 
 that of Protestants 42,000. The Cath- 
 olics number 29,843,407. The American 
 Methodists have, since 1874, t^^o Churches 
 in Rome. The Catholic worship counts 
 64 archbishops, 204 bishops, 120,000 mem- 
 bers of the clergy, and 20,000 parishes. 
 The Catholic religion is acknowledged as 
 the religion of the State ; the other forms 
 of religious worship are merely tolerated. 
 
 Ite Missa Est. — Latin words which sig- 
 nify. Go, leave is given to depart, and 
 which the priest says at the end of Mass. 
 
 Ithacius. — Bishop of Ossonoba, in Spain ; 
 showed great zeal against the Priscillian- 
 ists; but having abused his influence with 
 the Emperor Maximus, who caused them 
 to be condemned to death, he was blamed 
 and several bishops separated themselves 
 from his communion. 
 
 Itinerary. — A form of prayer intended 
 for the use of clerics when setting out on 
 a journey. 
 
ITURAEA 
 
 373 
 
 Jamblichus 
 
 Ituraea. — In ancient geography, a dis- 
 trict lying northeast of Palestine. Its loca- 
 tion has not been precisely determined, 
 but it was probably southwest of Damascus 
 and southeast of Mount Hermon. 
 
 Ivo (St.) (1040-1116). — Bishop of Chart- 
 res in 1091. King Philip I. imprisoned 
 him, because the saint punished him on 
 
 account of his adulterous relations with 
 Bertrade. When Philip was excommuni- 
 cated, Ivo effected his absolution. In the 
 Contest of Investitures, he sided with 
 Rome, but courageously reproached the 
 faults of the papal legates. His works, 
 among which his Letters are of great in- 
 terest, are found in Migne's Pat. Lat. 
 CLVII-CLXI. 
 
 Jabbok. — In Bible geography, a moun- 
 tain stream of Galaad, Palestine, joining 
 the Jordan about 25 miles north of the 
 Dead Sea. 
 
 Jabes-Galaad. — In Bible geography, an 
 important town in Galaad, Palestine. Its 
 situation has not been identified. Here 
 Saul won a victory over the Ammonites. 
 
 Jabin. — 1. A king of Asor in Palestine; 
 defeated by Josue, at the waters of Merom 
 (Jos. xi. 1-3). 2. A king of Asor, whose 
 general, Sisara, was defeated by Barac 
 (Jud. iv.). The accounts of these two 
 kings and of their overthrow are very much 
 alike, and probably relate to the same per- 
 son and event. 
 
 Jachin. — i. The fourth son of Simeon 
 (Gen. xlvi. 10). 2. A priest, head of the 
 2ist course, in the time of David. 3. A col- 
 umn set up in the court of Solomon's 
 temple. Its companion was named Boaz. 
 
 Jacob (Hebr. suf planter, heel-holder). — 
 Hebrew patriarch. Son of Isaac and Re- 
 becca, and twin brother of Esau. Jacob, 
 having taken advantage of his brother's 
 weakness, and of his father's infirmity, to 
 obtain his brother's birthright and the bless- 
 ing of primogeniture, was compelled to flee 
 into Mesopotamia, to avoid the consequences 
 of his brother's wrath. During his journey 
 the Lord appeared to him in a dream, prom- 
 ised him His protection, and declared His 
 purpose relative to his descendants pos- 
 sessing the land of Chanaan, and the de- 
 scent of the Messias through him. His 
 subsequent history and death, after resid- 
 ing for many years in Egypt, is given in 
 Genesis (xxix.). The date of Jacob's im- 
 migration into Egypt is given by Brugsch 
 as about the year 1730 b. c. 
 
 Jacobins. — Name sometimes given to 
 the black or Dominican friars ; so called 
 from the Church of St. Jacque (Jacobus), 
 in which they were first established in 
 Paris. 
 
 Jacobites. — Members of a Christian 
 sect in Syria, Mesopotamia, etc., originally 
 an offshoot of the Monophysites. The sect 
 takes its name from Jacobus Bardanseus, a 
 Syrian, consecrated bishop of Edessa 
 about the year 541. The head of the 
 Church is called Patriarch of Antioch. In 
 1442 the Jacobites of Syria were received 
 into Catholic communion. 
 
 Jacob's Well. — A well, near Sichem, 
 where Jesus conversed with the Samaritan 
 woman. It seems to be identical with the 
 Bir Yakub, still existing near Nablus. An 
 uninterrupted tradition, admitted by the 
 Christians, Jews, Samaritans and Moham- 
 medans, makes its origin go back to the 
 patriarch whose name it has preserved, 
 and which he dug near his dwelling-place, 
 before his sons had slain the Sichemites. 
 It is also called " Samaritan Well," because, 
 on its curb which surrounded it, our 
 Saviour was sitting, when He held, with 
 the Samaritan woman, that wonderful con- 
 versation related in St. John (iv. 5-12). 
 Over this well they had formerly erected 
 a church in the form of a cross ; to-day it 
 is inclosed in a small vaulted crypt, an 
 ancient chapel. 
 
 Jahel. — A Jewess who killed Sisara, 
 general of King Jabin, of Asor, by driving 
 a nail into his head, while he was asleep. 
 
 Jamblichus. — A Neoplatonic philoso- 
 pher, died about 333 a. d. Disciple of 
 Porphyrins; like his master, he applied 
 the Neoplatonic philosophy in the support 
 
James the Elder 
 
 374 
 
 Jansenius 
 
 of paganism. Among his disciples was 
 the Emperor Julian the Apostate. 
 
 James the Elder. — One of the twelve 
 Apostles, born at Bethsaida in Galilee. 
 Brother of John the Evangelist, and son of 
 Zebedee and Salome. James and John 
 were originally fishermen, with Zebedee 
 their father. They were witnesses of our 
 Lord's transfiguration, and when certain 
 Samaritans refused to receive Him, James 
 - and John wished for fire from heaven to 
 consume them. For this reason, it is 
 thought, the name of Boanerges (sons o/ 
 thunder), was afterwards given to them. 
 After the ascension of our Lord, at which 
 James was present, he appears to have re- 
 mained at Jerusalem, and was put to death 
 by Herod, about A. d. 42 or 44. 
 
 James the Less. — One of the twelve 
 Apostles, born at Cana. Cousin of our 
 Lord and son of Alpheus and Mary, the 
 sister of the Blessed Virgin. He was left 
 alone to direct the Christian communities 
 in Palestine, and particularly the Church 
 of Jerusalem, which city he probably never 
 left. On account of his eminent sanctity 
 and austerity of life, he was called the 
 "Just" and was held in universal esteem 
 both by Jews and Christians. According 
 to Josephus Flavius, James, with some 
 other Christians, was stoned, by order of 
 the high-priest Ananus, in 62 or 63; while 
 Hegesippus tells us, that he was cast down 
 from the pinnacle of the temple and struck 
 dead with a fuller's club about the year 69. 
 The Epistle of St. James, written about 
 the year 59, principally combats the error 
 of those who taught that faith without good 
 works was sufficient, and vigorously pro- 
 tests against the love of riches. 
 
 Jansenius (Cornelius) and Jansenism. 
 — Jansenius was born at Acquoy, Holland, 
 ^" 1585 ; died in 1638. Professor at Louvain, 
 then bishop of Ypres. Being averse to 
 the theological views of the Jesuits, he 
 concerted with his friend Hauranne, Abbot 
 of St. Cyran, a new system of doctrine 
 concerning the working of divine grace. 
 He published his system in a book which, 
 from St. Augustine, of whose doctrine, the 
 work as he professed, attempted to give a 
 faithful statement, is entitled Augustinus. 
 The book is in three parts : the first con- 
 tains a history of the Pelagian heresy; the 
 second and third treat of grace, fallen 
 nature, and the Semi-Pelagian errors. 
 Pope Urban VIIL, in 1624, condemned 
 
 the work as reviving the errors of Baius ; 
 and Innocent X., in 1653, denounced, as 
 heretical, five propositions, to which the 
 errors of Jansenius were reduced. The 
 Jansenists were willing to admit that the 
 five condemned propositions were false, 
 but they denied that the book of Jansenius 
 contained them in the sense condemned, — 
 a question of fact, on which, as they main- 
 tained, the Church might err. Alexander 
 Vn., however, in 1656, declared that the 
 five propositions were contained in Augus- 
 tinus, and were condemned in the sense in 
 which the author used them. The per- 
 nicious contest was now laid to rest for a 
 long time ; till in the year 1702, " the Case of 
 Conscience" invented by the Jansenists 
 was brought forward. A new act of the 
 Jansenistic drama began with the censure 
 of the Moral Reflections of the orato- 
 rian Pasquier Quesnel, who, under a very 
 artful disguise, sought to disseminate the 
 Galilean errors and those of the Jansenists. 
 Pope Clement XL was not slow in adopt- 
 ing repressive measures against the daring 
 sectaries. In the celebrated Bull Unigeni- 
 tus, of 1713, he condemed loi propositions 
 from Quesnel's work as false, impious, and 
 even heretical. The hearty acceptance of 
 the last Bull was long the badge of a faith- 
 ful son of the Church ; and at the present 
 day, after the Vatican decree on Papal In- 
 fallibility, no one can fail to receive it 
 without obviously forfeiting the name of 
 Catholic. The propositions of Jansenius, 
 condemned by Pope Innocent X. were: 
 " Man, created innocent and pure, like the 
 angels, had then the original, natural, and 
 essential grace ; sin troubled and ravaged 
 his nature; but Christ came to restore him 
 by a new grace {gratia medicina/is) , which 
 has drawn him out of bondage. This grace 
 which is efficacious, irresistible, always 
 victorious, is, however, not given to all, 
 for it is gratuitous, and those who have it 
 not, fall under the stroke of perdition ; 
 man is, therefore, dragged toward the 
 good or evil by a force superior to his will. 
 Many French Jansenists having fled to 
 Holland, with the assistance of the Vicar 
 Apostolic Peter Kodde. and Dominic Var- 
 let, titular Bishop of Babylon, they formed 
 an independent Church, with Utrecht as a 
 center. The Jansenist Church of Holland 
 continues to the present day. It numbers 
 less than five thousand souls and is ruled 
 by one archbishop and two bishops. In 
 point of doctrine and discipline the Dutch 
 Jansenists remain just where they were at 
 
Janssen 
 
 375 
 
 Jechonias 
 
 the time of their separation from the 
 Catholic Church. They protested, how- 
 ever, against the definition of the Immacu- 
 late Conception and Papal Infallibility. 
 
 Janssen (John). — Catholic historian, 
 born at Xanten (Westphalia) in 1846; died 
 in Frankfort-on-the-Main, Dec. 21st, 1891. 
 Doctor of philosophy in the University of 
 Bonn (1851) ; professor of history in Frank- 
 fort-on-the-Main ; ordained priest in i860. 
 He became widely known by his GescJiichfe 
 des Deutschen Volkes Seit dem Ausgang 
 des Mittelalters (1876-88), a history of the 
 German people from the close of the 
 Middle Ages to the beginning of the Thirty 
 Years' War. This work is unquestionably 
 one of the most important historical mon- 
 uments of our time. 
 
 Januarius (St.). — Patron of Naples, born 
 in that city, died in 305. Bishop of Bene- 
 vento, was martyred under Diocletian. 
 His remains were brought to Naples, where 
 the cathedral was dedicated to him. When- 
 ever Naples is threatened by some ca- 
 lamity, his relics are carried in solemn 
 procession ; they repeatedly stopped the 
 ravages of Vesuvius. In the same church 
 is kept the head of this saint, as also a part 
 of his blood contained in two very ancient 
 phials. The blood is congealed, but when it 
 is brought near the martyr's head it melts 
 and flows like the blood of a living man. 
 F. Sept. 19th. 
 
 Japan {Christianity in). — Francis Xav- 
 ier went to preach the Gospel in Japan. 
 In 1582 the number of Christians already 
 reached 200,000 and 200 churches were 
 enumerated. In 1587 the missionaries 
 were expelled, the converts were perse- 
 cuted, and Japan closed to foreigners. 
 However, in spite of all persecutions, 
 twenty-five years later, the Christians 
 numbered 750,000. In 1639, all Europeans, 
 except the Dutch, were forbidden to enter 
 Japan, even for trade, and then, only on 
 condition of their trampling upon the 
 Cross, to which the heretical Hollanders 
 had readily acquiesced. Thousands of 
 Japanese converts were put to death. In 
 1838, 4,000 Christians were drowned in 
 the sea, and many others were subjected 
 to the most horrible torments. The fright- 
 ful persecutions of Christians in Japan 
 rests chiefly with the Dutch Calvinists, 
 who, out of commercial jealousy and ha- 
 tred of the Catholic religion, accused the 
 Catholic missionaries of a conspiracy with 
 
 the Portuguese and Spaniards against the 
 Japanese government. It was the Dutch, 
 who in 1638, at the request of the Japanese 
 government, bombarded Simabara, where 
 37,000 Christians who, to save themselves 
 had taken refuge within its walls. Thus 
 the intrigues and crimes of the Dutch 
 Protestants assisted in ruining a once 
 flourishing Church, and in securing the 
 triumph of paganism. When Japan was 
 opened to Europeans some years ago, the 
 astounding fact was announced that, after 
 more than two centuries of utter abandon- 
 ment. Catholic Christians were still to be 
 found in the interior of the empire, who, 
 instructed by catechists only, had pre- 
 served their faith under the most trying 
 circumstances. To-day, there are two 
 Vicariates Apostolic in Japan. 
 
 Japhet. — Eldest son of Noe, brother of 
 Sem and Cham, and father of the people 
 of the North, that is, of the north of Asia 
 and most of Europe (in general, of the so- 
 called Indo-European race). 
 
 Jason. — I. High-priest of theJews,brother 
 of Onias, whom he robbed of the high- 
 priesthood, by buying this dignity (175 B. c.) 
 from King Antiochus Epiphanes; was sup- 
 planted in the same manner two years later 
 by his brother Menelaus. 2. yason of Cy- 
 rene. — Jewish historian of the second 
 century B. c. Wrote: History of the Per- 
 secutions of the Kings of Syria against 
 the fe-ws, a lost work, but the Second Book 
 of the Machabees is an extant abridgment 
 of Jason's work. 3. fason of Thessalonica. 
 — Bishop of Tarsus in Cilicia, in the first 
 century of the Christian era. Relative of 
 St. Paul; saved the Apostle's life during an 
 insurrection raised against St. Paul at 
 Thessalonica. The Greeks celebrate his 
 feast, April 28th. 
 
 Javan. — Fourth son of Japhet and father 
 of the lonians or Greeks. He had four 
 sons : Elisa, Tharsis, Cethim, and Dodanim 
 or Rhodanim, who peopled Elida, Cilicia, 
 Macedonia, and the countries of Rhodes. 
 
 Jebusites. — A Chanaanite nation which 
 long withstood the Israelites. The strong- 
 hold of the Jebusites was Jebus on Mount 
 Zion, a part of the site of Jerusalem, of 
 which they were dispossessed by David. 
 
 Jechonias. — King of Juda, nephew of 
 Josias and son of Joakim, king of Juda, 
 who associated him to the throne at the 
 age of eight years. After the death of his 
 
Jehovah 
 
 376 
 
 Jericho 
 
 father (599) he reigned alone only three 
 months and ten days : Nabuchodonosor, 
 having taken Jerusalem, led him away cap- 
 tive to Babylon. Jeremias says that he in- 
 curred the indignation of the Lord through 
 his crimes, and called him Barren, because 
 none of his children reigned over Jeru- 
 salem. 
 
 Jehovah (Hebr./fl»» Wkoam)(F,x. iii. 14- 
 16). — The correct pronunciation is prob- 
 ably Jat'eh, whence the abbreviation Jah. 
 Its meaning is that God is the One Who is, 
 purely and simply; Whose being is de- 
 pendent on no earthly cause ; Who, there- 
 fore, can neither be limited nor changed 
 by anything, and Who, by reason of this 
 mode of existence, is distinguished from 
 all other beings, real or possible, especially 
 from all pretended divinities. Hence it is 
 in the strictest sense of the word a proper 
 name, such as Moses asked for in order to 
 make known to the people the character- 
 istic name of the God (Elokim) of their 
 fathers. As the name Jehovah was in xise 
 before the time of Moses, the question arises 
 as to the sense in which God said to Moses 
 (Ex. vi. 3) that he appeared to Abraham,^ 
 Isaac, and Jacob by the name of God Al- 
 mighty {El Schadai). and did not reveal to 
 them His name Jehovah. The best solution 
 of the difficulty is, perhaps, that Jehovah 
 was His most appropriate name, and that it 
 was, as a matter of fact, adopted by Him 
 to serve as a symbol and watchword of the 
 public worship of the one God, whereas 
 El Schadai expresses more accurately the 
 relation of God to the families of the Patri- 
 archs as their powerful protector. 
 
 Jehu. — I. King bf Israel from 884 to 856 
 B.C. At first, officer in the army of Joram ; 
 anointed king by order of the prophet 
 Eliseus ; destroyed the whole family of 
 the impious Achab. He, having allowed 
 himself to be dragged into idolatry, was 
 conquered by Hazael, king of Syria. He 
 had for successor his son Joachaz. 2. 
 Jehu. — Son of Hanani. A prophet of Juda, 
 in the time of Josaphat (877-853 B.C.). 
 
 Jephte. — A chieftain and judge of Israel, 
 whose history is given in Judges (xi.-xii.). 
 When he went to battle against the Am- 
 monites, he vowed that whosoever should 
 come forth first from his home to meet him 
 on his return " in peace from the children of 
 Ammon " should be oflFered as a burnt of- 
 fering. The Ammonites were routed, and 
 as Jephte returned, the first to come out to 
 
 meet him, was his daughter and only child, 
 whom he immolated. However, accord- 
 ing to the most probable opinion, he only 
 consecrated her to the Lord. 
 
 Jeremias (650-590 b. c). — One of the 
 four grreat Prophets of the Old Testament, 
 born in the city of Anathoth, in the tribe 
 of Benjamin. He commenced his predic- 
 tions in the thirteenth year of the reign of 
 Josias, king of Juda, and continued them 
 luitil the commencement of the Babylon- 
 ian capti^■ity. His threatening voice arose, 
 in the name of the Lord, Who inspired 
 him, against impiety, idolatry, corruption, 
 and the iniquity of his race. His fatidical 
 voice became importune; he was perse- 
 cuted and repeatedly imprisoned; he dic- 
 tated his prophecies to his disciple Baruch, 
 charged him to read them to the people 
 and to the great ; the commotion was such 
 that Joakim ordered the book to be 
 burned, but Jeremias dictated it a second 
 time, and Baruch reproduced the text 
 which they wished to destroy. Then took 
 place all the misfortunes which the 
 Prophet had foretold : the invasion of the 
 kingdom by Nabuchodonosor and its con- 
 sequences. Jeremias, who had been thrown 
 into a den, is drawn forth from it by Mel- 
 chias and, at the taking of the city, set at 
 liberty by Nabuchodonosor, who leaves to 
 him the choice either to remain at Jerusa- 
 lem or to go to Babylon. He prefers to re- 
 main in the midst of the ruins of his na- 
 tion ; but after the murder of Godolias, 
 governor of Jerusalem, he was dragged 
 into Egypt with his disciple Baruch. It is 
 believed that he was stoned at Taphnis. 
 Jeremias composed Prophecies and Lam- 
 entations. The Book of Prophecies, di- 
 \Tded into 52 chapters, is interesting 
 history from the political, religious, and 
 moral point of view; it is a faithful pic- 
 ture of the unfortunate times in which he 
 lived. The Lamentations, four in num- 
 ber, are followed by a prayer which forms 
 the fifth. The Church sings these Lam- 
 entations during Holy Week, applying 
 them to the dolorous scenes of the Pas- 
 sion. 
 
 Jericho. — In the Old Testament his- 
 tory, a city of Palestine, situated west of 
 the Jordan and fourteen miles east-north- 
 east of Jerusalem. It was destroyed by 
 Josue and rebuilt by Achab; was the resi- 
 dence of Herod the Great; was destroyed 
 by Vespasian, rebuilt by Hadrian, and 
 again destroyed by the Crusaders. 
 
Jeroboam 
 
 377 
 
 Jerusalem 
 
 Jeroboam (name of two kings). — i. Jer- 
 oboam I. — King of Israel (953-927 b. c). 
 Minister of Solomon and disgraced by this 
 prince, he organized a revolt of the ten 
 northern tribes against Roboam, and 
 founded the kingdom of Israel (III.Ki. xi.- 
 XV.; II. Par. ix.-xiv.). i.Jeroboam II. — 
 King of Israel (790-749 B.C.). Son and 
 successor of Joas. He was the most 
 prosperous of the kings of Israel (iv. 
 Ki. xii.). 
 
 Jerome (St.) (Lat. Hieronymus). — Born 
 at Stridon in Dalmatia, in 340. St. Jerome 
 is regarded as the most learned of the Latin 
 Fathers. His youth was passed in Rome, 
 whither he was sent to complete his studies 
 under ^lius Donatus, a celebrated gram- 
 marian. His thirst for knowledge caused 
 him to visit foreign cities, among others 
 Treves, where he transcribed, for his friend 
 Rufinus, a commentary on the Psalms, and 
 a treatise on Synods by St. Hilary. In com- 
 pany with several friends, Jerome, in 372, 
 set out for the East, traveling through 
 Asia Minor to Antioch. Here, he at- 
 tended the Biblical lectures of ApoUinaris, 
 the future heresiarch. He afterwards 
 withdrew into the Syrian desert of Chal- 
 cis, where, for four years, he led a sol- 
 itary life, learning at the same time from a 
 converted Jew the rudiments of the He- 
 brew language. While living in the des- 
 ert, he wrote the life of St. Paul, the first 
 hermit, and his dialogue against the Luci- 
 ferian Schismatics. The Meletian schism 
 caused him to return to Antioch, where he 
 was ordained priest, in 379. In 381, Je- 
 rome went to Constantinople, to study the 
 Holy Scriptures under St. Gregory Nazian- 
 zen, and thence returned to Rome. He 
 was the intimate friend of Pope Damasus 
 who appointed him his secretary. At the 
 Pope's request, Jerome began his revision 
 of the Old Latin, or Italic Version of the 
 Bible. After the death of Damasus, he set 
 out again for Palestine, where he founded 
 and superintended several monasteries 
 until his death, which occurred at Bethle- 
 hem, in 420. He was buried amid the 
 ruins of one of his monasteries, which had 
 been destroyed by the partisans of Pela- 
 gius. St. Jerome, who is called by the 
 Church " the greatest Doctor raised up by 
 the divine hand to interpret the Sacred 
 Scriptures," was the author of the Latin 
 translation of the Bible, known as the Vul- 
 gate. Of all his writings, this is the most 
 useful and the most widely known. His 
 
 other works are found in Migne, Pat. Lat. 
 XXII-XXX. 
 
 Jerome of Prague. See Hussites. 
 
 Jeronymites. See Hikronimites. 
 
 Jerusalem. — The celebrated metropolis 
 of Palestine, called by the Turks Koudsem- 
 barich or Koudsderif, and by the Arabs El 
 Khods (the Holy). It is situated near the 
 center of the country, among the moun- 
 tains, about 37 miles from the Mediter- 
 ranean, and about 23 miles from the 
 Jordan. It was on the border of the tribes 
 of Benjamin and Juda, mostly within the 
 limits of the former, but reckoned as be- 
 longing to the latter, because conquered 
 by it. The most ancient name of the city 
 was Salem (Gen. xiv. 18; Ps. Ixxvi. 2) and 
 it afterwards was called Jebus, as belong- 
 ing to the Jebusites (Jud. xix. 10, 11). Be- 
 ing a very strong position, it resisted many 
 attempts of the Israelites to subdue it. The 
 city was reduced by David (II. Ki. v. 6-9) 
 after which it received its present name, 
 and was also called the " city of David." 
 Jerusalem, after its destruction by the 
 Chaldeans, was rebuilt by the Jews on their 
 return from captivity, about the year 536 
 B. c. They exerted themselves much in 
 order to restore it to its former splendor, 
 and Herod the Great afterwards expended 
 vast sums in its embellishment. It was at 
 last taken by Titus and totally destroyed, 
 A. D. 72. Still, as the Jews continued to 
 return thither, and manifested a rebellious 
 spirit, the emperor Hadrian planted a 
 Roman colony there in 134, and banished 
 the Jews, prohibiting their return on pain 
 of death. He changed the name of the 
 city to ^lia Capitolina, and consecrated it 
 to heathen deities, in order to defile it as 
 much as possible ; and used his utmost ef- 
 forts in order to obliterate all traces both 
 of Judaism and Christianity. From this 
 period the name ^lia became so common, 
 that the name Jerusalem, was preserved 
 only among the Jews and better informed 
 Christians. In the time of Constantine, 
 however, it resumed its ancient name, 
 which it has retained to the present day. 
 St. Helena, the mother of Constantine, 
 built many churches in Judea and in Jeru- 
 salem, about A. D. 326; and Julian the 
 Apostate, who, after his father succeeded to 
 the empire of his uncle Constantine, en- 
 deavored to rebuild the temple ; but his 
 design — and that of the Jews, whom he 
 patronized — was frustrated in 363. Jeru- 
 
Jerusalem 
 
 378 
 
 Jesuits 
 
 salem to-day is under the Turkish do- 
 minion " trodden down by the Gentiles." 
 Population estimated at about 40,000. 
 
 Jerusalem (Council of). — A counsel of 
 the Apostles convened at Jerusalem in the. 
 year 50 or 51, for the settlement of dis- 
 putes that had arisen regarding the recog- 
 nition of the Gentile Christians and the 
 obligation of their obser\'ance of the Jew- 
 ish ceremonial law. Its decrees are given 
 in Acts (rv. 23-29). 
 
 Jerusalem (Church of the New). See 
 
 SWEDENBORGIANS. 
 
 Jesuats. — Members of a religious 
 community, so called from their custom 
 of continually crying through the streets, 
 " Praised be Jesus Christ ! " Were founded 
 by John Colombino, a native of Siena, in 
 the fourteenth century. He was so fasci- 
 nated by the lives of the saints, particu- 
 larly, that of St. Mary of Egypt, that he 
 resigned the highest civil preferment the 
 State could offer, to give himself wholh* 
 to the service of the poor and the sick. Pope 
 Urban V., in 1367, approved the new con- 
 gregation as a community of lay brothers, 
 classed among the Mendicant Orders, and 
 ordered them to adopt the Rule of St. 
 Augustine. In the beginning of the seven- 
 teenth century, permission was given to 
 the Jesuats to take priests' orders ; but 
 the congregation was suppressed shortly 
 after by Clement IX., because some of the 
 houses of the wealthy ^^Padri delV acqua 
 vite," as they were called, engaged in the 
 business of distilling liquors and practic- 
 ing pharmacy (1668). 
 
 Jesuits. — Name given to the members 
 of the religious order known as the " Soci- 
 ety of Jesus." At the very time when Lu- 
 ther and the other reformers bade defiance 
 to the Holy See, divine Providence raised 
 up an order which should support the 
 Chair of St. Peter against the new heretics; 
 and by example, preaching, and education, 
 champion the cause of Catholic truth, and 
 carry the light of the Gospel to the heathen 
 of distant countries. This order was the 
 noble and famous " Society of Jesus." St. 
 Ignatius of Loyola, its founder, was born in 
 1491, of a noble Spanish family, and trained 
 to the profession of arms. But, touched 
 by divine grace, he gave up that profession 
 to devote his life to the service of the 
 Church. In instituting his order, the 
 foundation of which was laid on the Feast 
 of the Assumption (1534), Ignatius desired 
 
 to create a spiritual militia which should 
 be completely subject to the orders of the 
 Vicar of Christ, and whose serv-ices should 
 be ever ready to be employed by the Pope 
 in whatever manner and whatever part of 
 the world he should judge best. The rules 
 laid down for the government of the so- 
 ciety all tend to this end. A fourth vow, 
 that of undertaking, at the bidding of the 
 Pope, any mission in any part of the world, 
 is added to the other three vows of pov- 
 erty, chastity, and obedience, which latter 
 they declare to be the duty of every mem- 
 ber of the society. The " Society of Jesus " 
 became the vanguard of the Church in her 
 conflict with Protestantism. The progress 
 of heresy in Germany was checked, and 
 thousands were converted from their er- 
 rors by the labors of the Jesuits. Austria, 
 Bavaria, and Poland, where heresy had 
 reached alarming dimensions, were con- 
 firmed in the Catholic faith, and, in the 
 main, remained true to the Church. The 
 Jesuits being everywhere the support and 
 bulwark of the Church, we cannot be sur- 
 prised that they won the deadly hatred of 
 the enemies of the faith. The advice given 
 by Calvin that " the Jesuits, who most op- 
 pose us, should either be killed, or if this 
 cannot well be done, driven away; and at 
 any rate put down by lies and slander;" 
 remains to this day the common watch- 
 word of heretics and infidels. " Use your 
 best endeavors," the Geneva Reformer 
 writes, " to rid the country of these scoun- 
 drels. . . . Such monsters should be 
 dealt with as was done here in the execu- 
 tion of Michael Servetus, the Spaniard." 
 The common calumny of the Protestants, 
 that the Catholic Church was hostile to 
 learning, has been practically refuted by 
 the numerous Jesuit colleges, founded in 
 almost every kingdom of Europe, in which 
 the humanities, philosophy, and the 
 sciences are taught with great skill and 
 success. The " Society of Jesus" increased 
 rapidly. When St. Ignatius died, in 1556, 
 it was firmly established in many countries 
 of Europe and engaged in successful mis- 
 sions in Asia, Africa, and America. It 
 possessed upwards of a hundred houses 
 and colleges, and numbered more than a 
 thousand members divided among twelve 
 provinces. Many Jesuits became martyrs 
 of charity, others suffered actual martyr- 
 dom in China, India, Japan, and North 
 and South America. Even European 
 countries, where heresy prevailed, were 
 watered with their blood. In England, 
 
JESUITS 
 
 379 
 
 Jesuits 
 
 where the first Jesuits arrived in 1580, they 
 were hunted down like wild beasts. From 
 a rough calculation it would appear that, 
 from 1540 to 1773, 21,000 Jesuits were em- 
 ployed in foreign missionary work. During 
 this period, 500 Jesuits were recorded to 
 have won the martyr's crown ; some at the 
 hands of the heathen, others through the 
 persecutors of Northern Europe. Of these 
 martyrs, three have been canonized, 75 
 beatified, and 27 declared venerable. 
 
 Jesuits and Their Suppression. — The 
 Order of the Jesuits was suppressed by 
 Pope Clement XIV. The Brief of Sup- 
 pression of the " Society of Jesus " was is- 
 sued July 2ist, 1773, although it had been 
 prepared long before. To understand fully 
 this Pontifical act of administration, which 
 was indeed a purely administrative act, in 
 all its bearings, we must go back to the 
 Pontificate of Clement XIII. (1758-1769) 
 and the Conclave which elected Clement 
 XIV. (Feb. nth, to May 19th, 1769). Al- 
 ready toward the close of the reign of 
 Benedict XIV., the idea, or resolve of sup- 
 pressing the order was mooted. To the 
 everlasting honor of the Jesuits be it said, 
 this resolve did not originate with the 
 Church authorities but with its enemies. 
 The philosophers and Jansenists were ex- 
 tremely jealous of the learning and great 
 influence which the Jesuits enjoyed. In 
 order to better effect the destruction of the 
 society, the aid of the royal family of Bour- 
 bon was successfully invoked. Through 
 the machinations of Pombal, minister of 
 Joseph I., king of Portugal, an ambitious 
 and wicked man, the Jesuits were expelled 
 from the kingdom of Portugal. This led 
 to a serious rupture between Portugal and 
 Rome, which lasted for ten years (1759- 
 1769). This act of Portugal found favor at 
 several European courts, especially at that 
 of Versailles, where the Duke de Choiseul 
 declared himself in favor of the suppres- 
 sion. Both Portugal and Spain, the latter 
 being then governed by Charles III., de- 
 manded from Clement XIII., the absolute 
 suppression of the entire society. But 
 Clement nobly resisted this action, and 
 even turned a deaf ear to the united re- 
 quest of the courts, made Jan. i8th, 1769. 
 But pitiful, indeed, was the situation of the 
 Church on the death of Clement XIII. 
 The courts of Southern Europe were in 
 rupture with the Holy See, and those of 
 the North were indifferent to its misfor- 
 tunes. In this lamentable situation of af- 
 
 fairs, the cardinals of the Conclave were 
 divided. Some were disposed to make con- 
 cessions ; others would not make any com- 
 promise. The first, owing to the pressure 
 of the courts, were victorious, electing their 
 candidate Ganganelli, who took the name 
 of Clement XIV. His election was hailed 
 with joy by the enemies of the Jesuits, who 
 now believed that their project of suppres- 
 sion would be effected. Four years after- 
 wards the Pope came to a decision in the 
 matter, although it would seem he had 
 made up his mind much earlier. Yet he 
 hesitated long, and tried to gain time by 
 writing half promises to Louis XIV. 
 of France (Sept. 39th, 1769), and to 
 the kings of Spain and Portugal (Sept. 
 30th, 1769). The courts complaining of 
 his tardiness, he again gave assurance to 
 Monino, ambassador of Charles III. (Nov. 
 15th, 1772). Meanwhile the Pope took 
 some steps which presaged an unfavorable 
 procedure toward the order. He ap- 
 pointed visitors to their colleges, houses 
 of retreat, and seminaries, situated in the 
 State of the Church. To make matters 
 worse, many friends of the Jesuits often 
 acted imprudently. On June 27th, 1773, 
 the Pope retired to the privacy of retreat, 
 refusing to see or hold council with any- 
 one. He remained in this seclusion till 
 August 22d, to show that his final action 
 was influenced by no one. He meanwhile 
 drew up the Bull of Suppression, subscrib- 
 ing to it on July 21st. On August 6th, he 
 appointed the congregation " De rebus ex- 
 tinctce Societatis yesu," and imposed upon 
 it the obligation of strict secrecy. On the 
 17th of July the Brief was solemnly and 
 officially made known to the Jesuits at 
 Rome. The courts received it after the 
 bishops, and the ambassadors after the 
 courts. The Jesuits were treated, in spite 
 of some rigorous measures, rather as vic- 
 tims than as men condemned. The Pope, 
 in fact, in the Brief of Suppression {Dom- 
 inus ac Redemftor), after having called to 
 mind on the one hand the examples of 
 those of his predecessors, who, since the 
 time of Clement V. had, when it seemed 
 advisable, abolished religious orders, and 
 on the other, the many complaints made 
 against the Jesuits, since the time of Paul 
 IV., declared that he only sought and de- 
 sired the peace and tranquillity of Church 
 and State. He did not accuse the order of 
 any crimes, but declared that he yielded as 
 a choice of greater evil, to the demands 
 made on him by many powerful courts, in 
 
Jesus 
 
 380 
 
 Jesus Christ 
 
 order to assure, as they said, the perpetual 
 tranquillity of their subjects and the wel- 
 fare of Jesus Christ. Naturally, the courts 
 of Southern Europe received the Bull of 
 Suppression with joy; they obtained what 
 they had long desired. The courts of the 
 North did not exhibit the same gladness. 
 The Empress Maria Theresa put it into 
 execution ; but in the other parts of the 
 vast empire of Germany, it met with op- 
 position. Prussia and Russia retained and 
 sheltered the members of the order. As 
 to the bishops, those of Spain, Portugal, 
 and Poland published it without delay. 
 In France, parliament refused to confirm 
 the Bull as it was not severe enough. 
 Thev were dissatisfied because it did not 
 condemn the doctrines, morals, and disci- 
 pline of the order which had been, they 
 declared, only suppressed to obtain peace. 
 Unfortunately, this concession, like most 
 concessions did not attain its desired end 
 — the peace of the Church. Historians, 
 philosophers, canonists, and even non- 
 Christians are divided in their opinion, 
 concerning the wisdom and opportune- 
 ness of the Bull of Suppression. Father 
 Theiner is the only Catholic historian, 
 who, in our day, has attempted to justify 
 the Brief of Suppression and the action of 
 Clement XIV. Pope Pius VII. restored 
 the " Society of Jesus " in 1814. 
 
 Jesus. — Son of Sirach, Jewish writer of 
 the second or third century b. c. He com- 
 posed in Hebrew the Book of Ecclesias- 
 iicus, which the Church has rapked among 
 the canonical books. 
 
 Jesus Christ. — Name of the divine 
 founder of Christianity. Jesus signifies Sa- 
 viour, and Christ means Holy or anointed, 
 equivalent in Greek of the Hebrew word 
 Afessias, i. e. king. When the '* fullness of 
 the time " had come, the eternal Father 
 sent into the world His only-begotten 
 substantial Son, ^'ho assumed human na- 
 ture from the Virgin Mary, and was bom 
 in Bethlehem, as the Prophets of the Old 
 Testament had foretold. Apart from the 
 flight into Egypt and a transitory sojourn 
 at Jerusalem, Jesus Christ, at whose crib the 
 representatives of Judaism and paganism 
 had both bowed down in adoration, passed 
 his life, up to his thirtieth year, in seclu- 
 sion at Nazareth; after which, having been 
 annoimced by John the Baptist as the 
 promised Messias, He entered on the du- 
 ties of His public mission, the scene of 
 which "was laid throughout the Trhole 
 
 country of the Jews, and which lasted 
 three years. During His journeyings in 
 Galilee, Samaria, and Judea, Jesus, who 
 had acquired His all surpassing wisdom 
 neither from the sages of Egypt nor from 
 the Essenes, nor in the Rabbinical schools, 
 proved Himself, not only the absolute 
 sinless idea of manhood, the Son of man, 
 but also the true Son of God, by the 
 purity of His life and doctrine. The di- 
 vinity of the Saviour, Who on the most 
 solemn occasion proclaimed Himself to be 
 the Son of God in the proper sense of the 
 word, which demands divine honor to be 
 paid to Him, is prominently brought 
 under our notice by His doctrine, which 
 bears the stamp of the divine impress ; by 
 His power over nature, which was princi- 
 pally shown in the miracles He performed ; 
 by His surpassing wisdom, which enabled 
 Him to read the innermost thoughts of 
 man and to fortell future events; and, 
 finally, by His absolute perfection and 
 sanctity. As the object of His appearance 
 on earth, Jesus Christ Himself announces 
 it to be the redemption of mankind and 
 the foundation of the kingdom of the new 
 and eternal covenant, which would break 
 through the hmits of the land of Judea, 
 embrace every nation upon earth, and en- 
 dure to the end of the world. In order to 
 found and extend this kingdom, Christ, 
 the Supreme Teacher, King, and High- 
 Priest, chose twelve Apostles, whom He 
 sent forth endowed \\nth the specific 
 powers and intrusted with the same com- 
 mission which He Himself had received 
 from the Father. More especially did He 
 delegate to them the full power to preach 
 His doctrine \s*ith divine authority, to ad- 
 minister the sacraments to the people and 
 to rule the Church. Among these Apos- 
 tles, Jesus Christ bestowed on St. Peter a 
 peculiarly special dignity and pow^er. He 
 selected him for the fundamental rock, 
 that is, to be the center of unity in His 
 Church ; to him He delivered the keys of 
 the kingdom of Heaven, with the sublime 
 power of binding and loosing; he ap- 
 pointed him supreme ruler over the entire 
 Church, — the shepherd, in fact, of the 
 whole flock. It was in this manner, that, 
 according to the ordinance of Christ, who 
 came, not to destroy the Law and the 
 Prophets, but to fulfill, the Church was to 
 supersede the Synagogue, and the seat of 
 Moses, was to become the seat of Peter. 
 
 This coming of Jesus, who went about 
 the whole land of Judea " doing good and 
 
Jews 
 
 381 
 
 Jews 
 
 healing such as were possessed " created a 
 great sensation among the people. One 
 part of them, particularly in Galilee, ac- 
 knowledged Him as the Messias; on the 
 other hand, the Pharisees and clerks of the 
 people, that is the high-priests, declared 
 Him to be a blasphemer. Their aversion 
 to him was increased by the resurrection 
 of Lazarus, which worked up their hatred 
 to the point of outbreak. At the instance 
 of Caiphas, the Sanhedrin was incited to the 
 resolve of delivering Jesus up to death ; 
 after which they cautiously awaited a favor- 
 able opportunity for accomplishing this de- 
 sign. And wiien at length His hour was 
 come, Jesus, who had made known to the 
 Apostles the secret designs of His enemies, 
 celebrated, shortly before the feast of the 
 Passover, His triumphal entry into Jerusa- 
 lem, that He might deliver Himself up into 
 the hands of sinners. A short time previ- 
 ously He had shown Himself, transfigured 
 in glory upon Mount Thabor, to His favorite 
 disciples. Saluted now by the people as 
 the Messias, Jesus taught and healed in 
 the Temple, and solemnized on the day 
 before the Easter festival — the feast of 
 the Passover — with His disciples, and 
 in the place of the Paschal lamb sub- 
 stituted the unbloody sacrifice of the New 
 Covenant, as a continual remembrance 
 of the bloody sacrifice which He was 
 about to offer on the day following for 
 the salvation of the world. He then be- 
 took himself to the Mount of Olives. 
 Headed by Judas the betrayer, a troop of 
 constables and soldiers of the high-priests 
 presently made their appearance. These 
 were first made to feel the power of the 
 Saviour, after which He permitted Him- 
 self, of His own free will, to be shackled 
 and taken prisoner, thence to be dragged 
 before the Council. Here Jesus, being ad- 
 jured by Caiphas, the high-priest, testified 
 once again in the plainest and most solemn 
 manner to His being the Messias and to 
 His own divine nature; upon which the 
 Sanhedrin adjudged Him to death as a 
 blasphemer. But in order, on the one 
 hand to insure the execution of this, their 
 sentence of death, and on the other, to sub- 
 ject the object of their hate to the most 
 shameful kind of death, the enemies of 
 Jesus dragged him before the Roman pro- 
 curator, Pontius Pilate, where they accused 
 Him of rebellion and high treason against 
 Caesar. Pilate, however, was soon con- 
 vinced of the groundlessness of these 
 charges. Even Herod, before whom He 
 
 was subsequently brought, found no fault 
 in Him ; on which account the high-priests 
 resumed their former accusation of blas- 
 phemy before Pilate, when Jesus again 
 affirmed that he was the Son of God. Then 
 at length, from cowardice, the procurator 
 weakly yielded to the clamors of the 
 scribes and of the misled populace, and 
 actually sentenced the Saviour, — to whom 
 the Jews had preferred Barabbas, — to the 
 most shameful death on the Cross. But it 
 was precisely by this very death on Gol- 
 gotha that Jesus destroyed the dominion 
 of death and of Satan, and completed the 
 work of redemption, the seal of which was 
 placed on it by the greatest of all miracles, 
 that of the glorious resurrection which fol- 
 lowed, as the Saviour had prophesied. 
 After His resurrection, Jesus repeatedly 
 appeared to His Apostles and disciples, 
 and gave special instructions and precepts 
 respecting the Church. Then from the 
 Mount of Olives, on which those Apostles 
 and friends had assembled around Him, 
 having once more imparted His blessing, 
 He ascended into heaven before their eyes, 
 whence He had promised to send down the 
 Holy Ghost, the Comforter, the Spirit of 
 all Truth. 
 
 Jews (History of the). — The name Jew 
 correctly designates the Hebrew nation 
 only from the time of the Babylonian Cap- 
 tivity. The Jews were God's people, chosen 
 by Him to be His depositary of the laws 
 given to Moses on Mount Sinai. The Jew- 
 ish legislator had received the promise that 
 from the bosom of His people would arise 
 the Messias, the Redeemer, who was to 
 come to save the world. Hence the chief 
 importance which attaches itself to the his- 
 tory of this people, insignificant in appear- 
 ance, and confined to the narrow spot of 
 Palestine, but great by reason of its desti- 
 nies, is that the moral and religious truths, 
 deposited in its unique book, the Bible, be- 
 came the basis of Christian teaching. 
 
 Abraham was the father of the Jewish 
 nation. He departed from the city of Ur, 
 in Chaldea, with his father Thare, and set- 
 tled in the country of Chanaan, which was 
 promised to his posterity. With Abraham 
 began the period of the Patriarchs, con- 
 tinued by his son Isaac, and Jacob, his 
 grandson. Jacob was the father of twelve 
 sons, ten of whom, with the two sons of 
 Joseph, were destined to be the chiefs of 
 the twelve tribes which founded the Jewish 
 nation. Joseph, having become the first 
 
Jews 
 
 382 
 
 Jews 
 
 minister of the Pharaohs of Egypt, calls to 
 him his father Jacob and his family to the 
 number of seventy persons, and established 
 them in the land of Gessen. There they 
 increased in numbers to such an extent 
 that the Pharaohs, becoming uneasy, sub- 
 jected them to serfdom and to the most 
 arduous labors. Then they ordered the 
 death of all the male children, in order to 
 retard the increase of the race. Moses be- 
 ing preserved from the general slaughter 
 of the infants, afterwards saved his people 
 from bondage, led them to the Red Sea, 
 and by a miracle which opened the waters 
 to allow their passage, they passed dry- 
 footed to the other side. The army of 
 Pharaoh, in pursuit, also attempted the pas- 
 sage, but the waters regaining their usual 
 level, the whole Egyptian army was de- 
 stroyed, while the Israelites entered the 
 Arabian desert. Here they journeyed for 
 forty years amidst sufferings and vicissi- 
 tudes which their sins and infidelity drew 
 upon them. God gave to Moses, on the 
 top of Mount Sinai, His law, embraced in 
 the Ten Commandments, which were en- 
 graved upon tables of stone. Moses died 
 about 1605 B. c, upon Mount Moria, with- 
 out being permitted to enter the Promised 
 Land. Josue succeeded him, and lead the 
 people into Chanaan, conquering the idola- 
 trous nations that dwelt there. The twelve 
 tribes divided the land and founded their 
 nation (1580 B. c). After Josue, the govern- 
 ment was intrusted to Caleb and the 
 Ancients. God afterwards raised Judges, 
 whom He selected to govern these disobe- 
 dient and often unfaithful tribes, and to 
 fight against the neighboring nations, al- 
 ways hostile to the invaders. The reign 
 and authority of the Judges embraces four 
 centuries, from 1554 to 1080 b. c. During 
 this period the Israelites had to struggle 
 against the Chanaanites, Madianites, Am- 
 alekites, and Philistines. The chosen peo- 
 ple experienced reverses and successes, 
 according as they were faithful or unfaith- 
 ful to the Lord. Finally, the Hebrews be- 
 came tired of the intermittent domination 
 of the Judges and clamored for a king. 
 Saul was chosen and anointed, by the com- 
 mand of God, their first king; but after 
 successes against the Ammonites, he devi- 
 ated from the path of right and \nrtue, and 
 was rejected. David, chosen in his place, 
 enlarged his kingdom through brilliant 
 victories. Solomon, his son, extended the 
 limits of his kingdom to the Euphrates, on 
 the East, and the Red Sea, on the South. 
 
 He constructed at great cost the Temple of 
 Jerusalem. In spite of his wisdom, he com- 
 mitted great faults and was punished by 
 the division of his kingdom after his death. 
 His son Roboam was only able to preserve 
 the tribes of Juda and Benjamin, the other 
 ten passed under the power of Jeroboam ; 
 thus Juda and Israel formed tw-o distinct 
 States. This lamentable separation was a 
 cause of weakness for the Jewish nation, 
 and continued wars between the two king- 
 doms paved the way for their common 
 destruction. Notwithstanding the threats 
 and admonitions of the Prophets whom 
 God sent, the people repeatedly fell into 
 impiety and idolatry. The kings of Juda 
 numbered 20, from Roboam (952) to Sed- 
 ecias (562 b. c. ). Those of Israel numbered 
 19, from Jeroboam (962) to Osee (718 b. c). 
 See Kingdom of Israel and of Juda. 
 
 Osee the last king of Israel fell under the 
 blows of Salmanasar, king of Assyria, who 
 captured Samaria, Israel's capital, and led 
 its inhabitants captive to Ninive. The 
 kingdom of Juda lasted a century longer; 
 it was invaded by Nabuchodonosor, king 
 of Assj-ria, who twice captured Jerusalem 
 under the reigns of Joakim and Sedecias. 
 The city, with the temple was destroyed, 
 and a great part of the people were led 
 away captive into Babylon and there re- 
 mained for a period of 70 years (606-536 
 B. c). Cyrus restored liberty to the Jews, 
 permitting them, under Zorobabel, Esdras, 
 and Nehemias to rebuild the Temple, prac- 
 tice their religion and re-establish their 
 nationality-. Divided into four provinces, 
 the new State became a theocratic republic, 
 under the direction of the high-priest as- 
 sociated with the Sanhedrin. Alexander 
 the Great extended his conquest to Jerusa- 
 lem, where he was shown the prophecy of 
 Daniel concerning him, by Jaddeus, the 
 high-priest. After Alexander's death, 
 Judea passed under the dominion of Lao- 
 medon, who was deposed by Ptolemy 
 Lagus {320) ; it was then occupied by 
 Seleucus Nicator. Soon afterwards it be- 
 came subject to the power of Egypt. The 
 Seleucides recaptured it in 203 b. c, and 
 one of their kings, Antiochus Epiphanes 
 began a violent persecution of the Jews, 
 profaned the temple and pillaged the coun- 
 try. Mathathias called his countrymen to 
 arms to throw off the hateful yoke; his 
 sons Judas Machabeus, Jonathas, and Simon 
 completed the work of deliverance and im- 
 posed peace upon the kings of Syria. Their 
 success assured the power in their family, 
 
Jews 
 
 383 
 
 Jews 
 
 and one of them, Aristobolus, took the 
 title of king, in 107 b.c. A rivalry which 
 arose between Hircanus II. and Aristobo- 
 lus II., brought on the interference of the 
 Romans, and Pompey (63 b. c), reduced 
 Judea to a Roman province. Antigonus, 
 son of Aristobolus II., surnamed the As- 
 monean, was the last king of his race ; he 
 was dethroned by command of Antoninus 
 and put to death in 37 b. c. The Romans 
 gave the throne to Herod, the Idumean, 
 under whom occurred the birth of Christ. 
 Then the kingdom was divided into four 
 tetrarchs: Judea, Galilee, Iturea, and 
 Batanea, the governors of which were sub- 
 ject to the orders of Rome. Pontius, one 
 of these governors, took part with Herod 
 Antipas, in the judgment which condemned 
 the Saviour to death. The Jews repeatedly 
 rebelled against the oppressive domination 
 of the Romans. In 65 a. d., Vespasian be- 
 gan the siege of Jerusalem, which was con- 
 tinued by his son Titus. After an obstinate 
 resistance, the city was taken, the Temple 
 destroyed and most of the inhabitants sold 
 as slaves. A last revolt in the reign of 
 Hadrian, 135 a.d. resulted in the complete 
 destruction of Jerusalem. More than 500,- 
 000 Jews were massacred and those who 
 were spared were dispersed throughout the 
 whole Roman empire. The Deicides 
 naturally made their homes where they 
 could. This indestructible race, passing 
 through many and varied vicissitudes, no 
 longer forming a nation, always consti- 
 tuted a caste or separate body in the midst 
 of other nations. After the destruction of 
 Jerusalem, a portion of the Jews passed 
 into Asia; the others passed into the East, 
 and their lot, in general, was most miser- 
 able. Despised by the Romans, hated by 
 the Christians, the Jews were oppressed 
 under Constantine, persecuted under Jus- 
 tinian and Heraclius. The Visigoths pro- 
 scribed and outlawed them in Spain ; but 
 in the Mahommedan countries they were 
 treated less severely ; they could devote 
 themselves to commerce in the Caliphate 
 of Bagdad, Cairo, and Cordova. Under 
 the subjection of Spain, they distinguished 
 themselves in arts and sciences. Animated 
 by an implacable hatred against the Chris- 
 tian name, accused and convicted of 
 murder of Christian children, insolent, 
 avaricious, the Jews became an object of 
 public contempt, and were so cruelly 
 treated that several Popes interfered in 
 their behalf. Despite the persecutions 
 waged against them, the Jews, through 
 
 industry, commerce, and usury, accumu- 
 lated vast riches, which added an incentive 
 to the attacks of their enemies. In Eng- 
 land, in 1255, they were compelled to pay 
 a contribution of 5,000 marks of silver, and 
 in 1290 were expelled from the land. In 
 Germany, their persons were the property 
 of the kings and princes, who could sell 
 or give them as a pledge. Mathias Corvin 
 banished them from Vienna. At Frank- 
 fort they were isolated in a separate quar- 
 ter — the Judengasse, which had its 
 counterpart in the Ghetto of Rome. In 
 Spain, Ferdinand the Catholic considered 
 them a menace to the throne, and decreed 
 that they must adopt Christianity or leave 
 the kingdom. Poland in the eleventh 
 century was thronged with a vast multi- 
 tude of Jews. Here they obtained privi- 
 leges and prospered by monopolizing both 
 commerce and industry, but in the fifteenth 
 century restrictive laws were passed 
 against them and they were forced to en- 
 gage in menial occupations. Admitted 
 into Russia under Peter the Great, driven 
 out under Elizabeth, recalled by Cathar- 
 ine II., they remained in great numbers in 
 the frontier provinces touching Germany 
 and Austria, where they have devoted 
 themselves, some to legitimate trade, 
 others to smuggling and beggary. All 
 efforts to interest them in agricultural 
 pursuits were in vain. In France, where 
 they were tolerated for a long time, public 
 opinion caused them to be banished in 
 1306 and again in 1396. They returned 
 later, and were permitted to settle in Bor- 
 deaux and Bayonne. The French Revo- 
 lution emancipated them, and the consti- 
 tutional assembly in 1791, granted to them 
 civil and political rights. Rising in time 
 from their moral degradation, they became 
 fitted to occupy official positions and en- 
 tered into all the branches of public life. 
 England, like France, made them eligible 
 to parliament, but they have become famed 
 as financiers rather than statesmen. 
 Everywhere they exert a great influence in 
 the affairs of the financial world; they 
 have acquired immense riches, and the 
 banking houses of the Rothschilds, to 
 which more than one great power is enor- 
 mously indebted, is the richest private 
 institution in the world, as the Rothschilds 
 are the richest individuals. The enormous 
 wealth of the Jews threatens to become a 
 great public danger, and therefore it is 
 said that the ancient hostility against the 
 Jews has not entirely disappeared. On the 
 
JETHRO 
 
 384 
 
 Joan 
 
 contrary, it seems to revive; there is an 
 anti-Semitic movement going on to-day in 
 most of the European countries. France, 
 that wealthy nation, whose credit is only 
 upheld by Jewish money-kings, becomes 
 more and more a prey to the rapacious 
 Semitic spirit, and undoubtedly, the time 
 will come when public opinion will bring 
 the Jewish oppression in that country to 
 an end, or to banishment of the Jews from 
 French territory. 
 
 Jethro. — A priest or chief of the Ma- 
 dianites who inhabited the southern point 
 of Sinai, the father of seven daughters, 
 one of whom, Sephora^ was married to 
 Moses. In Ex. ii. 18; Num. x. 29, the 
 name is given as Raguel. Perhaps the 
 latter was his personal name, and Jethro 
 an honorary title, or the discrepancy of 
 the names may be due to separate and in- 
 dependent narratives. By the advice of 
 Jethro, Moses appointed deputies to judge 
 the people and to share the burden of gov- 
 ernment with him (Ex. xviii.). 
 
 Jezabel. — The wife of Achab, king of 
 Israel, whom he married before his acces- 
 sion, and by whom she became the mother 
 of Athalia, queen of Juda, and of Achaz 
 and Joram, kings of Israel. She was a 
 Phoenician princess, daughter of Ethbaal, 
 king of the Sidonians, and established the 
 Phoenician worship at the court of Achab. 
 She was put to death by order of Jehu, who 
 caused her to be thrown from a window; 
 her remains were trampled under foot by 
 horses and devoured by dogs, according to 
 the prophecy of Elias. 
 
 Jezrael. — In Bible geography, a city in 
 the plain of Jezrael, Palestine, situated 
 near Mount Gelboe, 53 miles north of Jeru- 
 salem. It was the capital of Israel under 
 the dynasty of Achab. Famous by the 
 punishment which God inflicted on Achab, 
 because he had taken a vineyard from Na- 
 both. 
 
 Joab. — General and nephew of David. 
 He commanded in the war against Isbo- 
 seth, the son of Saul, as well as against the 
 Gentiles. He treacherously slew Abner, 
 Saul's former captain, after he had become 
 reconciled with David, and dispatched 
 David's rebellious son Absalom. He was 
 killed by order of Solomon for conspiring 
 with Adonias. 
 
 Joachaz. — i. King of Israel from 856 to 
 839 B. c, son and successor of Jehu, sacri- 
 
 ficed to the idols in Samaria, was conquered 
 by Hazael, king of Syria, in punishment for 
 his impiety, humbled himself before the 
 Lord and, through his penance, saved the 
 kingdom froln ruin. 2. Joachaz. — King 
 of Juda, son of Jonas. He was, after a 
 reign of three months and ten days, car- 
 ried into the Babylonian captivity, with 
 10,000 of his subjects, by Nabuchodonosor. 
 
 Joachim (St.). — Husband of St. Anne 
 and father of the Blessed Virgin, of the 
 tribe of Juda and the family of David. 
 They still show his tomb in the Church of 
 the Holy Sepulchre of Notre Dame. A 
 portion of his body is preserved at Co- 
 logne. F. March 20th. 
 
 Joachimites. See Joachim of Fiore. 
 
 Joakim or Eliakim. — King of Juda 
 from 609 to 598 B. c, eldest son of Josias, 
 dethroned by his brother Joachaz, restored 
 on the throne by Nechao; he delivered 
 himself to impiety, persecuted Jeremias, 
 was conquered and put to death by Na- 
 buchodonosor II. With his reign the 
 captivity of the Jews at Babylon begins. 
 
 Joachim of Fiore (i 130-1202). — Writer 
 and religious of the Order of Citeaux. 
 Born at Celico, near Cosenza. Abbot of 
 Fiore, Calabria. Composed prophecies. 
 His disciples, called " Joachimites," were 
 condemned as heretics. The most impor- 
 tant feature of the doctrines of Joachim 
 was the belief that the history of man will 
 be covered by three reigns : the first, that 
 of the Father, from the creation till the 
 birth of Christ; the second, that of the 
 Son, from the birth of Christ till 1260; 
 and the third, that of the Holy Ghost, 
 from 1260 onward. This last view was de- 
 veloped by his adherents into the belief 
 that a new gospel would supersede the 
 revelation of the Old and New Testaments. 
 These views had many supporters in the 
 thirteenth century. 
 
 Joan ( Fable of the Pofess). — The story 
 that between the Pontificates of Leo IV. 
 and Benedict III., the papal throne was 
 occupied for more than two years by a 
 woman Popess Joan, is now universally ad- 
 mitted to be a fable by even Protestant 
 writers. i. The interval, between the 
 death of Leo IV., which took place July 
 17th, 855, and the accession of Benedict 
 III., who was elected in the same month 
 and consecrated September 29th of the 
 same year, leaves no room for the imag- 
 
Joan of Arc 
 
 385 
 
 Job 
 
 inary reign of a popess, for which two 
 years and a half are claimed. 2. Hincmar 
 of Rheims, in a letter to Pope Nicholas I., 
 observes that the messenger which he had 
 sent to Leo IV., learned, on the way, the 
 news of that Pontiff's death, and on his ar- 
 rival at Rome found Benedict III. on the 
 throne. 3. The story is not mentioned by 
 any of the Latin or Greek writers from 
 the ninth to the thirteenth century. It 
 made its first appearance about the year 
 1240 or 1250 — nearly 400 years after its 
 supposed date — being first mentioned in 
 the Chronicle of Martinus Polonus and by 
 Stephen of Bourbon, who died, the former 
 in 1278, and the latter in 1261. 4. Photius, 
 who searched for whatever might cast 
 odium upon the Roman Church and the 
 Popes, does not mention the fable. 5. As 
 regards the statement of Anastasius the 
 Librarian of the ninth century, and Mari- 
 anus Scotus of the eleventh century, it is 
 established beyond a doubt that the story 
 was interpolated into their works, since 
 some manuscripts and earlier copies of 
 their writings do not contain it. 
 
 Joan of Arc ( 1412-1431 ) ( Fr. Jeanne 
 d'Arc), called "The Maid of Orleans," 
 was born at Dom-Remy. The French na- 
 tional heroine. She was the illiterate 
 daughter of a peasant inn proprietor at 
 Dom-Remy. At the time of her appear- 
 ance in history, the English were masters 
 of the whole of France, north of the 
 Loire, and the queen mother, Isabella, 
 supported the pretensions of her grand- 
 son Henry VI. of England to the throne of 
 France, in opposition to her son Charles 
 VII. of France. According to a version 
 of a prophecy by Merlin, which was cur- 
 rent in her native province and with which 
 she was undoubtedly familiar, France was 
 to be overwhelmed with calamities, but 
 was to be delivered by a virgin out of the 
 forest of Dom-Remy. She imagined that 
 she heard supernatural voices commanding 
 her to liberate France, and eventually 
 gained access to the court of Charles VII., 
 who intrusted her with the command of 
 an army. She raised the siege, which the 
 English were maintaining at Orleans, 
 May 8th, 1429, and gained the great vic- 
 tory of Patay, June i8th, 1429, with the re- 
 sult that Charles VII. was enabled, July 
 17th, 1429, to receive the consecrated oil 
 at Rheims, where the kings of France 
 were anciently accustomed to hold the 
 coronation ceremonies. She was captured 
 
 25 
 
 May 24th, 1430, while defending Com- 
 pi^gne against the Duke of Burgundy ; 
 was sold by the duke to his allies, the 
 English ; and was burned at the stake as a 
 heretic at Rouen, May 31st, 1431. In our 
 day the Church has taken steps to canonize 
 Joan of Arc. 
 
 Joas. — King of Juda 837-797 b. c. Son 
 of Ochozias. He was the only prince of 
 the royal house who escaped massacre on 
 the usurpation of the throne by Athalia. 
 He was proclaimed king by the high- 
 priest Joiada, who overthrew Athalia, in 
 837. He put to death Zacharias, the son 
 of Joiada, in anger at being rebuked for 
 restoring the worship of Baal, and was 
 murdered by his own servants during an 
 invasion of the Syrians. Joas. — King 
 of Israel (798-790 b.c). Son and suc- 
 cessor of Joachaz. He expelled the Syri- 
 ans from his kingdom, and defeated and 
 captured Amasias, king of Juda, and plun- 
 dered the temple of Jerusalem. 
 
 Joatham or Joathan. — King of Juda, 
 748-742 B.C. Son and successor of Ozias, 
 defeated the Ammonites and fortified 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 Job. — Biblical personage of whom we 
 know very little. He was an Arabian, re- 
 markable for a holy life. The fact of his 
 riches, consisting in flocks and pasturage, 
 and his acting as priest in his own family, 
 places him, certainly, in the patriarchal 
 times, though there are some who think 
 he was a contemporary of Moses about 
 1520 B.C. God allow-ed Satan to afflict 
 this devout man in order to test his virtue. 
 This was begun by the destruction of every 
 beast on Job's extensive plains, and the 
 murder of the herdsmen, except two, who 
 escaped to tell the sad tale to the unhappy 
 owner. Soon after this calamity, Job was 
 informed that his seven sons and three 
 daughters, while together in a brother's 
 house, were crushed to death by the falling 
 in of the roof. But, though these misfor- 
 tunes came rapidly upon him. Job did not 
 complain (Job. i. 21). But the last suffer- 
 ing sent to him by God was excruciating, 
 for his whole body became a mass of fes- 
 tering sores, so loathsome that his wife bade 
 him "bless God and die" (ii. 9). Still 
 he meekly observed : " If we have received 
 good things at the hand of God why should 
 we not receive evil.? " (ii. 10.) In this state 
 he was visited by some friends who sat at 
 his feet for seven days without uttering a 
 
JOCQUES 
 
 386 
 
 John 
 
 single word of sympathy. At last they 
 broke this silence with bitter remarks, to 
 the effect that sinners only are afflicted 
 by such painful diseases. Job replied that 
 God, no doubt, being infinitely good, dis- 
 poses all things justly and wisely; but He 
 sometimes allows the wicked in this life to 
 prosper, and the good to be sorely tried 
 for an end known to Himself. Notwith- 
 standing this glorious profession of faith, 
 Job ventured rashly to sound the divine 
 secrets in connection with his oAvn case. 
 God, from a whirlwind, reprehended his 
 temerity. Job, seeing his error, humbled 
 himself in dust and ashes, when God, after 
 defending him from the cruel taunts of 
 false friends, rewarded his patience and 
 repentance, by restoring to him his former 
 prosperous condition and raising up a new 
 family to him. Job prophesied the coming 
 of the Messias and the resurrection of the 
 body (xix. 25, 26). The author of this 
 book is supposed to be Job himself. 
 
 Jocques (Isaac). — A French Jesuit mis- 
 sionary to Canada; born at Orleans, Jan. 
 loth, 1607; joined the Order of Jesuits in 
 1624; became a priest and was sent to the 
 New World as missionary to the Hurons 
 in 1636. He sailed up the St. Lawrence 
 and Ottawa rivers into the Huron country, 
 east of Lake Superior. After five years' 
 missionary work he started to return to 
 Quebec, was taken prisoner by the Mo- 
 hawk Indians and tortured, but finally 
 escaped to Albany, and returned to France 
 by way of New York. He soon returned 
 to Canada, negotiated a treaty between the 
 French and Mohawks in 1646, and began a 
 mission among the latter, but was killed 
 as a sorcerer by them, Oct. i8th, 1646, in a 
 part of the country which is now Mont- 
 gomery county. New York. In 1884 a 
 chapel was built on the spot, and steps 
 have been taken toward his canonization. 
 His Life was published by Felix Martin, 
 in 1873. 
 
 Joel. — The twelfth of the twelve minor 
 Prophets. He lived under the reigns of 
 Ezechias and Manasses. His prophecies 
 compose three chapters in which he fore- 
 tells the Babylonian capti\aty, the coming 
 of the Messias and the Last Judgment. 
 
 John (name of twenty-three Popes). — 
 yohn I. — Pope from 523 to 526. At the re- 
 quest of King Theodoric, he undertook a 
 mission to Constantinople to obtain from 
 the Emperor Justin I. religious liberty for 
 
 the Arians and the restoration of their 
 churches. Theodoric, displeased with the 
 issue of the embassy, had the Pope cast 
 into prison, where he died May 27th, 526. 
 John II. — Pope from 532 to 535. He 
 obtained from Alaric, king of the Goths, 
 an edict which annulled all the Simonia- 
 cal gifts and promises that might be 
 made on the occasion of the election 
 of the sovereign Pontiffs. yohn III. — 
 Pope from 560 to 573. John IV. — 
 Pope from 640 to 642. He condemned the 
 Monothelitic formula of faith prepared by 
 Sergius at the instance of the Emperor 
 Heraclius. yohn V. — Pope from 685 to 
 686. He was a native of Antioch in Syria. 
 jfolm VI. — Pope from 701 to 705. Scarcely 
 had he ascended the Papal throne, when 
 the usurper Tiberius HI. sent the Exarch 
 Theophylactus to Rome to compel the 
 ratification of some unjust measures. But 
 the indignant people and military ral- 
 lied together and would have laid vio- 
 lent hands upon the exarch, had not the 
 Pope interposed. John VII. — Pope 
 from 705 to 707. Like his predecessor, 
 John VI., he refused, when asked by the 
 emperor, to approve the TruUan Council. 
 John VIII.— "Pope from 872 to 882. A 
 vigorous and indefatigable Pontiff, but his 
 position was embarrassing in the extreme. 
 During his whole pontificate, Rome was 
 continually in danger of falling into the 
 hands of the Saracens. Yet even more 
 formidable to the Holy See than the Sara- 
 cens were the petty Christian princes of 
 Italy. He appealed for aid, first to Charles 
 the Bald, king of France, and after the 
 latter's death in 877, to his son, Louis of 
 France. But the Carlovingian princes 
 were unable or unwilling to grant the help 
 and protection solicited by the Pope, who 
 was obliged to purchase the safety of Rome 
 by the payment of an annual tribute to the 
 Saracens, yohn IX. -r- Pope from S98 to 
 900. Was an active and energetic Pope, 
 who labored most zealously to heal the 
 evils of his time. A Roman council held 
 under him annulled the unprecedented 
 judgment passed on Pope Formosus, and 
 solemnly restored his memory. The orders 
 which he had bestowed were confirmed, 
 and reordination condemned. John X. — 
 Pope from 914 to 928, He was a near rela- 
 tive, according to some, the nephew of the 
 elder Theodora, a Roman lady, famous on 
 account of her beauty, disorders and 
 crimes. Upon this fact the h'ing Luit- 
 prand built up his grievous accusations 
 
John 
 
 387 
 
 John Climacus 
 
 against that Pontiff, whom he charges 
 with gross licentiousness. The conflicting 
 statements of Luitprand are a sufficient 
 proof of the falsehood of his allegations. 
 By other contemporary writers, John X. 
 is represented as a Pontiff of unimpeach- 
 able conduct, whose reign was eminently 
 useful to the Church. Pope John X. dis- 
 played great activity and energy for the 
 liberation of Italy from the Saracens, 
 whom he utterly routed and freed the 
 country from their power, in 916. He 
 manifested a disposition to break the 
 power of the Tuscan tyrants, and free the 
 Papacy from its degrading dependency. 
 But his noble endeavors were antici- 
 pated by the party of Marozia. He 
 was surprised in the Lateran palace 
 by this daring woman ; his brother Peter 
 was killed before his face, and the Pope 
 himself thrown into prison, where shortly 
 after he died, it is said, by violence. John 
 XI. — Pope from 931 to 936. Son of Mar- 
 ozia, who caused him to be elected, he 
 being only twenty-five years old. The 
 youthful pontiff was wholly dependent 
 upon his mother, and, after her banishment 
 from Rome, on his still younger step- 
 brother, Alberic II., who, with the title of 
 " Princeps Romse," reigned as absolute 
 sovereign over Rome, and kept the Pope, 
 his brother, in strict captivity during his 
 lifetime. John XII. — Pope from 955 to 
 964. Was only eighteen years old when he 
 assumed the Pontificate. This youthful 
 Pontiff, whose training and conduct in no 
 wise befitted him for his exalted office, was 
 an unworthy occupant of the Papal Chair, 
 upon which he brought disgrace by his 
 dissolute life. But the Church, then in a 
 most humiliating state of bondage, cannot 
 be held responsible for the outrageous con- 
 duct of this young profligate, who was not 
 her choice, but who had intruded himself 
 into the Pontificate by means of the tem- 
 poral power which he inherited from his 
 father, Alberic II. yohn XIII. — Pope 
 from 965 to 972. The severity with which 
 he maintained his sovereign rights against 
 the nobility caused an insurrection against 
 him ; he was seized and held in prison for 
 ten months. Otho I. delivered him. The 
 Pope crowned Otho II. emperor, yohn 
 XIV. — Pope from 983 to 984. Cardinal 
 Franco, antipope, with the aid of the 
 Crescentians, dethroned the Pope, con- 
 fined him in the Castle of St. Angelo, and 
 there left him to die of hunger. John X V. 
 — Pope from 985 to 996. Governed with 
 
 great prudence and success, notwithstand- 
 ing the many difficulties of his position. 
 The tyranny of Crescentius II. obliged the 
 Pope to leave Rome and to invite the young 
 emperor-elect, Otho III., to his aid in 996. 
 John X VI. — Antipope from 997 to 998. 
 He was elevated to the Papacy by Crescen- 
 tius, on the expulsion of Gregory V. in 997, 
 but was imprisoned and blinded by the em- 
 peror Otho III., in 998. John XVII. — 
 Pope from June 9th to October 31st, 1003. 
 John X VIII. — Pope from 1003 to 1009. 
 John XIX. — Pope from 1024 to 1033. 
 His reign of eight years was a laudable 
 administration. In 1027 he conferred the 
 imperial crown upon Conrad II., of Ger- 
 many, with whom the Franconian dynasty 
 ascended the German throne. John A'X. 
 — Pope from 1276 to 1277. John XXI. 
 (or XXII.). — Pope from 1316 to 1334. He 
 made Avignon his residence, and was 
 wholly subservient to the interests of the 
 French court. He opposed the emperor 
 Louis the Bavarian, whose imperial dig- 
 nity he offered to Charles the Fair, of 
 France. Louis, however, installed Nicho- 
 las V. as antipope at Rome in 1328, but, on 
 retiring from Italy, was unable to prevent 
 Nicholas from falling into the hands of 
 John. John XXIII. {Baltassare Cossa). — 
 Pope from 1410 to 1415. He served as a 
 Corsair in his youth ; afterwards studied 
 at the University of Bologna ; was created 
 cardinal in 1402; and in 1410 succeeded 
 Alexander V. He was opposed by the 
 antipopes Benedict XIII. and Gregory 
 XII., along with whom he was deposed by 
 the Council of Constance, in 1415. 
 
 John {Knights of St.). See Knights. 
 
 John Capistran (St.). (1385-1456). — 
 Franciscan, disciple of St. Bernardin of 
 Siena, born at Capistrano, Italy. He 
 showed great zeal and power in preach- 
 ing; he traversed Italy, Austria, Moravia, 
 Bohemia, Hungary, Poland, and part of 
 Germany, everywhere preaching with 
 wonderful success. He received the ab- 
 juration of 11,000 Hussites. To his zeal 
 and eloquence, principally, is ascribed the 
 great victory, which, in 1456, the Chris- 
 tians, under the gallant Hanniades, gained 
 at Belgrade, over Mohammed II. F. Oct. 
 23d. 
 
 John Chrysostom (St.). See Chrys- 
 
 OSTOM. 
 
 John Climacus. — John, who from his 
 most celebrated work (A'/Z/wax-Ladder) is 
 
John Gualbert 
 
 388 
 
 John of Nepomucene 
 
 surnamed " Climacus," but whose time and 
 place of birth are unknown, was evidently 
 endowed with splendid talents, by the 
 careful use of which he soon began to 
 acquire a rich store of knowledge. At the 
 age of sixteen he renounced the honors of 
 the world and entered the monastery 
 of Mount Sinai. After the death of his 
 teacher, Martyrius, he lived for forty 
 years as an anchorite in a lonely cave at 
 the foot of the mountain, spending his time 
 in rigid penance, prayer, contemplation, 
 the study of Holy Scripture, and the writ- 
 ings of the Fathers. Having ever edified 
 his brethren by willing submission to 
 others, they made him, at the age of 70, 
 their abbot, and venerated him almost as a 
 second Moses. But after a few years, he 
 resigned his dignity and chose as successor 
 his brother George, a man of great ex- 
 perience in the ways of spiritual life. He 
 then returned to his solitary cell, in which 
 he ended a long and holy life about the 
 year 600. His works can be found in 
 Migne, Pat. gr. LXXXVIH, 579-1248. 
 
 John Gualbert. See Vallombrosa. 
 
 John of Antioch (surnamed the "Scho- 
 lastic"). — Patriarch of Constantinople 
 from 564 to 578, author of a collection of 
 ecclesiastical laws, which became the basis 
 of Canon Law among the Greeks, and of the 
 JVotnocanon, a collection of constitutions in 
 regard to the Church, promulgated before 
 and under Justinian. 
 
 John of Damascus (St.). — " The last of 
 the Fathers of the Church," was born in 
 the decline of the seventh century at Da- 
 mascus, from which city he received the 
 surname "Damascene." By the Saracens 
 he was called " Mansur," and on account 
 of his eloquence was surnamed " Chrys- 
 sorrhoas " (Goid-sf reaming). He received 
 his education from a pious and learned 
 monk named Cosmas, who was taken pris- 
 oner and brought to Damascus. Like his 
 father, he held a high office under the Ca- 
 liphs. His zeal in defending the sacred 
 images against the Iconoclasts, exposed 
 him to the resentment and persecution of 
 the Greek Emperor. On the suspicion of 
 a treasonable correspondence, he was de- 
 prived of his right hand, which, however, 
 was miraculously restored by the Mother 
 of God. He resigned his office, distrib- 
 uted his wealth among the poor, and re- 
 tired into the Laura of St. Sabas, where. 
 
 after some time, he was ordained priest. 
 He died about the year 754. John Damas- 
 cene has left many works which, on 
 account of their solid learning and great 
 literary merit, have been held in high 
 esteem in both the Latin and the Greek 
 Churches. His collected works were 
 edited by Le Quien, Paris (1712, 2 vols, 
 fol.). 
 
 John of God and Brothers of Charity. — 
 The Brothers of Charity were founded in 
 1540 at Seville, in Spain, by the Portuguese, 
 John of God. Born in 1495, John led a 
 roving life until his forty-fifth year, when 
 he was converted at Grenada by an impres- 
 sive sermon of John Avila, and from 
 thenceforth (1540) gave himself entirely 
 to the service of the sick in the hospitals. 
 The Archbishop of Grenada and the Bishop 
 of Tuy, admiring his efforts to copy the 
 broad charity and tender mercy of our 
 Saviour, entered warmly into his plans, 
 surnaming him "John of God." He died 
 in 1550, poor in the wealth of this world, 
 but rich in good works. His companions, 
 who continued to carry on his work, bound 
 themselves still more closely to each other 
 by taking upon them the three monastic 
 vows, with the additional obligation of 
 gratuitously serving the sick in the hospi- 
 tals. They received recognition as an c3r- 
 der, under the name of the ** Brethren of 
 St. John of God," in 1617, from Pope Paul 
 v., and have since continued to render im- 
 portant services within their sphere in 
 every Catholic country. In the hospitals, 
 to each of which only one priest was at- 
 tached, they were as ready to serve non- 
 Catholics as those of their own faith, their 
 constitution obliging them to make no dis- 
 tinction of faith, rank, or nation. Their 
 founder was beatified in 1630, by Urban 
 VIII., and canonized by Alexander VIII., 
 in 1690. F. March 8th. 
 
 John of Matha. See Trinitarians. 
 
 John of Nepomucene (St.) (born between 
 1340-50). — Patron of Bohemia, born at 
 Nepomuk, Bohemia. Having become priest, 
 he refused three bishoprics and accepted 
 only a canonicate of Prague. Refusing to 
 reveal to King Wenceslaus the secret of 
 confession of the Queen Joane, his wife, 
 whose fidelity the king suspected, he was 
 thrown into prison, then drowned in the 
 Moldau, March 20th, 1393. He was canon- 
 ized by Pope Benedict XIII. in 1729. F. 
 May i6th. 
 
John of the Cross 
 
 389 
 
 JONATHAS 
 
 John of the Cross (St.) (1542-1591). — 
 Spanish Carmelite, born at Fontibera 
 (Ancient Castile). He associated himself 
 with St. Theresa for the reform of the 
 Carmelites, founded at Manresa the first 
 convent of the so-called Discalced Carmel- 
 ites (1568), an institute approved by Pope 
 Pius V. and confirmed by Gregory XIII. in 
 1580. Imprisoned at the instigation of 
 the ancient Carmelites, he regained his 
 liberty through St. Theresa. Died in the 
 monastery of Ubeda, and was canonized 
 in 1726, by Benedict XIII. F. Nov. 
 24th. 
 
 John the Almoner (St.) (556-619). — Pa- 
 triarch of Alexandria (608), born at Ama- 
 thonte, on the island of Cyprus, surnamed 
 " The Almoner," on account of his inex- 
 haustible charity ; from him the Order of 
 St. John of Jerusalem draws its name. F. 
 Jan. 23d. 
 
 John the Baptist (St.). — Precursor of 
 the Messias, born six months before Jesus 
 Christ, son of Zacharias and Elizabeth. 
 Thirty years had elapsed from the birth of 
 our Lord, when he appeared on the banks 
 of the Jordan, preaching the baptism of 
 penance for the remission of sins. He 
 was the last representative of the Prophets 
 of the old covenant; his work was to an- 
 nounce the way for, and to prepare the 
 advent of the promised Messias. Such 
 was the fame and authority of John, whom 
 the Lord Himself declared the "greatest 
 of those born of women," that it led men 
 to suspect that he himself might be the 
 Messias. But John openly confessed that 
 he was not the Christ, and announced the 
 approach of " one mightier than himself, 
 who would baptize with the Holy Ghost 
 and with fire, and the latchet of whose 
 shoes he was not worthy to loose " (Luke 
 iii. 16). It was by the testimony of John 
 that the divine mission of Jesus was authen- 
 ticated, as, at the baptism of Jesus, the 
 holy precursor received the miraculous 
 token that Jesus was, indeed, the " anointed 
 of God." John was at length put to death 
 by order of Herod, at the instigation of 
 Herodias, whose licentiousness he had the 
 boldness to reprove. Feast of the Nativ- 
 ity of St. John, June 24th ; of his Decolla- 
 tion, August 29th. 
 
 John the Evangelist (St.) (5-101 or 102). 
 — Apostle and Evangelist. The youngest 
 of the Apostles, son of Zebedee and Salome, 
 and brother of James the Elder, labored 
 
 first in Judea and Samaria. Shortly after 
 the feast of Pentecost, we find him in the 
 temple with Peter curing the lame man ; 
 and later on in Samaria, imposing hands 
 on the new converts. He seems to have 
 remained in Palestine, probably, until the 
 death of the Blessed Virgin. He assisted 
 at the Council of Jerusalem, after which 
 he is reported to have preached the Chris- 
 tain faith to the Parthians. About the 
 year 58, he went to Asia Minor to assume 
 the government of the churches founded 
 in that country by St. Paul. He lived in 
 Ephesus, where he made many disciples, 
 among whom were Papias, Ignatius Mar- 
 tyr and Polycarp. According to a widely 
 spread tradition, the apostle St. John was 
 brought to Rome under Domitian in the 
 year 95, and cast into a caldron of boiling 
 oil, whence he came forth unhurt. He wAs 
 subsequently banished to the island of 
 Patmos, in the Grecian archipelago, where, 
 about the year 96, he wrote the Apocalypse. 
 Returning to Ephesus, he wrote, at the re- 
 quest of the Asiatic bishops, his Gospel, to 
 oppose the errors of Cerinthus and Ebion, 
 about the year 97. His three Epistles were 
 written at a later period. John, who sur- 
 vived all the other Apostles, died at a very 
 advanced age. F. Dec. 27th. 
 
 Jonas. — One of the twelve minor proph- 
 ets. He appeared under the reigns of Joas 
 and of Jeroboam II., kings of Israel, and, 
 under the reigns of Ozias and Azarias, 
 kings of Juda, and, consequently, more 
 than 800 years before Christ. The Lord 
 ordered him to foretell to the Ninivites the 
 destruction of their city : but Jonas, being 
 afraid of the dangers of such a mission, 
 embarked for Tarsus, just in the opposite 
 direction. Being overtaken by a storm, he 
 was thrown overboard, but was miracu- 
 lously preserved by being swallowed by a 
 large fish. The fish afterwards cast him out 
 upon the land. The word of the Lord a 
 second time directed him to visit Ninive. 
 He went thither and accomplished his mis- 
 sion. The Ninivites, having done penance, 
 God pardoned them. 
 
 Jonathas or Jonathan. — Jewish warrior, 
 son of Saul, died in 1055 b. c. Friend of 
 David, whom he protected against his 
 father; twice conqueror over the Philis- 
 tines, he incurred the punishment of death, 
 because, in pursuing the enemy, he had 
 eaten before sunset, contrary to the order 
 of Saul, but was saved by the people. 
 
JOPPE 
 
 390 
 
 Joseph 
 
 Joppe or Jaffa. — A seaport of Palestine, 
 situated on the Mediterranean. It is often 
 mentioned in Biblical history. It was fre- 
 quently taken and retaken by the Cru- 
 saders ; was stormed by the French under 
 Napoleon in 1799; was taken by Mehemet 
 All in 1832 ; and was retaken by the Turks 
 m 1840. It is the terminus of the Jaffa- 
 Jerusalem Railway Population, about 23,- 
 000. 
 
 Joram. — i. King of Israel, 896-S84 b.c. 
 Son of Achab, brother and successor of 
 Ochozias, conqueror of the Moabites and 
 01 Benhadad, king of Syria, thanks to the 
 intercession of the prophet Eliseus ; sacri- 
 ficed, nevertheless, to the idols, and was 
 put to death by Jehu, who succeeded him. 
 2. Joram. — King of Juda, 893-886 B.C. 
 Son and successor of Josaphat, spouse of 
 Athalia, inaugurated his reign by murder- 
 ing his brothers and the chief men of the 
 State, beheld his kingdom ravaged by the 
 Arabs and Philistines, and died of a fright- 
 ful disease. 
 
 Jordan. — The chief river of Palestine. 
 It rises in Anti-Libanus, traverses Lake 
 Merom and the Sea of Galilee, and flows 
 into the Dead Sea 19 miles east of Jerusa- 
 lem. Its length is about 120 miles. 
 
 Josaphat. — King of Juda, 904-889 b.c. 
 Son of Asa. A pious, wise, and enlightened 
 prince, enlarged and fortified several cities 
 of his kingdom ; won brilliant victories 
 over the Ammonites, Moabites, and Arabs. 
 
 Josaphat ( Valley of) (Hebr. Judg- 
 ment of God). — Famous valley of Pales- 
 tine situated between Jerusalem and the 
 Mount of Olives, through which the Cedron 
 flows. According to a prophecy of Joel 
 (iii. 2) the last judgment will take place 
 in this Biblical valley. 
 
 Joseph. — The favorite son of Jacob and 
 Rachel, and distinguished by the wonder- 
 ful Providence of God, by which he was 
 raised from prison to be a grand vizier of 
 Egypt. His history is one of the most 
 pathetic and interesting in the whole Bible, 
 and is contained in Genesis (xxx. 22 ; xxxvii. 
 and xxxix.). When the Israelites left Egypt, 
 they took with them the bones of Joseph 
 and buried them in Sichem. 
 
 Joseph (St.). — Spouse of the Blessed 
 Virgin Mary, foster father of Jesus Christ, 
 of the tribe of Juda and of the family of 
 David ; a simple artisan, perhaps carpen- 
 ter, was instructed by an angel concerning 
 
 the mystery of the Incarnation. He ap- 
 pears for the last time in the Gospel 
 when he goes to seek with Mary the child 
 Jesus in the midst of the doctors, at Jeru- 
 salem. Very probably he was dead when 
 Christ began to preach the Gospel. Pope 
 Pius IX. established St. Joseph as patron 
 saint of the universal Church. F. March 
 19th. 
 
 Joseph (Congregations of St.). — There 
 are several of these congregations: i. 
 Priests of St. Joseph. — Congregation of 
 secular priests, founded at Rome, in 1620, 
 by Father Paul Motta. It was approved 
 by Pope Innocent X., in 1649. 2. Mis- 
 sionaries of the Congregation of St. 
 Joseph. — Congregation founded at Lyons, 
 in the seventeenth century, by Cretenet, a 
 physician, with the view of evangelizing 
 the neighboring countries of Lyons; they 
 are sometimes called •' Cretenists." 3. 
 Daughters of St. Joseph. — Religious 
 community founded at Bordeaux, in 1638, 
 by Marie Delpech, known under the name 
 of Mile, de I'Estang, or Letan. The ob- 
 ject of this congregation was to take care 
 of orphans. 4. Religious Hospitalers 
 of St. Joseph. — Religious congregation 
 founded at La Fl^che, in 1612, by Mile, de 
 La Ferre. Its members served in hos- 
 pitals in a great number of cities of 
 France. 5. Sisters of St. Joseph. — Con- 
 gregation founded in the city of Puy in 
 Velay, in 1650, by Henri de Maupas, 
 bishop of this city, with the view of taking 
 care of poor girls and widows. Its mem- 
 bers had also charge of hospitals, houses 
 of refuge, and orphan asylums. Later on 
 they also served in the capacity of teachers 
 in schools. An oflFshoot of the Sisters of 
 St. Joseph was, in 1836, introduced into 
 the Diocese of St. Louis by Bishop Rosati, 
 These sisters have since been introduced 
 into many other dioceses of the United 
 States as well as Canada. 6. Sisters of 
 Charity of St. Joseph. — The original 
 name of the community of sisters estab- 
 lished by Mrs. Seton at Emmittsburg, 
 Maryland, in 1809. In 1850, with its de- 
 pendencies, it assumed the habit and the 
 vows of the French Sisters of Charity of 
 St. Vincent de Paul, of which the Em- 
 mittsburg house and its dependencies now 
 form a province. But the sisters of this 
 order in the Diocese of New York, whose 
 mother-house is at Mount St. Vincent on 
 the Hudson, were, in 1846, made independ- 
 ent of Emmittsburg. 
 
JOSEPHINUM 
 
 391 
 
 JOSUE 
 
 Josephinum. — Papal College at Colum- 
 bus, Ohio, U. S. It is a free institute of 
 learning, in which poor German-American 
 youths are received as students without 
 any expense on their part, if they have 
 talents and vocations fitting them to be- 
 come secular priests. The Josephinum was 
 founded in 1888 by Rev. Joseph Jessing(died 
 1899) ^nd has been made a gift to the Holy 
 See. Pope Leo XIII. raised the Josephinum 
 to a Papal College in the year 1892. In the 
 year 1896, the Josephinum had 125 students. 
 Those priests who go forth from the 
 Josephinum, understand both the German 
 and English languages, and are destined 
 to labor within the United States for the 
 salvation of souls and for the exaltation 
 and propogation of the Roman Catholic 
 Church. The Josephinum receives its 
 support from three sources: i. From a 
 weekly journal, "Der Ohio Weisenfreund." 
 
 2. From endowments for poor students. 
 For such an endowment a capital of $S,ooo 
 is required, and the interest of this capital 
 permits a student to study, gratis, for all 
 future time. At present the Josephinum 
 possesses more than 50 such endowments. 
 
 3. From other voluntary alms. 
 
 Josephism. — Gallicanism in France 
 aimed at the restriction of the rights of 
 the Church and sought to transfer them to 
 the civil power. Febronianism and Joseph- 
 ism pursued a similar course in Germany. 
 See Gallicanism and Febronianism. 
 Joseph II. of Austria, misled by impious 
 advisers, especially by the arrogant minis- 
 ter Kaunitz, began a career of anti-ecclesi- 
 astical innovations. He suppressed 600 
 monasteries, containing 30,000 members 
 and destroyed magnificent works of science 
 and art. The monarch issued ordinances 
 regarding the celebration of divine wor- 
 ship, prescribed the number of candles to 
 be used at service, commanded the use of 
 the German language in liturgy ; prohibited 
 the celebration of more than one Mass at 
 the same time, and a promulgation of in- 
 dulgences without his permission ; he also 
 placed heavy penalties on the devotion to 
 the Sacred Heart and the Way of the Cross. 
 On this account he was ridiculed by Fred- 
 erick II. of Prussia as the " Brother Sac- 
 ristan." The would-be reformer abolished 
 several ecclesiastical impediments to mat- 
 rimony, introduced freedom of the press, 
 thereby causing, in Austria, an overflow of 
 the obscene literature of foreign countries ; 
 he suppressed the diocesan seminaries and 
 
 replaced them by " General Seminaries," 
 in which " enlightened " professors taught 
 gross infidelity to the students of theology. 
 The emperor's aim was to completely sepa- 
 rate the Austrian Church from Rome. 
 Unfortunately, many bishops lacked the 
 courage and energy to resist these anti- 
 ecclesiastical measures. Pope Pius VI. 
 went in person to Vienna, but was coldly 
 received by Joseph (1782). The deluded 
 emperor lived long enough to see the fail- 
 ure of his so-called reforms ; he died re- 
 pentant. 
 
 Joseph of Arimathea. — A member of 
 the Jewish Sanhedrin or senate, who was 
 secretly a disciple of Christ, and who, with 
 Nicodemus, embalmed the body of Jesus 
 after his crucifixion, and laid it in his own 
 new sepulchre. It is claimed that he 
 preached the Gospel in Great Britain. 
 
 Josephus Flavius. — Born 37 a. d., died 
 about 95. A celebrated Jewish historian. 
 He was of an illustrious priestly descent, 
 and related to the Machabean house. He 
 gives the following testimony concerning 
 Christ: "There was at one time a wise 
 man whose name was Jesus, if, indeed, he 
 may be properly called a man, for he 
 wrought wonderful works, taught the 
 truth to those who were willing to hear 
 Him, and had among His followers a great 
 number of Jews and Gentiles. This was 
 the Christ. When, at the suggestion of 
 our leading men, Pilate condemned Him 
 to death on the Cross, those who loved 
 Him from the beginning did not forsake 
 Him and He appeared alive to them on 
 the third day. All this, and much more, 
 the Prophets foretold concerning Him ; 
 and the Christians, who are named after 
 Him, exist at this day." Antiquities of 
 the Je-ws, xviii. 3, 3. 
 
 Josias. — King of Juda, 641-610 b. c. 
 Son of Amon. He was defeated and 
 slain by Pharao Nechao at the battle of 
 Mageddo in the valley of Esdrslon (IV. 
 Ki. xxii.-xxiii. 30; II. Par. xxxiv.-xxxv.). 
 He brought about important reforms, de- 
 stroying all forms of idolatrous worship. 
 It was under his reign that the high-priest 
 Helcias found the Book of the Law. 
 
 Josue (Hebr. -whose help is Tahveh). — 
 The successor of Moses as leader of the 
 Israelites. He was the son of Nun, of the 
 tribe of Ephraim, and was one of the two 
 spies who favorably reported Chanaan. 
 
Journalism 
 
 392 
 
 Journalism 
 
 He was an attendant of Moses, who deGig- 
 nated him, his successor. He led the nation 
 into the Land of Promise, and was their 
 captain in the wars that resulted in their 
 
 peaceful occupation of it. The book that 
 bears his name consists, mainly, of an ac- 
 count of the settlement of the Israelites in 
 Chanaan. 
 
 Journalism (Catholic) in the United States. 
 (Hoffmann^ s Catholic Directory of 1899.) 
 
 Banning^. : 
 
 San Francisco 
 
 I4OS Angeles.. 
 
 Denver 
 
 Hartford 
 
 New Haven.. 
 
 Wilmington... 
 
 Washington. . 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Quincy 
 
 Wetang 
 
 CoUegeville . . 
 
 Notre Dame... 
 Ev'ansville 
 
 Ft. Wayne 
 
 Indianapolis . 
 
 Notre Dame . . 
 St. Meinrad ! '. 
 
 Cascade 
 
 Davenport. . . . 
 Dnbnque 
 
 Sioux City 
 
 California 
 
 The Mission Indian 
 
 The Monitor 
 
 The Angelus 
 
 The Nation 
 
 Western Witness 
 
 California Volksfreund 
 
 Catholic Tidings 
 
 Colorado 
 Colorado Catholic 
 
 Connectieat 
 
 Connecticut Catholic 
 
 CathoUc Standard 
 
 Delaware 
 
 St, Joseph's League 
 
 District of Coltitnbia 
 
 Georgetown College Journal 
 
 Church News 
 
 Bulletin of Catholic University 
 
 Illinois 
 
 The New World 
 
 Western Catholic News 
 
 Homeless Boy 
 
 The Catholic Religious Youth 
 
 Newsboy's Protector 
 
 Katolisches Wochenblatt 
 
 Katolisches Sonntagsblatt 
 
 St. Aloysins Banner 
 
 Katoliscber Jugendf reund 
 
 I,e Courrier de I'lllinois 
 
 Gazet Katolicka 
 
 Przyjaciel Dzied (for children) 
 
 Wiarai Ojizj'zna 
 
 Pritel Ditek (for children) 
 
 Katolik 
 
 Narod 
 
 The Western Catholic 
 
 Die Legende 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Der Botschafter des Geislichen Wohltha- 
 itgkeits-Vereins 
 
 The Young Crusader 
 
 Notre Dame Scholastic 
 
 Official Messenger of the Knights of St. 
 John 
 
 C. K. of A. Bulletin 
 
 Glocke 
 
 Catholic Record 
 
 Ave Maria 
 
 Scholastic (college paper) 
 
 Annals of Our Lady 01 Lourdes 
 
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JOVINIAN 
 
 396 
 
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 Jovinian. — Heretical monk of the 
 fourth century. He left Milan and the 
 cloister to preach in Rome the doctrine to 
 %vhich he has left his name. He denied 
 the merit of fasting and good works in 
 general, the distinction between mortal 
 and venial sins, and maintained that a per- 
 son baptized cannot lose sanctifying grace, 
 and that there is but one grade of re- 
 ward and one of punishment in the future 
 world. He also opposed celibacy, main- 
 taining that virginal life is no better than 
 the married state in the sight of God, and 
 denied that Mary remained a virgin, after 
 she had given birth to Christ. Jovinian 
 was excommunicated as a heretic by St. 
 Ambrose and Pope Siricius, in 390. 
 
 Jubilee {The Tear of). — A peculiar 
 institution among the Jews (Lev. xxv.),by 
 which, every fiftieth year, the land that in 
 the interval had passed out of the posses- 
 sion of those to whom it originally be- 
 longed was restored to them, and all who 
 had been reduced to poverty, and obliged 
 to hire themselves out as servants, were 
 released from their bondage; no less were 
 all debts remitted. 
 
 Jubilee or Jubilee Year. — An institu- 
 tion of the Catholic Church, See Indul- 
 
 GKNCBS. 
 
 Juda. — One of the twelve tribes of an- 
 cient Palestine, formed from the country 
 
 of the Jebusites and Hetheans. It was the 
 most powerful tribe of all. Its territory 
 was bounded by Dan and Benjamin on the 
 north, the Dead Sea and Idumsea on the 
 east, Idumaea and Simeon on the south, 
 and the Mediterranean (nominally) on the 
 west. It was subdivided into the districts 
 of the mountain or hill country, the wil- 
 derness, the south, and the lowland. 
 
 Juda {Kingdom of).— One. of the two 
 Jewish States, formed after the schism of 
 Jeroboam (962 B.C.); capital, Jerusalem. 
 Comprising only the two tribes of Juda 
 and Benjamin and only about the sixth 
 part of Judea, it was more powerful and 
 more peopled than the kingdom of Israel. 
 For the kings of Judea, see Chronology. 
 
 Judaea or Judea. — The name Judaea was 
 applied in different ages either to the 
 whole or a part of Palestine. In the time 
 of David, the name Juda denoted that por- 
 tion of the country which belonged to the 
 tribes of Juda and Benjamin. After the 
 secession of the ten tribes, the territory of 
 the kingdom of Juda was called Judea, in- 
 cluding the tracts belonging to Juda and 
 Benjamin, and also part of that which ap- 
 pertained to the tribes of Dan and Simeon. 
 Hence it became a general name for the 
 southern part of Palestine, while the north- 
 ern part was called Galilee, and the mid- 
 dle Samaria. After the Captivity, as most 
 
JUDAIZERS 
 
 397 
 
 Judgment 
 
 of those who returned were of the king- 
 dom of Juda, the name Juda or Judea was 
 applied, generally, to the whole of Pales- 
 tine. When the whole country fell into 
 the power of the Romans, the former divi- 
 sion into Galilee, Samaria, and Judea, 
 seems to have again become current. 
 
 Judaizers. — Members of a class of per- 
 sons in the early Church, who, though 
 converted from Judaism to Christianity, 
 still insisted on obedience to the Mosaic 
 law. 
 
 Judas (the name of several persons in 
 the Bible). — i. yudas, surnamed *' Is- 
 cariot," from the place of his birth, a city 
 of Juda or Benjamin. Being one of the 
 twelve Apostles of our Lord, he meanly 
 and wickedly betrayed the Saviour into 
 the hands of the Pharisees, for the paltry 
 bribe of thirty pieces of silver, or about 
 fifteen dollars. His remorse was after- 
 wards so great that he went and hanged 
 himself in the field, Hacceldama. 2. 
 yudas. — A Christian teacher, called also 
 " Barsabas," sent from Jerusalem to Antioch 
 with Paul and Barnabas (Acts xv. 22 ; 
 xxvii. 32). 3. yudas, surnamed the 
 " Galilean," also called Josephus the Gaul- 
 ont'te. He was born at Gamala, a city of 
 Lower Gauloni , lying near the southeastern 
 shore of the Lake of Tiberiades. In com- 
 pany with one Sadoc, or Sadducus, he at- 
 tempted to excite a sedition among the 
 Jews, but was killed by Quirinus, or 
 Cyrenius, at that time governor of Syria 
 and Judea. 
 
 Jude (St.). — One of the twelve Apos- 
 tles. Also called "Thaddeus." Was the 
 brother of James the Less and one of the 
 " Brethren," or cousins of Jesus. His name 
 occurs only once in the Gospel of St. John 
 (xiv. 22). Nothing certain is known of the 
 later history of this Apostle. Nicephorus 
 tells us that after preaching in Judea, Gali- 
 lee, Samaria, and Idumsea, Jude labored in 
 Arabia, Syria, Mesopotamia, and Persia. 
 According to the Bollandists, he also 
 preached the Gospel in Greater Armenia. 
 The Armenians, at least, claim him and 
 St. Bartholomew as their first Apostles. 
 He is said to have suffered martyrdom in 
 Phoenicia, either at Beyruth or Arad. 
 General tradition regards this Apostle as 
 the author of the Catholic Epistle of St. 
 Jude in the New Testament. 
 
 Judgment ( The Last). — It is the faith of 
 the Church, declared in the Creeds, that 
 
 in the last day, Christ will come again on 
 earth to judge the whole race of mankind ; 
 and some extend this judgment also to the 
 angels, good and bad. The scene is de- 
 scribed by Christ Himself (Matt. xxv. 31- 
 46), and the account raises no difficulty, 
 except in connection with the Particular 
 Judgment (which see). It has been thought 
 that a new judgment is needless, when 
 sentence has already been passed on each, 
 and in part executed. It may be enough to 
 reply that our insight is not keen enough 
 to see the wisdom of all that God does ; 
 but if speculation be permitted, we may 
 say that there is a fitness in this solemn act 
 which marks the close of the time of proba- 
 tion for the race, just as the Particular 
 Judgment closes the probation of each 
 man. Men form a society, and as a society 
 they should be judged, and it is well that 
 all should be assembled to see and acknowl- 
 edge the justice of God in His dealings, 
 and the fullness with which He avenges 
 those who have suffered tribulation for His 
 sake. It is right, too, that the Sacred Hu- 
 manity of Christ should receive due honor 
 from all. 
 
 Judgment {The Particular). — It is the 
 ordinary belief of Catholics, expressed in 
 the Roman and other Catechisms, that 
 each human soul is judged by God imme- 
 diately after its separation from the body, 
 and this judgment is called particular, to 
 distinguish it from the general judgment 
 of all men, which will take place at the 
 end of the world. The conviction of 
 Catholics on this subject is so constant as 
 to make the truth certain, although no ex- 
 press definition has been put forward by 
 the Church. The essential point in the 
 doctrine of the Particular Judgment is that 
 the separated soul, immediately after death, 
 becomes aware whether God's grace is 
 with it or whether it is in enmity with 
 Him ; and that this is so, follows from the 
 assured truth that the entry of the soul on 
 its final state of reward or punishment is 
 not delayed. In the light of this truth we 
 are able to understand certain texts of 
 Scripture which, taken by themselves, 
 might admit of other explanations. Thus, 
 it is easy before God in the day of death to 
 reward every one according to his works 
 (Ecclus. xi. 28) ; and it is appointed unto 
 men once to die, and after this the judg- 
 ment (Hebr. ix. 27); to understand this 
 text of the Particular Judgment is far more 
 natural than to interpolate an indefinitely 
 
Judges 
 
 398 
 
 Julius 
 
 long time of unconsciousness or of inactive 
 expectation. The Good Thief was with 
 Christ in Paradise on the day of his death 
 (Luke xxiii. 43) ; and Judas was in his own 
 place while St. Peter was speaking (Acts 
 i. 25) ; and these facts imply judgment 
 to have been passed upon them. 
 
 Judges {Book of). — This Book, which 
 the Church acknowledges as authentic and 
 canonical, is attributed to Phinees, Esdras, 
 Ezechias, Samuel, or even to all the Judges, 
 each of whom would have written the his- 
 tory of his own judicature. However, the 
 Book of Judges appears to be the work of 
 one author, who lived after the Judges, and 
 comprises the time between Josue and 
 Samuel. It is not a consecutive chronicle. 
 Moses had foretold the people that they 
 would be happy in the Promised Land if 
 they would be faithful to God and His 
 law, but that they would become the slaves 
 of foreign nations if they would allow 
 themselves to be dragged into idolatry. 
 Josue had renewed to them this prediction. 
 The author of the Book of Judges intended 
 to show to the Hebrews, by their own 
 history, that this prophecy constantly ful- 
 filled itself, and that they must not look 
 anywhere else for their successes or re- 
 verses. The Book ends with two episodes, 
 attached to it so to speak. Namely, the 
 history of the idol of Michas (Judges 
 xvii.-xviii.), and that of the Levite whose 
 wife was outraged by the Benjamites. 
 
 Judges of Israel (Hebr. Shophetim) were 
 the rulers, chiefs, leaders of Israel, from 
 Josue to Saul. The office of the Hebrew 
 Judge was for life, but the succession was 
 not always constant. There were anarchies, 
 or intervals, during which the common- 
 wealth was without rulers. There were 
 likewise long intervals of ser%'itude and 
 oppression, under which the Hebrews 
 groaned, and were without either Judges 
 or governors. Although God alone regu- 
 larly appointed the Judges, yet the people, 
 on some occasions, chose that individual 
 who appeared to them most proper to de- 
 liver them from oppression ; and as it often 
 happened that the oppressions which oc- 
 casioned recourse to the election of a Judge 
 were not felt all over Israel, the power of 
 such Judge extended only over that pro- 
 vince which he had delivered. The author- 
 ity of the Judges was not inferior to that 
 of kings; it extended to peace and war; 
 they decided causes with absolute author- 
 ity, but had no power to make new laws 
 
 or to impose new burdens on the people. 
 They were protectors of the laws, defenders 
 of religion, and avengers of crimes, par- 
 ticularly of idolatry; they were without 
 pomp or splendor; and without guards, 
 train or equipage, unless their own 
 wealth might enable them to appear in the 
 state corresponding to their dignity. The 
 Book of Judges contains the annals of the 
 times in which Israel was ruled by Judges. 
 It is often referred to in the New Testa- 
 ment and other parts of the Bible. 
 
 Judicatutn. See Chapters ( Three) . 
 
 Julian (surnamed the "Apostate"). — 
 Son of Julius Constantius and nephew of 
 Constantine the Great; was born in 331. 
 He believed himself destined to reanimate 
 dying paganisnr and restore it to its former 
 power and glory. He was educated at 
 Athens. In his early youth his mind had 
 been corrupted by the artful flatteries of 
 pagan philosophers. Never ha%nng been 
 thoroughly familiar with the spirit of 
 Christianity, he was uncertain in his belief. 
 At one time, to please his cousin Constan- 
 tine, he favored the Christian religion, at 
 another the tenets of paganism. As su- 
 preme ruler of the empire (361-363) he did 
 all in his power to restore the ancient idola- 
 try, and openly declared himself an advo- 
 cate of paganism. The Christians were 
 treated with contempt and ridicule. They 
 were forbidden to have schools of their 
 own. Yet paganism was on the decline. 
 Julian having ordered the rebuilding of 
 the temple of Jerusalem, the work was in- 
 terrupted by divine intervention. Miracles 
 by which the work was prevented are at- 
 tested by the pagan historian, Arminianus 
 Marcellinus (xxiii. 1-3). He was enraged 
 by his failures. He died in a battle with 
 the Persians at the age of thirty-two, cry- 
 ing out when dying: "Thou hast con- 
 quered, O Galilean! " 
 
 Julianists. — A sect of Monophysites 
 which held the body of Christ to be incor- 
 ruptible : so called from Julian, Bishop of 
 Halicarnassus, early in the sixth century. 
 
 Julius (name of three Popes). — yulius 
 I. — Pope from 337 to 352. Successor of 
 Marcus. During the violent struggle with 
 Arianism, Julius was the strenuous cham- 
 pion of the Nicene faith, and the constant 
 defender of St. Athanasius and other 
 orthodox bishops oppressed by the here- 
 tics. The bishops, whom the Eusebians 
 had unjustly deposed, were reinstated by 
 
Julius Africanus 
 
 399 
 
 Jurisdiction 
 
 Julius, by virtue of the prerogative of the 
 Roman See. With the concurrence of the 
 two emperors, Constans and Constantius, 
 he, in 343, summoned the great Council of 
 Sardica. Jtilius II. — Pope from 1503 to 
 1513. Was an energetic and valiant Pope. 
 An enemy to nepotism, a liberal patron of 
 arts and letters, and in heart and action a 
 brave and valiant Christian soldier, such 
 as the Roman See then needed. His high- 
 est aim being the restoration of the Papal 
 States, and the re-establishment of Italian 
 unity, he directed all his efforts towards 
 subduing the petty Italian tyrants, and 
 freeing the Peninsula from foreign domi- 
 nation. One of his first acts on coming 
 to the Papal throne was to reduce the re- 
 fractory nobility to submission, and eject 
 Caesar Borgia from the Papal dominions. 
 In 1508, he formed the League of Cam- 
 brai against the Venetians, who held dif- 
 ferent territories of the Church. Then he 
 resolved to free Italy from the French 
 rule. For this purpose he formed the 
 Holy League against France, in 1511. 
 The result was the expulsion of the French 
 from Italy. Hereupon, Louis XII. of 
 France, at the instance of his prel- 
 ates and several discontented cardinals, 
 presumed to assemble a general council 
 against the Pope. To crush the schism in 
 its beginning. Pope Julius laid France un- 
 der interdict, excommunicated the prel- 
 ates that had taken part in the council, 
 and convoked, at Rome, the Eighteenth 
 General, and Fifth Lateran, Council, in 
 1512, The Council defined the '* Au- 
 thority of the Pope over all Councils," 
 and condemned the opinion holding that 
 the intellectual soul is mortal, or only one 
 in all men, or that these propositions were 
 true, at least philosophically. Julius 
 III. — Pope from 1550 to 1555. Succes- 
 sor of Paul III. This Pope reopened the 
 Council of Trent on May ist, 155 1. The 
 war which had broken out between 
 the Protestant princes and the emperor 
 caused the Pope, in April, 1552, to sus- 
 pend the Council for two years. 
 
 Julius Africanus. — Ecclesiastical writer 
 of about the middle of the third centtiry. 
 Died about the year 232. Was the author 
 of a Chronography in five books, contain- 
 ing a history of the world from the creation 
 to the year 221 ; only disjointed parts of it 
 are extant. We have from him also two 
 letters, the one to Origea questioning the 
 scriptural authority of the story of Susanna, 
 
 and the other to Aristides on the genealo- 
 gies of Matthew and Luke. 
 
 Jurisdiction. — By virtue of the Primacy 
 with which the Bishop of Rome is invested, 
 a Primacy of divine institution, he, the Pope, 
 the Bishop of Rome, is supreme chief, mas- 
 ter and sovereign of all bishops and of the 
 Faithful at large. He promulgates laws 
 which the entire Church must obey, insti- 
 tutes bishoprics and permits bishops to be 
 consecrated, assigns to them their respec- 
 tive divisions of the Lord's flock and gov- 
 erns with full authority both pastor and 
 people. He convokes general councils, 
 presides over them either directly or by 
 Iws legates, confirms their decrees, and, 
 finally, is supreme judge in matters of faith 
 and morals. These various prerogatives 
 and many others attached to the See of 
 Rome may be reduced to two : Jurisdiction 
 and Infallibility. 
 
 By jurisdiction we understand the power 
 which the Pope possesses to promulgate 
 laws concerning the divine worship and 
 the morals of the people. There are two 
 kinds of jurisdiction: the spiritual and 
 the temporal. We treat here of the spirit- 
 ual jurisdiction only. This jurisdiction is 
 nothing less than the power to make laws 
 and pronounce judgments concerning reli- 
 gion and morals, which judgments all the 
 Faithful are bound to obey. Now, this 
 power belongs to the Pope, in conse- 
 quence of his Primacy. To convince our- 
 selves of this, it is suflScient to consider the 
 passages of Holy Scripture where Peter is 
 invested with this Primacy (Matt. xvi. 16, 
 17). Peter is clothed with a universal 
 jurisdiction, through the keys committed 
 to him. The keys are given to him alone, 
 hence Peter is in future, the only source 
 of all jurisdiction ; and as all authority 
 emanates from his power, no one has juris- 
 diction, if not delegated by him. All the 
 Fathers and councils have been of one 
 voice in this regard. 
 
 Peter has attached his universal jurisdic- 
 tion, which he received from God Himself, 
 to the See of Rome. Hence no man can 
 give this jurisdiction to the Pope; he can 
 receive it only from God by the fact of his 
 elevation to the See of Rome. For we 
 must be careful not to confound the succes- 
 sion of the Roman Pontiffs in the episco- 
 pacy of Peter with the succession in the 
 Primacy of Peter. The first is of ecclesi- 
 astical law, the second of divine law. 
 Hence it follows, the choice of this or that 
 
Jus Primae Noctis 
 
 400 
 
 Justification 
 
 person as bishop of Rome, depends on the 
 Church, but the Church in placing this or 
 that person in the See of Rome, does not 
 communicate to him the Primacy ; she can- 
 not make this proceed from her bosom. 
 She presents only to God a subject upon 
 whom He bestows the Primacy of Peter, 
 according to His promise. Hence, as soon 
 as the Pope is canonically elected, that is 
 according to the established rules, and as 
 soon as he has given his consent to his 
 election, he has, without any other con- 
 firmation, obtained authority over the uni- 
 versal Church, even if he had previously 
 been neither bishop, priest, deacon, nor 
 subdeacon, but only a simple layman. 
 From the time of his election he is em- 
 powered with all the prerogatives of 
 jurisdiction, as, for instance, to grant dis- 
 pensations, canonize, promulgate censures, 
 grant indulgences, institute bishops, create 
 cardinals, and decide controversies in re- 
 gard to faith and morals. See Popk and 
 Infallibility. 
 
 Jus Primae Noctis. — Latin term signi- 
 fying, right of the first night. A pre- 
 tended right of the landlords in the 
 Middle Ages, who claimed the right of 
 sleeping with one of their female serfs on 
 her nuptial night. Such a right in no 
 place nor in no period of the Middle Ages 
 ever existed. It is nothing more than a 
 pure invention, born of misunderstanding 
 and malice. According to the German 
 law the manors of the serf could be divided ; 
 they inherited from both father and son. 
 When the child of a serf had married in 
 another place and thus acquired another 
 domicile, or had moved into a city, then such 
 a child lost all his rights on the landlord's 
 possession, in case the latter died without 
 children, or in the event of the entire fam- 
 ily becoming extinct. The manors had 
 become possessions of great value ; and the 
 serfs, by feudal law, obtained the right, 
 that if the second marrying brother or 
 sister passed the first nuptial night in their 
 own father's house, their firstborn child 
 obtained the right to be an heir of the 
 manor, consequently the heir of the uncle 
 in case of death. This was the " right of 
 the first night," because the married couple 
 declared thereby that their descendants 
 should be looked upon as serfs of the 
 manor. "It is a sad thing," says Moeser, 
 "that scoffers contorted one of the most 
 noble and most expressive symbols into an 
 immoral action so bestial." 
 
 Just. — This word, taken in the theolog- 
 ical sense, signifies not only a person who 
 fulfills the duties of justice in regard to 
 his neighbor and renders to each one what 
 is due to him, but one who entirely satis- 
 fies the law of God and fulfills all his obli- 
 gations, in regard to God, his neighbor, 
 or himself. This is what we call saintli- 
 ness. But this justice is more or less sus- 
 ceptible of degrees, and nobody possesses 
 it in its full perfection. Theologians also 
 call just the one who passes from a state 
 of sin into a state of grace. 
 
 Justice. — Justice, in its general accep- 
 tation consists, in the terms of Holy 
 Scripture, in the fulfillment of the duties 
 incumbent on us toward our Creator and 
 our neighbor. Under this aspect it com- 
 prises : I. The virtue of religion, by which 
 we render to God the. worship that is due 
 to Him. 2. The filial piety, which im- 
 poses on us the obligation to respect and 
 love in a particular manner our parents, to 
 whom after God, we owe all that we are. 
 3. The obedience, which makes us respect 
 the authority of our masters, superiors, 
 and those whom Divine Providence has 
 placed over us, either in the spiritual or 
 temporal order. 4. The obligation to re- 
 spect the persons, the reputation and the 
 goods of others. Justice, properly speak- 
 ing, is a moral virtue which moves us to 
 render to each one what belongs to him. 
 If, as it happens quite frequently, the 
 legal and distributive justice imposes the 
 obligation of restitution, one cannot vio- 
 late this obligation without violating at 
 the same time commutative justice with 
 which it is united, in virtue of the implicit 
 compact which exists among all those who 
 form a part of society. Thus, for exam- 
 ple, the one who sins against legal justice 
 by" refusing to pay the taxes necessary to 
 support the State, sins thereby also against 
 commutative justice ; he violates the com- 
 pact by which every one desiring to form 
 part of a society, engages himself im- 
 plicitly to support its charges and ex- 
 penses proportionately to the advantages 
 which he derives from it. So also those 
 who are appointed by the government to 
 regulate the distribution of the public 
 charges, violates both distributive justice 
 and commutative justice, in imposing 
 taxes beyond the power of the people. 
 
 Justification. — Justification is a super- 
 natural gift which makes man pass from 
 the state of sin into the state of grace, and 
 
Justin 
 
 401 
 
 JUVENCUS 
 
 renders him agreeable to God. There is 
 question here only of adults. Now, accord- 
 ing to the Council of Trent, the required 
 dispositions, in order to obtain the grace 
 of justificSition, are: Faith, by which man 
 believes all that has been revealed, and in 
 particular, that the sinner is justified by 
 the grace and the merits of Jesus Christ; 
 the fear of the divine justice; hope in the 
 mercy of God; a more or less explicit act 
 by which we commence to love God as the 
 source of all justice; hatred and detesta- 
 tion of sin, with the desire to receive the 
 sacrament of baptism or penance, to lead 
 a new life, and to obey the Commandments 
 of God. Justification has for its final ob- 
 ject the glory of God and of Jesus Christ, 
 and eternal life. Its efficient cause is God 
 Himself, in as far as He is merciful. The 
 meritorious cause is our Lord Jesus Christ, 
 God's only and well-beloved Son, who, 
 when we were His enemies, by an effect of 
 the extreme love with which He has loved 
 us, has merited for us justification, and has 
 made satisfaction for us to God the Father, 
 through His most sacred Passion and death 
 on the Cross. The instrumental cause is 
 the sacrament of baptism, which is the 
 sacrament of faith, without which no one 
 can ever obtain justification. 
 
 Finally, its unique formal cause is the 
 justice of God, not the justice by which He 
 is just Himself, but that by which He jus- 
 tifies us in renewing us in the interior of 
 our soul. 
 
 And not only are we then represented as 
 just, but truly we are called just; and we 
 are this indeed when we receive the justice 
 which the Holy Ghost distributes in the 
 measure He desires to each, and according 
 to the proper disposition and co-operation 
 of each. 
 
 Justification consists in the habitual or 
 sanctifying grace, which is a gift inherent 
 in our soul and permanent in its nature. 
 It is of faith, that neither the sole imputa- 
 tion of the justice of Jesus Christ, nor the 
 sole remission of sins, to the exclusion of 
 grace and charity inherent in the soul, is 
 sufficient for justification. Justice and the 
 state of grace are not inadmissible; the 
 just one does not always persevere. It is 
 of faith that the one who is justified can 
 lose grace, as it is also of faith that justice 
 or holiness is susceptible of increase. This 
 is in perfect accord with the words of St. 
 John: "Let the one who is just, justify 
 himself more; let the one who is holy, 
 sanctify himself more." Nobody, without 
 
 26 
 
 a special revelation, can be absolutely cer- 
 tain of possessing sanctifying grace and of 
 being of the number of the predestined. 
 
 Justin (St.) (100-167). — Apologist, 
 philosopher,and martyr, born of Greek par- 
 ents at Flavia, Neapolis (ancient Sichem, 
 now Nablus), in Samaria. He was brought 
 up in paganism and studied successively 
 under a Stoic, Peripatetic, and Pythago- 
 rean, when he finally embraced the Pla- 
 tonic philosophy, in which he fiattered 
 himself he would find true wisdom. The 
 objections raised by an aged Christian, or, 
 as some say, by an angel under the appear- 
 ance of an old man, regarding all pagan 
 philosophy, led him to read the books of 
 the Old Testament, especially the Prophets. 
 This, as well as the heroism of the Chris- 
 tian martyrs, induced him to embrace 
 Christianity between 133 and 137. He 
 continued to wear the philosopher's mantle 
 after his conversion, and henceforth de- 
 voted himself by word and writing to the 
 defense of Christianity against the pagans, 
 Jews, and heretics. His boldness in plead- 
 ing the Christian cause, and especially his 
 zeal in unmasking the hypocrisy of the 
 cynic philosopher Crescens, is said by 
 Eusebius to have caused his imprisonment 
 and death. With six other Christians, 
 Justin was beheaded at Rome in the year 
 167 under the prefect Rusticus. In his 
 first Apology, which he addressed to An- 
 toninus Pius in 139, Justin boldly advocated 
 the cause of the basely misrepresented 
 Christians, entreating the emperor to judge 
 them not by their name, but by their ac- 
 tions. His second Apology he addressed, 
 about the year 162, to the Emperor Marcus 
 Aurelius, on account of one Ptolemy and 
 two other Christians, whom the prefect 
 Rusticus had put to death. The writer 
 undertakes to prove the injustice of perse- 
 cuting the Christians merely for their 
 faith, predicting, at the same time, his own 
 death as the recompense of his bold plea 
 in support of Christianity. About 150, 
 Justin published his famous Dialogue -with 
 Tryphon, a learned Jew of Ephesus, or, 
 according to some, of Corinth. The saint 
 showed that, according to the Prophets, 
 the Old Law was local and temporary, and 
 was to be abrogated by the New, and that 
 Jesus was the true Messias and the true 
 God. F. June 6th. 
 
 Juvencus. — Christian poet, whose full 
 name in the older books is Gaius Vettius 
 Aquilinus Juvencus, was descended from 
 
Kaaba 
 
 402 
 
 Kenrick 
 
 an illustrious Spanish family. Of his life 
 and education we only know that he be- 
 came a priest and was a contemporary of 
 Hosius of Cordova, and that during the 
 reign of Constantine (325-337), he devoted 
 
 his poetical talent to the cause of the Chris- 
 tain faith. In order to make the Christian 
 doctrines more attractive to the intellectual 
 class of pagans, he clothed them in the 
 poetical garb of Virgil. 
 
 Kaaba. See Mohammedanism. 
 
 Kabala. See Cabala. 
 
 Kant (Immanuel) (1724-1804). — Ger- 
 man philosopher, born at Konigsberg. Was 
 educated at the Collegium Fredericianum 
 and the University of Konigsberg ; became 
 professor of logic and metaphysics in the 
 latter in 1770, and was made its rector in 1786. 
 His great work is Criticism of Pure Reason 
 (1770), in which all knowledge is based on 
 experience, with the admission that ex- 
 perience must inevitably conform itself to 
 the subjective laws of the mind. His sec- 
 ond work Criticism of Practical Reason 
 appeared in 1788. This treats of morals; 
 according to it, the ideas of God, human 
 liberty, and immortality are postulates of 
 practical reason. Finally, the third Crit- 
 icism of the PoTver of Judgment, appeared 
 in 1790. Kant destroyed the faith in the 
 heart of many of his disciples. 
 
 Karaites. — A sect among the Jews which 
 rejects the traditional law as it is fixed in 
 the Talmud, and recognizes only the Penta- 
 teuch or the five books of Moses as bind- 
 ing. The name is derived from the Hebrew 
 quara (to read) — i. e., adherents of the law 
 that was written and read in opposition to 
 the traditional law which, originally, was 
 oral. The origin of the sect is ascribed to 
 a certain Anan-ben- David, of Babylonia, 
 in the eighth century A. d., who became 
 leader of the anti-Talmudic movement from 
 resentment at not being chosen exiliarch 
 or head of the Jewish community. The 
 controversy between the Karaites and Tal- 
 mudists has been productive of an accurate 
 and rational study of the Bible on both 
 sides. The sect never made great headway. 
 Small communities of it linger in Turkey, 
 Syria, Egypt, Galicia (Austria), Lithuania, 
 and the Crimea (Russia). 
 
 Keane (John Joskph). — An American 
 prelate; born in Ballyshannon, County 
 Donegal, Ireland, Sept. 12th, 1839. The 
 
 family removed to the United States in 
 1846. He was educated for the priesthood 
 in Baltimore, at St. Mary's Seminary. After 
 his ordination in 1866 he was assigned 
 to St. Patrick's Church, Washington, Dis- 
 trict of Columbia, as assistant; in 1878 was 
 appointed bishop of Richmond, and in 1886 
 rector of the Catholic University of Amer- 
 ica, at Washington. He was made arch- 
 bishop of Ajasso, a titular see, in 1888, and 
 from that time until October, 1896, when 
 he was removed by a Papal decree, devoted 
 himself to the upholding of the university. 
 He was offered the choice of his field of 
 labor, but preferred to retire to Rome, 
 where he is one of the canons of St. John 
 Lateran. 
 
 Kempis (Thomas a). See A Kempis. 
 
 Kenrick (Francis Patrick) (1796- 
 1863). — American prelate; was born in 
 Dublin, Ireland, received a sound and pious 
 education, and completed his studies at the 
 College of the Propaganda at Rome, 
 where he spent seven years. As professor 
 of St. Thomas's Seminary, Bardstown, 
 Kentucky, he trained many excellent 
 priests, and, untiring in his labors, acted 
 as professor in the college and discharged 
 parochial duties. Bishop of Philadelphia 
 in 1830, where he broke the power of the 
 trustees, permitting only the exercise of 
 functions recognized by the Church. He 
 founded the theological seminary of St. 
 Charles Borromeo, which has given Penn- 
 sylvania so many excellent priests. In 
 
 1851, Bishop Keprick was promoted to the 
 see of Baltimore, and was soon after 
 appointed apostolic delegate to pre- 
 side at the Plenary Council, held in 
 
 1852. The last work of this studious prel- 
 ate was a revision of the Catholic Version 
 of the Bible, which had been revised by 
 Bishop Challoner, and had undergone so 
 many changes at the hands of others as to 
 be no longer creditable to the Catholic 
 body or safe as a translation. He also 
 wrote several controversial works, and in 
 
Kentigren 
 
 403 
 
 Knights 
 
 Latin Theologia Moralis, Philadelphia, 
 (1841-43, 3 vols.). 
 
 Kentigren (St.). — Apostle of Strath- 
 clyde ; born at Edinburgh ; died in 603. He 
 was a disciple of St. Severianus ; evangel- 
 ized Cumbria — the district between the 
 Wall of Severus and the river Forth — 
 and founded the see of Glasgow, where 
 he died. 
 
 Kilian (St.). — Irish bishop, martyred at 
 Wiirzburg. He was the first to preach the 
 Gospel in the north of Bavaria, the coun- 
 try now known as Franconia. With two 
 companions, Coloman a priest, and Totnan 
 a deacon, Kilian left Ireland, his native 
 country, in 686, and with the sanction of 
 Pope Conon, established a mission at 
 Wiirzburg. Duke Gozbert received him 
 kindly and was converted, and his example 
 was followed by a great number of his sub- 
 jects. But St. Kilian fell a victim to the 
 hatred of Geilana, whose marriage with 
 Gozbert, brother of her former husband, 
 he declared to be contrary to the law of 
 God. He and his companions, in the ab- 
 sence of the duke, were cruelly murdered, 
 in 689. F. July 8th. 
 
 Kings {Books of). — The four Books of 
 Kings of the Old Testament bear this name 
 because they comprise the actions of sev- 
 eral kings of the Jews and the details of 
 their reigns, from Heli and Samuel, to the 
 destruction of the kingdom of Juda. In 
 the Hebrew text, these four books were 
 formerly only two, of which the first bore 
 the name of Samuel, and the second that 
 of Kings or Reigns. The Septuagint gave 
 to all the four books the title of Books of 
 Kings, and in this they were followed by 
 the author of the Vulgate. The first Book, 
 to the twenty-fifth chapter, is attributed to 
 Samuel, and it is believed that the rest, to 
 the end of the second chapter, is the work 
 of the prophets Gad and Nathan. Written 
 during the Babylonian captivity, or shortly 
 before, according to the annals of several 
 contemporary authors, the Books of Kings 
 contain some details about the population 
 left in Palestine. 
 
 Kings and Emperors ( Chronological Ta- 
 ble of). See Emperors. 
 
 Kissing the Altar. — The priest, when 
 saying Mass, kisses the altar, out of re- 
 spect and affection toward that spot on 
 which Jesus Christ is daily offered. He 
 is directed to kiss that part of the altar 
 under which are deposited relics of some 
 
 martyr or other saint. In the earliest 
 ages of the Church, the holy sacrifice of the 
 Mass used to be offered on the tombs of 
 martyrs ; hence arose the custom of in- 
 closing a portion of their relics beneath the 
 table of the altar. 
 
 Kiss of Peace.— St. Peter (I. Peter v. 14) 
 and St. Paul (Rom. xvi. 16, etc.) instruct the 
 Faithful to "salute one another with a 
 holy kiss." In solemn high Mass, the Kiss 
 of Peace, with the words " Pax tecum," 
 is given by the officiating priest to the dea- 
 con, who answers, " Et cum spiritu tuo" \ 
 and in the same manner it is passed from 
 deacon to subdeacon, and successively to 
 the rest of the clergy, as a sign of the 
 charity that should unite the hearts of all 
 Christians in communion with each other. 
 In Masses for the dead, this Kiss of Peace 
 is omitted. 
 
 Knights. — The order of knighthood 
 owes its origin to the warfare with un- 
 believers. Its constitution combined the 
 essential elements of the military and 
 monastic life and prescribed as a fourth 
 vow, warfare against unbelievers. The 
 members of the order were divided into 
 three classes : priests, for the care of the 
 souls ; knights,for contest and defense of pil- 
 grims ; serving-brothers, for the care of the 
 sick pilgrims. The knights were governed 
 by a grand master: i. The Knights of St. 
 John the Baptist, or Hospitalers, were 
 founded in 1048, for the care of the sick. 
 They became a military order in 11 18, and 
 wore a black mantle ornamented with a 
 white cross. On the conquest of Palestine, 
 by the Saracens, they were assigned a resi- 
 dence in Rhodes (1310), and later in the 
 island of Malta (1530). From this circum- 
 stance they received the name of Knights of 
 Malta. 2. The Soldiers of the Temple, or 
 Templars, so called from their residence on 
 the site of the Temple of Solomon, were 
 founded by the French about the year 11 18. 
 Their habit was a white mantle ornamented 
 by a red cross. This order was abolished in 
 1312, at the instigation of King Philip IV. 
 of France. The charges against the Order 
 of Templars as such, were certainly un- 
 founded ; most of the Templars were 
 proven innocent. The true cause of their 
 suppression was Philip's hatred, increased 
 by the fact, that in his contest with Pope 
 Boniface VIII., they had sided with the 
 Pope against him. Another motive was, 
 his greed to seize the vast possessions of 
 the knights in France, contrary to the 
 
Know-Nothingism 
 
 404 
 
 Kyrie Eleison 
 
 promise he had made, to hand the property 
 over to the Knights of St. John. The grand 
 master, John of Molay, and 54 knights, 
 were burned alive in Paris (1314), protest- 
 ing their innocence. 3. The order of the 
 Teutonic Knights was established by the 
 Germans during the siege of Acre (1190). 
 Their habit was a black mantle orna- 
 mented with a white cross. In 1226 these 
 knights were assigned the duty of pro- 
 tecting the Christians against the heathen 
 Prussians, and by their zealous efforts they 
 contributed largely to the conversion of 
 this barbarous tribe. As to the influence 
 of knighthood, the military orders inspired 
 the nobility with sentiments of faith and 
 honor. The conferring of arms on a 
 knight was accompanied by religious cere- 
 monies. What the Olympic and Isthmian 
 games were to Greece of old, chivalry be- 
 came to the Middle Ages. In the twelfth 
 century the knights were animated by a 
 spirit of religion. But later on, with 
 wealth and luxury, corruption crept in, and 
 religious ardor was superseded by rude- 
 ness, brute force, and predatory combats. 
 
 Know-Nothingism.— Name given, in the 
 United States, to a "Native American 
 Party," founded about 1842. During the 
 fifty years following the Revolution, 
 Catholics in the United States were gen- 
 erally left unmolested in the practice of 
 their religion. About this time, however, 
 a violent agitation, amounting to persecu- 
 tion, was commenced against the Church 
 and its institutions. The "No Popery" 
 cry resounded from the pulpits and the 
 press throughout the land. Protestant 
 associations were formed in every city of 
 the Union, with the avowed object of pro- 
 tecting the liberties of the country against 
 alleged " machinations of the Jesuits and 
 plots of the Pope." Maria Monk's Dis- 
 closures, as the foul utterances of an 
 abandoned woman were called, and other 
 vile volumes, containing the most errant 
 fictions that were ever palmed off upon 
 society, were concocted by unscrupulous 
 Protestant ministers to deceive and arouse 
 the public against Catholicity and its pro- 
 fessors. In 1844, the " Native American" 
 party provoked a fearful riot in Philadel- 
 phia, which lasted three days. Several 
 Catholic churches, or houses of the Sis- 
 ters of Charity, and a number of private 
 dwellings belonging to Catholics were de- 
 stroyed, besides many Catholics were 
 killed. In 1854, Know-Nothing mobs de- 
 
 stroyed Catholic churches at Manchester 
 and Dorchester, New Hampshire ; at Bath, 
 Maine; and at Newark, New Jersey; and, 
 besides burning a number of houses, 
 killed a large number of Irish and German 
 Catholics, at Louisville. 
 
 Knox (John). See Scotland. 
 
 Koran. See Mohammedanism. 
 
 Kultur-Kampf, is the name given to a 
 contest against the Catholic Church in 
 Prussia, inaugurated by Prince Bismarck, 
 chancellor of Germany. The word itself 
 signifies ivar of culture, or struggle for 
 civilization, enlightenment. Dr. Falk, the 
 minister of worship, was a special tool in 
 Bismarck's hands to carry out the Kultur- 
 Kampf. On July 8th, 1871, the Catholic 
 department of ministry was abolished. 
 Then followed the changing of those con- 
 stitutional paragraphs which were favora- 
 ble to the Church and the enactment of 
 the so-called "May Laws" (1873), which 
 in many respects violated the rights of the 
 Church. Within the next three years fol- 
 lowing, the May Laws were rendered more 
 stringent. Heavy fines, imprisonment, 
 exile, and deposition were used to enforce 
 the observance of those laws among the 
 clergy. For a time more than 1,000 par- 
 ishes were thus orphaned. The Faithfml 
 were without service and without the eccle- 
 siastical means of grace. This state of 
 affairs lasted for about fifteen years, when 
 Bismarck, the chancellor, realized that his 
 plan could not be carried out, and thus 
 entered, in 1887, into negotiations with 
 Pope Leo XIII. The most obnoxious of 
 the May Laws, with the help of the Center 
 Party, was gradually removed, but several 
 of them are still in existence. 
 
 Kyrie Eleison, Christe Eleison, etc. 
 {Lord have mercy on us, Christ have 
 mercy on us) , words used at the commence- 
 ment of the Mass, Litany, etc. The formu- 
 lary is always said in the Greek wording, 
 but the intermediate Christe Eleison is 
 unknown to the Eastern Church. By this 
 petition we supplicate the mercies of 
 Heaven in cries like those of the blind 
 man of Jericho (Matt. xx. 30), with the 
 perseverance of the Chanaanean mother 
 (Ibid. XV. 22-27), and as humbly as the ten 
 lepers (Luke xvii. 13). K'yrie Eleison, is 
 said thrice, in honor of God the Father; 
 Christe Eleison thrice in honor of God 
 the Son; and Kyrie Eleison thrice, in 
 honor of the Holy Ghost. 
 
Labadie 
 
 405 
 
 Lactantius 
 
 Labadie (John) (1610-1674). — Heretic, 
 born at Bourg, near Bordeaux. At first 
 Jesuit and preacher, he permitted himself 
 to be led astray through foolish and mys- 
 terious ideas and embraced Calvinism ; 
 pastor of a Protestant church at Montauban 
 during eight years. Expelled for preaching 
 suspicious doctrines and leading a licentious 
 life, he fled to Geneva and finally to Middle- 
 burg. Condemned by the Synod of Dord- 
 recht as a heretic, he retired with a small 
 circle of friends or followers to Altona. The 
 doctrine of Labadie was a mixture of the 
 principles of the Anabaptists, Calvinists, 
 Pietists, and Hermites. The sect disap- 
 peared about the middle of the eighteenth 
 century. 
 
 Laban. — Biblical Patriarch, son of Ba- 
 thuel, lived at Haran, Mesopotamia, in the 
 eighteenth century b. c. He gave succes- 
 sively two daughters, Lia and Rachel, in 
 marriage to his nephew Jacob, under con- 
 dition to serve him during fourteen years. 
 
 Labarum. — A Roman military standard 
 upon which Constantine the Great caused 
 to be put a cross and the monogram of 
 Christ. By the later Roman emperors the 
 Labarum was adopted as the imperial stand- 
 ard. The biographer of Constantine the 
 Great has left an accurate description of 
 the celebrated standard called the Labarum. 
 Eusebius tells us that this imperial banner 
 was fashioned in the following manner : 
 Near the top of the shaft of a lance sheathed 
 in plates of gold was affixed a small trans- 
 verse rod forming the figure of a cross. 
 From this crossbar was suspended a small 
 square of purple stuff of the finest texture, 
 embroidered with gold thread and pre- 
 cious stones. Above this banner arose the 
 sacred monogram of Christ, composed of 
 two letters, the Greek X or chi intersecting 
 P or ro, and encircled with a wreath or 
 chaplet of gold profusely gemmed with 
 precious stones. Just below the monogram 
 of Christ it became the custom, a little 
 later, to insert the effigy of the reigning 
 emperor, and of his son and consort. Fifty 
 men, the most conspicuous among the im- 
 perial guards for their valor and their piety, 
 were selected and embodied into a partic- 
 ular band, to whom was confided the dis- 
 tinguished ofiice of carrying and defending 
 the Labarum, which was borne by them 
 
 singly in turns before the emperor when- 
 ever they went to battle. Banners partially 
 resembling the imperial model, but of 
 somewhat smaller dimensions, and wrought 
 of less costly materials, were distributed 
 through the whole army to be the future 
 ensigns of the Roman cohorts. Figures of 
 those standards frequently occurred upon 
 the coins of the empire in the time of 
 Constantine and his immediate successors. 
 
 Labre (Benedict Joseph, St.) (sur- 
 named the "Beggar"; 1748-1783). — He 
 was born at Amettes, France; died in 
 Rome. He was a brilliant light, by his 
 evangelical poverty, which he practised in 
 the highest degree, living wretchedly 
 from alms. As a pilgrim he visited the 
 most celebrated sanctuaries, and was beat- 
 ified by Pope Pius IX. in i860, and canon- 
 ized by Leo XIII. in 1898. F. April i6th. 
 
 Lachis. — One of the capitals of the 
 Chanaanites, conquered by Josue, situated 
 on an elevation between Gaza and Eleu- 
 theropolis. It seems to have J)een an im- 
 portant frontier fortress in the direction 
 of Egypt. It was conquered by Sennach- 
 erib during his invasion of Juda in 701 
 B. c. It was again taken, after a long re- 
 sistance, by Nabuchodonosor. After the 
 return from the captivity it was restored. 
 It is now represented by the stone heaps of 
 Tel-el-Hesy. 
 
 Lacordaire (Jean Baptiste Henri) 
 (1802-1862). — Famous French pulpit ora- 
 tor, educated in the Lyceum of Dijon; 
 abandoned the bar for the Church ; was or- 
 dained priest, 1827; became joint editor 
 with Lamennais of "L'Avenir," but, on its 
 condemnation by the Pope, in 1832, sub- 
 mitted to the Church ; was preacher at 
 Notre Dame in Paris and attained a great 
 reputation. In 1840, he joined the Do- 
 minican order and in i860, he was elected 
 to the French Academy. A complete edi- 
 tion of Lacordaire's works was published 
 in six volumes, in 1858. 
 
 Lactantius. — Christian writer. He was 
 born, probably in Italy, of heathen parents, 
 about the middle of the third century. He 
 attained to great eminence as a teacher of 
 rhetoric. Having in the meantime em- 
 braced Christianity, Constantine called 
 
Lacticinia 
 
 400 
 
 Lamentations 
 
 him to become the preceptor of his eldest 
 son Crispus. Lactantius has been held in 
 high esteem as well for the subject-matter 
 of his writings, as especially for the ele- 
 gance and purity of his style, which pro- 
 cured for him the title of the "Christian 
 Cicero." He died about the year 330. 
 His chief works were his Institutiones 
 Divince in seven books, written in defense 
 of Christianity, and De Mortibus Persecu- 
 toruvi. The latter work is a history of the 
 persecutors of the Church from the time 
 of Nero down to his own day, in which the 
 author dwells with special emphasis on the 
 exemplary punishments with which all the 
 emperors, who persecuted the Christians, 
 were visited by an avenging Providence. 
 
 Lacticinia. — Dishes prepared from milk 
 and eggs, which, in early times were for- 
 bidden; later, in the Latin Church, to 
 some extent permitted as food on fast days. 
 Recent papal dispensations have made its 
 use in the Church lawful, in some coun- 
 tries, on fast days. 
 
 Lstare Sunday. — The fourth Sunday 
 in Lent ; so called from the first word in 
 the antiphon of the Introit : "Rejoice, O 
 Jerusalem, and gather together all ye who 
 love her," etc. 
 
 Lainez (James) (1512-1565). — Second 
 general of the " Society of Jesus" ; born at 
 Almancaris, Castile; died in Rome. As- 
 sisted St. Ignatius in drawing up the stat- 
 utes of the famous association and suc- 
 ceeded him as general in 1558. He assisted 
 at the Council of Trent, and defended there 
 the authority and prerogatives of the Ro- 
 man Pontiff. 
 
 Laity. See Clergy. 
 
 Lamaism. — A corrupted form of Budd- 
 hism prevailing in Tibet and Mongolia, 
 which combines the ethical and metaphys- 
 ical ideas of Buddhism with an organized 
 hierarchy under two semi-political sov- 
 ereign pontiffs, an elaborate ritual, and 
 the worship of a host of deities and saints. 
 
 Lamech. — i. Descendant of Cain. He 
 took unto him two wives, Ada, who bore to 
 him Jabel and Jubal ; and Sella, by whom 
 he had Tubalcain and Noema. 2. Son of 
 Mathusala and father of Noe. He lived 
 from 4090 to 3313 B. c. 
 
 Lamennais (Hughes-F^licite Robert 
 de) (1782-1854). — French philosopher and 
 political writer, born at St. Malo; died 
 
 at Paris. Was ordained priest in 1816, 
 and, in order to defend the Catholic 
 religion against the oppressions of the 
 government and the attacks of modern un- 
 belief, the Abbd Lamennias, Gerbet, La- 
 cordaire, and Count Montalembert came 
 forward and founded the periodical called 
 " L'Avenir " ( The Future) and the motto 
 " God and Freedom," in 1830. An ardent 
 advocate of the complete independence of 
 the Church, and a determined enemy of 
 all State interference in spiritual affairs, 
 he pushed his principles to their last con- 
 sequences, maintaining that the clergy 
 should decline to accept any salary from 
 the government, and that the Church, 
 once more reduced to her condition of 
 poverty in the primitive ages, would no 
 longer place her trust in anything save 
 in the power of Him, who alone is her 
 true Head. To these questions of disci- 
 pline he soon joined others of a strictly 
 devotional character, concerning which he 
 held wholly erroneous views, as, for ex- 
 ample, that the subjective ground and 
 reality of certitude are not in the individ- 
 ual reason and general acceptance {scnsus 
 communis) of mankind. The views of de 
 Lamennais on the complete severance of 
 Church and State and on the sensiis com- 
 munis were condemned by Gregory XVI. 
 in an encyclical letter of August 15th, 
 1832. All the bishops of France prohib- 
 ited the reading of " L'Avenir " in their 
 dioceses, and the publication of the jour- 
 nal was in consequence suspended. M. 
 de Lamennais retracted, but the Pope sus- 
 pected his sincerity, and his fears were 
 justified when, some time later, Les Pa- 
 roles d^un Croyant and Le Livre du Peu- 
 ple, both written with fervid eloquence 
 and extraordinary brilliancy, made their 
 appearance. With a strange confusion of 
 the most elementary ideas, the author ad- 
 vocated the murder of kings, the assump- 
 tion of the clergy of the leadership in 
 popular insurrections, and the adoption of 
 the Cross as the universal standard of na- 
 tions in revolt, and appealed to the Gospel 
 as a sanction for his wild vagaries. Being 
 no longer able to simulate the character of 
 a priest, the Abb^ de Lamennais at length 
 threw off all disguise, and was regarded 
 by all as a democrat and Jacobin of the 
 most extreme school. Abb^ de Lamen- 
 nais never became again reconciled with 
 the Church. 
 
 Lamentations. See Jeremias. 
 
Lance 
 
 407 
 
 Language 
 
 Lance {The Sacred). — The lance with 
 ■which they opened the side of our Saviour 
 while hanging on the Cross. Its point is 
 broken off. Andrew of Crete assures us 
 that it was buried with the Cross. The 
 fear of the Christians before the Saracens, 
 caused them to bring it to Antioch, where 
 it was secretly buried. In 109S, they re- 
 covered the same, and several miracles 
 took place on this occasion. It was re- 
 turned to Jerusalem and from there, 
 shortly afterwards was taken to Constanti- 
 nople. The Emperor Bauduin II. sent its 
 point to the republic of Venice, in pay- 
 ment of a sum of money the Venetians had 
 loaned him. St. Louis, king of France, 
 obtained the relic by paying to the Vene- 
 tians the debt of Bauduin and he deposited 
 it in the Sainte Chapelle of Paris. The rest 
 of the lance remained at Constantinople, 
 and, in 1492, the Sultan Bajazet sent it to 
 Pope Innocent VIII., in a very costly cas- 
 ket, telling him that the point of the lance 
 was in possession of the king of France. 
 
 Lando. — Pope. Roman by origin, 
 elected on Dec. 4th, 914, died April 24th, 
 915- 
 
 Lanfranc (1005-10S9). — Archbishop of 
 Canterbury, born at Pavia. Entered the 
 Order of St. Dominic at the Abbey of 
 Bee. After three j^ears of retirement 
 there, the knowledge of his place of re- 
 treat spread abroad, and he was soon sur- 
 rounded by a multitude of scholars, among 
 whom were Anselm, his successor (1093), 
 the famous theologian, and another 
 Anselm, who became Pope Alexander II. 
 (1061). He was made abbot of Caen, in 
 Normandy, in 1062. On the deposition of 
 Stigand, Lanfranc was, by command of 
 both the Pope and the king (William I.), 
 compelled to accept the now vacant see of 
 Canterbury (1070). Soon after he went to 
 Rome for the pallium. Pope Alexander 
 II., his former pupil, received the re- 
 nowned master with the greatest honors. 
 Returning, Lanfranc worked energetically 
 to remedy the evils which then afflicted 
 the Church of England, and King William 
 ably seconded the noble exertions of the 
 primate. He had obtained the full confi- 
 dence of William, who left to him the ad- 
 ministration of the kingdom during his 
 voyage into Normandy ; at the moment of 
 his death, he charged him to crown his 
 son William II. called the Red, or Rufus. 
 The name of Lanfranc is found in several 
 martyrologies with the title of Saint or 
 
 Blessed. He had upheld the Eucharistic 
 dogma against the heresy of Berengarius. 
 
 Langton (Stephen). — Cardinal, states- 
 man, and poet, born at Slindon, Sussex, 
 died in 1228. Cardinal in 1206, Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury in 1207. Was elected 
 archbishop of Canterbury (as a compro- 
 mise between the superior Reginald, 
 chosen by the monks, and John de Grey, 
 supported by the king), and consecrated 
 by the Pope, June 17th, 1207, but pre- 
 vented by the king (in a long struggle 
 with the Pope) from admission to his see 
 until 1213. On April 17th, 1222, he opened 
 a Church council at Osney, the decrees of 
 which (the Constitutions of Stephen Lavtr- 
 ton) are the earliest provincial canons itill 
 recognized as binding in the English eccle- 
 siastical courts. He was a voluminous 
 writer, and from among his works we 
 quote a Hexcemeron and a commentary on 
 parts of the Old Testament. 
 
 Language (employment which man 
 makes of sounds and articulations of the 
 voice, to express his thoughts and senti- 
 ments). — God having created man, in the 
 state of perfect man, in a natural order, 
 created him with all the faculties essen- 
 tially connected with this order. We may 
 ask : Was artificial language, particularly 
 formed by the word, revealed by God, or 
 was it invented by man? Some claim that 
 language was revealed. " Man," they say, 
 " thinks of his word before formulating his 
 thought." The thought and the word are 
 two simultaneous facts which react one 
 upon another. Others maintain that lan- 
 guage is the work of man : the first mani- 
 festation of reason, in man, was naturally 
 the language by imitation, by onomatopoeia, 
 and by analogy, he first imitated nature in 
 making use of his organs. Later on, turn- 
 ing his thoughts inwardly, man distin- 
 guished himself from his surroundings and 
 gave to the faculties and operations of the 
 mind denominations analogous to those 
 which he had already given to exterior ob- 
 jects which first struck the sense of hear- 
 ing and sight. Founding ourselves upon 
 the authority of Holy Scripture, we see 
 that God spoke to man in the Garden of 
 Eden. God, says Ecclesiastes, has given 
 to man intelligence and language. St. 
 Augustine says that God did reveal to man 
 not only the faculty of language, but also 
 its use. The ancient philosophers did not 
 even question this. They had the idea 
 that language was the most beautiful of 
 
Laodicea 
 
 408 
 
 Lateran 
 
 God's presents. This was the opinion of 
 Plato, Euripides, and of Cicero. The 
 Greek philosophers made use of the same 
 word logos to express both reason and 
 language; for the brute, thev reserved the 
 word alogos, that is, a being without lan- 
 guage and without reason. Man has, there- 
 fore, been created speaking as he has been 
 created thinking. We can say this espe- 
 cially of man elevated to a supernatural or- 
 der. We could also appeal, in favor of this 
 opinion, to the argument that languages 
 are more perfect the farther back we go to 
 their origin. Could man, assisted by his 
 sole natural forces, invent language.? 
 Again, here some are affirmative, others 
 negative. Some admit the possibility of 
 this invention. In order to reconcile the 
 two opinions, might we not attribute a 
 part of man's language to the divine action 
 and a part to man's labor.? These two 
 causes, indeed, must have contributed to 
 the formation of language. Undoubtedly, 
 man has been created with his intellectual 
 faculties and also to communicate his 
 thoughts to his equals, and, consequently, 
 God provided him with the means of at- 
 taining this end ; but a language has value 
 only by the use which we make thereof 
 with conscience and full liberty. The part 
 of man's reason in the formation of lan- 
 guage is not only to perfect it, but consists 
 especially in appropriating it, to make it 
 his own. It is asserted that the thought 
 does not exist without the word ; it would 
 be truer to say that, without the thought, 
 the word would be an idle sound. Primi- 
 tively, thanks to the divine gift, man thinks 
 and speaks: " He thinks his word and ex- 
 presses his thought." By his thought he 
 appropriates the word, the logos of the 
 Greeks, the verbuni of the Latins. He 
 only needs to make use of this wonderful 
 instrument, to perfect it either in modify- 
 ing it, according to the circumstances of 
 time, place, or climate. It is thus that we 
 can reconcile the opposed theories. 
 
 Laodicea. — An ancient city in Phrygia, 
 Asia Minor, in the valley of Lycus, an 
 auxiliary river of the Maeander, 50 miles 
 north of Aradus. It was one of the most 
 northern of the Phoenician cities and its 
 original name was Ramantha. In the 
 Apocalypse, it is one of the Churches to 
 which an epistle is addressed. A Church 
 Council was held in Laodicea (393), which 
 condemned the celebration of the Agapae, 
 or Love-feasts. 
 
 Lapsi. — In the early Church, those who, 
 having professed Christianity, denied the 
 faith in times of persecution or fell into 
 some other kind of sin, such as offering 
 sacrifice or incense to idols, etc. On pro- 
 fession of contrition they were allowed to 
 hope for restoration to the Church, but, 
 before being again admitted to communion, 
 had to pass a long probation, and submit 
 to special penances, sometimes lasting till 
 the approach of death. 
 
 La Salle (Jean Baptiste ). See 
 Brothers of the Christian Schools. 
 
 Las Casas ( Bartholomew ) ( 1474- 
 1566). — Famous prelate, born at Seville. 
 A member of the Dominican order, who 
 proved himself the warmest friend of the 
 oppressed Indian and the champion of his 
 liberty. Las Casas accompanied Colum- 
 bus on his third voyage in 1498 ; he is said 
 to have been the first priest ordained in the 
 New World. " The whole of his future 
 life," says Irving, " a space exceeding sixty 
 years, was devoted to vindicating the cause 
 and endeavoring to meliorate the suffer- 
 ings of the natives. As a missionary he 
 traversed the wilderness of the New World 
 in various directions, seeking to convert 
 and civilize them ; as a protector and 
 champion he made several voyages to 
 Spain, vindicated their wrongs before 
 courts and monarchs, wrote volumes in 
 their behalf, and exhibited a zeal and con- 
 stancy, and integrity worthy of an apostle." 
 Las Casas was made bishop of Chiapa in 
 Mexico. Seeing all his efforts in behalf of 
 the distressed Indians thwarted by the 
 avarice and malice of men, he retired to 
 his monastery at Madrid, where he died at 
 the great age of ninety-two. 
 
 Lateran (7'//^).^A palace in the eastern 
 part of Rome. The present edifice dates 
 from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centur- 
 ies. The palace was originally named Later- 
 anus, from the Roman family Lateranus to 
 which, until the time of Nero, it belonged. 
 Nero put the last owner, Plautius Latera- 
 nus, to death, and appropriated the palace. 
 It was given by Constantine (who also 
 built a church in its precincts) to the 
 Bishop of Rome, Pope Melchiades, and 
 was inhabited by his successors until 1308, 
 — the period when the Popes removed to 
 Avignon. Eleven Church councils were 
 held in the Lateran Palace (649, 864, 1105, 
 1112, 1116, 1123, 1139, 1167, 1179, 1215, and 
 1515). Those of 1123, 1139, 1179, and 1215, 
 
Latimer 
 
 409 
 
 Latin Language 
 
 were the ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth 
 Ecumenical Councils. 
 
 Latimer (Hughes) (1472-1555). — Rene- 
 gate prelate ; one of the first Protestants of 
 the Anglican Church, born atThurcaston, 
 Leicester county, England. At first a 
 very zealous Catholic priest, he combated 
 by his writings Lutheranism ; then en- 
 snared by the preaching of his friend 
 Thomas Ridley and by the reading of the 
 works of Luther, he became a fanatical 
 Protestant. He nevertheless kept posses- 
 sion of the bishopric of Worcester, which 
 had been bestowed upon him on account of 
 his zeal in defending the Apostolic and 
 Roman Faith. Having refused to accept 
 the bill of the " Six Articles," and accused 
 of having used offensive language against 
 Henry VHT., he was confined in the 
 Tower (1541). The ascension of Edward 
 VL to the throne delivered him from 
 prison (1547), but under Mary Tudor he 
 wasagain arrested, judged and condemned, 
 together with his friend Ridley, to be 
 burned alive (April, 1554). He was exe- 
 cuted at Oxford, Oct. i6th, 1555. His Ser- 
 mons, which the Anglicans esteem very 
 highly, were published in 1570 and often 
 reprinted, especially at London (1815, 2 
 vols. in-8). 
 
 Latin Language {Use of the). — Though 
 the Church has never pretended that it 
 was necessary to celebrate the Liturgy in 
 a language not understood by the people, 
 she has never considered it as imperatively 
 requisite that her service should be per- 
 formed in a vulgar tongue, or that the 
 language which she speaks in her public 
 service should follow the changes and 
 variations incidental to the vernacular 
 idioms of those several nations which com- 
 pose her household. In this respect the 
 spouse of Christ has imitated the example 
 furnished to her by the Synagogue. From 
 the commencement of the Jewish dispensa- 
 tion, up to the conquest of Jerusalem by 
 Nabuchodonosor, genuine Hebrew was the 
 only tongue familiar to the Israelites. 
 Holy Scripture was recited and the service 
 of the Temple was performed in the lan- 
 guage common to the people. Even after 
 their seventy years of captivity, when the 
 Jews had forgotten their ancient Hebrew, 
 and adopted the Syriac, or Chaldaic, as 
 their ordinary language, on their return to 
 Jerusalem, no change was made in the 
 language of the sanctuary, a practice scru- 
 pulously observed to the present day 
 
 among the Jews. Had there been any 
 blame attached to the custom of praying 
 in a strange or unknown tongue, Christ 
 would have undoubtedly enumerated it 
 among the other accusations which He so 
 unhesitatingly advanced against the Scribes 
 and Pharisees. He, Himself, prayed in a 
 language which they did not understand : 
 "JS//, Eli, Lama sabacthani," He ejacu- 
 lated, as he yielded up the spirit; and the 
 people mistaking the pure Hebrew word 
 Eli, for the name of one of the Prophets, 
 said: "This man calleth Elias" (Matt, 
 xxvii. 46-47). 
 
 The Catholic Church has been induced 
 by several powerful reasons to celebrate 
 the holy sacrifice of the Mass in the Latin 
 language throughout almost all the nations 
 of Europe. From the time of the Apostles, 
 Latin has been invariably employed at the 
 altar throughout the western parts of 
 Christendom, though their inhabitants 
 very frequently did not understand that 
 language. Hence the Catholic Church, 
 through an aversion to innovations, care- 
 fully continues to celebrate her Liturgy in 
 that same tongue which apostolic men and 
 saints have used for a similar purpose dur- 
 ing more than eighteen centuries. A uni- 
 formity in public worship is thus more 
 securely preserved, since a Christian, in 
 whatever country he may chance to be, 
 will encounter no inconvenience with re- 
 gard to his attendance at Church; for he 
 still beholds the service performed in every 
 place according to the selfsame rite, and 
 in precisely the same language, to which 
 he has been accustomed from his early 
 childhood. The Church could not cele- 
 brate her Liturgy in each of the several 
 languages common to those respective na- 
 tions that dwell within her widely extended 
 pale. The Englishman, for instance, 
 would find himself a stranger at the cele- 
 bration of the Church's offices in more 
 than one spot even within the United 
 States. Finally, the Church adheres to 
 the Latin language in her divine services, 
 in order to avoid those changes to which 
 all living languages are perpetually ex- 
 posed ; for she perceives the danger of 
 altering the expressions of her Liturgy at 
 every change and variation in language. 
 
 But while using the Latin language 
 does not this prevent the people from fol- 
 lowing the service intelligently, and indeed 
 from knowing what is going on? Not at 
 all. For those who are able to read can 
 easily find the same meaning of the words 
 
Latitudinarians 
 
 410 
 
 Law 
 
 the priest is saying, by means of the trans- 
 lations put in the common prayer books; 
 and those who cannot read may have the 
 translations read to them. 
 
 From the days of the Apostles, the Lit- 
 urgy of the Mass has been celebrated in 
 Greek and in Latin, in Syriac and in Cop- 
 tic. Since the fourth century it has also 
 been solemnized in Ethiopic and Armenian. 
 The language of these Liturgies was never 
 changed, although the people for whom 
 they were originally drawn up, and among 
 whom they still continue to be celebrated, 
 have entirely transformed their ancient 
 language, and are perfectly incapable of 
 understanding it at the present time in its 
 original form. Hence, it follows, as a 
 consequence, that the Latin Church acts, 
 only, in the spirit of all the ancient 
 Churches from the days of the Apostles, 
 since, like them, she refuses to exchange 
 her ancient for a modern language. 
 
 Latitudinarians. — In Church history, a 
 name applied by contemporaries to a 
 school of theologians within the English 
 Church in the latter half of the seventeenth 
 century, analogous to what is known to- 
 day as the Broad Church party. They 
 strove to unite the dissenters with the 
 Church by insisting only on those doc- 
 trines which were held by both and requir- 
 ing merely submission to, not acceptance 
 of, the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church. 
 
 Latria. See Worship. 
 
 Latrocinium. See Ephesus. 
 
 Lauds. See Breviary. 
 
 Laura. — An alley, lane, later a cloister, 
 hermitage, monastery. In early monach- 
 ism, an aggregation of separate cells under 
 the control of a superior, the inmates 
 meeting on Saturday and Sunday of each 
 week for a common meal in the refectory, 
 and for common worship in the chapel, on 
 other days dwelling apart from one another, 
 every one in his cell engaged in some light 
 manual occupation. 
 
 Lavabo is that part of the Mass where 
 the celebrant washes his fingers on the 
 Epistle side, while reciting several verses 
 of the Psalm, I.avabo inter innocentes 
 manus meas. In the Ambrosian rite, the 
 priest washed his hands in silence, but 
 the Psalm now recited accompanied the 
 washing in the liturgies of St. Chrysos- 
 tom and St. Basil. 
 
 Lavigerie (Charles Martial Alle- 
 mand). — A French prelate; born Oct. 
 31st, 1825, at Bayonne. He studied theol- 
 ogy at the Seminary of St. Sulpice, and 
 was ordained priest in 1849; made bishop 
 of Nancy, in 1863 ; in 1867, archbishop of 
 Algiers, where he came into conflict with 
 the government by trying to establish 
 charitable institutions among the Arabs. 
 The contest went so far, that the Emperor 
 Napoleon III., wrote him a personal letter, 
 advising him to leave temporal matters to 
 the government and confine his attention 
 to the spiritual wants of his flock. The 
 archbishop, however, continued his work. 
 In 1882 he was made cardinal, and two 
 years later became archbishop of Tunis 
 and primate of Africa. Lavigerie won 
 particular attention by his vigorous oppo- 
 sition to the African slave trade. He died 
 in Algiers, Nov. 26th, 1892. 
 
 Law. — Laws are the exterior and re- 
 mote rule of human actions. A law is a 
 just precept ; an unjust law is no lawat all, it 
 is but an abuse of power, an act of tyranny. 
 Human laws which are not in agreement 
 with natural law are not true laws. In 
 case of doubt whether the law is just or 
 not, whether the thing ordained is legiti- 
 mate or not, the law is to be observed, as 
 in all such cases the presumption is in 
 favor of the power which commands. We 
 must not regard as unjust the laws which 
 seem to permit certain customs little com- 
 formable, or even contrary to rules of 
 Christian morals. To tolerate an abuse 
 is not to uphold it or approve it. The 
 civil laws cannot forbid everything which 
 the natural law forbids. It is necessary 
 that a law should be stable and permanent ; 
 that is, a law should continue as long as 
 the state of things, which has given occa- 
 sion for the existence of the law, continues. 
 All laws should emanate from the superior 
 powers or persons that have the right to 
 govern and command. This power and 
 right, as well in the temporal order as 
 in the spiritual, comes from God, to Whom 
 belongs all absolute power and dominion. 
 To those in such authority God has com- 
 municated His authority, more or less, ac- 
 cording to the rank which they occupy. 
 In order that a law should have binding 
 force, it must be promulgated publicly. It 
 is a matter of dispute among canonists 
 and other authorities whether the essence 
 or complete matter of the law should be 
 published. As long as a law is not pub- 
 
Law 
 
 411 
 
 Law 
 
 lished it has no more force than a matter 
 merely vinder consideration. 
 
 We distinguish between divine and hu- 
 man laws. Divine laws are either natural 
 or positive according as they emanate nec- 
 essarily or freely from the Creator. 
 Among the positive laws are those called 
 Mosaic, after the great lawgiver, Moses, 
 who received them from God ; the others 
 are called Christian or Evangelical laws, 
 being given and promulgated by Jesus 
 Christ. Human laws are either ecclesias- 
 tical or civil ; the first relate to the spirit- 
 ual, the latter to the temporal order. 
 *' The natural law is," as St. Thomas says, 
 " only an impression in us of the divine 
 light, a partaking of the eternal in a rea- 
 sonable being." The natural law is en- 
 graved in the hearts of all men, the 
 characters of which we must read ; and to 
 do this rightly is not always an easy mat- 
 ter on account of human passion, preju- 
 dice, and the force of inveterate habits, 
 which tend to blur the divine characters. 
 It is possible, therefore, for man to be ig- 
 norant of some points of the natural law. 
 
 The first and fundamental truths are 
 within the comprehension of all men, they 
 are met with everywhere. 
 
 As to the remote consequences, these 
 we can certainly be ignorant of, and this 
 ignorance, when invincible, excuses us 
 from sin. The natural law being founded 
 upon the inborn constitution of man can- 
 not vary more than can human nature. 
 We can, therefore, in no case obtain a dis- 
 pensation from this natural law. We 
 must distinguish in the Mosaic law, the 
 moral part from the ceremonial part, 
 which regulated all that concerned the di- 
 vine worship, and the civil and judicial 
 part which related to the policy of the 
 Jews. The moral part was the natural, 
 positive law, the substance of which is 
 contained in the Decalogue. The law of 
 Moses, apart from the Decalogue, was 
 only expedient for the time being and was 
 abrogated by the Evangelical law, while 
 the natural law is always in force, not be- 
 cause of its solemn promulgation by 
 Moses, but because it is eternal, and was 
 confirmed by Christ in the New Law, or 
 dispensation. In the Christian law as in 
 the Mosaic law we must, likewise, distin- 
 guish between the laws of positive precept 
 and those of counsel, between the laws 
 concerning dogma, morals, and worship. 
 We have in the New Law the Evangelical 
 counsels of poverty and celibacy addressed 
 
 to those whom God calls to a higher state 
 of perfection. The Mosaic dispensation 
 was intended for the Jewish people only 
 and only for a determinate period. On 
 the other hand, the Christian dispensation 
 or law is for all time and for all peoples. 
 It should make, as it were, of all nations 
 one people, one family. This is why our 
 Saviour established neither civil nor polit- 
 ical laws. Men can be good Christians 
 and at the same time good citizens, no 
 matter what the form of government may 
 be under which they live. The Christian 
 law has become obligatory only by reason 
 of its having been promulgated by the 
 Apostles and their successors. As long 
 as a law has not been promulgated, it has 
 no binding force. Nobody is obliged to 
 believe what he does not know; nobody 
 can know the Gospel or its laws if it has 
 not been announced to him. Those who 
 have never heard of the law of Christ are 
 precisely in the same condition as the 
 Gentiles were before the coming of Christ. 
 Their rule of conduct and of morals is 
 based on the principles of the natural law, 
 and on some traditions, more or less ob- 
 scure, which have been preserved among 
 them from the primitive revelation. 
 
 As the principles of the natural law can- 
 not be dispensed with, neither can the 
 positive law of Christ, which depends for 
 its force on the will of God. The Church, 
 under the guidance of the Holy Ghost, has 
 the mission of interpreting the Command- 
 ments of her divine Founder, but, notwith- 
 standing the scope and extent of her 
 prerogatives, she cannot derogate from 
 them in any point. 
 
 Among the ecclesiastical laws, we dis- 
 tinguish between the written laws and the 
 laws introduced by custom, or the unwrit- 
 ten laws ; between general laws, common 
 to the whole Church, and particular laws, 
 for a province or diocese. It is of 
 faith that the Church can establish laws, 
 which may not be violated without sin. 
 The Pope, being Bishop of the universal 
 Church may promulgate laws obligatory 
 on all Christians. Bishops may make laws 
 for their respective dioceses. Yet the 
 power of all bishops is in this matter sub- 
 ordinate to the Holy See from which they 
 receive their jurisdiction. Ecumenical 
 councils, convened and approved by the 
 Pope, acting in the name of the entire 
 Church, can make laws which bind in 
 conscience all Catholics without distinc- 
 tion of class. When the councils are par- 
 
Lawrence 
 
 412 
 
 Lazarists 
 
 ticular, national, or provincial, their enact- 
 ments or laws bind only those under their 
 jurisdiction. Again these decrees must 
 be invested with the approbation of the 
 Holy See, or approved by the Sacred Con- 
 gregation of Cardinals, interpreters of the 
 Council of Trent. For irrespective of 
 what concerns metropolitans, bishops, 
 either of themselves or individually or 
 gathered in assembly, have no jurisdiction 
 over foreign dioceses. 
 
 Lawrence or Laurentius Justinianus 
 
 (St.) (1380-1465). — First patriarch of 
 Venice, born in that city. General of the 
 Canons-Regular of the Congregation of 
 St. George, Bishop of Venice (1433), patri- 
 arch (.1451). Built at Venice ten churches 
 and several monasteries. F, Sept. 5th. 
 
 Lawrence (St.). — Deacon and martyr, 
 born near Huesca, Spain. He was the 
 chief among the seven deacons of the 
 Roman Church. In the year 258 Pope 
 Sixtus was led out to die, and St. Law- 
 rence stood by, weeping that he could not 
 share his fate. The holy Pope comforted 
 him with the words : " Do not weep, my 
 son; in three days you will follow me." 
 This prophecy came true. The prefect of 
 the city knew the rich offerings which the 
 Christians put into the hands of the clergy, 
 and he demanded the treasures of the Ro- 
 man Church from Lawrence their guardian. 
 The saint promised, at the end of three 
 days, to show him riches exceeding all the 
 wealth of the empire, and set about col- 
 lecting the poor, the infirm, and the reli- 
 gious who lived by the alms of the Faithful. 
 He then bade the prefect " see the treas- 
 ures of the Church." Christ, whom 
 Lawrence had served in his poor, gave 
 him strength in the conflict which ensued. 
 Roasted over a slow fire, he made sport of 
 his pains. '* I am done enough," he said, 
 " eat, if you will." His remains were 
 buried in the Catacombs of Campo Verano. 
 Constantine built over his tomb a basilica, 
 which is one of the five patriarchal churches 
 and one of the seven principal stations, 
 (St. Lawrence Extra muros.) F. Aug. 
 1 0th. 
 
 Lawrence (St.) O'Toole (1125-1180). — 
 The scion of a princely family, Lawrence 
 in his youth had been held in captivity as 
 a hostage, by Dermot M'Murrough, king 
 of Leinster. At the age of twenty-five he 
 was chosen abbot of Glendaloch, and on 
 the death of Archbishop Gregory, in 1162, 
 
 was promoted to the metropolitan see of 
 Dublin. He was consecrated by Gelasius, 
 successor of St. Malachy in the primatial 
 see of Armagh. His first care was to re- 
 form the manners of the clergy and to 
 furnish his Church with worthy ministers. 
 He was so rigid in enforcing ecclesias- 
 tical discipline, that, though he had the 
 necessary faculties himself, he frequently 
 obliged grievous sinners to journey to 
 Rome for absolution. In 1179, the saint, 
 with some other Irish prelates, attended 
 the Third General Council of Lateran. 
 On his return to Ireland, he at once com- 
 menced to discharge his legatine power, 
 by making wholesome regulations and 
 introducing much needed reforms. After 
 a glorious and most useful episcopate of 
 eighteen years, St. Lawrence O'Toole, who 
 was styled, as St. Bernard tells us, " the 
 Father of his country," died in the year 
 1 180. He was canonized in 1225, by 
 Honorius III. F. Nov. 14th. 
 
 Lazarists or Priests of the Mission. — 
 The Lazarists owe their foundation to St. 
 Vincent de Paul. He was born of humble 
 but pious parents, in the village of Pouy, 
 at the foot of the Pyrenees, in 1576. In his 
 youth he tended his father's flocks, but his 
 parents, judging correctly, that one of 
 such excellent parts, both of intellect and 
 heart, was fitted by nature for some higher 
 calling, sent him, in 1588, to a Franciscan 
 convent to be educated. Here he felt him- 
 self called to the priesthood ; went to per- 
 fect his studies at the University of Tou- 
 louse, where he was ordained prieet in 
 1600. In the course of a voyage from 
 Marseilles to Narbonne, in 1605, he and 
 his companions fell into the hands of some 
 Barbary corsairs, who sold him into slavery 
 at Tunis. Here he passed successively under 
 the proprietorship of three masters, the 
 third of whom, a Savoyard renegade, he 
 brought back to the Church, and having re- 
 turned to France, went thence to Rome, and 
 prevailed upon his former master to join the 
 " Brothers of Charity " in that city. He en- 
 tered the Oratory, lately established by 
 the Abbe de Berulle, on whose recom- 
 mendation he became successively cur^ of 
 Clichy, near Paris, and tutor of the family 
 of Count de Condi. While in this position, 
 Vincent conceived the design of starting 
 what are known as the ' Missions of 
 France." Out of these grew forth the 
 foundation of the "Daughters of Charity'' 
 or " Grey Sisters," to whom he gave a rule 
 
Lazarus 
 
 413 
 
 Ledochowski 
 
 of life, and charged them with the care of 
 Hospitals (1618). But the project which he 
 had long had in his mind, of forming a soci- 
 ety of " Priests of the Mission," who, with 
 the consent of the bishop of the diocese 
 and of the pastor of the parish, would 
 preach the Gospel to the peasants of the 
 country, was, in the year 1624, carried into 
 effect. In 1632, Pope Urban VIII. ap- 
 proved the object of the congregation, and 
 instructed Vincent to draw up a rule for 
 its guidance. The society of " Priests of 
 the Mission," which had been established 
 at the so-called Priory of St. Lazarus in 
 Paris (whence the name Lazarists), was 
 soon widely extended. Besides their mis- 
 sion labors, they took complete charge, in 
 many instances, of ecclesiastical semina- 
 ries. St. Vincent himself continued to 
 give missions, was constantly engaged in 
 founding hospitals, religious associations, 
 and held conferences in the houses of the 
 missions. He died Sept. 27th, 1660, and 
 was canonized by Clement XII. in 1737. 
 F. July 19th. 
 
 The "Priests of the Mission" came to 
 the United States in 1815, and have now 
 several houses in this country and Canada. 
 
 Lazarus. — Brother of Martha and Mary, 
 dwelt with his sisters at Bethania, near 
 Jerusalem ; and our Saviour sometimes 
 lodged with them, when He visited that 
 city. While He was beyond the Jordan 
 with His Apostles, Lazarus fell sick and 
 died. Jesus came to Bethania immediately, 
 and raised him to life again. It is claimed 
 that afterwards he became bishop of Mar- 
 seilles and suffered martyrdom after an 
 apostolate of thirty years. His relics are 
 venerated at Autun, France, in the Church 
 of St. Lazare. F. July 29th. 
 
 League {Holy). — When, in 1535, the 
 Protestant States of Germany renewed 
 their alliance against the Catholics for a 
 period of ten years, known as the " League 
 of Smalkald," this caused the Catholic 
 princes, in 1538, to unite in a confedera- 
 tion, known as the " Holy League," for the 
 maintenance of the Catholic religion. 
 
 Leander (St.) (540-600 or 601). — Arch- 
 bishop of Seville, born at Carthagena. 
 Brother of St. Fulgentius, of St. Isidore, 
 and of St. Florentina. Monk at Seville, 
 archbishop of this city in 597, friend of Pope 
 Gregory the Great, who dedicated to him 
 his Cotnmentaries on Job; successfully 
 combated Arianism and presided over the 
 
 third National Council of Toledo (589). 
 The Mozambic Liturgy is attributed to him. 
 
 Lectionary. — One of the service books 
 of the mediaeval Church, so called because 
 it contained the Epistles and Gospels of 
 the Roman missal, and sometimes, all the 
 lessons of the various services in use in the 
 Roman Church, in which case it was called 
 the Plenarium. Its compilation was at- 
 tributed to St. Jerome; and it appears 
 certain that it belongs in substance, al- 
 though not in form or details, to that age. 
 The collection was revised and remodeled 
 in the eighth century. 
 
 Lector {reader). — The term designates 
 one who has received the second Minor 
 Order. The following words, addressed 
 to the candidate by the bishop, explain the 
 duties attached to this office : " It is 
 necessary for the reader to read for him 
 who preaches, to sing the lessons, to bless 
 the bread and all the new fruits. Endeavor, 
 therefore, to announce distinctly and 
 clearly the words of God, namely, the holy 
 lessons, etc." In presenting to the candi- 
 date the book from which he is to read, 
 which he touches with his right hand, the 
 bishop says: " Receive this book, and be 
 reader of the word of God, destined, if you 
 faithfully and usefully fulfill your office, to 
 have part with those who from the begin- 
 ning have acquitted themselves well in the 
 ministry of the divine word." 
 
 Ledochovrski (Mieczyslaw Halka, 
 Count de). — A Polish cardinal; was born 
 at Gorki, in Russia, Oct. 29, 1822. He 
 began his theological studies under the 
 Lazarists in the College of St. John, War- 
 saw, and at the age of 18 received the 
 ecclesiastical tonsure from the bishop of 
 Sandomir. After some studies at Vienna 
 he proceeded to Rome, where he joined 
 the " Academia Ecclesiastica" ; became 
 domestic prelate and prothonotary apos- 
 tolic; and also went as auditor of the 
 nunciature to Lisbon, Rio de Janeiro, and 
 Santiago de Chile. He was named arch- 
 bishop of Thebes, in partibus infidelium, 
 on his appointment in i86r to the nunciature 
 of Brussels, where he remained four years. 
 In January, 1866, he was translated to the 
 archbishopric of Gnesen and Posen, with 
 the title of primate of Poland. In conse- 
 quence of his resistance to the so-called 
 May Laws enacted in Prussia, he was, in 
 1874, cast into prison, and, while there, 
 was proclaimed a cardinal by the Pope, in 
 
Legate 
 
 414 
 
 Leibnitz 
 
 a secret consistory held in Rome in 1875. 
 He was released from captivity in 1876, 
 and went to Rome. Here he was made 
 Prefect of the Propaganda in 1892, which 
 office he continues to hold to the present 
 day. 
 
 Legate. — The name of the ambassador 
 or representative, whether temporary or 
 permanent, sent by the Pope to a particu- 
 lar Church. Three classes of legates are 
 distinguished : first, Legati a latere {le- 
 gates dispatched from the side) of the Pon- 
 tiff, who are commonly cardinals ; second, 
 Legati missi, also called "apostolic nun- 
 cios," and including a lower grade called 
 "internuncios" ; third, Legati nati {legates 
 born), whose office is not personal, but is 
 attached by ancient institution or usage to 
 the see or ecclesiastical dignity w^hich 
 they hold. 
 
 On Jan. 24th, 1893, the American Lega- 
 tion was established, and Monseigneur 
 Satolli being appointed delegate apostolic, 
 from the office and dignity thus received, 
 acquired ordinary jurisdiction over the 
 bishops, clergy, and Catholic p>eople of the 
 United States in all spiritual affairs. 
 
 Legio Fulminatrix ( Thundering Le- 
 gion). — In the Roman army, there were a 
 great many Christian soldiers. When 
 Emperor Marcus Aurelius (161-180) was 
 waging war in Pannonia against the Quadi 
 and Marcomanni (174), his army, unable 
 to obtain water to drink, was threatened 
 with imminent death. Then the Chris- 
 tians went down on their knees, and ad- 
 dressed fervent prayers to God. Suddenly 
 the sky became clouded, and a plentiful 
 rain fell on the side of the Romans. The 
 Barbarians thought the moment favorable 
 for an attack ; but the heavens taking up 
 arms in support of the Romans, sent such 
 a fearful volley of hail and thunder upon 
 them, that their battalions were over- 
 powered ; this prodigy gave the victory to 
 the Romans. The Christian troops, who 
 had obtained this favor from heaven, were 
 named the "Thundering Legion"; because 
 both the Romans and Barbarians looked 
 upon this event as miraculous. The em- 
 peror himself wrote of the matter to the 
 senate. To perpetuate the memory of this 
 prodigy, it was represented in bas-relief on 
 the Antonine column, erected in the center 
 of Rome and is still existing. 
 
 Legion (Theban). — Thus called be- 
 cause levied in the Thebaid, the district 
 
 around Thebes, Egypt ; was taken to Italy 
 by Maximian (286-305), to be used against 
 the Bagandae, who had risen in revolt. 
 The whole army, having received a com- 
 mand to offer sacrifice to the gods for the 
 success of their expedition, the Thebean 
 Legion, composed of Christians, refused 
 to take part in such a sacrilegious cere- 
 mony. Enraged at this re'sistance, Max- 
 imian commanded the Legion to be 
 decimated. The soldiers, on whom the lot 
 fell, were put to death. The rest of the 
 Legion continued immovable. The first 
 decimation was followed by a second, which 
 produced no new effect. Then Maximian 
 surrounded the Legion with his army and 
 caused them all to be slaughtered. The 
 place where they were martyred took the 
 name of St. Maurice, after their gallant 
 leader, and the Abbey of St. Maurice, to 
 this day, bears witness to the constancy of 
 this brave band of martyrs. 
 
 Leibnitz (Gottfried Wilhelm von) 
 Baron (1646-1716). — Born at Leipsic ; 
 died at Hanover. A celebrated German 
 philosopher. His father was professor of 
 law at Leipsic. He entered the University 
 there in 1661 ; devoting himself to the 
 study of jurisprudence and philosophy; 
 studied mathematics at Jena in 1663; re- 
 turned to Leipsic ; and in 1666 took the 
 degree of doctor of law at Altdorf. To 
 escape the scepticism of Locke, Leibnitz 
 tried to reconcile all the philosophical sys- 
 tems; and, from their fusion, he founded 
 a system of eclecticism. His whole system 
 of doctrine may be divided into three 
 great divisions: Monadology; Law of 
 Continuity and Pre-established Harmony. 
 We may add his Theodicy, which is the 
 crown of the system. His method, being 
 based upon the principle of the mathe- 
 matical infinite, is false, because it is too 
 exclusive. Its principles may be reduced 
 to two : the principle of contradiction and 
 the principle of sufficient law. The first 
 is the spring of mathematics and of the 
 essential: the second is the basis of moral 
 and of the contingent. In wishing to ex- 
 clude experience as the means of certitude, 
 he falls into idealism; in fact, he who 
 wishes to prove too much, proves nothing; 
 the first principles escape demonstration. 
 Monadology. — Every being is a simple or 
 composed monad, which we can classify 
 thus: monads without perception (inert 
 bodies); monads with perception (soul); 
 the latter class may be divided again into 
 
Lent 
 
 415 
 
 Lent 
 
 monads with obscure conscience (souls of 
 animals) ; with a conscience clear through 
 their perceptions (reasonable souls or 
 spirits). Pre-established Harmony. — In 
 creating both body and soul, God estab- 
 lished, in the constitution of these two 
 substances, all they need in order to 
 develop themselves; both of these sub- 
 stances are in "accord" or correspondence ; 
 God joined both body and soul, which had 
 between each other this correspondence, 
 this pre-established harmony anterior to 
 their union : they therefore correspond 
 just like two clocks regulated according to 
 the same time. But what, then, becomes 
 of liberty? This system makes of man a 
 pure machine and, consequently, leads to 
 fatalism. In fact everything being certain 
 and determined beforehand, the soul 
 would be merely a spiritual automaton. 
 Theodicy. — Here also, Leibnitz shows 
 himself too absolute. He exaggerates the 
 doctrine of St. Augustine and of St. Thomas 
 Aquinas about optimism. According to 
 him, God, being infinite in all His perfec- 
 tions, had to create the best world pos- 
 sible. As his days were drawing to a 
 close, Leibnitz gave a sublime and almost 
 Catholic exposition of the majestic truths 
 of Christianity, but to little purpose, as 
 his influence on Protestant divines was in- 
 appreciable. He was a Catholic after his 
 own way ; he acknowledged the infallibility 
 of the Catholic Church and refused to ac- 
 cept the Council of Trent, and in fact 
 remained Lutheran. 
 
 Lent. (Lent derives its name from the 
 Saxon word lenctcn — lengthening days, or 
 springtime — for it was the spring fast; 
 just as we are indebted to the Saxon word 
 faesten — to restrain — for the word '• fast.") 
 Anciently in the Latin Church, Lent lasted 
 only thirty-six days, and commenced only 
 on the Sunday of the sixth week before 
 Easter, which they called Quadragesima 
 Sunday. In the eleventh century, to more 
 closely imitate the fast of forty days which 
 Jesus Christ suflfered in the desert, some 
 added four days before Qiiadragesima Sun- 
 day, and this custom was followed in the 
 West; for, by deducting the six Sundays 
 which are no fast days, there remain ex- 
 actly forty days of fast, in imitation of our 
 Savior. From this rule we have to except 
 the Church of Milan, which commences 
 Lent only on Quadragesima Sunday. 
 
 Lent was instituted by the Apostles. St. 
 Jerome, in his Epistle to Marcella, and to 
 
 St. Leo, in the sixth sermon De Quadra- 
 gesima, expressly mentions it, and the 
 Rule of St. Augustine (Ep. 118 ad Janu- 
 arium et Lib. IV. de baft. cap. 24) has 
 reference to this subject. All that we find 
 generally established in the entire Church, 
 without seeing its institution in any coun- 
 cil, must pass as an establishment made by 
 the Apostles. Now such is the case with 
 the fast of Lent. We do not find its in- 
 stitution in any council; on the contrary, 
 the First Council of Nice, can. 5, that of 
 Laodicea, can. 14, etc., the Sixth Ecumeni- 
 cal Council, can. 29, and in the West, the 
 First Council of Orleans, r««. 11, the 
 Fourth of the same city, can. 2, that of 
 Agde, can. 8, that of Auxerre, can. 3, the 
 Eighth of Toledo, can. 9, the Second of 
 Prague, can. 9, speak of Lent as of a gen- 
 eral and very ancient subject, as well as all 
 the Greek and Latin Fathers. Tertullian, 
 who lived about the end of the second cen- 
 tury and at the beginning of the third, in 
 his book De jejuniis, cap. 2 and 13, seems 
 to indicate that there was not only a law 
 for the fast before Easter, but that it was 
 regarded, by even those who passed as 
 enemies of fasting, as an apostolic institu- 
 tion, and, moreover, as an apostolic in- 
 stitution fcmnded upon the Gospel and 
 upon the words of Jesus Christ in St. 
 Matthew, ix. 15, in St. Mark, ii. 19, in St. 
 Luke,^v. 34. St. Ignatius clearly speaks of 
 Lent in his letter Ad Phi/ippenses. Finally, 
 it appears, by the Apostolic Constitutions 
 V, c. xviii, that the Christians since the 
 beginning of the Church have fasted 
 through obligation during the time that 
 preceded Easter. The fast lasted until the 
 hour of Vespers, that is, until evening. 
 Tertullian also speaks of this in his Treatise 
 on Fast, and St. Irenaeus in Eu^ebius, T.ib. 
 V, c. 24, St. Basil, Orat. 2, de Jejun., St. 
 Ambrose, Serm. 34, Socrates, Lib. V, c. 21, 
 Cassian, Collat. 21, c. 27, St. Leo, Serm. 
 4 De Quadragesima, etc. Socrates and 
 Sozomenus tell us, the first. Lib. V, c. 22, 
 the other. Lib. VII, c. 19, that the fast of 
 Lent lasted six weeks before Easter in 
 Illyria, in Greece, at Alexandria, in whole 
 Egypt, in Africa and Palestine ; but that 
 at Constantinople, and in all its neighbor- 
 ing provinces, until Phoenicia, they com- 
 menced Lent seven weeks before Easter, 
 but that of these six or seven weeks some 
 fasted only every other day, or only five 
 daj's during the week. 
 
 The ancient Latin monks kept three 
 Lents : the great Lent before Easter, the 
 
Leo 
 
 416 
 
 Leo 
 
 other before Christmas, which they called 
 the Fast of St. Martin, and the other the 
 Fast of St. John the Baptist, after Pente- 
 cost, all three of forty days. The Greeks 
 observed four others besides that of Easter, 
 namely: that of the Apostles, of the As- 
 sumption, of Christmas, and of the Trans- 
 figuration; but they reduced them to seven 
 days each. The Jacobites have a fifth fast, 
 which they call the Fast of the Penance of 
 Ninive. The Chaldaics and Nestorians do 
 the same. The Maronites have six, by ad- 
 ding that of the Exaltation of the Cross. 
 The forty days' period, as commemorative 
 of our Lord's forty days' fast, or of the 
 similar perfunctory fasts of Moses and 
 Elias, commences with Ash Wednesday, 
 between which day and Easter Sunday 
 (omitting the Sundays, on which the fast 
 is not observed), forty clear days intervene. 
 The rigor of the ancient observance, which 
 excluded all flesh and even the so-called 
 " white meats," is now much relaxed; but 
 the principle of permitting but one meal, 
 with a slight refection or collation, is 
 widely retained. The precept of fast obliges 
 all those who have their twenty-first year 
 completed, if no other cause dispenses them 
 from fast. In Spain, during the Crusades 
 and the wars with the Moors, a practice 
 arose of permitting in certain cases, the 
 substitution of a contribution to the holy 
 war, for the observance of Lenten ab- 
 stinence; and although the object has 
 long since ceased, the composition is still 
 permitted, under the same title of the 
 " Crusada." 
 
 Leo (name of thirteen Popes). — Leo I. 
 (St.) — Pope from 440 to 461. On account 
 of his eminent learning, sanctity, and great 
 achievements, is called the *' Great." It 
 was this great Pontiff who, by his con- 
 fidence in God and noble and courageous 
 conduct, in 452, saved Rome from being 
 pillaged by the Huns under Attila "the 
 Scourge of God," and again, in 455, he 
 saved the city from destruction by the 
 awe which he inspired in the fierce Gen- 
 seric, king of the Vandals. Rejecting the 
 false Council of Ephesus ("Robber Synod"), 
 Leo, in 451, summoned the General Coun- 
 cil of Chalcedon, over which he presided 
 by his legates and in which his Dogmatic 
 Epistle was accepted as the expression of 
 true Catholic Faith. He strongly main- 
 tained Papal supremacy against arrogant 
 and aspiring bishops, and was zealous 
 everywhere for the interests of the faith and 
 
 Church discipline. Leo II. (St.) — Pope 
 from 682 to 683. Translated, from the 
 Greek into Latin, the acts of the Sixth 
 General Council, in which the heresy of 
 the Monothelites had been condemned. 
 Leo II. established a second metropolitan 
 see at York, Canterbury still holding the 
 chief place in the Anglo-Saxon Church, as 
 in the days of St. Augustine. Leo III . (St.) 
 — Pope from 795 to 816. Immediately after 
 his election he wrote to Charlemagne, re- 
 questing him to continue his protection 
 over the Roman See and State. At his re- 
 quest, Charlemagne, in the year 800, went 
 to Rome to quell a rebellion in which the 
 Pope came near losing his life. He crowned 
 Charlemagne and proclaimed him emperor, 
 amid the joyful acclamations of the people, 
 in 800. Leo IV. (St.) — Pope from 847 
 to 855. The eight years of his Pontificate 
 were employed, chiefly, in arming and de- 
 fending the Roman State against the Sar- 
 acens, over whom he gained a complete 
 victory. He encompassed the Vatican hill 
 with walls and towers, and founded what 
 has been called after him the " Leonine 
 City." In 850, he crowned Louis II., son 
 of Lothaire, emperor, and anointed as king 
 the young Alfred of England, afterwards 
 surnamed the Great. In 850 and 853, he 
 held synods at Rome, at which canons were 
 enacted enforcing ecclesiastical discipline. 
 Leo V. — Pope in 903. Successor of Bene- 
 dict IV. Imprisoned by Christophorus; 
 he died of grief two months after his 
 coronation. Leo VI. — Pope from 928 to 
 929. Successor of John VI. Reigned only 
 six or seven months and fifteen days. Leo 
 VII. — Pope from 936 to 939. Successor 
 of John XI. He reformed the monastic 
 discipline. Leo VIII. — Pope from 963 to 
 965. Elected, after the deposition of John 
 XII., by the authority of the Emperor 
 Otho. Benedict V., canonically elected to 
 succeed John XII. and exiled by Otho (964), 
 acquiesced to his own deposition. Leo IX. 
 (St.) — Pope from 1048 to 1054. With 
 his accession to the Papal throne, began 
 the dawn of better and brighter days for 
 the Papacy. He resumed and carried on, 
 with untiring zeal, the great work of 
 reformation begun by Clement II. His Pon- 
 tificate was one continued journey, under- 
 taken for the purpose of everywhere 
 enforcing ecclesiastical reforms. He held 
 numerous councils and presided over 
 them in person. Several laws were 
 enacted for the extirpation of the then 
 prevailing vices of simony and clerical in- 
 
Leo 
 
 417 
 
 Leo 
 
 continence. He was defeated and cap- 
 tured by the Normans at Astagnum, near 
 Civitella, June i8th, 1053. The conquerors, 
 beholding in their captive the Vicar of 
 Christ, knelt before him, asked his blessing, 
 and then set him at liberty. Leo X. — 
 Pope from 1513 to 1521. Born at Flor- 
 ence, second son of Lorenzo de Medici. 
 An ardent admirer of classic literature 
 and a magnanimous patron of the arts and 
 sciences, he was at the same time a great 
 Pontiff, who was sincerely devoted to the 
 interests of the Church. His Pontificate, 
 one of the most brilliant in the history of 
 the Church, was greatly embarrassed by 
 the treachery of the Italian princes, the re- 
 ligious revolution in Germany, and by the 
 rivalries between Charles V., of Spain, 
 Francis I., of France, and Henry VHL, of 
 England. This explains why the charac- 
 ter of this Pope has been judged with so 
 much prejudice and inconsistency. His 
 reign was long and gratefully remembered 
 by the Romans, as an era of happiness 
 and prosperity. Leo XL — Pope in 1535. 
 Died twenty-six days after his coronation. 
 Leo XII. — Pope from 1823 to 1829. 
 Gave his chief attention to restoring re- 
 ligion and learning in Rome and to avert- 
 ing the evils by which the Church was 
 then more particularly threatened, espe- 
 cially by religious indiflferentism and se- 
 cret societies, particularly Freemasonry. 
 Ze<j AV//. ( Vincent Joachim Pecci) — 
 Was born March 2d, 1810, at Carpineto, a 
 small village of the Diocese of Anagni, 
 Italy, on the outside of the Apennines. 
 His father. Count Ludovico Pecci, be- 
 longed to a noble family, originally of Si- 
 ena; his mother, Anna Prosperi, was 
 also of a patrician race. The nobility of 
 the Peccis is an ancient one. They have, 
 in their coat of arms, a comet illuminating 
 an azure field, with its inflaming sheaf. 
 At the hour when the future Pope was 
 born. Napoleon I. held united under his 
 scepter Italy and France. A few years 
 later the young Pecci could behold the 
 Papal flag floating over the walls of Car- 
 pineto and salute the triumphant re-entry 
 of Pius VII. into the eternal city; he was 
 a witness of the glorious Pontificate of 
 Leo XII., whose name he was destined to 
 adopt. When the hour arrived to enter 
 upon the way in which God called 
 him, the Pope who reigned in the Vatican 
 was Gregory XVI. Joachim Pecci com- 
 menced his studies in the College of Vi- 
 terbo. After the death of his mother, he 
 
 27 
 
 was sent to the Roman College. Here, as 
 at Viterbo, he soon became the admiration 
 of his professors and fellow-students. At 
 the age of twenty years he received the ti- 
 tle of doctor. Shortly after this he en- 
 tered the Academy of Ecclesiastical 
 Nobles, and continued there his brilliant 
 course of studies in preparing himself for 
 sacred orders. Distinguished among all 
 by Gregory XVI., the young Pecci was 
 named, at the age of 26, a Referendary to 
 the Signature. On Dec. 23d, 1837, he 
 was ordained priest, and shortly after- 
 wards the Pope intrusted to him the im- 
 portant and delicate mission as delegate of 
 the province of Benevent. Mgr. Pecci 
 was then 28 years old. The young prel- 
 ate displayed a remarkable skill and an 
 unconquerable energy in the administra- 
 tion of the province. In a short time it 
 was cleared of the robbers who infested it 
 and perfect order was restored. Gregory 
 XVI. rewarded Mgr. Pecci by intrust- 
 ing to him, successfully, the govern- 
 ment of the most important provinces 
 of Spoleto and Perugia. Such was 
 the wisdom and prudence of the Pon- 
 tifical delegate, that in the last named 
 city, whose population is more than 20,000, 
 the prisons under his administration re- 
 mained empty. Desirous of utilizing the 
 rare talents of the delegate of Perugia in a 
 more elevated post, Gregory XVI. recalled 
 him in 1843, preconized him archbishop of 
 Damietta in partibus injidelium, and sent 
 him as nuncio to Brussels. King Leo- 
 pold, who knew well how to judge men, 
 did not delay to accord to the young apos- 
 tolic nuncio the highest and most sincere 
 esteem. The Belgian Catholics equally 
 appreciated him, and have preserved the 
 best remembrance of the three years of his 
 nunciature. In 1846, his health beginning 
 to fail, he had to ask to be recalled. Leo- 
 pold, the king of the Belgians, took leave 
 of him with great regret. He conferred 
 on him, before his departure, the great 
 cordon of his order, and handed to him a 
 sealed letter recommending him for the 
 purple to Pope Gregory XVI. On the re- 
 quest of a deputation of Perugia, the Pope 
 intrusted to him the government of this 
 diocese in the consistory of Jan. 19th, 1846, 
 and created him at the same time cardinal 
 in petto. Unfortunately, Gregory XVI. died 
 before he could fulfill his desire to confer 
 on him publicly the insignia of cardinal. 
 It was only seven years later, on Dec. 19th, 
 1853, that Pius IX. caused him to enter 
 
Leo 
 
 418 
 
 Leo 
 
 the Sacred College. Enthusiastically ap- 
 plauded by the Perugian population, 
 which had not forgotten the wisdom of 
 his political administration, Mgr. Pecci, 
 during the 22 years he remained at Peru- 
 gia, labored without relaxation for the 
 well-being of his diocese, and for the de- 
 velopment of the higher education of the 
 clergy. To this end he founded and 
 equipped the Theological Academy of St. 
 Thomas. The Pastoral Letters which he 
 published during his episcopate are most 
 remarkable, those especially wherein he 
 treats of civilization, and which were the 
 prelude of his immortal encyclical letters 
 in which the entire world to-day finds light 
 and salvation. In the Vatican Council, 
 Cardinal Pecci was remarkable for the 
 certainty and depth of theological knowl- 
 edge. But it was only after the death of 
 Cardinal Antonelli, whose influence had 
 kept him away from Rome for such a long 
 time, that Cardinal Pecci was named Cam- 
 erlingo of the Holy Roman Church, re- 
 placing Cardinal De Angelis (Sept. 21st, 
 1877). The dignity of Camerlingo — one 
 of the first of the Sacred College — con- 
 fers extensive rights and powers upon the 
 cardinal who is invested with it, at the 
 death of the Pope, during the vacancy of 
 the Holy See, and for the preparation of 
 the Conclave. 
 
 When Pius IX. died, Cardinal Pecci 
 knew how to display in this delicate charge 
 exceptional qualities of prudence, wisdom, 
 energy, and experience. The unequivocal 
 testimonies and approvals which Pius IX. 
 and Gregory XVI. had given him, seemed 
 to designate him beforehand, as the choice 
 among his venerable colleagues. Indeed, 
 on Feb. 20th, 1878, after 36 hours of Con- 
 clave, he was elected Pope, on the third 
 ballot, by 44 votes out of 61, and took the 
 name of Leo XIII. Saluted since then as 
 a light from heaven, *' Lumen in Ccelo " 
 the august Pontiff has spread over all the 
 world the illumination of Christian doc- 
 trine. Since the beginning of his Pontifi- 
 cate, he denounced, in his celebrated en- 
 cyclical of Dec. 28th, 1878, the dangers of 
 Socialism, which is the enemy of human 
 governments, no less than of the Church 
 of God, and points out in Catholic doctrine 
 the most efficacious remedy against the 
 subversive theories of the Nihilists and 
 Socialists. His eye continually open to 
 all the wants and dangers of the Church 
 and of society, his care extends to all, 
 pointing out philosophical errors as they 
 
 arise and condemning wicked attempts 
 against the family and civil society. Ac- 
 cording to him, reason has entered on a 
 false direction, and modern thought is de- 
 caying. Behold his wonderful encyclical 
 on the restoration of philosophical studies 
 according to the doctrine of St. Thomas 
 (Eterni Patris, Aug. 4th, 1879). Domes- 
 tic society being threatened by divorce, he 
 addresses to the world the encyclical on 
 Christian marriage, wherein he explains 
 and expounds the real doctrine concerning 
 this great sacrament (Arcanum, ¥eh. loth, 
 i88»). Meanwhile, he treats of the origin 
 of power and authority and of the great 
 advantages which the Catholic Church 
 offers to princes and peoples (Diuturnum, 
 June 29th, 1881). Later he deals a terrible 
 blow to that enemy of Church and State, 
 Freemasonry, and indicates to Catholics 
 the means of protecting themselves against 
 this sect and how to combat it. Finally, 
 in order to come to the aid of civil society, 
 a prey to revolutionary evil, he publishes 
 his famous encyclical " Immortali Dei" 
 (Nov. ist, 18S5), on the Christian Consti- 
 tution of the States — a master- work and a 
 magnificent synthesis of Catholic teaching 
 on this important matter. Other Pontif- 
 ical documents, too numerous to mention 
 here, have for their object the promotion 
 of the veneration of the saints and to 
 recommend to the piety of the Faithful 
 the Third Order of St. Francis, and es- 
 pecially the devotion to our Lady of the 
 Rosary. We can truly assert that the great 
 wisdom of Leo. XIII., his enlightened 
 zeal, and the providential aim of his glori- 
 ous Pontificate are all summed up in his 
 encyclical letters, imperishable monuments 
 of the solicitude of the supreme pastor of 
 Church. 
 
 But it is especially by diplomatic means 
 that Leo XIII. seems to have undertaken 
 to inaugurate with the different States of 
 Europe a policy of peace and reconcilia- 
 tion. His encyclical against Socialism be- 
 came the starting point of a very marked 
 approachment between the court of Rome 
 and the governments which are threatened 
 by the attacks of Nihilists and other revo- 
 lutionary organizations. After having 
 obtained, in the congress of Berlin, com- 
 plete liberty for the Catholic religion in 
 the East, Leo XIII. made proposals to 
 Prince Bismarck, with the object of se- 
 curing the religious pacification of Ger- 
 manj', and, after . difficult negotiations 
 which lasted several years, had the conso- 
 
Leviticus 
 
 419 
 
 LiBANON 
 
 lation to behold his efforts crowned with 
 success (1887). The meeting in the Vati- 
 can of the Pope and new emperor of Ger- 
 many, William II., did not appear to have 
 had any serious result. The negotiations 
 with Russia, without removing the griev- 
 ous differences between the Czar and the 
 Holy See, obtained, however, some con- 
 cessions regarding the exercise of religious 
 worship (1883). These negotiations were 
 resumed, in 1S88, through the intermedi- 
 ary of Mgr. Galimberti and Prince Lo- 
 banoff, ambassador to Vienna. In spite 
 of the anti-Catholic spirit of the govern- 
 ment of France, Leo XIII. has always 
 exhibited toward that unfortunate country 
 great interest and kindness. In Belgium 
 he exercised his wise authority and in- 
 fluence with regard to the question of 
 religious education. Chosen as umpire 
 between Spain and Germany, concerning 
 their dispute over the Carolines, he ren- 
 dered a judgment satisfactory to both 
 nations. This happy result greatly tended 
 to enhance the authority of the Pontifical 
 prisoner of the Vatican. Even Protestant 
 England felt the benign influence of Leo 
 XIII., and semi-official negotiations took 
 place with the view of restoring diplomatic 
 relations between the Vatican and the 
 court of St. James. 
 
 In regard to the political troubles and 
 sufferings of the Irish people, Leo has ever 
 shown toward this unhappy country a 
 father's heart, and exercised a salutary in- 
 fluence and wise discretion regarding many 
 delicate questions which agitated the 
 minds of his ever faithful Irish children. 
 The Third Plenary Council of Baltimore, 
 the happy issue of the discussion of the 
 question of the Knights of Labor, the abo- 
 lition of slavery in Brazil (1888), are so 
 many facts due to the initiative and pru- 
 dent hand of Leo XIII. Catholic influence 
 made itself known and felt throughout the 
 extreme East, causing successful negotia- 
 tions between China and the Vatican. 
 Finally, on the occasion of his sacerdotal 
 jubilee (1888), the Holy Father beheld 
 with happiness testimonies of respect- 
 ful love and sympathy shown to him by all 
 foreign courts, and a countless number of 
 Faithful winding their way toward St. 
 Peter's to assist at the Jubilee Mass (Jan. 
 1st, 1888). At the same time magnificent 
 presents, objects of art, Pontifical orna- 
 ments, sacred vessels, were offered to him 
 by sovereigns, princes, countries, and by 
 the Catholics of every diocese. Special 
 
 visits of embassies and numerous pilgrim- 
 ages completed this spontaneous outburst 
 of the nations toward the one who is 
 God's representative upon earth. This 
 respect and love toward the supreme Pon- 
 tiff continues to show itself until the pres- 
 ent day. 
 
 As a temporal sovereign, Leo XIII. has 
 never ceased to proclaim the rights of the 
 Church and to protest against the spolia- 
 tion of the patrimony of St. Peter. Up- 
 held by divine protection, encouraged by 
 the unanimous adhesion of the Sacred Col- 
 lege, of the entire episcopate, of the whole 
 Catholic people, the great Pontiff, in spite 
 of his conciliatory spirit, rejects all com- 
 binations toward establishing a modus 
 Vivendi with the Italian government, as 
 long as it refuses the restoration of his 
 sovereign rights, prerogatives, and com- 
 plete independence. 
 
 Leviticus. — This name of the third book 
 of the Pentateuch, had its origin in the 
 ordinances relating to the Levites, to 
 which it is chiefly devoted. The sacri- 
 fices to be offered were either bloody, and 
 were figures of the sacrifice of Christ upon 
 the Cross, or unbloody, and were a 
 type of the sacrifice of the Mass. The 
 religious feasts of the Jews were the 
 Pasch, in memory of their deliverance 
 from Egypt; and the Pentecost, seven 
 weeks after the Pasch, to celebrate the 
 promulgation of the Law on Mount Sinai. 
 There was also the annual feast of the 
 Tabernacles, to commemorate their long 
 wandering in the desert, and the feast of 
 Expiation, when the priests offered sacri- 
 fices for their own sins, and the sins of the 
 people. At the head of the ministry, 
 charged with this public worship came the 
 high-priest, — Aaron being the first to fill 
 this office. His sons were the first priests, 
 and the Levites took care of the taberna- 
 cle as well as of the sacred vessels, etc. 
 
 Lia. — Eldest daughter of Laban and 
 the wife of Jacob, mother of Ruben, Sim- 
 eon, Levi, Juda, Issachar, Zabulon, and 
 Dina. She was buried with Abraham, 
 Isaac, and Sara in the land of Chanaan. 
 
 Libanon. — A long chain of limestone 
 mountains, on the northern border of Pal- 
 estine. It consists of two principal ridges, 
 the easterly ridge being called Anti- 
 Libanon by the Greeks. The western 
 ridge, or proper Libanon, runs nearly par- 
 allel to the coast of the Mediterranean; 
 
LiBELLATICI 
 
 420 
 
 LiBERIUS 
 
 the eastern, or Anti-Libanon, runs first 
 east, but soon inclines in like manner to 
 the north. Between these two ridges is a 
 long valley called Coele-Syria, or Hollow 
 Syria, the valley of Libanon. At present, 
 it opens toward the north. The eleva- 
 tion of Libanon is so great, that it is cov- 
 ered in many places with perpetual snow; 
 whence in all probability it derives its 
 name. It is composed of four inclosures 
 of mountains, which rise one above the 
 other. The first is very rich in grain and 
 fruits ; the second is barren, abounding in 
 thorns, rocks, and flint ; the third, though 
 higher than this, enjoys a perpetual spring, 
 the trees being always green, and the 
 orchards filled with fruit. It is so agreea- 
 ble and fertile, that some have called it a 
 terrestrial paradise. The fourth is so high 
 that it is always covered with snow. The 
 Libanon is inhabited by Mohammedans, 
 Druses, and Maronite Christians. 
 
 Libellatici. — Name given to those Chris- 
 tians, who, during the persecution, escaped 
 death by buying testimonials showing that 
 they had sacrificed to the idols. The 
 Church readmitted these cowardly Chris- 
 tians, but only after long penances. 
 
 Liberius (St.). — Pope, born at Rome; 
 successor of Julius I., in 352. Upheld 
 Athanasius against the Arians and was ex- 
 iled to Berea by Constantius. He returned 
 to Rome in 358. It has been asserted, and 
 for a long time admitted, even by Catholic 
 writers, that Pope Liberius obtained his 
 recall from exile by condemning St. Ath- 
 anasius, and subscribing to one of the three 
 creeds of Sirmium. Now, first of all, it is 
 certain that Liberius did not sign the first 
 or second Sirmium creed, and secondly, it. 
 is highly improbable that he signed the 
 third. For: i. Liberius was exiled after 
 the Council of Milan, /. e., toward the close 
 of the year 355. After an exile of over two 
 years, he returned to Rome in the year 358. 
 Now, contemporary historians, such as Sul- 
 picius Severus, Socrates, and Theodoret, 
 without mentioning any condition or terms, 
 ascribe the return of Liberius simply to 
 the urgent entreaties of the Roman ladies, 
 who presented themselves in a body to Con- 
 stantius on his visit to Rome, and to the 
 seditions of the Romans, which forced the 
 emperor to recall the illustrious exile. 
 2. Rufinus, after seeing Bishop Fortunatian 
 of Aquileja, who was said to have induced 
 Liberius to sign the formula in question, 
 writes: "Liberius, Bishop of Rome, re- 
 
 turned to his See during the lifetime of 
 Constantius; but whether his permission 
 was given him because he consented to 
 subscribe to the Arian formula, or because 
 the emperor thought he would conciliate 
 the Roman people by this act of clemency, 
 I have not been able to ascertain." 3. The 
 Roman people were hostile to the Arians 
 and would not endure Felix the antipope, 
 who, though professing the Nicene Creed, 
 communicated with the sectaries ; he was 
 on that account deserted, and afterwards 
 expelled by them from Rome. But on the 
 return of Liberius the Roman people went 
 forth to meet him and gave him a triumphal 
 entry into the city. Now, the Roman peo- 
 ple would not have given him such a re- 
 ception, had he fallen in faith. 4. Nor 
 could Liberius, had he fallen, have estab- 
 lished himself and reassumed his attitude 
 as defender of the Nicene faith without a 
 public recantation. Of such a recantation, 
 however, nothing is known, nor that Libe- 
 rius afterwards communicated with the 
 Arians. On the contrary, he condemned 
 the Arians as before, repudiated the Coun- 
 cil of Rimini, and, when fifty-nine Semi- 
 Arian bishops applied (a. d. 365) to be 
 admitted into communion with the Roman 
 Church, Liberius received them on condi- 
 tion of their accepting the Nicene symbol 
 and the " Homoosion " which, in his letter 
 to them, he called " the bulwark of the 
 orthodox faith against Arian heresy." 
 
 Of the writings and passages in which 
 mention is made of the alleged fall of 
 Liberius, some are evidently not genu- 
 ine; others are interpolated, i. Thus, the 
 four letters which are ascribed to our Pope 
 bear intrinsic evidence of another author- 
 ship and of their forgery. That the Arians 
 did not shrink from forging documents, is 
 a well-known fact in the history of Atha- 
 nasius. 2. The two passages of St. Atha- 
 nasius in his Apology against the Arians 
 and History of the A rtans, which refer to 
 this imputation, are manifestly interpo- 
 lated, since the two works were written at 
 a period prior the supposed fall of Liberius. 
 3. The fragments of St. Hilary which are 
 cited against Liberius, on account of the 
 intrinsic contradictions which they contain, 
 are evidently spurious. The account given 
 of the charge by writers who were almost 
 contemporaries of Liberius, leaves no 
 doubt that it was a fiction of the Arians, 
 which was believed also on popular rumor 
 by St. Jerome, who heard the calumny 
 from the Arians in Palestine. Besides, 
 
Liberties 
 
 421 Lights at Divine Service 
 
 the passages of St. Jerome referring to our 
 question, if not interpolated as they seem 
 to be, are founded on the forged letters of 
 Liberius and the spurious fragments of 
 Hilary. But, be this as it may, even if we 
 admit the fall of Liberius, no argument 
 can be derived therefrom against Papal 
 Infallibility. His yielding, if so, to open 
 violence, was at the most but a personal 
 weakness and does not prove that the Pope 
 fell by heresy, since he gave no doctrinal 
 definition, nor imposed a heresy upon the 
 Church. One admitted requirement for 
 an Ex Cathedra definition was wanting, 
 i.e., freedom. His defense of orthodoxy, 
 as well before as after his banishment, is 
 unquestionable. 
 
 Liberties {GalUcan). See Gallican- 
 
 ISM. 
 
 Libertines. — A sect of fanatical Panthe- 
 ists, that sprang up in the Calvinistic 
 establishment. They first appeared in 
 Flanders, in 1547, and thence spread into 
 Holland, France, and Switzerland, where 
 they gave Calvin much annoyance. They 
 taught that God was the sole operating 
 cause in man, the immediate author of 
 all human actions, denied the distinction 
 of good and evil, and held that those who 
 have once received the Spirit of God, are 
 allowed to indulge, without restraint, their 
 appetites and passions, and that, therefore, 
 for them, even adultery was no sin. 
 
 Life. See Animism. 
 
 Lights at Divine Service. — The use of 
 lights in the service of the Jewish Temple 
 is a fact too well authenticated to require 
 any proof . (Cf. Exod. xxv. 31-40; xxvii. 
 20") Among the vessels which Solomon 
 made for the house of the Lord were " the 
 golden candlesticks, five on the right hand 
 and five on the left" (IH. Ki. vii. 49). 
 But without referring to the ceremonial of 
 the Jewish Temple, we have an authority 
 for the employment of lights in the func- 
 tions of religion presented to us in the 
 first chapter of the Apocalypse. Here St. 
 John particularly mentions the golden can- 
 dlesticks which he beheld in his prophetic 
 vision. By commentators on the Sacred 
 Scripture it is generally supposed that the 
 Evangelist adopted the imagery with 
 which he represents his mystic revelations 
 from the ceremonial observed in his day 
 by the Church for ofJering up the Mass or 
 Eucharistic sacrifice of the Lamb of God, 
 Christ Jesus. That the use of iights was 
 
 adopted by the Church, especially at the 
 celebration of the sacred mysteries, as 
 early as the time of the Apostles, may 
 likewise, with much probability, be in- 
 ferred from that passage in their Acts 
 which records the preaching and the mir- 
 acles of St. Paul at Troas (Acts xx. 7, 8). 
 The custom of employing lights, in the 
 earlier ages of the Church, during the cel- 
 ebration of the Eucharist and other reli- 
 gious offices, is authenticated by those 
 venerable records of primitive discipline 
 which are usually denominated Apostolic 
 Canons. In several of these ordinances 
 mention is made of these offerings of oil 
 which were intended for nourishing the 
 lamps employed in the assemblies of the 
 Faithful; and the third of these canons 
 expressly prohibits that anything should 
 be offered at the altar during the holy ob- 
 lation, except oil for the lights and in- 
 cense. Also, some of the Fathers attest 
 in favor of the use of lights in the sanc- 
 tuary. St. Athanasius, writing in 341, 
 complains feelingly against the Arians, 
 whose impiety was such that they afiforded 
 access to the Church to the heathen, who 
 pilfered the oil and burned before their 
 idols the very tapers that had been the of- 
 ferings of the Faithful {Epist. encyclical). 
 St. Augustine, in one of his discourses 
 {De Tempore, Sermo 215), thus exhorts 
 his auditors : " Let those who are able 
 present either wax tapers or oil which 
 may supply the lamps." Also St. Jerome 
 defended the lights, used during the cele- 
 bration of the Eucharist, against Vigilan- 
 tius, and they are noticed by St. Paulinus 
 and Prudentius {De S. Felice Natalitium 
 carmen, iii.). That lights were anciently, 
 as now, employed at the celebration of the 
 sacred mysteries and at other portions of 
 the public service may be gathered, not 
 only from the ritual constitutions of the 
 Church, but from a variety of incidental 
 circumstances. The person to be initiated 
 into the Order of Acolyte was admonished, 
 that among his future offices would be to 
 take care of the lights of the church. St. 
 Isidore says that the acolytes are denomi- 
 nated in Latin ceroferarii {taper bearers'), 
 from their carrying wax lights, not only 
 when the Gospel is read, but whenever 
 sacrifice is to be offered up {Orig. lib. 
 VII. c. xii.). The use of lights at Mass 
 is not peculiar to the Latin Church, but in 
 all Churches of the East. A section of the 
 Protestant denomination still preserves 
 this ancient rite in its public service, for 
 
LiGUORI 
 
 422 
 
 Litany 
 
 the Lutherans, like the Catholics, have 
 wax tapers burning at their celebration of 
 the Lord's Supper; the same is done by 
 the Episcopalians. The lights at Mass 
 have a mystic signification. The Church 
 in her primitive days, to manifest her 
 lively faith and joyfulness, adopted this 
 emblem of lights. She still continues to 
 retain their use. While these wax tapers 
 proclaim our exultation for the actual 
 presence of our Blessed Redeemer, they 
 typify the light and glory of the Gospel 
 diflFused throughout the earth by that 
 Orient from on high, Christ Jesus. 
 
 Liguori (Maria Alphonse of, St.) 
 ( 1696- 1787 ). — Prelate and theologian. 
 Alphonse was born at Naples, of a noble 
 family, and, after having made a success- 
 ful course of law studies, and practiced at 
 the bar with distinction, threw up the pro- 
 fession in disgust, and began the study of 
 theology, was ordained priest in 1722, and 
 two years later entered the "Society of Mis- 
 sionaries of the Propaganda " at Naples. 
 As a priest he devoted himself mainly to 
 preaching and the direction of souls, and 
 in the course of a mission, given in the 
 neighborhood of Amalfi, in which he 
 took an active part, was pained to learn 
 that the country people there and else- 
 where had their spiritual wants but indif- 
 ferently cared for. Grieved at the sight 
 of so much spiritual poverty among peo- 
 ple so destitute of this world's goods, he 
 took comfort in the thought that he would 
 one day found a congregation whose mem- 
 bers would supply them with religious in- 
 struction, and give themselves up wholly 
 to their service. Authorized by Pope 
 Clement XII., he founded, in the year 
 1732, the Congregation of the Most Holy 
 Redeemer, composed of secular priests, 
 -who were willing to spend their lives in 
 instructing the people and training the 
 young. Their Rule was published June 
 2ist, 1742, and their founder intrusted 
 with the supreme direction of the order, 
 under the name superior-general. The 
 order was approved by Benedict XIV. in 
 1749. In the year 1762, while engaged in 
 his apostolic labors, Alphonse of Liguori 
 was appointed bishop of Sant'Agata dei 
 Goti, in the kingdom of Naples, where he 
 displayed all the virtues of a Pontiff 
 wholly devoted to the welfare of his flock. 
 Though a laborious and model bishop, he 
 never ceased to take the liveliest interest in 
 bis congregation, to which he returned in 
 
 the year 1775, after resigning his see, from 
 the responsibilities of which he shrank. 
 He was far advanced in age and broken in 
 health, and after spending a few more 
 years among his spiritual children, he 
 died at Nocera, Aug. ist, 1787. His 
 numerous writings have been a guide and 
 comfort to many souls in these latter days 
 and have given him rank among the great 
 teachers of the Church. He was solemnly 
 canonized by Gregory XVI., on the feast 
 of Pentecost, 1839, and declared a Doctor 
 of the Church by Pius IX., March 23d, 
 1871. F. Aug. ist. 
 
 Limbo. — From the Latin limbus, 
 {fringe) the outskirts of hell, where the 
 just, who died before Christ, were de- 
 tained till our Lord's resurrection. 
 
 Limbo Puerorum. — A place where those 
 children are detained who die without bap- 
 tism and who cannot enter heaven on ac- 
 count of original sin. It is of faith that 
 these children are deprived of the beatific 
 vision, but it is almost generally admitted 
 by theologians that they enjoy a natural 
 happiness and suffer no pain of the senses. 
 
 Litany. — A word, the specific meaning 
 of which has varied considerably at differ- 
 ent times, but which means in general, a 
 solemn act of supplication addressed with 
 the object of averting the divine anger, 
 and especially on occasions of public 
 calamity. Through all the varieties of 
 form which litanies have assumed, one 
 characteristic has always been maintained, 
 viz., that the prayer alternates between the 
 priest or other minister, who announces 
 the object of each petition, and the con- 
 gregation, who reply in a common suppli- 
 catory form, the most usual of which were 
 the well-known " Kyrie eleison," " Ora 
 fro nobis." In public offices, use can be 
 made only of those litanies that are found 
 in the liturgical books. To introduce or 
 add another litany thereto, an approbation 
 of the Congregation of Rites would be nec- 
 essary. They may, however, be printed in 
 books of piety, after having been approved 
 by the Ordinary. We call the Greater 
 {litanice majores) the procession which 
 takes place on the day of St. Mark, April 
 25th, and Lesser {litanice minores) those 
 which take place on the three Rogation 
 days. The first were instituted by Pope 
 Leo the Great; the second by St. Ma- 
 mertus, bishop of Vienne, in the year 474. 
 
Liturgy 
 
 423 
 
 Llorente 
 
 Liturgy in general, signifies a form of 
 prayer and ceremonial established by 
 ecclesiastical authority, to be used in the 
 public services of the Church, but is es- 
 pecially applied to the service used in the 
 celebration and administration of the 
 Eucharist. To veil the sacred mysteries 
 from the gaze of vulgar ignorance and 
 Gentile profanations, or in Scriptural 
 language, not to "cast pearls before the 
 swine," the Discipline of the Secret, 
 which is of Apostolic origin, enacted that 
 the Faithful in general should conceal the 
 Creed, the Sacraments, and the holy sac- 
 rifice of the Mass, from all knowledge of 
 the uninitiated ; and the members of the 
 priesthood in particular, were directed to 
 convey the substance and formularies of 
 the Liturgy by word of mouth to one 
 another; and though required to learn and 
 retain them by memory with the most 
 scrupulous precision, were prohibited from 
 committing them to writing. During the 
 early portion of the fifth century, Nestorius 
 attempted to engraft upon the Liturgy his 
 errors concerning the Incarnation. To 
 counteract this artifice, and to preclude the 
 possibility of any future heresiarch propa- 
 gating his novelties by disseminating them 
 through the prayers and invocations of the 
 public ritual, and for other weighty rea- 
 sons, the Church resolved to vary from 
 her ancient discipline and ordained that all 
 the liturgies should be committed to writ- 
 ing. Hence it was that St. Basil and St. 
 Chrysostom, Popes St. Gelasius and St. 
 Gregory the Great, St. Ambrose, and 
 other learned and pious prelates of the 
 Greek and Latin Churches, adapted the 
 public service to the discipline of the 
 period, and the wants of such portions of 
 the fold of Christ as were more immedi- 
 ately intrusted to their spiritual solicitude, 
 in some passages retrenched, in others 
 augmented, the prayers and ceremonies of 
 the liturgies; and without adulterating in 
 the slightest manner the substance or the 
 doctrine of those Apostolic monuments, 
 gave them a new, and in many instances, a 
 more appropriate form. Hence it was that 
 those liturgies, which, up to the period of 
 their renovation, had been denominated 
 by the names of those Apostles who origi- 
 nally framed them, exchanged their ancient 
 for a modern appellation, and were called 
 after the venerable prelates by whom they 
 had been remodeled. 
 
 The Abbe Renaudot made public, in the 
 year 1716, a numerous collection of Orien- 
 
 tal Liturgies, accompanied by notes, and 
 a useful introduction — the whole com- 
 prised in 2 vols. Anterior to the learned 
 Frenchman's labors in studying the antiq- 
 uities of the Eastern Church, that pious 
 and highly accomplished scholar, Cardinal 
 Thomasius, had bestowed a similar atten- 
 tion on several liturgies belonging to the 
 West, and printed, in 1680, the ancient Sac- 
 ramentaries of the Church of Rome, in 
 that metropolis of Christianity. It was 
 from this work of the Roman cardinal that 
 Dom Mabillon extracted, in 1685, the Gal- 
 ilean Liturgy, which he had attentively 
 collated with a manuscript of the sixth cen- 
 tury, and with two other very ancient manu- 
 scripts. In 1640, Dom Menard, well known 
 through his pursuits in ecclesiastical antiq- 
 uites, published the Sacramcntary of St. 
 Gregory, to which he attached some lumi- 
 nous annotations. The Mozarabic Missal 
 had already been printed, through the pious 
 care of Cardinal Ximenes, in 1500. Pere 
 le Brun collected all those liturgies, to 
 which he added some others, which his 
 precursors in this curious investigation had 
 not been able to procure; he compared 
 them all with one another, and with those 
 modern ones drawn up by the Protestants; 
 so that at present, nothing is wanting to 
 assist the scholar in his decisions concern- 
 ing these venerable and most ancient monu- 
 ments of genuine Christianity. 
 
 The principal liturgical books are: The 
 Breviary, the Missal, the Ritual, the Pon- 
 tifical, the Ceremonial of the Bishops, and 
 the Martyrology. The bishops have the 
 right and duty to watch over all the litur- 
 gical books printed in their respective dio- 
 ceses. See Oriental Rites. 
 
 Livinus (St.). *See Belgium. 
 
 Llorente (Don Juan Antonio) (175&- 
 1823). — A Spanish historian. He was a 
 priest, and from 1789 to 1801, secretary of 
 the Spanish Inquisition. But he was sub- 
 sequently deprived of his office and sent to 
 do penance in a convent for breach of con- 
 fidence; it being discovered that he had 
 divulged to some philosophers the secrets 
 which he was sworn to keep. On the in- 
 vasion of the French, he attached himself 
 to the interests of Joseph Bonaparte, who 
 placed at his service the archives of the 
 Inquisition, many of which he burned — a 
 fact which betrays an apprehension that 
 their examination would expose his mis- 
 statements. His history of the tribunal 
 of the Inquisition, although confessedly 
 
LOGOTHETE 
 
 424 
 
 Louis Bertrand 
 
 composed from authentic documents, is a 
 most malignant misrepresentation of its 
 spirit and proceedings. It betrays a deadly 
 hatred against the Catholic Church, the 
 Pope, the religious orders, and the clergy 
 generally, and a deep sympathy with the 
 deistic clubs. His works are on the Index. 
 
 Logothete. — An accountant. Each of 
 the officers which certain bishops had ap- 
 pointed to keep an exact account of the ac- 
 tions of the martyrs. 
 
 Lollards. See Wycliffites. 
 
 Lombard (Peter). — Born at Novara, 
 Italy, about iioo; died at Paris in 1164. 
 Among the numerous scholars of Ab^lard, 
 Peter Lombard acquired the highest dis- 
 tinction in the theological schools of 
 Europe. He lectured at Paris with much 
 success until 1159, when he was chosen 
 bishop of that city. His famous Four 
 Books of Sentences, from which he is de- 
 nominated the " Master of Sentences," 
 became the favorite manual of the theo- 
 logical schools during the Middle Ages, 
 and the text for innumerable commen- 
 taries. The first book treats of God and 
 the Trinity; the second of the Creation, 
 and rational creatures ; the third of the 
 redemption, of virtues and vices, and the 
 gifts of the Holy Ghost; the fourth of 
 the sacraments and of the last things. 
 
 Lord's Prayer. — A prayer or model of 
 prayer given by our Saviour to His disci- 
 ples (Matt. vi. 9-1^). See Prayer (The 
 Lord's). 
 
 Lord's Supper {The), is one of the sac- 
 raments of the Christian religion. It is so 
 called from its being instituted at supper 
 by Jesus Christ, whom His disciples styled 
 the Lord or Master. It is also called 
 Eucharist and Communion. 
 
 Loreto. — A city of the province of An- 
 cona, in the kingdom of Italy, containing 
 about 5,300 inhabitants, chiefly noticeable 
 as the site of the celebrated sanctuary of 
 the Blessed Virgin Mary, called the Santa 
 Casa {fioly house). The Santa Casa is re- 
 ported to be the house, or a portion of the 
 house, in which the Blessed Virgin lived at 
 Nazareth, which was the scene of the An- 
 nunciation of the Nativity, and the resi- 
 dence of our Lord with his Blessed mother 
 and St. Joseph ; and which, after the Holy 
 Land had been finally abandoned to the 
 infidels on the failure of the Crusades, is 
 believed to have been miraculously trans- 
 
 ported, first. May 10, 1291, to Fiume in 
 Dalmatia, and thence, Dec. loth, 1294, to 
 Recanati, whence it was finally transferred 
 to its present site. Its name (Lat. Domus 
 Lauretana), is derived from Laureta, the 
 lady to whom the site belonged. Although 
 numerous pilgrims resort to this sanctuary, 
 and although indulgencies have been at- 
 tached by Popes Julius II., Sixtus V., and 
 Innocent XII., to the pilgrimages, and to 
 the prayers oflFered at the shrine, yet, the 
 truth of the legend is no part of Catholic 
 belief, and Catholics hold themselves free 
 to examine critically its truth, and to ad- 
 mit or to reject it according to the rules of 
 historical evidence. The church of the 
 Santa Casa stands near the center of the 
 town, in a piazza which possesses other 
 architectural attractions. The great cen- 
 tral door of the church is surmounted by a 
 splendid bronze statue of the Madonna; 
 and in the interior are three magnificent 
 bronze doors filled with bas-reliefs, repre- 
 senting the principal events of Scriptural 
 and ecclesiastical history. The celeljrated 
 holy house stands within. It is a small 
 brick house Avith one door and one window, 
 originally of rude material and construc- 
 tion, but now, from the devotion of succes- 
 sive generations, a marvel of art and cost- 
 liness. It is entirely incased in white 
 marble, exquisitely sculptured after designs- 
 of the most eminent artists. The holy 
 house having been at all times an object of 
 devout veneration, its treasury of votive 
 ofTerings is one of the richest in the west- 
 ern world. 
 
 Lot. — In the Old Testament history',, 
 the son of Aran, and nephew of Abraham, 
 ancestor of Ammon and Moab. Lot fol- 
 lowed his uncle Abraham into Chanaan, 
 then into Egypt ; separated himself from 
 him at Bethel, after their return into Judea, 
 t» settle at Sodom. When God wished to 
 destroy Sodom, he admonished Lot to 
 move away with his family, forbidding 
 him to look back, and to stop in the 
 neighboring country. They fled to Segor. 
 but his wife, moved by curiosity, in spite 
 of the warning, looked back, and was 
 changed into a pillar of salt. 
 
 Louis (St. ). See Crusadks. 
 
 Louis Bertrand (St.) (1526- 1581). — 
 Spanish Dominican, born at Valencia. Mis- 
 sionary in America and in Spain, canonized 
 by Alexander VIII. (1690). He is the pa- 
 tron saint of New Granada. F. Oct. loth. 
 
Louis of Gonzagua 
 
 425 
 
 LUCIANUS 
 
 Louis of Gonzagua (St.) (1568-1591). — 
 Jesuit, born at Castiglione, Lombardy, 
 died in Rome. Son of Ferdinand of Gon- 
 zagua, Marquis of Castiglione, prince of 
 the Holy Empire, was page at the court of 
 Philip II. He entered the novitiate of the 
 Jesuits (1587), at Rome; died of a slow 
 fever, contracted in taking care of those 
 fallen by the pest. He was canonized by 
 Benedict XIII., in 1726. He is the patron 
 saint of youth. In 1858, Pope Pius IX. 
 made a present to the " Society of Jesus " 
 of a writing of St. Louis of Gonzagua ; 
 it is a treatise on scholastic theology. 
 F. June 2ist. 
 
 Lourdes. — A city of France, in the 
 Upper Pyrenees, and which is well known 
 as a famous pilgrimage. The origin of 
 the latter is as follows: On Feb. nth, 
 1858, Bernardette Soubirous, fourteen years 
 old, accompanied by her sister Mary and 
 a child of their neighbor, were gathering 
 dry wood on the left shore of the river 
 Gave. Having come to the rocks of Mas- 
 sabielle, Bernardette perceived the grotto 
 of the rock shining with an extraordinary 
 brightness, and, in the grotto, a Lady of 
 ravishing beauty, dressed in white with a 
 blue cincture around her waist, barefoot, 
 crowned with golden roses, and with a 
 smile on her lips, stretched forth her 
 hands toward the child. On her left arm 
 was suspended a rosary of exceedingly 
 white pearls. Bernardette drawing the at- 
 tention of her companions to the appari- 
 tion, they declared they saw nothing. 
 After this first apparition, the beautiful 
 Lad}' appeared seventeen times in broad 
 daylight and before large crowds of people. 
 Nobody, except Bernardette, beheld or 
 heard anything; hut the transfiguration of 
 the girl clearly proved the presence of 
 something supernatural. During one of 
 the apparitions of this superhuman being, 
 Bernardette was urged to pray for the 
 sinners and to go and tell her parish priest 
 that he should build a chapel in that very 
 place, to serve as a place of pilgrimage for 
 the whole world. The apparition, to prove 
 its reality, caused a spring to rise on the 
 verj- spot where it stood. Finally, the mys- 
 terious being revealed itself, saying : " I am 
 the Immaculate Conception." The Bishop 
 of Tharbes. Monseigneur Lawrence, after 
 a delay of six months, appointed a com- 
 mission to inquire more particularly 
 into the alleged facts of the apparitions 
 and healings, attributed to the water of 
 
 the grotto. The commission, composed of 
 the best theologians of the diocese, and as- 
 sisted by learned physicians, established a 
 dozen cases where a supernatural healing 
 had certainly taken place. After more 
 than three years of inquiries and prayers, 
 Bishop Lawrence, Jan. 18th, 1862, pro- 
 claimed that it was the "Immaculate Vir- 
 gin Mary that had appeared eighteen times 
 in the grotto of Massabielle," authorized 
 in his diocese the veneration of " Our 
 Lady of Lourdes," and announced the 
 building of the chapel requested by the 
 Mother of God. 
 
 Lo'w Sunday. — The first Sunday after 
 Easter, so called because it emphasizes the 
 contract between the great Easter solem- 
 nity and the Sunday which ends the oc- 
 tave. The name given to it in the Missal 
 is " Dominica in Albis," because then the 
 newly baptized wore their white robes for 
 the last time. 
 
 Lucia (St.). — Virgin and martyr, born 
 at Syracuse, Sicily, where she was be- 
 headed in the year 303. Of a noble and 
 Christian family, she made a pilgrimage 
 to the tomb of St. Agatha at Catanea, ob- 
 tained the healing of her mother Euty- 
 chia, consecrated her virginity to the 
 Lord, and, accused of being a Christian, 
 she was beheaded. F. Dec. 13th. 
 
 Lucian. — Pagan philosopher, was born 
 at Samosata (120-180). In his satire he 
 derides alike heathen mythology and 
 Christianity. His mockery of the gods 
 and of everything supernatural procured 
 for him the name of " Blasphemer." His 
 principal work against the Christians en- 
 titled, De Morte Pereffrini, is more of an 
 overt derision than an attempted refuta- 
 tion of Christian practices and doctrines. 
 He represents the Christians as good 
 natured, but silly, and ridicules their for- 
 titude in suffering, their great charity 
 toward one another, their contempt for 
 death and their hope in a future reward ; 
 thus giving, contrary to his intention, a 
 glorious testimony of the grandeur of the 
 Christian religion, the heroism and charity 
 of its followers. 
 
 Lucianus (St.). — Priest and martyr, 
 born at Samosata about the year 235, put 
 to death in 312. Priest and professor of 
 theology at Antioch, acquired a great 
 reputation on account of his knowledge 
 and eloquence, and suffered martyrdom 
 at Nicomedia, in the persecution of Gale- 
 
LUCIDUS 
 
 426 
 
 Lust 
 
 rius Maximinus. We owe to him a beau- 
 tiful apology in favor of the Christian 
 religion, called the Profession of Faith 
 of St. Luciantis, a Greek edition of the 
 Bible, which St. Jerome praises very 
 highly. F. "^an. 7th. 
 
 Lucidus and Gottschalk. — Lucidus was 
 a Gallic priest of the fifth century, and 
 was the first that started the controversy 
 on predestination. His errors were re- 
 vived by Gottschalk, a wandering monk of 
 the monastery of Orbais, in France, and a 
 disciple of the learned Rabanus Maurus. 
 Gottschalk blasphemously asserted that 
 God predestinates to good as well as to 
 evil, and foreordains some — the elect — to 
 eternal life, and others — the reprobate — 
 to eternal death. As the elect cannot help 
 being saved, neither can the reprobate 
 help being damned. For these latter, he 
 maintained, the sacraments are but empty 
 forms and ceremonies. Christ, he said, 
 died only for the elect, who alone are the 
 object of His merciful redemption. This 
 heresy was condemned in the Councils of 
 Mentz, in 848, and of Quiercy, in 849, pre- 
 sided over by Rabanus Maurus and Hinc- 
 mar of Rheims. Gottschalk was himself 
 committed to the charge of the latter who 
 sentenced him to corporal punishment and 
 confinement in a monastery. He died in 
 869. 
 
 Luciferians. — Followers of Lucifer, 
 Bishop of Cagliari (died about 370). The 
 Luciferians were vehement upholders of 
 the Nicene faith, and separated themselves 
 from their fellow Catholics, on the ground 
 that the latter showed undue leniency to 
 those who had been received back into the 
 Church after forsaking Arianism. 
 
 Lucius (name of three Popes). — Lucius 
 I. (St.) — Pope from 253 to 254. Successor 
 of St. Cornelius, was exiled by Gallus, 
 then permitted to return to his Church, 
 was beheaded for the faith by order of 
 Valerian. Lucius II. — Pope from 1144 to 
 1145. Successor of Celestine IL Was 
 mortally wounded by the blow of a stone, 
 cast by one of the adherents of Arnold of 
 Brescia. Lucius III. — Pope from 1181 to 
 1185. Successor of Alexander IIL Held 
 the Council of Verona, which the Emperor 
 Frederick Barbarossa likewise attended, 
 and published edicts against the Cathari 
 and Waldenses. 
 
 Ludmilla (St.) (873-927). — Martyr; 
 patroness of Bohemia, born in Bavaria. 
 
 Daughter of the count and lord of Mel- 
 nick. Wife of Duke Boriwoy, first Chris- 
 tian Duke of Bohemia, was instructed in 
 religion as well as he, by St. Cyril and St. 
 Methodius, apostles of the Slavs. Was 
 treacherously murdered by her heathen 
 daughter-in-law, Dahomira. F. Sept. i6th. 
 
 Lugo (John de) (1583-1660). — Spanish 
 Jesuit and cardinal, born at Madrid. Pro- 
 fessor of theology at Rome. His theolog- 
 ical Works form 7 volumes, in folio (1751). 
 Reprinted in our time. 
 
 Luitprand. — Bishop of Cremona, lived 
 about the middle of the tenth century. He 
 was the author of several historical works 
 containing a frightful picture of the de- 
 pravity of the age. But the truthfulness 
 of his statements is very much shaken by 
 the looseness of his own life and his 
 courtly servility. Being a courtier of 
 Otho I. and a violent adherent of the Ger- 
 many party, he was bitterly hostile to the 
 Italian party, and all the Popes who 
 favored it. Luitprand died in 972. 
 
 Luke (St.). — One of the four Evangel- 
 ists, and a disciple of St. Paul, whom he 
 joined at Troas in the year 53. He was a 
 native of Antioch in Syria, a physician by 
 profession, and a painter of no mean skill. 
 St. Luke shared the travels and trials of 
 St. Paul, and attended him, also, in his 
 second imprisonment. He afterwards, re- 
 turned to Macedonia and Achaja, and died 
 a martyr at Patrae', at the age of seventy- 
 four. Luke is the author of the third 
 Gospel and of the Acts of the Apostles. 
 He wrote both works in Greek; his 
 Gospel was written some time after the 
 Gospels of St. Matthew and St. Mark. 
 
 Lust denotes an irregular and depraved 
 desire for impure pleasures. To keep our- 
 selves free from this vice, we should avoid 
 bad companionship, because " evil com- 
 munications corrupt good manners " (L 
 Cor. XV. 33) ; and we make enemies to our- 
 selves if we frequent society that may lead 
 to our own destruction, or allow others un- 
 der our protection to come in contact with 
 such pernicious influences. We should 
 shun entertainments that are dangerous 
 and blameworthy, such as immodest plays 
 and dances. We should be careful what 
 we read, and be on our guard again!?t im- 
 moral principles, and contemn that appeal 
 which is not within the strict limits of 
 decorum. 
 
Luther 
 
 427 
 
 Luther 
 
 Luther (Martin) (1483-1546). — Martin 
 Luther was the son of a poor miner, and 
 was born at Eisleben. He was brought up 
 under pious, but harsh and rough disci- 
 pline. The elementary schools, as well as 
 the higher educational institutions, at that 
 time, were very numerous in Germany. 
 At the age of fourteen, Martin was sent to 
 the school of the Franciscans at Magde- 
 burg, and, a year after to Eisenach, to at- 
 tend the Latin School. His gifts were 
 remarkable from the beginning, but his 
 parents were very poor. Following the 
 custom of the time, he sang before the 
 houses of the rich, to make a living. In 
 1501, he entered the University of Erfurt, 
 where he was graduated, in 1505. Master 
 of Arts, he opened a course of lectures on 
 Aristotle. The sudden death, caused by 
 lightning, of a friend, led Luther to enter 
 the Augustinian convent at Erfurt, against 
 the express will of his father, who had des- 
 tined him for the profession of law. After 
 going through the customary discipline, 
 he made his solemn vows and received 
 priestly ordination, in 1507. In compliance 
 with the wish of his superiors, he specially 
 applied himself to Biblical studies. On the 
 recommendation of Dr. John Staupitz, the 
 Augustinian provincial, Frederick the Wise 
 elector of Saxony, appointed Luther, in 
 1508, professor of Dialectics and Ethics in 
 the new University of Wittenberg. In 15 10, 
 Luther visited Rome in the interest of his 
 order. Coming in view of the eternal city, 
 he fell on his knees and exclaimed : " Hail 
 Rome, holy city, thrice sanctified by the 
 blood of the martyrs ! " With great devo- 
 tion he knelt at its holy shrines ; yet, with 
 a silly pietism, he "almost regretted that 
 his parents were not dead, so that he might 
 release their souls from purgatory, by say- 
 ing masses ! " His fond attachment and 
 adhesion, which he then had to the Vicar 
 of Christ, he afterwards described in these 
 fierce words : " I was ready to slay every- 
 one who should in the least refuse obedi- 
 ence to the Pope." Even these two instances 
 of ignorant zeal betrayed in the monk an 
 abnormally unbalanced brain, which plainly 
 foreboded the after development of his 
 phenomenally morbid character. In 1512, 
 he took the degree of Doctor of Theology, 
 and began his lectures on the Psalms and 
 the Pauline Epistles. 
 
 Luther was of an ardent and impulsive 
 temperament. Naturally stubborn, he held 
 tenaciously to preconceived opinions, and 
 would not brook contradiction. His mind 
 
 seems never to have enjoyed perfect rest, 
 but was given to great scrupulosity; nor 
 were his convictions wholly clear on cer- 
 tain doctrinal questions. But the means 
 he used to obtain peace only aggravated 
 the evil. He was presumptuous, neglect- 
 ful of the duties of his state, and lacking 
 obedience to the rules of his order. 
 Though morally bound to recite the divine 
 office daily, he would, at times, not touch 
 his Breviary for weeks. Then he would 
 atone for his neglect by cruelly chastising 
 his body, the mortifications prescribed in 
 his community not satisfying his ardor. 
 To him might well apply the old monastic 
 saying: " Everything beyond obedience is 
 suspicious in a monk." Even at his early 
 age, Luther had departed from the doc- 
 trine of the Church, on justification; he 
 regarded good works as wholly worthless 
 and faith alone as sufficient for salvation. 
 This doctrine ruled the University of Wit- 
 tenberg and soon began to spread through- 
 out Germany. 
 
 About this time. Pope Leo X. pro- 
 claimed an indulgence for those who, 
 besides performing the prescribed works 
 of penance and piety, would contribute to 
 the completion of St. Peter's Basilica, in 
 Rome. Albert, cardinal, and Archbishop 
 of Mentz and Magdeburg, were charged 
 with the promulgation of the papal grant 
 in Germany, and John Tetzel, a pious and 
 learned Dominican, was one of the preach- 
 ers appointed by Albert, to publish the 
 indulgence among the people. The preach- 
 ing of the indulgence by the Dominicans, 
 it is said, at once excited the jealousy and 
 opposition of the Augustinians, and cer- 
 tainly that of Luther in particular, for he 
 raised a bold protest in the famous Ninety- 
 five Theses which he affixed to the door of 
 the castle church at Wittenberg, on the 
 eve of All Saints (Oct. 31st, 1517). The 
 publication of indulgences were not new 
 in Germany, nor was, as has been asserted, 
 the one proclaimed by Leo X. an uncondi- 
 tional pardon for past sins or an unqualified 
 remission of their temporal punishment, 
 much less a license for future sins. The 
 instructions of Archbishop Albert to the 
 preachers, and those of Tetzel to pastors 
 and confessors, made the gaining of the in- 
 dulgence expressly dependent on the usual 
 conditions, namely, true repentance with 
 the humble confession of sins, and the per- 
 formance of certain works of piety, besides 
 almsgiving. True it is, that the personal 
 appearance of some preachers and their 
 
Luther 
 
 428 
 
 Luther 
 
 manner of offering the indulgence was the 
 cause of much complaint. But it was not 
 the abuses which Luther attacked in his 
 Theses, but the doctrine of indulgences 
 itself, which was directly opposed to 
 his views on justification. The funda- 
 mental principle expressed in his proposi- 
 tion on that point was that " God alone, 
 independently of human exertion, is all in 
 all in the affair of man^s salvationP 
 There were various replies to Luther, one 
 of the ablest being the One Hundred and 
 Sixty Counter- Theses by Tetzel. 
 
 This impious initiative of Luther was 
 applauded by men of various suspected 
 parties, especially by the Humanists, in 
 their itching for the most dangerous nov- 
 elties and in their sad decadence of faith. 
 Within two months, his Theses were spread 
 through the Press, now, for the first time, 
 employed in a popular agitation through- 
 out Europe. Many, even well-disposed 
 men, approved of the course Luther had 
 taken, believing that he attacked only cer- 
 tain disorders. Imagining his cause to be 
 the cause of God, Luther would hear of no 
 submission to the Church ; on the con- 
 trary, he insisted that the Church should 
 embrace his new Gospel, " on justification 
 by faith alone," which he pretended to 
 have received directly from God ! In his 
 proud arrogance he even went so far as to 
 declare : " I will have my doctrine judged 
 by nobody — not even by angels ; he who 
 does not receive my doctrine, cannot be 
 saved ! " Instead of calmly answering the 
 arguments of his adversaries, he spewed 
 out, both in speaking and in writing, the 
 vilest ephithets and basest calumnies 
 against all those who did not agree with 
 him. His opponents were " knaves, dolts, 
 dogs, pigs, asses, infernal blasphemers," 
 and worse. Yet during all this time, 
 Luther affected to believe himself in per- 
 fect accord and concert with the Holy 
 See ! In a most humble letter to Pope 
 Leo X., he averred entire submission to 
 the Head of the Church, and that it was 
 the abuses only he had been assailing. 
 '•Most Holy Father," he writes, " I cast 
 myself at your feet with all that I have and 
 am ; give life, or take it ; call, recall, ap- 
 prove, reprove; your voice is that of 
 Christ, who presides and speaks in 3'ou." 
 The efforts of the Pope to compromise the 
 difficulty in Germany, through Cardinal 
 Cajetan, and afterwards, through a special 
 envoy, unhappily failed. Luther would 
 listen to no remonstrance, and appealed 
 
 from the Pope ill informed to the Pope to 
 be better instructed. Miltiz, who seemed 
 to side with Luther, threw the whole 
 blame on Tetzel, who, taking the repri- 
 mand so much to heart, died shortly after 
 (1519), as is said of grief. In November, 
 1518, Leo X. issued a Bull explaining the 
 doctrine of the Church on indulgences, 
 and threatening such as should gainsay it, 
 with excommunication. To forestall such 
 a measure, Luther had previously appealed 
 from the Pope to a general council. 
 
 The disputation between Martin Luther 
 and Dr. Eck ser\-ed to widen the existing 
 breach, but it had also the good effect of 
 making more clear the positions of the 
 contending parties and of strengthening in 
 the Catholic faith Duke George and the 
 University and inhabitants of Leipzig. 
 The defeat which he sustained at Leip- 
 zig, had driven Luther to uncontrollable 
 fury. He did not fare any better in the 
 disputation between John Emser and 
 Melanchthon, the former siding with 
 Eck, the latter with the Wittenberg 
 "Reformer." Luther found a strong 
 and zealous colaborer in Philip Melanch- 
 thon. More moderate and prudent than 
 Luther, he was invaluable to the latter, by 
 his talents and writings. In 1521, he 
 wrote in defense of his master the Oration 
 for Luther, and Protestant Against the 
 Decision of the Paris Uniz'ersity. Luther 
 encouraged by the applause of the Huss- 
 ites and Humanists, who greeted him as 
 the "greatest theologian of the age," and 
 as "a second Paul and Augustine," and 
 backed by the German nobles, cast off all 
 disguise, to complete his separation from 
 the Church. His constant endeavor now 
 was to destroy all authority in order to 
 establish his own on its ruins. Between 
 the years 1520 and 1522 he launched forth 
 pamphlet after pamphlet, in which he 
 poured out his deadly hatred against Rome 
 and the Holy See, now rabidly blasphem- 
 ing the most sacred things and the holiest 
 doctrines, which previously he had but 
 sparingly denounced. He called upon the 
 emperor to overthrow the power of the 
 Pope, to confiscate the possessions of the 
 Church, and to abolish ecclesiastical feasts 
 and holy days and Masses for the dead. 
 " It would be no wonder," the raving 
 monk exclaimed, " if God should rain 
 down from heaven sulphu;- and hellish 
 fire upon Rome and plunge it into the 
 abyss, as He did with Sodom and Gomor- 
 rah." At last Pope Leo X. on June i5th^ 
 
Luther 
 
 429 
 
 Luther 
 
 1520, issued a Bull condemning forty-one 
 propositions extracted from the writings 
 of Luther, and excommunicating him, un- 
 less he would retract within sixty days. 
 Luther replied to the papal sentence by his 
 pamphlet "Against the Execrable Bull of 
 Antichrist," and renewed his appeal from 
 the Pope, as from an "unjust judge, an 
 obdurate, erring schismatic and heretic, 
 condemned as such by the Bible," to a 
 general council, and he impetuously urged 
 the emperor and the princes to resist, 
 what he called, the unchristian conduct of 
 the Pope. " Whosoever shall follow the 
 Pope," he said, "him do I, Martin Lu- 
 ther, deliver to divine judgment." On 
 Dec. loth, 1520, he publicly burned the 
 Pope's Bull, together with the Canon 
 Law, at Wittenberg, exclaiming: "As 
 thou hast disturbed the Lord's Holy One, 
 may the eternal fire disturb and consume 
 thee." On the following day, addressing 
 the students, he said : " It is now full time 
 that the Pope himself were burned. My 
 meaning is that the Papal Chair, its false 
 teachings, and its abominations should be 
 given to the flames." 
 
 Upon the death of Maximilian I., his 
 grandson, Charles, the young king of 
 Spain, succeeded him in the empire as 
 Charles V. (1519-1556). The new emperor, 
 yielding to the wishes of the States that 
 favored Luther, summoned him before the 
 German Diet, which was to meet at 
 Worms in 1521. Asked whether he was 
 willing to retract the errors contained in 
 the twenty-five books published under his 
 name, he boldly refused to do so, unless 
 *' convicted of error by the Scripture and 
 plain reason." All eflforts to reclaim him 
 proving unavailing, Luther was ordered to 
 leave Worms and put under the ban of the 
 empire. On his way to Wittenberg, he was, 
 according to a previous arrangement, 
 seized and taken to Wartburg, near Eisen- 
 ach, where he remained nearly a year, liv- 
 ing as a knight under the name of " Master 
 George." During this time, he wrote his 
 pamphlets " On the Abuse of Masses," 
 "On Monastic Vows," and "Against the 
 Idol of Halle " (the Archbishop of Mentz). 
 It was at Wartburg, which he called his 
 "Patmos" that Luther commenced his 
 translation of the Bible into German. 
 Luther leaving Wartburg continued to 
 spurn all authority, spiritual and temporal, 
 and to vent his anger against the Head of 
 the Church, and against all that dared to 
 disagree with himself. He called the Pope 
 
 a heretic and apostate, a blasphemer of 
 God and traitor of Christ's Church, and 
 incessantly inveigled against him as " the 
 man of sin," " the minister of Satan," and 
 even the "very Antichrist." Luther's teach- 
 ing of absolute human equality and of total 
 disregard of all authority, soon bore its 
 evil fruits among the masses. Inflamed by 
 the fiery appeals of the " Reformer," and 
 incited by fanatical harangues of itinerant 
 preachers, the peasants, in 1525, under the 
 leadership of Thomas Miinzer, rose in open 
 rebellion against their lords, plundered 
 and burned churches and convents, stormed 
 the castles of the nobles, and committed 
 every species of outrage and atrocity. When 
 Luther saw things turn against the advant- 
 age of the princes, he at once preached 
 against the deluded peasants whom his doc- 
 trines had misled, and, in his pamphlet 
 "Against the Rapacious and Murderous 
 Peasants," urged the princes to kill them 
 "without mercy, like mad dogs," and de- 
 clared that none could die in a manner more 
 pleasing to God than fighting against "these 
 children of the devil." His cruel advice was 
 followed, and it is estimated that a hundred 
 thousand lives were destroyed in the 
 "Peasant War." Luther celebrated the 
 funeral of the slain peasants, by secretly 
 marrying on June 13th, 1525, Catharine 
 Bora, a Cistercian nun, who, together with 
 eight other nuns, had, at his instance, been 
 carried ofif from their convent, by a citizen 
 of Torgau, named Bernard Koppe. 
 
 It was chiefly through the influence 
 of the temporal rulers that Luther sought 
 to propogate his " Gospel." And, indeed, 
 his "Gospel" readily found powerful 
 patrons among the German princes and 
 nobles, who perceived in it a much desired 
 means of enlarging their domains and 
 filling their depleted treasuries, by seizing 
 on Church property. 
 
 Luther's religious system, if such it can 
 be called, is a sort of pantheistic mysti- 
 cism. He taught: 1. An all-ruling and 
 absolute divine necessity. God is the 
 author of man's actions, whether good or 
 bad. Man is born without a trace of free- 
 dom, which is incompatible with divine 
 foreknowledge. 2. In consequence of 
 original sin, human nature is radically 
 corrupt. Man is wholly unable to do any 
 good by himself, and only fit to sin. 3. 
 Faith, alone, works justification; and man 
 is saved only by confidently believing that 
 God will pardon his sins. 4. The sacra- 
 ments which Luther reduced to two — 
 
Lydia 
 
 430 
 
 Lystra 
 
 baptism and the Lord's Supper — are not 
 means of grace, but only pledges of the 
 divine promises for the forgiveness of our 
 sins, and the grace they impart, conse- 
 quently, depend solely on the faith of the 
 recipient. 5. There is a universal priest- 
 hood. Every Christian may assume that 
 office. There is no need of a hierarchy 
 and of priests, consequently there is no 
 visible Church. 6. There are no merito- 
 rious works. Prayers, fasts, mortifications, 
 religious vows, and other good works of 
 any kind avail the soul nothing to its sal- 
 vation. 7. In matters of religion, every 
 man is his own judge; and every Christian 
 has the right not only to read, but also to 
 interpret for himself the Bible which is the 
 only source of faith. 
 
 Luther died at Eisleben, Feb. i8th, 1546, 
 shortly after delivering a violent sermon 
 against the Jews and after drinking and 
 jesting with his friends the night before, 
 on the speedy downfall of the Papac}-. 
 
 In the United States the Lutheran 
 Church at present consists of four general 
 independent organizations. Each of these 
 is governed by a general representative 
 body, named respectively the General 
 Synod, the General Council, the United 
 Synod of the South, and the Synodical 
 Conference (Missouri Lutherans). These 
 general bodies consist of both clerical and 
 lay delegates elected by the district syn- 
 ods of which they are composed. There 
 are fourteen independent Lutheran syn- 
 ods in the United States. The growth 
 of the various Lutheran bodies has been in 
 1895 : 9,915 congregations, with an ag- 
 gregate membership of 1,387,764. They 
 maintain 25 theological seminaries, hav- 
 ing, in 1895, i>307 students; and 33 col- 
 leges, with an aggregate of 4,470 students. 
 They sustain 39 orphan asylums, 7 old 
 people's homes, 10 hospitals, and a number 
 of other special eleemosynary institutions. 
 
 Lydia. — A woman of Thyatira, a seller 
 of purple, who dwelt in the city of Phil- 
 ippi in Macedonia, and was converted by 
 St. Paul's preaching (Acts xvi. 14,40). 
 
 Lying. — A lie is that which is written, 
 spoken, or insinuated, by word or act, 
 with the intention to deceive ; whether, 
 by asserting a thing as true, we believe to 
 be false, or affirming as false what we be- 
 lieve to be true. For the malice of lying 
 consists, principally, in the intention we 
 have to deceive our neighbor, not only by 
 hiding the truth, but by leading him into 
 
 an error. There is the jocose lie, told for 
 merriment; the officious lie, told for our 
 own or another person's excuse or de- 
 fense; and the pernicious lie, told for the 
 injury of one's neighbor. Falsehoods 
 told for some necessary utility to ourselves 
 or others, in no way harming any one, are 
 not grievous, though, strictly speaking, all 
 lying is forbidden, and "the custom 
 thereof is not good " (Ecclus. vii. 14). For 
 we never know when it may lead us, or 
 others, into serious offense, and it is com- 
 pletely opposed to God, who is truth it- 
 self, and who has given us the faculty of 
 expressing our thoughts for the end of our 
 salvation. "A thief is better than a man 
 who is always lying : but both of them 
 shall inherit destruction. The manners of 
 lying men are without honor; and their 
 confusion is with them without ceasing" 
 (Ecclus. XX. 27, 28). Lying is pernicious 
 when we have the direct intention or run 
 the evident risk of harming our neighbor; 
 it may therefore be mortal sin, for " the 
 mouth that belieth, killeth the soul " 
 (Wisd. i. II). 
 
 Lyons {Councils of). — Lyons, a city of 
 southern France, in which two general 
 councils were held. The first, or Thirteenth 
 General Council, was convoked by Inno- 
 cent IV. in 1245. The chief questions 
 submitted to the Council for discussion 
 affected: i. The relations of the Greek 
 Church to the Latin. 2. The condition of 
 the Holy Land. 3. The invasion of Hun- 
 gary by the Tartars. 4. The distressful 
 situation of the Latin empire of Constanti- 
 nople. 5. The persecution of the Church 
 by the Emperor Frederick II. of Germany. 
 
 The second Council of Lyons, or the 
 Fourteenth General Council was sum- 
 moned by Gregory X. in 1274. The de- 
 clared objects of the Council were: Succor 
 to the Holy Land, the reconciliation of the 
 Greek Church, and the reformation of 
 morals. In regard to the first point, one- 
 tenth of all ecclesiastical revenues was 
 voted for six years. As to the second, in 
 the fourth session the reunion of the Greek 
 Church with the Latin was solemnized. 
 The Creed was chanted in both Greek and 
 Latin, and the words, "who proceeded 
 from the Father and the Son," were re- 
 peated three times. 
 
 Lystra. — A city of Lycaonia (a region 
 of Asia Minor), and the native place of 
 Timothy. It is now called Latik (Acts 
 xvi. i). 
 
Maacha 
 
 431 
 
 Machabees 
 
 M 
 
 Maacha. — i. King of Geth. Supported 
 Hanon, King of the Ammonites, against 
 David. The latter defeated them both. 
 2. One of the wives of David and mother 
 of Absalom. 
 
 Mabillon (John) (1632-1707). — Born at 
 St. Pierremont, Ardennes, France; died at 
 Paris. A noted French scholar and his- 
 torian, a member of the Benedictine Order. 
 His works include Acta Sanctorum ordi- 
 nis S. Benedicti (1675-1685), De re dip- 
 lomatica (1681), Museum Italicum (1687- 
 1689), etc. 
 
 Macarius (St.) of Egypt or the Elder 
 (300-390). Born in Upper Egypt, monk of 
 the Thebaid. He was ordained priest in 
 340. We have extant of his writings fifty 
 homilies, or exhortations to monks. 
 Macarius (St.) of Alexandria, or the 
 Younger (306-395). Monk in the solitude 
 of Nitria in Egypt, suffered persecution on 
 account of his adherence to the symbol of 
 Nice. He has left some ascetical works. 
 
 Macedonia. — A large country and re- 
 gion lying north of Greece proper, bounded 
 on the south by Thessaly and Epirus ; 
 east, by Thrace and the yEgean sea; west, 
 by the Adriatic sea and Illyria, and north, 
 by Dardania and Mcesia. Its most cele- 
 brated mountains were Olympus and 
 Athos. The Macedonians under Philip 
 and Alexander the Great, subdued Greece, 
 and became one of the most powerful 
 nations of antiquity. The Romans at 
 length divided the whole of Greece and 
 Macedonia into two great provinces, which 
 they called Macedonia and Achaia. In the 
 New Testament the name is probably to be 
 taken in the latter sense. 
 
 Macedonius. — Heresiarch, named pa- 
 triarch of Constantinople by the Arians in 
 342, he was replaced, in 347, by the Catholic 
 Bishop Paulus. Replaced on the patri- 
 archal see in 350, he remained thereon 
 only until 360, at which time the Arians 
 themselves deposed him. Then he became 
 the head of a sect which denied the divin- 
 ity of the Holy Ghost. 
 
 Machabees {Books of the). — We pos- 
 sess no continuous history of the events 
 which occurred among the Jews during the 
 four hundred years which elapsed between 
 
 the death of Nehemias, who rebuilt the 
 walls of Jerusalem, and the birth of our 
 Lord Jesus Christ. All the record we pos- 
 sess regarding that long lapse of time is 
 contained in the two books of Machabees, 
 which narrate the fierce struggles of the 
 faithful Jews against impiety. If this pe- 
 riod of their history is not the most pros- 
 perous, it is certainly the most glorious; 
 for during it, the body of the people re- 
 mained faithful to the practice of the laws 
 of God. About this time, prophets ceased 
 to appear among the Jews, and their office 
 was replaced by the priests and the scribes, 
 whose special duty it was to preserve their 
 inspired writings and explain them. They, 
 with the gallant Machabees, were the in- 
 struments used by Providence to guard the 
 people of God against the false doctrines 
 of the Greek philosophers, just as it had 
 been preserved by prophets during the 
 captivity from the contagion of idolatry. 
 During the period of which we speak, the 
 Jews were subject to the Persians, the 
 Syrians, and the Egyptians, and through 
 constant intercourse with their conquerors, 
 either at home or abroad, they, or at least 
 many of them, were induced to unite the 
 doctrines of Moses with the philosophy 
 and heathen practices of the Greeks. 
 Those who remained faithful to the old 
 traditions were called Assideans, the un- 
 faithful were named iniqui or sinners. 
 The Assideans were the true friends of 
 their country, the Hellenists were the 
 friends and supporters of the Egyptians or 
 of the Syrians. A moment came when the 
 wicked nearly destroyed the true religion 
 and caused paganism to triumph over it. 
 Then it was that the God of Israel raised 
 up the Machabees, who saved both their 
 country and their religion. These heroic 
 men are sometimes called Asmonaeans from 
 one Asmonaeus, their ancestor. 
 
 Machabees (The). — Name of seven 
 brothers, sons of Eleazar, whom Antiochus 
 Epiphanes wished to force to adore the 
 idols and to eat pork meat. Upon their 
 refusal, this prince caused them to be killed 
 by the most atrocious torments, as well as 
 their mother Salome, who did not cease to 
 uphold their courage, while they were ex- 
 ecuted, 168 B. c. The Church honors them 
 as martyrs. F. Aug. ist. 
 
Machabeus 
 
 432 
 
 Magic 
 
 Machabeus (Jonathas). — High-priest, 
 brother of the following, died in 144 b. c. 
 Acknowledged high-priest by the usurper 
 Alexander Bula, he placed himself at the 
 head of the Jews after the death of Judas, 
 expelled Bacchides from Judea, upheld 
 the pretensions of Demetrius Nicator, then 
 of Alexander VI. to the throne of Syria, 
 and was assassinated by Tryphon, tutor of 
 the latter. 
 
 Machabeus (Judas). — Jewish warrior, 
 son of Mathathias, died in 160 b. c. He 
 succeeded his father in the commandry of 
 the army of Israel, 167 b. c, successively 
 defeated Apollonius, lieutenant of Anti- 
 ochus, near Samaria, Seron, Syrian general, 
 at Bethoron ; the generals Ptolemy, Ni- 
 canor, and Gorgias, sent by Lysias, gov- 
 ernor of Syria in the absence of Antiochus, 
 and Lysias himself. He purified the Tem- 
 ple of Jerusalem, profaned by Antiochus, 
 and restored, therein, the worship of the 
 true God. Antiochus Eupator made peace 
 with him. Under Demetrius Soter (161), 
 he conquered Bacchides and Nicanor. But 
 attacked anew by Bacchides, he lost his life 
 after an heroic battle. 
 
 Machabeus (Simon). — Brother of Jon- 
 athas Machabeus, died in 135 B.C. Acknowl- 
 edged high-priest by Demetrius Nicator, 
 he made an alliance with the Romans ; ex- 
 pelled the Syrians from Jerusalem; pro- 
 cured the independence of Judea, after the 
 victory over Antiochus VII., surnamed Si- 
 detes by his sons, Judas and John Hyr- 
 canus, and was assassinated with two of his 
 sons, Judas and Mathathias, by his son-in- 
 law Ptolemy, governor of Jericho. 
 
 Madianites. — An Arabian tribe settled 
 in the northern part of the Syro- Arabian 
 desert. In Gen. xxv. 2 the Madianites 
 are represented as descendants of Abraham 
 and Cethura. They harassed the Israel- 
 ites in the period of the Judges, crossing 
 the Jordan with their hordes and despoil- 
 ing the country, until they were defeated 
 by Gedeon. They disappeared more and 
 more from history, and are mentioned only 
 as a trading people (Is. Ix. 6.). 
 
 Magdala. — In the Old Testament, a 
 town in Palestine, situated on the western 
 shore of the Sea of Galilee ; the modern 
 El-Mejdel. Country of St. Mary Mag- 
 dalen. 
 
 Magdalen (St. Mary). — According to 
 an old tradition, St. Mary Magdalen was 
 
 the sister of Martha and Lazarus, and was 
 that sinner who anointed the Saviour's 
 feet. After her conversion, she became 
 the most faithful and zealous servant 
 of the Lord. She stood with Mary, the 
 mother of Jesus, and Mary, the wife of 
 Cleophas, under the Cross ; she was first at 
 the sepulchre after the Sabbath, and there 
 saw Jesus, whom she thought to be a gard- 
 ener, until He kindly made Himself known 
 to her, and commanded her to announce 
 the news of His resurrection to the 
 Apostles and disciples. She came into 
 Provence, Gaul, with Lazarus and Martha, 
 and passed the rest of her days at St. 
 Baume, in penance, prayer, and contem- 
 plation. F. July 22d. 
 
 Magdalen de Pazzi (St. Mary) (1566- 
 1607). — Religious, born and died at Flor- 
 ence. Of the illustrious family of the 
 Pazzi, allied to the Medicis; she took the 
 veil in 1582, at the Carmilites. She was 
 canonized in 1669. 
 
 Mageddo. — Town of ancient Palestine, 
 in the northern tribe of Manasses. Cap- 
 tured by Josias, king of Juda and by Nechao, 
 king of Egypt in 610 B. c. In the Roman 
 period, this city changed its name to that 
 of Legio, and appears to have been, then, 
 of great importance. 
 
 Magi. — According to the Gospel of St. 
 Matthew (ii. i, 2) the three kings from the 
 East, who came to adore the new-born 
 Saviour at Bethlehem. Most probably 
 they came from Mesopotamia. Tradition 
 qualifies them as kings and tells us that 
 they were three in number: Caspar, Bal- 
 thazar, and Melchior. A mysterious star 
 served them as guide. When the Apostle 
 St. Thomas went to preach the Gospel in 
 their country, they were still living. In- 
 structed, baptized, and consecrated bishops 
 by him, they exercised the apostolic func- 
 tions in Eastern countries, and obtained the 
 crown of martyrdom. Cologne possesses, 
 since 1162, some relics of the Magi, which 
 are held in great veneration by the inhabit- 
 ants of that city. 
 
 Magic and Spiritualism. — Magic, or 
 the production of extraordinary effects by 
 unnatural means; and spiritualism, or in- 
 tercourse with spirits by the aid of medi- 
 ums or table-rappings, must necessarily 
 be a communication with the evil one, who 
 produces false appearances and impres- 
 sions. " The soul that shall go aside after 
 
Magnificat 
 
 433 
 
 Mammon 
 
 magicians and soothsayers" (Lev. xx. 6) 
 is condemned by God. 
 
 Magnificat. — Canticle of the Blessed 
 Virgin, sung at Vespers, and which com- 
 mences with the word Magnificat, and 
 which the Mother of God sang upon the 
 occasion of her visit to her cousin Eliza- 
 beth (Luke i. 46). 
 
 Magog and Gog. — According to Ezech. 
 (xxxviii. and xxxix.), Gog was a ruler in 
 the land of Magog, and is mentioned as 
 the prince of Mesa and Tubal. In Apoc. 
 (xx. 8), Gog and Magog appear as two 
 allied warring tribes. They were formerly 
 regarded as connected with the invasion 
 of the Scythians in Western Asia, but of 
 late Gog has been identified with Gagu, 
 referred to in the annals of the Assyrian 
 king Asurbanipal (668-626 b.c.) as the 
 mighty ruler of a warlike tribe in the ter- 
 ritory of Sahi, north of Assyria. 
 
 Mahomet. See Mohammedanism. 
 
 Mai (Angelo) (1782-1854). — Jesuit 
 and cardinal, born at Schilpario, province 
 of Bergamo, died at Albano. Attached to 
 the Ambrosian Library of Milan, he dis- 
 covered, in examining the palimfsesies, a 
 number of unpublished works and frag- 
 ments of ancient authors. Named by 
 Pius VIL, in 1819, librarian of the Vatican, 
 he discovered therein the greater part of 
 the Republic of Cicero ; secretary in 1833 
 of the Propaganda, cardinal in 1838. 
 
 Maid of Orleans. See Joan of Arc. 
 
 Malachias (Hebr. messenger of the 
 Lord). — The last of the twelve minor 
 Prophets, of the tribe of Zabulon, born at 
 Sopha. He was a contemporary of Nehe- 
 mias, and prophesied, it is believed, from 
 412 to 408 B. c. We have from him three 
 chapters, wherein he reproaches the Jews 
 on account of their corruption, and an- 
 nounces the Messias. Some Jewish doc- 
 tors confound him with Esdras. 
 
 Malachy (St.) (1094-1148). — Malachy, 
 born at Armagh, was a disciple of St. Mal- 
 chus, Bishop of Lismore. After he had 
 rebuilt the great Abbey of Bangor, which, 
 by his care again became a flourishing 
 seminary of piety and learning, he was 
 named to the bishopric of Down, and 
 afterwards elevated to the primatial chair 
 of Armagh. While in this high station, 
 Malachy introduced many reforms, and, 
 by his zeal and still more by his holy ex- 
 28 
 
 ample, wrought a great change through- 
 out Ireland. In 1137, he resigned his 
 primatial dignity, consecrated Gelasius, in 
 his place, another bishop for Connor, and 
 reserved for himself the small see of Down. 
 To procure the papal sanction for his re- 
 forms, and also to obtain the pallium for 
 the metropolitan of Armagh and Cashel, 
 St. Malachy undertook a journey to Rome, 
 in 1 139. Pope Innocent II. received him 
 with mark of the highest distinction, and 
 appointed him Apostolic Legate for Ire- 
 land, but deferred the concession of the 
 palliums to a future period. After his re- 
 turn, St. Malachy discharged his office 
 of legate with characteristic devotedness, 
 which resulted in much fruit, visiting 
 every part of the island and holding syn- 
 ods. With the aid of the monks who had 
 taken the Cistercian habit at Clairvaux, 
 he founded the Cistercian Abbey of Melli- 
 font, in Louth, which was the first of that 
 order in Ireland. In 1148, he held the 
 great Synod of Holmpatrick, and under- 
 took a second journey to Rome, but came 
 only as far as Clairvaux where he died in 
 the arms of his illustrious friend, St. Ber- 
 nard. F. Nov. 3d. As to the Prophecies, 
 attributed to St. Malachy, see Popes 
 ( Future) . 
 
 Malchus. — Servant of Caiphas, had 
 his ear cut off by St. Peter, at the moment 
 when he laid hands on our divine Saviour 
 in the Garden of Olives. 
 
 Maldonatus (John) (1534-1583). — Jesuit 
 and theologian, born at Estramadura. He 
 was an excellent Greek and Hebrew scholar 
 and a fine historian. Taught, with great 
 success, philosophy and theology in Paris, 
 and at the University of Pont-a-Mousson, 
 France. Wrongly accused of Socinianism, 
 he retired to Rome (1575) where he assisted 
 at the edition of the Bible of the Septua- 
 gint. He died at Rome, 
 
 Mambre. — Name of a valley of Pales- 
 tine between Hebron and Jerusalem, where 
 the Patriarch Abraham resided for some 
 time. 
 
 Mamertus (St.). — Archbishop of Vienne, 
 about 463, died about 477. Established in 
 his diocese (469) the processions and pub- 
 lic prayers called Rogations, to ask from 
 God the cessation of the plagues that rav- 
 aged Vienne and Dauphine. 
 
 Mammon. — A Chaldaic word signifying 
 riches, used twice by our Lord (Matt. vi. 
 
Man 
 
 434 
 
 Man 
 
 24; Luke xvi. 9-1 1). It never was the 
 name of a personal being, though to those 
 who set their heart on it, wealth, is as much 
 an idol as Baal and Astarte. 
 
 Man {from the scientific point of I'/Vw). 
 — They deny to-day, in the name of a false 
 science, all that Scripture teaches us about 
 the first man. It is our purpose to answer 
 briefly all the objections they make against 
 the Sacred Books, when treating the fol- 
 lowing three questions : I. Was the first 
 man an intermediary being between the 
 animal and the existing man? 2. Was he 
 a savage ? 3. In what period did he make 
 his appearance? 
 
 I. The Animal Origin of Man. — For 
 the adherents of Monism, who admit with 
 all its consequences the evolutionary 
 theory, and reject all idea of creation, 
 there has not been a first man, properly 
 speaking. The transformation which 
 ended in giving to one or several animals 
 placed among favorable conditions the 
 characteristics that distinguish us, has 
 been so insensible, that it is impossible not 
 only to fix the date of the appearance of our 
 species, but even to tell what individual 
 was its first representative. The principal 
 champion of contemporary Darwinism, 
 Haeckel, formally tells us that this change 
 "took place with such slowness, that we 
 cannot in any manner, speak of a first 
 man." 
 
 The famous professor of Jena teaches, how- 
 ever, that the species which preceded ours, 
 and to which we owe existence, belonged 
 to the ape family, the first of the order of 
 Quadrumanes. The man ape whom they 
 have called more learnedly, the fithecan- 
 thropusy or anthrofofithecus (de Mortil- 
 let), would have lived about the end of the 
 Tertiary epoch, perhaps even earlier, ac- 
 cording to de Mortillet, who attributes to 
 him the so-called wrought flints of the 
 Miocene strata of Thenay, in France. It 
 was an anthropoid, a brother of the exist- 
 ing anthropoids, but approaching man 
 closer in his anatomical or physiological 
 characteristics ; for nobody pretends to- 
 day to derive us from apes belonging to 
 the contemporary fauna, so considerable is 
 the distance that separates us from them. 
 
 The opinion of Darwin, author of the 
 evolutionary system most in vogue, does 
 not differ in this respect from that of his 
 disciple Haeckel. It was, the English 
 naturalist tells us in a summary, a hairy 
 mammifer, provided with a tail and pointed 
 
 ears, who undoubtedly lived on the trees 
 and inhabited the ancient continent. 
 
 However, we have to admit that all the 
 opponents of the creation of man do not 
 make us descend from the ape. It seems 
 that in the eyes cf a great number of them, 
 it would be rendering us too great an 
 honor to attribute this origin to our spe- 
 cies ; it is at a lower stage, at best among 
 the marsupials or the didelphiae, that we 
 must look for our ancestors. They at least 
 acknowledge that the laws which preside 
 over the general development of beings 
 are opposed to our descending from any 
 quadrumane whatever. This is the opinion 
 of Professors Huxley, of England, Filippi, 
 of Italy, and Vogt, of Switzerland, al- 
 though the latter seemed sometimes to 
 make our ancestor the existing ape; and 
 one day, perhaps in a moment of humor, 
 he is alleged to have said that he preferred 
 to be " rather a perfectioned monkey, than 
 a degenerated Adam." 
 
 We have rather to do then with the ani- 
 mal origin of man than with his simian 
 origin. However, this point is of little 
 importance ; for, whatever may be the dif- 
 ferent views that separate them in regard 
 to the human genealogy, our adversaries 
 have recourse to the same arguments when 
 there is question of proving their general 
 thesis : the derivation of man from a lower 
 type. We can, therefore, borrow these 
 arguments from Darwin himself, the head 
 of the party. 
 
 These pretended proofs are of three 
 kinds. They consist: i. In the general 
 conformation of the body of man ; 2. In 
 the development of the human embryo ; 
 3. In the presence in man of rudimentary 
 organs. Let us expose them briefly. 
 
 First Objection. — "It is well known," 
 says Darwin, " that man is built after the 
 same general type, after the same model, 
 as the other mammifera. All the bones of 
 his skeleton are comparable with the cor- 
 responding bones of an ape, of a bat, or of 
 a seal. It is the same with his muscles, 
 nerves, blood vessels, and internal viscera. 
 The brain, the most important of all, fol- 
 lows the same law. . . . Man, BischoflF 
 has said, approaches nearer to the anthro- 
 pomorphous apes in the anatomical char- 
 acteristics of his brain than the latter 
 approach not only other mammifera, but 
 even certain quadrumanes, she-monkeys 
 and dog-faced monkeys." 
 
 Man, adds Darwin, has the same ail- 
 ments as the lower animals. He can re- 
 
Man 
 
 435 
 
 Man 
 
 ceive and communicate madness, smallpox, 
 the glanders, etc., " a fact which evidently 
 proves the great similarity of their tissues 
 and blood." Apes are subject to a great 
 number of other sicknesses : catarrh and 
 phthisis, for instance. They share our 
 taste for coflfee, tea, and spirituous liquors. 
 We have seen them drunk from brandy, 
 wine, and strong beer. " These facts 
 prove," he tells us, " how much alike are 
 the nerves of taste in man and apes, and 
 how the entire nervous system is similarly 
 affected." 
 
 Second Objection. — Man is developed 
 from an egg which differs in nothing from 
 that of other animals. The embryo itself, 
 in an early period, can hardly be distin- 
 guished from that of other members of the 
 kingdom of vertebrates. As proof of what 
 he advances, Darwin gives a double figure 
 representing the embryo of a man and 
 that of a dog, which hardly differ except 
 in the unequal development of certain 
 parts. 
 
 The English naturalist adds — and his 
 disciples have insisted still more than him- 
 self on this argument — that the human 
 embryo presents more marked successive 
 analogies, in proportion to its develop- 
 ment, with diverse classes of animals, com- 
 mencing naturally with the lower ones. 
 
 Third Objection. — The organs which 
 Darwin calls rudimentary, or simply rudi- 
 ments, are useless organs, and generally 
 little developed, whose presence is ex- 
 plained, according to him, only because 
 man has inherited them from ancestors in 
 whom, on the contrary, they were devel- 
 oped and had their reason of being. Sev- 
 eral muscles would be of this class, among 
 others, those which in animals serve to 
 move the external ear, and which in the 
 orangs and chimpanzees are already out of 
 use and atrophied. The third eyelid, or 
 nictitate membrane, which permits the 
 birds to rapidly cover the eyeball, also ex- 
 ists in the rudimentary state in man as well 
 as in the quadrumanes and most of the 
 mammifera. We might say as much of 
 the sense of smell, which renders such 
 great service to certain animals, either by 
 warning them of danger (ruminants), or 
 by enabling them to discover their prey 
 (carnivora), and which in man is almost 
 useless. The scattered hair on man's body, 
 the down with which the human foetus is 
 entirely covered at the sixth month, would 
 be equally a remnant of the hairy integu- 
 ment of the animals from which we are de- 
 
 rived. The vermiform appendix of the 
 caecum (blind gut), a kind of blind alley 
 to-day without use, and even hurtful, since 
 it is the cause of some ailments, would 
 also be a remnant and a witness of the 
 same organ, very much developed, how- 
 ever, which exists in certain herbivorous 
 mammifera, where it has its function to 
 fulfill. The skeleton furnishes facts of the 
 same nature, whether in the coccyx bone, 
 which represents in us the tail of the mam- 
 mifera, or in the perforation which we 
 accidently meet in the human humerus, 
 especially anKjng the ancient races, and 
 which normally exists in the ape. To un- 
 derstand these anomalies, " it is enough," 
 says Darwin, "to suppose that a remote 
 ancestor possessed the organs in question 
 in a perfect state, and that, under the in- 
 fluence of a change in the vital habits, 
 they had the tendency to disappear through 
 the want of use or on account of natural 
 selection." (Darwin, The Descent of 
 Man.) 
 
 Answer. — We have summed up as faith- 
 fully as possible, and without taking away 
 anything of their force, the arguments 
 which Darwin brings forward in support 
 of the evolutionary theory applied to our 
 species; it is not our intention to answer 
 them in detail. Space does not permit 
 this, and it would be quite useless. Indeed, 
 running over the above short exposition of 
 them, our readers must have seen that they 
 present nothing new, that the physical re- 
 semblance of man to the animal was some- 
 thing known a long time, and of a nature 
 to set off still more the infinite superiority 
 of the human soul, because, with almost 
 like organs, our species has raised itself far 
 above the beast. A word, however, on 
 each of the groups of the arguments ap- 
 pealed to by Darwin. 
 
 I. In the first place the English natural- 
 ist purposely exaggerates our exterior re- 
 semblance to the animal. Anatomically 
 man is a mammifer and nothing more ; this 
 we have long known. Each bone of our 
 skeleton has its analogy in the skeleton of 
 the ape. However, it is not less true that 
 all these bones have their peculiar charac- 
 ter, their fades, which will permit an ex- 
 perienced anatomist to recognize them at 
 a glance. And this is only the least of the 
 physical features that distinguish us. Alone 
 among the mammifera, man is organized 
 for the vertical attitude ; he alone has two 
 hands and two feet. His dentition and the 
 nakedness of his skin again distinguish him 
 
Man 
 
 436 
 
 Man 
 
 from the ape, whose teeth are real instru- 
 ments of defense and whose skin is remark- 
 ably shaggy, especially on the dorsal part, 
 which in man is the most wanting in hair. 
 How can the fact of the disappearance of 
 this hairy covering be explained, which, 
 according to the evolutionists, protected 
 our ancestor against the inclemency of the 
 seasons ? The Darwinist doctrine pretends 
 to explain, it is true, the acquisition of the 
 useful variations ; but everyone will ac- 
 knowledge that the latter is not of the 
 number. This nakedness is so little in- 
 dicative of progress for man, that under 
 every climate he believes himself obliged 
 to supply this lost protection by the use of 
 clothing. Logically, Darwin ought to have 
 made the ape descend from man rather than 
 man from the ape. 
 
 It is also very wrong for him to seek in 
 the brain an argument in support of his 
 theory. The weight of the brain, com- 
 pared with that of the body, is three times 
 more considerable in man than in the ape. 
 The circumvolutions are also deeper, and, 
 which is a remarkable thing, the circum- 
 volutions develop themselves in an inverted 
 order in the two cases. In man, they ap- 
 pear at first on the forehead, while in the 
 ape those of the middle lobe delineate 
 themselves first. The Darwinists have not 
 yet been able to explain this anomaly, 
 which denotes quite a different origin. 
 "It is evident, especially according to the 
 most fundamental principles of the Dar- 
 winist doctrine," remarks Quatrefages, 
 '* that an organized being cannot descend 
 from another being whose development 
 follows an inverse process of its own. Con- 
 sequently, man cannot, according to these 
 same principles, count among his ances- 
 tors a simian type." 
 
 After this we are permitted to pass over 
 the other characteristic features of our 
 species. They must, however, be well de- 
 fined, because Cuvier and other naturalists, 
 who, in general classification of beings, 
 have kept account only of the exterior 
 characters, have been led to make of man 
 not only a species, but a family, even a 
 class apart. Is there in nature a single 
 other being of which one can say the 
 same? 
 
 This simple remark constitutes a suffi- 
 cient answer to those who pretend that one 
 cannot logically explain the transforma- 
 tion of animals without extending it to 
 man himself. All the animals are suffi- 
 ciently connected with one another. Es- 
 
 pecially since the rise of paleontology, 
 through the association of the fossil species 
 with the existing species, we can fill up a 
 great number of gaps that existed in the 
 general series of beings. Few species con- 
 stitute in themselves alone so many distinct 
 kinds to form families, and families to 
 form classes. Man alone forms an excep- 
 tion to this rule, and, as we shall see, 
 paleontology has only confirmed his isola- 
 tion. What would a man be were we to 
 take into consideration his intellectual 
 faculties? Then it would be not only a 
 family or an isolated class that he would 
 constitute but a kingdom, because reason, 
 which distinguishes him, elevates him not 
 less above the animal than sensibilitv, 
 which distinguishes the latter and elevates 
 it above the plant. 
 
 We think it useless to take up the con- 
 siderations of Darwin in regard to the 
 identity of the ailments that attack both 
 man and animal, and the identity of the 
 remedies that cure both. To be aston- 
 ished at these traits of resemblance, one 
 forgets that all organized beings have been 
 created according to the same general 
 plan and obey the same physical laws. 
 
 2. The argument drawn from the em- 
 bryogenic development offers little diffi- 
 culty. It is true that man starts out by 
 an ovule, like all animals ; to believe 
 Haeckel, the human embryo, in develop- 
 ing itself, would be in turn a zo-ophite, a 
 fish, a batrachian, a reptile, and a mam- 
 mifer; but these alleged successive states 
 are more than contestable, and, "if they 
 were real, they would have no bearing on 
 the origin of man. 
 
 First, they are contestable. Indeed, in 
 order to convince us, it is not enough that 
 Haeckel affirms these states. For we 
 know that good faith is not the dominant 
 quality of the professor of Jena. It is 
 proved to-day that, to render more strik- 
 ing the resemblance of the embryos of 
 man and animal, he greatly altered the 
 cuts which pretend to represent them in 
 one of his books. This was long ago re- 
 marked in Germany. Dr. Jousset estab- 
 lishes " an enormous difference " between 
 the human embryo, pictured by Haeckel, 
 and that which is represented in the 
 Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Medical 
 Sciences. He adds that the embryo of the 
 chicken, which Haeckel compares with the 
 human embryo, presents a development 
 and " rudimentary buds," which it has not 
 in reality, but which result in accentuating 
 
Man 
 
 437 
 
 Man 
 
 its resemblance to the human embryo. It 
 can be seen that we have good reasons for 
 not believing the word of the German pro- 
 fessor. 
 
 In the judgment of the most competent 
 naturalists, the similarities alleged are 
 purely illusive. That there are certain 
 analogies between the successive states 
 that the embryo assumes, and the different 
 groups of the animal series, we do not dis- 
 pute ; but from simple analogy to a com- 
 plete resemblance is a long distance. "At 
 no moment of its existence," says Gratio- 
 let, the famous anatomist, " does man 
 resemble any other species. ... In all the 
 stages of foetal life, man is man potentially, 
 and definite characteristics distinguish 
 him. The forms of the embryo have a re- 
 markable relation to the future forms, they 
 are complicated, it is true, but according 
 to a specific mode ; in a word, at all times, 
 the future man reveals himself. . . . At no 
 time, does the brain of the human foetus 
 absolutely resemble that of an ape; far 
 from it. The greater its development, the 
 more marked is the difference." 
 
 Although these are facts, and not mere 
 personal impressions, it might be objected 
 that Gratiolet allowed himself to be in- 
 fluenced by his prejudices in favor of the 
 fixity of species, and the superiority of 
 human nature. This reproach will not be 
 made to Carl Vogt, one of the champions of 
 evolution and of free thought. Now Carl 
 Vogt protests still more energetically than 
 Gratiolet against the pretended similarities 
 of the human embyro, and that of the 
 lower animals. "It has been supposed," 
 he says, " that the embryos must run 
 through in abridgment, the same phases 
 which the stratum has run through during 
 its development in the geological epochs. 
 This law, which I long believed to be well 
 founded, is absolutely false in its basis. 
 An attentive study of embryology proves, 
 indeed, that the embryos have certain har- 
 mony, although very different from those 
 of adults." For example, the professor of 
 Geneva quotes the alleged form of fish 
 which the embryo of the mammifer tem- 
 porarily assumes, and he remarks that " a 
 similar being could not live," seeing that 
 the embryo has in this state " neither in- 
 testines, nor locomotive organs, nor brain, 
 nor organs of the senses proper to the ex- 
 ercise of their functions." {'■'■ Revue Sci- 
 entifique,'" Oct. i6th, 1886.) 
 
 Those, therefore, who have claimed that 
 the human embryo represents by turns the 
 
 different groups of the animal series, com- 
 mencing with the zo-ophites, have been 
 greatly deceived. Undoubtedly, there is 
 progression in the foetal life ; consequently, 
 there is a passage through a series of phases 
 which remind us of the ascending ladder 
 we remark in nature ; but the human 
 being has never an identical resemblance 
 with any other being. Besides, if such 
 were the reality, we might ask what would 
 this prove from the point of view of man's 
 origin. What necessary relation is there 
 between these transitory states and the 
 alleged phases through which our species 
 might have passed anteriorly.? One would 
 be so much the less authorized to conclude 
 from the one to the other, because by the 
 avowal of an evolutionist who is at the 
 same time an eminent geologist, Albert 
 Gaudry, " paleontology, which must be 
 questioned first in such matters, is not far 
 from having furnished the proof that the 
 mammifer does not descend from the rep- 
 tile, nor the reptile from the fish." 
 
 3. The rudimentary organs will not de- 
 tain us long. We may say of these organs 
 what we have said of the pretended embry- 
 onic phases : they have neither the impor- 
 tance nor the significance attributed to 
 them. Their presence in man is explained 
 by the simple consideration that all organ- 
 ized beings are subject to the same physio- 
 logical laws. 
 
 The argument which they oppose to us 
 has the defect of proving too much. The 
 rudimentary organs are so numerous and 
 of such a different nature in man, and they 
 resemble in this respect so many animals 
 in which they have their complete devel- 
 opment, that, if they were to suppose an 
 identity of origin, we would have to con- 
 clude that man has passed anteriorly 
 through all the classes of the vertebrates. 
 Now, who will believe, for instance, that 
 he counts birds among his ancestors, be- 
 cause he possesses in the embryonic state 
 the nictitate membrane.? One would arrive 
 at stranger consequences were he to pre- 
 tend to see in these rudiments a remnant 
 of organs developed and utilized in a prior 
 state. The atrophied breasts which males 
 possess in the class of the mammifera are 
 certainly rudimentary organs and the 
 most striking of all. Must we conclude 
 from this that formerly the males were 
 females.? These rudimentary organs are 
 common to all animals and until now it 
 never entered anyone's mind to see in 
 them traces of an anterior state. So it 
 
Man 
 
 438 
 
 Man 
 
 is that the embryo of the whale is pos- 
 sessed of teeth which never succeed in 
 piercing the gums. It is the same with 
 the incisors with which the calf is pro- 
 vided in the foetal state. Does this mean 
 that the whale and the bull passed through 
 anterior states in which they were pro- 
 vided with teeth of which they are de- 
 prived to-day.? Evolutionists themselves 
 would hardly dare to assert this. 
 
 The olecranial perforation of the hu- 
 merus alleged by Darwin has not, in every 
 case, the significance which the English 
 naturalist attaches to it. According to 
 an unprejudiced anthropologist, George 
 Herve, it cannot be looked upon as a simian 
 characteristic peculiar to certain inferior 
 races. " We meet with it as often among 
 the higher races as among the lower races, 
 and its existence is every whit as variable 
 as among the animals." The same author 
 elsewhere says that this perforation is much 
 more rare in the Merovingian sepulchres 
 than in the modern sepulchres. It is, there- 
 fore, false to say, as do most of the evolu- 
 tionists, that it is so much the more frequent 
 as we draw nearer the beginning of man- 
 kind. Like the phases of the embryonic 
 life, the rudimentary organs prove once 
 more that a general plan has presided at 
 the creation. They do not prove anything 
 else. 
 
 So we see that of all the arguments al- 
 leged by Darwin in support of his thesis, 
 none has the force which their author at- 
 tributes to them. We need not be surprised 
 then, that the work which contained the 
 development thereof, the treatise on the 
 Descent of Man, caused a certain disap- 
 pointment among the evolutionists. " We 
 imagined that this work would be of much 
 greater importance," wrote an admirer of 
 the English naturalist shortly after its pub- 
 lication. " We would not be candid with 
 our readers if we did not confess that these 
 volumes are in no respect comparable to 
 any of the preceding books of Mr. Dar- 
 win. ... In regard to the origin of 
 man, they contain less than we had ex- 
 pected, and the proofs brought forward in 
 support of that thesis are hardly stronger 
 than those we knew before." ("The Popu- 
 lar Science Review," July, 1871.) 
 
 There would have been for Darwin an- 
 other means of proving his thesis, namely, 
 to point out in the superficial strata of the 
 earth the fossil skeleton of one of these an- 
 thropoids who were, according to his the- 
 ory, the precursors of our species. The 
 
 famous naturalist was careful not to have 
 recourse to this argument. He knew very 
 well that paleontology has revealed noth- 
 ing of this sort. He does not even dare to 
 put the question, for fear that the answer 
 might prove fatal to his system. Is it not 
 strange, indeed, that none of the numerous 
 links which, according to this system, 
 ought to connect man to the lower animals 
 has thus far been found, and that the ad- 
 herents of the animal origin of our species 
 are reduced to the necessity of making our 
 more or less simian precursors live on 
 some ancient continent submerged to-day.? 
 What are we to think of a theory which, 
 in order to support itself, appeals to the 
 unknown, and is based only on conjectures 
 and wholly gratuitous hypotheses? 
 
 Evolutionists flattered themselves, for 
 a time, that they had discovered one of 
 these precious links so ardently desired, 
 but looked for in vain. The ver}' incom- 
 plete remains of a large monkey had been 
 discovered in 1856 in the south of France. 
 The paleontologist, Edward Lartet, found 
 in this anthropoid, which was named 
 Dryopithecus, characteristics superior to 
 those of the existing anthropoids. It was 
 hastily concluded that one of the ancestors 
 of man had at length beeen discovered. 
 Unfortunately for the theorists of the evo- 
 lutionary school, a jawbone of the same 
 animal, more complete and better pre- 
 served than the preceding, was recently 
 discovered in the Miocene layers of Saint- 
 Gaudens, France. Albert Gaudry, to 
 whom it was sent, and who minutely de- 
 scribed it in a learned memoir read before 
 the Geological Society of France, does not 
 hesitate to acknowledge that the animal to 
 which it belonged was very inferior to the 
 present large monkeys. Gaudry' s avowal 
 has so much the more merit because in a 
 previous publication he had expressed the 
 idea that perhaps it was to the Dryopithe- 
 cus we owe the shape of flints, apparently 
 hand-worked, which were discovered in 
 the Tertiary grounds. " To-day, having 
 become a little less ignorant," he adds, 
 with a frankness that honors the learned 
 paleontologist, " I would not make use of 
 the same language. To judge from the 
 state of our knowledge, there was not in 
 Europe, in the Tertiary times, either a man 
 or any creature that resembled him 
 Since the Dryopithecus is the most ele- 
 vated of the large fossil monkeys discov- 
 ered until now, we have to acknowledge 
 that paleontology has not yet furnished 
 
Man 
 
 439 
 
 Man 
 
 any indication of the connecting link be- 
 tween man and the animals." 
 
 Thus, we see, the missing link is still to 
 be discovered. The progress of anthro- 
 pology, instead of giving us any hope of 
 finding it some day, authorizes us more 
 and more to doubt its existence. Some 
 anthropologists very favorable to the 
 Darwinian theory readily acknowledge 
 this. " In 1869," says one of them, " it 
 appeared that nothing could be easier 
 than to prove the descent of man from an 
 ape or from some other mammifer. We 
 have been forced to lessen our hopes 
 a good deal, and at the present hour we 
 do not see even the possibility of ever es- 
 tablishing the descent of the races from 
 one another. As to the precursor of man, 
 he is an hypothesis more than ever; and 
 we know now that the men of the prehis- 
 toric ages no more resembled the apes 
 than the present races." (Leon Laloy, in 
 the ^^ Antkropologie^' August, 1890.) 
 
 Logic, would require, perhaps, to re- 
 nounce forever the Darwinian theory; but 
 then it would be necessary to bow down 
 before the fact of creation, and this con- 
 cession is repugnant to modern rationalism. 
 But, at least, let them not impose upon us 
 in the name of science a theory which 
 science condemns ! 
 
 It is not only paleontology that is op- 
 posed to the evolutionary system as applied 
 to our species, but the principle itself of 
 the Darwinian evolution. An intimate 
 friend of Darwin, Mr. Wallace has ac- 
 knowledged this. "Of itself alone," he 
 says, " natural selection, which is the basis 
 of this system, is unable to explain the 
 animal origin of man." And he proves 
 this. Undoubtedly, selection, explains the 
 development and preservation of charac- 
 teristics having an immediate and personal 
 usefulness ; but all the changes which man 
 has experienced in the Darwinian hy- 
 pothesis, in order to pass from the simian 
 state to the present state, were not of this 
 nature. Some of them were useless or 
 even harmful. What advantage had, for 
 instance, the anthropopithecus that gave 
 rise to man in ridding himself of the 
 shaggy integument that covered him? 
 " Fur protects the individual against rain 
 and cold. ... It would have been very 
 useful for the savage to be protected in 
 this way. This is so true that the most 
 degraded peoples have invented some kind 
 of garment to cover themselves. . . . 
 Therefore, natural selection has not pro- 
 
 duced the nakedness of the body of man." 
 {Contributions to the Theory of Natural 
 Selection.) 
 
 We can say the same, after Wallace, of 
 the hand and larynx, which in the savage 
 present a perfection that is not in harmony 
 with the conclusion Darwin draws, and 
 hence cannot be explained by natural se- 
 lection. So in regard to the transforma- 
 tion of the hind-hand of the ape into a foot. 
 This transformation is far from being a 
 progress. It would have been very useful 
 to the savage to have kept this hind-hand, 
 whose disappearance it is very difficult to 
 explain by natural selection. 
 
 In order to give an account of the acqui- 
 sition of the characteristics of this nature, 
 Mr. Wallace is obliged to have recourse to 
 an artificial selection, whose agent would 
 have been a " superior being," of which he 
 does not give a clear explanation, but 
 which would have " guided the march of 
 the human species in a definite direction 
 and for a special end, just as man guides 
 that of many animal and vegetable forms." 
 Mr. Wallace hereby acknowledges with 
 de Quatrefages that it is impossible to 
 explain the appearance of our species 
 "without going outside of the exclusively 
 scientific domain, that is to say, in adher- 
 ing to what experiment and observation 
 teach." Under such circumstances, is it 
 not best to return to the traditional belief 
 based upon the Biblical account of the 
 creation .? 
 
 II. Social State of the First Man. 
 — Science does not prove that man sprang 
 from a lower being. It does not even 
 prove, whatever the evolutionary school 
 may say, that the first men were savages. 
 In support of its assertion this school 
 pleads: i. The rudeness of the primitive 
 implements. 2. The more or less simian 
 conformation of some human skeletons 
 regarded as the most ancient. Let us fol- 
 low it on this double ground. 
 
 I. Rudeness of the Primitive Ijnple- 
 ments. — It is very true that the imple- 
 ments of the first inhabitants of Western 
 Europe, the only ones of which there is 
 question here, were far from being like 
 ours. Their tools in use were exclusively 
 of stone, bone, or wood. No metal was 
 known at that time and none was em- 
 ployed. 
 
 What we may question is that this stone 
 age forcibly supposes an absolute state of 
 savagery. The absence of metals is not 
 incompatible with a certain degree of civi- 
 
Man 
 
 440 
 
 Man 
 
 lization. Ethnography offers more than 
 one example of a similar association. It 
 shows us among certain peoples, whose 
 industry is the most rudimentary, rela- 
 tively elevated moral and religious ideas. 
 No people is, perhaps, more remarkable 
 in this respect than the Mincopies, those 
 ^vage inhabitants of the Andaman is- 
 lands. Nothing could be more rudimen- 
 tary than their industry, which is reduced, 
 saj's Quatrefages, to the exclusive use of 
 wood, shells gathered on the seashore, 
 and stone split in the fire. They are in- 
 finitely more barbarous from this point of 
 view than the inhabitants of France in the 
 Quaternary epoch, they do not know how- 
 to cut stone nor to kindle the fire when 
 once extinguished. And nevertheless they 
 have a religion, some principles of mo- 
 rality and traditional knowledge that raise 
 them far above the most savage or bar- 
 barous people. Far from living in a state 
 of wholly bestial promiscuousness, as has 
 been alleged, they are monogamists and 
 severely moral. As to their belief in re- 
 gard to a future life and to the origin of 
 the world and of man, it comes surpris- 
 ingly near to the Christian doctrine in 
 this respect. We can say the same of the 
 Negritos of the peninsula of Malacca. 
 They also know how to unite an industry 
 of the rudest character with a knowledge 
 that prevents us from confounding their 
 state with real savagery. 
 
 If it is thus with these populations taken, 
 it seems, at the lowest degree of the social 
 ladder, with much more reason may we be- 
 lieve that the barbarity of our predecessors 
 in the Quaternary epoch was neither so 
 profound nor so abject as some would have 
 us believe. Their industry was, indeed, 
 far superior to that of the Mincopies. At 
 least they knew how to work the stone, 
 and work it with such a skill that we could 
 hardly do as well as they did, even with 
 the help of our metal instruments. From 
 a lump of flint or quartz they formed an 
 ax, a knife, a saw, a scraper, a lance point, 
 or an arrow. With a bone they made har- 
 poons, barbed arrows, bodkins, even nee- 
 dles ; which proves that man used garments 
 at that time. His industry extended still 
 further. According to need he became an 
 artist, and a talented one at that. He has 
 left to us in different localities of Europe, 
 manifest proofs of his skill as an engraver 
 and sculptor. He knew how to represent 
 with great precision most of the animals 
 that surrounded him. Some of these pic- 
 
 tures reveal a talent for imitation of which 
 many an artist in our day would be proud. 
 Certainly there is nothing in all this that 
 denotes great barbarity. 
 
 It is true, they tell us, that this perfec- 
 tioned work dates only from the late Qua- 
 ternary epoch, and that we must not 
 confound it with the very rude industry 
 of the early Quaternary age. To this we 
 answer that the oval or almond-shaped axes 
 of the earlier epoch are already superior 
 to the stone implements in use among cer- 
 tain savage populations, such as the Minco- 
 pies. Moreover, they ^\nll not succeed in 
 convincing us that the man who manufac- 
 tured them was reduced to this sole imple- 
 ment, if implement it was ; for we are still 
 ignorant to what use they were devoted, 
 and ethnography points out nothing similar 
 in the tools of the savages of our day. If 
 they exist alone or almost alone in certain 
 layers, it is undoubtedly because they were 
 the object of a special manufacture ; but 
 nothing prevents us from believing that in 
 the same epoch, in a neighboring locality, 
 they worked stone in a different manner. 
 We are even forced to admit this contem- 
 poraneousness, at least for some of the 
 various types in the Quaternary time, if 
 we do not wish to be forced to the impos- 
 sible consequence of admitting that man 
 had hardly more than one instrument at 
 his disposition : first the ax, then the 
 scraper, the arrow, and finally the knife. 
 Just as if he had to pass through three long 
 periods before discovering that a blade 
 of flint could be used for a cutting instru- 
 ment ! 
 
 It is best, then, to consider all the 
 products of human industry in the Qua- 
 ternary time as about contemporaneous. 
 Now, viewed thus as a whole, these imple- 
 ments leave far behind those of the most 
 of the savages of our time. From this we 
 have to conclude that man in this epoch 
 was superior to them morally and socially. 
 The very fact that this man progressed, 
 that he triumphed in his struggle against 
 the animals that surrounded him, that he 
 developed his tools and his industry, alone 
 proves that he was not an absolute savage. 
 Even E. Renan admits this, and all his- 
 tory attests that no people have by them- 
 selves succeeded in developing from a 
 savage state. We may say that the primi- 
 tive man was a barbarian, but we may not 
 call him a savage. 
 
 After all, we cannot judge of the state 
 of the really primitive man from that of 
 
Man 
 
 441 
 
 Man 
 
 man in the Quaternary epoch in Western 
 Europe, for this would be going against 
 all traditions and probabilities, even 
 against the deductions of linguistics, eth- 
 nography, and the natural sciences, by 
 pretending that mankind took its rise in 
 Europe. It cannot be questioned that 
 mankind comes from Asia. If, therefore, 
 we wish to judge of man's social state, his 
 nature, and his industry in the times that 
 immediately followed his appearance, it is 
 thither we must go to study him. Now, 
 to our knowledge it happened only once 
 that there was established on Asiatic soil 
 the clearly marked superposition of differ- 
 ent industries-, this was at Hissarlik, on 
 the supposed site of ancient Troy. Schlie- 
 mann, the author of the famous excava- 
 tions, tells us that he found superposed 
 ruins of seven distinct civilizations. Now, 
 far from there being progress from the 
 bottom to the top, just the contrary took 
 place, at least starting from the second 
 layer. This discovery, to which the evo- 
 lutionists affected to close their eyes, is 
 nevertheless one of the most significant. 
 It alone gives us a truer idea of the gen- 
 eral march of civilization than all the dis- 
 coveries that have been made in the West, 
 not only because it shows more superposed 
 industries, but also because being nearer 
 to the cradle of mankind, it necessarily 
 dips deeper into the past, and traces the 
 customs of a people that we can properly 
 consider as primitive, on account of their 
 proximity to the place which saw the first 
 appearance of our species. 
 
 2. Nature of the Human Fossils. — 
 The rudeness of the implements in the 
 Quaternary time does not, therefore, prove 
 that the first man was a mere savage, and 
 much less that he had an animal origin, as 
 the Darwinian school would have us be- 
 lieve. Does the nature of the fossil human 
 remains prove this any more clearly .? 
 
 The number of human bones that merit 
 the name oi fossils, — that is, those which 
 go back at least to the Quaternary time, — 
 is far from being so considerable as 
 was claimed at the beginning of the pre- 
 historic studies Even those who claim 
 that man, or rather his precursor, comes 
 down from the Tertiary epoch, acknowl- 
 edge that they have not yet discovered any 
 human remains dating back authentically 
 to this epoch. This, however, did not 
 hinder them from describing minutely 
 and dividing into distinct species that 
 Tertiary ancestor whom they have deco- 
 
 rated with the name Anthrofopithecus. 
 For those who, like ourselves, keep 
 strictly to the facts, there can be question 
 only of a Quaternary man. 
 
 We could quote at least forty localities 
 where they discovered human skeletons, 
 or fragments thereof, apparently going 
 back to the Quaternary time. Unfortu- 
 nately, the most of these human remains 
 had, in the eyes of the evolutionists, the 
 defect of too much resemblance to the 
 present man. For this reason, M. de 
 Mortillet has thrown out three-fourths 
 of them. He retained only nine, natu- 
 rally those which had the desired forms 
 and tended to confirm the animal origin 
 of man . The pieces on which he has be- 
 stowed this honor comprise six skulls, two 
 jawbones, and nearly an entire skeleton. 
 The skulls were found at Cannstatt,(Wurt- 
 temberg), at Neanderthal (Rhenish Prus- 
 sia), at Eguisheim (Alsace), at Brux 
 (Bohemia), at Denise (France), and in the 
 trench of Olmo (Italy) ; the jawbones, in 
 the grottos of Naulette (Belgium), and at 
 Arcy-sur-Cure (France) ; finally the skele- 
 ton, at Laugerie- Basse (France). Let us 
 throw a glance on each of these precious 
 remains and consider both their authen* 
 ticity and form. 
 
 The skull of Cannstatt, the oldest col- 
 lected, because its discovery goes back to 
 the year 1700, was found in the locality of 
 this name, near Stuttgart, together, they 
 tell us, with bones of the elephant, bear, 
 and hyena. The evolutionists, who ap- 
 plauded it on account of its passably rude 
 form, are obliged to acknowledge that 
 there are serious doubts as to its authen- 
 ticity. " It is now believed at Stuttgart," 
 writes an admirer of de Mortillet, Ph. 
 Salmon, " that it was not in the bosom of 
 the Quaternary grounds, but among the 
 rubbish of the clilT with some pottery that 
 it was discovered." Now it is an estab- 
 lished fact, in prehistoric matters, that 
 pottery was yet unknown in the Quater- 
 nary epoch. The result is that we must 
 discard the skull of Cannstatt, because it 
 is agreed that we must take into consider- 
 ation only those whose authenticity is un- 
 questioned. M. de Mortillet was not far 
 from acknowledging this when, in opposi- 
 tion to M. de Quatrefages, he refused to 
 make it the type of the primitive race, and 
 reserved this honor to the skull of Nean- 
 derthal. 
 
 Does the Quaternary origin of the latter 
 offer a greater guarantee ? We are at lib- 
 
Man 
 
 442 
 
 Man 
 
 erty to doubt this. It was found in 1856, 
 near Diisseldorf, in a clayey alluvion 
 which, they tell us, has furnished some re- 
 mains of Quaternary species. It is possible; 
 but it is well to add that they have also 
 found polished stones in the same alluvion ; 
 something which tends to refer it to the 
 present period. Moreover, nothing proves 
 that we have not to do with an ordinary 
 tomb. The corpse, to which the skull be- 
 longed, was lying, regularly stretched out, 
 only two feet deep, like that of a buried 
 person. Now, if there is question of a 
 burial, the association with fossil species 
 proves nothing. Even to-day we some- 
 times bury our dead in grounds rich in 
 fossils of different geological periods. 
 Shall the future inquirer, who establishes 
 this association, be authorized to deduce 
 therefrom the contemporaneity of man and 
 the animal species, the debris of which ac- 
 company his own? 
 
 Hence, we might refuse to accept the 
 skull of Neanderthal as well as that of 
 Cannstatt. But suppose we acknowledge 
 its authenticity. What must we conclude 
 from this.? It is true that the forehead is 
 straight, the cranial cavity elliptic and very 
 long, the bones quite thick, and the super- 
 ciliary arches remarkably prominent ; but 
 there is nothing to prove that this skull is 
 not pathological, as was believed at the 
 beginning. If to-day it is considered nor- 
 mal, it is because there have been found 
 the same characteristics in different his- 
 torical personages and in a certain number 
 of our contemporaries whose intelligence 
 is at least equal to the average. In its ca- 
 pacity, the skull of Neanderthal is superior 
 to the skulls of the Australians, and at- 
 tains almost the average of female skulls. 
 Whatever its age may be, the skull of Ne- 
 anderthal has nothing simian, and the 
 evolutionary school has to look somewhere 
 else for the missing link which it claims 
 exists between man and beast. 
 
 We shall pass rapidly over the skulls of 
 Eguisheim, Brux, Denise, and Olmo. 
 They disclose nearly the same character- 
 istics as the preceding, and their authen- 
 ticity is almost always open to discussion. 
 The first was found, it is true, in a clayey 
 alluvion, which appears to be Quaternary. 
 However, they have discovered in this 
 same clay, and at a considerable depth, 
 three corpses, of which one at least must 
 have been buried ; for it carried on the 
 breast a vase covered with a stone, and 
 near it were found other vases of the same 
 
 kind, as well as an ax of polished stone. 
 The burial, pottery, and polished stone 
 are, according to the teaching of the 
 school, so many indications of the present 
 period. Undoubtedly, it will be claimed 
 that the presence of these objects' at the 
 same depth is due to a disturbance of the 
 ground; but why do they exclude the 
 skull of Eguisheim from this interference.? 
 
 The same uncertainty exists in regard to 
 the skull of Brux. The report which made 
 it known to us, and which dates only from 
 1872, expressly states that, in the alluvion 
 where it lay, there was found an ax of 
 polished stone. As they do not note any 
 other Quaternary species in this layer, we 
 are permitted to call in question the date 
 they have assigned to it. 
 
 The skull and other human bones dis- 
 covered since 1844 in a volcanic tufa, near 
 Puy, are probably less ancient than the 
 preceding. Nobody believes to-day, as 
 they did formerly, that they are contem- 
 porary with the mastodon. The volcanic 
 tufa in which they were incased, so to say, 
 is evidently very recent, because it sur- 
 mounts Quaternary alluvions. They may 
 be even posterior to the formation of the 
 tufa, and, consequently, may be due to tlie 
 last volcanic eruptions of the Denise. Two 
 competent geologists, Herbert and Lartet, 
 who visited the locality in 1857, believed 
 they could recognize therein the traces of 
 a tomb. Whatever their nature may be, 
 these bones cannot give us any useful in- 
 formation about the question of man's 
 origin. 
 
 There remains the skull found in 1863, in 
 the trench of Olmo, near Arezzo, Italy. 
 This time the authenticity cannot be ques- 
 tioned, for it was found at a depth of 150 
 feet, and in the ' neighborhood of bones 
 with animal characteristics of the Qiiater- 
 nary times. We have less reason to con- 
 test it, because, according to de Mortillet, 
 this skull has none of the simian features 
 which he attributes to the primitive man. 
 The form is elongated, it is true, but this 
 form, the dolicJiocephalous, agrees very 
 well with a developed intelligence. 
 
 Are the simian characteristics, so ar- 
 dently sought for by the evolutionists, 
 found any better in the jawbone, discov- 
 ered in 1865, in the cave of Naulette, Bel- 
 gium.? This was the belief for quite a 
 while, but it is no longer so. The jaw- 
 bone found in 1859, in the grotto or Arcy- 
 sur-Cure, France, cannot detain us; for, 
 according to the avowal of de Mortillet, 
 
Man 
 
 443 
 
 Man 
 
 the simian characteristics hardly reveal 
 themselves. The chief of the prehistoric 
 school, also refers it to the last part or the 
 Quaternary epoch. The last piece which 
 de Mortillet attributes to the Quaternary 
 times, is a skeleton discovered in 1872, 
 near Laugerie-Basse, on the banks of the 
 Vezere. This time de Mortillet is prudent 
 enough not to draw any conclusion in re- 
 gard to the primitive man, and he is right, 
 for the skull has been completely crushed 
 by the fall of a rock, and it is impossible 
 to construct its form. 
 
 We have exhausted the list of fossil hu- 
 man bones, acknowledged as such by the 
 chief representative of prehistoric science. 
 From the rapid examination we have made 
 it follows that the authenticity of the most 
 of them is debatable ; in none of them do we 
 find the simian features predominating. 
 The skulls of to-day do not indicate more 
 perfect beings than those of the Quater- 
 nary times. The adherents of the animal 
 origin of our species will have to stop ap- 
 pealing to human paleontology in support 
 of their system. " The Quaternary man," 
 says Quatrefages, " has always been man 
 in the full sense of the word." 
 
 III. Age of Man According to Pre- 
 historic Archeology. — "Man ap- 
 peared in Europe at the beginning of the 
 Quaternary age, that is, at least 230,000 to 
 240,000 years ago." That is what we read 
 in a book written by M. de Mortillett, one 
 of the chiefs and founders of prehistoric 
 science. So we see that we are far from 
 the Biblical chronology. Elastic as this 
 chronology may be, and liberal as we may 
 be in its interpretation, we cannot stretch 
 it to this measure. M. de Mortillet is 
 only logical when he laughs at those who 
 continue " to teach religiously that Adam 
 was the first man." If our species goes 
 back as far as he affirms, we have to ac- 
 knowledge that the Bible is in error. 
 The person whom it presents to us as the 
 father of mankind can be at most only the 
 father of the Jewish people, who in his 
 pride made himself, they say, the father of 
 the entire human race. 
 
 Happily the chronological calculations 
 of de Mortillet do not command our as- 
 sent. Even many of his adherents do not 
 accept them as serious. The most author- 
 itative scholars of prehistoric science do not 
 hesitate to acknowledge that it is impossi- 
 ble to determine with any exactness the 
 date of the appearance of man. They are 
 not less in agreement as to the insuffi- 
 
 ciency of the traditional chronology, in 
 view of the discoveries recently made in 
 the domain of natural sciences. 
 
 We are of quite a different opinion. If 
 there were any reason to set back for some 
 thousand years the date of the creation 
 of man, it would be» history that would 
 oblige us to do so, and not geology nor 
 prehistoric archaeology. Egyptian chro- 
 nology, uncertain as it may be in its begin- 
 ning, take us back to three or four thou- 
 sand years before our era, that is, to a date 
 anterior to that which most of the calcula- 
 tions based upon the Bible attribute to the 
 Deluge. Therefore, unless we accept the 
 Egyptian people from the diluvian cata- 
 clysm, as has been proposed, and place 
 before the Deluge the first pharaonic dy- 
 nasties, which is hardly admissible, we 
 must necessarily increase the interval com- 
 prised between Noah and Abraham. What- 
 ever may be said of it, neither geology nor 
 prehistoric archaeology has any such need. 
 Let us briefly show this. 
 
 We know that the geologists have di- 
 vided the history of the globe into four 
 great epochs, of very unequal durations, 
 which they have called, according to their 
 order : Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, and 
 Quaternary. Their duration, impossible 
 to figure in number of years, diminishes 
 very rapidly from the first to the last. It 
 is from this point of view that the Quater- 
 nary period hardly merits to enter into 
 comparison with the preceding ones, so 
 short has it been. It is mostly in France 
 that they have ranked it as one of the 
 great geological epochs. The English 
 have made of it a kind of supplement to 
 the Pliocene period, the third part of the 
 Tertiary epoch, and consequently have 
 called it Postplioce.ne. Certainly this term 
 better indicates its real place in the his- 
 tory of the globe than the word Quater- 
 nary. 
 
 In which of these epochs did man ap- 
 pear? Everybody admits that it was 
 neither in the Primary nor the Secondary 
 epoch ; thereby recognizing already the 
 recent date of his advent, seeing that these 
 two epochs together constitute, perhaps, 
 nine-tenths of the geological times. The 
 doubt begins in the Tertiary epoch. Some 
 geologists, endowed with a lively imagi- 
 nation, have pretended to discover in the 
 Miocene strata, which represent the mid- 
 dle part of this epoch, artificially cut 
 flints. The Abb6 Bourgeois set the ball 
 rolling by labeling the many flints he had 
 
Man 
 
 444 
 
 Man 
 
 found in Thenay as the workmanship of 
 the Tertiary man. At first he succeeded 
 in enlisting several men of science on his 
 side ; but the matter, on investigation, be- 
 came so thickly enveloped in the mists of 
 doubt that it vanished at last in utter im- 
 probability. The reputed works of art, 
 with indented surfaces, are more likely 
 shapeless works of nature. Again, other 
 flints, lances, arrowheads, spears, and the 
 like, found in St. Prest, probably belong 
 to a later formation. To determine the 
 age of objects found in mud or- sand de- 
 posits is most difficult, as they may easily 
 have been buried subsequently at a greater 
 depth. In like manner man's handiwork 
 in conjunction with natural causes may 
 have shifted the deposit. Moreover no 
 standard is at hand for gauging the time 
 of the deposits in the several periods. 
 Recent researches, even in the much 
 lauded Somme valley, have shown that 
 the layers of sand were formed in historic 
 times. Furthermore, it was alleged that 
 droTving-s, which none but the hand of 
 man could execute, adorned the bones of 
 some Tertiary animals. Bones, too, had 
 been produced which had been fractured, 
 so it was said, by the hand of man. Col- 
 ored impressions were also said to be 
 distinctly perceptible on the bones of a 
 petrified Hipparion recently discovered in 
 Greece. How transparently thin these 
 reasons are, he who runs may read. On 
 investigation, it turns out that the holes 
 and indentures were made by contem- 
 porary' anin^als. Many of the alleged 
 marks and drawings are accidental chinks 
 wrought by mechanical causes. 
 
 The Tertiary man being thus out of 
 question, there remains the Quaternary 
 man. The existence of the latter cannot 
 be questioned. To say that man has lived 
 in the Quaternary epoch is simply to ad- 
 mit that he has been the contemporary of 
 certain animal species characteristic to this 
 epoch, such as the mammoth {Elepbas 
 frimi^renius), the woolly rhinoceros {Rb. 
 tichorrhinus), the cave bears, the Irish 
 stag, and even the reindeer ( Cerz'us taran- 
 dus), which we find no longer except in 
 the Arctic regions, but which at that time 
 lived in the temperate zone. Now, remains 
 of these animals have been found so often, 
 either together with human bones, or with 
 the rude products of the industry of the 
 primitive inhabitants, that the contempo- 
 raneity of both can no longer be ques- 
 tioned. The fossil man, on which ortho- 
 
 dox writers made war for a long time, is 
 therefore a reality. The Quaternary epoch 
 having been ranked, rightly or wrongly, 
 among the geological times, all the or- 
 ganic remains which belong to it deserve 
 to be termed fossils, and those of man 
 form no exception to this law. 
 
 Only, let us hasten to say it, to admit 
 that man exists in the fossil state — in 
 other words, that he lived in the Quater- 
 nary epoch — does not mean, according to 
 our view, that we have to leave the confines 
 of traditional chronology. Indeed, every- 
 thing goes to show that the animals which 
 characterize the Quaternary epoch have 
 lived, at least in some localities, until a * 
 very recent date, approaching that of the 
 Christian era. Remains of the mammoth 
 have been found in European countries in 
 quite recent formations, for instance, in 
 peat-moors, which are usually referred to 
 the present time. This animal has been 
 found in Siberia in such a state of preser- 
 vation that the dogs ate its flesh. The 
 elephant, mammoth, or otter, still existed 
 in the north of Africa and in the region of 
 Ninive in historic times, and Parthenopex 
 of Blois maintains that the latter animal 
 could be found among the beasts which 
 formerly inhabited the forests of Gaul. 
 Caesar describes the reindeer as having 
 lived, in his time, in the Hercynian forest, 
 — that is, on the shores of the Rhine. 
 
 It is an error to believe that the Quater- 
 nary fauna was much different from ours. 
 In fact,, it comprised all the savage animals 
 that surround us, together with some spe- 
 cies that had to emigrate on account of 
 climatic changes, or fell under the strokes 
 of the hunter, or succumbed in the strug- 
 gle for life. 
 
 Thus we see that, if we are to judge by 
 the animals that characterize it, the Quater- 
 nary epoch must have lasted nearly until 
 the Christian era. 
 
 It is true that it has some other charac- 
 teristics, derived from climatology. Who 
 says Quaternary' epoch says Glacial epoch, 
 these two epochs having certainly coin- 
 cided, at least in part. At that time, in- 
 deed, the glaciers were considerable in 
 extent, and the water courses more abun- 
 dant than in our day: a double phenome- 
 non which might have been due to the 
 same cause, the melting of the ice each 
 summer occasioning immense inundations, 
 traces of which still exist. But, to recover 
 something of these phenomena, it is not 
 necessary to go back so far in the past as 
 
Man 
 
 445 
 
 Man 
 
 one might believe. History permits us to 
 have quite clear glimpses thereof. Only 
 fifteen or twenty centuries ago the winters 
 were a good deal colder than they are at 
 present. Herodotus describes the climate 
 of Scythia in terms which would aptly re- 
 fer to-day to Lapland and Greenland. He 
 shows us this country completely frozen 
 during eight months of the year, and the 
 Black Sea frozen to such a degree as to 
 carry the heaviest wagonloads. Aristotle 
 and others after him tell us that it was so 
 cold in Gaul that the ass could not live 
 there. The Latin writers insist on their 
 part on the rigors of the Gaulish climate, 
 which did not permit, they say, either the 
 culture of the olive tree or that of the vine. 
 Virgil shows us the Danube crossed by 
 teams, and the inhabitants of these misera- 
 ble countries retiring into caves, clothed 
 with the skin of wild beasts. Ovid, who 
 passed several years in the region of the 
 Danube, shows us this river entirely frozen 
 at its mouth, so that wagons heavily loaded 
 could cross it. He adds that he saw wine 
 frozen in the bottles, and that he crossed 
 over the ice of the Black Sea. Afraid of 
 being accused of exaggerating, he appeals 
 to the testimony of two former governors 
 of Moesia, who could also establish these 
 facts. 
 
 Italy itself did not have at that time its 
 present climate ; at least the Latin writers 
 speak of it in terms that would not be true 
 of it in our day. They speak of heaped- 
 up snow, of rivers filled with floating ice, 
 of hard winters that split stone and stopped 
 the course of rivers, and this in the warm- 
 est region of Italy, at the foot of the bul- 
 warks of Tarentum. Such a picture could 
 be applied to-day, at most, only to Central 
 Europe. 
 
 We have the same testimony in regard 
 to the abundance of the water courses. 
 Here geology joins its voice with that of 
 history in attesting that most of the rivers 
 had, 1,500 or 2,000 years ago, a much 
 larger volume of water than they have at 
 present. Michael Rossi has proved this 
 of the Tiber; others have established the 
 same fact for several rivers of Europe, of 
 America, and Asia. 
 
 Everything, then, goes to show, both 
 fauna and climatology that the Quater- 
 nary epoch is not so distant from our times. 
 As to its duration we know nothing; but 
 there is every reason to believe that it was 
 not very considerable. However, we do 
 not need to know it as far as regards the 
 
 question that occupies us here; for, ac- 
 cording to all appearances, man did not 
 see the beginning of this epoch. He did 
 not precede the glacial period, and was 
 not even a contemporary of the great 
 dominance of the glaciers. Hence his 
 origin is comparatively recent. 
 
 In support of the vast antiquity of the 
 human race, they also appeal to tools, 
 found sometimes at a considerable depth. 
 These tools have been classified, to mark 
 successive ages of long duration, into ages 
 of rough and polished stone, of bronze, 
 and of iron. The supposed evidence of 
 deposits in caves, of river and other 
 gravels, of fen-beds, etc., are pressed into 
 service. But it staggers our faith in the 
 whole chronological scheme to find, at the 
 outset, that while Dr. James Geikie 
 reckons the boulder clay in which old 
 stone implements are found as marking 
 200,000 years, Croll, a no less eminent au- 
 thority, sets it down as 980,000 years old. 
 The age of human implements found un- 
 der floors of stalagmite in caves, is, more- 
 over, open to equal doubt, since observers 
 differ greatly as to the rate of deposit at 
 different times. For, while Mr. Pengelly 
 tells us that it takes 5,000 years to create 
 an inch of lime-dropping on the floors of 
 Kent's Cavern in England, others assert 
 that, elsewhere, it is formed at the rate of 
 the third of an inch a year, which would 
 give a foot in depth in little more than a 
 century. A copper plate of the twelfth or 
 thirteenth century, we are told, was found 
 in a cave at Gibraltar, under eighteen 
 inches of stalagmite. At Knaresboro. 
 England, objects are incrusted with similar 
 calcareous deposit so quickly that, as is 
 well known, a trade in them is briskly 
 kept up. In Italy the waters of the baths 
 of San Felipe, have been known to deposit 
 a solid mass of it, thirty feet thick, in 
 twenty years. It is thus clear that the rate 
 of deposit depends on circumstances. 
 One condition of the surface may supply 
 acids, from decaying vegetation, for ex- 
 ample, which may dissolve the limestone 
 much taster than another. It is not, there- 
 fore, by any means certain that any given 
 deposits, in a special case, imply even an 
 approach to the extreme age demanded 
 for them. 
 
 The evidence deducted from river and 
 other gravels and drifts is no less unsatisfac- 
 tory. It is, indeed, quite impossible to 
 fix their age either from their depth or 
 their contents. Mr. Wood found the road 
 
Manahem 
 
 446 
 
 Manichaeanism 
 
 leading to the Temple of Diana, at Ephe- 
 sus, more than four yards below the pres- 
 ent surface, and obtained remains of 
 colossal sculptures, at the Temple itself, 
 from the depth of six yards and a half. 
 Local floods work great changes, and it is 
 to be remembered that all rivers are much 
 larger in a country still in a state of na- 
 ture than when human settlement has in 
 great measure drained oflf the surface 
 waters. The shifting of river beds them- 
 selves, work great changes. M. de Rossi 
 thinks that the beds of drift, in the course 
 of the Tiber, are not older than the Ro- 
 man republic. M. Chabas, in a close 
 examination of the tool-bearing drifts of 
 Northern France, found that, at one part, 
 bits of Roman pottery, at another, a cop- 
 per coin of Charles VIII. of France, and at 
 a third, pieces of yellow brick, were as 
 deep in the soil as the stone axes, etc., 
 and finally gave up the hope of fixing the 
 age of anything by its position. 
 
 The theory of widely separate ages for 
 old and new stone tools, and for bronze 
 and iron, is one of the scientific fancies 
 which further investigation overthrows. 
 To use the words of the Duke of Argyle , 
 "There is no proof whatever that such 
 ages ever existed in the world." Nations 
 may all at a certain time have used stone 
 tools, but the discovery of the metals must 
 have been made much sooner at some 
 places than at others. Thus, though flint 
 implements have been found in abundance 
 in South Africa, iron has been known from 
 very ancient times over a large portion of 
 that vast continent; iron ore, as Sir Sam- 
 uel Baker informs us, being so common in 
 Africa, and of a kind so easily reducible by 
 heat, that its value might well be discovered 
 by the rudest tribes. Stone, moreover, is 
 rare in some countries, as, for example, in 
 Mesopotamia, and hence it is not surpris- 
 ing to find that stone implements of a very 
 rude character coexisted there with ad- 
 vanced civilization in agriculture and com- 
 merce. Each "age," in fact, runs into the 
 other, and tools of all the four kinds were 
 used in not a few localities at the same 
 time. So far from being indefinitely an- 
 cient, the stone age, in all its characteristics, 
 has prevailed during even the historic pe- 
 riod. A well-made bronze pin was found 
 in an excavation at the Isle of St. Jean, 
 near Majon, in France, which till then had 
 yielded only remains of the polished stone 
 period, and M. Chabas found iron under 
 similar circumstances elsewhere. 
 
 In fine, of all the chronologies, that of 
 which the Bible furnishes the elements is 
 still the most authorized, and wherever we 
 may look, we find nothing, absolutely noth- 
 ing, in the natural sciences that clearly 
 tends to discredit it. No more on this 
 point than on others can the traditions 
 taught in the text be given the lie. 
 
 Manahem. — King of Israel, died in 761 
 B.C." Overthrew and killed the usurper 
 Sellum, mounted the throne and reigned 
 ten years in paying a tribute to Phul, king 
 of Assyria. He left the throne to his son 
 Phaceia. 
 
 Manasses. — i. Jewish Patriarch, eldest 
 son of Joseph, born in Egypt, was blessed 
 by Jacob on his deathbed, and became the 
 chief of one of the twelve tribes. This tribe, 
 at the time of its leaving Egypt, counted 
 32,000 men capable of bearing arms; one- 
 half remained beyond the Jordon, in the 
 division of the Promised Land ; the other 
 half obtained its possessions in the terri- 
 tory of Samaria, Sichem, and Bethania. 
 2. Manasses (706-639 B. c). — King of Juda, 
 died at Jerusalem. The son and impious 
 successor of the good Ezechias. He began 
 to reign when twelve years old. For his 
 impiety and cruelties, God suffered him to 
 be carried as prisoner to Babylon. Ma- 
 nasses repented, did penance and was re- 
 stored to his throne. He tried to repair 
 the evil which he had caused, destroyed 
 the temples of the idols, restored the 
 worship of the true God and fortified Jeru- 
 salem. We have, under the name of Ma- 
 nasses, a prayer filled with sentiments of 
 piety and penance which it is believed he 
 composed during his captivity. He had 
 for successor his son Amon. 
 
 Mandaeans. See Sabeans. 
 
 Manichaeanism is the Persian form of 
 Gnosticism. Its author was Mani or 
 Manes, who, according to traditian, was 
 flayed alive, about the year 277, by order 
 of King Veranes I. His doctrine was a 
 combination of Parseeism and Gnosticism. 
 It had nothing in common with Christian- 
 ity, merely substituting Christian names 
 for pagan ideas. Two eternal principles, 
 Light and Darkness, with many Eons are 
 constantly at war with each other. This 
 is called the sj'stem of Dualism Man 
 consists of two parts, mind ^nd matter, the 
 latter is the seat of all evil. Christ, the 
 son of Eternal Light, assumed a body cor- 
 poreal only in appearance (Docetas), re- 
 
Maniple 
 
 447 
 
 Mankind 
 
 deemed man by instructing him to alienate 
 himself from evil matter. His death on 
 the Cross was an illusion. The "perfect" 
 among the Manichaeans were obliged to 
 abstain from animal food and intoxicating 
 liquors ; the killing of animals was pro- 
 hibited ; they were enjoined not to perform 
 manual labor, and marriage was con- 
 demned. The Mariichaeans boasted out- 
 wardly of their asceticism and superior 
 knowledge, but their private life belied 
 their professions. They based their doc- 
 trine on the revelations of Manes, the 
 Paraclete, and on the Sacred Scriptures. 
 Their distinguished adversary, St. Augus- 
 tine tells them : " You, who believe of the 
 Gospel what you please and reject what 
 you please, rather believe yourself than the 
 Gospel." 
 
 Maniple. — An ornamental vestment 
 worn by the priest upon his left arm at 
 Mass. It is worn by deacons and subdea- 
 cons, also. Originally, the maniple w^as a 
 narrow strip of linen suspended from the 
 left arm, which supplied the place of and 
 was used as a handkerchief. About the 
 eighth century it was enumerated among 
 the sacerdotal vestments. 
 
 Mankind {Unity of). — The unity of 
 mankind, proceeding from a single pair, 
 is, from the moral and dogmatic point of 
 view, one of the most important truths 
 which result from the account of the cre- 
 ation of man. The dogma of original 
 sin presupposes the community of origin 
 of all men, and upon this community 
 of origin human solidarity and frater- 
 nity are founded. In our day, however, 
 it finds a great number of adversaries, and 
 we have to answer their objections. The 
 advocates of a plurality of the human spe- 
 cies, or the polygenists, have largely in- 
 creased in both Europe and America of 
 late years, and they strenuously oppose the 
 doctrine of monogenism. 
 
 I. Historic Glance at Polygenism. 
 — The first polygenist whose opinions 
 caused some notice was La Peyrere, a 
 Frenchman. In his book Systeme theolo- 
 giqiie fondS sur I ^ Hypothe.se des Preadam- 
 ites, published in 1655, the two principal 
 ideas which he sets forth are, that Adam 
 was not the first man, but only the father 
 of the Jews, and that Moses is not the au- 
 thor of the Pentateuch. According to 
 him, chapter i. of Genesis relates the crea- 
 tion of the Gentiles or pagans ; they were 
 produced at the same time as the animals, 
 
 and they appeared at the same time 
 upon earth; these are the Preadamites. 
 Chapter ii. of Genesis, on the contrary, 
 makes known to us the origin of the people 
 chosen by God to preserve the deposit of 
 revelation. Adam is the first Jew and the 
 father of this chosen people. Made from 
 the slime of the earth, he received exist- 
 ence only after the rest of the seventh day ; 
 alone with Eve he inhabited the earthly 
 Paradise ; he alone with Eve violated the 
 prohibition which God had made as to the 
 eating of the fruit of the tree of knowledge 
 of good and evil ; the other men, spread at 
 that time over the globe, had no share in 
 the sin of Adam. 
 
 La Peyrere pretended to find the proof 
 of this distinction of diverse species of men 
 in the fifth chapter of the Epistle to the 
 Romans, and in certain facts related by 
 Moses. St. Paul says that men have sinned : 
 some, after the promulgation of the 
 law, against the law ; others, before the 
 law, against nature. His new interpreter 
 concludes from this that there existed be- 
 fore the men who were subject to the law, — 
 that is, before the Jews, — other men of a 
 different species. But the law of which 
 the Apostle speaks is that of Moses, and 
 in the time of Moses there existed already 
 upon earth numerous nations, descended 
 like the Jews from Noe and for whom the 
 legislation of Sinai had not been made. 
 La Peyrere sought to establish, it is true, 
 that the Preadamites were mentioned in 
 the history of Cain, because the latter was 
 afraid of being killed by those whom he 
 might meet and who could only be men of 
 non-Adamitic origin. He alleged also the 
 existence of a city in this time, when the 
 descendants of Adam, however, could not 
 be numerous enough to form considerable 
 agglomerations, and, finally, he pointed 
 out the distinction between the sons of God 
 and the daughters of men or of Adam, 
 whose union produced the giants. Accord- 
 ing to him, the sons of God were not of 
 the race of Adam. 
 
 Later on, La Peyrere retracted his errors, 
 and his book remained unfinished ; but his 
 arguments were taken up again in our time 
 by the American polygenists, as we shall 
 see further on. In the seventeenth century 
 his system found no supporters, but things 
 were to be different in the eighteenth. 
 Voltaire, who collected in his writings all 
 that preceding ages had imagined against 
 our Sacred Books, did not fail to uphold 
 that there exist diverse " species of men." 
 
Mankind 
 
 448 
 
 Mankind 
 
 "Only a blind man," he says, "is permit- 
 ted to doubt that the Whites, Negroes, 
 Albinos, Hottentots, Laplanders, Chinese, 
 and Americans, are entirely diflFerent races." 
 Soon the negation of the unity of the hu- 
 man species became the fashion in the 
 philosophic camp, and, despite the author- 
 ity of the most of the naturalists, notwith- 
 standing that Linnaeus and Buffon without 
 hesitation pronounced themselves in favor 
 of the old doctrine, the pleasantries of the 
 patriarch of Ferney prevailed. 
 
 Infidelity had favored polygenism in 
 Europe; political causes contributed a 
 good deal to increase the number of its 
 adherents in America. One of the most 
 celebrated defenders of this system, Mr. 
 Nott, has himself related the following 
 fact. In 1844, the secretary of State of 
 the United States, Mr. Calhoun, had ex- 
 hausted his arguments in answering the 
 pressing notes which England, backed by 
 France, addressed to him on the question 
 of abolishing Negro slavery. He could 
 imagine nothing better than to support 
 himself upon the authority of American 
 anthropologists, and he defended his gov- 
 ernment in the name of their theories, ac- 
 cording to which the black men are of 
 another si>ecies than the white. The 
 cabinet of Great Britain was nonplussed 
 by this unlooked-for argumentation, and 
 thereafter ceased its importunities. 
 
 It is certain that several American scien- 
 tists allowed themselves to be influenced 
 by the more or less unconscious desire to 
 justify slave-trading and slavery. The 
 /nost celebrated among them are Morton, 
 Nott, and Gliddon. These polygenists ex- 
 pressly admitted the fixity of the species, 
 and even supported themselves upon this 
 fixity of the species to conclude from the 
 actual existence of human varieties as 
 to their primordial and original exist- 
 ence. Since that time there has been 
 a complete change in the system, and 
 to-day we have to look for the polyg- 
 enists among the ranks of the adherents of 
 the changeableness of the species, among 
 the materialists and atheists, the defenders 
 of evolution without limit. In their opin- 
 ion man has not been created as man ; he 
 has become such by a series of transforma- 
 tions, abrupt according to some, slow, 
 according to the majority of them. The 
 lower species perfected and gradually 
 raised themselves to language and reason, 
 to the status of the intelligent and perfect 
 being. Thus nature has produced by 
 
 divers means diverse human species. That 
 which Scripture teaches about our origin 
 is consequently irreconcilable with the 
 accounts of the new science. 
 
 However, if the adherents of the plu- 
 rality of the human species have become 
 quite numerous, those of the unity of man- 
 kind are far from throwing away their 
 arms and abandoning the battlefield. Not 
 only among the Faithful, but also among 
 the indifferent, and even among the free- 
 thinkers, monogenism counts defenders 
 not less enlightened than convinced, and 
 recruits new adherents every day. Lyell 
 and Huxley acknowledge in express terms 
 that all men may descend from one single 
 pair; Alexander von Humboldt formally 
 declares himself for the unity of our spe- 
 cies, so also the anatomist Owen and the 
 learned Prichard. The labors of the learned 
 Protestant, Quatrefages, in favor of the 
 unity of the human species enjoy a uni- 
 versal and well-merited reputation. The 
 numberless proofs accumulated by this em- 
 inent anthropologist, as well as by many 
 other naturalists, establish in a peremptory 
 and decisive manner that science is far 
 from being in contradiction with Scripture, 
 according to which all men belong to the 
 same species. Now it remains for us to 
 show this accord of science and faith ; but 
 as the American polygenists, in order not 
 to fall into contradiction with the Bible, 
 have followed the errors of La Peyrere 
 and pretended that monogenism is not a 
 Christian dogma, before all we have to 
 answer their objections and to rectify their 
 false interpretation of the sacred text; 
 then we will set forth the proofs of the 
 unity of the human species. 
 
 II. Genesis and the Preadamites. — 
 The arguments alleged by some of the sci- 
 entists of the United States to turn Gen- 
 esis in favor of their opinion are summed 
 up in the following passage : — 
 
 " Why still hesitating whether to throw 
 the Bible under the wheels of progress? 
 Alreadv many sincere Christians confess 
 that the moment has arrived for preparing 
 the reconciliation of the doctrine of the 
 polygenists with the sacred texts. They 
 are disposed to admit that the narrative of 
 Moses does not apply to the whole of man- 
 kind, but only to the Adamites, to the race 
 from which God's people sprang; that 
 there could have been upon earth other 
 men about whom the sacred writer did not 
 need to busy himself ; that it is nowhere 
 said that the sons of Adam contracted in- 
 
Mankind 
 
 449 
 
 Mankind 
 
 i 
 
 cestuous unions with their own sisters; 
 that Cain, driven toward the Orient after 
 his fratricide, was marked with a sign, so 
 ' that whosoever found him should not 
 kill him ' ; that aside from the race of the 
 children of God there was a race of the chil- 
 dren of men ; that the origin of the children 
 of men is not specified ; that nothing au- 
 thorizes us to consider them as the chil- 
 dren of Adam , that these two races 
 undoubtedly differed in their physical 
 characteristics, because their union pro- 
 duced mongrels designated under the name 
 of giants, ' as if to indicate the physical 
 and moral strength of the crossed races ' ; 
 that finally these different antediluvian 
 races could have survived the Deluge in 
 the person of the three daughters-in-law of 
 Noe." (J. Pye Smith, Relations Bet-ween 
 the Holy Scripture and Geology, 3d ed., 
 
 PP- 398-400) 
 
 Let us take up these several arguments 
 one after another. In the first place, it is 
 not true that Genesis speaks of different 
 human species. When La Peyrere beheld 
 in the man created in the first chapter a 
 man different from the one whose history 
 the second chapter relates more in detail, 
 he falsely interpreted the original text, for 
 the Hebrew text in both cases calls by the 
 same name Adam, the rational creature 
 gone forth from the divine hands. Mor- 
 ton himself is obliged to agree that "the 
 sacred writings, according to their literal 
 and obvious sense, teach us that all the 
 men descend from a single pair." {Cra- 
 nia Americana, Introd., Philadelphia, 
 1839.) Moses, conformable to the uni- 
 form and unchangeable plan which he fol- 
 lowed in drawing up the first Book of the 
 Pentateuch, sets forth in the account of 
 the earthly Paradise the history of our 
 first father, whose creation he had simply 
 announced in the account of the general 
 creation. Then he continues the history 
 of the children of Adam, without trou- 
 bling himself to fill up a certain number of 
 breaks, because the things which he omit- 
 ted are naturally understood and cannot 
 cause any doubt in the minds of readers 
 generally. Thus he supposed that it was 
 useless to relate in express terms that', 
 from the beginning, Adam and Eve had 
 daughters as well as sons, and that the 
 brothers had taken the sisters for wives ; 
 everyone understands this without being 
 told. Besides, the sacred writers gener- 
 ally mention women only in a vague manner 
 in their genealogies; they are expressly 
 29 
 
 named only when the sequel of the narra- 
 tive demands it for fear of being unintel- 
 ligible. Moses had no reason to inform 
 us in so many words that Cain and Abel 
 married their own sisters ; this appears 
 clearly from his account and everybody 
 knew it. In reading Genesis simply and 
 without partisan spirit, one cannot help 
 acknowledging that Moses knew no other 
 men than Adam and his posterity. 
 
 But, they say, if there existed no other 
 men than the Adamites, how could Cain, 
 after having committed his fratricide, be 
 afraid of being killed by those whom he 
 would meet .? It is easy to answer that it 
 was because he could not forget that men 
 would become multiplied, and as remorse 
 and a bad conscience render one suspicious 
 and restless, what is there astonishing in 
 the fact that he was afraid that his crime 
 might be avenged by his own death, when 
 the children of Adam would have become 
 more numerous? 
 
 Some have endeavored to enforce the ob- 
 jection and to establish the existence of an- 
 other race by what the Scripture tells us : 
 "Cain built a city, and called the name 
 thfereof by the name of his son Henoch" 
 (Gen. iv. 17). We have shown in another 
 place that we must not understand this 
 word " city" in the sense in which we em- 
 ploy it to-day. 
 
 A last argument is drawn from the men- 
 tion of " sons of God " and " daughters of 
 men." "The sons of God seeing the 
 daughters of men, that they were fair, took 
 to themselves wives of all which they chose" 
 (Gen. vi. 2). Here, the polygenists claim, 
 there is question of two different species 
 of men. The daughters of men are called 
 in the original text " daughters of Adam," 
 that is, the posterity of Adam and Eve ; 
 the sons of God belong to another race 
 which has nothing in common with those 
 whom we call without reason our first par- 
 ents. 
 
 Such is the objection. It is false, because 
 the "sons of God" cannot be understood 
 as non-Adamitic men. The descendants 
 of Adam were the creatures of God and 
 consequently the sons of God, as much as 
 every other species of men which one 
 might suppose, or, better still, they would 
 have been more so, if several creations had 
 existed, because God, distinguishing and 
 separating them from all the others, wished 
 to make of the posterity of Adam, in the 
 person of the Jews, His chosen people. It 
 is generally believed that the " sons of 
 
Mankind 
 
 450 
 
 Mankind 
 
 God " are the descendants of Seth, who had 
 remained faithful to the Lord, while the 
 "daughters of men" are Cainites, whose 
 fathers were impious ; but, whatever may 
 be the exact meaning of these expressions, 
 it is enough for us to state that the inter- 
 pretation of the polygenists is a manifest 
 counter sense and consequently inaccepta- 
 ble. 
 
 All the arguments which they have tried 
 to draw from Holy Scripture against the 
 unity of the human species are, therefore, 
 false and without value. St. Paul rendered 
 correctly the meaning of Genesis, when he 
 declared that all men who live upon earth 
 descend from the same father (Acts xvii. 
 26). The doctrine of monogenism is truly 
 a Biblical doctrine. 
 
 Since it is thus, we have only now to es- 
 tablish that Scripture in regard to this 
 subject is not in disagreement with science, 
 not in the sense that science can prove 
 that all men descend from one pair, — 
 this question is out of its domain, — but in 
 the sense that it establishes that all men 
 form only one species. The scientific ob- 
 jection against monogenism is drawn from 
 the differences which we remark among 
 the human races. We will explain first 
 the diversity in the races actually existing, 
 and, second, we will establish the unity of 
 mankind. 
 
 III. Diversity in the Human Races. 
 — I. General Observations. — The most 
 popular argument in favor of polygenism, 
 that which most strikes superficial minds 
 and those little accustomed to reflection, is 
 that drawn from the remarkable exterior 
 differences which distinguish the diverse 
 human races from one another. The ene- 
 mies of the unity of our species also insist 
 upon this point the most. The learned of 
 our day have repeated only in other terms 
 what Voltaire had said, that the Negro 
 with his woolly hair and the white with his 
 smooth hair cannot be of the same species. 
 
 In the physical order there seems to be 
 an abyss between one another. In the in- 
 tellectual or moral order how different also 
 is the intelligence of a native of Terra del 
 Fuego from that of a Plato, a St. Augus- 
 tine, or a St. Thomas.? And if in imagina- 
 tion we assemble, from among the millions 
 of men that at present people the earth, 
 representatives of all the living languages 
 and make each one express himself in his 
 own language, or dialect, what a cacao- 
 fhony'. What confusion! How can all 
 these men who express themselves in such 
 
 a different way descend from the same 
 mother.? How could their fathers of old 
 have called the same things by the same 
 names? That is what strikes the crowd 
 and impresses the groundlings. 
 
 But nevertheless, when we look closer, 
 when we reflect on what these differences 
 and contrasts in reality are, we perceive 
 very soon that we cannot draw from this 
 any conclusion. Intermediary rings exist 
 and form only one long chain. Between 
 the Greek of Athens and the Esquimaux, 
 there are a thousand gradations, which 
 from the Hellenic type reach down to ugli- 
 ness by a regular descent. From the ob- 
 tuse mind of an inhabitant of Terra del 
 Fuego to the intelligence of a Plato, there 
 are equally numerous steps by which we 
 mount gradually from the depths where 
 degraded man possesses only some mate 
 rial and gross ideas, up to those serene 
 heights where flourishes the philosophy of 
 the Academy and of the Angel of the 
 School. And in the physical order, as in 
 the intellectual, the transition is effected 
 by means of an almost indefinite series of 
 stages, degeneration, proceeding only 
 through shades hardly perceptible from 
 one another. In a word, the contrast no 
 longer surprises, when one passes through 
 all the intermediary degrees. 
 
 2. Causes of the Diversity in the Human 
 Races. — It cannot be denied, however, 
 that there are differences existing among 
 men. Just as the lightest blue and the 
 darkest blue are distinct, in spite of the 
 shades that unite them, so also there are 
 distinct races in the human species, in 
 spite of the ties of relationship that con- 
 nect them. We are careful not to deny 
 these real distinctions ; what we wish 
 solely to establish is that these differences 
 do not exclude the community of origin; 
 that these varieties, these races, do not 
 constitute diverse species ; that the polyg- 
 enists are mistaken when they confound 
 the races with the species and conclude 
 from the diversity of the human races the 
 plurality of the species. As to this some 
 indispensable notions and definitions are 
 subjoined. 
 
 The species is a collection of individuals 
 having the same essential characteristics, 
 descending from the same primitive pair 
 and enjoying the faculty of reproducing 
 themselves indefinitely. A group of species 
 having common characteristics is called 
 genus or kind. The species is unchangeable 
 in its essential characteristics, but its ac- 
 
 \ 
 
Mankind 
 
 451 
 
 Mankind 
 
 cessory characteristics may become modi- 
 fied and changed, under the influence of 
 diverse causes, and then give rise to varie- 
 ties and races. We call varieties the 
 groups of individuals of the same species 
 which are distinguished from the common 
 type by accidental modifications. These 
 modifications are not essential and specific, 
 but changeable and unstable by their very 
 nature, although, on account of peculiar 
 circumstances, they may become fixed and 
 lasting. In virtue of the natural law of 
 reversion, the varieties return of them- 
 selves to their original type, unless exter- 
 nal causes, and particularly the union 
 between individuals of the same variety, 
 render these passing characteristics per- 
 manent, conformably to the law of hered- 
 ity, which transmits to the children the 
 qualities peculiar to the parents. When 
 the accessory characteristics which consti- 
 tute a variety are fixed and perpetuated in 
 a constant manner by a generation, they 
 form a race. 
 
 By applying to the human species these 
 notions, universally admitted by all former 
 naturalists, it will be easy to account for 
 the phenomena which humanity now pre- 
 sents. The solution of the problem is 
 just this : All men who live upon earth 
 form only one species, but this species 
 comprises several particular races ; these 
 races all have for their starting point some 
 primitive varieties, produced accidentally 
 or naturally through diverse causes, and 
 whose characteristics have become heredi- 
 tary. The varieties may have manifested 
 themselves sometimes through the effect 
 of a sudden change in some individuals ; 
 generally they must have been the accum- 
 ulated result of gradual modifications, 
 brought on by the particular circum- 
 stances in which the subjects found 
 themselves placed, among whom these 
 alterations from the original type were 
 produced. The error of the polygenists 
 consists, therefore, in confounding the 
 races with the species and in pretending 
 that the accessory characteristics which 
 distinguish the races are specific charac- 
 teristics. We shall show that these char- 
 acteristics are not really specific, but 
 have, or at least may have, an accidental 
 origin. Now, to show that science is not 
 in contradiction with Scripture on the 
 fact of the unity of the human species, it 
 is enough to establish that this unity 
 is scientifically explainable and admissi- 
 ble, and that anthropology is entirely una- 
 
 ble to prove the plurality of the human 
 species. 
 
 That which establishes in a peremptory 
 manner the possibility of an origin com- 
 mon to all men, is that there exists in no 
 race any distinctive characteristic which 
 is not found exceptionally in some indi- 
 viduals of another race. None of these 
 characteristics is, therefore, really spe- 
 cific, for, in the contrary case, we could 
 find it only in the species to which it 
 would properly belong. Since it appears 
 accidentally in individuals of diverse 
 races, it follows that it could also be pro- 
 duced primitively in the same manner, 
 and that it became common in certain 
 fractions of humanity only in virtue of 
 what we call the influence of surroundings 
 and heredity. For the rest, to convince 
 ourselves, we have only to study succes- 
 sively the various characteristics of the 
 races and to show, by the light of observa- 
 tion and experience, that they are all acci- 
 dental and not essential to the species; 
 consequently, the fruit of circumstances, 
 and not a quality without which it is im- 
 possible to conceive an individual belong- 
 ing to our species. 
 
 It is so true that the characteristics of the 
 races have nothing absolute, but are on 
 the contrary very relative, we might al- 
 most say arbitrary, that until now anthro- 
 pologists could not come to an understand- 
 ing in determining them, some adopting 
 such a characteristic as sufficiently distinct, 
 others rejecting it as subject to too many 
 exceptions. Hence, in spite of the ac- 
 cumulated labors of many learned investi- 
 gators, they have not yet agreed on a 
 classification of the races that is unani- 
 mously or even generally accepted. Thus, 
 there neither exists, nor can there exist, a 
 really scientific classification of the human 
 races. In other words, all the divisions 
 that have been proposed are arbitrary, 
 and no characteristic has been discovered 
 that is exclusively peculiar to each race. 
 Hence, they belong more or less to one 
 another. 
 
 However, it may be as to the races, it 
 follows at least from what we have just 
 seen, that the principal characteristics 
 which distinguish men from one another 
 are the diversity of organic conformation, 
 color, hair, and language. These are 
 characteristics which we have now to ex- 
 amine, in order to establish whether they 
 are really original or whether they are 
 simply accidental deviations from the 
 
Mankind 
 
 452 
 
 Mankind 
 
 primitive form, having become stable in 
 the course of time. 
 
 By examining these characteristics one 
 after another, we siiall see that they can 
 originate from the influence of surround- 
 ings, and from that of heredity. By 
 "surroundings" we understand the cli- 
 mate, nourishment, mode of life, customs^ 
 civilization, in a word all that pertains to 
 the place and time in which one lives 
 and which may exercise a certain influ- 
 ence on the physical, intellectual, or moral 
 development of the individual. The in- 
 fluence of surroundings is indisputable in 
 natural history. A vast number of per- 
 fectly established facts furnish the proof. 
 
 Vegetables become white when sheltered 
 from light, and the effect is not superficial, 
 but extends even to the fibers of the plant, 
 to its taste, and to other succiferous quali- 
 ties. The animals of the polar regions 
 become white at the approach of winter. 
 The Swiss ox becomes, in two generations, 
 on the plain of Lombardy, a Lombard ox. 
 Two generations also suffice to change the 
 bees of Bourgogne, which are small and 
 brown, into bees of Brescia, which are 
 large and yellow, when raised in the latter 
 district. In the warm regions of South 
 America, European cattle have by degrees 
 lost their hair. The dahlia, sent from 
 Mexico to the botanical garden of Madrid, 
 produced there in 1791 a flower which had 
 nothing remarkable about it. It was 
 cultivated, not as an ornamental plant, but 
 because it was believed to be a succedaneum 
 of the potato. However, the surround- 
 ings into which it had been transported 
 finished by transforming it entirely. In 
 1810, some flowers of seedlings attracted 
 attention and florists commenced to culti- 
 vate it with care. In 1834, they had ob- 
 tained the varieties which to-day make 
 the dahlia one of the principal ornaments 
 of our flower gardens. Dogs in particu- 
 lar, offer us a striking example of the 
 changes produced by environment. The 
 following example is related : — 
 
 "A man went to live under the polar cir- 
 cle ; his dog followed him and clothed him- 
 self with the thick fur of the spitz ; the man, 
 with his companion, passed to the inter- 
 tropical regions, and the dog lost all his 
 hair. And it was not merely the exterior 
 that underwent a change, but the skeleton 
 was affected, together with the bony head, 
 like the rest. Who would confound the 
 skull of a bulldog with that of a greyhound ? ' ' 
 See art. Racks, in Dictionn. encycloped. 
 
 The influence of civilization and environ- 
 ment upon man himself is established by a 
 number of facts. The sedentary Arabians 
 of Hauran are of high stature and adorned 
 with a very strong beard, while their no- 
 madic brethren, the Bedouins, exposed to 
 all the vicissitudes of an unstable life, are 
 small and have hardly any beard. To make 
 amends, they have a more piercing look. 
 For the rest, the difference commences to 
 be perceptible only at the age of sixteen 
 years. They have remarked at Morocco 
 the same difference between the Arabs who 
 dwell in cities and those who live under 
 the tent. In many countries, there have 
 been established notably different charac- 
 teristics among the noble families and the 
 common people. The Arabs of the North 
 compare the nobility to the palm-tree, and 
 the people to the brier. If a different man- 
 ner of living produces differences in the 
 same country, with much more reason does 
 the complete change of environment carry 
 with it considerable modifications. 
 
 The Frenchman, transported into Can- 
 ada not many generations back, has seen 
 the change of his complexion, physiog- 
 nomy, and hair. In the United States, in 
 the same lapse of time, the Anglo-Saxon 
 has given rise to the Tankee race, which 
 differs from the mother-stock in certain ex- 
 terior characteristics. Since the first Creole 
 generation, this same English type has be- 
 come so modified in New Zealand, as well 
 as in Australia, that the eye distinguishes 
 at once " the persons of the old soil," from 
 " the children of the new soil." 
 
 The influence of environment on the or- 
 ganic constitution is therefore certain and 
 incontestable. Heredity is another factor 
 which is sufficient in itself to explain a por- 
 tion of the phenomena that we are study- 
 ing. It is the peculiarity of living beings 
 to repeat or to reproduce themselves with 
 the same forms and attributes. A white 
 man transported into warm countries, takes 
 such a dark shade that he might be mis- 
 taken for a black man.; however, his son is 
 born white and keeps himself thus, as long 
 as he is not subject to the same atmospheric 
 conditions. The intellectual qualities trans- 
 mit themselves as well as the physical char- 
 acteristics ; in the family of Bach, there 
 were thirty-two musicians. 
 
 An accidental quality, a variety produc- 
 ing itself spontaneously without any known 
 cause, may transmit itself through heredity 
 and thus constitute a race. In 1790 there 
 appeared in Paraguay a bull without horns. 
 
Mankind 
 
 453 
 
 Mankind 
 
 At the end of a few years this breed had 
 covered entire provinces. Cases of pecul- 
 iar characteristics produced spontaneously 
 and transmitted by heredity abound, and 
 this law of transmission is universally ad- 
 mitted by naturalists. 
 
 The influence of heredity and that of 
 environment may unite and combine them- 
 selves so as to tend toward the same end 
 and thus render more stable the character- 
 istics which differentiate the races. The 
 environment insensibly brings on more or 
 less considerable changes; heredity fixes 
 and perpetuates them, so that the modifi- 
 cations due to climate, or mode of life, for 
 instance, may still continue to exist, and 
 transmit themselves in a certain measure, 
 even under another climate and with other 
 habits and different civilization. Finally, 
 the crossing or mixture of races produces 
 new modifications, intermediary or sub- 
 races, capable of perpetuating themselves 
 with their new characteristics, when the 
 circumstances are favorable. 
 
 With the help of these certain and indis- 
 putable principles, all the differences that 
 distinguish the human races from one an- 
 other, explain themselves without diffi- 
 culty, and in a satisfactory manner, as we 
 shall show. Let us begin by accounting 
 for the diversity of color. 
 
 3. Color in the Races. — The color of 
 the skin is no specific sign. Darwin him- 
 self acknowledges that nothing is more 
 uncertain, or, according to his expression, 
 " more floating than color." It is such an 
 accessory quality that we can find its whole 
 series in a single animal. Among the col- 
 ored people themselves, black is so little 
 essential that "at the moment of birth, the 
 Negroes are not black; they become so 
 only through contact with the atmospheric 
 air," says Pruner-Bey. Besides, the cause 
 of this phenomenon is well known to-day. 
 Color is caused by the carbon pigment 
 found in the Malpighian cells. These cells 
 are also found in the colored places of the 
 white man's skin. The sun cannot sud- 
 denly effect this transformation, but it 
 may further it in the course of time. A 
 change in the color of the skin may have 
 easily been caused b}' the sun acting in 
 conjunction with moisture, temperature, 
 manner of living, and other climatic fac- 
 tors. The physiological explanation is 
 that respiration, being retarded by heat, 
 fails to change all the carbon into carbonic 
 acid. The light playing on the surface 
 materially aids the process. Parts not ex- 
 
 posed, like the sole of the foot and the 
 palm of the handj are less dark even in the 
 Negro. Arabian women, who go about 
 well wrapped up, are as white as Europeans. 
 Even in the same country and climate this 
 influence acts in different degrees, al- 
 though the skins are generally darkest in 
 hot countries. Anyhow, side by side with 
 secondary and accidental causes, light and 
 climate will always be regarded as the 
 chief factors in producing the change. 
 The experience gained in America during 
 three hundred years has shown that the 
 color and facial expression of Negroes are 
 undergoing a slow change, especially when 
 they are brought into Northern countries. 
 
 4. The Hair in the Human Races. — 
 With the characteristic trait of the color 
 of the skin in the human races is intimately 
 connected that of the color and nature of 
 the hair, for there is almost always a cor- 
 relation between them. Thus, the black 
 always have black hair. 
 
 Some anthropologists of our day attach 
 great importance to the hair conditions of 
 man. Even some polygenists have at- 
 tempted to make it the basis of a differen- 
 tiation of the human species. But, in spite 
 of the differences in color and form, the 
 hair is essentially the same among all men, 
 and the change from one variety tx> another 
 is effected only by insensible gradations. 
 The so-called woolly hair of the Negro is 
 such only in appearance. Age and climate 
 have an admitted influence on the hair. 
 We know that the color of the hair changes 
 with age. Often from a light color at the 
 time of birth, it gradually takes on a darker 
 shade, and finally becomes white in old 
 age. *' The hair of the newborn Negro is 
 generally more of a chestnut color than 
 black; it is straight and slightly curled at 
 the end," says Pruner-Bey, that is to say, 
 it then resembles, just as in the color of 
 the skin, that of the European. Generally 
 the Negro becomes gray quite early. 
 
 The hair in the human races is, there- 
 fore, only of secondary importance, and 
 does not establish in any manner their di- 
 versity of origin. 
 
 5. Forms of the Skull. — Differences in 
 the human races, for instance, in the skele- 
 ton and in the formation of the skull, are 
 also of little importance. Occupation and 
 manner of living, and malformations, in- 
 tentional or otherwise, may have had their 
 share in producing a clear but variable 
 type in a short time. Such deviations, 
 however, in the animal world do not hin- 
 
Mankind 
 
 454 
 
 Mankind 
 
 der the various races from forming one 
 species. In man the difficulty is even less. 
 For as the races are generally fertile, in- 
 termediate forms are possible everywhere, 
 and these act as links and transmission 
 agents. Blumenbach has pointed out that 
 transitional forms grow more and more 
 numerous. Humboldt considers that the 
 many intermediate stages in skull forma- 
 tion and in the color of the skin are a 
 strong plea for unity. The transition of 
 races is made still clearer by modern re- 
 searches. The American stock is the con- 
 necting link between the Caucasian and 
 the Mongolian ; the Malay bridges over 
 the Caucasian and the Negro. The differ- 
 ence between the highest and lowest types 
 may well be greater than that between the 
 lowest human and the highest animal 
 type ; but, as in the species of animals, 
 the intermediaries equalize the difference 
 and leave the human type unaffected. The 
 orang-outang is brown like the Malay ; the 
 gorilla and the chimpanzee are black like 
 the Negro. But neither all Malays nor all 
 Negroes have the same intense coloring. 
 Similar climatic influences may have been 
 at work to produce similar results in both 
 man and ape. Whether the orang-outang 
 has a round skull like the Malay, and 
 whether the chimpanzee's skull is elon- 
 gated like that of the Negro, are points 
 still hotly debated by the learned ; in any 
 case the identity would not be sufficient to 
 establish descent. 
 
 6. Higher and LoTver Races. — The dis- 
 tinction between higher and lower races 
 proves nothing against the unity of the 
 human species. The Caucasian has no 
 claim to the highest place ; for other races 
 are equally complete, and equally adapted 
 to their environment. The Negro can en- 
 dure heat and cold and withstand fatigue 
 better than the Caucasian and American. 
 And in this respect the Malay, climate not- 
 withstanding, is superior to the European. 
 In intellect, however, the case is different. 
 No one denies that the very lowest races 
 are still human. But there is a wide- 
 spread opinion that some races are, and 
 have been, low, and will never rise. Dar- 
 win could hardly belive that the inhabit- 
 ants of Terra del Fuego were men. 
 Similar stories are told of Australians and 
 Polynesians, and in the case of Negroes 
 have passed current as an axiom. Intel- 
 lectual inferiority is regarded as a specific 
 characteristic of the Negro race, especially 
 of those stocks that are the typical repre- 
 
 sentatives of the race. It is likewise pre- 
 tended that the ape approximates man in 
 the formation of the brain. With the 
 physical differences, we have already dealt ; 
 but speech and reason clearly demonstrate 
 that the intellectual difference between the 
 ape and the Negro is specific ; whereas, 
 there is a difference of degree only between 
 the Negro and other races. The intellec- 
 tual inferiorit}' of the Negro and savage 
 tribes has been grossly exaggerated. Even 
 Darwin was subsequently obliged to recon- 
 sider his verdict on the people of Terra 
 del Fuego. Owing to the praiseworthy 
 efforts of the missionaries, notable results 
 have already been achieved. This proves 
 that they possess a great capacity for edu- 
 cation. The Indians often display great 
 shrewdness and intelligence. Thanks to 
 Jesuit influence, a new and able nation has 
 sprung up in Paraguay, Colorado, and 
 elsewhere. Negro children educated in 
 America and Europe learn easily. All 
 tribes are susceptible of education and 
 culture ; all are possessed of a greater or 
 less intelligence. 
 
 7. The Plurality of the Languages. — 
 The plurality of languages does not prove 
 anything against the unity of mankind. 
 Languages are, in fact, as numerous as in- 
 dependent peoples, and history tells us 
 that language and customs were the great 
 barrier that separated tribe from tribe. 
 Some people have, indeed, changed their 
 language. One original language may 
 not be an absolutely certain proof that the 
 human race is one. Still language is a 
 certain guide, and the o'riginal language is 
 at least a negative proof, and affords a 
 strong and positive presumption in favor 
 of unity of mankind. Whence comes it 
 that languages differ.? This question, 
 though hardly ever broached formerly, 
 seems now to be the subject of discussion. 
 Outside the Old Testament there is 
 scarcely a record of any nation occupying 
 itself with the problem why languages are 
 many, instead of one. The Indians of 
 Central America have a legend, similar to 
 the account of Scripture, that all men 
 formerly had one speech and one religion, 
 but that when the people of Tulan 
 worshiped false gods, their speech was 
 changed. 
 
 " Though languages," says Humboldt, 
 *' may at first sight appear very different, 
 though their notions, humors, peculiari- 
 ties, may seem singular, nevertheless, they 
 betray a certain analogy, and we shall un- 
 
Manna 
 
 455 
 
 Marcellina 
 
 derstand their numerous relations better 
 according as the philological history of 
 nations and the study of language be- 
 comes more perfect." The last twenty 
 years have proven the correctness of this 
 view to a great extent. The Mosaic ac- 
 count represents nations as related whose 
 relationship antiquity was unable to recog- 
 nize. The Romans and Greeks, in spite 
 of their culture, never dreamed that they 
 were more nearly related to the Arians 
 and Germans than were the Syrians and 
 Tyrians. What Holy Writ has stated, the 
 science of the nineteenth century has con- 
 firmed : lonians, Arians, and Germans 
 are of common origin. The study of lan- 
 guage has proven that before the ancestors 
 of the Hindoos and Persians emigrated 
 toward the south, and before the Greek, 
 Roman, Celtic, Teutonic, and Slav colo- 
 nies went to Europe, there was probably 
 on the plains of Asia a tribe of Arians 
 who spoke a language which was not 
 Sanskrit, nor Greek, nor German, but 
 which called the Giver of light and life 
 by the same name, which may to-day be 
 heard in the temples of Benares, in the 
 basilicas of Rome, and in the cathedrals 
 and churches of Northern Germany, " All 
 the Indo-Germanic languages," says Pott, 
 "were identical before the separation; 
 they exist in the germ of one original 
 language, which disappeared when they 
 were differentiated from it." 
 
 In conclusion, we can hold that the 
 Mosaic account, which tells us the di- 
 vision of languages took place a long time 
 after the creation, and brings this division 
 into immediate connection with the di- 
 vision of mankind into different nations, 
 at the building of the Tower of Babel, ap- 
 pears to be confirmed by the teachings of 
 the science of language. 
 
 Manna. — A concrete vegetable exuda- 
 tion, a grain, in the Old Testament manna, 
 described, as found by the Israelites, as a 
 small round thing, as small as the hoar 
 frost on the ground. And when the chil- 
 dren of Israel saw it, they said one to 
 another: " Man-hu ! which signifieth : 
 What is this ! for they knew not what it 
 was" (Ex. xvi. 15), implying that the 
 name thus arose from the question, 
 Man-hu, {what is this?). Hence manna 
 signifies the food by which the children of 
 Israel were sustained in the wilderness 
 (Ex. xvi. 14-36; Num. xi. 6, 7). The cir- 
 cumstances attending the gift of manna 
 
 show that it was miraculous. It fell every 
 morning with the dew and in such quanti- 
 ties, during forty years, as to supply Is- 
 rael with a substitute for bread. It did 
 not fall on the Sabbath, but a double quan- 
 tity fell the day before, and when gathered 
 remained fresh till the first day. It ceased 
 when the people reached Galgala, but Moses 
 laid up a golden vase of it near the Ark as 
 a memorial. All these features prove that 
 the manna was something supernatural. 
 
 Manning (Henry Edward). — An 
 English cardinal ; born in Totteridge, 
 Hertfordshire, July 15th, 1808. After 
 graduating as double first at Balliol Col- 
 lege, Oxford, in 1830, he was appointed, 
 in 1834, rector of Lavington and Graffam, 
 in Sussex, and in 1840 he was made arch- 
 deacon of Chichester. In 1851 he left the 
 Church of England and joined the Roman 
 Catholic Church. After studying for 
 some years in Rome he was ordained 
 priest in 1857, and founded the Congrega- 
 tion of the Oblates of St. Charles Borro- 
 meo, at Bayswater, London. On the 
 death of Cardinal Wiseman, in 1865, he 
 was appointed archbishop of Westminster. 
 Being a zealous supporter of Papal In- 
 fallibility, Dr. Manning was made a cardi- 
 nal in 1875. He was the foremost spirit 
 in all Catholic movements in England, or- 
 ganized many parochial schools, built 
 more than 200 churches or chapels, 
 promoted temperance, started many be- 
 nevolent societies among the poor, and 
 took a lively interest in all practical re- 
 forms. He wrote : The Grounds of Faith 
 (1852) ; The Temporal Power of the Pope 
 (1866) ; The True Story of the Vatican 
 (1877-1888); The Catholic Church and 
 Modern Society (1880) ; The Eternal 
 Priesthood {i9Sj,); Temporal Mission of 
 the Holy Ghost; England and Christen- 
 dom; and numerous volumes of sermons 
 and letters on ecclesiastical topics. Died 
 in London, Jan. 14th, 1892. 
 
 Maranatha. See Anathema. 
 
 Marcellina (St.). -^Christian widow, born 
 at Rome. Of the illustrious family of the 
 Marcellus, widow at the age of sixteen 
 years ; in possession of immense wealth, 
 she erected a cloister in her palace on 
 Mount Aventin; turned her opulent apart- 
 ments into cells and oratories, which she 
 opened to widows and young ladies who 
 desired to consecrate themselves to God. 
 F. Jan. 31st. 
 
Marcellinus 
 
 456 
 
 Mark 
 
 Marcellinus (St.). — Pope from 296 to 
 304. Roman bj birth, martyr under Dio- 
 cletian. The story of the supposed fall of 
 Marcellinus, that, in the time of persecu- 
 tion he had ofTered incense to the idols 
 and subsequently repented before a coun- 
 cil of 300 bishops assembled at Sinuessa, 
 between Rome and Capua, is by all 
 learned men now universally rejected as 
 false. The whole fabrication was stig- 
 matized already by St. Augustine, as a 
 Donatist calumny, and ascribed by him to 
 Petilius, a Donatist bishop, who, without 
 a shadow of proof, also accused the suc- 
 cessors of Marcellinus, Marcellus, Melchi- 
 ades, and Sylvester, of having delivered 
 the Sacred Scriptures to the persecutors. 
 
 Marcellus (name of two Popes). — 
 Afarcelltts I. — Pope from 308 to 309. 
 Successor of Marcellinus, suffered perse- 
 cution under the tyrant Maxentius; 
 was condemned to serve as groom in the 
 imperial horse stables, and died in this 
 slavery. Marcellus II. — Pope in 1555. 
 Reigned only twenty-two days. 
 
 Marcion and Marcionites. — Marcion, a 
 Gnostic philosopher and heresiarch, of 
 the second century. Originally a priest 
 of Sinope in Pontus. He had distin- 
 guished himself by his zeal and his ascet- 
 ical life, but, falling into the crime of 
 incontinence, he was excommunicated by 
 his own father, the Bishop of Sinope. He 
 came to Rome about the year 150, to ap- 
 ply for readmission into the Church, but 
 was rejected. Upon which he joined 
 Cerdo, a Syrian Gnostic, who had come to 
 Rome in the time of Pope Hyginus. 
 Cerdo maintained that the God of the Old 
 J^aw and the Prophets was not the Father 
 of Jesus Christ. Adopting this heresy, 
 Marcion, whom St. Polycarp had called 
 " the firstborn of Satan," taught an abso- 
 lute distinction between the God of the 
 Christians and the God of the Jews, and 
 asserted that the Church had lapsed into 
 Judaism. He repudiated the Old Testa- 
 ment entirely, and of the New Testament 
 he retained only a mutilated copy of the 
 Gospels of St. Luke and the ten Epistles 
 of St. Paul. Marcion is said to have re- 
 pented of his apostasy, but, if so, his rec- 
 onciliation with the Church was precluded 
 by his speedy death. The most noisy of 
 his disciples were Mark and Apelles. The 
 Marcionites were very numerous in Italy, 
 Egypt, Palestine, Asia Minor, and even in 
 Persia. The sect had a complete ecclesi- 
 
 astical organization, with priests and 
 bishops, and continued as late as the sixth 
 century. 
 
 Marechal (Ambrose) (1768- 1828). — 
 American prelate; was born at Ingre, 
 France, and came to America in 1792. He 
 entered on his priestly career by mission- 
 ary labors in St. Mary's county and on the 
 Eastern shore of Maryland, but on the or- 
 ganization of St. Mary's College in 1799 
 became professor of theology in that insti- 
 tution. Archbishop of Baltimore in 1817. 
 He encountered great opposition from 
 lay trustees, who claimed the right to ap- 
 point priests, and who wished to make 
 the pastors of God's Church their hired 
 servants. 
 
 Marists. — Religious congregation, 
 founded, at Marseilles, by Eugene of 
 Mazenod (later bishop of this city; died 
 in 1861). Established in 1815, the society 
 was approved by Leo XH. in 1828. Its 
 members devote themselves to the manage- 
 ment of schools, instruction in industry, 
 agriculture, etc. They have houses in 
 Italy, England, North America, and other 
 countries. 
 
 Mark. — Greek heresiarch of the second 
 century, disciple of Valentinus. Substi- 
 tuted to the Catholic Trinity a Quaternity, 
 composed of the Ineffable, the Silence, 
 the Father, and the Truth ; sought mys- 
 teries in the number and position of letters, 
 rejected the sacraments, admitted a prin- 
 ciple of evil, and held women worthy of 
 the priesthood. His disciples were called 
 Marcasians, and spread in Asia, and espe- 
 cially in Gaul and Spain. 
 
 Mark (St.) — One of the four Evangel- 
 ists. Was probably the same as John Mark, 
 mentioned in the Acts (xii. 25). He was 
 the nephew or cousin of St. Barnabas. 
 Mark afterwards became the favorite com- 
 panion and disciple of St. Peter at Rome. 
 Sent on a mission to Egypt by St. Peter, 
 Mark there founded the Church of St. Al- 
 exandria, which he governed till the year 
 62, when he appointed Annianus his suc- 
 cessor. His life was ended by martyrdom 
 in the year 68. Mark wrote his Gospel in 
 Greek, which, as St. Irenaeus tells us, ap- 
 peared after the death of the Apostles 
 Peter and Paul, and which he is said to 
 have compiled from the preaching of St. 
 Peter, who, also, gave it his sanction. 
 Hence, ancient writers call him the " In- 
 terpreter" of that Apostle. F. April 25fh. 
 
Mark 
 
 457 
 
 Marriage 
 
 Mark (St.) — Pope in 333. Roman by 
 birth, rendered a decree conferring upon 
 the Bishop of Ostia the exclusive right to 
 consecrate the sovereign Pontiff. It was 
 he who ordained the recitation at Mass of 
 the symbol of Nice. F. Oct. 7th. 
 
 Mark's Day or Procession on St. M^'i'lc's 
 Day. — The procession on St. Mark's Day 
 was instituted even before the time of 
 Pope Gregory the Great (607) who, how- 
 ever, brought it into fervent practice, " in 
 order," as he says, "to obtain, in a meas- 
 ure, forgiveness of our sins." The same 
 Pope introduced another, called the Seven- 
 fold Procession, because the Faithful of 
 Rome took part in it in seven divisions, 
 from seven different Churches, meeting in 
 the Church of the Blessed Virgin of Santa 
 Maggiore. It was also named the Pest 
 Procession, because it was ordered by St. 
 Gregory to obtain the cessation of a fear- 
 ful pestilence which was at that time 
 raging in Rome, and throughout all Italy. 
 This pestilence so poisoned the atmos- 
 phere that one opening his mouth to sneeze 
 or gape would. suddenly fall dead; hence 
 the custom of saying "God bless you," 
 to one sneezing, and of making the sign 
 of the Cross on the mouth of one who 
 gapes. The same holy Pope ordered the 
 picture of the Blessed Virgin, which is 
 said to have been painted by St. Luke to 
 be carried in this procession, and that the 
 intercession of this powerful mother be 
 asked. God heard these supplications and 
 the pestilence ceased. 
 
 Maronites. — Catholic people of Syria, 
 living in the number of about 500,000 in 
 the district of Tripoli and Libanon. Con- 
 stituted in the seventh century by John 
 the Maronite, the Maronites acknowledged 
 in 1215, the authority of the Pope and 
 placed themselves under the protection of 
 St. Louis, king of France. They use un- 
 leavened bread for the confection of the 
 Eucharist, and, like the rest of the Ori- 
 entals, communicate the laity under both 
 kinds, except that in communicating the 
 sick, only the species of bread is used. They 
 use incense at low Mass, and read the 
 Gospel in Arabic, after it has been read in 
 Syriac, Arabic being the vulgar language 
 in those countries where this rite prevails. 
 Their secular clergy number about one 
 thousand, and their regular clergy or 
 monks, about fourteen hundred. The 
 monks are not married. The patriarch of 
 the Maronites is styled "Patriarch of 
 
 Antioch of the Maronites," and resides at 
 Deir Kanobin, near the Libanon. Besides 
 the patriarch, they have six archbishops and 
 three bishops. The people elect the pa- 
 triarch, who, however, must await the con- 
 firmation of the Pope before he is installed 
 in office. 
 
 Marquette (jAcquES) (1637-1675) — 
 Born at Laon, France; died near Lake 
 Michigan. A French Jesuit missionary 
 and explorer in America. He accompanied 
 Joliet in his voyage down the Wisconsin 
 and Mississippi and up the Illinois in 
 1673. He died Avhile attempting to es- 
 tablish a mission among the Illinois. He 
 wrote in French a description of the ex- 
 pedition of 1673 entitled Voyage and Dt's' 
 covery of Some Countries and Nations in 
 North America. 
 
 Marriage. See Matrimony ; Bigamy. 
 
 Marriage {Civil). — Civil marriage we 
 call a marriage contracted before some 
 State official. Civil marriage is to be 
 distinguished from Christian marriage, in- 
 asmuch as it is no sacrament, and conse- 
 quently in the sight of God no true and 
 real marriage for Catholics. Civil mar- 
 riage may be said to have originated with 
 Luther, for he prepared the way for the 
 State to legislate concerning marriage. 
 What he began, the French revolution 
 completed ; for marriage was then declared 
 to be a civil contract, concluded before a 
 government official. Civil marriage is 
 obligatory or compulsory when, as is the 
 case in some countries, the marriage is 
 otherwise not recognized by the State ; it 
 is optional when the parties are free to 
 choose whether the ceremony shall be 
 civil or religious, as in America; finally, 
 it is unavoidable, if on account of the priest 
 being debarred from marrying them 
 through political reasons, or on other 
 obvious grounds, the persons desirous of 
 being married cannot be united otherwise 
 than by the secular authorities. We said, 
 civil marriage is no sacrament. However, 
 in England, Scotland, and most of the 
 United States of America, where the de- 
 cree Tametsi of the Council of Trent has 
 not been duly published, marriage con- 
 tracted between two baptized Catholics 
 without the sanction of the Church is a 
 valid marriage and a sacrament, although 
 an unlawful and sacrilegious act. Catho- 
 lics who contract civil marriage, are ex- 
 cluded from the sacraments until they have 
 repaired the scandal they have given. 
 
Marriage 
 
 458 
 
 Martin of Tours 
 
 Marriage {Mixed). — By mixed marriage 
 we understand the marriage of a Catholic 
 to a non-Catholic. Mixed marriages have 
 always been disapproved of by the Church. 
 
 1. Because in such marriages the proper 
 training of the children is a matter of great 
 difficulty, if not altogether impossible. 
 
 2. Because such unions are productive of 
 no concord, no true happiness. 3. Because 
 the Catholic is in great danger of losing 
 his or her faith. 4. And, besides, the non- 
 Catholic may at any time obtain a divorce, 
 leave his or her Catholic partner, and con- 
 tract another marriage. Even in the Old 
 Testament mixed marriages were pro- 
 hibited ; the Jews were not permitted to 
 make marriages with the Chanaanites 
 (Deut. vii. 3), nor indeed with the Samar- 
 itans, although they kept the law of God 
 and had the Books of Moses, because of 
 the heathen ceremonies they observed. In 
 like manner in the present day the Church 
 discourages the marriage of Catholics to 
 non-Catholics, who, though they call 
 themselves Christians, hold doctrines 
 which are at variance with the teaching of 
 Christ. The Church warns her children 
 against such alliances, just as a loving 
 father might warn his son against under- 
 taking some journey which he knows will 
 expose him to great perils. In early times 
 parents who gave their daughter in mar- 
 riage to a heretic were subjected to five 
 years' penance. The Church tolerates 
 mixed marriages on three conditions: i. 
 Both parties must promise that their chil- 
 dren shall be brought up as Catholics. 3. 
 The Catholic must promise to endeavor to 
 bring the non-Catholic to the knowledge 
 of the truth. 3. The non-Catholic must 
 promise to allow the Catholic liberty for 
 the free exercise of his or her religion. 
 Without these three conditions the Church 
 will not sanction a mixed marriage. The 
 Catholic who contracts a mixed marriage 
 without the blessing of the Church com- 
 mits a mortal sin, and cannot be admitted 
 to the sacraments. 
 
 Martha. — A sister of Lazarus whom 
 our Lord raised from the dead (Luke x. 
 38, etc.; John xi.). During the great per- 
 secution of the Church at Jerusalem, 
 Martha, Lazarus, Mary Magdalen, and 
 other Christians were placed on a vessel 
 without sails, rudders, pilot, or provi- 
 sions in order to cause them to perish in 
 the midst of the sea. The vessel landed 
 at Marseilles. St. Martha having con- 
 
 verted the inhabitants of the city of Taras- 
 con, lived there until her death in a. d. 84. 
 She was buried in the actual crypt of the 
 Church of St. Martha. She is the patron 
 saint of Tarascon. F. July 29th. 
 
 Martha {Religious of St.) . — Female re- 
 ligious congregation, which draws its origin 
 from the Beguines of the Netherlands and 
 which was founded by Nicholas Robin, 
 chancellor of King Philip the Kind. They 
 have charge of a great number of hospitals 
 in Burgundy. 
 
 Martial (St. ). — First bishop of Limoges, 
 apostle of Aquitaine, in the first century. 
 Jew by origin, of the tribe of Benjamin, 
 disciple of our Saviour, he came to Rome 
 together with St. Peter, and received from 
 the chief of the Apostles the mission to 
 preach the faith among the inhabitants of 
 Gaul. Patron saint of Limoges, Cahors, 
 Tulle, etc. F. June 30th. 
 
 Martin (name of five Popes). — Martin I. 
 (St.) — Pope from 649 to 655. He formally 
 condemned the Monothelites and the two 
 imperial edicts, called Ecthesis and Typos, 
 which forbade all controversy on the sub- 
 ject of Two Wills in Christ. For tliis op- 
 position. Pope Martin, by order of Emperoi 
 Constans II., was forcibly carried to Con- 
 stantinople, and, after many suflFerings, 
 died a martyr in exile. Martin II. — Pope 
 from 882 to 884. Excommunicated Photius, 
 Patriarch of Constantinople. Martin III. 
 — Successor of Stephen VIII. or IX. in 
 942 and died in 946. Martin IV. — Pope 
 from 1281 to 1285. Governed the Church 
 with prudence and ability. Excommuni- 
 cated Peter of Aragon, who had taken 
 Sicily. Martin V. — Pope from 1417 to 
 1431. Was elected after Gregory XII. 
 had abdicated, and after the antipope 
 Benedict XIII. had been deposed. He 
 presided at the 42d session of the Coun- 
 cil of Constance; declared, by a special 
 Bull, " that it was unlawful for any one, 
 either to appeal from the judgment of tha 
 Holy See, or to reject its decisions in mat- 
 ters of faith." He exerted all his efforts 
 to restore industry and commerce in the 
 Papal States, and to carry out the reforms 
 inaugurated at Constance. 
 
 Martin of Tours (St.) (316-400) . — Born 
 at Sabaria, Hungaria; died at Candes, 
 France. Martin became a Christian cate- 
 chumen against his parents' wish ; and at 
 the age of fifteen he was, therefore, seized 
 by his father, a pagan soldier, and enrolled 
 
Martinelli 
 
 459 
 
 Martyrs 
 
 in the army. One winter day, when sta- 
 tioned at Amiens, he met a beggar almost 
 naked and frozen. Having no money, he 
 cut his cloak in two and gave him half of 
 it. That night he saw our Lord clothed in 
 the half of his cloak, and heard Him say to 
 the angels: " Martin, yet a catechumen, 
 hath wrapped me in this garment." This 
 decided him to be baptized, and shortly 
 after he left the army. He succeeded in 
 converting his mother; but, being driven 
 from his home by the Arians, he took 
 shelter with St. Hilary, and founded, near 
 Poitiers, the first monastery in France. In 
 372 he was made bishop of Tours. Un- 
 armed and attended only by his monks, 
 Martin destroyed the heathen temples and 
 groves, and completed by his preaching 
 and miracles, the conversion of the people, 
 whence he is known as the Apostle of 
 Gaul. F. Nov. nth. 
 
 Martinelli (Sebastian). — Archbishop 
 of Ephesus and Apostolic Delegate to the 
 Catholic Church in the United States ; born 
 in the parish of St. Anna, near Lucca, 
 Italy, Aug. 3oth, 1848; the brother of the 
 late Cardinal Tommaso Martinelli. He 
 studied for the priesthood and was admit- 
 ted into the Order of St. Augustine in 1871, 
 and from that time until 1886 was professor 
 of theology in the Irish Augustinian Col- 
 lege in Rome. In 1889 he was appointed 
 General of the Augustinian Order. In 
 1893 ^^ spent several months in the United 
 States, reorganizing the American branch 
 of his Order. In 1896 he was selected by 
 the Pope as Delegate and the Vatican rep- 
 resentative in the United States, in suc- 
 cession to Cardinal Satolli. 
 
 Martyrologium (the history of the 
 lives, sufferings, and death of Christian 
 martyrs). — The custom of drawing up 
 Martyrologies is so much more natural as 
 the pagans themselves inscribed in their 
 fasces the names of their heroes, in order 
 to preserve to posterity the example of the 
 great actions they had performed. Baron- 
 ius claims that Pope Clement I. introduced 
 this custom into the Church. There is 
 quite a number of Martyrologies : the first 
 is that of Eusebius and of St. Jerome; 
 Cassiodorus quotes it in the sixth century, 
 and Bede in the seventh ; the second is that 
 of Bede, written about the year 730, and 
 augmented by Florus, about the year 839; 
 the third is of Vandelbert, monk of Prom, 
 in the Diocese of Treves, written in 848 ; 
 the fourth was composed, about the year 
 
 845, by Rabanus, Archbishop of Mayence ; 
 the fifth was written, about the year 894, 
 by Notker, surnamed the "Little Stam- 
 merer," monk of St. Gall; the sixth, com- 
 posed about the year 858, by Adon, is a 
 compilation of the Roman Martyrology 
 and of that of Bede; the seventh, made 
 after a copy of that of Adon, was written, 
 in 875, by Usuard, monk of St. Germain- 
 des-Pr^s ; the eighth was composed about 
 the year 1089, by Nevolon, monk of 
 Corbie ; the ninth is the Martyrology of 
 the Copts, kept by the Maronites, at Rome, 
 and mentioned by Father Kircher in his 
 Prodromus; the tenth is the Roman 
 Martyrology which contains the names of 
 all the canonized saints. There are, besides, 
 Martyrologies of particular Churches. 
 
 Martyrs (the name given to those 
 who suffer death or torments for the 
 Christian religion). — It is the constant 
 doctrine of the Fathers, that all men, who 
 suffer martyrdom for Christ, attain remis- 
 sion of all sin and punishment, whether 
 they be infants or adults. By a martyr is 
 here to be understood one who suffers 
 with patience, death, or treatment which 
 would naturally cause death, for the Catho- 
 lic faith or for the practice of any Christian 
 virtue. According to Tertullian, St. 
 John the Evangelist was thrown into a 
 caldron of boiling oil, by order of the 
 Emperor Domitian, and his life was saved 
 by a miracle, so that he eventually died a 
 natural death ; but, nevertheless, he is 
 honored as a martyr. Although the ordi- 
 nary case of martyrdom is death for the 
 faith, still the privilege belongs to many 
 who have died for the sake of other virtues. 
 St. John of Nepomuk died rather than be- 
 tray the secret of confession ; St. Alphege 
 of Canterbury, preferred to die by the 
 hands of the Danes, rather than harshly 
 exercise his legal rights and compel his 
 dependents to raise the money demanded 
 for his ransom; and his successor, St. 
 Thomas, suffered in defense of the liber- 
 ties of the Church. 
 
 The essential character of martyrdom is 
 that death or suffering should be incurred 
 voluntarily in testimony of the truth, and 
 it is to this that the derivation of the word 
 points — martus {a witness). The ordinary 
 definition requires that the martyr should 
 suffer with patience, for otherwise he has 
 scanty likeness to Christ, who was led as a 
 sheep to the slaughter (Is. liii. 7) ; and 
 Tertullian expressly denies that soldiers 
 
Maruthas 
 
 460 
 
 Mary 
 
 who fall in battle can be called martvrs, 
 however good the cause in which they 
 fight. {Contra Marcion.) Such men are 
 popularly called martyrs, and if the case 
 arise of their being proposed for canoniza- 
 tion, the question will be discussed whether 
 the popular judgment is right or not. The 
 term may be a mere loose expression, like 
 martyr of charity. But whether these 
 Christian heroes would be honored under 
 the name of martyrs or under that of con- 
 fessors, their salvation can hardly depend 
 upon their baptism of blood ; it rarely 
 happens, that they are without the baptism 
 of water, and, even if this happen, they 
 will probably have been justified by the 
 baptism of desire. 
 
 It is impossible to fix the exact number 
 of Christian martyrs that died for the faith 
 in the first three centuries. Dodwell, an 
 Anglican writer of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury, and Gibbon, endeavored to prove 
 that it was insignificant, but their opinion 
 is not shared by more unprejudiced writers. 
 The computation of Bosio, who is justly 
 styled the *' Columbus of the Catacombs," 
 and of other learned men, have led to the 
 estimate that at least five millions — men, 
 women, and children — were put to death 
 for the faith during the first three cen- 
 turies of the Church. Some even believe 
 the total number of Christians martyred 
 during this period to be between nine and 
 ten millions. 
 
 Maruthas. — Bishop of Tagrit, or Mar- 
 tyropolis, in Mesopotamia. Died about 
 420. He was truly one of the most learned 
 and illustrious writers of the Syriac 
 Church. He was a contemporary and the 
 intimate friend of St. Chrysostom, and 
 assisted at the Council of Constantinople. 
 He converted a great number of Persians 
 and extended the faith throughout Persia. 
 Of his works extant are Acts of the Per- 
 sian Martyrs, who suffered under Sapor 
 n. and his successors, a History of the 
 Council of Nice, and a Syriac Liturgy. 
 The thirty-six canons of the synod held in 
 410 at Seleucia, in which the Procession 
 of the Holy Ghost from the Father and 
 the Son is clearly expressed, are in part 
 his work. 
 
 Mary {Brothers of). See Brothers. 
 
 Mary Immaculate ( Oblates of). — A 
 religious community founded in 1816 by 
 Monseigneur Charles de Mazenod, subse- 
 quently bishop of Marseilles, and approved 
 
 by Leo XH., in 1826. After laboring for 
 many years among the Indian tribes of 
 Athabasca- Mackenzie, came to the United 
 States in 1848, where they have now sev- 
 eral houses, mostly in Texas and Louis- 
 iana. 
 
 Mary {The Blessed Virgin ) ( 20 b. c.- 
 SaA.D). — The Blessed Virgin, Mother of 
 Jesus Christ, daughter of St. Joachim and 
 of St. Anna, of the tribe of Juda and of the 
 royal race of David, was born at Nazareth. 
 Predestined from all eternity to be the 
 mother of the Saviour of men, she was ex- 
 empt in her conception from original sin. 
 Mary was consecrated to the Lord, from 
 her most tender youth, and was received 
 among the number of the virgins who ser\'ed 
 in the Temple of Jerusalem. At about the 
 age of fifteen years, she was betrothed to 
 St. Joseph, who was also of the tribe of 
 Juda and of the rojal race of David. She 
 lived at Nazareth with her spouse, who 
 was only the guardian of her virginity. 
 Shortly after this marriage, the angel Ga- 
 briel appeared to Mary, announced to her 
 that she would conceive through the power 
 of the Holy Ghost and that, without ceasing 
 to be a virgin, she would be the mother of 
 Christ, the Son of God, whom she would 
 call Jesus. Mary humbly answered to the 
 angel : " Behold the handmaid of the Lord ; 
 be it done to me according to thy word." 
 An angel explained the same mystery to 
 St. Joseph. Mary went to visit her cousin 
 St. Elizabeth who lived at Hebron; the 
 latter, divinely inspired, saluted her say- 
 ing: "Blessed art thou amongst women, 
 and blessed is the fruit of thy womb." 
 Then Mary, p)enetrated with gratitude and 
 supernatural light, praised God, by chant- 
 ing her sublime canticle, the Magnificat. 
 In the same year, the Roman Emperor, 
 Augustus, haN-ing ordered the enumeration 
 of his subjects, Joseph and Mary went to 
 Bethlehem, the native place of their fam- 
 ily, in order to be recorded. Here the 
 Blessed Virgin Mary brought forth the 
 Son of God, the Redeemer of mankind. 
 After ha\nng presented Him in the Temple 
 of Jerusalem on the day of Purification, 
 Mary and Joseph fled with the child Jesus 
 into Egypt, because King Herod sought to 
 kill Him. Herod having died, the Holy 
 Family left Egypt and returned to dwell 
 at Nazareth, in Galilee. It was Mary 
 who recovered the child Jesus in the Tem- 
 ple, explaining the law to the doctors and 
 astonishing them by the wisdom of His 
 
Mary 
 
 461 
 
 Mass 
 
 words. It was at her request that Jesus 
 Christ changed water into wine at the 
 nuptials of Cana. She accompanied her 
 divine Son during His public life, fol- 
 lowed Him to Calvary and remained erect 
 at the foot of the Cross with a courage 
 worthj of the mother of God. Recom- 
 mended by the dying Saviour to His well- 
 beloved disciple, St. John the Evangelist, 
 the latter took care of her as of his own 
 mother, and took her with him to Ephesus. 
 But, according to tradition, Mary died at 
 Jerusalem, at the advanced age of seventy- 
 two years. Also, an ancient tradition 
 teaches us that the Apostles, then dis- 
 persed all over the world for the preach- 
 ing of the Gospel, miraculously found 
 themselves assembled around her and wit- 
 nessed her death. Her remains were de- 
 posited in a tomb at Gethsemani, and this 
 tomb, like that of Jesus, became glorious. 
 God glorified the body of Mary, who had 
 served as tabernacle to the Word, in caus- 
 ing it to be transported into heaven by His 
 angels. The Apostle St. Thomas, the 
 hagiographers tell us, who was not present 
 at the death of the Blessed Virgin, arrived 
 on the third day, and, wishing to venerate 
 that body which had brought forth the 
 Saviour, requested the sepulchre to be 
 opened. They no longer found the sacred 
 remains, but only the winding sheet in 
 which it had been wrapped. The Apostles 
 recognized and proclaimed that the body 
 of Mary was already reunited with its soul 
 and had been gloriously raised into heaven. 
 
 Mary {Feasts of). — The principal feasts 
 in honor of the Blessed Virgin are: Im- 
 maculate Conception, Dec. 8th; Nativity, 
 Sept. 8th ; Betrothal of Mary and Joseph, 
 Jan. 23d; Annunciation, March 25th; Visi- 
 tation, July 2d ; Purification, Feb. 2d ; 
 Assumption, Aug. 15th. Only the first 
 and last of these feasts are of precept in the 
 United States. 
 
 "bHa-Tj {Prerogatives of). — The venera- 
 tion which the Church renders to the 
 Blessed Virgin Mary is founded upon the 
 same reasons and motives as that which 
 she renders to other saints, with the differ- 
 ence that the first is superior, although it 
 essentially differs from the worship we owe 
 to God. In fact, when all the saints can 
 intercede for us, and when God is pleased 
 to listen to their prayers, with much more 
 reason does she merit our confidence, 
 who was blessed among all women, and 
 who, in consenting to become the Mother 
 
 of God, has become, says St. Irenaeus, the 
 cause of salvation for all mankind. She is 
 also the object of a particular veneration 
 in the Church, which has always regarded 
 her as our advocate with God, celebrating 
 her titles, virtues, and glory. All the gen- 
 erations have called her and will call her 
 blessed, because the Almighty has done 
 great things in her : Mary is the Mother of 
 God and this title elevates her above the 
 saints and angels, above all creatures. 
 She is the Mother of God in the full sense 
 of the word : she conceived and brought 
 forth, as to the humanity, Jesus Christ, the 
 Son of God made man ; in her bosom the 
 Word was made flesh. Mary in becoming 
 the Mother of God, never ceased to be a 
 virgin ; she was a virgin when the angel 
 announced to her the mystery to be oper- 
 ated in her ; she remained a virgin in con- 
 ceiving the one who is holy far excellence. 
 She conceived through the operation of the 
 Holy Ghost. She remained a virgin after 
 childbirth, which, having been done in a 
 supernatural manner, could not impair her 
 virginal integrity. The Church believes 
 that the Blessed Virgin Mary never com- 
 mitted any sin, not even a venial one; the 
 exemption from all actual sin is a privilege 
 which we acknowledge in Mary, and which 
 has never been contested among Catholics. 
 The Council of Trent declared that nobody 
 can, during his whole life, avoid all sin, 
 without a special privilege of God, as the 
 Church believes in regard to the Blessed 
 Virgin. It is an article of faith that Mary 
 has been even exempt from original sin. 
 By his Apostolic Constitution of Dec. 8th, 
 1854, th^ immortal Pius IX. has solemnly 
 defined and proclaimed as dogma of belief 
 the Immaculate Conception of the glorious 
 Virgin Mary, Mother of God. Another 
 prerogative of Mary is her corporal As- 
 sumption into heaven. It is the general 
 belief of the Church; that the Blessed Vir- 
 gin was raised to life immediately after her 
 death, and that she is in heaven both 
 body and soul. This pious belief is founded 
 upon tradition, and on the sentiments of 
 piety which we should have for the Mother 
 of God. 
 
 Maspha. — Name of several localities of 
 ancient Palestine, among others of a village 
 in the tribe of Gad. Residence of Samuel ; 
 here the great assemblies of the people took 
 place. To-day the village of Chafath. 
 
 Mass (The Latin word missa is derived 
 from missis, which signifies a dismissal or 
 
Mass of Bolsena 
 
 462 Mass of the Presanctified 
 
 permission to depart as soon as the sacri- 
 fice of the Mass is completed). — The sac- 
 rifice of the Body and Blood of Jesus Christ, 
 according to the rite prescribed. 
 
 The Eucharist as sacrifice is designated 
 under different names bj the ancient 
 Fathers ; but since a long time it is univer- 
 sally called sacrifice of the Mass. Mass is 
 the sacrifice of the New Law, by which we 
 offer to God, through the hands of the 
 priest, the Body and Blood of Jesus Christ, 
 under the species of bread and wine. The 
 sacrifice is, by its nature, an act of supreme 
 worship which is rendered to God alone, 
 and which is called latria worship. Thus 
 if the Mass of a saint is said, it must not 
 be understood that we offer the sacrifice of 
 the Mass to this saint, but that we make 
 commemoration of the saint and pray to 
 him to intercede for us. The sacrifice of 
 the Mass has the same properties, the same 
 effects as the sacrifice of the Cross, from 
 which it differs only in the manner it is 
 offered on our altars. It is, consequently, 
 latreutical, eucharistic, imprecatory, and 
 propitiatory. In regard to the fruits of the 
 sacrifice of the Mass, we distinguish the 
 general fruit, which is common to all the 
 Faithful, the living and the dead retained 
 in purgatory; the special fruit, which is 
 for all those who assist or take some part 
 in the celebration of the Mass ; the more 
 special fruit, which is particularly for those 
 at whose intention the Mass is said ; finally, 
 the personal fruit, applied to the priest 
 who says the Mass. The priests, and priests 
 alone can offer the sacrifice of the Mass, 
 acting in the name of Jesus Christ, and with 
 Jesus Christ Who renews and continues 
 upon our altars the sacrifice of the Cross. 
 According to the general and constant 
 practice of the Church, the one for whom 
 the priest especially offers the sacrifice of 
 the Mass, partakes with greater abundance 
 in the merits of Jesus Christ which are ap- 
 plied therein. Hence the custom of Catho- 
 lics to ask for one or several Masses in 
 favor of the living and of the dead ; hence 
 the custom of the foundations (founded 
 Masses) obliging to say a certain number 
 of Masses; hence, finally, the necessary 
 fees or stipends for the Masses to be said. 
 Every laborer is worthy of reward ; every 
 man that ser^-es the altar ought to live 
 from the altar. The stipend of a Mass is 
 neither the price of the consecration, nor 
 an alms properly speaking; the priest who 
 is rich may, as well as the one who is poor, 
 receive and even ask for a stipend if re- 
 
 quested to say one or several Masses ac- 
 cording to the intention of one of the 
 Faithful. For the obligation of hearing 
 Mass, see Commaxdmexts. 
 
 The ordinary of the Mass comprises 
 the Introit, the Oration or Collect, the 
 Epistle, Gradual, Gospel, Preface, the 
 Canon which comprises' Consecration and 
 Elevation, with Communion, and Post- 
 Communion, the last Oration, the Bless- 
 ing of those assisting, and the last Gospel. 
 The Requiem Masses or Masses for the 
 dead are especially applied to the Faith- 
 ful departed, although any other Mass 
 may be said according to this intention. 
 Votive Mass we call the Mass which the 
 particular devotion of somebody causes to 
 be said in honor of a mystery, or of the 
 Blessed Virgin, or of other saints. Votive 
 Masses do not correspond with the office 
 of the day. On all days except Sundays, 
 feasts of double and more than double 
 rank, and certain other days especially ex- 
 cepted, a priest may say a Votive Mass, 
 instead of that assigned for the day. See 
 Sacrifice of the Mass. 
 
 Mass of Bolsena. — Bolsena is a town of 
 Italy. In this place a priest, while cele- 
 brating Mass in the Church of St. Cath- 
 arine, which still exists, let some drops of 
 the Precious Blood fall accidentally on the 
 corporal. To remove the traces of this oc- 
 currence, he folded and refolded the sacred 
 linen in such a way as to absorb the Ador- 
 able Blood. The corporal was afterwards 
 opened, and it was found that the Blood 
 had penetrated all the folds and left every- 
 where a figure of the Sacred Host, per- 
 fectly drawn, in the color of blood. The 
 rumor of what had happened arrived in a 
 few hours at Orvieto, a small town about 
 sixty miles from Rome, near Bolsena, and 
 where Pope Urban IV. was just stopping. 
 By the command of the sovereign Pontiff, 
 the miraculous linen was brought to his 
 town. The miracle was proved, and the 
 corporal inclosed in a reliquary, one of the 
 masterpieces of the Middle Ages, — and is 
 kept to this day in the cathedral of Orvieto. 
 Moved by the miracle of Bolsena, and by 
 the desire to promote the devotion to the 
 Blessed Eucharist, Urban IV., in 1264, 
 commanded the celebration of the Festival 
 of Corpus Christi throughout the Church. 
 See Corpus Christi. 
 
 Mass of the Presanctified. 
 Friday. 
 
 See Good 
 
Massilians 
 
 463 
 
 Materialism 
 
 Massilians. — Name given to the semi- 
 Pelagians, from the city of Marseilles, 
 where they were most numerous. See 
 Semi-Pelagians. 
 
 Massillon (Jean Baptiste) (1663-1743). 
 — Prelate and preacher of the Order of the 
 Oratory, born at Hyeres, died at Cler- 
 mont. He lived for many years in a 
 monastery ( Sept-Fonts ); and in 1696 was 
 called to Paris, where he became director 
 of the seminary of St. Magloire and, in 
 1704, court preacher, attaining great celeb- 
 rity as a public orator. In 1717 he was 
 made bishop of Clermont, and became an 
 Academician in 1719- His works ( includ- 
 ing sermons, funeral orations, etc.) were 
 published in 15 volumes, 1745-1748. 
 
 Massorah or Masora. — The tradition by 
 which Jewish scholars endeavored to fix 
 the correct text of the Old Testament, so 
 as to preserve it from all corruption. The 
 Masora dates from the ninth century. 
 There is a two-fold Masora, a Babylonian 
 or Eastern, and a Palestinian or Western; 
 the former being the most important. The 
 Masora not only takes account of various 
 readings, but also contains notes of a gram- 
 matical and lexicographical character, in- 
 cluding the system of Hebrew vowel-points 
 first established by it. With much that is 
 valueless, it contains all the material from 
 which a critical revision of the Old Testa- 
 ment text can now be derived. 
 
 Materialism (system of those who believe 
 that all is matter). — Materialism is repre- 
 sented in antiquity by the Atomistic and 
 Epicurian Schools. Atomistic School. — 
 All the bodies are composed of material, 
 eternal, and self-moving atoms. The move- 
 ment by which they operate their diflFerent 
 combinations is proper to them. The 
 diversity of the bodies results from the di- 
 versity of the atoms. The soul, like all other 
 earthly bodies is an aggregation of atoms. 
 It distinguishes itself from the other bodies 
 only by the roundness, subtility, and swift- 
 ness of the atoms which constitute it. The 
 material soul becomes decomposed at the 
 moment of death into its constituent atoms 
 and ceases to exist. The physics of Epi- 
 curus are those of Democritus. The soul 
 is composed of atoms, fire, air, and light, 
 which diflfer from those of the body by a 
 greater degree of mobility and subtility. 
 The only source of knowledge is the sensi- 
 ble impression produced, in contact with 
 our organs, by the images continually dis- 
 
 engaging themselves from the bodies by a 
 perpetual emission of the atoms which 
 compose them. Sensible ideas are obtained 
 from general ideas. Such is, in general, 
 the teaching of Materialism. In modern 
 times, Materialism, as a doctrine, has 
 been taught by Hobbes, Gassendi, Hel- 
 vetius, Lamettrie, Broussais ; hidden under 
 various names, it is true, Sensualism 
 arrives at the same result : the negation 
 of the immaterial soul. According to 
 Hobbes, nothing exists except matter; 
 the soul is material like all other sub- 
 stances ; all our ideas are derived from sen- 
 sation. There is no justice; each one has 
 no other rule but his own interest and pas- 
 sion. Materialism, under the name of 
 Sensualism, has been taught by Condillac. 
 Condillac starts from the empiric doctrine 
 of Locke, but he reduces it to a material- 
 istic sensualism. Locke distinguished two 
 sources of our ideas : reflection, active 
 principle which adds to sensation the pas- 
 sive principle; he admitted the activity of 
 the soul and acknowledged the necessity 
 of this activity in the formation of our 
 ideas. Condillac, on the contrary in his 
 Traits des Sensations, denies this activity, 
 claiming the derivation of all the faculties 
 and reflection itself, from the sole prin- 
 ciple of sensation. Attention, according 
 to him, is only a sensation, which by its 
 liveliness, absorbs the soul and carries it 
 away over all other sensations ; hence it 
 is a simple transformation of sensation. 
 Attention proceeds from sensation, and 
 from the attention proceed all the other 
 intellectual faculties ; comparison and 
 judgment are only a double attention ; 
 reasoning is only a result of judgments. 
 Thus all the intellectual faculties are trans- 
 formations of the attention, which itself 
 is only a transformation of sensation. It 
 is the same with the moral faculties that 
 constitute the will. The Ego does not ex- 
 ist apart from the sensations; it is only the 
 collection of its sensations. Helvetius, 
 Saint-Lambert, Volney, Lamettrie, push- 
 ing to the extreme the consequences of 
 this system which pretends to explain man 
 through sensation, have ended in material- 
 ism and set up self-interest and pleasure as 
 the supreme moral good, as the only rule 
 between good and evil. While Condillac 
 had taught only a sensualism which virtu- 
 ally contains materialism, Helvetius in his 
 Esprit, and Lamettrie in his Homme Ma- 
 chine maintain that the soul is material, re- 
 duce all our faculties to physical sensibility. 
 
Math A 
 
 464 
 
 Matrimony 
 
 and acknowledge between man and beast 
 only the differences introduced by the dif- 
 ference of conformation. Certain savants of 
 our day, supporting themselves upon cer- 
 tain physiological relations of the brain 
 and thought, claim that the laws of matter 
 are sufficient to explain life and thought. 
 In support of their system they appeal to 
 the most recent discoveries of science: 
 transformation of forces ; mechanical the- 
 ory of heat and light; but if the movement 
 converts itself into heat, why does it not 
 convert itself into thought.? We do not 
 deny the progress of science, but it always 
 remains true that the dynamists and ma- 
 terialists found their theory upon a con- 
 tradictory hypothesis ; for movement and 
 thought are not of the same order as ideas. 
 Movement is a mode accessible to the 
 senses; thought, on the contrary, is known 
 only through conscience ; it is essentially 
 simple and indivisible. The one is not the 
 other, and it is repugnant to common sense 
 and to reason to say that the one becomes 
 the other. It is true that there are certain 
 relations between our soul and our organs, 
 but to conclude from this that the soul and 
 organism are identical, is committing a 
 real sophism. 
 
 Matha (St. John of). See Trixita- 
 
 RIAXS. 
 
 Mathew (Theobald). — Apostle of tem- 
 perance in Ireland ; bom at Thomastown, 
 five miles west of Cashel, Oct. loth, 1790; 
 died at Queenstown, Dec. 8th, 1856. He 
 was educated at Maynooth and Dublin ; 
 ordained priest in 1814; entered the Ca- 
 puchin Order, and was soon stationed at 
 Cork. In April, 1838, he began a crusade 
 against intemperance, which attained won- 
 derful success, owing to his winning per- 
 sonal qualities ; 200,000 signed the pledge 
 in less than a year. He traveled over Ire- 
 land, visited England (1844), and America 
 (1849-1851), winning numerous recruits 
 everywhere. He was a bad financier, and 
 became heavily involved in debt, from 
 which a pension of £300, granted in 1847, 
 partially relieved him. 
 
 Mathurins. See Mercy {Order of). 
 
 Matins. — The first part of the divine of- 
 fice. See Breviary. 
 
 Matrimony. — Matrimony or marriage 
 V..S instituted at the beginning of the 
 world, when God joined together our first 
 parents, Adam and Eve (Gen. ii. 25). 
 
 Marriage was elevated to the dignity of a 
 sacrament by our Lord Jesus Christ, to 
 sanctify the union of the sexes. Marriage 
 is the legitimate alliance of man and 
 woman, by their mutual and free consent, 
 contracted according to the laws of the 
 Church. It is a sacrament by the contract 
 of the two parties in holy union, which is the 
 outward sign productive of grace. St. Paul 
 speaks of it as being "a great sacrament" 
 (Ephes. V. 32). Husbands and wives are 
 recommended to love each other in matri- 
 mony " as Christ also loved the Church, 
 and delivered Himself up for it, that He 
 might sanctify it, cleansing it by the laver 
 of water in the word of life" (Ephes. v. 
 25, 26). Marriage is defined, as an article 
 of faith by the Church, to be a sacrament. 
 
 When our Lord instituted the sacrament 
 of matrimony, is not exactly expressed in 
 Scripture, but possibly, when He restored 
 marriage to its original institution, He 
 conferred upon it the dignity and grace of 
 a sacrament. 
 
 The Church exacts a publication of mat- 
 rimonial banns before celebrating the 
 nuptial rites, in order that obstacles, if 
 there be any, may be discovered. It is the 
 duty of every one who is cognizant of an 
 impediment to make it known to ecclesi- 
 astical authority. Christians, free of all 
 impediments, and having attained the age 
 specified by the Church, can receive this 
 sacrament ; but those finding themselves 
 bound by restrictions before entering the 
 matrimonial state, can only be released by 
 special dispensation proceeding from eccle- 
 siastical authority. Prohibitive impedi- 
 ments render a marriage illicit and sinful, 
 but not void; diriment impediments, how- 
 ever, nullify a marriage. The principal 
 prohibitive impediments are : solemnizing 
 marriage at certain times of the year for- 
 bidden by the Church, that is to say, dur- 
 ing Advent and Lent ; diflference of religion 
 between Catholics and heretics; a simple 
 vow of chastity, etc. The principal diri- 
 ment impediments are : clandestine mar- 
 riage, that is, without the presence of the 
 authorized priest and two witnesses — al- 
 though in the United States, except in a 
 few places, clandestine marriages are ad- 
 mitted as valid ; lack of reason or proper 
 age, the solemn vow of chastity implicitly 
 contained in the reception of the subdiac- 
 onate, diaconate, and priesthood, and taken 
 by members of religious orders; proximity 
 of relationship; disparity of religion be- 
 tween a Catholic and an infidel ; absence of 
 
Matrimony 
 
 465 
 
 Matrimony 
 
 free consent, that is, when marriage is 
 forced on anyone by violence or unjust 
 menace of a serious nature, fraud, error, 
 etc. Those persons who are married only 
 by civil law, and not before God, in presence 
 of the proper pastor of the parish, or other 
 priest deputed to replace him, and two 
 witnesses, wherever the decree Tameisi 
 of the Council of Trent is published, are 
 declared by the Church to be living in mor- 
 tal sin, and their marriage is void, by virtue 
 of the right our Lord gave His Church, 
 in the promise He made to His ministers : 
 "Whatsoever you shall bind upon earth, 
 shall be bound also in heaven ; and whatso- 
 ever you shall loose upon earth, shall be 
 loosed also in heaven " (Matt, xviii. 18). 
 
 For the right reception of the sacrament 
 of matrimony, we must be in a state of 
 grace, having so disposed our souls by 
 pious participation in the sacraments of 
 penance and the Holy Eucharist, that we 
 may obtain the graces so necessary for the 
 just fulfillment of obligations, and patient 
 bearing of trials incidental to, or neces- 
 sarily accompanying, the matrimonial 
 state. Confession is strongly recom- 
 mended before marriage, but is not obli- 
 gatory if the contracting persons are in a 
 state of grace. Those who, in mortal sin, 
 present themselves for the reception of 
 this sacrament, not only do not receive the 
 grace of the sacrament, but are guilty of a 
 sacrilegious sin, and expose themselves to 
 the malediction of heaven. Moreover, it is 
 written : " Every best gift, and every per- 
 fect gift, is from above, coming down 
 from the Father of lights" (Jas. i. 17). 
 Those who marry should, therefore, pray to 
 God for the gift of understanding in the 
 choice of that person to whom they are to 
 be united until death, and upon whom 
 their happiness in this world shall so 
 much depend. They should consult their 
 parents and their confessor; they should 
 take every possible precaution to know 
 correctly the person's heart, mind, reli- 
 gious principles, and character; having, 
 also, a care as to suitability of age, condi- 
 tion, and fortune. For disproportionate 
 alliances of any kind are often unhappy 
 ones. They should approach the holy 
 state of matrimony with a firm intention 
 to regard sacredly those reasons for which 
 God established it, and pass the marriage 
 day in a sinless manner. They should 
 give mutual protection and companionship 
 through the trials and sufferings of life, 
 supporting, comforting, and sanctifying 
 
 30 
 
 each other, by the supernatural influence 
 of this sacrament; working together in 
 unity of spirit for eternal salvation ; loving 
 one another with an attachment subordi- 
 nate only to their love for God, and bring- 
 ing to Him, through baptism in the 
 Church, the children He has committed 
 to their charge, educating them in a 
 Christian manner to love and serve Him 
 faithfully and obtain everlasting life. See 
 Bigamy; Celibacy; Divorce. 
 
 Matrimony ( Unity of) or Marriage. — 
 By the unity of marriage is meant the rule 
 by which polygamy is forbidden to Chris- 
 tians. This unity may be regarded as pe- 
 culiarly characteristic of the Christian law, 
 for among all peoples where civilization is 
 not based on Christianity, we may expect 
 to meet with the recognition of polygamy, 
 or perhaps polyandry. Probably no sect 
 that claimed to be called Christian has 
 ever held polygamy to be justifiable as a 
 general practice, although there are some 
 cases where persons professing to be Chris- 
 tian ministers have permitted, or at least 
 connived at it, in peculiar cases. The 
 American Latter Day Saints, or Mormons, 
 are not an exception, for they have slender 
 claims to be called Christian. We have 
 proof of the disastrous effect of polygamy 
 upon society in the fact that bigamy is 
 punished as a crime in all states whose civ- 
 ilization has been derived from the Gospel, 
 however little inclined their governments 
 may now be influenced by religious consid- 
 erations. Unity of marriage is part of the 
 original institution. This follows from 
 the accounts of Genesis, where we read 
 that: " they shall be two in one flesh, not 
 three or more." This law was in some 
 sense relaxed in favor of the Patriarchs 
 and those that came after them (Gen. iv. 
 19, etc.). The doctrine follows clearly from 
 the words of Christ, citing the passage 
 from Genesis (Matt. xix. 5) and from the 
 express teaching of St. Paul (I. Cor. vii. 
 2-5). Also the Council of Trent (Sess. xxiv. 
 can. 2) defines, that it is unlawful for 
 Christians to have more than one wife at a 
 time. The Christian law does not forbid 
 successive marriages, when after the death 
 of one spouse, the other contracts a new 
 alliance. But a certain stigma attaches to 
 conduct which has some appearance of in- 
 ordinateness; and St. Paul (L Cor. vii. 39, 
 40) uses language which certainly discour- 
 ages the second marriage of a widow. See 
 Marriage {Civil); Marriage {Mixed). 
 
Matthew 
 
 466 
 
 McCloskey 
 
 Matthew (St.). — Apostle and Evangel- 
 ist. St. Matthew is the same as Levi, 
 mentioned in the Gospel of St. Luke (v. 27). 
 Son of Alpheus, born near Capharnaum ; 
 collector of the taxes which the Jews had 
 to pay to the Romans. Tradition relates 
 that he labored for some time in Palestine, 
 after the Ascension of Christ, and then 
 preached the Gospel in Syria, Persia, 
 Parthia, and Ethiopia. In the last-named 
 country, he is said to have ended his 
 course by martyrdom. Matthew was the 
 first of the Evangelists who wrote a Gos- 
 pel, which appeared between the years 64 
 and 67, or, according to others, in the 
 year 42, about the time of the dispersion 
 of the Apostles. He wrote in Hebrew or 
 Syro-Chaldaic, the language spoken in 
 Palestine at that time. The original is no 
 longer extant, but the Greek version, even 
 in the time of the Apostles, was of equal 
 authority. F. Sept. 21st. 
 
 Matthias (St.). — Apostle, died in the 
 year 63. Was elected to fill the place of 
 the traitor Judas ; according to Nicephorus, 
 after having preached in Judea, evangel- 
 ized Ethiopia, where he ended his apostolic 
 career on the cross. According to another 
 tradition, he returned to Judea and there 
 ■was stoned and beheaded. F. Feb. 25th. 
 
 Maundy Thursday. See Thursday 
 KHoly). 
 
 Maurice (St.). See Legion ( Tkebcan). 
 
 Maurists. — Members of a reformed re- 
 ligious congregation established in France 
 in 1618, with the view of reviving the 
 pristine austerity of the Rule of St. Bene- 
 dict, and for the advancement of literature 
 and learning. In the sphere of ecclesias- 
 tical history, of patristic lore, and of 
 archaeology, the Maurists have earned im- 
 mortal honors, especially by their critical 
 editions of the Fathers of the Church, and 
 by learned treatises and historico-polem- 
 ical writings. 
 
 Maximus (St.). — Bishop of Jerusalem 
 and confessor, died in 350. Condemned to 
 the mines by Maximian Galerus, assisted, 
 covered with noble scars for the faith, at 
 the Councils of Nice (325), and of Tyre 
 (335) ; held a Council at Jerusalem (349) ; 
 defended St. Athanasius and vigorously 
 combated the Arians who drove him away 
 from his see. F. May 5th. 
 
 Maximus (St.) (sumamed "The Con- 
 fessor"; 580-662). — Greek monk, born at 
 
 Constantinople. He was a scion of a noble 
 family and was secretary to Emperor Her- 
 aclius ; but resigning his office at court, he 
 retired to a monastery near Constantinople, 
 of which he became abbot. In 645 he held 
 a public Conference at Carthage with the 
 Monothelite Patriarch Pyrrhus of Con- 
 stantinople, whom he induced to abjure his 
 errors. Under Emperor Constans II., Max- 
 imus was cruelly persecuted for refusing to 
 sign the "Typos " ; he was deprived of his 
 tongue and right hand, and sent into exile, 
 where he died. Of the many works of this 
 Father are to be mentioned his commen- 
 taries on divers books of Scripture, and on 
 the works attributed to Dionysius the Are- 
 opagite, besides a number of smaller trea- 
 tises and polemic discourses against the 
 Monothelites. F. Aug. 13th. 
 
 Maximus of Turin (St.) . — Born at Ver- 
 celli ; died in 466. Bishop of Turin ; cele- 
 brated as a Christian orator and for his 
 zeal in preaching, for which function he 
 qualified himself by the study of the Holy 
 Scriptures and the writings of St. Ambrose. 
 Maximus acted a prominent part in the 
 Council of Milan in 451, which subscribed 
 to the "Dogmatical Epistle" of Leo the 
 Great to Flavian, and at the Council of 
 Rome in 465, to which he subscribed, first, 
 after Pope Hilary, on account of his sen- 
 iority. The works of Maximus consist of 
 116 sermons, three treatises on baptism, 
 two treatises respectively entitled Contra 
 Paganos, and Contra ^udtsos, besides a 
 collection of expositions, De Capitulis 
 Evangeliorum . 
 
 McCloskey (John). — An American car- 
 dinal ; born in Brooklyn, New York, March 
 2oth, 1810. He was educated at St. Mary's 
 College, Emmittsburg, Maryland, and in 
 1834 was ordained priest. He studied in 
 Rome for two years, and in 1837 was ap- 
 pointed pastor of St. Joseph's Church, New 
 York city. In 1841, he became the first 
 president of Fordham College, New York, 
 but held the post only a year. In 1844 he 
 was consecrated bishop, and made coadju- 
 tor of the Diocese of New York. In 1847 
 he was appointed bishop of the new see of 
 Albany, and while there he founded the 
 theological seminary at Troy. In 1864 he 
 was named archbishop of New York to 
 succeed Archbishop Hughes, and in 1875 
 was created cardinal, being the first of that 
 rank in the American Church. He died 
 in New York city, Oct. loth, 1885. 
 
McGlynn 
 
 467 
 
 Meletius 
 
 McGlynn. (Edward). — An American 
 clergyman ; born in New York city, Sept. 
 27th, 1837. In i860 he was ordained priest, 
 and in 1866 became pastor of St. Stephen's 
 Church in New York city. In 1886, on 
 account of his ignoring the papal demands 
 to appear at the Vatican on a charge of 
 supporting Henry George's single-tax the- 
 ories and opposing the establishment of 
 parochial schools, he was excommunicated. 
 In 1887 l^i"- McGlynn became president of 
 the Anti- Poverty Society, and in behalf of 
 his economic opinions he lectured in nearly 
 all the principal cities of the United States. 
 In the latter part of 1893 he was reinstated 
 in his clerical functions. Died Jan. 7th, 
 1900. 
 
 Measures. See Weights. 
 
 Mechitarists. — An order of Armenian 
 monks in communion with the Holy See, 
 under a rule resembling the Benedictine, 
 founded by Peter Mechitar at Constanti- 
 nople in 1701, and finally settled on the is- 
 land of St. Lazzaro, near Venice, in 1717. 
 Confirmed by the Pope in 1712. St. Laz- 
 zaro is still their chief seat, while they 
 have an independent monastery at Vienna, 
 and branches in Russia, France, Italy, 
 Turkey, etc. The Mechitarists are devoted 
 to the religious and literary interests of 
 the Armenian race wherever found, and 
 have published many ancient Armenian 
 manuscripts as well as original works. 
 Their society is also organized as a Liter- 
 ary Academy which confers honorary mem- 
 bership without regard to race or religion. 
 
 Media. — Vast country of ancient Asia ; 
 capital Ecbatanea. Arbaces was its first 
 l^ing (759 B. c). Cyrus united it to the 
 kingdom of the Persians, in 560 b. c. 
 
 Meditation. See Prayer. 
 
 Melanchthon (Philip). — Grecized from 
 Schwarzerd, /. e., Blackearth (1497-1560). 
 Strong and zealous fellow-laborer of Lu- 
 ther. Was the grandnephew of the famous 
 scholar Reuchlin, on whose recommenda- 
 tion he was appointed professor of Greek 
 in the University of Wittenberg, and thus 
 became the colleague, and soon an ardent 
 admirer of Luther. More moderate and 
 prudent than Luther, he was an invaluable 
 aid to the latter, who was not unfrequently 
 guided by his counsels. Melanchthon thus 
 played a prominent part in the Lutheran 
 movement, aiding him by his talents and 
 his writings. He attended the Leipzig 
 
 disputation, and, disregarding the promise 
 made to Dr. Eck, published a partial and 
 untruthful account of the discussion. In 
 1521, he wrote in defense of his master the 
 Oration for Luther, and a Protest against 
 the Decision of the Paris University. 
 
 Melania ( St. ) (surnamed the * ' Younger," 
 388-439). — Roman lady, married to Pini- 
 anus, son of a Roman prefect, left, together 
 with her husband, their home at Rome and 
 went to Jerusalem. After having lived in 
 the observances of a religious life, Melania, 
 together with other ladies, consecrated 
 herself to God. Pinianus also entered a 
 male monastery, and they both died in the 
 odor of sanctity. Melania the Elder (343- 
 410). — Grandmother of the preceding; 
 was a relative of St. Paulinus of Nola. She 
 is also honored as a saint, although her 
 name does not figure in the Martyrologies. 
 
 Melchiades ( St. ). See Miltiades. 
 
 Melchisedech (Hebr. king of justice). — 
 King of Salem, poetic name of Jerusalem. 
 Abraham, returning from his pursuit of 
 Chodorlahomor, was blessed by him, and in 
 return received the tenth part of the spoils. 
 The Epistle to the Hebrews (vi. 20; vii. 
 4-21 ) represents him as a prototype of 
 Christ ; his charge would have been supe- 
 rior to the priesthood of that of Aaron's 
 family. 
 
 Melchisedechians. — Heretics of the third 
 century, whose founder was a certain 
 Theodotus, surnamed the " Banker," and 
 who taught that Melchisdech was greater 
 than Christ. 
 
 Melchites. — i. Name which certain 
 heretics gave to the orthodox Christians 
 of the East who had followed the prescrip- 
 tions of the Council of Chalcedon sanc- 
 tioned by the Emperor Marcian. 2. Chris- 
 tians who, without belonging to the Greek 
 communion, have adopted, in great part, 
 the doctrines and rites of that Church. 
 A large number of Syrian and Egyptian 
 Melchites are at present in communion 
 with the Holy See; they number upward 
 of 35,000 members. See Oriental Rites. 
 
 Meletius. — Bishop of Sebaste, Patriarch 
 of Antioch, in 361. Was exiled and de- 
 posed from his see several times by Con- 
 stantius and Valens. He' presided over 
 the Council at Antioch where they con- 
 demned the errors of ApoUinaris. He died 
 during the Council of Constantinople, in 
 381. 
 
Meletius 
 
 468 
 
 Mennonites 
 
 Meletius. — Heresiarch, died in 326. 
 Bishop of Lycopolis, was condemned bj? 
 the Council of Alexandria ; hy the Coun- 
 cil of Nice (325) ; allied himself with the 
 Arians to combat St. Athanasius. Meletius 
 became the author of a schism which for 
 about sixty years was the cause of much 
 confusion and great disturbance in the 
 Egyptian Church. Usurping the author- 
 ity of his metropolitan, Peter of Alexan- 
 dria, he set at naught the remonstrances 
 of his fellow-bishops, and undertook to 
 exercise full episcopal jurisdiction in their 
 dioceses. On this occount, he was deposed 
 and excommunicated by the above men- 
 tioned Councils. 
 
 Melita. — An island south of Sicily, on 
 which St. Paul was shipwrecked during 
 his voyage to Rome (Acts xxviii.). 
 
 Melito (St.). — Apologist, and Bishop 
 of Sardes. He ranks among the most bril- 
 liant lights of the Eastern Church of the 
 second century, and the most learned men 
 of that age. His literary labors extended 
 to all the great ecclesiastical questions 
 that agitated his time. Unfortunately, we 
 only possess fragments of one or the other 
 of his numerous literary works, among 
 which the Eclogce (extracts from Sacred 
 Scripture in six books) was the most im- 
 portant, while his Apology, presented to 
 the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, A. d. 170 or 
 171, was the last in point of time. His 
 doctrine was not free from Anthropomor- 
 phism, nor from Chiliastic views. He died 
 between 171 and 180. Eusebius calls him 
 " a man who administered all things in 
 the Holy Ghost." 
 
 Memento. — They have designated, under 
 this Latin word, that part of the Mass 
 where the priest makes commemoration of 
 the Living and the Dead, In the Memento 
 for the Living, the priest prays for the liv- 
 ing members of the Church, naming those 
 for whom he wishes to offer special suppli- 
 cation. In the Memento for the Dead, he 
 implores the deliverance of the souls from 
 purgatory, of those who have gone before 
 us with profession of the faith, and sleep 
 the "sleep of peace." 
 
 Menander. — Gnostic of the first century, 
 disciple of Simon the Magician. He bap- 
 tized in his name, and pretended, accord- 
 ing to St. Irenaeus, that he was the " Great 
 Power " sent by the angels to save the 
 world. His baptism, he claimed, rendered 
 immortal, in this life, those who received it. 
 
 Mendicant Orders are those religious 
 orders which originally depended for sup- 
 port on the alms they received. The prin- 
 cipal mendicant orders are the Francis- 
 cans, the Dominicans, the Carmelites, and 
 the Augustinians. 
 
 Mennonites.— A Protestant sect. The 
 Anabaptists, the everlasting reproach of 
 the Reformation, subsequently became 
 known under the name of "Mennonites." 
 Menno Simonis, a native of Friesland, and 
 an apostate priest, joined the sect in 1536, 
 and assuming their leadership, succeeded 
 in appeasing their frenzy, and organized 
 them into a community. He drew up a 
 system of doctrine and discipline of a much 
 more moderate nature than that of the ear- 
 lier Anabaptists. The Mennonites reject 
 infant baptism as useless ; they believe in 
 the Millennium and assert the prohibition 
 of oaths, the abolition of wars, and that it 
 is unlawful for Christians to hold public 
 offices ; on the other hand, they enjoin 
 obedience to the civil authorities as a 
 religious duty. Menno died in 1561. 
 Members of the sect are found in the 
 Netherlands, Germany, Russia, etc., and 
 especially in the United States. 
 
 There are twelve branches of Menno- 
 nites in the United States. The '* Men- 
 nonite Church"; the "Amish " or 
 followers of Jacob Amen, who separated 
 on account of a dispute on Church discip- 
 line and were often called "Hookers" 
 because o' their refusal to wear but- 
 tons on their clothing; the " Bruderhof 
 Mennonites," founded by Jacob Hunter in 
 1536, and who are " communists " ; the 
 " Old Amish," or strict adherents to an- 
 cient customs; the " Apostolic," a branch 
 of the Amish; the "Reformed Menno- 
 nites," separatists under Jacob Herr in 
 1812 ; " General Conference Mennonites," 
 who originated in 1848 under John Ober- 
 holzer, believe in an educated ministry 
 and in worldly conformity, and who, in 
 1895. had 100 ministers, 5 churches, and 
 6,000 members, and support an orphans' 
 home at BlufTton, Ohio ; " Church of God 
 in Christ," or " Quaker" Mennonites, who 
 originated in 1859; "Old (Wisler) Men- 
 nonites," originated in Elkhart county, 
 Indiana, about 1870; " Bundes Conferenz 
 der Bruder-Gemeinde," who originated in 
 Russia, and are immersionists ; " Defense- 
 less Mennonites," another branch of the 
 Amish; and " Mennonite Brethren in 
 Christ," who originated about 1879, are 
 
Menologium 
 
 469 
 
 Mesa 
 
 Methodistic in discipline, have open com- 
 munion and optional forms of baptism. 
 They number about 4,000 communicants, 
 sustain an orphans' home at Berlin, On- 
 tario, and a foreign mission at Wuhu, 
 China. In 1895 these 12 branches reported 
 an aggregate of 950 ministers, 600 churches, 
 and 47,669 communicants. The largest 
 were the Mennonite Church, with 18,378 
 members, and the Amish, with 10,700 mem- 
 bers. A close affiliation exists between 
 these two branches. 
 
 Menologium, in the Greek Church, is 
 the name for martyrologium of the Latin 
 Church. 
 
 Mercy ( Order of). — A religious order 
 founded by St. Peter Nolasco, in I2i8, for 
 the redemption of captives. It was insti- 
 tuted with the co-operation of the king of 
 Aragon and of St. Rymond of Pennafort, 
 and was approved by Gregory IX., in 1230. 
 These religious, who adhered to the Rule 
 of St. Augustine, are often called "Ma- 
 thurins" from their house at Paris which 
 was situated near the chapel of St. Matu- 
 rin. Between the years 1492 and 1691, this 
 order, alone, rescued nearly 17,000 Chris- 
 tian captives. 
 
 Mercy (Sisters of), — A religious order 
 founded in Dublin by Miss Catharine Mc- 
 Auley in 1834. It was formally confirmed 
 by Gregory XVI. in 1840. Its members 
 devote themselves to the aid and rescue of 
 suffering and tempted women. It spread 
 rapidly throughout the English-speaking 
 world. In the United States the first house 
 was established at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, 
 in 1843. 
 
 Merit (that which renders us worthy of 
 esteem). — We distinguish two kinds of 
 merit ; merit properly speaking, which we 
 call condign merit, and merit improperly 
 speaking, or congruous merit. The first 
 kind is founded upon a promise from the 
 part of God, and the reward is so to say an 
 act of justice. In regard to the second, as 
 there has been no promise, the reward, if 
 we may call it thus, is only an act of good- 
 ness and mercy ; it is a gratuitous gift in 
 every respect. It is of faith that, with the 
 grace of God, the just can really merit 
 both an increase of grace and eternal life 
 and even an increase of heavenly glory. 
 By admitting the merits of the just, do we 
 not commit an injury to the merits of Jesus 
 Christ? No, because, according to Catho- 
 lic dogma, our merits draw their whole 
 
 value from the merits of Christ. In order 
 to merit, both the condign and congruous 
 merit, man must be still alive ; one cannot 
 merit either in hell, or in purgatory, not 
 even in the sojourn of glory; the act must 
 be good in every respect, and must have 
 a supernatural goodness. An action, al- 
 though morally good, if it is this only nat- 
 urally, has neither any proportion with 
 merit, nor with eternal life, whose object 
 it is ; the act must be voluntary and abso- 
 lutely free. The contrary proposition has 
 been condemned as heretical. These dif- 
 ferent conditions are indispensable for 
 merit in general, but they are not suffi- 
 cient, except for the congruous merit, 
 which is not a merit properly speaking. 
 For the condign merit, there is needed, 
 besides, that man is in the state of grace; 
 that God has promised to grant us some- 
 thing as a reward for our works ; He can 
 become, so to say, our debtor, only in vir- 
 tue of the engagements which He was 
 pleased to make with men. See Grack. 
 
 Merodach-Baladan. — King of Babylon. 
 He sent presents to Ezechias, king of Juda, 
 about 720 B.C. He is named in the Khor- 
 sabad inscriptions as having been twice 
 defeated and exiled by Sennacherib. 
 
 Merom ( Waters of) . — A lake in Pales- 
 tine, ten and one-half miles north of the 
 Sea of Galilee, traversed by the Jordan ; 
 the modern Bahr-el-Hulch, and the Seme- 
 chonitis Lake of Josephus. Length, four 
 miles. It was the scene of a great victory 
 of Josue over Jabin, king of Azor. 
 
 Mesa. — A king of Moab about 890 b. c. 
 He is mentioned in IV. Ki. iii. as having 
 been subject to the kings of Israel, but 
 after Achab's death he fell away. Here- 
 upon Joram, king of Israel, in alliance with 
 Josaphat, king of Juda, undertook an expe- 
 dition against him, and shut him up in 
 Kir-Haresbeth, situated a little to the east 
 of the Dead Sea. In this emergency Mesa 
 sacrificed his firstborn to Chemosh. The 
 Israelites thereupon departed to their land. 
 In 1866 a stele was discovered near Dibon, 
 the ancient capital of Moab, on which 
 Mesa had recorded this event. It is writ- 
 ten in the Moabite dialect, which differs 
 only slightly from Hebrew, with the ancient 
 Hebrew character, the so-called Samaritan 
 or Phoenician, and it is the oldest Semitic 
 monument known. The stone, badly dam- 
 aged, is now in the Louvre at Paris. 
 
Mesopotamia 
 
 470 
 
 Methodism 
 
 Mesopotamia (Hebr. between the rivers). 
 — TheGreeknameof the tract lyingbetween 
 the Euphrates and Tigris, called by the He- 
 brews Aram-naharaim {Syria of the two 
 rivers). It extended from Mount Taurus 
 to the Persian Gulf, and was about 800 
 miles long and 360 miles broad. Its plains, 
 once fertile, are now barren for lack of ir- 
 rigation. It was the home of the Patri- 
 archs who preceded Abraham, and of the 
 wives of Isaac and Jacob. When the Am- 
 inonites were at war with David, they hired 
 chariots and horsemen from Mesopotamia. 
 The country furnished a delegation of Jews 
 and proselytes to attend the Passover at 
 Jerusalem (Acts ii. 9). 
 
 Mesraim or Misraim. — Name given to 
 Egypt in the Bible. 
 
 Mesrop (St.). — Apostle of Armenia. 
 Trained from his youth in Greek literature, 
 became secretary first to the Armenian 
 patriarch, Nerses the Great, and after- 
 ward to King Weramshapuh. He re- 
 nounced the pleasures of the royal court 
 and retired to a monastery, where he led a 
 very strict ascetical life and attained to an 
 eminent degree of Christian knowledge 
 and perfection. In order to widen the 
 circle of his influence, he left his solitude 
 and founded schools for the education of 
 youth. He traversed Greater and Lesser 
 Armenia, and other neighboring provinces 
 in company with some of his disciples, 
 with a view to stamp out the remains of 
 paganism, to extirpate and preventheresy, to 
 diffuse Christian knowledge, and to further 
 the monastic life. He invented the Arme- 
 nian alphabet and translated, with the help 
 of other learned men, the Bible into that 
 language (408-410). His great services to 
 the Church and his country earned for him 
 the title of the " Apostle of Armenia." He 
 died in the odor of sanctity in 441. 
 
 Besides his translation of the Bible, he 
 composed penitential hymns for Lent, as 
 well as a number of simple, popular ex- 
 hortations, redolent with Gosple flavor; 
 these discourses were formely ascribed to 
 St. Gregory Illuminator. In his literary 
 labors, Mesrop looked to the subject-matter 
 rather than to the style and form, so that, 
 while his homilies abound in deep thoughts 
 and impressive admonitions, the style is 
 monotonous and commonplace. 
 
 Messalians or Massalians. See Eu- 
 
 CHITKS. 
 
 Messias (from the Hebr. niesha, to 
 anoint). — The Christ promised by God in 
 the Old Testament. The Redeemer of 
 mankind promised since the beginning of 
 the world and whom God sent upon earth 
 after having announced Him through His 
 prophets. The Messias, who is Jesus 
 Christ, had been promised to our first 
 parents immediately after their fall, when 
 God said to the serpent that He would put 
 enmity between him and the woman, be- 
 tween his seed and her seed, and that the 
 woman, or, according to the Hebrew text, 
 the Son of the woman would crush his 
 head (Gen. iii.). The same promise was 
 renewed to Abraham in more express 
 terms, with the assurance that all the na- 
 tions would be blessed in his seed, that the 
 Messias, the Saviour would go forth from 
 it, and, particularly, from the tribe of Juda 
 (xvi., xxviii., xlix.). Finally, the Messias 
 has been announced during four thousand 
 years by a long series of prophets. The 
 Messias has always been the object of the 
 most ardent desires of the holy patriarchs. 
 Most of them had been destined by God 
 to represent some particular trait of his 
 life and ministry. Melchisadech prefigured 
 His priesthood, Abraham His quality as 
 chief and father of the Faithful, Isaac His 
 sacrifice. Job His persecutions, Josue His 
 triumphant entry into the land of the liv- 
 ing, etc. The entire Jewish nation ex- 
 pected the rise of a great king in the tribe 
 of Juda. Although the Messias arrived 
 eighteen hundred years ago, in the person 
 of Jesus Christ, the Jews, dispersed all 
 over the world for having disowned and 
 putting Him to death, are still longing for 
 the Messias. 
 
 Methodism. — Anglican sect. John Wes- 
 ley, an Anglican clergyman, is the recog- 
 nized founder and legislator of Methodism. 
 While a student at Oxford, he formed, 
 with his brother Charles and a few other 
 scholars, among whom the eloquent White- 
 field soon became eminent, a little society 
 for their mutual edification as well as for 
 their literary improvment. In their meet- 
 ings, the members of the association read, 
 besides the classical authors, including, 
 among other Catholic books, the Imitation 
 of Christ. From the strict observance of 
 a pious method, or rule of life, the associa- 
 tion obtained the name of Methodists, 
 which afterwards remained attached to 
 them. Such was the beginning of a reli- 
 gious movement which, taking its rise in 
 
Methodist Church 
 
 471 
 
 Methodist Church 
 
 1734, extended itself into all parts of Eng- 
 land and Wales, made some progress in 
 Scotland, and crossed the ocean into the 
 New World. Retaining the liturgy and 
 constitution of the Anglican Church, Wes- 
 ley and his associates, at first, propagated 
 only their religious practices, their hours 
 of prayer and Bible reading, and their fasts 
 and frequent communions. The energy 
 and enthusiasm with which they preached 
 attracted everywhere great crowds. En- 
 couraged by their success, they began 
 preaching in public places and open fields. 
 In 1774, Methodism claimed already 30,000 
 members. From the Herrnhuters, with 
 whom he had become acquainted, Wesley 
 adopted the doctrine that " the remission 
 of sin and the presence of divine grace in 
 the soul is accompanied by a heavenly in- 
 ward peace, manifesting itself externally 
 in exalted bodily excitement, such as con- 
 vulsive fits." Attacks of this kind were 
 called " outward signs of grace," and were 
 held to be miraculous. The preaching of 
 Whitefield was especially successful in 
 bringing about sudden conversion, which 
 were usually accompanied with such con- 
 vulsive attacks. Wesley at first disavowed 
 all intention of separating from the Angli- 
 can Church and maintained the necessity 
 of loyalty to that Establishment and of her 
 orders for lawful preaching and ministry. 
 Subsequently, however, he satisfied him- 
 self that bishops and presbyters, were one 
 and the same order in the Church of Christ 
 and consequently had the same right to 
 ordain. He accordingly assumed episco- 
 pal character and conferred orders and even 
 consecrated bishops. 
 
 A pretended Greek bishop, called Eras- 
 mus, then residing in England, was also 
 solicited to impart holy orders. The sep- 
 aration of the Methodists from the Angli- 
 can Church was thus formerly established. 
 During the war of the Revolution the 
 Methodist societies in America were left 
 almost wholly without ministers ; the lat- 
 ter siding with England against the Col- 
 onies, had gone into British dominion. 
 Wesley addressed a pamphlet to the Ameri- 
 cans condemning their conduct and taking 
 sides with the English cabinet. " No 
 government under heaven," said he, "is 
 so despotic as the republican; no subjects 
 are governed in so arbitrary a manner as 
 those of a commonwealth." After the war 
 was over, Wesley proceeded to organize 
 an independent "Methodist Church in 
 America. He ordained Dr. Coke and Mr. 
 
 Francis superintendents, or bishops, in 
 1783, and sent them to ordain elders in the 
 New World. He also prepared a liturgy, 
 differing little from that of the Church 
 of England. The Methodist Episcopal 
 Church in America was thus created with 
 bishops, presbyters, and deacons, a liturgy, 
 and a creed. The Articles of Religion 
 which Wesley prepared for his Methodist 
 societies are substantially an abridgment of 
 the Thirty-nine Articles of the Anglican 
 Church. In abridging the Articles, some 
 were changed others were wholly omitted. 
 Wesley and Whitefield could not agree on 
 the questions of predestination and grace. 
 The latter was a partisan of the most rigid 
 predestinarianism, which Wesley, who 
 was more inclined to Arminianism, classed 
 among the most abominable opinions that 
 had ever sprung up in a human head. 
 The doctrinal difference between the two 
 was the cause of their separation. White- 
 field organized what is known as the Cal- 
 vinistic Churchy while the partisans of Wes- 
 ley were called after him Wesleyans or 
 Wesleyan Methodists. From these parties 
 again many secessions followed, so that 
 there is quite a number of denominations 
 that adhere more or less to the doctrinal 
 principles of Wesley or Whitefield. 
 
 Methodist Church in the United States. 
 
 — There are a number of branches thereof. 
 The "Methodist Episcopal Church" is 
 the oldest and largest Methodist Church 
 in the United States. From 1766, when 
 the first society was formed in New York 
 city, to 1773, when the first conference 
 was held in Philadelphia, the Churches 
 were scattered organizations in New York, 
 Pennsylvania, Virginia, and other States; 
 and the preachers were itinerants, nearly 
 all of English descent. According to the 
 official records the growth of this Church 
 for the past one hundred years is as fol- 
 lows : In 1796 there were 293 preachers and 
 56,664 members. At the beginning of 1896 
 there were 140 annual organizations; 31,- 
 922 ministers and local preachers ; 2,766,656 
 members and probationers ; 30,264 Sun- 
 day schools, having 344,844 officers and 
 teachers, and 2,580,973 scholars; 25,384 
 parsonages, valued at .$16,649,392. For 
 benevolent society purposes there was 
 contributed, in 1895, $2,105,020; for min- 
 isterial support, $10,385,948; for buildings 
 and improvements, $4,379,307 ; and for cur- 
 rent expenses, $3,680,698. The number of 
 theological institutions, colleges and uni- 
 
Methodius 
 
 472 
 
 Methodius 
 
 versities, classical seminaries, foreign mis- 
 sion schools, Bible training schools, etc., 
 in 1895, controlled wholly or in part by 
 this Church, was 219, the value of whose 
 grounds and buildings was $14,644,525, the 
 number of professors and teachers 2,792, 
 and the number of students 43,320. 
 
 The Methodist Episcopal Church South. 
 — The Methodist Episcopal Church be- 
 came divided on the question of slavery 
 in 1844. May ist, 1845, the slaveholding 
 conferences met in Louisville, Kentucky, 
 and organized the Methodist Episcopal 
 Church South. By official reports in 1895 
 this church has 5,868 traveling and 6,724 
 local preachers ; the white members num- 
 ber 1 ,382,765, and colored and Indian, 5,058 ; 
 Sunday schools, 13,873, teachers, 99,338, 
 scholars, 811,579; church edifices, 13,581, 
 value, $21,093,918 ; parsonages, 3,282, value, 
 $3,780,149; contributions for foreign mis- 
 sions, $215,815, domestic missions, $130,919, 
 total, $347,654 ; appropriations for presid- 
 ing elders, $281,080, for preachers in charge, 
 $2,019,551, for bishops, $36,843 ; chapters of 
 Epworth League, 1,950, members, 87,750. 
 
 African Methodist Church. — Total itin- 
 erant ministers, local preachers, and ex- 
 horters, 20,250; total of members, 599,141 ; 
 church edifices, 4,575; value, $8,650,155; 
 universities, colleges, and schools, 41 ; 
 value, $756,475; expense (1894-1895) for 
 preachers, publication, church extension, 
 Sunday schools, missions, etc., $1,370,127; 
 for education, professors and teachers, 
 books, etc., $978,870. 
 
 African Methodist Episcopal Zion 
 Church. — Traveling and local preachers 
 and exhorters, 2,397; membership, 394,- 
 562; Sunday schools, 2,175; officers and 
 teachers, 13,145; scholars, 108,820; church 
 edifices, 1,605 ! value of church property 
 and parsonages, $3,019,084. 
 
 African Union Methodist Protestant 
 Church. — Traveling and local preachers, 
 1,550; total membership, 7,000; Sunday 
 schools, 350; officers and teachers, 900; 
 scholars, 2,770; church edifices, 700; value 
 of church property, $60,000. 
 
 Colored Methodist Episcopal Church in 
 America. — Traveling and local preachers, 
 4,083; membership, 7,098; scholars, 79,876; 
 church edifices, 4,004 ; schools, 6 ; students, 
 907 ; value of school prop>erty, $98,000. 
 
 Congregational Methodist. — M ember- 
 ship, 12,500; ministers, 204; church edi- 
 fices, 238. 
 
 Congregational Methodist (Colored). — 
 Ministers, 5 ; churches, 5 ; members, 319. 
 
 Evangelist Mission . — M i n i s t e r s and 
 local preachers, 114; membership, 4,600; 
 churches, 13 ; Sunday school scholars, 
 1,200; value of church property, $25,000. 
 
 Eree Alethodist. — Traveling and local 
 preachers, 1,660; members (1894), 26,140; 
 Sunday schools, 942 ; scholars, 32,552 ; 
 value of church property, $1,069,074. 
 
 Independent Methodist. — Ministers, 8; 
 churches, 15 ; members, 2,569. 
 
 Methodist Protestant. — Ministers and 
 local preachers, 1,965; membership, 166,- 
 032; churches, 2,042; parsonages, 460; 
 value of churches and parsonages, $4,602,- 
 243; Sunday schools, 1,844; officers and 
 teachers, 16,235; scholars, 105^314; pas- 
 tors' salaries, $296,974. 
 
 Neiv Congregational Methodist. — 
 Churches, 35; membership, 1,200; Sun- 
 day schools, 25 ; value of church property, 
 $5,000. 
 
 Primitive Methodist. — Traveling and 
 local preachers, 208; members, 6,340; 
 Sunday schools, 108; scholars, 11,750; 
 churches, 100; parsonages, 41; value of 
 property, $416,143. 
 
 Union American Methodist Episcopal. — 
 Ministers, 115; churches, 115; communi- 
 cants, 7,031. 
 
 Weslevan Methodist. — Membership, 
 18,141; Sunday schools, 465; scholars, 
 18,344; value of church property, includ- 
 ing churches, parsonages, and publishing 
 house, $580,472. 
 
 Zion Union Apostolic. — Ministers, 30; 
 churches, 32 ; communicants, 2,346. 
 
 The latest revised returns for all the re- 
 ligious denominations of the United States 
 for 1895 show a grand total of 125,503 min- 
 isters, of which the Methodists had 32,369, 
 or more than 25 per cent. ; grand total 
 number of churches, 178,754, Methodist 
 53,537, or nearly 30 per cent. ; grand total 
 of communicants, 23,614,443, Methodist 
 5,124,636, or more than 21 per cent. With 
 the exception of the Catholic Church, 
 which counts about 12,000,000 members, 
 the Methodist denominations of the United 
 States outrank any other in number of 
 churches, ministers, and communicants. 
 
 Methodius(surnamed "The Confessor"). 
 — Patriarch of Constantinople, born at 
 Syracuse, died in 846. By the suavity of 
 his manners, he converted many icono- 
 clasts to the Catholic doctrine. 
 
 Methodius (St.). — Bishop of Olympus. 
 The particulars of his life are unknown. 
 He was one of the many opponents of 
 
Methodius 
 
 473 
 
 Millennium 
 
 Origen, both during his lifetime and after 
 his death. He is described by contempo- 
 rary writers as a man of great penetration 
 of mind, of high education, and profound 
 learning. He died the death of a martyr 
 under Maximus Daja, in the Diocletian 
 persecution, about 312. Methodius has 
 left several works, in which he defends 
 celibacy, opposes the errors of Origen, 
 impugns heathenism, and comments upon 
 the texts of Holy Scripture. Chief of his 
 works, still preserved in the original text, 
 is the Convivitim decern Virginum,sive de 
 virginitate. 
 
 Methodius (St.). See Cyril and 
 Methodius. 
 
 Metrophanes. — Greek theologian and 
 prelate of the ninth century. One of the 
 most ardent adversaries of Photius, who 
 caused him to be deposed and imprisoned. 
 Basil I. restored him to his see of which 
 he was again dispossessed in 879. 
 
 Metropolitan is the bishop of a me- 
 tropolis or chief city of a province, who 
 presides over an entire province. Metro- 
 politans are also named archbishops, al- 
 though, strictly speaking, the former are 
 those who have suffragan bishops, while 
 the latter may not have any. Every met- 
 ropolitan, therefore, is rightly called an 
 archbishop ; but not every archbishop is a 
 metropolitan. See Archbishop. 
 
 Mexico ( The Church in) . See Missions. 
 
 Mezzofanti (Joseph) (1774-1849). — 
 Learned prelate and polyglot, born at Bo- 
 logna, died in Rome. Ordained priest in 
 1797. He taught Greek and the Oriental 
 languages at Bologna. He was called to 
 Rome by Pope Gregory XVI., who cre- 
 ated him Cardinal in 1838. He was a phe- 
 nomenal linguist, speaking over 50 divers 
 tongues, and having some acquaintance 
 with as many more. 
 
 Michael (St.) {Michael, i.e.,ivho is like 
 to God). — The Prophet David calls the 
 holy angel Michael " the prince of the an- 
 gels " (x. 13) ; and the Apostle Judas Thad- 
 deus names him an archangel, and John, 
 in the Apocalypse, describes the contest 
 between him and Lucifer, in which St. 
 Michael drove the latter out of heaven. 
 Several miraculous visions of this holy 
 archangel on Mount Gargano in Italy and 
 at Tuba in France, and many wonderful 
 graces which God granted through his in- 
 tercession, gave special occasion, in the 
 
 sixth and seventh centuries, to his public 
 veneration and to the institution of festi- 
 vals in his honor. F. Sept. 29th. 
 
 Michael Cerularius. See Cerularivs. 
 
 Micheas.— I. Micheas the Ancient. — Jew- 
 ish Prophet ; announced to Josaphat, king 
 of Juda, that his ally Achab would perish 
 in his expedition against the Syrians. In 
 punishment for a prophecy that was so 
 contrary to him, Achab imprisoned him. 
 2. Micheas the Younger (740-690 B.C. ) — 
 Born at Morasthi (Juda). One of the 
 twelve minor Prophets. He has left a book 
 divided into seven chapters, in which he 
 announces the captivity of the Jews and 
 the coming of a Saviour of the world. 
 
 Michol. — Daughter of Saul, wife of 
 David, whose life she saved, but having 
 beheld him dancing before the Ark, she 
 sneered at him and in punishment thereof 
 became barren. 
 
 Miletus. — An ancient city, capital of 
 Ionia, 36 miles south of Ephesus, at the 
 mouth of the Maeander ; the parent of many 
 colonies. St. Paul on his return from the 
 third tour stopped here ( Acts xx.) and re- 
 visited the place with Trophimus ( II. Tim. 
 iv. 20). 
 
 Millennium. — An opinion has in all ages 
 been widely spread among Christians that 
 before the consummation of the world, a 
 considerable period is to elapse during 
 which the Church on earth will enjoy great 
 prosperity. A thousand years is generally 
 assigned for the duration of this period, 
 which circumstance has led to the follow- 
 ers of the opinion being called Chiliasts 
 or Millennarians, the Greek and Latin 
 words signifying Thousand Tear Men. 
 The main foundation for the opinion is 
 read in the Apocalypse ( xx. 4, 5), and the 
 passage certainly seems at first sight to be 
 sufficiently clear. But we know how much 
 obscurity there is in almost all prophecy, 
 and assuredly the Apocalypse is no excep- 
 tion to the rule : there is scarcely a single 
 prophetical passage in this book concern- 
 ing the meaning of which there is agree- 
 ment. In particular, the upholders of the 
 Millennium differ most widely among 
 themselves as to the details and order of 
 the events and the result of their discord 
 is that most students are convinced of the 
 impossibility of arranging any millennial 
 scheme which shall not clash with some 
 points of assured doctrine. Thus some 
 think no more is meant than that a long 
 
MiLNER 
 
 474 
 
 MiNucius Felix 
 
 period of peace and prosperity awaits the 
 Church Militant, either before or after the 
 struggle in which Antichrist will be over- 
 thrown ; but this view is scarcely consis- 
 tent with the univeral declaration that all 
 who will live godly lives in Christ Jesus 
 shall suffer persecution ( II. Tim. iii. 12). 
 Besides which, it is far from what seems to 
 be indicated in the Apocalypse ; and what- 
 ever is the external state of affairs, each in- 
 dividual man will never be free from that 
 concupiscence, which is inherent in his ma- 
 terial nature, and which will always be his 
 chief spiritual enemy. 
 
 Most Chiliastic systems assert a double 
 resurrection, one of the just alone, the 
 other of the rest of mankind. As to the 
 nature of millennial happiness, some Chris- 
 tian or half-Christian sects of ancient times 
 did not hesitate to hold out a prospect of 
 pleasure of the lowest, most sensual kind, 
 such as is read of in the Talmud and the 
 Koran ; other Chiliasts talk of a personal 
 reign of Christ on earth, but they are far 
 from agreeing as to its nature, and in fact 
 the subject affords scope for the freest ex- 
 ercise of fancy. In the early days of the 
 Church, Chiliastic notions were widely 
 prevalent among Catholics, and it has even 
 been maintained that they were universally 
 held to be a part of the revealed faith. 
 This is an exaggeration. For many years 
 no approved Catholic writer has looked 
 forward to a millennium, and weighty au- 
 thorities believe that it would be heresy to 
 do so. It is remarkable that the theory 
 which we are considering has always found 
 special favor among those sects which are 
 most bitterly opposed to Rome. These 
 delight in pointing out that the woman 
 who sits on seven hills (Apoc. xvii. 11) is 
 the city called Babylon (xiv. 8; xviii. 2), 
 which is the seat of wickedness and doomed 
 to fall ; they quote correctly from the 
 Fathers to show that this city is no other 
 than Rome ; whence they conclude that 
 the downfall of the Papacy is declared by 
 prophecy. They are wrong, for they fail to 
 observe that the Rome of the Fathers was 
 the pagan power which was to tread down 
 the Holy City for a while (Apoc. xi. 2), 
 and shed the blood of the saints (xvi. 6). 
 
 Milner (Johk) (1752-1826). — English 
 Catholic writer, born at London. Priest, 
 pastor at Winchester in 1779. Bishop of 
 Castabala and vicar apostolic of the Mid- 
 land district in 1803. Author of the well- 
 known End of Controversy. 
 
 Miltiades (St.). — Pope from 311 to 314. 
 Born in Africa, presided over the Council 
 of Rome (313) and condemned the Dona- 
 tists. F. Dec. loth. 
 
 Miltiades. — Apologist. Miltiades whom 
 Tertullian calls *^ Sophista ecc/esiarutn," 
 i.e., "Advocate of the Christians," com- 
 posed, besides controversial works against 
 the heathen, Jews and Montanists, a sepa- 
 rate treatise in defense of the divinity of 
 Christ, and a Christian Apologv addressed 
 to the civil power. From the few frag- 
 ments preserved by Eusebius we may dis- 
 cern the ability of the entire composition, 
 as well as the other writings of the author. 
 St. Jerome says of him : " Serif sit et con- 
 tra gentes volumen egregium . . . ut 
 nescias, quid in illo primu/n mirari debeas, 
 eruditionem sceculi, an scieniiam Scriptur- 
 arum" {Epist. 70 ad Magnum). 
 
 Minims. — This name is commonly given 
 to the religious of the order of Minim-Her- 
 mits, founded by St. Francis of Paola, 
 about the year 1436. The rule of this 
 order surpasses in austerity, even that of 
 the Minorites, or Franciscans ; to the 
 usual three monastic vows, St. Francis 
 added as a fourth, perpetual Lent and ab- 
 stinence, not only from meat, but also from 
 eggs and milk. In 1473, Pope Sixtus IV. 
 gave his sanction to the new congregation, 
 and named Francis its first superior general. 
 In 1495, Pope Alexander VI. formally 
 confirmed the community as a mendi- 
 cant order under the title of " Minim- 
 Hermits," giving it all the privileges 
 possessed by the Mendicant Friars. Not- 
 withstanding its extreme severity, the 
 order spread rapidly through Italy, France, 
 and Spain ; within a few years it numbered 
 four hundred and fifty convents for men, 
 and fourteen for women. St Francis, 
 who died in 1507, was canonized in 1519 
 by Leo X. 
 
 Minor Orders. See Orders. 
 
 Minucius Felix. — A Latin apologist. 
 Nothing certain is known of him, but that 
 he was a distinguished causidicus, or ad- 
 vocate in Rome, which occupation he 
 pursued after his conversion to Christian- 
 ity. He was a native of Africa, some say 
 of Asia, and flourished in the first half of 
 the third century. His apology entitled 
 Octavius is a dialogue demonstrating the 
 existence of one God only, and defending 
 the Christians from calumnies then in cir- 
 culation against them. St. Jerome men- 
 
Miracle 
 
 475 
 
 Miracle 
 
 tions another work, now lost, entitled De 
 Fato vel Contra Mathematicos, which was 
 at the time ascribed to Minucius. 
 
 Miracle. — A miracle is an act of divine 
 power, contrary to the known laws of 
 nature. According to Rationalists, no 
 doctrine has the right to impose itself 
 upon the human mind as revealed or as 
 inspired by God, since there is none that 
 has been confirmed by the authority of 
 real miracles. The basis of this system is, 
 then, the absence of miracles. " If mira- 
 cles have some reality," says Renan, " our 
 method is detestable, and my book is but a 
 tissue of errors." 
 
 The consequences of these principles in 
 regard to Holy Scripture, especially the 
 New Testament, are manifest. Not only 
 does the Sacred Scripture contain no real 
 miracle ; but in truth there is no Holy 
 Scripture or Inspired Book. " Inspira- 
 tion," says the same writer, "implying a 
 miracle, cannot be maintained." The 
 Bible is only a book of human origin, 
 wherein the true is mingled with the 
 false, and prudence and judgment are re- 
 quired to prevent our being deceived 
 therewith. 
 
 It is true that all Rationalists do not ex- 
 press their views in such a clear manner. 
 A great number of them continue to speak 
 of the Bible as of divine origin, and quote 
 its teachings as the word of God ; but this 
 they do through habit or on account of 
 their official position, as many of those 
 who occupy themselves with Holy Scrip- 
 ture are ministers of the Gospel or profes- 
 sors of Christian theology, and cannot act 
 or talk otherwise without great personal 
 inconvenience. This inconsistency does 
 not prevent them from inculcating their 
 doctrine, teaching that Scripture is in it- 
 self truth, but truthful under conditions 
 and which it does not shock what they term 
 a " reasonable sense," or does not compel 
 the mind or conscience to adhere to it. By 
 means of this cunning shift they manage 
 to avoid the scandal of a radical negation, 
 and to eliminate as fabulous all truths 
 which require an act of faith or the subjec- 
 tion of man to God's teaching. 
 
 Wherein does the fault of this system 
 lie, and in what does it consist.? This is to 
 be seen at its starting point. It consists in 
 affirming gratuitously, and in asking us to 
 accept without proof, that which requires 
 demonstration, namely: that nothing 
 supernatural ever took place, and that all 
 
 so-called miracles, however much accred- 
 ited, must be regarded as illusions and im- 
 postures. 
 
 No one has the right to set up as an ax- 
 iom, or as an intuitive truth a principle 
 opposed to the common opinion of the 
 most enlightened and most sincere men of 
 all times and places. Such, however, is 
 the pretense of the Rationalists in regard 
 to miracles. In vain may we ask for proofs 
 of their principle, or look for them in their 
 writings. From neither do we receive any 
 satisfaction. They will deny or combat 
 according to the occasion such or such a 
 miracle; but the reality or the possibility 
 of miracles in general they always abstain 
 from attacking, alleging that this would 
 be a useless task; and instead of establish- 
 ing their principle, they limit themselves 
 to a repetition, in various ways, of their 
 unproved and improbable assertions as if 
 such were indisputable, unquestionable, 
 and universally accepted truths. 
 
 " Miracles," they boldly assert, " do not 
 belong to history, but to legendary lore. 
 To accept a miracle is to accept an expla- 
 nation which has no scientific basis. The 
 entire negation of the supernatural is the 
 very essence of their criticism. No one 
 has the science or knowledge of history as 
 long as he does not acknowledge the im- 
 possibility of miracles Every account, 
 according to the opponents of miracles, 
 connected with a supernatural element 
 necessarily implies credulity or imposture. 
 The existence of miracles is impossible to 
 maintain in the presence of received ideas 
 of good, modern sense. The negation of 
 the supernatural has become for every cul- 
 tivated mind an absolute dogma." 
 
 Such assertions, although repeated with 
 so much assurance, do not form any proof. 
 That there are to-day more or less infidels 
 among the literary and cultivated classes 
 is not here questioned. Right does not 
 depend on numbers ; moreover, even here, 
 numbers are lacking. To the empty ne- 
 gation and dismal doubts of the Rational- 
 ists, we can triumphantly and truthfully 
 oppose the unvarying belief of all the 
 Faithful, that of the converts of all times, 
 many of whom were giants of intellect and 
 sanctity, and especially the tried faith of 
 the early Christians, who died, not for a 
 fable or an opinion, but in attestation of se- 
 rious and solemn faith. Most undoubtedly, 
 these faithful Christians, martyrs, confes- 
 sors, converts, and doctors, believed in the 
 Gospel, in its miracles, especially the resur- 
 
Miracle 
 
 476 
 
 Miracle 
 
 rection of the Saviour. No one can ques- 
 tion the sincerity of their conviction ; in 
 this they are above all suspicion. And as 
 to the intelligence or mental power of these 
 hosts of witnesses, who has the right to 
 place it below that of infidels and skeptics? 
 Are the latter the only enlightened ones, or 
 alone worthy of belief.? The first Chris- 
 tians lived with Jesus Christ and His Apos- 
 tles. What was wanting to them that they 
 should not be proper witnesses to the truth 
 of facts which came under their own per- 
 sonal observation ? Did they not see and 
 hear, or had they any self-interest to influ- 
 ence them to be deceived ? Those who 
 came after them had not less decisive rea- 
 sons in order to believe. To speak only 
 of those motives which were alike, com- 
 mon to all, did they not witness in the 
 fulfillment of the prophecies, in the estab- 
 lishment of the Church, in the dispersion 
 of the Jews and the conversion of the Gen- 
 tiles, incontestable miracles enounced long 
 before.? Finally, in all epochs and in all 
 countries, even in our own times, we find 
 not only sensible, learned, and virtuous 
 men who believe in miracles and prophe- 
 cies, but we can name a large number who 
 testify to having witnessed such miracles 
 and who saw the fulfillment of prophecies, 
 and who, if needs be, can testify that such 
 miracles were effected by the power of 
 God. Moreover, those who can thus tes- 
 tify are such as are deserving of the high- 
 est esteem and who enjoy the greatest 
 confidence of all who know them. Ration- 
 alists cannot convince us that these men 
 were deceived, or that these facts do not 
 come under the law of science or credibil- 
 ity. They simply assert that these facts 
 are contrary to the usages of historic criti- 
 cism as understood and professed by them- 
 selves. 
 
 This would be sufficient to show our ad- 
 versaries that the impossibility of miracles 
 is not a first principle, or self-evident 
 truth, as they boldly assert. But there is 
 yet stronger proof to invalidate their as- 
 sumptions, namely, the reality of miracles 
 as such. Indeed the existence and cer- 
 tainty of miracles have always been and 
 are still held as unquestionable by all 
 minds that have not repudiated the clearest 
 demonstrations of science and reason. 
 
 What do we really understand by a mir- 
 acle? It is a fact which is above and be- 
 yond the laws of nature, which is produced 
 or effected outside of them by an action or 
 power which these natural laws are unable 
 
 to account for. But are there not thou- 
 sands of facts of this kind, whose reality 
 nature attests, and whose existence and 
 character learned men point out? 
 
 1. The creation of the world is a living, 
 present fact. It exists and is before us. 
 When did it begin to exist? To whom 
 does it owe its existence? Not to the laws 
 of nature, which are subsequent to it, but 
 to an action which is above and bevond 
 them, to the action of an Almighty Will, 
 in other words, to a miracle. 
 
 2. The production of life upon earth. 
 All savants acknowledge that at a certain 
 epoch the earth was only a mineral mass, 
 from which all life was absent. They are 
 also agreed that according to the laws of 
 nature a living being can only come from 
 another living being. How, then, did life 
 appear upon earth, if not by a miraculous 
 intervention ? 
 
 3. The different vegetable and animal 
 species. Science equally attests that these 
 species are irreducible, and that when in- 
 di\-iduals come from individuals, the species 
 cannot arise from other species. There- 
 fore, the first individual of each species, 
 the first man, the first woman, must have 
 been created, brought forth from nothing 
 by a miracle. 
 
 We do not mean to affirm the absolute 
 immutability of species. It is known that 
 under certain conditions and circum- 
 stances, or influences, they produce varie- 
 ties and races. Neither do we assert that 
 all the species admitted by scientists are 
 real or primitive species ; but we do as- 
 sert, and natural science agrees with us, 
 that there always have been in the animal 
 order as well as in the vegetable order, di- 
 versity of species, or that all species never 
 could and never can be identical with any 
 single, particular one. Hence they could 
 have been produced only in a miraculous 
 manner. We have before our eyes as 
 many sensible proofs of the reality of mi- 
 raculous actions as we behold in nature 
 different species of animals or vegetables. 
 
 Thus in the physical order as in the 
 spiritual order, much of what we see is 
 based on miracle. Far from the possibility 
 of a miracle being a scientific dogma of 
 men of good sense ; the reality, certainty, 
 and indefinite number of miraculous facts 
 are to-day a dogma of truth professed by 
 scientists. All nature is, as it were, an ever 
 present miracle, implying and revealing 
 an infinity of others. Perhaps it may be 
 said that there is no question about the 
 
Miriam 
 
 477 
 
 Missions 
 
 origin of things; that Rationalists only 
 deny the continuation of miracles in na- 
 ture, as such admission would be deroga- 
 tory to the laws of nature, established by 
 the Creator, But this mode of reasoning 
 has no force although seemingly well 
 founded, for all its force of argument rests 
 on human reason making this fallible rea- 
 son the judge and superior of that which is 
 beyond and above reason. For, evidently, 
 it is not contrary to reason to believe that 
 what God did in the beginning. He can do 
 again in the course of time, and no one 
 can rightfully refuse or deny this to Him. 
 Having formed the material world in a 
 miraculous manner, why could He not 
 likewise form the spiritual world .? When 
 He, the Almighty, wrought an infinity of 
 miracles in order to spread throughout na- 
 ture, with a bounteous hand, both life and 
 movement, why could He not also work a 
 certain number of miracles in the Church, 
 His spiritual kingdom, in order that faith 
 and sanctity might flourish therein ? When 
 He could create at will, independently of 
 all rule, in the beginning of time in order 
 to manifest His existence, goodness, lib- 
 erty, and essential perfections, why could 
 He not act in the same manner, later on? 
 Why should He not in our time still do so, 
 in order to show forth His essential liberty, 
 to make known His designs, to reveal His 
 blessed will, to move His rational crea- 
 tures to know and serve Him ? Finally, is 
 it reasonable to deny His free action of 
 power when plainly revealing itself to us in 
 the physical order, as well as when the 
 same almighty power reveals itself in the 
 spiritual order by the less palpable evi- 
 dence of certainty? 
 
 Therefore, the Christain principle of ad- 
 mitting miracles is not contrary to right 
 reason, but in reality the negation of this 
 admission, as rationalism does, is plainly 
 contrary to the dictates of reason. Noth- 
 ing, indeed, is more contrary to a rational 
 mind, than to refuse the free action of God 
 in the formation of the world, or to be un- 
 willing to admit His free action of infinite 
 power, exercised in a miraculous manner, 
 in the establishment and government of 
 His Church. 
 
 Miriam. — Sister of Moses and eldest of 
 the family. She is first mentioned as 
 watching her brother's cradle in the sedges 
 by the river's brink. After the crossing of 
 the Red Sea she becomes "Miriam the 
 Prophetess " ; takes the lead with Aaron, 
 
 in the complaint against Moses for his 
 marriage with a Cushite, and for this was 
 stricken with leprosy. This curse was re- 
 moved, and she died toward the close of 
 the wandering in the desert, being buried 
 at Cadesh. 
 
 Missal. — An appellation given to the 
 volume which contains the liturgy of the 
 Mass, together with the whole order of 
 divine service to be celebrated on Sundays, 
 festivals, and saints' days throughout the 
 year. The different Masses of the year 
 were collected for the first time in the 
 fourth century by Pope Gelasius. The 
 collection, entitled Sacramentary was later 
 on revised by Pope Gregory the Great. It 
 had for the offices four different books : 
 the Gospels, the Sacramentary or Bishop's 
 Missal and Priest's Missal, the Lectionary 
 or Epistolary and Antiphonary. The "Full 
 Missals " contained all the books. Several 
 bishops caused particular missals to be 
 drawn up. Each religious order had also 
 its own missal, with the office of its saints. 
 
 Mission(charge,power given to a specified 
 agent to go and accomplish ^ome particular 
 undertaking). — Applies itself collectively 
 to priests, secular or regular, employed in 
 some countries, either for the conversion 
 of infidels, or for the inst'ruction of Chris- 
 tians. Series of sermons, catechetical in- 
 structions, conferences which missionaries 
 make in some place, either for the conver- 
 sion of infidels and heretics, or for the in- 
 struction of Christians. Priests of the 
 Foreign Missions. Secular priests who live 
 in community under a superior general, 
 and whose object is to preach the Gospel. 
 
 Missions and Missionary Institutes. — 
 Obedient to the injunction of our Lord to 
 preach the Gospel to all nations and to 
 every creature, the Catholic Church has 
 in all ages sent her missionaries into every 
 part of the inhabited globe. Since the 
 rise of Protestantism, and notably since 
 the defection of the great maritime powers 
 from the Church, two classes of mission- 
 aries have unhappily come face to face in 
 nearly every country of the world, mutu- 
 ally opposed to each other, and the one 
 not unfrequently undoing the work of the 
 other. But, in the face of every obstacle, 
 the Catholic religion has gone steadily 
 forward, gaining triumph after triumph, 
 until at last there is not a corner of the 
 earth in which its teachings are not pro- 
 claimed and professed. In the present 
 
Missions 
 
 478 
 
 Missions 
 
 century the glorious field of missionary 
 work, in which the great St. Francis 
 Xavier was the first to labor in modern 
 times, has been cultivated with encourag- 
 ing success. 
 
 Catholic missions may be conveniently 
 distributed into the following five geograph- 
 ical divisions: i. The Eastern Missions, 
 comprising the Crimean Peninsula, the 
 Grecian Archipelago, Constantinople, 
 Syria, Armenia, Persia, Arabia, Egypt, 
 Nubia, and Abyssinia. 2. The India Mis- 
 sions, extending as far as the Philippine 
 islands. 3. The Missions of China, in- 
 cluding Siam, Cochin-China, Tung-King, 
 and Japan. 4. The American Missions, 
 which, starting at Hudson bay, include 
 the Canadas, British America, the Indian 
 Territory, the country along the Rocky 
 mountains, and the Antilles, ending at 
 Paraguay. 5. The Missions of Oceania, 
 including Australia. 
 
 These missions, though under the direc- 
 tion of the Propaganda (see this word) at 
 Rome, are mainly supported by the Society 
 for the Propagation of the Faith, founded 
 at Lyons in 1822 (see Confraternities) ; 
 by the Association of the Holy Childhood 
 of Jesus, founded at Paris in 1844 ; by the 
 Leopoldine Association of Austria ; by the 
 Association of King Louis of Bavaria ; and 
 by the St. Francis Xavier Association, in 
 the archdiocese of Cologne. There is also 
 a number of institutions in the Roman 
 Catholic Church especially devoted to the 
 work of training missionaries, as, for ex- 
 ample, the College of the Propaganda at 
 Rome, the most famous missionary estab- 
 lishment in the world; the Hungarian- 
 Germanic College; the Greek College; 
 the English College ; the Scotch College ; 
 the Irish College ; the College of St. Peter 
 in Montorio ; the College of St. Bartholo- 
 mew ; the College of St. Isidore ; the Col- 
 lege of St. Anthony of Padua ; the College 
 of the Capuchins; the College of St. Greg- 
 ory, the '* Illuminator " for the Armenias. 
 The Mechitarists, the Maronites of Libanon, 
 the Abyssinians, and Copts, also have mis- 
 sionary institutions at Rome. Outside of 
 Rome we may mention : the Greek Semi- 
 nary at Palermo ; the College of the Greeks 
 of St. Benedict at Ullano; the Chinese 
 College at Naples ; the Seminary for the 
 Missions of Central Africa at Verona ; the 
 College of All-Hallows, near Dublin, Ire- 
 land ; St. Joseph's College at Mill Hill, near 
 London, England, exclusively devoted to 
 missionary work among the negroes ; the 
 
 Illyrain College at Loretto ; the Swiss Col- 
 lege at Milan ; the Seminary of Louvain, 
 Belgium ; the Seminary of the Marists at 
 Lyons, France; the College of Melun, 
 France ; the Seminary of Foreign Missions ; 
 the Seminary of the Holy Ghost and the 
 Irish Seminary, in Paris; and the Semi- 
 nary of St. Charles at Buenos Ayres. This 
 list is not absolutely complete, but indicates 
 the principal missionary establishments, 
 and sufficiently proves the prodigious ex- 
 tent of the Catholic missions all over the 
 globe. The missionaries are ^e advance- 
 guard of the explorers and the pioneers of 
 civilization. The Edifying Letters, and 
 the Annals of the Propagation of the Faith, 
 furnish the best elementary accounts of 
 geographical science. 
 
 Missions {Protestant). — Only since the 
 niaeteenth century has it entered the 
 minds of Protestants to apply themselves, 
 in a larger measure, to the conversion of 
 infidels. It was not the government of 
 Protestant countries that first interested 
 themselves in the conversion of pagans — 
 England even favored idolatry in East 
 India — but private societies. The most 
 active among them were the Lutherans, 
 then the Anglicans, and especially the 
 Methodists. But, here again, controver- 
 sies were not wanting among the different 
 sects. Since 1846, societies of German 
 missions have united themselves into peri- 
 odic assembles in different localities. The 
 married missionaries, obliged to care for 
 their wives and children, smitten often 
 with the passion of gain, generally showed 
 themselves much below their task, and 
 their success was not proportionate to the 
 immense sums expended. Catholic mis- 
 sionaries, with very inadequate resources, 
 obtained quite diflFerent results, and several 
 Protestants have openly admitted the ste- 
 rility and ill success of Protestant missions. 
 Neophytes, often gained through presents, 
 showed little perseverance. 
 
 Protestants tried, especially, to act 
 through Bible societies. A corporation 
 formed itself in London in 1804, under the 
 name of Britannic and Foreign Bible So- 
 ciety, and was definitely constituted on 
 March 7th, 1805. Its end was to spread 
 among all the nations and in the different 
 languages, either for a nominal sum, or 
 gratuitously, the text of the Bible without 
 any explanation. In 1844, it counted al- 
 ready 7,000 branch establishments ; it diS' 
 tributed sixteen millions of Bibles during 
 
Missions 
 
 479 
 
 Missions 
 
 forty years. Translations, of which some 
 were very defective, were made in nearly 
 two hundred languages. A great Bible 
 Society was also created in Berlin in 1814; 
 another in 1818 in the United States. The 
 success, if compared with this immense 
 display of resources, was extremely mea- 
 ger. A great many countries made use of 
 the Bibles, which they received as a pres- 
 ent, for all kinds of purposes, and conver- 
 sions were very rare. As they spread, also, 
 among the Catholics, falsified and muti- 
 lated translations of the Bible ; and as these 
 translations were recommended by polem- 
 ical treatises which they distributed, the 
 Holy See had necessarily to condemn these 
 Bible Societies and their work, and warn 
 the Faithful against the seduction. 
 
 Many Protestant missionaries have 
 chosen Catholic countries for the sphere 
 of their labors. Before all they try to 
 "evangelize" Italy. Since 1870, Protes- 
 tants have been permitted to erect public 
 houses of worship in Rome itself; they 
 were favored by the government, while 
 the religion acknowledged by the State, 
 had not the liberty of its movements. Also, 
 in Spain and Portugal, they endeavor to 
 convert Catholics to Protestantism. But 
 so far their labors have remained fruitless. 
 
 Missions in India, China, Japan, Africa, 
 and Oceania. — The apostolic labors of 
 the missionaries among the heathen were 
 blessed with remarkable success. Of all 
 the religious orders, none played a more 
 heroic or zealous part than the Society of 
 Jesus. After the suppression of the Society 
 the missionary work was carried on with 
 great energy by the Seminary of Paris, es- 
 tablished for foreign missions in 1663. St. 
 Francis Xavier (died in 1552), became the 
 "Apostle" of the Hindoos. The disinter- 
 ested zeal of this saint knew no bounds, 
 and soon gained favor, even with the most 
 dissolute men. Walking through the 
 streets he carried a little bell by means of 
 which he called the people to his instruc- 
 tions. God assisted him in his great work 
 by granting him the gift of miracles and of 
 languages. So great was the number of 
 those desiring baptism, that the saint's 
 arms became lame from the exertion ac- 
 companying the administration of the 
 sacrament. In the Portuguese Indies, es- 
 pecially in Goa, Francis labored with 
 wonderful success, and though at the same 
 time he suffered great physical pain and 
 agony, his only utterance was ^^Amplius!" 
 
 {still more). Francis desired to carry the 
 light of faith to China, but he died on the 
 way to the island of San Chan, in the sight 
 of the mainland. 
 
 During his missionary labors he bap- 
 tized with his own hands more than 1,000,- 
 000 heathens. His work was continued 
 by other Jesuits. Difficulties having arisen 
 from the Hindoo castes, it became neces- 
 sary to appoint special missionaries for 
 nobles and the pariahs or lowest classes. 
 In the nineteenth century the Society of 
 Lyons has done much to rekindle the faith 
 in India. Of late years the missions have 
 been carried on with considerable success. 
 There are more than 1,000,000 Catholics 
 in British India and Siam. Flourishing 
 congregations were founded by the Jesuits 
 in Tonquin and Cochin-China, which con- 
 tinue to exist, despite the violent persecu- 
 tions that took place in after years. The 
 Jesuits also succeeded in entering the 
 Chinese empire. Among the missionaries 
 who went to China, were Father Ricci, 
 who made watches, maps, etc., and Father 
 Schall, a distinguished astronomer. By 
 their literary and scientific abilities, these 
 men gained such consideration with the 
 emperor that they began to preach the 
 Gospel, converting many of the lower 
 classes and even some of the princes. 
 Catholic churches were erected in Peking 
 (1606) and Nanking (1611). Persecutions 
 broke out at various times, but fortunately, 
 they were of short duration. 
 
 In 1692 the penal laws against the Chris- 
 tians were abolished and the missionaries 
 were authorized by law to preach the Gos- 
 pel. But in the eighteenth century, fierce 
 persecutions were carried on ; many Chris- 
 tians suffered martyrdom, among them be- 
 ing several relatives of the emperor. In 
 1855 a treaty was effected by which Chris- 
 tian missionaries were freely permitted to 
 enter the empire. The Society of the 
 Holy Childhood, established in France 
 (1843), has done a great deal of good for 
 the Faithful in China. 
 
 The first labors of the missionaries in 
 Japan proved very successful, and more 
 than 200,000 heathens entered the Church. 
 But as early as 1587, a cruel persecution 
 broke out, during which many Christians 
 suffered martyrdom. A persecution, still 
 more severe followed in 1612. The Dutch 
 traders, being jealous of the Spanish com- 
 merce, accused the Japanese Christians of 
 being in conspiracy with the Portuguese 
 against the life of the emperor. In conse- 
 
Missions 
 
 480 
 
 Missions 
 
 quence of this accusation all foreigners 
 were forbidden to enter Japan ; the Dutch, 
 alone, could carry on the trade if they 
 were willing to trample the crucifix under 
 their feet and renounce the faith. They 
 bombarded the fortress Simabara, which 
 sheltered 30,000 Japanese Christians, all 
 of whom perished. Among the martyrs 
 were 150 Jesuits. In 1649 Christianity 
 seemed to have died out, but it lived in 
 secret; prayers and baptisms were handed 
 down from generation to generation until 
 the present day. The Christians are still 
 exposed to the oppressions and persecu- 
 tions of the imperial officers. 
 
 Christianity spread rapidly in the Por- 
 tuguese settlement of Africa. The labors 
 of the missionaries were rendered very dif- 
 ficult by the unhealthy climate and the 
 barbarous manners of the natives. Through 
 the influence of Cardinal Lavigerie the 
 African missions have received a fresh im- 
 pulse. 
 
 On the continent of Oceania the missions 
 are prospering. Since 1874 t^o ecclesias- 
 tical provinces, Sidney and Melbourne, 
 have been established in Australia. The 
 Australian Plenary Council was held at 
 Sidney in 1885 and presided over by his 
 eminence, Cardinal Moran. See Aus- 
 tralia. 
 
 Missions in South America. See Chris- 
 tianity IX America and Hierarchy. 
 
 Missions {Early) in the United States 
 and Canada. — The hostility of the Indians 
 and the bigotry of the English colonists 
 were the great obstacles to the spread of 
 Christianity in the United States. The 
 early explorers of the coast, Cabot, Ver- 
 razzani, Gomez, were Catholics. The first 
 missionaries to set foot on the territory 
 now included in the United States, were 
 Rev. John Juarez and his companions, who 
 were brought over in the expedition of 
 Ponce de Leon, in 15 12. They touched 
 the shores of Florida in 1528, but most of 
 them died the same year, either from hun- 
 ger or from the hostility of the Indians. 
 Father Louis Cancer, the leader of the 
 small band of Dominicans, who came to 
 Florida in 1549, was killed by an Indian. 
 St. Augustine, the oldest town, and con- 
 taining the oldest church in America, was 
 laid out by Melandez, a Spanish admiral, 
 in 1565. The cession of Florida by the 
 Spanish to England, by the Treaty of Paris 
 in 1763, destroyed the missions. 
 
 Mark of Nice, a Franciscan, penetrated 
 the country to New Mexico, in 1540. 
 Father Padilla, O. S. F., who first attempted 
 to preach the Gospel within the territory 
 of the present diocese of Santa Fe, received 
 a martyr's crown. Later, the missions of 
 Santa Fe became very successful. Texas 
 was visited in 1544 by the Spaniard Andrew 
 de Olmos, but no permanent mission was 
 established until 1688. As early as 1601 
 Mass was celebrated in California by a 
 Franciscan, but the real apostle of the 
 state was Father Junipero Serra, who ac- 
 companied the expedition to Galvez, 1769. 
 The first mission was established at San 
 Diego. The Jesuit fathers, Salvatierra 
 and Francis Keuhne, sowed the seed of 
 Christianity in Old California in 1697. 
 
 Father Segura and eight Jesuits per- 
 ished in the present state of Maryland in 
 1570, through the treachery of a. young 
 Indian. The first settlement in the state 
 was made at St. Mary's by the Catholics 
 in 1634. Fathers White and Altham, who 
 accompanied these pioneers, were the first 
 English priests on this continent. Lord 
 Baltimore, a Catholic nobleman, was at the 
 head of the colony. Its charter was re- 
 markable for its liberality, granting free- 
 dom of worship to all. The flourishing 
 mission of Maryland was destroyed by 
 Claybourne and his band of Puritr-.n fanat- 
 ics, who expelled the Catholic governor 
 and carried off priests into slavery. 
 
 In the year 1609 the Jesuit fathers, 
 Biard and Masse, established a mission in 
 Maine on Neutral island, from whence it 
 was removed in 161 2, to Mount Desert 
 island in the present diocese of Portland. 
 
 The English, under the command of 
 Argall, a furious bigot, destroyed the 
 mission in Canada about 1611. Notwith- 
 standing the rigorous climate and the hos- 
 tility of the Indians, they soon placed it on 
 a permanent basis. Father Druillettes, S. 
 J., went from Canada to convert the 
 Abnaki of Maine, where he established a 
 second mission in 1646. The whole Ab- 
 naki tribe was converted to Christianity 
 and clung to the faith amid all sorts of 
 trials and persecutions, caused by the Eng- 
 lish settlers of Massachusetts. The mis- 
 sion was destroyed and the sainty Jesuit, 
 Sebastian Rale, was barbarously mur- 
 dered. 
 
 Fathers Jogues and Lalande were the 
 first missionaries in what is now known as 
 the state of New York. They entered the 
 territory from Quebec in 1646 to convert 
 
Mission Work 
 
 481 
 
 Among the Indians 
 
 the Mohawks. Both fathers were mur- 
 dered by the Indians the same year near 
 the present city of Schenectady. Father 
 Brebuef, apostle of the Hurons, and his 
 companion, Lalemant, were captured by 
 the Iroquois and put to death. Fathers Le 
 Moyne, Dablon, and Bressani labored 
 among the Onondagos and Mohawks. 
 Afterwards they were obliged to flee to 
 Canada. The early missions of New York 
 were broken up by the English in 1713. 
 
 Father Jogues, w^ose name has already 
 been mentioned, and Father Raymbault 
 were the first to establish Christianity in 
 the Lake country in 1641. They were 
 succeeded by Father Menard, who at- 
 tempted to establish a mission west of 
 Sault Ste. Marie. Father Allouez founded 
 a mission on the western extremity of Lake 
 Superior in 1665. In the year 1673 the 
 Jesuit, Father Marquette, discovered the 
 "Great River" or "Father of Waters," 
 and, in company with other Jesuits, ex- 
 
 plored it as far as the mouth of the Arkan- 
 sas, announcing the Gospel to the inhabit- 
 ants of that territory. Marquette and 
 Allouez preached the Gospel to the Indians. 
 Poisson and Souel suffered martyrdom at 
 the hands of the Natches Indians in the 
 Mississippi valley. 
 
 The most important mission in Canada 
 was Quebec. The Church of that country 
 was for the first fifty years, under the jur- 
 isdiction of the Archbishop of Rouen, 
 France. A see was at last established at 
 Quebec and Francis Laval was consecrated 
 bishop in 1675. The vast diocese embraced 
 the whole vaHey of the St. Lawrence, of 
 the Mississippi, and of the Great Lakes. 
 The English government wrested Canada 
 from France in 1673, and, though hostile to 
 the Church at home and in the United 
 States, it tolerated Catholicity in Canada. 
 Bishop Laval founded a seminary in Que- 
 bec, encouraged the missionaries, and 
 strengthened the faith of his flock. 
 
 Mission Work {Sfatt'stics of 1898) Among the Indians. 
 
 Dioceses or 
 Vicariates 
 Apostolic 
 
 c-5 
 .52 rt 
 
 S^ 
 
 •6 
 
 Tucson 
 
 Boise City 
 
 Brownsville. . . . 
 
 Cheyenne 
 
 Grand Rapids. 
 
 Green Bay 
 
 Helena 
 
 Indian Territory. 
 
 La Crosse. 
 
 Lincoln (istrep.). 
 
 Marquette 
 
 Natchez 
 
 Nesqually 
 
 ■Oregon City 
 
 San Francisco. . . 
 Portland, Maine. 
 
 Vancouver 
 
 Los Angeles 
 
 South Dakota 
 
 Total. 
 
 3,000 
 4,000 
 
 43,000 
 
 1,900 
 2,500 
 
 10,000 
 9,800 
 
 340 
 5.000 
 3,000 
 
 8,000 
 1,800 
 
 5.000 
 4,000 
 
 225 
 1,200 
 
 200 
 2,000 
 
 1,500 
 6,000 
 2,660 
 
 2,100 
 
 140 
 2,500 
 
 589 
 3,000 
 
 i>5i4 
 
 2,600 
 
 3,000 
 
 500 
 
 29 
 
 105 
 54 
 
 379 
 123 
 
 136 
 
 170 
 26 
 
 26 
 
 "140 
 194 
 
 74,468 
 
 273 
 
 398 
 
 140 
 65 
 383 
 
 160 
 120 
 
 385 
 50 
 
 St. Joseph 
 
 Providence 
 f Incarnate Word 
 \ Ursulines 
 
 St. Francis 
 
 Notre Dame 
 
 St. Francis 
 
 St. Joseph 
 
 Ursulines 
 
 Providence 
 ("St. Francis 
 < St. Joseph 
 ( Mercy 
 
 fSt. Francis 
 1 Notre Dame 
 
 St. Joseph 
 
 Mercy 
 fSt. Francis 
 ( Providence 
 /St. Benedict 
 1 St. Francis 
 
 Mercy 
 
 St. Joseph 
 
 5,077 
 
 S.J. 
 
 S.J. 
 O.F.M. 
 
 O.F.M. 
 
 ;s.j. 
 
 O.S.B. 
 O.F.M. 
 
 S.J. 
 
 S.J. 
 S.J. 
 
 * Adults and Children. 
 31 
 
Mission Work 
 
 482 
 
 Among the Negroes 
 
 Mission Work (Siaiistics of 1898) Among the Negroes. 
 
 Dioceses or 
 Vicariates 
 Apostolic 
 
 bCes 
 
 Baltimore. 
 
 Charleston. 
 Chicago 
 
 Covington 
 
 Galveston 
 
 Indian Territory. 
 
 I<eavenworth 
 
 I<ouisville < . . . 
 
 Natchez. 
 
 Natchitoches . 
 St. lyouis 
 
 New Orleans^ . 
 
 Mobile 
 
 New York. . . 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 Pittsburgh . . . 
 
 Richmond . . . 
 Savannah.. . . 
 
 St. Augnistine. 
 San Antonio. . 
 Wilmington . . 
 St. Paul 
 
 Total. 
 
 690,000 
 
 80,000 
 
 250,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 31,000 
 
 ?I2,0OO 
 
 800,000 
 150,000 
 
 280,000 
 
 636,000 
 
 45,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 650,000 
 
 900,000 
 
 142,480 
 20,000 
 
 37,000 
 
 150 
 650 
 250 
 
 350 
 6,000 
 
 2,061 
 8,000 
 
 75.000 
 
 3.425 
 3.000 
 1.500 
 
 1,600 
 
 1,200 
 300 
 
 125 
 
 200 
 
 41 
 
 3.479 
 
 180 
 
 47 
 31 
 
 13 
 
 76 
 15 
 
 12,000 
 
 400 
 
 "5 
 
 385 
 
 5,288,480 
 
 144,186 
 
 38 
 
 43 
 
 5.286 
 
 890 
 
 1,600 
 
 ' Mission 
 Helpers 
 Notre Dame 
 Col. Oblates 
 St. Francis 
 Charity 
 
 . Holy Cross 
 
 200 
 210 
 295 
 94 
 356 
 
 383 
 
 385 
 120 
 
 •«.458 
 
 309 
 180 
 53 
 
 /St. Dominic 
 \ Charity 
 
 Incarnate Word 
 
 f St. Benedict 
 \ Providence 
 
 f Charity 
 \ Loretto 
 
 i Nazareth 
 I,oretto 
 St. Francis 
 St. Joseph 
 ■{ Mercy 
 
 Perpetual 
 [ Adoration 
 Providence 
 Providence 
 St. Francis 
 Mercy 
 Perpetual 
 Adoration 
 Marianites 
 Holy Family 
 Good Shepherd 
 Notre Dame 
 St. Joseph 
 Mercv 
 
 7(i)t 
 I (2)+ 
 
 2 (3)t 
 
 •(4)t 
 
 5 (5)t 
 
 225 
 
 399 
 200 
 200 
 50 
 
 Notre Dame 
 
 f Mercy 
 
 t St. Francis 
 
 St. Francis 
 
 f St. Joseph 
 ( Holy Name 
 
 St. Joseph 
 Holy Ghost 
 
 m 
 
 St. Joseph 
 
 I (9)t 
 
 7.969 
 
 ♦ The fig^ires showing the Negro Population and the number of Catholic Negroes are for the most 
 part approximative. 
 
 1 1. St. Joseph's Seminary, Epiphany Apostolic College, St. Francis' Academy, St. Francis' Orphan- 
 age, St. Elizabeth's Orphanage, Convent of Mission Helpers, House of the Good Shepherd. 2. St. 
 Francis Xavier's Infirmary. 3. St. Elizabeth's Hospital, St. Joseph's Hospital. 4. Orphanage. 5. Boys' 
 Asylum, Girls' Asylum, Old Folks' Home, House of the Good Shepherd, Asylum for Deaf Mutes. 6. Or- 
 phanage. 7. Orphanage, Magdalen Asylum. 8. Orphanage. 9. St. Joseph's House, Industrial School. 
 
Mitre 
 
 483 
 
 Mohammedanism 
 
 Mitre. — The head-dress worn in solemn 
 Church services by bishops, abbots, and 
 certain other prelates of the Catholic 
 Church. The name, as probably the orna- 
 ment itself, is borrowed from the Orientals. 
 The Western Mitre is a tall, tongue-shaped 
 cap, terminating in a two-fold point, which 
 is supposed to symbolize the " cloven 
 tongues " in the form of which the Holy 
 Ghost was imparted to the Apostles, and 
 is furnished with two flaps, which fall 
 backwards over the shoulders. Opinion 
 is much divided as to the date at which the 
 mitre was first introduced. From the ninth 
 century it is found in use, although not 
 universally; and instances are recorded 
 in which the Popes granted permission to 
 certain bishops to wear the mitre. The 
 mitre as an ornament, seems to have de- 
 scended in the earliest times, from bishop 
 to bishop. 
 
 Mitylene. — Capital of Lesbos, the sea- 
 port at which St. Paul touched on his way 
 from Greece to Jerusalem (Acts xx. 14). 
 It was an important maritime power of 
 the vEolian Greeks. Present population, 
 20,000. 
 
 Mixed Marriages. See Marriage. 
 
 Mizraim. See Mesraim. 
 
 Moab. — A Semitic tribe settled at the 
 southeastern end of the Dead Sea (the 
 modern district of Kerah). In Genesis 
 (xix.) Moab and Ammon are represented 
 as descendants of Lot, and their names are 
 explained from their incestuous origin. 
 The Moabites appear to have been a war- 
 like tribe, and the Israelites during their 
 wanderings through the desert, tried to 
 avoid any encounter with them. During 
 the period of the Judges they opposed the 
 Israelites until they were routed by Aod 
 (Judg. iii.). Saul and David, whose an- 
 cestress, Ruth, was a Moabitess, subju- 
 gated them. After Solomon's death, Moab 
 fell to the northern kingdom. After 
 Achab's death. Mesa refused to pay trib- 
 ute. They were afterwards, according to 
 the cuneiform inscriptions, subjected to 
 Assyria. They participated in the fall of 
 Jerusalem, through the Babylonians. At 
 the return from captivity, the Moabites 
 and Ammonites tried to prevent the re- 
 building of the walls of Jerusalem. Ac- 
 cording to the history of Josephus, they 
 later on became confounded with the 
 Arabs. Moloch was the god of the Mo- 
 abites. See Mesa. 
 
 Mohammedanism (belief in or adherence 
 to the teachings of Mohammed). — Before 
 the appearance of Mohammed, paganism 
 was the prevailing religion in Arabia. 
 The national sanctuary was the Kaaba of 
 Mecca, which was surrounded with 360 
 idols. Mohammed, born at Mecca in the 
 year 570, was in his early youth subject to 
 epileptic fits. His address, though devoid 
 of any literary accomplishments, was af- 
 fable and condescending. Having passed 
 a long and mysterious retreat in a cave 
 near Mecca he began to preach religion, 
 declaring that he had received from God, 
 through the angel Gabriel the commission 
 to re-establish the religion of Abraham : 
 Islam, /. e., submission to God. At first 
 he met with great opposition. In a tumult 
 at Mecca he was compelled to flee to 
 Medina in 622. This event is called the 
 Hegira or Flight and is the beginning of 
 the era of the Musselmans. Mohammed 
 then declared that the new religion was to 
 be established by the sword. His disci- 
 ples, acknowledging him as their temporal 
 and spiritual ruler, soon began to ravage 
 the country. They forced Medina and 
 Arabia into subjection. Mohammed died 
 in 632. His successors, the caliphs, con- 
 tinued his work. Mohammedanism, being 
 well adapted to the passions and tempera- 
 ments of the Arabs, spread rapidly, reach- 
 ing Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Persia, Sicily, 
 Spain, and North Africa, where it com- 
 pletely destroyed the once flourishing 
 Church. In Spain, th6 Mohammedans 
 gained a battle fought near Xeres de la 
 Frontera (711) ; Mohammedanism received 
 a fatal check in France in the battle near 
 Tours and Poitiers fought in 732, under 
 the leadership of Charles Martel. Con- 
 stantinople was twice threatened but es- 
 caped by means of the " Greek Fire." 
 
 The character of Mohammed presents 
 some striking contrasts. He was ardent 
 and enthusiastic and had lofty aims, while 
 at the same time he manifested a low self- 
 ishness, duplicity and perfidy. At first he 
 appeared to be a fanatic, but later it be- 
 came evident that he was a lewd impostor. 
 The doctrine of Islamism is contained in 
 the Koran collected by Abubakir, father- 
 in-law of Mohammed. It is a mixture of 
 Parseism, Judaism, and Christianity. The 
 prophet holds the unity of God : ** God is 
 God and Mohammed is His Prophet." 
 He denied the free will of man, taught 
 fatalism, denied redemption, justification 
 and grace. He promised his followers a 
 
MOHLER 
 
 484 
 
 MONASTICISM 
 
 sensual paradise. The precepts of Mo- 
 hammed extend only to exterior actions. 
 They prescribe prayer, fasting, alms, pil- 
 grimages to Mecca, warfare with unbe- 
 lievers, while they permit polygamy and 
 revenge by blood. Friday was the day set 
 apart for religious ser%ice. 
 
 Mohler (John Adam) (1796-1838). — 
 German Catholic theologian, born at 
 Igersheim, Wurtemberg. Ordained priest 
 in 1819, professor of Church History in the 
 University of Tubingen, then in that of 
 Munich ; dean of the Chapter of Wurz- 
 burg. His principal work is Symbolism, 
 or Tie Doctrinal Differences betTveen 
 Catholics and Protestants, of which there 
 is an English translation. 
 
 Molinistn. — Doctrine of Louis Molina 
 (1535-^601), a famous Spanish Jesuit, on 
 grace. This writer held the view that God 
 in His scientia media (the knowledge which 
 God has of future conditionals) knows 
 what will or would be the conduct of His 
 free creature in every combination of cir- 
 cumstances, and, therefore having decreed 
 what grace He will give to a particular 
 man on a particular occasion, He knows 
 whether that man will use the grace or 
 whether he vdW reject it. In cases where 
 the man rejects the grace and sins, he has 
 by his free rejection made the grace which 
 was truly sufficient inefficacious; if he had 
 freely chosen to use it, he would have 
 made this same grace efficacious. In case 
 the grace is rejected, God knows that there 
 is a certain higher degree of grace which 
 that same man in the same circumstances 
 would have used ; why this higher degree 
 is not given in every instance is a part of 
 the unfathomed mystery of the inequality 
 with which God distributes His gratuitous 
 favors. See Grack. 
 
 Molinos (MicHAKL of) (1640-1696). — A 
 Spanish priest ; advocated a system of piety, 
 which obtained the name of "Quietism." 
 In his work entitled Spiritual Guide, Mo- 
 linos maintained that Christian perfection 
 consists in a state of perfect rest and quiet, 
 in which the soul, remaining wholly pas- 
 sive under the influence of God's Spirit, 
 neither forms any acts nor is moved by the 
 fear of hell or a desire for heaven. In 
 1685, Pope Innocent XI. condemned sixty- 
 eight propositions of Molinos ; the author 
 himself was confined in a convent at Rome, 
 where, after recanting his errors, he died, 
 reconciled to the Church. 
 
 Monarchians. — Name given in the first 
 and second centuries to a body of Anti- 
 Trinitarians. While acknowledging the 
 divinity of Christ, they denied the personal 
 distinction of the Father and the Son. 
 They asserted an absolute oneness or per- 
 sonal unity of God, in support of which 
 view they referred to the words of Christ : 
 "I and the Father are one" (John x. 30), 
 which they understood, not of unity in 
 essence only, but of unity of person. This, 
 consequently, led them to say that the 
 Father assumed flesh in Mary, and suffered 
 and died, whence they were also called 
 *• Patripassians." 
 
 Monastery (convent, abode inhabited 
 by monks or religious in general). — The 
 Council of Trent ordained that bishops 
 visit the monasteries, exempt or not ex- 
 empt, with the difference that they ought 
 to make the visit of the exempt monas- 
 teries, auctoritate apostolica, and that of 
 nonexempt monasteries, auctoritate pro- 
 pria. 
 
 Monasticistn (That which concerns 
 monks. Religious belonging to some or- 
 der whose members live under one -com- 
 mon rule, and separated from the world, 
 like the Benedictines, Bernardins, and 
 Carthusians). — According to the common 
 opinion, monastic life took rise only in the 
 third century, the epoch in which St. Ni- 
 con, Bishop of Cyzic, suffered martyrdom 
 with 199 monks whom he governed. Dur- 
 ing the persecution of Decius, a great 
 number of Christians fled into the desert, 
 and, delighted with the solitary life, never 
 left the desert again. Living the soli- 
 tary life of separation from one another 
 had already commenced in the East. About 
 the year 270, however, many solitaries still 
 lived near the towns in Egypt, when the 
 fame and virtues of St. Anthony drew them 
 further into the desert, where St. Paul of 
 Thebes had preceded St. Anthony. Here 
 they lived in isolated cells, occupied with 
 meditation and prayer, under the direc- 
 tion of St. Anthony, then of St. Ammo- 
 nius and St. Macarius the Ancient, who 
 founded communities of monks on tlie Ni- 
 trian mountain and in the desert of Scete. 
 These monastic residences soon became 
 famous throughout the World. The desert 
 of Sinai, the desert of Gaza, different iso- 
 lated places of Syria, Mesopotamia, Ar- 
 menia, and Persia, became peopled with 
 monks. St. Pachomius, who instituted for 
 the monks the common or cenobitic life 
 
Monk 
 
 485 
 
 MONOPHYSITES 
 
 and wrote a rule, had not less than 7,000 
 monks placed under his care. However, 
 monastic life was hardly known or prac- 
 ticed in the West, until toward the middle 
 of the fourth century. About the year 550, 
 St. Eusebius of Verceil, established a mo- 
 nastic order in his cathedral, and St. Am- 
 brose nourished a community of solitaries 
 who lived near Milan. Finally, about the 
 year 560, St. Martin came to France, after 
 having practiced the monastic life in Italy. 
 He built the monastery of Liguge, in the 
 diocese of Poitiers, then that of Marmou- 
 tiers, near the city of Tours. 
 
 There were formerly three kinds of 
 monks : the cenobites, the anchorites, and 
 the sarabites. The first lived in commu- 
 nity under a rule and under an abbot or 
 superior; the second, also called hermits, 
 lived alone in the deserts ; finally, the 
 sarabites lived in cells, two or three to- 
 gether. In the East to-day there are only 
 cenobites and hermits, and all observe the 
 Rule of St. Basil, whom they regard as 
 their spiritual father. It was only toward 
 the seventh century that the Rule of 
 St. Benedict came into use in the monas- 
 teries of France, Italy, and England, and 
 the Council of Autun, held about the year 
 655, ordained that the monks and abbots 
 conform themselves according to this rule. 
 About the tenth century, the religious of 
 St. Benedict being generally raised to 
 clerkship and holy orders, a distinction be- 
 gan to be made in the monasteries between 
 two kinds of religious. One class, destined 
 for the choir and priesthood, were called 
 lettered or crowned clerics, because they 
 studied and wore the clerical crown or 
 tonsure ; and the others, employed at 
 manual labors, were called converts, lay 
 brothers, or nonlettered. From whatever 
 point of view we may look upon monastic 
 life, we cannot help acknowledging that it 
 has rendered, and still renders, to the 
 world extraordinary services, and that the 
 various enemies who attack it are a prey 
 to prejudices which cannot be justified. 
 In the Middle Ages the monasteries were 
 the refuge of liberty and learning. 
 
 Monk. See Monasticism. 
 
 Monogram (Two or more of the letters 
 of a name or word, or of the initial of sev- 
 eral names or words, so combined as to 
 form or appear to form a single character). 
 — The most ancient form of monograms >^-, 
 is that of Christ. This monogram ^ 
 may almost invariably be discerned upon 
 
 the greater part of the monuments of 
 Christian antiquity which have descended 
 to us. Its appearance upon the marbles, 
 mortuary tiles, and lamps extracted from 
 the Catacombs, and exhibiting the sepul- 
 chral inscriptions of the martyrs and early 
 believers in the Gospel who were buried 
 there, must be familiar to everyone who is 
 at all conversant with Christian archae- 
 ology. It is composed of two Greek charT 
 acters V and D the two letters with 
 which the name of Christ com- 
 
 mences in Greek {Kristos). With the palm 
 branch, it was inserted in the inscription 
 over the tomb of Pope St. Caius, who suf- 
 fered martyrdom during the reign of Diocle- 
 tian, and may be observed, together with the 
 same emblem of victory, in the sepulchral 
 epitaphs of the martyrs Sts. Alexander and 
 Marius, the first of whom was martyred 
 under the Emperor Antoninus, the latter 
 under Hadrian. The assertion of the Prot- 
 estant Basnage, that no monogram of a date 
 anterior to the reign of Constantine the 
 Great could be produced from the Cata- 
 combs, is now completely exploded. It was 
 for sometime a favorite but totally un- 
 founded hypothesis with several Protestant 
 writers, that this cruciform monogram of 
 Christ was the invention of the first Chris- 
 tian emperor, who, by ordering it to be 
 inscribed upon the standard called the 
 labarum, and affixed, instead of the eagle 
 and thunderbolts of Jove, upon the shields 
 and helmets of the Roman legions, first 
 gave rise to its adoption by the Faithful as 
 a symbol of belief in Jesus. 
 
 Monophysites (Heretics of the fifth cen- 
 tury). — The Monophysites acknowledged 
 in Jesus Christ only one nature, and not 
 the divine and human natures united into 
 one sole Person. Eutyches was the author 
 of this doctrine. (See Eutychians.) Cited 
 before the Council of Constantinople, in 
 448, he was excommunicated and deposed. 
 Dioscorus, Patriarch of Alexandria, took 
 his part, and, in a synod of 449, declared 
 him restored in his sacerdotal and abbatial 
 dignity; the synod of 449 is known in 
 Church history under the name of " Brig- 
 andage of Ephesus." The Letter to 
 Flavian, Patriarch of Constantinople, 
 formulated the orthodox doctrine, which 
 was proclaimed by the Fourth Ecumenical 
 Council of Chalcedon. This doctrine de- 
 fined that there are "two natures — one 
 divine, the other human — without mix- 
 ture or alteration, united in one Person, 
 
MONOTHELITES 
 
 486 
 
 MONTANISTS 
 
 and Hypostasis, so that Christ is not parted 
 nor divided into two persons, but is one 
 and the same God and Only-begotten, our 
 Lord Jesus Christ." The monks of Pales- 
 tine, to the number of more than 10,000, 
 rejected both the doctrine of the Council 
 of Chalcedon and the error of Eutyches, 
 by retaining the doctrine of one nature.- 
 The doctrine of the Monophysites also 
 spread in Egypt, and in our day we find 
 adherents thereof in Syria, Mesopotamia, 
 Asia Minor, on the island of Cyprus, and 
 in Armenia. In Egypt, its followers are 
 called " Copts." See this word. 
 
 Monothelites (Heretics in the early 
 Church). — The Monothelites taught that, 
 in Christ, there were two distinct natures 
 in the one Person of the Word ; but that 
 the human nature was without initiative, 
 so that all will and action came from the 
 divine nature; the human nature yielding 
 a merely passive concurrence ; so that the 
 acts of Christ were in no true sense the 
 acts of a man. This error, which was a 
 remnant of that of Eutyches, was taught 
 about the year 620 by Theodore, Bishop of 
 Pharan. It was condemned by Pope John 
 IV. and by the bishops of Africa. In 648, 
 the Emperor Constans published another 
 edict or formulary called "Typos," which 
 forbade all further discussion of one or 
 two operations and wills in Christ. While 
 the Eastern bishops, in regard to the Em- 
 peror's " Ecthesis," submitted to the im- 
 perial dictation, the Western bishops, in 
 the Lateran Synod of 649, under Pope 
 Martin I., condemned both the Monothe- 
 lite heresy and the two imperial edicts, the 
 "Ecthesis" and the "Typos." 
 
 Monseigneur. — Honorary title, equiva- 
 lent to " My lord," given to princes, bishops, 
 and other dignitaries of the Church or 
 court. In the Middle Ages the title of 
 Monseigneur was given to all the saints, 
 by invoking them, and also to every Knight. 
 In the year 1789 it was granted to royal 
 princes and to bishops. 
 
 Monstrance (also called " Ostenso- 
 rium"). — A sacred article employed in the 
 Church for the purpose of presenting the 
 consecrated Host for the adoration of 
 the people, while it is carried in proces- 
 sion as well as when it is exposed upon the 
 altar for benediction. We see monstrances 
 of every shape and size. Many represent 
 a turret bored through. They used for- 
 merly to be of gold, gilt, or silver, sometimes 
 
 enriched with precious stones. Nowadays, 
 the glory at least should be of silver, and 
 the crescent or circle, holding the sacred 
 Host, of gilt. 
 
 Montalembert (Charles Forbes de 
 Tryox, de,) Count (1810-1870). — French 
 writer and politician, son of an English 
 colonel, who was created peer of France, 
 and was ambassador at Stockholm ; was 
 born in London, but educated chiefly in 
 Paris. He became one of the followers of 
 Lamennais, and first attracted notice by a 
 speech in the Chamber (1831) in favor of 
 Catholic free schools. Having visited 
 England and the East, he became a leader 
 of the Catholic party. His chief works 
 are: Life of St. Elisabeth of Hungary; 
 The Monks of the West; Vandalism and 
 Catholicity in Art; The Free Church in a 
 Free State. The first and second of these 
 works are translated into English. 
 
 Montanists. — Heretics of the second cen- 
 tury. Their founder was a certain Mon- 
 tanus, a native of Arabia, in Mysia. He 
 alleged that he received divine inspiration 
 in the frantic ecstasies to which he was 
 subject, and announced himself as the or- 
 gan of the Paraclete. From the words of 
 Christ "I have yet many things to say to 
 you, but you cannot bear them now. But 
 the Spirit of Truth shall come and teach 
 you all truth" (John xvi. 12-13), Monta- 
 nus inferred that the existing revelation 
 was not complete and ascribed to the Par- 
 aclete the mission of bringing the Church 
 to completion and to her full age ; while 
 to himself he arrogated the mission of a 
 reformer. He was joined by Priscilla and 
 Maximilla, two women of distinction, who 
 had the like pretended raptures, and hence- 
 forth figured as the prophetesses of the 
 eccentric party. Calling themselves the 
 last prophets, Montanus and his prophet- 
 esses announced the near approach of the 
 end of the world, which demanded a more 
 holy and austere life. By the coming of 
 the Paraclete, they said. Christian life and 
 discipline should be improved. This im- 
 provement was to consist: i. In the pro- 
 hibitation of second marriages , 2. In the 
 observing of .longer and more rigorous 
 fasts. ( The Montanists, according to St. 
 Jerome, kept three Lents, each of forty 
 days.) 3. In forbidding flight from perse- 
 cution ami in prohibiting Christians from 
 following any literary pursuits , 4. In ab- 
 solutely jefusing absolution to all who, 
 after baptism, became guilty to apostasy, 
 
Month 
 
 487 
 
 Moravian Brethren 
 
 murder, unchastity, and similar great sins. 
 They denied to the Church the power of re- 
 mitting such sins. The Montanists obtained 
 a zealous and gifted advocate in TertuUian, 
 who, between the years 200 and 203, be- 
 came himself the author of a new Monta- 
 nist party, called after him Tertullianists. 
 In the time of St. Augustine, the Mon- 
 tanists had about disappeared from Africa. 
 They were also called " Cataphrygians " 
 and " Pepuzians," from Pepuza, a small 
 town in Phrygia which they called their 
 " Jerusalem." 
 
 Month {Hebre-w) . — The Hebrew months 
 were lunar, that is, extending from one 
 new moon to another; but as 12 lunar 
 months made but 354 days and 6 hours, the 
 Jewish year fell short of the solar year 
 nearly 11 days. To compensate for this 
 difference, every three years a thirteenth 
 month was intercalated, called Vedar, the 
 second Adar. At the exodus from Egypt 
 God ordained that the month — the seventh 
 of the civil year — should be the first of 
 the sacred -year, by which the religious 
 festivals were to be reckoned. The months 
 were usually designated as first, second, 
 etc., and the names by which they are now 
 known seem to have been adopted during 
 the captivity. 
 
 CIVIL 
 
 SACRED 
 
 CORRESPONDING 
 WITH 
 
 VII I. Nisan or Abib. . .March or April. Neh. 
 
 ii. I. 
 VIII ... .II. Zif or Ziv April or May. III. Ki. 
 
 vi. I. 
 IX III. Sivan May or June. Esth. 
 
 viii. g. 
 
 X IV. Tamtnuz June or July. 
 
 XI V. Ab July or August. 
 
 XII VI. Elul August or September. 
 
 Neh. vi. 15. 
 
 I VII. Ethanim or 
 
 Tishri September or October. 
 
 III. Ki. viii. 2. 
 II VIII. Bui October or November. 
 
 III. Ki. vi. 38. 
 Ill IX. Chisleu November or Decem- 
 ber. Neh. i. I. 
 IV X. Tebeth December or January. 
 
 Esth. ii. 16. 
 V XI. Shebat January or February. 
 
 Ezech. i. 17. 
 VI XII. Adar February or March. 
 
 Esth. iii. 7. 
 
 Morality of Human Actions. — Human 
 actions are morally good or evil according 
 as they agree or disagree with the divine 
 commandments. Holy Scripture charac- 
 terizes our actions as good or bad according 
 to their agreement with the divine will. It 
 insists that the fulfillment of God's com- 
 
 mands, i.e., the conformity to the divinewill, 
 is the cause of the divine complacence, and 
 consequently, of our salvation ; while the 
 transgression of them, i. e., the disagree- 
 ment with the divine will, is the cause of 
 God's displeasure and of eternal damnation 
 (Matt. vii. 21; xix. 17; John viii. 29). As 
 a wise and bountiful Creator, God ap- 
 pointed to every creature, and to man in 
 particular, a suitable end. Man's end is 
 eternal happiness. The attainment of this 
 end is, therefore, what God requires of 
 man — the fulfillment of the divine will. 
 Every action, therefore, which brings us 
 nearer this end, and is, therefore, conform- 
 able to God's will, is morally good ; for it 
 puts us in the right and God-intended rela- 
 tion to our last end. Every action, on the 
 other hand, which withdraws us from this 
 end, is, for that reason, contrary to the 
 divine will, for it brings us into a false re- 
 lation to God, our Creator. In short, an 
 action is in accordance with the God- , 
 intended order of things, or morally good, 
 when it is conformable to the divine will, 
 and contrary to order, or morally evil, 
 when it is repugnant to the divine will. 
 
 Moravian Brethren (also called " Herrn- 
 hutters") (see this word). — The American 
 Moravians consider themselves legitimate 
 successors of the " Unitas Fratrum " | 
 {Untied Brethren). They claim an un- 
 broken succession of bishops from the 
 apostles, through an Austrian branch of 
 the Waldenses. The first settlement of 
 Moravian Brethren in America was at 
 Savannah, Georgia, in 1735, but was aban- 
 doned five years later, and a new coloniza- 
 tion begun at Bethlehem, in the Lehigh 
 valley of Pennsylvania. The last named 
 place is their headquarters and the seat of 
 their theological seminary and college. 
 They also founded Lititz and Nazareth, in 
 the same state, and Salem, in North Caro- 
 lina, all of which were at first exclusive 
 communal towns, similar to those founded 
 by the renewed Unitas Fratrum in Ger- 
 many and Great Britain. The principle 
 of exclusivism, which is dying out in Eu- 
 rope, was entirely abandoned in America, 
 the last vestige of it disappearing in 1856. 
 The American province of the Moravian 
 Church has two divisions, a northern and 
 a southern, each with its own provincial 
 synod. The northern division is divided 
 into five districts, covering convenient ter- 
 ritorial limits, delegates from which com- 
 pose the synod. All the important acts of 
 
More 
 
 488 
 
 MOSAISM 
 
 the synod, however, are subject to the rati- 
 fication of the Unity's Elders' Conference, 
 including the selection of bishops. Elec- 
 tion by "apostolic lot" is no more prac- 
 ticed,except occasionally by special request, 
 in the selection of bishops. Marriages by 
 " lot " were abolished by the General 
 Synod in 1818. In 1895, the northern pro- 
 vince comprised 80 congregations, with a 
 total membership of 16,329; contributed 
 $111,276 for Church support, and $23,343 
 for missions, pensions, etc. The southern 
 province reported a total membership of 
 3,548. The synods meet once in five years. 
 The missionary work of the Church, in 
 proportion to its numerical strength, is 
 very extensive. The American province, 
 aided by the Unity's Elders 'Conference, sus- 
 tains missions in Greenland, Labrador, and 
 among the North American Indians in cen- 
 tral and southern America and in Alaska, 
 the latter including 9 stations, 12 mission- 
 ^ aries, 14 native assistants and some 400 
 converts. The general missionary work 
 controlled by the parent Church in Ger- 
 many extends to nearly all quarters of the 
 globe. The theological school at Bethle- 
 hem has an endowment of $75,000, a six- 
 year's course of study, and an average 
 enrollment of about fifty students. Four 
 general schools are located at Bethlehem, 
 Lititz and Nazareth, Pennsylvania, and at 
 Salem, North Carolina, respectively. Two 
 weekly papers and a Sunday-school paper 
 are issued from the publishing house at 
 Bethlehem, and also an American edition 
 of the Text-Book, the official year-book of 
 the denomination. 
 
 More (Sir Thomas) (1478-1535). — 
 Born in London. An English statesman 
 and author. Succeeded Wolsey as chan- 
 cellor of England in 1529. He opposed 
 the reforms passed by parliament Nov. 3d, 
 1529, and the projected divorce of the 
 king from Catharine of Aragon, and re-^ 
 signed May 13th, 1532. By act of parlia- 
 ment in March, 1534, an oath of adherence 
 to the act which vested the succession in 
 the issue of Anne Boleyn, and of renuncia- 
 tion of the Pope, was imposed. This oath 
 More refused to take, and he was com- 
 mitted to the tower April 17th, 1535. On 
 July ist, 1535, he was indicted for high 
 treason, and was executed July 6th, 1533. 
 More was beatified by Pope Leo XIII. 
 Dec. 9th, 1886. 
 
 Moria. — A hill in Jerusalem, the site of 
 Solomon's Temple. Tradition has often 
 
 identified this, but on insufficient grounds, 
 with the hill of Isaac's sacrifice in the " land 
 of Moria" (Gen. xxii.). 
 
 Mormons. — The Mormons or "Latter 
 Day Saints," were founded in North 
 America by Joseph Smith (died, 1844). He 
 was born in the beginning of the present 
 century, in the state of Vermont, of dis- 
 reputable parents, and was always a vision- 
 ary. In 1830 he proclaimed that in Sep- 
 tember, 1827, he had received from an 
 angel the record of the earliest inhabitants 
 of America, engraven on golden plates ; 
 this record he affirmed was once written 
 by the prophet Mormon, who buried the 
 plates in the earth. The document has 
 been proved to be a nearly literal tran- 
 script of an unprinted romance written by 
 Solomon Spalding at the beginning of 
 this century. After several wanderings. 
 Smith's adherents, who from a small be- 
 ginning have increased to considerable 
 numbers, settled in 1847 on the shores of 
 Salt Lake, in the present state of Utah, and 
 under Smith's successor, Brigham Young 
 (died, 1877), founded the New Jerusalem, a 
 theo-democracy, of which Brigham Young 
 became president. They have introduced 
 polygamy as a distinctive institution, and 
 also have a partial community of goods. 
 The sect is very similar to Mohammedan- 
 ism. From Utah they sent out mission- 
 aries to every part of the world to make 
 converts. The territory they inhabited 
 was created a state by Congress in 1892 ; 
 the number of inhabitants in 1880 was 143,- 
 936, most of whom were emigrants from 
 Great Britain and from the European Con- 
 tinent. In 1871 action was taken in the 
 courts of the United States against 
 polygamy as a criminal offense, and in 
 1891, Congress passed a law for the entire 
 suppression of Mormonism. 
 
 Mortal Sin. See Sm. 
 
 Mosaic Cosmogony. See Cosmog- 
 ony. 
 
 Mosaism (law of Moses). — Mosaism 
 comprises the beliefs, writings, and pre- 
 cepts which form the Mosaic system. The 
 capital work of Moses, was the founding 
 of a religious and political government un- 
 der divine inspiration, and in accordance 
 with the truths revealed. Anti-Catholic 
 exegesis has contested that Monotheism 
 was the primitive religion of the Hebrews, 
 and strove to date its beginning in the time 
 of the Prophets. They then opposed to 
 
Moses 
 
 489 
 
 Mozart 
 
 the sole God Jahve or Javeh (Jehova), par- 
 ticular God of Israel, the Elohim of the 
 patriarchal time, a multitude of genii act- 
 ing in common, to form in appearance 
 only one sole power, and thus, according 
 to infidelity, Elohism produced Monothe- 
 ism, the latter ending by becoming the ex- 
 clusive belief of the Jews. According to 
 Renan, the monotheistic religion of the 
 Prophets was a return to primitive Elo- 
 hism and the result of an evolution tending 
 to give to Jahve the traits of Elohim. M. 
 Renan admits, however, that in the time 
 of the patriarchs, Jahve and Elohim were 
 synonyms. True exegesis, founded on 
 faith and science, rejects these impious er- 
 rors. It proves that we must not behold 
 in the Pentateuch the fusion of two ac- 
 counts, the one Jehovistic the other Elo- 
 histic, which would rob Moses of the 
 composition of the Biblical books bearing 
 his name. The precepts of Moses concern 
 not only the religious life of the people of 
 Israel but their national life as well. He 
 did not limit himself to transmit to them 
 the Decalogue ; in the name of God, 
 he gave to them a number of legal and 
 ceremonial precepts : all his laws grouped 
 themselves around the fundamental idea 
 of God's kingdom, whose people Israel 
 was. Moses constructed the Ark of the 
 Covenant ; founded the priesthood ; de- 
 termined the religious festival days, the 
 greatest of which was the Pasch ; and regu- 
 lated all that concerned the blessings, 
 the purifications, and expiations. Aaron, 
 brother of Moses, became the high-priest 
 of the Jews. The whole national life 
 became figurative, and there is not one 
 single detail that does not remind us of 
 the Messias. 
 
 Moses. — Son of Amram and Jochabed, 
 of the tribe of Levi, born in Egypt in a 
 time when an edict of the king ordered the 
 Hebrews to throw all their male children 
 into the river Nile. He was saved by the 
 daughter of the Pharao and educated by her. 
 He was instructed in the wisdom or science 
 of the Egyptians; but when he killed an 
 Egyptian whom he saw illtreating a He- 
 brew, he fled into the country of Madian, 
 where the priest Jethro, whose flocks he 
 watched, gave him his daughter in mar- 
 riage. Admonished by a vision from the 
 "burning bush" on Mount Horeb, and 
 instructed by the orders of God, he re- 
 turned into Egypt to deliver the people of 
 Israel from bondage and associated Aaron, 
 
 his brother, in his mission. He struck 
 Egypt with ten plagues to coerce the 
 Pharao to permit the departure of the de- 
 scendants of Abraham and Jacob from 
 Egypt, who then formed a great people. 
 After having crossed the Red Sea, the Is- 
 raelites received God's law from the hands 
 of Moses on Mount Sinai, and they wan- 
 dered during forty years in the desert. 
 Moses had often to check the revolts of the 
 people nourished with manna. He con- 
 firmed the political union of the nation 
 and made them the people of God. He 
 gave them laws and prescribed rules for 
 the divine worship. But it was Josue, his 
 successor, who as guide and chief of the 
 people, led them into the Promised Land. 
 Moses died on Mount Abarim or Nebo, 
 whence he beheld the country which he 
 himself was not permitted to enter. 
 
 Mozarabic Liturgfy (Mozarabic rite). — 
 Under the Mohammedan dominion, the 
 Mozarabs, — name given to Christians of 
 Spain who descended from the Moors and 
 Arabs, — continued to follow the Visigoth 
 ritual, which finally took their name. This 
 liturgy, established by St. Leander, arch- 
 bishop of Seville, completed by St. Isidore, 
 his brother and successor, approved in 633 
 by the Council of Toledo, was in use until 
 the eleventh century in all Spain. The 
 Roman Liturgy having gradually replaced 
 it. Cardinal Ximenes granted to the Moz- 
 arabic rite, a chapel in the cathedral of 
 Toledo, and caused the publication of a 
 Mozarabic Missal (1500) and Breviary 
 (1502). 
 
 Mozart (Wolfgang Amadeus) (1756- 
 1791). — Born at Salzburg, Austria ; died at 
 Vienna. A celebrated Austrian composer. 
 He possessed the most precocious, the 
 richest, the most extraordinary musical 
 talent the world ever saw. When between 
 five and six years of age, he played the 
 harpsichord with great skill and composed 
 little pieces which his father wrote. In 
 1762 his father took him with his sister 
 Marianne on a concert tour to Munich, Vi- 
 enna, and other places, and in the next 
 year to Paris, where they, especially Wolf- 
 gang, excited great enthusiasm. At Lon- 
 don the next year, they were equally 
 successful, and remained in England till 
 August, 1765. At the age of twelve years, 
 he composed his first opera: La Tinta 
 Simplice. Between 1770 and 1775 he com- 
 posed a number of other works, which 
 were well received, but he derived from 
 
MURATORI 
 
 490 
 
 Music 
 
 them so little pecuniary benefit that he 
 was obliged to accept the place as organist 
 at the court of the prince-bishop of Salz- 
 burg (1779). In 1791 he wrote his three 
 great symphonies and the Magic Flute, 
 and in this year received the famous com- 
 mission from a mysterious stranger (after- 
 wards known to be the steward of Count 
 Walsegg) to write a requiem Mass to be 
 finished within a month. His enfeebled 
 health and various circumstances connected 
 with the commission produced a serious 
 eflfect on his already troubled brain, and 
 he imagined it to be a summons from the 
 other world. He began the Mass, how- 
 ever, and said that it was for his own fu- 
 neral. As he was already dying, he was 
 not able to supervise the rehearsal of the 
 finished part. He died of malignant 
 typhus fever. Mozart left over 600 com- 
 positions, which include more than 40 
 symphonies, a number of masses, sonatas, 
 quartets, etc. 
 
 Muratori (Ludovico Antonio) (1672- 
 1750). — Born at Vignola, Italy; died at 
 Modena. A celebrated Italian antiquary, 
 director of the Ambrosian College and 
 Library at Milan, and later, librarian of 
 the Duke of Modena. His chief works 
 are: Rerum Italicarum Scriptores; An- 
 tiquitates ItaliccE Medii yEi'i; Annali 
 cf Italia. 
 
 Muratorian Fragment on the Canon of 
 Holy Scripture is the name which has been 
 given to a Latin fragment discovered by 
 the above Italian scholar, Muratori, in the 
 Ambrosian Library at Milan, in a manu- 
 script bearing the marks of great antiquity. 
 Its date is determined by its reference to 
 the shepherd of Hermas, which, says the 
 Fragment, Hermas "wrote very recently 
 in our times, while the Bishop Pius, his 
 brother, occupied the Chair of the Church 
 at Rome." The latter of the two dates 
 given for the death of Pius is A. d. 157. 
 The composition of the Fragment must 
 have followed soon afterwards. Though 
 mutilated at the beginning, as well as the 
 end, its testimony to the existence of the 
 four canonical Gospels is decisive. 
 
 Murder. — By the fifth commandment 
 we are forbidden to take away the life of 
 any human being, either directly by volun- 
 tarily committing murder, or indirectly by 
 willingly allowing a death to occur, which 
 is in our power to prevent, or by permit- 
 ting anything that might lead to a like 
 
 crime. " Whosoever shall kill shall be in 
 danger of the judgment "(Matt. v. 21). Con- 
 sequently, not only homicide, and suicide, 
 but duelling, and all injury and abuse of 
 others, frequently leading to violence and 
 loss of life, is against the fifth command- 
 ment ; these being most sinful acts of crim- 
 inal injustice against the Creator and the 
 created. To kill is a sin against God, as 
 supreme and only master of the giving or 
 taking of life ; for, " the Lord killeth and 
 maketh alive. He bringeth down to hell 
 and bringeth back again" (I. Kings ii. 6). 
 And to kill is a sin against man, whose 
 right to live is bestowed by his Creator, 
 and whose murder will be avenged by God. 
 "Whosoever shall shed man's blood, his 
 blood shall be shed : for man was made to 
 the image of God " (Gen. ix. 6). 
 
 Putting to death is lawful, in case of 
 sentence of condemnation by legitimate 
 authority, this being a power admitted by 
 all people, as necessary for the public 
 good, and recognized also as legal and 
 right by the Church. The ruler of a coun- 
 try is " an avenger to execute wrath upon 
 him that doth evil" (Rom. xiii. 4), To 
 slay is permitted in war, because although 
 war in itself is deplorable, and must in- 
 evitably cause bitter consequences to so 
 many, a just war is regarded as excusable 
 and sometimes indispensable, and has been 
 waged as such in all countries and all ages, 
 uncondemned by the Church. Homicide 
 is also admissible for legitimate defense of 
 ourselves or our neighbor, when it is in- 
 dispensable for the saving of life, or very 
 valuable property, against the aggressor. 
 See Duel and Suicide. 
 
 Music {Sacred). — From the time of the 
 apostles to the present day the Church, in 
 the performance of her sacred rites and es- 
 pecially in the solemn sacrifice of the Mass, 
 has always employed music for the pur- 
 pose of more easily turning men's thoughts 
 to God, and of worshipping God in a man- 
 ner more befitting His majesty. For, as 
 St. John Chrysostom remarks "there is 
 nothing better suited to rouse the soul of 
 man, to raise it, as it were, above the things 
 of earth and free it from the bonds of flesh, 
 to inspire it with love of wisdom or fill it 
 with contempt for all worldly beings than 
 singing, and the rhythm of sacred hymns " 
 ( Ps. 41. n. i.). 
 
 These advantages, however, are to be 
 derived only from that kind of music which 
 most faithfully serves the purpose of reli- 
 
Mysia 
 
 491 
 
 Myth 
 
 gion and is entirely consonant with the 
 holiness of the object to which it is united. 
 The use of such music is sanctioned by 
 the Church; such she has always used in 
 her solemn services, and such she recom- 
 mends and prescribes for future use. She 
 has always not only most carefully ex- 
 cluded from her sacred rites such secular 
 compositions and voluptuous singing as 
 are calculated to distract the mind and fill 
 it with thoughts of worldly pleasure, but 
 she has ever abhorred and denounced them 
 as being most hurtful to religion and posi- 
 tively injurious to souls. Guided by the pre- 
 scriptions and admonitions of the Fathers 
 and sovereign PontiflFs, the Second Plen- 
 ary Council of Baltimore decrees and di- 
 rects that all priests labor assiduously to 
 correct whatever abuses may have crept 
 into the vocal and instrumental music in 
 their Chufches. Hence it is a duty incum- 
 bent upon priests to personally superintend 
 the selection of music for their Churches 
 and never permit the house of God to be 
 profaned by secular music, and to allow in 
 it only such airs as are grave, devotional 
 and truly religious. Also it is a duty of 
 the priest to exclude from the Mass, all 
 singing which mutilates the words of the 
 Liturgy as well as that which abounds in 
 too frequent repetitions, or so transposes 
 the words as to change or totally destroy 
 their meaning. Also the singing ought 
 to be so regulated as not to interrupt the 
 Mass in places where interruptions are not 
 permitted by the rubrics; that, if possible 
 the music be made to accord with the sea- 
 sons of the year and the classes of the re- 
 ligious feasts, and that in those places 
 where the Vesper service is held, the entire 
 Vespers, that is, the Psalms without mutila- 
 tion or abridgment, be sung. See Plain 
 Chant. 
 
 Mysia. — A province in the northwest 
 corner of Asia Minor, which was traversed 
 by the Apostle St. Paul on his first journey 
 to Europe (Acts xvi. 7, 8). 
 
 Mystery. — The word *' mystery " is used 
 in the Christian doctrine to express the 
 truths which God has revealed and which 
 we must believe, albeit we cannot com- 
 pletely explain or comprehend them. Be- 
 cause a thing is not within the grasp of 
 our intellect, is no reason why it should 
 not exist ; for how numerous are the secrets 
 of nature, inexplicable, and, in their own 
 way, even mysterious, and withal accepted 
 as undoubted facts ! It is fitting, there- 
 
 fore, we should believe, and that most 
 firmly, mysteries of the Christian doctrine 
 revealed to us by God, and which oblige 
 us to recognize His almighty dominion 
 over our intelligence. It is only reason- 
 able that we should receive with faith the 
 teachings of God, whose perfection and 
 omnipotence are unlimited and infallible, 
 instead of refusing to accept mysteries of 
 the Christian religion simply because we 
 cannot fathom them. Such refusal, in the 
 case of many, even of the most highly 
 gifted, arises undoubtedly from prejudice, 
 insufficient knowledge, hasty conclusions, 
 egotism, or personal motives in accepting 
 what is contrary to the precepts of our 
 holy religion. 
 
 Mysticism. — Doctrine, disposition of 
 those who lead a contemplative life, and 
 hidden, so to speak, in God. It is a super- 
 natural state of passive prayer in which a 
 soul, that has crucified in itself all earthly 
 affections, that has disengaged itself from 
 all visible things and accustomed itself to 
 converse in heaven, is so elevated by God, 
 that its faculties are solely fixed upon Him 
 without reasoning and without corporal 
 images represented by the imagination. 
 In this state, by quiet, but fervent medita- 
 tion, and by an inner life of the mind, the 
 soul beholds God as an immense eternal 
 light, and, ravished in ecstasy, it con- 
 templates His infinite beauty. His love 
 without limits, and His other adorable 
 perfections. By this operation, all the 
 soul's affections and faculties seem to be 
 transformed in God through love, where 
 it rests quietly in meditation of pure faith ; 
 where it employs all its affections to bring 
 forth acts enflamed with praise, adoration, 
 etc. St. Francis of Sales, St. Theresa, St. 
 John of the Cross, and all other authors of 
 spiritual life who wrote on mysticism, tell 
 us about the same thing. 
 
 Myth (story, legend). — Many critics 
 have maintained that there are myths in 
 both the Old and New Testament. But it 
 is easy to show the falseness of this asser- 
 tion by the following considerations: i. 
 The early Christians, the most competent 
 judges of the subject, far from having 
 recognized myths in the Old Testament, 
 beheld therein only a pure and simple his- 
 tory of positive and real events. 2. In the 
 history of the ancient Hebrews, altogether 
 unlike all the other nations of antiquity, 
 there never have been obscure, uncertain, 
 and fabulous times, and consequently. 
 
Naama 
 
 492 
 
 Nadab 
 
 favorable to the introduction of myths. 3. 
 The stories of the Old Testament offer 
 nothing revolting or shocking to the en- 
 lightened critic free from all prejudice. 
 4. The Biblical traditions could easily 
 keep themselves free from myths on ac- 
 count of their nature and manner in 
 which they have been drawn up. On the 
 the other hand, it is equally false to pre- 
 tend that there are myths in the New 
 Testament. The reason which our ad- 
 versaries allege in favor of their opinion 
 reduces itself in telling us that myste- 
 
 ries and miracles being impossible, all those 
 related in the New Testament must nec- 
 essarily be considered as simple myths. 
 But this pretended impossibility is a pure 
 illusion (see Miracle, Mystery). The 
 writings of the New Testament are the 
 work of authors who were eyewitnesses 
 or contemporaries, and who were closely 
 connected with the events and the time 
 the facts of which they relate. Now, 
 among these conditions, it is absolutely 
 impossible that the facts related in the 
 New Testament are mythical accounts. 
 
 N 
 
 Naama. — Ammonite woman, wife of 
 Solomon and mother of Roboam. 
 
 Naaman. — General of the army of 
 Benadad, king of Syria ; was healed from 
 leprosy, in bathing himself in the river 
 Jordan, by order of Eliseus. 
 
 Naas. — King of the Ammonites who, 
 having besieged Jabes, was conquered and 
 killed in the combat by Saul, who came to 
 assist the Jabeans. 
 
 Nabal. — A rich, but churlish man of 
 the tribe of Juda, and race of Caleb, who 
 dwelt in the south of Juda, and who had a 
 very numerous flock on Carmel, but re- 
 fused to give David and his followers, in 
 their distress, any provisions, though 
 modestly requested to do so. David, 
 resenting this harsh treatment, so contrary 
 to the eastern hospitality, armed 400 of 
 his people and resolved to put Nabal and 
 his family to the sword. From this, how- 
 ever, he was dissuaded, by the address of 
 Abigail, Nabal's wife; but Nabal, on 
 learning this, was so struck with terror 
 and astonishment, that he died ten days 
 after. David afterwards married Abigail, 
 
 Nabataneans. — An Arab people dwell- 
 ing in ancient times on the east and south- 
 east of Palestine, descended from Nabak 
 or Nabaieth, son of Ismael. Victoriously 
 resisted to Jonathas Nacehabe and 
 CElius Gallus. Petra was their capital. 
 Later on they took the name of Saracens. 
 
 Nabopolassar. — King of Babylon (626- 
 605 B. c), conqueror of Ninive, and, from 
 this fact, the founder of the new Assyrio- 
 Babylonian empire. He ruled, it seems, 
 first over Babylonia as viceroy of Assyria. 
 
 Naboth. — Inhabitant of Jezrael, Judea; 
 refused to sell his vineyard to King Achab. 
 Queen Jezabel, irritated on this account 
 caused him to be stoned, on a false accusa- 
 tion of having blasphemed against God and 
 against the king. (899 b. c.) 
 
 Nabuchodonosor I. — King of Ninive 
 (667-647 B. c), conquered and killed with 
 his own hand (655) Phraorte, king of the 
 Medes, and, wishing to subdue all the 
 neighboring nations, sent against Judea, 
 his general Holofernes. He himself per- 
 ished, in defending Ninive against Cy- 
 axares and against Nabopolassar. 
 
 Nabuchodonosor II. — Surnamed the 
 " Great." King of Babylon and of Ninive 
 (605-562 B. c), son and successor of Na- 
 bopolassar, and one of the most famous 
 princes of Chaldea; took Jerusalem twice, 
 led away its inhabitants into captivity to 
 Babylon (597 and 586 b. c), took Tyre 
 after a siege of thirteen years (573), con- 
 quered Egypt, and carried his arms into 
 Spain. Proud of his success, he wished 
 to be adored as a god ; was struck with 
 insanity, believed himself changed into 
 an ox and lived during seven years on 
 herbs from the fields. Queen Nitocris 
 governed the kingdom during his aberra- 
 tion. Nabuchodonosor recovered his rea- 
 son one year before his death, and had for 
 his successor his son Evil-Merodach. 
 
 Nadab. — King of Israel (943-941 b. c), 
 son and successor of Jeroboam ; imitated 
 the impiety of his father, and was assas- 
 sinated by Baasa, who usurped the king- 
 dom. Scripture says Nadab did evil in 
 the eyes of the Lord (III. Ki. xv. 25-36). 
 
Nahum 
 
 493 
 
 Neale 
 
 Nahum. — The seventh of the twelve 
 minor Prophets, lived in the time of King 
 Ezechias (eighth century b. c). His proph- 
 ecy, in three chapters, forms one sole dis- 
 course, wherein he announces the second 
 destruction of Ninive by Cyaxares and 
 Nabopolassar. 
 
 Nairn (the modern Nain) . — Town of an- 
 cient Palestine ; in the tribe of Issachar, in 
 Galilee, south of and near Mount Thabor 
 and the stream Cison. Here our Saviour 
 raised to life again the only son of a widow. 
 
 Nantes {Edict of). — An edict issued by 
 Henry IV. of France, April 15th, 1598. It 
 ended the religious wars of the country. 
 The Huguenots were put on an equality 
 with the Catholics in political rights. 
 
 Nathan. — Israelitish prophet of the elev- 
 enth century B.C. He declared to David that 
 his son would build the Temple, reproached 
 him for the crime of which he had rendered 
 himself guilty by killing Uri, in order to 
 possess his wife, Bethsabee, and advised 
 him to acknowledge Solomon for his suc- 
 cessor. The Paralipomena teach us that 
 Gad and Nathan had written a history of 
 David and regulated the order and dispo- 
 sition of the ministers of the temple, and 
 that Nathan and Abias of Silo had written 
 the history of Solomon. 
 
 Nathinites. — Given or consecrated, i.e., 
 servants dedicated to the service of the 
 tabernacle and temple, to perform the most 
 laborious offices ; as carrying wood and 
 water. At first the Gabaonites were des- 
 tined to this station ; afterwards the Cha- 
 naanites who surrendered themselves, and 
 whose lives were spared. We read in 
 I. Esdras viii. 20, that the Nathinites were 
 slaves devoted by David, and other princes, 
 to the service of the temple ; and in I. 
 Esdras ii. 58, that they were servants given 
 by Solomon. The Nathinites were carried 
 into captivity with the tribe of Juda, and 
 great numbers were placed not far from 
 the Caspian sea, whence Esdras brought 
 220 of them into Judea (viii. 17). 
 
 Nativity (birth-day) . — A term which is 
 especially employed in speaking of our 
 Lord, of the Blessed Virgin, and of some 
 saints. The Nativity of our Lord, that 
 of the Blessed Virgin and that of St. 
 John the Baptist are the only ones that 
 are celebrated in the Church. The feast 
 of the Nativity of Jesus Christ is cele- 
 brated by the Church .on December 25th. 
 
 See Christmas. The feast of the Na- 
 tivity of the Blessed Virgin is celebrated 
 on September 8th. This festival was ap- 
 pointed by Pope Innocent XL, that the 
 Faithful may be called upon in a particular 
 manner to recommend to God, through 
 the intercession of the Blessed Virgin, the 
 necessities of His Church, and to return 
 Him thanks for His gracious protection 
 and numberless mercies. What gave oc- 
 casion to the institution of this feast was a 
 solemn thanksgiving for the relief of 
 Vienna when it was besieged by the Turks 
 in 1683. The Nativity of St. John the 
 Baptist is celebrated on June 24th. 
 
 Nazarenes. — Heretics of the first cen- 
 tury of the Church. They held to the law of 
 Moses, but did not insist on its observance 
 as essential to salvation. They believed 
 in the divinity of Christ, His Incarnation, 
 and supernatural birth of the Virgin Mary, 
 and also recognized St. Paul as the Apostle 
 of the Gentiles. The Nazarenes disap- 
 peared from history about the middle of 
 the fifth century. 
 
 Nazareth (the modern En-Nasira). — A 
 town of Palestine, in Galilee. It is cele- 
 brated as the dwelling-place of our Saviour 
 during His childhood and early manhood. 
 The Church of the Annunciation was 
 founded here by the Empress Helena, but 
 ruined in the Middle Ages, and rebuilt 
 later. It is well proportioned and while 
 much of the architecture is new, it pre- 
 serves interesting memorials of the past. 
 In the crypt is the traditional place of the 
 Annunciation. Population 6,000 to 10,000. 
 
 Nazarites. — Among the ancient He- 
 brews, religious devotees, set apart to the 
 Lord by a special vow the terms of which 
 are carefully described in Num. vi. They 
 included entire abstinence from wine and 
 other intoxicating liquors, from all cutting 
 of the hair, and from all approach to a 
 dead body. The vow might be taken 
 either for a limited period or for life. 
 They first appear in the time of the Philis- 
 tine oppression. 
 
 Neale (Leonard) (1743-1817).— Amer- 
 ican prelate; born at Port Tobacco, in 
 Maryland, was educated at St. Omer's, 
 France, and joined the Society of Jesus. 
 After the suppression of said Society he 
 came to America, and in 1783 he took 
 charge of the mission of Port Tobacco. 
 President of Georgetown College in 1798 ; 
 
Neapolis 
 
 494 
 
 Nephtali 
 
 coadjutor of Bishop Carroll in 1800 and on 
 the latter's death he succeeded to the met- 
 ropolitan see of Baltimore in 1815. 
 
 Neapolis (the modern Naplus). — A mar- 
 itime city of Macedonia, near the borders 
 of Thrace, whither St. Paul came from the 
 isle of Samothracia. From Neapolis he 
 went to Philippi (Acts xvi. 10-12). 
 
 Nebo. — The name of a city, mountain, 
 and idol. i. A city of Ruben (Num. xxxii. 
 38) taken by the Moabites, who held it in 
 the time of Jeremias (Jer. xlviii. 1). 2. A 
 high mountain east of the Jordan, seven 
 miles northeast of the Dead Sea, whence 
 Moseshada viewof the Promised Land, and 
 where he died. It is a summit (2,242 feet 
 in height) of the range Abarim, or Pisgah, 
 over against Jericho. 3. An idol of the 
 Babylonians (Is. xlvi. i). In the astrolog- 
 ical mythology of the Babylonians, this 
 idol probably represented the planet Mer- 
 cury. He was regarded as the scribe of 
 the heavens, who records the succession of 
 celestial and terrestrial events, and was re- 
 lated to the Egyptian Hermes and Anubis. 
 The extensive prevalence of this worship, 
 among the Chaldeans and Assyrians, is 
 evident from the many compound proper 
 names occurring in the Scriptures, of which 
 this word forms part; as Nebuchadnezzar , 
 Nebuzaradan, Nebushasban; and also in 
 the classics, as Nabonid^ Nabonassar, Na- 
 bofolassar, etc. He is mentioned with Bel 
 («. e., Beel-Merodach) in Ps. xlvi. i. 
 
 Nechao. — King of Egypt, carried his 
 arms to the Euphrates, where he conquered 
 the city of Carchemish. He is known not 
 only in Scripture, but in Herodotus, who 
 says that he was a son of Psammetichus, 
 king of Egypt, and that, having succeeded 
 him in the kingdom, he raised great armies, 
 and sent out great fleets on the Mediter- 
 ranean as well as on the Red Sea. Josias, 
 king of Juda, being tributary to the king 
 of Babylon, opposed Nechao, and gave him 
 battle at Mageddo, where he received the 
 wound from which he died; and Nechao 
 passed forward, without making any long 
 stay in Judea. On his return, he halted at 
 Reblah, in Syria, and sending for Joachaz, 
 king of the Jews, he deposed him, loaded 
 him with chains, and sent him into Egypt. 
 Then coming to Jerusalem, he set up Eli- 
 achim or Joakim, in his place, and exacted 
 the payment of one hundred talents of 
 silver and one talent of gold. Jeremias 
 tells us (xlvi.2), that Carchemish was re- 
 
 taken by Nabopolassar, king of Babylon, 
 in the fourth year of Joakim, king of Juda ; 
 so that Nechao did not retain his conquest 
 above four years. 
 
 Necrology. See Diptychs. 
 
 Necromancy.— The pretended art of call- 
 ing forth the dead to obtain knowledge of 
 the future or of hidden things. Necromancy 
 was practiced among the ancient Jews, in 
 spite of the defense of Moses : the Pytho- 
 ness of Endor evoked before Saul the 
 shadow of Samuel. This custom passed 
 from the Orient into Greece : in Homer, 
 Ulysses calls up the shadow of Tiresias. 
 There existed in Greece temples destined 
 for the evocation of the dead ; such was 
 the temple of Thesprotes. The Thessalians 
 were looked upon as skillful necromancers. 
 The necromancers played a great role in 
 the Middle Ages; at Toledo, they kept 
 a school. However, condemned at first to 
 exile, put to death under Constantine, they 
 were later on sent to the funeral pile. 
 
 Nectarius. — Born at Tarsus. Senator, 
 then patriarch of Constantinople from 381 
 to 397, successor of Gregory Nazianzen. 
 He presided over the Council wherein 
 they bestowed upon the bishop of Constan- 
 tinople the official title of head of the 
 Eastern Church (381), and took part in the 
 persecutions of the Arians. 
 
 Nehemias. — Chief of the people of 
 Israel, born at Babylon, during the cap- 
 tivity, died in 432 b. c. Cupbearer of 
 Artaxerxes Longimanus, he obtained from 
 this prince the permission to return into 
 Judea and to rebuild the temple and city 
 of Jerusalem, an undertaking which ended 
 in 454 B. c. He governed the Hebrews 
 until his death. 
 
 Nemesius. — Greek philosopher and 
 theologian from whom we have a valuable 
 philosophical treatise. He lived about the 
 end of the fifth century and was bishop of 
 Emesa in Phoenicia. 
 
 Neophjrtes. — Name given in the early 
 Church to the pagans who had shortly be- 
 fore embraced Christianity, and to those 
 who had only recently entered ecclesiastical 
 orders. 
 
 Nephtali. — One of the twelve tribes of 
 Israel, thus called from Nephtali, sixth son 
 of Jacob. Situated in Lower and Upper 
 Galilee, It was bounded, on the north by 
 the Libanon, on the east by the Jordan and 
 
Nepomuk 
 
 495 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Lake Genesareth, on the south by the tribe 
 Issachar, and on the west by those of Za- 
 bulon and Aser. Principal cities : Cades, 
 Asor, Hebron, Capharnaum, etc. 
 
 Nepomuk (John of). See John of 
 Nepomuk. 
 
 Nergel. — One of the gods of those 
 heathen who were transplanted into Pales- 
 tine (IV. Ki. xvii. 30). This idol probably 
 represented the planet Mars, which was 
 ever the emblem of bloodshed. Mars is 
 named by the Zabians and Arabians, " ill- 
 luck," " misfortune." He was repre- 
 sented as grasping in one hand a drawn 
 sword, and in the other, by the hair, a hu- 
 man head just cut off; his garments were 
 blood red, as the light of the planet is also 
 reddish. His temple among the Arabs 
 was painted red ; and they offered to him 
 garments sprinkled with blood, and also a 
 warrior, probably a prisoner, who was cast 
 into a pool. 
 
 Neri (St. Philip) (1513-1595)- — 
 Founder of the Congregation of the Ora- 
 tory, born at Florence, died in Rome. 
 Established (1548) the Confraternity of 
 the Most Holy Trinity, destined to take 
 care of foreign pilgrims. Having been 
 ordained priest (1551), he devoted himself 
 to the education of children, and, for this 
 work, associated with himself other eccle- 
 siastics, who were called Oratorians. He 
 soon formed a congregation of these asso- 
 ciates whose statutes were approved by 
 Gregory XIII. in 1575. F. May 16th. See 
 Oratorians. 
 
 Nero. See Persecutions. 
 
 Nestorianism (heresy of the followers 
 of Nestorius). — Nestorius, Patriarch of 
 Constantinople (428), a vain orator with- 
 out depth of thought or piety, objected to 
 the title of *' Mother of God " as applied to 
 the Blessed Virgin. He maintained that the 
 Blessed Virgin had given birth to the man 
 Jesus, in whom the Son of God dwelt as in 
 a temple; that there are two persons in 
 Christ really distinct, the man Jesus and 
 the Son of God, and that between them 
 there exists only an external union. This 
 doctrine destroys the whole economy of 
 redemption, for neither of the two persons 
 could have saved us. The chief adversary 
 of Nestorius was Cyril, Bishop of Alex- 
 andria. He defended the Catholic truth 
 against Nestorianism and "in accordance 
 with an ancient ecclesiastical custom " ap- 
 
 pealed to the Pope, who condemned the 
 errors and expelled their author from the 
 Church. The sentence of condemnation 
 was reiterated by 198 bishops assembled in 
 the Third Ecumenical Council of Ephesus, 
 in 431. Nestorius died in exile. He still 
 has followers in Persia. 
 
 Netherlands {Protestantism in the). — 
 For the evangelization of the Netherlands 
 see Belgium. To avert from the Nether- 
 lands the evils which accompanied the 
 Reformation in Germany, Charles V., 
 himself a native of that country, resolved 
 to adopt a severe policy of repression. He 
 had the Edict of Worms against Luther 
 strictly enforced, and ordered the magis- 
 trates to carry out the existing laws against 
 heretics. Henry Vaes and John Esch, in 
 1523, were burned for heresy. But in 
 spite of this rigor, the Netherlands soon 
 became the scene of commotions and insur- 
 rections excited by the men of the '* new 
 learning." On the accession of Philip II., 
 the Reformation had already made con- 
 siderable progress in the Netherlands. 
 The nobility, who coveted the possessions 
 of the Church, supported the movement. 
 An insurrection of the Protestants broke 
 out in 1566, during which great ravages 
 were committed on churches and monas- 
 teries. The excesses of the Dutch Calvin- 
 ists rivaled in atrocity those of the 
 Huguenots in France. The ambitious 
 Prince William of Orange placed himself 
 at the head of the reforming faction, and 
 the obstinate contest which followed ended 
 in the loss of the seven northern provinces 
 to the Spanish crown. England, under 
 Elizabeth, assisted the Dutch Protestants, 
 against their sovereign, and sent them 
 both money and troops. Neither the 
 severity of the duke of Alva, nor the 
 abilities of Don John of Austria, the hero 
 of Lepanto, nor the heroic qualities of 
 Alexander Farnese, duke of Parma, could 
 re-establish Spanish rule in the revolted 
 provinces. Spain, in 1648, was obliged to 
 acknowledge the independence of the 
 "Republic of the United Provinces." 
 William of Orange published edicts sus- 
 pending Catholic worship in the General 
 States, as they were called ; Catholics, 
 especially priests and religious, were 
 treated by the Dutch Calvinists with un- 
 exampled cruelty. Two of his officers, 
 Sonoy and Van der Marck, slew all the 
 priests and religious on whom they could 
 lay hands. In 1572, nineteen priests of 
 
Netherlands 
 
 496 
 
 Newman 
 
 Gorcum were cruelly martyred by the 
 soldiery of Orange. The persecution of the 
 Catholics was not confined to Holland ; it 
 extended itself to all the Dutch colonies in 
 the New World. The Catholic mission- 
 aries were special objects of hatred. See 
 Holland. 
 
 Netherlands ( Worship in). — There is no 
 State's religion in the Netherlands or Hol- 
 land. All the religions are free. Catholic 
 Holland is divided since 1853 into five 
 dioceses. Utrecht is the archiepiscopal 
 see of the "Old Catholics" or Jansenists. 
 There are several Walloonish and Presby- 
 terian Churches. According to the census 
 of 1879, there are about 2,469,884 Protes- 
 tants; 1,439,137 Catholics; 6,000 Jansenists; 
 81,603 Jews, and 16,049 professing no re- 
 ligion or belonging to other denomina- 
 tions. 
 
 Neumann (John Nkpomucene) (1811- 
 1860). — American prelate; was born at 
 Prachatitz, Bohemia ; died in Philadelphia. 
 Came to America in 1836, was ordained in 
 New York and sent to Williamsville, in 
 the western part of the state. With the 
 consent of Bishop Hughes, he joined the 
 Redemptorists in 1840. Bishop of Phila- 
 delphia in 1852 ; encouraged the erection 
 of churches and the establishment of paro- 
 chial schools. On the 5th of January i860, 
 he set out to attend to some business, but 
 was stricken suddenly ill in the street, and 
 sinking down on the nearest steps he ex- 
 pired. Steps are made at present for his 
 beatification. 
 
 Newman (John Henry) Cardinal. — A 
 leader of the Oxford Tractarian movement 
 of 1833 in the Church of England; was 
 born in London, Feb. 21st, 1801. He took 
 his degree at Oxford in 1820, when he was 
 only 19 years old. In 182 1 he wrote, jointly 
 with a friend, two cantos of a po^m on St. 
 Bartholomew's Eve. In 1822 he was elected 
 to a fellowship in Oriel College, and it was 
 here that he formed his close intimacy with 
 Dr. Pusey, and subsequently with Hurrell 
 Froude, brother of the historian, who had 
 a great share in originating the Tractarian 
 movement. Here, also, he formed cordial 
 relations with Dr. Hawkins, afterwards the 
 provost of the college, and Whately, sub- 
 sequently archbishop of Dublin. Both of 
 them exercised great influence over him 
 by teaching him to define his thoughts 
 clearly. Newman's first book was that on 
 ihe Arians of the Fourth Century. It was 
 
 a scholarly production, intended to show 
 that the Arian heresy was not of Alexan- 
 drian origin, but was one of the Judaizing 
 heresies which sprang up in Antioch. In 
 1832, Newman, then in delicate health, ac- 
 companied Hurrell Froude on a Mediter- 
 ranean tour, and it was then that the fire 
 was kindled which was to bear fruit in the 
 Anglican movement of 1833, the aim of 
 which was to seek a basis for clerical au- 
 thority independent of the State, with per- 
 haps a vision of restoring the Church of 
 England to Catholicity. Most of New- 
 man's smaller poems were written on this 
 voyage, and were published in Lyra Apos- 
 tolica, a volume of verse, the object of 
 which was to reassert for the Church of 
 England her spiritual authority and mis- 
 sion. It was on this tour that Newman 
 met Cardinal Wiseman, and told him in 
 reply, to the expression of a courteous 
 wish that Hurrell Froude and he might 
 visit Rome, " We have a work to do in 
 England." At Rome, Newman parted 
 from his friends to go alone to Sicily, 
 where he fell ill of malarial fever. His 
 mind was deeply possessed during his ill- 
 ness by spiritual things. Becalmed in the 
 straits of Bonifacio, he wrote the best 
 known of all his poems, Lead, Kindly 
 Light. From Marseilles, he proceeded to 
 England, reaching home in time to be 
 present at Keble's Oxford assize sermon 
 on *' National Apostasy," which he always 
 regarded as the date on which the Tracta- 
 rian movement began. Into the series of 
 Tracts for the Times Newman threw him- 
 self with great energy, actuated by a Cath- 
 olic theory of the English Church which 
 had taken root in his mind. In 1837, in a 
 course of lectures, he made an attempt to 
 disguise the Anglican via media from the 
 doctrines of the Church of Rome. 
 
 The famous Tract 90, which came from 
 Newman's pen, brought on an explosion 
 which was the end of the Tractarian move- 
 ment, and hastened many conversions to 
 Rome. Newman struggled for two years 
 longer to think his position tenable, but in 
 1843 resigned the vicarage of St. Mary's, 
 and withdrew from the English Church. 
 In October, I845, he was received into 
 the Catholic Church, and then went to 
 Rome for a year and a half. On his re- 
 turn in 1848, he published Loss and Gain, 
 the story of an Oxford conversion very 
 different from his own, but full of happy 
 and delicate sketches of Oxford life and 
 n.anners. Shortly after he produced Cal- 
 
New Mexico Missions 
 
 497 
 
 Nicholas 
 
 lista^ the story of a martyr in Africa of the 
 third century. 
 
 In 1849 Newman established a branch of 
 the Congregation of St, Philip Neri in 
 England, and retired to a suburb of Bir- 
 mingham, where he performed a great deal 
 of hard work, devoting himself with the ut- 
 most zeal to the sufferers from cholera in 
 1849. The lectures on Anglican Difficulties, 
 intended to show that the Tractarian princi- 
 ples could only issue in the submission to 
 Rome, was his first book which drew pub- 
 lic attention to Newman's great power of 
 irony and the singulur delicacy of his lit- 
 erary style. These lectures were followed 
 by the lectures on Catholicism in England , 
 which gave occasion to Dr. Achilli's ac- 
 tion for libel against him. In 1864 a casual 
 remark by Canon Kingsley led to a corre- 
 spondence which resulted in the publica- 
 tion of the remarkable Apologia pro Vita 
 Sua, the most fresh and effective religious 
 autobiography of the nineteenth century, 
 and perhaps the most fascinating of his 
 many works, as it is the most personal. In 
 1865 he wrote Tke Dream, of Gerontius, a 
 poem of marvelous subtlety and pathos. 
 In 1870 he published his Grammar of As- 
 sent, a book on the philosophy of faith. 
 His other writings, besides a work on the 
 Development of Christian Doctrines, are 
 chiefly a voluminous series of sermons 
 which are full of the charm of his sweet 
 disposition. In 1852, he was appointed 
 rector of the Catholic University of Dub- 
 lin, and, in 1879, he was made cardinal by 
 Pope Leo XIII. For the last eleven years 
 of his life Cardinal Newman, who now lived 
 at his Edgebaston Oratory, seldom broke 
 silence. He was a man " of the highest 
 moral and spiritual aspirations, of rare 
 intellectual gifts, of fine sensibilities, and 
 of exquisite culture." He died at Edge- 
 baston, near Birmingham, Aug. nth, 1890. 
 
 New Mexico Missions. See Missions. 
 
 New Zealand {The Church in). See 
 Australia. 
 
 Nicanor. — One of the first seven deacons, 
 who were chosen and appointed at Jerusa- 
 lem soon after the descent of the Holy 
 Ghost, on the occasion of a division among 
 the Faithful, into those who spoke Greek, 
 and those who spoke Hebrew, or Syriac 
 (Acts vi. 5) Nothing particular is known 
 of him. 
 
 Nice {Councils of). — Two general coun- 
 cils were held at Nice, a city in Bithynia. 
 3a 
 
 That of 325, the First Ecumenical Council 
 of the Church, drew up against Arius a 
 symbol of faith known under the name of 
 "Symbol of Nice," and which still forms 
 to-day a part of the liturgy of the Church. 
 Also tlie Easter question was disposed of 
 by the Council in fixing the celebration of 
 that feast on the Sunday after the full moon 
 following the vernal equinox ; and if the 
 full moon happens on a Sunday, then 
 Easter day is to be celebrated on the suc- 
 ceeding Sunday. It, moreover, devised 
 the means for the healing of the Meletian 
 schism, and for the readmission into the 
 Church of the Novatians and Paulinian- 
 ists. The Second General Council of Nice, 
 the Seventh Ecumenical Council of the 
 Church, took place in the year 787. We 
 find in its acts, besides the decrees against 
 the Iconoclasts, twenty canons of disci- 
 pline. 
 
 Nicephorus (St.) (758-828). — Patriarch 
 of Constantinople, Byzantine historian ; 
 born at Constantinople. Secretary of the 
 Emperor Constantin VI., raised to the pa- 
 triarchal see in 806, defended the venera- 
 tion of images against the Emperor Leo 
 the Armenian, and was exiled by him to 
 a convent of Propontides, where he died. 
 
 Nicholas (name of five Popes). — Nicholas 
 I. ( St. ) .— Pope from 858 to 867. A highly 
 gifted and energetic Pope. His inflexible 
 firmness in maintaining the rights of the 
 Holy See against arrogant metropolitans ; 
 his championship of oppressed innocence 
 against royal tyranny; and his heroic char- 
 acter and magnanimity in times of peril 
 and affliction, won Nicholas the surname 
 of " Great." Three important events 
 signalized his Pontificate : the outbreak of 
 the Greek schism ; the prohibition of di- 
 vorce of King Lothaire from Queen Theut- 
 berga; and the successful assertion of 
 papal supremacy over presumptuous prel- 
 ates. Nicholas II. — Pope from 1059 to 
 1061. A man of great learning and ability. 
 His brief, but useful Pontificate is marked 
 by two events of great importance : the 
 decree for the election of the Pope b}- the 
 cardinals, and the alliance with the Nor- 
 mans, destroying the influence of the no- 
 bility of Rome. Nicholas III. — Cardinal 
 Cajetan Orsini. Pope from 1277 to 1280. 
 He was a man of great ability and pru- 
 dence, but favored his relatives somewhat 
 too much by raising members of the Orsini 
 family to positions of honor and influence. 
 He forced King Charles of Naples to 
 
Nicholas 
 
 498 
 
 NiLUS 
 
 resign the title of Roman Senator, and his 
 pretended claims to Tuscany. Nicholas 
 TV. — Pope from 128S to 1292. Under his 
 Pontificate occurred the fall of Ptolemais 
 (Acre), the last stronghold of the Chris- 
 tians in the East. His efforts to organize 
 a new crusade for the recovery of the lost 
 position, were unsuccessful. Nicholas V. 
 — Pope from 1447 to 1455. This Pope's 
 first care was to give union to the Church 
 and aid to the tottering empire of the 
 East. The schism of Basle was happily 
 brought to a close and a new treaty — the 
 "Concordat of Vienna," concluded with 
 the Emperor Frederick III., in 1448, — 
 regulated the appointments to ecclesias- 
 tical dignities in Germany, and, in many 
 points, modified the "Concordat of the 
 Princes," which Pope Eugenius had been 
 constrained to sign. In 1450, Nicholas 
 celebrated the General Jubilee, and, in 
 1452, bestowed the imperial crown on 
 Frederick III. of Germany, the last "Ro- 
 man Emperor" who received the crown 
 from the hands of the Pope at Rome. 
 
 Nicholas (St.). — Bishop and confessor, 
 born at Patara, Bishop of Myra, in Lycia, 
 died in 324. Was persecuted under Lici- 
 nius and restored to his see by Constantine 
 the Great. His veneration is widely spread 
 in the East. He is the patron saint of 
 scholars of Russia. F. Dec. 6th. 
 
 Nicholas of Clemanges. — Scholastic the- 
 ologian and philosopher, born at Cle- 
 manges, France, about 1360, died about 
 1440. Rector of the University in 1393, 
 he was charged to present to Charles VI., 
 who wished to refuse obedience to the an- 
 tipope Benedict XIII. (Peter de Luna), a 
 statement on the means of stopping the 
 schism. The king was displeased with his 
 conclusions. Clemanges was sent into ex- 
 ile ; after having served as secretary to 
 Benedict XIII., he withdrew to the Abbey 
 of Vallombrosa at Tuscany, where he wrote 
 his principal works. 
 
 Nicholas of Cusa (1401-1464). — German 
 cardinal and philosopher, born in the dio- 
 cese of Treves. Son of a poor fisher, he 
 became doctor and lawyer. Received holy 
 orders ; dean at Cologne and archdeacon 
 at Liege. Sent to the Council of Basle in 
 1431, he remained attached to the religious 
 unity and to the cause of the sovereign 
 Pontiff. Cardinal in 1454, bishop of Bri- 
 xen in 1459. Learned, pious, and simple, 
 he had a certain inclination to mysticism. 
 
 In 1436, he proposed to the Council of 
 Basle the reform of the Calendar; was the 
 forerunner of Copernicus and of Galileo 
 in maintaining the immobility of the sun 
 as the center of the planetary system. 
 
 Nicodemus. — A disciple of Jesus, of Jew- 
 ish nationality, and member of the sect of 
 the Pharisees. He was one of the senators 
 of the Sanhedrin and at first concealed his 
 belief in the divine character of our Lord. 
 Afterwards, however, he avowed himself a 
 believer, when he came with Joseph of 
 Arimathea to pay the last duties to the 
 body of Christ, which they took down 
 from the cross, embalmed, and laid in the 
 sepulchre (John xix. 39). We have an 
 apocryphal gospel bearing his name. 
 
 Nicolaitans. — Heretics of the apostolic 
 times. This sect was remarkable for their 
 licentious principles. They held that the 
 eating of meats sacrificed to idols, adultery, 
 and lewdness were not sinful. Nicholas, 
 one of the seven deacons, is falsely claimed 
 by them as their founder. The sect existed 
 at Ephesus, and other cities of Asia 
 Minor. 
 
 Nicopolis. — The city where St. Paul 
 determined to pass the winter (Tit. iii. 12). 
 Many cities bore this name, but the one 
 Paul meant was in Epirus, built by Augus- 
 tus in honor of his victory over Antony at 
 Actium. Its extensive ruins attest its 
 former magnificence. 
 
 Nilus (St.). — Priest and monk of the 
 fifth century. The dates of his birth and 
 death are unknown. He sprang from a 
 wealthy family of Ancyra in Galatia. He 
 became governor of Constantinople, mar- 
 ried and had two sons, but resolved to re- 
 nounce the world. With the consent of his 
 wife he retired towards the close of the 
 fourth century to the hermits of Mount Si- 
 nai, where he devoted himself to a strictly 
 ascetic life, in the company of his son 
 Theodulus. Here he displayed great 
 activity, writing letters of admonition and 
 warning to persons of all ranks, whether 
 clerical or lay, aijd combating the errors 
 of heathen. Gnostics, Manicheans, and 
 Arians. With noble freedom, also, he 
 pleaded with the Emperor Arcadius for 
 the banished St. John Chrysostom. By 
 the incursion of theArabs, in 410, he and 
 his son were driven from their solitude. 
 His son having been taken captive and 
 sold, came ultimately into the hands of the 
 Bishop of Eleusa in Palestine, from whom 
 
Nimbus 
 
 499 
 
 NOE 
 
 both father and son received holy orders, 
 and then returned once more to Mount 
 Sinai, where Nilus died in 450. His writ- 
 ings are contained in Migne, Pat. gr. 
 LXXIX. 
 
 Nimbus. — In art and Christian archaeol- 
 ogy, a halo or disk of light with which 
 painters encircle the heads of saints. The 
 Nimbus of God the Father is represented 
 in a triangular form with rays diverging 
 from it on all sides; that of Christ con- 
 tains a cross more or less enriched ; that 
 of the Blessed Virgin is a plain circle, or 
 occasionally a circlet of small stars, and 
 that of the angels and saints a circle of 
 small rays. See Aureola Sanctorum. 
 
 Ninian (St.). — The first apostle of the 
 Lowland Scots, or Picts, as they were 
 termed from the custom of painting their 
 bodies, was St. Ninian, the son of a Chris- 
 tian prince and a native of Britain. Dur- 
 ing the Pontificate of Damasus, he visited 
 Rome, where he remained some years, 
 devoting himself to study. He was conse- 
 crated bishop by Pope Siricius and re- 
 ceived from him a mission to Scotland 
 about the year 394. By his preaching all 
 the southern Picts, inhabiting the country 
 south of the Grampian hills, embraced the 
 true faith. He built a great monastery and 
 church at Witerna, now Whithern, in Gal- 
 loway; here he also established his epis- 
 copal see, which from the white stone of 
 his cathedral bore the name of " Can- 
 dida Casa." After nearly forty years of 
 apostolic labor, St. Ninian died in 432. 
 
 Ninive. — The metropolis of the Assyrian 
 empire, called by the Greeks and Romans 
 "Ninus." Most writers have located it 
 upon the eastern bank of the Tigris, above 
 Babylon, while some represent it as hav- 
 ing stood on the western bank. It may 
 very probably have occupied both. The 
 city was of great extent and very splendid. 
 Diodorus Siculus says it was 150 stadia in 
 length, 90 stadia in breadth, and 480 stadia 
 in circumference; that is about 21 miles 
 long, 9 miles broad, and 54 miles round. 
 Its walls were 100 feet high, and so broad, 
 that three chariots could drive abreast 
 upon them. Its towers, of which there 
 were 1,500, were each 200 feet high. At 
 the time of Jonas's mission, it was reckoned 
 to contain more than 120,000 persons " who 
 could not distinguish their right hand 
 from the left." By a computation founded 
 on this basis, there ought to have been 
 
 then in Ninive more than 600,000 persons. 
 Ninive, which had long been mistress of 
 the East, was first taken by Arbaces and 
 Belesis, under the reign of Sardanapalus, 
 in the time of Achaz, king of Juda, about 
 the time of the foundation of Rome, b. c. 
 753. It was taken a second time by Cy- 
 axares and Nabopolassar, about b. c. 632, 
 after which it never recovered its former 
 splendor. It was entirely ruined in the 
 time of Lucian of Samosata, who lived 
 under the Emperor Hadrian. It was re- 
 built under the Persians, but was destroyed 
 by the Saracens about the seventh century. 
 
 Nisan. — The seventh month of the civil 
 year of the Hebrews and the first of their 
 sacred year. See Abib. 
 
 No. — In the Old Testament the city of 
 Thebes in Egypt. In the five places men- 
 tioned it is always called, in the Latin 
 Vulgate, Alexandria (Jer. xlvi. 25; Ezech. 
 XXX. 14, 15, 16; Nah. iii. 8). It lay on 
 both sides of the Nile, 500 miles from its 
 mouth. 
 
 Nobili (Robert de) (1577-1656). — Mis- 
 sionary and Jesuit. Born at Montepul- 
 ciano. He resolved to devote his life to 
 the conversion of the Brahmins. In 1606, 
 he went to Madura, and imitating the 
 example of St. Paul, who became " all 
 things to all men to win all to Christ," 
 he separated from his brethren and assumed 
 the habits and customs of a Brahmin. His 
 austerities and manner of life attracting 
 universal attention, many of the chief 
 and most learned of the Brahmins soon 
 asked to become his disciples. During the 
 forty years of his apostolate in Madura, de 
 Nobili is said to have converted more than 
 one hundred thousand idolaters, nearly all 
 of whom belonged to the caste of Brah- 
 mins. 
 
 Nocturn. See Breviary, 
 
 Nod. — Hebrew word which we read in 
 Genesis and which has been explained in 
 various ways : the Chaldaic and Vulgate 
 take it in its literal sense of vagabond, 
 fugitive, and thus interpret the passage of 
 Genesis: Habitavit in terra Nod. He 
 (Cain) lived upon earth as a fugitive. 
 The Septuagint, Josephus, and others have 
 taken it for a proper noun of a place and 
 read Naid. Some locate this country in 
 Hyrcania. 
 
 Noe. — The name of the celebrated 
 patriarch, who with his family, was pre- 
 
NOEMI 
 
 500 
 
 NOVATIAN 
 
 served by the Lord by means of the ark, 
 through the Deluge, and thus became the 
 second founder of the human race. The 
 history of Noe and the Deluge is contained 
 in Gen. vi., vii., viii., and ix. See Deluge. 
 
 Noetni. — Wife of Elimelech, of the 
 tribe of Benjamin. Her two sons, Chelion 
 and Mahalon, married Orpha and Ruth. 
 
 Noetius. — Heresiarch of the third cen- 
 tury, born at Smyrna .or at Ephesus, 
 teacher of Sabellius. He openly declared : 
 "The same Divine Person, when con- 
 sidered in different relations, is called 
 Father and Son, begotten and unbegotten, 
 visible and invisible. In Christ the 
 Father was born, suffered and died." The 
 disciples of Noetius, Epigonus, and Cleom- 
 enes, disseminated the heresy of their 
 master at Rome, where the latter became 
 the head of the Patripassian party. 
 
 Nominalism. — One of the principal 
 doctrines by which the scholastic philoso- 
 phy was divided, and according to which 
 the universals, that is, the terms which ex- 
 press general ideas, are mere denomina- 
 tions, corresponding to no reality. 
 Nominalism was founded about the end of 
 the eleventh century by Roscelin of Com- 
 piegne and condemned by the Church in 
 the Council of Soissons. 
 
 Nomocanon. — Collection of canons or 
 imperial laws which bear a relation to 
 them or which are conformable to them. 
 The most ancient nomocanon is that com- 
 piled in the year 554 or 564 by John of An- 
 tioch or the Scholastic. Photius published 
 another in 885. The most celebrated com- 
 mentary is that of Balsamon (1180). No- 
 mocanon is the name also applied to a 
 collection of the canons of the Apostles, 
 Councils, and Fathers, which have no re- 
 lation with imperial constitutions. The 
 Greeks call nomocanon certain penitential 
 books, such as the Penitentials of John 
 the Faster. 
 
 Nonconformists was the term applied to 
 those ministers in England who refused to 
 subscribe to the Act of Uniformity passed 
 in 1672 demanding "assent and consent" 
 to everything contained in the Book of 
 Common Prayer. The meaning of the 
 term has been extended to include all w^ho 
 refuse to conform to the order and liturgy 
 of the Church of England. See Dissent- 
 ers. 
 
 None. See Breviary. 
 
 Nonjurors or Inasserment6s were styled 
 those ecclesiastics in France who, in the 
 epoch of the " Civil Constitution of the 
 Clergy" (1790), had refused to take the oath 
 to said constitution, in opposition to the 
 "Jurors " or " Assermentes." They were 
 also called " Refractaires." 
 
 Norbert ( St.). See Premonstraten- 
 
 SIANS. 
 
 North-American Missions. 
 
 SIGNS. 
 
 See Mis- 
 
 Norway i^The Church tn). See Den- 
 mark. 
 
 Notker. — German monk, surnamed the 
 " Stammerer," was born about 840, near 
 Thur, Switzerland ; died at St. Gall, April 
 6th, 912. Was the author of a Martyro- 
 logium, and a number of poems called 
 Sequences. 
 
 Notre Dame (" Our Lady"). — Name of 
 several religious congregations. See Sis- 
 ters. 
 
 Novatian. — Antipope and schismatic of 
 the third century. Novatian, opposing 
 the election of Cornelius, whom he charged 
 with being a " libellaticus " and as holding 
 religious communion with apostates, set 
 himself up as a rival bishop of Rome. In 
 a council which Pope Cornelius held at 
 Rome, Novatian was excommunicated, 
 whereupon many of his adherents returned 
 to communion with the lawful Pontiff. 
 To avert further desertions, Novatian 
 made his followers swear on the Holy 
 Eucharist that they would not desert him 
 to side with Cornelius. His writings that 
 remain to us are On the Trinity and On 
 the Jevjtsh Meats. The Epistle of the 
 Roman Clergy to Cyprian, is also from 
 his pen. They held : i. That persons who 
 had committed the more grievous sins, 
 especially those who had denied their 
 faith in the persecutions, could not be re- 
 ceived again into the Church. 2. That the 
 Church having compromised itself by re- 
 ceiving such sinners, had ceased to be the 
 pure spouse of Christ and the true Church 
 of God. 3. They denied the validity of 
 Catholic baptism and rebaptized all com- 
 ing over to them. 4. They condemned 
 second marriages. Affecting a greater 
 strictness of discipline, they termed them- 
 selves "Cathari" {Pure). Novatian 
 communities existed at Carthage, Alex- 
 andria in Phrygia, Pontus, Gaul, Spain, 
 
NOVATIANS 
 
 501 
 
 Nuncio 
 
 and in other places, as well as in Rome. 
 The sect continued as late as the sixth 
 century, when it disappeared. 
 
 Novatians. — Heretics of the third cen- 
 tury, who were founded by a certain Nova- 
 tus, priest of Carthage. He robbed the 
 widows and orphans, squandered the 
 revenues of the Church, and opposed St. 
 Cyprian, under the pretext that he was not 
 sufficiently indulgent toward those who 
 had fallen into idolatry during the perse- 
 cutions. In 251, he went to Rome, where 
 he became the principal coadjutor of No- 
 vatian in the schism which the latter for- 
 mulated against Pope Cornelius. Return- 
 ing into Africa he revived Montanism. St. 
 Cyprian combated him, and the Churches, 
 both of the East and West, unanimously 
 condemned him and his followers. 
 
 Novena. — Space of nine consecutive days 
 during which the suppliant delivers him- 
 self to the practice of devotion in honor of 
 a saint, for the purpose of obtaining, 
 through the intercession of the saint, some 
 special favor. The Church approves of 
 Novenas, provided we have a sincere and 
 enlightened faith, free from all super- 
 stition. 
 
 Novice. — A monk or nun who has newly 
 taken the religious habit in a convent to 
 pass therein a time of probation before 
 making profession. 
 
 Numbers ( Book of) . — The fourth book 
 of the Pentateuch. It contains the history 
 of the thirty-eight or thirty-nine years 
 which the Israelites passed in the desert 
 after the promulgation of the Decalogue. 
 It is called Numbers, because the three 
 first chapters contain the enumeration of 
 the different tribes of the people. The 
 chapters following contain, also, a great 
 number of laws which Moses then passed, 
 and an account of the wars which the 
 Israelites were compelled to sustain against 
 the Amorites and Madianites. The Book 
 
 of Numbers is written in the form of a 
 day-book. 
 
 Nun. — A member of a religious order 
 of women. The name nun is given in 
 general to the sisters of all religious con- 
 gregations of females who live in retire- 
 ment, and are bound by rule ; but it is 
 primitively and properly applicable only 
 to sisters of the religious orders strictly 
 so called, who have consecrated themselves 
 to God by the three vows of poverty, chas- 
 tity, and obedience, and bound themselves 
 to live in a convent under a certain rule. 
 See Orders {Regulars). 
 
 Nunc Dimittis. — The name given to the 
 Canticle of Simeon (Luke ii. 29-32), which 
 forms part of the Compline office of the 
 Breviary. 
 
 Nuncio (representative of the Pope). 
 — Before the Council of Trent, the nun- 
 cios took knowledge in the first instance of 
 causes which are of ecclesiastical juris- 
 diction; since this Council, they can be 
 only judges of appeal from the judgments 
 rendered by the ordinaries of the places 
 subject to the discipline of the decretals, 
 and of the Council of Trent. In the king- 
 doms that are not subject to these decretals 
 and Council of Trent, the nuncios have no 
 authority nor jurisdiction, and they are 
 looked upon as simple ambassadors. In 
 an answer to the bishops of Germany 
 (1789), Pius VI. shows that the Holy See 
 has the right to send everywhere, where it 
 is deemed proper, either ordinary or extra- 
 ordinary nuncios, enjoying a firm juris- 
 diction; that no one ever refused to the 
 Pope the right to send nuncios in ex- 
 traordinary cases ; that the right to send 
 ordinary nuncios enjoying a firm jurisdic- 
 tion is founded upon the primacy of the 
 Holy See ; that the Popes have always ex- 
 ercised this right from the beginning of 
 the Church to the present day, and that 
 this right has been acknowledged by the 
 councils, bishops, and even civil powers. 
 See Legate. 
 
Gates 
 
 502 
 
 Oblates 
 
 O 
 
 Oates (Titus) (1619-1705). — English ad- 
 venturer. Anglican minister, condemned 
 as false witness, he went on the Continent, 
 embraced Catholicity, and was expelled 
 from the seminaries of Valladolid and of 
 St. Omer. At his return to England, in 
 1678, he associated himself with two crim- 
 inals, called Tong and Digbey, to accuse 
 the English Catholics of conspiracy against 
 the life of King Charles II., and of Prot- 
 estants in general. In spite of the proofs 
 of imposture, a great number of Catholics, 
 among others Lord Stafford and some 
 Jesuits, were put to death on his evidence, 
 and he was granted a pension of either 
 £600 or £900. He was convicted of per- 
 jury at the instance of James II., in 1685, 
 was heavily fined, and cast into prison. 
 He was pardoned in 1689 on the accession 
 of William III., and got a pension of £300. 
 
 Oath. — An oath is a solemn affirmation 
 in which we invoke the name of God, tac- 
 itly or explicitly, as witness to the truth of 
 a statement. An oath is permissible in 
 justice and in truth, when circumstances 
 are of sufficient importance. An oath 
 should be taken " in truth, and in judg- 
 ment, and in justice" (Jer. iv. 2) : that is 
 to say, aflSrming with adequate motive a 
 thing of which we are morally certain or 
 promising what we actually mean to per- 
 form. Without these three conditions of 
 integrity, namely, a solemn affirmation or 
 promise, importance of matter, and equity 
 of motive, an oath would unquestionably 
 be disrespectful to God, and must there- 
 fore be a mortal or venial sin, according to 
 the gravity of the circumstances, or inten- 
 tion and opinion of the person taking the 
 oath. 
 
 Oblates (name of a number of religious 
 communities). — i. Oblates of St. Charles 
 or "Volunteers," established by St. Charles 
 Borromeo in 1578, are a congregation of 
 secular priests. Their special aim was to 
 give edification to the diocese, and to 
 maintain the integrity of religion by the 
 purity of their lives, by teaching, and by 
 zealously discharging the duties committed 
 to them by their bishop. These devoted 
 ecclesiastics were much beloved by St. 
 Charles, who was wont to call them his 
 " children," and was never so happy as 
 when among them. Strange to say, they 
 
 do not seem to have been much appreciated 
 elsewhere. 
 
 2. Oblates of St. Francis of Rome. — A 
 community of religious women, bound 
 only by simple vows, established in Rome 
 
 in 1433- 
 
 3. Oblates of Italy. — An association of 
 secular priests founded by some zealous 
 ecclesiastics at Turin in 1816. They have 
 the charge of the mission in Eastern Bur- 
 mah. 
 
 4. Oblates of Mary Immaculate. — A 
 society of priests founded at Marseilles in 
 1815 by Charles Masenod, afterwards 
 bishop of the diocese. The Bishop of 
 Marseilles for the time being is their 
 superior general. Their numbers have 
 greatly increased, and they have been of 
 inestimable service by placing themselves 
 at the disposal of the bishops to be em- 
 ployed on the missions in Canada, Brit- 
 ish India, and the United States. These 
 Oblates were introduced into the United 
 States in 1848. There are not many in 
 this country, but they have flourishing 
 houses at Plattsburg, New York, and Rio 
 Grande City and Brownsville, Texas. 
 
 5. Oblate Sisters (Colored). — With the 
 approval of Archbishop Whitfield, of 
 Baltimore, this order of colored nuns was 
 founded June 5th, 1829, by Father Joubert, 
 a native of France, born in 1777, and who 
 emigrated with his family to San Domingo 
 in 1801. He came to Baltimore in 1804 
 and joined the Sulpicians that he might 
 overcome a feeling of revenge occasioned 
 by the murder of his parents by the ne- 
 groes during the revolt in San Domingo. 
 This pious Sulpician spent his fortune and 
 the last years of his life in founding this 
 community. On Oct. 2d, 1831, the Order 
 was approved by Gregory XVI., who 
 affiliated it to the Oblates of St. Francis of 
 Rome. The first three members were 
 natives of San Domingo. The object of the 
 sisterhood is the spiritual and temporal 
 welfare of the colored race. They en- 
 deavor to promote this object especially by 
 the education of colored children and the 
 improvement of their morals. They fur- 
 nish homes to orphans if their means 
 allow. They also visit the sick, as far as 
 rules and time permit. The St. Louis 
 branch was established Oct. 12th, 1880, 
 by the Rev. Father Panken, S. J., with the 
 
Oblation 
 
 503 
 
 Oils 
 
 approval of the Most Rev. P. R. Kenrick, 
 Archbishop of St. Louis. 
 
 Oblation (the act of ofTering). — Specific- 
 ally : I. The donation by the laity of bread 
 and wine for the Eucharist, and of other 
 gifts or contributions in money for the 
 maintenance of divine worship and for the 
 support of the clergy and the poor. In the 
 early Church, the bread and wine were 
 given by members of the congregation to 
 the deacon before Mass, and offered by 
 the priest on the altar; later this custom 
 fell into disuse, and the other gifts were 
 presented at or just before the Offertory. 
 The Greek Church has a special prepara- 
 tion of the elements in the office of Proth- 
 esis before the liturgy. 2. The offering 
 or presenting to God upon the altar of the 
 unconsecrated bread and wine; the Offer- 
 tory. 3. The solemn offering or presenta- 
 tion in memorial before God of the conse- 
 crated elements as sacramentally the body 
 and blood of Christ. This is called the 
 great oblation, a distinction from the lower 
 oblation or Offertory. 
 
 Occam or Ockam (William). — Scho- 
 lastic theologian and Franciscan ; was born 
 in the county of Surrey, England. Pupil 
 and opponent of Duns Scotus, and the 
 champion of the Fratricelli or Spiritualists. 
 He defended, as an article of faith, that 
 "Christ and His Apostles never possessed 
 any property in common or individually." 
 The proposition was condemned by Pope 
 John XXn., and Occam refusing to sub- 
 mit, fled to Germany, and there incited 
 Louis the Bavarian against the Pope. See 
 Fratricelli. 
 
 Ochozias. — King of Israel died in 886 
 B. c. He had withdrawn himself from the 
 Hebrew religion to adore the Phoenician 
 and Syrian idols Baal and Astarte. He 
 left the throne to his brother Joram. 
 
 O'Connell (Daniel) (1775-1847). — 
 Born near Cahirciveen, County Kerry, 
 Ireland, died at Genoa, Italy. Famous poli- 
 tician and orator, surnamed " The Great 
 Agitator of Ireland." He was the leader 
 of the agitation in favor of Catholic eman- 
 cipation; fQunded the Catholic Associa- 
 tion ; was elected to parliament in 1828 ; 
 became the leader in the " Repeal " agita- 
 tion 1841 ; promoted the mass meetings of 
 1842-1843 ; and was arrested 1843 and de- 
 clared guilty of high treason. His sentence 
 was reversed in 1844, but a division broke 
 out among his own party : Young and Old 
 
 Ireland. Having been in poor health for 
 some time, he departed for Italy and died 
 in Genoa. 
 
 Octavarium. — A book which contains 
 what is to be recited in the office of Oc- 
 taves. 
 
 Octave. — The eight days assigned for 
 the celebration of a feast, during which is 
 repeated every day a part of the office of 
 the feast, as the hymns, antiphons, or verses, 
 with one or several lessons referring to the 
 subject. On the eighth day, the Octave 
 properly speaking, the office is more 
 solemn than that of the preceding days. 
 Generally the most solemn feasts, like 
 Christmas, Easter, Pentecost, Corpus 
 Christi, the feast of the patron saint, are 
 accompanied by an Octave. 
 
 CEcolampadius (John) (1482-1531). — 
 His true name was Hausschein. Protes- 
 tant, born at Weinsberg, Franconia, died 
 at Basle. Religious of St. Bridget, be- 
 came Zwinglian, left Germany and settled 
 at Basle. CEcolampadius was to Zwingli, 
 what Melanchthon had been to Luther. 
 
 CEcumenical Council means a general 
 council, one whereby the entire Catholic 
 Church is represented in contradistinction 
 to those councils which only represent a 
 province or diocese. See Councils. 
 
 Offertory is the name given to that por- 
 tion of the public liturgy of the Catholic 
 Church with which the Eucharistic sers'ice, 
 strictly so called, commences. It owes its 
 name to the practice which was anciently 
 observed in the Church by the Faithful, 
 who, at this part of the Mass, presented 
 their offering of bread and wine to be con- 
 secrated at the holy sacrifice, a practice 
 which began to fall into disuse in the elev- 
 enth century, but was still kept up in some 
 Churches on the greater festivals until the 
 end of the last century. See Agap^. 
 
 Office (///<? Divine) is the name popu- 
 larly given to the canonical hours pre- 
 scribed to be read each day by the bishops, 
 priests, deacons, and subdeacons of the 
 Catholic Church. See Breviary. 
 
 Og. — King of Basan, in Syria ; of gigan- 
 tic stature; he was killed by Moses. It 
 is claimed that his iron bed, nine cubits 
 long, is preserved at Rabbath. 
 
 Oils {Holv). — Holy oils or olive oil 
 which the Church employs in the admin- 
 
Olaf 
 
 504 
 
 Ontology 
 
 istration of certain sacraments, for the or- 
 dinations and consecrations. They are : 
 I. Pure, without mixture, such as the oil 
 of the Catechumens, for baptism ; the oil 
 of the sick for extreme unction. 2. Mixed 
 with balsam, a mixture which is called 
 " holy chrism. " Holy chrism is employed 
 as an efficacious symbol, like sacramental 
 matter, in confirmation, in the ordination 
 of priests, in the consecration of a new 
 chalice, altar stone, a church ; in baptism, 
 and besides, with the oil of Catechumens, 
 in the consecration of baptismal fonts. 
 The consecration of all the holy oils takes 
 place, in the Latin Church, on Holy Thurs- 
 day, during the celebration of the sacrifice 
 of the Mass, by the bishop in presence of 
 twelve priests, seven deacons, and seven 
 subdeacons. The holy oils can be used 
 only during one year; if there is any left 
 they ought to be burned annually on Holy 
 Saturday, at the beginning of the cere- 
 monies, that is, at the blessing of the new 
 fire. Each of these oils must be carefully 
 kept in a special vessel and preserved 
 against all accident. In the Greek Church 
 also the priests consecrate the holy oils. 
 In Spain, the bishop formerly required a 
 certain tax for the holy oils. The Council 
 of Prague, held in 572 (can. 4). forbade to 
 receive anything. The use of holy oils is 
 very ancient, and even of Apostolic insti- 
 tution. See Chrism. 
 
 Olaf (St.). — King of Upsal, Sweden, 
 (1019-1033). With the aid of German and 
 English missionaries, he solidly estab- 
 lished Christianity and organized the 
 Church in Norway. He fell in a battle 
 against his heathen subjects, who had al- 
 lied themselves with the Danes. 
 
 Old Catholics. See Catholics. 
 
 Olier (jAcquEs). See Sulpicians. 
 
 Olives {Mount of). — A ridge containing 
 several elevations, situated east of Jerusa- 
 lem. It is often mentioned in Bible his- 
 tory. Its highest summit is 361 feet above 
 Jerusalem and 2,725 feet above the sea 
 level. 
 
 Olivetans. — Members of a religious or- 
 der founded in 1313 by John Tolemei, a 
 wealthy nobleman of Siena, in gratitude 
 for having regained his eyesight in a mi- 
 raculous manner. In company with a few 
 companions, he settled in a solitary olive 
 grove near Siena. They observed the 
 Rule of St. Benedict, and were approved 
 
 by Pope John XXII., in 1324, under the 
 title of •' Congregation of Our Lady of 
 Mount Olivet." 
 
 Omer (St.). See Belgium. 
 
 Omophorion. See Pallium. 
 
 Onkelos. — Jewish rabbi of the first cen- 
 tury a. d. Disciple of Gamaliel. Author 
 of a Targum of the Old Testament; highly 
 esteemed among the Jews. It is confined 
 to the Books of Moses, and is so brief and 
 simple that its genuineness is unquestioned. 
 
 Ontology and Ontologism. — The word 
 ontologism, according to its Greek ety- 
 mology, signifies a discussion concerning 
 existence ; and the word ontology has the 
 same origin, but the meaning is quite dif- 
 ferent. Ontology and ontologism are 
 alike, in that they are concerned with ex- 
 istence, or with existing things considered 
 in a highly abstract manner, but the man- 
 ners of consideration are not the same. 
 Ontology is a branch of philosophy which 
 discusses what there is that can be affirmed 
 or denied concerning all things, whether 
 actual or merely possible, as that they 
 form a certain whole, finite or infinite, and 
 so on ; and this discussion, in a rightly 
 ordered arrangement, comes immediately 
 after the two parts of Logic, and before 
 the treatises on the soul, on the world, and 
 on God, which deal with particular exist- 
 ences, and constitute special metaphysics. 
 Ontology is also called general metaphys- 
 ics, or first principles. Some of the ques- 
 tions discussed in ontology are among the 
 deepest speculations of which the human 
 mind is capable, and the student has 
 abundant opportunities of falling into 
 error; but the name is not used to denote 
 any particular school of thought. 
 
 The fundamental position of ontologism 
 may be thus described : that God is seen 
 by the mind directly and immediately; 
 that God is the first object of all our 
 knowledge, and that all else that we know 
 is seen by us as a modification of this first 
 knowledge. Among the precursors of on- 
 tologism may be reckoned certain mystics, 
 who have held that it is possible even in 
 this life to attain by ascetic practices to a 
 clear vision of God, such as is in truth 
 reserved for the blessed in Heaven, who 
 see God in the light of glory. Phases of 
 this doctrine were condemned, at diflFerent 
 times, especially at the Council of Vienna 
 in 1311. The modern school may be said 
 to have originated with Descartes, who 
 
Ophir 
 
 505 
 
 Optimism 
 
 died in 1650; the doctrine was precisely 
 formulated by Malebranche (1715), a priest 
 of the French Oratory; and among its 
 followers may be mentioned Gioberti 
 (1852), Rosmini (1855), and Ubaghs. It 
 is no longer possible for a Catholic to up- 
 hold the ontologistic theory in the fulness 
 with which it has sometimes been pro- 
 posed, for there are authoritative utter- 
 ances of the Holy See, to be quoted 
 immediately, which stand in the way ; but 
 the tendency of the human mind which 
 gave birth to this doctrine still remains, 
 and will manifest itself in forms that must 
 be discussed by the philosophers and 
 theologians of the future, whose labors will 
 winnow away whatever error there may be 
 lurking among much that is true. 
 
 A decree of the Congregation of the In- 
 quisition, dated Sept. i8th, 1861, declared 
 that seven propositions there set forth 
 could not be safely taught. There is some 
 controversy as to the precise force of this 
 declaration, but this at least seems to be 
 true, that no proposition which had been 
 qualified in these terms has afterwards 
 turned out to be the accepted doctrine of 
 the Church ; there is, therefore, strong 
 reason to believe that these seven proposi- 
 tions are inadmissible. Some of them 
 concern Universals, and belong to philos- 
 ophy ; another has reference to God as the 
 Creator; but there are three that bear im- 
 mediately on our subject. They run as 
 follows: I. The immediate knowledge 
 of God, at least by way of habit, is essen- 
 tial to the intellect of man, so that without 
 it the intellect is unable to know anything ; 
 for it is itself the light of the intellect. 2. 
 That Being which we understand in all 
 things, and without which we understand 
 nothing, is 'the Being of God. 3. All 
 other ideas are nothing but modifications 
 of the idea by which God is understood as 
 simply Being. 
 
 Another decree of the Inquisition, dated 
 Dec. 14th, 1887, passes a severe censure 
 upon forty propositions, extracted from 
 certain works purporting to be written by 
 Rosmini, but published after his death. 
 These propositions are reprobated, con- 
 demned, and proscribed in the proper 
 sense of the author, and the bishops of the 
 Catholic world are earnestly warned not to 
 allow them to be taught in their seminaries ; 
 and this decree was approved and con- 
 firmed by the Pope. All these proposi- 
 tions show more or less tendency towards 
 ontologism. It will be enough for our 
 
 purpose to quote the first and the fifth : i. 
 In the sphere of creation there is mani- 
 fested immediately to the intellect of man 
 something Divine in itself, that is to say, 
 something that belongs to the Divine na- 
 ture. 5. The being of which man has 
 intuition must necessarily be something 
 belonging to a being which is necessary 
 and eternal, the Cause that creates, deter- 
 mines, and limits all contingent beings : 
 this is God. 
 
 Ophir. — A country to which the vessels 
 of Solomon traded. In the Old Testa- 
 ment it is designated as a country, whence 
 gold, silver, precious stones, ivory, sandal- 
 wood, apes, and peacocks were brought. 
 It was especially noted for its gold. The 
 fleet of Solomon occupied three years in 
 making the journey. It has been variously 
 identified with India, Sumatra, the coast 
 of Malabar, the east of Africa, and the 
 southern or southeastern portion of Arabia 
 on the Persian Gulf. The last identifica- 
 tion has in its favor the statement in Gen- 
 esis (x. 29), where Ophir is mentioned as 
 the son of Jectan. 
 
 Ophites. — Members of a Gnostic sect, 
 of very early origin, especially prominent 
 in the second century, and existing as late 
 as the sixth century. Its members were 
 so called because they held that the ser- 
 pent by which Eve was tempted was the 
 impersonation of divine wisdom, the 
 great teacher, and civilizer of the human 
 race. They were also called " Naassenes." 
 
 Optatus (St.). — Bishop of Mileve in 
 Numida, in the fourth century. Optatus, 
 like St. Augustine, was a most strenuous 
 opponent of the Donatists. Augustine 
 calls him " a pastor of venerable memory 
 and an ornament of the Church." Ful- 
 gentius puts him on a level with St. Augus- 
 tine and St. Ambrose, and the Church 
 venerates him as a saint. The particular 
 details of his life are unknown. About 
 370, St. Optatus wrote his famous work 
 De Schismate Donatistarum, in seven 
 books, against Parmenianus, who had be- 
 come bishop of Carthage after the death 
 of Donatus, and was endeavoring to spread 
 abroad the erroneous doctrine of his pred- 
 ecessor. 
 
 Optimism. — System of philosophers who 
 maintain that all that exists is the best 
 possible. The Optimists not only main- 
 tain that everything in the world is good 
 but that everything is the best possible 
 
Opus Operatum 
 
 506 
 
 Oratorians 
 
 {optimum), so that God, with all His 
 power, could not do better than He did ; 
 that each creature can be neither more 
 perfect, nor more happy, than it is, in re- 
 gard to the general order of the universe. 
 This hypothesis has been imagined to 
 solve the great question of the origin of 
 evil, and to answer to the objections which 
 Bayle made as to this subject. It has been 
 most vehemently maintained by several 
 English authors, by Jacquelot, Male- 
 branche, and Leibnitz. However, we must 
 not confound the optimism of the two lat- 
 ter philosophers ; it differs on two heads : 
 I. According to Malebranche, the creation 
 was entirely free, therefore God could ab- 
 stain from it; according to Leibnitz, on 
 the contrary, since God did create. He did 
 so because He had a preponderant reason, 
 and consequently He was infallibly deter- 
 mined to create. 2. According to the 
 opinion of Malebranche, several worlds of 
 an infinite perfection were equally possi- 
 ble, and, consequently, the choice of the 
 creation of ours was made freely; while, 
 according to the opinion of Leibnitz, one 
 sole world of an infinite perfection was 
 possible, it follows that the choice and the 
 creation of the present one, although done 
 freely were however required by the attri- 
 butes of God. The system of Malebranche, 
 although seducing at first sight, is never- 
 theless a formal error, for he robs God of 
 His sovereign liberty, of His absolute inde- 
 pendence, which supposes wrong notions 
 of the divine attributes. Besides, it is 
 founded on the abuse of several terms and 
 on suppositions which it is impossible to 
 prove; it is, moreover, contrary to Holy 
 Scripture. Also does it attack the liberty 
 of the human actions, in supposing that 
 the moral order of the universe is linked 
 with the physical order, or at least that the 
 first is an infallible consequence of the 
 second. 
 
 Opus Operatum. — A famous phrase 
 which is employed to express concisely the 
 Catholic doctrine : The sacraments are 
 said to work " by the work wrought " 
 {ex of ere of era to). This is opposed to 
 the doctrine that their effect comes about 
 "by the work of the worker " {ex of ere 
 oferantis). 
 
 Orangemen. — i. Irish Protestants. The 
 name was given about the end of the seven- 
 teenth century by Roman Catholics to the 
 Protestants of Ireland, on account of their 
 
 support of the cause of William III. of 
 England, Prince of Orange. 2. A secret 
 politico-religious society, instituted in Ire- 
 land in 1795. It was organized for the pur- 
 pose of upholding the Protestant religion 
 and ascendency, and of opposing " Ro- 
 manism "and the Roman Catholic influ- 
 ence in the government of the country. 
 Orangemen are especially prominent in 
 Ulster, Ireland, and local branches called 
 " lodges " are found all over the British 
 empire, as well as in many parts of the 
 United States. 
 
 Orarium. — Over the stole and around the 
 neck, in the primitive Church, an oblong 
 piece of linen was worn, called '* orarium," 
 which sers-ed the purpose of a handker- 
 chief, and was spread by women, in time 
 of prayer, over the head and shoulders, 
 falling around the body like a veil. The 
 orarium worn by ecclesiastics was bordered 
 with stripes of purple, and when, in the 
 course of time, its dimensions were con- 
 tracted, those ornaments were retained as 
 marks of honor, while the plain linen por- 
 tions were cut away in such a manner that 
 it w^as reduced to a band which surrounded 
 the neck and fell down below the knees on 
 both sides of the body. The name of or- 
 arium was afterwards changed for that of 
 stole, by which term it is now known. See 
 Stole. 
 
 Orate Fratres. — Latin words which sig- 
 nify: Pray, Brethren, and which, during 
 Mass, the priest pronounces in turning to- 
 ward the people, after having washed his 
 fingers, and after having said the prayer, 
 "Suscipe." This ceremony is referred to 
 Pope Leo the Great. 
 
 Oratorians. — Religious congregation, 
 founded by St. Philip Neri, in Italy, 
 which was approved by Pope Gregory 
 XIII., in 1574. Its members were at first 
 composed of ecclesiastics and laymen, 
 who, however, took no distinctive vows. 
 It was St. Philip's idea to found a congre- 
 gation in which such as did not feel them- 
 selves called to enter any of the established 
 orders might enjoy all the benefits without 
 assuming their obligations. Although 
 the avowed aim of the congregation was 
 the instruction of the people, its members 
 from the very beginning gave themselves 
 up to deep and serious study. Many of 
 them became eminent in literature. St. 
 Philip Neri was canonized byPopeGregorj 
 XV., in 1622. 
 
Oratory 
 
 507 
 
 Order 
 
 Oratory. — A small chapel or place of 
 prayer, not having the rights of services of 
 a parish church. See Chapel. 
 
 Oratory ( The) of Jesus. — Religious 
 congregation established in France by Car- 
 dinal de Berulle, in i6ii,for the purpose of 
 reforming the clergy. Its members were of 
 two classes : incorporated and associated, 
 neither taking vows of any kind. The 
 congregation was confirmed by Pope Paul 
 v., in 1613. 
 
 Ordeals. — During the Middle Ages, the 
 Church had to wage war not only with the 
 feudal strifes, but also with the ordeals, or 
 so-called '* Judgments of God." The or- 
 deals or trials were originally a Ger- 
 man pagan practice, interwoven with their 
 whole constitution and not wholly repre- 
 hensible in themselves. The Church at 
 first exerted her influence and authority to 
 abolish such of the ordeals as could not 
 be practiced without imminent danger to 
 the life of the contestants, by substituting 
 the oath in their stead wherever possible. 
 The ceremony of taking the oath was sur- 
 rounded with circumstances at once im- 
 pressive and solemn. It was performed in 
 the church and accompanied with religious 
 rites; and the innocence of the person on 
 trial was attested by seven sworn wit- 
 nesses or " compurgators," taken from 
 his immediate neighbors and bearing repu- 
 tations of unimpeachable honesty. 
 
 Order {Holy). — Holy order is a sacra- 
 ment which confers, with the grace, the 
 power to consecrate the Body and Blood 
 of Jesus Christ, to administer the sacra- 
 ments, to preach the Gospel, and to exer- 
 cise the functions which have relation to 
 divine worship. It is of faith that holy 
 order or the ordination is a sacrament. 
 This can be proved by Holy Scripture, by 
 the constant tradition of the Church, by 
 the teaching of the holy Fathers, by the 
 decisions of the sovereign Pontiffs, and by 
 the decrees of the councils, especially 
 by the Council of Trent. This Council 
 counts seven orders : the priesthood, which 
 comprises the presbyterate and the episco- 
 pate which is the plenitude of the latter; 
 the deaconate, the subdeaconate, and the 
 orders of acolyte, exorcist, lector, and 
 doorkeeper. The priesthood, deaconate, 
 and subdeaconate are called major or sacred 
 orders ; the other four orders are called 
 minor orders. Although specifically dis- 
 tinct, these different orders constitute only 
 
 one sacrament, because they all tend to- 
 ward the priesthood, whose principal end 
 is the offering of the sacrifice of the Mass, 
 toward which they all concur according to 
 the measure of power attributed to them. 
 Tonsure is no order properly speaking, 
 but a preparation for the orders. When 
 we say that it is of faith that holy order is 
 a sacrament, we do not pretend to say this 
 of all the orders. It is more probable that 
 we can regard as sacramental neither the 
 subdeaconate nor the minor orders. The 
 most of the Doctors regard the imposition 
 of hands as the only sacramental matter of 
 the deaconate, of the priesthood and epis- 
 copate ; and the prayer which accompanies 
 this imposition, as the only sacramental 
 form. Others add the presentation, which 
 is made to the one who is ordained, of the 
 instruments with which he is to exercise 
 his functions, and the words of which the 
 bishop makes use in presenting them. The 
 principal effects of the sacrament of holy 
 order are the grace and the character. It 
 is of faith that this sacrament communi- 
 cates to us the Holy Ghost, and imprints 
 upon us an indelible character, which pro- 
 hibits the reconference of this sacrament. 
 Although this sacrament is principally for 
 the good and advantage of the Church, it 
 is certain that it produces in the soul of 
 the one who receives it the sanctifying 
 grace, '''■ gratiam sancftficationis,^' says the 
 Catechism of the Council of Trent. The 
 bishops alone are the ordinary ministers of 
 the sacrament of holy order. Such is the 
 doctrine of the Council of Trent, founded 
 upon the general and constant tradition of 
 the Church, as well as upon the authority 
 of Holy Scripture, where we see that no 
 ordination was made except by the Apos- 
 tles, of whom the bishops are the succes- 
 sors. They are even the necessary ministers 
 of the deaconate, priesthood, and episco- 
 pate. The bishops alone can ordain the 
 bishops, priests, and deacons. As to 
 the subdeaconate, it is generally be- 
 lieved that the sovereign Pontiff can 
 delegate a simple priest to confer this 
 order. It is the same, with greater 
 reason, for the minor orders, and tonsure, 
 which is no order properly speaking. Also 
 the abbots have the right to confer tonsure, 
 and the minor orders upon the regulars 
 subject to their jurisdiction. But it is not 
 less true to say that the bishop alone is the 
 ordinary minister, even of the minor or- 
 ders. Men alone can receive the sacra- 
 ment of holy order ; women are absolutely 
 
Order 
 
 508 
 
 Order 
 
 incapable of all ordination ; a man can be 
 validly ordained only after having received 
 baptism, and even the ordination of a 
 catechumen would be null and void. To 
 be licitly admitted to ordination, the can- 
 didate must have the use of reason and the 
 vocation, he must be called by God ; the 
 necessity of a divine vocation cannot be 
 contested. The example of the high- 
 priests of the Old Law, of the Apostles, of 
 Jesus Christ Himself who entered into pos- 
 session of priesthood only by the will of 
 His Father; the doctrine of all the centu- 
 ries of the Church, her constant discipline, 
 and her attention in the choice of her min- 
 isters, proves that it is not permitted to 
 introduce ourselves into the ministry of 
 the altars without the order of the Lord. 
 The marks of a true vocation are : the in- 
 clination, the purity of intention, holiness, 
 the ecclesiastical spirit, science, and the 
 call of the bishop joined with the consent 
 of the Faithful. The Church has regu- 
 lated what pertains to the age of those to 
 be ordained, to the time and place of the 
 ordinations, to the order that must be ob- 
 served, and to the means assuring an honest 
 living to the clerics. For the subdeacon- 
 ate the candidate must be of the age of 
 twenty-two years commenced or twenty- 
 one years completed ; for the deaconate, 
 twenty-three years commenced or twenty- 
 two completed ; for the priesthood, 
 twenty-five years commenced or twenty- 
 four years completed. In regard to the 
 episcopate, the canonical age is thirty 
 years. Only the sovereign Pontiff can 
 dispense from the age prescribed for the 
 sacred orders. The holy orders must be 
 conferred publicly at the time ordained 
 by canon law, and in the cathedral church, 
 in the presence of the canons (wherever 
 there are any), or, if this cannot be done, in 
 the principal church, whither the clergy 
 of the place is invited. In the United States 
 the bishops have faculties allowing them 
 to confer holy orders in any^ church or 
 chapel. Each candidate is to be ordained by 
 his own bishop, or, if he is ordained by 
 another bishop, the latter must have the 
 permission of the ordinary to whom the 
 candidate belongs. Otherwise, the bishop 
 who ordained him will be suspended for 
 one year from conferring holy orders, and 
 the one who is ordained will also be sus- 
 pended from the function of the orders, as 
 long as his proper ordinary thinks fit. The 
 different orders of which we have spoken 
 namely: the priesthood, of which the 
 
 episcopate is the plenitude; the deacon- 
 ate, the subdeaconate, and the minor or- 
 ders, the order in which they are given 
 indicating the one superior to the others, 
 in commencing with the episcopate, form 
 what we call the ecclesiastical hierarchy. 
 The Bishop of Rome, successor of St. 
 Peter, has the primacy (see this word), 
 not only of honor and precedence, but also 
 of authority and of jurisdiction over all 
 the bishops. The bishops are also by di- 
 vine right above simple priests, the priests 
 above deacons, etc. 
 
 Although there are plausible grounds 
 for holding that "bishop" and "pres- 
 byter " are synonymous terms in the New 
 Testament, yet we have clear traces of a 
 real distinction recognized between them 
 in Apostolic times. St. James the Less 
 was beyond doubt Bishop of Jerusalem, as 
 is clear from the relations of St. Peter 
 and St. Paul with him (Acts xii. 17; xv. 
 I3sq. ; xxi. 18; Gal. i. 19), and from the 
 belief universally existing as early as the 
 middle of the second century. Moreover, 
 St. Paul gives Titus (i. 5), power to or- 
 dain presbyters; and to Timothy (I. Tim. 
 V. 19) he lays down instructions regarding 
 the judgment of presbyters. Hence both 
 Timothy and Titus were superior in office 
 to these presbyters. An argument may 
 also be drawn from the Apocalypse (i.-iii.) 
 where the "Angels of the Churches" are 
 plainly those officials to whom the care of 
 each of these Churches or dioceses has 
 been entrusted ; in other words, they are 
 the bishops of these dioceses. 
 
 The Fathers in sub-Apostolic times 
 insist on the distinction between the office 
 of bishop and the office of presbyter. St. 
 Polycarp, the disciple of St. John, writes as 
 a bishop, and distinguishes himself from 
 his presbyters. " I exhort you," says St. 
 Ignatius (Ad Magnes., n. 6), " that ye 
 study to do all things in a divine una- 
 nimity — the bishop holding presidency in 
 the place of God ; and the presbyters in 
 the place of the Apostles ; and the deacons 
 most dear to me entrusted with the service 
 of Jesus Christ. . . . Be ye made one 
 with the bishop, and with those who pre- 
 side for a pattern and lesson of incorrup- 
 tion." See also. Ad Trail., nn. 2, 3, 7; 
 Ad Philad., n. 7; Ad Smyrn., n. 8; Ad 
 Polycarp, n. 6. St. Irenaeus, speaking of 
 Acts XX. lysq., says, " For as Miletus, 
 having convoked the bishops and the pres- 
 byters," etc., thereby showing that he 
 does not recognize the two as synonymous. 
 
Order 
 
 509 
 
 Orders 
 
 "The degrees in the Church on earth of 
 bishops, presbyters, deacons, are, in my 
 opinion, imitations of the angelic glory, 
 and of that dispensation which is said in 
 Scripture to await all who, walking in tlie 
 steps of the Apostles, live in perfect right- 
 eousness according to the Gospel " (Clem. 
 Alex., Strom., lib. VI. n. 13). See also, 
 Tertullian, De Baft., n. 17; Origen, De 
 Oratione, n. 28; Horn, ii., iti Ntinier., n. 
 I, and many other places; St. Hippolytus, 
 De Char ism. We say nothing of later 
 Fathers, for by the fourth century it is 
 admitted as a settled maxim that bishops 
 only could ordain ; and Epiphanius goes so 
 far as to say of -^rius, the presbyterian, 
 " His doctrines were, beyond all human 
 conception, replete with madness," {Adv. 
 HcBres., 75). 
 
 Order ( Third) (name of the third branch 
 in most of the religious orders). — The 
 Third Order is an order under the same 
 rule and form of life, in proportion to the 
 two others previously instituted. The 
 third orders were not originally religious 
 orders, but pious association of secular 
 and even married persons who conformed 
 themselves, as much as their state of life 
 permitted, to the object in view, to the 
 spirit and rules of the religious order which 
 associates and instructs them. However 
 there are third orders whose members take 
 solemn vows and who are really religious, 
 such are the Third Order of Penitents of 
 St. Francis, and that of the Religious of 
 St. Dominic. Consequently, we must dis- 
 tinguish between the third orders that are 
 religious and those that are not. The 
 latter are orders, that is, associations and 
 congregations of persons united together 
 by a certain mode of living, and certain 
 rules and ceremonies practiced by those 
 who belong to these orders, and approved 
 by the sovereign Pontiffs. The Third 
 Order of St. Francis has been especially 
 recommended by Pope Leo XHI. This 
 Pope considerably mitigated the rule, in 
 1883, and adapted it to the requirements of 
 the times. This order has counted many 
 crowned heads, saints, and servants of God 
 among its members. Our holy Father Leo 
 XIII. is, and his predecessor in the Chair 
 of St. Peter was, a tertiary of the Order of 
 St. Francis of Assisi. 
 
 Orders {Anglican). — Anglican orders 
 were declared "absolutely null and ut- 
 terly void," on account of defect of form 
 in the rite, and defect of intention in the 
 
 minister, by the Bull ^'■Apostolicce Sedis," in 
 1898. "The Church," says Pope Leo XIII., 
 " does not judge about the mind or inten- 
 tion in so far as it is something by its na- 
 ture internal ; but, in so far as it is 
 manifested externally, she is bound to judge 
 concerning it. When anyone has rightly 
 and seriously made use of the due form 
 and the matter requisite for affecting or 
 conferring the sacrament, he is considered 
 by the very fact to do what the Church 
 does. On this principle rests the doc- 
 trine that a sacrament is truly conferred 
 by the ministry of one who is a heretic or 
 unbaptized, provided the Catholic rite be 
 employed. On the other hand, if the right 
 be changed with the manifest intention of 
 introducing'another rite not approved by 
 the Church and of rejecting what the 
 Church does, and what by the institution 
 of Christ belongs to the nature of the sac- 
 rament, then it is clear that not only is 
 the necessary intention wanting to the 
 sacrament, but that the intention is ad- 
 verse to and destructive of the sacrament." 
 " From the Anglican rite," Pope Leo 
 XIII. continues, " has been deliberately 
 removed whatever sets forth the dignity 
 and office of the priesthood in the Catho- 
 lic rite. That form consequently cannot 
 be considered apt or sufficient for the sac- 
 rament which omits what it ought essen- 
 tially to signify. . . . As the sacrament 
 of order, and the true sacerdotium of 
 Christ were eliminated from the Anglican 
 rite, and hence the sacerdotium is in no 
 wise conferred truly and validly in the 
 episcopal consecration of the same rite; 
 for the like reason, therefore, the episco- 
 pate can in no wise be truly and validly 
 conferred by it; and this the more so be- 
 cause among the first duties of the episco- 
 pate is that of ordaining ministers for the 
 holy Eucharist and sacrifice." 
 
 Orders {Military). See Knights, 
 
 Orders {Minor). — Minor orders is a 
 term used to designate the order of Door- 
 keeper {ostiarius), Reader {lector), Exor- 
 cist, and Acolyte. (See these subjects.) The 
 Roman Pontifical says: "Those who are 
 to be promoted to minor orders shall 
 have a good testimonial from their parish 
 priest, and from the master of the school 
 in which they were educated. 
 The minor orders shall not be given but 
 to such as understand the Latin language 
 at least, observing the appointed inter- 
 stices of time, unless their bishop shall 
 
Orders 
 
 510 
 
 Organ 
 
 think it expedient to act otherwise ; that 
 so, they may be more accurately taught 
 how great is the obligation of this their 
 state of life, and may exercise themselves 
 in each office, agreeably to the appoint- 
 ment of the bishop, . . . and may 
 thus ascend step by step, that so, with in- 
 creasing age they may grow in worthiness 
 of life and in learning, of which they will 
 give proof especially by the example of 
 their good conduct, by their assiduous 
 service in the Church, greater reverence 
 toward priests and the superior orders, and 
 by a more frequent communion than here- 
 tofore of the Body of Christ. And whereas 
 from these orders is the entrance into the 
 higher orders, and to the most sacred 
 mysteries, no one shall be admitted there- 
 unto, whom the promise of knowledge 
 does not point out as worthy of the greater 
 orders." 
 
 Orders {Monastic or Religious). — The 
 life of the solitaries of the East, in Egypt, 
 quite early made room for the life in com- 
 mon or cenobitic life, thanks to the Rule 
 of St. Pachomius. But convents existed a 
 long time in the Church before forming 
 orders. The orders commenced in the 
 tenth and eleventh centuries, through the 
 association of convents that acknowledged : 
 First, a mother-house, and secondly, an ab- 
 bot of the mother-house as superior of the 
 order. Monachism, which is the more 
 general term, is often confounded with the 
 religious orders, which are the more recent 
 form. The convents and monks living in 
 these convents have preserved literature 
 and the sciences, have propagated the 
 light of Christianity and repelled barbar- 
 ity, they gave fruitfulness to the soil and 
 raised mankind to a high degree of civ- 
 ilization. The orders have continued their 
 work, but with a new power, on account of 
 the strength of association and of the 
 special ends in view. The teaching orders 
 act in society with the energy of a corpo- 
 ration, and in like manner the orders which 
 take care of the sick, those that vow them- 
 selves to missions, and to the redemption of 
 captives, all of which have united the pe- 
 culiarity of object with the idea of group- 
 ing or association of wills. The Rule of 
 St. Benedict is the first that regulated the 
 external relations of convents with the 
 social surroundings in which they live, and 
 from that time the religious orders have 
 had a double tendency : First, the indi- 
 vidual perfection of its members and, sec- 
 
 ondly, the realization of a Christian society 
 and civilization. See Convknts ; Monas- 
 
 TICISM. 
 
 Ordinary. — One possessing immediate 
 jurisdiction in his own right and not by 
 special deputation. Specificalh', a bishop, 
 archbishop, or other ecclesiastic or his 
 deputy, in his capacity as an ex officio ec- 
 clesiastical judge; also a bishop's deputy 
 in other ecclesiastical matters formerly in- 
 cluding the administration of estates. 
 
 Ordination. See Order {Holy). 
 
 Organ. — Adescription of this instrument 
 cannot be excepted from us here. Numer- 
 ous volumes would be insufficient for this ; 
 we can say only a few words about its his- 
 tory, its introduction into our churches, 
 and its use in relation with the Liturgy. 
 We know no more about the origin of the 
 organ, than of the clock. Polydore Vergil 
 said that already in his time (book IV, 
 chap, viii.) it was certain that the ancients 
 knew not only of the hydraulic organ, but 
 also of the pneumatic organ, as can be seen 
 from an epigram of the Emperor Julian. 
 In the villa of Mattei, at Rome, a bas-relief 
 can be seen which represents a cabinet of 
 organs whose bellows are similar to those 
 we use in kindling the fire and are put into 
 action by a man behind the cabinet. The 
 keyboard is touched by a woman. In the 
 88th Letter of St. Jerome, written to Dar- 
 danus, he describes an organ which had 
 twelve bellows and fifteen pipes, and the 
 drawer (air-box) was made from two ele- 
 phant skins. He adds that this organ made 
 a thundering noise and could be heard a 
 thousand steps away. He also said that 
 there was one at Jerusalem which could be 
 heard on the Mount of Olives. Muratori 
 tells us that there were organs in Italy and 
 France in the seventh century. About the 
 tenth century, organs were found in Ger- 
 many, especially in the monasteries ; but 
 the form and mechanism thereof remained 
 very imperfect for a long time. About this 
 epoch all the wind instruments, and among 
 others the organs, were permitted in the 
 divine office. But about the fifteenth cen- 
 tury organs were improved, especially by 
 the monks, several of whom built organs. 
 Then the Germans made great progress in 
 the art of manufacturing organs. 
 
 With the introduction of organs into 
 the Churches in the course of the eleventh 
 century, we cannot determine in what part 
 of the offices its use was permitted. The 
 
Ordo 
 
 5" 
 
 Oriental Rites 
 
 provincial Synod of Treves, in 1547, ex- 
 pressly forbids the playing of organs during 
 the Elevation and until the Ag-nus Dei. 
 The Council of Rheims, in 1564, inter- 
 dicted its use during the Gloria in excelsis, 
 the Credo and the Sanctus. However, 
 during this time, we cannot establish any- 
 thing positive about the moments when 
 the organ was played during divine office. 
 The custom varies according to the dioceses, 
 the diverse churches, etc. The most com- 
 mon usage was to play the organ when 
 processions returned to the choir, during 
 the Kyrie, the Gloria in excelsis, the 
 Sequentia, the Sanctus, the Agnus Dei, 
 and when leaving the church. 
 
 For some years the custom has been to 
 play an accompaniment on the organ dur- 
 ing the singing of the Preface and Pater 
 Noster, but without good >eflFect. These 
 two recitatives are so beautiful in them- 
 selves as to require no ornament. The 
 organ ought never to be played alone 
 during the Credo. It must only accom- 
 pany the words chanted by the choir or 
 during a solo. It would be very unbecom- 
 ing to replace this august profession of 
 faith by the chords of a musical instru- 
 ment. 
 
 Ordo (Latin word signifying o^£/<?r). — 
 Little book which is made anew every 
 year, to indicate to the ecclesiastics the 
 manner in which they should say the 
 office every day. 
 
 Origen (185-5253). — Theologian, born 
 at Alexandria, died at Tyre. His father, 
 Leonidas, being a man of great piety and 
 culture, gave him an excellent education ; 
 under his tuition and that of Pantsenus 
 and Clement, Origen applied himself to 
 the study of philosophy and theology. 
 While a catechist, he attended the lectures 
 of the Neo-Platonist Ammonius Saccas. 
 His father having died a martyr in 202, 
 when Origen was not yet eighteen years 
 of age, he supported his mother, his 
 brothers, and sisters by teaching. Soon 
 after, Bishop Demetrius appointed him 
 head of the Catechetical School, which, 
 by the flight of Clement, was left without 
 a teacher. His fame attracted a crowd of 
 students, including several distinguished 
 pagan philosophers and heretics, many of 
 whom he converted to the faith. Of his 
 pupils many suffered martyrdom. The 
 number of his scholars having greatly in- 
 creased, Origen relinquished part of his 
 duties to his disciple, Heraclas, and de- 
 
 voted himself to instructing the more 
 advanced students. At the age of twenty- 
 five, Origen applied himself to the study 
 of Hebrew and then commenced his great 
 Biblical work, the Hexapla. The munifi- 
 cence of his wealthy friend Ambrose 
 (whom he had converted from Gnosti- 
 cism) furnished him with rare manu- 
 scripts, with scribes and copyists, and 
 enabled him to carry on his learned 
 researches and publish a really marvelous 
 number of works. St. Epiphanius de- 
 clared that they exceeded 6,000. In 213 
 Origen visited Rome, and in 215 he went 
 to Arabia to instruct a governor of that 
 country. To his prodigious learning and 
 labors, Origen united great austerity and 
 sanctity of life. He was called the 
 "Adamantine" and "Brazen-brained," 
 both on account of his unwearied dili- 
 gence and asceticism. Interpreting too 
 literally the passage in Matthew (xix. 12) 
 he secretly emasculated himself, though, 
 afterwards, in his commentary on St. 
 Matthew, he condemned so false an inter- 
 pretation. This act, as well as his ordina- 
 tion which he received at Caesarea, in 228, 
 at the hands of his friends, the bishops 
 Theoctistus of Caesarea and Alexander of 
 Jerusalem, but without the consent of his 
 ordinary, caused Demetrius to convene a 
 synod, which, in 231, deposed and excom- 
 municated Origen. The great scholar, 
 therefore, withdrew to Caesarea of Pales- 
 tine, where the most of his after life was 
 spent and where he opened a second 
 school, which became the center of a 
 learned circle. It was at Caesarea, that 
 Origen completed his most famous works, 
 his commentaries and homilies, his Hexa- 
 pla and the work against Celsus. Having 
 suffered cruel treatment in the Decian per- 
 secution, Origen died, in 252, at Tyre, 
 where his grave was yet to be seen in the 
 time of the Crusades. The writings of 
 Origen were of many kinds, philosoph- 
 ical, exegetical, polemical, and practical. 
 Most of them are lost. His works that 
 have come to us can be found in Migne 
 {Pai.gr. XI-XVII). 
 
 Oriental Rites and Churches in Com- 
 munion with the Holy See. — The Oriental 
 Churches in communion with the Holy 
 See, holding the same faith and the same 
 principle of authority as the Latin Church, 
 have their own special rites, discipline, 
 and liturgical language. The various rites 
 are the Armenian, Coptic, Ethiopic, and 
 
Oriental Rites 
 
 512 
 
 Oriental Rites 
 
 Abyssinian ; Greek, with Grseco-Rouma- 
 nian, Grgeco-Ruthenian, Graeco-Bulga- 
 rian, Grseco-Melchite subdivisions ; Syrian, 
 with Syro-Chaldean, Syro-Maronite, Syro- 
 Malabaric subdivisions. In the Western or 
 Latin Church, the liturgy, or the word- 
 form of the Mass, is that used by the 
 Roman Church. To-day the only excep- 
 tions are the Ambrosian liturgy, peculiar 
 to the Cathedral of Milan, and the Moz- 
 arabic, confined to the city of Toledo 
 in Spain. In the East, to-day, the chief 
 liturgies, or word-forms of the Mass, in 
 general use are those prepared by St. 
 John Chrysostom and by St. Basil the 
 Great. These liturgies are used by both 
 Catholics and Schismatics. Both these 
 forms for saying Mass were originally 
 written in Greek. Other Eastern liturgies 
 are those ascribed to St. James the Apostle, 
 afterwards modified by St. Cyril of Jeru- 
 salem, and to Sf. Mark, formerly used 
 throughout the patriarchate of Alexan- 
 dria; but the latter is scarcely used at 
 the present day, and the former only 
 among the Syrians and Copts, with con- 
 siderable changes. (See Liturgy.) There 
 are, then, in general use, in the Catholic 
 Church, four principal liturgies, or word- 
 forms of the Mass. However, Mass is 
 said in nine different languages, viz., in 
 Latin, Greek, Syriac, Chaldaic, Slavonic, 
 Wallachian, Armenian, Coptic, and Ethi- 
 opic. These languages, as they appear in 
 liturgy, are quite different from the same 
 languages as spoken to-day. 
 
 The Armenians in communication with 
 the Holy See are allowed to use the Ar- 
 menian language in their liturgy, and also 
 to have special rites. Unlike all other 
 Christians of the East save the Maronites, 
 they use unleavened bread in the holy 
 Eucharist, as do the Latins. The hereti- 
 cal Armenians are Monophysites, /. e., 
 believers in but one nature, the divine, in 
 Jesus Christ. The Chaldaic Armenians 
 are found in Armenia, Asia Minor, Syria, 
 Palestine, Turkey, Georgia, Greece, 
 Egypt, Italy, Austria, and Russia. They 
 number about one hundred and fifty 
 thousand, and are governed by a patriarch 
 styled "Patriarch of Cilicia of the Ar- 
 menians." He resides at Constantinople. 
 Besides the patriarch, there are two arch- 
 bishops and sixteen bishops. They have 
 a college in Rome and a seminary at 
 Begourmar, in Mount Libanon. On the 
 island of San Lagaro, at Venice, they have 
 a monastery which is famous all over the 
 
 world for its printing-presses. Here most 
 of the Armenian ecclesiastical books are 
 printed. 
 
 The Copts in communion with the Holy 
 See were formerly governed by a vicar 
 apostolic residing at Cairo, but in Novem- 
 ber, 1895, Pope Leo XIII. constituted for 
 them a regular hierarchy, with a patriarch 
 styled *' Patriarch of Alexandria of the 
 Copts." Besides the patriarch they have 
 two bishops. They number about 30,000. 
 The heretical Copts, of whom there are 
 150,000, are Monophysites. The Copts 
 use three different liturgies in the celebra- 
 tion of Mass, those of St. Basil, St. Greg- 
 ory and St. Cyril. They have as many as 
 twelve liturgies, but these three are the 
 chief ones now used. The Coptic or an- 
 cient Egyptian language, is used in cele- 
 brating their Church services, but the 
 rubrics are given in Arabic. 
 
 The Ethiopic or Abyssinian rite differs 
 little from that of the Copts, either in 
 discipline or church customs. The 
 Catholic Abyssinians now number about 
 25,000. They are governed by a Latin 
 vicar apostolic. The schismatic or hereti- 
 cal Abyssinians, of whom there are 3,000,- 
 000, are Monophysites. The Church 
 language is old Ethiopic, which is quite 
 similar to the Hebrew. 
 
 In Greek, Mass is said to-day by the 
 Uniate or Melchite Catholics. They are 
 to be found in Syria, Jerusalem, Russia, 
 Greece, Italy, and in several other places 
 in Europe. There are some also in Amer- 
 ica. They are called Melchite, from malko, 
 the Syriac for king, because they retained 
 the faith and supported the Emperor Mar- 
 cian against the Monophysite heretics at 
 the time of the Council of- Chalcedon 
 (A. D. 451). These Catholics are allowed 
 by the Holy See to retain all their ancient 
 rites, such as consecrating the holy Eucha- 
 rist in leavened bread, giving communion 
 in both kinds, saying the Creed without 
 the " Filioque," and putting warm water 
 into the chalice after consecration. The 
 lower orders of the clergy are allowed to 
 marry, and when promoted to subdeacon- 
 ship, deaconship, and priesthood, they may 
 retain their wives. But after receiving the 
 higher orders they cannot marry. Bishops 
 must all be single men. The Greek Cath- 
 olics have three different liturgies for cele- 
 brating Mass. The first, that of St. John 
 Chrysostom, which is used ordinarily; the 
 second, that of St. Basil, which is, used on 
 all Sundays in Lent except Palm Sunday, 
 
Oriental Rites 
 
 513 
 
 Oriental Rites 
 
 on holy Thursday, on holy Saturday, the 
 vigils of Christmas and Epiphany, and the 
 feast of St. Basil, January ist. The third 
 liturgy is called the *' Presanctified," and 
 is used during Lent, except on Sundays. 
 The Graeco-Melchite Catholics, of whom 
 there are about 1,100,000, are governed by 
 a patriarch, who is styled " Patriarch of 
 Antioch of the Greek Melchites," but who 
 lives in Damascus. They have, also, three 
 archbishops and nine bishops. 
 
 In the Slavonic language the Grceco- 
 Bulgarians and the GrcEco-Rutlienians in 
 communion with Rome celebrate Ma«s ac- 
 cording to the Greek liturgies. The same 
 liturgy and language are used, also, by the 
 schismatic Church of Russia. TheGraeco- 
 Bulgarian Catholics, in number about 33,- 
 000, have one archbishop administrator 
 apostolic for the Bulgarians of Constanti- 
 nople, and two bishops, one for Thrace, the 
 other for Macedonia. A large number of 
 Bulgarians follow the Roman instead of 
 Greek rite. 
 
 The GrcBco-Ruthenian Catholics are 
 found chiefly in Galicia, Poland, and Hun- 
 gary. They have one archbishop and 
 eight bishops, governing about 4,000,000 
 adherents. Many Ruthenians use the 
 Roman liturgy in the Slavonic tongue. 
 The right to use the Slavonic language in 
 celebrating Mass was accorded in the 
 ninth century by Pope Adrain IL, when 
 St. Methodius and St. Cyril converted the 
 Slavs to the faith. Since the seventeenth 
 century, when a great number of them 
 came into the Church, the Wallachians.with 
 the tacit consent of the Holy See, have been 
 saying Mass in their native tongue, which, 
 however, is the old classic language no 
 longer in daily use. The liturgy is Greek. 
 
 The Grceco-Roumanian Catholics which 
 term includes the Wallachians, in a great 
 national .synod held in 1700 at Fogaras, 
 " freely and spontaneously, by the impulse 
 of God," concluded a union with the 
 Roman Catholic Church. On that day 
 about 1,000,000 people were united to 
 Rome. In 1854, Pope Pius IX., erected 
 into an ecclesiastical province the United 
 Roumanian Church, with an archbishop 
 and three bishops. The United Catholics 
 are chiefly in Transylvania and Hungary, 
 and number about 1,500,000. They have 
 two native seminaries, besides several 
 places in the Greek College in Rome 
 given them by Pius IX, 
 
 The Syriac rite, like the Greek, has 
 several subdivisions. These are Pure- 
 
 33 
 
 Syrian, Syro-Chaldean, Syro-Maronite, 
 and Syro-Malabaric. Syrian is the litur- 
 gical language of those places where the 
 liturgy of St. James is used in celebrating 
 Mass. It is claimed to be the same lan- 
 guage as that used by Christ and His 
 Apostles. The Pure-Syrians have a pa- 
 triarch who resides in Mardin, but is 
 styled " Patriarch of Antioch of the 
 Syrians." They have, also, three arch- 
 bishops and six bishops. About 52,000 
 Catholics use the rite. They are rem- 
 nants of the primitive Syrian Church, 
 which never separated from the Holy See. 
 
 The Syro-Chaldaic is a language pe- 
 culiar to Babylonian Catholics, who are 
 chiefly converts from Nestorianism, and 
 dwell in Mesopotamia, Armenia, and Kur- 
 distan. They have a patriarch entitled 
 " Patriarch of Babylonia of the Chaldees," 
 but who resides at Mosul and Bagdad. 
 They have, also, two archbishops and ten 
 bishops. About 50,000 Catholics belong 
 to the Syro-Chaldaic rite. All the litur- 
 gical books of these people are written in 
 the Chaldaic, in that peculiar character 
 known as the " Estrangelo" ; for the Chal- 
 daic, it may be remarked, has 18 different 
 alphabets. 
 
 The Syro-Maronites use unleavened 
 bread for confecting the holy Eucharist; 
 and, like the rest of the Orientals com- 
 municate the laity under both kinds, ex- 
 cept that in administering communion to 
 the sick only the form of bread is used. 
 They use incense at low as well as at high 
 Mass, and read the Gospel in Arabic after 
 it has been read in Syriac, Arabic being 
 the vulgar language in those countries 
 where this rite prevails. Their secular 
 clergy number about 1,000, and their regu- 
 lar clergy, or monks, about 1,400. The 
 monks are not married. The greater num- 
 ber of Maronites are in Libanon, where 
 their patriarch resides, though he is styled 
 "Patriarch of Antioch of the Maronites." 
 Maronites are found, also, in Syria, Egypt, 
 Tripoli, and Cyprus. Besides the patri- 
 arch, they have six archbishops and three 
 bishops. About 500,000 Catholics follow 
 the Maronite rite. One peculiarity of 
 their government is that the people elect 
 the patriarch, who, however, must await 
 the confirmation of the Pope before he is 
 installed in office. 
 
 The Syro-Malabaric rite had until lately 
 no regular hierarchy, though the Catholics 
 number about 300,000. They depended on 
 two Latin vicars apostolic, one living in 
 
Original Sin 
 
 5H 
 
 Otho 
 
 Trichoor, the other in Cottayan. Their 
 priests, however, used their own liturgy, 
 not the Latin one. In 1896, Pope Leo XIIL 
 gave them a hierarchy. Catholics of the 
 rite are found chiefly in Malabar, on the 
 west coast of India. 
 
 The Oriental rites exist side by side, and 
 not infrequently cover the same territory. 
 In several instances bishops of different 
 rites reside in the same city, both being in 
 communion with Rome. The same may 
 be said of the Latin and the Oriental rites, 
 both mutually giving respect and avoiding 
 interference. There is a movement at pres- 
 ent for a reunion of other Churches with 
 that of Rome; and the better to examine 
 matters connected therewith, and promote 
 this desirable object, a special " Congrega- 
 tion or Commission for the Reunion of 
 Dissident Churches" was established in 
 Rome in 1895, by Pope Leo XIII. 
 
 Original Sin. See Sin. 
 
 Orosius (Paul). — Famous historian, 
 born at Tarragon, Spain, about the end of 
 the fourth century. Disciple of St. 
 Augustine and of St. Jerome, displayed a 
 great zeal against the Pelagians, whom he 
 tried to have condemned in a synod at 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 Osee. — The first of the twelve minor 
 prophets, lived in the eighth century b. c. 
 at Samaria. He commenced his ministry 
 under Roboam II., king of Israel and con- 
 tinued the same under his successors, in 
 the time when Jonathan, Achaz, and Eze- 
 chias reigned over Juda. His prophecies 
 chiefly regarded the kingdom of Israel. 
 He reproached the Israelites for their 
 crimes, idolatries, rebellions, and perju- 
 ries, and at the same time, he announced 
 the transportation of the Jews to Babylon, 
 their return into Judea, the duration of 
 the true worship, and the vocation of the 
 Gentiles. 
 
 Osee. — Last king of Israel (726-718 b. c. ), 
 obtained the throne through the assassina- 
 tion of Phacee. Salmanasar conquered 
 him and led him away into captivity to 
 Babylon, with all his people. 
 
 Osiander (Andreas) (1498-1552). — 
 Famous Protestant theologian, born near 
 Nuremberg, was one of the first preachers 
 of Luther's doctrines, assisted at the 
 colloquium of Marburg and at the Diet of 
 Augsburg. But he was not in accord 
 with Luther in everything and claimed 
 
 that Jesus Christ has been mediator in the 
 quality of God only, and that man is not 
 justified personally either by faith, or by 
 grace, or by imputing the justice of Christ, 
 as Luther and Calvin maintained, but 
 through the essential justice of God, 
 through the divine nature communicated 
 to the justified man. All his works are on 
 the Index. 
 
 Ostiary (Lat. osttarius). — In the early 
 Church, the doorkeeper or janitor of a 
 church. The office of ostiary is the lowest 
 of minor orders. It is as old as the third 
 century in the Western Church, and as the 
 fourth in the Eastern Church. In the 
 primitive Church the duties of this office 
 seem to have been discharged by deacons. 
 
 The office of the ostiary is indicated by 
 the words spoken by the bishop in his or- 
 dination. "Dearest children (or child), 
 who are about to receive the office of 
 doorkeeper, observe what you must do in 
 the house of God. It is the duty of the 
 doorkeeper to strike the cymbal and ring 
 the bell, to open the church and the 
 sanctuary, and the book for him who 
 preaches. Be on your guard therefore, 
 lest through your negligence anything in 
 the church be destroyed, open the house 
 of God at certain hours, for the Faithful, 
 and always close it to infidels." In pre- 
 senting them the keys of the church, the 
 symbol of their office, which they touch 
 with their hand, the bishop says: "Con- 
 duct yourselves as having to render an ac- 
 count to God for those things which are 
 kept under these keys." 
 
 Os-wald (St.). — English prelate. Bishop 
 of Worcester, died in 922. When quite 
 young he joined the Benedictines and 
 founded the monasteries of Westberg, 
 Ramsay, and Worcester. Anxious to in- 
 troduce a reform in his diocese, but una- 
 ble to displace the corrupt clergy who 
 occupied the old cathedral church, he 
 built another at a short distance from it, 
 which was served by the regular clergy, 
 and where he himself said Mass. Many 
 of the canons attached to the old cathe- 
 dral, seeing themselves abandoned by the 
 people, became monks, and after a time 
 the church reverted to the bishop, who 
 handed it over to the Benedictines. 
 
 Otho (St.) — Bishop of Bamberg in 
 1 100. Appointed papal legate by Pope 
 Calixtus II. Otho, in 1124, entered Pom- 
 
Othoniel 
 
 SI5 
 
 Paganism 
 
 erania, where he was well received, and 
 vast numbers were baptized in the cities 
 of Camin, Julin, and Stettin. He returned 
 to Bamberg, where he died in 1139. 
 
 Othoniel. — The first of the Judges of 
 Israel, died in the year 1065 b. c. Took 
 from the Chanaanites the city of Kiryat- 
 
 Sepher, defeated Chusai-Rischataim, king 
 of Mesopotamia, who had oppressed the 
 Israelites during eight years. This victory 
 assured to Israel forty years of peace, dur- 
 ing which he was the supreme head of 
 the people. 
 
 Ozias. See Azarias. 
 
 Pacca (Bartholomew) (1752-1844). — 
 Prelate and statesman, born at Benevent, 
 died in Rome. Archbishop of Damietta 
 in 1785, and apostolic nuncio in Cologne, 
 1786; cardinal in 1801 ; prosecretary of 
 State in 1808. Concurred energetically in 
 the protestation of the Pope against the 
 sacrilegious act which robbed him of his 
 states and followed Pius VII. into France ; 
 was confined at Fenestrella until 1813. 
 
 Paccanarists. — Name adopted by the 
 Jesuits or "Fathers of the Faith," re- 
 organized about the end of the eighteenth 
 century by Paccanari, a Tyrolian priest. 
 
 Pachomius (St.). — The founder of 
 Monasticism. A disciple of the holy 
 hermit Palemon, was the first who drew 
 up a rule for monks, and became the 
 founder of the first monasteries. The 
 pious recluses living under his direction 
 went by the name of monks, that is, soli- 
 taries, and their secluded habitations were 
 denominated monasteries, or mansions of 
 the solitaries. About the year 340, he 
 founded a monastery on the island of 
 Tabennae in the Nile, in which his monks 
 lived under the same roof and after the 
 same rule. His disciples becoming very 
 numerous, he founded eight other monas- 
 teries — seven for men, and one, under the 
 directioit of his sister, for women — all 
 recognizing a common superior, called 
 abbot or archimandrite. At his death, in 
 348, the order founded by him numbered 
 7,000 monks, and in the fifth century it 
 counted as many as 50,000. The Rule of 
 St. Pachomius was translated into Latin 
 by St. Jerome. 
 
 Pacianus (St.). — Bishop of Barcelona, 
 died in 391. Father of the Church, fa- 
 mous through the power of his word, com- 
 bated the error of the Novatians. His 
 works are inserted in the Library of the 
 Fathers. F. March 9th. 
 
 Paganism (idolatry, religion of the pa- 
 gans). — Paganism, which constituted the 
 religion of the Greeks and Romans, was 
 nothing else but a corruption, and disfig- 
 uration of the primitive religion. St. Paul 
 gives, as the starting point of paganism, 
 the positive knowledge of the true God 
 (Rom. i. 21), knowledge which became 
 more and more darkened in the course of 
 ages. " Of what antiquity," says Bossuet, 
 *' could paganism boast, which could not 
 read its annals without finding therein the 
 origin, not only of its own history, but 
 also of its gods." In fact, this knowledge 
 of God becoming insensibly effaced, men 
 turned their regard toward the object that 
 struck them the most forcibly and offered 
 to the objects their incense and prayers as 
 to deities : the sun, the moon, fire, thunder, 
 and lightning, were the first objects of their 
 worship ; then the great men, the founders 
 of empires and kingdoms, received divine 
 honors in their turn. Finally, the error 
 continually increasing, they ended by ren- 
 dering worship to animals and plants ; so 
 that, as Bossuet says, " everything was God, 
 except God himself." Indeed, the pagans 
 had completely disfigured the image of the 
 Deity. They made gods for themselves, 
 according to their caprice, as the god Pri- 
 ape, which an artisan made out of a piece 
 of wood, intending originally, to make a 
 table thereof : " oli7n truncus eram " (Hor. 
 I. I, Sat. viii.). In all the religions of an- 
 tiquity, says the Abb6 Gainet, we find 
 some fragments of the primitive and 
 revealed truth, disfigured, it is true, 
 but whose origin we can easily recognize. 
 All parts of the world contain precious 
 fragments agreeing with the Bible ; until 
 under the veil of fable, wherein certain 
 facts are disfigured, others perfectly recog- 
 nizable, we recover the idea of the Deity. 
 However altered the religious idea might 
 have been in paganism, we cannot help 
 recognizing, that, through its develop- 
 
Painting 
 
 516 
 
 Palestine 
 
 ment shines a remainder of truths derived 
 from the primitive knowledge of revela- 
 tion. Undoubtedly these truths have been 
 mingled with false and superstitious ideas ; 
 however, a remainder of primitive truth 
 was always contained in the coarse bark of 
 error. Especially have the Fathers of the 
 School of Alexandria recognized the reflec- 
 tions of revelation in paganism and have 
 attributed them to the universal action of 
 the Word : '•'■Krat lux vera qucB illuininat 
 omnem hominem " (John i. 9). We find in 
 the sacred books of the Persians the his- 
 tory of the original fall in terms almost 
 identical with those of the Bible: "The 
 first human pair was originally pure and 
 subject to Ormudz, their creator; but 
 Arhiman, jealous of their happiness, pre- 
 sented himself to them under the form of an 
 adder and offered fruits to them, and made 
 himself to be adored by them ; since that 
 time nature had become corrupt and all 
 posterity was infected by it." The ancient 
 Chaldeans believed, also, in a fallen man. 
 Paganism appears to us under three prin- 
 cipal forms : the lowest degree was fetich- 
 ism, which consists in the simple senti- 
 ment of a blind power upon which man 
 depends, and which resides indistinctly in 
 such or such an object of exterior nature ; 
 a more elevated degree was polytheism, 
 which places this blind power in the great 
 phenomena of nature, which are, in fact, 
 divinities themselves ; finally, the third 
 form is pantheism, which deifies all nature. 
 The historj' of paganism is mingled with 
 the different nations that have practiced it. 
 But since the light of Christianity has been 
 shining upon the world, paganism has dis- 
 appeared more and more, just like the stars 
 at the approach of the sun. 
 
 Painting (ancient use of) in Churches. 
 — In those ages when printing was un- 
 known, the pastors of the Church availed 
 themselves of the arts to represent to the 
 people, by means of fresco-painting, 
 mosaic-work, and sculpture, executed on 
 the walls of the churches, the Scripture 
 history, and the truths of our holy 
 religion. The reason was obvious: to 
 the Faithful, these were instructive 
 volumes, written in intelligible and self- 
 speaking characters. But as their reli- 
 gious instructors justly conceived that the 
 guardians of the faith were the best ex- 
 pounders of its mysteries, instead of per- 
 mitting the artist to select and treat the 
 subject according to his own imagination, 
 
 they rather employed his pencil to inscribe 
 in colors what they dictated to him ; and 
 it is a well attested fact that, in the first 
 twelve centuries of the Church, painters and 
 those who wrought in mosaic, and artists 
 in general, were, in the execution of their 
 works, permitted to exercise their own 
 liberty and invention no further than in 
 the drawing of their pieces. The bishop 
 or pastor of the edifice which was to be 
 ornamented, not merely fixed upon the 
 subjects, but invariably prescribed the pre- 
 cise manner in which each one should be 
 treated in all its several, and even its 
 minutest parts. Nor did they permit 
 themselves to be directed by their own 
 caprice, while guiding the labors of the 
 painter or the sculptor; but most reli- 
 giously adhered to the traditions which had 
 been handed down to them. We may, 
 therefore, rest assured, that these ancient 
 monuments are faithful and authentic 
 records, not of the opinion of laymen and 
 private individuals, but of the public doc- 
 trine of the Church at the period when 
 they were executed. See Art; Images. 
 
 Palamites. — The followers of Gregorius 
 Palamas, a monk of Mount Athos in the 
 fourteenth centurj*. Simeon, abbot of a 
 monastery at Constantinople in the elev- 
 enth century, taught, that by fasting, 
 prayer, and contemplation, with concen- 
 tration of thought on the navel, the heart 
 and spirit would be seen within, luminous 
 with a visible light. This light was be- 
 lieved to be uncreated, and the same which 
 was seen at Christ's transfiguration, and is 
 known accordingly as the " uncreated light 
 of Mount Thabor." The doctrine was 
 more carefully formulated and defended 
 by Palamas, who taught that there exists 
 a divine light, eternal and uncreated, which 
 is not the substance or essence of the 
 Deity, but God's activity or operation. 
 The Palamites were favored by the Em- 
 peror Joannes Cantacuzenus, and their 
 doctrine was confirmed by a council at 
 Constantinople in 1351. They were called 
 by their opponents "Euchites " and " Mas- 
 salians," also " Hesychasts " and " Umbili- 
 cianians." 
 
 Palestine. — The country of the He- 
 brews, a territory in tlie southern part of 
 Syria. Chief city, Jerusalem. The name 
 is ocoasionally restricted to the coast re- 
 gion of the Philistines, but is usually re- 
 garded as indicating the region bounded 
 by the Mediterranean on the west and the 
 
Palestrina 
 
 517 
 
 Pallium 
 
 desert on the east, and on the south by an 
 indefinite line extending westward from 
 the southern extremity of the Dead Sea. 
 On the north it is regarded as bounded 
 ( somewhat indefinitely ) by the region of 
 PhcEnicia, Libanon, and Anti-Libanon. 
 The ancient inhabitants of Palestine were 
 the Chanaanites, who were conquered 
 later, and more or less assimilated with 
 the Israelites, under whom the country 
 was portioned out in the tribal divisions 
 of the children of Jacob. The divisions 
 west of the Jordan in the time of Christ 
 were Judea in the south, Samaria in the 
 center, and Galilee in the north. The 
 country, after being subject for a time to 
 the Romans, passed under Mohammedan 
 rule ; was held by the Christians tempora- 
 rily during the Crusades; and since 1516- 
 1517 has been in the possession of the 
 Turkish government. Area estimated 
 10,000-11,000 square miles. Population 
 somewhat over 400,000. 
 
 Palestrina (Giovanni Pierluigi da) 
 (1524-1594). — Born at Palestrina, near 
 Rome ; died at Rome. A celebrated Italian 
 musician, surnamed " Princeps Musicae " 
 {Prince of Music). He was chapel-master 
 at the Lateran, Vatican, and Santa Maria 
 Maggiore in Rome. In accordance with 
 resolutions of the Council of Trent, he 
 composed three masses in 1565, setting the 
 standard of ecclesiastical music. For this 
 he was appointed by Pope Julius III. com- 
 poser to the Pontifical choir. He is con- 
 sidered the first composer who united art 
 with the science of music, and his works, 
 all sacred, except two volumes of madrigals, 
 mark an important epoch in the annals of 
 music. He left between 90 and 100 masses, 
 hymns for the year, about 60 motets, and 
 a number of lamentations, litanies, etc. 
 
 Pall (Lat. falla, a cloak). — A small 
 cloth of linen used to cover the chalice at 
 Mass, and usually stiffened with cardboard. 
 The pall must be of united linen cloth, at 
 least as to the part which touches the chal- 
 ice. . Before using, it must be blessed. 
 This blessing is reserved to the bishop or 
 to a priest having special faculties. The 
 use of the pall appears to have been intro- 
 duced into the Church only about the 
 eleventh century, when the people ceased 
 to communicate in great numbers and 
 when the unleavened bread was reduced to 
 the dimension of a piece of coin. Inno- 
 cent III. reports that, in his time, they 
 made use of two palls, called palla domina 
 
 and falla corf oralis., the latter to cover the 
 altar, and the former to cover the chalice. 
 The ancient custom consisted in covering 
 the chalice simply with the corporal : and 
 this custom continued to exist in France 
 until the twelfth century. The corporal 
 and pall symbolize the linen cloth bought 
 by Joseph of Arimathea to enfold the body 
 of the Lord. See Corporal. 
 
 Pall. — Name given to a piece of cloth 
 which serves to cover the coffin of the 
 dead or the catafalque. There is gener- 
 ally a figure of the cross on it. The pall 
 is black for married people; white for 
 young and unmarried people. 
 
 Palladius (St.). — Little is known of 
 the early career of St. Palladius. He held 
 the high office of deacon of the Roman 
 Church under Pope Celestine, by whom 
 he was consecrated bishop and sent to 
 preach the Gospel " to the Scots," as the 
 Irish were then called. In company with 
 four other missionaries, St. Palladius, in 
 the year 431, entered upon his mission in 
 Ireland. His preaching, however, was not 
 destined to bear much fruit or gather the 
 Irish into the fold of Christ. Meeting 
 with opposition from the Druids and local 
 chiefs, he sailed away the following year 
 to the north, and, landing in modern 
 Scotland, became the apostle of the Picts. 
 Here he preached with great zeal and 
 formed in the Lowlands a considerable 
 Church. After an apostolate of nearly 
 twenty years, St. Palladius died in 450. 
 
 Palladius of Galatia (368-430). — Bishop 
 of Hellenopolis. He wrote a history of 
 the monks and anchorets of both sexes 
 living in his time. 
 
 Pallavicini (Piktro Sforza) (1607- 
 1667) . — The celebrated historian of the 
 Council of Trent, born and died at Rome ; 
 after having been governor of several 
 cities he joined the Jesuits; was charged 
 by Innocent X. with important affairs. 
 Cardinal in 1657. 
 
 Pallium. — The name given by the Cath- 
 olic Church to one of the ecclesiastical 
 ornaments worn by the Pope, patriarchs 
 and archbishops. The pallium is made 
 of white wool obtained from the first fleece 
 of two lambs which, each year, are blessed 
 in the Church of St. Agnes, on that saint's 
 feast day, and then entrusted to religious 
 who take care of them until the shearing 
 time. The palliums, having been blessed 
 
Palm Sunday 
 
 518 
 
 Pantaenus 
 
 by the Pope, are sent to metropolitans, as 
 a symbol of ecclesiastical union. Worn 
 about the shoulders, they symbolize the 
 lost sheep which has been found and is now 
 borne back on the shoulders of the good 
 shepherd. The origin of the pallium is 
 very ancient, but uncertain. Some authors 
 believe that this vestment is nothing else 
 than the cloak presented by the emperors 
 of Constantinople to the Roman Pontiffs 
 and patriarchs, as an emblem of their dig- 
 nity. In the sixth century, the Popes, 
 when they granted the pallium to bishops 
 who were not subjects to the Greek em- 
 pire, were in the habit of asking first the per- 
 mission of the emperor. The latter, besides, 
 claimed the right to grant it directly. In 
 the seventh century, Maurus, archbishop 
 of Ravenna, requested it from the Emperor 
 Constans II., and obtained it. On the 
 other hand, we see that most of the authors 
 have regarded the pallium as a sacred vest- 
 ment and the symbol of a holy thing. 
 They considered it as a relic, as a sort of a 
 cloak of St. Peter. Before sending it to 
 the person appointed, they deposited the 
 same, during one night, in the sanctuary 
 of the confession, right on the tomb of the 
 Apostle St. Peter. Hence the idea of a 
 sort of transmission of power, like that 
 which was symbolized by the cloak of 
 Elias, bequeathed to his successor, Eliseus. 
 Baronius quotes a Constitution of Pope St. 
 Mark, which gives to the bishop of Ostia 
 the right to wear the pallium when he 
 fulfills the office devolved on him of con- 
 secrating bishop the one elected to the 
 dignity of sovereign Pontiff, if he is not 
 this already. In the first centuries the pal- 
 lium had probably a more ample form. 
 
 Palm Sunday. — The last Sunday of Lent, 
 is so called from the custom of blessing 
 branches of the palm tree, or of other trees 
 substituted in those countries in which 
 palms cannot be procured, and of carrying 
 the blessed branches in procession, in com- 
 memoration of the triumphant entry of our 
 Lord into Jerusalem. The date of this 
 ceremony is uncertain, but though it has 
 been in use in the East since the fifth cen- 
 tury, there is no evident proof that it was 
 established in the Western Church before 
 the sixth century. 
 
 Palmyra or Tadmor. — A city founded 
 by Solomon in the desert of Syria, on the 
 borders of Arabia Deserta, near the 
 Euphrates. The Greeks called it Palmyra. 
 
 Its situation was remote from human habi- 
 tations, in the midst of a dreary wilder- 
 ness; and it is probable that Solomon 
 built it to facilitate his commerce with the 
 East, as it afforded a supply of water, a 
 thing of the utmost importance in an Ara- 
 bian desert. It is one day's journey from 
 the Euphrates, two from Upper Syria, and 
 six from Babylon. It submitted to the 
 Romans about the year 130 a. d., and con- 
 tinued in alliance with them during a 
 period of 150 years. When the Saracens 
 triumphed in the East, they acquired pos- 
 session of this city, and restored its ancient 
 name of Tadmor. 
 
 Pamphylia. — A province of Asia Minor, 
 having Cilica east, Lycia west, Pisidia 
 north, and the Mediterranean south. It is 
 opposite to Cyprus and the sea between 
 the coast and the island is called the " Sea 
 of Pamphylia." The chief city of Pam- 
 phylia was Perga, where St. Paul and St. 
 Barnabas preached (Acts xiii, 13). 
 
 Pamphylus (St.). — Born in Berytus and a 
 presbyter of Csesarea in Palestine. Wrote 
 an Apology for Origen in six books, of 
 which only a portion remains in a transla- 
 tion by Rufinus. He was the founder of 
 the celebrated library at Caesarea. To him 
 also is ascribed the division of the Acts of 
 the Apostles into chapters. He suffered 
 martyrdom at Caesarea in 309. 
 
 Pange Lingua. — One of the most re- 
 markable hymns of the Roman Breviary, 
 and like its kindred hymn, Lauda Sion, a 
 most characteristic example as well of the 
 mediaeval Latin versification as of that 
 union of theology with asceticism which a 
 large class of these hymns present. The 
 Pange Lingua is a hymn in honor of the 
 Eucharist, and belongs to the service of 
 the festival of Corpus Christi. It is from 
 the pen of the great angelic Doctor, 
 Thomas Aquinas. See Hymns. 
 
 Pantaenus (St.) (155-214). — Doctor of 
 the Church and apostle of the Hindoos, 
 born in Sicily. Stoic philosopher, was 
 converted by one of the disciples of the 
 Apostles and was appointed master of the 
 Catechetical School at Alexandria, Egypt, 
 by Bishop Julian, about the year 179. The 
 school, which was originally intended 
 solely for converts, was, under Pantasnus 
 developed on a wider basis and open to 
 all. Besides expounding the Sacred 
 Scriptures, Pantaenus also lectured on 
 
Pantheism 
 
 519 
 
 Pantheism 
 
 philosophy. His teachings were chiefly 
 oral. He wrote valued commentaries on 
 the Holy Scriptures, of which only a few 
 scanty specimens remain. 
 
 Pantheism (System of those who admit 
 no other God but an infinite substance of 
 which all the beings are modes). — System 
 which teaches that God is only one and the 
 same thing with the universality of beings. 
 It manifests itself under two forms : i. God 
 absorbing the universe : God in all (Spi- 
 noza). 2. The universe absorbing God : all 
 in God (Hegel). Origin. — Pantheism 
 had representatives at all times. We find 
 it in India among the Brahmans, the Veda, 
 the code of Manu; in Greece with the 
 Eleatic philosophers ; in Alexandria with 
 Plotinus ; in the Middle Ages with Aver- 
 roes and David of Dinand ; later on, in 
 Holland with Spinoza; in Germany in the 
 criticism of Kant, from which went forth 
 the modern pantheism of Fichte, Schelling, 
 Hegel ; in France, the Eclectism. Spinoza, 
 starting with a badly understood idea of 
 Descartes, admits only one substance and, 
 outside of it, simple manifestations, the 
 idea and the extent. Leibnitz, in his the- 
 ory of monadology, touched lightly on 
 pantheism, for, in the series of monads, we 
 have to admit a last term, but, if this last 
 term, this supreme monad, monas monadum, 
 continues the series, this is pantheism. 
 The adherents of Leibnitz, Wolff, and 
 others, have escaped this consequence only 
 in acknowledging that it is necessary to 
 place the last term outside the series. 
 Only under this condition is the dogma of 
 creation maintained. Modern pantheists 
 have taken a step backward : instead of 
 the substance and its two modes, they have 
 put the real and ideal, as the poles of the 
 same Being of the great All which they 
 also call the Absolute. We will not speak 
 of the utopice of Saint-Simon de Fourier, 
 and others, derived from the doctrines of 
 Hegel, theories which never had any scien- 
 tific claims. Division. — There are two 
 theories of pantheism : r. Some admit one 
 sole infinite substance, with modifications 
 of a finite mode, a substance which mani- 
 fests itself by means of immanent opera- 
 tions. 2. Others admit an infinite substance 
 which, by an exterior and passing act, 
 draws, from itself, from the infinite beings, 
 permanent operations, which manifest it 
 by means of an indefinite progress. All 
 the theories of pantheism are founded 
 upon a false principle, in regard to sub- 
 
 stance and the infinite. What is that sub- 
 stance .? What reason have they to sacrifice 
 to it the personal, intelligent, and free 
 Being? And what becomes of our per- 
 sonality, of our liberty in the midst of 
 these shateeless ideas, which confound 
 the universe with the divine essence, 
 the Creator with the creature? Science, 
 better enlightened, and supported upon 
 reason and revelation, has done justice to 
 the hypothesis, which constitutes the basis 
 of pantheism. St. Thomas had already 
 answered all these aberrations of the hu- 
 man mind in refuting Averroism, that is, 
 one of the most perfidious and most ac- 
 credited forms of pantheism. Besides, he 
 refutes the error of David of Dinand, 
 which confounded (like our modern pan- 
 theists) God with first matter; the holy 
 Doctor remarks " that there is confusion 
 in the terms, that if we can say that in God 
 and in primitive matter, there are similar 
 qualities, as, for instance, substance, it 
 does not follow that it is one and the same 
 thing, and that, if we cannot strictly say 
 that God and primitive matter are different 
 things, we can say, at least, that they are 
 diverse." In the question following, St. 
 Thomas, answering the first objection, 
 says " that the things may be, all at once, 
 similar and dissimilar to God ; similar be- 
 cause they imitate Him; dissimilar because 
 they are inferior to their cause, not only 
 in degree, but also as to kind and spe- 
 cies." One cannot establish more clearly 
 the infinite distance which exists between 
 God and the creature ! St. Thomas had, 
 therefore, solved all the questions possible 
 about substance. By his strict and inflex- 
 ible logic, the great Doctor had overthrown 
 the monster, that is, the great heresy. We 
 can say, that by restoring the true concep- 
 tion of a God essentially distinct from the 
 creatures, he had raised Catholic reason to 
 its highest power. Remarkable thing ! all 
 those who wished to deviate from the doc- 
 trine of St. Thomas have generally fallen 
 into the pit. Modern heresies, Jansenism 
 Qixietism, are, under appearances of a 
 false mysticism, only a disguised panthe- 
 ism. Revolution and radicalism, which 
 have begotten Socialism and Nihilism and 
 all the social heresies, are only the natural 
 fruit of Pantheism. Now, if we have to 
 judge the tree by its fruit. Pantheism is, 
 therefore, the great plague of our time, the 
 fatal and fecund error which the Vatican 
 Council has justly struck with its anath- 
 ema. 
 
Pantheon 
 
 520 
 
 Paracleticon 
 
 Pantheon (temple consecrated to all the 
 gods) . — The Pantheon of Rome is a build- 
 ing constructed under Augustus at the 
 expense of Agrippa (26 b. c.)- Burned 
 under Titus and Trajan, restored by Had- 
 rian and Severus, then sacked by the Bar- 
 barians, in 1610, Pope Boniface IV. 
 turned it into a Christian Church, dedi- 
 cated it to the Blessed Virgin and all the 
 saints, whence its present name " Sancta 
 Maria ad Martyres," or more commonly 
 called " Santa Maria Rotunda," on account 
 of its circular form. The interior diameter 
 is 1423^ feet, and the height to the apex is 
 the same. The lighting of the interior 
 comes solely from an open circle, 28 feet in 
 diameter, at the summit of the dome. 
 Raphael, Annibali Caracci, and Victor 
 Emmuel II., are buried in the Pantheon. 
 
 Papa. See Popk. 
 
 Papal States. — A name formerly given 
 to a territory, or rather group of states, in 
 Central Italv, once united under one sov- 
 ereignty, with the Pope for its head. It 
 was an expansive area, irregular in form, 
 resembling the letter Z, the upper portion 
 lying to the east of the Apennines, the 
 lower to the west of that range, these two 
 being connected by a third strip, which 
 crossed the peninsula from east to west. 
 The Papal states were bounded on the 
 north by the Po, on the south by Naples, 
 on the east by the Gulf of Venice and 
 Naples, and on the west by Modena, Tus- 
 cany, and the Tyrrhene sea. Detached 
 portions, as Benevento and Pontecorvo, 
 lay within the Neapolitan territory. 
 Nearly all the territory was annexed to 
 Italy in i860; and the remainder in 1870. 
 See Pepin the Short and Charlemagne. 
 
 Papebroch (Daniel) (1628-1714).— 
 Jesuit and BoUandist, born at Antwerp. 
 Labored at the Acta Sanctorum; drew up 
 the months of March, April, May, and 
 June; was condemned by the Spanish In- 
 quisition for having questioned the founda- 
 tion of the Carmelites by the Prophet 
 Elias. 
 
 Paphnutius (St.). — Monk and bishop of 
 the Thebaid, born in Egypt, died about 
 350. Combated Arianism at Nice, in 325, 
 and suffered martyrdom during the tenth 
 persecution. F. Sept. nth. 
 
 Paphos. — The name of two cities in 
 Cyprus ; here is question of the maritime 
 city on the western extremity of the isle. 
 
 It had a tolerable harbor, and was the sta- 
 tion of a Roman proconsul. About sixty 
 stadia or nearly eight miles from the city 
 was the celebrated temple of Venus, who 
 was hence often called the " Paphian god- 
 dess " (Acts xiii. 6, 13). 
 
 Papias (St.). — Bishop of Hierapolis. 
 He is often mentioned with distinction by 
 Christian antiquity, and is said by St. 
 Irenaeus to have been a disciple of St. John 
 the E^•angelist and a friend of St. Polycarp. 
 He was a man of great erudition and Bib- 
 lical knowledge, and took special care to 
 collect the oral traditions concerning the 
 life and discourses of our Saviour. But he 
 was rather deficient in critical judgment 
 and method, often taking figurative expres- 
 sions in the literal sense. This, of course, 
 proved a fruitful source of other errors 
 and mistaken ideas. Whether he ended 
 his pious and zealous life by a martyr's 
 death is uncertain. He is supposed to 
 have lived between 80-160. Of the work 
 which he composed between 130-150, un- 
 der the name of Books of Explanation of 
 the Lord's Sayings, and which was still in 
 existence in the thirteenth century, there 
 are but ten fragments preserved to us by 
 Irenaeus, Eusebius, and others. They con- 
 tain notices of his studies, researches into 
 the miracles of his time, and observations 
 on the Gospels of St. Mark and St. Luke, 
 and on the four Maries mentioned in the 
 Gospels. 
 
 Parable, was originally the name given 
 by the Greek rhetoricians to an illustration, 
 avowedly introduced as such. In Hellen- 
 istic and the New Greek Testament, it 
 came to signify an independent, fictitious 
 narrative, employed for the illustration of 
 a moral rule or principle. This kind of il- 
 lustration is of eastern origin ; and admira- 
 ble examples are to be found in both the 
 Old and New Testament, particularly in 
 the discourses of our Lord. 
 
 Parabolani. — In the early Church, in 
 the third, fourth, and fifth centuries, a 
 class of lay assistants to the clergy, whose 
 special function was nursing the sick. 
 The name is generally ascribed to the fact 
 of their reckless bravery in nursing pa- 
 tients suffering from infectious diseases. 
 
 Paraclete. — Comforter, name given to 
 the Holy Ghost. 
 
 Paracleticon. — A liturgical book of the 
 Greek Church, in which are found consol- 
 ing discourses. 
 
Paradise 
 
 521 
 
 Paradise 
 
 Paradise {Earthly). — In Holy Scrip- 
 ture, the word paradise properly speaking 
 signifies an orchard ; sometimes it means a 
 grove. The Septuagint employed this 
 term in speaking of the Garden of Eden. 
 In the New Testament the word paradise 
 means a place of delight, where the 
 blessed enjoy eternal beatitude. (See 
 Heaven.) The traditions which the Bi- 
 ble has bequeathed to us, relative to the 
 cradle of humanity, have been at all times 
 the object of attacks by. the enemies of 
 faith. We do not need to discuss here the 
 objections made to the history of Eden in 
 the name of rationalistic philosophy, 
 which rejects both the possibility of the 
 miracle and the idea of an original Fall. 
 
 We will keep strictly to the Biblical 
 point of view, to refute another objection 
 conceived in the following terms: *'The 
 Bible gives, on the situation of Eden, quite 
 precise geographical indications. Now, 
 when we attempt, according to these ac- 
 counts, to fix the site of Paradise, we find 
 ourselves faced with all kinds of "impossi- 
 bilities; but if the Bible is deceived about 
 the site of Eden it may also be deceived on 
 its very existence." 
 
 To show the little value of this objection 
 let us inquire first about the indications 
 contained in Genesis : '* A river went out 
 of the place of pleasure to water paradise, 
 which from thence is divided into four 
 heads. The name of the one is Phison; 
 that is it which compasseth all the land of 
 Havilah, where gold groweth, and the gold 
 of that land is very good; there also is 
 found bdellium and the onyx ( soham ) 
 stone. And the name of the second river 
 is Gehon ; the same is it that compasseth all 
 the land of Ethiopia ( Kusch ). And the 
 name of the third river is Tigris ( Hidde- 
 kel ) ; the same passeth along by Assyria. 
 And the fourth river is Euphrates " ( Gen. 
 ii. 10-14). Even if, after these indications, 
 it should be impossible to-day to assign a 
 place to the earthly paradise, even if sev- 
 eral systems imagined in regard to this 
 subject are clearly erroneous, as appears to 
 be the case, for instance, the hypothesis 
 which places Eden in India, it would not 
 follow that the Biblical account is forged. 
 We do not know the ancient geography 
 well enough, especially that of so remote 
 times, to have the right to be so assertive 
 and to regard as false what we do not un- 
 derstand. But, indeed, several hypotheses 
 imagined as to the site of Eden are pos- 
 sible, although more or less improbable, 
 
 and it is sufficient that they are plausible 
 for the refutation of the objections raised 
 by the critics. Following is a concise re- 
 view of these various systems : — 
 
 I. Henry Rawlinson places Eden in 
 Babylonia, and for this he relies upon in- 
 digenous documents which call Babylonia 
 Gan Duniyas {the inclosure of the God 
 Duniyas), a name which resembles Gan- 
 Eden (Garden of Eden) of Genesis. Raw- 
 linson, being still more precise, indicates 
 the city of Eridu as the site of paradise. 
 Indeed, we find in Chaldean hymns, pas- 
 sages like this: "In Eridu a dark pine 
 grew, in an illustrious place it was 
 planted; its fruit was of white crystal. 
 . In Eridu fruitful abundance of its 
 plenitude; its seat is the (central) place 
 of the earth." In this theory there is no 
 difficulty in identifying the Tigris and 
 Euphrates, two well-known rivers water- 
 ing the plain of Babylon. As to the 
 Gehon, it is the yuha that waters Eridu. 
 Finally, the Phison, it is the stream called 
 Ugne. This hypothesis, which is a re- 
 vival of that of the learned Huet, has 
 hardly any probability in its favor, as can 
 be seen by the following theory; but, rig- 
 orously speaking, it is possible, and this is 
 sufficient to show that the veracity of 
 Genesis as to this point is scientifically 
 unassailable. 
 
 Z. Fr. Delitzsch also places the Eden in 
 Babylonia, and he sees it in the center of 
 Babylon, called very anciently Tintira 
 {grove of life). How does the learned 
 Orientalist arrive at this result? For him, 
 the Tigris and Euphrates named by Genesis 
 are the two rivers of this name which water 
 Babylonia. As to the Gehon and Phison, 
 to succeed in identifying them, Delitzsch 
 at first tries to identify the two countries 
 which they water, Kusch and Havilah. 
 Kusch is the Sumerian-Elamitic power 
 which, three thousand years before Christ, 
 dominated in central Babylonia; its name 
 was Kassi or Kaschi, hence the ancient 
 name of the Chaldeans, Kasda. As to 
 Havilah, whose name signifies sandy land, 
 it is that portion of the Syrian desert which 
 limits the Euphrates : indeed, we find in 
 this place the products mentioned by Gen- 
 esis. Thus Havilah is on the western shore 
 of the Euphrates and Kusch is on the east- 
 ern shore. Therefore, Eden can be only 
 that plain which forms, so to say, a garden 
 around Babylon. As to the Phison and 
 Gehon, they are two of the canals surround- 
 ing Babylon, and probably two of the most 
 
Paradise 
 
 522 
 
 Paradise 
 
 important, the Pallacopas and the Schatt 
 on the Nile. The latter canal was called 
 in Sumerian, Ka-hanna; now the sign 
 which expresses Ka may also be translated 
 by Gu; therefore, we can read instead of 
 Kahan, Guhan, a name which sufficiently 
 approaches Gehon. As to the Phison, 
 neither Pallacopas nor any other canal has 
 ever carried a name that resembles that of 
 Phison; but canal in the Sumerian lan- 
 guage is called pisan, and it may be that 
 the Babylonians did pre-eminently call the 
 Pallacopas canal, pisan (Phison). Finally, 
 the word Eden is derived from the Sume- 
 rian edin, desert, which originally signified 
 depression of ground. 
 
 This theory might be true without giv- 
 ing any one the right to conclude there- 
 from, with its author, that the account 
 of Genesis is only a myth of Babylonian 
 origin. But, in fact, it seems, if not im- 
 possible, at least very difficult to see in the 
 Babylonian plain the Eden of Genesis: (i) 
 When Genesis speaks of this plain, it calls 
 it Sennaar and not Eden. (2) The indig- 
 enous documents give to the Babylonian 
 plain neither the name of Eden nor any 
 other that approaches it. (3) We see (Gen. 
 xi.) that mankind after the Deluge finds a 
 plain in the land of Sennaar, where they 
 establish themselves; this fact seems to 
 indicate that the plain of Sennaar had been 
 unknown to men until after the Deluge. 
 
 (4) In the Bible, the Phison and Gehon 
 are the two most important rivers ; in the 
 theory of Delitzsch they hold only a sec- 
 ondary place and consist of simple canals. 
 
 (5) If the word Eden in the Sumerian 
 language signifies plain, it is in the sense 
 of a dry plain or plateau and not a fruitful 
 plain. 
 
 3. The most probable hypothesis is that 
 which seeks the site of Eden at the sources 
 of the Euphrates and Tigris, that is, in 
 Armenia. Therefore, "the Phison is," 
 says Vigouroux, " either the Phase of the 
 ancients, which flows from east to west 
 and empties into the Dead Sea, or the Kur, 
 the Cyrus of the ancients, which takes its 
 source in the neighborhood of Kars, not 
 far from the western source of the Euphra- 
 tes, and then empties into the Caspian 
 sea, after having mingled its water with 
 that of the Araxes. Havilah, which the 
 Phison waters, is Colchis, the country of 
 precious metals, whither the Argonauts 
 went to seek the golden fleece. As to the 
 Gehon, it is the Aras of to-day, the an- 
 cient Araxes, called by the Arabs Djaichum 
 
 (or Gehon) er Ras, which rises in the 
 neighborhood of the eastern source of the 
 Euphrates, and together with the Kur emp- 
 ties into the Caspian sea. The land of 
 Kusch through which it passes, according 
 to Genesis, is the country of the Kosseans, 
 Cassiotis.'' One can allege nothing against 
 this hypothesis, defended especially by 
 Calmet; be it as it may, it is sufficient 
 that it will ably cut short all attacks 
 on the veracity of Genesis. Besides, the 
 best constructed theory as to the subject of 
 the site of Eden will, probably, alwajs re- 
 main a hypothesis. Since the creation of 
 man, certain portions of the earth have 
 been overthrown, either by the Deluge or 
 by other revolutions, and undoubtedly it 
 entered the designs of divine Providence 
 that the earthly paradise should be com- 
 prised among these destructions : first, God 
 caused it to be guarded by Cherubim ; 
 then He took care that His sentence was 
 executed by a still more radical measure, 
 namely, by rendering its site unrecogniza- 
 ble. Henceforth, men should pass the 
 places where formerly the Garden of Eden 
 was situated, without being aware of do- 
 ing so. 
 
 The traditions of the earthly paradise 
 have been preserved among many nations. 
 Several of them locate the cradle of hu- 
 manity among the high mountains of 
 Central Asia, where the great Asiatic riv- 
 ers have their sources. According to the 
 Hindoos, the four or five great rivers rose 
 toward the north of the sacred mountain, 
 the Meru (Himalaya) or Pamir, to direct 
 themselves toward different points of the 
 world. The ancient Iranians placed it in 
 the North, on Mount Hukairya, one of the 
 peaks of the sacred mountain, Hara- 
 Baerezaiti, also called Albordji, whose 
 summits reached unto heaven, to the 
 revivifying waters of Ardvi-Cure, which 
 had their source in heaven itself, thus ob- 
 taining the power to fructify the earth. 
 The Chinese describe the cradle of man- 
 kind thus: "It is a mountain situated 
 in the middle of the central plateau of 
 Asia, forming part of the mountainous re- 
 gion of Kuen-Lun. In the midst of this 
 mountain there is a garden where con- 
 stantly a tender zephyr breathes and 
 moves the leaves of the beautiful Tong. 
 This delightful garden is situated close to 
 the gates of heaven. The waters which 
 furrow it proceed from a beautiful yellow 
 source, called the source of immortality ; 
 those who drink thereof will never die. It 
 
Paralipomena 
 
 523 
 
 Parents 
 
 branches off into four rivers flowing 
 toward the north, west, south, and east. 
 (Cf. Liicken, Uberlieferungen, Vol. I, p. 
 100. 
 
 Paralipomena. — Name which the Sep- 
 tuagint have given to the two Books fol- 
 lowing those of Kings. They form a sort 
 of supplement to the history of the Israel- 
 ites, from almost the creation of the world 
 to the return of the Israelites from the 
 Babylonian captivity. St. Jerome assures 
 us that these two Books contain very im- 
 portant things for the explanation of Holy 
 Scripture, that the tradition of Sacred 
 Writ is contained therein, and that we find 
 in them quite a number of questions fully 
 solved in regard to the Gospel. Very 
 probably the author of the Paralipomena 
 was no other than Esdras. 
 
 Parasceve. — Name given by the Jews 
 to the day of Friday, the eve of the Sab- 
 bath. Because it was not permitted to 
 prepare anything to eat on the day of the 
 Sabbath, they prepared their nourishment 
 the evening before. St. John tells us that 
 the Friday, the day on which Jesus Christ 
 suffered death, was the Parasceve of the 
 Pasch, and it can be seen, in the Gospels, 
 that they hastened to take down from the 
 Cross the body of Christ, because it was on 
 the evening of the Parasceve, and the Sab- 
 bath soon began. The Church has pre- 
 served the name Parasceve in the Missal 
 for Good Friday. 
 
 Parents {Duties of Children toward 
 Their). — Children must love, honor, and 
 respect their parents, because they are the 
 secondary authors of their existence, and 
 the natural representatives of God's author- 
 ity. To honor our parents we should re- 
 spect them in our hearts, with a senti- 
 ment of veneration; and in our manner 
 and words, by the consideration and at- 
 tention which it is our unquestionable 
 duty to evince. We should love them 
 with that instinct of affection, which shows 
 itself spontaneously in all nature, however 
 inferior to our own. How greatly, there- 
 fore, ought we to cultivate this tenderness 
 of feeling, and assiduously practice its 
 dictates for the comfort and benefit of our 
 parents. It is our duty to administer to 
 their spiritual and temporal requirements; 
 to help them in distress, or poverty; to 
 attend them in illness ; to comfort them in 
 affliction ; to see that they receive the con- 
 solation and support of religion in their 
 
 last moments ; to pray for the repose of 
 their souls after death ; and to acquit our- 
 selves with punctuality and exactness of 
 the obligations with which they have 
 charged us, either by writing or word of 
 mouth. We are taught obedience to our 
 parents by the example of submission our 
 Saviour showed toward His sacred Mother 
 and St. Joseph, when He was "subject to 
 them" (Luke ii. 51), during His hidden 
 life ; and by several passages in Scripture, 
 among which is the clearly expressed in- 
 junction of St. Paul: "Children, obey 
 your parents in the Lord, for this is just" 
 (Ephes. vi. i). 
 
 Parents [Duties of, to Their Children). — 
 Parents should love their children : " If a 
 man have not care of his own, and espe- 
 cially of those of his house, he hath denied 
 the faith, and is worse than an infidel " ( I. 
 Tim. V. 8). Parents should love their 
 children, not merely from natural motives, 
 and for their own pleasure, but from a 
 Christian point of view, and for the eternal 
 salvation of the souls God has intrusted to 
 their keeping ; children are created, not 
 for them, but for Himself; and not for the 
 purely natural satisfaction of their parents, 
 but for the supernatural object and end of 
 their own temporal existence. Parents 
 fail in this duty of love for their children, 
 by the absence of any of those duties we 
 owe one to another in charity toward our 
 neighbor; or by unjust antipathy to or 
 special fondness for one among several, 
 without a reasonable motive. 
 
 The particular duties of parents, for the 
 spiritual and corporal well-being of their 
 children, are, that they should watch over 
 their health ; preserving them from danger, 
 moral and physical ; tending them in sick- 
 ness ; and educating them as fully as their 
 means permit, and position demands. They 
 should give them religious instruction, 
 teaching them, at an early age, the rules of 
 morality, and the Commandments of God 
 and of the Church, that, being responsible 
 for them, they may not in after years have 
 reason to reproach themselves for neglect 
 of their duty toward their children. They 
 should watch over them with vigilant care 
 by studying their characters, and separa- 
 ting them from people and things that 
 might have an injurious or dangerous 
 influence on them ; for " he that toucheth 
 pitch, shall be defiled with it: and he that 
 hath fellowship with the proud, shall put 
 on pride" (Ecclus. xiii. i). They should 
 
Parish 
 
 524 
 
 Paschal 
 
 correct them in all things detrimental to 
 their souls or bodies, in their own interest 
 as well as that of their children : " he that 
 spareth the rod, hateth his son; but he 
 that loveth him, correcteth him betimes " 
 (Prov. xiii. 24) ; tempering, by gentleness 
 and justice, the adequate chastisement. It 
 is written by St. Paul : " Provoke not your 
 children to anger; but bring them up in 
 the discipline and correction of the Lord " 
 (Ephes. vi. 4). Parents should afford their 
 children good example in words and ac- 
 tions, for from whom would a child 
 naturally take the impress of good or evil, 
 if not from those in nearest relationship 
 and closest contact.? Example given in 
 tender years remains almost indelible, 
 more especially if evil example, because of 
 the usually corrupt inclination of our 
 nature. Parents should procure for their 
 children, as far as they are able, a situation 
 or occupation in life suitable to their 
 tastes, dispositions, and capabilities ; di- 
 recting, advising, and consulting with 
 them on the selection, with every care and 
 consideration; but not opposing them in 
 the choice of a "vocation," when there is 
 full reason for feeling convinced that they 
 have found their calling in life. Such 
 opposition would be unjust toward God, 
 toward their children, and toward them- 
 selves ; because we ought all to follow that 
 way, which God has marked out to lead us 
 to Himself, more especially when there is 
 question of a person called in a special 
 manner to His service. There must 
 always be one occupation, for which we 
 have more taste, and aptitude, and in 
 V(hich are provided the particular graces 
 necessary for the better fulfillment of our 
 duties, and the leading of a worthy life. 
 In resisting the will of God in such mat- 
 ters, parents compromise the happiness of 
 their children in this world and in the 
 next, and assume, by so doing, an im- 
 mense responsibility, involving their own 
 temporal and eternal peace. 
 
 Parish and Parish Priest. — Gerson 
 chancellor of the Sorbonne, was the first 
 who, in the beginning of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury, maintained that parish priests were 
 instituted by Christ Himself. This is er- 
 roneous; for in the first three centuries of 
 the Church there were no parishes or par- 
 ish priests in any part of the world. There 
 was, in fact, but one church in the princi- 
 pal city of the diocese, that is, in the city 
 where the bishop resided. To this church 
 
 all the Faithful, not merely of the city it- 
 self, but also of the neighboring villages, 
 went on Sundays to assist at Mass and re- 
 ceive the sacraments. To the absent, holy 
 communion was brought by the deacons. 
 When the Faithful became more numer- 
 ous, other churches were indeed built, 
 even in the episcopal city ; but services 
 were performed there by priests from the 
 cathedral, not by parish priests, that is, 
 not by priests permanently appointed to 
 exercise the cura animarum over determi- 
 nate congregations. Hence, there was 
 but one parish in each diocese, namely, 
 the cathedral. The bishop was, so to 
 speak, the parish priest of, and exercised 
 the cura throughout, the whole diocese, 
 either personally or assisted by his 
 priests. It was only after the third cen- 
 tury that parishes were established, and 
 that, at first, in rural districts only, and 
 later on, that is, after the year 1000, in 
 cities. Hence, parish priests are merely 
 of ecclesiastical, not of divine, institution. 
 Nor is the contrary provable from Sacred 
 Scripture. For the word presbyteri, 
 as mentioned in the texts quoted by our 
 opponents, does not necessarily refer to 
 parish priests, since, in the first ages, 
 bishops were also called presbyteri. See 
 Bishops. 
 
 Parker (Matthew) (1504-1575). — In- 
 truded archbishop, born at Norwick. 
 Chaplain of Queen Anne Boleyn and of 
 Henry VIII.; banished by Mary Tudor 
 and called back by Elizabeth, was raised 
 by her to the episcopate and appointed to 
 the see of Canterbury; persecuted both 
 the Puritans and Catholics. 
 
 Parsism. See Zoroastrianism. 
 
 Parthia. — In ancient geography, a coun- 
 try in western Asia, situated east of Media 
 and south of Hyrcania. It was the nucleus 
 of the Parthian empire. Jews from Par- 
 thia were present at Jerusalem at the Pen- 
 tecost (Acts ii. 9). 
 
 Paschal (name of two Popes) . — Paschal 
 I. — Pope from 817 to 824. Successor of 
 Stephen IV. Crowned Lothaire emperor 
 of the West in 823 ; established at Rome a 
 house of refuge for the persecuted Greeks. 
 Paschal II. — Pope from 1099 to 11 18. 
 Successor of Urban II. Formerly Cardinal 
 Rainer, and monk of Cluny. He, indeed, 
 pursued the same policy as Gregory VII., 
 but did not possess the same firmness of 
 character and knowledge of the world. In 
 
Paschal Candle 
 
 525 
 
 Passion Sunday 
 
 the Lateran Synod of the year 1102, he re- 
 newed the prohibition of lay investiture 
 and the ban against Henry IV. of Ger- 
 many. There were two antipopes by the 
 name of Paschal : in 694 and 1168. 
 
 Paschal Candle. See Candle. 
 
 Paschal Precept. See Communion. 
 
 Paschasius Radbertus. See R a d- 
 
 BERTUS. 
 
 Passionists. — A religious congregation 
 of priests, the object of whose institute, in- 
 dicated by their name, is to preach " Jesus 
 Christ and Him crucified." The founder, 
 St. Paul of the Cross, was born in 1694, 
 near Genoa, obtained the sanction of his 
 community by Pope Benedict XIV. in 
 1741, and died at the mother-house of the 
 Society on the Coelian Hill at Rome in 
 1775. The cross appears everywhere as 
 their emblem, and a large crucifix forms 
 a part of their striking costume. For a 
 time the congregation remained in ob- 
 scurity; but in the first half of the nine- 
 teenth century it rose into notice. In 1842 
 it secured a footing in England. The 
 American province, begun in 1852, num- 
 bers many houses. The Passionists were 
 introduced into the United States by the 
 Right Rev. Michael O'Connor, bishop of 
 Pittsburg. 
 
 Passion Play is the name given to the 
 portrayal of Our Lord's Passion, and other 
 Biblical events in the series of tableaux 
 vivants. In the Middle Ages, before the 
 invention of printing had placed Holy 
 Scripture within the reach of the people, 
 it was customary to present to their view 
 the chief events of Our Lord's life in the- 
 atrical representations. For instance, St. 
 Francis of Assisi, obtained the Papal per- 
 mission to construct a stable of brushwood 
 and moss in the midst of a pine wood. In 
 it he placed a real manger in which was 
 laid an image of the divine Infant, while 
 figures representing Mary and Joseph stood 
 beside it. A real ox and an ass were tied 
 to a stall outside the stable; inside an altar 
 was erected, at which at midnight the 
 Christmas Mass was solemnly celebrated, 
 St. Francis, serving as deacon, to the great 
 edification of the crowds who flocked from 
 all parts around to witness the unwonted 
 spectacle. From that time forth, the 
 custom of making a crib in churches began 
 to prevail. In the Middle Ages, pains 
 were taken to make representations of this 
 
 description as picturesque and true to na- 
 ture as possible ; scenes from the life of 
 Our Lord or other spiritual personages 
 were represented on the stage in tableaux. 
 The subject of these religious dramas or 
 miracle-plays, as they were called, was 
 generally adapted to the season of the ec- 
 clesiastical year in which they were per- 
 formed. At first they were enacted in the 
 Church, the actors speaking in Latin ; later 
 on they were given in the open air, and the 
 vernacular was used. In the fourteenth 
 century, these sacred dramas were custom- 
 ary in almost every village in France and 
 Germany, but owing to abuses having 
 arisen, they were strictly prohibited by the 
 Holy See. In 1633, they were, however, 
 revived at Oberammergau, in Bavaria, in 
 consequence of a vow made by the inhabi- 
 tants to perform a passion play every ten 
 years if they were delivered from a pes- 
 tilence which was ravaging the village. 
 This passion play as well as two others in 
 the Tyrol, has acquired a world-wide re- 
 nown. It is performed with wonderful 
 skill by the peasants, and in a spirit of 
 heartfelt piety and recollection. Expe- 
 rience proves that far from being, as some 
 allege, a profanation of holy things, the 
 representation of the solemn scenes of 
 Our Lord's sacred passion has the effect 
 of impressing and touching the spectators, 
 inspiring feelings of devotion, and elevat- 
 ing the heart so that the actors are forgotten 
 in the entrancing interest of the scenes en- 
 acted. Besides, the gracious answer to 
 the petition of the people of Oberammer- 
 gau ought to silence the objector, for that 
 cannot be reprehensible of which God 
 manifests His approval in so signal a man- 
 ner. 
 
 Passion Sunday. — The Sunday before 
 Palm Sunday, so called, because from this 
 day the Church occupies herself exclusively 
 with the contemplation of the Passion and 
 Death of the Saviour. The pictures of 
 Christ crucified are covered on this day in 
 memory of His having hidden Himself 
 from the Jews until His entrance into Jeru- 
 salem, no longer showing Himself in pub- 
 lic (John xi. 54)11 In the Mass, the Glory 
 be to the Father, etc., is omitted, because 
 in the person of Christ the holy Trinity 
 was dishonored. The Psalm Judica is not 
 said, because on this day the high priests 
 held council about our Lord, for which 
 reason in the name of the suffering Saviour 
 uses these words at thfe Introit: "Judge 
 
Passover 
 
 526 
 
 Paten 
 
 me, O God, and distinguish my cause from 
 the nation that is not holy : deliver me 
 from the unjust and deceitful man, for 
 Thou art my God and my strength," etc. 
 
 Passover. — An annual feast of the Jews, 
 instituted to commemorate the escape of 
 the Hebrews in Egypt, when God, smiting 
 the first-born of the Egyptians, " passed 
 over" the houses of the Israelites, which 
 were marked with the blood of the Paschal 
 Lamb. It w.as celebrated on the evening 
 of the 14th day of Abib or Nisan, the first 
 month of the sacred year. The name is 
 also used, by extension, to include the 
 seven days that followed (from the 15th to 
 the 22d of Nisan), during which the Israel- 
 ites were permitted to eat only unleavened 
 bread ; and hence the Passover is also 
 known as the " feast of unleavened bread." 
 Every householder with his family ate on 
 the first evening a lamb killed by the priest 
 (Ex. xii.), which was served without break- 
 ing the bones. 
 
 Pastor. — A title pre-eminently belong- 
 ing to the Roman Pontiff, who in the 
 collect Pro Papa is described as pastor 
 ecclesice. It is also given to bishops and 
 priests, each of whom are to lead, feed, 
 and gently rule, like a shepherd, the flock 
 committed to them. 
 
 Pastoral Letter. — A letter addressed 
 either at certain stated times, or on the oc- 
 currence of some notable occasion, by a 
 pastor, but especially by a bishop to the 
 clergy under his jurisdiction, to the laity 
 of his flock, or to both. It is usual for 
 bishops, besides their stated letters, to ad- 
 dress to their clergy or people instructions 
 suited to any particular emergency which 
 may arise, and sometimes to take occasion, 
 from the issuing of the stated pastoral let- 
 ter, to offer instruction on some topic of 
 importance which may engage public at- 
 tention at the time, on some prevelent 
 abuse or scandal, or some apprehended 
 danger to faith or morals. 
 
 Pastoral Staff (sometimes also, although 
 not properly, called "crosier.") One of 
 the insignia of the episcopal ofiice, some- 
 times also borne by an abbot. — It is a tall 
 staff of metal, or of wood ornamented with 
 metal, having, at least in the Western 
 Church, the head curved in the form of a 
 shepherd's crook, as a symbol of the pas- 
 toral office. It is difficult to determine the 
 time at which the pastoral staff first came 
 
 into use. The first distinct allusion to it is 
 in St. Augustine's commentary on the 
 124th Psalm. Gregory of Tours, in the 
 Life of St. Martin, mentions the pastoral 
 staff of St. Severinus, who was bishop of 
 Cologne toward the end of the fourth cen- 
 tury. From an early time the pastoral 
 staff was connected with the actual posses- 
 sion of the jurisdiction which it symbolizes. 
 
 Patara. — In ancient geography, a city 
 of Lycia, Asia Minor, east of the mouth of 
 Zanthus, and opposite Rhodes. Here St. 
 Paul on his last visit to Jerusalem re- 
 embarked (Acts xxi. I, 2) for Phoenicia. 
 It is now in ruins, but retains its ancient 
 name. 
 
 Patarini. — Name given to the followers 
 of the deacon Ariald of Milan, who, in the 
 middle of the eleventh century, attacked 
 the marriage of certain clergymen as a 
 great scandal, and especially after the ar- 
 rival there of Peter Damianus as papal 
 legate caused a great commotion. The 
 name is derived from Pataria (a rag- 
 picker'), a quarter of Milan inhabited by 
 the rag-pickers who there, as in other 
 Italian cities, formed a guild of their own. 
 Patarini were also styled members of a 
 Waldensian sect of the twelfth century. 
 Says itself again, in general, of the here- 
 tics of this time, whom they mostly desig- 
 nated under the name of Albigenses. 
 
 Paten. — A circular plate of silver, gilt, 
 or of gold, used from the earliest times to 
 receive the Host consecrated at Mass. It 
 is consecrated with chrism by the bishop. 
 In the primitive ages the number of those 
 who partook of the blessed sacrament 
 every Sunday, together with the priest, 
 was very great, and, in consequence, the 
 paten or sacred disc, from which the sac- 
 ramental bread used to be distributed, was 
 so large in its dimensions that convenience 
 required its removal from the altar as soon 
 as the oblation had been made, and not 
 brought back until the period arrived for 
 giving the communion to the people. In- 
 stead of depositing the paten upon the 
 credence table which stands near the altar, 
 the Roman ritual considered it more deco- 
 rous and appropriate to consign it to the sub- 
 deacon, who, by holding it in an elevated 
 position, might thus announce to the as- 
 sembly that the period for receiving the 
 blessed sacrament would very soon ap- 
 proach, and silently admonish them to pray 
 with greater fervor. 
 
Pater Noster 
 
 527 
 
 Patrick 
 
 Pater Noster {Our I^atker).— The first 
 two words of the Latin translation of the 
 Lord's Prayer. In the Latin Church, the 
 " Our Father " is recited at low, and sung 
 at high Mass ; in the Greek Church, it is 
 recited or chanted by all the people. In 
 many parts of Asia, the sacrifice of the 
 Mass is offered up in ancient Syriac ; in 
 Africa, especially in Egypt, in ancient 
 Coptic, once the common, but both for 
 many centuries past, dead languages. 
 Though the Asiatic and African Chris- 
 tians of the present day speak a dialect 
 quite different from the ancient Syriac and 
 Coptic, with which they are utterly unac- 
 quainted, still, in joining in the public 
 offices and liturgy of the Church, they 
 recite the " Our Father," etc., in the obso- 
 lete language, although they possess ver- 
 nacular translations of this prayer into 
 Arabic, which they use in their private 
 devotions. See Prayer. 
 
 Patmos. — An island of the Sporades, 
 belonging to Turkey, situated in the 
 yEgean sea about 20 miles southwest of 
 Samos, the modern Patmo or Patino. 
 Here a monastery bears the name of John 
 the Divine, and a cave is pointed out 
 where, according to a legend, the Apostle 
 and Evangelist saw the visions of the 
 Apocalypse. 
 
 Patriarchs. — Patriarchs are bishops 
 who preside not merely over one diocese 
 or province, but over several provinces or 
 districts. The dignity of patriarch dates 
 back to the Apostles ; the name came into 
 use only from the time of the Council of 
 Chalcedon. Formerly the patriarchs had 
 power chiefly: To consecrate metropoli- 
 tans and give them the pallium, to assist 
 and preside at patriarchal or national 
 councils ; to receive appeals from the sen- 
 tence of metropolitans. These rights may 
 be summed up thus : the jurisdiction exer- 
 cised by patriarchs over metropolitans was 
 similar to that exercised in turn by the 
 metropolitans over their suffragan bishops. 
 The four great patriarchates of the East- 
 ern Church, namely, of Alexandria, Anti- 
 och, Constantinople, and Jerusalem, having 
 fallen into schism and heresy, have become 
 extinct. The Holy See, however, in order 
 to preserve the memory of these patriarch- 
 ates, still creates titular patriarchs of these 
 sees, who reside in Rome ; they have only 
 the title of patriarchs, but no jurisdiction, 
 except, however, the Patriarch of Jerusa- 
 lem, who was sent to his see by Pope Pius 
 
 IX., and occupies it at present. Besides 
 these, there are still in the Oriental Church 
 several actual patriarchs in communion 
 with the Holy See. Thus, the Chaldeans, 
 Melchites, Syrians, and Armenians, who 
 are united with the Catholic Church, have 
 their patriarchs, to whom the Holy See 
 usually grants faculties similar to those 
 enjoyed by the patriarchs of old. The 
 Roman Pontiff is the patriarch of the 
 Western or Latin Church. Besides, there 
 are in the Latin Church the patriarchs of 
 Lisbon, Venice, and the West Indies; they 
 are called " minor patriarchs," and have 
 only the title, not the jurisdiction, of 
 patriarchs. The patriarchate itself is not 
 of divine but of ecclesiastical institution. 
 
 Patriarchs {Ancient). — The patriarchs 
 of the primitive world are those of the 
 descendants of Adam (who also belong to 
 the descendants of Seth), who preserved 
 tradition and the word of God, as well as 
 fidelity in the obedience to the divine law, 
 while the descendants of Cain delivered 
 themselves to their passions. The Cainites 
 lived in the East of Eden, after having 
 separated from the descendants of Seth. 
 Holy Scripture names eight generations of 
 patriarchs of the primitive world, to whom 
 they add Seth and Adam. The ten patri- 
 archs before the Deluge are therefore : 
 Adam, Seth, Enos, Cainan, Malaleel, Jared, 
 Henoch, Mathusala, Lamech, and Noe. 
 After the Deluge, the name of patriarch is 
 also given to Sem, Arphaxad, Cainan, 
 Sale, Heber, Phaleg, Reu, Sarug, Nachor, 
 Thare, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. The 
 patriarchs until Noe lived to a very old 
 age. All appears to attest that not only 
 human life, but also that of vegetables 
 and animal species, which existed in the 
 ages of the primitive world, had a consid- 
 erable duration, which was gradually re- 
 duced. This general account is admitted 
 by science. 
 
 Patrick (St.). — Apostle and patron of 
 Ireland. Up to the fifth century, Chris- 
 tianity had made but little progress in 
 Ireland. It is to St. Patrick alone, that 
 the island owes its complete conversion. 
 So blessed were his efforts, that in a short 
 time, the people were fervent and faithful 
 Christians. On the authority of our Saint's 
 own confession and the traditions of the 
 Scottish Church, Dr. Moran, now Cardinal 
 archbishop of Sidney, has clearly shown 
 that the Apostle of Ireland was born at 
 Old-Kilpatrick, between Alcluaid, now 
 
Patrimony of St. Peter 
 
 528 
 
 Patrology 
 
 called Dumbarton, and Glasgow, in Scot- 
 land, about the year 387. Other accounts 
 make him a native of Armorica, Gaul. He 
 was the son of Calpurnius, of illustrious 
 Celtic descent, and of Conchessa, who is 
 said to have been a near relative, probably 
 the sister of St. Martin of Tours. While 
 yet in his boyhood, Patrick was led a cap- 
 tive to Ireland, and there he was obliged 
 to act as herdsman. Being by divine in- 
 terposition freed from captivity, he re- 
 solved to dedicate himself to the service of 
 God. By divers visions God manifested 
 to him that he was destined for the great 
 work of converting Ireland. Day and 
 night he was hunted by the pagan country, 
 in which he had spent six years of servi- 
 tude, and the character of whose people he 
 so well understood. It was at the famous 
 schools of St. Martin at Tours, and of 
 Lerins, that our Saint prepared himself 
 for the missionary career. At the solicita- 
 tion of St. Germanus of Auxerre, his 
 spiritual adviser, Patrick proceeded to 
 Rome in company with the pious priest 
 Segetius, who was instructed by Germanus 
 to attest the virtues and excellence of our 
 Saint. Patrick's baptismal name was 
 Succath ; at the time of his ordination it 
 was changed to Magonius ; but Pope 
 Celestine I., to add dignity to the Saint's 
 mission, conferred on him the Patrician 
 order, which had been instituted by Con- 
 stantine the Great, whence he was after- 
 wards generally called "Patricius." Having 
 received episcopal consecration, Patrick 
 set out for Ireland, and, assisted by Aux- 
 ilius, Iserninus and some others, com- 
 menced the arduous task of a nation's con- 
 version, with all the advantages of profound 
 learning and piety, and of a personal 
 knowledge of the people, their language 
 and manners. Before the arrival of St. 
 Patrick, the Irish were pagans, worshiping 
 the sun and the stars; hills and mountains 
 were the places of their religious services. 
 His first convert was a chief named Dicho, 
 who in proof of his sincerity built a church 
 in Down. Thence our Saint proceeded to 
 Tara, in the present county of Meath, 
 where he preached on the eve of Easter 
 before the Monarch Leaguaire, and bap- 
 tized many of the Druids, lords, and court- 
 iers. Patrick traveled over the whole 
 island, visiting every province. Such was 
 the fruit of his preaching that the conver- 
 sions soon numbered by tens of thousands. 
 In 445 St. Patrick founded the metropolitan 
 see of Armagh, and thus laid the founda- 
 
 tion of the primatial see of "All Ireland." 
 In the year 450 St. Patrick held a synod to 
 regulate the discipline of the Church which 
 he had founded. His missionary success 
 is without parallel in the history of the 
 Church. In the course of about fifty 
 years, a whole nation, including rulers and 
 princes, men and women, was won over to 
 Christianity without the shedding of a 
 single drop of blood. Sees were founded 
 in all parts of the island, bishops conse- 
 crated, and priests ordained; churches 
 were built and monasteries erected, which 
 became famous seats of piety and learning, 
 and nurseries of faith for other nations. 
 During the latter part of his Apostolic 
 life, St. Patrick composed the treatise 
 known by the name of " St. Patrick's Con- 
 fessions," in which with fervent gratitude 
 he records the divine favors towards him- 
 self and the nation to which he had been 
 sent. He died March 17th, a. v., 493, in 
 the monastery of Saul, the first of his 
 foundations. F. March 17th. 
 
 Patrimony of St. Peter. See Pkpin the 
 
 Short ; Power ( Temporal). 
 
 Patripassians. See Monarcians. 
 
 Patrology (knowledge of the writings 
 of the Doctors and Fathers of the Church). 
 — We must not confound this science with 
 the patristic science which also treats of 
 the holy Fathers, but solely from the doc- 
 trinal point of view. Patrology may be 
 divided into two parts : it is general and 
 special, i. The general part indicates by 
 what signs we may indicate the holy Fa- 
 thers, shows their authority in everything 
 that concerns religion, and discusses the 
 authenticity of their works ; establishes 
 the means to understand them, presents, 
 from the point of view of ancient language 
 and philosophy, the difficulty of their in- 
 terpretation, a difficulty which resides 
 either in the matter or form, or in the cir- 
 cumstances of time and place where they 
 were written. 2. The special part treats 
 of each Father in particular; it is subdi- 
 vided into several sections : the Apostolic 
 Fathers and the Apologists of the second 
 and third centuries; the Fathers of the 
 fourth century form a very important 
 group whose task it was to combat the 
 heresy of the Arians and Macedonians in 
 regard to the Most Holy Trinity; about 
 the end of the fourth century appears a 
 new group, which occupied itself espe- 
 cially with the interpretation of Holy 
 
Patron Saint 
 
 529 
 
 Paul 
 
 Scripture. They are: St. Ephrem, St. 
 Chrysostom, and St. Jerome. In the fifth 
 century, it is St. Augustine, who alone 
 combats the Donatists and Pelagians, and 
 comes forth victorious. Then, when Nes- 
 torius came to trouble the Church by at- 
 tacking the sacred person of the Saviour 
 Himself, the champions did not fail ; at 
 their head, let us quote St. Cyril of Alex- 
 andria. Finally, when the Church had to 
 defend the two natures in Jesus Christ 
 against Eutyches, the great Pope Leo I. 
 upheld the Catholic doctrine and carried 
 the victory. Although the Fathers were 
 always held in high esteem, patrology is 
 quite a new science. Only about the latter 
 half of the last century, the first patrologies, 
 properly speaking, appeared. In order to 
 solve the numerous difficulties it comes 
 across, patrology makes use of most of the 
 other sciences : theology, linguistics, eth- 
 nography, mythology, general history of 
 the Church, and the biography of each 
 Father. Finally, it concludes on the use 
 which can be made of the Fathers, either 
 from the dogmatic or moral point of view. 
 
 Patron Saint (special guardian or pro- 
 tector). — The saint to whom a church 
 has been dedicated and who is looked 
 upon by a country, city, congregation, 
 confraternity, or community as its special 
 protector. The institution of patron 
 saints of churches, kingdoms, and prov- 
 inces, is as old as the veneration of the 
 saints. Since the most remote antiquity, 
 the Church has chosen for special patrons 
 of certain countries those saints who ex- 
 ercised in certain localities a peculiar in- 
 fluence, such as St. Polycarp, at Smyrna, 
 St. Ignatius, at Antioch, St. Remigius, in 
 France, etc. 
 
 Paul (name of five Popes). — Paul I. — 
 Pope from 757 to 767. Roman by birth, 
 successor of Stephen II. He had to de- 
 fend the Christians of the East against the 
 persecutions of Emperor Constantine 
 Copronymus. Paul II. — Pope from 1464 
 to 1471. He was a liberal patron of arts 
 and letters, has been unjustly assailed, 
 particularly by Platina, out of spite for 
 abolishing the office of '* Abreviators " io 
 the Papal chancery, among the clerks of 
 which great abuses prevailed. He is cen- 
 sured for his excessive prodigality, and 
 for raising three of his nephews to the 
 dignity of cardinals. Nepotism, however, 
 was universally practiced in those days, 
 and considered less odious than at pres- 
 
 34 
 
 ent. Paul II. showed himself a firm and 
 watchful Pontiff. Paul III. — Pope from 
 1534 to 1549. Successor of Clemens VII. 
 He convoked the Holy Ecumenical Coun- 
 cil of Trent, which was opened Dec. 13th, 
 1545. Excommunicated Henry VIII. of 
 England as abettor of a schism and of 
 heresy, became the ally of Charles V. of 
 Spain, and protected the Jesuits in their 
 work of foreign missions to which they 
 commenced to deliver themselves in the 
 East. Paul IV. — Pope from 1555 to 
 1559. During his troubled Pontificate no 
 attempt was made to reconvene the Coun- 
 cil of Trent. Paul IV. earnestly sup- 
 ported Queen Mary in her efforts to re- 
 store the Catholic religion in England. 
 Charles V. of Spain, having abdicated 
 without consulting the Holy See, Paul 
 refused to recognize the elevation of 
 Ferdinand to the Empire. The Roman 
 emperor, henceforth, not being crowned 
 but merely "elected," had, from that 
 time no other relations with the Holy See 
 than those of other sovereigns. Paul V. — 
 Pope from 1605 to 1621. He became in- 
 volved in a dispute with the republic of 
 Venice respecting the imprisonment of 
 several ecclesiastics and the passing of 
 laws which prohibited the founding 
 of religious and charitable institutions, 
 and the acquisition of landed property by 
 the Church, without State approval. He 
 excommunicated the Doge and laid Venice 
 under an interdict. The dispute was set- 
 tled to the advantage of the Church, 
 through the mediation of the French 
 king, in 1607. Paul introduced the 
 "Forty Hours' Adoration" and com- 
 pleted St. Peter's Church at Rome. 
 
 Paul (St.). — Apostle of the Gentiles, 
 born in the year 2 a. d., of Jewish parents 
 of the tribe of Benjamin, at Tarsus in Cili- 
 cia, a city which enjoyed Roman citizen- 
 ship ; martyred at Rome in the year 67. 
 Named Saul at his birth,' he was sent to 
 Jerusalem to become a disciple of the 
 famous Doctor Gamaliel. He was an his 
 way to Damascus, when our Lord appeared 
 to him. The violent enemy of the Chris- 
 tians was converted (37) and baptized. He 
 remained three days in solitude, then went 
 to Jerusalem " to gee Peter." At Antioch 
 he was ordained, and officially recognized 
 as an Apostle of the Gospel. In company 
 with Barnabas he set out on his first mis- 
 sionary journey (45-48) to Cyprus, where 
 he converted the proconsul, Sergius 
 
Paul 
 
 530 
 
 Paula 
 
 Paulus; thence he passed to Asia Minor, 
 spreading the Gospel and strengthening 
 the Faithful in the faith of Christ. By 
 prayer, fasting, and imposition of hands, 
 he ordained bishops and priests to govern 
 the new congregations, and then returned 
 to Antioch. A great controversy had 
 arisen in the Church of this city. The 
 Jewish Christians contended that the Gen- 
 tiles, who were admitted into the Church 
 without circumcision, should be made sub- 
 ject to the law of Moses. The difficulty 
 was settled by the Apostolic Council of 
 Jerusalem (50) in these words : " It hath 
 seemed good to the Holy Ghost and to us 
 to lay no further burden upon you than 
 these necessary things, that you abstain 
 from things sacrificed to idols and from 
 blood and from things strangled and from 
 fornication" (Acts xv. 28). In considera- 
 tion of the Jewish Christians, Peter had up 
 to this time, observed the Mosaic law; Paul 
 reproved him, fearing that the pagan con- 
 verts might be led astray if the Head of 
 the Church continued to observe the law 
 of circumcision. As to the matter itself, 
 both Apostles were of one mind. In the 
 year 52-55, St. Paul set out on his second 
 missionary journey. It .extended to Asia 
 Minor, Macedonia, Athens, Corinth, Ephe- 
 sus, and Antioch. On his third missionary 
 journey, which lasted from 55-58, St. Paul 
 went to Asia Minor, remained a long time 
 at Ephesus, then visited Corinth, Mace- 
 donia, Miletus, Caesarea, and Jerusalem. 
 Immediately upon his arrival at Jerusalem, 
 the Jews attempted to put him to death 
 (58), but the guard of the temple freed 
 him. Having spent two years in prison at 
 Caesarea (59-61), St. Paul appealed to 
 Caesar, was sent to Rome, where he was 
 again imprisoned for two years (61-63). 
 Having recovered his freedom (64), he 
 went to the far West (Spain), thence to 
 Asia Minor, Macedonia, Crete, was again 
 sent to prison and beheaded in Rome, June 
 29th. A. D. 67. E. June 29th. Feast of St. 
 Paul's Conversion, Jan. 25th. We have 
 fourteen canonical letters from St. Paul, 
 which are addressed partly to one or sev- 
 eral congregations, partly to certain per- 
 sons (Timothy, Titus, Philemon). 
 
 Paul (St.) (228-342). — First hermit and 
 surnamed " the Father of Hermits"; was 
 born at Thebes in Upper Egypt. During 
 the Decian persecution he fled into the 
 desert of the Thebaid, and lived there in a 
 cave to the great age of one hundred and 
 
 thirteen years, practicing austere penance 
 and occupied in prayer and contemplation. 
 His life was written by St. Jerome. F. 
 Jan. 13th. 
 
 Paul (St.). — Patriarch of Constantino- 
 ple and martyr. Born at Thessalonica, 
 elected bishop in 340. Repeatedly driven 
 away by the Arians, restored by Pope St. 
 Julius, then exiled by the Arian Emperor 
 Constans to the Chersonesus, where he 
 died a martyr. He was strangled by his 
 enemies. F. June 7th. 
 
 Paul of the Cross. See Passion ists. 
 
 Paul of Samosata. See Paulianists. 
 
 Paul (Vincent de). — One of the most 
 eminent saints of the modern Catholic 
 Church, was born in the year 1576. The 
 indications of ability which he exhibited 
 led to his being sent to school at Toulouse. 
 He was admitted to priest's orders in 1600. 
 He laid the foundation of what eventually 
 grew into the great and influential Congre- 
 gation of " Priests of the Missions." (See 
 L^zarists.) Vincent's preaching was of 
 the most simple kind, singularly affecting 
 and impressive. He founded the order of 
 the " Daughters of Charity" at Paris in 
 1634. The order is popularly known in 
 this country by the title of " The Sisters of 
 Charity," or "Grey Nuns," and its mem- 
 bers have won for their order as well as 
 themselves the admiration, esteem, and 
 well-deserved praise of the whole nation, 
 for their godlike ministration to the sick 
 and aflflicted, during times of war and 
 peace. St. Vincent died at the advanced 
 age of eighty-five, at St. Lazare, Sept. 27th, 
 1660; and was canonized by Clement XII. 
 in 1737. F. July 19th. 
 
 Paula (St.) (347-404). — Roman lady, 
 descended through her father Rogatus of 
 Greek origin, from the famous Agamem- 
 non, and through her mother Blesilla, from 
 the Scipions and Gracii. Widow at the 
 age of 31, the first in the Senate of the Ro- 
 man Matrons, she abandoned her riches 
 and country to devote herself to a penitent 
 life. After a voyage into Palestine, she 
 retired with her daughter Eustochia to 
 Bethlehem, where she founded several 
 monasteries under the direction of the 
 great St. Jerome, and also an asylum for 
 pilgrims, on the site of which arose the 
 modern convent of the Franciscans. F. 
 Jan. 26th. 
 
Paulianists 
 
 531 
 
 Pelagius 
 
 Paulianists. — Heretics and followers of 
 Paul of Samosata, the proud Bishop of An- 
 tioch, about the year 360. He maintained 
 that Christ, though begotten of the Holy 
 Ghost and born of a virgin, was no more 
 than a mere man in whom the divine Logos, 
 the wisdom of God, dwelt not as a person 
 but as a quality or power. Two Councils 
 held at Antioch examined and condemned 
 his teaching, but owing to various arts and 
 subterfuges and by professing submission, 
 the heresiarch managed to escape personal 
 anathema until at last, in a third Council 
 convened, in 269, in the same city, his guilt 
 was unmasked, he was convicted of heresy 
 and deposed as Bishop of Antioch. The 
 ♦' Samosatians " or " Paulinianists," as his 
 followers were called, continued as a dis- 
 tinct sect down to the fourth century. 
 
 Paulicians. — Members of a Manichean 
 sect of the seventh century, founded by a 
 certain Constantine of Samosata. Since 
 the name Manichean had become odious, 
 he gave to his followers the title of Pauli- 
 cians about the year 681, under pretext that 
 they followed only the doctrine of St. 
 Paul. The Emperor Nicephorus protected 
 them. They spread and extended their 
 influence westward to Thrace and Bulgaria, 
 and thence passed into Italy and southern 
 France. 
 
 Paulinus (St.) (353-431).— Born at Bor- 
 deaux of a wealthy and ancient senatorial 
 family. His acquaintance with Sts. Am- 
 brose, Augustine, and Jerome, induced him 
 to give up all his dignities and retire from 
 the world. In 409, he became bishop of 
 Nola in Campania. Many of the works of 
 this distinguished Father are lost; there 
 only remain, besides 30 poems, 50 letters 
 written to friends, such as Sulpicius Sev- 
 erus, St. Augustine, St. Jerome, and other 
 distinguished contemporaries. F. June 
 
 22d. 
 
 Paulinus (St.). — Bishop of Treves in 
 349, born at Poitou, France. Deposed by 
 the Arians in 353, he was banished to 
 Phrygia, where he died in 353. 
 
 Paulinus (St.). — Patriarch of Acquileia, 
 born at Strasburg about 726. Friend of 
 Alcuin and one of the counsellors of Charle- 
 magne. Contributed a good deal to the 
 conversion of the Avares and combated the 
 Nestorian heresy of Elipandus of Toledo, 
 and Felix of Urgel. F. Jan. nth. 
 
 Paulist Fathers. — An American Catho- 
 lic missionary society, organized in New 
 York city in 1858, and approved by Pope 
 Pius IX. The society was originally, and 
 for some years afterwards, composed ex- 
 clusively of priests, who, like its founder, 
 Father Isaac Thomas Hecker, were con- 
 verts from Protestantism. They take no 
 special vows, and can leave the order at 
 will. They aim to adapt themselves to 
 the usages and needs of American life. 
 They are known collectively as the " Con- 
 gregation of St. Paul the Apostle." See 
 Hecker. 
 
 Pax. See Kiss of Peace. 
 
 Pax Vobis. — Latin words said by the 
 bishop after the Gloria in excelsis. If the 
 Gloria be not said, then the bishop's salu- 
 tation is the same as the priest's : Dominus 
 V obi scum. 
 
 Pectoral Cross. — In the early ages of 
 the Church, the Faithful, both men and 
 women, wore a small cross pendant from 
 the neck. To perpetuate this venerable 
 usage as far as lay in her power, the 
 Church wished that her Pontiffs should 
 carry a cross on their breast, especially 
 when celebrating the holy mysteries. 
 This cross, set before the bishop, reminds 
 him, both of God who died for him, and 
 of the martyrs, who sealed with their blood 
 the faith that he professes and teaches. 
 The pectoral cross contains relics of mar- 
 tyrs, as is shown by the prayer which the 
 bishop says when he takes it. 
 
 Pelagius (name of two Popes). — Pela- 
 gius I. — Pope from 555 to 560. Roman by 
 birth, took possession of the Holy See 
 without waiting for his election. Com- 
 menced the Church of St. Philip and of 
 St. James, at Rome ; died without putting 
 an end to the schism which his usurpation 
 had caused. Pelagius II. — Pope from 
 578 to 590. Born at Rome, wrote to the 
 bishops of Istria who did not adhere to 
 the condemnation of the " Three Chap- 
 ters." 
 
 Pelagius and Pelagianism. — Pelagius, 
 born in England, became a monk at Bangor, 
 Wales. He came to Rome about the year 
 400 for the purpose of continuing his 
 studies. Here he embraced the errors of 
 Rufinus, concerning the exemption of hu- 
 man nature from inborn and inherited cor- 
 ruption. During the ten years of his stay 
 at Rome, he occupied himself in writing 
 
Penance 
 
 532 
 
 Penance 
 
 commentaries on the Epistles of St. Paul, 
 into which he introduced many heterodox 
 opinions on original sin, free will, and 
 grace. The fundamental error of Pelagius 
 was the denial of original sin, and of the 
 necessity of divine grace for man. He 
 taught: I. Adam was created mortal, and 
 would have died whether he had sinned or 
 not. 2. Adam's sin injured only himself 
 and not the human race. 3. Newborn in- 
 fants are in the same condition in which 
 Adam was before his fall. 4. The sin of 
 Adam is not the cause of death, nor is the 
 resurrection of the flesh the consequence 
 of the resurrection of Christ. 5. The law 
 of Moses is as good a means of salvation 
 as the Gospel of Christ. 6. Even before 
 the coming of Christ, there were impec- 
 cable men, that is, men without sin. 7. 
 Charity is no gift of God. 8. Prayer is not 
 necessary to acquire the grace of conver- 
 sion or of perseverance, because all this is 
 in the power of free will. Condemned by 
 Pope Zozimus and, after having taught the 
 above errors in Italy, Africa, and Palestine, 
 he spread them in his own country, which 
 determined the bishops of Gaul to send 
 St. Germain of Auxerre to Wales to refute 
 them. 
 
 Penance {Sacrament of). — Penance is 
 a sacrament instituted by the infinite 
 mercy of our Lord Jesus Christ, for the 
 remission of sins committed after baptism, 
 through contrition, confession, satisfaction, 
 and absolution, wherein the pentinent is 
 forgiven by God through the agency of 
 His minister, the priest, acting on the 
 authority of our Saviour. The forgive- 
 ness of sin, by perfect contrition, was 
 brought about before the coming of our 
 Lord, much less easily and efTectually than 
 by means of the sacrament of penance. 
 Perfect contrition is, however, still suffi- 
 cient for the remission of eternal punish- 
 ment due to sin, whenever the sacrament 
 of penance be not procurable and is ear- 
 nestly desired. 
 
 Our Lord instituted the sacrament of 
 penance and gave to His Apostles, to their 
 legitimate successors, and to those author- 
 ized by them, power, in His name, to 
 pardon sins or to retain them according to 
 their judgment of the dispositions of the 
 penitent. This he did when He said to 
 his disciples : " Peace be unto you. As 
 the Father hath sent Me, I also send you. 
 . . . Whose sins you shall forgive, 
 thej are forgiven them; and whose sins 
 
 you shall retain, they aie retained " 
 ( John XX. 23). The confession of sins 
 alluded to by St. James, who says: 
 *' Confess therefore your sins one to 
 another" ( Jas. v. 16), — so often misun- 
 derstood by Protestants, — concerns the 
 sacrament of extreme unction, as may 
 clearly be seen from the context, which 
 expressly mentions the administration of 
 that sacrament by " the priests of the 
 Church " ( Jas. v. 14). These are naturally 
 signified, in the previous quotation, as 
 the authorized receivers of confession. 
 
 By the remission of sins, sanctifying 
 grace is communicated to the soul, whereof 
 the act of absolution is the outward sign. 
 This sacrament is therefore necessary for 
 the salvation of those who have committed 
 mortal sin after baptism, a truth defined by 
 the Catholic Church to be an article of 
 faith. The matter of this sacrament is 
 commonly thought to consist in the con- 
 trition, confession, and "satisfaction" of 
 the penitent; and the form in the action 
 and words of the priest in absolution. The 
 words "penitence" and "penance" are 
 derived from the Latin, and signify repent- 
 ance and punishment. Penitence is a su- 
 pernatural virtue ; its principle springing 
 from divine grace, and its motive from 
 sincere regret for having acted contrary to 
 the will of God ; and it is a virtue abso- 
 lutely necessary at all times for obtaining 
 the pardon of mortal sin. Contrition, con- 
 fession, and absolution are indispensable 
 for the validity of the sacrament of pen- 
 ance, for God cannot pardon sins that are 
 not entirely repented of; and absolution 
 given by the priest, in the name of our 
 Saviour, depends on a full self-accusation 
 on the part of the penitent. 
 
 Contrition is a deep regret and detesta- 
 tion of the sin perpetrated, with a firm 
 purpose not to repeat the same, and a gen- 
 eral resolve to correct the error of our 
 ways. Thus, contrition includes two acts: 
 heartfelt repentant grief, and a sincere 
 resolution to avoid sinful habits in future. 
 There are two kinds of contrition, the one 
 called perfect contrition, and the other at- 
 trition, or imperfect contrition; differing 
 from each other by the motive inspiring 
 them, and by the effects they produce. 
 Perfect contrition has but one motive, 
 consisting in love of God and a consequent 
 horror of sin, as displeasing to God. This 
 arises from absolute appreciation of His 
 infinite goodness, the benefits received 
 from Him, and the perfect love He has be- 
 
Penance Books 
 
 533 
 
 Penitential Psalms 
 
 stowed upon us through our Redeemer, 
 Jesus Christ. By perfect contrition, which 
 also includes the implicit desire for con- 
 fession and absolution, as we have before 
 stated, the stain of sin is eflfaced, and we 
 re-enter a state of grace and reconciliation 
 with God, even before receiving the sacra- 
 ment of penance. Imperfect contrition, 
 though prompted by supernatural mo- 
 tives, is of an inferior quality, self largely 
 entering into it in the fear of eternal pun- 
 ishment, and a desire for everlasting hap- 
 piness, but does not include a horror of 
 venial sin. Imperfect contrition does not, 
 of itself, reconcile us with God, but dis- 
 poses us for the reception of forgiveness in 
 the sacrament of penance. Though per- 
 fect contrition is undoubtedly the more 
 efficacious means of avoiding sin and gain- 
 ing in grace, imperfect contrition suffices 
 for the reception of the sacrament, pro- 
 vided that it be free from willingness and 
 desire to sin if the torments of hell and 
 joys of heaven had no existence, and that 
 it also includes a commencement, at least, 
 of love for God. 
 
 There are four qualities indispensable to 
 contrition for sin. It must be internal, 
 supernatural, sovereign, and universal. It 
 must come from the heart in earnestness 
 and sincerity of repentance; inspiring an 
 act of will contrary to that which has in- 
 duced sin, a detestation for any evil that 
 may have separated us from God, and a 
 firm purpose of amendment, not merely as 
 spoken with the lips, but as coming from 
 the inmost depths of the soul. It must be 
 supernatural in its principle, through the 
 help of divine grace, and supernatural in 
 its motive ; the wish to please God and 
 gain our eternal salvation, through love of 
 our Creator, Benefactor, and Redeemer, 
 and hopeful desire for pardon. It must be 
 supreme ; that is, the love of God and ab- 
 horrence of evil must predominate over all 
 other feeling. Mortal sin, involving our 
 greatest punishment here and greatest 
 losses in eternity has the triple character 
 of irreligion toward our Creator, ingrati- 
 tude toward our Redeemer, and want of 
 sorrow for such irreligion and ingratitude, 
 so long as not effaced by sincere repent- 
 ance. It must be universal for all mortal 
 sins without exception, for there cannot be 
 entire sincerity of contrition if we have sor- 
 row for some grievous sins, and still main- 
 tain affection for others just as grievous; 
 nor can there be partial absolution, forgiv- 
 ing one mortal sin and retaining another. 
 
 Contrition of such a kind would be a prof- 
 anation of the sacrament of penance. As 
 venial sin is not incompatible with sancti- 
 fying grace, it follows that some may be 
 pardoned, while we have not contrition for 
 others; but if we consciously withhold all 
 sorrow for venial sins, absolution given for 
 them alone would be invalid. Again, 
 should we honestly think we have sufficient 
 contrition without really possessing it, the 
 absolution would be invalid. The firm de- 
 termination and resolution of will which 
 must accompany contritition is completely 
 indispensable, being inseparable from true 
 repentance. Otherwise confession would 
 be useless, and furthermore a new sin 
 would be committed by our insincerity of 
 purpose in asking God's pardon for sins 
 which we had no intention of trying to 
 overcome, and would be liable to repeat 
 upon the slightest provocation. We must 
 not only have the strong desire to resist 
 sin, but must carry out our resolution to 
 conquer it by making a serious effort to 
 correct deliberate venial sins, so frequently 
 the forerunners of mortal sin; takingvigi- 
 lant precautions against the gratification of 
 our evil inclinations, and avoiding all occa- 
 sions of temptation, to which we should 
 probably yield. Hence, the penitent who 
 neglects confession and communion, know- 
 ing from experience that those sacraments 
 are a necessary safeguard against his evil 
 ways, has not the firm purpose needful in 
 contrition. See Confession; Absolu- 
 tion ; Satisfaction. 
 
 Penance Books were works compiled for 
 the instruction and guidance of the priests 
 administering the sacrament of penance. 
 They were in use among the British and 
 Irish in the fifth century and in the Prank- 
 ish kingdom at the time of St. Columban, 
 in 615. 
 
 Penitential Discipline. See Discipline. 
 
 Penitential Psalms. — Seven Psalms of 
 David, so called as being especially expres- 
 sive of sorrow for sin, and accepted by 
 Christian devotion as forms of prayer suit- 
 able for the repentant sinner. These Psalms 
 are: Ps. 6, 32, 38, 51, 102, 130, and 143. 
 These Psalms have been set apart from a 
 very early period, and are referred to as 
 such by Origen. They have a special 
 place in the Roman Breviary, and more 
 than one of the Popes attached an indul- 
 gence to the recital of them. Pope Inno- 
 cent III. ordered that they should be recited 
 in Lent. 
 
Penitentiary 
 
 534 
 
 Pentateuch 
 
 Penitentiary. — A term anciently applied 
 to every priest that had the authorization 
 from the bishop to hear confession. In our 
 time, we call a penitentiary the one who, in 
 cathedral churches, has received the power 
 to absolve from reserved cases. The peni- 
 tentiary or great penitentiary, is the eccle- 
 siastic especially appointed by the bishop, 
 to exercise that part of his episcopal power 
 and to absolve the cases reserved to him. 
 These functions are incompatible with 
 those of the bishop's promoter or procura- 
 tor, the penitentiary being a minister of 
 mercy, the promoter being a minister of 
 rigor and justice. The office of peniten- 
 tiary is purely religious and no salary can 
 be accepted for the fulfillment of its func- 
 tions. 
 
 Penitentiary's Court. — Office or tri- 
 bunal in the court of Rome, in which are 
 examined and delivered the bulls and secret 
 dispensations that are considered as matters 
 of conscience, for instance, dispensations 
 from vows of perpetual chastity and of re- 
 ligion, the absolution from censures, etc. 
 This tribunal is of such a high antiquity, 
 that we cannot fix its date of origin. If a 
 penitent desires to obtain from the Pope a 
 dispensation, or the absolution from some 
 censure which regards the tribunal of the 
 Penitentiary's Court, he may write or 
 cause somebody else to write in whatever 
 langviage it may be, to the Cardinal Grand 
 Penitentiary of the Pope, by explaining to 
 him the subject-matter about which he 
 asks for dispensation, and by stating the 
 reasons which he has for his request. To 
 whomsoever a Brief of the Penitentiary's 
 Court is addressed he cannot commit it to 
 somebody else to execute ; but must execute 
 it himself in the confessional, after having 
 heard the confession of the penitent. 
 
 Pentateuch (Authenticity of the). — The 
 first book of the Old Testament is the 
 Pentateuch. Of all the inspired writings, 
 since Celsus and Julian the Apostate, this 
 has been most often the target for the ene- 
 mies of faith. In our time, they even go 
 so far as to contest its rank ; they deny its 
 authenticity, antiquity, and veracity. 
 There is not one single chapter, almost not 
 one single verse, against which they did 
 not raise doubts or objections of all kinds. 
 Hence we shall establish, first, its Mosaic 
 origin; then we shall answer the objec- 
 tions in detail, in order to justify this 
 sacred Book against all the false accusa- 
 tions of which it has been the object. 
 
 The question of authenticity, that is, of 
 the Mosaic origin of the Pentateuch, is a 
 capital question. It is, so to say, the 
 ' foundation upon which rests the whole 
 Biblical structure and consequently both 
 the Jewish and Christian religions. If the 
 history of the departure of the Israelites 
 was written at the very period when this 
 great event took place, and by the chief 
 actor, then its testimony cannot be contro- 
 verted, and bad faith alone can call into 
 doubt the veracity of the facts of Exo- 
 dus. If, on the contrary, it was drawn 
 up several centuries afterwards, those who 
 deny the inspiration of Holy Scripture can 
 contest its authenticity and veracity in the 
 name of criticism, and consider as myths 
 the great events and miracles which 
 brought about the deliverance of the He- 
 brews from the Egyptian yoke. Moreover, 
 they have the right to claim that the Pen- 
 tateuch does not present the religious, 
 intellectual, and moral state of the contem- 
 poraries of Moses, but that of a later epoch, 
 when civilization had progressed, when 
 religion had become more perfect, and 
 when legislation had more or less formed 
 itself. In this case the Mosaic law might 
 not be the fruit of revelation, but of the 
 natural progress of the human mind. 
 Thus the supernatural character of religion 
 and of the Hebrew institutions would be 
 greatly altered, or rather destroyed, and 
 although the theologian may always be 
 armed to defend the first books of the Old 
 Testament in the name of faith, the critic 
 is this no longer against infidelity which 
 rejects, on the one hand, the decisions of 
 the Church, and refuses, on the other, the 
 authority of a history written a long time 
 after the events it relates, and the testi- 
 monies which it is impossible to check and 
 verify. Thus, aside from the authority 
 of the Church, the divine origin of the 
 Jewish Law, the vocation of the chosen 
 people, the primitive revelation, — in one 
 word, all the great facts which are the 
 basis of Christianity, — become suspicious 
 and doubtful. 
 
 The importance of the question of the 
 antiquity of the Pentateuch explains to us 
 the rage with which infidels continually re- 
 turn to the attack on the traditional belief. 
 They desire to overthrow this strong wall 
 in order to enter the heart of the place, for 
 they know very well that all their efforts 
 against religion will be in vain as long as 
 they have not destroyed the fortress which 
 defends it. Under the appearance of a 
 
Pentateuch 
 
 535 
 
 Pentateuch 
 
 literary question, the principle of religion 
 is at stake. The question is not so much 
 who is the author and what is the date of 
 -the book, as how to destroy or defend the 
 -existence of the supernatural and of reve- 
 lation. The question of the origin of the 
 Pentateuch has become the very question 
 of revealed religion. In our time the de- 
 bate on the Gospels and Epistles is put in 
 the background, and critics occupy them- 
 selves especially with the inquiry as to 
 what epoch ascends the Books of Exodus, 
 Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, 
 in order to prove that the laws which they 
 contain are not derived from Moses, but 
 are the natural outgrowth of the develop- 
 ment of the national life of Israel ; whence 
 it would result that there is no Mosaic 
 revelation. 
 
 Therefore, we have to establish, in the 
 first place, the authenticity of the Pen- 
 tateuch, that is, that it was written in the 
 time of the Exodus, as tradition, both the 
 Jewish and Christian, has always believed 
 and taught. Let us remark, however, that 
 we do not need to maintain, and will not 
 maintain, that the work of Moses has 
 reached us in its absolute integrity, with- 
 out any change, addition, alteration, or 
 comment. More or less slight modifica- 
 tions, made here and there, in the course 
 of time, to this ancient history, either to 
 complete it or to make it better under- 
 stood, or to polish its language, do not 
 prevent the whole from dating from the 
 «poch of the departure from Egypt. The 
 most severe critics unhesitatingly admit 
 changes in regard to figures, places, and 
 names, the addition of the account about 
 the death of Moses at the end of Deuter- 
 onomy, etc. 
 
 Hence, we have to defend the authen- 
 ticity of the Pentateuch only as to its sub- 
 stance, without occupying ourselves with 
 minor details which criticism might sus- 
 picion of being interpolated or modified. 
 
 The Mosaic origin of the Pentateuch 
 being thus understood, we shall establish it 
 by callingattention, first, to the testimonies 
 by which it is supported, and secondly, by 
 exposing the arguments drawn from the 
 study of its contents. 
 
 I. Extrinsic Proofs of the Authen- 
 ticity OF THE Pentateuch, i. Testi- 
 monies of Christ and of His Apostles. 
 — Christian tradition has always been 
 unanimous in attributing to Moses the 
 composition of the Pentateuch. The 
 Fathers, Doctors, Catholic interpreters 
 
 and commentators have never differed as 
 to this point, and the Council of Trent has 
 been the faithful echo of the belief of the 
 Church in naming Moses, in the Canon of 
 the Sci-iptures, as the author of the first 
 five books of the Bible. The Church her- 
 self has received this belief from the Syna- 
 gogue. In fact it is certain that in the 
 epoch of our Lord, the Jews attributed 
 the Pentateuch to Moses. This is clearly 
 established from the words of Jesus Christ 
 reported in the Gospels, as well as from 
 the numerous passages of the New Testa- 
 ment and from the writings of Philo and 
 Josephus. 
 
 Our Saviour speaks of Moses in sixteen 
 passages of the Gospel. In two of them, 
 it is in regard to important events of Exo- 
 dus (John iii. 14; vi. 32). In two other 
 places, we have an allusion to the legislator 
 of the Hebrews, and the terms employed 
 in the second case are worthy of remark : 
 " Is it not Moses that has given you the 
 law?" (Matt, xxiii. 2 ; John vii. 19.) The 
 Saviour speaks repeatedly of certain pre- 
 scriptions of the Pentateuch (Matt, viii.4; 
 Mark vii. 10; Luke xx. 37; John vii. 22, 
 23; etc.), so that we can hardly believe, as 
 some critics pretend, that He simply ac- 
 commodated Himself to the popular belief 
 in attributing them to Moses; thus, when 
 He says that Moses passed laws concerning 
 leprosy (Lev. xiii., xiv.), obedience to 
 parents (Ex. xx. 12), divorce (Deut. xxiv. 
 1-4; Mark x. 5). Speaking of the Old 
 Testament in St. Mark and St. Luke, 
 He repeatedly names "The Book of 
 Moses," " Moses and the Prophets," "the 
 law of Moses, the Prophets, and the 
 Psalms" (Mark xii. 26; Luke xvi. 29, 31; 
 xxiv. 44). Finally, in St. John (v. 45-47), 
 He appeals to the -writings of Moses, as 
 giving testimony of His person, and He 
 adds that if the Jews who hear Him really 
 believe in Moses, they ought to believe 
 also in Him, because Moses wrote of Him. 
 His Apostles and disciples have expressed 
 themselves in the same manner about the 
 Mosaic origin of the Pentateuch (Luke 
 xvi. 20; xxiv. 27; Acts iii. 22; xv. 21; 
 xxvi. 22; xxviii. 23; Rom. v. 13, 14; x. 5, 
 19; etc.). 
 
 2. yewish Literature. — Philo tells us 
 that Moses " wrote sacred volumes, of 
 which one portion is historical and the 
 other contains precepts and prohibitions." 
 " He does not resemble," he adds, " the 
 other writers, but wishes to show that 
 God is the Greater of the Universe " {De 
 
Pentateuch 
 
 536 
 
 Pentateuch 
 
 Vita Mosis, 1. 11). Josephus expressly at- 
 tributes five books to Moses {Contra 
 Apionetn, I. 8), and he remarks that they 
 begin with the account of the creation of 
 the world. The Talmud, that great col- 
 lection of all the Jewish traditions, formally 
 teaches that Moses wrote the Pentateuch. 
 It goes even beyond the truth, saying that 
 all its words were orally dictated to their 
 author. Among the Rabbis there is only 
 disagreement in regard to the last verses 
 of Deuteronomy, some maintain the singu- 
 lar opinion that Moses relates therein, by 
 anticipation, his own death which God 
 had revealed to him ; others believe, not 
 without probability, that Josue completed 
 with this account the history of the Jewish 
 legislator. 
 
 Be it as it may with regard to the latter 
 point, the Talmudists, by attributing to Mo- 
 ses the composition of the Pentateuch, were 
 undoubtedly only echoing the belief of 
 their fathers. The Samaritans, enemies of 
 the Jews, do not express themselves any 
 difJerent from them. The author of the 
 Second Book of the Machabees, that of 
 Ecclesiasticus, Paralipomenons, of the 
 Third and Fourth Books of Kings, Esdras, 
 Nehemias, all speak in the same manner 
 of the book and law of Moses (II. Mach. 
 vii. 6; Ecclus. xxiv. 33; II. Par. xxiii. 18; 
 XXV. 4; xxxiv. 14; XXXV. 12; I. Esd. iii. 2; 
 iv. 18; II. Esd. xiii. i ; III. Ki. ii. 3; IV. 
 Ki. X. 31 ; etc.). Thus we may go back to 
 the Book of Josue, written before the 
 reign of Saul; "the book of the law" is 
 repeatedly quoted therein (Jos. viii. 31; 
 xxiii. 6). 
 
 Hence the entire Hebrew literatura 
 renders testimony of the Mosaic origin of 
 the Pentateuch. Both the historical and 
 prophetic books which do not quote Moses 
 in explicit terms do this at least in an in- 
 direct manner by way of allusions and 
 borrowings. The angel who appears at 
 the beginning of the Book of Judges draws 
 the discourses which he addresses to the 
 Israelites from Exodus and Numbers (Jud. 
 ii. 1-3; cf. Ex. xxiii. 22, 23; xxxiv. 12, 13, 
 15 ; Num. xxxiii. 55 ; Deut. vii. i, 5, 12) ; the 
 unnamed prophet who reproaches the 
 tribes of the North with infidelity repeats 
 to them words from Exodus (Jud. vi. 8-10; 
 cf. Ex. XX. 2, 3; xxiii. 24), and the message 
 which Jephte sends to the Ammonites is 
 only an abridgment of several chapters of 
 Numbers (Jud. xi. 15-27; cf. Num. xx- 
 xxii). All the. other writers of the Old 
 Testament draw, more or less, from this 
 
 abundant source of the Pentateuch. "The 
 Jewish people with its entire history and 
 literature, is like a living, indestructible, 
 and unalterable papyrus, on which is writ- 
 ten, as by the finger of God, the text of the 
 Thorah. The history posterior to Moses 
 presupposes the law of Sinai as the written 
 law; the literature posterior to Moses, 
 both ancient and modern, attests by its 
 numerous voices the priority of the Thorah 
 in its actual form. ... In one word, 
 the historical, prophetical, didactic, and 
 poetical books of Israel have their founda- 
 tion and roots in the law of Moses" (Fr. 
 Delitzsch, Die Genesis). Such a precise, 
 constant, and universal tradition explains 
 itself only through the existence of the 
 Pentateuch from the beginning of the his- 
 tory of Israel. 
 
 Deuteronomy teaches in formal terms 
 that "Moses wrote the law and gave it to 
 the priests, children of Levi, who carried 
 the Ark of the Covenant of Jehovah, and to 
 all the ancients of Israel" (Deut. xxxi. 9; 
 cf. xxxi. 24). Some extend the meaning 
 of the word "law" to the whole Penta- 
 teuch ; others restrain it to Deuteronomy, 
 but, even in the latter interpretation, this 
 passage furnishes a more or less indirect 
 proof of the Mosaic origin of the four 
 other books of the Pentateuch ; for the 
 fifth, being only an abridgment of the fore- 
 going, necessarily presupposes their exist- 
 ence. Besides, Exodus speaks of " the 
 book" in which the deliverer of Israel re- 
 ceives the order to write the divine pre- 
 scription to root out the Amalekites (Ex. 
 xvii. 14). It is also said that Moses wrote 
 the words of the law in "the Book of the 
 Covenant," and that then he read it to the 
 people (Ex. xxiv. 4, 7). The list of the en- 
 campments of Israel which we read in 
 Numbers (xxxiii. 2) is expressly attrib- 
 uted to Moses. 
 
 Independently of these explicit testimo- 
 nies, we find in the Pentateuch a number 
 of expressions and reflections which fix the 
 date of its composition, because they prove 
 that at the time when the author lived, the 
 Israelites were not yet in the Promised 
 Land. This is what we are going to estab- 
 lish by the examination of the contents of 
 the Pentateuch. 
 
 II. Intrinsic Proofs OF THE Authen- 
 ticity OF THE Pentateuch, i. How 
 We can Determine -whether the Penta- 
 teuch -was Written at the Time of the 
 Exodus. — Before establishing the Mosaic 
 origin of the Pentateuch by the examina- 
 
Pentateuch 
 
 537 
 
 Pentateuch 
 
 tion of its contents, it is well to call to 
 mind a few principles which will permit 
 us to understand more easily what is go- 
 ing to follow, and to seize better the bear- 
 ing and value of the argument which we 
 are going to set forth. 
 
 Every book, even the inspired, bears 
 the stamp of the time and place where it 
 has been written. Nobody can completely 
 rid himself from the surroundings in 
 which he lives ; everyone shares more or 
 less the preoccupations, ideas, passions, and 
 needs of those with whom he lives, 
 and he leaves the imprint of these ideas 
 and passions in what he writes and does. 
 Thus he marks unconsciously the period 
 of time in which he lived ; for each cen- 
 tury has its particular wants, diflferent 
 tastes, peculiar tendencies, which cling to 
 the circumstances, events, and surround- 
 ings. When, therefore, it is possible to 
 know in a certain and sufficiently charac- 
 terized manner the time in which Moses 
 lived, then it will be easy to weigh the 
 testimony of the tradition which attributes 
 to him the composition of the Pentateuch, 
 and to assure ourselves that it has not 
 been deceived. Now fortunately, nothing 
 is easier. Although each century is dis- 
 tinguished by particular traits, there are 
 some whose physiognomy is more ex- 
 pressive ; so, also, among men, who never 
 look so completely alike but that there are 
 always some peculiar features that dis- 
 tinguish them from one another. In the 
 history of the world there are critical 
 moments ; in the history of nations there 
 are revolutions which stir up the passions 
 most vehemently, like the Crusades or the 
 French Revolution. By a concourse of 
 events and circumstances, sometimes a 
 capital fact presents itself which decides 
 the future and fixes the destinies of a peo- 
 ple for centuries, like the victory of the 
 Americans in the War of Independence. 
 In the midst of extraordinary crises, phe- 
 nomena exhibit themselves which do not 
 reappear in any other period of a people's 
 history. 
 
 Moses did flourish in an epoch of this 
 kind. During his life, the Israelites left 
 Egypt, where they had been slaves, com- 
 menced to lead an independent life, and 
 set out for the conquest of Palestine. This 
 is the gravest and most important event in 
 a nation's history, for it is its birth to po- 
 litical life. When we find in the Penta- 
 teuch a trace of the various movements 
 which such a revolution provoked in the 
 
 minds ; when we find therein the faithful 
 picture of the Exodus, with all its circum- 
 stances and eventualities, we have a right 
 to maintain that the work was written in 
 that very epoch. Then, it is certain, the 
 Israelites found themselves in a situation 
 which does not present itself any more in 
 their history. 
 
 There are works which show more than 
 any other the stamp of their century ; they 
 are those which we call writings " of cir- 
 cumstance," because they have been 
 drawn up, not with a speculative or purely 
 historical view, but with a view to the pres- 
 ent moment, to answer to an actual and 
 urgent want, on the occasion, for instance, 
 of a great public danger, such as the apol- 
 ogies of St. Justin and of Tertullian in the 
 midst of the fires of persecution. Com- 
 positions of this kind necessarily carry a 
 sensible trace and the seal, so to say, of the 
 events which have provoked their publica- 
 tion, and thus it is easier to fix their date. 
 If the Pentateuch were written by Moses, it 
 must, by the very force of things, be partly 
 a writing "of circumstance," and easy to 
 recognize as such. 
 
 With these principles before our mind, 
 we must read the Pentateuch and meditate 
 upon it, in order to find out whether it 
 dates from the time of the Exodus or from 
 a later epoch. Moses is an Israelite by 
 origin ; does the author of the Pentateuch 
 speak like an Israelite? Moses was raised 
 in Egypt, lived in that country and in the 
 peninsula of Sinai ; do we recognize in the 
 book attributed to him that he did live in 
 Egypt and Sinai, that he was raised at the 
 court of the Pharaos, that he has been in 
 contact with Egyptian society? Moses de- 
 cided his brethren to leave the Nile valley, 
 where they were oppressed, to go and 
 sacrifice to the true God on Mount=Horeb, 
 and then undertake the conquest of the 
 land of Chanaan ; does the author of the 
 Pentateuch express himself like a con- 
 temporary, a witness of these events ? Can 
 we, in a word, recognize in him a man 
 that has seen the facts Avhich he relates, 
 and whose soul has felt the emotions which 
 the Exodus must have produced upon the 
 Israelites? 
 
 Such are the questions which we have to 
 propose, and which we shall try to solve. 
 We shall commence to show, in exposing 
 the plan of the Pentateuch, that this book 
 is not a simple collection of more or less 
 disconnected pieces, more or less fitted 
 together, but that it forms a consecutive 
 
Pentateuch 
 
 538 
 
 Pentateuch 
 
 and well co-ordinated ensemble. Then we 
 shall inquire whether it is really the work 
 of Moses, by examining the design its au- 
 thor had in view, and in what manner he 
 accomplished it. Finally, we shall see 
 whether all that it contains is becoming to 
 the epoch of the Exodus. 
 
 2. Plan of the Pentateuch. — A certain 
 number of critics have denied the unity of 
 the Pentateuch in general and of Genesis 
 in particular. To believe them, the five 
 books, which tradition attributes to Moses, 
 are only an undigested compilation of va- 
 rious pieces, in which we find neither 
 imitv of composition nor unity of mind: 
 repetitions abound, duplications are fre- 
 quent, the language and style reveal 
 different hands in the different portions; 
 moreover, there are flagrant contradic- 
 tions in the account of the same facts. 
 Further on, we shall answer these objec- 
 tions in detail; let us now establish the 
 unity of the Pentateuch in a general man- 
 ner. 
 
 According to the actual division of our 
 Bibles, the Pentateuch is divided into five 
 books, known under the names of Genesis, 
 Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuter- 
 onomy ; but this arrangement does not go 
 back to its composition. In keeping ac- 
 coimt of the matters treated therein and 
 of the plan followed, we ought to divide it 
 into three parts : the introduction, the 
 body of the account, and the recapitula- 
 tion or summary of the principal points of 
 the Mosaic law. The end, not the sole 
 but the principal end of the work, is to 
 make known that law and the circum- 
 stances in which it was given, was, at the 
 time when Israel became a people. All 
 refers to this fundamental idea. Genesis 
 is a real introduction, a worthy frontis- 
 piece to the legislation of Sinai ; it relates 
 the genealogy or origin of God's people 
 from the creation of the world until the es- 
 tablishment of the family of Jacob in the 
 land of Gessen, in Egypt. In the valley of 
 the Nile Israel ceases to be a simple 
 family to become a nation. Here its na- 
 tional history commenced when its people 
 were cruelly persecuted. The account of 
 this persecution opens with the book of 
 Exodus, and with it the body of the work, 
 which comprises, besides Exodus, Leviti- 
 cus, and Numbers. These three books 
 form only one whole; one distinguishes 
 them from one another by their principal 
 end, namely the leaving of Egypt in the 
 first, the levitical ceremonial in the sec- 
 
 ond, and the counting of the people in the 
 third, but all three treat of the same 
 subject, /. e., the law of Moses, with the 
 circumstances that preceded, accom- 
 panied and followed its promulgation. 
 Genesis tells us of the covenant which 
 God made with the race of Abraham, 
 Isaac, and Jacob; Exodus, Leviticus and 
 Numbers teach us in what this covenant 
 consisted and under what conditions it was 
 concluded. 
 
 Deuteronomy is connected with the two 
 preceding portions, but is nevertheless a 
 third part quite distinct in its plan and 
 form. It contains the discourses pro- 
 nounced by Moses, shortly before his 
 death, in the plains of Moab. The legis- 
 lator of the Hebrews sums up therein the 
 chief points of the law, which he gave to 
 his people, in the name of the Lord, and 
 he urges them to be always faithful to it. 
 The generation which left Egypt with 
 him has paid already its tribute to death 
 in the desert; it is necessary to make 
 known to the sons, who soon will go and 
 conquer the Promised Land, the command- 
 ments that had been imposed upon their 
 fathers. As the most of the legal pre- 
 scriptions had been enacted only when 
 circumstances required it, they are now 
 presented in the Book of Deuteronomy as 
 a whole and in a more methodic manner. 
 Undoubtedly, we could conceive the work 
 without this epilogue : however, Deuter- 
 onomy forms an integral part of the Penta- 
 teuch, for the fourth book does not com- 
 plete the history of Moses. It is the fifth 
 that contains the general conclusion, that 
 is, the account of the last days of the He- 
 brew legislator, his canticle and the bless- 
 ings which he pronounces upon Israel, 
 and even the circumstances of his death, 
 added by a foreign. hand (probably by 
 Josue), as the natural complement of a 
 work destined to make known all this 
 great man had done for his people. There- 
 fore, the Pentateuch was drawn up accord- 
 ing to a preconceived and faithfully 
 followed plan. 
 
 3. Authenticity of Genesis Proved by 
 the Author'' s Particular End in View: to 
 Determine the Israelites to Leave Egyft 
 and to Go and Conquer the Promised 
 Land. — After having established the unity 
 of the Pentateuch by the general end 
 which its author had in view and by the 
 plan he followed there remains for us to 
 discover who this author was, by examining 
 the particular end he pursued in his work. 
 
Pentateuch 
 
 539 
 
 Pentateuch 
 
 Besides the religious end, of which we 
 have just spoken, the one who wrote the 
 Pentateuch had, moreover, a particular 
 end, namely, to determine the Israelites 
 to leave Egypt and to go and conquer the 
 Promised Land. This can be easily proved. 
 
 It is well to remark that this double end 
 in view, corresponds exactly to the double 
 mission of MoseSi This great man had for 
 his first mission, what we may call a uni- 
 versal, lasting mission, because it interested 
 all times to come : namely to make known 
 the true God and to establish upon solid 
 bases the religion of his people by giving 
 to it a body of institutions and laws. But 
 besides this first mission, he had a tempo- 
 ral and passing one, of a civil and political 
 character. It consisted in drawing out the 
 Israelites from Egypt and leading them 
 into the land of Chanaan, in order that an 
 independent and social life might assure 
 the maintainance and preservation of their 
 religious traditions. 
 
 The first part of his mission has been 
 common to him, in several respects, with 
 all the writers of the Old Testament, whose 
 aim it has been to preserve, develop or to 
 revive the religious spirit in the hearts of 
 "their people. Hence this alone cannot 
 serve us to determine the date of the Penta- 
 teuch. But it is not the same with the sec- 
 ond part of the mission of Moses. There 
 has been, in sacred history, only one single 
 period, when one had to induce Israel to 
 leave Egypt and to go and conquer the 
 land of Chanaan. Therefore, if there ex- 
 ists a book that was clearly written with 
 this particular design, it follows that it was 
 written in that epoch ; if this book is the 
 Pentateuch, it follows that the Pentateuch 
 was written in the time of Moses. Now 
 this point, it seems to us, can be easily 
 proved by the examination of this great 
 literary and sacred monument. When we 
 study it carefully, we remark indeed that 
 many pages of the Pentateuch were written 
 only for the men who lived in the time of 
 the Exodus. While all that concerns reli- 
 gion, worship, ceremonies, civil and social 
 prescriptions, addresses itself to all the 
 generations of Israel, there are many de- 
 tails which address themselves principally, 
 or even exclusively, to the generation 
 which lived in the time of Moses. Not 
 only does the author speak to that genera- 
 tion, but there are many things which he 
 only could speak to them. 
 
 This second design of the author of the 
 Pentateuch corresponds, therefore, exactly 
 
 to the second part of the mission of Moses, 
 charged to lead Israel into the land of 
 Chanaan. 
 
 To execute this great project, Moses was 
 assured of God's protection ; but never- 
 theless he had to lead the Israelites to their 
 end by ways of persuasion. He could not 
 forcibly cause them to leave Egypt, where 
 bondage had degraded them and where 
 they opposed to him the most insurmounta- 
 ble of obstacles : inertness. He could not 
 determine them, without acting strongly 
 upon their minds and hearts, to go into a 
 desert without resources, with their wives 
 and children, and to undertake, without 
 arms, without preparations, running all 
 the risks, braving all the dangers, the con- 
 quest of a strong and powerful country, 
 whose inhabitants were warlike, and whose 
 mountains were inaccessible. What could 
 he do to triumph over so many obstacles? 
 How could he arouse the energy and will 
 of this enslaved people .^ By two powerful 
 means : by awakening in their drowsy 
 souls the strongest sentiments of human 
 nature, both the religious sentiment and 
 filial love, and by presenting to them the 
 land of Chanaan as the most desirable 
 country and the most deserving to be 
 coveted. 
 
 It was this that Moses did. To induce 
 the Israelites to undertake the conquest of 
 Palestine, he reminded them in every 
 manner, on every occasion, that religion 
 imposed it as a duty upon them to go and 
 occupy the land whose possession God had 
 promised to them and which He had engaged 
 Himself by an oath to put it into their 
 hands. He reminded them that their an- 
 cestors had lived there, had bought goods 
 there, and were buried there ; finally, he 
 depicted to them the country under the 
 most attractive colors. By dint of placing 
 these things before their eyes, he succeeded 
 in his design ; he made them leave Egypt, 
 led them into the desert, determined them 
 to march against Palestine and to attempt, 
 in one word, an undertaking which, 
 humanly speaking, was senseless and im- 
 possible. 
 
 a. Promise -which God Made to Give the 
 Land of Chanaan to the Israelites, and the 
 Obligation -which this. Promise Imposed 
 upon Them. — The most profound senti- 
 ment in the hearts of the children of Jacob 
 was the religious sentiment. It was also 
 especially to this sentiment that the 
 author of the Pentateuch appealed. Con- 
 tinually he tries to reanimate their confi- 
 
Pentateuch 
 
 540 
 
 Pentateuch 
 
 dence in Jehova. ToKionvince them that 
 they ought to leave Eyypt, he repeats to 
 them almost upon every page, that God 
 has given to them the land of Chanaan and 
 that He has promised to make them mas- 
 ters of the whole country ; that He had re- 
 vealed to their ancestors that their pos- 
 terity should dwell for a long time on the 
 shores of the Nile, but that the day would 
 come when, the measure of the iniquities 
 of the Chanaanites being full, the children 
 of Jacob would enter into possession of the 
 land which He had given them (Gen. xv. 
 13, 14, etc.). That day has come; God 
 will be faithful to His word, but under the 
 condition that the Israelites shall not re- 
 sist His will; hence all must depart, — 
 they must set out right away and go and 
 collect the inheritance of their fathers. If 
 they refuse to do this, then they show 
 themselves distrustful of God and disobey 
 His orders. This is the predominant 
 thought of the Pentateuch. 
 
 To show that God is faithful to His 
 promises, the sacred writer quotes facts 
 that are most proper to convince the 
 Israelites : The Lord protected Abraham 
 in Egypt and in the country of the Philis- 
 tines, Isaac at Gerara, Jacob in Mesopota"- 
 mia, and Joseph in Egypt (Gen. xvii. 17; 
 XX.; xxvi.; xxviii.— xxxiii. ; xxxix.-jcli.) ; 
 therefore He will protect the sons as He pro- 
 tected the fathers, provided that the sons 
 imitate the obedience of the fathers. But 
 in what must this obedience consist? To 
 leave Egypt and go into the land of Cha- 
 naan. The Israelites cannot doubt that 
 God will be faithful to His promises. Well, 
 then, He has promised to them to give 
 them the land of Chanaan. Here is the 
 most important point of which they are to 
 be reminded, and it is the one upon which 
 the author of Genesis insists the most. 
 
 One of the ends which he has most man- 
 ifestly in view is to point out clearly this 
 promise of God, because it gives them the 
 right of ownership over Palestine, and 
 thus obliges them to establish themselves 
 there. He returns continually to this 
 point ; for him it is a capital point. God, 
 who never fails in His promises, has given, 
 he says, to the children of Jacob the coun- 
 try which extends itself on both shores of 
 the Jordan. He points out in detail all the 
 circumstances under which the country 
 was promised to the heirs of Abraham. 
 He relates the history of this promise from 
 the very beginning. Nothing is neglected, 
 nothing is forgotten. The writer presents 
 
 first Thare and his son Abraham, the an- 
 cestors of his race, at Ur, in Chaldea. 
 Thare emigrated with his family to Haran. 
 Here God speaks to Abraham (then only 
 Abram) and says to him : " Come into the 
 lan'd which I shall show thee " (Gen. 
 xii. i). Such is the prelude of the promise 
 and of the explicit donation which God 
 will make later on. 
 
 Abram obeys the order of God and 
 arrives in the heart of Palestine, at Sichem : 
 " Then," says the sacred text, " the Cha- 
 naanean lived in the country " (xii. 6). And 
 he immediately adds : " Jehovah appeared 
 to Abram and said to him : I will give this 
 land to thy seed" (xii. 7). Here is the 
 formal and express promise of the dona- 
 tion. Henceforth the land of Chanaan is 
 the Promised Land. 
 
 In all the principal events of the life of 
 the holy Patriarch, God repeats His 
 promise, and the sacred author records 
 with the greatest exactitude the renewal of 
 the divine engagements. When Lot sepa- 
 rates himself from his uncle to go and live 
 at Sodom, God tells the Patriarch that the 
 descendants of his nephew, /. e., the Moab- 
 ites and Ammonites will have no right to 
 Palestine (xiii. 14-17). Also, Abram does 
 not delay to behave himself there as 
 master, almost like a sovereign. He 
 places himself at the head of the men of 
 the country and defeats the enemies who 
 had come to attack it (xiv.) ; later on, the 
 native kings make an alliance with him, 
 and beseech his benevolence for their 
 posterity ( xxi. 22-24). When he has 
 gained his victory over Chodorlahomor, 
 king of Elam, God again appears to him 
 and announces to him that he would have 
 a son. After Abram had offered a sacrifice 
 to the Lord, Jehovah made a covenant 
 with him, saying: "To thy seed I will 
 give this land, from thef river of Egypt even 
 to the great river Euphrates" (xv.). At 
 the moment of the institution of circum- 
 cision the donation is repeated (xvii. 8). 
 When he sends Eliezer to seek a wife for 
 his son Isaac in Mesopotamia, the Patri- 
 arch remembers the divine promise (xxiv. 
 7). In fact, God not only promised, but 
 " He has sworn " to give Palestine to the 
 posterity of Abraham, and as the Lord 
 cannot violate His promises, and much less 
 His oaths, Israel cannot doubt that it will 
 enter into possession of the Promised 
 Land,since the hour announced has arrived. 
 The author of the Pentateuch insists on 
 this divine oath, and uses the strongest ex- 
 
Pentateuch 
 
 541 
 
 Pentateuch 
 
 pressions to show its full solemnity : " He 
 raised his hand to swear," he says. 
 
 However, an objection quite naturally 
 presented itself here to the mind of the 
 Hebrews. They had to tell Moses : God 
 has given the Promised Land to Abra- 
 ham, our father; we are his descend- 
 ants and can claim it by right. But we 
 are not the only heirs of Abraham ; Lot 
 ought to be his heir also ; the Moabites 
 and the Ammonites, the Ismaelites and the 
 Arabs, the children of Cetura and of 
 Esau are our brethren. Was the land of 
 Chanaan not promised to them as well as 
 to us, and will they not dispute the posses- 
 sion thereof? To answer this objection, 
 the author of Genesis does not limit him- 
 self to recording the divine declarations ; 
 but he establishes the fact that they have 
 been made exclusively in favor of the chil- 
 dren of Jacob, and that God has eliminated 
 from the patriarchal succession all those 
 of their brethren that descend from Abra- 
 ham and Isaac by other children than their 
 father Jacob. Hence to them, and to 
 them alone, belongs Palestine. 
 
 b. Filial Piety Makes it a Duty to the 
 Israelites to Depart for the PromisedLand. 
 — But the author of Genesis appeals not 
 only to the religious sentiment, but also to 
 filial piety. There is question of taking 
 such an imporant resolution that he neg- 
 lects no means at his disposal to arrive at 
 his end. The Israelites must depart for 
 Palestine because God has given it to 
 them, and to them alone ; they also should 
 go there because there lived and are buried 
 the Patriarchs, their ancestors, and because 
 there they have acquired property. The 
 sacred writer minutely notes the labors 
 and purchases they made in the land of 
 Chanaan. 
 
 An entire chapter is devoted to the ac- 
 count of the acquisition, by Abraham, of 
 the cave of Makpelah, near Hebron. It is 
 rather the minutes of a contract of sale 
 than a story properly speaking. Every- 
 thing is enumerated, even the trees grow- 
 ing in the field where the cave is situated 
 (Gen. xxiii.). Each of the members of the 
 patriarchal family who were successively 
 buried in the grotto is indicated. The 
 author sums up the life of Abraham with 
 the remark: "Abraham was a sojourner 
 in the land of Palestine many days" (xxi. 
 34), as if he wished to say to his descend- 
 ants : Behold the land where your ances- 
 tor lived and died ; will you refuse to go 
 and take it ? Just as Moses mentions the 
 
 purchase of the cave of Makpelah by 
 Abraham, he also mentions the purchase 
 and price " of a portion of a field," made 
 by Jacob at Bene-Hemor, near Sichem 
 (xxxiii. 19). The wells dug by the Pa- 
 triarchs are enumerated in the account of 
 their migration. Moses promises to his 
 people, in Deuteronomy, that God will 
 give them, when they shall have taken 
 possession of the Promised Land, " cis- 
 terns which they did not dig, vineyards 
 and olive-groves which they did not 
 plant" (Deut. vi. 11). Therefore, do not 
 the children of the Patriarchs desire to re- 
 cover the property of their fathers? Do 
 they not desire to get possession of their 
 tombs? Jacob did not wish to be buried 
 in Egypt, but had requested that his re- 
 mains should be transferred to Makpelah 
 (Gen. xlix. 29-31; i. 12, 13). 
 
 Why does the author of Genesis insist 
 on relating in detail these facts? Why 
 these repetitions? He cannot have done 
 this without design. It is evident that the 
 one who wrote Genesis had a particular in- 
 terest in returning so often to the same 
 subject. The more these repetitions ap- 
 pear inexplicable in themselves, the more 
 it is clear that they must have their ex- 
 planation in the circumstances under which 
 they were written. What justifies them is 
 the effect they ought to produce on the 
 readers contemporary with Moses. Well, 
 then, we now may ask, in what epoch 
 could an historian attach such a value to 
 the remembrance that the land of Chanaan 
 had been given to the Hebrews, and that 
 their ancestors had their tombs there? At 
 what period could he feel the need of re- 
 peating so often to the children of Jacob 
 that Palestine was their inheritage, and 
 that God had guaranteed to them its pos- 
 session with an oath, to the exclusion of 
 all the other members of the family ? Was 
 it in the time of the Kings, when the 
 Chanaanites had been driven away from it 
 for a long time, when the Ammonites and 
 Moabites, the Arabs and Idumeans had 
 settled for centuries irt the East and South 
 of Palestine, and when they were them- 
 selves peaceable possessors of both shores 
 of the Jordan ? Was it in the epoch of the 
 Captivity, when nobody disputed that they 
 were the masters thereof? In one word, 
 was it in a time posterior to the conquest 
 of Palestine and in the epoch of Josue? 
 
 No, undoubtedly. This language would 
 have been incomprehensible in these 
 epochs of the history of God's people; 
 
Pentateuch 
 
 542 
 
 Pentateuch 
 
 then it would have had neither meaning 
 nor bearing. No man pleads a cause 
 when it is gained. He proves his titles of 
 proprietorship only when he wishes to 
 take possession, or to justify his right 
 against those who contest it. He recalls 
 the promises with so much insistence only 
 when he wishes to execute them. There 
 was only one epoch when a Hebrew writer 
 could speak as the author of Genesis 
 speaks. This epoch was the one in which 
 Moses had to determine the children of 
 Jacob to leave the land of Egypt, which 
 they were to regret so often (Ex. xvi. 3; 
 XA-ii. 3, etc.), and to induce them to un- 
 dertake the difficult conquest of the land 
 of Chanaan. It was not, we repeat it, an 
 easy task to move a people to risk every- 
 thing in order to capture a strong and 
 powerful country. To make the people 
 take this energetic resolution, he had, in 
 awakening all their religious and patriotic 
 sentiments, to reanimate their confidence 
 and assure the victory to them. In order 
 to obtain this result the sacred writer 
 shows to the Israelites that the land of 
 Chanaan is the Promised Land, proves 
 that it belongs to them, that it is their 
 property, that God solemnly engaged 
 Himself by an oath to put them in pos- 
 session of this country whither he had 
 called their fathers, and that it depended 
 only upon them to conquer it and to be- 
 come its masters. At that time, all the 
 details, all the repetitions, explain and 
 justify themselves; the least fact has a 
 real importance. It is no longer useless 
 and meaningless to remind them that 
 Abraham had acquired a cave at Hebron, 
 that Isaac had dug wells near Bersabee, 
 that Jacob had bought a field at Sichem, 
 that he wished to be buried in Palestine. 
 Each of these remembrances is proper to 
 enkindle in the soul of the Israelites the 
 desire to conquer what had belonged to 
 their fathers, because the children like to 
 enter into possession of the goods of their 
 ancestors and attach a particular value to 
 them. It is not less to the purpose to 
 make them remember on every occasion 
 that the remains of their ancestors are 
 buried in this country, at Makpelah, be- 
 cause all consider it a sacred duty to keep 
 their family tombs ; and that the remains 
 of Joseph are still in Egypt, waiting to be 
 carried along into the Promised Land. 
 
 Thus, as much as the language of Gen- 
 esis is inexplicable and unintelligible at 
 any other time except that of the Exodus, 
 
 so much is it clear and natural at the mo- 
 ment when there is question of undertak- 
 ing the conquest of Palestine and of 
 inducing the people of Israel to bear the 
 fatigues and dangers of a war of invasion. 
 Therefore, Genesis could have been writ- 
 ten only in the epoch of the Exodus, in 
 the time of Moses. Everything therein is 
 calculated to excite the desire to enter into 
 possession of the Promised Land ; all tends 
 toward this capital and final end Moses had 
 in view. Genesis, in spite of the universal 
 and lasting interest which it has for all 
 time to come, has been above all a writ- 
 ing composed for a determinate time and 
 people, and thus it bears its date, like a 
 discourse addressed by a general of an 
 army to his soldiers at the moment of their 
 entering into a campaign. 
 
 4. Authenticity of the Last Four Books 
 of the Pentateuch Prot'ed by the End 
 Their A uthor Had in View. — When 
 Moses has decided the Israelites to leave 
 Egypt, the first part of his mission is ful- 
 filled, but all is not done. They must 
 really leave the country of Gessen, and, 
 after the accomplishment of this great 
 step, there still remains another one to be 
 made : the conquest of Palestine. The 
 scope of the author of the last four books 
 of the Pentateuch, supposing that they 
 have been written by Moses, must there- 
 fore be to induce the children of Jacob to 
 complete the work commenced, to uphold 
 their courage, to animate their confidence, 
 in making them triumph over all difficul- 
 ties. Moreover, he must prepare them» 
 by giving them a religious and civil law, 
 to become the people of Jehovah, God's 
 people. A posterior writer, relating ac- 
 complished facts, would have had neither 
 the same preoccupations, nor the same 
 accent, as a contemporary writer, and es- 
 pecially Moses, the chief actor in this 
 revolution upon which depended the whole 
 future of the Hebrews. 
 
 Hence we can recognize Moses in Ex- 
 odus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteron- 
 omj' by the same signs as in Genesis. He 
 had to allege to the Hebrews the same mo- 
 tives, by adding new ones as circumstances 
 suggested ; he had to insist on the partic- 
 ular marks of protection which the Lord 
 was going to lavish upon them, in order to 
 make them persevere in the determination 
 which they had taken. The law must con- 
 tain traces of the surroundings among 
 which it was given and of the character of 
 the one who gives it ; finally, the remem- 
 
Pentateuch 
 
 543 
 
 Pentateuch 
 
 brance of Egypt must be always present to 
 the mind of the writer. Let us inquire 
 whether these are really the traits which 
 distinguish the last books of the Pentateuch. 
 
 These books contain two distinct things : 
 accounts of events and of laws. Let us 
 study them successively. 
 
 a. General Character of the Last Four 
 Books of the Pentateuch. — In the first 
 place, the accounts are such that the liber- 
 ator of the Hebrews must have written 
 them; such as he alone could write them. 
 In fact, to what can they be reduced.? To 
 show the difficulties which Moses experi- 
 ences in upholding the twelve tribes in the 
 desert, in preventing them from returning 
 to Egypt, and in determining them to go 
 into the land of Chanaan. He tells us 
 nothing about things we might have liked 
 to know, for instance, what the Hebrews 
 did in Egypt after the death of Joseph 
 until the beginning of the persecution, but, 
 on the contrary, episodes which interest 
 only his contemporaries. Henceforth, we 
 are far removed from listening to that calm 
 tone, from that idyllic simplicity, and 
 often also from that austere grandeur of 
 the accounts of Genesis ! Now, there are 
 frequently quarrels of the household, so to 
 say, that are related to us. Every mur- 
 mur of the people is recorded. That 
 which is most wounding, most stinging in 
 the language of the revolters, is reported 
 as it can be done only by the one who 
 has felt the full force of the blow. Israel 
 is not represented to us in its beautiful 
 aspects, as a later admirer of his ances- 
 tors would have done in relating this 
 epic period of their history; on the con- 
 trary, it is depicted in the worst light. 
 The beginnings of the Jewish nation are 
 not embellished, like those, for instance, 
 of the Latins in the Eneid. Such is not 
 the character of the narrator of the Exo- 
 dus. He appears to us as a man who had 
 been intimately mingled with the scenes he 
 describes, who had suffered all kinds of 
 resistance, and who sufTers them still. He 
 does not idealize the Israelites ; he pre- 
 sents them, on the contrary, under the 
 most repulsive colors, as a strong-headed 
 people (Ex. xxxii. 9; xxxiii. 3,5, etc.), al- 
 ways stubborn, and destitute of any noble 
 sentiments. This memorable fact of the 
 departure from Egypt and of the triumph of 
 a people casting off a heavy yoke to con- 
 quer liberty and independence; this birth 
 of a nation to public life, which would have 
 furnished to a posterior writer the occa- 
 
 sion to exalt the heroism of the Israelites, 
 — all these great events are not to the glo- 
 rification of the Hebrews, but, on the con- 
 trary, are to their condemnation and 
 shame. The Israelites were freed from 
 bondage in spite of themselves ; God 
 Himself through Moses, had to break 
 their chains by force; not one single fea- 
 ture is to their honor. Now then ! to 
 speak thus of the enfranchisement of the 
 children of Jacob, to have seen them under 
 this aspect and with such eyes, the chroni- 
 cler must have been not merely a witness, 
 but must also have been, so to say, a vic- 
 tim of them ; he must have suffered from 
 the ingratitude and revolt of the people to 
 have depicted them with so much bitter- 
 ness. This tableau is certainly conforma- 
 ble to historic truth, but an historian who 
 had not been associated with the events 
 could never have described them in such a 
 manner. 
 
 Already, when Israel is shut up between 
 the army of the Pharao and the Red Sea, 
 it cries out: "Perhaps there were no 
 graves in Egypt, therefore, thou hast 
 brought us to die in the wilderness.?" 
 (Ex. xiv. II.) What a bitterness in these 
 words ! How offensive must they have 
 been to Moses ! When the Egyptians are 
 engulfed in the Red Sea and the first dan- 
 ger is passed, a not less dreadful one 
 arises : famine. They are now in the open 
 desert ; the provisions they have brought 
 with them have lasted fourteen days (xvi. 
 i) ; at the end of this time they are ex- 
 hausted. How can provisions be procured 
 in this desolate and dry country.? The dis- 
 content breaks out anew (xvi. 3) ; very of- 
 ten will these murmurs be heard, and they 
 are always reported in a similar manner. 
 
 To uphold the people in the desert, 
 Moses employs the means by which he 
 had succeeded so well in Egypt. He tells 
 them what God has done to deliver them 
 from the yoke of their oppressors ; he 
 composes religious and patriotic songs, 
 and spreads his narratives among the mul- 
 titude; his chants repeated in choir by 
 young maidens are like a potent beverage 
 that strengthens and exalts them. Be- 
 sides, the second part of the Pentateuch is 
 not drawn up like the first. We no longer 
 find in Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers 
 the minutely followed plan, the learned 
 weft which we notice in Genesis. No. 
 These books, forming the body of the 
 work, are composed in a disconnected 
 manner, and by snatches, so to say, ac- 
 
Pentateuch 
 
 544 
 
 Pentateuch 
 
 cording to the occasion and circum- 
 stances. The plan and order have not been 
 determined beforehand like for Genesis ; it 
 is rather a journal than a book ; each great 
 event and all the new laws are recorded in 
 a somewhat desultory manner. It can be 
 easily seen that the author notes the laws 
 and facts as they present themselves. The 
 people consulted Moses in all their em- 
 barrassments. When the question was 
 worth the while, the legislator wrote his 
 decision in his journal in the order of its 
 happening. Thus the law concerning the 
 deposits (Lev. vi. 1-7) is found like a waif 
 in the midst of the regulations concerning 
 the sacrifices, of which there is mention 
 before and after. A later writer would 
 never have been guilty of such confusion, 
 but here this disorder is like a certificate 
 of origin. The author did not intend to 
 furnish a refined and polished work, but a 
 work that carried his prescriptions ac- 
 cording to the wants and circumstances. 
 
 b. defeated Remindings of the Divine 
 Promises. — We have said that the author 
 of the Pentateuch, to induce the Israelites 
 to leave Egypt, represented to them in 
 Genesis the land of Chanaan as the Prom- 
 ised Land, given by the Lord to their 
 fathers. The divine promise is often re- 
 peated in Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, 
 and Deuteronomy. When from the midst 
 of the burning bush, God intrusted to 
 Moses the mission to deliver His people 
 oppressed by the Egyptians, it was that he 
 should lead them into the land of Chanaan 
 (Ex. iii. 8). The Lord has not forgotten 
 "the covenant which he made with Abra- 
 ham, Isaac, and Jacob" (ii. 24; cf. iii. 6, 
 15-17). and Moses must be in His hands 
 the instrument by which He will realize 
 His promises. The solemn moment has 
 arrived, the hour is decisive, the people 
 must leave Egypt to go and conquer the 
 Promised Land. It was on the eve of the 
 plagues which will cover Egypt with 
 mourning. God, to induce the Israelites 
 to take this great resolution, reminds them 
 of his promises (Ex. vi. 2-8). When, 
 later on in the desert of Sinai, God, 
 irritated against the Israelites who had 
 adored the golden calf, wishes to exter- 
 minate them entirely, Moses obtains their 
 pardon by reminding the Lord of His 
 promise to the Patriarchs to put their 
 posterity into possession of the land of 
 Chanaan (Ex. xxxii. 13; xxxiii. i, etc.). 
 In Leviticus God promises, as reward for 
 the observance of His law, " the ownership 
 
 of the land which He will give as an in- 
 heritance " to Israel (Lev. xx. 24.). In the 
 Book of Numbers, Palestine is always 
 designated as the country which God gives 
 to His people (Num. xiii. 3; xiv. 8, 9, 16, 
 23? 30, 31; XV. 2, etc.). In Deuteronomy, 
 the promise and divine donation are con- 
 tinually recalled to mind (Deut. viii. 7-10; 
 see also, vi. 10-12). 
 
 We would never finish were we to notice 
 all the texts which recall the donation 
 made to the Patriarchs and to their pos- 
 terity of the land of Chanaan (see Deut. i. 
 8; vi. 3; vii. i; viii. 18; ix. 4, 5, 28, etc.). 
 Thus, the same motives which are alleged 
 in the first book of the Pentateuch to in- 
 duce the children of Israel to march 
 toward the conquest of the Promised 
 Land, are equally alleged in the books fol- 
 lowing, and this with a persistence that 
 befits only the epoch when this great 
 revolution took place in the political life 
 of the Hebrews ; with a posterior writer, 
 such a persistence would be inexplicable, 
 as we have already had occasion to show. 
 
 c. The Miraculous Accounts. — The cir- 
 cumstances permit the sacred writer to 
 make use of a new means to act upon the 
 Israelites : the accounts of miracles. He 
 does not relate them as simply past facts, 
 proper to show the power and grandeur of 
 God, as a posterior writer might have 
 done, but he presents them as arguments 
 suited to enable him to attain his end, 
 which is to arouse the confidence of the 
 Hebrews and to urge them onward. Now, 
 since the children of Israel are on their 
 route toward Palestine, he shows them 
 that the Lord indeed keeps His promises, 
 in spite of their indocility, little faith, 
 and continual murmurs. This is also 
 one of the principal objects of the last 
 four books of the Pentateuch. The most 
 of the events related therein, aside from 
 the legislative portion, have no other 
 end; the prodigies accomplished by Jeho- 
 vah in favor of His people are succeeded 
 by others, as so many marks of the con- 
 stant protection and indefatigable vigilance 
 of the Lord. 
 
 This we remark from the beginning of 
 Exodus, and especially in the history of the 
 vocation of Moses, which is at once a 
 miracle and. a divine revelation. What a 
 wonderful development in that whole ac- 
 count of the Lord's apparition to Moses in 
 the burning bush! (Ex. iii. 6-ro. ) The 
 promises which God had made formerly 
 to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, He now 
 
Pentateuch 
 
 545 
 
 Pentateuch 
 
 makes to their posterity; the engagements 
 which he had contracted toward their 
 fathers, He declares that he will execute in 
 favor of the children ; the land which He 
 had given to the Patriarchs, He will deliver 
 into the hands of their heirs, and thus He 
 will have freed them from the bondage of 
 Egypt, which he had formerly foretold 
 (Gen. XV. 13, 14) and which he now will 
 cause to end. 
 
 God confirms immediately by several 
 miracles the mission of Moses, thus to in- 
 spire the people with confidence (cf. Ex, 
 iv. 1-9, 30, 31), as well as His messenger. 
 The whole history of the plagues of Egypt 
 is related in such a manner as to show to 
 the Israelites that they can count on God 
 as an all-powerful liberator, that He will 
 fulfill what he has promised. The chapters 
 v. to xiv. show this most evidently. The 
 circumstantial details of the author's mis- 
 sion, the persistence with which hedwells on 
 the objections which he makes to the Lord, 
 and the manner in which the Lord solves 
 them (Ex. iii., iv.), all this indicates a 
 contemporary account made, apparently, 
 to be spread among the oppressed, in order 
 to reanimate their hope and inflame their 
 courage. 
 
 The first interview of Moses with the 
 Pharao only aggravates the situation of 
 the Israelites subject to hard labor. Hence, 
 great discouragement on their part. Here, 
 as in the rest of the Pentateuch, the sacred 
 author reports the complaints of his com- 
 patriots in most expressive terms (Ex. v. 
 21). Moses himself is discouraged by this 
 check. It needs nothing less than a new 
 manifestation of Jehovah to reanimate his 
 confidence. It was in spite of himself that 
 he accepted the divine mission; he had 
 alleged all kinds of motives to be excused 
 from the charge of such a difficult enter- 
 prise ; he shows to the Hebrews that he 
 intermeddles with them only to obey. the 
 orders of the Almighty. Then the Lord 
 renews to him, and through him to His 
 people, all the assurances which He has 
 given before about the covenant which He 
 has contracted with the Patriarchs. To 
 these ancient obligations is now added 
 that of freeing the Israelites from oppres- 
 sion because He has heard their cries of 
 complaint. Therefore, He affirms and re- 
 peats that He will keep his double promise, 
 /. e., to deliver them from the yoke of the 
 Egyptians and put them into possession of 
 the Promised Land (vi. 2-8). But they 
 have become so embittered that they do 
 
 35 
 
 not wish to listen. Thus it became neces- 
 sary for the Lord to save them in spite of 
 themselves, and He has recourse to the 
 scourges known as the ten Plagues of 
 Egypt. The people refusing to depart, 
 God forces in this manner the Pharao to 
 drive them away. Each of these miraculous 
 scourges is for the Israelites a new proof 
 that God will keep His promise (vii. 4, 5; 
 viii. 19-22; xi. 7), and they finally consent 
 to set out when the Egyptians press them 
 to leave. All these miracles are related, 
 the sacred author tells us, to show that the 
 children of the Patriarchs can count on 
 the Lord's protection and power. And to 
 point out more clfearly the divine protect- 
 orate, the sacred writer dwells especially 
 and at length on all that can contribute to 
 raise the courage of the Hebrews. We 
 have a striking example of this in the ac- 
 count of the passage of the Red Sea. The 
 historian describes this miracle in the most 
 lively colors, because it is more than any 
 other capable of inspiring the Israelites 
 with full confidence in the success of their 
 enterprise. God has thus far combated for 
 them like a warrior (xv. 3) ; He has gained 
 this so wonderful a victory; He has 
 drowned the army of Pharao. Now, what 
 He did at the beginning of the campaign. 
 He will do until the end. Nothing is more 
 expressive than the Canticle composed on 
 this occasion, to give us the key to the 
 whole Pentateuch and to show us that the 
 author of the book is the very same as that 
 of the Canticle. More than pnce had the 
 people already expressed and should ap^ain 
 express their fear of not being strong 
 enough against the inhabitants of the 
 Promised Land (Num. xiv. 3). Let them 
 be without fear. The entire first part is 
 devoted to showing that Jehovah, alone, 
 will gain the battles against the enemies of 
 the children of Jacob (Ex. xv. 1-2 1), and 
 be their deliverer. 
 
 The other miracles which the Lord mul- 
 tiplies in the desert in favor of the Israelites 
 are presented under the same aspect (Ex. 
 xvi. 6, 7; xvii. ir-14; xxix. 40) as that of 
 the passage of the Red Sea ; that is, th^y 
 are related in a manner such as Moses alone 
 could relate them. In the Book of Judges, 
 the prodigies which God accomplished are 
 described to us, on the contrary, not as 
 having for their end to manifest to the 
 Israelites the power of their God and the 
 confidence they ought to have in Him, but 
 as a punishment of the people, when un- 
 faithful, or as a reward for their return to 
 
Pentateuch 
 
 546 
 
 Pentateuch 
 
 God, when they became converted (Jud. 
 ii. II ; iii. 7, 9, etc.). It is the same in the 
 other books of the Old Testament. Why 
 does the Pentateuch form an exception, if 
 it is not because it was written before the 
 race of Jacob, fleeing from Egypt, was 
 established in the land of Chanaan? 
 
 d. Form and OmissioMS of the Hebrew 
 Legislation: Proof a of Its Mosaic Origin. 
 — The first thing which the liberator of the 
 Israelites had to do in the desert, to pre- 
 pare his people for the mission they were 
 called to fulfill in the Promised Land, was 
 to give them a law that would render them 
 fit for this design, and impress upon them 
 the character which they should preserve 
 through all ages. The Pentateuch tells us 
 that Moses executed this, indeed. 
 
 Under God's inspiration, he formulated 
 difTerent ordinances. But since God makes 
 use of contingent events to manifest His 
 providence, the legislator whom He directs 
 does not give to the Hebrews a systematic 
 and theoretic code, cast, so to say, in one 
 piece ; he regulates the affairs from day to 
 dav, according as they occur. If we were 
 to find in the Pentateuch a system of laws 
 disposed with order and symmetry, we 
 might harbor a suspicion as to its origin, 
 and ask : Does such a legislation not prove 
 a state of civilization different from that 
 which Israel could have had in the desert.? 
 But the legal prescriptions indicate con- 
 ditions that existed at Sinai, and could 
 only have been formulated there. One 
 thing only is announced as a whole: the 
 moral law, the expression of the eternal 
 law, independent of all times and places, 
 contained in what we call the Decalogue, 
 and which Moses received from God on 
 Mount Sinai. The Mosaic origin of these 
 precepts is so evident that most of the Ra- 
 tionalists raise no objection in accepting 
 them. 
 
 The law regulates, moreover, all that is 
 essential in religious matters, the worship 
 which we are obliged to render to God, the 
 sacrifices and priesthood. All that is in- 
 dependent of circumstances is foreseen and 
 already obser\-ed in the peninsula of Sinai. 
 In the long leisures of the desert life, 
 Moses writes the Levitical ritual. Every 
 day they oflFer victims to the Lord, and 
 soon all the cases which the ceremonial 
 might present are exhibited in practice 
 and have been solved. However, other 
 details still escape to the legislator, and he 
 determines them only when unforeseen 
 circumstances furnish the occasion. 
 
 We notice the same character in all the 
 other legal prescriptions. That which is 
 general and ordinary is regulated before- 
 hand, but particular points are omitted. 
 Only when circumstances draw the atten- 
 tion of the legislator to an extraordinary 
 case does he occupy himself with it. Thus, 
 a surprising thing, the law contains no 
 general rule about marriage and the trans- 
 mission of inheritances. We are instructed 
 only by way of allusion on the divorce, 
 which is, however, such an important in- 
 stitution. It is the same with the custom- 
 ary and traditional laws of the East, 
 according to which only the sons inherited 
 from their father. Since the nomads have 
 but little landed property, this custom of- 
 fers no difficulty, and the legislator does 
 not even mention it. He occupies himself 
 with this important point only by accident 
 and when the tribes have become proprie- 
 tors of the soil, when litigious cases pre- 
 sent themselves, and when they oblige him 
 to make a decision. 
 
 Thus the common law did not provide 
 for the case where a father left only female 
 posterity. This case presented itself one 
 day to Moses and he had to pronounce 
 himself (Num. xxvii. i-ii). The law 
 which punishes the blasphemer with death 
 is also declared on the occasion of the 
 curses of a man whose father was an 
 Egyptian and his mother an Israelitess 
 (Lev. xxiv. 10-16; cf. Num. xv. 32-36). 
 And what is still more remarkable, in this 
 case, as in that of the Sabbath, the sanc- 
 tion of the law is only made after the 
 promulgation of the law itself (Lev. xxiv. 
 10-16 and Ex. xxii. 28; Num. xv. 32-36 and 
 Ex. XX. 8). 
 
 Not only the legal prescriptions are thus- 
 regulated from day to day, as it became a 
 people leading a nomadic life in Sinai, but, 
 moreover, all that the law ordains in the 
 Pentateuch is peculiar to the time of 
 Moses. We even find regulations therein 
 which couW not have their origin in Pales- 
 tine and whose application was possible 
 only to a people camping in the wilderness 
 (Lev. iv. 12, 21 ; xiii. 46; xiv. 3, 8; xvi. 27, 
 28; 3ivii. 3; xxiv. 14, 23; Num. xv. 35, 36; 
 xix. 3; etc.) and under the tent (Num. xix. 
 4), such as that regarding the scapegoat, 
 and many others (Lev. iv. 12; xvi. 10; 
 Num. xix. 2-10; Deut. xxiii. 12, 13). 
 Nothing leads us to suppose that the peo- 
 ple live in cities and houses; on the con- 
 trary, everything proves that they are in 
 the desert (Ex, xvi. 13; xxix. 14, etc.). 
 
Pentateuch 
 
 547 
 
 Pentateuch 
 
 Only when they are on the plains of Moab, 
 when the trans- Jordanic tribes have already 
 their share of territory (Num. xxxii.), does 
 Moses take measures for the division of the 
 Promised Land, and occupy himself with 
 cities which shall be given to the Levites, 
 and the cities of refuge, but he does not 
 designate an}' (Num. xxxiv., xxxv.). If 
 the chapter which contains these last pre- 
 scriptions had been written after the time 
 of Moses, very probably the names of these 
 cities would have been enumerated therein. 
 Consequently, the Hebrew legislation, 
 on account of the manner in which it was 
 given, is not complete. The omissions 
 therein are numerous, but are not less con- 
 clusive than the positive prescriptions in 
 favor of its Mosaic origin. This is a point 
 to which we cannot draw enough atten- 
 tion That which mostly occupied other 
 legislators, that is, political organization, 
 is wanting with Moses; he does not speak 
 thereof. He found the patriarchal regimen 
 already established, and he ' keeps it up; 
 the idea of changing it, modifying it, or 
 declaring his willingness to preserve it, 
 does not even seem to enter his mind. 
 While he minutely regulates everything 
 that concerns the religious service and the 
 reciprocal rights of each one, he keeps 
 silent about the government and the 
 political regimen of the twelve tribes whom 
 he desires to become a people. How can 
 we explain a similar silence? Simply be- 
 cause no one, neither he nor others, was 
 thinking about modifying the patriarchal 
 organization received from Abraham and 
 Jacob; it is sufficient in the desert; he 
 does not look any further. The daily of- 
 fering of the sacrifices often brings up new 
 questions which must be regulated, and he 
 regulates them in practice. The continual 
 relations of men to one another will give 
 rise to litigious, doubtful, and unforeseen 
 cases, upon which he is also obliged to ex- 
 press himself, and he does express himself. 
 But the organization of the nomadic tribes 
 is sufficient for the nomadic life they lead 
 in the desert; they are contented. This 
 organization will have inconveniences 
 when the people shall be settled in the 
 Promised Land; they will have no com- 
 mon chief, will form a multitude of small 
 and independent states, without cohesion, 
 without unity, and consequently without 
 power; the consequence will be that they 
 are always at the mercy of all invaders, as 
 is attested by the history of the Judges. 
 Moses does not provide for any of these 
 
 inconveniences; he regelates nothing; he 
 is occupied only with the present. He 
 foresees that the people must have a chief 
 when marching to the conquest of Pales- 
 tine, and he appoints Josue to replace him 
 after his death. But as to who shall be at 
 the head of Israel after Josue, he does not 
 busy himself, and the Pentateuch does not 
 contain a single word in regard to this 
 subject. 
 
 Is there any other epoch than that of 
 Moses where one could forget, so to say, 
 the government of Israel? No. Moses 
 alone could be so indifferent (pardon the 
 expression) about the political future of 
 his people. For him, religion, moral and 
 good civil order was all he wanted. Who- 
 ever might have written after the reigns of 
 Saul and David would certainly have 
 alluded to the Judges of Israel, those 
 celebrated heroes, who always held a con- 
 spicuous place in the popular remembrance 
 (I. Ki. xii. II ; Ps. Ixxxii. lo, 12; Is. ix. 4; 
 X. 26; etc.). If the Hebrew code had been 
 drawn up in the time of the Kings, cer- 
 tainly the author could not have neglected 
 to speak of the sovereign. We can defy 
 all the enemies of the authenticity of the 
 Pentateuch to furnish even a plausible ex- 
 planation of the omission of royalty in the 
 Hebrew legislation, if Moses is not the au- 
 thor thereof. 
 
 e. The Remembrance of Egypt is Still 
 Alive in the Pentateuch. — In both the 
 legislative part and in the historical ac- 
 counts of the Pentateuch, we find quite a 
 characteristic feature : the place which 
 Egypt occupies therein. It appears all 
 over, — sometimes in a direct manner, some- 
 times by way of allusion ; and it is always 
 presented in such a manner that the un- 
 prejudiced reader can easily recognize that 
 Moses alone could think so much of Egypt 
 and mention it so often in his writings. 
 
 The deliverance from the bondage of 
 Egypt is recalled to mind at every moment 
 as a very important event, as an event with 
 which were associated those whom the 
 writer addresses (Num. xxxii. 11 ; xxxiii. 
 i; Deut. ix. ; xxix. 16; etc.). These are 
 incontestable facts which nobody can deny 
 who has read the Pentateuch. The new 
 science of Egyptology has especially con- 
 firmed this. All that is related of Egypt 
 in the Pentateuch, of the sojourn of the 
 Hebrews in that country, and of their ex- 
 odus, is in perfect accord with the state of 
 Egypt such as it appeared under the 
 Rameses. Now this state was very differ- 
 
Pentecost 
 
 548 
 
 Persecutions 
 
 ent from what it was later on, for example, 
 in the epoch of Solomon or in that of the 
 Prophets. The Egypt of the Pentateuch 
 is very different from that of the Prophets. 
 In the former, one single state ; in the lat- 
 ter, an empire parceled out into small 
 principalities. In the former, complete 
 silence about the kingdom of Ethiopia; in 
 the latter, this kingdom appear. In all 
 the details we discover the same exacti- 
 tude, proving that the Pentateuch is much 
 anterior to the Prophets. As to the Egyp- 
 tian customs, we find them faithfully de- 
 picted even to the smallest detail. To 
 be so exact the author of the Pentateuch 
 must necessarily have lived in Egypt; he 
 must have lived with the people whose ex- 
 odus he describes. This author can have 
 been no other than Moses. 
 
 Pentecost. — The name given to the 
 feast among the Jews, held on the fiftieth 
 day after the Passover, in celebration of 
 the "ingathering," and in thanksgiving 
 for the harvest. From the Jewish use, it 
 was introduced into the Christian, and 
 with special solemnity, as being the day of 
 the descent of the Holy Ghost on the 
 Apostles, and of the first solemn preaching 
 of the Christian religion. From early 
 times Pentecost has been regarded as one 
 of the great festivals of the Christian year, 
 and it was chosen as one of the times for 
 the solemn administration of baptism. 
 The English name of the festival, Whit- 
 sunday', is derived from the white robes in 
 which the newly baptized were clad. It is 
 regarded as especially sacred to the Third 
 Person of the Blessed Trinity, in whose 
 honor the services of the day are directly 
 addressed. 
 
 Pepin the Short. — Died in 768. King 
 of the Franks, son of Charles Martel. He 
 became major-domo of Neustria on the 
 death of his father in 741 ; his brother 
 Karlmann becoming major-domo of Aus- 
 trasia. The latter abdicated in his favor 
 in 747, and with the Pope's sanction he as- 
 sumed the title of king in 752. He assisted 
 the Pope against Aistulf, king of the Lom- 
 bards, who, in 752, took possession of 
 Ravenna and its dependent provinces, and 
 put an end to the Greek dominion in that 
 part of Italy. He resolved to make him- 
 self master, also, of Rome. Hereupon 
 Pope Stephen III. applied to the Greek 
 emperor for assistance, but being refused, 
 he had recourse to Pepin, king of the 
 
 Franks. Pepin first attempted peaceful 
 negotiations with Aistulf; but these being 
 refused, he, in two expeditions (754 and 
 756), compelled the Lombard to surrender 
 the exarchate and all the cities which he 
 had taken from the Roman Church. Pepin, 
 by a solemn deed, placed on the tomb of 
 St. Peter, together with the keys of the 
 cities donated, or rather restored to the 
 Roman See, the territory which his valor 
 had recovered. 
 
 Thus, the Pope became an independent 
 and temporal sovereign. By the gift of 
 Pepin, this large part of Italy, became the 
 kingdom of the Bishop of Rome, and 
 thus, was laid the foundation of what are 
 called the Papal states. These states hav- 
 ing been donated to the " Apostolic See," 
 and being the property, the " Patrimony 
 of St. Peter," belong not to any Pope as 
 an individual, nor to any family or fac- 
 tion, but to the entire Catholic Church. 
 The protection of the Holy See, which 
 the Byzantine emperors had so basely 
 neglected, was transferred to the Frankish 
 king, with the title of " Patrician of 
 Rome," which conferred upon him a cer- 
 tain ambunt of patronage and a voice in 
 certain matters relating to the temporal 
 weal of the Roman Church. 
 
 Pepuzians. See Montanists. 
 
 Pergamum. — A city of Mysia, Asia 
 Minor, (Apoc. i. 11; ii. 12.) and the resi- 
 dence of the Attalian princes. Here was 
 collected by the king of this race a noble 
 library of 200,000 volumes, which was 
 afterwards transported to Egypt by Cleo- 
 patra, and added to the library at Alex- 
 andria. Hence the Latin ndivne pergamentutn 
 for parchment. Pergamum was situated 
 on the Caicus, 50 miles north of Smyrna, 
 and was the birthplace of Galen. 
 
 Perge. — A city in Pamphylia, Asia 
 Minor. It was noted for the worship of 
 Artemis (Acts xiii. 13, 14). This is not a 
 maritime city, but situated on the river 
 Cestus, at some distance from its mouth. 
 It was one of the most considerable cities 
 in Pamphylia ; and when that province was 
 divided into two parts, this city became 
 the metropolis of one part, and Side of the 
 other. 
 
 Persecutions. — History stigmatizes 
 with the epithet *' persecutors," the Roman 
 emperors who used violence against the 
 Christians to force them to abjure their 
 
Perseverance 
 
 549 
 
 Perseverance 
 
 religion. Lactantius has left us a treatise 
 on the death of the persecutors wherein he 
 shows that all perished in a fatal manner, 
 and as having been struck by Divine ven- 
 geance. In Palestine there never occurred 
 any general persecutions; some heads of 
 the Christian community of Jerusalem, 
 after the example of the divine Master, 
 perished as victims of their faith for all, 
 such as St. James the Less (35), St. James 
 the Greater (62), and St. Stephen. In the 
 cities of the Roman empire, where the 
 Christians had colonies, there took place 
 ten great persecutions. The first occurred 
 under Nero, who accused the Christians of 
 the burning of Rome, of which he, him- 
 self, was the author, and who, under this 
 pretext, delivered them, beginning with 
 the year 64, to the most cruel torments. 
 The second took place in the year 95, in 
 the reign of Domitian, under pretext that 
 the Jews gave to Jesus the title of king. In 
 this persecution, a great number of the 
 confessors of the Christian faith lost their 
 life, especially in Asia Minor. The third 
 took place under Trajan and on the denun- 
 ciation of the proconsuls, among others, of 
 Plinius the Younger, in Bithynia, who 
 complained that the Christians did not bow 
 before the imperial statues. The fourth 
 (177) took place under Marcus Aurelius, 
 who felt uneasy about the new Christian 
 communities established in Gaul, Vienne, 
 and Lyons ; about the year 165 the Chris- 
 tians in Asia Minor had also to suffer 
 a persecution, and in which perished 
 the Bishop of Smyrna, St. Polycarp, and 
 at the same time St. Justin, expiated at 
 Rome the blame which he had thrown on 
 the philosopher Crescens. The fifth took 
 place under Septimus Severus who, in 
 202, forbade the Jews to embrace the 
 Christian religion ; the sixth was the 
 work of Maximus who made, in the year 
 235, restrictions to the edicts of Alexan- 
 der Severus, who had granted to the 
 Christians particular favors ; the Emperor 
 Decius (249) inaugurated his reign with 
 the seventh persecution, and the character 
 of universality and the merciless cruelty 
 which presided therein indicates clearly 
 the intention of annihilating Christianity; 
 the eighth persecution (257), under Vale- 
 rian, was directed more especially against 
 the priests who were put to death without 
 mercy ; the violent end of the Emperor 
 Aurelian put an end to the ninth persecu- 
 tion, which he had ordered against the 
 Christians in the year 275 ; finally, the 
 
 tenth was decreed, in 303, by Diocletian. 
 In a series of cruel edicts, this emperor 
 declared his intention of obliterating the 
 Christian name. Imperial edicts were 
 everywhere published, ordering the 
 churches to be destroyed, the Scriptures 
 to be burned. Christians of rank to be de- 
 graded, common people, if they remained 
 faithful, to be reduced to slavery, and 
 bishops and priests, especially, should 
 have the choice between apostacy and a 
 cruel death. This rigorous order was, 
 in the year 304, extended by a fourth edict 
 to the whole body of Christians. A 
 countless multitude of Christians, in con- 
 sequence of these edicts, obtained the 
 crown of martyrdom. 
 
 It is impossible to fix the exact number 
 of Christian martyrs who died for the faith. 
 Dodwell, an Anglican writer of the seven- 
 teenth century, and Gibbon endeavored to 
 prove that it was insignificant, but this 
 opinion is not shared by unprejudiced 
 writers. The computations of Bosio, who 
 is justly styled the " Columbus of the 
 Catacombs," and of other learned men 
 have led to an estimate that at least five mil- 
 lion Christians — men, women, and chil- 
 dren — were put to death for the faith 
 during the first three centuries of the 
 Church. Some even believe the total 
 number of Christians martyred during 
 this period to be between nine and ten 
 millions. Nor should this appear exag- 
 gerated, especially when the millions of 
 graves as well as the inscriptions found in 
 the Catacombs about Rome, show that in 
 the capital of the empire alone there must 
 have been about two and a half millions of 
 martyrs. 
 
 Perseveranc e. — By perseverance is 
 meant an unwavering fixity of the will, 
 and the word is used in theology to signify 
 the fixed will of a just man to retain the 
 robe of grace with which he is clothed, and 
 not cast it from him by committing griev- 
 ous sin. The habit of this will constitutes 
 the x'irtue of perseverance, a virtue which 
 will show itself in a series, longer or 
 shorter, of acts of resistance to tempta- 
 tion ; this series being known as active 
 perseverance, passive perseverance — not 
 a very apt phrase — is employed to denote 
 death in the state of grace; 'And final per- 
 severance is the great gift enjoyed by those 
 who have actively persevered till death 
 came to them and they can be said to have 
 had passive perseverance. There may 
 
Persia 
 
 550 
 
 Persia 
 
 be passive perseverance without active, 
 as when an infant dies after baptism, 
 or an adult the instant after his soul 
 has received the grace of God. It is a 
 defined doctrine of the Church that perse- 
 verance is impossible for a just man with- 
 out special aid from God, but that with 
 this aid it is possible. Council of Trent, 
 Sess. VI., can. 12. See Grace. 
 
 Persia (in Hebrew Phars). — A vast re- 
 gion in Asia, the southwestern province of 
 which appears to have been the ancient 
 Persia and is still called ** Pharsistan " or 
 " Fars." The Persians, who became so fa- 
 mous after Cyrus, the founder of their 
 more extended monarchy, were anciently 
 called Elamites; and later, in the time of 
 the Romans, Parthians. The early history 
 of the Persians, like that of most of the 
 Oriental nations, is involved in doubt and 
 perplexity. We have already suggested 
 their descent from Sem, through his son 
 Elam, after whom they were originally 
 named. It is probable that they enjoyed 
 their independence for several ages, with a 
 monarchical succession of their own, until 
 they were subdued by the Assyrians, and 
 their country attached to a province to 
 that empire. From this period, both sacred 
 and profane writers distinguished the king- 
 dom of the Medes from that of the Per- 
 sians. It is not improbable that during 
 this period, petty revolutions might have 
 occasioned temporary disjunctions of Per- 
 sia from Assyria, and that the Persian 
 king was quickly again made sensible of 
 his true allegiance. When Media became 
 independent, under Dejoces and then 
 Phraortes, Persia became also subject to 
 its sway, as a tributary kingdom. Media 
 having vanquished her great rival, Assyria, 
 enjoyed a long interval of peace, during 
 the reign of Astyages, son of Cyaxares. 
 But his successor, Cyaxares the Second, 
 united with the Persians against the Baby- 
 lonians, and gave the command of the 
 combined armies to Cyrus, who took 
 the city of Babylon, killed Balthasar, and 
 terminated that kingdom, in 538 B. c. 
 Cyrus succeeded to the throne of Media 
 and Persia, and completed the union be- 
 tween those countries. He extended his 
 dominion beyond the greatest limits of 
 that of the kings of Assyria. It may be 
 worthy of remark, previous to this union, 
 Daniel speaks of the law of the Medes and 
 Persians as being the same; the union was 
 effected b. c. 536. The principal events re- 
 
 lating to Scripture, which occurred dur- 
 ing the reign of Cyrus, were the restor- 
 ation of the Jews, the rebuilding of the 
 city and temple, and the capture of 
 Babylon. 
 
 Persia {Christianity in). — The propaga- 
 tion of Christianity in Persia took place at 
 a very early date. Several bishoprics had 
 already existed there in the first quarter of 
 the fourth century. A Persian bishop at- 
 tended the Council of Nice, in 325. The 
 rapid progress of Christianity in this 
 country irritated the Jews and heathen 
 Magi, or priests, who spared no pains to 
 arouse the suspicion of the Persian king. 
 Sapor II. (309-381) against the Christians, 
 whom they represented as the secret allies 
 of the Romans and the enemies of their 
 country. A frightful persecution ensued 
 in 345, which lasted thirty-five years. 
 Simeon, the aged bishop of Seleucia, to- 
 gether with a hundred priests and deacons, 
 was among the first put to death for the 
 faith. Sozomenus states that the number 
 of Christians who suffered during this 
 persecution amounted to sixteen thousand, 
 not including those of whom no particulars 
 could be obtained. After the death of 
 Sapor II., the Church in Persia enjoyed a 
 respite during forty years. King Isdegerd 
 I. (401-420) was particularly favorable to 
 Christians, to whom he granted the free 
 exercise of their religion. But when 
 Bishop Abdas of Susa, by an act of indis- 
 creet zeal, set fire to a pagan temple, the 
 persecution was renewed, and it continued 
 to rage with increased fury until the year 
 450. Abdas, with a number of Christians, 
 was put to death. Every species of torture 
 that inhumanity could devise was employed 
 upon the confessors of the faith ; some were 
 sawed to pieces or flayed alive; others 
 were bound hand and foot and cast into 
 pits to be devoured alive by rats and mice. 
 It was not till the treaty of peace had been 
 concluded with Theodosius II. (427), that 
 King Bahram V. (420-438) became more 
 mild towards the Christians; and this 
 was mainly owing to Bishop Acacius of 
 Amida, who, with the proceeds of Church 
 property which he sold, ransomed seven 
 thousand Persian prisoners of war, and 
 restored them to their homes. Unhappily 
 at this time Nestorianism entered the land, 
 which at a later date fell a prey to Islamism 
 and rooted out Christianity, with the ex- 
 ception of a few scattered fragments here 
 and there. 
 
Peschito 
 
 551 
 
 Peter in Rome 
 
 Peschito (simfJii)'. — Syriac version of 
 the Bible. It is taken literally from the 
 Septuagint in the Old and from the Greek 
 originals in the New Testament, and is 
 marked thus: "This translation was fin- 
 ished in the year of the Greeks, 389, by 
 the hand of Achaeus, the Apostle." Ac- 
 cording to this inscription St. Thaddaeus 
 or Jude, who evangelized Syria, was the 
 author of this translation, which certainly 
 goes back to his time. Such is the tradi- 
 tion of the Syrians themselves, and it is 
 borne out by the arguments of Cardinal 
 Wiseman in his HorcE Syriacte. The 
 Apocalypse and four of the Epistles are 
 wanting in it, because their canonical 
 authority was not commonly known, or 
 universally acknowledged at the time this 
 version was made. A splendid edition of 
 it was printed at Vienna, in 1555, with the 
 assistance of a distinguished Maronite 
 priest, who had visited Rome, with the ob- 
 ject of presenting to the Chair of St. Peter, 
 in the person of Julius III., the allegiance 
 of the Maronite Christians. 
 
 Pessimism. — Philosophical system 
 which teaches that this world is the worst 
 of all worlds possible; in opposition to 
 Optimism, which see. 
 
 Petavius (1583-1652). — Jesuit, antiquary, 
 and chronologist, born at Orleans, died in 
 Paris. Professor in difTerent houses of 
 his Order. His work Opus de doctrina 
 temporum (1627) was a work of criticism 
 against Scaliger and Saumaise. We owe 
 to him also: Uranologia; Rationarium 
 temporum (1633-1634) ; Dogmata Theologia 
 (1644-1650) ; De Ecclesia Christi. 
 
 Peter (St.) {Petrus). — Prince of the 
 Apostles, first Pope, and martyr, born 
 about the year 10 b. c, at Bethsaida, Gali- 
 lee, son of Jonas or Joan, hence he is called 
 in the Gospel Bar-Jona {son of yonas), 
 brother of St. Andrew, Apostle. His first 
 name was Simon or Simeon. He was 
 married, and had his home, wife and sister- 
 in-law at Capharnaum, on the Lake Gen- 
 esareth, where he practiced the trade of a 
 fisherman. With his brother Andrew, he 
 was actually engaged in that occupation on 
 the sea of Galilee when our Lord called 
 both to be his disciples, promising " to 
 make them fishers of men." This invita- 
 tion they accepted without hesitation. 
 The early labors of St. Peter in Palestine 
 are recorded in the first fifteen chapters of 
 the Acts of the Apostles, written by St. 
 
 Luke. Later on, the historian of the life 
 and sufferings of the Apostles, became the 
 companion of St. Paul. For this reason 
 the subsequent labors of St. Peter are less 
 known than those of St. Paul. Soon after 
 receiving the centurion and his household 
 into the Church, we find the prince of the 
 Apostles presiding as bishop over a large 
 congregation at Antioch, where the follow- 
 ers of Christ were first called Christians. 
 Later on, we see him as missionary travers- 
 ing Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, and other 
 countries. In the beginning of the reign 
 of Claudius, about the year 42, he arrived 
 at Rome, where he established a Church 
 and presided over it as bishop. In the im- 
 perial city, St. Mark, a companion of St. 
 Peter, wrote his Gospel. Peter approved 
 it and sent Mark to Alexandria where he 
 established a Christian Church and gov- 
 erned it as bishop. Thus the Churches of 
 Rome, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria, 
 justly trace their origin to St. Peter and 
 were honored as patriarchal sees. 
 
 Peter {Epistles of St.). — We have two 
 canonical Epistles from St. Peter. The 
 first is addressed to the Faithful who are 
 foreigners and dispersed in the provinces 
 of Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and 
 Bithynia. The second addresses itself to 
 the Faithful in general, whom it strength- 
 ens in the expectation of the second com- 
 ing of Jesus Christ. 
 
 Peter (St.). — Patriarch of Alexandria 
 and martyr under the reign of Galerus 
 Maximian, in 310. We owe to him Peni- 
 tential Canons, inserted in the Collection 
 of the Councils by Labbe and in all the 
 Collections of Canons; some fragments of 
 homilies, etc., in the Library of the Fa- 
 thers, by Gallandius, vol. IV. F. Nov. 
 26th. 
 
 Peter Chrysologus (St.). See Chrys- 
 
 OLOGUS. 
 
 Peter de Bruys. See Petrobusians. 
 
 Peter in Rome. — St. Peter labored in 
 Rome previous to his last sojourn, which 
 ended with his death. This fact is proved : 
 I. By all the writers of Christian antiquity, 
 Clement of Rome; Ignatius; Hegesippus, 
 who sojourned in Rome till 156; Irenseus, 
 Cyprian, Eusebius, Orosius, and Jerome; 
 moreover, by the Liberian Catalogue of 
 Popes, compiled about the year 360; by 
 the patrocinium in the ancient martyrolo- 
 gies, " Cathedra S. Petri, qua primum 
 
Peter Lombard 
 
 552 
 
 Peter the Hermit 
 
 RomcE sedit." Suetonius, a pagan writer, 
 points to the expulsion of the Jews from 
 Rome by Claudius, because " at the insti- 
 gation of a certain Chrestus " (Christ) 
 they created continual disturbances. This 
 fact proves that there existed in Rome a 
 Christian community about the year 49. 
 It is sometimes asserted that Peter and 
 Paul founded the Church of Rome. As 
 St. Paul, by his apostolic labors and mar- 
 tyrdom, did much in spreading the Gospel 
 of Christ in the imperial city, he may be 
 said to be the second founder. That he 
 was not the first who established a Chris- 
 tian community in Rome is evident from 
 his Epistle to the Romans, in which he ex- 
 presses the hope to see the renowned 
 Church of Rome. 2. By the sacred Scrip- 
 tures. The first Epistle of Peter was 
 written from a city which he called Bab- 
 ylon. Ancient Babylon on the Euphrates 
 cannot be meant, since there is no proof 
 that either Peter or Paul ever labored 
 there. Nay, according to Pliny and 
 Strabo, this once famous city had at this 
 time become " a great solitude." St. 
 Peter did not extend his missionary labors 
 so far, nor was there ever a Christian com- 
 munity in that city. On the contrary, " Bab- 
 ylon " j« a figurative expression for Rome. 
 In this sense, it was understood by Papias, a 
 disciple of the Apostles, as Eusebius ob- 
 serves. There was a Christian community 
 in Rome before the advent of^St. Paul. 
 This is proved by St. Paul himself, for he 
 " longed to see the Roman Church, whose 
 faith is spoken of throughout the world." 
 The Church of Rome was already in a 
 flourishing condition about the year 57, 
 when St. Paul wrote his Epistle and had not 
 as yet visited it (Rom. i. 1-15; xv. 20-25). 
 Who founded the Roman Church before 
 Paul, if not Peter? No other Apostle has 
 ever been mentioned as its founder. All 
 ancient Church history designates Peter, 
 alone, as the founder of the Roman Church, 
 and this simultaneously with his sojourn in 
 Rome, as established by tradition from the 
 baptism of Cornelius to his imprisonment 
 by Herod Agrippa (38-44). During all 
 this time we have no historical record of 
 Peter being eLsewhere. This is the unani- 
 mous testimony of the ancient Church, 
 and all pretended proofs to the contrary 
 have no foundation in history. St. Peter, 
 it is true, did not remain constantly in 
 Rome. In the year 50, he presided at the 
 Apostolic Council of Jerusalem ; then went 
 to Corinth, Antioch, and other places. 
 
 He suffered martyrdom in Rome together 
 with St. Paul, June 29th, a. d. 67. He was 
 crucified, as our Lord had foretold. 
 
 There are four festivals of St. Peter: i. 
 The feast of Peter and Paul, on June 29th. 
 This commemorates the burial of St. Peter 
 and St. Paul, and is mentioned in the Li- 
 berian Catalogue. 2. Feast of the " Cathe- 
 dra of Antioch," February 22d. This feast 
 is also mentioned in the Liberian Cata- 
 logue. 3. The feast of the "Cathedra of 
 Rome," January iSth. 4. The feast of 
 "St. Peter in Chains," August 1st. 
 
 Peter Lombard. See Lombard. 
 
 Peter Nolasco (St.). See Mercy {Or- 
 der of ). 
 
 Peter of Alcantara (St.). — Religious 
 of the Order of St. Francis, born at Al- 
 cantara, in 1499. Vicar and visitor general 
 of this congregation, established the strict 
 observance of the rule, was a model of 
 penance, and one of the directors of St. 
 Theresa. He died in the convent of 
 Arenas, in 1562. F. Oct. 19th. 
 
 Peter's Pence. — Formerly an annual 
 tax of one penny for every house in Eng- 
 land, collected in midsummer, and paid 
 to the Holy See. It was extended to Ire- 
 land under the Bull granted by Pope 
 Adrian to Henry II. Nowadays, it is a 
 voluntary contribution, given by the Faith- 
 ful, for the maintenance of the sovereign 
 Pontiff, and is taken up for him annually, 
 under the direction of the bishop through- 
 out the whole Catholic world. 
 
 Peter the Hermit. — A pious and holy 
 hermit of Amiens, in France. About the 
 year 1093, ^^ undertook a pilgrimage to 
 Jerusalem. The desolation of the holy 
 places, the sufferings and despair of the 
 Christians, and the pitiable complaints 
 and entreaties of the Patriarch Simeon, 
 filled his soul with indignation and com- 
 passion. Returning from the Holy Land, 
 the pious pilgrim presented himself to 
 Pope Urban II., who warmly approved 
 the idea of organizing a Crusade for the 
 deliverance of Jerusalem, and charged 
 Peter with the preaching of the holy war, 
 which he did with wonderful effect. 
 Wandering from land to land, Peter every- 
 where repeated the tale of woe and suffer- 
 ings, to which the Christians in the East 
 were subjected. Most far-reaching was 
 the agitation produced by the preaching 
 of the eloquent hermit. Peter accompa- 
 
Peter the Venerable 
 
 553 
 
 Pharan 
 
 nied the expedition under Godfrey; but, 
 worn out by the delays and difficulties of 
 the siege of Antioch, he was about to with- 
 draw from the expedition, and was only 
 retained by the influence of the other 
 leaders, who foresaw the worst results 
 from his departure. Accordingly, he had 
 a share, although not marked by any sig- 
 nal distinction, in the siege and capture of 
 the Holy City in 1099; and the closing in- 
 cident of his history was an address to the 
 victorious army, delivered on the Mount 
 of Olives. He returned to Europe, and 
 founded a monastery at Huy, in the Dio- 
 cese of Liege. In this monastery he died 
 in 1115. 
 
 Peter the Venerable (1093-1156). — Abbot 
 of Cluny, born in the Auvergne. One of 
 the most valiant defenders of faith and 
 orthodoxy; he and his friend St. Bernard, 
 upheld Pope Stephen 11. against the anti- 
 pope Anacletus. He caused the Koran to 
 be translated into Latin. 
 
 Petrines. — The Judaic Christians, in 
 the early Church, who after the example 
 of our Lord and the Apostles continued to 
 obsers'e the Mosaical ceremonies, soon 
 separated into two distinct classes. The 
 more moderate ones, called " Petrines," 
 though following the Mosaic law, did not 
 insist upon its observance as a condition 
 of salvation. The rigid Judaists, on the 
 contrary, held that the keeping of the law 
 was obligatory to all, and were desirous of 
 imposing it, also, on the Gentile Chris- 
 tians. They would not acknowledge St. 
 Paul, who opposed their influence so 
 strongly, as an Apostle. These turbulent 
 Judaists gave no little trouble at Antioch 
 about the year 50, and later on at Corinth 
 and in Galatia; their importunity causing 
 the holding of the Council of Jerusalem. 
 
 Petrobusians. — Heretics in the first 
 half of the twelfth century. They owed 
 their name to Peter de Bruys, a deposed 
 priest, and Henry the Deacon, an apostate 
 monk, of Cluny. By their fanatical 
 preaching, they especially excited the 
 populace in the South of France. Peter 
 the Venerable, Abbot of Cluny, who 
 wrote against these heresiarchs, arraigns 
 Peter de Bruys as rejecting: Infant 
 baptism; the Real Pre.'^ence in the Holy 
 Eucharist; the building and using of 
 churches, since God might be worshiped 
 in any place, even in stables; the worship 
 of the holy Cross, which, he said, ought 
 
 to be rather an object of horror than of 
 veneration ; and prayers and oblations for 
 the dead. His followers committed many 
 atrocities, especially against priests and 
 monks. "The people," writes Peter the 
 Venerable, "are rebaptized, altars thrown 
 down, crosses burnt, meat publicly eaten 
 on the day of the Lord's Passion, priests 
 illtreated, monks imprisoned or compelled 
 to marry by violence or by torture." The 
 Council of Toulouse in 11 19, invited the 
 civil power to restrain the excesses of these 
 fanatics. Peter de Bruys, while engaged, 
 on Good Friday at St. Gilles, near Aries, 
 in burning a pile of crucifixes, was seized 
 by an excited multitude and cast into the 
 flames which he had lighted. 
 
 To the errors of Peter de Bruys, Henrythe 
 Deacon, " the heir of his wickedness," as 
 he was called by Peter the Venerable, added 
 many more. His rude eloquence, and his 
 ostensibly ascetic life gained him many 
 followers, especially among the nobility. 
 The " Henricians," as his adherents were 
 called, committed many acts of violence 
 against the clergy. At the request of Pope 
 Eugenius III., St. Bernard and Peter the 
 Venerable hastened to the assistance of 
 the oppressed clergy, and succeeded in 
 putting down the heresiarch and in restor- 
 ing religion among the people. St. Bernard 
 found, so he writes, " the churches without 
 people, the people without priests, the 
 priests without respect, the Christians 
 without Christ, God's holy places profaned, 
 the sacraments no longer held in honor, 
 and the hoh' days without their solemni- 
 ties." On the arrival of the saint, Henry 
 took to flight, but was seized and delivered 
 over to the papal legate. Cardinal Alberic. 
 He is said to have died in prison. 
 
 Phacee. — King of Israel, from 753 to 
 726 B.C. Defeated Achaz, king of Juda, con- 
 quered by the Assyrian Theglath-Phalasar, 
 he was put to death by Osee. 
 
 Phaceia. — King of Israel, from 754 to 
 753 B. c. Son and successor of Manahem. 
 
 Phaleg. — One of the Hebrew Patri- 
 archs, father of Heber and son of Reu 
 (Gen. X. 25; XXV. 11, 16). 
 
 Pharan. — Capital of Arabia Petrsea, on 
 the Red Sea, at the southern point of the 
 peninsula of Sinai. The "Desert of Pharan" 
 formed a part of Arabia Petraea, in the 
 South of Palestine, whither Agar with- 
 drew with her son Ismael. 
 
Pharao 
 
 554 
 
 Philippine Islands 
 
 Pharao. — A title given to the Egyptian 
 kings. Among those mentioned in Scrip- 
 ture by this name are a contemporary of 
 Abraham (Gen. xii. 15) ; the patron and 
 friend of Joseph (Gen. xli. 1); the op- 
 pressor of the Hebrews, Rameses IL 
 (Ex. i. 11) ; the Pharao who reigned at the 
 time of the Exodus, Menephthah (Ex. iii. 
 10); Pharao Nechao (IV. Ki. xxiii. 29); 
 and Pharao Hophra, known as Apries or 
 Hophra (Jer. xxv. 19). 
 
 Pharisees (a Jewish sect during the 
 time of our Saviour). — The Pharisees, 
 whose name implies separation from the 
 unholy, affected the greatest exactness in 
 every religious observance, and attributed 
 great authority to traditional precepts re- 
 lating, principally, to external rites. They 
 were the leading sect among the Jews, and 
 had great influence with the common peo- 
 ple. 
 
 Pheresites. — Chanaanite tribe living, 
 before the advent of the Hebrews, in the 
 territory occupied by the tribe of Ephraim 
 and half-tribe of Manasses. 
 
 Philadelphia. — A city of Lydia, in Asia 
 Minor, where was one of the seven Asiatic 
 Churches (Apoc. iii. 7). Philadelphia 
 was so called from Attains Philadelphus, 
 king of Pergamum, by whom it was 
 founded. It stood on a branch of Mount 
 Tmolus, by the river Cogamus, about 28 
 miles east of Sardis. It suffered greatly 
 by frecjuent earthquakes, and it was an- 
 ciently a matter of surprise, that the city 
 was not on this account abandoned. It is 
 now a mean but considerable town of 
 large extent, with a population of about 
 1,000 Greek Christians, who have a resi- 
 dent bishop, and about twenty inferior 
 clergy. 
 
 Philastrius (St.). — Bishop of Brescia. 
 Left a work On Heresies, containing a 
 catalogue of 158 heresies. In it, however, 
 the author incorrectly reckons among 
 heresies, opinions that have never been 
 declared heretical, and are, at most, only 
 problematical. He died in 387. 
 
 Philemon. — A rich citizen of Colossae, 
 in Phrygia, to whom St. Paul wrote an 
 Epistle, on occasion of sending back to 
 him his runaway slave Onesimus, just 
 converted by him in Rome. St. Paul 
 sends him back with a tender appeal in 
 his Epistle to Philemon, to receive back 
 
 Onesimus into his service and treat him 
 kindly. 
 
 Philip (St.). — One of the twelve Apos- 
 tles, born at Bethsaida, in Galilee. Is 
 mentioned in the Gospel as the fourth 
 called by our Lord to the Apostleship. 
 He preached the faith in Scythia, and 
 also in Phrygia, where he suffered mar- 
 tyrdom by crucifixion at Hierapolis. 
 Papias and Polycrates of Ephesus, who 
 lived toward the close of the second cen- 
 tury, tell us that Philip was married before 
 being called by Christ, and had three 
 daughters who were distinguished for 
 their great sanctity. On this account, 
 this Apostle is sometimes confounded 
 with Philip the Deacon, also called the 
 Evangelist (Acts xxi. 8, 9). F. May ist. 
 
 Philip (St.). — One of the seven dea- 
 cons, born at Caesarea in Palestine; died 
 about 58; preached the Gospel in Samaria. 
 The Greeks maintain that he became 
 bishop of Tralliens. F. June 6th. 
 
 Philippians (Epistle to the). — The Epis- 
 tle to the Philippians, or inhabitants of 
 Philippi, a city of Macedonia, . was ad- 
 dressed to them by St. Paul about the year 
 62, when he was imprisoned for the first 
 time. He congratulated the Philippians 
 on account of their generosity, courage, 
 and good works, and prays fervently that 
 they may persevere in this holy course, so 
 as to reach the state of perfection. 
 
 Philippine Islands {Church in the). — In 
 the Philippine islands, by far the greater 
 part of the population is Catholic. There 
 is a hierarchy composed of an archbishop 
 and four suffragans, ruling over six million 
 subjects. The progress among the non- 
 Christian population, which is estimated 
 about five hundred thousand, is very rapid. 
 
 The following religious orders are 
 represented in the Philippine Islands: 
 Franciscans, 155 members ; Dominicans, 
 109; Augustinians, 228; Recolects, 233; 
 Jesuits, 186; Capuchins, 16; Benedic- 
 tines, 16; and the Congregation of St. 
 Vincent of Paul, to which belong 675 
 natives. In Manila the Catholic Church 
 supports four great seminaries. In this 
 city, the Jesuits direct a special literary 
 institute, the "Altenoe," which is fre- 
 quented by 350 scholars. The education 
 of Catholic girls is completely in the hands 
 of Sisters. 
 
Philip the Fair 
 
 555 
 
 Philosophy 
 
 Philip the Fair. See Boniface VIII. 
 
 Philip the Tetrarch. — A son of Herod 
 the Great, by his wife Cleopatra, who, 
 in the division of Herod's kingdom, was 
 made tetrarch of Batanea Trachonitis, and 
 Auranitis. From him the city of Caesarea 
 Philippi took its name. 
 
 Philistines. — Inhabitants of a part of 
 Palestine, before the conquest of that coun- 
 try by the Hebrews. The Philistines were 
 descendants of Chasluim, son of Mesraim, 
 he himself a son of Cham. In the time of 
 Abraham, the Philistines were already a 
 powerful people in Palestine. Josue gave 
 their country to the Hebrews and attacked 
 them by order of the Lord ; however, un- 
 der the Judges, under Saul, and at the be- 
 ginning of the reign of David, they often 
 oppressed the Israelites, and it was only 
 after the latter prince had been anointed to 
 reign over all Israel, that he reduced them 
 under his empire. They remained subject 
 to the kings of Juda until the reign of 
 Joram, during which they made great rav- 
 ages in his kingdom. Ozias repressed 
 them and kept them in check. The Phil- 
 istines again devastated the countries of 
 Juda during the misfortunes of the reign 
 of Achaz, but Ezechias subjugated them 
 anew. Later on they became a prey to 
 great calamities. The threats of the 
 Prophets Isaias, Jeremias, Amos, and Sopho- 
 nias, against the Philistines, were only too 
 well fulfilled, for Assaraddon or Sargon, 
 king of the Assyrians, besieged Azoth and 
 took it through the arms of Thartan, his 
 general. 
 
 Philo the Jew. — Writer and philoso- 
 pher, born at Alexandria, about the year 
 30 B. c, of a sacerdotal family. He deliv- 
 ered himself to the study of Greek phi- 
 losophy, Oriental doctrines, and Holy 
 Scripture. Surnamed the "Jewish Plato," 
 because his doctrine had for its foundation 
 the Platonic system, corrected the Bible 
 and the principles of the Jewish religion. 
 He admitted two eternal principles, like 
 Plato, the Idea-God and the Idea-Matter; 
 he drew from the Oriental doctrine on 
 emanation a sort of vague mysticism. God 
 shines in all beings. All the qualities of 
 the latter emanate from Him, who is the 
 efficient cause of the sensible world and 
 the personification of the ideal world. 
 Chosen by his fellow-citizens to go to Rome 
 and ask Caligula for the right of Roman 
 citizenship in favor of his co-religionists, 
 
 who formerly enjoyed this, his request was 
 granted, and he died at an advanced age, 
 about the year A. d. 40. 
 
 Philosophy. — Philosophy properly 
 speaking is: Love of wisdom, inquiry into 
 truth, into the causes and effects of things, 
 and the study of nature and morals. Cicero ' 
 defines philosophy : The science both of di- 
 vine and human things, as well as of their 
 causes. At the beginning, philosophy, 
 conformable to its etymology, had for its 
 object the love of wisdom and science. 
 For Socrates, both wisdom and science 
 sum themselves up in the practical knowl- 
 edge of self. Under his successors, the 
 study of man remained the principal ob- 
 ject of philosophy, but not the only one; 
 its domain extended to all human knowl- 
 edge. In the Middle Ages, the domain of 
 faith was distinguished from that of reason. 
 The first has for its object the revealed truths 
 and is founded on the word of God. The 
 second supports itself upon reason and ex- 
 tends to all that can be known through 
 nature. Philosophy also comprehends 
 the ensemble of the purely human sciences ; 
 but St. Thomas as well as Aristotle calls 
 the attention of the philosopher to another 
 object: sapientis est altissiinas causas 
 ceiisiderare. 
 
 In the seventeenth and eighteenth cen- 
 turies, the physical and , mathematical 
 sciences showed a tendency to separate 
 themselves from philosophy. Locke re- 
 duced philosophy to a study of understand- 
 ing; Condillac, to the problem of the 
 origin of ideas ; Thomas Reid, to the ex- 
 perimental knowledge of the soul ; others 
 maintained that it should preserve its 
 character of universality. Actual philoso- 
 phy shows a tendency to pursue a double 
 object: God, first cause and supreme end 
 of every creature; the human soul, princi- 
 pal object of philosophical studies, and 
 which, at the same time, is the subject of 
 all sciences. Indeed, its faculties are the 
 instruments by means of which we acquire 
 them. Each science has its particular 
 philosophy and, consequently, its special 
 object. The philosophy of religion seeks 
 to penetrate the reason of the dogmas and 
 their harmony; the philosophy of right 
 inquires about the motives of the law; 
 the philosophy of grammar renders an ac- 
 count of the general rules to which 
 languages are subject; the philosophy of 
 physical and natural sciences endeavors to 
 bring into harmony and unity all the cos- 
 
Philostratus 
 
 556 
 
 Phoenicia 
 
 mogonic laws and to fathom the mystery 
 of matter and life ; the philosophy of the 
 beautiful arts goes back to the very princi- 
 ple of the beautiful and seeks to determine 
 its conditions. 
 
 Divisions. — The ancients agreed to di- 
 vide philosophy into three great parts: 
 ethics, physics, and logic. The scholastics 
 added metaphysics, both general and spe- 
 cial. Actually it comprises psychology, 
 logic, ethics, and the elements of meta- 
 physics. This division flows naturally 
 from the double object of philosophy: the 
 soul and God. The study of the soul com- 
 prehends a first speculative part : experi- 
 mental psychology, whose special object 
 is the general knowledge of the human 
 spirit ; then two practical sciences, whose 
 logical end is to direct our intelligence 
 toward the true ; and the moral which 
 traces the rule the will should follow to 
 attain the good. The study of God or 
 theodicy penetrates metaphysics whose 
 natural crowning it is. The principal 
 systems of philosophy can be reduced to 
 five : Sensualism, which leads to Material- 
 ism; Spiritualism, which leads to the 
 negation of matter or to Idealism ; Scep- 
 ticism, which leads to the suicide of intelli- 
 gence ; Mysticism, and finally Eclecticism. 
 The history of philosophy ma^' be divided 
 into five epochs, ist Epoch : Whose repre- 
 sentatives are Thales and Pythagoras ; 
 Sensualism and Spiritualism, from which 
 emanated all the other systems, during 
 more than two centuries. The disputes 
 begot the Sophists and Sceptics. 2d 
 Epoch : Socrates reacted against Scepti- 
 cism. In this new school Plato represents 
 Spiritualism and Aristotle Sensualism. 
 3d Epoch : This took rise about the elev- 
 enth century and continued until the sev- 
 enteenth century under the influence of 
 Catholic theology; this was the scholastic 
 epoch. 4th Epoch (in the seventeenth and 
 eighteenth centuries) : This was the epoch 
 of experimental philosophy under the in- 
 fluence of Descartes and Bacon. 5th Epoch : 
 The Scotch school, which had its repre- 
 sentatives in France, in Royer, Collar, 
 Cousin, Jouffroy, and Darimon. 
 
 Catholic philosophy may be divided into 
 three epochs : during the first epoch Catho- 
 lic philosophers occupied themselves in 
 classifying and co-ordain the pre-existing 
 elements, and having formed the tenor of 
 Catholic belief from the standpoint of 
 form and matter, two principles were fur- 
 nished by the ancient philosophy which 
 
 became the foundation of Catholic philos- 
 ophy in the Middle Ages. Previous de- 
 tailed studies fill up the second epoch 
 (ninth and tenth centuries). In this epoch 
 philosophers sought to fathom the great 
 questions of reason and faith, of predesti- 
 nation and free will, of realism and nom- 
 inalism. In the third epoch they occupied 
 themselves with systematizing the themes 
 of Catholic science ; this was the beautiful 
 period of Scholasticism. Its chief repre- 
 sentatives were Anselm of Canterbury, 
 and Hugh of St. Victor. The material of 
 Scholasticism is essentially the same as 
 that of the philosophy of the Fathers : the 
 Christian world, that is, the world rein- 
 stated through Christ, and all that has 
 reference to it, with this difference, how- 
 ever, that the Fathers had before them 
 only single elements, the Scholastics had 
 these elements realized. 
 
 Philostratus. See Apolloxius of Ty- 
 
 ANA. 
 
 Phoenicia. — A name which, in its more 
 ancient and extended sense, comprised a 
 narrow strip of country extending nearly 
 the whole length of the eastern coast of 
 the Mediterranean sea, from Antioch to the 
 borders of Egypt. But Phoenicia Proper 
 was included between the cities of Laodi- 
 cea in Syria, and Tyre, and comprised only 
 the territories of Tyre and Sidon. Before 
 Josue conquered Palestine, this country was 
 possessed by the Chanaanites,sons of Cham, 
 divided into eleven families, of which the 
 most powerful was that of Chanaan, the 
 founder of Sidon, and head of the Chanaan- 
 ites, properly so called, whom the Greeks 
 named " Phoenicians." These only pre- 
 served their independence under Josue, 
 and also under David, Solomon, and the 
 succeeding kings ; but they were subdued 
 by the kings of Assyria and Chaldea. Af- 
 terwards, they successively submitted to 
 the Persians, Greeks, and Romans. At 
 this day, Phoenicia is in subjection to the 
 Ottomans, and has not possessed any na- 
 tional or native kings, or any independent 
 form of government for more than 2,000 
 years. The name Phoenicia is not found in 
 the books of Hebrew Scripture ; but only in 
 the Machabees and the New Testament. 
 The Hebrew always named it "Chanaan." 
 St. Matthew calls the same person a 
 •♦ Chanaanitish " woman (xv. 22), whom 
 St. Mark calls a " Syro-Phoenician " (vii. 
 26), that is, a Phoenician of Syria, because 
 Phoenicia was then a part of Syria. 
 
Photinus 
 
 557 
 
 Pilgrim 
 
 Photinus. — Heretic, a native of Ancyra 
 and Bishop of Sirmium. Lived in the 
 fourth century. Reviving Sabellianism, 
 he denied the plurality of Persons in the 
 Trinity. Condemned at Antioch (344), 
 at Milan (347), and by the first Synod of 
 Sirmium, he was deposed. His condem- 
 nation was confirmed by the Second Ecu- 
 menical Council. Photinus died in 366. 
 
 Photius. See Schism {Greek). 
 
 Phrygia. — In ancient geography, an in- 
 land province of Asia Minor, bounded on 
 the north by Bithynia and Galatia, on the 
 €ast by Cappadocia, on the south by 
 Lycia, Pisidia, and Isauria, and on the west 
 by Mysia, Lydia, and Caria. L,ater, the 
 Galatians settled in the northeast portion. 
 
 Phul. — King of Assyria, lived in the 
 eighth century b. c. Founded the second 
 Assyrian empire after the fall of Sardana- 
 palus ; upheld the usurper Manahem, in 
 Israel. 
 
 Phylacteries were small rolls of parch- 
 ment, in which were written certain words 
 of the law, and which were worn by the 
 Jews upon their foreheads, and upon the 
 wrist of the left arm. The custom was 
 founded on mistaken interpretations of Ex. 
 xiii. 9, "And it shall be as a sign in thy 
 hand, and as a memorial before thy eyes," 
 and verse 16, "And it shall be as a sign in 
 thy hand, and as a thing hung between 
 thy eyes for a remembrance.' ' The phylac- 
 teries were inclosed in a piece of rough 
 skin, forming a square, one side bearing 
 the Hebrew letter skin, and this was tied 
 to the forehead and worn at morning 
 prayer. They were called "frontlets." 
 Another kind consisted of two rolls of 
 parchment, written in square letters with 
 an ink made for the purpose. They were 
 rolled to a point inclosed in a case of 
 black calfskin and put on a square bit of 
 the same leather, whence hung a tongue 
 of the same, about a finger' s breadth and 
 two feet long. These rolls were placed 
 near the elbow of the left arm, and after 
 the thong had made a small knot in the 
 form of the letter yodk it was wound about 
 the arm in a spiral line which ended at the 
 top of the middle finger. Our Saviour re- 
 proaches the ostentation of the Pharisees 
 in making their phylacteries broad as a 
 sign of their superior wisdom and piety 
 (Matt, xxiii. 5). 
 
 Piarists. — Members of a religious con- 
 gregation, also called "Fathers of the 
 
 Pious Schools." This order was founded 
 at Rome by St. Joseph Calasanctius, about 
 1600. In addition to the three usual 
 monastic vows, the Piarists devoted them- 
 selves to the free instruction of youth'. 
 They are found especially in the Austrian 
 empire. 
 
 Picpus ( CoHf^regation of) . — A mission- 
 ary institute founded in Paris in the year 
 1805 by the Venerable Coudrin. The 
 proper name is " Congregation of the 
 Sacred Heart of Jesus and Mary." They 
 are called " Picpus " from the street in 
 Paris in which their chief monastery is 
 situated. 
 
 Pietism. — A movement in the Lutheran 
 Church, due to Philip James Spener, a 
 Lutheran preacher, born in Alsace, in 
 1635. His followers were called "Pietists." 
 Lamenting the absence of all warmth and 
 piety in the Lutheran Church, which he 
 censured as heartless and spiritless, and 
 as " an outward corrupt body," he insti- 
 tuted " associations of pious souls," for the 
 special edification of, and for the cultiva- 
 tion of evangelical morality among his 
 fellow-religionists. These were the fa- 
 mous collegia pietatis from which the 
 name " Pietists " has been derived. Spener 
 died in 1705. 
 
 Pilate or Pontius Pilate, was the fifth 
 Roman procurator in the province of 
 Judea. He took charge of his office in 
 A. D. 28, and held it for ten years. Pilate 
 became odious both to the Jews and Sa- 
 maritans for the severity and cruelty 
 of his administration, and being accused 
 by the latter before Vitellius, the governor 
 of Syria, he was removed from his of- 
 fice and sent to Rome to answer to their 
 accusations before the emperor. Before 
 his arrival, Tiberius was dead; and Pi- 
 late is said to have been banished by 
 Caligula to Vienne in Gaul, 'and there to 
 have died by his own hand. It v/as before 
 Pilate that Jesus was brought by the Jews 
 for condemnation ; and although conscious 
 of his innocence, which he did not scruple 
 to declare publicly, yet probably wishing 
 to gratifythe Jews, and perhaps fearing an 
 accusation of disloyalty, he yielded to their 
 clamor, and delivered Jesus to be crucified. 
 
 Pilgrim and Pilgrimages (A pilgrim 
 is one who visits, with religious intent, 
 some place reputed to possess some special 
 holiness). — The early Christians, like the 
 Jews and the pagan Gentiles, regarded 
 
PiRKHEIMER 
 
 558 
 
 PiTRA 
 
 certain places with special religious inter- 
 est; above all, the Holy Land, and par- 
 ticularly the scenes of the Passion of our 
 Lord at Jerusalem. St. Jerome refers the 
 practice of visiting Jerusalem to the dis- 
 covery of the holy Cross by St. Helena. 
 He himself was a zealous pilgrim ; and 
 throughout the fourth, fifth, and sixth cen- 
 turies, pilgrims habitually undertook the 
 long and perilous journey to the Holy 
 Land from almost every part of the West. 
 Other sacred places, too, were held to be 
 fit objects of the same visits of religious 
 veneration. The tombs of the Apostles 
 Peter and Paul, and of the martyrs of the 
 Catacombs at Rome, are so described by 
 St. Jerome {Commentary in Ezechiel). St. 
 Basil speaks in the same terms of the 
 tomb of the Forty Martyrs ; and the his- 
 torian Theodoret tells of not only visiting 
 such sanctuaries, but of hanging up, 
 therein, as offerings, gold and silver orna- 
 ments, and even models of hands, feet, 
 eyes, etc., in commemoration of the (!ures 
 of diseases supernaturally obtained as the 
 fruit of these pious visits. The pilgrim- 
 age, however, pre-eminently so called, 
 was that to the Holy Land ; and even after 
 Jerusalem had been occupied by the Sara- 
 cens, the liberty of pilgrimage, on pay- 
 ment of a tax, was formally secured by 
 treaty. It was from the necessity of pro- 
 tecting pilgrims from outrage, that the 
 well-known military orders had their ori- 
 gin. The Crusades may be regarded as a 
 pilgrimage on a grand scale, the direct 
 object being to secure for the Latin Chris- 
 tians immunity of pilgrimage. On the 
 other hand, the final abandonment of the 
 Crusades led to a great extension of what 
 may be called domestic pilgrimage, and 
 drew into religious notice and veneration 
 many shrines in Europe which, after the 
 lapse of time, became celebrated places of 
 pious resort. The chief places of pil- 
 grimage in the West were: in Italy — 
 Rome, Loretto, Genetsano, Assisi ; in 
 Spain — Compostella, Guadaloupe, Mont- 
 serrat; in France — Fourviere, Puy, St. 
 Denis; in Germany — Getting, Zell, Co- 
 logne, Trier. Einsiedlen ; in England — 
 Walsingham, Canterbury, and many 
 others of minor note. The costume of the 
 pilgrim consisted of a black or gray gab- 
 ardine, girt with a cincture, from which a 
 shell and scrip were suspended ; a broad 
 hat ornamented with scallop shells, and a 
 long staff. In late years, however, pil- 
 grims have resorted in large numbers, not 
 
 only to the ancient sanctuaries of Notre 
 Dame de la Garde, de Fourviere, Puy, 
 etc., but also to La Salette, Lourdes, 
 Paray-le-Monial, and Pontigny. 
 
 Pirkheimer (Wilibald) (1470-1530). — 
 Erudite, born at Eichstaedt, died at Nu- 
 remberg. Deputy to the diets of Treves 
 and Cologne (1511-1512). Joined the 
 Catholic Church toward the close of his 
 life, after having been one of the most 
 active adherents of Luther. 
 
 Pisa {Council o/). — The Council of 
 Pisa (1409) was convened by the renegade 
 cardinals of the antipopes Benedicts XIIL 
 and Gregory XII. to remove the schism. 
 It deposed both, and elected Alexander V. 
 Thus a threefold schism arose, which ended 
 only in 1417. The Council of Pisa is not 
 numbered among the Ecumenical Councils. 
 
 Piscina. — In liturgy a term applied to 
 a walled-up cavity of a certain depth, cov- 
 ered with a round or oval stone, which is 
 pierced through the middle. There should 
 be at least one piscina in each church as a 
 receptacle for the water that has i^erved, 
 either for baptism, or to cleanse the sacred 
 vessels and linen. It is also used as a de- 
 positary for the ashes of altar ornaments 
 and linens, and other blessed things which 
 should be burned when they can no longer 
 be used. The piscina also serves the pur- 
 pose of receiving holy water taken from 
 the holy water-basin or font, and, in gen- 
 eral, for all articles used in the sacred 
 service of divine worship, in order that 
 they ma}- not be exposed to profanation. 
 
 Pistoja {Synod of). — An ecclesiastical 
 synod held under the presidency of Scipio 
 Ricci, Bishop of Pistoja, in 1786. It passed 
 a series of decrees that were diametrically 
 opposed to the constitutions, as well as to 
 the teachings, of the Church. 
 
 Pistorius (Johx) (1544-1607). — His- 
 torian and controversist, born at Nidda, 
 Hesse, died at Freiburg. Counselor of 
 Emperor Rudolph II. Joined the Catholic 
 Church after having been one of the prin- 
 cipal agitators of Reformation. 
 
 Pitra (John Baptist) (1812-1889). — 
 Cardinal, born at Champforueil, France, 
 died at Rome. After entering the Bene- 
 dictine order he lived at Solesmes, devot- 
 ing himself to historical researches, but was 
 sent in 1858 to Russia by Pope Pius IX. to 
 study the Slavonic liturgy and entered the 
 
Pius 
 
 559 
 
 Pius 
 
 service of the Propaganda after his return. 
 In 1863 he was created cardinal, and in 1869 
 he became librarian of the Vatican Library. 
 He published Spicilegium Solesmense ; 
 yuris eccl. Grcecorum; etc. 
 
 Pius ( name of nine Popes) . — Pius /. ( St. ) 
 
 — Pope from 140 to i54(?). Assisted by 
 St. Justin the Philosopher, he combated the 
 heresies of Valentinus and Marcion, who 
 denied the resurrection of the body and 
 condemned marriage. Pius II. (^neas 
 Sylvius). — Pope from 1458 to 1464. Few 
 men of more consummate ability ever sat 
 in the Chair of St. Peter. The ruling ob- 
 ject of his Pontificate was the organization 
 of a universal league, embracing all Chris- 
 tendom, against the Turks. He summoned 
 an assembly of all Christian powers to be 
 held at Mantua. At the same time, he 
 undertook the conversion of the Sultan 
 Mohammed H., to whom he addressed a 
 long and elaborate epistle. But the efforts 
 of the energetic Pontiff met with no encour- 
 agement from the western nations. Not- 
 withstanding this failure, Pius maintained 
 his courage. He placed himself at the 
 head of an army and set out for Ancona. 
 Here death thwarted the designs which 
 the magnanimous Pontiff had formed for 
 the glory of Christendom. By a special 
 Bull, Pius n. condemned appeals from the 
 Pope to a future general council, and, by 
 another, he formally withdrew what he 
 had written in defense of the Council of 
 Basle and the supremacy of general coun- 
 cils. Pius III . — Pope in 1503. Died 
 one month after his election. He had been 
 the successor of Alexander VI. Pius IV. 
 
 — Pope from 1559 to 1565. He again con- 
 voked the Council of Trent, which was 
 reopened at the seventeenth session, in 
 January, 1562. With the twenty-fifth ses- 
 sion, the Fathers of Trent concluded their 
 labors. The decrees of the Council were 
 signed by 205 prelates and confirmed by Pius 
 IV., in his Bull, " Benedicfus Deus,^' Jan. 
 26th, 1564. Pius IV., also caused a Triden- 
 tine Profession of Faith., containing a sum- 
 mary of the Council's dogmatical decrees, 
 to be published. In his Bull of approba- 
 tion, Pius IV. made it the duty of bishops 
 to introduce, without delay, and to exe- 
 cute faithfully the reforms inaugurated by 
 the Council of Trent, and established a 
 congregation of cardinals, to which was 
 assigned the special office of enforcing 
 and interpreting the enactments of the 
 Council of Trent. Pius V. (Cardinal 
 
 Ghislieri). — Pope from 1566 to 1572. His 
 Pontificate, though extending over a pe- 
 riod of only six years, was most advanta- 
 geous to the Church. With indefatigable 
 zeal he labored in restoring the discipline 
 and enforcing the canons of reformation 
 promulgated at Trent. He obliged bishops 
 to reside in their sees and enjoined the 
 strictest seclusion of both monks and nuns. 
 Pius VI. (Cardinal Braschi). — Pope 
 from 1775 to 1799. A mild and affable 
 Pontiff, but firm in purpose, applied him- 
 self with zeal and energy to the work of 
 reform in both Church and State. There 
 seemed to be, under his Pontificate, a gen- 
 eral disposition to diminish, if not to un- 
 dermine, the papal authority, even in 
 Catholic countries. The courts of Ma- 
 drid, Naples, and Florence continued to 
 encroach on the immunities of the 
 Church, claiming rights which were in 
 direct opposition to the prerogatives of the 
 Holy See. The heart of the much 
 harassed Pontiff was sorely aflSicted, espe- 
 cially by the "reforms" of Emperor 
 Joseph II. of Austria, whose arbitrary 
 regulations, on purely ecclesiastical mat- 
 ters, were at variance with the true inter- 
 ests of religion. (See Josephism.) The 
 victories of the French Revolutionary 
 armies spread the ideas of the French 
 Revolution in other countries. The young 
 general. Napoleon Bonaparte, oppressed 
 the Pope and demanded the revocation of 
 all the briefs issued against France. The 
 Pope refusing to accede to these demands. 
 Napoleon extorted from him 30,000,000 
 francs and many treasures of art. In 1798 
 the French proclaimed Rome a republic, 
 insulted the Pope, and snatched from his 
 hand the ring of the fisherman. Pius 
 sternly protested, in consequence of which 
 he was carried as a prisoner to Siena, 
 thence to Florence, thence to Valence in 
 France, where he died. Pius. VII. — 
 Pope from 1800 to 1823. Successor-to the 
 foregoing Pope. He was elected at Ven- 
 ice. He re-entered Rome amid the un- 
 bounded enthusiasm of its inhabitants. 
 Napoleon, seeing that the restoration of 
 religion in France was necessary to the 
 well-being of the State, entered into ne- 
 gotiations with Pius VII. Through the 
 influence of Consalvi, papal secretary 
 of State, a Concordat was concluded 
 (1801) by the terms of which the con- 
 stitutional bishops were deposed and the 
 faithful bishops asked to resign. Napoleon 
 continued to act in his usual arbitrary man- 
 
Pius 
 
 560 
 
 Pius 
 
 ner and asked the Pope to crown him em- 
 peror in Paris. Although Pius VII. acceded 
 to this request (1804), Napoleon continued 
 his tyranny over the Church. By his or- 
 der, General Miolis entered Rome (1808), 
 banished the cardinals and subjected the 
 Pope to gross outrages. Pius VII. replied 
 with a Bull of excommunication, 1809, 
 which was ridiculed by Napoleon. The 
 Pope was arrested by General Radet in the 
 Quirinal at midnight and taken to Greno- 
 ble, thence to Savona, where he was treated 
 as a common criminal. Letters, books, 
 and writing material were taken from him, 
 yet he remained as firm in prison as on the 
 throne. Before his departure for Moscow, 
 Napoleon ordered the sick Pope to be ta- 
 ken to Fontainebleau, where he received 
 the last sacraments. Being defeated in his 
 campaign, Napoleon again opened negotia- 
 tions with the Pope, and by intrigue, 
 obtained preliminary articles of a new con- 
 cordat, which he promulgated as laws of 
 the empire. Pius protested and recalled 
 his concessions. Napoleon being defeated 
 by the allied forces of Europe, the Pope 
 recovered his liberty, and made his trium- 
 phal entrj' into Rome. Having reinstated 
 the Society of Jesus (1814) and reopened 
 the institutions of learning, etc., he died 
 in 1823, at the age of 81. His Pontificate 
 is one of the most illustrious in history. 
 Pius VIII. — Pope from March 31st, 1829, 
 to Nov. 30th, 1830. Pius IX. (Mastai 
 Ferretti). — Pope from 1846 to 1878. This 
 Pontiff sought to conciliate the revolu- 
 tionary party by a policy of mildness, but 
 his endeavors to pacify met with base in- 
 gratitude. Weighed down by sorrow and 
 undeceived as to the intention of the revo- 
 lutionists, Pius IX. quit the city oi Rome 
 and made good his escape to Gaeta, Novem- 
 ber, 24th, 1848. Rome was forthwith de- 
 clared a republic by the Mazinists and the 
 Garibaldines; revolution had conquered. 
 Through the intervention of Catholic pow- 
 ers the Pope returned to Rome, April 12th, 
 1850, and though deeply affected by the 
 ingratitude of his subjects, again issued a 
 proclamation of amnesty. The revolu- 
 tionary movement which had taken a firm 
 hold in Italy, found an ally in King Victor 
 Emanuel of Sardinia, whose minister, Ca- 
 vour, joined hands with Napoleon III., and 
 drove Austria out of Italy (1859). The re- 
 sult of this was that the Pope lost several 
 provinces. The Pontifical army, under 
 command of the gallant General Lamori- 
 ciere, was defeated near Castle Fidardo 
 
 and again at Ancona (i860). The Pope 
 was now despoiled of four-fifths of his es- 
 tates. An attack upon Rome by the Gari- 
 baldines was repulsed by the papal army 
 assisted by the French soldiers (1867). 
 But Victor Emanuel completed the work 
 of despoliation when, without any previous 
 declaration of war, he took possession of 
 Rome, Sept. 20th, 1870. 
 
 Pope Pius IX. displayed wonderful en- 
 ergy in ecclesiastical affairs which was felt 
 throughout the whole world. He propo- 
 gated the faith, increased the number of 
 bishoprics and apostolic vicariates ; he re- 
 stored the Catholic hierarchy of England 
 and Holland and re-established the Latin 
 patriarchates at Jerusalem. Up to the 
 year 1876, he had erected 28 archbishoprics, 
 129 bishoprics, 31 apostolic vicariates. 14 
 apostolic prefectures, and 3 apostolic dele- 
 gations. He revived the provincial and 
 diocesan synods in several countries. He 
 established new seminaries, principally for 
 the missions of North and South America; 
 he encouraged science and learning, es- 
 pecially the study of ecclesiastical archae- 
 ology; he appointed a great number of 
 learned cardinals outside of Italy such as 
 Wiseman, Cullen, McCloskey, Geissel, 
 Othmar, Rauscher, Reisach, Franzelin, 
 Gousset, etc. He condemned the leading 
 errors of the age in the Encyclical " Sylla- 
 bus of Errors," in 1864. He issued several 
 decisions in dogmas, morals, and liturgy. 
 
 Pius IX. assembled around his throne 
 on four different occasions, a vast number 
 of the bishops of the world, i. Dec. 8th, 
 1854, when, in the presence of two hundred 
 bishops, he promulgated as an article of 
 faith, the doctrine of the Immaculate Con- 
 ception of the Blessed Virgin Mary. 2. On 
 Pentecost, 1862, he canonized the twenty- 
 six Japanese martyrs (died 1597) in the 
 presence of more than three hundred 
 bishops. The assembled bishops unani- 
 mously protested against the spoliation of 
 the Patrimony of Peter. 3. June 29th, 1867, 
 more than five hundred bishops and about 
 ten thousand pilgrims met in Rome to 
 celebrate the eighteenth centenary of the 
 martyrdom of the princes of the Apostles 
 SS. Peter and Paul. 4. Dec. 8th, 1869, he 
 opened the twenty-f^rst Ecumenical ( I 
 Vatican) Council (1869-1870), which was 
 attended by 747 bishops, and July i8th, 
 1870, the Infallibility of the Pope in decid- 
 ing matters of faith and morals, was dog- 
 matically defined in the presence of 535 
 bishops. After the inroads of the Pied- 
 
Placet 
 
 561 
 
 Platonism 
 
 montese, the Pope adjourned the Council 
 (Oct. 20th, 1870). On June i6th, 1871, 
 Pius IX. had the happiness to celebrate, 
 as the first among the successors of St. 
 Peter, the twenty-fifth anniversary of his 
 Pontificate. On June 3d, 1877, he cele- 
 brated his golden jubilee as bishop. His 
 illustrious reign came to a close on Feb. 
 7th, 1878. Few Popes ever possessed the 
 love and veneration of Catholic people 
 throughout the world as did Pius IX. 
 
 Placet. — An expressed sanction ; permis- 
 sion given by one in authority ; specifically, 
 sanction granted to the promulgation and 
 execution of an ecclesiastical ordinance, 
 and particularly such sanction granted by 
 a sovereign to papal bulls, briefs, and 
 other edicts. 
 
 Placidus (St.). — Benedictine monk, 
 born at Rome, died in 539. He accom- 
 panied St. Benedict to Monte Cassino, 
 then became abbot of a monastery near 
 Messina. 
 
 Plagues of Egypt. — The plagues by 
 which God, at the word of Moses, punished 
 the obstinate refusal of the Pharao and his 
 subjects, who did not wish to permit the 
 Israelites to depart from Egypt. They 
 were ten in number and are enumerated in 
 Exodus (vii.-xi.). All these plagues had 
 a supernatural character. 
 
 Plain Chant. — The unisonous vocal 
 music which has been used in the Church 
 from the earliest centuries. Its origin is 
 unknown, but it contains elements taken 
 from the ancient Greek music, and po'ssi- 
 bly from the ancient Temple music of the 
 Hebrews. It is often called " Gregorian," 
 from its most prominent early systematizer, 
 or, in certain details, " Ambrosian." It 
 rests upon the elaborate system of octave 
 scales or modes. According to the prin- 
 ciples and rules of these modes, numerous 
 melodies have been composed or compiled, 
 which have become established by tradition 
 or authority as part of the liturgies of the 
 Western and Eastern Churches. This body 
 of melodies includes a great variety of 
 material adapted not only to every part of 
 the liturgy, but to the several seasons of 
 the Christian year. Plain chant melodies 
 are distinguished by the adherence to the 
 mediaeval modes, by independence of 
 rhythmical and metrical structure, and by 
 a limited and austere use of harmony. 
 Their effect is strikingly individual, digni- 
 fied, and devotional. The style as such 
 36 
 
 is obligatory in the services of the Catholic 
 Church, and has been perpetuated by her 
 with remarkable purity, in spite of its con- 
 trasts with modern music in general. It 
 has exerted a profound influence upon 
 general musical development, dominating 
 that element until nearly 1600, and furnish- 
 ing innumerable hints and themes to all 
 subsequent styles. The mediaeval theory 
 of counterp.oint was a direct outgrowth of 
 the melodic principle of plain chant. See 
 Music. 
 
 Platonism (philosophical system of 
 Plato) (430-348 B.C.). — There have been 
 men, although quite serious and learned, 
 blind enough to compare Christianity to 
 Platonism and Neo-Platonism, and even to 
 hold that Catholic doctrines were derived 
 from these systems : a pretension as ridic- 
 ulous as it is false. The pure, positive, 
 and sublime conceptions of the Fathers of 
 the Church, whom they have been pleased 
 to metamorphose into disciples of the 
 Christian philosopher, conceptions which, 
 in regard to religion in general, or to God 
 and man in particular, infinitely surpass in 
 elevation and correctness, the doubtful, 
 incoherent, and contradictory affirmations 
 of Plato and of the so-called school of 
 Alexandria, the hearth of Neo-Platonism. 
 Certainly, Plato has written wonderful 
 lines about God, which the Fathers quoted 
 with praise, and which we still read with a 
 certain consolation, when comparing them 
 with the errors of the human mind, during 
 the miserable era of paganism. But at the 
 same time, Plato greatly altered the idea 
 of the Deity, by first admitting absolute, 
 substantial, and independent ideas of God, 
 then a necessary and eternal matter, and 
 which thus escapes all Divine action. As 
 to the dogma of the Trinity, it is in vain 
 that these scholars pretend that Plato 
 makes some allusion to it. Even the best 
 meaning commentators, who are far from 
 being in agreement on the essence and in- 
 timate constitution of the Platonic Trinity, 
 in the discussion of the texts alleged to 
 allude to the conception of the Trinity, do 
 not permit the Athenian philosopher to 
 have been better instructed as to this point 
 than other philosophers of antiquity. Did 
 the Alexandrians, who endeavored to create 
 a system of doctrine which they might op- 
 pose to the Christion symbol, perhaps 
 borrow something from the Fathers of the 
 Church ? Is the theory of the divine at- 
 tributes, such as we can deduct it from the 
 
Pliny the Younger 
 
 562 
 
 POLYCARP 
 
 Enneades of Photinus and from the writ- 
 ings of Proclus, more elevated, purer, and 
 more complete than that which our holy 
 Doctors have given? Is not that primor- 
 dial unity, source, and term of all reality, 
 too much like, in its eternal inertness, the 
 chained Saturn of Greek mythology, or 
 the Brahma of the Hindoos ? What is that 
 Triade expressly imagined to make compe- 
 tition to the Christian Trinity, and whose 
 elements were never pointed out and unani- 
 mously acknowledged. Alcinous, Eumenius, 
 and Plotinus having furnished diverse in- 
 dications ? Is it anything else but a repro- 
 duction of the Oriental emanations, which 
 necessarily implies either a plurality of 
 unequal gods or a multiplicity of purely 
 nominal forms of one and the same sub- 
 stance? New Platonism, which was an 
 improvement on the Old, did not even 
 know how to copy Christianity. How, 
 therefore, could the Old inspire and pre- 
 pare the Christian sjmbol? Moreover, in 
 matters of dogma, the Church teaches and 
 does not discuss; she comes with her 
 original richness, and does not borrow ; 
 how, therefore, could she have begged or 
 even accepted, to clothe her splendors 
 with rags of a Platonism, proscribed by 
 her? 
 
 Pliny the Younger (62-113). — Born at 
 Como, Italy. While governor of Bi- 
 thynia and Pontus, Pliny asked the Em- 
 peror Trajan as to the course of conduct he 
 should pursue with regard to the Chris- 
 tians, whom he found to be very numerous 
 in his provinces and in whom he could dis- 
 cover no grave crime except "a perverse 
 and extravagant superstition." In his re- 
 ply to Pliny, Trajan says: "The Chris- 
 tians are not to be sought out; but if 
 brought before you and convicted, they 
 must be punished ; yet if anyone denies 
 he is a Christian and proves his denial 
 by acts, namely, by worshiping our gods, 
 he, though in the past suspected of being 
 a Christian, shall, nevertheless, be par- 
 doned." 
 
 Plotinus (205-270). — Neo-Platonic phi- 
 losopher, born at Lykopolis in Egypt; 
 died in Campania. He is praised for the 
 severity of his life and his noble and 
 blameless character. His treatisses were 
 collected by his disciple Porphyrius and 
 arranged in six Enneads, containing fifty- 
 four books on various subjects. See Pla- 
 tonism. 
 
 Plymouth Brethren. — A Protestant sect 
 which first attracted attention at Plymouth, 
 England, in 1830, but has since extended 
 over Great Britain, the United States, and 
 among the Protestants of France, Switzer- 
 land, Italy, etc. They recognize all as 
 brethren who believe in Christ and the 
 Holy Spirit as his vicar, but they have no 
 formal creed, ecclesiastical organization, 
 or official ministry, condemning these as 
 the causes of sectarian divisions. They 
 are also called "Darbyites," after Mr. 
 Darby, originally a barrister, subsequently 
 a clergyman of the Church of England, 
 and thereafter an evangelist not connected 
 with any Church, to whose efforts their 
 origin and the diffusion of their principles 
 are to be ascribed. 
 
 Poland {Christianity in). — Christian- 
 ity was carried into Poland from Bohemia. 
 Duke Minceslas I., who was married to 
 the Bohemian Princess Dombrawka, re- 
 ceived baptism in the year 966, and his 
 example was soon imitated by the greater 
 number of his people. His successor, the 
 powerful Duke Boleslas I. (992-1025), 
 completed the Christianization of Poland 
 by the erection of numerous churches and 
 monasteries. He founded the archbishop- 
 ric of Gnesen, with the suffragan sees of 
 Kolberg, Cracow, and Breslau. His son 
 Casimir I., greatly promoted Christianity 
 throughout the kingdom. Boleslas II., a 
 tyrannical prince, slew, in 1079, St. Stan- 
 islaus, Bishop of Cracow, who had repri- 
 manded him for his vicious conduct. For 
 this atrocious act, Pope Gregory VII. ex- 
 communicated him and he died in exile. 
 See Germany; Austria. 
 
 Pole (Reginald) (1500-1558). — Arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury and cardinal, born 
 in the Castle of Stoverton, in Stafford- 
 shire; kinsman by his mother, of Henry 
 VII. and Edward IV. After the death of 
 Paul III., he refused the tiara, presided 
 over the Council of Trent and, at his re- 
 turn into England, which he had been 
 forced to leave because he did not wish to 
 flatter the passions of Henry VIII., he was 
 named by Queen Mary, archbishop and 
 president of the royal counsel. He left 
 quite a number of works. 
 
 Polycarp (St.) (70-166). — Bishop of 
 Smyrna. He was the immediate contem- 
 porary and friend of St. Ignatius, but noth- 
 ing certain is known as to his origin, or 
 the place of his birth. Irenaeus, his dis- 
 
POLYCHRONIUS 
 
 563 
 
 Polyglot Bibles 
 
 ciple, tells us that he was instructed by the 
 Apostle St. John, and appointed by him 
 bishop of Smyrna. About the middle of the 
 second century he journeyed to Rome to 
 consult with Pope Anicetus regarding the 
 time of Easter. On this occasion he 
 brought back to the Church many who 
 had been led away by the Gnostics, Valen- 
 tine and Marcion. It is recorded that on 
 meeting Marcion in the streets of Rome, 
 when the latter asked whether he knew 
 him, he replied that he knew " the first- 
 born of Satan." He was close on a hun- 
 dred years old when he died the death of 
 a martyr by the sword — having been 
 miraculously preserved from death by fire 
 — under Marcus Aurelius, about 166, or, 
 according to others, about 155 or 156. Of 
 his letters, which St. Polycarp, according 
 to the testimony of St. Irenaeus, wrote to 
 the neighboring Churches and to particu- 
 lar persons, we possess only that to the 
 Philippians, whose authenticity is vouched 
 for by Irenaeus and Eusebius, and by the 
 fact that it was publicly read in the 
 Churches, and that its subject is quite in 
 harmony with the doctrine of the Apostles 
 and the circumstances of the time of the 
 author. 
 
 Polychronius. — Bishop of Apamea and 
 brother of Theodore of Mopsuestia. Died 
 about 430. He composed commentaries 
 on Daniel, Ezechiel, and Job, of which 
 only detached though important and valu- 
 able fragments are preserved in the Ca- 
 tenae. The Commentaries ascribed to him 
 on the Proverbs, Canticle of Canticles, 
 Jeremias, and Baruch, as well as the frag- 
 ment on the Causes of the Obscurity 
 of Holy Scriptures, cannot be from his 
 pen, on account of the disparity of style. 
 The genuine fragments, however, clearly 
 show that Polychronius possessed a true 
 exegetical spirit and instinct, that he held 
 to the Scriptural inspiration, acknowl- 
 edged the full canon of sacred books, 
 favored the historical method of interpre- 
 tation, and was profoundly versed in arch- 
 aeology and profane history. He possessed 
 all the talents of his brother without any 
 of his faults, except perhaps that of 
 slightly inclining to his rationalistic 
 method. He and Theodoret of Cyrus, 
 are considered the most illustrious inter- 
 preters of the Antiochian School. 
 
 Polygamy. See Marriage. 
 
 Polyglot Bibles. — Bibles printed at 
 least in three languages, whose texts are 
 
 arranged in different columns. Some con- 
 tain all the books of the Bible, others a 
 part or only some books. The first are 
 called general Polyglots, and the latter, 
 particular Polyglots. The general Poly- 
 glots are: i. That of Cardinal Ximenes, 
 printed in 1515; it is also called "the 
 Complutensian" or Alcala (6 vols, in fol.), 
 in four languages: the Hebrew, the Chal- 
 daic paraphrase of Onkelos on the Penta- 
 teuch only, the Greek Version of the 
 Septuagint, and the ancient Latin or 
 Italic Version. 2. That published by Plan- 
 tinus (1569-1572), by authority and at the 
 cost of Philip II., king of Spain; also 
 called royal Polyglot of Philip II., or 
 Polyglot of Antwerp ; besides that con- 
 tained already in the Complutensian, was 
 added the Chaldaic paraphrases of the rest 
 of the Scriptures ; for the New Testament, 
 besides the Greek and Latin of the Bible 
 of Alcala, there was added to this edition the 
 ancient Syriac Version. 3. That of 1586 
 (2 vols, in fol.), containing the Hebrew, 
 Greek, the Latin version of St. Jerome, 
 and that of Santeo-Pagnini with the notes 
 of the Vatable ; which caused it to be 
 called the Bible of Vatable. 4. That of 
 Elias Hutter, printed in 1599, at Nurem- 
 berg, in six languages : Hebrew, Chaldaic, 
 Greek, Latin, German, and Slavonic in 
 some copies, French or Italian in others ; 
 the same author has published also in 1600 
 the New Testament in twelve languages : 
 Syriac, Hebrew, Greek, Italian, French, 
 Spanish, Latin, German, Bohemian, Eng- 
 lish, Danish, and Polish. 5. That of Jay, 
 printed in Paris, 1645 ; the Syriac and 
 Arabic versions are therein accompanied 
 by Latin interpretations, it contains, be- 
 sides that of Philip II., the Samaritan text 
 of the Pentateuch and the Samaritan ver- 
 sion ; the New Testament contains, more 
 than the Antwerp Polyglot, an Arabic 
 and Latin translation. 6. That which was 
 printed at London in 1657 (6 vols, in fol.), 
 and which is called the Polyglot of Lon- 
 don, Polyglot of England, and Polyglot or 
 Bible of Walton, because Bryan Walton 
 printed it. It is the most complete and 
 the most convenient. There has been 
 added to it a dictionary in seven languages, 
 composed by Edmond Castle. Walton, 
 being an Anglican, did not always express 
 himself in a manner conformable to the 
 pure doctrine ; hence the reason why this 
 Bible was put on the Index. Among the 
 particular Polyglots we quote: i. A Psal- 
 ter in Hebrew, Greek, Arabic, and Chal- 
 
Polynesia 
 
 564 
 
 POPE 
 
 daic, with Latin translations and glosses 
 by Augustino Giustiniani, Genoa (1516). 
 2. A Psalter in Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and 
 Ethiopian; Cologne (1518), by John Pot- 
 ken. 
 
 Polynesia( Missions in) . See Australia. 
 
 Polytheism. See Paganism. 
 
 Pombal (MARquis de) (1699-1782).— 
 Prime minister under Joseph I. of Portugal. 
 Pombal, while Portuguese minister in Eng- 
 land, had observed the docility of the An- 
 glican clergy, and their submissiveness to 
 the English government. No sooner had 
 he obtained the reins of power, than he 
 formed plans for a national Church in 
 Portugal, separated from the Holy See. 
 The means which Pombal adopted, were 
 calumny and cruel persecution. He issued 
 writings, grossly defaming the Society of 
 Jesus, to be circulated among the people. 
 They were accused of conspiracy against 
 the State; of creating discontent among 
 the Indians in Paraguay ; they were even 
 denounced as the instigators of, or accom- 
 plices in, an attempt upon the king's life. 
 A royal edict of Sept. 3d, 1759, declared 
 the Jesuits, traitors and assassins, and ban- 
 ished them from Portugal, and from the 
 Portuguese colonies, both East and West. 
 At the death of the king (1777), Pombal 
 lost his credit, the ministry fell, the prisons 
 were opened, the processes revised and the 
 judges decided the innocence of the con- 
 demned. As he had been careful to pro- 
 vide himself with documents wherein all 
 his crimes were charged to the account of 
 the king, whose executor he only pretended 
 to have been, he was spared ; but assailed 
 by thousands of accusations, he was com- 
 pelled to leave Lisbon, and, banished far 
 from the court (1781), went to die in exile. 
 
 Pontianus (St.). — Pope from 230 to 
 235 ; martyr. Exiled by Alexander Seve- 
 rus, upon the island of Tavolato, on the 
 eastern coast of Sardinia, where he was put 
 to death by order of Maximinus. 
 
 Pontifical. — A book which contains the 
 different orders of the ceremonies which 
 the bishop should observe, particularly in 
 conferring the sacraments of ordination, 
 confirmation, and other sacred functions 
 reserved to the bishop. The Roman Pon- 
 tifical is attributed to the Popes Gelasius 
 and Gregory VII. 
 
 Pontus. — In ancient geography, the 
 northeastern province of Asia Minor, 
 
 bounded on the north by the Euxine sea, 
 west by Galatia and Paphlagonia, south by 
 Cappadocia and part of Armenia, and east 
 by Colchis. It was originally governed 
 by kings, and was in its most flourishing 
 state under Mithridates the Great, who 
 waged a long and celebrated war with the 
 Romans, but was at length subdued by 
 Pompey; after which Pontus became a 
 providence of the Roman empire (Acts ii. 
 9; I. Pet. i. I). 
 
 Poor Man of Lyons. See Waldknsbs. 
 
 Pope (the head of the Roman Catholic 
 Church). — The name Pope (Lat. Pa fa), 
 " which means Father," says Fleury, " but 
 in denoting a particular tenderness," was 
 formerly given to all bishops. Among 
 the Russians, the simple priest placed at 
 the head of a parish is termed Pope, 
 meaning father of the parish. However, 
 this title was par excellence, the title of 
 the sovereign Pontiff, residing in Rome, 
 and since the time of Gregory VII., the 
 Bishop of Rome alone has been called 
 Pope. Witness how Crea expresses him- 
 self on the essence or nature of the papal 
 power in the Church, "It is a bishop, 
 who, in quality, is nothing more than 
 other bishops, since bishops are alike. 
 The episcopacy does not suffer inferiority 
 in any of its members, and the Bishop of 
 Rome is no more a bishop than the bishop 
 of an obscure city. But because the Bishop 
 of Rome is the Vicar of Jesus Christ, he 
 exercises a power which is not contained 
 in the essential power of the episcopacy. 
 Indeed, it is the essence of a vicar that he 
 forms only one sole hierarchical person 
 with the one whom he represents, without 
 forming a distinct degree below him. 
 This is so true in the propriety of the 
 term vicar, that even in an inferior de- 
 gree, we every day see the bishop of a 
 particular Church, or diocese, giving to 
 himself a vicar who represents him with 
 the plentitude of his ordinary authority. 
 The vicar of a bishop is taken from among 
 the priests, but he exercises a power 
 which is not contained in the priesthood, 
 because this power is the authority itself 
 which the bishop has over the priests as 
 their chief. Hereby, the vicar forms with 
 the bishop only one sole hierarchic person. 
 Such is the singular dignity of the Vicar 
 of Jesus Christ. He is in possession of 
 the whole authority of Jesus Christ, over 
 the Church and over the Episcopacy" 
 {De viglise et de sa Constitution, p. 137). 
 
Pope 
 
 565 
 
 Pope 
 
 The Pope, the visible head of the 
 Church, Vicar of Jesus Christ, is the suc- 
 cessor of St. Peter. He governs, teaches, 
 commands observance of the canons, as- 
 sembles councils and presides over them, 
 institutes bishops, . creates cardinals, es- 
 tablishes or suppresses religious orders, 
 watches over the maintenance of dogma 
 and discipline, approves or censures doc- 
 trines, publishes bulls, briefs, encyclicals, 
 upholds liturgy, grants major dispensa- 
 tions, concedes indulgences, pronounces 
 excommunication or withdraws it, in a 
 word, he has the supreme and entire au- 
 thority of government. 
 
 The Pope wears a triple crown or tiara. 
 He is chosen by the cardinals in conclave, 
 and after being elected he is placed upon a 
 seat and carried before the altar of St. 
 Peter, and in that magnificent, historic 
 cathedral, he is crowned. He choses a 
 name under which he continues the series 
 of Pontiffs. The history of the Papacy is 
 blended with that of the Church, and 
 forms the salient part thereof. Since the 
 first centuries the various Churches ac- 
 knowledged the papal authority, and have 
 recourse to Rome in all their major 
 causes. (See Primacy.) The first Popes 
 underwent martyrdom in turn. Constan- 
 tine the Great, transferring the seat of the 
 empire to Constantinople, left in the 
 West the Papacy in charge of great 
 wealth, which gradually increased by the 
 generosity of the emperor and his sub- 
 jects. This action of Constantine, to- 
 gether with the love and loyalty of the 
 Faithful, gradually endowed the Papacy 
 with a moral and even temporal power, 
 and prepared it to exercise a supreme in- 
 fluence over the world, which was becom- 
 ing more universally Christianized. The 
 Papacy under the successors of Constan- 
 tine, had to contend with and overcome 
 powerful heresies. Under the Greek em- 
 pire it found itself confronted by all the 
 cavils of the Grecian spirit, linked with 
 the decline of a fast decaying society. It, 
 on the other hand, made an alliance with 
 Charlemagne, and its prestige increased. 
 It penetrated the abodes and conquered 
 with the Word of God, barbarous nations, 
 forming them into civilized peoples, thus 
 erecting the bulwarks of future Chris- 
 tianity. 
 
 Islamism became threatening, and the 
 Papacy opposed to it the chivalrous valor 
 of the Crusades. From the beginning, as 
 it still continues, the Papacy was the pro- 
 
 tector and patron of learning, and perpetu- 
 ated scientific knowledge ; transmitting it 
 to the coming ages. It gave energy to 
 the religious orders, it spread the Chris- 
 tian life and spirit among the clergy and 
 the Faithful. A difficult trial awaited the 
 Papacy, which for a time seemed to over- 
 throw it, — the great "Schism of the West," 
 yet in the end it came out victorious. The 
 Reformation, so called, was a revolution 
 that strove to draw away from the Papacy 
 the disobedience of a great part of Europe. 
 The modern spirit continued the work of 
 the Reformation, affecting even the nations 
 that remained faithful. France, the eldest 
 daughter of the Church, felt its baneful 
 effects. The great French Revolution put 
 into practice, with fearful logic, what 
 had been at first considered as simple 
 theories. Finally, in our own days, 
 Pius IX. was robbed and despoiled of 
 all temporal power which had belonged, 
 undisputed, to the Papacy for more than 
 a thousand years. Then did the char- 
 ity and loyalty of the Faithful again 
 assert itself by voluntary contributions 
 under the name of " Peter's Pence," by 
 which the Papacy and its needs are sup- 
 plied. The Papacy, as must be admitted, 
 even by its enemies, nevertheless con- 
 tinues to exist with a character of impos- 
 ing grandeur, to which even now as of 
 yore, the great mass of the enlightened 
 world renders willing homage. Being 
 created by God for an enduring, divine 
 purpose, it remains, and shall remain, to 
 the end of time a necessary institution, and 
 hence the '■'■ Non Possumus," of Pius IX. 
 to the Italian government is repeated by 
 his successor, the inflexible, matchless Leo 
 XIII., and shall continue to be repeated 
 till justice shall be satisfied. 
 
 Pope {Election of the). — The manner of 
 electing the sovereign Pontiff has been 
 different in different ages. At first, i. e., 
 from the time of St. Peter to Pope St. 
 Sylvester I., the right to elect the Roman 
 Pontiff was vested in the Senate of the 
 Church of the city of Rome. This Senate, 
 which was instituted by St. Peter himself, 
 was composed of twenty-four priests and 
 deacons. After the Pontificate of Sylvester 
 I. (died, 335), the entire Roman clergy 
 and people were also admitted to the elec- 
 tion of the Pontiff. From the time of 
 Pope Simplicius (467) to that of Zachary 
 (741), temporal rulers sought to establish 
 the custom that no Pontiff should be 
 
Pope 
 
 566 
 
 Pope 
 
 acknowledged as such without their con- 
 firmation. Pope Nicholas II. was the 
 first who gave the chief voice in the elec- 
 tion of the Roman Pontiff to the cardinals, 
 by ordaining that the election should be 
 held by the cardinal bishops. Finally, 
 Pope Alexander III., in 1178, reserved the 
 right of electing the Pontiff exclusively to 
 the cardinals ; he also enacted that the 
 Pope could be validly elected by two-thirds 
 of all the cardinals present without any re- 
 gard to the absent members of the Sacred 
 College. These enactments were con- 
 firmed by Gregory X. (1274) and Clement 
 V. (1310), and are in force at the present 
 day. 
 
 A vacancy occurs in the Apostolic See 
 when the sovereign Pontiff resigns or dies. 
 Immediately upon the death of a Pope the 
 cardinals are to be convoked. All must be 
 summoned, even those who are absent, ex- 
 communicated, suspended, or interdicted ; 
 also cardinals but recently created, though 
 not yet invested with the insignia of the 
 cardinalate. The cardinals present must 
 ordinarily wait ten days for the arrival of 
 those who are absent. If, however, the 
 cardinals present, for just reasons, pro 
 ceeded to elect the Pope before the lapse 
 of ten days from the death of the late Pon- 
 tiff, this election would nevertheless be 
 valid. On the tenth, or, according to 
 Phillips, on the eleventh day the cardinals 
 enter the conclave in procession. (See 
 CoKCLAVE.) Once having entered the 
 conclave they cannot leave it until after 
 the election of a new Pope. If any cardinal 
 should leave the conclave on account of 
 sickness or other cause, he cannot return 
 again, even if he recovers, nor can he have 
 a voice in the election. If, in the course 
 of the election, a considerable number of 
 cardinals should withdraw from the con- 
 clave, refusing to participate in the elec- 
 tion, the right of electing the Pontiff 
 would devolve on the remaining cardinals, 
 even though but two, nay, even in case but 
 one, were left. 
 
 The election at present must be held 
 either by scrutiniutn or ballot, or by com- 
 promise, or by quasi inspiration. Though 
 any of these three modes can be made use of, 
 the ballot is the one more usually adopted. 
 The election fer scruttnium consists in 
 this, that each of the voters casts his vote, 
 as a rule, by ballot ; in the election of the 
 sovereign Pontiff, the cardinals are ob- 
 liged to vote by secret ballot. The candi- 
 date who receives the votes of two-thirds 
 
 of all the cardinals present in the conclave, 
 is canonically elected Pope. Before the 
 balloting, three cardinals {scrutatores) are 
 chosen by lot to count the votes and an- 
 nounce the result. The votes are cast in 
 the following manner: Each cardinal 
 writes the name of his candidate on the 
 ballot or ticket of election, formulating 
 his vote thus : " I choose for Supreme 
 
 Pontiff, the Most Reverend ." This 
 
 ticket is then folded, sealed, and deposited 
 by the voter in a chalice placed on an altar 
 for that purpose. The three scrutatores, 
 meanwhile, stand by the chalice and super- 
 intend the voting. When all the votes 
 have been cast, the scrutatores at once 
 begin to announce the votes in this man- 
 ner: the first scrutator takes one of the 
 votes out of the chalice, and simply looks 
 at or ascertains the name of the candidate 
 voted for; he then hands the vote or 
 ticket to the second scrutator, who like- 
 wise, having merely seen the name on it, 
 passes it to the third scrutator, by whom 
 the name is audibly announced to the 
 cardinals. All the tickets are thus an- 
 nounced one by one. 
 
 When all the votes have been counted by 
 the scrutatores, and it is found that the 
 ballot is without result, no candidate hav- 
 ing received the requisite two-thirds vote, 
 the accessus must immediately begin. The 
 accessus consists in this, that the cardinals, 
 by balloting as before, go over to one of 
 the candidates who has received at least 
 one vote in the first ballot. In the accessus, 
 as the word itself indicates, no cardinal 
 can vote for or go over to the one for whom 
 he voted in the first ballot; all, however, 
 are obliged to vote, though they are free to 
 go over to some candidate or to stand by 
 their first choice. A cardinal who goes 
 over to some candidate votes thus : ** I go 
 
 over to ;"a cardinal who does not 
 
 wish to change his vote ballots thus: "I 
 go over to no one." When the accessus is 
 over, the votes are again counted as before 
 in the scrutiniutn, and if, even then, it is 
 found that no candidate has received the 
 necessary two-thirds vote, the cardinals 
 must in their next meeting, unless they 
 prefer to elect the Pope by compromise or 
 by quasi inspiration, proceed to a second 
 ballot and continue thus to ballot twice a 
 day, — in the morning and afternoon, — un- 
 til some candidate receives two-thirds of 
 all the votes, and is thus canonically elected 
 Pope. The person thus elected, even 
 though not yet in sacred orders, becomes 
 
Pope 
 
 567 
 
 POPE 
 
 immediately, upon the consenting to the 
 election, the Vicar of Christ on earth. 
 The new Pope, as a rule, lays aside his old 
 and assumes a new name. 
 
 Pope ( Temporal Power of the). See 
 Power. 
 
 Pope {Prerogatives of the) . — It is an 
 incontestable fact that St. Peter went to 
 Rome to preach the Gospel, that he fixed 
 there his see and that he died there for 
 the faith. (See Peter.) It is no less 
 certain that, after the death of St. Peter, 
 the See of Rome has been constantly 
 and uninterruptedly occupied by a bishop, 
 and that this bishop has always been 
 regarded as the successor of St. Peter. 
 Now, as Pope Pius VII. says, it is a 
 Catholic dogma that Jesus Christ has 
 founded His Church upon the solidity of 
 the rock, and that, by a particular gift, 
 He has chosen Peter, in preference to the 
 other Apostles to be His vicar on earth, 
 and the prince of the Apostolic Chair ; that 
 by intrusting him, — and through him his 
 successors in the course of time, — the care 
 and the supreme power is delegated to feed 
 the flock, to confirm his brethren, to bind 
 and to loose throughout the whole uni- 
 verse. This dogma was derived from 
 Christ and has been transmitted to us by 
 the belief and practice of the universal 
 Church, by the testimony of the holy 
 Fathers, and by the decrees of sovereign 
 Pontiffs and councils, which decrees were 
 promulgated against the errors of innova- 
 tors. 
 
 The Holy See is the center of Chris- 
 tianity. "The ecclesiastical authority," 
 says Bossuet, following Ca3sarius of Aries, 
 " first established in the person of one, has 
 spread itself only under the condition of 
 always being able to be reduced to the 
 principle of its unity, and that all those 
 who may be obliged to exercise it shall 
 keep themselves inseparably united to the 
 same See." To be really united with the 
 sovereign Pontiff, it is not enough to 
 acknowledge that such or such reigning 
 Pontiff is the successor of St. Peter; nor 
 is it sufficient to say that we desire to live 
 in communion with the Holy See ; we must, 
 moreover, be subject to the decrees of the 
 Apostolic See, conform ourselves in all 
 things to the teaching of the Roman 
 Church, the Mother and Mistress of all the 
 Churches. 
 
 It belongs chiefly to the Pope, to pro- 
 nounce on questions in regard to faith. 
 
 Although all bishops are judges of faith, 
 nevertheless, their judgments are sub- 
 ordinate to the authority of the Vicar of 
 Christ, the successor of St. Peter, who has 
 received from our Lord the command to 
 feed both the lambs and the sheep, the 
 little ones and mothers, and to confirm his 
 brethren, that is, the Apostles and their 
 successors, the bishops. There must al- 
 ways be a Peter in the Church to confirm 
 his brethren in the faith. This is the 
 means to preserve that unity of sentiment 
 and fact which our Blessed Saviour desired 
 above all things else, and the authority 
 of the supreme Pontiff is all the more nec- 
 essary for the bishops, as their faith is not 
 confirmed, as was that of the Apostles. 
 (See Infallibility.) 
 
 The Pope can make laws which are obli- 
 gatory for the whole Church. He has re- 
 ceived from Jesus Christ, in the person of 
 Peter, prince of the Apostles, the keys of 
 the kingdom of heaven, with the power to 
 bind and to loose on earth, with the full 
 and entire power to feed, direct, and gov- 
 ern the universal Church. (Council of 
 Florence.) Therefore, he can make laws 
 obligatory on all Christians, since there is 
 no government without legislative power. 
 This universal power and authority of the 
 Pope in regard to faith, morals, and disci- 
 pline has been invariably recognized by 
 all the Fathers and Doctors of the Church, 
 in all ages. 
 
 This supreme authority of the Holy See 
 every bishop at his consecration acknowl- 
 edges, promising under oath to receive 
 with respect the holy decretals and consti- 
 tutions which may emanate from the Pope. 
 All the decrees of the Popes or of the gen- 
 eral councils, as likewise all bulls and con- 
 stitutions are obligatory in the spiritual 
 state and bind in conscience, independently 
 of the authorization of the temporal State. 
 Were this otherwise, no one could be a 
 Catholic or at least could not fulfill his 
 duties as such if his obedience to the Holy 
 See depended on the consent of the gov- 
 ernment. And it would no longer be St. 
 Peter who would be supreme head of the 
 Church, but Caesar, thus compelling us to 
 reverse the dictum of the Apostles, who 
 said God should be obeyed rather than 
 men. 
 
 The institution of bishops and establish- 
 ing of dioceses belongs to the sovereign 
 Pontiff. The spiritual power of both Pope 
 and bishops is derived from Jesus Christ; 
 it is the Holy Ghost who has established 
 
Pope 
 
 568 
 
 Pope 
 
 bishops to govern the Church of God. 
 But to take part in the government of the 
 Church, it is not sufficient to have received 
 the episcopal character ; besides the power 
 of orders, which is inherent in the sacra- 
 ment of holy orders, a canonical jurisdic- 
 tion is required for both forms, — exterior 
 and interior. In regard to bishops, it is of 
 faith, according to the Council of Trent, 
 that those who have been instituted by the 
 authority of the Roman Pontiff are true 
 and legitimate bishops. According to the 
 same Council, one of the principal duties 
 of the Pope, whose solicitude extends it- 
 self over the universal Church, is to give 
 to each Church pastors really worthy and 
 capable, under pain of being responsible 
 for the loss of those who might perish 
 through the negligence of unworthy pas- 
 tors. It is a disputed question among 
 theologians whether bishops canonically 
 instituted, hold their power immediately 
 from God, or from the Pope. However 
 this may be, all Catholics, says Benedict 
 XIV., agree that the jurisdiction of bishops 
 is always subject to the Pope ; so that he 
 can restrain, limit, and even take it away 
 entirely, when there is a legitimate cause 
 for so doing. As a consequence from all 
 the facts which we have detailed, it follows 
 that the Church is of monarchical form, 
 under an elective monarch, the Pope. The 
 Pope, says St. Thomas, has the plenitude 
 of Pontifical power; he is in the Church 
 what a king is in a kingdom, and the bish- 
 ops are called to share a part of his care, 
 as judges established in each city. Yet 
 we are not to confound this monarchical 
 form of the Church with absolutism. A 
 monarchy, even in a political and social 
 order, has laws and constitutions independ- 
 ent of the monarch. The government of 
 the Church being, as the Church itself, 
 essentially one, perpetual, unchangeable, 
 is necessarily always the same, that is, 
 always and necessarily monarchic, and 
 this it is by virtue of its constitution which 
 is di\-ine. The Pope cannot render it des- 
 potic, or aristocratic, or democratic. It is 
 always what it has been and will be such 
 to the end of time. 
 
 The power of the Pope extends itself in 
 a certain manner over things temporal. 
 No Pope, no Catholic theologian, has 
 denied the real distinction between the 
 temporal and spiritual power, nor their in- 
 dependence in their o-«ti domain ; but the 
 Church interferes in the acts of any gov- 
 ernment when these acts are contrary to 
 
 justice, morality, or religion ; she inter- 
 feres in the quality of interpreter of divine 
 law, the natural and positive laws having 
 their source in the divine law, for it Is 
 hers to care for the eternal salvation of 
 her children and the maintenance of the 
 supernatural order. 
 
 The Popes have never pretended to pos- 
 sess over kings and rulers temporal sway ; 
 they used their spiritual sword only in 
 defense of the outraged peoples who called 
 upon them as the common father of all to 
 protect them against the tyranny of des- 
 pots. "It was a principle," says F^nelon, 
 " among all Catholic nations, received and 
 deeply engraved, that none but a Catholic 
 prince or sovereign could possess power to 
 govern. Moreover, it was a tacit under- 
 standing between prince and people, that 
 the latter would only obey the prince in so 
 far as the prince or ruler would obey the 
 laws of the Catholic Church. In virtue of 
 this principle, all the nations believed that 
 they were freed from their oath of fidelity, 
 when, in despising this agreement, the 
 prince turned himself against religion." 
 However, for fear of being mistaken in 
 their judgments, and wishing, besides, to 
 prevent civil war and its misfortunes, the 
 people had recourse to the Pope, the natu- 
 ral interpreter of an oath which is an act 
 of religion, and of the agreement on their 
 part in as far as such agreements affected 
 morals and consciences. "Thus," con- 
 tinues the Bishop of Cambrai, " the Church 
 did not, strictly speaking, depose or insti- 
 tute lay princes ; she simply answered 
 those who consulted her in regard to con- 
 science, reason, and of the binding force of 
 the agreement and oath." No one will 
 admit that a prince can, with impunity use 
 and abuse the goods and lives of his sub- 
 jects. What will arbitrate the differences 
 which may arise between people and rulers ? 
 Force undoubtedly. But what have we not 
 to fear from a prince or people when they 
 rule only by the edge of the sword ? 
 
 According to Gallicanism and some 
 other expositors, a general council would 
 be superior to the Pope. But how can we 
 reconcile this proposition with the Gospel, 
 which represents St. Peter as the founda- 
 tion of the Church of Christ? It is not 
 the building which supports the founda- 
 tion, but the foundation which supports 
 the building. How can we reconcile it, 
 with the power of the keys, which have 
 been given to St. Peter only, or with 
 the command, which SL Peter received 
 
Popes 
 
 569 
 
 Popes 
 
 from our Lord to feed both the lambs and 
 the sheep, that is, the whole flock, to con- 
 firm his brethren, that is the Apostles 
 themselves, in the faith. According to 
 the Second General Council of Lyons, the 
 Pope " has a supreme primacy with the 
 sovereignty, and plenitude of power over 
 the whole Church. All the Churches are 
 subject to him, and all bishops owe to him 
 respect and obedience. The prerogatives 
 of the Roman Church cannot be violated, 
 either by general or particular Councils." 
 The Council of Florence is not less expres- 
 sive. It has defined that the Roman Pon- 
 tiff has received from Jesus Christ, in the 
 person of Peter, "a full power to feed, di- 
 rect and govern the Universal Church." 
 Finally, the Vatican Council has declared 
 and defined the dogma of the personal In- 
 fallibility of the Pope, in matters of faith 
 and morals. For the Pope as legislator, 
 see Law. 
 
 Popes {Future), according to the proph- 
 ecy of Malachias. — This prophecy has 
 always been attributed to this saint, who 
 was Archbishop of Armagh, Ireland (died 
 1 148). St. Bernard reports, as an eye- 
 witness, several miracles and prophecies of 
 St. Malachias. In 1590, Arnold of Wyon, 
 a learned Benedictine, discovered the 
 manuscript, ignored until then, of the 
 prophecy concerning the succession of 
 the Popes, since Celestine II., in 1143, un- 
 til the end of the world. He entrusted 
 his discovery to the Spanish Dominican 
 and historian, Ciaconius (Alphonse Cha- 
 con), author of the Lives and Acts of the 
 Popes and Cardinals, written in Latin. 
 The latter provided the work with notes. 
 This work has often been reprinted. In 
 1873, the Abbd Cucherat, in a volume on 
 this historic document, has reproduced 
 the Latin text of Malachias, such as Ar- 
 nold of Wyon had given it, in his Lignum 
 VitcB. He added to it a French transla- 
 tion, the name of the sovereign PontiflFs, 
 and the epoch of their Pontificate. We 
 must remark that the characteristic, at- 
 tributed by the prophecy to each papal 
 reign, does not always refer to the Pope 
 himself, but often to an event, to a historic 
 personage of the period ; thus one charac- 
 teristic applies to Napoleon I., the aquila 
 rapax of the prophecy in regard to Pius 
 VII. 
 
 We will quote only a part of the proph- 
 ecy, that is, since the time of Napoleon I. : 
 Aquila rapax (the ravishing eagle), who 
 
 dominated Europe during the Pontificate 
 of Pius VII. (1800-1823). — Canis et coluber 
 (dog and serpent). Leo XII.(i823-i829). — 
 Vir religiosus (religious man) . Pius VIII. 
 ( 1 829-1 830). — De balneis £truriee{iromV\ie 
 baths of Etruria). Gregory XVI. (1831- 
 1846).— Crwxrfe cr?<ce( the cross of the cross). 
 PiusIX.(i846-i878). — Lumen in ccelo (light 
 in the heavens). Leo XIII. (1878-19 — ). — 
 Ignis ardens (burning fire). — Religio </?- 
 populata (religion devastated). — Fides 
 intrepida (the intrepid faith). — Pastor an- 
 gelicus (the angelic pastor). — Pastor et 
 nauta (the pastor and pilot). — Flos jlorum 
 (the flower of flowers). — De medietate 
 luncE (from the half of the moon) . — De la- 
 bore solis (from the labor of the sun). — De 
 gloricB olivce (from the glory of the olive). 
 — In persecutione extrema sacrce Romance 
 Ecclesice sedebit Petrus Romanus qui oves 
 in multis tribulationibus ; quibus trans- 
 actis, civitas septi colis diruetur; et Judex 
 tremendus judicabit populum (in the last 
 persecution of the Holy Roman Church, 
 Peter the Roman will sit (reign), who will 
 feed the sheep amidst great tribulations, 
 after which the city on the seven hills will 
 be destroyed, and the dreadful Judge will 
 come and judge the people). 
 
 According to this prophecy there would 
 be yet ten popes after Leo XIII., and then 
 the end of the world would take place. 
 
 Popes {List of). — According to Birk- 
 haeuser's Church History, the List of Popes 
 is as follows : 
 
 DtTRATION OF 
 
 Name. Pontificate : 
 
 First Century 
 St. Peter, Prince of the Apos- 
 tles, who received the supreme 
 Pontificate from Christ. He 
 resided for a time at Antioch, 
 and afterwards established his 
 See at Rome, where he died a 
 martyr with St. Paul, under 
 
 Nero, June 29th, 67. ... 42 — 67 
 
 St. Linus 67—78 
 
 St. Cletus or Anacletus * 78 — 91 
 
 St. Clement I 91 — 100 
 
 Second Century 
 
 St. Evaristus 100—109 
 
 St. Alexander 1 109 — 1 19 
 
 St. Sixtus I 119 — 127 
 
 St. Telesphorus 127 — 139 
 
 St. Hyginus 139 — 142 
 
 St. Pius I 142 — 157 
 
 * See Anacletus. 
 
Popes 
 
 570 
 
 Popes 
 
 Duration of 
 Name. Pontificate : 
 
 St. Anicetus 157 — 168 
 
 St. Soter 168—177 
 
 St. Eleutherus 177—192 
 
 St. Victor I 192—201 
 
 Third Century 
 
 St. Zephyrinus 202—218 
 
 St. Calixtus I 218—222 
 
 St Urban I 223—230 
 
 St. Pontian 230—235 
 
 St. Anterus 235—236 
 
 St. Fabian 236—250 
 
 St. Cornelius 251—252 
 
 St. Lucius I 252—253 
 
 St. Stephen 1 253—257 
 
 St. Sixtus II 257— 25S 
 
 St. Dionjsius 259 — 269 
 
 St. Felix I 269—274 
 
 St. Eutychianus 275—283 
 
 St. Cajus 283—296 
 
 St. Marcellinus 296 — 304 
 
 Fourth Century 
 
 St. Marcellus t 308 — 310 
 
 St. Eusebius 310 — 311 
 
 St. Melchiades 311 — 313 
 
 St. Sylvester I 314—335 
 
 St. Marcus 336 — 337 
 
 St. Julius I 337—352 
 
 Liberius. (Felix II. Anti- 
 pope.) i 352—366 
 
 St. Damasus 1 366 — 384 
 
 St. Siricius 385—398 
 
 St. Anastasius 1 398 — 402 
 
 Fifth Century 
 
 St. Innocent 1 402 — 417 
 
 St. Zosimus 417—418 
 
 St. Boniface I 418—422 
 
 St. Celestine I 422 — ^432 
 
 St. Sixtus III 432 — 440 
 
 St. Leo I. (the Great) 440 — 461 
 
 St. Hilary 461—468 
 
 St. Simplicius 468—483 
 
 St. Felix III 483—492 
 
 St. Gelasius I 492 — 496 
 
 St. Anastasius II 496 — 498 
 
 Sixth Century 
 
 St. Symmachus 498 — 514 
 
 St. Hormisdas 514 — 523 
 
 t Owing to the violent persecution then rag- 
 ing, the Holy See remained vacant nearly four 
 years 3,04 — 308. 
 
 J Felix is put in the list of Popes by some, 
 though he is generally held to be an intruder. 
 
 Duration of 
 Name. Pontificate : 
 
 St. John 1 523 — 1525 
 
 St. Felix IV 526—530 
 
 Boniface II 530 — 532 
 
 John II 532—535 
 
 St. Agapetus 1 535— 53^ 
 
 St. Silverius 536 — 540 
 
 Vigilius 540—555 
 
 Pelagius I 555-5^0 
 
 John III 560—573 
 
 Benedict I 574 — 578 
 
 Pelagius II 578 — 590 
 
 St. Gregory I. (the Great) 590 — 604 
 
 Seventh Century 
 
 Sabinianus 604 — 605 
 
 Boniface III 606 
 
 St. Boniface IV 607 — 614 
 
 St. Deusdedit 615 — 618 
 
 Boniface V 619 — 625 
 
 Honorius I . 625 — 638 
 
 Severinus 639 
 
 John IV 640 — 642 
 
 Theodorus I 642 — 649 
 
 St. Martin 1 649 — 655 
 
 Eugenius 1 655 — 657 
 
 St. Vitalian 657 — 672 
 
 St. Adeodatus 672 — 676 
 
 Donus 676 — 678 
 
 St. Agatho 678—681 
 
 St. Leo II 682—684 
 
 St. Benedict II 684—686 
 
 John V 686—687 
 
 Conon 687 
 
 St. Sergius I 687 — 701 
 
 Eighth Century 
 
 John VI 701 — 705 
 
 John VII 705 — 707 
 
 Sisinnius 708 
 
 Constantine 70S — 715 
 
 St. Gregory II 715— 73i 
 
 St. Gregory III 731—741 
 
 St. Zacharias 741 — 752 
 
 Stephen II 752 
 
 Stephen III 752—757 
 
 St. Paul 1 757—767 
 
 Stephen IV 768—772 
 
 Adrian I 772—795 
 
 Ninth Century 
 
 St. Leo III 795—816 
 
 Stephen V 816—817 
 
 Paschal I 817—824 
 
 Eugenius II 824—827 
 
 Valentine 827 
 
Popes 
 
 571 
 
 POPES 
 
 Duration of 
 Name. Pontificate : 
 
 Gregory IV 827 — 844 
 
 Sergius II 844 — 847 
 
 Leo IV 847—855 
 
 Benedict III 855—858 
 
 St. Nicholas I. (the Great) 858—867 
 
 Adrian II 867—872 
 
 John VIII 872—883 
 
 MarinusI 882—884 
 
 Adrian III 884—885 
 
 Stephen VI 885—891 
 
 Formosus 891 — 896 
 
 Boniface VI 896 
 
 Stephen VII 896— S97 
 
 Romanus 897 
 
 Theodorus II 897—898 
 
 John IX 898—900 
 
 Tenth Century 
 
 Benedict IV 900 — 903 
 
 Leo V 903 
 
 Christophorus 903 — 904 
 
 Sergius III 904 — 91 1 
 
 Anastasius III 911 — 913 
 
 Lando 913 — 914 
 
 John X 914 — 928 
 
 Leo VI 92S — 929 
 
 Stephen VIII 929 — 931 
 
 John XI 931—936 
 
 Leo VII 936 — 939 
 
 Stephen IX 939 — 943 
 
 Marinus II 943 — 946 
 
 Agapetus II 946 — 956 
 
 John XII * 956 — 964 
 
 Benedict V 964 — 965 
 
 John XIII 965 — 972 
 
 Benedict VI 972 — 974 
 
 Benedict VII 975 — 983 
 
 John XIV 983—985 
 
 John XV 9S5— 996 
 
 Gregory V 996 — 999 
 
 Eleventh Century 
 
 Sylvester II 999 — 1003 
 
 John XVII t 1003 
 
 John XVIII 1003 — 1009 
 
 Sergius IV 1009 — 1012 
 
 Benedict VIII 1012 — 1024 
 
 John XIX 1024 — 1032 
 
 Benedict IX 1033 — 1044 
 
 Gregory VI. (abdicated) . . . .1044 — 1046 
 
 Clement II 1046 — 1047 
 
 Damasus II 1048 
 
 * Leo VIII. and Benedict VI. were antipopes. 
 
 tThis Pontiff took the name of John XVII. to 
 prevent his acts being confounded with those of 
 the antipope John XVI., in the time of Gregory V. 
 
 Duration of 
 Name. Pontificate : 
 
 Leo IX 1049 — 1054 
 
 Victor II 1054 — 1057 
 
 Stephen X 1057 — 1058 
 
 Nicholas II 1059 — 1061 
 
 Alexander II 1061 — 1073 
 
 St. Gregory VII 1073 — 1085 
 
 Victor III 10S6— 1088 
 
 Urban II 1088 — 1099 
 
 Twelfth Century 
 
 Paschal II 
 
 Gelasius II. . . . 
 Calixtus II. . . . 
 Honorius II. . . 
 Innocent II. . . 
 Celestine II. . . 
 Lucius II . . . . 
 Eugenius III. . 
 Anastasius IV. 
 Adrian IV. . . . 
 Alexander III. 
 Lusius III. . . . 
 
 Urban III 
 
 Gregory VIII. 
 Clement III. . . 
 Celestine III. . 
 
 .1099— 
 
 .1118— 
 
 .1119— 
 
 . 1 1 24 — 
 
 .1130— 
 
 "43— 
 
 "44— 
 
 "45— 
 
 "53— 
 
 ■ "54— 
 
 "59— 
 
 .1181 
 
 ."85- 
 .1187 
 .1187— 
 .1191— 
 
 118 
 119 
 124 
 130 
 
 143 
 144 
 
 145 
 153 
 154 
 159 
 181 
 
 185 
 
 187 
 
 191 
 198 
 
 Thirteenth Century 
 
 Innocent III 1198 — 12 16 
 
 Honorius III 1216 — 1227 
 
 Gregory IX 1227 — 1241 
 
 Celestine IV * 1241 
 
 Innocent IV 1243 — 1254 
 
 Alexander IV 1254 — 1261 
 
 Urban IV 1261 — 1264 
 
 Clement IV + 1265— 1268 
 
 Gregory X 1272 — 1276 
 
 Innocent V 1276 
 
 Adrian V 1276 
 
 John XXI 1277 
 
 Nicholas III 1277 — 1280 
 
 Martin IV 1281— 1285 
 
 Honorius IV 1285 — 1287 
 
 Nicholas IV 1288 — 1292 
 
 St. Celestine V. (abdicated). . . .1294 
 
 Boniface VIII 1294 — 1303 
 
 Fourteenth Century 
 
 Benedict XI 1303 — 1304 
 
 Clement V 1305 — 1314 
 
 * After the death of this Pontiff followed an in- 
 terregnum of nearly two years, caused by the hos- 
 tile attitude of Emperor Frederick II. toward the 
 Holy See. 
 
 + After the death of Clement IV. there was a 
 vacancy of nearly three years. 
 
PORPHYRIUS 
 
 572 
 
 PORPHYRIUS 
 
 Duration of 
 Name. Pontificate : 
 
 John XXII 1316— 1334 
 
 Benedict XII 1334 — 1342 
 
 Clement VI 1342 — 1352 
 
 Innocent VI 1352 — 1362 
 
 Urban V 1362 — 1370 
 
 Gregory XI 1370— 1378 
 
 Urban VI* 1378— 1389 
 
 Boniface IX 1389 — 1404 
 
 Fifteenth Century 
 
 Innocent VII 1404 — 1406 
 
 Gregory XII t 1406 — 1415 
 
 Martin V 1417 — 1431 
 
 Eugenius IV 1431 — 1447 
 
 Nicholas V 1447 — 1455 
 
 Calixtus III 1455 — 1458 
 
 Pius II 1458 — 1464 
 
 Paul II 1464 — 1471 
 
 Sixtus IV 1471 — 1484 
 
 Innocent VIII , 1484 — 1492 
 
 Alexander VI 1492 — 1503 
 
 Sixteenth Century 
 
 Pius III 1503 
 
 Julius II 1503— 1513 
 
 Leo X 1513 — 1521 
 
 Adrian VI 1522 — 1523 
 
 Clement VII 1523 — 1534 
 
 Paul III 1534—1549 
 
 Julius III 1550— 1555 
 
 Marcellus II ^555 
 
 Paul IV 1555— 1559 
 
 Pius IV 1559— 1565 
 
 St. Pius V 1566 — 1572 
 
 Gregory XIII 1572— 1585 
 
 Sixtus V 1585 — 1590 
 
 Urban VII 1590 
 
 Gregory XIV 1590— 1591 
 
 Innocent IX 1591 — 1592 
 
 Clement VIII 1592 — 1605 
 
 Seventeenth Century 
 
 Leo XI 1605 
 
 Paul V 1605 — 1621 
 
 Gregory XV 1621 — 1623 
 
 Urban VIII 1623 — 1644 
 
 Innocent X 1644 — 1655 
 
 * Several discontented cardinals elected an anti- 
 pope, Clement VIII. (1378 — 1394), who resided at 
 Avignon. He was succeeded by Benedict XIII. 
 (1394—1417)- 
 
 t This Pontiff abdicated in 1415 in the Council 
 of Constance. Alexander V., who was elected 
 by the Council of Pisa, in 1409, and his successor 
 John XIII., although generally classed as anti- 
 popes, are found in many of the lists, even in those 
 published at Rome. 
 
 Duration op 
 Name. Pontificate: 
 
 Alexander VII 1655 — 1667 
 
 Clement IX 1667—1669 
 
 Clement X 1670 — 1676 
 
 Innocent XI 1676 — 1689 
 
 Alexander VIII 1689 — 1691 
 
 Innocent XII 1691 — 1700 
 
 Eighteenth Century 
 
 Clement XI 1700— 1721 
 
 Innocent XIII 1721 — 1724 
 
 Benedict XIII 1724 — 1730 
 
 Clement XII 1730 — 1740 
 
 Benedict XIV 1740 — 1758 
 
 Clement XIII 1758— 1769 
 
 Clement XIV 1769 — 1774 
 
 Pius VI 1775— 1799 
 
 Nineteenth Century 
 
 Pius VII 1800— 1823 
 
 Leo XII 1823 — 1829 
 
 Pius VIII 1829— 1830 
 
 Gregory XVI 1830—1846 
 
 Pius IX 1846— 1878 
 
 Leo XIII 1878 
 
 Porphyrius. — Neo - Platonic philoso- 
 pher, born at Batanea or Tyre, died in 
 Rome. He was a disciple of Plotinus and 
 Origen. He had embraced Christianity 
 and left it, it is claimed, on account of ill- 
 treatment by some Christians of Caesarea. 
 He wrote Fifteen Books against the 
 Christians, an elaborate work, which the 
 chief defenders of the faith, St. Methodius 
 of Tyre, Apollinaris of Laodicea, Euse- 
 bius of Caesarea, and others thought 
 worthy of refutation. Both the work of 
 Porphyrius and the refutations by these 
 bishops are lost ; extant copies of the 
 former were destroyed in 449, by order of 
 Emperor Theodosius II. Porphyrius, the 
 bitterest enemy of Christianity, denied the 
 Messianic mission and the divinity of 
 Christ, the resurrection of the body and 
 eternal punishment, which he declared to 
 be irreconcilable with Divine justice, and 
 maintained that the prophecies contained 
 in the Old Testament were written after 
 the events. The miracles of the Apostles 
 were attributed, by him, to arts of magic, 
 and those occurring at the tombs of the 
 martyrs, he declared to be the work of 
 demons. Furthermore, he defended 
 heathen mythology by endeavoring, 
 through allegorical and physical interpre- 
 tations, to reconcile its teachings with 
 
PORTIUNCULA 
 
 573 
 
 Possession 
 
 reason and to prove that the answers of 
 the oracles were in hartnony with sound 
 philosophy. Porphyrins died in 304. His 
 followers gave him the title of " Wonder- 
 ful" and "Divine," declaring him to be 
 equal to Plato. Miraculous acts, and a 
 knowledge of future things, and also the 
 inmost thoughts of men were ascribed to 
 him. 
 
 Portiuncula. — The Church of St. Mary's 
 of the Angels, or Portiuncula, at Assisi, 
 has always remained dear to the Order of 
 St. Francis. Our Saint shared the labor of 
 the workmen who repaired it when it was 
 going to ruin, and here he was accustomed 
 to retire and give himself up to prayer and 
 religious contemplation. To this Church, 
 the Holy See, in 1223, granted the indul- 
 gence known as the "Indulgence of the 
 Portiuncula," which, on being extended to 
 all the Churches of the Order, gave rise to 
 a special feast, celebrated on Aug. 2d. 
 It was further granted to the Faithful, for 
 all coming time, to gain these indulgences 
 whenever {toties quoties) prepared to carry 
 out the requisite conditions. 
 
 Port Royal {Monastery of ). — Cister- 
 cian Convent of nuns at Paris, the great 
 center of the Jansenist movement. Its 
 Abbess Angelique, the sister of Antoine 
 Arnauld, the recognized head of the Jan- 
 senist party in France, and the pupil of 
 Saint Cyran, dissuaded the nuns from fre- 
 quent communion, on the ground that a 
 less frequent reception would increase 
 their desire for the sacrament. The nuns 
 of Port Royal refusing to subscribe to the 
 Papal Formula, were interdicted and for- 
 bidden to receive novices. Remaining ob- 
 stinate, the deluded religious were all by 
 royal order expelled, and their convent 
 was utterly destroyed, in 1710. 
 
 Portugal ( Worship in).— The Catholic 
 religion is the religion of the State. Re- 
 ligious teaching is given in seminaries, 
 the expenses of which are covered by the 
 product of the gifts of the Faithful, regu- 
 lated by the " Bull of the Crusade," in 
 other words, by the money which formerly 
 had been devoted to the Crusade against 
 the infidels. The State pays a salary only 
 to the bishops of the continent and to the 
 clergy of the islands. As to the curates, 
 they are paid by special contributions of 
 the communities, the casual and rents of 
 the churches. The monastic orders were 
 
 abolished in 1834 and the landed property 
 of their churches sold by virtue of the 
 law of April 4th, 1862, under the direction 
 of the bishops. This was a return to the 
 odious persecution of Pombal. Other re- 
 ligions are tolerated. The Portuguese 
 Church comprises four provinces: Arch- 
 bishopric of Braga, with four suffragan 
 sees ; patriarchate of Lisbon, with five 
 suffragan sees ; archbishopric of Goa or 
 Primacy of the East, with seven suffragan 
 sees ; archbishopric of Evora, with two 
 suffragan sees. The bishops are named 
 by the king and instituted by the Pope. 
 
 Possession {Diabolical) (a state by which 
 an evil spirit, by God's permission, in- 
 habits the body of a rational being). — 
 Possession differs from obsession, in which 
 the devil, while agitating and tormenting 
 man, does not, however, enter his body as 
 in possession. That there are in the world 
 a certain number of malevolent spirits, 
 whom we call devils, is a fact which has 
 been acknowledged by all nations and peo- 
 ples. Just as the consent of all men, ad- 
 mitting miracles, proves, says Paschal, 
 that there are real miracles, so also the 
 consent of all mankind admitting posses- 
 sions proves that there have been some 
 real possessions. The reality of possession 
 clearly goes forth from the account of the 
 Evangelists. Holy Scripture admits the 
 reality of possession and the Gospel 
 teaches us that our divine Saviour cast out 
 the devil from persons in whom he dwelled 
 and tyrannized. The Church has always 
 taught that the exorcists receive, and that 
 she confers upon them, the power to cast 
 out demons. In connection with this mat- 
 ter, the Gospel tells us that devils were 
 permitted to enter into a herd of swine ; 
 this account is given by all the three Syn- 
 optics (Matt, viii., Mark v., Luke vii.), 
 and there seems to be no choice except to 
 admit that we have a story of diabolical 
 possession or an absolute fiction. The ac- 
 count defies any other explanation. The 
 recent studies undertaken on the fact 
 called "suggestion" are based on the ac- 
 count of the possibility to impose on some- 
 body, for determined acts, a foreign will 
 which permits the reapparition of the 
 proper will, after the duration of the sug- 
 gestion. Without confounding in the 
 least one subject with another, we may re- 
 mark that actual science thus admits the 
 possibility of imposing upon the subject 
 actions, jests, words, etc. (See Devil.) 
 
Post-Communion 
 
 574 
 
 Power 
 
 Post-Communion and Communion. — In 
 
 liturgy Communion is an antiphon said in 
 Mass. It varies with each Sunday and 
 festival, and is generally, though not 
 always, a versicle extracted from the 
 Psalms. It is thus denominated because 
 anciently it used to be chanted while the 
 people communicated. In the Apostolic 
 Constitutions it is prescribed that the 
 thirty-third Psalm shall be employed for 
 the purpose. In his exposition of the 
 liturgy used in his time in the ancient 
 Church of Jerusalem, St. Cyril thus notices 
 the chanting of the Communion: "After 
 this you hear a voice singing with a sacred 
 melody, inviting you to the communion of 
 the holy mysteries, and saying : ' O taste, 
 and see that the Lord is good '" (Catech. 
 Myst. v. 20). This prayer received its 
 name, " Post-Communion," from being 
 recited just after the communion; and 
 because it is an act of thanksgiving to 
 God for the ineffable favor of having par- 
 ticipated in the sacred mysteries. The 
 form used in the ancient Church may be 
 seen in the Apostolic Constitutions (Lib. 
 viii. c. 13, 14). 
 
 Postulant (Lat. /K/,sa/i.s, knocking). — A 
 candidate ; one who applies for admission 
 into a religious community, where he 
 passes through a period of probation, or 
 novitiate, during which the serious obli- 
 gation of the life upon which he is about 
 to enter is, as directed by the Rule, 
 brought before his mind. 
 
 Pothinus (St.). — First bishop of Lyons, 
 and martyr, born probably at Smyrna. 
 Disciple of St. Polycarp; sent by Pope 
 Anicetus into Gaul (158), was the founder 
 of the Church of Lyons, where he suffered 
 martyrdom in 177, under Marcus Aurelius 
 with St. Blandina and a great number of 
 other Christians. F. June 2d. 
 
 Power {Temporal and Spiritual). — 
 
 Man, being composed of body and soul, 
 the world is governed by two essentially 
 distinct powers : the temporal and spirit- 
 ual. The temporal power relates to our 
 material interests and to the civil order. 
 The spiritual power regulates what has 
 reference to our salvation and to religion. 
 The spiritual power belongs entirely to 
 the pastors of the Church, as the temporal 
 power belongs to the magistrates and rul- 
 ers of civil society. Jesus Christ insti- 
 tuted this distinction when he said : '* Give 
 
 to Caesar what belongs to Caesar, and to 
 God what belongs to God." 
 
 But it is not with the Church as with po- 
 litical society, where the temporal power 
 of government is determined by the peo- 
 ple, according to the times, places, and 
 customs of the country. The Church, the 
 dispenser of the divine word, of the mys- 
 teries and gifts of God, could not fulfill 
 her mission, if her organization and right 
 to govern were to depend upon the ca- 
 prices of men or the powers of the earth. 
 In contradistinction with earthly rulers, 
 whose power is regulated and limited by 
 the constitution of each nation, the 
 Church holds her authority and constitu- 
 tion immediately from Jesus Christ — 
 from God, and from Him derives her 
 supreme power to legislate upon every- 
 thing relating to religion and its proper 
 exercise, such as the instituting of bish- 
 ops, priests, and other ministers, adminis- 
 tration of the sacraments, regulations of 
 the divine worship, guarding of morals, 
 and defining of dogmas. It is because her 
 power comes immediately from God that 
 she is independent of the temporal in all 
 things appertaining to her domain of faith 
 and morals. Likewise is the temporal 
 power independent of the Church in mat- 
 ters purely social and civil. Yet those 
 who govern in the temporal order are just 
 as amenable to her tribunal in regard to thf 
 morality of their actions as the lowest ol 
 her subjects. Although the two powers 
 are essentially distinct, they should not be 
 antagonistic, but on the contrary, should 
 mutually assist each other and work to- 
 gether for the common good of all — ren- 
 dering to Caesar the things that are his, 
 and to God what belongs to Him. All the 
 Church requires is liberty of action, free- 
 dom from galling and unjust restrictions. 
 We know she comes from God; has His 
 glory and the welfare of men for her end 
 and aim, and hence can neither err in mat- 
 ters of faith and morals, nor approve of evil. 
 As a complete and perfect society, the 
 Church can enact laws in the spiritual 
 order which are obligatory on all her mem- 
 bers, whether bishop or priest, or the sim- 
 ple faithful, rulers, or their subjects. At 
 all times and under all circumstances, the 
 Church has exercised this legislative power. 
 This legislative power belongs to the Pope 
 primarily and in its fullness ; to the bishops, 
 also, throughout their dioceses, restricted 
 only by the general laws, decrees, and con- 
 stitutions of the Church. The Apostles 
 
Pragmatic Sanction 
 
 575 
 
 Prayer 
 
 were invested with this plenary power to 
 bind and to loose; to forgive or retain; to 
 punish or remit, and this power came 
 down to their lawful successors in the nat- 
 ural order of succession, just as did the 
 power of preaching morals, administer- 
 ing the sacraments, and of governing the 
 flock of Christ. The two propositions of 
 the Synod of Pistoja, in which it is affirmed 
 that the spiritual power was given by God 
 to the Church, or to the community of the 
 Faithful to be afterwards communicated 
 to the pastors, so that the Pope and the 
 bishops have only a ministerial authority 
 granted by the Christian people, have been 
 condemned as heretical by the Bull 'M«c- 
 torevt Fidei" in 1794. To the Church 
 alone it belongs to pronounce in matters 
 of doctrine and discipline. She extends 
 her authority over all that which in its na- 
 ture appertains to religion, divine worship, 
 and salvation of souls. See Pope ( Tem- 
 foral Potuer of the); Pope (^Prerogatives 
 of the) . 
 
 Pragmatic Sanction. — A term first ap- 
 plied to certain decrees of the Byzantine 
 emperors, regulating the interest of their 
 subject provinces and towns; then the sys- 
 tem of limitation set to the spiritual power 
 of the Pope in European countries: as, 
 for instance, the Pragmatic Sanction of 
 Bourges, in 1438, which admitted certain 
 decrees of the Council of Basle, others it 
 modified. It adopted the decrees declar- 
 ing a general council superior to the Pope, 
 abolishing papal reserves and restricting 
 appeals to Rome. Eugenius IV. and Pius 
 II., his successor, openly declared them- 
 selves against this pragmatic sanction, and 
 demanded its abrogation. The Lateran 
 Council (1512) formally condemned it, 
 with the defense, under pain of excom- 
 munication, to appeal to it and to make use 
 thereof, in any case whatever. Leo X. 
 finally abrogated it altogether. 
 
 Prayer ( an act of religion whereby we 
 address ourselves to God). — The first 
 prayers of man were, undoubtedly, like 
 his acts of thanksgiving, only a pouring 
 out of his heart, aspirations of his soul 
 toward God. These pious feelings and 
 desires were not long in showing them- 
 selves exteriorly; for in the first chapters 
 of Genesis ( xii. 8) we find that man made 
 his prayers and aspirations with a loud 
 voice. The Mosaic law did not prescribe 
 any particular prayers ; it regulated only 
 the formulary of blessing which the priest 
 
 should give to the people, and the actions 
 of thanksgiving he should render to God 
 when offering the first-fruits of the field. 
 Nevertheless, we find the people on solemn 
 and important occasions chanting canticles 
 with musical accompaniment. The He- 
 brews maintained an erect position while 
 praying, and this custom was, and is yet 
 observed in their synagogues ; it was also 
 observed in the primitive Church, and is 
 still observed by the Eastern Churches, 
 although kneeling and prostrating are also 
 observed. The ancient Hebrews, like the 
 modern Jews, turned toward Jerusalem 
 when praying. The custom of praying 
 three times daily, in the morning, at noon, 
 and again at night, seems to be of ancient 
 custom, as we find it observed by David 
 (Psalm 1. 18). It was customary even 
 during the time of Christ to say prayers 
 before and after meals. This pious act 
 was performed by the father of the family, 
 who blessed the food to be partaken of 
 and returned thanks before leaving the 
 table. We do not know precisely in what 
 terms these prayers were made, but the 
 formula given in the Talmuc^ is as follows : 
 "Blessed art Thou, O Lord, our God, King 
 of the world, who produceth the bread of 
 the earth. Blessed art Thou who hast 
 created the fruit of the wine." This same 
 custom has been observed not only by the 
 Jews, but even by the Turks and Arabs. 
 
 Every devout thought on God, every 
 good act of the will, is a prayer; acts of 
 adoration, praises, thanksgiving, offering 
 of ourself, holy thoughts, good resolu- 
 tions, all these may be called, in a general 
 sense, prayer. Holy Scripture furnishes 
 us with numerous examples of all these 
 kinds of prayer. But prayer strictly speak- 
 ing is a petition made to God for some 
 worthy object and which may serve to His 
 glory and our salvation. Such is the 
 definition given by St. John Damascene 
 and by St. Thomas. Jesus Christ tells us we 
 must always pray, and never become tired 
 of praying. The forty days which He 
 passed in the desert were spent in prayer 
 and fasting ; it was thus He prepared Him- 
 self to fulfill His divine mission. After 
 having devoted the days to instructing 
 and assisting the ignorant and afflicted, 
 laboring for His Father's glory, working 
 miracles to alleviate the sufferings of men. 
 He would spend the night in prayer and 
 contemplation. The Apostles followed 
 the example of their divine Master, pray- 
 ing and visiting the temple daily. Espe- 
 
Prayer 
 
 576 
 
 Prayer 
 
 cially did they prepare themselves by 
 fervent prayer for the coming of the Holy 
 Ghost. The great Apostle of the Gentiles 
 frequently enjoins this holy exercise on 
 the Faithful, and we know how well 
 they complied with his advice. The 
 Church likewise has ever continued this 
 pious action ; she instituted the canonical 
 hours, and has always approved those 
 religious orders whose members devote 
 the greater part of the day and even the 
 night to prayer. 
 
 Infidels and other non-Christians deem 
 prayer unnecessary, and even offensive to 
 God. They say that if there be a God, He 
 must know all our wants, and has no need 
 of our petitions ; that such requests do but 
 express doubts in His goodness and wis- 
 dom, etc. To this objection we reply : 
 God undoubtedly knows all things, is ac- 
 quainted with our needs and is our Father; 
 that when we pray directly to Him we do 
 not deny these attributes, but we acknowl- 
 edge His supreme dominion and our com- 
 plete subjection and entire dependence on 
 Him; that owing to our weakness and the 
 force of temptations, we call on Him for 
 that aid which He has promised to give to 
 all who ask for it. A dutiful child does 
 nothing foolish or contrary to right reason, 
 nor does he demean his father when he 
 asks that father for favors. The favors we 
 ask from God are undoubtedly precious 
 enough to us to deserve the asking. Nor 
 is God required to work a miracle in order 
 to preserve us from evil, or from evil ef- 
 fects of nature. The universe, with its ac- 
 tions, laws, and surroundings, is not a 
 blind factor, following mere mechanical or 
 physical rules, but is preserved and di- 
 rected by the will and wisdom of the Al- 
 mighty, the first great Cause upon whom 
 all other causes depend. When God in 
 His goodness suggests to us thoughts for 
 our spiritual or temporal welfare, it is not 
 that He wishes us to expect a miracle or 
 some change of nature, though there are 
 instances when even such may be asked 
 for, but He desires to rule and govern us 
 according to the ordinary laws which He 
 observes in governing and directing all 
 things, teaching us to avoid dangers, use 
 remedies, and all proper precautions. 
 These, with His blessing, which we seek 
 in prayer, obtain all the ends of our desires 
 and petitions. To acquire virtue and cor- 
 rect our vices is undoubtedly our own work, 
 the work of our will, but not of our will 
 alone, because we are in need of a super- 
 
 natural help, and because from the weak- 
 ness of our will, we form habits of evil. 
 Now, grace is the free gift of God, and it 
 depends on Him to give us the more or 
 less abundant help of His divine grace. He 
 has promised such help and grace to prayer, 
 and it depends on us to perform such 
 prayer with alacrity and gratitude. For a 
 heart which loves God, prayer is a sweet 
 and consoling exercise ; it diverts us from 
 the oppressive feeling of misfortune, re- 
 animates us with hope and courage; it 
 tranquilizes the spirit and calms the pas- 
 sions ; it touches the sinner and sustains 
 the just. 
 
 Every prayer should be made in the 
 name of the Lord Jesus. We read in Holy 
 Scripture, that there is no salvation except 
 in Jesus. That no other name has been 
 given under heaven to man, by which he 
 can be saved. We read also that there is 
 only one God and only one mediator be- 
 tween God and man, — namely, the Man 
 Christ Jesus, and that, moreover, ifc is 
 through Him that we have access to the 
 Father. It is, therefore, not without rea- 
 son that we offer all our prayers to God 
 the Father through Jesus Christ. Besides, 
 it is following the recommendation of the 
 Saviour Himself that we pray in the name 
 of Jesus Christ. He tells us distinctly that 
 " Whatsoever you shall ask the Father in 
 My name, that will I do" (John xiv. 13). 
 And not only our petitions, but also our 
 various acts of praise and of thanksgiving 
 should be made in the name of our Saviour 
 Jesus Christ, to God His Father. It is the 
 same with regard to the prayers which we 
 address to the saints ; for the Church 
 teaches us through the Council of Trent, 
 that the saints reigning with Christ have 
 access to God and pray to Him only 
 through Jesus Christ, His Son. Hence 
 the reason why all the prayers of the Lit- 
 urgy end with the words, " Through our 
 Lord Jesus, Thy Son." 
 
 Individual or private prayer is good, and 
 agreeable to God, but public prayers are 
 more efficacious, because as it is the whole 
 Church that prays, they are more powerful 
 and efficacious than the prayers of one, 
 and even those w^ho pray with a certain 
 lukewarmness partake of the prayers of 
 the more ardent. Jesus Christ Himself 
 has said : " Where there are two or three 
 gathered in my name, I am in the midst of 
 them " (Matt, xviii. 20). Hence with much 
 more reason is He in the midst of the Church 
 when she and her children are united. 
 
Prayer 
 
 577 
 
 Praxeans 
 
 Prayer {The Lord's) (the prayer which 
 our Lord Jesus Christ Himself has taught 
 us). — Since the beginning of Chris- 
 tianity, this prayer always formed an essen- 
 tial part of the public worship. It is found 
 in all the liturgies. It was recited as it is 
 to-day, not only after the consecration of 
 the Eucharist, but also in the administra- 
 tion of baptism. It was for the newly 
 baptized a privilege to be permitted to re- 
 cite it in the assembly of the Faithful, and 
 to call God "Our Father." The Cate- 
 chumens were not taught it before 
 they had received baptism. The Apos- 
 tolic Constitutions, the Councils of Gi- 
 rone, and the Fourth of Toledo, ordained 
 that the " Our Father " should be recited 
 three times daily in the divine office. 
 Origen, Tertullian, and St. Cyprian have 
 left us sublime eulogies on the Lord's 
 Prayer, regarding it as the foundation and 
 model of all prayers. Nonbelievers and 
 other infidels have found fault with 
 and criticized this beautiful prayer. They 
 assert, without a shadow of proof or au- 
 thority, that Christ is not its author; that 
 it was in use before the coming of our 
 Lord. Others have maintained that when 
 we say, " Lead us not into temptation," 
 we belittle God's sovereign goodness, be- 
 cause we suppose Him to be capable of 
 leading us into temptation, thus making 
 Him the cause of evil. But in Scripture 
 the word "tempt" often means to try, as 
 if we were to say: "Do not place us on 
 trial, nor the faithfulness, nor the virtue 
 of the petitioner." Now, a person may 
 be tried without his being necessarily lead 
 into evil ; it means, then, that we ask God 
 to help us in order that we may not fall or 
 commit sin on account of the trials and 
 dangers of this life. 
 
 Prayer {Mental). — Mental prayer oV 
 meditation is an elevation of our minds 
 and souls to God, to render to Him our 
 duties, to ask from Him the graces we 
 stand in need of, and to increase our knowl- 
 edge of His majesty and glory. Mental 
 prayer is composed of three parts : the 
 preparation, body of the subject or prayer, 
 and the conclusion. There are two kinds 
 of preparation : the remote and the proxi- 
 mate. The remote preparation consists 
 in the purity of heart, of mind and of in- 
 tention. The proximate preparation con- 
 sists of three things : the one who meditates 
 should be more recollected than usual, 
 should invoke the spiritual help of God, 
 37 
 
 and present to himself well the subject of 
 his meditation. The body of mental 
 prayer consists of three things : the con- 
 siderations, the affections, and the resolu- 
 tions. The considerations are reasonings 
 and reflections by which our mind is en- 
 abled to take hold of the subject in order 
 to elevate our soul to God, or to thoroughly 
 convince ourselves of some truth of salva- 
 tion, and to excite the will to embrace it. 
 The affections are movements of the heart 
 which carry us to God, inciting us to em- 
 brace all that is pleasing to Him. The res- 
 olutions are firm purposes to perform 
 some action which we know God demands 
 from us, or to avoid something which is 
 contrary to God's glory and our salvation. 
 The conclusion includes two things : To 
 thank God for the graces which He has 
 granted us in the meditation, and to ask 
 pardon for the faults we have committed 
 therein. Then a kind of spiritual bouquet is 
 formed, which is composed of some partic- 
 ularly good thought or some worthy affec- 
 tions which have most potently touched 
 us in our meditation, and in trying during 
 the day to keep these good affections be- 
 fore us. The meditation is terminated by 
 placing its fruits under the protection of 
 the Blessed Virgin. 
 
 The saints and holy Doctors of the 
 Church have ever spoken and written in 
 the highest terms of mental prayer. They 
 have insisted on its practice by all those 
 who wish to attain perfection in the 
 spiritual life. Knowing its great force 
 and efficaciousness, they made use of it as 
 frequently as their various avocations and 
 daily duties permitted. Meditation was 
 for them a school in which the Holy 
 Ghost instructed them. The sovereign 
 Pontiffs, especially Pope Benedict XIV., 
 by his Bull: ^^ ^uemadmodum,'' of Dec. 
 i6th, 1746, endeavored to incite among the 
 Faithful a taste for the practice of this 
 holy exercise, by granting many indul- 
 gences to those who teach or learn the 
 method of mental prayer, as well as to 
 those who make use of it. 
 
 Praxeans (from Praxeas, heretic of the 
 second century, disciple of Montanus). — 
 A native of Asia Minor, he was a distin- 
 guished confessor in the persecution of 
 Marcus Aurelius. About the year 192 he 
 went to Rome to oppose the errors of 
 Montanus, but at the same time dissem- 
 inated his own heretical views regarding 
 the Trinity. Having been compelled to 
 
Preacher 
 
 578 
 
 Predestination 
 
 recant, Praxeas went to Africa, where he 
 continued to preach his heresy. He is 
 said to have afterwards retracted. The 
 Praxeans believed that there was only one 
 divine Person, the Father, and that this 
 Father suffered on the cross. 
 
 Preacher (the one who preaches, who 
 announces in the pulpit the word of God, 
 the truths of the Gospel). — The right to 
 approve the preachers belongs to the 
 bishop alone. The preachers, being by 
 their ministry, the light of the world, the 
 salt of the earth, the doctors of the people, 
 the dispensers of the divine truths, the 
 heralds and ambassadors of God Himself, 
 they should partake in the qualities of the 
 One whose functions they exercise, in His 
 science, in His purity, in His holiness; 
 they must have in view only His glory and 
 the salvation of souls, uphold their preach- 
 ing by an exemplary life and by the prac- 
 tice of all virtues. Preaching is one of the 
 necessary means of preserving the word of 
 God in its purity. It is by preaching that 
 the faith was established, that it has been 
 preserved from generation to generation, 
 that it will exist until the end of time, and 
 hence comes that continual succession of 
 preaching, the ministry of which Jesus 
 Christ has intrusted to the bishops in the 
 person of the Apostles. Preaching, there- 
 fore, is the proper function of the bishops, 
 and is so particularly attached to the epis- 
 copate, that formerly, in several places, it 
 was only the bishop who preached ; and 
 in other localities, the priests preached 
 only in the presence of the bishop, hence 
 the custom of asking for the blessing of 
 the bishop when present. The bishops, 
 therefore, should fulfill this duty them- 
 selves, and, when they cannot do so, they 
 should see that it is fulfilled by capable 
 persons. See ELoquENCK. 
 
 Preaching Friars. See Dominicans. 
 
 Preadamites (heretics according to whom 
 Adam was not the first created man). — 
 That Adam has been the first man and the 
 father of the human race, is what Scripture 
 teaches us in the most formal and positive 
 manner. All the historians and all the 
 Fathers of the Church unanimously agree 
 to this ; the Church also condemned the 
 Preadamites. It was in 1655 that Isaac La 
 Peyrere published a work entitled The 
 Preadamites, in which he maintained that 
 the Jews (Adamites) really descended from 
 Adam, but that the Gentiles existed long 
 
 before him. At first, he found some fol- 
 lowers in Holland, but this sect soon be- 
 came extinct. Des Marets, professor of 
 theology at Groeningen, published against 
 him a work entitled, Refutatio Fabulce 
 Prceadamiticce . The book of La Peyrere 
 was burned at Paris, by the hangman, and, 
 in 1656, the author abjured Calvinism, in 
 which he had been born, retracted his er- 
 rors in the presence of Pope Alexander VII. 
 and wrote a book on this subject. He ac- 
 knowledged that his system of Preadamites 
 could not be defended because it was op- 
 posed to all tradition. 
 
 Precious Blood {Congregation of the 
 Most). — Religious congregation founded 
 by the Venerable Caspar Bufalo at Rome 
 in 1814. Was introduced into the United 
 States by Father Salesius Bruner, in 1844, 
 and now possesses several houses in this 
 country and two seminaries, one at Carth- 
 agena, Ohio, and the other at Rohnerville, 
 California. 
 
 Preconization. — Action by which a 
 cardinal, and sometimes the Pope, declares 
 in full Consistory that such or such a per- 
 son named to a bishopric by his sovereign 
 has all the qualities required. The pre- 
 conization of this bishop was made on 
 such or such a day. — The nomination 
 to archbishoprics and bishoprics, either 
 proceeding from the sovereign or resulting 
 from the canonical election, must be sub- 
 mitted to the approbation of the sovereign 
 Pontiff, to whom the canonical institution 
 is reserved. Two inquiries ought to take 
 place : the one in the territory of the 
 State to which the elected belongs, called 
 information ; the other at Rome, called 
 *' definitive process." The report is made 
 in the Consistory by a cardinal, and the 
 Pope pronounces the preconization, ac- 
 cording to the customary formula. Then 
 a Bull is sent to the archbishop or bishop. 
 
 Predestination (decree of God by which 
 He has predetermined that certain persons 
 will be saved). — According to St. Augus- 
 tine, predestination is the preparation of 
 grace; it is nothing more than God's 
 prescience and the preparation of God's 
 benefits, by which are certainl}- saved all 
 those whom He saves. St. Thomas says 
 that predestination is the manner by which 
 God guides reasonable creatures to eternal 
 life, the preparation of grace for the pres- 
 ent life. According to this, we can con- 
 sider predestination under a twofold 
 
Predestined 
 
 579 
 
 Pre-existence of Souls 
 
 aspect : as grace without which we can do 
 nothing as regards eternal life, and under 
 the aspect of glory which is granted to 
 those that have been faithful to grace. 
 
 Although God gives to all men the 
 graces necessary for salvation, it is like- 
 wise a Catholic dogma that He does not 
 give to all the same measure of grace ; 
 that there are particular graces, graces of 
 choice, which He grants rather to one 
 than to another, and that He reserves, 
 from all eternity, eternal life to those who 
 shall have persevered until the end. In 
 other words, we must admit on the part of 
 God, the predestination of a certain num- 
 ber of men to eternal life. " This belief," 
 says St. Augustine, " has always been that 
 of the Church of Jesus Christ." Such is, 
 besides, the teaching of Holy Scripture. 
 At the last Judgment our Lord will say, 
 addressing the elect: "Come ye Blessed 
 of my Father, possess the kingdom pre- 
 pared for you from the foundation of the 
 world" (Matt. xxv. 34). Those who are 
 predestined to glory will infallibly be 
 saved : the decree of predestination is as in- 
 fallible as divine prescience. Thus the 
 number of the predestined is fixed and un- 
 changeable ; it will be neither increased 
 nor diminished, because God's prescience 
 cannot be deceived. Nevertheless those 
 who work out their salvation do so freely; 
 they always preserve their free will, and 
 can resist grace if they so wish. 
 
 It is of faith that predestination is gra- 
 tuitous. Eternal life is a grace of God, 
 the grace of graces, which supposes all 
 other graces. Nevertheless, predestina- 
 tion considered under the aspect of glory, 
 also supposes the merits of the just. Eter- 
 nal life is at once a grace of God, and the 
 reward for good works done in the state of 
 grace. It is a Catholic dogma that by the 
 works of the justified man, or by the good 
 works which he performs with God's grace 
 and the merits of Jesus Christ, he himself 
 really merits eternal life. 
 
 Predestined (^Number of the). — God 
 alone knows the number of the predes- 
 tined. All conjectures on this point are 
 void of foundation. But sometimes the 
 question as to the relative number of the 
 saved, as regards the number of the damned, 
 presents itself. Will there be more saved 
 than lost, or more lost than saved } In re- 
 gard to this question which has been raised, 
 says Benedict XIV., with more curiosity 
 than utility, we can content ourselves in 
 
 saying, first : That it is certain that all men 
 will not be saved ; that, unfortunately, there 
 is a very great number who willfully trans- 
 gress the laws of God, who remain impen- 
 itent, and who, consequently, incur eternal 
 damnation. Second, that if only half of 
 mankind be saved, and though among 
 Catholics there should be but a few lost, 
 yet we should work out our salvation with 
 fear and trembling, lest we may be one of 
 those lost ones. Even if we admit that the 
 greater number of mankind will be lost, 
 yet it does not follow that the greater num- 
 ber of Catholics will perish ; especially is 
 this true when we consider that more than 
 half of the baptized children die before 
 they lose their innocence. 
 
 Predetermination. — Operation of God 
 which causes men to act; which deter- 
 mines them, or makes them to determine 
 themselves in all good or evil actions. We 
 also call this operation of God physical 
 premotion or predeterminating decree of 
 God. All Catholics are agreed that in 
 order to do a good work, a meritorious 
 and useful action for salvation, man needs 
 the help of grace. Now grace is a super- 
 natural light given to the understanding, 
 and a motion which God imprints upon 
 the will to render it capable of acting; 
 nothing, therefore, hinders the defining of 
 grace as a premotion or a predetermination, 
 because it precedes and influences our ac- 
 tions. But must this premotion or pre- 
 determination be considered as really 
 ph)-sical, and consequently, carry this 
 name? The Thomists maintain this ; but 
 other theologians are of a contrary opinion. 
 
 Pre-existence of Souls. — This question 
 of pre-existence has reference to the origin 
 of the human soul, namely: whether the 
 soul has existed anteriorly to the body. 
 Relating to this question divided opinions 
 have prevailed among the ancient philoso- 
 phers. The doctrine of the pre-existence 
 of the soul took its rise in the Platonic 
 philosophy. Plato had posed the question : 
 How does the science of ideas arise in us? 
 And he answers: It can be derived neither 
 from experience nor from the observation of 
 the senses, for the world of the senses has 
 nothing that corresponds, in an adequate 
 manner, to the conception of the idea. 
 The idea is something equal to itself, and 
 the world of the senses offers, in general, 
 something dissimilar ; it offers nothing that 
 is in accord with itself; and nevertheless 
 man is conscious of the idea in him- 
 
Preface 
 
 580 
 
 Premonstratensians 
 
 self; therefore, he must have had it be- 
 fore all experience, he must have had it 
 before all time ; that is, his knowledge 
 of the idea is only a reminiscence. But 
 this hypothesis supposes that we did al- 
 ready exist (pre-exist) ; without this there 
 would be no principles of the knowledge 
 of ideas. Plato finds the cause of the 
 introduction of souls in the sensible life, 
 in the fall of the soul. This doctrine 
 was propagated in the school of Alexan- 
 dria; we find it in Philo, Plotinus, at the 
 Essenians, the Marcionites, and the Basili- 
 dians. The Gnostics made it one of their 
 dogmas ; the beings, which they called 
 *♦ eons " or emanations of the great Being, 
 were nothing else than pre-existing souls, 
 to whom earthly life was reserved only 
 after a series of succeeding degenerations. 
 Among the ecclesiastical authors, Origen 
 has been accused of having favored this 
 doctrine ; but the celebrated Huet has 
 proved that this Father never did express 
 himself about the origin of the soul, and 
 that this doctrine may have been inserted, 
 later on, in his writings. Even modern 
 philosophy could not disembarrass itself 
 from this old Platonic opinion, and we can 
 discover it piercing through the theories 
 of transformism and evolutionism. This 
 doctrine was rejected by all the Fathers of 
 the Church, and condemned in the Fifth 
 General Council (2d of Constantinople). 
 This opinion, indeed, is in contradiction 
 with the dogma of creation, as well as 
 with the dogma of the unity of mankind 
 and that of the resurrection of the body; 
 it is opposed to conscience or inner sense ; 
 it is in contradiction with the Christian 
 idea of man, who is the synthesis of 
 nature and whose body is the legitimate 
 and necessary organ of the soul. See 
 Creationism. 
 
 Preface, in liturgy, is the introductory 
 part of the antiphon; the solemn Eucha- 
 ristic thanksgiving and adscription of glory, 
 introducing the canon of the Mass. It is 
 an invitation to elevate our hearts to God 
 and offer Him our thanksgiving for the 
 stupendous work which He is about to ac- 
 complish, through the ministry of His 
 priest, by the words of consecration. That 
 the Preface is very ancient is certain ; that 
 it owes its introduction into liturgy to the 
 Apostles is more than probable. The 
 Greek Church has but one Preface in its 
 liturgy. In the Gallican, Mozarabic, and 
 older Roman liturgies there are proper 
 
 prefaces for nearly every festival. In the 
 Roman Church the number of prefaces 
 was, about the end of the eleventh century, 
 reduced to ten, namely : The Common 
 Preface, probably the most ancient one we 
 have, since it may be found in the Sacra- 
 mentary of Pope St. Gelasius; and those 
 of Easter, Ascension, Pentecost, Christmas, 
 the Epiphany, the Apostles, the Holy 
 Trinity, the Cross, and Lent. The Preface, 
 recited on feasts of the Blessed Virgin, is 
 attributed to Pope Urban II. ; if it be not 
 the composition of that Pontiff, it at least 
 received his approbation. 
 
 Prefect Apostolic. See Vicars Apos- 
 tolic. 
 
 Prelates. — Here is mention of prelates 
 inferior to bishops, that is, those who, 
 though not clothed with the episcopal 
 character or ordo, are, nevertheless, vested 
 by the Holy See with greater or less epis- 
 copal rights. There are three classes of 
 these prelates : The lowest, the middle, and 
 the highest, i. The lowest class consists 
 of those who preside only over such per- 
 sons, both lay and ecclesiastical, as are 
 attached or belong to a certain church or 
 monastery. General superiors of religious 
 orders, provincials, and abbots immedi- 
 ately subject to the Holy See, are prelates 
 of this kind. Regular prelates of this class 
 cannot hear or confer upon others, facul- 
 ties to hear the confessions of seculars. 
 
 2. The middle or second class is made up 
 of those who exercise jurisdiction over the 
 inhabitants, that is, over the clergy as well 
 as laity, of a certain district or territory 
 which is situated in and entirely sur- 
 rounded by the diocese of another bishop. 
 Hence they are named prcelati in diocesi. 
 
 3. The highest or third class is composed 
 of those who exercise jurisdiction in a dis- 
 trict, that is, in one or several cities or 
 places, which is altogether separate from 
 and outside of any diocese whatever. They 
 are consequently termed prcelati nullius, 
 i. e., dioceseos. They have all the rights 
 of ordinary bishops, save those which re- 
 quire the exercise of the episcopal order. 
 
 Premonstratensians. — Religious order 
 of canons-regular founded in 11 19, by 
 St. Norbert in the valley of Pr^montr^, 
 near Laon, France. Norbert gave to his 
 followers the white habit and the Rule of 
 St. Benedict, with certain constitutions 
 framed by himself, and enjoined on them 
 study, the office of preaching, and the 
 
Presanctification 
 
 581 
 
 Prescience 
 
 care of souls. The order which was ap- 
 proved by Pope Honorius II., in 1126, ex- 
 tended itself throughout Europe, and its 
 labors were especially blessed in Germany 
 and the northern kingdoms. There were 
 at one time a thousand Premonstratensian 
 abbeys. St. Norbert died archbishop of 
 Magdeburg, in 1134. 
 
 Presanctification (Mass of). — A Mass 
 of presanctification is a Mass without con- 
 secration, in which holy communion is re- 
 ceived from the host that was consecrated 
 on the preceding day or some days before. 
 In the West, the Mass of presanctification 
 takes place only on Good Friday ; 
 but, among the Greeks, it is also said dur- 
 ing Lent, except Saturday, Sunday, and 
 on the day of Annunciation. The pure 
 Roman rubrics do not permit the priest to 
 consecrate for the communion of the 
 Faithful, at a Mass for the dead ; but the 
 Faithful presenting themselves for com- 
 munion should receive the presanctified 
 hosts, that is, the species in the tabernacle. 
 Properly speaking, communion thus given 
 should even precede or follow the Mass of 
 the dead. But, in practice, Rome has 
 granted the permission to distribute holy 
 communion during the Mass of the dead. 
 
 Presbyterians (followers of the errors 
 and maxims of Calvin) . — It was under the 
 reign of Queen Elizabeth that the Prot- 
 estant heresy took a defective and peculiar 
 form in England, whence it was called 
 Anglicanism. But in Scotland, in the 
 eyes of a certain number of zealots im- 
 bued with the Calvinistic doctrines, An- 
 glicanism and the Established Church 
 appeared an imperfect form and, espe- 
 cially, the retaining of the episcopate, was 
 looked upon as an evident remnant of 
 papacy which must be rooted out. The 
 Presbyterians were repeatedly persecuted 
 by the Established Church ; but more than 
 once, they became persecutors in their 
 turn. Having become a dominant political 
 party, they glorified the principle of popu- 
 lar sovereignty and hated the kings. They 
 led Charles I. to the scaffold. The Pres- 
 byterians pretend that the Church must be 
 governed only by priests; that Scripture 
 makes no difference between priests and 
 bishops, and that the episcopate is not of 
 divine institution. 
 
 The Presbyterian Church is a most 
 powerful body. It is pre-eminently strong 
 in the United States and Canada. Alto- 
 gether there are 89 sects, which hold more 
 
 or less the Presbyterian system of doctrine 
 and mode of government. Of these, 18 
 are found in North America. According 
 to the reports made to the Alliance of Re- 
 formed Churches holding the Presbyterian 
 System, at its meeting in Glasgow in 1896, 
 there are in the 89 branches of Presby- 
 terianism 1,426 presbyteries, 31,925 con- 
 gregations, 27,043 minivers, 130,083 ruling 
 elders, 2,666 licentiates, 5,019 students 
 preparing for the ministry, 4,795,216 com- 
 municant members, 32,271 Sabbath schools, 
 and 3,653,925 Sunday school officers, teach- 
 ers and pupils. For the support of work 
 at home, the contributions for 1895 were 
 $31,521,150, and for foreign missions, 
 $2,375,310. There are reported altogether 
 in the United States and Canada 20,398 
 congregations, 15,535 ministers, 68,729 
 ruling elders, 1,259 licentiates, 3,296 stu- 
 dents for preparation for the ministry, 
 2,170,517 communicant members, 18,480 
 Sunday schools, and 2,067,097 Sunday- 
 school officers, teachers and pupils ; and 
 for Church support $19,625,315 was con- 
 tributed by the people. 
 
 Presbytery. — This name formerly served 
 to designate the college of priests and 
 deacons living around the bishop for the 
 purpose of assisting him in the govern- 
 ment of the Church. St. Ignatius insists 
 on the intimate bond that should exist 
 between the presbytery and the bishop. 
 The college remains a picture of the prim- 
 itive presbyteries ; but the diocesan chap- 
 ters gradually ceased to have such a great 
 importance, when the vicar-generals ob- 
 tained greater authority, by assuming, 
 under the orders of the bishop, a notable 
 part of the burden of the administration. 
 
 Prescience (knowledge of what is going 
 to happen ; certain and infallible knowl- 
 edge which God has of the future). — One 
 of the truths taught by revelation, is that 
 God, from all eternity, has certainly known 
 all that will take place within the duration 
 of time. Although that which He foresees 
 will infallibly take place. His prescience 
 does not necessitate the events : i. Because 
 His prescience is not the cause of the 
 events. 2. Because God not only foresees 
 all things, but also the manner in which 
 they take place. God knows the order of 
 the causes ; now, our will holds a rank in 
 this order and is the cause of our actions ; 
 thus, our will being free, God foresees 
 that it will act freely. 
 
Presence 
 
 582 
 
 Primate 
 
 Presence {Real). See Eucharist. 
 
 Presentation. See Patronage. 
 
 Presentation {Feast of the). — It was a 
 religious custom among the Jews to make 
 a vow pledging their children to God, 
 even before their birth. The parents who 
 had made such a vow, led the pledged 
 child into the Temple, before it had at- 
 tained the age of five years. They com- 
 mitted the same into the hands of the 
 priest who offered it to the Lord; then, 
 if parents desired to redeem the child, they 
 gave a certain sum of money, or some other 
 alms; if they did not do this, the child re- 
 mained in the Temple, and was occupied 
 in serving the sacred ministers, making 
 sacred ornaments, in a word, contributing 
 toward all things concerning God's wor- 
 ship. Now, tradition tells us that the 
 Blessed Virgin Mary was vowed to God 
 by her parents, St. Joachim and St. Anna, 
 and led by them into the Temple of Jeru- 
 salem, when she was only three years old. 
 We do not know the name of the priest 
 that received her, but some believe that it 
 was Zacharias. This offering of the Blessed 
 Virgin to the Lord, the Church commem- 
 orates by the Feast of the Presentation. 
 The Greeks have celebrated this feast 
 since the twelfth century ; the Latins be- 
 gan the practice somewhat later. It is 
 celebrated on November 25th. See Puri- 
 fication. 
 
 Preston (Thomas Scott). — An Amer- 
 ican Catholic clergyman; born in Hart- 
 ford, Connecticut, July 23d, 1824. He was 
 educated for the Protestant Episcopal min- 
 istry; graduated at Trinity College, Hart- 
 ford, in 1843; ordained minister in 1846, 
 and engaged in pastoral service in various 
 cities in New York, and was assistant rec- 
 tor of St. Luke's Church, New York city. 
 He was converted to the Catholic Church 
 and ordained priest in 1850. He was ap- 
 pointed chancellor of the diocese of New 
 York in 1853, ^"'^ afterwards made rector 
 of St. Anne's Church, New York. He 
 published several works, including : Chris- 
 tian Unity (1866); Reason and Revelation 
 (1868); and Christ and the Church. He 
 died in New York city, Nov. 4th, 1891. 
 
 Priest (the one who exercises a min- 
 istry and presides at the ceremonies of a 
 religious worship). — We find the priest, 
 as we find religious worship and sacred 
 ceremonies, in all nations. Those of the 
 Egyptians received from the State all that 
 
 was necessary for their support and for the 
 fulfillment of the sacrifices ; they enjoyed 
 political power and considerable authority. 
 In Ethiopia, priests appear to have been 
 still more revered and more powerful; 
 they elected the king, who was drawn from 
 their ranks, and maintained over him the 
 right of life and death. In Persia, the 
 priests consecrated the king and formed a 
 part of his counsel. In India, the Brah- 
 mans were rather philosophers than priests, 
 but, nevertheless, they represented a priest- 
 hood independent of all command, of all 
 authority, even of that of the king. The 
 Greeks, from their heroic epoch, knew the 
 priest ; but the chiefs of the people exer- 
 cised, however, in this quality, a certain 
 sacerdotal function. The union of public 
 functions and of certain sacerdotal func- 
 tions, also, prevailed with the Romans, 
 although they had pontiffs and many 
 strongly organized sacerdotal colleges. 
 Moses did not permit any interference 
 on the part of the depositaries of the 
 civil power in the exercise of the sacred 
 functions ; a special tribe was consecrated 
 for the service of the altar. In our days, 
 the priest not only has charge of the reli- 
 gious worship and the fulfillment of its 
 ceremonies, but also teaches religion and 
 directs the conscience of the people. His 
 role is, consequently, essentially distinct 
 from that of the ancient priesthood. In 
 the eyes of Catholics, the priest, ordained 
 by the bishop, receives an indelible char- 
 acter. It is the same with the priests 
 of the Greek Church or of the Russian 
 Church; in the Anglican Church, the dea- 
 con, but not the priest, may renounce the 
 order received. The office of the priest, 
 says St. Thomas, consists in being the me- 
 diator between God and the people; the 
 mediator par excellence being Jesus Christ; 
 the priest is His representative among men 
 in the functions of mediator. See Bishop ; 
 Order {Holy). 
 
 Primate (prelate whose jurisdiction is 
 above that of archbishops). — The name 
 primate and that of the first see of Mother 
 Church, which are given in the most an- 
 cient documents, either to bishops, or to 
 certain Churches of Gaul, did not formerly 
 signify what we to-day understand by these 
 names, and designated only theancientness 
 of the ordination of the bishops and the 
 antiquity of the Churches. Thus, accord- 
 ing to the custom in Africa, we sometimes 
 see the name of primate given to the bishop 
 
Prior 
 
 583 
 
 Probabilism 
 
 of a small town. It is claimed that before 
 Gregory VII., who was elected Pope in 
 1073, the Church in Gaul was entirely un- 
 acquainted with the authority of any pri- 
 mate, and that it was this Pope who granted 
 the right of primacy to the archbishop of 
 Lyons over the four provinces of Lyons. 
 
 By primates now are meant those who 
 are placed over several metropolitan sees. 
 Primates formerly had the right to convene 
 national councils and receive appeals from 
 the sentence of metropolitans. These privi- 
 leges have lapsed, and, where primates still 
 exist, they merely retain the name or title, 
 not the jurisdiction formerly attached to 
 the primateship. Salanzo, however, ob- 
 serves that even at the present day pri- 
 matial jurisdiction is vested in the Primate 
 of Hungary and in the archbishops of To- 
 ledo and of Armagh. In the United States, 
 the Archbishop of Baltimore, by virtue of 
 the prerogatives of the place {prcerogativa 
 loci), affixed to his see, occupies the first 
 seat in all councils, meetings, and the like. 
 This privilege, as is evident, is simply 
 honorary, and not of jurisdiction, includ- 
 ing no primatial rights whatever. 
 
 Prior. — The ecclesiastic who governs a 
 monastery as chief and first superior, with 
 the same authority as an abbot. The head 
 of a monastery of Dominicans is called a 
 prior; that of a monastery of Benedictines 
 is called an abbot. 
 
 Priscillianists (sectarians of the fourth 
 century). — The real founder of this sect 
 was one Marc, an Egyptian Manichee, 
 who came to Spain in 330. His first dis- 
 ciples were Agape, a lady of distinction, 
 and Elpidius, a rhetorician. The wealthy 
 and learned Priscillian, another disciple of 
 Marc, became the real leader of the sect 
 to which he also gave his name. By his 
 ascetic life and plausible eloquence, as 
 well as by his great wealth and refined 
 manners, Priscillian won many followers 
 among the clergy; even two bishops, In- 
 stantius and Salvianus, joined his party 
 and also ordained him bishop of Avila. 
 The first to resist this pernicious sect was 
 Hyginus, Bishop of Cordova; but its 
 principal opponents were the Bishops 
 Idacius of Merida, and Ithacius of Os- 
 sanoba. The Council of Saragossa, in 
 380, condemned the heresy and excom- 
 municated Priscillian, while Ithacius 
 caused the Emperor Gratian to publish an 
 edict exiling Priscillian and his friends. 
 But the exiles, who had vainly applied to 
 
 Pope Damasus and St. Ambrose for help, 
 succeeded in obtaining a revocation of the 
 edict by bribery. Priscillian and Instan- 
 tius were restored to their sees, and Itha- 
 cius was compelled to flee from Spain. 
 Another synod held at Bordeaux, in 384, 
 renewed the condemnation of the heresy ; 
 but Priscillian appealed to the Emperor 
 Maximus, who had usurped the throne. 
 The heresiarch and six of his companions 
 were accordingly tried at Treves, before a 
 secular court, and, notwithstanding his 
 promise made to St. Martin, bishop of 
 Tours, that the life of the heretics should 
 be spared, Maximus sentenced them to be 
 beheaded, in 385. This was the first in- 
 stance of Christians being condemned to 
 death for heresy. The doctrines held 
 by the Priscillianists were a mixture of 
 Manicheism and Gnosticism. They de- 
 nied the Trinity of Persons and advocated 
 Dualism and Docetism. They held the use 
 of flesh-meat and marriage to be unlawful, 
 but permitted sexual intercourse, on con- 
 dition that generation should be pre- 
 vented. They celebrated their orgies with 
 great debauchery, and principally at night. 
 This sect disappeared only about the end 
 of the sixth century. 
 
 Probabilism (doctrine of probability). — 
 Probabilism teaches that it is permissible 
 to follow a less probable opinion which 
 favors liberty, without the concurrence of 
 another opposed and more probable opin- 
 ion which favors the law. We define as 
 probable an opinion that agrees to a senti- 
 ment which appears true, after having 
 maturely and without prejudice considered 
 it. If this consent is founded upon 
 reasons drawn from the very nature of the 
 thing, the opinion is intrinsically proba- 
 ble. If it is founded upon motives, such 
 as the testimony and authority of others, 
 the opinion is extrinsically probable. The 
 probable opinion is speculative or prac- 
 tical ; the first limits itself to the simple 
 theory; the second regards the morals 
 and passes to the action. Concerning 
 probabilism there are different systems 
 which divide theologians into rigorists, 
 mitigated probabilists, etc. Without at- 
 tempting to discuss these systems, we 
 limit ourselves to report the rules given 
 by the best theologians : i. It is permitted 
 to follow an intrinsically or extrinsically 
 probable opinion, if, after mature exam- 
 ination, no other opinion presents itself. 
 The reason is that then we have moral 
 
Processions 
 
 584 
 
 Processions 
 
 certainty of the goodness of our action, 
 which is sufficient if it be exempt from 
 sin. 2. It is not permitted to follow 
 an opinion less probable in the con- 
 course of a more probable opinion, that 
 is, an opinion which has in its favor 
 motives that are stronger, more numer- 
 ous, more solid, and more capable of 
 obtaining the assent of a prudent and 
 wise man. 3. If there are two probable 
 opinions, and if the one favors the law and 
 the other liberty, we are obliged, accord- 
 ing to a great number of theologians, to 
 follow, in all cases, the one which favors the 
 law and which is the surest. According to 
 several other doctors, among whom we 
 find St. Liguori, if two contradictory 
 opinions are equally or about equally cer- 
 tain, we can follow the less sure opinion. 
 The reason which St. Liguori gives is 
 that, in doubt, we are not bound to take 
 the surest part, either because a doubtful 
 law being founded only upon an opinion, 
 is not sufficiently promulgated to be ob- 
 ligatory, or because man remains in pos- 
 session of liberty, whose exercise can be 
 inconvenienced only by a clear and certain 
 law. 4. In matters of faith and in the 
 necessaries of necessity of means, as well 
 if there be question about the validity of a 
 sacrament, we must always, in the con- 
 course of two equally probable opinions, 
 follow the most sure opinion ; it is the 
 same if there be question about the inter- 
 est of our neighbor; the judges as for 
 instance, the notaries, the physicians, 
 must always, between two means, choose 
 the one that appears to them more con- 
 formable to the interests that are entrusted 
 to them. The contrary opinion has been 
 formally condemned by Pope Innocent X. 
 in 1670. 5. We are permitted to follow a 
 more probable opinion although less sure 
 than the opposite opinion, the reason being 
 that by following a more probable opinion 
 we act prudently, because we are not in 
 doubt, and we are morally certain of the 
 goodness of our action. 6. The authority 
 of a learned and pious man is not sufficient 
 to render an opinion probable and sure in 
 practice. 
 
 Processions. — Public processions and 
 supplications have always been in use in 
 the Church, as a means of increasing 
 piety, or in order to return thanks to God 
 for blessings received, and to implore His 
 mercy. As processions instituted by the 
 Church contain great and divine myster- 
 
 ies, and as they are in themselves a source 
 of grace, the priests should instruct the 
 people concerning their nature, and insist 
 that they be performed with modesty and 
 reverence. In Church processions the lay 
 people should follow the clergy, and the 
 women should walk behind the men. The 
 cross should be carried at the head of the 
 procession, and if such be the custom, a 
 banner decorated with sacred images. 
 Should the cross bear an image of the cru- 
 cifix, the face of the image of Christ should 
 face those who precede, and not those who 
 follow it. Strictly speaking solemn Mass 
 should be celebrated after the procession 
 and not before. Among the processions 
 instituted by the Church some are ordi- 
 nary, because they occur every year on the 
 same day. Such are the processions on 
 the day of the Purification, on Palm Sun- 
 day, St. Mark's day, the three Rogation 
 days and on Corpus Christi. All these 
 processions should be held according to 
 the special rite prescribed for them in the 
 Roman Ritual. 
 
 Extraordinary processions are those 
 which are commanded for occasions con- 
 cerning the public welfare of the Church ; 
 as for example, processions made in order 
 to obtain rain, fair weather, the cessation 
 of storms, of distress, of famine, of pesti- 
 lence, of war, or of any kind of affliction, 
 and in order to return thanks to God for 
 blessings received. Those who take part 
 in Church processions would do well to 
 remember that, during our pilgrimage on 
 this earth, we should have our eyes con- 
 stantly fixed upon the image of Jesus 
 Christ crucified, endeavoring to imitate 
 His example and those of our patron saints, 
 heartily imploring their protection and 
 the mercy of God during the whole prog- 
 ress of the procession. See Roman Rit- 
 ual. 
 
 Of all processions, the most celebrated 
 is that of the Most H0I3' Sacrament 
 on the feast of Corpus Christi (which 
 see), instituted by Urban IV. We call it 
 a triumphal procession, because in it our 
 Redeemer, the King of Kings, the Lord 
 of Lords, is carried triumphantly through 
 the streets concealed in His adorable sac- 
 rament, which He gives us as a pledge of 
 our eternal triumph in heaven. The 
 Churches, on this day, should be beautifully 
 decorated and the walls of the streets 
 through which the procession is to pass 
 should be covered with tapestries, hang- 
 ings, and sacred pictures. The street itself 
 
Proclamation 
 
 585 
 
 Profession 
 
 might well be strewn witlf flowers and 
 foliage of trees, and along the sidewalks 
 evergreens might be placed. It is also a 
 general custom, in connection with those 
 processions, to raise triumphal arches 
 across the streets, and to have one or more 
 repositories or shrines from which bene- 
 diction with the Blessed Sacrament is 
 given during the procession. 
 
 Proclamation. — Name given in some 
 monastic orders to the accusation made by 
 a monk against one of his fellow-monks, 
 in full chapter, for a fault he saw him com- 
 mitting. 
 
 Proclus (St.). — Ecclesiastical writer of 
 the fifth centur}'. He was a disciple of 
 St. John Chrysostom, and afterwards be- 
 came patriarch of Constantinople. He 
 died in 447. There are extant of his writ- 
 ings, several synodal letters and 25 homi- 
 lies. 
 
 Profanation of a Church or Cemetery. 
 
 — A church is profaned or polluted : i. By 
 voluntary, criminal, or injurious homicide 
 committed within the interior of said 
 church. 2. When considerable blood has 
 been shed therein, caused by an act which 
 undoubtedly assumes the aspect of mortal 
 sin. A wound, of however grievous or 
 serious a nature, is not sufficient to profane 
 a church ; there must be an eflfusion of 
 blood, though it is not necessary that this 
 effusion take place in the church ; if the 
 eflfusion occurs outside as an effect of the 
 wound received inside, the church is to be 
 considered profaned. 3. By a voluntary 
 act of incontinency. It is the same with 
 an act of incontinency as with voluntary 
 homicide, or eflfusion of blood ; it must 
 take place inside the church. 4. By the 
 burial of an infidel or of a person excom- 
 municated by name. The same causes or 
 eflfects which profane a church, profane a 
 cemetery. Thus the cemetery is profaned 
 by a murder, by a considerable efTusion of 
 blood, and by the burial of one excom- 
 municated by name. This applies also to 
 a heretic denounced by name as such, and 
 who is thereby excommunicated. But it is 
 important to remark that there is a prof- 
 anation, whether of church or cemetery, 
 only in so far as the act or fact which is the 
 cause thereof is public and notorious. If 
 adultery, or the sin of fornication, for ex- 
 ample, has been committed secretly in the 
 church or cemetery, there is no profanation 
 while the sin remains secret, or is known 
 
 only to a few. If, on the contrary, the sin 
 becomes public, then the church or ceme- 
 tery is to be regarded as profaned. The 
 notoriety of the fact is sufficient. The prof- 
 anation of the church involves also that 
 of the cemetery if both are on the same 
 ground without any separation between 
 them. Yet the profanation of the cemetery 
 does not aflfect the church ; neither does it 
 affect the profanation of another cemetery 
 contiguous to it, though there should exist 
 a passageway between them. As soon as a 
 church is profaned, the Blessed Sacrament 
 should be removed ; only, however, if there 
 be another church near by where it may be 
 placed. Mass should not be celebrated in 
 a profaned church until it is reconciled. If 
 it has not already received the episcopal 
 consecration, it may be reconciled by the 
 bishop or by a priest appointed for the pur- 
 pose. But if the church has been conse- 
 crated by a bishop, a bishop must recon- 
 secrate it, or by a priest delegated by the 
 Pope according to the rite of the Roman 
 Pontifical. 
 
 Profession {Religious). — The religious 
 state is a stable and permanent state, ap- 
 proved by the Church, in which the Faith- 
 ful engage themselves to live in common, 
 and to strive after perfection, by the ob- 
 servance of the vows of poverty, chastity, 
 and obedience. The approbation of the 
 Church is necessary to form a religious 
 order, and this approbation can only ema- 
 nate from the sovereign Pontiff. A Congre- 
 gation, whose rule has not been confirmed 
 and sanctioned by the Holy See, is not a 
 religious congregation properly speaking. 
 Whoever belongs to a congregation, ap- 
 proved by the Pope or a' bishop, must 
 conform in everything to the constitutions 
 and rules of the order or congregation. 
 
 There are special privileges enjoyed by 
 persons consecrated to God. The essence 
 of the religious life consists in the vows of 
 poverty, chastity, and obedience. In order 
 that a religious profession be valid and bind- 
 ing on the one who makes it, the following 
 conditions are necessary to be observed : 
 I. That the subject, whether male or fe- 
 male, has completed his or her sixteenth 
 year. 2. He or she must have passed a full, 
 uninterrupted year, at least, of probation, 
 clothed in the habit of the order, and must 
 have fulfilled during this time the exer- 
 cises of the community. This probation 
 is called the novitiate. 3. There must exist 
 no impediment contrary to the statutes of 
 
Profession of Faith 
 
 586 
 
 Propaganda 
 
 the order. 4. The subject must be free to 
 dispose of himself. 5. The act of profes- 
 sion must be entirely free; a substantial 
 error or a grave and unjust fear would 
 render it null and void. Every person de- 
 sirous of leaving the religious state for 
 good and sufficient causes, must lay these 
 reasons before the superior and the ordi- 
 nary of the place within five years count- 
 ing from the day of profession. If the 
 person fails to do this, reclamation is not 
 admitted. There are particular precau- 
 tions taken to assure the liberty of choice 
 of the subject in communities of women. 
 According to the Council of Trent, the 
 mother superior may admit a member to 
 the religious profession only after such 
 person has been examined by the bishop 
 or his delegate as regards her freedom of 
 action and wishes, her knowledge of the 
 rules and obligations of the religious 
 state. The mother superior is obliged to 
 notify the bishop a month before the con- 
 templated profession; failing in this she 
 may be punished by suspension from office. 
 The person who is morally certain of a re- 
 ligious vocation cannot remain in the 
 world without endangering his salvation, 
 because such a person acts contrary to the 
 will of God. He or she is, therefore, under 
 such conditions, obliged to embrace the 
 religious state. 
 
 It is the duty of parents to sanction the 
 vocation of a child whom the Lord calls 
 to a religious life. They should as far as 
 possible make sure that the vocation is 
 real ; but they have not the right to oppose 
 it when they know the call comes from 
 God. The child, who, after certain trials, 
 and after having consulted a wise and en- 
 lightened spiritual director, ought as a 
 rule, to ask his parents' consent before 
 embracing a religious state. If the par- 
 ents, without just reasons, refuse their 
 consent, the child can, especially when of 
 age, follow its pious designs and retire 
 into a religious house. But when a young 
 person cannot, without great inconvenience 
 to the parents, enter upon such a life, the 
 step may be delayed until such obstacles 
 are removed. Neither is it permitted to 
 parents themselves to join any religious 
 order before they have properly provided 
 for their children, especially as regards 
 their religious education. Nor may a 
 bishop leave his see to become a religious 
 without the permission of the Pope. In 
 the United States a priest may not join a 
 religious order without the permission of 
 
 his bishop and the Propaganda. Such 
 are the formal laws of the Church on this 
 important question. 
 
 Profession of Faith. See Crkkd. 
 
 Promise (Divine). — The divine prom- 
 ise is the announcement made to Adam of 
 a Saviour who, born of a woman, will 
 crush the head of the serpent, that is, will 
 triumph over hell and evil, and will redeem 
 the entire human race. This promise was 
 renewed to the Patriarchs, especially to 
 Abraham, and has been the foundation of 
 the teaching of the Prophets until Jesus 
 Christ. Under the new law, the ancient 
 promise having received its fulfillment, 
 we understand by promises ( in the plural ) 
 the assurance given by Jesus Christ to His 
 Church, that He will be with her until the 
 end of time, and that her enemies will not 
 prevail against her; we may also under- 
 stand those that have reference to the 
 rewards of eternal life. 
 
 Propaganda or Propagation of the 
 Faith. — A congregation established at 
 Rome by Gregory XIII. and increased by 
 Clement VIII. and Gregory XV. for the 
 administration of affairs regarding the 
 propagation of the faith, in infidel coun- 
 tries. The Propaganda sends into infidel 
 or heretical countries missionaries whom 
 it distributes, according to the qualities of 
 the subjects, and to the religious socie- 
 ties to which they belong. It proposes to 
 the Pope the bishops and apostolic vicars; 
 it grants directly to the missionaries all 
 the special powers, and dispensations re- 
 quired; it answers all their doubts, gives 
 them advice, traces for them certain rules, 
 and fixes the limits for the different mis- 
 sions in order to avoid confusion. Finally 
 it is the ordinary judge of controversies 
 which may arise among the missionaries, 
 among the religious of the various orders, 
 or among the missionaries and the native 
 clergy, or among the religious who are on 
 the mission and their superiors. The 
 Propaganda has also jurisdiction over all 
 the bishops in heretical and schismatical 
 countries, like the United States and the 
 Churches of the East. Urban VIII. 
 founded a seminary subject to the Con- 
 gregation of the Propaganda, destined to 
 receive the future missionaries and to 
 educate them. The printing institute of 
 the Propaganda publishes, in all the lan- 
 guages, works useful for the missions. Its 
 library is one of the richest in books and 
 
Propaganda of Lyons 
 
 587 Prophets and Prophecies 
 
 precious manuscripts, gathered from all 
 the countries visited by the missionaries. 
 Every year, on the eve of Epiphany, the 
 scholars of the different Roman colleges 
 read or write, each in his mother tongue, 
 a poem or a canticle in honor of the Epiph- 
 any. 
 
 Propaganda of Lyons. — A religious 
 institution of French origin, founded at 
 Lyons, in 1822, by a poor servant whose 
 work it was " to assist by prayers and 
 alms the Catholic missionaries who carry 
 the faith and civilization among the infi- 
 dels." The prayers prescribed are: Our 
 Father, and Hail Mary, every day with 
 the invocation : "St. Francis Xavier, pray 
 for us." The alms consist in voluntary 
 gifts, and in annual subscriptions. The sub- 
 scription is one cent per week, or fifty-two 
 cents per year. The center of the work, 
 approved by Gregory XVI., in 1840, is at 
 Lyons. The annual amount of alms is 
 more that one million dollars. The work 
 publishes, every two months, the "Annals 
 of the Propagation of the Faith," and the 
 "Catholic Mission s," an illustrated 
 weekly. 
 
 Prophets and Prophecies (The proph- 
 ets were those men who, by divine in- 
 spiration, foretold the future, or revealed 
 truths hidden from man). — There were 
 among the Hebrews two very distinct 
 classes of these privileged men, whom 
 Holy Scripture calls "Men of God," 
 " angels," or " messengers of the Lord " : 
 the nebiim or prophets properly speaking, 
 and the roiin or hozim, that is, seers. The 
 first class, having no other function but 
 that of extraordinary messengers of God, 
 devoted themselves entirely to directing 
 the people in regard to religious aflfairs, 
 especially, when the priests rendered 
 themselves guilty in their sacred charac- 
 ter, and when the people had been 
 plunged into sin and idolatry. The latter 
 were men to whom God had revealed 
 Himself, without removing them from 
 their ordinary state and condition of life. 
 Without being charged with prophetical 
 functions, they nevertheless prophesied ; 
 they received visions and even the most 
 important revelations. Thus, for in- 
 stance, David and Solomon being kings, 
 were favored with divine revelations ; but 
 they remained in their respective places. 
 
 The most ordinary way, in which God 
 communicated Himself to the Prophets, 
 
 was by inspiration, enlightening their 
 mind, and exciting their will to publish 
 what He made known to them interiorly. 
 It is in this sense that we hold as Prophets 
 all the authors of the canonical books of both 
 the Old and New Testaments. Thus God 
 also, through dreams and visions, held 
 communication with the Prophets, as for 
 instance, with Jacob and St. Peter; in a 
 cloud, as with Abraham, Job, Moses, and 
 again with the latter through an articulate 
 voice in the burning bush and upon Mount 
 Sinai, and with Samuel, while he slept in 
 the Temple. In the Old Testament, we 
 have the writings or books of sixteen 
 Prophets, of whom four are called 
 " Greater Prophets " because their prophe- 
 cies are longer and more extensive ; twelve 
 "Minor Prophets," because their prophe- 
 cies are shorter than the ones first named. 
 The four great Prophets are : Isaias, Jere- 
 mias, Ezechiel, and Daniel. The twelve 
 minor Prophets are : Osee, Joel, Amos, 
 Abdias, Micheas, Jonas, Nahum, Habacuc, 
 Sophonias, Aggeus, Zacharias, and Mala- 
 chias. We might also count Baruch as the 
 seventeenth, but he is generally included 
 with Jeremias. In the New Testament, 
 the Apocalypse is regarded, and with 
 right, as a prophecy of the different states 
 of the Church and of later times. There 
 has been, in both the Old and New Testa- 
 ments, quite a number of other prophets, 
 but they have left no writings, at least 
 none that have come to us. Among the 
 Jews, the Prophets form the second of the 
 three classes from which have gone forth 
 the twenty-four books which compose their 
 canon. They are divided into : the first 
 or anterior {rischonim) section, comprises : 
 Josue, the Judges, the two books of Samuel, 
 and the two books of Kings ; and the last 
 or posterior {aharonim) section, comprises : 
 Isaias, Jeremias (his prophecies only), 
 Ezechiel, and the twelve minor Prophets. 
 Daniel as well as the Lamentations and 
 Prayer of Jeremias are ranked among the 
 third class, that of the Hagiographa. 
 Under Josue we find a kind of prophetic 
 academy, where the children of the 
 Prophets, i. e., their disciples, led a retired 
 and austere life, devoting themselves to 
 study and reading the law of God. There 
 were such prophetic schools at Naioth of 
 Ramatha under Saul ; David and Saul re- 
 tired thither. We find them, also, under 
 the Prophets Elias and Eliseus at Bethel 
 and in the plain of Jericho. There was a 
 great number of similar schools in the 
 
Prophets and Prophecies 588 Prophets and Prophecies 
 
 kingdom of Israel. These schools con- 
 tinued to exist until the captivity of Bab- 
 ylon, and it even appears that the captives 
 went to listen to the Prophets whenever 
 they had occasion to do so. 
 
 The existence of prophecies is a fact 
 universally admitted by both Jewish and 
 Christian traditions. However Rational- 
 ists deny that there are any real prophe- 
 cies, that is, supernatural manifestations 
 made by God to man in order to reveal 
 His will or the future. They acknowledge 
 that there exist prophetical books in the 
 Old Testament, and admit what they term 
 " Prophetism," that is, the intervention in 
 the history of Israel of extraordinary men 
 of great intelligence and of great perspi- 
 cacity, but refuse to see in them anything 
 supernatural. They di\ide the prophecies 
 into two classes, the one authentic, the 
 other unauthentic. The latter are too ex- 
 plicit, too precise, too much beyond hu- 
 man power to be explained naturally. 
 According to Rationalists they were writ- 
 ten after the events, something like the 
 revelation of the future history of Rome, 
 which Virgil makes ^neas recite in hell. 
 As to those whose authenticity they ac- 
 knowledge, they refer, according to them, 
 either to near events, which the wisdom 
 of the prophets permitted them to foresee 
 and to announce, or they had for their ob- 
 ject what is called the Messianic kingdom 
 ^ and are the fruit of vague and poorly defined 
 aspirations. We will now show the false- 
 ness of these assumptions. 
 
 Prophecy is possible. God certainly 
 knows the future and He is free to reveal 
 it as He pleases and to whom He pleases. 
 Only an atheist can deny this truth, a 
 truth admitted at all times and in all 
 places. Prophecies exist in fact. Holy 
 Scripture contains prophetic books, which 
 foretell the future. Infidels, it is true, 
 deny the authenticity of several of these 
 books, or interpret them in an ordinary, 
 natural manner, but they are forced to ad- 
 mit that future events are announced. 
 Acknowledging their avowals, and for the 
 moment conceding to them all fair con- 
 cessions, it is yet an easy matter to prove 
 from the books whose authenticity they do 
 not contest, the existence of real prophe- 
 cies. I. The Prophet Micheas, for exam- 
 ple, announces (iv. 8-10) the Babylonian 
 Captivity some 150 years before the event, 
 when there was no hostility between 
 Babylon and Judea, and at a time when 
 Babylon was not an independent state. 
 
 How could the Prophet foresee, humanly 
 speaking, that which he so explicitly fore- 
 told } 2. All the Prophets, commencing 
 with the most ancient, foretold the de- 
 struction of Jerusalem, with its temple, 
 and the captivity of the people. These 
 momentously grave events they did not 
 prophesy in a vague and ambiguous man- 
 ner, but in a clear and precise tone. The 
 most dreaded enemy of the children of 
 Jacob at this time were the Assyrians. 
 Yet the Prophet assures them that the 
 Assyrians will not become God's avengers, 
 nor will Israel be saved by Egypt, al- 
 though to that power it looked for help, 
 but God Himself will be its saviour, after 
 its chastisements by the Chaldeans. All 
 the Prophets were unanimous in affirming 
 their predictions, which were literally ful- 
 filled, just as they had been foretold. 
 3. When the empire of Nabuchodonosor 
 had attained its highest degree of glory 
 and power, its decay and ruin were fore- 
 told in precise terms by Jeremias the 
 Prophet : Babylon will be taken by the 
 Medes and their allies, the Persians, en- 
 tering the city over the dry bed of the 
 Euphrates, during the night of feasting 
 and drunken folly, and the Jews will be- 
 hold the end of their captivity. How, and 
 by what fact of |>erspicacity, could a Jew, 
 living at Jerusalem, foresee events and 
 point out such minute details, long before 
 their actual occurrence, except by a 
 Divine revelation.'' 4. The prophets have 
 embraced, in their circle of pre- 
 dictions, all the nations surrounding 
 them, and in every instance what 
 they foretold was fulfilled. They an- 
 nounced the ruin of Ninive, of Babylon, 
 of Tyre, of Memphis, of the Ammonites, 
 Moabites, Philistines, and Idumeans; all 
 these cities, with their peoples, have dis- 
 appeared forever from the scene of this 
 world. There is not a single city, not a 
 people but whose fate has been that fore- 
 told by the Prophets of Israel. Such a 
 coincidence cannot be the effect of mere 
 chance. It is most assuredly God's work. 
 The ruins of these once famous cities are 
 still to be seen, as silent, but eloquent wit- 
 nesses of God's veracitj', and the divine 
 inspirations of His Prophets. 5. Zacharias 
 clearly describes the conquest of Alexander 
 the Great (ix. 1-8). He foretold the con- 
 quest of Hadrach, Damascus, and Emath, 
 that the defenses of Tyre would be thrown 
 into the sea and the city burned, that Gaza 
 would lose her king, that Azot would be 
 
Prophets 
 
 589 
 
 Prophets 
 
 peopled by a vile populace, and that in the 
 midst of so much trouble and ruin, Jeru- 
 salem should be at peace. All these 
 prophecies were completely fulfilled during 
 the expedition of Alexander. One of the 
 fathers of modern rationalism, Eichorn, 
 struck by the character of these prophecies, 
 has found no other means to elude their 
 force than that of having recourse to the 
 most inadmissible hypothesis : that it was 
 an historical narrative veiled under a pro- 
 phetic form, thereby involuntarily con- 
 fessing the exactitude and veracity of the 
 predictions. 6. We could quote a multi- 
 tude of other examples of the same kind, 
 
 Prophets (Chronological Table of the). 
 
 all of which were verified, but the above 
 are sufficient. Yet, we may be pardoned, 
 if we mention the Messianic prophecies. 
 All these were incontestably anterior to 
 the events which they so minutely de- 
 scribed and foretold. Now, these prophe- 
 cies announced the birth, life, death, and 
 events of our Saviour, just as the preceding 
 prophecies foretold other events. There is 
 hardly a prominent fact of the Gospel in 
 connection with our Saviour which was 
 not exactly foretold. Hence, we may con- 
 clude that the existence of prophecies is an 
 historical fact, more plainly proven than 
 many other historical events. 
 
 First Period. — The Struggle against Assyria 
 
 Approxi- 
 mative 
 Dates 
 
 Kings Under Whom Thev 
 Prophesied 
 
 Countries About Which They 
 Prophesied 
 
 Abias 
 
 Joel 
 
 Jonas .... 
 Amos . . . . 
 
 Osee 
 
 Micheas... 
 
 Isaias 
 
 Nahum. . . 
 
 Habacuc. 
 Sophonias 
 
 Jeremias . 
 
 Baruch . . . 
 Ezechiel . 
 
 Daniel... . 
 
 Aggeus... 
 Zacharias. 
 
 Malachias 
 
 989-884 
 878-838 
 825-784 
 809-784 
 
 790-725 
 
 758-710 
 
 759-699 
 665 
 
 Joram ( .?) 
 
 Joas (.?) 
 
 Jeroboam II 
 
 Jeroboam II. and Ozias 
 
 ! Jeroboam II., Ozias, 
 Joatham, Achaz, and 
 Ezechias. 
 ') Joatham, Achaz, and 
 \ Ezechias. 
 
 ! Ozias, Joatham, 
 Achaz, Ezechias(and 
 Manasses). 
 (Manasses) 
 
 Against Idumea. 
 About Juda. 
 About Ninive. 
 Against Israel. 
 
 About Israel. 
 
 Against Juda and Israel. 
 
 About all the nations known 
 the Hebrews. 
 
 by 
 
 Against Ninive. 
 
 Second Chaldean Period 
 
 650-627 
 628-623 
 
 625-after 
 
 588 
 
 583 
 595-573 
 
 604-534 
 
 (Manasses or Josias) ( ?) . 
 Josias 
 
 Josias, Joakim, Jechonias, 
 Sedecias (in Egypt). 
 
 Sedecias 
 
 Jechonias; Captivity. . . . 
 
 Jechonias, Nabuchodono- 
 sor, Balthasar, Darius 
 the Mede, Cyrus. 
 
 Against the Chaldeans. 
 
 Against Juda and the neighbor- 
 ing nations. 
 
 About Juda; against the neigh- 
 boring nations. Egypt and 
 Babylon. 
 
 Exhortation to the captives of 
 Babylon. 
 
 Against Juda and the neighbor- 
 ing nations ; restoration. 
 
 The Great Empires. 
 
 Third Period. — After the Captivity 
 
 520 
 520 
 
 433-423 
 
 Darius, son of Hystaspes. 
 Darius, son of Hystaspes, 
 
 Artaxerxes Longiraanus. 
 
 Promise to Juda. 
 
 The beautiful arrival at Jerusa- 
 lem. 
 
 The goodness of God for His 
 people. 
 
Prophets 
 
 590 
 
 Property 
 
 Prophets i^False). — There is often ques- 
 tion in Holy Scripture of False Prophets. 
 The priests of Baal claimed to be prophets ; 
 they deceived Achab by announcing to him 
 nothing but prosperity. Micheas, prophet 
 of the Lord, tells this king that God has 
 sent a lying spirit in the mouth of all these 
 prophets (III. Ki. xxii. 22, 23). God tells 
 through Ezechias (xiv. 9): "When the 
 prophet shall err, and speak a word : I the 
 Lord have deceived that prophet." On 
 account of these texts, the infidels ask 
 whether God can deceive a prophet, 
 whether He can send a lying spirit in his 
 mouth, and what sign there is between a 
 true and a false prophet? This objection 
 is much more specious than solid. First, 
 infidels themselves regard it as unworthy 
 of God's holiness that He should deceive, 
 and that He should engage Himself to do 
 an evil action. In this, we are with them 
 in perfect agreement. On the other hand, 
 here, like in so many other passages of 
 the Bible, the verbs which properly indi- 
 cate an action, are also to be taken by me- 
 tonymy in the sense of a simple permission. 
 Thus the phrases : God has sent a lying 
 spirit in the mouth of the prophets, and I 
 have deceived this prophet, simply signify 
 that God has permitted these prophets to 
 deceive, as they intended to do. He freely 
 permitting them to tell lies. Let us add 
 that in Ezechiel itself (xiii. 6, 7), God 
 complains that the false prophets dare to 
 speak in His name, although He did not 
 send them, and that He told them nothing. 
 Hence, God had no part in the falsehoods 
 they told. It- is in this manner, the 
 phrases we have quoted, have been ex- 
 plained not only by Theodoret, but also by 
 Dathe, Storr, and Rosenmiiller. As to 
 the sign by which we can distinguish be- 
 tween a true and a false prophet, it is 
 manifest and evident : the prophets of 
 Achab were idolaters ; Micheas adored the 
 true God and prophesied in His name. 
 
 Prophets of Holland (heretical enthusi- 
 asts of the seventeenth century). — Most 
 of these sectaries applied themselves to 
 the study of Greek and Hebrew; on the 
 first Sunday of every month they assem- 
 bled in a village, near Leyden, and there 
 passed the day in reading Holy Scripture, 
 formulating different questions, and dis- 
 cussing the meaning of divers passages. 
 They affected great uprightness and had a 
 horror of war and arms ; in many things 
 they followed the opinions of the Arminians. 
 
 Property. — By property in general we 
 understand whatever is possessed in such 
 a way, that the owner may dispose of it, 
 independently, as his own. The right of 
 property, therefore, is the power to possess 
 a thing in the manner described. The 
 right of property implies, it is true, the 
 right of free disposal ; yet the exercise of 
 the latter may be in certain cases rendered 
 unlawful by positive law or other condi- 
 tions. A guardian, for instance, is a true 
 possessor, but the law does not permit 
 him to exercise the right of free disposal. 
 Yet the right of free disposal does not, 
 necessarily, imply the right of property. 
 An administrator may dispose of the prop- 
 erty over which he is placed ; yet he does 
 not dispose of it as his own, but as the 
 property of another ; nor does he dispose 
 of it independently, but only in virtue of 
 the power given him. 
 
 God is the Lord of all things, because 
 He has created all things. But man also, 
 the image of God, can mold and modify 
 things as he pleases; and thus he becomes 
 their true lord in a limited sense, as God is 
 their absolute Lord in virtue of creation. 
 Occupation of an ownerless property is in 
 itself a certain modification of that prop- 
 erty, and thus may become the basis of 
 private property. Therefore, although 
 God has delivered irrational nature, not to 
 individuals as such, but to mankind at 
 large (Gen. i. 28, 29), yet it is by no means 
 contrary to His design that the goods of 
 this earth should be divided among indi- 
 viduals, and, consequently, that private 
 property should exist, 
 
 God, on the contrary, intended private 
 ownership as the rule; in other words, 
 private ownership is in accordance with 
 the design of Providence, being suited to 
 the nature and conditions of man. The 
 earth serves its purpose better for the 
 necessities of man if distributed among in- 
 dividuals, since private property is naturally 
 more diligently cultivated than public. 
 The distribution of property, moreover, 
 ser\'es for the preservation of peace and 
 order, which are more easily maintained 
 when the right of private ownership is 
 secured. It is evident that those griev- 
 ances which in any case would arise from 
 common ownership, would be heightened 
 by the results of original sin, and, conse- 
 quently, that fallen man is all the more 
 constrained to have recourse to private 
 property. The inconvenience of common 
 ownership may, however, be more easily 
 
Property 
 
 591 
 
 Property 
 
 avoided in small communities, particu- 
 larly if their members bind themselves by 
 a vow of poverty, than in larger aggrega- 
 tions of men. Private ownership provides 
 better for the dignity of the individual. It 
 forces man to direct his attention to the 
 future, to cultivate his plot of ground in 
 order to insure a more abundant harvest 
 for future needs. On the other hand, huge 
 numbers of men would sink into the degra- 
 dation of slavery if they were forced, not 
 by their own determination, but by exter- 
 nal compulsion, to labor and thus to provide 
 for the needs of the future. It must, there- 
 fore, be considered the exception, not the 
 rule, if religious communities leave their 
 temporal concerns in the hands of one, or 
 of a few, in order that the entire body may 
 with greater freedom devote themselves to 
 religious or other higher pursuits. As 
 long as the great masses of humanity are 
 not disposed to devote themselves to mere 
 spiritual pursuits, the care of private prop- 
 erty will continue to form their God- 
 given and congenial occupation. 
 
 The fact that at all times and in all 
 places, particularly after the human race 
 had multiplied to some extent, a division 
 of the earth was made, and thus private 
 property established, is an evidence of the 
 universal conviction that such a division, 
 or private ownership, was necessary as a 
 natural and suitable condition of human 
 society; and was, consequently, one of the 
 demands of human nature itself. Man, 
 however, is not so much impelled by the 
 natural law to the division of the property 
 as he is, for instance, toward the love of his 
 neighbor ; nor is common property so much 
 forbidden by the natural law as are theft 
 and murder. Common ownership of itself 
 is not repugnant to human nature ; else it 
 could never be permitted, even in religious 
 communities. It is repugnant to human 
 nature only in consequence of certain de- 
 fects inherent in man, and only so long as 
 the inconveniences arising from such 
 human imperfections are not otherwise re- 
 moved. The division of earthly goods, 
 and the institution of private property, 
 depend upon the free will of man, for the 
 human race might absolutely exist without 
 private property, and the earth could ab- 
 solutely fulfill its purpose — serve for the 
 nourishment and comfort of man — with- 
 out a division of property. But free will 
 is not always arbitrary ; on the contrary, 
 man was by various important reasons, 
 which at times constituted a moral neces- 
 
 sity, constrained to have recourse to such 
 a division of property. The universality 
 of the institution of private property among 
 the various civilized nations is an evidence 
 that it rests upon certain conditions in- 
 separable from human nature. Hence we 
 frequently meet in the works of doctors 
 and divines with the assertion that private 
 ownership rests upon that universal right 
 or law common to all nations called jus 
 gentium, which, however, is not to be con- 
 founded with international right, or the 
 positive law of nations. 
 
 Against the lawfulness or fitness of pri- 
 vate ownership the objection is sometimes 
 raised that it has been productive of enor- 
 mous inequality and has brought the 
 masses of humanity into poverty and 
 misery. This objection, however, as far 
 as it touches upon an existing evil, can be 
 made only in those cases in which the 
 authorities entrusted with the care of the 
 common interests have neglected their 
 duty to protect the weak against the vio- 
 lence of the strong. That civil authority 
 in matters regarding the acquisition of 
 property possesses extensive rights is gen- 
 erally conceded by philosophers and di- 
 vines, and follows from the facts that the 
 purpose of earthly goods is to facilitate 
 the existence of man, and that the end of 
 public authority is to maintain order and 
 prevent oppression. Civil authority has, 
 therefore, the right to enact laws for the 
 general welfare, to prevent the exorbitant 
 accumulation of private property, or the 
 occupation and appropriation for private 
 purposes of two extensive tracts of land. 
 Hence, those economists are in error who 
 assert that the State can remove the evils 
 in question only on the condition that it 
 become the sole possessor of the soil. 
 The Mosaic law, as St. Thomas remarks, 
 instituted the Jubilee Year as the means to 
 prevent the formation of too large pri- 
 vate estates, and the excessive accumula- 
 tion of wealth in the hands of individuals, 
 without making the State the sole owner 
 of the land. 
 
 The right of ownership is acknowledged 
 by God Himself, in as much as He forbids 
 theft as a violation of the rights of others. 
 If private property were theft, as Com- 
 munists assert, theft would not be a viola- 
 tion of the right of our neighbor, but of 
 the right of the State. But God does not 
 forbid theft as a violation of the right of 
 the State, but the right of our neighbor 
 individually, as He forbids adultery, not 
 
Proselytes 
 
 592 
 
 Protestantism 
 
 as a violation of the right of the State, 
 but of the right of the individual ( Ex. xx. 
 17). In like manner, in the New Law the 
 right of private ownership is acknowl- 
 edged. Christ says to the young man in 
 the Gospel: **Go, sell what thou hast, 
 and give ft to the poor " ( Matt. xix. 21). 
 The young man could not lawfully sell his 
 possessions if they were not really his 
 own. This follows also from the praise 
 which Christ imparted to Zacheus, when 
 the latter declared himself ready to give 
 one-half of his possessions to the poor 
 (Luke xix. 8, 9). 
 
 The Church has in various ways declared 
 the lawfulness of private property. In the 
 early ages the followers of certain com- 
 munistic doctrines, who called themselves 
 "Apostolics," were numbered among the 
 heretics. Besides, the Church condemned 
 the doctrine of Wycliffe, who asserted that 
 it was contrary to the Scriptures, that the 
 clergy should possess property. If, there- 
 fore, the possession of property is permit- 
 ted to ecclesiastics, it is all the more lawful 
 for the laity. See Socialism and Com- 
 munism. 
 
 Proselytes. — In the Jewish sense the 
 Proselytes were f orei gners who had adopted 
 the Jewish religion. There were two 
 species of Proselytes : " Proselytes of the 
 Gate " and " Proselytes of Justice." To 
 the first class belonged those pagans who 
 professed the monotheism of the Jews, 
 adopted their moral code, abstained from 
 flesh-meat offered to idols, and abandoned 
 other pagan practices. This class was quite 
 numerous. To the second belong those 
 pagans, who submitted to circumcision and 
 fully observed the law of Moses. These 
 were comparatively few in number. There 
 was still another and very numerous class, 
 who, without the preliminary preparation 
 of becoming proselytes of the gate, sought 
 amid the general desolation of paganism, 
 to quiet the voice of conscience, by prac- 
 ticing the ceremonial of Judaism and ob- 
 serving the festivals. 
 
 Prosper (St.). — Ecclesiastical writer of 
 the fifth century. The precise years of his 
 birth and death is uncertain. Though but 
 a layman, St. Prosper was an admirable 
 and pious theologian. He had been led by 
 the evils of his time to the practice of a 
 devout life. A warm admirer of the great 
 Bishop of Hippo, especially in his teach- 
 ings on grace, he was the occasion of St. 
 Augustine writing his two books on the 
 
 Predestination of the Elect and The Gift 
 of Perseverance, and he himself, both be- 
 fore and after St. Augustine's death, took 
 up the pen against the Pelagians and Semi- 
 Pelagians. In 431 he traveled to Rome 
 and complained to Pope Celestine, that 
 certain misguided priests of Marseilles 
 were teaching erroneous doctrines on the 
 subject of grace. Hereupon the Pope 
 wrote a letter of rebuke to the bishops of 
 Gaul and commended in terms of praise 
 the doctrine of St. Augustine. According 
 to Gennadius, Prosper was afterwards sum- 
 moned to Rome and became secretary to 
 Pope Leo I. He died about 463 in the 
 odor of sanctity. 
 
 Protestantism {Causes and effects of). — 
 By Protestantism we understand the belief 
 of the Protestant Churches in all points 
 wherein they differ from the faith of the 
 Catholic Church. The name Protestant, 
 first applied to the Lutherans who fro- 
 tested at the Diet of Spire in 1529, came 
 to be applied to Lutherans generally, and 
 afterwards was extended to Calvinists and 
 other opponents of the Catholic Church. 
 The introduction and rapid spread of the 
 new heresy may be ascribed to the follow- 
 ing causes : I. Abuses and evils existing 
 within the Church, such as the negligence, 
 ignorance, and degeneracy of many priests 
 and religious. Members of the nobility 
 held the most important benefices. The 
 spoliation of these was in many instances 
 a just punishment on them. 2. General 
 faultfinding with existing abuses was prev- 
 alent. The discontented are naturally 
 inclined to innovation. 3. The fascinating 
 influence of the writings of several re- 
 formers; the promises of the correction of 
 abuses accompanied by "evangelical lib- 
 erty," carried with them a weight of 
 authority. The masses were not able to 
 detect the contradictions between the doc- 
 trines of the Church and the new heresy. 
 To deceive the people, the reformers at 
 first retained many Catholic usages, such 
 as Confession, Church festivals. Mass, 
 candles, sacred vestments, etc. 4. The new 
 doctrines offered many advantages to sen- 
 sual men. The humble and submissive 
 faith was replaced by individual reason 
 and private judgment; confession of sins, 
 so irksome to human nature was abolished ; 
 princes and nobles were commanded to 
 seize and confiscate the estates of Churches 
 and convents ; they were allowed to exer- 
 cise supreme jurisdiction over ecclesias- 
 
Prothesis 
 
 593 
 
 Proverbs 
 
 tical affairs. The peasants were captivated 
 by the " liberty of the children of God," 
 by means of which they hoped to shake 
 off the yoke of authority and free them- 
 selves from all burdens, tithes, etc. 5. The 
 quarrel between the Humanists and School- 
 men; the remaining influence of former 
 heresies, such as the Waldenses, Hussites, 
 added inflammable materials. 6. The per- 
 sonal influence of the reformers, especially 
 of Luther, whose popular writings and 
 sermons found favor with the masses. 
 Luther and his followers were unscrupu- 
 lous in the choice of means to deceive the 
 people. In the beginning of their career, 
 they professed to preach only the true 
 doctrine of the Church and to desire only 
 the correction of abuses and the enforce- 
 ment of discipline; later, however, they 
 directed bitter and grotesque caricatures 
 against Pope and clergy, misrepresented 
 Catholic doctrine and asserted that Catho- 
 lics paid divine honor to the saints, images, 
 relics, etc. These prejudices are more or 
 less entertained at the present day. 7. The 
 political condition of Germany was an- 
 other source of weakness. The bishops 
 holding temporal power became odious to 
 the people, and were often in dispute with 
 cities and citizens. The latter, to gain 
 political power, became promoters of the 
 new religion. The French, jealous of the 
 house of Austria, fanned the dissensions 
 between the princes and the emperor, 
 while the masses of the people entertained 
 unfavorable sentiments toward the Apos- 
 tolic See. 8. Finally, tyranny of Protes- 
 tant princes in introducing the new religion 
 and giving arbitrary rules of faith to their 
 subjects, opened the way still further for 
 the malcontents. 
 
 The effects of the Reformation on reli- 
 gion and society were the most deplorable. 
 Bitter complaints were made by the re- 
 formers themselves of increasing corrup- 
 tion of morals. We find Luther admitting 
 that there was a worse Sodom under "the 
 Gospel" than under the Papacy. He 
 owned that insubordination, arrogance, 
 and licentiousness had become almost uni- 
 versal and that he would never have begun 
 to preach if he had foreseen the unhappy 
 results. The Reformation everywhere be- 
 came the fruitful source of political in- 
 trigue and discord, of long and cruel civil 
 wars. The evil seed it had sown every- 
 where bore bloody' fruit. The religious 
 strifes in Switzerland ; the revolts of ,the 
 Huguenots in France, and of the Cal- 
 
 38 
 
 vinists in the Netherlands; the wars of 
 the Peasants and Anabaptists in Germany; 
 finally, the wars of the Protestant princes 
 of Germany against the empire, were the 
 natural results of the discord and hatred 
 which the Reformers, by their revolution- 
 ary teachings, had enkindled among the 
 people of Europe. It was the Reformation 
 that made England the scene of constantly 
 recurring insurrections and civil wars from 
 the "Pilgrimage of Grace" till the great 
 rebellion, which brought Charles I. to the 
 block. The Thirty Years' War, which 
 converted Germany into a vast field of des- 
 olation and horror, was the distinct legacy 
 of Reformation. 
 
 Prothesis. — Name given in the Greek 
 Church to a small, portable altar, upon 
 which is prepared all that is necessary for 
 the celebration of the sacrifice of the Mass 
 and which is placed on the main altar. 
 
 Protocanonicals. See Deuterocanon- 
 
 ICALS. 
 
 Protomartyr. — Title bestowed upon St. 
 Stephen, who is regarded as the first mar- 
 tyr. 
 
 Protonotaries. — Name bestowed on 
 officers of the Roman court who have a 
 degree of pre-eminence over the other 
 notaries of the same court. The papal 
 notaries date back to the first century. It 
 is believed that Pope St. Clement insti- 
 tuted seven of them. In the course of 
 time, they drew up the history of the 
 Popes, the verbal processes of canonization 
 and beatification, and other acts. Pope 
 Sixtus V. granted to them great privileges. 
 There is a college of twelve Protonotaries 
 called partakers, because they partake in 
 the rights of the Chancery. They wear 
 the violet, are ranked among the prel- 
 ates, and precede all the nonconsecrated 
 prelates. Their office consists in dispatch- 
 ing in great causes the acts which the 
 simple apostolic notaries dispatch in 
 smaller ones, like the verbal processes of 
 which the Pope takes knowledge. They 
 assist at some Consistories and at the can- 
 onization of saints. They can create doc- 
 tors and apostolic notaries to practice 
 outside the city of Rome. 
 
 Proverbs. — Canonical book of the Old 
 Testament, which contains short, pregnant 
 sentences exhorting the reader to cultivate 
 wisdom, that is, virtue, the truest wisdom, 
 and avoid vice. Hence, St. Jerome says 
 
Providence 
 
 594 
 
 Psalms 
 
 that Solomon wrote them for the instruc- 
 tion of the young, just as he wrote Eccle- 
 siastes for persons of mature age to impress 
 upon them the vanity of all human things, 
 and the Canticle of Canticles for the old 
 to set before them a perfect model of 
 chastity. 
 
 Providence. — The Roman Catechism 
 presents divine providence as a conse- 
 quence of creation. The One who creates 
 everything cannot abandon His work, or 
 refuse to care for it. Hence the affirma- 
 tion of Lactantius, that if God exists there 
 is a providence : to deny providence would 
 be to deny God. On the other hand, 
 theologians teach that God has no limit as 
 regards creation, or as they say ad extra. 
 St. Thomas defines the action of providence 
 as destined to attain its end in created 
 things. Divine providence, understood in 
 this sense, namely, the permanent action 
 of God in favor of His creatures, is af- 
 firmed in every page of Scripture. To 
 deny this, is, according to Clement of 
 Alexandria, to deny Christianity itself. 
 The objections made by some philoso- 
 phers do not tend to deny the preserving 
 action of God exercising itself by general 
 laws, which are in themselves but the 
 manifestation of God's plan. But the dif- 
 ficulty pointed out by some is the recon- 
 ciliation of man's freedom with the action 
 of divine providence. We must not un- 
 derstand providence as substituting itself 
 for man's free will, or as modifying the 
 course of facts into which human liberty 
 enters; if this were otherwise, man would 
 be little less than a mere automaton. But 
 philosophy itself acknowledges that the 
 negation of providence is as impossible as 
 the negation of human liberty. Provi- 
 dence does not abolish the activity of the 
 creature, but is not restrained to this. 
 Democritus, Protagoras, and Epicurus 
 who, in antiquity denied providence, were 
 real atheists. 
 
 Provincial. — Superior general of sev- 
 eral houses of the same order, forming a 
 province . 
 
 Prudentius. — Christian poet. Aurelius 
 Prudentius Clemens was born in 348 of a 
 noble family at Saragossa, in Spain. After 
 a childhood passed, as it seems, under a 
 somewhat severe discipline {'■'■ cetas prima 
 cretanttbns flevit sub ferulis^'), he de- 
 voted himself to the study of rhetoric, and 
 embraced the career of an advocate, which 
 
 however, according to his own sorrowful 
 avowal, he disgraced by sophistical decep- 
 tions and shameful excesses. His talent 
 and ability won for him the favor of the 
 Emperor Theodosius, who twice gave him 
 the post of governor and afterwards a high 
 military position. It was at the very time 
 when his fortunes were at their highest, 
 that he experienced a fierce inward strug- 
 gle between virtue and vice. In the 57th 
 year of his age, he resigned his high ofli- 
 ces, and going to Rome, visited many of 
 the martyrs' tombs. On his return, he 
 consecrated the rest of his life to the spe- 
 cial service of God, and, in complete re- 
 tirement, devoted himself to an ascetic 
 life. He exercised his poetical talents for 
 the promotion of God's glory and the de- 
 fense of the Church. He probably died 
 about the year 410. Prudentius holds the 
 foremost place among early Christian poets, 
 and has not unjustly been called the 
 " Christian Virgil." The Church has par- 
 tially adopted 14 of his hymns for her 
 divine office. 
 
 Psalms (sacred canticles composed by 
 David or which are generally attributed to 
 him). — The Psalms were, with the He- 
 brews, long before the time of David, a 
 poetic form of chants accompanied, gener- 
 ally, by some musical instrument. David 
 excelled in this poetic form of composition 
 and held the first rank therein. He en- 
 hanced the brilliancy of the religious cere- 
 monies by associating with worship in- 
 strumental and vocal music. He had 
 imitators among whom were Asaph and 
 Core. Solomon composed more than i,ooo- 
 canticles, of which only two have been in- 
 serted in the Psalter, which, in all proba- 
 bility, does not contain, on the other hand, 
 all the productions of David. Psalm 89- 
 is attributed to Moses; the ancient rabbis 
 attributed to him 10 others, whose authors 
 are not given by name. In general, the 
 Psalm is accompanied with an inscription 
 which determines its attribution to such 
 or such an author. According to the 
 Alexandrine and Syriac versions, the 
 Psalms from 146 to 148 were the work of 
 the Prophets Aggeus and Zacharias. The 
 contents of the Psalms of David are theo- 
 logical, historical, religious and moral,, 
 elegiac, penitential, and finally prophetic. 
 The latter have quite a separate impor- 
 tance in apologetics and, from the first 
 centuries of the Christian Church, have 
 been held in great esteem and valued as of 
 
Psalter 
 
 595 
 
 Purification 
 
 high authority. The Psahns in the original 
 Hebrew are numbered differently from the 
 Latin Vulgate, though the total (150) is 
 the same in both. In the Hebrew the 9th 
 Psalm is divided into two parts at verse 22, 
 and the 113th Psalm at the 9th verse. The 
 original has, therefore, two Psalms more 
 than the Vulgate at this point; but in the 
 ir4th Psalm the Hebrew drops one by join- 
 ing the 114th with the 115th, and a second 
 at the 146th Psalm, where the difTerence 
 disappears. 
 
 Psalter. See Psalms. 
 
 Pulcheria(399-453) . — Famous empress of 
 the East, born at Constantinople, daugh- 
 ter of Arcadius and of Eudoxia, sister of 
 Theodosius H., who created her Augusta 
 in 414, and under whose name she gov- 
 erned. Called to succeed him (449), she 
 chose for spouse the Senator Marcian. 
 She took a prominent part in the convo- 
 cation of the Council of Ephesus which 
 condemned the heresy of Nestorius (431). 
 The Greek Church honors her as saint, on 
 September loth. 
 
 Punishment {Eternal). See Hell. 
 
 Purcell (John Baptist) (1800-1883). — 
 Archbishop ; born at Mallow, County 
 Cork, Ireland; died in Brown County, 
 Ohio. He emigrated to America in 1818, 
 studied theology in Mount St. Mary's, Em- 
 metsburg, Maryland, and in St. Sulpice, 
 Paris, where he was ordained priest in 
 1826. In 1827, he was appointed professor 
 in St. Mary's, and in 1828 president of the 
 college. In 1833 he was consecrated 
 bishop of Cincinnati and in 1850 arch- 
 bishop. At the Council of the Vatican he 
 spoke and voted against the dogma of in- 
 fallibility but accepted it, when promul- 
 gated. The growth of the Church in ■ 
 Ohio was due to his energy, but his 
 methods finally involved him in financial 
 disaster. For many years he received the 
 savings of his parishioners and spent them 
 on Church buildings and charitable insti- 
 tutions. Later on, when there was an at- 
 tempt to draw the money, the state of 
 affairs was discovered, and the result was 
 a failure in 1879 ^^^ $4,000,000, after which 
 he retired into a monastery, and a coad- 
 jutor was appointed. The debt has never 
 been paid, and is not likely to be. He pub- 
 lished several works. 
 
 Purgatory (place where the souls of 
 those who die in the state of grace go to ex- 
 
 piate the sins for which they have not done 
 sufficient penance in this world). — We 
 understand by purgatory, a state in which 
 are retained for a certain time, the souls of 
 the just who still have expiation to make 
 after this life, either for the venial sins 
 which have not been remitted, or for the 
 mortal sins which, although remitted as to 
 the offense and eternal punishment, have 
 not been remitted as to the temporal pun- 
 ishment, or at least as to the entire tem- 
 poral punishment. Nothing soiled can 
 enter the kingdom of heaven. It is, there- 
 fore, necessary that the just who die with- 
 out having sufficiently satisfied the justice 
 of God, offer to Him this satisfaction, in 
 order that they be admitted to the beatific 
 vision. Such is and such has always been 
 the belief of the Catholic Church. It is of 
 faith, that the whole punishment of sin is not 
 always remitted with the offense ; that the 
 remainder of this punishment must be 
 expiated, either in this world or in the 
 next ; that there is a purgatory for the souls 
 of the just who, when leaving this life, are 
 not entirely purified ; and that these souls 
 maybe assisted by the prayers and suffrages 
 of the Church. This is what the Council 
 of Trent decided against the Protestants ; 
 a decision conformable to the preceding 
 councils, to the doctrine of the holy 
 Fathers, to tradition, to the belief and 
 constant practices of the Church. Is pur- 
 gatory rather a particular place than a 
 state, or rather a state than a particular 
 place ? Is the pain of purgatory a pain of 
 fire, or simply a lively and bitter dolor for 
 having offended God ? What is the rigor 
 and duration of this pain.? These ques- 
 tions are not comprised in the domain of 
 Catholic dogma. They are questions con- 
 cerning which there exists no decision, no 
 judgment upon the part of the Church. 
 According to the most common opinion 
 of theologians, the torments of purgatory 
 consist in the pain of fire, or at least in a 
 pain analogous to that of fire. We will 
 add that, according to St. Augustine 
 and St. Thomas, whose views are often 
 followed, the pain of purgatory surpasses 
 every pain of this life. 
 
 Purification. — The Purification of the 
 Hebrews was the means employed for 
 eradicating a legal impurity, that placed 
 an obstacle on civil life, and even on family 
 life, because the one who had contracted 
 it ceased to be capable of communication 
 with others. There were more cases of 
 
Purification 
 
 596 
 
 QuadratUB 
 
 legal impurity for the woman than for the 
 man : she was impure during several days 
 of each month, and impure in consequence 
 of child-birth. She was not permitted to 
 have any contact with her husband ; could 
 not sit beside him, nor eat from the same 
 vessel, and could speak to him only with 
 averted face, and husband and wife could 
 assist one another only in case of sickness. 
 The shortest duration of impurity was for 
 one day. The most usual purification con- 
 sisted in a bath, or an ablution. Certain 
 purifications required a sacrifice which, for 
 the poor, consisted of two turtle-doves. 
 Impurity was contracted by touchirjg an 
 impure person, and also by touching a 
 corpse. Objects such as vessels, clothing, 
 etc., partook of the impurity and purifica- 
 tion. 
 
 Purification {Feast of the). — A feast ob- 
 served in the Catholic Church on Febru- 
 ary 2d, in commemoration of the purifica- 
 tion of the Blessed Virgin Mary, according 
 to the Jewish ceremonial, forty days after 
 the birth of Christ. Also called Candle- 
 mas (which see). 
 
 Purim. — Festival which the Jews cele- 
 brated in commemoration of the triumph 
 of Esther over Aman. 
 
 Puritans.^ A certain number of English 
 Protestants who, under the reign of Mary, 
 had passed to the Continent, returned un- 
 der the reign of Elizabeth, bringing with 
 them the most rigorous and intolerant doc- 
 trines of Calvinism. Elizabeth persecuted 
 them which served only to increase their 
 intolerance. At first they were found with 
 the Presbyterians of Scotland, whom John 
 Knox evangelized during this time. They 
 tecame, with them, an important political 
 party. The Puritans refused to the Q^ueen 
 the spiritual supremacy and the right to 
 reform the Church. They rejected the lit- 
 
 urgy, and all that recalled, as they s&td^ 
 the papal abomination. They admitted 
 only a part of the Scriptures, and con- 
 demned Anglicanism, as well as Papism, to 
 return to pure Christianity; hence their 
 name '* Puritans." 
 
 Puteoli, now Pozzuoli, a city in the 
 Campania of Naples, on the northern side 
 of the bay, eight miles northwest of that 
 city. It was a Roman colony. Here St. 
 Paul sojourned seven days (Actsxxviii. 13). 
 
 Puseysm. — Anglican religious doctrine, 
 founded by Dr. Pusey about 1833, ^^'^ 
 whose object, like Methodism, was the re- 
 newal of the Anglican Church, but by 
 means of ecclesiastical science and erudi- 
 tion, and by attaching English Protes- 
 tantism much less to the Reformation of 
 the sixteenth century than to the primitive 
 Church. The Puseytes did not reject the 
 Thirty-nine Articles of the confession of 
 Anglican law ; but professed for Apostolic 
 succession, for the tradition of the first six 
 centuries, a respect which led them to 
 adopt many points of Catholicity. Be- 
 sides, they protested against the unwar- 
 ranted interference of the civil power in 
 the government of the Church, and against 
 the supremacy granted to the sovereign in 
 ecclesiastical matters. They tried to re- 
 store Mass, the veneration of saints, espe- 
 cially that of the Blessed Virgin, auricular 
 confession, prayers for the dead, diverse 
 forms of worship, and Dr. Newmann form- 
 ally demanded, in a work published in 1841, 
 the reconciliation of the Anglican Church 
 with Rome. The result of the Puseyte 
 movement was, logically, to make many of 
 its followers embrace Catholicity entirely. 
 This was in fact what took place in regard 
 to Newmann, Manning, and thousands of 
 others. 
 
 Pyx. See Ciborium. 
 
 Quadragesima. — The name of the 
 Lenten season, or, more properly, the 
 first Sunday in Lent, It is so called by 
 analogy with the three Sundays which 
 precede Lent, and which are called re- 
 spectively Septuagesima {seventieth), Sex- 
 agesima {sixtieth), and Quinquagesima 
 i fiftieth). 
 
 Quadratus (St.). — Bishop of Athens. 
 Disciple of the Apostles and successor of 
 Publius, in 125. He upheld the courage 
 of the Faithful during the persecution of 
 Hadrian, and presented to the emperor an 
 apology in defense of the Christians and 
 their faith, which moved Hadrian to stop 
 the persecution. F. May 26th. 
 
Quakers 
 
 597 
 
 Rabbi 
 
 Quakers or Society of Friends. — Prot- 
 estant sect, which owes its origin to George 
 Fox, a shoemaker, who was born in Leices- 
 tershire in 1624, and died in 1690. The 
 term Quaker seems to have been bestowed 
 upon the new sect in allusion to Fox's 
 phrase in addressing the people : " Trem- 
 ble at the word of the Lord." The prin- 
 cipal distinguishing doctrine of the 
 Quakers is that of "the inward light of 
 Christ," in the language of the sect also 
 called "the internal word," "Christ 
 within," and " Kingdom of God within." 
 The divine light of Christ, who always 
 speaks when man is silent, is the source of 
 all religious knowledge, as well as of all 
 pious life, and is all-sufficient to redeem 
 and save man. This doctrine led the 
 Quakers to reject all sacraments, including 
 baptism and the Lord's supper, as well as 
 every established service. They have no 
 appointed ministers, observe no festivals 
 and use no rites or ceremonies. In their 
 meetings, they remain in profound silence 
 until some one believes himself moved by 
 the Holy Spirit to speak. Women may 
 exhort and speak as well as men, for the 
 "spirit of Christ" is bestowed irrespec- 
 tively of rank, learning, or sex. The 
 Quakers refuse taking oaths, abstain from 
 all military service, condemn dancing, all 
 kinds of games, and despise all music, 
 
 vocal as well as instrumental. The Quakers 
 were subjected to persecution in England, 
 which caused William Penn, one of their 
 distinguished members, to found the col- 
 ony of Pennsylvania, whence they spread 
 over several states of the Union. The sect 
 claims to have 200,000 members. 
 
 Quartodecimans. — A term designating 
 an heretical party in the early Church, 
 known as Ebionites, who celebrated Easter 
 by eating the Paschal Lamb on the four- 
 teenth of Nisan, after the manner of the 
 Jews. 
 
 Quesnel (Pasquikr) (1634-1719). — The- 
 ologian, born at Paris, died at Amsterdam. 
 Entered the Congregation of the Oratory 
 in 1659, and became the chief of the Jansen- 
 ist party after the death of Arnauld. His 
 Moral Reflections on the Netu Testament 
 were condemned by the Bull Unigenitus. 
 
 Quietism. — A system of piety advocated 
 by Michael Molinos. See Molinos. 
 
 Quinisextum Concilium. See Trullan 
 Synods. 
 
 Quinquagesima (a period of fifty days). 
 — The Sunday immediately preceding Ash 
 Wednesday, being the fiftieth day before 
 Easter (both inclusive) and the last Sunday 
 before Lent : Shrove Sunday. 
 
 Quirinius . See C hronology {Biblical) . 
 
 Rabanus Maurus (786-856). — Prelate, 
 born at Mayence. The most distinquished 
 German scholar of his epoch. He was a 
 monk of the Abbey of Fulda, and Alcuin's 
 most noted pupil. He was the chief 
 teacher in his monastery, and his school 
 became so celebrated that pupils from all 
 quarters flocked to Fulda. Rabanus was 
 afterwards raised to the see of Mayence 
 which he adorned by his virtues as he had 
 adorned Fulda by his learning. His prin- 
 cipal work De Institutione Clericorum, 
 written for the instruction of his own 
 scholars and their pupils, exercised a great 
 and beneficial influence upon all the 
 cloister schools in the Frankish Empire. 
 His work De Universe is a sort of uni- 
 versal encyclopaedia of the arts and sciences 
 then known. 
 
 Rabbath or Rabbath- Ammon afterwards 
 called Philadelphia, the capital of the 
 
 Ammonites, was situated in the mountains 
 of Galaad, near the source of the Arnon, 
 beyond the Jordan. It was famous even in 
 the time of Moses (Deut. iii. 13). When 
 David declared war against the Ammonites, 
 his general, Joab, laid siege to Rabbath- 
 Ammon, where Urias lost his life by a 
 secret order of his prince; when the city 
 was reduced to its last extremity, David 
 himself went thither, that he might have 
 the honor of taking it. From this time it 
 became subject to the king of Juda; but 
 the kings of Israel, subsequently, became 
 masters of it, with the tribes beyond the 
 Jordan. It is now called Amman. 
 
 Rabbi (literally my master). — A title of 
 respect or of office given to Jewish doctors 
 or expounders of the law. In modern 
 Jewish usage the term is strictly applied 
 only to those who are authorized by ordi- 
 nation to decide legal and ritualistic ques- 
 
Rab-mag 
 
 598 
 
 Rappe 
 
 tions, and to perform certain designated 
 functions, as to receive proselytes, etc. ; 
 but it is given by courtesy to other distin- 
 guished Jewish scholars. By persons, not 
 Hebrew, it is often applied to any one 
 ministering to a Jewish congregation, to 
 distinguish him from a Christian clergy- 
 man. 
 
 Rab-mag or Reb-mag. — A general of- 
 ficer of Nabuchodonosor's army, at the 
 taking of Jerusalem (Jer. xxxix. 3). It 
 means probably chief of the magi, a digni- 
 tary who had accompanied the king of 
 Babylon in his campaign. 
 
 Rab-saces (the chief butler or cup- 
 bearer). — An officer sent by Sennach- 
 erib, king of Assyria, to summon Ezechias 
 to surrender. He delivered his message 
 in a most insolent and oppressive manner. 
 The history is told in IV. Ki. xix. 17, etc. ; 
 II Par. xxxii. 9; etc. 
 
 Rab-saris. — An officer sent with Rab- 
 saces and Tharthan, to summon Ezechias 
 (IV, Ki. xviii. 17; Jer. xxxix. 3). It sig- 
 nifies the chief of the eunuchs. 
 
 Rabulas (St.). — Bishop of Edessa, 
 Syria ; lived about the beginning of the 
 fifth century. Was a zealous opponent of 
 the Nestorian heresy. He closed the Per- 
 sian school which favored Nestorianism. 
 
 Raca (Syr. ivorthless; naught). — A 
 transliterated word occurring in Matt. v. 
 22, common among the Jews in Christ's 
 time as an expression of contempt. 
 
 Rachel. — Second daughter of Laban. 
 Watering her flock at a well, near the city 
 of Haran, she met her cousin Jacob, and 
 hastened to show him her father's house. 
 Jacob remained fourteen years in the 
 service of Laban in order to have Rachel 
 for his wife. She became the mother of 
 Joseph and Benjamin. 
 
 Radbertus Paschasius. — Abbot of Cor- 
 vey, died in 865. Has left, besides Bibli- 
 cal commentaries, a c onypr eh e n si ve 
 treatise, On the Body and Blood of Our 
 Lord, in which he sets forth, with great 
 precision, but in terms not then in vogue 
 among theologians, the belief of the uni- 
 versal Church regarding the Blessed Sac- 
 rament. 
 
 Rages. — City of ancient Media, in the 
 neighborhood of Ecbatana. Here lived 
 Gabelus to whom younger Tobias went to 
 
 claim the six talents which Gabelus owed 
 to his father. The actual Razi or Rei. 
 
 Rahab. — A woman of Jericho, who con- 
 cealed the spies sent by Josue, and thereby 
 merited to be saved, with her whole 
 household, during the general massacre of 
 the inhabitants of Jericho. 
 
 Rama (Hebr. mountain). — Ancient city 
 of Palestine, in the tribe of Benjamin, 
 between Gabaa and Bethel. The actual Er- 
 Ram; 200 inhabitants. 
 
 Ramathaim-Sophim. — Ancient city of 
 Palestine, near Rama, on the south side. 
 The actual village Neby-Samouil (Prophet 
 Samuel). Important ruins. 
 
 Raphael. — One of the seven archangels 
 who, according to the Bible, are before 
 the throne of God. Raphael was the pro- 
 tector and guide of Tobias and advised 
 him to marry Sara. F. Sept. 12th. 
 
 Raphia. — City of Palestine on the fron- 
 tier of Syria and Egypt. Victory of Ptol- 
 emy IV. Philopator, over Antiochus the 
 Great, king of Syria, in the year 217 b. c. 
 The actual Refali. 
 
 Raphidim. — Ancient place of Arabia 
 Petraea, situated near Mount Horeb. Here 
 the Israelites camped during their Exo- 
 dus ; here Moses received the visit of 
 Jethro, his father-in-law, and here he 
 caused water to come forth, in a miracu- 
 lous manner, by striking the rock with his 
 rod. Here, also, Josue defeated the Amel- 
 ekites. 
 
 Rappe (Amadeus) (1797-1877). — Amer- 
 ican prelate; was born in the diocese of 
 Arras,France; died at St. Alban's, Vermont. 
 After his ordination he came to America 
 and joined the Diocese of Cincinnati about 
 1840. After having labored for many 
 years at Toledo and attending to all the 
 Catholics in the Valley of the Maumee, 
 he was appointed the first bishop of 
 Cleveland in 1847. Trained as a hard 
 working missionary, he labored to give his 
 flock more priests and churches, establish- 
 ing a theological seminary at an early 
 date. Bishop Rappe had built up the dio- 
 cese, and might have expected in his de- 
 clining years to enjoy a happy old age 
 amid the clergy and people whom he had 
 guided as a faithful pastor for twenty 
 years; but this was not to be. An un- 
 grateful opposition sprang up, calumny 
 assailed even the venerable bishop, who 
 
Raskolniks 
 
 599 
 
 Rationalism 
 
 with a broken heart resigned his see Aug. 
 22d, 1870, and retired to tlie diocese of his 
 good friend, Bishop de Goesbriand, of Bur- 
 lington, Vermont. There he resumed his 
 old missionary life, laboring assiduously 
 among the people, giving missions and re- 
 treats, and earnestly advocating the cause 
 of temperance. He died piously at St. 
 Alban's, Vermont, Sept. 9th, 1877. His 
 remains were conveyed to and interred in 
 Cleveland with all the honor due to his 
 life and services. 
 
 Raskolniks. — Among the various sects 
 of the Russian State Church, the most 
 numerous are the so-called Raskolniks 
 {Separatists), or, as they style themselves, 
 Starowierzi (that is. Men of the Old 
 Faith). The origin of this sect, the mem- 
 bers of which are again subdivided into 
 various parties, falls in the year 1660. 
 The occasion of it was the revision of the 
 translations of the Bible and liturgical 
 books undertaken by the Patriarch Nikon. 
 
 Rationalism. — A system, which, like 
 deism and naturalism, acknowledges in 
 religion, only what reason, left to itself, 
 can discover. The Rationalists place rea- 
 son above faith and pretend that philosophy 
 can, without it, arrive at the term of human 
 destiny, that is, at beatitude. According 
 to them, the supernatural order does not 
 exist at all, or is impossible, or at least 
 belief in it is not obligatory and com- 
 manded. The absolute independence, the 
 complete emancipation of reason, is their 
 supreme principle. In our time they even 
 endeavor to abolish religion in order to 
 substitute for it philosophy, in both the 
 intellectual and religious direction of 
 humanity. Powerless to found their sys- 
 tem upon any rational principle, they con- 
 tinually appeal to big words of science 
 and reason ! They would like, if it were 
 possible, to make mankind retrograde to 
 paganism. St. Thomas refuted this system 
 long ago. On the question whether man, 
 by purely natural means, can arrive at his 
 supreme destiny, that is, to know God in 
 His essence and thus arrive at beatitude, 
 the holy Doctor answers: "This is im- 
 possible, for knowledge can have place 
 only in so far as the object known is in the 
 subject which knows it; now only a divine 
 intelligence is capable of knowing the 
 Being which subsists by itself, and which 
 is its own Being ; therefore, this knowledge 
 is above the natural faculties of every 
 
 created spirit, because there is no creature^ 
 which is, in itself, its own being; God, 
 however, can unite Himself with man 
 through grace and thus render Himself ac- 
 cessible according to the words of St. Paul : 
 ' The grace of God is eternal life.'" In 
 facts of truth and virtue, we can say, ac- 
 cording to experience, that reason could 
 never found anything stable. We do not 
 mean to say, thereby, that reason is com- 
 pletely powerless to discover truths of the 
 natural order; but we are not afraid to 
 maintain, after St. Thomas, that it is im- 
 possible for the greatest number, without 
 the help of faith, to discover all the truths, 
 even in the natural order, unaided by 
 supernatural light. Reason can never be 
 certain in its investigations, although be- 
 fore its view takes place all the great prob- 
 lems that interest humanity the most. Is 
 man in a pure state of nature? Has God. 
 spoken? Has He founded a religious 
 society? Is man created for a supernatural 
 end? We can defy rationalism to give a 
 satisfactory solution to any of these ques- 
 tions, or even to prove that, after having 
 drawn man out of nothing, after having 
 endowed him with an excellent nature, 
 God could not reserve the right to elevate 
 him suddenly, or progressively, to a supe- 
 rior order. We know that the scope of 
 reason is very limited, that never here 
 below can it succeed in grasping the ade- 
 quate truth, and that, on the contrary, in 
 all the great philosophical or religious 
 questions, it can onl}' lose itself in error. 
 The history of philosophy proves into 
 what aberrations human reason, if left to 
 itself, is capable of falling: for more than 
 three thousand years it has done nothing 
 but republish the same errors. Strange 
 destiny, indeed, that human reason is con- 
 demned to turn perpetually in the same 
 circle of errors. 
 
 Rationalism is of English origin, and 
 was first called deism. This doctrine hav- 
 ing spread in Germany in the eighteenth 
 century, the German methodic mind trans- 
 formed it into a scientific system, under 
 the name of rationalism. Founding itself 
 upon the negative principle of Kantian 
 knowledge, it denied, not only positive re- 
 ligion, but also natural religion itself. The 
 small number of Protestant theologians 
 who remained outside the movement ad- 
 hered to the Bible and entered a way 
 which brought them close to the Catholic 
 Church. Voltaire and the Encyclopaedists 
 in France, were the most ardent propa- 
 
Ratisbonne 
 
 600 
 
 Recollects 
 
 gators of rationalism, which speedily de- 
 generated into materialism. 
 
 We may say that the system of rational- 
 ism is a consequence of Protestantism and 
 a natural fruit of private interpretation of 
 Holy Scripture. Like heresy, indeed, it 
 pretends to erect into dogmas its own 
 conceptions. The philosophy of the eight- 
 eenth century had denied the dogma of 
 both the natural and the supernatural. 
 However, everything had not been de- 
 stroyed ; there still remained the history of 
 mankind, which testifies in favor of a 
 primitive and traditional truth, containing 
 the germs of the great dogmas which 
 Christianity came to fix in the Church for- 
 ever. Rationalism introduced free inquiry 
 upon this reserved ground, just as Protest- 
 antism had done in the field of the Scrip- 
 tures. In our days, rationalism has arrived 
 at its most extreme consequences ; by deny- 
 ing all supersensible truth, it goes so far as 
 to undermine the basis of the constituent 
 principles of social order; in its last evolu- 
 tions, it necessarily dissolves itself into 
 pantheism and atheism: there is no God, 
 reason is God; no immortality of the soul, 
 and hence no morals. By the fruits we 
 know the tree. What has rationalism 
 made of Christian society in this century 
 of its power? It has caused division in the 
 minds; hatred in the hearts; intellectual, 
 moral, and social anarchy. Behold the 
 fruits of rationalism! See Reason and 
 Faith. 
 
 Ratisbonne (Alphonse Maria) (1812- 
 188^). — Brother of the following, born at 
 Strasburg, died in Jerusalem. Abjured 
 the Jewish religion in 1842, at Rome; made 
 his novitiate at the Jesuits, then entered 
 the Society of Priests of Our Lady of Sion. 
 
 Ratisbonne (Maria Theodor) (1802- 
 1884). — Lawyer, then religious. Born at 
 Strasburg, died in Paris. Of Jewish origin, 
 he became a Catholic in 1826, received 
 holy orders, then became missionary apos- 
 tolic, founder and general superior of the 
 Congregation of Our Lady of Sion, in 
 Paris (1842). 
 
 Ratramus. — Monk of Cor\'ey, theolo- 
 gian, died about 870. One of the most 
 learned men of his time. 
 
 Ravignan (Gustave Xavier Lacroix 
 de) (1795-1858). — Jesuit and celebrated 
 preacher, born at Bayonne, died in Paris. 
 In 1837 he became preacher of Notre-Dame 
 of Paris, where he achieved great success. 
 
 His oratorial action was beautiful, because 
 it was true. He held his position for 
 nearly ten years, when ill-health compelled 
 him to retire to his convent. 
 
 Raymond of Pennaforte. See Order 
 OF Mercy. 
 
 Realism. See Nominalism. 
 
 Reason and Faith. — How far can we 
 understand the supernatural truths or mys- 
 teries which we believe on the authority of 
 God and the Church ? Rationalists and 
 Agnostics of all times have held that no 
 understanding of things is possible beyond 
 the sphere of natural reason. Abelard 
 and some theologians of the thirteenth 
 century, and in modern times Giinther 
 and Frohschammer, were of the opinion 
 that nothing is beyond the grasp of human 
 reason, and, consequently, that supernat- 
 ural truths can be demonstrated by reason, 
 and that faith can be replaced by knowl- 
 edge. Other theologians allow the coex- 
 istence of faith with knowledge, pretending 
 that reason adds a new certitude to faith. 
 Against these errors the Vatican Council 
 teaches that some understanding of mys- 
 teries is possible, and it lays dov.n its 
 conditions and rules: "When Reason, 
 enlightened by faith, maketh diligent, 
 pious, and sober inquiry, she attaineth, by 
 God's gift, most fruitful knowledge of 
 mysteries, both from the analogy of things 
 naturally known and from the relation of 
 mysteries with one another and with the 
 end of man." Then the Council sets forth 
 that this understanding is less clear and 
 less perfect than our understanding of 
 things natural. "Still she (Reason) is 
 never rendered fit to perceive them in the 
 same way as the truths which are her own 
 proper object. For the divine mysteries, 
 by their very nature, so far surpass the 
 created intellect that, even when conveyed 
 by revelation and received by faith, they 
 remain covered by the veil of faith and, as 
 it were, hidden by a cloud, as long as in 
 this mortal life we are absent from the 
 Lord, for we walk by faith and not by 
 sight" (Sess. iii.. Chap. 4). 
 
 Recollects. — A branch of the Francis- 
 can Order, founded in 1500, by the blessed 
 John Guadalupe. Its members are re- 
 quired to observe the original rigor of the 
 institute. Recollects came to Cincinnati, 
 Ohio, more than fifty years ago and now 
 have several houses in the United States. 
 See Franciscans. 
 
Rector 
 
 60 1 
 
 Redeemer 
 
 Rector (pastor who has cura antmarum, 
 "the care of souls")- — In accordance with 
 the general law of the Church, and the 
 proposals made by the Holy See by the S. 
 Congregation de Propaganda Fide, in the 
 Conferences held at Rome in 1883, the 
 Third Plenary Council of Baltimore, or- 
 dains that in every diocese, the bishop shall, 
 with the advice of his consultors, select 
 certain missions, all of which have been 
 thus far missions atnovibiles, and make 
 them missions inamovibiles, in such num- 
 ber, that at least one rector of every ten 
 will be in future irremovable. However, 
 the Council advises the bishops not to ex- 
 ceed this number, except for good reasons, 
 within the first twenty years after the 
 promulgation of its decrees. It is, how- 
 ever, the general impression that such 
 missions inamovibiles are not canonical 
 parishes, properly speaking, except in some 
 parts of California. 
 
 As can be seen from the above, up to 
 the Third Plenary Council of Baltimore, 
 all our rectors were amovibiles. Since the 
 aforesaid Council decreed that, in future 
 one rector out of every ten should be irre- 
 movable, we have at present, in the United 
 States, two kinds of rectors, removable 
 and irremovable. Our rectors, who are 
 removable, are appointed in the manner 
 laid down by the Second Plenary Council 
 of Baltimore (n. 126). As to our irre- 
 movable rectors, the Third Plenary Coun- 
 cil of Baltimore enacts: i. The creation 
 of irremovable missions and the appoint- 
 ment of irremovable rectors must take 
 place within three years from the promul- 
 gation of the council, that is from Jan. 
 6th, 1886. 2. The bishop can appoint the 
 irremovable rectors, for the first time, 
 without the concursus, though not without 
 the advice of his consultors; after that 
 only by concursus, and that on pain of 
 nullity of the appointment. See Con- 
 cursus. 
 
 Irremovable rectors can be dismissed 
 from their parishes only for crimes which 
 are very grave : expressly stated in law and 
 upon a regular — i. e., formal or solemn — 
 canonical trial. The offenses for which 
 irremovable rectors are ipso jure (by the 
 very fact) deprived of their parishes or 
 missions are chiefly : Heresy; falsification 
 of apostolic letters; assassination; killing 
 or striking a cardinal or bishop ; procur- 
 ing abortion; sodomy; simony; duelling, 
 even when death does not ensue; visurpa- 
 tion of the property of any Church or 
 
 locus pius (pious place) ; alienating Church 
 property, except in cases permitted by law, 
 if he, having been improperly promoted to 
 sacred orders, presumes to exercise the 
 orders thus received; for omitting to re- 
 ceive orders within a year. 
 
 The offenses to which dismissal from the 
 parish is annexed only after the sentence of 
 the judge are : Neglect to wear a becom- 
 ing clerical dress ; drunkenness ; gambling ; 
 murder; perjury; theft, and the like. 
 Also insordescentia in censuris, concu- 
 binage and simple fornication. For other 
 offenses, see Third Plenary Council of 
 Baltimore (III. No. 37). 
 
 Redeemer and Redemption. — We shall 
 understand what is meant by a redeemer if 
 we think of the times when men were not 
 uncommonly kidnapped by pirates and car- 
 ried away into slavery. For many centuries 
 the infidels who held the southern shores 
 of the Mediterranean sea, made frequent 
 inroads on the neighboring coasts, and led 
 away as captives many of the Christian 
 inhabitants who fell into their hands. This 
 was the fate of St. Vincent of Paul in the 
 year 1605. It was obviously a great act of 
 kindness, when Christians bought back 
 these unfortunates from their masters, and 
 restored them to liberty, thus saving them 
 from misery and from danger of apostasy. 
 More than one religious order charged 
 themselves with this work, and the breth- 
 ren would often themselves offer to take 
 the place of some miserable captive for 
 whom they could find no other ransom. 
 To redeem, then, was to buy back; to pay 
 a ransom to the master of a slave, and this 
 whether the slavery had any pretense of 
 lawful origin or was wholly and utterly 
 lawless. It is in this sense that Christ is 
 our Redeemer, for when we were slaves of 
 Satan, He gave Himself a redemption for 
 all (I. Tim. ii. 6), buying us with a great 
 price (I. Cor. vi. 20), — His own Precious 
 Blood and Life. 
 
 After sin had been committed, a redeemer 
 had to be found. This Redeemer was 
 the one, Who, being the Word of God, 
 has created and knew how to operate in 
 Himself a new creation. But He had to 
 unite to the nature of the Word, Son of 
 God, the nature of man, that is, the In- 
 carnation was the obligatory prelu -e of 
 redemption. The fact of the redemption 
 consists, therefore, in this : that Jesus 
 Christ, innocent and without sin, took 
 upon Himself the sin, the fault, the chas- 
 
Redemptorists 
 
 602 
 
 Religion 
 
 tisement or expiation. By the sin of one, 
 says the Apostle (Rom. v. 18) the sentence 
 of condemnation involved all mankind ; so, 
 also, by the justice of One; the justifica- 
 tion of life extended itself over all men. 
 
 Redemptorists. See Liguori. 
 
 Reformation {Causes and Effects of). 
 See Protestantism. 
 
 Regalia (in ecclesiastical history, the 
 power of the sovereign in ecclesiastical 
 affairs). — In monarchical countries, where 
 the papal authority is recognized by the 
 State, the regalia are usually defined by a 
 concordat with the Holy See; in other 
 monarchical countries it takes the form of 
 the royal supremacy. In mediaeval times, 
 the regalia involved the right of enjoyment 
 of the revenues of vacant bishoprics, and 
 of presentation to all ecclesiastical bene- 
 fices or positions above the ordinary paro- 
 chial cures during the vacancy of a see. 
 These rights were exercised by the Nor- 
 man and Plantagenet kings of England, 
 and by the French kings from the eleventh 
 century onward with constantl}^ widening 
 application and increased insistence till 
 the time of Louis XIV. See Ixvestiturk. 
 
 Regeneration. — The spiritual birth 
 which we receive in baptism. This second 
 birth renders us children of God. See 
 Baptism. 
 
 Regina Cceli (Latin words which sig- 
 nify Sijicen of Heaven). — An anthem in 
 honor of the Blessed Virgin beginning 
 with these words, and after each of whose 
 four clauses the Alleluia is repeated. It is 
 said at the end of the offices of the Brevi- 
 ary during the Easter season. Pope Bene- 
 dict XIV., confirming April 20th, 1742, 
 the indulgences granted to the recitation 
 of the Angelus, ordered that the Regina 
 Call with its verses and prayers, be said 
 standing, instead of kneeling during Easter 
 time. 
 
 Reifenstuel (Anaclet). — Franciscan of 
 the eighteenth century. He wrote a work 
 on Canon Law {Jus Can. Univers.), 
 Venice, 1704. Its order, clearness, and 
 method are excellent, and it has passed 
 through many editions. 
 
 Relics (Lat. reliquicB, remains). — Relics 
 is the ecclesiastical term for the remains 
 of a saint after his death, either of the en- 
 tire body, or a part of the body. Just as 
 we venerate and pray to the saints, so also 
 we pay respect to material objects which 
 
 had some special connection with them. 
 To rob a royal sepulchre, and burn the 
 bones, would be an act redounding to the 
 dishonor of the object of the outrage; this 
 would be a case of relative civil disrespect; 
 in like manner, to decorate the tomb of a 
 martyr would be relative veneration. We 
 see here the nature of all honor paid to 
 relics, and we find abundant authority for 
 paying such honor. That thing which 
 God is pleased to use as the instrument of 
 a miracle certainly deserves honor, and 
 this honor may well redound to a saint on 
 whose account the miracle was worked. 
 We read in Scripture that the bones of the 
 Prophet Eliseus were used as the means 
 of restoring a dead man to life (IV. Ki. 
 xiii. 21 ; Ecclus. xlviii. 14), and garments 
 that had touched the body of St. Paul 
 gained the power of healing sicknesses 
 (Acts xix. 12). Nothing that has ever 
 been said by Catholic writers, concerning 
 the virtue that resides in relics of the saints, 
 attributes more to them than is ascribed 
 by Holy Scripture. The Church has never 
 made a declaration concerning the genuine- 
 ness of any alleged relic and we, therefore, 
 can have no certaint}' on this point. But 
 we are justified in paying honor whenever 
 we have a reasonable probability that the 
 object is what we suppose it to be. See 
 Saints. 
 
 Religion and Virtue of Religion. — By 
 
 religion we understand the ensemble of 
 doctrines and practices which constitutes 
 the relation of man with the divine power. 
 Religion exists in the world as a means of 
 salvation proposed to all men. It does not 
 operate in the individual without the free 
 concurrence of the will, that is, it must 
 first be the object of a humble acceptation 
 of the mind, and secondly, through obedi- 
 ence, it must lead us to the realization of 
 the precepts or commandments. The 
 tendency and disposition of a heart that 
 consecrates itself to God to serv'e Him 
 interiorly by prayer and submission, and 
 exteriorly by acts of adoration and by all 
 that belongs to the observance of His wor- 
 ship and law, is what we call the \-irtue of 
 religion. This virtue can be defined thus: 
 a general habit which comprises, imme- 
 diately, the theological virtues of faith, 
 hope, and charity, and in a less intimate 
 manner, or only mediately, all the moral 
 virtues. Public worship is one of the most 
 powerful means to excite and to maintain 
 the virtue of religion in the soul. 
 
Religion and History 
 
 603 
 
 Religion and History 
 
 Christian Religion. — All nations have 
 had a religion, and at all times they recog- 
 nized that religion is necessary for men 
 individually, and not less necessary for 
 men united in society. In accepting this 
 idea as the starting point, the philosophers 
 of the eighteenth century discussed at 
 length the natural religion, the only one 
 they wished to admit. This natural re- 
 ligion, which never historically existed, 
 they composed according to their own 
 liking by a choice of beliefs at which, ac- 
 cording to them, reason alone can arrive; 
 in reality, they were themselves the in- 
 ventors thereof, as well as the disciples. 
 The religion of nature expresses quite a 
 different idea from the philosophical con- 
 ception of natural religion. The religion 
 of nature is that which, under various 
 symbols, deifies nature or the forces of na- 
 ture, without elevating itself to God, who 
 is the author thereof. Only one religion 
 is historical and goes back in its annals to 
 the beginning of the world. It gave to the 
 first men the promise of a Redeemer; of 
 the anointed of the Lord, or His Christ. 
 It exhibited in the Patriarchs figures of 
 this Christ, and renewed to the Patriarchs, 
 to reanimate their faith and hope, the an- 
 cient pfomise. The prophetic ministry 
 developed this promise, by furnishing the 
 most minute details about the life, birth, 
 and death of the Christ, that was going to 
 come. The time of the law, that is, of the 
 Mosaic institution, will confer upon one 
 people both the character and mission of 
 permanent witness amidst mankind. The 
 history of this people will have a sense 
 which no other history presents; it will 
 converge entirely toward the one fact of 
 the Messias. When, finally, Jesus Christ 
 has come. He will teach all truth. He 
 unites all men in the same love of God and 
 of our neighbor. He performs striking 
 miracles, and the miracle will continue in 
 all the ages of the Church to convince the 
 rebellious minds. His enemies will put 
 Him to death, and in this death He tri- 
 umphs. The Apostles and the preachers 
 of the Gospel will have no more powerful 
 means to carry the victory than the spilling 
 of their blood. The Church will be perse- 
 cuted at all times, but the gates of hell 
 shall not prevail against her. Finally, 
 entire civilization will be marked with 
 the seal of Christ, and if the nations call 
 themselves no longer the Christendom, 
 as in the Middle Ages, the civilization 
 of which they are proud will have no 
 
 other name than that of Christian Civiliza- 
 tion. 
 
 Religion and History. — Civilization 
 throughout the length and breadth of its 
 history, furnishes us no phenomena so wide- 
 spread and so far reaching in its conse- 
 quences as religion. The faint light that 
 breaks on us from the early dawn of civil- , 
 ization, shows that human knowledge and 
 morality originated in religion, that reli- 
 gion is the spring from which the first 
 songs of soul-thrilling poetry were drawn, 
 and that religious worship was the parent 
 of the firstborn of art. In Iranian and Indian 
 documents, in Egyptian hieroglyphics, and 
 in the cuneiform inscriptions of the Chalde- 
 ans, religion everywhere asserts its claim to 
 be considered the chief and most influential 
 factor in the life of families and of nations. 
 The history of religion is the history of 
 man. It is the groundwork and the key to 
 the right understanding of all history. 
 Our knowledge of antiquity has advanced 
 by leaps and bounds ; yet it oflfers no ex- 
 planation of the fact of religion, but merely 
 bears witness to its existence in the remot- 
 est ages. Both civilized and uncivilized 
 races tell the same tale. If ancient writers 
 had asserted that belief in a God was uni- 
 versal, and that there existed no people so 
 savage and lawless but that they worshiped 
 some God, the statement might have been 
 set down as a hasty or superficial general- 
 ization, due to their comparatively narrow 
 knowledge of ethnography. Even the 
 Fathers and the learned men of the Middle 
 Ages knew but little of the inhabitants of 
 the various parts of the world. Now, how- 
 ever, circumstances are altered. The dis- 
 covery of two continents and of numberless 
 islands, and the exploration of the "Dark 
 Continent," have widened to an unfore- 
 seen extent the circle of human knowledge. 
 And yet all modern discoveries in ethnog- 
 raphy and anthropology do but confirm 
 the ancient truth. No nation has yet been 
 discovered wholly devoid of religion ! 
 
 Writers of the Darwinian School, such 
 as Sir John Lubbock and Haeckel, have 
 had the hardihood to assert that there are 
 men in Southern Asia and Eastern Africa 
 wandering about in droves, living on the 
 fruits of the earth, unacquainted with fire, 
 using stone weapons and implements, and 
 spending most of their time in climbing 
 trees, like apes of the higher class. But'' 
 even such staunch Darwinians as Hellwald 
 and Caspari allow that this contention 
 smacks more of romance than of history. 
 
Religion and History 
 
 604 
 
 Religion and History 
 
 The alleged tribe is a creation of fancy 
 without definite abode. It was a favorite 
 dodge of Bayle and the skeptical school to 
 justify atheism by pointing to the existence 
 of tribes with no religion. Of course 
 there have been explorers who have in all 
 sincerity written in this sense. Living- 
 stone asserts that no trace of religion was 
 to be found among the inhabitants of 
 Bechuanaland ; Samuel Baker, Dalton, and 
 Lichtenstein say the same of South- 
 African and American tribes; Messenger 
 Bradley makes a like statement about an 
 Australian tribe. Sir John Lubbock ap- 
 peals to the testimony of Catholic and 
 Protestant missionaries. In like manner, 
 the Abbe Lesserteur, professor of theology 
 at the Seminary of Foreign Missions, 
 maintains that the knowledge of God is 
 not universal. In support of his thesis, he 
 cites the Missions CathoUques of 1881, in 
 which Father Berengier says that the Ar- 
 aconians of Bengal have no idea of the ex- 
 istence of a Supreme Being; but they 
 believe that brooks and trees are peopled 
 by mysterious spirits. Moreover, he 
 quotes Mgr. Bourdon, Vicar Apostolic of 
 Burmah, as saying that Kachyens have not 
 the least notion of an eternal, almighty, 
 and infinite God, the creator and sustainer 
 of the universe, who will reward the good 
 and punish the wicked. In the same cate- 
 gory he places the Amamites, who believe 
 in higher orders of spirits, for the most 
 part wicked and terrible ; but he insists 
 that this belief cannot be described as a 
 knowledge of God. 
 
 In saying so much, however, Lesserteur 
 has made his meaning clear. If, for the 
 knowledge of God, he requires " the idea 
 of a supreme being who created heaven 
 and earth, and is the sovereign Lord of all 
 things," this exalted conception will not 
 easily be discovered among savages. But 
 it is hardly fair to test the faith of low 
 savages by our enlightened ideas about 
 God. Nor, should it be forgotten that the 
 conduct of a savage, from which alone his 
 belief can be gathered, is often resers-ed 
 and difficult to understand. For this rea- 
 son we must observe caution in receiving 
 the depositions even of travelers and mis- 
 sionaries. Long years of patient observa- 
 tion, thorough knowledge of the country, 
 and familiar and confidential intercourse 
 with the natives are the only security 
 against error. In the presence of white 
 men, savages are often reticent, being 
 afraid to mention the names of their gods. 
 
 In this way many contradictory statements 
 may be explained. A little while ago the 
 Zulus were accredited with having no re- 
 ligious ideas of any kind. Now, mission- 
 aries are often puzzled by their subtile 
 questions. They believe in an invisible 
 God, dwelling in the heavens, who created 
 all things, and guides the destiny of man. 
 BoskofT has refuted Sir John Lubbock in 
 detail; Quatrefages has done a similar 
 service to the stories of missionaries ; Tyler, 
 Peschel, and Max Miiller have defended the 
 same thesis with success. In the last in- 
 stant the pivot on which the whole dispute 
 turns is the question as to how much is es- 
 sential to the idea of religion. Sir John 
 Lubbock himself admits that it will be dif- 
 ficult to find any savages without religion, 
 if magic, in large or small quantities, is al- 
 lowed to do duty for religion. He grants 
 that religion is common to all men if reli- 
 gion is made to include a mere dread and 
 consciousness of beings more powerful 
 than ourselves. But he thereby concedes 
 in principle the universality of religion. 
 
 Even superstition and magic, however 
 debased and degraded, are an evidence of 
 faith and of religion. Sacrifice and prayer 
 are constituent elements of both, though 
 the one be repulsive and the other mean- 
 ingless and mechanical. Both magic and 
 superstition have for their object union 
 with a superior being ; both are an ac- 
 knowledgment of man's dependence on a 
 superior power; both point to the need of 
 reconciliation with the powers above. In- 
 separably linked with these rites is belief 
 in immortality. Whatever construction 
 we put upon this belief, it is invariably as- 
 sociated with religion, and shows itself in 
 the belief that man is destined to lead a 
 happy life in the world to come, in the 
 company of invisible spirits and the ances- 
 tors who have gone before. Hence the 
 worship of the dead, which is so common 
 among savages that it forms the center 
 round which their religious ceremonial re- 
 volves. Formerly, it was said that the 
 negro races stood alone in denying the im- 
 mortality of the soul ; however, also they 
 believe in it. The various funeral customs 
 that prevail in Africa and the South Sea 
 Islands are, indeed, a disgrace to humanity ; 
 but they ser\'e to show that these tribes 
 believe that there is a life beyond the 
 grave. The African religions have, there- 
 fore, long ceased to be classed as fetichism 
 pure and simple. In the obscure creeds of 
 the black races, we can now find distinct 
 
Religions 
 
 60s 
 
 Remigius 
 
 traces of serpent worship; the duty of 
 reverencing ancestors is strongly incul- 
 cated; a gloomy, morose belief in a future 
 life pei-vades them, yea — through the 
 chinks there dimly shines the recollection, 
 never wholly extinguished, of a supreme 
 God, who is equally the Father of white 
 men and of black men. Then, too, the 
 inhabitants of the islands dotted over the 
 Pacific and Indian Oceans, Malays, 
 Papuans, and Polynesians, have some no- 
 tion of sacrifice and prayer, some idea of a 
 Divine Being, and they are buoyed up by 
 hope in a life to come that will never end. 
 And archaeology enables us to discover the 
 footprints of funeral rites, even in prehis- 
 toric times. 
 
 No people exists in whom the idea of 
 morality has not taken root. Ethics had 
 long been the hinge on which popular 
 philosophy turned. Socrates limited phi- 
 losophy to ethics. Morality postulates 
 faith, and it is at once a proof and a product 
 of faith. The laws of man are founded on 
 the commandments of God, and, in point 
 of time, religious notions are prior to the 
 distinction between good and evil. The 
 moral law is enthroned on a higher pedes- 
 tal. This is indeed denied by some anthro- 
 pologists of note, like Taylor and Weitz ; 
 but here again it is a question of defining 
 terms. Morality is often made to consist 
 wholly of the most trivial outward observ- 
 ances ; nevertheless, it is founded on the dis- 
 tinction between good and evil, as between 
 man and a power above him. With moral- 
 ity were frequently bound up the dread of 
 punishment and the desire to be purified 
 and redeemed. Thus, religion became an 
 engine of education and a means of amel- 
 iorating the condition of mankind. 
 
 The picture drawn of the moral life of 
 savages is indeed dark and full of horrors. 
 But were civilized races any better in the 
 earlier ages ? Does not the idea of religion 
 rise to the surface of the surging floods? 
 May it not regain that influence for good 
 which it once had ? Cannibalism originally 
 existed everywhere. It overran Europe 
 and Asia, devastating the fair provinces of 
 Italy and France, England and Germany. 
 In the opinion of many savants, it can be 
 traced in the religion of the Old Testa- 
 ment. It was flourishing in America when 
 Columbus landed. It is still a power in 
 Africa, Asia, and Australia. At the pres- 
 ent, five and a quarter millions of men are 
 its slaves. At times men may have been 
 instigated to it by hunger, or craving for 
 
 human flesh, or by the desire to kill an 
 enemy out of revenge, and thus make his 
 bravery their own ; but its motive is super- 
 stitious and religious. Men make their 
 gods as cruel as themselves, and strive to 
 propitiate them with human sacrifices. 
 The Mexicans offered up to their god a 
 heart " in order to renew the youth of the 
 natural forces that sway the universe " ; 
 and they took the heart out of the noblest 
 of living beings — man. The same idea finds 
 expression in the savage cruelties perpe- 
 trated in the human sacrifices of the Aztecs, 
 — cruelties that spread to an alarming ex- 
 tent among other races and cities. The 
 men themselves partook of the sacrificial 
 meal. Religion looms behind the ghastly 
 human sacrifices that take place at funerals. 
 As suicide among Hindoos has a religious 
 motive, so the variety of views about this 
 life, a life in the world to come, accounts 
 for all such revolting barbarities in family 
 and tribal life. An explanation of many 
 of them must be sought in that love which 
 endures beyond the grave. 
 
 Religions {Approximate State of the 
 Differettt). — The population of the globe 
 being 1,300,000,000, the religions are stated 
 to ofTer the following proportions: i. 
 Christians, 335,000,000; 2. Jews, 5,000,000; 
 3. Mohammedans, 160,000,000; 4. Budhists 
 and Brahmans, 600,000,000; 5. Pagans and 
 Fetichists, 200,000,000. The Christians 
 may be subdivided thus : Catholics, 270,- 
 000,000; Protestants, 89,000,000; Schis- 
 matics, 76,000,000. Of the 335,000,000 
 Christians, it is counted that 169,000,000 
 are in Europe, 58,000,000 in America, 
 and the remainder in other countries of 
 the world. It is claimed that there are in 
 Europe 3,500,000 Jews and 71,000,000 Mo- 
 hammedans ; Asia, it is claimed, contains 
 50,000,000 Mohammedans and Africa the 
 remainder. The Buddhists and Brahmans 
 are almost all in Asia. According to the 
 latest accounts. Catholicity is gaining 
 ground in all parts of the world, especially 
 in America and Africa, on account of the 
 increase of the population and through the 
 strong impulse impressed upon the mis- 
 sions by the Holy See. 
 
 Remigius (St.) (437-533). — Archbishop 
 of Rheims and apostle of the Franks. 
 Born at Cerny, France, of a noble family; 
 died at Rheims. Clovis, king of the 
 Franks, was baptized by St. Remigius on 
 Christmas day, in 496. On this occasion, 
 the saint addressing Clovis, and referring 
 
Remonstrants 
 
 606 
 
 Reprobation 
 
 to the idols of pagan and to the symbols of 
 Christian worship, said: "Humble thy- 
 self, proud Sicambrian ; burn now what 
 thou didst formerly adore, and adore now 
 what thou didst formerly burn." Three 
 thousand Prankish nobles and a great 
 number of Frankish ladies followed the 
 example of Clovis, and were at once 
 baptized by the attending bishops and 
 clergy. According to a legend of a more 
 recent date, the press of the people was so 
 great at the ceremony of the anointing and 
 coronation of Clovis, that the attendant 
 who bore the chrism could not make his 
 way to Bishop Remigius, who officiated on 
 this occasion. The interruption, however, 
 was short; for a white dove descending 
 from heaven supplied the sacred oil, and, 
 after the prince had been anointed and 
 crowned, he was saluted as the newly 
 arisen Constantine. F. Oct. ist. See 
 Clovis and Clotilda. 
 
 Remonstrants. — Arminians; name ap- 
 plied to them from a document consisting 
 of five articles expressing the points of 
 divergence of the Dutch Arminians from 
 strict Calvinism, presented to the states of 
 Holland and West-Friesland in 1610. 
 
 Renan (Joseph Ernest) (1823-1892). — 
 Orientalist, historian, and essayist, born 
 at Treguier, in Brittany. In 1842 he en- 
 tered the Seminary of St. Sulpice, but 
 three years later gave up the idea of be- 
 coming a priest. His first important work, 
 Az'erroes et I' Ar'erroisme, appeared in 
 1852. He was professor of Hebrew in the 
 Institute of France 1861-1862, and was reap- 
 pointed in 1870. His V^ie de Jesus (1863), 
 which gave rise to much discussion, was 
 afterwards expanded into Histoire des 
 Origines du Christianisme. He also pub- 
 lished Le yudaisme (1883), and numerous 
 other works. All his books are on the 
 Index. 
 
 Reprobation. — Reprobation is an act or 
 decree by which God excludes from the 
 kingdom of heaven and condemns to the 
 pains of hell, the sinners who die in final 
 impenitence. It is the contrary of predes- 
 tination. This decree, although infallible 
 like the divine prescience, imposes upon 
 those, who are the object thereof, no neces- 
 sity to sin. It even supposes the liberty, 
 or the voluntary and really f^ee abuse of 
 grace, which God refuses to nobody. The 
 one who is damned is not damned because 
 there exists a decree of reprobation ; for 
 
 this decree exists only because the sinner 
 whom it concerns damns himself, by will- 
 ingly and freely persevering in his sin 
 until the end. It is of faith that after this 
 life there is a hell for the wicked. Also, it 
 is of faith that the pains of hell are eter- 
 nal. The symbol of St. Athanasius, which 
 is received in the universal Church, ends 
 thus: "Those who shall have done good, 
 will enter eternal life ; but those who shall 
 have done evil, will enter eternal fire. 
 Such is the faith ; whoever does not faith- 
 fully and firmly adhere to it cannot be 
 saved." The Catholic dogma concerning 
 the eternity of the pains of hell is founded 
 upon Scripture and tradition ; on the uni- 
 versal and constant belief of the Church, 
 in accord with the belief of the ancient 
 nations, even of the Gentiles. Will you 
 say that we cannot reconcile this dogma 
 with the goodness of God.? But "who art 
 thou, O man, to contest with God.? (O 
 homo, tu quis es, qui respondeas Deo ?) 
 Who shall dare to say to Thee, O Lord, 
 why didst Thou do this? Or who will 
 dare to rise against Thy judgment.? Who 
 will appear before Thee to take up the de- 
 fense of unjust men.?" It does not belong 
 to us to criticise God's judgments. He is 
 wonderful in His saints through His good- 
 ness ; He is not less wonderful by His jus- 
 tice in the damned. The sinner who is 
 condemned to eternal torment, can only 
 blame himself; he can blame God only in 
 so far as He could not hinder his damna- 
 tion. But it is not thus : God rejects and 
 condemns after this life the impenitent 
 sinners only because these sinners rejected 
 and condemned themselves, while they 
 were upon earth. Free to do the good and 
 the evil, instead of doing the good, they 
 preferred death to life, the pains of hell to 
 the enjoyments of heaven, the sojourn of 
 Satan to the kingdom of God. They are, 
 therefore, unfortunate because they have 
 wished it; and they will be this eternally, 
 because, in spite of the admonitions and 
 threats of the Lord, they have followed, 
 with free will, the way that leads to eter- 
 nal perdition. This shows that the eternity 
 of hell is no more contrary to divine jus- 
 tice than to divine goodness. 
 
 We distinguish two pains of hell: the 
 pain of damnation and the pain ot the 
 senses. The first consists in the privation 
 of the intuitive vision, or in the loss of 
 heaven, and in the regret of having lost it. 
 The second consists in the pain caused by 
 fire. This double chastisement is aggra- 
 
Rescripts 
 
 607 
 
 Restitution 
 
 vated by despair ; the damned cannot en- 
 tertain any liope of ever seeing an end of 
 his torments. The pains of hell are ex- 
 pressed by a worm that never dies and by 
 a fire which is never extinguished, and 
 with which our divine Saviour threatens 
 the sinner. We understand by this gnaw- 
 ing worm the inner pains, the remorses 
 and the regrets of the damned. The 
 damned will be tormented through the 
 envy which they shall have toward the 
 saints ; they shall condemn their aberra- 
 tions, and shall have a bitter pain for be- 
 ing deprived of the glory and happiness of 
 the just. The second pain of hell is the 
 pain of fire: ii^nt's non extinguitur. But is 
 it the same with the fire as with the gnaw- 
 ing worm? Is this fire a material or an 
 inner fire, a fire which, by acting directly 
 on the soul, acts indirectly on the body? 
 This is a question about which there exists 
 no decision of the Church. It is of faith 
 that the damned shall be eternally deprived 
 of the happiness of heaven, and that they 
 shall be eternally tormented in hell; but it 
 is not of faith that the fire which makes 
 them suffer is a material fire. However, 
 the opinion which is for the reality or ma- 
 terialitj of fire is so general among Catho- 
 lics, that we do not believe we are permitted 
 to teach the contrary. But it is important 
 to remark that, according to both opinions, 
 hell is a place of torment. " The opinion, 
 according to which the fire of hell is only 
 metaphorical, does not exclude the pain of 
 the senses, consisting in a vehement afflic- 
 tion of the body, although not caused by 
 fire." Those who shall be condemned to 
 eternal fire will all be punished, and they 
 shall be this eternally, more or less se- 
 verely, according as they have been more 
 or less guilty. 
 
 Rescripts. — By rescripts are meant 
 those letters by which the Roman Pontiff 
 replies to persons who either ask for some 
 favor or report on some particular affair, 
 or request directions for a transient object 
 or private individual. 
 
 Reservation of Cases. See Cases. 
 
 Residence ( Duty of). — Parish priests, 
 both removable and irremovable, are bound 
 at least jure ecrlesiastico, and that sub 
 g-ravi, to reside in their parishes. We 
 say, at least, etc., for whether they are ob- 
 ligated also jure diviMo is a disputed ques- 
 tion. Assistant priests are not bound by 
 the law of residence, though they should 
 
 not be absent without the permission of the 
 pastor or bishop. For certain causes, rec- 
 tors may, at times, be absent from their 
 parishes, as, for instance, on account of ill- 
 health or the need of recreation. How- 
 ever, besides a legitimate cause, the 
 permission of the bishop, in writing, is 
 necessary, and that even for an absence of 
 one week. The duty of residence, which 
 is particularly urgent during contagious 
 diseases, comprises not only the obligation 
 of physically dwelling in the parish, but 
 also that of laboring for its good. Hence, a 
 pastor cannot leave all the parochial duties 
 in the hands of his assistants, but must per- 
 sonally, unless lawfully hindered, perform 
 some, especially, of the more important 
 ones, such as preaching and administering 
 the sacraments. He may, however, re- 
 quire his assistants to attend to the more 
 arduous duties, such as sick calls at night, 
 attending to out-missions. As a rule, pas- 
 tors should reside within the limits of their 
 parishes, nay, in the parochial house, if 
 there be one. 
 
 Resignation. — By resignation is meant 
 the act by which an ecclesiastic, of his own 
 free will, gives up his office or benefice 
 into the hands of the bishop or superior, 
 with the consent of the proper ecclesias- 
 tical superior. We say the resignation 
 must be voluntary; that is, not extorted by 
 fear, violence, deceit, or cunning; forced 
 resignations are rescindable. Also, the res- 
 ignation must be wholly exempt from 
 simoniacal stipulation, that is, from bar- 
 gains or contracts to give or to receive 
 money or any other temporal considera- 
 tion for the resignation. Finally, the res- 
 ignation must be accepted by the proper 
 ecclesiastical superior; otherwise it is in- 
 valid and of no effect, and the resigner 
 may be compelled to reassume his office. 
 
 Responsory. See Gradual. 
 
 Restitution (action by which we restore 
 or return). — He who has unjustly appro- 
 priated his neighbor's goods, or wilfully 
 damaged his property, is obliged to make 
 restitution. For, if the momentary incon- 
 venience which we cause to our neighbor 
 from theft or damnification is sinful, much 
 more is the continued loss; and this loss 
 or inconvenience remains until restitution 
 is made. He who, knowingly and unjustly, 
 appropriates the goods of another is obliged 
 to make restitution, not only of the object 
 appropriated, but also of the gain he has 
 
Resurrection 
 
 608 
 
 Resurrection 
 
 derived from it, and for the loss incurred 
 by the owner. He who, without the own- 
 er's knowledge or consent, has brought 
 into his possession the property of another 
 must, as soon as he has discovered that it 
 belongs to another, restore the object it- 
 self and the profit derived from it, or the 
 amount which he has realized or saved by 
 its use. In this case, however, he is not 
 obliged to repair the loss incurred by the 
 owner, since he only is bound in conscience 
 to repair damages, who in conscience has 
 committed injustice, and not he who has 
 acted in good faith. One who has inflicted 
 damage in good faith, however, may be 
 justly condemned to make reparation by 
 civil law, which takes cognizance of facts, 
 not of intentions. Unjustly appropriated 
 goods are to be restored either to the 
 owner himself or to his heirs. He who, 
 knowingly and wilfully, appropriated an- 
 other's goods is bound to devote^tirtih to 
 public or pious uses, in case the owner 
 cannot be found ; for no one is allowed to 
 reap benefit from injustice; and unjustly 
 appropriated goods can never become 
 ownerless, but become, in default of private 
 ownership, public property. 
 
 The duty of restitution devolves, in the 
 first instance, upon him who actually pos- 
 sesses the ill-gotten object, or upon him 
 who inflicted the unjust damage. If the 
 thief, or the author of the damage, fails to 
 make restitution, the duty devolves upon 
 those who co-operated, and, in the first 
 place, upon him who co-operated by com- 
 mand ; in the second place, on him who ex- 
 ecuted the command ; in the third place, on 
 the others who co-operated positively; and 
 in the fourth place, on those who co-oper- 
 ated negatively. In this order the latter 
 party is always obliged to make restitution 
 or reparation if the preceding parties have 
 failed to do so. 
 
 Resurrection. — It is a fundamental 
 point of the Christian religion that the 
 day will come when the true bodies of all 
 the dead shall rise in their integrity. 
 Nothing less than this is meant by the 
 article of the Apostles' Creed, " the resur- 
 rection of the body." The same is ex- 
 pressed in the Athanasian Creed, and is 
 clearly a part of Catholic faith. This 
 truth is plainly taught by St. Paul (I. 
 Cor. XV.), where he argues that as Christ 
 rose in the body, so must all men rise, for 
 the Head and the members must be con- 
 formed. The Apostle assumes the same 
 
 doctrine in other places (II. Cor. iv. 14; 
 Rom. viil. 11); and he made no secret of 
 the matter whether preaching to Jews 
 (Acts xxiii. 6) or to heathen (Acts xvii. 
 32). The other Apostles taught the 
 same (Acts iv.). The explicit statement 
 on the matter contained in the ancient 
 creeds, dispenses us from the necessity of 
 bringing quotations to prove the doc- 
 trine of the Fathers. 
 
 Christ Himself spoke on the subject 
 (John V. 28, 29), instructing the Jews that 
 the hour was coming wherein all that are 
 in the graves should hear the voice of the 
 Son of God, and they that had done good 
 should come forth unto the resurrection 
 of life, but they that had done evil, unto 
 the resurrection of Judgment. Reference 
 to the monuments shows that this pass- 
 age refers to the resurrection of the body, 
 and it is important as proving that the 
 same reunion awaits the just and the un- 
 just alike. It seems plain that all will 
 rise at the same instant (I. Cor. xv. 52; 
 Dan. xii. 2). 
 
 That the body that shall rise is the 
 same as that which died, follows from the 
 idea of "rising again"; if a new body 
 were created and formed by the soul, no 
 one would say that this man had risen 
 again ; some other phrase must be sought 
 to express what had happened, and since 
 no case of such an occurrence is known to 
 us, no such phrase is in use. Moreover, 
 the resurrection of Christ is nothing but 
 an anticipation in point of time of that 
 which awaits all men, as St. Paul clearly 
 teaches (I. Cor. xv. 20) ; and we know 
 that He rose with the same body with 
 which He died (Luke xxiv. 39). That 
 which is in the tomb is to come forth 
 when the resurrection day arrives, as we 
 learn from the discourse of Christ quoted 
 a few lines back; and that which is in the 
 tomb is the body that died. The truth is 
 expressly defined by the Fourth Council 
 of La teran, where it is declared: "That 
 all the dead shall rise again with their 
 bodies which they now have." 
 
 The doctrine of the resurrection of the 
 flesh has been vehemently attacked in all 
 ages of the Church ; some of the earliest 
 heretics found in it an insurmountable 
 difficulty in the way of their tenet of the 
 essentially evil nature of matter, and the 
 rationalizing spirit of modern times 
 prompts men to ask the question : how this 
 can be.? and to find for an answer, — to 
 reject the revealed truth. We need not 
 
Retreat 
 
 609 
 
 Revelation 
 
 consider the earlier form of objection; to 
 the latter form, we reply by avowing that 
 we do not know how God's purpose will 
 be worked out, any more than we know 
 how He makes the seed that is sown in the 
 ground grow into a tree (I. Cor. xv. 35-38) ; 
 this is the answer given by St. Paul to the 
 question raised by the Rationalists of his 
 day. The difficulty sometimes urged, that 
 particles which belonged to one man at his 
 death may become part of the body of an- 
 other man and be his when he dies, is spe- 
 cious but shallow. He that urges it, assumes 
 that he knows far more about the constitu- 
 tion of matter, dead and living, and con- 
 cerning what constitutes identity, than has 
 as yet been revealed to the researches of 
 chemists, biologists, and metaphysicians; 
 and we must remember that the providence 
 of God is over all His works, and will se- 
 cure the carrying out of His ends. 
 
 Retreat has a specific meaning in the 
 terminology of the Church, denoting a 
 time of repairing to temporary retirement 
 from the work of active life for the sake 
 of prayer, meditation, and spiritual exer- 
 cises. 
 
 Reuch (Francis Henry). -r-Theologian, 
 born at Brilon, Westphalia, in 1825. A 
 professor of the Catholic Faculty of Bonn, 
 he refused to acknowledge the decisions of 
 the Vatican Council on the Infallibility of 
 the Pope, and then became one of the 
 heads of the " Old Catholics." Wrote Die 
 Bibel und Natur, a work translated into 
 English. 
 
 Reuchlin (John) (1455-1522). — Human- 
 ist, born at Phorzheim, died at Stuttgart. 
 In 1473, he went to study in Paris, which 
 city he left in 1475 to go to Basle, where 
 he gave public lessons in Greek. Then he 
 went to study law at Orleans. Returning 
 to Germany, he went to Rome in 1482, as 
 secretary of the Duke of Wiirtemberg; on 
 his return he became president of the 
 "Ligue of Suabia," and labored on a He- 
 brew grammar and dictionary which caused 
 him to make interpretations of the Bible 
 that were victoriously combated by the 
 Universities of Paris, Louvain, and May- 
 ence. 
 
 Revelation (action to reveal). — In the 
 theological sense, revelation is the divine 
 manifestation, made by God to man. Con- 
 sidered as a divine act, it is the funda- 
 mental condition of all positive religion, 
 and considered as an historical fact, it 
 
 39 
 
 falls, like other facts, in the domain of 
 history and is subject to empiricism. 
 Hence the new science : the philosophy of 
 revelation. The questions with which it 
 occupies itself treats first : on the possi- 
 bility of revelation and on its necessity. 
 The possibility may be looked upon: (1) 
 either from the part of God (2) or from 
 the part of man. The philosophers have 
 advanced the most diverse judgments on 
 the necessity of revelation and the need we 
 have thereof. Some have acknowledged 
 the absolute need of a progressive revela- 
 tion; the majority have admitted only a 
 relative necessity, not leaving the original 
 state of man. The Rationalists completely 
 deny both the necessity and the need of a 
 revelation for man, and do not wish to ad- 
 mit the revelation of the first conceptions 
 of religion, but regard them as the testi- 
 mony of reason itself, and besides pretend 
 that man can and must of himself tend 
 and arrive at the final possession of all 
 truth and of all good. We might argue 
 from the very principles of philosophy 
 itself to prove the possibility of revelation ; 
 for, admitting that there are truths of the 
 supernatural order, God can perfectly pro- 
 pose to the reason of man truths of this 
 order. God, being infinite, no one can 
 deny that there are supernatural truths, 
 truths which the finite being can never 
 know as long as God is not pleased to man- 
 ifest them to him. It has been well said, 
 "Man is on all sides limited by the incom- 
 prehensible." "Man infinitely surpasses 
 man," says Paschal. And how is it possi- 
 ble to believe that God, the infinite, the 
 omniscient, could not propose mysteries 
 to our feeble reason ! By His title of Crea- 
 tor, God preserves over the creature a su- 
 preme authority; man is no more inde- 
 pendent toward Him than the vessel of 
 clay toward the potter, who can make of 
 it what he pleases, a vessel of honor or of 
 ignominy. Man, therefore, is not free to 
 refuse the gifts of God. " He who be- 
 lieves and will be baptized, will be saved," 
 says the Sacred Book, "and he who will 
 not believe shall be condemned." There- 
 fore, we are not free to adhere or not to 
 adhere to the truths of the Gospel, for the 
 order is formal, the dominion is supreme, 
 and the right imprescriptible. 
 
 Moreover, man is endowed with a 
 reason apt to receive the object of these 
 truths ; he has what we call potentia obe- 
 dientialis, that is, he may receive the intel- 
 lectual concourse of God, and as God is 
 
Revelation, Primitive 
 
 6io 
 
 Revelation, Primitive 
 
 pure essence, fotentta elevans, when He 
 raises man to a superior order of truths, 
 He ennobles thereby the human intelli- 
 gence ; hence man does not renounce, as 
 the Rationalists pretend, his title as man 
 when he admits and believes in supernat- 
 ural truths. To reject a priori the truths, 
 in saying for instance : I do not admit 
 them, because I do not understand them, 
 is acting like a blind man who would not 
 believe in tlie beauties of nature because 
 he does not see them. 
 
 It is easy to reject a priori the possi- 
 bility of the divine revelation of super- 
 natural truths; it is easy to proclaim the 
 absolute autonomy of reason in their re- 
 gard; but to justify one's assertion, be- 
 hold the difficulty. Rationalism makes 
 tabula rasa with all that has preceded ; 
 with the glorious prescription of a Chris- 
 tianity of eighteen centuries during which 
 has been proclaimed the union of faith 
 and reason ; it is not an isolated thinker 
 who has said that we must believe all the 
 truths revealed by God. The successive 
 generations tell us this ; all the greatest 
 minds of which mankind boasts, proclaim 
 this. Moreover, Christianity bears such 
 manifest characters of divine intervention 
 in both its diffusion and preservation, that 
 we must say with right that it is a divine 
 revelation in its origin, as it is a work of 
 God in its immortal duration. 
 
 Since, even for the truths of the natural 
 order it is necessary for God to intervene, 
 — there is question here of a moral neces- 
 sity, — with much more reason is his inter- 
 vention necessary for the truths of the 
 supernatural order. Undoubtedly, reason 
 may establish with certainty the truths of 
 the natural order as, for instance, the ex- 
 istence of God, the spirituality of the soul, 
 the liberty of man ; but we say that it is 
 impossible, for various causes, for the 
 great mass of mankind, to arrive individu- 
 ally and practically at the knowledge of 
 these truths. History of philosophy comes 
 to our support to corroborate this proposi- 
 tion. History' of the human reason, before 
 Christianity enlightened it is, in fact, only 
 a long and deplorable account of monstrous 
 errors and of incredible absurdities. Did 
 Cicero not say, " that one could not quote 
 a single absurd opinion which has not some 
 philosopher for author or patron "? Now, 
 when these great minds, assisted by primi- 
 tive revelation and even by the Mosaic 
 revelation, of which they certainly must 
 have had some knowledge, could neverthe- 
 
 less fall into the most shameful aberrations, 
 what might not take place with ordinary 
 minds? Therefore, it is a truth which re- 
 mains attested by theology, philosophy, 
 experience, and history, " that human rea- 
 son is not so independent that God cannot 
 impose His truths upon it " ; we see thereby 
 how tlie anathema of the Vatican Council, 
 against any one daring to maintain the 
 contrary, is justified. 
 
 Revelation, Primitive. — Primitive reve- 
 lation is that which was made to the first 
 Patriarchs from Adam until the written 
 law. It is found related in the first chap- 
 ters of Genesis, where we can see the his- 
 tory of the fall of man, his condemnation, 
 and the promise of a Redeemer. By way 
 of induction we draw the consequence 
 that God, in the conversation He had with 
 Adam, must have revealed to him : i. The 
 existence of one, personal, almighty, just, 
 and merciful God; 2. The unity of the 
 world as the creation of the Most High; 
 3. The substantial difference of the crea- 
 tures. Holy Scripture seems to indicate 
 that there have been several successive 
 revelations in the race of Seth, later on in 
 that of Noe, and in Abraham and his pos- 
 terity. 
 
 All the sciences, to which they appealed 
 in the eighteenth century, in order to 
 undermine Christianity, concur to-day to 
 prpve the primitive revelation. Geology 
 finds everywhere numerous traces of a 
 deluge and of a creation, relatively recent, 
 of the living beings upon the globe, and 
 by facts it proves that the earth must 
 have been really, in the beginning, such 
 as it is described in Genesis ; physiology 
 and philology have come to establish in 
 a peremptory manner the unity of the 
 human race, and history, according to 
 the measure it makes new discoveries, 
 confirms more and more all the accounts 
 of the Bible. 
 
 It is an unquestionable fact that we 
 find traces of revelation in all the ancient 
 religions : the pagans refer to the Deity, 
 not only their religious science, but also 
 their political constitutions, their laws 
 and institutions. How could they have 
 imagined a similar origin, if they had 
 not, really and primitively, received from 
 God the principles of this science and these 
 institutions.? Do we not perceive in the 
 different theogonies, and, in particular, 
 in the incarnations of Wishnu, a shadow 
 of the Incarnation of the Son of God? 
 
Revolution 
 
 6ii 
 
 RiCCI ' 
 
 Revolution {The French'). — The great 
 French Revolution was brought on : By 
 the mania for freedom that followed the 
 American war for independence ; by the 
 moral corruption of the higher classes ; by 
 royal absolutism, financial embarrassment, 
 and oppressive taxation ; by the irreligion 
 and skepticism which, disseminated by the 
 philosophers, had permeated all classes 
 and destroyed the influence of the Church. 
 That France which inaugurated the revo- 
 lution was not Catholic but infidel ; Catho- 
 lic France became a victim of the 
 Revolution. The irreligious press exer- 
 cised an enormous influence; more than 
 2,500 pamphlets attacking despotism, the 
 nobles, and the clergy, were printed ; 30,- 
 000 copies of Abb^ Siey^s's What is the 
 Third Estate f were cast abroad. After 
 the first scenes of violence had been in- 
 augurated, all Catholic Church property 
 was placed at the disposal of the nation ; 
 that of Protestants was unmolested. All 
 the religious orders were suppressed and 
 the so-called "Civil Constitution of the 
 Clergy " was adopted in 1790. The latter 
 completely subverted the constitution of 
 the Church; it vested the people, includ- 
 ing the Jews, with the right to appoint 
 the priests. Protestants were unmolested 
 in the administration of ecclesiastical af- 
 fairs. In 1791 a demand was made that 
 the clergy should take the oath of the 
 civil constitution. Four bishops and many 
 of the clergy complied ; 127 bishops and 
 50,000 priests refused to comply with this 
 demand. These were banished and ill- 
 treated ; many were put to death ; sacris- 
 tans, mechanics, etc., were installed as 
 state priests. The Catholics oflFered re- 
 sistance. Supplied with papal faculties, 
 the faithful priests performed their func- 
 tions in private, holding divine service 
 in caves, forests, etc. The revolution of 
 1792 brought death. Among the victims 
 in Paris were 400 priests and several bish- 
 ops ; inhuman atrocities were perpetrated ; 
 faithful priests, who did not take to flight, 
 died as martyrs. After the execution of 
 the king, the Reign of Terror was in- 
 augurated, which crushed Christianity 
 and established the worship of reason. 
 Forty-four thousand Revolutionary com- 
 mittees were appointed, and as many 
 guillotines were set up to clear France of 
 every trace of Christianity and royalty. 
 Under the sentence of these committees 
 were guillotined 1,135 priests, 350 nuns, 
 2,000 of the nobility, besides thousands of 
 
 the lower classes. To these must be added 
 32,000 killed at Nantes, and 31,000 at 
 Lyons. In the Vendee alone, where so 
 gallant a stand was made in behalf of 
 religion and order, 900,000 were killed, 
 among them 15,000 women and 22,000 
 children. More than two millions are said 
 to have perished by the wars and massa- 
 cres of the Revolution. 
 
 With resistless fury the Revolution 
 poured like a torrent beyond the limits 
 of France. General Napoleon made the 
 French masters of Northern Italy; ere 
 long the Pope was threatened in his do- 
 minions. It was in vain that Pius VI. 
 pleaded his neutrality. He was forced to 
 purchase peace by cessions of territory 
 and exorbitant contributions in money and 
 works of art. Nor was this all; when the 
 Pope refused the recognition of the "Civil 
 Constitution," Rome was taken and pro- 
 claimed a Republic in 1798. The Pope 
 himself was taken prisoner and carried to 
 France, where he died at Valence in 1799. 
 Napoleon Bonaparte, then First Consul, 
 finding it impossible to govern a people 
 destitute of religion, resolved, with the 
 sentiments of the great majority of the 
 nation, to restore the Catholic worship in 
 France. Accordingly, on July 15th, 1801, 
 he concluded a Concordat, whereby the 
 Catholic religion, the practice of which 
 had been proscribed since 1790, was re- 
 established in France and recognized again 
 as the Religion of the State. 
 
 Rhodes. — A noted island in the .^gean 
 sea, 13 miles from the coast of Asia Minor, 
 which St. Paul visited (Acts xxi. i) on re- 
 turning from his third missionary tour. It 
 was then flourishing; was held in the Mid- 
 dle Ages by the Knights of St. John, but 
 captured by the Turks, who still hold it. 
 
 Rhodon. — Ecclesiastical writer of the 
 second century. Disciple and successor of 
 Tatian in the Roman Catechetical School 
 under Pope Soter. Wrote several works 
 against heretics, particularly against the 
 Marcionites. 
 
 Ricci (Lawrence) (1703-1775). — Gen- 
 eral of the Jesuits, born at Florence, died 
 in Rome. He made, it is said, the firm 
 answer to those that invited him to moder- 
 ate the statutes of St. Ignatius : " Sint ut 
 sunt, aut non sint." At the suppression of 
 the Society of Jesus, in 1773, he was im- 
 prisoned in the Castle Sant Angelo. In a 
 Memoire he victoriously refuted the ene- 
 mies of his order. 
 
RiCCI 
 
 612 
 
 Rogation Days 
 
 Ricci (Matthew) (1552-1610). — Jesuit 
 missionary, born at Macerata, died at Pekin, 
 He published, in Chinese, several religious 
 and moral works. 
 
 Ricci (SciPio) (1741-1810). — Bishop of 
 Pistoja. Arose in 1781 against the devotion 
 to the Sacred Heart of Jesus. In 1786, he 
 adopted the four famous articl,es of the As- 
 sembly of the French Clergy of 1682. He 
 was compelled to renounce the episcopate 
 in 1790; despised by his clergy, he was im- 
 prisoned, in 1799, in a Dominican convent. 
 
 Richard of St. Victor. — Theologian 
 and excellent ascetic author, born in Scot- 
 land, died at St. Victor de Paris, in 1173. 
 Works, published at Rouen (1650), 2 vols, 
 in folio. 
 
 Richelieu (Armaxd du Plessis de) 
 ( 1585-1642). — Born at the Castle of 
 Richelieu, died at Paris. Cardinal and 
 celebrated French statesman. He was 
 educated for the Church ; became bishop 
 of Lucon in 1607, and secretary of 
 State in 1616; cardinal in 1622, and was 
 the principal minister of Louis XHI. 
 (1624-1642). The chief events in his ad- 
 ministration were the destruction of the 
 political power of the Huguenots by the 
 siege and capture of La Rochelle (1627- 
 1628) ; the war in Italy against Spain 
 (1629-1630) ; the defeat of the partisans of 
 Maria de Medici in 1630; the defeat of the 
 conspiracy of Montmorency and Gaston 
 of Orleans in 1632; the co-operation of 
 France with Sweden in the Thirty Years' 
 War; the founding of the French Acad- 
 emy in 1635 ; and the suppression of the 
 Cinq-Mars insurrection in 1642. His 
 literary remains include religious works, 
 dramas, memoirs, correspondence, and 
 State papers. 
 
 Rimini {Council of). — Held in 395. 
 With the view of uniting the conflicting 
 parties among the Arians and forcing their 
 creed upon the Catholic Church, Canstan- 
 tius caused the convocation of the two 
 separate synods : one at Rimini for the 
 Western, and the other at Seleucia for the 
 Eastern, bishops. In both councils the 
 Arians triumphed by means of violence. 
 Pope Liberius had no part in these synods 
 and promptly annulled their acts. 
 
 Ring {Episcopal). — The episcopal ring 
 is the sign of the spiritual alliance that ex- 
 ists between the bishop and his Church. 
 It is like the seal of their contract. Among 
 
 the ancients, as well as among moderns, a 
 seal was put to contracts, so as to confirm 
 and authenticate them. Hence the custom 
 that still exists of giving a ring in the 
 celebration of marriage. The episcopal 
 ring is not only a sign of the alliance of 
 the bishop with his Church, but also a 
 mark of the authority of the Holy Ghost, 
 in virtue of which the bishop has the right 
 to distribute employments. He wears it 
 on the forefinger of the right hand, accord- 
 ing to the custom of the Hebrews, because 
 this is the finger that indicates silence. 
 The bishop is thus reminded of the invio- 
 lable secrecy of mysteries, and the perfect 
 discretion with which he should announce 
 them, lest he should throw pearls to 
 swine. 
 
 Ring^ ( Fisherman' s,annulus piscator is ). 
 — A signet ring worn by the Pope bear- 
 ing the design of St. Peter, fishing, and is 
 used for stamping the papal briefs. 
 
 Ritual. See Liturgy. 
 
 Robert of Abrissel. See Fontevr ai lt. 
 
 Robert of Molesme. See Cistercians. 
 
 Roboam. — King of Juda (962-946 b. c). 
 Son and successor of Solomon; hardly 
 proclaimed king, he rendered himself odi- 
 ous by his hard-heartedness and injustices. 
 Ten tribes revolted against him, chose for 
 king, Jeroboam, and formed the kingdom 
 of Israel, of which Sichem, then Samaria) 
 became the capital. Two tribes, that of 
 Juda, the most peopled of all, and that of 
 Benjamin, remained faithful to Roboam, 
 and formed the kingdom of Juda, whose 
 center was always Jerusalem. Roboam 
 tolerated idolatry, and God punished him 
 on account of his prevarications. He had 
 for successor Abia, his son. 
 
 Rochet. See Surplice. 
 
 Rogation Days. — The observance of 
 •' Rogation Days," — Monday, Tuesday, and 
 Wednesday. — owes its origin to a variety 
 of calamities that befell the city oi 
 Vienne in Dauphine. For more than half 
 a century, not a year, not even a season, 
 passed without Dauphine and Savoy being 
 afflicted with some new evils. So many 
 misfortunes had reduced these provinces 
 to a state of extreme desolation. Mamer- 
 tus. Bishop of Vienne (and who is hon- 
 ored as a saint), in the liveliness of his 
 faith and charity, offered up praj'ers and 
 tears to appease the wrath of God. He 
 
Romans 
 
 613 
 
 Rosary 
 
 was heard; stopping a conflagration which 
 devoured his cathedral, on Easter night 
 (469), he made a vow to institute the ** Ro- 
 gations." The Rogations are litanies, or 
 supplications, which consist in solemn 
 procession, accompanied with public fast 
 and prayer. With the general consent of 
 the clergy and people, the three days pre- 
 ceding Ascension Day (Thursday) were 
 chosen for the fulfillment of this vow. 
 This example was soon followed every- 
 where. A decree of the First Council of 
 Orleans, in 544, established the Rogations 
 in Gaul, and from there the practice was 
 introduced into Spain and other countries. 
 
 Romans {Epistle to the). — The Epistle 
 or Letter of St. Paul to the Romans, was 
 written from Corinth, where this Apostle 
 stopped, in the year 58, the twenty-fourth 
 year of his apostolate. The principal end 
 of this Epistle is to prove that the faith in 
 Jesus Christ was not granted to the con- 
 verted Jews on account of their fidelity to 
 the Mosaic law, nor to the Gentiles for 
 having become Christians in considera- 
 tion of their obedience to the natural law, 
 but to both through a purely gratuitous 
 grace. 
 
 Romanus (St. ) . — Pope ; brother of Pope 
 Martin II. Successor of St. Stephen in 
 the month of August 897. Died the same 
 year. 
 
 Romuald (St.). See Camaldolitks. 
 
 Ronge (John) (1813-1889). — An apos- 
 tate priest, who became the founder of a 
 sect in Germany, which, notwithstanding 
 the thorough Protestant and radical prin- 
 ciples it professed, called itself " German 
 Catholic," also the "Christian Catholic 
 Apostolic Church." Rorige, who was 
 hailed by the Liberal and Protestant fac- 
 tions of Germany as another Luther, re- 
 jected all but two sacraments. The remnant 
 of this sect, which was largely composed 
 of Protestants, snbsequently joined the na- 
 tional Protestant Church of Prussia, and 
 has since ceased to exist as a distinct de- 
 nomination. Ronge died impenitent. 
 
 Rosary. — The method by which Cath- 
 olics most generally manifest a particular 
 devotion toward the Blessed Virgin, is the 
 holy Rosary; a religious exercise consist- 
 ing chiefly of the prayer most acceptable 
 to the Mother of God. It is related that 
 the Blessed Virgin herself made known 
 the Rosary to St. Dominic in the thirteenth 
 
 century, since which time it has been gen- 
 erally accepted and honored by the Church, 
 The Rosary was also in prominence in the 
 apparitions of the Blessed Virgin to Berna- 
 dette at Lourdes, in the year 1858. Many 
 indulgences have been attached to the 
 reciting of it, provided that the Rosary 
 used is blessed for the person who possesses 
 it, and has the indulgences attached to it 
 by a Dominican, or other priest, who has 
 the authority to communicate them. 
 
 The Rosary is composed of fifteen mys- 
 teries ; all, with the exception of the last 
 two, expressly spoken of in Scripture, and 
 referring to the fundamental truths and 
 principal mysteries of our religion. It is 
 divided into fifteen decades ; the mysteries 
 being arranged in three sets of five each, 
 corresponding to the three great divisions 
 of our Lord's life : His infancy and youth; 
 His Passion and death; and His Resurrec- 
 tion and glory. The words of the Rosary 
 are nearly all inspired, being made up of 
 the Creed, the Lord's Prayer, the Hail 
 Mary, and the Doxology : Glory be to the 
 Father, etc. 
 
 To say the Rosary, we make the sign of 
 the Cross in the name of the Father, and 
 of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Many- 
 then recite the Creed, and three Hail 
 Marys in honor of the Most Holy Trinity; 
 afterwards, the Lord's Prayer is said at the 
 beginning of each mystery, followed by ten 
 Hail Marys recited during or after medita- 
 tion upon them. At the end of every 
 decade we repeat : * ' Glory be to the Father, 
 etc." 
 
 In the joyful mysteries, the Annuncia- 
 tion teaches us humility and abnegation of 
 self; the Visitation, charity toward our 
 neighbor; the Nativity, detachment from 
 the luxuries and vanity of this world ; the 
 Presentation, purity and the spirit of obe- 
 dience ; the Finding in the Temple, a desire 
 to know God and serve Him. In the sor- 
 rowful mysteries, the Agony and Prayer 
 in the garden of olives, teach us prayer 
 and resignation to the will of God ; the 
 Scourging, practice of physical mortifica- 
 tion, and patience in bodily sufferings; 
 the Crowning with Thorns, humbling of 
 our pride, and indifference for worldly 
 praise; the Carrying of the Cross, cour- 
 age, fortitude, and endurance in bearing 
 all the trials of life; the Crucifixion, self- 
 sacrifice, prayer for the conversion of sin- 
 ners, the perseverance of the just, and help 
 and consolation to souls in purgatory. In 
 the glorious mysteries, the Resurrection 
 
ROSATI 
 
 614 
 
 Rubrics 
 
 teaches us to have faith and hope and love, 
 and to arise from sin with a firm purpose 
 of leading a better life; the Ascension, 
 hope and desire of Heaven, and love for 
 heavenly things ; the descent of the Holy 
 Ghost, the love of God above all things, 
 and advance in grace by the practice of 
 Christian virtues; the Assumption, devo- 
 tion to the Blessed Virgin, and to live in 
 readiness for death ; the Coronation of the 
 Blessed Virgin, perseverance in good, and 
 the hope of eternal happiness, where the 
 Mother of God reigns. Queen of Heaven. 
 See Confraternity of the Rosary. 
 
 Rosati (Joseph) (1789-1843). — Ameri- 
 can prelate ; was born at Sora, Italy, died 
 at Rome. After his studies he entered 
 the novitiate of the Priests of the Mission 
 at Rome, and made his theological course 
 at Monte Citorio. Came to America in 
 1816, began his labors by a mission at 
 Vincennes, and then proceeded to St. 
 Louis. First bishop of St. Louis in 1827. 
 Having gone to Rome to make his report 
 to Pope Gregory XVI., he died in the 
 -eternal city. Dr. Rosati did much to 
 give Catholicity order and life in Mis- 
 souri. 
 
 Roscelin (John). — Scholastic philoso- 
 pher, born at Compiegne, France, died 
 after 1121. He was the first who taught 
 Nominalism, was condemned, in 1092, by 
 the Council of Soissons and obliged to 
 take refuge in England. St. Anselm 
 ■combated him. At his return into France, 
 he taught at the Collegial of St. Mary's de 
 Loches ; became the accuser of Ab^lard, 
 ibefore William, Bishop of Paris, and died 
 canon of St. Martin of Tours. 
 
 Rose (St.) of Lima (1586-1617). — Vir- 
 gin, religious of the Third Order of St. 
 Dominic, born and died at Lima, Peru, 
 South America. Patron saint of her na- 
 tive city, and the first saint of South 
 America. She was canonized in the year 
 1671. F. Aug. 30th. 
 
 Rosicrucians. — So called from the name 
 of a German Rosenkreuz, born in 1388, 
 and who had joined this society. Rosi- 
 crucians was the name applied to a certain 
 society or cabal which took rise in Ger- 
 many. Although it had its origin in 1422, 
 it was little known until 1537. Those 
 who were admitted to it, and who were 
 called " Brothers of the Rosenkreuz," 
 swore fidelity, promised the secret, wrote 
 bj enigmas, and obliged themselves to 
 
 keep the laws of the society the object of 
 which was to restore all the sciences, and, 
 especially medicine which, according to 
 them, was ignored and poorly practiced. 
 They boasted to be in possession of won- 
 derful secrets, of which the least was the 
 philosopher's stone, and pretended that 
 the ancient philosophers of Egypt, the 
 Chaldeans, the wise men of Persia, and 
 the Gymnosophists of India, had only 
 taught what they themselves were teach- 
 ing. 
 
 Rosmini-Serbati (T/ie 'AbbS Gregoire) 
 (1797-1855). — Philosopher, born at Ro- 
 veredo, Tyrol, died at Milan. Parish 
 priest and dean of the Church of Mount 
 Calvary, at Domo d' Ossola (province of 
 Novara) , where he founded, in 1828, the 
 Institute of Charity and the Order of the 
 Sisters of Providence. Minister of public 
 instruction at Rome, in 1848, he followed 
 Pope Pius IX. to Gaeta. Two of his 
 works having been condemned by the Con- 
 gregation of the Index, the author hastened 
 to submit himself. Forty propositions 
 extracted from his works (mostly post- 
 humous works) have been condemned by 
 the Holy See, March 7th, 1888. 
 
 Rota. — Jurisdiction of Rome, composed 
 of twelve ecclesiastical doctors called "Au- 
 ditors of the Rota." The tribunal of the 
 Rota is so called, because the prelates when 
 holding a session form a circle, or because 
 all the most important affairs revolve 
 around it. It was instituted by Pope John 
 XXII. Of the twelve prelates that com- 
 pose it, one must be a German, another a 
 Frenchman, and two others Spaniards; 
 the remaining eight are Italians, of whom 
 three must be Romans, one of the province 
 of Bologna, one of Ferrara, one of Milan, 
 one of Venice, and one of Tuscany. They 
 take knowledge by appeal of all the pro- 
 cesses of the ecclesiastical state, such as 
 beneficial and patrimonial matters. They 
 do notcloseasuitby one and the same judg- 
 ment ; they give so many sentences, ap- 
 pealed decisions, as the suit contains 
 points contested ; and when these sen- 
 tences are rendered the cause can yet be 
 revised by the Pope. 
 
 Rubrics. — In the law books of the an- 
 cient Romans, the titles and inscriptions 
 were marked in red with a kind of mineral 
 called rubrica, and hence the word rubrics 
 applied at first to the titles or inscriptions, 
 and in the end to signify the laws thero- 
 
RUFINUS 
 
 615 
 
 Ryan 
 
 selves. The liturgical books, which regu- 
 lated the solemn offices of the Church, 
 were marked in the same way, and as in 
 the course of time they came to be almost 
 the only books so marked, the word rubrics 
 came to signify almost exclusively the laws 
 contained in these books. See Liturgy. 
 
 Rufinus (Tyrannius or Toranus) (345- 
 410). — Latin ecclesiastical writer, born at 
 Concordia, Venetia, died in Sicily. Fel- 
 low-disciple of St. Jerome at Aquileia, 
 went to the East in 372, founded a monas- 
 tery upon the Mount of Olives (377). He 
 had some theological dispute with St. 
 Jerome, in regard to Origen, returned to 
 Italy in 407, and then retired into Sicily. 
 Has left Historia eretnitica, seu Vita 
 Patrum; Historia eccl. libri duo; Apologia 
 ad Anastasium; etc. 
 
 Rule of Faith. See Faith. 
 
 Rupertus (St.). See Bavaria. 
 
 Russian Church. — The Russian Church 
 agrees with the orthodox Greek Church, 
 both in doctrine and liturgy; in adminis- 
 tration, however, she is distinct, being 
 governed, not by a patriarch, but by the 
 "Holy Synod" of St. Petersburg. The 
 custom of receiving the metropolitans 
 from Constantinople, on which she had 
 been made dependent, could not but result 
 in drawing also the Church of Russia into 
 the schism of the Greeks, although the 
 separation from Rome did not take place 
 till half a century later. Thus, in the be- 
 ginning of the twelfth century, Niceph- 
 orus, sent from Constantinople as patriarch 
 of Kiev, then the principal see of the 
 Russian Church, avowed himself a schis- 
 matic. Prince Alexander of Moscow, in- 
 deed, returned to the communion and died 
 in the faith of the Catholic Church, in 
 1262 ; but under his successors the separa- 
 tion from Rome was rendered complete. 
 Repeated attempts at reunion were made 
 by the Roman Pontiflfs, chiefly by Alexan- 
 der HI., Innocent III., and lastly by the 
 Council of Florence. The bishops of 
 Northern Russia, and the dukes of Moscow 
 steadily opposed the union, while the met- 
 ropolitan of Kiev and his eight suffragans 
 accepted it, and remained in communion 
 with Rome till 1520, when they also fell 
 
 into the schism. All subsequent attempts 
 of the Popes to unite the Russian Church 
 with the Latin Church proved fruitless. 
 After the conquest of the Greek Empire 
 by the Turks in 1453, the Czars of Moscow 
 took occasion to free the Russian Church 
 from all foreign dependence, and subject 
 the ecclesiastical power to their own. This 
 was accomplished, in 1589, by the erection 
 of the patriarchate of Moscow. Under 
 Peter the Great, the entire subjection of 
 the ecclesiastical to the imperial power 
 was completed. After suppressing the 
 patriarchate, it was replaced by the " Holy 
 Synod," which is dependent entirely upon 
 the Czar. 
 
 Ruth. — A Moabite woman who mar- 
 ried one of the sons of Noemi. Having 
 become a widow, she followed her mother- 
 in-law to Bethlehem and married Booz, a 
 wealthy husbandman of that city and 
 kinsman of her first husband, and by 
 whom she became the mother of Obed, 
 one of the ancestors of David. 
 
 Ruthenian Catholics. 
 Rites. 
 
 See {Oriental) 
 
 Ryan (Patrick John). — An American 
 prelate; born in Cloneyharp, Ireland, 
 Feb. 2oth, 183 1 ; educated at Thurles and 
 Dublin ; prepared for the American mis- 
 sion at Carlow College ; was ordained 
 deacon in 1B53, and the same year re- 
 moved to St. Louis, Missouri, where he 
 completed his ecclesiastical studies in 
 Carondelet Seminary ; was ordained priest 
 in 1854; vicar-general and coadjutor to 
 Archbishop Kenrick, of St. Louis, with 
 the title of Bishop of Tricomia. In the 
 latter position almost the entire govern- 
 ment of the diocese rested upon him, ow- 
 ing to the great age of Archbishop 
 Kenrick. His administration was marked 
 by energy and success, and in 1884 he 
 was nominated and received the pallium 
 as archbishop of Philadelphia. Bishop 
 Ryan was elected in 1883, to represent the 
 interests of the Roman Catholics of the 
 United States, and in 1884 made the open- 
 ing address at the Third Plenary Council 
 of Baltimore. He went to Rome in 1887 
 in the interest of a Catholic university at 
 Washington. 
 
Saba 
 
 6i6 
 
 Sabinianus 
 
 Saba. — Represented as a descendant of 
 Jectan (Gen. x. 28), and of Abraham and 
 Cetura (xxv. 2). The Sabeans were, ac- 
 cording to Biblical and classical notices, 
 the most important people of South 
 Arabia. They settled in southwestern 
 Arabia (Yemen) with the capital Mariba. 
 The numerous inscriptions bear evidence 
 of their culture. From this country there 
 came a queen to test Solomon's wisdom 
 (III. Ki. X. i). Arabic legends give her 
 the name of Balkis, and assert that she 
 bore a son to Solomon. It is from this 
 son that the Ethiopians claim descent. 
 
 Sabaoth is one of those Hebrew words 
 which were left untranslated in the earliest 
 Latin version of the Holy Scriptures, 
 called the Vetits Itala, and has been pre- 
 served in three places in the translation by 
 St. Jerome. Sabaoth is plural and signi- 
 fies armies. As the Roman Missal has 
 always followed the ancient Italic version, 
 it has consequently preserved the word 
 Sabaoth, instead of adopting the Vulgate 
 translation of it, exercitium, that is of 
 armies. 
 
 Sabas (St.) (439-531). — Born near 
 Caesarea, disciple of St. Enthimus ; at- 
 tracted by his virtues a great number of 
 brethren and founded seven monasteries in 
 Palestine. Superior general of all the 
 anchorites and of all the solitaries which 
 were under the authority of the Patriarch 
 of Jerusalem. He went to Constantinople 
 and appeased the wrath of Justinian against 
 the Christians of Palestine. F. Dec. 5th. 
 
 Sabatine Bull. — Papal Bull which con- 
 tains the privileges of the scapular granted 
 to Simon Stock, and which promises the 
 release of a soul from purgatory on each 
 Saturday. See Scapular. 
 
 Sabbath. See Sunday. 
 
 Sabbathians. — Members of a sect founded 
 in the fourth century, by Sabbathius, who 
 taught that Easter should be celebrated 
 on the fourteenth day of the moon of 
 March. 
 
 Sabeans or Mandaeans (from manda, 
 hno-wledge gnosis). — A very ancient reli- 
 gious body, still found, though its mem- 
 bers are few, in the southern part of 
 Babylonia. The religion of the Sabeans 
 
 is a kind of Gnosticism, retaining many 
 Jewish and Parsee elements. They wor- 
 ship, as divine beings, a number of per- 
 sonifications, especially the attributes or 
 names of God. They also adore the sun 
 and stars, observe the law of Moses, par- 
 ticularly in regard to certain flesh meats, 
 and regard baptism, the Eucharist, holy 
 orders, and matrimony as sacraments. The 
 dignity of bishop consists only in the supe- 
 riority of command which such an ecclesi. 
 astic has over the priests ; both perpetuate 
 the priesthood in their children, in their 
 family, or in their nearest kindred. As to 
 marriage, the priests, like the laymen, are 
 permitted to have two wives. They honor, 
 among the saints, only St. John the Baptist, 
 and for this reason they are called Chris- 
 tians of St. John. Their doctrine on hell 
 is about similar to that of the pagans, and 
 like the Moslems, they acknowledge no 
 other beatitude in heaven, but the enjoy- 
 ment of carnal pleasures. 
 
 Sabellius and Sabellianism. — Sabellius,. 
 a priest of Lybia, in the third century, 
 who extending the Noetian doctrine (see 
 NoKTiANs) to the Holy Ghost, taught a 
 Trinity, not of persons, but of manifesta- 
 tions or offices. He asserted the identity 
 of the Father with the Son and the Holy 
 Ghost, who were but three different opera- 
 tions or modes of manifestation of the one 
 personal God. Sabellius taught chiefly at 
 Rome where both he and his opponent, the 
 presbyter Hippolytus, who, indeed, as- 
 serted the divinity and personality of the 
 Son, but made Him subordinate to the 
 Father {Ditheism), were excommunicated 
 by Pope Calixtus I. 
 
 Sabina (St.). — Widow of Umbria; of a 
 noble family, martyr at Rome under Had- 
 rian (119). A church built on the site of 
 her execution, on mount Aventin, in 425, 
 belongs to the Dominicans, and they ven- 
 erate there the remains of St. Sabina and 
 those of the virgin Serapia, who had con- 
 verted her to the faith, and suffered martyr- 
 dom like her. F. Aug. 29th. 
 
 Sabinianus (St.). — Pope, born in Tus- 
 cany. Successor of St. Gregory the Great, 
 in 604, died in 606. Had for successor 
 Boniface HI. It is claimed that he in- 
 troduced the use of bells. 
 
Sackcloth 
 
 617 
 
 Sacrament 
 
 Sackcloth. — A coarsely woven hempen 
 manufacture, formerly worn as an em- 
 blem of grief or of penitential sorrow. 
 
 Sacrament (a sacrament is a visible sign 
 of an invisible thing, instituted by God for 
 the sanctification of souls). — The sacra- 
 ments signify something hidden, the in- 
 visible grace which they contain under the 
 envelope of material and sensible things. 
 The matter and form of a sacrament are 
 the two parts which necessarily enter its 
 composition, and form its substance. We 
 give the name of matter to the things or 
 exterior and sensible actions we make use 
 of to confer a sacrament; and the name 
 form is given to the words which the min- 
 ister pronounces in applying the matter. 
 Each sacrament has a matter and a form 
 that are peculiar to it. All the sacra- 
 ments being of divine institution, it is 
 certain that the matter and form which 
 compose the substance thereof have been 
 determined by Jesus Christ. The sacra- 
 ment being a whole, it is necessary that the 
 parts which constitute it should be united. 
 Contrary to the sacraments of the Old Law, 
 which did not produce grace, and which 
 only signified that it should be given to us 
 in view of the merits of the Passion of our 
 Lord Jesus Christ, the sacraments of the 
 New Law contain in themselves grace, and 
 confer it upon those who receive them 
 worthily. There are two sacraments which 
 are instituted to confer the first sanctify- 
 ing grace: these are baptism and pen- 
 ance. The other sacraments, five in num- 
 ber, namely, confirmation, the Eucharist, 
 extreme unction, holy order, and matri- 
 mony, are established to confer the second 
 sanctifying grace, that is, to increase in 
 us the grace received in the sacraments of 
 baptism or penance; they are necessary 
 not only for rendering man just, but to 
 render him more just. They are called 
 sacraments of the living, because we can 
 receive them with profit only in so far as 
 we have already the life of grace. Besides 
 sanctifying grace, each sacrament confers 
 a grace that is peculiar to itself. Baptism, 
 in giving us a new birth, a new life, gives 
 us at the same time a particular grace 
 to live conformably to the spirit of 
 the Gospel. Confirmation develops in us 
 spiritual life, and communicates to us the 
 strength to combat the enemies of our sal- 
 vation. It is the same with the other sac- 
 raments ; they all have a virtue that 
 corresponds to the end for which they 
 
 have been instituted. There are sacra- 
 ments which the bishop alone can admin- 
 ister, either exclusively, like that of holy 
 order, or ordinarily, like that of confirma- 
 tion. The others can be conferred by 
 simple priests, after having obtained the 
 jurisdiction of the bishop. According to 
 the more general opinion of theo- 
 logians, the contracting parties them- 
 selves are the ministers of the sacrament 
 of marriage, and it is accepted in the 
 Church that all men and women can ad- 
 minister baptism, validly in every case, 
 and licitly in case of necessity. Although 
 faith and holiness, that is, the exemption 
 from all mortal sin is greatly to be de- 
 sired in the ministers of religion, how- 
 ever a sacrament conferred by a sinner, a 
 heretic, or even one of notorious impiety, 
 is valid, if otherwise it is administered ac- 
 cording to the rite of the Church, with the 
 intention at least to do what the Church 
 does. It depends neither on the faith nor 
 on the piety of the minister, but on the 
 merits of Jesus Christ, that the sacraments 
 draw their power and efficaciousness. 
 The sacraments are for men ; but not all 
 men are capable of partaking in all the 
 sacraments. A woman is incapable of re- 
 ceiving the sacrament of holy orders ; a 
 child, before the use of reason, is incapa- 
 ble of the sacrament of penance ; a per- 
 son in good health of extreme unction. 
 Moreover, in regard to the Eucharist, 
 though an infidel may receive it ma- 
 terially, he must have received baptism in 
 order to be capable of receiving the other 
 sacraments. But children can receive 
 baptism, and, after baptism, confirmation 
 and the Eucharist. It is of faith that the 
 sacraments instituted by Jesus Christ are 
 necessary for salvation, although they are 
 not all necessary for each individual. 
 There are two sacraments, baptism and 
 penance, which are necessary as the means 
 of salvation: baptism for all men, and 
 penance for all those who, after baptism, 
 have fallen into mortal sin. The five other 
 sacraments are also necessary for salva- 
 tion, but only of a necessity of precept, 
 for they are not established to confer the 
 first sanctifying grace. To receive validly 
 a sacrament, it is necessary for adults to 
 have the intention or the will to receive it. 
 For children, we can baptize them and we 
 need not wait for their consent ; the 
 Church supplies this, according to the or- 
 der established by Jesus Christ. An adult 
 can receive a sacrament worthily and with 
 
Sacrament 
 
 6i8 
 
 Sacramentary 
 
 fruit, only in so far as he receives it with 
 the necessary dispositions. These dispo- 
 sitions vary according to the nature of the 
 sacrament. For the sacraments of the 
 dead, they consist in faith, hope, and sor- 
 row of our sins, with a beginning of the 
 love of God. If these sentiments are 
 wanting, the baptism of an adult does not 
 produce the grace, and the sacrament 
 of penance is null and void, because it 
 cannot subsist without attrition, which 
 forms a part of sacramental matter. As to 
 the sacraments of the living, we can gen- 
 erally receive them with fruit only if we are 
 in the state of grace; they are instituted not 
 to confer, but to increase sanctifying grace. 
 
 Sacrament ( Congregations of the 
 Blessed). — There are several religious 
 societies organized in honor of the blessed 
 sacrament: i. A Reform of the Order of 
 St. Dominic, established in 1636 by Father 
 Antoine Lequien. The religious of this 
 Reform practiced extraordinary austeri- 
 ties ; they observed perpetual silence, 
 slept on straw mattresses, often on a naked 
 plank or on the ground, and generally 
 subsisted on poorly seasoned herbs and 
 roots. These religious devoted them- 
 selves to preaching. 2. Missionary Priests 
 of the Blessed Sacrament. — A congrega- 
 tion instituted in 1632 by the Abbe Chris- 
 tophe d' Arthur de Sisgau, who became 
 bishop of Bethleh,em. This institute had 
 for its object the preaching and propaga- 
 tion of the Gospel, and was approved, in 
 1647, by Pope Innocent X. 3. Fathers of 
 the Blessed Sacrament. — A religious con- 
 gregation founded at Paris by Rev. R. P, 
 Eymard, about the year i860. 4. Sisters 
 of the Blessed Sacrament. — A religious 
 congregation founded at Autun, France, 
 in 1748 by the Abbe Agut with the object 
 of caring for the infirm and sick and for 
 the instruction of children. 5. Religious 
 Teachers and Hospitalers of the Blessed 
 Sacrament. — A religious congregation 
 founded at Romans (Drome), France, in 
 17 15 by the Abbe Vigne, with the object 
 of instructing young girls. Later on the 
 religious of this congregration, joined to 
 their first vow the care of the sick in hos- 
 pitals. 6. Daughters of the Blessed Sac- 
 rament. — A religious congregation of 
 women, whose principal object is the 
 adoration of the Blessed Sacrament, day 
 and night. 
 
 Sacramentals. — Rites possessing some 
 outward resemblance to the sacraments, 
 
 and which, though not of divine institu- 
 tion, are initiated or approved by the 
 Church. The sacraments were instituted 
 by our Lord, and communicate infallibly 
 the supernatural gift of divine grace, if 
 their efficacy be not hindered by any evil 
 disposition in the soul ; whereas the sacra- 
 mentals were instituted by the Church, 
 and remit venial sins, not in themselves, 
 but by reason of the pious dispositions 
 they excite, namel}- : increased movements 
 of fear and love of God, of detestation of 
 sin, and other elevations of the heart to 
 God. The principal sacramentals, enumer- 
 ated by devout writers, are : The repeat- 
 ing of the Lord's Prayer, or of the 
 Confiteor, especially in conjunction with 
 the priest at holy Mass ; the blessing given 
 by the bishop or priest, more particularly 
 at the altar; the Benediction given with 
 the holy sacrament ; blessed bread ; the 
 kiss of peace ; the pious use of various ob- 
 jects blessed by the Church, such as holy 
 water, the crucifix, etc. ; or good works ex- 
 ecuted in the name of the Church, such as 
 teaching the Catechism to the ignorant, 
 contributing toward the propagation of 
 the Gospel, etc. It should be fully under- 
 stood that sacramentals do not remit venial 
 sins by any power given them by God, over 
 and above the good dispositions with which 
 they are used ; but either by the suffrifges 
 of the Church, or by the. effect of the 
 devout prayers of those who use them, 
 they draw down upon the soul the remis- 
 sion of venial sin and of temporal punish- 
 ment due for such sin. The sacramentals 
 have a special efficacy from the blessing of 
 prayer, through which, for example, when 
 a person takes holy water, accompanying 
 the outward act with the desire that God 
 may cleanse the heart, the prayer of the 
 Church becomes joined to his own. 
 
 Sacramentarians ( name of a Protestant 
 sect). — The name Sacramentarians was at 
 first given only to such heretics as the 
 Calvinists and Zwinglians, who denied 
 the Real Presence of Jesus Christ in the 
 holy Eucharist, and who considered it 
 merely as a sacred sign or sacrament 
 which signified grace, but which did not give 
 grace. Later on the term Sacramenta- 
 rians was applied to all the heretics who 
 combated the doctrine of the Church in 
 regard to the sacraments. 
 
 Sacramentary. — Name which was for- 
 merly given to an ecclesiastical book which 
 contained the prayers and the ceremonies 
 
Sacred Heart 
 
 619 
 
 Sacrifice 
 
 practiced in the celebration of the Mass 
 and the administration of the sacraments. 
 It was at once a pontifical, a ritual, and a 
 missal, in which, however, was not found 
 «ither Introits, Graduals, Epistles, Gos- 
 pels, Oflfertories, or Communions, contain- 
 ing only the Collects or Orations, the 
 Prefaces, the Canon, the Post-Commun- 
 ions, the prayers and ceremonies of ordi- 
 nation, and a number of blessings. It 
 was what is called " Eucologium " in the 
 Greek Church. Pope Gelasius I., who 
 mounted the papal Chair in 492, was the 
 first author of the Sacramentary ; St. 
 Gregory the Great revised, corrected, and 
 abridged it. 
 
 Sacred Heart. See Heart. 
 
 Sacrifice (action by which we oflfer cer- 
 tain things to God with certain ceremonies, 
 to render homage to His sovereign power). 
 — In Genesis, the offering of sacrifice com- 
 mences with the beginning of the world. 
 Abel offers to God a sacrifice that is agree- 
 ,^ble to Him. This sacrifice of Abel ap- 
 pears to have been rather an offering than 
 an expiation, and it is not impetratory, 
 just as it is neither liturgical, nor the ful- 
 filment of a precept. We do not remark 
 any rite, and the oblation is spontaneous. 
 It prevails over the sacrifice of Cain, not 
 on account of its bloody form, but on ac- 
 count of the purity of the heart of Abel. 
 The Patriarchs offered bloody sacrifices of 
 animals, but Abraham, whose faith should 
 be tried, received the order to immolate 
 his son Isaac. All the peoples of antiquity 
 offered to the deity victims whose blood 
 flowed in front of the altar. Several na- 
 tions have immolated human victims; of 
 this number were the ancient Gauls and 
 Alemanni. The deities reputed to be most 
 "fierce required the immolation of children. 
 Moses carefully regulated all that con- 
 cerned the sacrifices, the choice of the 
 victims, the rites of immolation, the causes 
 which obliged the Hebrews to have re- 
 course to them either in the interest of the 
 people or of individuals. The sacrifice for 
 sin, the holocaust, the sacrifice of thanks- 
 giving, or the peaceful oflfering, differed 
 irom one another. The fundamental and 
 dominant idea went beyond a symbolism 
 attesting the dependence of man upon 
 God ; the sacrifice is presented as a rite 
 which contained a real efiicaciousness, and 
 the theologians make this efficaciousness 
 of the ancient sacrifice proceed from a 
 divine concession and from the connection 
 
 with the sacrifice which, having wrought 
 our redemption, continues to be offered 
 for the salvation of souls. Before and 
 after Jesus Christ, He alone remains the 
 source of all justification, but since His 
 coming into this world, the blood of vic- 
 tims has ceased to water the earth, even 
 among the nations not subject to the Gos- 
 pel. We distinguish two kinds of sacri- 
 fices : the inner and the outward sacrifice. 
 The first is that by which our soul offers 
 itself to God ; it takes place through faith, 
 charity, prayer, and other acts of religion. 
 The outward sacrifice consists in the offer- 
 ing which we make to God of something 
 sensible, of something that belongs to us; 
 such as, for instance, the sacrifice of our 
 body, which we offer to God in some man- 
 ner by martyrdom, abstinence, and conti- 
 nence. The word sacrifice is taken either 
 in an extensive sense, for all kinds of 
 good works which we perform to honor 
 God, or in a more restrained sense, for 
 the offering made to God of an outward or 
 sensible thing immolated to His honor, f 
 Therefore, we define sacrifice, properly 
 speaking, as the oblation of a sensible 
 thing which we immolate to God, to ac- 
 knowledge His sovereign dominion over all 
 things. Every sacrifice is an oblation, but 
 not every oblation is a sacrifice, strictly 
 speaking; for a true sacrifice, there must 
 be an immolation, a destruction of the 
 thing offered, or at least a consecration 
 which changes its nature, state, or natural 
 form. The Eucharistic sacrifice is desig- 
 nated under different names by the ancient 
 Doctors of the Church; but from very 
 early times it has been universally called 
 the sacrifice of the Mass. According to 
 the belief of the Catholic Church, Mass is 
 a sacrifice of the New Law by which the 
 priest offers to God the Body and Blood of 
 Jesus Christ, under the form of bread and 
 wine. Mass is a true sacrifice, instituted 
 by Jesus Christ. About to consummate 
 the bloody sacrifice upon the Cross, Christ 
 commenced by offering His Body and His 
 Blood, ordaining to His Apostles to renew 
 it and to perpetuate it in commemoration 
 of His death. It is a sacrifice which is of- 
 fered to God. Sacrifice, by its nature, is 
 an act of supreme worship, of latria wor- 
 ship, which is due to God alone. Thus, 
 when we say the Mass of a saint, we must 
 not believe that we offer the sacrifice of 
 the Mass to this saint, but we only make 
 commemoration of the saint, whose pro- 
 tection we implore, and to whom we pray 
 
Sacrifices OF 
 
 620 
 
 THE Old Law 
 
 to intercede for us. It is a sacrifice by 
 which we offer the Body and Blood of 
 Jesus Christ; it is Jesus Christ Himself, — 
 whose Body is present under the symbol of 
 bread and His Blood under the symbol of 
 wine, — who is the victim in the host which 
 we immolate in the sacrifice of the Mass. 
 Finally, the Eucharistic sacrifice takes 
 place through the hands of the priest ; but 
 the principal minister of this sacrifice is 
 Jesus Christ, who is at once the priest and 
 the victim, offering Himself to God the 
 Father through the ministry of His priests. 
 Hence, it is in the name of Jesus Christ 
 and with Him that the priest offers the 
 sacrifice of the Mass; the same ministry 
 which Jesus Christ visibly performed upon 
 the Cross, He performs in an invisible 
 manner upon the altar, and causes to be 
 visibly performed by the priests, whom He 
 has established in His Church. 
 
 Sacrifices of the Old Law. — The sacri- 
 fices in the Old Law were of many differ- 
 ent kinds. There were the bloody and 
 unbloody sacrifices, and the bloody sacri- 
 fices were of three kinds: i. The Whole 
 Burnt Offering or Holocaust. — In this 
 sacrifice the whole of the victim was de- 
 stroyed by fire in recognition of the sover- 
 eign dominion of God over all His 
 creatures, in acknowledgment of the guilt 
 of the offerer, in gratitude for God's bless- 
 ings, and as an expression of determination 
 to spend his life to the honor of his Creator. 
 This sacrifice was to be offered on the altar 
 of holocausts. It was accompanied with 
 an offering of flour, oil, and wine. The 
 daily, national holocausts were two 
 lambs : one offered about sunrise, the 
 other at the decline of day, before the 
 evening incense offering. A greater num- 
 ber of holocausts for the nation were to be 
 offered on the Sabbath and great festivals ; 
 and private individuals might also, and 
 sometimes were bound to offer whole burnt 
 offerings to the Lord. 2. The Sin and 
 Trespass Offerings. — These w'ere offered, 
 as their names indicate, for great sins, sins 
 of the whole nation, or for individual tres- 
 passes. The victims offered and slain, and 
 the ceremonials used in these sacrifices 
 were in keeping with the nature of the 
 sin which they were intended to expiate. 
 3. Peace Offerings. — This kind of sacrifice 
 was prescribed for certain occasions. The 
 peace offerings were offered by the whole 
 nation, or by individuals in thanksgiving 
 for blessings, or as a means to obtain grace. 
 
 In the consecration of Aaron the high- 
 priest, in the consecration of the altar of 
 holocausts, and on other important occa- 
 sions, we find that the three sacrifices were 
 offered in succession : First, the sacrifice 
 for sin to prepare access to God. Sec- 
 ondly, the holocaust to acknowledge His 
 sovereign dominion. Third, the peace of- 
 fering to return thanks to God, to ask for 
 continuous favor and to rejoice with Him. 
 
 The unbloody sacrifices or offerings con- 
 sisted of fine flour unbaked or made in 
 cakes. This offering was salted and min- 
 gled with oil, and frankincense was placed 
 upon it. These offerings partook of the 
 nature of other sacrifices, inasmuch as 
 they were partially or wholly destroyed. 
 
 The following remarks will enable the 
 reader to understand more perfectly all 
 this matter of sacrifices commanded by the 
 Law of Moses: i. There were sacrifices 
 of different kinds, and they were offered 
 very frequently, both for the nation and 
 for the individual, because they were im- 
 perfect, insufficient in themselves to give 
 due honor to God, but well apt to excite in 
 the offerer sentiments of adoration, re- 
 pentance, and thanksgiving. The fre- 
 quency of those offerings seemed to suggest 
 the idea, that men and God desired the 
 blood of a victim of greater worth than 
 the blood of goats and oxen. 2. When a 
 sin offering was sacrificed for the people, 
 the high-priest, or a private person, none 
 of the offerers were permitted to eat of its 
 flesh, for they might not rejoice at the 
 banquet of God, who acknowledged them- 
 selves guilty, by offering: to Him a sin of- 
 fering. 3. It is acknowledged that private 
 persons, when offering a victim for sin, 
 confessed their transgression to the priest, 
 and that he directed them to bring a vic- 
 tim of greater or lesser value according to 
 the nature of the transgression. For- 
 mulas of general confessions were pre- 
 scribed to be read by the high-priest in 
 the case of sin offerings for the nation or 
 for the priests. Confession of sin was fol- 
 lowed by the imposition of the hands of 
 the sinner on the head of the victim. The 
 victim was next put to death, and its 
 blood poured down around the altar of 
 holocausts. It is natural to infer, that 
 after participating in the sacrifice the de- 
 vout Israelite must have returned home 
 with a contrite heart, and a firm determi- 
 nation to serve God. 4. Two ceremonies 
 which were to be performed in the offer- 
 ing of sacrifices were the touching of the 
 
Sacrilege 
 
 621 
 
 Sadoc 
 
 horns of the altar with the blood of the 
 victims, and the sprinkling of the same 
 blood seven times toward the veils of the 
 •' holy place " and of the " holy of holies." 
 The children of Israel believed in, 
 and sighed after a Redeemer. Theirs 
 were the sentiments of Him who 
 prayed, " Come to save us, Lord God of 
 hosts." The sight of the altar stained 
 with blood, and of the inner veil conceal- 
 ing from view the holy of holies, the 
 place of His glorious dwelling, were well 
 calculated to remind them of the need 
 they had of the Redeemer. And in truth, 
 although reconciliation with God was 
 obtainable by a proper offering of victims, 
 this reconciliation was due to the disposi- 
 tion of the offerer, and the future merits 
 of Jesus Christ, and not to any intrinsic 
 value of the victims. Hence, although 
 many souls went before God after death 
 in a state of justice, none of them were 
 permitted to enter heaven, but they were 
 detained in limbo until He came, one 
 drop of whose blood could purge the 
 world from all its sins. 5. The victim set 
 apart for sacrifice was to be a male with- 
 out blemish. If lame, blind, or in any 
 manner disfigured or feeble, it should not 
 be sacrificed to the Lord. The perfection 
 of the victim was a warning to the oflferer, 
 that his heart must be pure before his 
 God. The victim once selected was con- 
 sidered as a thing sacred, and might not 
 be used for another purpose. It became, 
 as it were, the property of God. 6. In 
 the peaceful sacrifices, there was, we might 
 say, a threefold communion or participa- 
 tion with the victim. The part consumed 
 on the altar by fire was the share of God 
 who has no need of food offerings. The 
 second part was that of the priest who was 
 entitled to it, and the third was the part 
 of the offerer. We readily imagine that 
 great must have been the joy of the pious 
 Israelite, who, after offering a holocaust 
 to the great God who made all things, 
 after confessing his sin and offering a 
 victim for its expiation, now sat down 
 reconciled with God, surrounded by his 
 family in the court of the tabernacle, be- 
 ing allowed to eat with the Levite, of the 
 maats presented to God and accepted by 
 Him. 
 
 Sacrilege ( impious action by which we 
 profane sacred things). — The Jews, like the 
 Greeks and Romans, branded with the 
 epithet "sacrilege" any action which con- 
 
 tained an act of contempt directed toward 
 God, His ministers, or sacred things. We 
 see also, in the Second Book of Machabees, 
 that Lysimacus committed many sacri- 
 leges, and that, among others, he robbed 
 the temple at Jerusalem of its golden ves- 
 sels serving for divine worship. The sa- 
 cred war, among the Greeks, originated 
 from the sacrilege of the Phoceans against 
 the temple of Apollo. Sacrilege is mostly 
 committed through an exterior fact; but, 
 for Catholic theologians, sacrilege is also 
 committed through solely internal facts ; 
 facts of conscience, as for instance, the 
 receiving and profanation of a sacrament 
 by a person in the state of mortal sin. 
 We consider also a sacrilege the pro- 
 fanation of places, or things such as a 
 church, chapel, or cemetery consecrated 
 or blessed by a bishop ; a relic, vestment, 
 or Church ornament. See Profanation. 
 
 Sacristan ( the one who takes care of 
 the sacristy of a church ). — The sacristan 
 prepares what is necessary for the litur- 
 gical offices, fits the altars inside the 
 church; he is, in one word, a servant. In 
 religious orders, the sacristan, who is one 
 of the religious, is called the warden, and 
 he exercises a highly personal supervision 
 over the sacristy, and the employees are 
 placed under his direct orders. The sac- 
 ristan of the Pope is a prelate; he gives 
 conwnunion to the sovereign Pontiff, as 
 viaticum in danger of death, and adminis- 
 ters to him extreme unction. In the 
 Conclave he ranks as the first Conclavist, 
 and he daily says the Mass for the cardi- 
 nals and administers the sacraments to 
 them. 
 
 Sacristy. — Room in a church where the 
 sacred vessels and the ornaments of the 
 church are locked up, and where the 
 priests, deacons, and all those who serve at 
 the altar dress for the divine service, while 
 the bishop dresses in the santuary, at the 
 foot of the altar. In the Middle Ages a 
 special chapel served for the purpose of 
 putting on the sacred vestments. For the 
 divine offices, the Greeks dress in the 
 sanctuary near a credence ; they have no 
 sacristy. In the first centuries of the 
 Church, the dwelling of the bishop and 
 clergy not being separated from the church, 
 the vessels, ornaments, and linen were kept 
 in this dwelling. 
 
 Sadducees. See Sadoc. 
 Sadoc. — Chief of the sect of Sadducees, 
 lived probably 248 b. c, if, as we are 
 
Sainte Anne de Beaupre 622 
 
 Saints 
 
 assured, he succeeded a certain Antigonus 
 Sacchaeus, successor in the tradition of the 
 doctrine of Simon the Just. The latter 
 taught that, by an excess of spirituality, we 
 must obey God without any view to per- 
 sonal interest, and Sadoc concluded from 
 this that there was, in fact, neither re- 
 ward to hope for, nor punishment to fear 
 in the other life. The disciples of Sadoc, 
 or Sadducees, formed one of the four prin- 
 cipal sects of the Jews. They denied the 
 immortality of the soul, the punishment 
 and reward of the other life, and the exist- 
 ence of angels. They admitted no tradi- 
 tions, and denied the destiny, as well as 
 Providence. St. Epiphanius, and after 
 him St. Augustine, says Dom Calmet, 
 have maintained that the Sadducees denied 
 the Holy Ghost, but neither Josephus nor 
 the Evangelists accuse them of this error. 
 It has also been imputed to them that they 
 believed God to be corporal and not to ad- 
 mit the prophecies. John Hyrcanus left 
 the sect of the Pharisees to attach himself 
 to that of Sadoc. Caiphas as well as Ana- 
 nus the Younger, were Sadducees, but 
 at present the Jews regard as heretics the 
 few Sadducees found among them. 
 
 Sainte Anne de Beaupre. — A village 
 of Montomorency County. Canada, on the 
 north shore of St. Lawrence, at the Ste. 
 Anne, a left-hand affluent of the St. Law- 
 rence. Many miraculous cures have been 
 attributed to relics of Ste. Anne which are 
 contained in the parish church ; the great 
 feast day of the patron saint is on the 26th 
 of July, when many pilgrimages are made 
 to her shrine. 
 
 Saints {Veneration of the). — All the 
 reasonable creatures, angels or men, whom 
 God has admitted to the participation of 
 His eternal glory are called saints. The 
 name saint {holy) is given to the sovereign 
 Pontiff and all the Popes receive this ap- 
 pellation on account of the veneration due 
 to the high dignity of the holy Father in 
 the Church. But by saint is understood 
 more particularly those, whose virtues, 
 practiced in the highest degree, have been 
 attested by miracles, and on which account 
 they were canonized. See Beatificatiox 
 and Canonization. 
 
 We honor the saints as the friends and 
 servants of God, whom He has over- 
 whelmed with his choicest gifts and most 
 precious graces. That religious venera- 
 tion may be paid to holy persons on ac- 
 count of the extraordinary supernatural 
 
 gifts accorded to them, we may conclude 
 from certain facts of Holy Scripture. The 
 sons of the Prophets, for instance, on per- 
 ceiving that the supernatural power of 
 Elias had passed to Eliseus, came to meet 
 him and worshiped him (IV. Kings ii. 5). 
 From the first centuries the angels and 
 saints were honored in the Church. St 
 Justin (Apel. I., n. 6) writes : " We honor 
 Him (God the Father), and the Son, and 
 the host of blessed spirits." Even before 
 the time of St. Justin, the Church of 
 Smyrna, in a letter on the martyrdom of 
 St. Polycarp, declares: "We adore the 
 Son of God ; but we honor His martyrs as 
 the disciples and followers of our Lord, 
 for the exquisite love of their king and 
 master." 
 
 The veneration of the saints is, on the 
 one hand, the natural outcome of the wor- 
 ship of God ; and, on the other hand, it 
 contributes to the increase of divine wor- 
 ship. For, if we honor God, we also honor 
 His distinguished friends and servants; 
 just as we love our neighbor if we love 
 God Himself; and, contrary, if we honor 
 the saints on account of their supernatural 
 gifts, we honor also God Himself, the 
 giver of those divine gifts. Nay, God 
 Himself gives us the example: "If any 
 man minister to Me, him will My Father 
 honor" (John xii. 26). The veneration of 
 the saints is also salutary for us, inasmuch 
 as it incites us to the imitation of their ex- 
 ample. Therefore the Church rightly 
 professes that the " saints, who reign with 
 Christ, are to be honored" (S>'m. Trid.). 
 
 The invocation of the saints is useful 
 and salutary. From the dogma of the 
 Communion of Saints it follows that the 
 blessed in hea^"en can, and actually do, pray 
 for us and obtain for us the grace of God 
 by their intercession. This is still more 
 emphatically true of the saints ; for, owing 
 to their more intimate union with God, 
 as His special friends, they have a stricter 
 title (as far as we can speak of right in 
 this matter) to be heard ; and, owing to 
 their greater love for us, they are more in- 
 clined to use their intercession in our be- 
 half. But they are more certain to 
 intercede for us if we invoke their inter- 
 cession; for, what is true of God Himself, 
 who is the pattern of the saints, holds 
 good also of the saints themselves ; as 
 God, though of Himself, inclined to be- 
 stow His favors, confers His gifts with 
 more certainty and in greater abundance 
 in answer to our prayers, so also the saints 
 
Salem 
 
 623 
 
 Salvation 
 
 will more certainly intercede for us if we 
 invoke them. That the saints are con- 
 scious of our prayers may be easily under- 
 stood from what we have said concerning 
 our relation to good angels. See Angel. 
 From time immemorial it has been cus- 
 tomary in the Church to invoke the saints. 
 In the Catacombs of Rome, particularly 
 on the graves of the martyrs, may be 
 found inscriptions like the following : 
 " Pray for me," " Pray for thy brethren," 
 etc. St. Augustine says, that while in the 
 holy sacrifice of the Mass we commemo- 
 rate other departed souls in order to pray 
 for them, we invoke the martyrs that they 
 may pray for us. (St. Augustine : In yoan. 
 Tract. 84.) See Images; Relics; Mary 
 {Prerogative of). 
 
 Salem. — Ancient name of the lower 
 part of Jerusalem (Gen. xiv. 18; Hebr. vii. 
 1-2), which later on, was applied to the 
 whole city (Ps. LXXV. 3). 
 
 Sales (St. Francis of). See Francis. 
 
 Salesians. — Religious of an order 
 founded in Italy by Dom Bosco, a priest 
 (born, 1S15). They were called Salesians 
 on account of the quite special devotion 
 which Dom Bosco and his followers had 
 toward St. Francis of Sales. The Salesian 
 Society has for its object the education 
 and instruction of the poor and abandoned 
 youth. 
 
 SaWe {The AbbS De La). See Brothers 
 OF THE Christian Schools. 
 
 Salmanasar. See Shalmaneser. 
 
 Salome. — Wife of Zebedee, mother of 
 St. James the Elder and of St. John the 
 Evangelist. She accompanied our Saviour 
 to Calvary, and was one of the holy women 
 who came early on Sunday to the sepulchre 
 of our Lord. 
 
 Salomon. See Solomon. 
 
 Salvation Army (an organization founded 
 upon a quasi military pattern, for the re- 
 vival of religion among the masses). — It 
 was founded in England by the Methodist 
 Evangelist William Booth about 1865, un- 
 der the name of "Christian Mission." 
 The present name and organization were 
 adopted about 1878. It has extended to 
 the continent of Europe, to India, Aus- 
 tralia, and other British possessions; to the 
 United States, South America, and else- 
 where. Its work is carried on by means of 
 processions, street singing, preaching, and 
 
 the like, under the direction of officers, en- 
 titled generals, majors, captains, etc. Both 
 sexes participate in the services and direc- 
 tion of the body on equal terms. It has no 
 formulated creed, but the doctrines bear a 
 general resemblance to those common to all 
 Protestants and especially to theMethodists. 
 
 Salvation (A^o) Outside the Church. — 
 Ecclesiastical documents are not wanting 
 in which this doctrine is embodied. The 
 Fourth Council of the Lateran in its pro- 
 fession of faith teaches as follows (chap. i. ) : 
 " There is but one universal Church of 
 the Faithful, and outside of it no one can 
 be saved." The Waldenses, after their 
 conversion, were required to profess faith 
 in one Church, not an heretical Church, 
 but in the Holy, Roman, Catholic, and 
 Apostolic Church, outside of which no 
 one is saved. In like manner Eugenius 
 IV., speaking in the name of the Roman 
 Church, teaches that none outside the 
 Catholic Church, whether heathen, Jews, 
 heretics, or schismatics, shall have a share 
 in everlasting life, but that they shall go 
 into eternal fire unless converted before 
 death. And the Council of Trent pre- 
 supposes this universal belief. The de- 
 cree on original sin begins with these 
 words: "That our Catholic faith, with- 
 out which it is impossible to please God, 
 may be purified from errors, and pre- 
 served intact and inviolate, . . . the 
 Synod decrees, etc." This evidently im- 
 plies the same doctrine of one saving 
 Church as is contained in the Athanasian 
 Symbol. The Catholic Church, it says 
 again, instructed by Jesus Christ, our 
 Lord, and His Apostles, and the Holy 
 Spirit who leads her into all truth, teaches 
 that she possesses and will always hold to 
 the true doctrines of the Eucharist, and 
 that therefore she forbids all Christians 
 to think otherwise. The Roman Church 
 is called by the Synod the mother and 
 mistress of others. Pius IV. inserted the 
 following words in the profession of faith : 
 " I acknowledge the Holy Catholic and 
 Apostolic Roman Church as the Mother 
 and Mistress of all Churches." And it 
 concludes with the words: "This true 
 Catholic faith, without which no one can 
 be saved, I promise to hold intact and 
 entire until my last breath." 
 
 Of modern theologians, we shall men- 
 tion but two. Tournely considers that the 
 phrase '■'■Extra Ecclesiam^' (outside the 
 Church), etc., is one of those truths which 
 
Salvation 
 
 624 
 
 Salvation 
 
 are both incomprehensible and hard, be- 
 cause it lays a ban on all heretics and 
 schismatics. " But it is not on that ac- 
 count less true ; for tradition, from first 
 to last, teaches that there is no remis- 
 sion of sins, no charity, no salvation, out- 
 side the Church." Perrone lays down 
 the following thesis : " For those who cul- 
 pably depart this life in heresy, schism, or 
 unbelief, there can be no salvation ; in 
 other words extra ecclesiam nulla salus." 
 And he begins to demonstrate it with 
 the words : " This thesis, which makes all 
 sectaries and unbelievers gnash their teeth, 
 is clear, not only fromi Scripture and the 
 constant sense of the Catholic Church, but 
 also from reason. In fact, so clear is it 
 Wiat he \*no fails to perceive its truth must 
 be blino." (Tournely, p. 52 ; Perrone, I. 
 240.) 
 
 The proposition, as the author has clearly 
 shown, is old and Catholic, and is, in fact, 
 only the logical conclusion of the doctrine 
 of one visible Church of Christ on earth. 
 As a matter of principle, therefore, Non- 
 Catholics ought not to object to the con- 
 clusion, but to the premises, which assert 
 that Christ instituted and left in His place 
 one only Church. The anger and fury 
 with which the conclusion is assailed seems 
 to be due to the fact that superficial minds 
 consider it as synonymous with, or, at 
 least, as necessarily implying the proposi- 
 tion that, "All heretics and schismatics of 
 any and every kind, will be damned." 
 This, of course, is a monstrous proposi- 
 tion, and entirely repugnant to Catholic 
 principles and instinct. Such a conclusion 
 could only be drawn, if it were stated that 
 no one can or does belong in any way 
 whatsoever to the Catholic Church, unless 
 he be an actual, visible member. There is 
 no such proposition in the whole range of 
 Catholic theology. What the Catholic 
 proposition does imply is that whoever is 
 saved, will be saved only in so far as he is 
 a member of the one Catholic Church on 
 earth. To put the matter in what seems to us 
 an easier form : granting, then, for argu- 
 ment's sake, that there is but one visible 
 Church, it clearly follows that it is the 
 moral duty of every man to belong to it. 
 His own salvation as well as the will of 
 God, who founded the Church, imposes on 
 him the moral obligation which, like every 
 other moral duty, supposes knowledge and 
 freewill. Now, a man is accountable only 
 in so far as he knows the duty, and is free 
 to fulfill it. But a man may, without any 
 
 fault of his, be ignorant of it, or, what 
 is still more common, may be mistaken 
 about it, thinking that he is actually ful- 
 filling it, when in reality he is not. To 
 blame or punish such a one, would evi- 
 dently be contrary to all moral principles. 
 The man who can plead invincible igno- 
 rance or inculpable error, is reputed as good 
 as having fulfilled the duty. But the duty 
 remains the same in all cases. Accord- 
 ingly there may be heretics and schismatics, 
 who are born in heresy and who believe 
 bona fide that they are in the one Church 
 of Christ, and must consequently be re- 
 puted as satisfying as far as they are able 
 the moral duty of belonging to the Cath- 
 olic Church. But the duty of belonging 
 to that Church remains ever the same. 
 The Catholic principle, therefore, requires 
 no modification whatever. It is simply 
 and absolutely true. Extra Ecclesiam 
 nulla salus. It is simply the self-assertion 
 of the Church as the sole representative of 
 Christ and His work on earth. The prin- 
 ciple is directed against those who willingly 
 and knowingly fall away from, or justify 
 their separation from her. 
 
 The Reformers adopted the very same 
 principle. When they cut themselves off 
 from the universal and Apostolic Church, 
 they not only took with them the ground- 
 work of their faith, that is the Holy Scrip- 
 ture, but they also claimed to be a rival, 
 infallible, and only true Church. Thus the 
 Confessio condemns all heretics : Mani- 
 cheans, Valentinians, Arians, Eunomians, 
 Mohammedans, and such like; and also the 
 followers of Paul of Samosata, old and new 
 Pelagians, and others who figure in the 
 Apology as scholastics, the Anabaptists, 
 Donatists, Novatians, and others. What 
 else can this mean, but that there is no 
 salvation except through Christ, and 
 through the one Church.? The same view 
 is urged against that section of Protestants 
 which went under the name of " Re- 
 formed." "If," says the Apology, " our 
 adversaries arrogate to themselves the 
 name Church, we know full well that the 
 Church is theirs who teach Christ's Gos- 
 pel, and that the Church is not with them 
 who defend wicked doctrines in the teeth 
 of the Gospel [ ( Confess, i. i , 3, 4 ; 22 ; Apol. 
 c. iii., a. 6. Formul. Cone. Proem. //.)]. 
 The Formula Concordice recognizes the 
 ancient symbols "th't express the unan- 
 imous consent of the Christian and Cath- 
 olic faith, and that contain the confession 
 of orthodox Christians and of the true 
 
Salve Regina 
 
 625 
 
 Samaria 
 
 Church, to wit, the Apostles, Nicene, and 
 Athanasian Creeds." It likewise anathe- 
 matizes all heretics, and all propositions at 
 variance with the faith, that have ever been 
 broached in the Church. In connection 
 with the Smalcaldic articles it is said : 
 " We in nowise concede that bishops are 
 the Church, because they are not; nor do 
 we hearken to their voice as if they issued 
 commands or prohibitions in the Church's 
 name. God be thanked, any child seven 
 years old now knows what the true Church 
 is; namely the saints, the Faithful, and the 
 sheep who hear the Shepherd's voice." 
 
 Luther, in his greater Catechism, says: 
 " Outside this Christianity, and where this 
 Gospel has no place, there can be neither 
 forgiveness of sins nor sanctification. 
 Hence all are far removed from this Church 
 who contend that they seek, and purchase, 
 and merit sanctification by their own works, 
 and not through the grace of the Gospel 
 and the remission of sins." "All who are 
 outside the Christian pale, be they heathen, 
 Turk, Jew, false Christian or hypocrite, 
 even if they believe in the one true God 
 and invoke Him, but know not how He is 
 disposed toward them, cannot promise 
 themselves God's grace and favor. There- 
 fore they abide in His eternal wrath, and 
 in everlasting damnation" (Catech. ii. 47, 
 56. See Mb-lanchthon, De Pecc. orig. 
 Calv. Instit. iii. 14, 4). Of course, he 
 had his doubts and often spoke diffidently 
 as to the truth of this doctrine, and the 
 salvation of the Faithful outside the true 
 Church. But despite his teaching as to 
 the invisible Church, into which he was 
 reluctantly driven, Luther could not shake 
 off the idea of the necessity of a visible 
 Church. But he made the community the 
 Church. According to Luther, no one at- 
 tains to faith, except by hearing God's 
 word in the Church. And God has handed 
 over this key of the kingdom of heaven to 
 the community of the Faithful. 
 
 The Calvinists were still more clamor- 
 ous in their pretensions to be the one re- 
 ligion, out of which there is no salvation. 
 They were thoroughly convinced that the 
 Pope was Anti-Christ, the man of sin, and 
 the child of destruction, and that the 
 Catholic Church was the Synagogue of 
 Satan. "That all in communion with him 
 ( the Pope) are lost, is an article of faith 
 wherever genuine Calvinism is rampant. 
 It stands in the Westminster Confession " 
 ( Zokler, 11,747). Nor were the Calvin- 
 ists less tolerant toward the Lutherans. 
 40 
 
 As they still breathe the old undying 
 hatred toward Rome, so they endeavor, 
 where they can, " to render suspect as 
 liars, as denying the true faith, and follow- 
 ing a false, erring theology, all who will 
 not be set on fire with fanatical zeal for 
 Calvinism." The Lutherans, on their 
 part, were not slow to show their hatred 
 of the doctrine of Zwingli and Calvin, 
 saying that through its instrumentality 
 the devil was seeking to introduce heathen- 
 ism, Talmudism, and Mohammedanism 
 into the Church. 
 
 Salve Regina (antiphon to the Blessed 
 Virgin, so called from the two Latin words 
 with which it commences). — The Salve 
 Regina was composed, according to some, 
 by Germann or Hermann Conrad, Bene- 
 dictine of the eleventh century, according 
 to others, by Preize, Bishop of Compostella, 
 in the twelfth century, and whom some call 
 Peter of Monsoro or of Monsocio, and, ac- 
 cording to others, by Adhemar of Montheil, 
 Bishop of Puy (died at Antioch in 1098) ; 
 and for this reason, undoubtedly, it was 
 first called "Antiphon of Puy " (Antipkona 
 de Padio). St. Bernard, apostolic legate 
 in Germany, having heard the singing of 
 the Salve Regina in the Church of Spire, 
 added to it, by a sudden inspiration, the 
 words which end it: "(? clemens, O pia, O 
 dulcis Virgo Maria V 
 
 Salvianus (390 .^-484 }) . — Ecclesiastical 
 writer, born at Cologne or at Treves. Mar- 
 ried at Cologne, he and his wife renounced 
 the world, and withdrew to the Monastery 
 of Lerins (420), then to Marseilles, where 
 he was ordained priest. He has depicted 
 with eloquence the vices and misfortunes 
 of his time ; was consulted by the most il- 
 lustrious prelates of Gaul, and received the 
 name of " Master of the Bishops." Among 
 his writings, which have an important 
 bearing on the history of his age, should 
 be mentioned his treatises, Against Avarice 
 and On the Governtnent and Providence of 
 God. The object of the last-named work 
 is similar to that of St. Augustine's City 
 of God. 
 
 Samaria (the modern Sebastiyeh). — 
 Village of Palestine. Founded by Amri, 
 king of Israel, in 912 B.C., it rapidly be- 
 came a wealthy capital. Taken and laid 
 waste in 724 b. c. by Salmanasar, king of 
 Assyria, it lost its inhabitants, who were 
 transported into Assyria and replaced by a 
 colony of Cutheans. It had become re- 
 peopled under Aassar-Haddon in 572, and 
 
Samaritan Pentateuch 
 
 626 
 
 Samuel 
 
 regained its ancient importance, when it 
 became a prey of Antiochus the Great in 
 203 ; destroyed by John Hyrcanus in 128, 
 raised from its ruins by Gabinius, it reob- 
 tained its old splendor under Herod, who, 
 to flatter Augustus, gave it the name of 
 " Sebaste." It was taken for the last time 
 and definitely destroyed by Vespasian, on 
 the occasion of the revolt of the Jews in 
 the first years of the Christian era. Its 
 port was Caesarea, the modern Kaisarieh. 
 
 Samaritan Pentateuch. — Collection of 
 the five books of Moses in the Hebrew 
 language, but in Samaritan characters or 
 in ancient Hebrew characters, which were 
 in use before the Babylonian captivity. 
 The critics have remarked some differences 
 between the Pentateuch of the Jews and 
 that of the Samaritans. These differences 
 concern principally the word Garizim, 
 which the Samaritans have substituted for 
 that of Hebal, to favor their pretensions ; 
 but other variations are of little impor- 
 tance. The Samaritan Pentateuch power- 
 fully confirms the authenticity and veracity 
 of the writings of Moses, but the use that 
 can be made thereof, must be limited. 
 
 Samaritans (inhabitants of Samaria). 
 — The Samaritans, called at first Cutheans, 
 were a people from beyond the Euphrates, 
 whom the kings of Assyria sent to inhabit 
 the kingdom of Samaria, after they had 
 led away captive the Israelites who lived 
 there before. At first they continued to 
 adore only idols, and afterwards they 
 mingled the worship of the Lord with that 
 of false gods; but after the return from 
 captivity. Holy Scripture, which does not 
 conceal their jealousy of the Jews, nor the 
 bad services which they rendered against 
 them at the Persian court, neither the 
 snares which they laid for them in order 
 to hinder them from rebuilding the walls 
 of Jerusalem, nowhere reproaches them 
 with the adoration of idols. It does not 
 appear that this people had a common 
 temple before the arrival of Alexander the 
 Great into Judea ; afterwards they wished 
 to go to Jerusalem, but the Jews being op- 
 posed to this, they built, with the consent 
 of Alexander, the temple of Garizim, of 
 which Manasses, son of Jaddus, was made 
 high-priest. The animosity of the Samar- 
 itans for the Jews increased still more 
 when, to punish them for their rebellion, 
 Alexander, on his return from Egypt, 
 drove them from Samaria and gave their 
 province to the Jews. Also, when our 
 
 Saviour appeared in Judea, there existed 
 no relation between Samaria and Jerusa- 
 lem. The greatest injury the Jews could 
 inflict upon a man was to call him a Sa- 
 maritan. When Alexander had driven 
 the Samaritans from their province, they 
 withdrew to Sichem ( the modern Na- 
 plouse), where they are still found. Al- 
 though reduced to about thirty families, 
 they hold aloof from all foreign union, 
 and marry among themselves. They be- 
 lieve as in the time of Christ, that it is 
 upon Mount Garizim that God wishes to 
 be adored. They have faithfully preserved 
 the Pentateuch, and this is the only portion 
 of Scripture which they acknowledge. 
 The celebration of the Pasch on Mount 
 Garizim is for them a sacred rite, as well 
 as circumcision, the keeping of the Sab- 
 bath, and the other festivals prescribed by 
 the Mosaic . legislation. They are even 
 more exact and more superstitious observ- 
 ers of the law than the Jews, and have a 
 horror of idolatry. Finally, like the Jews, 
 they expect a Messias whom they call 
 " Hathab," that is, the Converter. 
 
 Samos. — An island in the northeastern 
 part of the ..•Egean sea, near the coast, 27 
 miles long and 10 miles wide, which St. 
 Paul touched on his third missionary jour- 
 ney (Acts XX. 15). 
 
 Samosathians. See Pauliaxists. 
 
 Samothracia. — A mountainous island 
 of the yEgean sea which St. Paul visited 
 on his first missionary journey. The latter 
 half of the name was added to distinguish 
 it from the other Samos. It is also called 
 Samothraki and contains from one to two 
 thousand inhabitants. 
 
 Samson. — One of the Hebrew judges, 
 celebrated for his great physical strength, 
 and for the bravery and success with which 
 he defended his country against the Phi- 
 listines (Judg. xiii.-xvi.). 
 
 Samuel (Hebr. God hath heard). — Last 
 judge of Israel, born at Ramatha, in the 
 mountains of Ephraim, about 1132 b. c. 
 The disciple of Heli and his successor in 
 the sovereign judicature (1092), delivered 
 the Israelites from the yoke of the Phi- 
 listines. But his sons whom, in his old age, 
 he had associated in his functions, dis- 
 satisfied the people, who asked, through 
 the ancients, for a monarchical govern- 
 ment. Samuel, forced to yield, chose Saul 
 and anointed him king (1080), reserving 
 
Sanbenito 
 
 627 
 
 Satan 
 
 for himself only the sacerdotal functions. 
 Later on, he anointed David and died in 
 1048. General opinion has attributed to 
 him the authorship of the Book of Judges, 
 that of Ruth and the First Book of Kings 
 up to chapter xxiv. 
 
 Sanbenito. — A garment worn by per- 
 sons under trial by the Inquisition when 
 brought into public view at an auto de fe, 
 either for recantation and subsequent par- 
 don after penance, or for any other punish- 
 ment. Some writers describe it as a hat or 
 a sort of cassock or loose over garment, 
 others again claim that, according to the 
 name *♦ Sanbenito," it was the habit of the 
 religious of St. Benedict. 
 
 Sanchez (Thomas) (1550-1610). — Jesuit 
 and casuist, born at Cordova, died at 
 Grenada. His treatise, De Matrimonio, 
 for the use of confessors and directors of 
 souls, has given rise to many attacks. 
 These attacks would have been less fre- 
 quent and perhaps less hypocritical, if the 
 authors had studied this treatise, where it 
 was composed, at the foot of the crucifix. 
 
 Sanctuary. — The part of the church 
 around the high altar reserved for the 
 clergy, generally inclosed by wooden rails. 
 
 Sanctus. — A hymn which forms the 
 conclusion of the Preface. The Greeks 
 call it Trisagion; but this trisagion must 
 not be confounded with that of the Latin 
 Church, sung on Good Friday during the 
 adoration of the Cross. The chant of the 
 Sanctus was used in the Church at the time 
 of Tertullian, and is contained in the 
 Preface in the fifth Catechesis of St. Cyril 
 of Jerusalem, who adds that when we 
 recite the Sanctus, as the seraphim con- 
 tinually do, we should enter into commun- 
 ion with the heavenly militia, by this 
 divine psalmody. 
 
 Sanhedrin, or Bethdin {W&hr. house of 
 judgment) . — This was a council of seventy- 
 one or seventy-two senators, among the 
 Jews, who determined the most important 
 aflfairs of the nation. The room in which 
 they met, according to the rabbins, was a 
 rotundo, half of which was built without 
 the temple, and half within ; the latter 
 part being that in which the judges 
 sat. The nasi or president, who was gen- 
 erally the high-priest, sat on a throne at 
 the end of the hall ; his deputy, or vice- 
 president, called ab-bethdin^ at his right; 
 and the sub-deputy, or kakatn, at his left; 
 
 the other senators being ranged in order 
 on each side. Most of the members of this 
 council were priests or Levites, though 
 men in private stations of life were not ex- 
 cluded. The authority of the Sanhedrin 
 was very extensive. It decided cases 
 brought before it by appeal from inferior 
 courts ; and even the king, the high- 
 priest, and the prophets were under its 
 jurisdiction. The general affairs of the 
 nation were also brought before this as- 
 sembly. The right of judging in capital 
 cases belonged to it, until this was taken 
 away by the Romans. The Sanhedrin 
 was probably the council referred to by 
 our Lord (Matt. v. 22). 
 
 San Jago {Order of). — A religio-mili- 
 tary order instituted in 1170, for the 
 protection of Christian pilgrims to Com- 
 postella, Spain. 
 
 Sara ( 1986-1859 b. c. ). — Wife of Abra- 
 ham, followed him into Egypt. Capti- 
 vated by her beauty, the king of that 
 country, and later on, Abimelech, king of 
 the Philistines, wished to marry her, be- 
 lieving that she was only the sister of 
 Abraham ; but God protected her against 
 all outrage. Having become the mother 
 of Isaac, she drove away Agar and Ismael. 
 
 Sarabites. — Wandering monks who 
 had enfranchised themselves from the 
 rule and the cenobitic life, and went from 
 city to city, living at leisure. 
 
 Sardica (the modern Sophia). — City of 
 Lower Dacia, capital of the diocese of 
 eastern Illyria in the fourth century. 
 Here a Church council was held in 347 
 which condemned the Arians. 
 
 Sarepta (the modern Sarfend). — An- 
 cient town of Phoenicia between Tyre and 
 Sidon, on the Mediterranean ; famous 
 through the sojourn which the Prophet 
 Elias made there, in the house of a poor 
 widow, whose flour and oil he miraculously 
 multiplied, and whose child he raised to 
 life again, in gratitude for the hospitalitj 
 he had received. 
 
 Sargon. — King of Assyria, whom some 
 claim to be Sennacherib, others Assar- 
 Haddon, his son, and still others Salman- 
 asar, his father. 
 
 Satan (enemy). — St. Jerome has pre- 
 served the word Satan, which signifies 
 enemy, adversary, accuser; but elsewhere, 
 in Job, for instance, it designates demon. 
 
Satisfaction 
 
 628 
 
 Saturday 
 
 dn>il. In the New Testament it is ac- 
 cepted in both senses. In gathering the 
 passages where there is mention of Satan 
 or the devil, we find that he was cast out of 
 heaven in punishment for his pride ; that 
 his jealousy introduced death into the 
 world ; that bj God's permission he exer- 
 cises a kind of dominion over the other 
 angels, apostates like himself; that God 
 makes use of him to try the good and 
 chastise the wicked ; that he is a lying 
 spirit in the mouth of false prophets and 
 heretics; that he or his own torment, pos- 
 sess men and inspire them with evil de- 
 signs ; that he causes several diseases, 
 attacks us, especially, at the hour of death, 
 and that he leads the souls of the damned 
 into hell ; that his power and malice, sub- 
 ordinate to the will of God, will have a 
 greater dominion in the time of Anti- 
 Christ than at present; that he is chained 
 in hell, whose fire was prepared for him 
 and all his followers ; finally, that he will be 
 judged at the end of the world. See Devil. 
 
 Satisfiaction (a penance imposed on us 
 by the confessor, including restoration of 
 stolen property, and reparation for scan- 
 dal). — Although absolution wipes out 
 the guilt of mortal sin, delivering us from 
 eternal punishment, there usually remains 
 a temporal punishment due for evil deeds, 
 unless the penitent's dispositions are of 
 such perfection that, by the divine mercy 
 of God, even that debt is canceled. The 
 penance imposed by the confessor is not 
 always equal to the offense committed, 
 which may still have to be expiated more 
 fully by further punishment, whether in 
 this world or in purgatory. Satisfaction 
 is an act of atonement toward God and our 
 neighbor, for in the sacrament of penance, 
 the mercy of our Lord is extended to us 
 by the remission of eternal chastisement, 
 and justice is compassionately enforced 
 upon us by means of temporal punishment 
 in commutation of the everlasting penal- 
 ties we have deserved. The Church exacts 
 fulfillment of the satisfaction imposed, 
 under pain of mortal sin, — the penance 
 being more or less severe according to the 
 gravity of the offense confessed, — except, 
 when it is either impossible or too difficult 
 of accomplishment, in which case it is 
 our duty to make this known to the 
 confessor, respectfully begging that the 
 penance may be changed. The penance 
 imposed should be carried out with exacti- 
 tude as to the time, place, and manner of 
 
 execution demanded by Christ's minister, 
 and with devout sentiments of piety and 
 fervor, united with the sincere repentance 
 of the sins for which atonement is being 
 offered. 
 
 Satolli (Francis). — A Catholic prelate 
 and diplomat of the Holy See ; born in the 
 city of Perugia, Italy, in 1841. He was 
 educated in the diocesan seminary of his 
 native city, over which presided Joachim 
 Pecci, Archbishop of Perugia, afterwards 
 Pope Leo XIII. He early distinguished 
 himself as an orator and linguist, and on 
 the accession of Leo XIII. was chosen his 
 chief assistant in the work of promoting 
 theological studies. He became, succes- 
 sively, professor in the Propaganda and 
 Roman Seminary, president of the Acad- 
 emy of Noble Ecclesiastics, and archbishop 
 of Lepanto. In 1889, he was deputed by 
 the Pope to represent him at Baltimore, 
 Maryland, on the occasion of the centenary 
 of the Catholic hierarchy, also, at the in- 
 auguration of the Catholic University in 
 Washington, District of Columbia. On 
 Jan. 23d, 1893, he was appointed apostolic 
 Delegate to the Roman Catholic Church 
 in the United States, with power to exer- 
 cise Pontifical jurisdiction, subject only to 
 Appeal to the Pope. This has given the 
 Church in America an autonomy and uni- 
 formity which it did not before possess. 
 He was created a cardinal Jan. 5th, 1896, 
 and was succeeded in the oflSce of Delegate 
 by Sebastian Martinelli in 1896. He has 
 written a Course of Philosophy on the 
 Sumtna of St. Thomas, and essays on 
 various philosophical themes. 
 
 Saturday {Holy) (Saturday before Eas- 
 ter). — It is the first of all the eves as to 
 dignity and antiquity. It has always 
 passed as the most important and the 
 longest, joining immediately the office of 
 Easter with its own, esp>ecially when it 
 commenced after the hour of None or 
 about sunset- It then continued until 
 Sunday, making the Faithful spend their 
 time in church from sunset to sunrise; 
 and this custom, which has ceased with 
 the Latins only since they commenced the 
 oflSces of this great eve in the morning or 
 at the hour of Tierce of Saturday, has al- 
 ways continued to exist with the Greeks. 
 Holy Saturday was formerly kept entirely 
 holy in several Churches. Then in the 
 course of time, it was reduced to the rank 
 of half- feast which was kept holy until 
 noon, but to-day it is left almost every- 
 
Saul 
 
 629 
 
 Scapular 
 
 where to the voluntary devotion of the 
 Faithful. All the offices and ceremonies 
 of Holy Saturday have reference to the 
 baptism of the Catechumens, which was 
 administered in the most solemn manner 
 on the eves of Easter and Pentecost. See 
 Holy Week. 
 
 Saul. — First king of Israel, son of Cis, 
 powerful man of Gaboa, of the tribe of 
 Benjamin, died in 1040. Warrior, endowed 
 with great strength and high stature ; he 
 was anointed king by the Prophet Sam- 
 uel (1080 B. c.) ; signalized the beginning 
 of his reign by brilliant victories over the 
 Ammonites, Amalekites, and Philistines, 
 and introduced a severe discipline among 
 his troops. Having usurped the functions 
 of the priesthood, he himself oflfering the 
 holocaust at Galgala, instead of Samuel, 
 he was from that time abandoned by God's 
 spirit, and delivered himself to cruelty 
 and superstitions, and fell into a gloomy 
 melancholy. David, secretly anointed 
 king by Samuel, dispelled Saul's fits of 
 madness by playing the harp before him, 
 and became the intimate friend of his son 
 Jonathan. Saul, jealous of David, tried 
 repeatedly to kill him. More than ever a 
 prey to his fits of madness, he consulted, 
 in a last campaign against the Philistines, 
 the pythoness of Endor ; called forth the 
 shadow of Samuel, who foretold to him 
 his approaching fall. On the next day, 
 Saul, conquered at Gelboe, beheld the 
 slaying on the battlefield of Jonathan and 
 two of his sons, and, he being wounded, 
 pierced himself with his own sword. 
 
 Saviour. — A term applied to Jesus 
 Christ, because, as the angel expressed it. 
 He came " to save the people from their 
 sins " (Matt. i. 2). 
 
 Savonarola (Jerome) (1452-1498). — Fa- 
 mous preacher and Dominican, born at 
 Ferrara, entered at the Dominicans at 
 Bologna in 1475. Master of the novices 
 in the convent of St. Mark, in Florence 
 (1382), prior (1488), he soon beheld the 
 leading intellects grouping around his pul- 
 pit. Two objects especially preoccupied 
 him : the general reform of morals, and a 
 wise and Christian ministry of the Floren- 
 tine republic. He was not the chief in- 
 strument in the overthrow of the Medici 
 in 1494, but from the depth of his cell and 
 from the height of his pulpit, he became 
 the real chief of the new power. A power- 
 ful league formed itself against him; the 
 
 friends of the ancient government tried 
 repeatedly to assassinate him. Making 
 war upon temporal rulers, including the 
 Pope, denouncing their corruption and ex- 
 cesses, he was condemned to death, and 
 executed at Florence, in 1498. 
 
 Scapular {Confraternity of the). — In 
 the first place, the scapular was a long 
 narrow stripof cloth, covering the shoulders 
 and hanging down before and behind to 
 the knees, worn by certain religious orders. 
 Secondly, two small pieces of cloth con- 
 nected by strings and worn over the shoul- 
 ders by laymen. The Confraternity of 
 the Scapular is quite ancient. It was in- 
 spired and revealed by the Holy Virgin to 
 the blessed Simon Stock, sixth general of 
 the Carmelite Order, about the beginning 
 of the thirteenth century. This venerable 
 religious, who had entertained from his 
 earliest years a truly filial confidence in 
 Mary, was one day in prayer, when the 
 Queen of Heaven appeared to him, sur- 
 rounded by a multitude of blessed spir- 
 its, and holding in her hand a scapular 
 of the Order of Carmel. She gave it to 
 him with these words : " Receive, my dear 
 son, this scapular of thy order, as the dis- 
 tinctive sign of my confraternity, and the 
 mark of the privilege that I have obtained 
 for thee and the children of Carmel. 
 Whosoever dies while piously wearing the 
 scapular, shall be preserved from eternal 
 flames. It will be a sign of salvation, a 
 safeguard in danger, and a special pledge 
 of peace and protection till the end of 
 time." {Manueldu Scap, by M. de Sam- 
 bucy, p. 28.) 
 
 Though magnificent, this first promise 
 was only a part of what the blessed Simon 
 had asked. To answer him fully, the 
 Holy Virgin made him a second promise 
 in favor of the Carmelite religious, and 
 members of the Scapular Confraternity. 
 To make the matter more sure, she ap- 
 peared to Pope John XXII., and said to 
 him, according to the very tenor of the 
 Bull : " John, Vicar of my Son ! it is to 
 my solicitations with my son that you are 
 indebted for the high dignity to which 
 you have been raised. As I have with- 
 drawn you from the ambushes of your 
 enemies, I expect from you an ample and 
 favorable confirmation of the holy Car- 
 melite Order, which has always been sin- 
 gularly devoted to me. ... If, among 
 the members of the order or the confrater- 
 nity who quit this world, there be any 
 
Scapular 
 
 630 
 
 Scapular 
 
 whose sins deserve purgatory, I, as a ten- 
 der mother, will go down to them in pur- 
 gatory on the Saturday after their death. 
 I will deliver such as I find there, and will 
 bring them to the holy mountain, the 
 happy abode of eternal life" {Opus cit.). 
 
 Here three questions present them- 
 selves: I. What is the meaning of the 
 Blessed Virgin's twofold promises? 2. 
 Could the Blessed Virgin make this prom- 
 ise? 3. Did the Blessed Virgin make this 
 promise? 
 
 I. What is the meaning of the Blessed 
 Virgin's promise? Our divine Mother 
 promises, in the first place, to save from 
 the pains of hell those who die piously 
 wearing the scapular. Does this mean 
 that in whatsoever state, even in the state 
 of mortal sin, a member of the Scapular 
 Confraternity dies, he will not fail to be 
 saved, provided only he dies wearing the 
 scapular? Such an interpretation is revolt- 
 ing, shocking. Also the Bull of John 
 XXII., in which the promise is found, 
 does not say that to escape hell it suffices 
 to wear the holy scapular, without prac- 
 ticing good works. It says quite the con- 
 trary. The meaning of this promise is, 
 therefore, that the Blessed Virgin will ob- 
 tain for her clients, the grace not to be 
 surprised by death, in the state of mortal 
 sin, though it should be necessary on 
 many occasions to prevent, by a miracu- 
 lous interposition, some dreadful accident 
 in order to save them from death, or to 
 prolong the life of the sick and bring 
 about a favorable moment for their con- 
 version and salvation. This is the natural 
 and only lawful meaning to put upon 
 Mary's promise. To obtain its fulfillment, 
 we must join with the duties of the confra- 
 ternity the still more essential duties of a 
 Christian. We must avoid sin, and not 
 expose ourselves to the danger of being 
 overtaken by death in the enmity of God. 
 It is by these marks that the true servant 
 of Mary is known. 
 
 The Blessed Virgin promises, in the 
 second place, that she will come and de- 
 liver out of purgatory the wearers of the 
 scapular on the first Saturday after their 
 death. There is nothing repugnant in 
 this. First, God can make the pains of 
 purgatory more acute, and compensate for 
 shorter duration by greater severity. 
 Again, parents in their families, and rulers 
 in their states have certain days for grant- 
 ing their favors. The Church herself has 
 many days appointed for granting a ple- 
 
 nary indulgence, that is to say, the remis- 
 sion of the temporal penalties due to our 
 sins. Why should not the Blessed Virgin 
 do likewise? 
 
 2. Could the Blessed Virgin make this 
 promise? Every Catholic answers: To 
 be sure she could ! Mary is most power- 
 ful, and is all goodness. 
 
 3. Did the Blessed Virgin make this 
 promise? Two voices answer. Yes, Mary 
 made this promise. The first of these 
 voices is that of the Church. What have 
 not sovereign PontiflFs done, that no doubt 
 should remain in minds regarding the 
 truth of each part of this promise? Con- 
 sulting on the first, which refers to the 
 pains of hell, John XXII., in a Bull issued 
 in 1316, declares that it has been examined 
 with the weights of the sanctuary and 
 found most true. As for the second, 
 which refers to the pains of purgatory, he 
 declares that, in an apparition, the Blessed 
 Virgin made the promise personally to 
 himself. To better establish these things, 
 he published another Bull in 1322, wherein 
 he renewed the previous one. Since the 
 time of this Pontiff we count twenty-two 
 Popes, his successors, who have solemnly 
 explained themselves in the same sense on 
 the subject of the Confraternity of the 
 Holy Scapular. Lastly, an annual festival 
 is celebrated in virtue of the decrees of 
 sovereign Pontiffs, throughout the whole 
 extent of the Catholic world, to perpetuate 
 the memory of this glorious promise, and 
 to glorify Our Lady of Mount Carmel or 
 of the Holy Scapular. 
 
 The second of these voices is that of 
 God Himself. God never authorizes error 
 or deceit by miracles ; it would be out of 
 keeping with His sanctity to do so. Now, 
 of all the practices of piety that have been 
 inspired to honor Mary, none has been 
 more visibly authorized by splendid 
 miracles. 
 
 To obtain the first privilege of the holy 
 scapular, that is to say, the grace of a 
 happy death, and to share in the indul- 
 gences of the confraternity, the merits of 
 the Carmelite Order, and the protection of 
 the Blessed Virgin, it is necessary to be a 
 member of the Confraternity of the Holy 
 Scapular. For this purpose two conditions 
 must be fulfilled: (i) To receive the 
 blessed scapular from the hands of a priest 
 who has the power of giving it ; and (2) To 
 wear it around the neck day and night, in 
 health and in sickness, in life and at death. 
 These are the only obligations necessary 
 
Scepticism 
 
 631 
 
 Schism of England 
 
 and common to all the members. The 
 Church imposes no extraordinary prayers, 
 abstinences, or fasts on them. 
 
 To enjoy the second privilege, that is, to 
 have a speedy release out of purgatory, it 
 is also necessary for all the members to ob- 
 serve the chastity proper to their state: 
 virginal chastity in the state of celibacy ; 
 conjugal fidelity in the state of marriage; 
 and continence in the state of widowhood. 
 Moreover, for such as can read : to recite 
 daily the Canonical Office of the Church, 
 or the Little Office of the Blessed Virgin, 
 according to Roman Breviary. For such 
 as cannot read : to supply for the Office (i) 
 by not failing in any of the fasts prescribed 
 by the Church ; and (2) by abstaining from 
 flesh-meat on Wednesdays, in addition to 
 Fridays and Saturdays, except on Christ- 
 mas when it falls on any of these days. In 
 case of grave hindrance, the abstinence is 
 binding; but it is proper to have recourse 
 to one's confessor, so as to obtain a com- 
 mutation. 
 
 Scepticism ( doctrine, opinion of philos- 
 ophers, whose principal dogma is to 
 doubt, to affirm nothing, to suspend their 
 judgment about everything.) — Scepticism 
 has counted numerous followers at all 
 times. The first germs thereof were spread 
 in Greece, by the sophists, who professed 
 not only scepticism, but also the nihilism 
 of all things and of all truth. The most 
 famous philosophers of scepticism were 
 Anaxagoras, Empedocles, Anesidemus of 
 Alexandria, and Sextus Empiricus. Herac- 
 litus, drawing the uttermost consequences 
 from the Ionian doctrine which was ma- 
 terialistic at its foundation, admits the 
 soul-world, and denies all experience by 
 means of the senses; the last term of this 
 idealistic pantheism was the scepticism of 
 the Stoics, who had for most eminent ad- 
 versaries Plato and Socrates. Pyrrho was 
 the first to erect scepticism into a system, 
 whence it obtained the name Pyrrhoism. 
 Among the moderns, scepticism has taken 
 the most diverse formsj it has inspired 
 the easy philosophy of Montaigne and 
 PierreCharron, the encyclopaedic erudition 
 of Bayle, the paradoxes of Berkley about 
 the existence of bodies, those of Hume 
 about the notions of cause and substance ; 
 even partly the Criticism of Pure Rea- 
 son of Kant and the idealistic scepti- 
 cism of JouflFroy. Contemporary scepti- 
 cism wishes to parade as a science ; it 
 maintains that we are reduced to purely 
 
 subjective truths and denies all criterion 
 which makes us to distinguish with certi- 
 tude, the knowledge of the truth of that 
 which has only the appearance thereof. 
 Locke was the first who, in his book, 
 Essay on the Understanding, sowed the 
 germs of scepticism, by setting up as 
 principle : " That things are true only in 
 so far as they are conformable to our 
 ideas." Hume, drawing the uttermost 
 consequences Trom this principle, estab- 
 lished the universal doubt. In his system, 
 there are only sensations ; the phenomena 
 and substance itself are nothing but an 
 idle name of sense: "Sensation alone 
 reigns above the abyss of nothingness." 
 The consequence of this system, indeed, 
 must be the destruction of all science and 
 of all virtue. The practical scepticism 
 is, therefore, the natural consequence of 
 the Empiricism of Locke and of scientific 
 scepticism. 
 
 Schism (division, .separation from the 
 body and communion of a religion) . — There 
 have been, at all times, in the Church, 
 whimsical, critical, and dissatisfied minds, 
 who found abuses in the Church (for in 
 the most perfect society there is always 
 the human side), and have dragged in 
 their revolt a part of the flock. Even in 
 the time of the Apostles the Church wit- 
 nessed similar secessions. Schism, there- 
 fore, attacks the outward unity of the 
 members of the Church. If it pursues its 
 way, like in England, to the injury of 
 faith, then this rupture of unity becomes 
 heresy, and the separation is complete. 
 God has permitted, in all the epochs of 
 history, schisms in the Church. The 
 principal ones are, in the first centuries, 
 the schism of the Novatians, Donatists, 
 Luciferians, which disappeared long since ; 
 more recent are those of the Greeks and 
 Protestants. The schism of the "Three 
 Chapters" is that which arose in the 
 Council of Constantinople, and which was 
 called thus on account of the writings of 
 Theodore of Mopsuestia divided into three 
 chapters {capitula tria). This schism 
 lasted from 550 to 699, and was, so to speak, 
 the first germ of the great schism. Schism 
 is always a crime, for it acts against the 
 manifest intention of Jesus Christ, Who 
 recommends and desires the union of all 
 the members of His Church : ut sint unum. 
 
 Schism of England. — A popular and 
 culpable incident, the passion of Henry 
 VIII. for. Anne Boleyn, became the origin 
 
Schism of the East 
 
 632 
 
 Schism of the East 
 
 of the schism of England. This prince 
 on the refusal of Clement VII. to com- 
 ply with his request to separate him 
 from Catharine of Aragon, his sister-in- 
 law, caused himself to be proclaimed by a 
 servile parliament, supreme head of the 
 Church of England in 1531. In the year 
 following he married Anne Boleyn. Here- 
 upon Pope Paul III. excommunicated 
 him (1534). From that time the king 
 overstepped all limits ; wishing to remain 
 orthodox, he answered to the sentence of 
 the Pope by completely separating himself 
 from the Church. The religious orders 
 who, in general, refused to accept the new 
 order of things, were suppressed and their 
 goods confiscated. Parliament published 
 the famous Bill of October 4th, which the 
 reformers themselves called the "Bloody 
 Bill." Beginning with this period, an era 
 of persecution was inaugurated which 
 lasted for many years. Already Cardinal 
 Fisher and the chancellor Sir Thomas 
 More, had lost their heads on the 
 block. A real inquisition erected, so to 
 speak, funeral-piles all over the country; 
 more than 72,000 capital punishments fol- 
 lowed. Never had a revolution more 
 bloody sources and never was a revolution 
 established on more bloody grounds. 
 Schismatic, but orthodox, under Henry 
 VIII., -England became more and more 
 heretical under Edward VI. Sommerset, 
 the regent, proscribed the Mass and 
 abolished the festivals. During the reign 
 of Mary Tudor, an attempt was made to 
 restore the Catholic religion, but this 
 reign was of very short duration, and the 
 " Bloody Elizabeth " came to consummate 
 the schism. All the religious laws of 
 Mary were annulled ; an oath implying the 
 acknowledgment of spiritual supremacy 
 of the Crown was imposed upon all the 
 officials. 
 
 The bishops, with the exception of one, 
 refused this oath ; but the clergy of the 
 second order in a great majority accepted 
 it. The new religion maintained the epis- 
 copal hierarchy, and a large portion of 
 Catholic liturgy. The organization of the 
 Anglican Church was resolved upon in the 
 bill of Thirty-nine Articles (1562). See 
 
 AXGLICANISM. 
 
 Schism of the Hast. — The Emperor 
 Michael lU. had raised Photius to the see 
 of Constantinople ; he was a man of sci- 
 ence and genius, but of unlimited ambi- 
 tion, who had nothing less in view than 
 
 the object of becoming universal patri- 
 arch. His death (891) only delayed the 
 secession which became fatal. His suc- 
 cessors, in spite of the protests of the 
 Pope, continued to arrogate to themselves 
 the title of ecumenical patriarchs, and, in 
 1043, under the reign of Constantin Mo- 
 nomachus, Michael Cerularius rendered 
 the schism definite. Pope Leo IX. re- 
 futed the reasons or rather the pretexts 
 which he alleged to justify- himself; the 
 Pope remarked that diversity of customs 
 was not a sufficient motive to break the tie 
 of unity. It was useless for the Pope to 
 send legates to Constantinople, in order to 
 confer with him; the proud patriarch, in 
 spite of the desire of the emperor to come 
 to an understanding, did not even receive 
 them, and the whole disagreement ended 
 by reciprocal excommunications. Honorius 
 III. (1222), Michael Palaeologus in the 
 Council of Lyons (1294), and John Palaeol- 
 ogus, in the Council of Florence (1439), 
 made attempts for reunion, but they re- 
 mained fruitless. Several circumstances 
 still more aggravated the division: the 
 establishment of a new empire in the 
 West, the Crusades, and the foundation of 
 a Latin empire at Constantinople, became 
 so many causes of jealousy to the Byzan- 
 tines against the Latins. In fact, to-day 
 there is no Church of the East ; it has 
 been, since the ferocious Mahomet II, 
 (1453), captured. Constantinople, com- 
 pletely disorganized, and divided into a 
 multitude of sects, carries the weight of 
 God's curse. Servility, misery, and ig- 
 norance have become the lot of this 
 Church, formerly so brilliant, as long as it 
 remained united with the Chair of Peter. 
 The Russian Church, which had received 
 the faith from Constantinople, did not 
 break immediately with the Church of 
 Rome; in the time of the Council of Flor- 
 ence, the Catholics in Russia were still as 
 numerous as the schismatics. It was only 
 in the fifteenth centurj- that the schism 
 spread all over the country. The Patri- 
 arch of Moscow was declared patriarch of 
 all Russia by the Patriarch of Constanti- 
 nople (1589), but the union did not last 
 long; the Patriarch of Moscow soon 
 separated himself from Constantinople, 
 and, thus there was a schism in the schism. 
 Peter the Great (1720) abolished the pa- 
 triarchate of Moscow and declared himself 
 the sole supreme head of the Russian 
 Church, and caused a symbol to be drawn 
 up which fixed the belief; this act does 
 
Schism of the West 
 
 633 Schools and Universities 
 
 not contain anything contrary to the 
 Catholic belief. The reunion of the two 
 Churches would be very easy. They dif- 
 fer only on one point, namely, the primacy 
 of the Pope. See Russian Church. 
 
 Schism of the West (division which 
 afflicted the Church in the fourteenth cen- 
 tury, and of which the residence of the 
 Popes at Avignon was the main cause). — 
 Seven Popes, of French origin, since the 
 death of Benedict XL, had, without inter- 
 ruption, resided at Avignon. The Romans, 
 divided into several factions, demanded 
 the return of the Pope; Gregory XI. com- 
 plied with their request. At his death 
 (1378), the cardinals assembled in Rome 
 to elect a new Pope. The people, by se- 
 ditious cries, declared that they wanted an 
 Italian Pope. The cardinals, intimidated, 
 hastily elected the Archbishop of Bary, 
 Urban VI. Pope. Five months afterwards 
 having retired to Fondi (kingdom of 
 Naples), they declared the election null 
 and void, through defect of liberty, and 
 proclaimed Robert, Cardinal of Geneva, 
 under the name of Clement VII., Pope. 
 The new Pope went to establish himself at 
 Avignon. The consequence was that there 
 were now two so-called obediences. This 
 deplorable situation of the Church lasted 
 almost half a century. The death of Urban 
 VI. did not end the schism; the cardinals 
 of his obedience chose after him an im- 
 mediate successor, and they did the same 
 thing in the opposite party. The Council 
 of Pisa (1409) rendered the question still 
 more perplexing by naming a third Pope, 
 Alexander V. Finally, the Council of 
 Constance put an end to this great schism 
 by forcing the three Popes to renounce the 
 office of sovereign Pontiff and by electing 
 Martin V., Pope of the universal Church. 
 This unfortunate schism was only the con- 
 sequence and effect of human passions and 
 did not hinder the great design of God for 
 His Church ; there were saints and eminent 
 personages in both obediences. 
 
 Scholastica (St.). —Sister of St. Bene- 
 dict, born at Nursia, Umbria; lived near 
 him in the monastery of Plombariole, 
 which she caused to be built about five 
 miles from that of Monte Cassino. F. 
 Feb. loth. See St. Benedict. 
 
 Schools {Brothers of the Christian). 
 See Brothers. 
 
 Schools and Universities. — Among the 
 many sources of education created by the 
 
 Church was the parochial school system. 
 In its first essays this system surely did not 
 embrace the full range of primary studies, 
 nor the gradation of them, such as it is, in 
 many countries, in our time. There were, 
 in those days, no primers of literature, or 
 of history, or of science ; nothing was then 
 printed, since printing was invented many 
 hundreds of years later. A few scrolls of 
 parchment, perhaps, were all the text- 
 books of the school ; and, as paper was not 
 manufactured until the beginning of the 
 eleventh century, materials for writing 
 were very scarce. To establish a system 
 of primary schools, in spite of such difficul- 
 ties, was an enterprise which, we venture 
 to say, no modern state would enter upon. 
 Nor do we hesitate to assert that many of 
 those who now rail against the "Dark 
 Ages," and declaim against the supposed 
 ignorance of the clergy of those times, 
 would not, had they lived then, have faced, 
 much less overcome, the difficulties of 
 teaching. But, be that as it may, the 
 Church, as soon as she was free, began to 
 organize primary education on the basis of 
 Christian doctrine and morals. Under her 
 care grew up the parochial school system 
 of Italy, which the Council of Vaison in 
 France, in 529, took for its model in legis- 
 lating on the teaching of youth; and by 
 her order, teachers and catechists, accord- 
 ing to Thomassin, instructed the youth in 
 the towns and villages of some of the 
 Christian provinces of the East. That this 
 plan of instruction, owing to the disorder 
 resulting from the invasion of northern 
 Barbarians, was not steadily carried out, we 
 are ready to admit; but for all that, the 
 plan was there and manifested the solicitude 
 of the Church for the education of youth. 
 During the disturbances which followed 
 the fall of the Roman empire in the West, 
 and the establishment of Barbarian na- 
 tions on its ruins, learning rapidly de- 
 clined in Europe and Southern Europe, 
 generally. The conquests of the northern 
 nations and the ceaseless incursions of the 
 Saracens and Hungarians, again plunged 
 the greatest part of Europe into the bar- 
 barity and ignorance from which it had 
 slowly emerged during the lapse of sev- 
 eral centuries. In this ruthless career of 
 destruction, nothing was spared by the 
 Barbarian hordes. Churches and monas- 
 teries, those sanctuaries of piety and learn- 
 ing, were destroyed ; once flourishing 
 schools were closed and abandoned, and 
 their libraries consigned to the flames — 
 
Schools and 
 
 634 
 
 Universities 
 
 an irreparable loss in those days, when we 
 consider that obtaining and multiplying 
 books was attended with so much labor 
 and difficulty. It would, however, be un- 
 fair to assert that literature in those days 
 was utterly neglected, and that all desire 
 for learning had died out. There were 
 always some learned men, who exercised a 
 beneficial influence over their age ; zealous 
 and holy bishops, who strove ardently to 
 promote learning and science ; and wise 
 rulers, such as Charlemagne, and Otho the 
 Great in Germany, and Alfred in England, 
 who counted it among the first of their du- 
 ties to provide for the instruction of their 
 people. That the light of science in these 
 ages was not wholly extinguished, was 
 owing especially to the solicitude of the 
 Church, and the industry of the monks, 
 who continued to cultivate knowledge 
 with an ardor such as religion alone can 
 inspire. " The preservation of ancient 
 learning," says Hallam, " must be as- 
 scribed to the establishment of Chris- 
 tianity. Religion alone made a bridge, 
 as it were, across the chaos and has linked 
 the two periods of ancient and modern 
 civilization. . . . The sole hope for litera- 
 ture depended on the Latin language, which 
 three circumstances in the prevailing re- 
 ligious system conspired to maintain : The 
 papal supremacy, the monastic institu- 
 tions, and the use of a Latin liturgy." A 
 continual intercourse was kept up in con- 
 sequence of the first, between Rome and 
 the several nations of Europe, and made a 
 common language necessary in the Church. 
 The monasteries held out the best oppor- 
 tunities for study and were the secure 
 repositories for books. All ancient manu- 
 scripts were preserved and multiplied in 
 this manner, and could hardly have de- 
 scended to us through any other channel. 
 The Latin liturgy, and the reading and 
 study of the Latin Vulgate, caused the 
 Latin to be looked upon as a sacred lan- 
 guage, and contributed not a little toward 
 preservation of learning. But the 
 Church not only saved science and liter- 
 ature from universal destruction ; she also 
 caused the Barbarian tribes, whose de- 
 structive invasions had been so detrimen- 
 tal to the cause of letters, gradually to 
 imbibe and adopt the principles of true 
 civilization. 
 
 Notwithstanding the general decline of 
 learning, the Popes continued to be dis- 
 tinguished for their general attainments, 
 as well as for their zeal in diffusing knowl- 
 
 edge and science. The praise of having 
 originally established schools, belongs to 
 them and the Church in general. They 
 came in place of the imperial schools, 
 overthrown by the Barbarians. Monaster- 
 ies and episcopal sees became especial 
 nurseries of knowledge. Wherever a 
 cathedral, church or a monastery was 
 erected, there also a school, with a library 
 attached, was opened for the education of 
 the clergy and the literary improvement of 
 the people in general. In some places, at 
 least, for the instruction of the young, 
 primary schools were established. Pope 
 Eugenius II. and Leo IV. labored zeal- 
 ously to dissipate the ignorance which 
 then prevailed. The former, in a Roman 
 synod, in 826, enacted that schools should 
 be opened in cathedral and parish churches, 
 and wherever they might be deemed neces- 
 sary. Flourishing high schools existed in 
 Italy, at Rome, Florence, Pavia, Turin, 
 Ivrea, Cremona, Verona, Vicenza, Fermo, 
 and Friuli, not to mention the monastic 
 schools of Monte Cassino, Bobbio, and else- 
 where. Italy was still considered the center 
 of literature, and students flocked thither 
 from all parts of Europe to receive an edu- 
 cation. The monks especially distin- 
 guished themselves by collecting and 
 compiling books and founding schools and 
 libraries. In every monastery a consider- 
 able portion of time was daily allotted to 
 the copying of books, and thus by their 
 untiring industry, the monks preserved 
 and transmitted to us the precious treas- 
 ures of the ancient classics and Christian 
 literature. Libraries and schools for the 
 education of youth were attached to most 
 of the monasteries, many of which were 
 famed far and near as seminaries of learn- 
 ing and repositories of science. Most re- 
 nowned were many monasteries in France 
 and Germany. Among others, Tours, 
 Corvey, Rheims, Aniane, St. Gall, Fulda, 
 Reichenau, and Hirsan, vied with one 
 another in learned pursuits. Especially 
 famous, as a center of ecclesiastical train- 
 ing and general culture, was the Abbey of 
 Cluny, in France. Soon after her conver- 
 sion to the faith, Ireland became, and for 
 three centuries continued to be, the great 
 nursery of religion and science. 
 
 The foundation of the universities was 
 due to the zeal of the Popes, and to the 
 activity and liberality of Churchmen. 
 Almost in every instance the founder was 
 either a Pope or one of the various Church 
 dignitaries. The sovereign Pontiffs, both by 
 
Science and 
 
 635 
 
 Revelation 
 
 word and example encouraged the found- 
 ing of institutions of learning; granted to 
 the universities special charters and priv- 
 ileges, and even provided them with 
 chancellors and professors. Of the uni- 
 versities, that of Paris is perhaps the old- 
 est; it was celebrated for philosophy and 
 theology, and was regarded as the model 
 and rule in learning, for other universities. 
 The other French universities were those 
 of Montpellier, Toulouse, Lyons, Avignon, 
 Bordeaux, Valence, Nantes, and Bourges. 
 In Italy, Salerno was famous for medicine, 
 while the University of Bologna became 
 the great law school of Christendom. Be- 
 sides the Italian youths, at times no fewer 
 than ten thousand foreign students fre- 
 quented the University of Bologna. In 
 1262, there were at this university 20,000 
 stud^ents. The other Italian universities 
 at Rome, Padua, Naples, Piacenza, Ferrara, 
 Ferugia, Pisa, Pavia, Palermo, Turin, and 
 Florence, were all in a flourishing condi- 
 tion. The college in Rome, called the 
 Sapienza, founded by Innocent IV. in 
 1244, was richly endowed and elevated in 
 rank by Boniface VIII., from whose time 
 it was known as the Roman University, 
 The oldest German university is that of 
 Prague, which was founded by Emperor 
 Charles IV. in 1348. Its fame attracted 
 students even from Norway, Ireland, 
 Spain, Naples, and Cyprus. Besides the 
 Universities of Vienna, Heidelberg, Co- 
 logne, and Erfurt, which arose in the 
 fourteenth century, nine more were 
 founded in the course of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury. In the Scandinavian kingdoms, we 
 find the Universities of Copenhagen and 
 Upsala, and in Poland the University of 
 Cracow, which in 1496, counted as many 
 as 15,000 students. The oldest and most 
 celebrated Spanish university was Sala- 
 manca, founded about the middle of the 
 thirteenth century. There were, besides 
 in Spain and Portugal, the Universities of 
 Valladolid, Coimbra, Valencia, Saragossa, 
 Avila, Alcala, and Seville. In England, 
 the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge 
 were modeled after the University of 
 Paris. Oxford began to be largely fre- 
 quented in the reign of Stephen, in 1231 ; 
 it is said to have numbered as many as 
 30,000 students. The first Scottish univer- 
 sity was founded at St. Andrew's, in 141 1, 
 by Cardinal Henry Wardlaw. This was 
 followed by the foundation of the Uni- 
 versity of Glasgow by Bishop Turnbull, in 
 1450, and by that of Aberdeen by Bishop 
 
 Elphiston, in 1494. The establishment of 
 the University of Dublin was begun by 
 Archbishop Leach, wko, in 131 1, obtained 
 of Clement V. a brief for the undertaking. 
 During this remarkable epoch the arts 
 and sciences were cultivated and improved 
 with signal success throughout the Chris- 
 tian world. No branch of literature seemed 
 to be neglected. Theology, dogmatic, and 
 moral ; philosophy, history, and all the 
 sciences which belong to the respective 
 provinces of reason, psychology, experi- 
 ence, and observation were carried to a 
 high degree of perfection. Many famous 
 works on almost all the sciences, profane 
 as well as sacred, are due to Catholic au- 
 thors of this epoch. In philosophy, as- 
 tronomy, physiology, geology, mechanics, 
 and mathematics. Catholic scholars hold a 
 pre-eminent place. Copernicus, a priest 
 and canon, Galileo, a devout son of the 
 Church, and in our days, Secchi, a Jesuit, 
 are recognized as the great leaders in as- 
 tronomy and other sciences. For Catholic 
 schools in the United States, see article. 
 Church {Statistics of the). 
 
 Science and Revelation. — The attitude 
 of Science toward Revelation. — It would 
 be a very superficial consideration of the 
 momentous struggle of the intellect in our 
 time, if we failed to add : Is there any 
 necessary antagonism between science and 
 revelation ? In the views of some thinkers, 
 manifestly both theologians and scientific 
 men, theology and science are irreconci- 
 lable enemies. Nay, in the opinion of a 
 few prominent scientists, the battle is 
 already ended ; for revelation, they say, 
 "has been relegated forever to the limbo 
 of witchcraft and astrology and phre- 
 nology." The comfort is that some scienti- 
 fic men can always draw the line between 
 their hypothesis and proven theory. This, 
 and other scientific points, manifestly er- 
 roneous, are explained in various articles 
 of this work and especially in the present 
 and the next succeeding article. 
 
 True science cannot be in conflict with 
 revelation, because the same God of truth 
 is manifest in nature as He is in revelation. 
 There is unity, there is harmony, there is 
 order in all God's works, and no part of 
 His divine plan can conflict with the other. 
 For let man calmly consider what revela- 
 tion is, and what science is, and he will 
 speedily come to see that any conflict be- 
 tween them is the result of misunderstand- 
 ing. There are many good and pious 
 
Science and 
 
 67,6 
 
 Revelation 
 
 souls who behold with dread the constant 
 progress of scientific research, and fear it 
 is indeed a demon that would rob them of 
 that which they most value. We do not 
 share this fear. No ! all the science of the 
 world cannot destroy religion, for as long 
 as man remains as he is to-day, the heart 
 will ream for religion's sweet solace and 
 the soul cry aloud for a God, within whose 
 loving arms man may be at rest as the 
 child in its mother's bosom. 
 
 "Is there any conflict — any necessary 
 conflict bet-ween theology and science ? " 
 asks a learned Hebrew theologian. " I 
 fail to see how there can be ; for, ridicu- 
 lous as it may appear to some to say so, 
 the theologian is a man of science. 
 Every science has four characteristics. 
 One characteristic is that it deals with 
 facts. Another characteristic of a science 
 is, that it strives to reach laws, principles, 
 generalizations, doctrines, whichever name 
 be preferred. Science cannot rest satis- 
 fied with an unrelated series of facts ; its 
 endeavor must always be to unify facts; 
 from isolated facts it must ever strive to 
 rise to general knowledge. Yet a third 
 characteristic of science is, that for scien- 
 tific purposes it limits its view to one 
 class of facts. Mathematics concerns it- 
 self with number and space, not with life; 
 psj'chology concerns itself with mind, not 
 with the physical forces. Science deals 
 with all facts. A science deals with one 
 class of facts. A fourth characteristic is 
 that science systematizes. It adopts a cer- 
 tain appropriate order in the investigation 
 and exposition of its subject matter. 
 
 " Let these four characteristics be pres- 
 ent in any branch of knowledge and you 
 have a science ; let any one characteristic 
 be absent, and the name of science must 
 be withheld. Every science must treat of 
 facts, must treat of a distinct, a related 
 kind, must seek to obtain generalizations 
 from those facts, and must arrange its 
 facts and doctrines in a due order. In- 
 quiry which does not deal with facts is 
 speculation, not science ; a series of facts 
 without laws is a catalogue, not a science ; 
 an examination of facts and laws in gen- 
 eral is universal knowledge, and not a sci- 
 ence; an investigation into facts and laws, 
 which is not digested into system, is an 
 encyclopaedia, and not a science. 
 
 " But if these four are the characteristics 
 of a science, one may venture with all 
 modesty, but with extreme firmness, to 
 ask: I. Does not theology deal with facts? 
 
 2. Does not theology consist of a genus 
 of facts sufficiently well defined.? 3. Does 
 not theology diligently strive to pass 
 from facts to laws? 4. Are not arrange- 
 ment and system peculiarly manifest in 
 theological results? Really, that theol- 
 ogy is not a science, is one of the most 
 unscientific prejudices of some scientific 
 men. Professor Huxley, writing on this 
 subject, says : ' If any man is able to make 
 good the assertion that his theology rests 
 upon valid evidence and sound reasoning, 
 then it appears to me that such theology 
 must take its place as a part of science.' 
 
 " Can it be shown, then, that theology 
 rests on valid e\idence and sound reason- 
 ing? Is it not incontestable, that theology 
 has to do with facts — facts as manifest and 
 relative as the facts of number or the facts 
 of life ? For theology, which is the science 
 of religion, is manifestly concerned with 
 religion, and religion is itself a fact. I 
 mean by religion, that intuition of the di- 
 vine, which, universal as man, is at the 
 basis of all the religious development of 
 man. The universality of the religious 
 sense is now commonly conceded. An- 
 other series of facts with which theology 
 is concerned is the facts of revelation. By 
 revelation I mean knowledge about God 
 and man divinely imparted. Now, the re- 
 ligious intuition itself is, and must be, 
 revelation. The theory of evolution can- 
 not explain it. All sense of the infinite 
 must come from the infinite. In a word, 
 the intuition of the di^•ine religion is really 
 a divine revelation — 'that light which 
 lighteth every man that cometh into the 
 world.' The existence of the eye argues 
 the pre-existence of the eternal world ; self- 
 consciousness argues the prior existence of 
 self; the fact of the religious sense argues 
 the prior existence of the divine." 
 
 Does Revelation extend to scientific 
 questions? — For every true Catholic it is an 
 established fact, that the divine inspiration 
 of the Bible extends itself to all which in- 
 terests religion and all which touches faith 
 and morals, that is, all the supernatural 
 teachings contained therein. But there is 
 another question forced to the front in our 
 days : Does this inspiration also extend to 
 scientific questions — questions which it 
 touches incidentally? 
 
 God did not reveal scientific truths to the 
 sacred writers, though He could have re- 
 vealed to Moses, the mysteries of nature in 
 their relation to science when he penned 
 the first chapter of Genesis. Every pas- 
 
Science and 
 
 637 
 
 Revelation 
 
 sage that has reference to science is in- 
 spired like other passages, in the sense 
 that God sustained the sacred writer in 
 recording truth and avoiding error, per- 
 mitting him to speak the common lan- 
 guage, and use the ideas and idioms of the 
 times and of the people, to whom the 
 sacred record was addressed, in order, 
 that each word and sentence should be fully 
 and clearly understood by the learned and 
 unlearned. 
 
 Again, it is universally affirmed, that the 
 Spirit of Truth, the Holy Ghost, did not 
 reveal scientific truths, directly, but reli- 
 gious truths, which teach us how to ob- 
 tain heaven. As the Kingdom of God is 
 not of this world, and as this is but a tran- 
 sitory abiding place, why then should we 
 ask from the Sacred Text a digest of scien- 
 tific laws and questions, when it only con- 
 cerns the eternal salvation of man.? 
 
 " The intention of Holy Scripture," says 
 Cardinal Baronius, " is to teach us how 
 one goes to heaven, and not how heaven 
 goes." Evidently the sacred writers spoke 
 the common language of the people with- 
 out any attempt at scientific accuracy. An 
 instance of this kind is found in the famous 
 passage of Josue, concerning the rotary 
 motion of the sun around the earth. 
 Though many centuries have passed since 
 that memorable day when the sun stood 
 still in the heavens, yet, with all our scien- 
 tific knowledge, we often read of the rising 
 and setting sun, and of its circling through 
 the heavens ; lingering to bathe the hill- 
 tops, or placid bosom of the sea, and such 
 like expressions. "Many things are said 
 in Holy Scripture according to the opinion 
 of that time to which the facts have refer- 
 ence," says St. Jerome, "and not to the 
 real truth of the facts." 
 
 Again, we refer to the passage in Job 
 xxvi. 7. " He stretcheth out the north over 
 the empty space." On this St. Thomas 
 observes : "Because nothing appears to us 
 of the heavenly hemisphere except space 
 full of air, what the common people look 
 upon as an empty space; the sacred writer 
 speaks according to the opinion of the 
 common people, as it is custom in Holy 
 Scripture." This language of Sacred Writ 
 is spoken to-day by savants. We find in 
 popular lectures on science, expressions 
 like the following: "Science the modern 
 wizard, broke the fetters that bound the 
 enchanted world, and behold, a new earth 
 and a new heaven appeared." "At the 
 command of science, the veil that en- 
 
 shrouded the little earth plain of the an- 
 cients was drawn aside." Consistency is a 
 jewel which sparkles only on the brow of 
 truth. 
 
 Considering the times, peoples, and lan- 
 guages, there is very little cause for fault- 
 finding, and no just reason at all for 
 wrongly interpreting passages, and then 
 ridiculing Sacred Writ for its scientific er- 
 rors. Where there is an apparent con- 
 tradiction between the Bible and certain 
 hypothesis of savants, this is a matter of 
 little importance, because a hypothesis is 
 not a scientific truth. God is the author 
 of nature, of science, and of revelation, 
 and He cannot contradict Himself. The 
 Church is far from forbidding the savants 
 to make the most diligent research and the 
 most exacting inquiry in their domain, ac- 
 cording to their methods, because she is 
 convinced that truth will prevail, and the 
 certain results of science will always be in 
 harmony with revelation. 
 
 It is needless to say there is a class of 
 self-styled scientists ever in the search of 
 flaws in Holy Writ who magnify every 
 trivial diliFerence, that, if viewed in the 
 light of reason, or subjected to the sober 
 judgment of men familiar with the lan- 
 guage and mode of expressing opinions of 
 the people of the Orient in ancient times, 
 there would be little cause for these gra- 
 tuitous attacks on revelation. We will 
 cite an instance of this kind. In Leviticus 
 (xi. 6), the hare is classed with ruminating 
 animals. Now, this of itself is of little 
 consequence, but shows the straining of a 
 point in natural history to cast discredit on 
 the sacred character of the Bible. Surely, 
 it is unreasonable to demand from Moses 
 or other sacred writers, a scientific classi- 
 fication of animated nature. To all ap- 
 pearance, the hare would naturally be 
 classed among the ruminants. However, 
 the question involves a fine point. Grant- 
 ing that the Hebrew word arnebeth, signi- 
 fies hare, though it is far from being 
 absolutely certain, we must not under- 
 stand the expression ruminating in its 
 physiological acceptation — an animal with 
 four stomachs — but rather in the broad 
 sense of an animal, which masticates with- 
 out eating and ruminates with its snout, 
 though really not ruminating. Moses did 
 not wish to give us a scientific classification ; 
 he classed the hare simply by its habits 
 and appearance. 
 
 Infefttton of Holy Scripture. — Theolo- 
 gians warn us to look for no scientific 
 
Science and the Forma- 
 
 638 
 
 TION OF THE UNIVERSE 
 
 ideas or theories in the Bible. After St. 
 Augustine and St. Thomas, Pascal says : 
 " When the Scripture presents to us some 
 passage of which the first literal meaning 
 finds itself contrary to what the senses or 
 reason acknowledge with certitude, we 
 must not undertake to disown them in 
 order to submit them to the authority of 
 this apparent meaning of Scripture; but 
 we must interpret the Scripture and seek 
 therein another meaning which agrees 
 with the sensible truth, because the Word 
 of God being infallible in the facts them- 
 selves, and the report of the senses and of 
 reason acting in their intent being also 
 certain, these two truths must agree ; and 
 since Scripture can be interpreted in dif- 
 ferent manners, instead that the report of 
 the senses is unique, we must in these 
 matters take for the interpretation of the 
 Scripture that which agrees with the faith- 
 ful report of the senses. 
 
 " We must observe two things, after St. 
 Augustine," says St. Thomas, " the one 
 that the Scripture has always a true mean- 
 ing; the other, that, as it can have several 
 meanings, when we find one of which rea- 
 son convinces us as certainly false, we 
 must not maintain the telling that this is 
 the real meaning, but seek for another 
 which agrees with reason." He explains 
 this by exemplifying the passage of Gene- 
 sis where it is written "that God created 
 two great lights, the sun, the moon, and 
 also the stars," by which the Scriptures 
 seems to tell that the moon is greater than 
 all the stars, though it is evident through 
 unquestionable demonstrations that this is 
 false. "We must not," he continues, "ob- 
 stinately defend this literal meaning, but 
 must seek another one conformable to the 
 truth of the fact, saying : " That the word 
 of great light marks only the greatness of 
 the light in our regard and not the great- 
 ness of its body in itself." 
 
 In theological matters versus science, 
 we submit some propositions on the part 
 of theology : 
 
 I. Religious truths are imparted to us in 
 the Bible; they are stated decidedly, and 
 we must believe them with the same de- 
 gree of determination and firmness. In 
 the Interpretation of Scripture on these 
 points, and in matters of faith and morals, 
 we can consent to be guided only by 
 the authority of the Church ; in mat- 
 ters of natural science, the Church leaves 
 us at perfect liberty to pursue our in- 
 quiries. 
 
 2. It is not the object of the Bible to 
 give us information on natural or other 
 profane science ; it is not the purpose of 
 inspiration to reveal to us directly scien- 
 tific truths. 
 
 3. The Bible speaks of events, phe- 
 nomena, and laws of nature in the same 
 way as would an ordinary man whose lan- 
 guage and opinions were formed by what 
 he saw and heard ; therefore, the Bible 
 does not claim to speak scientifically and 
 correctly of these things, but only to ex- 
 press itself intelligently and to the purpose. 
 
 Science and the Formation of the Uni- 
 verse. — The learned of all ages have 
 manifested much interest in the creation 
 of the world, but inquiry regarding the 
 composition of the chaotic elements and 
 their primitive condition, was reserved 
 for the savants of modern times. There 
 is to-day both a rational and irrational 
 science, as there is a rational and irrational 
 theology. Infidels have discovered that 
 their principles are untenable in the light 
 of revelation, and now seek to defend 
 them behind the ramparts of " liberal 
 science." Unquestionably, " liberal sci- 
 ence " is elastic and accommodating; 
 overrides all logical deductions ; coins new 
 phrases; improvises fanciful and wild 
 theories; jumps at conclusions, and dei- 
 fies matter as eternal, in its efforts to make 
 a Creator superfluous. 
 
 Science can affirm nothing as to the 
 origin of things without violating the fun- 
 damental laws of logic which constitute 
 the same. It can, however, by means of 
 powerful analogies and inductions, per- 
 fectly legitimate and rational, ascend to 
 the highest limit in the history of their 
 formation. Thus, in order to explain the 
 first e\T>lutions of matter, the cosmic ele- 
 ments, it was forced to conceive magnifi- 
 cent theories, or rather hypotheses, in the 
 way of confirmation or continual rectifica- 
 tion, which witness the power of human 
 genius, permit it to penetrate the created 
 immensity, and assist at the genesis of the 
 globe — at the development of the entire 
 universe. 
 
 Geologists conclude from the following 
 facts that the earth was originally in a 
 fluid condition : i. The form of the earth, 
 apart from the unevenness of the surface, 
 is that of a figure resembling a ball — a 
 spheroid flattened at the poles. 2. The 
 poles' diameter is two and four-fifths of a 
 geographical mile shorter than the equa- 
 
Science and the Forma- 
 
 639 
 
 TION OF THE UNIVERSE 
 
 torial diameter. 3. It is believed tiiat a 
 fluid mass revolving around its own axis, 
 invariably assumes such a spheroidal 
 shape ; and most all geologists are of the 
 opinion that the earth existed originally in 
 a state of ignus fusion. Many do not stop 
 at this, how^ever, but think it very likely 
 that another nebulous or gaseous condition 
 preceded the fiery state, and not a few sup- 
 port the hypothesis, that our whole solar 
 system could be traced back to such a nebu- 
 lous or gaseous vapor; indeed, "the hu- 
 man mind itself, emotion, intellect, will, 
 were once latent in a fiery cloud. All our 
 philosophy, all our poetry, all our science, 
 all our art, Plato, Shakespeare, Newton, 
 and Raphael, are potential in the fires of 
 the sun," if we believe Prof. Tyndall. 
 Kant first suggested this theory ; Herschel, 
 Laplace, and others have tried to support 
 it scientifically. 
 
 Theory of Laplace. — According to this 
 theory, the matter of the solar system was 
 originally one enormous ball of gas, " at 
 such a temperature, as to be in the condi- 
 tion of vapor of great tenuity." In this, 
 through the concentration of substances, a 
 center was formed, which later became a 
 solid nucleus. To this, some external 
 force imparted a motion around its own 
 axis, and by degrees the whole of the 
 gaseous matter surrounding it took part in 
 this motion, so that the whole ball of gas 
 rotated around itself. This motion, at first 
 slow, gradually grew quicker and quicker 
 in consequence of the increasing density of 
 the mass and the accompanying diminu- 
 tion of its volume ; the form of this gaseous 
 ball became more and more spheroidal and 
 centriform, because the centrifugal force 
 increased with the quicker motion. In 
 consequence of the increasing density of 
 the whole, and greater tendency in the out- 
 side of the gaseous body to fly off from the 
 center, it was inevitable that at some period, 
 the centrifugal force should prevail over 
 the centripetal, and a ring-shaped part 
 should be separated from the whole. Later 
 on, this girdle or ring was broken by dis- 
 turbances which took place on it ; it was 
 torn in one or more places, and each seg- 
 ment thus separated, rolled itself into an 
 individual ball and retained its separate 
 existence. The result of this was, either 
 to form one new large spheroid with a 
 double motion — a revolution around its 
 own axis and a revolution around the origi- 
 nal gaseous ball, or a number of small 
 spheroids, which rolled on with the same 
 
 double movement at about an equal dis- 
 tance from the center. In the way first 
 described were formed the larger planets, 
 and in the second, the asteroids. This proc- 
 ess by which rings were thrown off and 
 formed into separate balls, was repeated 
 many times, till the central body had be- 
 come so small that it could throw off no 
 more rings. At last the relation between 
 the central sun and the surrounding flanets 
 was established forever, and the solar sys- 
 tem was, in this sense, complete. But 
 meanwhile, the planets had gone through 
 new stages of development ; they also 
 showed a tendency to throw off rings, con- 
 sequently, separate rings were formed 
 which shaped themselves into balls and be- 
 came the moons revolving around the 
 planets. The smaller planets did not form 
 rings, while the larger ones threw off 
 many, some of which, perhaps, have not 
 yet rolled themselves into balls, as the 
 double ring of Saturn seems to show. 
 
 Formation of the Earth into a Separate 
 Body. — Now as to the history of the earth 
 in particular, let us cast a glance at its 
 bygone ages, before arriving at its present 
 condition. When it had become a separate 
 body, the numerous elementary substances 
 of which it still consists, were mingled 
 with each other in the form of vapor, in 
 the same proportions as those in which 
 they are actually the constituent elements 
 of the earth. The heaviest metals first 
 separated from the gaseous compound and 
 formed a solid or fluid nucleus, which grew 
 larger by degrees through the gradual at- 
 traction of similar parts. In the further 
 stages, the earth was a ball of igneous fluid 
 surrounded by an atmosphere, which, how- 
 ever, contained many more substances than 
 ours ; water, chlorides, sulphur, and other 
 substances being then only present in a 
 vaporous or gaseous condition. The tem- 
 perature in space is very low, and therefore 
 had a cooling effect on the hot ball of the 
 earth. The steam of the upper regions of 
 the atmosphere cooled, and was precipi- 
 tated onto the hot earth. The water which 
 had thus become fluid was again heated 
 with the other substances which it con- 
 tained. At first, probably before it reached 
 the earth, it changed into steam and again 
 ascended. This process must have been 
 often repeated, but at last, the surface of 
 the ball cooled in consequence of the con- 
 tinued diminution of heat, and the first 
 solid crust was formed out of the molten 
 masses of the earth's alkalies and metals. 
 
Scotland 
 
 640 
 
 Sebastian 
 
 The nucleus of the earth cooled continu- 
 ally, and contracted more and more. Va- 
 cant spaces were formed in the solid crust, 
 which had become too large for its con- 
 tents, and the rocks that lay above these 
 spaces sank in places and became crumbled 
 on the surface, forming splits and cracks. 
 The sunken masses pressed on the fiery 
 core ; molten rocks forced their way to the 
 surface through the cracks and fissures, 
 they having partially raised the masses of 
 the solid crust, and cemented those schist- 
 ous masses together in more or less in- 
 clined positions. In places where no dis- 
 ruptions occurred, the schistous rocks 
 became thicker and thicker. The masses 
 which had forced themselves between the 
 portions of the crust, and which had cooled 
 there, formed with these the first moun- 
 tains and mountain ranges, which probably 
 were of no great height. But after many 
 of these disruptions and cementings, the 
 crust of the earth, which from the con- 
 tinual cooling of the interior had become 
 much thicker, at last obtained a certain 
 amount of firmness, the disruptions oc- 
 curred less often, and the surface became 
 more solid. The precipitation from the 
 atmosphere which continued without in- 
 termission, remained longer and longer 
 upon the earth. By degrees a large ocean 
 was formed which possibly covered all, or 
 nearly all, the surface of the earth, so that 
 at most, only a few islands of granite ap- 
 peared above it. It was boiling hot, and 
 contained many substances besides water, 
 that had chemically a dissolving, and me- 
 chanically a destroying efTect on the crust. 
 These particles, which were contained in 
 the water, after having been either dis- 
 solved or mechanically broken up, were 
 deposited in quiet places in the shape 
 of slate and graywacke, and were the first 
 Neptunian formation. While these de- 
 posits were being formed, the crust of the 
 earth cooled so considerably that it be- 
 came fit for the habitation of organic be- 
 ings. The eruptions, and Neptunian 
 deposits which were always elevated by 
 them, increased the quantity of dry land, 
 or rather the number of islands. At this 
 period the earth received the first garment 
 of vegetation and the first animals. Such 
 is, in summary, the theory of Laplace on 
 the evolution of the visible universe. See 
 Atomism and Cosmogoxy. 
 
 Scotland {Evangelization of). 
 
 NiNlAN (.St.). 
 
 See 
 
 Scotland {Protestantism in). — Protes- 
 tantism was introduced into Scotland by 
 John Knox, who, in 1542, began his career 
 as a reformer by decrying Church and 
 crown. Being expelled from Scotland, he 
 spent some years at Geneva, where he 
 became a thoroughgoing Calvinist. In 
 the year 1559, he was recalled and immedi- 
 ately began to vilify Mary of Guise, regent 
 of Scotland. He also preached against the 
 idolatry of the sacrifice of the Mass and 
 the veneration of images. The inaugura- 
 tion of the reformed religion in Scotland, as 
 in every other country, was preceded by the 
 sacking of churches and the entire demoli- 
 tion of whatever pertained to the sacrifice 
 of the Mass or the veneration of the saints. 
 The Scottish reformers formed a congrega- 
 tion whose leaders were called, " Lords of the 
 Congregation." This portion of the pop- 
 ulation, assisted by Elizabeth of England, 
 engaged in a civil war with the adherents 
 of the queen regent; the latter was assisted 
 by the king of France. This war was 
 marked by unusual severity. The queen 
 regent having died, both parties agreed 
 upon a truce, by the terms of which the 
 settlement of their difficulties was left to 
 parliament. The Protestant lords were 
 not content with the free exercise of their 
 religion. They demanded the suppression 
 of "Idolatrous worship." The parlia- 
 ment which assembled in 1560, declared 
 the Catholic religion abolished and adopted 
 the " Reformed," as the established reli- 
 gion of Scotland. The Catholic faith was 
 replaced by rigid Calvinism. 
 
 Scotland {The Church in).— It is diffi- 
 cult to realize the oppression under which 
 the Catholics of Scotland labored during 
 the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. 
 During the last fifty years the Catholics of 
 Scotland have largely increased, chiefly 
 from the influx of Irish population. They 
 number about 363,000. There are about 
 350 priests, secular and regular, having 
 care of souls in Scotland. In 1878, Pope 
 Leo XIII. restored the ancient hierarchy 
 of Scotland, creating or rather restoring 
 the two archbishoprics of St. Andrews and 
 of Glasgow, and four suffragan sees, — Aber- 
 deen, Argyll, Dunkeld, and Galloway. 
 
 Scotus (John). See Johx Scotus. 
 
 Scribe. — Doctor, who taught the law 
 of Moses, and explained it to the people. 
 
 Sebastian (St.) (sumamed the *' De- 
 fender of the Church"). — Born at Nar- 
 bonne, France; captain of the Pretorian 
 
Sebueans 
 
 641 
 
 Secret of Confession 
 
 guards under Diocletian, encouraged the 
 martyrs and was himself put to death for 
 the faith, at Rome, in 288. He was shot 
 by arrows, and was supposed to be slain, 
 but recovered, and was finally beaten to 
 death with clubs, and buried near the Cat- 
 acombs of St. Calixtus, which later on 
 took the name of the Cemetery of St. Se- 
 bastian. F. Jan. 20th. 
 
 Sebueans or Sebuseans. — Sect of Sa- 
 maritans who changed the time prescribed 
 by law for the celebration of the great 
 festivals of the year. They celebrated 
 Easter at the beginning of autumn, Pente- 
 cost about the end of the same season, and 
 the feast of the Tabernacles in the month 
 of March. They were called " Sebuse- 
 ans " because they held the Pasch in the 
 seventh month, called se.ba, or from the 
 word sebua (the week), because they cele- 
 brated the second day of each week from 
 Easter to Pentecost; or from the name of 
 their chief, Sebaia. 
 
 Secret Discipline. See Discipline. 
 
 Secret of Confession. — The secret of 
 confession, or the obligation imposed upon 
 the priest to keep the most profound 
 silence concerning all he knows only 
 through the confessional, is also called 
 " seal," to mark that all he knows through 
 the confessional is put under seal. The 
 obligation of keeping the secret or seal of 
 confession is founded: i. On the natural 
 right, which requires that the confessor 
 should not violate the secret that has 
 been intrusted to him, and that he should 
 fulfill the tacit promise to keep the secret 
 which he made to the penitent by hearing 
 his confession. 2. On the divine right. 
 It has always been understood that Jesus 
 Christ, in obliging sinners to open to the 
 priests the secrets of their conscience, has 
 at the same time prescribed to the latter 
 the most profound secrecy. This secret 
 is, besides, a necessary consequence of the 
 institution of confession, which, without 
 this, would become impossible. 3. On the 
 ecclesiastical right. The Church com- 
 mands her ministers, under pain of anath- 
 ema, degradation, and perpetual con- 
 finement, to keep absolute silence about 
 all they have heard in the sacred tribunal. 
 This law is general and admits of no ex- 
 ception. For whatever reason, in what- 
 ever case, and under whatever pretext, a 
 confessor is not permitted to speak of con- 
 fession. If there should be question of 
 
 41 
 
 saving his honor, his reputation, or of 
 avoiding the most frightful torments; if 
 there should be question of saving his life, 
 never would he be permitted to reveal in 
 any manner, either directly br indirectly, 
 even the slightest fault that is known to 
 him only through confession. The priest 
 in the confessional holds the place of Jesus 
 Christ; hence we do not confess to man, 
 but to God, in the person of His delegate. 
 Thus the confessor ought not to remember, 
 as man, what has been intrusted to him in 
 the tribunal of penance ; he must keep the 
 most absolute silence about all the revela^ 
 tions which he has heard, the same as 
 though he did not hear them. The con- 
 fessor knows nothing as man, hence theo- 
 logians teach that he can answer, even un- 
 der oath, to the judge who asks him, that 
 he knows nothing about the crime of a 
 man accused when he knows it only 
 through confession. " A man," says St. 
 Thomas, " can be called to witness only as 
 man ; hence he can declare, without 
 wounding his conscience, that he does not 
 know anything, when he knows it only as 
 God's minister." The learned Cestius, 
 treating on this matter, remarks that if 
 some judge were rash enough to ask a 
 priest whether the accused did not confess 
 to him such or such a crime, he must sim- 
 ply say that he is not permitted to answer 
 that sacrilegious and impious question. 
 But if there is question of general interest 
 to society, of a conspiracy against the chief 
 of the State, etc., could and should a con- 
 fessor not speak.? No, he should keep 
 silence. The seal of confession being of 
 divine right, and having for foundation 
 the very institution of penance and the ob- 
 ligation imposed upon the Faithful to con- 
 fess their sins, no power can dispense from 
 keeping this seal intact, not even if there 
 is question of saving the State. It is with- 
 out example that the secret of confession 
 was ever violated. " It is really wonder- 
 ful," says the author of the Souvenirs de 
 la Marquise de Crequy, " that among all 
 the crimes of the French Revolution, it 
 was never heard that any apostate priest 
 revealed anything of what he heard through 
 the confessional." Similar facts, whose 
 authenticity cannot be questioned, prove 
 that there is a Providence that watches 
 over the seal of confession and does not 
 permit it to be broken. There have been 
 priests, confessors, who had to choose be- 
 tween revealing the secret of confession or 
 death; they chose death. One word 
 
Secret Societies 
 
 642 
 
 Seminary 
 
 would have been sufficient to save them, 
 but this word they did not pronounce, and 
 their blood flowed. The first of these 
 martyrs was St. John of Nepomuck. 
 
 Secret Societies. See Societiks. 
 
 Secular Clergy. — Name given to the 
 priests in the world, as distinguished from 
 the religious clergy, who lead a monastic 
 or regular life. 
 
 Secularization. — The act by virtue of 
 which, a religious is rendered a secular 
 again, a priest remanded to civil life, 
 goods of the Church secularized to the 
 circulation of property and to the common 
 right regulated by civil laws. Among the 
 best known secularizations of Church 
 goods was that which took place in 1803, 
 when nearly all the ecclesiastical estates, 
 the bishoprics, abbeys, and monasteries 
 within the empire were apportioned among 
 the German princes, as indemnity for the 
 losses they had sustained, in uniting the 
 right bank of the Rhine to France. 
 
 Sedecias. See Zbdbcias. 
 
 Sedulius (Ccelius). — Priest and poet, 
 of whose birth and life little is certainly 
 known. He devoted himself for some time 
 to the study of profane sciences, especially 
 philosophy. Failing to find satisfaction 
 either in these, or in the sinful pleasures 
 of the world, he yielded to the voice of 
 divine grace, and encouraged by Mace- 
 donius, a virtuous priest, turned his heart 
 toward the study of " divine science." In 
 the course of time he became a priest, and, 
 according to some accounts, an anfistes, 
 or bishop, and was rendered justly famous 
 for his beautiful religious poems. He 
 flourished in the middle of the fifth cen- 
 tury. Among his poems are : 0/>us fas- 
 chale, describing the miracles wrought by 
 God under the Old Law and by Christ in 
 the New; Elegia sive Collect to Veteris 
 et Noxn Testamentt, showing how the 
 types of the Old Testament have been 
 fulfilled in the New; Hymnus Abccedar- 
 ius, describing the birth, life, and death 
 of Christ. Sedulius devoted his great 
 poetical talent exclusively to religious 
 subjects, and is not without reason called 
 " Poeta Cliristianissi'mus.^' His style is 
 a clever and successful imitation of that of 
 Virgil. The two hymns adopted in the 
 Roman Breviary A Solis Ortus Cardine 
 and Hostis Herodes imfie, are taken from 
 the Abecedarius. 
 
 Seleucia. — A fortified city of Syria on 
 the Mediterranean, 16 miles west of An- 
 tioch, whose seaport it was. Here St 
 Paul and St. Barnabas embarked on their 
 first missionary journey (Acts xii. 4). 
 Under the Seleucidse it was a beautiful 
 city with a fine harbor. The Arabs called 
 it Selukiyeh. It is now in ruins and near 
 its site is situated a small village called 
 El-Kalusi. 
 
 Sem. — Patriarch, son of Noe, was blessed 
 by his father for having covered him in his 
 tent; his sons Elam, Assur, Arphaxad, 
 Lud, and Aram, peopled the most beauti- 
 ful provinces of Asia. From Sem are de- 
 rived the names of languages and of the 
 Semitic peoples. 
 
 Semi-Arians. — Name given to those 
 Arians who denied that the Son of God 
 was consubstantial with the Father, al- 
 though they otherwise adhered to the opin- 
 ions of the Arians. See Arianism. 
 
 Seminary (ecclesiasticalinstitute wherein 
 instruction is given to clerics destined for 
 the Church). — The history of episcopal 
 seminaries is divided chiefly into two pe- 
 riods : one prior, the other subsequent, to 
 the Council of Trent. Seminaries, i. e., 
 houses set apart for the education of youths 
 desiring to embrace the ecclesiastical state, 
 are traced back, by some canonists, to the 
 very beginning of the Church ; by others to 
 the Council of Nice (325 ) ; and by several to 
 St. Augustine, who, according to Phillips, 
 had set apart a place in his episcopal resi- 
 dence, where youths were brought up for 
 the priesthood. That seminaries already 
 existed in the sixth century is indisputable. 
 Thus the Second Council of Toledo (531), 
 in Spain, ordained that sons dedicated by 
 their parents to the service of the Church 
 should be brought up under the tuition of 
 a director, in a house belonging to the 
 cathedral and under -the eyes or supervi- 
 sion of the bishop. Nay, it is certain that, 
 in the sixth century, youths destined for 
 the sacred ministry were educated for the 
 priesthood not only in episcopal colleges 
 or seminaries, but in every parish priest's 
 house. This was the custom throughout 
 almost the entire Latin Church. Episco- 
 pal seminaries, which had, since the eighth 
 century, been superseded by the universi- 
 ties, were re-established and placed on a 
 more solid footing by the Council of Trent. 
 By seminaries we, at present, mean schools 
 or colleges where youths destined for the 
 
Semi-Pelagians 
 
 643 
 
 Sensualism 
 
 priesthood are supported, religiously edu- 
 cated, and trained in ecclesiastical dis- 
 cipline. According to the enactments of 
 the Council of Trent in regard to semina- 
 ries, a bishop may have several semina- 
 ries; but he is bound to have at least one, 
 unless the poverty of the diocese renders it 
 impossible. A common seminary should 
 be established by the provincial council for 
 those dioceses which, on account of pov- 
 erty, cannot have their own. Those stu- 
 dents only should be received into semina- 
 ries, whose character and inclination afford 
 the hope that they will always serve in the 
 ecclesiastical ministry. Hence, colleges 
 where ecclesiastical students are educated 
 promiscuously with secular students, are 
 not seminaries in the Tridentine sense of 
 the term. Not only students of theology, 
 but also of classics, should be admitted. 
 Finally, youths to be received should be at 
 least twelve years of age and wear the 
 clerical dress. 
 
 Semi-Pelagians. — Heretics of the early 
 centuries of the Church, who held a 
 middle course between the orthodox doc- 
 trine and that of Pelagius. They denied : 
 I. The necessity of " prevening grace" 
 (^gratia frcBveniens) for the beginning of 
 faith, which they maintained to be free 
 from man himself. 2. The " gift of ^&r- 
 severance^' {donumperseverantice). 3. The 
 gratuitous predestination, maintaining that 
 God foreordains some unto election, be- 
 cause of the foreknowledge He has of 
 their merits {prcBvisis mentis). The prin- 
 cipal advocate of Semi-Palagianism was 
 the pious abbot, John Cassianus of Mar- 
 seilles (died, 435). From this city, where 
 the Semi-Pelagians were most numerous, 
 they were also called *' Massalians." See 
 Pelagianism. 
 
 Sennaar. — In Biblical geography t^he 
 name of Mesopotamia ; the plain on both 
 shores of the Euphrates ; the later Babylonia 
 or Chaldea (Gen. xiv. i). 
 
 Sennacherib (died in 806 b. c). — King 
 of Assyria. Mounted the throne about 704 
 B. c, succeeding his father Sargon; waged 
 war against the Chaldeans, Medes, Egyp- 
 tians, Syrians, Phoenicians, and the Jews. 
 Ezechias, king of Juda, was obliged to pay 
 tribute to him, but freed himself in an- 
 other war, when he allied himself with the 
 Egyptians. Sennacherib was forced to 
 abandon the siege of Jerusalem, about 200,- 
 000 of his men having perished under the 
 
 strokes of the angel of the Lord. This 
 king beautified Ninive and built, among 
 other monuments, the palace of Koyound- 
 jeck, whose ruins were discovered in 1851, 
 by Layard. 
 
 Sensualism (doctrine which places the 
 origin of our ideas in our sensations and 
 sets up sensation as the criterion of certi- 
 tude). — In so far as this system admits as 
 reality only the material bodies or matter, 
 it is called materialism. The most famous 
 sensualists are found among the ancients: 
 Democritus, Leucippus, Aristippus, Epi- 
 curus, and Lucretius ; among the moderns 
 we have Hobbes, Gassendi, Condillac, 
 Helvetius, Cabanis, Broussais, Hartley, 
 and Priestley., They often class, but un- 
 justly. Bacon and Locke among sensual- 
 ists. The latter grant, it is true, the prin- 
 cipal role to experience, but at the same 
 time they acknowledge the insufficiency of 
 sensation to explain all our ideas. Sen- 
 sualism, having been founded by Epicurus, 
 it seems that we might call it Epicurism ; 
 but the latter term generally applies itself 
 to sensualism only in so far as it is consid- 
 ered from the moral point of view. How- 
 ever, sensualism was reduced to a special 
 system, under this name, only in modern 
 times, by the philosophers of the eighteenth 
 century. The English Deists had com- 
 menced by questioning the object of 
 knowledge. The sensualists examined the 
 faculties which serve to arrive at knowl- 
 edge, rejecting all that they claimed to be 
 useless for knowledge, especially political 
 and religious knowledge. After this comes 
 Condillac and formulates the theory of 
 sensualism. He taught: "Sensation is 
 the principle of all human science; it is a 
 movement of the cerebral fibers." The 
 encyclopaedists drew the consequences 
 from these principles. Man, they said, is 
 nothing but an animal ; the soul, a secre- 
 tion of the brain. It is easy to understand 
 what grave consequences a similar system 
 entailed. If the senses fix our intellectual 
 horizon, we are without God and without 
 religion ; if man is nothing but a physical 
 being endowed only with sensuousness, he 
 is evidently only a perfected animal ; if the 
 sensation as well as the thought which 
 proceeds from it is only a secretion of the 
 brain, the soul itself is nothing but a sim- 
 ilar secretion ; then disappears all distinc- 
 tion between the body and the spirit, and, 
 therefore, there is neither good nor evil, 
 neither vice nor virtue. For the spring of 
 
Separatists 
 
 644 
 
 Sequence 
 
 our actions there remains only personal 
 interest or egoism. This system attempted 
 nothing less than to undermine the basis 
 of society, as we shall see very soon. This 
 doctrine was a sign of wrath, an instru- 
 ment of war against religion, and not of 
 progress. Besides, physiology, as well as 
 philosophy, rises up against the absurdity 
 of placing sensation solely in the senses. 
 In the face of Descartes, who absorbed the 
 whole man in the spirit and left to mat- 
 ter no life of its own, sensualism was 
 right; but, falling into the contrary ex- 
 cess, it was wrong to completely absorb the 
 spirit into the material being. When 
 these questions have been more deeply 
 studied, experience will prove, in the long 
 run, the weakness of this double point of 
 departure. Sensualism, perfectly true as 
 concerns matter, had, like the criticism of 
 Kant, disowned the spirit and the life that 
 is proper to it, and, by this act, had be- 
 come insufficient to solve the grave prob- 
 lems which Kant himself had often raised, 
 about the genesis of thought, on the one 
 hand, and about the life of matter or nature, 
 on the other. Finding itself face to face with 
 Christianity — immense fact of history! — 
 sensualism, not being capable of under- 
 standing it, contented itself by denying it. 
 But humanity does not allow itself to be 
 served with negations, and sensualism 
 could not maintain itself ; hence it had to 
 return and prove the existence of what it 
 had denied shortly before. It was the 
 same with criticism. Kant, after having 
 expelled the idea of God from the purely 
 intellectual domain of reason, returned to 
 it as to a moral exigency. They began to 
 study the starting point of their errors, 
 that is, the true principles which serve as 
 basis to false notions. Anthony Giinther 
 had already cleared up the question by 
 acknowledging to matter what belongs to 
 matter, and to spirit what belongs to 
 spirit. Then he proved that the knowl- 
 edge of the being that sustains the phe- 
 nomena is the true intellectual proceeding, 
 the real mode of the thought ; he proved 
 that nature is independent from the spirit in 
 the face of purely sensible life, as well as the 
 reality, the independence both of the life of 
 the senses and of nature. Thus the false 
 and exclusive sensualism disappeared. In 
 summary, sensualism, by the total nega- 
 tion of ideas, falls into all kinds of errors; 
 those which it favors the most are athe- 
 ism, materialism, complete idealism or 
 nihilism, empiricism and skepticism. 
 
 Separatists. See Nonconformists. 
 
 Sepharvaim. — A place in Assyria whence 
 colonists were transferred to Samaria to set- 
 tle the country of captive Israel, about 721 
 B. c. (IV. Ki. xvii. 24), identified with Sip- 
 para, a town on both shores of the Euphrates 
 (whence its dual name in Hebrew), about 
 20 miles north of Babylon. Sennacherib 
 mentions Sepharvaim (IV. Ki. xix. 11, 13) 
 as a city subdued by the Assyrians before 
 his time. It was a chief seat of the wor- 
 ship of the sun. It had a library which 
 has been deciphered by George Smith and 
 others. 
 
 Sephora. — Wife of Moses, daughter of 
 Jethro, of the country of Madian, whither 
 Moses had retired after he had killed an 
 Egyptian who ill-treated a Hebrew, and 
 where he married and sojourned during 
 fourteen years. 
 
 Septuagesima Sunday (Lat septua- 
 gesima,'\. e. dies, the seventieth). — The 
 third Sunday before Lent, so called, like 
 Sexagesima and ^uinquagesima , from its 
 distance (reckoned in round numbers) be- 
 fore Easter. 
 
 Septuagint (Lat. septuaginta ; seventy). 
 — Name under which we generally under- 
 stand the seventy or seventy-two interpre- 
 ters who, according to the common opinion, 
 translated the books of the Old Testament, 
 or at least the Pentateuch, from Hebrew 
 into Greek, by order of Ptolemy Philadel- 
 phus, king of Egypt. Their translation is 
 called Version of Alexandria, because they 
 made it on the island of Pharos, near Alex- 
 andria. The Church never did express 
 herself on the divine inspiration of the 
 Septuagint. Though the authors of this 
 version may not have been divinely in- 
 spired, it is nevertheless a precious monu- 
 ment. See Bible. 
 
 Sequence. — In liturgy a hymn in 
 rhythmical prose or in accentual meter 
 sung after the Gradual (whence the name) 
 and before the Gospel. In very early 
 times the Alleluia, after the Gradual in 
 Mass, was followed by a long series of 
 jubilant notes sung to its last vowel with- 
 out any words. This series of notes was 
 called the Sequence, but owing to the dif- 
 ficulty of remembering these vocaliza- 
 tions, experienced by even the most 
 skillful cantors, a custom arose in the 
 North of Gaul of setting words to these 
 notes. About the year 860 a monk of the 
 
Seraphim 
 
 645 
 
 Sermon 
 
 Abbey of Jumieges, which had been laid 
 waste by the Normans, sought refuge at 
 the monastery of St. Gall in the diocese at 
 Constance. He brought with him the 
 Antiphoner of his monastery, which con- 
 tained several of these Sequences with 
 words set to them. This volume was a 
 source of inspiration to a young monk of 
 St. Gall named Notk6r (died, 912), who at 
 once set to work to imitate and improve 
 on them. Notker's work found favor, and 
 his compositions were introduced into the 
 use of most Churches and orders, and were 
 called ProstE ad Scquentia, and later on 
 Prosce. Of the many proses in use during 
 the Middle Ages, four only were retained 
 in the Plan Missal. The first of these is 
 the Victimce Paschali, sung at Easter, the 
 author of which was Wipo, chaplain of the 
 Emperor Conrad II. and Henry III., of 
 Germany (died, 1050) ; the second is the 
 Veni Sancte Spiritns, for Pentecost, 
 which, according to Duranti, is the pro- 
 duction of Robert, king of the Franks 
 (died, 1031) ; the third is the Lauda Sion, 
 for the feast of Corpus Christi, composed 
 by St. Thomas Aquinas (died, 1274); the 
 fourth is the D/ps Tree, ascribed by some 
 to Cardinal Latino Malabranca, a Domini- 
 can friar who died in 1294, ^^^ with better 
 reason to Thomas de Celano, a Francis- 
 can who lived in the middle of the thir- 
 teenth century. The Stabat Mater 
 Dolorosa, attributed by some to Pope In- 
 nocent III. (died, 1216), is derived more 
 probably by the Franciscan, Jacopohe da 
 Todi (died, 1306). It was restored to the 
 Roman Missal by Benedict XIII. in 1727. 
 
 Seraphim (plural of seraph). — Celes- 
 tial beings in attendance upon Jehovah, 
 mentioned by Isaias. They are similar to 
 the cherubim, and are represented as hav- 
 ing the human form, face, voice, two 
 hands and two feet, but six wings, with 
 four of which they cover their face and 
 feet, as a sign of reverence, while with 
 two they fly. Their office is singing the 
 praises of Jehovah's greatness, and being 
 the swift messengers between heaven and 
 earth. 
 
 Sergius (name of four Popes). — Ser- 
 gius I. — Pope from 687 to 701. He refused 
 to sanction the Trullan Synod, which as- 
 sembled in 692 at the summons of the Em- 
 peror Justinian II. Irritated by this refusal, 
 the haughty emperor sent orders for the 
 apprehension and transportation of the 
 Pope to Constantinople. But the Romans, 
 
 and even the imperial soldiery, rushed to 
 the defense of the Pope, and only for the 
 Pope's intervention, they would have torn 
 Zacharias, the imperial officer, to pieces. 
 Sergius II. — Pope from 844 to 847. Suc- 
 cessor of Gregory IV. During his Pon- 
 tificate the Saracens ravaged southern 
 Italy, and even threatened Rome. It was 
 Sergius that built the Scala Sancta {Sacred 
 Stairway) near the Lateran Basilica. 
 Sergius III. — Pope from 904 to 911. The 
 moral character of this Pope is grievously 
 assailed by Luitprand, a contemporary 
 writer, whose testimony, however, is weak- 
 ened by his known hostility to the counts 
 of Tusculum, to whom Sergius was re- 
 lated, and by his partial devotion to the 
 imperial interests. Flodoard and Deacon 
 John, other contemporary writers, repre- 
 sent Sergius as a favorite with the Roman 
 people and a kind and active Pontiff, who 
 labored strenuously for the restoration of 
 ecclesiastical discipline. With the excep- 
 tion that he was an opponent of Pope For- 
 mosus, he is guiltless of the charges 
 brought against him by the slanderous 
 Luitprand. Sergius IV. — Pope from 1009 
 to 1012. Successor of John XVIII. 
 
 Sergius Paulus. — Proconsul of the 
 island of Cyprus, converted by St. Paul, 
 in spite of the efforts of the magician 
 
 Elymas. 
 
 Sermon (discourse). — The sermon as- 
 sumes, according to the form given to it, 
 the names of homily, prose, or sermon 
 properly speaking. The sermon properly 
 so called is a religious discourse which ex- 
 pounds and develops a point of moral or 
 dogma under a synthetic form. The ser- 
 mon has become to-day the usual form 
 under which the word of God is an- 
 nounced, that is, the religious truths, 
 while in the primitive Church, the homi- 
 letic form predominated, to which was 
 joined the reading and explanation of the 
 Biblical text, without stopping to make it 
 the basis of one sole subject. The sermon 
 starts with one proposition as its theme, 
 and constitutes a whole whose parts are 
 the ramifications; the good this method 
 has is, that it presents the subject under 
 its different aspects, that it follows a log- 
 ical order, and that thereby the truth is 
 easier understood. Unfortunately, often the 
 oratorical art takes the place of evangel- 
 ical preaching. Preaching, strictly speak- 
 ing, is not an essential part of divine 
 worship, but a preparation for it, and the 
 
Serpent 
 
 646 
 
 Servites 
 
 Church recommends it and makes it a 
 strict duty on her ministers to preach. 
 Protestants have made of the sermon the 
 essential part of worship ; with them 
 preaching has a purely subjective charac- 
 ter, dependent on the manner in which 
 each orator understands the doctrine, 
 while Catholic preaching always carries 
 the seal of the objective doctrine of the 
 Church, and it is the authority of the 
 teaching of the Church that governs 
 the orator. All Christian preaching is in 
 Christ, and the true ministry of the Word 
 is that which, from Christ, has been 
 transmitted to the Apostles and their suc- 
 cessors ; there is only one Christ and there 
 can be only one Christian teaching. The 
 style of preaching must be distinguished 
 both by simplicity and elevation. Preach- 
 ing is an art difficult to learn, for it is as 
 much an effusion of lively faith as it is a 
 product of acquired skill. The style, 
 however, in a sermon as in all other dis- 
 courses, is of great importance. The ser- 
 mon being a peculiar branch of the 
 oratorical art, it must have a style that is 
 proper to it, that is, the homiletic style of 
 which we find elements in both the Gospels 
 and the Fathers. Preaching ought not 
 to permit itself to be dominated by the 
 oratorical element. The ministry of 
 preaching, says Fl^chier, is reserved to 
 the explanation of the mysteries, or to the 
 persuasion of the precepts of religion, and 
 not to pompous sermons where the imagi- 
 nation plays a greater rdle than reason, 
 and where the orator strives less to edify 
 than to please. The orator should draw 
 the first elements of his instructions from 
 Holy Scripture. Theology and Church 
 history should not be less familiar to him, 
 either to distinguish what is of faith, or to 
 establish the truths of religion by facts. 
 He should study rhetoric only to draw 
 from it the rules of the discourse, and so, 
 also, should he study the ancient orators, 
 even profane ones, only with the view to 
 find therein the means of persuasion ; for 
 the object of the Christian orator, like that 
 of the profane orator, is to move and to 
 persuade. See ELOquENCE. 
 
 Serpent (^Brazen). — We read in the 
 Book of Numbers that, to punish the mur- 
 murings of the Israelites in the desert, 
 God sent serpents among them which 
 caused the death of many. Then, by the 
 Lord's direction, Moses made a serpent of 
 brass and put it on a pole, that it might be 
 
 seen from all parts of the camp, and who- 
 soever looked at it was healed (Num. xxi.). 
 
 Serra ( Junipero). — A Franciscan mis- 
 sionary; born in the island of Majorca, 
 Nov. 24th, 1713. He entered the Francis- 
 can Order in 1731 ; went to Mexico in 1749, 
 where he labored among the Indians until 
 1767, when he was sent to California. The 
 Jesuits had been expelled, and their mis- 
 sions were placed in charge of the Francis- 
 cans. Father Serra was made president 
 of these, and the development of the Cali- 
 fornia mission is due very largely to him. 
 San Diego was the first mission founded 
 by him. This was in 1769, and many oth- 
 ers followed. He died at San Carlos mis- 
 sion, Aug. 28th, 1784. 
 
 Servetus (Michael) (1509-1553). — 
 Physician and learned Protestant of the 
 Anti-Trinitarian sect, born at Villa Nueva, 
 Aragon. Went to Germany to be more at 
 liberty to publish his works against the 
 dogma of the Trinity; returned to Lyons; 
 went to Paris to study medicine, and ob- 
 tained the degree of doctor of medicine. 
 He then met Calvin for the first time, 
 with whom he entered into a theological 
 dispute. After practicing medicine for 
 short periods at Avignon and Charlieu, he 
 settled, in 1541, as medical practitioner at 
 Vienne. In 1553 he published Christian- 
 isnti Restitutio, which caused him to be 
 arrested by order of the inquisitor general 
 at Lyons. He made his escape, but was 
 apprehended at the instance of Calvin at 
 Geneva, on his way to Naples, and at Cal- 
 vin's instigation, was burned alive at Gen- 
 eva, in 1553. 
 
 Servites (religious). — The Order of the 
 Sers'ants of the Blessed Virgin, commonly 
 called Servites, owes its origin to the zeal 
 and piety of seven Florentine merchants. 
 After distributing their goods among the 
 poor, they retired to Monte Senario, near 
 Florence, where they dwelt in cells as 
 hermits. This was in 1233, which is re- 
 garded as the date of the foundation of the 
 order. They subsequently became a mo- 
 nastic community under the special patron- 
 age of the Blessed Virgin. They adopted 
 the Augustinian Rule, and for their habit 
 wore a black tunic with a scapular and cape 
 of the same color. Under St. Philip Beniti, 
 the fifth general, the order spread rapidly, 
 chiefly in Italy and Germany. St. Juliana 
 Falconieri is regarded as the foundress of 
 the Servite Third Order. The Servites 
 were approved by Alexander IV., in 1255. 
 
Servus Servorum Dei 
 
 647 
 
 SiDON 
 
 Innocent VIII. declared the Servites a 
 mendicant order, bestowing on them the 
 privileges enjoyed by the other mendi- 
 cants. 
 
 $ervus Servorum Dei (Latin words, the 
 servant of the servants of God) . is the 
 official formula with which the Pope signs 
 his name. It was first adopted by Gregory 
 the Great. 
 
 Severians. — Followers of Tatian and 
 Severius, heretics who rejected the Acts of 
 the Apostles and the Epistles of St. Paul. 
 They also maintained the corruptibility of 
 the body of Christ. 
 
 Severinus (St.). See Bavaria. 
 
 Severinus (St.). — Pope, born at Rome, 
 successor of Honorius I. Governed the 
 Church only two months (649) and had for 
 successor John IV. 
 
 Sexagesima Sunday (Lat. sexagesima, 
 i. e. dies, the sixtieth day). — The second 
 Sunday before Lent, and roughly reckoned 
 the sixtieth day before Easter. 
 
 Shakers. — A Protestant sect, so called 
 from their practice of shaking and dancing, 
 in which their worship principally consists. 
 Their original name was " Believers in 
 Christ's Second Appearing." They came 
 originally from England and settled in the 
 state of New York, in 1774. Their leader 
 was Anna Lee, who, they ridiculously 
 claimed, was the " elect lady" mentioned 
 in Revelation (xii. i), the "Bride of the 
 Lamb," and the " Mother of all the Elect 
 and Saints." In her it is claimed that the 
 second coming of Christ was realized. 
 They live in communities and do not 
 marry, their society being recruited mostly 
 by young men and girls. There are eight- 
 een Shaker settlements in this country, 
 with a membership of about seven thou- 
 sand. 
 
 Shalmaneser III. — King of Assyria, 
 reigned from 878 to 869 b. c. Waged war 
 almost continually against his revolting 
 subjects, made several expeditions into 
 Armenia, into Syria against the kings of 
 Hamath and Damascus ; imposed a tribute 
 upon Jehu, king of Juda, upon the princes 
 of Chaldea and Phoenicia, and about the 
 end of his life had to suppress the revolts 
 of his son, Sardanapal. Shalmaneser V. 
 — King of Assyria, successor of Teglath- 
 Phalasar, reigned from 725 to 712 b. c. 
 Attacked Ossee, the king of Israel, impris- 
 
 oned him, and led a great number of Is- 
 raelites into captivity on the shores of the 
 Tigris. 
 
 Sheol (Hebr. the place of departed spir- 
 its). — The original is in the authorized ver- 
 sion, and means grave, hell, or pit; in the 
 revised version of the Old Testament the 
 word Sheol is substituted. It corresponds 
 to the word Hades in the Greek classic lit- 
 erature. See Immortality. 
 
 Shepherd {Sisters of the Good). See 
 Sisters. 
 
 Shrine. — A casket or receptacle for 
 something held sacred. Sometimes small 
 and portable, at others fixed in a suitable 
 place. Tombs of holy people were called 
 shrines, and the term came to be applied 
 to that with which they were connected. 
 
 Shrovetide (Ang.-Sax. jcr«/a«, toshrive, 
 to confess, literally means " confession- 
 time"). — The name given to the days im- 
 mediately preceding Ash Wednesday, 
 which, indeed, the whole period after 
 Septuagesima Sunday appears to have been. 
 They were days of preparation for the peni- 
 tential time of Lent, the chief part of 
 which preparation consisted in receiving 
 the sacrament of penance, that is, in " be- 
 ing shriven," or confessing. 
 
 Sichem (the modern Naf louse). — An- 
 cient city of Palestine, situated in the 
 midst of a valley formed by mount Hebal 
 and mount Garizim, south of Samaria. It 
 was a Levitical city, of the tribe of 
 Ephraim. Its inhabitants, having insulted 
 Dina, daughter of Jacob, were massacred 
 by her brethren. Achimelech, son of 
 Gedeon, to punish them for revolting, de- 
 stroyed the city, which was later on rebuilt 
 by Jeroboam. At Sichem the assembly of 
 the ten tribes of Israel took place and here 
 they resolved to form a separate kingdom. 
 Under the Persian kings, it was the center 
 of the worship of the Samaritans. Near it 
 was Jacob's well, where our Saviour talked 
 with the woman of Samaria. 
 
 Sidon (now called Saide). — Celebrated 
 city of Phoenicia, on the Mediterranean 
 sea, north of Tyre and Sarepta. It is one 
 of the most ancient cities in the world, 
 and is believed to have been founded by 
 Sidon, the eldest son of Chanaan. In the 
 time of Homer, the Sidonians were emi- 
 nent for their trade and commerce, their 
 wealth and prosperity. Upon the division 
 of Chanaan among the tribes by Josue, 
 
SiDONIUS APOLLINARIS 
 
 648 
 
 Simon Magus 
 
 Sidon fell to the lot of Aser ; but that tribe 
 never succeeded in obtaining possession 
 of it. The Sidonians continued long under 
 their own government and kings, though 
 sometimes tributary to the kings of Tyre. 
 They were subdued successively by the 
 Babylonians, Egyptians, Seleucidae and 
 Romans, the latter of whom deprived them 
 of their freedom. Many of the inhabitants 
 became followers of our Saviour, and there 
 was a Christian Church at Sichem, when 
 St. Paul visited it on his voyage to Rome 
 ( Acts xxvii. 3). Its present population is 
 estimated at 15,000. 
 
 Sidonius Apollinaris (St.) (430-488). — 
 Latin poet, born at Lyons. Elected bishop 
 of Clermont (472), distinguished himself by 
 his virtues and courageously suffered per- 
 secution from part of the Visigoth kings. 
 His poems, panegyrics, 147 letters, etc., are 
 full of interest for the history of his period. 
 F. Aug. 23d. 
 
 Sig^ of the Cross. See Cross. 
 
 Sila or Silo. — Town of Palestine, in the 
 tribe of Ephraim, south of Sichem and 
 north of Bethel. Capital of the Hebrews 
 from the time of their entrance into the 
 Promised Land until the reign of David. 
 In this city Josue divided the land among 
 the twelve tribes. Here they deposited 
 the Ark of the Covenant and the Taber- 
 nacle. The ruins of the city are to-day 
 known under the name of Kharbet Siloun. 
 
 Silas or Silvanus (the former name 
 being a contraction of the latter). — One 
 of the chief men among the first disciples 
 of our Saviour, which disciples have been 
 supposed by some to have numbered 
 seventy. On the occasion of a dispute at 
 Antioch, on the obsersance of the legal 
 ceremonies, St. Paul and St. Barnabas 
 were chosen to go to Jerusalem, to ad- 
 vise with the Apostles ; they returned with 
 Judas and Silas. Silas joined himself to 
 St. Paul ; and after Paul and Barnabas had 
 separated, he accompanied St. Paul to 
 visit the Churches of Syria and Cilicia, 
 and the towns and provinces of Lycaonia, 
 Phrygia, Galatia, and Macedonia. 
 
 Siloe. — A fountain under the walls of 
 Jerusalem, on the east, between the city 
 and the brook Cedron. It formed two 
 ponds or ptscince rendered famous by a 
 miracle of Jesus who gave eyesight to a 
 man born blind. The tomb of the Prophet 
 Isaias was near by. 
 
 Silverius (St.). — Pope from 536 to 538; 
 born at Frosinone. Successor of St. 
 Agapetus, refused to restore the Patriarch 
 Anthymus to the see of Constantinople; 
 deposed as a Eutychian heretic, was perse- 
 cuted by the Empress Theodora, carried 
 off by Belisarius, and banished to Patara 
 (Lycia), then on the island Palmaria, 
 where he died of hunger. F. June 20th. 
 
 Simeon. — Second son of Jacob and of 
 Lia, was retained as hostage by Joseph, 
 when his brethren went to buy grain in 
 Egypt ; took part with Levi in the massa- 
 cre of the inhabitants of Sichem. He 
 gave his name to one of the twelve tribes ; 
 but his descendants had only a small terri- 
 tory cut off from the tribe of Juda. 
 
 Simeon (St.). — Aged Jew, to whom it 
 had been revealed that he would not die 
 before having seen the Saviour of the world. 
 He was in the Temple when the Blessed 
 Virgin carried thither the Child Jesus ; re- 
 ceived the divine Child in his arms and 
 said : "Now, O Lord, let Thy servant de- 
 part in peace." 
 
 Simeon (St.). — Nephew of the Blessed 
 Virgin, became a disciple of Jesus Christ; 
 second bishop of Jerusalem (67). After 
 the death of St. James he was martyred by 
 order of Atticus, governor of Palestine 
 under Trajan, in 107. 
 
 Simeon, (St.) (390-460) (surnamed Sty- 
 lites). — Anchorite, born at Cisan, Cilicia. 
 Celebrated for his fasts and austerities. He 
 spent thirty years on the top of a pillar near 
 Antioch, where he led a most austere life, 
 preaching with truly apostolic power and 
 wonderful success, to the populous nomadic 
 tribes that flocked to him from the vast 
 Syrian desert, Arabia, and even Persia. 
 F. Jan. 5th. 
 
 Simon (St.). — One of the twelve Apos- 
 tles of Jesus Christ, surnamed the " Cha- 
 naanite"or" Zealot," born in Galilee, per- 
 haps at Cana, preached the faith in Egypt 
 and in several other countries of Africa, 
 especially in Mauritanea, then returned 
 into the East and carried the Gospel into 
 Persia, where he suffered martyrdom with 
 St. Jude. F. Oct. 28th. 
 
 Simon Magns (surnamed "the father of 
 all heresies ") . — Was a native of Gitton, in 
 Samaria. By his skill in magic he attained 
 great influence among his countrymen and 
 gained many followers. He received bap- 
 
Simon Stock 
 
 649 
 
 Sin 
 
 tism from the deacon Philip. When St. 
 Peter and St. John came to Samaria, Simon, 
 seeing the miraculous gifts bestowed by 
 these Apostles, offered money to them to 
 obtain the power of conferring the Holy 
 Spirit, for which he was severely rebuked. 
 He became the founder of a sect named 
 after him *' Simonians." He pretended to 
 be the Messias who appeared in Samaria 
 as the Father, in Judea as the Son, and 
 among the Gentiles as the Holy Ghost. A 
 certain Helen, a public prostitute from 
 Tyre, became a follower of Simon, who 
 called her " Ennoia," that is, "the first 
 thought that proceeded from him." This 
 magician is said to have met a tragic end 
 in attempting to imitate the Ascension of 
 our Lord. Another account has it that he 
 perished through wishing to rival Christ 
 in His resurrection, and he had himself 
 buried alive. The Simonians, also called 
 Helenians, were accused of the vilest de- 
 bauchery, and worshiped their founder as 
 Jupiter, and Helen as Minerva. They soon 
 split into several parties, of which the 
 Dositheans and Menandrians were the most 
 notorious. 
 
 Simon Stock. See Scapular. 
 
 Simony (from Simoti the Magician') (il- 
 licit agreement by which one gives or re- 
 ceives a temporal reward, a pecuniary 
 retribution for something sacred and spir- 
 itual). — Simony has various forms; it al- 
 ways constitutes a contempt of sacred 
 things, for which it finds an equivalent in 
 a perishable good. Often also, it would 
 cause disturbance in the Church, by call- 
 ing unworthy men to the functions of the 
 hierarchy. A great number of councils 
 and many sovereign Pontiflfs Have con- 
 demned simony. All theologians consider 
 it a grievous sin. Simony is one of the 
 evils that has caused considerable struggle 
 in the Church, as, for instance, the so- 
 called quarrel of investiture. Kings and 
 feudal lords claimed to have the right to 
 sell ecclesiastical dignities, or at least to 
 confer them at will, which, in practice, led 
 to the same result. It was Pope Gregory 
 VII., who showed himself the most power- 
 ful adversary of simony. See Investi- 
 ture. 
 
 Simplicius (St.). — Pope from 468 to 
 483, born at Tivoli, successor of St. Hilary, 
 caused the acceptation, in the East, of the 
 authority of the Council of Chalcedon, and 
 combated with firmness the Eutychians. 
 
 Under his Pontificate, took place the de- 
 struction of the empire of the West, through 
 the deposition of Romulus Augustulus. 
 F. March 2d. 
 
 Sin, — Sin is a voluntary transgression 
 of the divine or religious law. There are 
 several kinds of sin : Original sin in 
 which we are born ; actual sin which we 
 commit ourselves by an act of our own free 
 will ; sins of thought, desire, word, action, 
 and omission ; sins of weakness and of 
 malice ; capital and noncapital sins. Sin 
 is imputable as an offense against God, or 
 a real disobedience, only in so far as it 
 unites all the conditions required for a 
 human act. Consequently, all that de- 
 stroys the willful or free action, exonerates 
 from all sin, as also all that weakens these 
 powers diminishes, proportionately, the 
 malice of our faults. Thus, what we do 
 through error, if the error is morally in- 
 vincible, cannot be imputed to us. It is 
 no sin, or as it has sometimes been defined, 
 only a material sin. It is the same with 
 the indeliberate movements, which scho- 
 lasticism calls motus frimo frimi. As to 
 the actions performed with half knowledge, 
 such as, for instance, the acts of a man 
 half asleep, either they are not imputable 
 at all or are imputable only under the title 
 of venial sins. But the deliberate acts, of 
 which the understanding fully perceives 
 the malice, even though confusedly, and 
 to which the will freely consents, are cer- 
 tainly sins, and mortal sins in grievous 
 matters. To render ourselves guilty, it is 
 not sufficient to know that the action we 
 do is forbidden, or that it is morally bad; 
 besides this knowledge, there must be ad- 
 vertence on the part of him who acts, that 
 is, as the word indicates, at least the virtual 
 attention by which he remarks the moral 
 quality of his action, its goodness or mal- 
 ice. We can commit sin by thought, desire, 
 word, action, and omission. It is a sin if the 
 will stops at an evil thought, immoratur, 
 with pleasure and deliberate purpose, and 
 with consent. If the will goes as far as the 
 desire, this is another sin. We commit a 
 sin of desire, if we wish to commit the act 
 which is the object of a bad thought. We 
 must not wish evil to our neighbor, nor 
 rejoice in the evil that befalls him, on ac- 
 count of temporal advantages we may de- 
 rive from it. We are permitted to rejoice 
 in the inheritance we receive, provided 
 that we do not rejoice in another's death. 
 We are permitted to desire a temporal 
 
Sin 
 
 650 
 
 Sin 
 
 evil to our neighbor, either for his greater 
 good, or in favor of the innocent, or for 
 the general good of the Church and State. 
 We sin by word in holding discourses 
 against faith, religion, charity, and 
 justice; by permitting, for instance, 
 blasphemy, calumny, lying, or per- 
 jury. The sins in words are mortal, in 
 grievous matters, if they are committed 
 with full advertence. We sin by action, if 
 we perpetrate that which is forbidden ; 
 and sin by omission, if we do not do what 
 is commanded. We can sin by omission 
 only, if the omission is an act of the will. 
 Therefore, the omission must be voluntary 
 but it can be this directly or indirectly, in 
 itself or in its cause. If it is voluntary in 
 its cause, it is imputable from' the moment 
 the cause has been posed. If we trans- 
 gress a law on account of error, ignorance 
 which does not entirely excuse from sin, 
 or by yielding to a strong temptation, the 
 sin is called a sin of weakness. If, on the 
 contrary, we incline toward evil know- 
 ingly, of ourselves, by pure choice of the 
 will, then the sin is a sin of malice. The 
 sin of weakness is not always venial ; it 
 may be mortal. Man has duties to fulfil 
 toward God, toward his neighbor, and 
 toward himself. Hence, the distinction of 
 sins toward God, toward our neighbor, and 
 toward ourselves. However, there can be 
 no sin that is not against God, because 
 there is no sin that is not either a trans- 
 gression, more or less direct, of some di- 
 vine, natural, or positive law. Sins are 
 distinguished from one another either by 
 the species that is proper to them, or 
 by the number which multiplies them : 
 hence, as the school expresses itself, the 
 specific distinction and the numerical dis- 
 tinction of sins. Generally, the specific 
 distinction of sins is drawn from the nature 
 of the morally bad act. Heresy, for in- 
 stance, despair, blasphemy, lying, calumny, 
 are evidently sins of different species. 
 First, we consider whether sins differ 
 from one another as to the species, if they 
 are opposed to different virtues : thus, 
 heresy, despair, blasphemy, are sins dis- 
 tinct in their species, because they are 
 opposed to different virtues ; namely, 
 heresy to faith, despair to hope, blas- 
 phemy to religion. Second, if they are 
 opposed to different functions of the same 
 virtue. Under this title, theft and homi- 
 cide, although opposed to the same virtue, 
 — to the virtue of justice, — are neverthe- 
 less sins of a different nature. Third, 
 
 if they are opposed to the same virtue, but 
 in a contrary sense. Thus despair and 
 presumption, avarice and prodigality, form 
 different species of sins. Fourth, sins 
 are again distinct as to species, if they are 
 opposed to the same virtue in a different 
 manner, although not contrary; such are, 
 in regard to the virtue of justice, simple 
 theft {furtu/n), and rape {rapina). It 
 happens quite often that one and the same 
 act is opposed to different virtues and 
 contains several species of sins. Circum- 
 stances change the species of sin, if they 
 imprint upon it a new character of malice, 
 which it has not by itself. It is certain that 
 we must declare in confession all the cir- 
 cumstances that change the species of sin; 
 the Council of Trent is clear on this point. 
 The penitent is also obliged to answer cor- 
 rectly, and always conformably to the 
 truth, the questions which the confessor 
 deems necessary to put to him, in order to 
 assure the integrity of confession. But is 
 he obliged to make known the notably 
 aggravating circumstances, that is, those 
 which, without changing the species of 
 sin, notably aggravate or increase its 
 malice.? This is a controverted question; 
 we must as much as possible, declare in 
 confession the number of mortal sins, both 
 interior and exterior, of which we have 
 rendered ourselves guilty. Now, the nu- 
 merical distinction is drawn from two 
 sources, namely : from the multiplicity of 
 the acts of the will morally interpreted, 
 and from the diversity of the objects. 
 Mortal sin is thus designated, because it 
 deprives us of sanctifying grace, which is 
 the life of our soul, and renders us worthy 
 of death or of eternal damnation. Venial 
 sin is that which does not destroy sanctify- 
 ing grace, but weakens it. For a mortal 
 sin, three things are required, namely: i. 
 The matter must be grievous, either in 
 itself, or on account of the circumstances, 
 or on account of the end which the per- 
 petrator has in view. 2. The actual or 
 virtual, clear or confused advertence of 
 the malice of the object, must be plain 
 and perfect. 3. The direct or indirect 
 consent of the will must also be plain and 
 perfect. If one of these three conditions 
 is wanting, the sin is only venial. Mortal 
 sin in its kind, ex genere sua, may become 
 venial in three ways: i. If there is light- 
 ness of matter. 2. If there is want of a 
 perfect consent. 3. If the advertence is im- 
 perfect. Several slight matters may form 
 a grave and sufficient matter for a mortal 
 
Sin 
 
 651 
 
 Sin 
 
 sin ; such is the case if they are united by 
 themselves or morally, as are the omis- 
 sions of the divine office, the violations of 
 fast, repeated several times within one 
 day. Also, it is important to remark that 
 there are sins which admit no lightness of 
 matter; such are, among others, idolatry, 
 apostasy, heresy, simony, perjury, duel- 
 ing, homicide, fornication, and adultery. 
 Venial sin, by its nature, may become 
 mortal in five ways: i. By the end we 
 have in view : the one, for instance, who 
 uses somewhat too free language, with 
 the intention of leading his neighbor to 
 commit a grievous fault, sins mortally. 2, 
 If in committing a slight fault, we com- 
 mit this fault with the actual disposition 
 to commit a mortal sin, rather than to ab- 
 stain from it. 3. By the formal contempt 
 of the law or legislator considered as 
 such. 4. On account of scandal in regard 
 to children, domestics, or other persons. 
 5. On account of th(! proximate danger to 
 fall into a grievous fault. In this case we 
 must declare in confession the species of 
 the sin to which we exposed ourselves, 
 either committed or not committed. 
 
 Sin {Original). — We read in Genesis, 
 that Adam, our first father, was placed in 
 an earthly paradise, a place of delights 
 where he lived happy and free from the 
 miseries of this life as long as he preserved 
 innocence ; that the devil assumed the form 
 of a serpent, and seduced Eve, the first wo- 
 man, who ate of the forbidden fruit and en- 
 ticed her husband to eat thereof; and that, 
 by this disobedience, Adam drew upon 
 himself and upon his whole posterity the 
 disfavor of heaven. " God," says Bossuet, 
 " regards all men as a single man in the 
 one from whom He wishes all to go forth." 
 Now, the memory of the innocence and 
 happiness of man, in the earthly paradise, 
 has preserved itself in the golden age of 
 the poets ; as also the ages of silver, cop- 
 per, and iron were less happy than the 
 first, reminding us of the degradation of 
 mankind and of the progressive depravity 
 of men, such, as is reported in the Sacred 
 Books. The fall of mankind, the original 
 sin, is a dogma of religion, of primitive 
 revelation. It is the belief of Christians; 
 it was the belief of the Jews and Patriarchs, 
 as can be seen in the Book of Job. We 
 also find this belief, although greatly al- 
 tered, among all the nations of the earth. 
 It is of faith that, the Blessed Virgin Mary 
 excepted, all men are born with the sin of 
 Adam- The Council of Trent has formally 
 
 decided, under pain of anathema : i. That 
 Adam, the first man, having transgressed 
 the commandment of God in the earthly 
 paradise, immediately lost the holiness and 
 justice in which he had been created; that 
 he incurred, through the offense of this 
 prevarication, God's wrath and indigna- 
 tion, and, in consequence thereof, death, 
 ' with which he had been threatened, and, 
 with death, the captivity under the power 
 of the devil, who, since that time, held the 
 empire of death ; adding that Adam fell 
 entirely, both as to body and soul, from the 
 state in which he had been created. 2. 
 That the evil has been hurtful even to his 
 posterity; that he lost for himself and for 
 us the justice and holiness which he had 
 received from God; that having soiled 
 himself through the sin of disobedience, he 
 transmitted to all mankind, not only death 
 and the pains of the body, but also the sin 
 which is the death of the soul. 
 
 In regard to the history of the tempta- 
 tion and the fall of our first parents, as 
 related in Genesis iii., we must not be 
 astonished when we find therein wonderful 
 particulars. Man, according to the orig- 
 inal design of the Creator, was not to 
 have that unfortunate interior inclination 
 towards evil which is our sad inheritance. 
 And, nevertheless, God, having created 
 him free, wished to try his fidelity. How 
 could He try him, since neither Adam nor 
 Eve felt the sting of concupiscence? He 
 could do this only by permitting a foreign 
 agent, the devil, to tempt them. But how 
 could the devil, a pure spirit, tempt them, 
 except by adopting a sensible form or by 
 making use of an animate being? And, 
 finally, how could God try the fidelity of 
 His reasonable and free creature in a more 
 natural, and, so to say, more logical man- 
 ner, than by requiring from him an ex- 
 terior act of obedience, easy in itself, con- 
 sisting in not eating of a forbidden fruit, 
 which the obedience due to the Creator 
 forbade him to taste, but for which every 
 human passion aroused by the tempter, 
 pride, sensuality, curiosity, the spirit of 
 independence, prompted both the man and 
 the woman to desire. 
 
 Hence Catholic tradition has not been 
 unreasonable in taking the account of 
 Genesis in the literal sense. With right 
 has it believed that, since what precedes 
 and follows this account is historical and 
 not mythological, there was good reason 
 to believe that the account itself is no 
 myth, but the pure and simple expression 
 
Sin 
 
 652 
 
 Sin 
 
 of truth. Ancient traditions of mankind 
 justify tlie general interpretation of tlie 
 Churcla in regard to the subject in 
 question. One objects, it is true, that 
 all the primitive remembrances, among 
 whatever people they may be, are alle- 
 gorical and mythological, and that the 
 Hebrew people cannot form an exception 
 to the general rule. But we may ask : 
 Why not? Because all religions boast of 
 being true, does it follow that they are all 
 false without exception.? We expressly 
 maintain that tlie Bible is not a book like 
 the others, just as the Christian religion 
 is not a religion like the others. We be- 
 lieve that Genesis alone gives us the ex- 
 planation of the real origin of evil upon 
 earth, while all other explanations con- 
 ceived with great pains by the philoso- 
 phers or invented spontaneously by popular 
 imagination explain nothing. 
 
 Another reproach is made to Genesis : 
 that of wounding the moral feeling in 
 making us responsible for a fault which 
 we have not committed. Certainly we 
 have to admit that at first sight there is 
 something mysterious, and even terrible, 
 in this solidarity which renders us partially 
 responsible, after so many elapsed genera- 
 tions, for a fault which we have not com- 
 mitted. But the enemies of the Bible do 
 not obser\'^e, when they attack this won- 
 derful third chapter of Genesis, which 
 teaches us more about man and human 
 nature than all the philosophers together 
 — they do not observe that Moses pro- 
 claims an incontestable truth, the law of 
 solidarity, one of the greatest laws that 
 govern the world. 
 
 The heavenly bodies attract one another 
 and move themselves reciprocally accord- 
 ing to the laws of universal gravitation. 
 Men are no more independent or isolated ; 
 they naturally exercise upon one another 
 an efficacious influence, either for good or 
 for evil. The entire universe is like a 
 great organism in which everything is con- 
 nected and bound together; and just as 
 every individual feels the pain when one 
 of his parts is attacked, so also a local dis- 
 order may beget a general trouble, extend- 
 ing itself far beyond the sphere where it 
 took rise. 
 
 Hence it is not only in the particular 
 case of original sin, but in a multitude of 
 occasions and circumstances, that we are 
 solidaries of one another and that the 
 Creator makes us carry the weight of the 
 sins of our fathers. We rejoice in their 
 
 virtues, we suffer for their faults and vices. 
 The parents transmit to their children 
 their own health or diseases, and now and 
 then something of their own good or evil 
 dispositions. The past has in the history of 
 nations and individuals a long re-echoing. 
 Glory and honor are an inheritance in the 
 family like goods and riches, and the in- 
 famy of the name imprints itself like a scar 
 of shame on the forehead of the children. 
 In society, the prosperity of all depends 
 upon the government of a few; good or 
 bad laws, made by a few men or even by a 
 single one, save or destroy the people ; the 
 faults of the chiefs fall as calamities on the 
 heads of those whom they lead, and entire 
 nations groan during centuries under the 
 weight of ancient crimes. A victory or a 
 defeat may fix the lot of a whole country 
 for generations. Those brilliant popula- 
 tions of Asia Minor, who shone so glori- 
 ously at the beginning of our era, have 
 seen their civilization disappear, because 
 they were wanting in strength to resist the 
 conquest of the Crescent, and their de- 
 graded descendants are hardly to-day a 
 shadow of what their ancestors were in 
 ancient times. K Charles Martel had not 
 crushed on the fields of Poitiers the Arabs 
 of Spain, what would have become of the 
 European peoples .'' Would not the Moslem 
 invasion have dried up in its source that 
 great river of civilization which has flown 
 since so abundantly through all Europe? 
 Therefore, the European peoples have 
 triumphed with the Franks of Charles, 
 just as the present victims of the heavy 
 yoke of Mohammed have been conquered 
 and enslaved in the person of their an- 
 cestors. 
 
 Such is the law of human solidarity, a 
 general and universal law which is limited 
 neither by time, nor by space ; which ap- 
 plies to the individual, to the family, and 
 to society; which renders in a certain 
 measure the children responsible for the 
 faults of their fathers, the subjects re- 
 sponsible for the faults of their kings or 
 chiefs, both heirs of the merits and vices 
 of their ancestors and of those whom they 
 have governed. It partly explains both 
 the decay and the ennobling of races, the 
 prosperity and power of nations as well as 
 their weaknesses and misfortunes. 
 
 " These are facts which it is impossible 
 to dispute. The law that governs them is 
 justified without difficulty, because this 
 solidarity is in itself a good and wise in- 
 stitution. Thanks to this, mankind is not 
 
Sins 
 
 653 
 
 Sinai 
 
 merely an incoherent agglomeration of in- 
 dividuals, strangers one to another, but a 
 family intimately united, wherein the 
 goods of each one turn to the advantage of 
 all. With this view God has instituted 
 it; it is the perversion of the human will 
 that abuses it and draws pernicious effects 
 from it. In this regard, it is with soli- 
 darity as with liberty, which is also an 
 excellent thing, in spite of the lamentable 
 abuse that is made thereof. Also, with 
 one common accord, men accept these 
 facts without protesting; they even freely 
 conform their conduct accordingly. The 
 guilty ma'n is struck by society in his 
 goods, in his honor, and in his life, and 
 his children are condemned to suffer from 
 the consequences of his ruin and infamy; 
 the whole population of a city is punished 
 for a rebellion in which many had taken 
 no part; a people are afflicted with the 
 calamities of war in revenge for an injury 
 of which its representatives alone are per- 
 sonally guilty; and nobody decries this as 
 an injustice. The reason is because all are 
 deeply impressed with the sentiment of 
 unity in the family, in the city, and in the 
 nation. 
 
 " Original sin explains itself with the 
 help of these principles, it is the conse- 
 quence of the solidarity which God, the 
 Creator and Sovereign Master, was pleased 
 to establish between the first man and the 
 posterity that should arise from him. This 
 conduct of God might offer some difficulty, 
 if the victims of original solidarity found 
 themselves hurt in their strict and indi- 
 vidual right as creatures. But, no; the 
 goods of which mankind remains deprived 
 through the fault of its chief were not due 
 to it. The Creator was free to refuse them 
 purely and simply; with much more 
 reason could He lix at will the possession 
 thereof under such or such a condition. 
 If therefore God had not again raised the 
 posterity of Adam after the fall. He would 
 have left it deprived of these excellent and 
 gratuitous gifts, but, according to the 
 opinion of a numerous and authorized 
 theological school. He would not have de- 
 prived it of anything that the divine at- 
 tributes require of the creature exempt 
 from sin. 
 
 " It is true that the state to which man- 
 kind finds itself reduced is presented by 
 Catholic teaching as a real state of sin. 
 But this point does not involve any diffi- 
 culty when we consider the very peculiar 
 kind of sin in question. There is in our 
 
 fallen state material for sin, because the first 
 good of which men, coming into the world, 
 are deprived, is a superior holiness, implying 
 the idea of moral rectitude; but this priva- 
 tion is effectively imputed to sin only so far 
 as it is voluntary. Now, it is not voluntary 
 by the personal will of each one, but by the 
 will of the whole race, morally personified 
 in its chief. Hence, properly speaking, it 
 is a family sin, a sin of race, and not di- 
 rectly and properly a personal sin ; it is 
 the sin of mankind, or, as St. Thomas says, 
 whose doctrine we here follow, it is the sin 
 of the nature and not of the person. When 
 theology admits that every man is born 
 guilty, it is only in the measure and man- 
 ner which this explanation permits. In 
 fact, it contains nothing at which sound rea- 
 son can feel offended." (M. Boisbourdin.) 
 
 Sins {Capital ). — We count seven capi- 
 tal or deadly sins or vices. They are so 
 called because they are, as it were, seven 
 sources from which all other sins or vices 
 flow. And in fact seven such fountain 
 heads of sinful actions may be easily dis- 
 criminated. First, we may distinguish a 
 fourfold immoderate appetite : of spiritual 
 goods, namely, of praise and honor 
 {pride); oi external goods {avarice); of 
 two distinct kinds of sensual pleasures , 
 {intetnpcrance and lust). Moreover, we 
 may distinguish a twofold repugnance: 
 against the difficulties connected with the 
 performance of good works {slotk) ; against 
 the good or welfare of our neighbor {envy) ; 
 and this latter repugnance, if greatly in- 
 tensified, develops into a special vice 
 {ang-er). 
 
 Sinai (to-day Djebel-Tor and Djebel- 
 Mousa). — Mountain northwest of Arabia, 
 northeast of Mount Horeb and between 
 the gulfs of Suez and Akabah. Here God 
 dictated to Moses the tables of the law. 
 Upon one of its two summits, the Emperor 
 Justinian built a convent (height 5,400 
 feet), which still exists. It resembles a 
 small fortress and is the seat of an arch- 
 bishopric whose titulary resides at Cairo. 
 To-day this mountain is called " Djebel- 
 Katherin," on account of a chapel where 
 it is believed the remains of St. Catharine 
 reposed during sixty years, and from 
 which place they were transported into a 
 church which is at the foot of the moun- 
 tain. Near this chapel flows a fountain 
 which is claimed to be miraculous. About 
 five or six hundred feet from the chapel is 
 pointed out a stone, from four to five feet 
 
SlON 
 
 654 
 
 Sisterhood 
 
 high, and about three feet thick, which is 
 claimed to be the rock from which Moses 
 caused water to come forth. 
 
 Sion. — One of the mountains of Jerusa- 
 lem, and by extension this city itself. 
 
 Sion (Missionary Priests of Notre 
 Dame of). — This community was canon- 
 ically erected in Paris, June 20th, 1855, and 
 received a first laudatory letter from the 
 Holy See, Dec. 14th, 1852. The mission 
 which distinguishes it, is that which our 
 Lord has especially recommended to His 
 Apostles: " Go rather to the lost sheep of 
 the house of Israel " (Matt. x. 6). 
 
 Sion (Notre Dame of). — The Institute 
 of Notre Dame of Sion was founded in 
 1842. Its rule and constitutions received 
 the approbation of the Holy See, Sept. 
 8th, 1863. This congregation took rise in 
 consequence of the apparition of the 
 Blessed Virgin in the Church of St. An- 
 drew delle Fratte, at Rome. The Israelite, 
 converted by a miracle, Alphonse Ratis- 
 bonne, and his eldest brother, the Abb^ 
 Theodore Ratisbonne, laid the foundation 
 of the work, destined to second the con- 
 version of the Jews and to procure Chris- 
 tian education for the young neophytes. 
 Such was the first and principal object of 
 this institute, which soon achieved consid- 
 erable growth. For the members, becom- 
 ing every day more numerous, the congre- 
 gation founded, besides Jthe establishments 
 for Catechumens, several academies for 
 young Christian girls, as well as homes 
 for orphans and industrial establishments 
 for the poor. The mother house of the 
 Daughters of Sion is at Paris. The con- 
 gregation possesses houses in the Holy 
 Land, in Turkey, in Moldavia, and in Eng- 
 land. But the most remarkable of these 
 colonies is that of Jerusalem, where it oc- 
 cupies the Monastery of Ecce Homo, built 
 on the site of the palace of Pontius Pilate. 
 Not far from the holy city, the religious 
 direct a large orphan asylum, known under 
 the name of Saint-Jean-in-Montana. 
 
 Siricius (St.). — Pope from 384 to 398, 
 born at Rome; successor of St. Damasus. 
 Combated the different sects which deso- 
 lated the Church during his Pontificate, 
 the Manicheans, Priscillianists, Novatians, 
 etc. He was the first Bishop of Rome who 
 assumed the title of Pope. F. Nov. 26th. 
 
 Sirmium (Councils of). — Sirmium, in 
 ancient geography, was an important city 
 
 of Lower Pannonia, situated on the Save. 
 Here four ecclesiastical councils were held, 
 from 349 to 359. The second, composed 
 of Arian bishops, published a formula of 
 faith which was accepted by many Cath- 
 olics ; but the third drew up a distinctly 
 heretical formula. 
 
 Sisara. — General of Jaban, king of 
 Asor. He was conquered by Barac, near 
 Mount Thabor, and, troubled in his mind 
 on account of the defeat of his troops, 
 jumped from his chariot to flee on foot. 
 He took refuge in the tent of Haber the 
 Cinite, and, while asleep, Jahel, the wife 
 of Haber, drove a nail into his head and 
 killed him. 
 
 Sisinnius. — Pope, born in Syria, succes- 
 sor of John VII., in 708; reigned only a 
 few days. 
 
 Sisterhood. — Sisters collectively, or as 
 a society of sisters, in religious usage an 
 association of women who are bound 
 by monastic vows or are otherwise de- 
 voted to religious work as a vocation. The 
 members of a sisterhood may be bound by 
 irrevocable vows of poverty, chastity, and 
 obedience, and are then called " nuns," or 
 may be merely under a rule and bound by 
 revocable vows. Among the more impor- 
 tant of these religious communities, be- 
 sides those described throughout this 
 work, are : 
 
 Sisters of Charity (of Cincinnati, 
 Ohio). — They are a branch of the com- 
 munity founded by Mother Seton at Em- 
 mittsburg, Maryland. In 1850, when the 
 Emmittsburg Sisters affiliated with 
 France, the community in Cincinnati, not 
 wishing to adopt the French dress and 
 customs, became independent. Mother 
 house at Mt. St. Joseph, Ohio. 
 
 Sisters of Notre Dame de Bon Secours, 
 established in 1882 by sisters from Troyes, 
 France, where the mother house was be- 
 gun by Rev. Sebastian Millet, who was 
 the founder of this religious order in 1840. 
 The sisters of this order devote themselves 
 to the care of the sick in their own homes. 
 They undertake any kind of nursing for 
 physical or mental diseases, without dis- 
 tinction of creed. The community has no 
 fixed terms of remuneration for the sis- 
 ters' services; however, the families re- 
 ceiving such services are expected to do 
 what they can toward supporting the 
 institution, the poor being attended free 
 of charge ; consequently, the community 
 
Sisterhood 
 
 655 
 
 Sisterhood 
 
 has no other support than that which the 
 sisters receive from private nursing. Gen- 
 eral mother house at Troyes, France ; con- 
 vent at 1 195 Lexington Avenue, New 
 York city. 
 
 Sisters of Charity of the United States. 
 — This sisterhood was founded by the 
 saintly Mother Eliza A. Seton. This de- 
 voted lady was the daughter of Protestant 
 parents, in whose faith she was educated. 
 She received the gift of faith in 1805 at 
 Rome, Italy, and on June 2d, 1809, she es- 
 tablished at Emmittsburg, Maryland, a 
 community which she called " St. Joseph's 
 Sisterhood." Her first companions were 
 Misses Cecilia O'Conway and Mary 
 Murphy, both of Philadelphia. Mother 
 Seton and her ecclesiastical superiors hav- 
 ing determined to found the community 
 on the plan of the Daughters of St. Vincent 
 de Paul, she applied to France for sisters 
 to aid the undertaking. The mother gen- 
 eral consented, and four sisters were 
 deputed to come to America and take 
 charge of the work; but their journey was 
 prevented by the government of Bona- 
 parte, which refused to permit the sisters 
 to leave France. A copy of the French 
 rule was, however, obtained, and the sis- 
 ters began to observe it with certain modi- 
 fications suited to the circumstances of the 
 country. The saintly Mother Seton 
 passed to her reward Jan. 4th, 1821. In 
 1850 a union was effected between St. 
 Joseph's Sisterhood at Emmittsburg, and 
 the Daughters of Charity in Paris, and 
 Dec. 3d, 1850, the Community of Emmitts- 
 burg assumed the habit worn by the sisters 
 in France. Mother house at St. Joseph's 
 Academy, Emmittsburg, Maryland. 
 
 Sisters of the Blessed Sacrament for 
 Indians and colored people. This congre- 
 gation was founded in 1889. The object 
 of the institute is the elevation and Chris- 
 tianizing of the Indians and colored races. 
 The work of the institute embraces the 
 nursing and visitation of the sick, the 
 charge of schools, and orphanages, and 
 the instruction of adults in the princi- 
 ples of Christian doctrine. Mother house 
 and novitiate at Cornwells, Maud P. O., 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 School Sisters of Notre Dame. — These 
 sisters came from Europe in 1847, and es- 
 tablished their first convent at Baltimore, 
 Maryland. In 1850 they went to Milwau- 
 kee and founded the mother house in that 
 city; in 1876 two provinces were formed 
 and the first convent at Baltimore became 
 
 the mother house of the Eastern province ; 
 in 1897, the Golden Jubilee Year of the 
 Sisters in America, a third province was 
 formed of the southern missions. Sancta 
 Maria in Ripa, the mother house of the 
 new province, is situated on the Missis- 
 sippi near the southern suburbs of St. 
 Louis, Missouri. 
 
 Sisters of Providence. — The Order of 
 Sisters of Providence from Ruille, France, 
 opened the first institute of their order in 
 America, Oct. 22d, 1840, at St. Mary's, 
 near Terre Haute, Indiana. Their object 
 is the higher education of young ladies. 
 Mother house at Brightside, Holyoke, 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 Ladies of the Sacred Heart. — The So- 
 ciety of the Sacred Heart was founded at 
 Amiens in the year 1800, under the direc- 
 tion of Father Joseph Varin, S. J., by 
 Mademoiselle Madeleine Sophie Barat. It 
 was approved by Pope Pius VII. in 1826. 
 The community is semi-cloistered, and 
 follows the Rule of the Society of Jesus. 
 The members of this society devote their 
 lives to the Christian education of youth 
 by conducting boarding schools and paro- 
 chial schools, as well as taking charge of 
 the orphan asylums for girls. The society 
 was introduced in the United States in the 
 year 1818. General mother house at Paris, 
 France. 
 
 Visitation Nuns. — The Order of the 
 Visitation was founded at Annecy, Savoy, 
 in 1610, by St. Francis de Sales, Bishop of 
 Geneva, and St. Jane Frances Fremiot de 
 Chantal, for the purpose of opening a re- 
 treat to persons desirous of the religious 
 life, but too infirm to enter an austere or- 
 der, and in which they might sanctify 
 themselves by prayer and good works, and 
 help in the salvation of souls. The Visi- 
 tation was introduced in America in 1799 
 when the first monastery was established 
 at Georgetown, District of Columbia. In 
 this country the members make the educa- 
 tion of young girls the principal object of 
 their order. 
 
 Sisters of Charity of Nazareth. — A sis- 
 terhood whose object is similar to that of 
 the Sisters of Charity of St. Vincent of 
 Paul. Its mother house and novitiate is 
 near Bardstown, Kentucky, where the sis- 
 terhood was founded in 1812, by Father 
 John B. David, afterwards Bishop of Bards- 
 town. 
 
 Sisters of Christian Charity. — A com- 
 munity established in 1849 at Paderborn, 
 Germany, by Paulina Mallinkrot. Their 
 
Sisterhood 
 
 656 
 
 Sisterhood 
 
 first house in the United States was opened 
 in 1873 ill New Orleans, by Mother Pau- 
 lina herself, who the same year, established 
 the mother house of the North-American 
 province at Wilkesbarre, Pennsylvania. 
 At present they have many houses in the 
 United States, and are engaged in the care 
 of hospitals and orphanages, or in the 
 work of parish and boarding schools. 
 
 Sisters of the Holy Cross, whose Amer- 
 ican mother house is at Notre Dame, In- 
 diana. This community arose in France 
 in 1834, ^"^ ^^^ introduced into the United 
 States in 1843. They are engaged in teach- 
 ing in parish and boarding schools. 
 
 Sisters of the Institute of the B. V. M. 
 or Loretto Nuns. — This community orig- 
 inated with some pious English ladies, 
 exiles from their country on account of 
 their religion, who formed themselves into 
 a community at Munich, Bavaria, about 
 the year 1631. The "English Virgins," 
 as they were popularly called, were not 
 approved by the Holy See until 1703. In 
 1669, a colony of these sisters returned to 
 England and opened a convent in London, 
 but on account of persecutions removed to 
 York. The community has convents in 
 most of the British colonies and are prin- 
 cipally devoted to the care of boarding 
 schools. 
 
 Sisters of Loretto. — A sisterhood 
 founded in Kentucky by Father Charles 
 Nerinks. The object of the community, 
 which now numbers more than five hun- 
 dred members, is the instruction of girls 
 in parish and boarding schools. 
 
 Sisters of the Most Precious Blood. — 
 This congregation was founded in Italy, in 
 1814, by Father Gaspar del Bufalo, and 
 was approved by the Holy See in 1820. In 
 1844, a colony arrived in the United States 
 and the mother house of the American 
 province is at Maria Stein, Mercer county, 
 Ohio. 
 
 Sisters of the Sacred Heart of Mary. — 
 A congregation founded in 1848, at Be- 
 ziers, France, and was soon after intro- 
 duced into the United States. Its first 
 establishment, now its mother house, was 
 in Fordham, New York city. This com- 
 munity mostly has charge of orphans and 
 parish schools. 
 
 Sisters of Our Lady of Charity of Re- 
 fuge, called Good Shepherd. — This com- 
 munity has for its chief object the reforma- 
 tion of fallen women. It was founded in 
 France, in 1646, by Father Eudes and 
 Marguerite L' Amy. The habit consists 
 
 of a robe, scapular, and mantle, all of a 
 white color, with a black veil and silver 
 heart on the breast. Pope Alexander VII. 
 erected the Congregation as a religious 
 Order by a Bull of January 2, 1666. Their 
 first house was at Caen, France. It has 
 more than a hundred houses scattered 
 throughout the Catholic world. 
 
 Sisters of Our Lady of the Good Shep- 
 herd. — Mother Mary of St. Euphrasia 
 Pelletier, the first Superior-General of this 
 Congregation, entered the community 
 of the Sisters of Our Lady of Charity of 
 Refuge at Tours, France, in 1815. She 
 was so well adapted for the work among 
 the penitents, that before she had com- 
 pleted her twenty-first year, she was put 
 in charge of them. A few years later she 
 was elected prioress of the Monastery, the 
 Pope granting the required dispensation, 
 as she had not attained the canonical age. 
 In 1827 she was invited by the clergy of 
 Angers to take charge of a Refuge, which 
 they were foiuiding on the bequest of a 
 pious widow, and having obtained due au- 
 thorization from the ecclesiastical authori- 
 ties, she accepted the call. The House 
 being successfully established, she under- 
 took the reorganization of the Order to 
 further its missionary development. Orig- 
 inally each house was an independent 
 institution. There was no center for con- 
 sultation, no source whence weak and 
 struggling foundations might claim aid 
 and sympathy, no way of distributing and 
 interchanging the religious so as to place 
 each sister in the position where the Insti- 
 tute would obtain from her the best service. 
 Mother Mary of St. Euphrasia's plan was 
 the centralization of the Order, Angers 
 should be made the Motherhouse, and the 
 general government of all houses which 
 should be founded from Angers, should be 
 intrusted to the Superior of said house. 
 She won for her plan the approval and 
 approbation of the Bishop of Angers and 
 other churchmen, also the substantial aid 
 of several noblemen, as the means which 
 she proposed to realize her plan were emi- 
 nently practical and her disinterestedness 
 and rectitude of intention evident. In 1835 
 the Pope approved of the change in the 
 government of the Order, and also the new 
 title. Our Lady of Charity of the Good 
 Shepherd of Angers, and declared that the 
 religious were to continue to enjoy all the 
 rights and privileges granted to the ancient 
 Order of the Refuge. The growth of the 
 Order of Our Lady of Charity of the Good 
 
Sisters of the Free Spirit 657 Slavery and the Church 
 
 Shepherd of Angers was so rapid and ex- 
 tensive that in 1857 Pope Pius IX. issued 
 a decree dividing the Order into Provinces, 
 The Provincial Superiors, as well as the 
 Local Superiors, to be appointed by the 
 Superioress-General, residing at Angers. 
 In the United States there are eight Prov- 
 inces, viz.: Louisville, St. Louis, New 
 York, Philadelphia, Cincinnati, Baltimore, 
 New Orleans, and St. Paul. 
 
 Little Sisters of the Poor. — This most 
 charitable institute was founded in 1840 by 
 the Abb^ of St. Servan, ( M. le Pailleur) 
 aided by four ladies of humble birth, for the 
 support, relief, and nursing of aged or in- 
 firm persons. He soon organized them 
 into a community. In 1883 the sisterhood 
 counted 3,500 members and maintained 
 25,000 old people, in 223 houses, or 
 "Homes." Their first house in the 
 United States was opened in 1868 in Brook- 
 lyn, and now the community has a house in 
 almost every large city of the country. 
 
 Sisters of the Humility of Mary. — This 
 community was founded in the diocese of 
 Nancy, France, in the year 1855, by Rev. 
 John Joseph Begel, parish priest of Laitre. 
 In 1864 the founder, with the whole com- 
 munity, immigrated to the United States, 
 and by . order of Rt. Rev. A. Rappe, 
 Bishop of Cleveland, settled near the vil- 
 lage of New Bedford, Lawrence county, 
 Pennsylvania. The convent grounds and 
 vicinity are now known by the name of 
 " Villa Maria." Miss Antoinette Poitiers, 
 in religion Mother Mary Magdalene, was 
 the foundress and first superioress, after 
 whose death, March 7th, 1864, Mother M. 
 Anna became superioress. The principal 
 good works in which the sisters are en- 
 gaged are teaching, the care of the sick, 
 and the maintenance and education of or- 
 phans. For Sisters of St. Joseph, see 
 Joseph. 
 
 Sisters of the Free Spirit. See Breth- 
 ren. 
 
 Sixtus (name of five Popes). — Sixtus 
 I. — Pope from 1 17 to 127 ? Born at Rome, 
 where he suffered martyrdom under Ha- 
 drian. Sixtus II. — Pope from 257 to 
 258. Born at Athens, suffered martyrdom 
 at Rome under Valerian. Sixtus III. — 
 Pope from 432 to 440. Born and died at 
 Rome. Labored together with St. Cyril 
 at the reunion of the Churches of the Ori- 
 ent. Sixtus IV. — Pope from 1471 to 
 1484. Was a patron of literature and 
 largely increased the Vatican library. 
 42 
 
 Built, besides several other churches, the 
 celebrated Sixtine chapel, and adorned 
 Rome with many magnificent edifices. 
 He placed the " Seraphic Doctor," Bona- 
 venture, on the calendar of saints, sought 
 to put an end to the controversies be- 
 tween the Thomists and Scotists and con- 
 demned the errors of Peter of Osma, a 
 professor of Salamanca. His principal 
 efforts were directed toward uniting the 
 Christian princes in a league against the 
 Turks. But he met with hardly any suc- 
 cess ; the greater powers refused to obey 
 his call. Sixtus V. — Pope from 1585 to 
 1590. Was a man gifted with an extraor- 
 dinary capacity for government; the 
 states of the Church were governed with 
 admirable skill and tact. He established 
 fifteen congregations for the administra- 
 tion of public affairs, enlarged the Vati- 
 can library, and established new printing 
 offices for the purpose of securing im- 
 proved editions of the " Church Fathers." 
 He had obelisks brought from Egypt; he 
 completed the cupola of St. Peter's ca- 
 thedral, constructed a superb aqueduct 
 on the Quirinal Hill, and left an ample 
 revenue to his successor. 
 
 Slavery and the Church. — The Church 
 could not have abolished slavery all at 
 once, both in principle and practice with- 
 out shaking society to its foundations, and 
 inflicting untold misery on the slaves them- 
 selves. She was bound to carry out the 
 doctrine laid down by St. Paul. But she 
 cleared the way for its gradual abolition, 
 by opening her gates to those wretched be- 
 ings, and by striving to make them spirit- 
 ually and morally free. Heedless to the 
 scoffs and gibes of the heathen, Christians 
 confess *' that their aim is to train all men 
 in the Word, although Celsus is opposed 
 to their so doing. Accordingly we teach 
 slaves how to awaken within themselves 
 nobler sentiments, and thus to be made 
 free through the Word " {Origen C. Cels., 
 iii. 44). Thus Christianity succeeded in 
 the work which heathenism had declared 
 to be impossible. Many slaves were con- 
 verted into virtuous Christians, and armed 
 with patience and fortitude, proved them- 
 selves worthy followers of Christ, amid all 
 the dangers and difficulties that encom- 
 passed them. Not a few became saints and 
 martyrs. How many, too, of whom the 
 world has not heard, suffered martyrdom 
 in the houses of their masters and mis- 
 tresses ! 
 
Suppers and 
 
 658 
 
 Stockings 
 
 The Church exhorted Christian masters 
 to treat their slaves as brothers and Chris- 
 tians, and recommended their manumis- 
 sion as a work most pleasing to God. For 
 as slavery sprung from sin (Ham), redemp- 
 tion from sin necessarily entailed the abo- 
 lition of slavery. The sinner is the only 
 slave ; those who are morally born again 
 are free and noble. Hence masters, when 
 converted, gladly gave liberty to their 
 slaves, in order to celebrate the feasts of 
 the Lord with pomp and splendor. 
 Hermes, prefect of Rome, in the reign of 
 Trajan, was converted with his wife and 
 children and 1,250 slaves. On Easter day, 
 when they were baptized, he gave them 
 their civic freedom, and also the means to 
 enable them to make use of their privilege. 
 It is related by Salvian, that slaves were 
 daily receiving the rights of Roman citi- 
 zens, and that they were free to take with 
 them what they had earned as slaves in the 
 houses of their masters. The Church also 
 encouraged these manumissions by allow- 
 ing them to take place within the sacred 
 precincts ; by practically obliterating the 
 distinction of class or rank, and by open- 
 ing her offices to all alike, although due 
 regard for the existing order imposed upon 
 her the duty of a certain amount of dis- 
 cretion. In the Eastern empire the Greek 
 monasteries worked particularly hard for 
 the abolition of slavery. To keep slaves, 
 they declared, was unworthy of man. St. 
 Chrysostom delivered discourses to this 
 effect. He wished Christians to be their 
 own servants, even as Christ suffered not 
 others to minister to Him, or at any rate 
 to keep only such servants as were neces- 
 sary ; but in no case to keep a number of 
 slaves for show. Later on, slaves were to 
 be found in the monasteries and with 
 priests; but they were gently treated and 
 were set free on very easy terms. In the 
 time of St. Louis most of the episcopal 
 sees in the Prankish empire were filled 
 by manumitted slaves. Ebbo, Archbishop 
 of Rheims, the first prelate in the king- 
 dom, was a bondman by birth. To the 
 Middle Ages belongs the honor of abolish- 
 ing slavery proper. By the twelfth cen- 
 tury slaves had disappeared from the Chris- 
 tian states of Europe. 
 
 Islam gave slavery a new lease of life. 
 Many Christians, taken prisoners in war, 
 were carried into slavery by the Moham- 
 medans ; others were sold by Jewish or 
 Christian slave dealers to heathens or 
 Mohammedans. The Church fought against 
 
 this evil. She strove to stir up the secular 
 powers to undertake expeditions to liberate 
 the Christian slaves, and sought to effect 
 their ransom through the instrumentality 
 of her own orders. Unfortunately, with 
 the advent of modern times, the detesta- 
 ble system has once more obtained a foot- 
 ing among Christian peoples. After the 
 discovery of America, negro slavery spread 
 with frightful rapidity. Las Casas's well- 
 meant advice to spare the weak and sickly 
 Indians, and to employ for hard labor those 
 more powerfully built, has had a fatal result. 
 For three hundred years the slave traffic 
 has depopulated the coast of Western 
 Africa. As Eugenius IV., Pius II., Sixtus 
 IV., Innocent VIII., and Leo X., had en- 
 deavored to suppress slavery, so Paul III. 
 (1537) took the human rights of the In- 
 dians and other heathen under his protec- 
 tion. Urban VIII. (1630) worked for the 
 same end. In the Encyclical, In Plurimis, 
 dated May 5th, 1883, Leo XIII., described 
 the abolition of slavery in Brazil as the 
 most welcome present he had received on 
 the j ubilee of his priesthood. Missionaries, 
 like the Jesuit Peter Claver, have devoted 
 their lives to watching, with fatherly solic- 
 itude, over these unhappy beings. Pro- 
 vincial councils urged upon maeters the 
 duty of treating them gently, and in par- 
 ticular secured for those who were married 
 the right of living together. Thus the lot 
 of slaves in the Catholic countries of the 
 South was far better than that of the ne- 
 groes in Africa. In the English colonies 
 of the North the lot of the slaves was in- 
 comparably harsher. Nevertheless, Eng- 
 land has rendered yeoman's service in 
 the slave question. 
 
 Leo XIII. took the opportunity of urg- 
 ing upon the European powers to work for 
 the abolition of slavery in such countries 
 as Asia and Egypt. And, indeed, the ac- 
 counts of the slave traffic in the Soudan 
 are heartrending and bloodcurdling. Yet 
 Islam has never dreamt to this day of rais- 
 ing a finger against the plague spot of hu- 
 man civilization. 
 
 Slippers and Stockings. — The foot cov- 
 ering of the ancients, especially the Ro- 
 mans, consisted of a sole held fast by 
 leather strings, which crossed on the upper 
 part of the foot and passed around the leg. 
 Under the emperors, this covering was 
 replaced, for people of rank, especially 
 princes and senators, by another of a 
 richer description called campagia, adorned 
 
Smet 
 
 659 
 
 SOCINIANISM 
 
 with gold and purple, and hiding the foot 
 much better. To show by every means 
 possible her veneration for holy things, 
 the Church hastened to give her Pontiffs 
 the senatorial foot covering, the most dis- 
 tinguished then known ; it was her aim to 
 have the august mysteries celebrated with 
 such outward splendor as would command 
 respect and excite sentiments of piety. 
 When not engaged in their functions, the 
 bishops wore the ordinary foot covering. 
 This is the reason why, even to this day, 
 the bishop having reached the church and 
 ascended his throne, assumes the ancient 
 foot covering, and lays it aside again after 
 the holy sacrifice. 
 
 Smet (Peter John de), — A Belgian 
 Jesuit and missionary; born in Dender- 
 monde, Dec. 31st, 1801. In 1821, together 
 with five other theological students, he 
 sailed from Amsterdam in company of Bis- 
 hop Nerinckx. In 1828 he went to St. Louis 
 and assisted in establishing the University 
 of St. Louis, and in 1838 was sent to estab- 
 lish a mission among the Flatheads, west of 
 the Rocky Mountains, who had repeatedly 
 asked for a missionary, and in the course 
 of a few years established flourishing 
 missions among them and other tribes. 
 On different occasions he eflSciently inter- 
 ceded to prevent strife between the United 
 States government and the Indians ; he 
 was also instrumental in ending the Sioux 
 war. He wrote The Oregon Missions and 
 Travels over the Rocky Mountains ; In- 
 dian Letters and Sketches; Western Mis- 
 sions and Missionaries, and New Indian 
 Sketches. He died in St. Louis, Missouri, 
 May 23d, 1872. 
 
 Socialism, is the Utopian doctrine or 
 system, according to which a community 
 or State possesses all land and capital, and 
 distributes to each individual his portion 
 of the land and his occupation. This is 
 indeed a Utopian idea. For how could 
 the State portion out work and goods, ac- 
 cording to the abilities and merits of each 
 individual, without thoroughly knowing 
 all, which is a thing impossible? Would 
 not the most serious complaints of unjust 
 distribution be raised, if one received fer- 
 tile, another barren, land ; if one received 
 an honorable, another a lowly, occupation? 
 The consequence would be, that whenever 
 one person achieved greater results than 
 another, in order to maintain the equality 
 a new distribution would have to be made 
 yearly, or even daily, and thus grounds for 
 
 fresh complaints would be given. More- 
 over, how could the State arbitrarily dis- 
 pose of the private property already existing, 
 since the individual and family are prior to 
 the State, have acquired their possessions 
 independently of it, and would, therefore, 
 be violently deprived of their lawful right? 
 See Property. 
 
 Societies {Secret). — We designate un- 
 der this name the associations whose ends 
 and means their adherents dissimilate, 
 either entirely or partially, to both re- 
 ligious and civil authority. These asso- 
 ciations actually have for their type and 
 center Freemasonry, whose danger Pope 
 Clement XII. first pointed out in 1738. 
 The most of his successors have imitated 
 him, and Leo XIII., in his Encyclical, Hu- 
 manutn Genus, has fully treated on this 
 subject. 
 
 According to this learned Pope, the Ma- 
 sonic sects are, first, in opposition with nat- 
 ural justice and honesty, by the very fact 
 of their secret organization, their rigorous 
 discipline, which goes so far as to impose 
 crimes on the sectarians. How can any 
 one pretend that there is no great danger 
 to fear from these societies on the part of 
 the State? Secondly, they are imbued 
 with principles of naturalism, and try to 
 apply them universally; they unchristian- 
 ize the civil authority and diminish the in- 
 fluence of the Church ; they, especially, 
 attack the Holy See, and shake the re- 
 ligious and spiritual belief; they brag 
 about lay and independent morality, loosen 
 the reins to the passions, favor civil mar- 
 riage and divorce, secularize education, 
 introduce revolutionary principles into the 
 public mind, and knowingly or unknow- 
 ingly prepare the way for communism and 
 socialism. 
 
 Also Leo XIII. has energetically con- 
 firmed the measures taken against them by 
 his predecessors, and which especially 
 carry the decree of excommunication 
 against " those who associate themselves 
 to the sect of Freemasonry or Carbinari, 
 or other sects of the same kind, who 
 machinate, openly or secretly, against the 
 Church or against legitimate authority." 
 Excommunication strikes also "those who 
 favor, in any manner, the above men- 
 tioned sects, and those who do not denounce 
 the coryphees or occult heads, until de- 
 nunciation is made " {Constit. AfostoliccB 
 Sedis, ch. ii., § 4). 
 
 Socinianism. See Unitarians. 
 
Socrates 
 
 660 
 
 SORIN 
 
 Socrates . — A scholastic or lawyer of 
 Constantinople, under Theodosius II. He 
 wrote a Church History, a continuation 
 of that of Eusebius in seven books, ex- 
 tending from A. D. 305 to 450. He died 
 about the year 400. 
 
 Sodom. — Very ancient city of Pales- 
 tine, capital of Pentapolis. Its crimes 
 became so great that the Lord caused it to 
 be destroyed by fire and brimstone, to- 
 gether with the four neighboring cities of 
 Gomorrha, Seboim, Adama, and Segor, 
 accomplices in its iniquities. 
 
 Solomon (Hebr. the peaceful) (1033-975 
 B. c). — King of Israel, son of David and 
 Bethsabee, succeeded to his father in 1016. 
 From the beginning of his reign he was 
 compelled to struggle against the preten- 
 sions of his brother Adonias, whom he put 
 to death, together with his principal fol- 
 lowers, the generals Joab and Semei, and 
 suppressed an insurrection of the Idu- 
 means with the help of the king of Egypt, 
 whose daughter he married. From 1012 
 to 1004, he erected the magnificent temple 
 of Jerusalem, surrounded his capital with 
 a strong wall, adorned it with palaces, also 
 fortified the principal cities of his king- 
 dom, subdued the neighboring nations of 
 Judea, and imposed a tribute on them. His 
 kingdom extended from Egypt to the 
 Euphrates, He was in alliance, political 
 and commercial, with Hiram of Tyre and 
 with other powers, and extended Israeli - 
 tish commerce to all parts of the known 
 world. In his old age, Solomon fell into 
 idolatry and debauchery. Punishment 
 closely followed his crimes: Syria with- 
 drew itself from his obedience ; Jeroboam, 
 one of his generals, excited the tribes, and 
 after Solomon's death his kingdom was 
 divided. Solomon is the author of sev- 
 eral Sacred Books : The Canticle of Can- 
 ticles; Ecclesiastes, and the Book of 
 Proverbs. Some writers also attribute to 
 him the Book of Wisdom. 
 
 Somaschians. — Clerics Regular of the 
 Congregation of St. Mayeul, under the 
 Rule of St. Augustine, whose principal 
 house is at Somasca, Italy. Founded about 
 the year 1528, by Father Emiliani, ap- 
 proved by Paul III., in 1540 and by Pius 
 VI., in 1563, they were erected into a reli- 
 gious order by Pius V., in 1568. Their 
 principal aim is the education of orphans. 
 They have also the direction of the Clem- 
 entine College at Rome. 
 
 Sophonias. — The ninth of the minor 
 Prophets, son of Chusi and nephew of 
 Godolias. He commenced to prophesy 
 under Josias, king of Juda, about the year 
 624 B. c. His prophecies, written in He- 
 brew, contain three chapters. Great con- 
 formity of style may be remarked between 
 Sophonias and Jeremias, and they foretell 
 nearly the same things. 
 
 Sophronius (St.). — Was born at Da- 
 mascus, about the year 560. He was a soph- 
 ist, or rhetorician, and the friend of John 
 Moschus, a distinguished hermit of Pales- 
 tine, who dedicated to him his work en- 
 titled, Pratum Spirituale {Spiritual 
 Meadow). After the death of his friend, 
 Sophronius became a monk of St. Sabas, 
 about 620. In him. Providence had pro- 
 vided the Church with a faithful champion 
 against the rising heresy of the Monothe- 
 lites. Sophronius strenuously but vainly 
 opposed the adoption of the Monothelite 
 formula, composed by Cyrus and Sergius, 
 the Patriarchs of Alexandria and Con- 
 stantinople, respectively. Being soon after- 
 wards chosen patriarch of Jerusalem (633), 
 he held a synod and issued a synodal letter, 
 in which he ably defends the Catholic faith 
 against the new heresy. He also sent 
 Bishop Stephen of Dora, to Rome, to warn 
 the Pope and the Western bishops of the 
 rising heresy. Besides the synodal letter, 
 we have by this Father seven sermons, a 
 liturgical commentary on the ceremonies 
 of the Mass, and a collection of prayers 
 and hymns. He died about the year 637. 
 
 Sorbonne. — A celebrated school of the- 
 ology, founded in Paris, about the year 
 1257, by Robert de Sorbon, chaplain and 
 confessor of Louis XI. The College of 
 the Sorbonne became one of the four con- 
 stituent parts, and also the predominant 
 one of the theological faculty in the Uni- 
 versity. It exercised a great influence in 
 ecclesiastical affairs, and on the public 
 mind, especially in the sixteenth and sev- 
 enteenth centuries. During the Revolu- 
 tion it was suppressed and deprived of its 
 endowments. At the reconstruction of the 
 University, under Napoleon I., the build- 
 ing erected for it by Cardinal Richelieu, 
 and still called the Sorbonne, was given to 
 the theological faculty in connection with 
 the faculties of science and belles-lettres. 
 
 Sorln (Edouard) (surnamed "Father 
 Sorin"). — Catholic clergyman and edu- 
 cator; born in Ahuille, near Laval, France, 
 
SOTER 
 
 66 1 
 
 South Africa 
 
 Feb. 6th, 1814; came to the United States 
 in 1841 to organize a branch of the reli- 
 gious Congregation of the Holy Cross. He 
 labored long among the Indians of western 
 Indiana. The Bishop of Vincennes gave 
 him some land in 1842, upon which to 
 erect the first buildings of what was to 
 become the Notre Dame University. He 
 was its first president, and remained con- 
 nected with it till his death. Died in 
 Notre Dame, Indiana, Oct. 31st, 1893. See 
 Holy Cross Congregation. 
 
 Soter (St.). — Pope from 162 to 170; 
 born at Fondi. Successor of St. Anicetus. 
 He combated the heresy of the Montanists, 
 and was martyred at Rome, under Marcus 
 Aurelius. F. Feb. loth. 
 
 Soul (spiritual and immortal substance, 
 united with the human body during life, 
 and which separates from it at the moment 
 of death). — I am conscious in my being 
 of two orders of distinct phenomena : the 
 one, like those of digestion, of locomotion, 
 are material and fall under the senses. 
 These are p/iysio/ogt'cal iacts. The others, 
 such as thought and its different forms, — 
 memory, reasoning, pleasure, pain, pas- 
 sion, deliberations, resolutions, etc., are 
 immaterial ; they do not fall under the 
 senses ; they are revealed to me only 
 through consciousness ; they are psycho- 
 logical facts. The subject which produces 
 these immaterial phenomena, which feels 
 itself producing them, which has the fac- 
 ulty to produce them, is the immaterial / 
 {Ego), it is the Soul. In connection with 
 the subjects. Intelligence, Sensibility, 
 Will, we treat of the faculties with which 
 the soul is endowed, of the laws that rule 
 them, and of the phenomena that refer to 
 them. When our will exercises itself in a 
 normal and regular manner, we have 
 the power to determine and to make a 
 choice by ourselves, without anything con- 
 straining us, and we are conscious of this 
 liberty. We feel that we are responsible 
 for our free acts, and this constitutes our 
 personality, — that which distinguishes 
 man from the animals. Organic matter, 
 like brute matter, is deprived of spon- 
 taneousness ; it is not conscious of the 
 phenomena which it presents, and it can- 
 not present immaterial ones. That which 
 in us, thinks, judges, wills, is conscious of 
 its acts, of its responsibility, and therefore 
 distinct from the body: it is a spirit. The 
 spirituality of the soul is incontestable ; 
 this is proved by each of the operations, of 
 
 the manner of being, and of the faculties 
 of the Ego. Thus I feel my personal 
 identity; I feel that I remain the same in 
 all the moments of my existence ; with- 
 out this I could not reason, could not re- 
 member and be responsible to-day for that 
 which I did twenty years ago, for the body 
 renews itself continually. Therefore, only 
 a simple, non-composed being, can have 
 personal identity. Also the consciousness 
 of the Ego can reside only in one single, 
 simple being, and not in the reunion of 
 several beings composing a machine; for I 
 feel that it is the same Ego that thinks, 
 suffers, is the subject of numerous psycho- 
 logical phenomena, — phenomena among 
 which reigns a harmony, a wonderful con- 
 nection. Distinct from one another, the 
 soul and body are united. There reigns 
 between them the most intimate relation; 
 they form, so to speak, only one. In the 
 psychological facts, the soul does not act 
 alone; it needs, during our actual organ- 
 ization, the concurrence of the physical 
 organs ; and we have a proof of this fact, 
 when the organic machine is out of order, 
 all the psychological phenomena are greatly 
 modified. So, also, the soul does not ap- 
 pear to be a stranger to any of our physical 
 functions ; it presides over both the opera- 
 tions of our physical organs and those of 
 the mind. It is at once vegetative, sensi- 
 tive, and intellective. (See Animism.) 
 The soul survives the body, "the dust re- 
 turns to the earth out of which it was 
 taken, and the spirit returns to God Who 
 hath given it." For proofs of this, see 
 Immortality. 
 
 South Africa ( Catholicity in) . — When the 
 Dutch Calvinists arrived in South Africa, 
 they drove out the Catholic Portuguese, 
 who had been in possession of the land 
 since Vasco da Gama's discovery. Under 
 the Dutch rule. Catholicity was proscribed, 
 and remained so even under English rule 
 up to 1810. The few French, German, 
 Belgian, and Irish Catholics there, were 
 visited off and on by missionaries from 
 Mauritius, to which apostolic vicariate 
 South Africa belonged. Since 1837, the 
 Cape Colony forms a distinct mission. In 
 1850 we find there three vicariates : East 
 and West Cape, and Natal. Natal was 
 from the beginning given over to the 
 Oblate Fathers, who had charge of what 
 is now known as Natal, Caferaria, Zulu- 
 land, Basutoland, Transvaal, and the 
 Orange Free State. 
 
South Africa 
 
 662 
 
 South Africa 
 
 In 1886, the Orange Free State was 
 erected into a vicariate and the Transvaal 
 into a prefecture apostolic. 
 
 1. The Vicariate of Natal. — In 1851 
 Mgr. AUard, with a feve Oblate Fathers, 
 left Marseilles for Natal, where they found 
 but few European Catholics, and these few 
 soon left for Transvaal, upon the discovery 
 of the goldfields. Twenty-five years ago 
 there were not 800 Catholics in all Natal, 
 to-day there are 12,000, among a million 
 infidels. The present vicar apostolic, Mgr. 
 Jolivet (bishop since 1874), is assisted in 
 the pastorate of that vast district by 20 
 Oblate Fathers, four lay brothers, and five 
 secular priests. Besides the Trappists and 
 their Third Order of Sisters, there are six 
 religious congregations doing service in 
 the missions. The Sisters of the Holy 
 Family (Bordeaux) have charge of houses 
 at Pietermaritzburg and Durban. The 
 Dominican Sisters teach in the schools at 
 Oakford, Newcastle, and in the Zululand. 
 The Sisterhood of the Holy Cross (Switzer- 
 land)have founded four houses in Caferaria. 
 The Hospital Sisters of St. Augustine have 
 houses at Durban, Pietermaritzburg, Est- 
 court, and Ladysmith. Of late there have 
 arrived also seven sisters from the diocese 
 of Vannes, called Daughters of Jesus. 
 
 The Oblate Fathers, besides tending to 
 eight Zulu missions, are in charge of the 
 European and Indian population of Natal. 
 Their principal missions are at Durban, 
 Estcourt, Ladysmith, Newcastle, Oakford, 
 Kokstat, and Umstata. 
 
 The main effort of the Oblate Fathers is 
 directed to the conversion of the blacks. 
 But their zeal is too often frustrated by 
 the fidgety character of the Zulus, their 
 polygamy, and prejudices sown among 
 them by Protestant missioners. An An- 
 glican bishop, to reconcile the blacks with 
 the Christian religion, publicly allowed 
 polygamy. " Why should that be con- 
 trary to the Christian religion, since the 
 Patriarchs of old, Abraham, Isaac, and 
 Jacob, practiced it .? " 
 
 A splendid success is the Trappist mis- 
 sion in Natal. They have 24 priests, 250 
 brothers, and an almost equal number of 
 Sisters of the Third Order. They have 
 taught the natives useful trades and there- 
 fore have workmen whom they can employ 
 in the construction of substantial buildings 
 at small cost. Through all this. Catholic 
 influence is on the increase in Natal. 
 
 2. The Apostolic Prefecture of Basuto- 
 land. — The apostolic prefect, Father 
 
 Cenez, is assisted by 14 Oblate Fathers 
 and 104 brothers. Some thirty Sisters of 
 the Holy Family are teaching in the 
 schools. There are about 6,000 Catholics 
 in all. The main missions are at Roma, 
 St. Michael, Thaba-Bosiho, Korokoro, St. 
 Monica, etc. A great drawback at pres- 
 ent (1899) is the suffering caused by the 
 cattle pest. Of all the missions only Roma 
 has any horned cattle left. 
 
 3. The Vicariate of the Orange Free 
 State. — This comprises also West Griqua- 
 land and Bechuanaland. Mgr. Graughan, 
 with two secular priests and 15 Oblate 
 Fathers, takes care of the 4,500 Catholics 
 that are scattered among the 14,000 ( ?) 
 heretics and 1,000,000 heathen. There 
 are eight churches and 13 schools, taught 
 by religious and eight lay teachers. About 
 1,000 children frequent the Catholic 
 schools. Kimberly, the residence of the 
 vicar apostolic, has a population of about 
 40,000, of all nations, tongues, colors, and 
 religions. The Catholics number about 
 2,000. At the school of the sisters are 300 
 pupils, and at that of the brothers, but 
 lately opened, more than 100. 
 
 At Bloemfontein, the capital of Orange, 
 the Sisters of the Holy Family have an 
 academy with more than a hundred 
 boarders — the largest in all South Africa. 
 Mafeking and Taunys are prosperous mis- 
 sions. Other important missionary cen- 
 ters are Jagersfontein, Harrismith, and 
 Beaconsfield. 
 
 4. The Prefecture of Transvaal, also 
 in charge of the Oblate Fathers, comprises 
 the whole state of that name, and contains 
 about 6,000 Catholics. With the Oblates 
 are working Trappists, Marist Brothers, 
 Loretto, Holy Family, Nazareth, Domini- 
 can, and Ursuline Sisters. Missions exist 
 at Johannesburg, Pretoria, Barbeton, 
 Potchefstroom, Lydenburg, and Vleesch- 
 fontein. Johannesburg is the most im- 
 portant mission of the prefecture. The 
 town has 100,000 inhabitants, of whom 
 3,000 are Catholics. They have a church, 
 a school for boys, and another for girls, 
 frequented in all by 800 children. Johan- 
 nesburg is the only place in Transvaal 
 where Catholic sisters are in charge of the 
 government hospital. They have an aver- 
 age daily number of 250 patients. 
 
 The vast influx of strangers, the example 
 of Catholic missionaries and sisters, have 
 gradually done away with the former 
 hatred and bigotry of the Boers, who are 
 learning to appreciate the Catholic schools 
 
SOZOMENUS 
 
 663 
 
 Station 
 
 and eagerly send their children to them. 
 Thereby will be gradually extirpated a 
 number of prejudices still existing among 
 them. — "The Review," St. Lout's, Mis- 
 souri. 
 
 Sozomenus (Hermias). — Church his- 
 torian, born about the end of the fourth cen- 
 tury, at Gaza, Palestine, died about 443. 
 Lawyer at Constantinople. He has left: 
 Church History from 323 to 439, dedicated 
 to Emperor Theodosius II. ; Abridgment 
 of Church History from the ascension of 
 our Lord to the death of Lucinius. It has 
 been lost. 
 
 Spain ( Worship in). — Catholicity is the 
 religion of Spain. The decrees of 1835 
 and 1836 have suppressed the convents, 
 corporations, military orders, etc. The 
 number of the members of the actual 
 clergy is about 70,000. Spain is divided 
 into 59 dioceses, of which there are 8 arch- 
 bishoprics and 51 bishoprics. The popula- 
 tion consists (according to the census of 
 1890) of 16,603,959 Catholics ; 6,654 Protes- 
 tants ; 402 Israelites ; 9,645 Rationalists ; 
 271 Mohammedans, etc. 
 
 Spalding (Martin John) (1810-1872). 
 — An American Catholic prelate, born in 
 Marion county, Kentucky, died at Balti- 
 more. He was bishop of Louisville and be- 
 came archbishop of Baltimore, in 1864. As 
 apostolic Delegate he, in 1866, convened 
 the Second Plenary Council of Baltimore, 
 which was attended by seven archbishops 
 and thirty-eight bishops. He wrote Ex>i- 
 dences of Christianity (1847), History of 
 the Protestant Reformation in Germany, 
 Sivitzerland, etc. (i860), etc. 
 
 Spener (Philip James). See Pietism. 
 
 Spiritualists. — Sectarians who profess 
 to hold intercourse with the spirits of the 
 unseen world, and who are striving, in 
 union with the spirits of darkness, to sub- 
 stitute a " devil-begotten " superstition for 
 the revealed truths of Christianity. " Mod- 
 ern spiritualism is substantially, but a 
 revival of ancient pagan practices, known 
 many years before Christ, and condemned 
 as abominable by Moses. Clairvoyants 
 take the place of ancient sooth-sayers ; the 
 alleged spirits of the departed now take 
 the place of the ancient Pythonic spirits, 
 and spiritualists now believe to learn facts 
 or truths, secret to men, from the dead, as 
 pagans did thousands of years ago " (Rev. 
 J. Gmeiner, Spirits of Darkness, p. 226). 
 
 Sponsors. See Baptism. 
 
 Stabat Mater. — A celebrated Latin 
 hymn on the Crucifixion, forming part of 
 the service of the Catholic Church during 
 Passion Week. Its authorship has been 
 assigned to Jacobone, a Franciscan, who 
 flourished in the thirteenth century. It 
 has been set to music by many composers 
 of eminence. 
 
 Staff or Crosier ( pastoral staff of a 
 bishop or of an abbot) . — The crosier has ex- 
 isted from the earliest times of the Church. 
 At first it was a simple staff, generally of 
 cypress wood, ending by a head in the 
 form of a crutch orT, the so-called St. An- 
 thony's cross. This kind of staff existed 
 until the seventh century in the Latin 
 Church, but then the wood of the stem 
 was covered with plates of gold, of silver, 
 or gilt copper, often ornamented with col- 
 ored stones, and the head was made of 
 ivory or sculptured metal. At the same 
 time there existed also the spiral staff, 
 reminding one of the lituus of the augurs 
 and which soon replaced the St. Anthony's 
 cross. The spiral forms, at first little 
 prominent, continually increased in di- 
 mensions. The first represented serpents 
 encircling the " Lamb^ of God " ; then 
 others, the stems of which ornamented 
 with flowers, presented an expanded 
 flower on top. About the end of the 
 twelfth century, they encased personages, 
 religious scenes, and the stem be- 
 came longer. In the thirteenth century, 
 the crosiers presented architectural dec- 
 orations: at the rise of the spiral form, 
 the stem is surrounded with an aediculum 
 {little temple) with miniature turrets and 
 pinacles. The fifteenth and sixteenth cen- 
 turies mark the apogee of the richness and 
 luxury of ornamentation of the crosiers. 
 The Renaissance produces the leaves of 
 the acanthus and the pagan decorations 
 (heads of satyrs, etc.). In the seven- 
 teenth century, the crutch assumes the 
 bended-back form as we see it to-day. 
 The Eastern Church never adopted the 
 spiral form ; it adheres to the primitive 
 staff, surmounted by a globe or St. An- 
 thony's cross, or terminates by serpents 
 entwined face to face. 
 
 Station. — In the early times of Chris- 
 tianity it was usual for the people to as- 
 semble in a particular church on fast days, 
 but especially during seasons of public ca- 
 lamity, in order, afterwards, to proceed in 
 
Stations 
 
 664 
 
 Stephen 
 
 regular procession to another church, pre- 
 viously determined upon, for the celebra- 
 tion of what was called, in the language of 
 the period, a "Station." The ceremony 
 was denominated Station because it was at 
 the second church that the procession 
 stopped to hear Mass and to listen to the 
 sermon. It was on occasion of these Sta- 
 tions that Pope St. Gregory the Great 
 preached the greater number of his '* Hom- 
 ilies " to the Roman people. 
 
 Stations or Way of the Cross. — The 
 
 "Stations" or "Way of the Cross," in 
 Latin Via Cruets, is a devotional exer- 
 cise instituted by the Church, to which 
 are attached abundant indulgences. The 
 fourteen pictures or images ranged around 
 churches, and called " Stations of the 
 Cross," represent fourteen scenes of our 
 Lord's Passion, from the palace of Pilate to 
 the summit of Mount Calvary, and to the 
 tomb. Before each of these, the Faithful 
 kneel in prayer and pious meditation ; a 
 practice of devotion in memory of the path 
 trodden by our Saviour when going to His 
 Crucifixion. The origin of this custom, as 
 tradition tells us, is that the Blessed Virgin, 
 after the death of Christ, frequently fol- 
 lowed the road sanctified by His Passion 
 and cruel death. Her example was followed 
 by the Faithful of Palestine, and after- 
 wards by numberless devout pilgrims from 
 all parts of the world. To encourage this 
 act of piety, the Church has accorded in- 
 dulgences to such as prayed devoutly at 
 the scenes of Christ's sufferings and death ; 
 but as the favor did not extend to those 
 unable to visit the Holy Land, the devo- 
 tion known as the "Way of the Cross" 
 was permitted, having the like indulgences 
 annexed to this pious exercise as those ac- 
 corded to the visiting of the actual scenes 
 of our Lord's Passion. Persons who are 
 sick, infirm, or otherwise incapacitated 
 from praying at the different Stations of 
 the Cross in churches, may gain the indul- 
 gences of the Via Cruets by using a 
 crucifix, to which the blessing of these 
 indulgences is attached, for their personal 
 use, only, by some one specially author- 
 ized. 
 
 The customary manner of following the 
 Way of the Cross is to kneel at each of 
 the fourteen Stations, and meditate upon 
 the subject represented, saying one Our 
 Father, Hail Mary and Glory be to the 
 Father, etc., and after each meditation. 
 To gain the indulgences, some inclination, 
 
 at least, should be made towards the differ- 
 ent Stations in turn, none of them being 
 omitted, nor any interruption of long dura- 
 tion allowed. At the end, five Our Fathers, 
 Hail Marys, and Glory be to the Father, 
 etc., may be said for the intention of his 
 Holiness the Pope ; or six, if the person be 
 a member of the Third Order of St. Francis 
 of Assisi. These prayers are not essential, 
 except when the Way of the Cross is said 
 with the aid of the crucifix only. For 
 those who are incapable of concentrating 
 their attention sufficiently to meditate at 
 length, a thought in an affectionate and 
 grateful remembrance of the circumstance 
 they are contemplating, is sufficient. 
 
 Stephen (name of ten Popes). — Stefhen 
 I. — Pope and martyr, born at Rome, died 
 in 257. Stephen II. — Born at Rome, died 
 in 752, two days after his election, which 
 took place on March 27th. He had never 
 been consecrated. By some he is not 
 counted among the Popes. Stephen III. — 
 Pope from 752 to 757. Neglected no means 
 to induce Aistulph, king of the Lombards, 
 to desist from his project of making him- 
 self master of Rome; but Aistulph re- 
 mained inexorable. Abandoned by the 
 Greek emperor, and unable to cope with 
 the Lombards, Stephen formed the reso- 
 lution of visiting in person the court of 
 Pepin to implore the assistance and pro- 
 tection of that gallant prince. Pepin, in 
 two expeditions (754 and 756), compelled 
 the Lombard to surrender the Exarchate 
 and all the cities which he had taken from 
 the Roman Church. (See Pepin the 
 Short.) Stephen IV. — Pope from 768 to 
 772. His Pontificate was much disturbed 
 by the rivalries between the Prankish and 
 Lombard factions, who, contending for 
 the mastery in Rome, committed mjiny 
 acts of violence, which the Pope was not 
 always able to prevent. A Council held, 
 in St. John Lateran, under his Pontificate, 
 decided that, in future, no one should be 
 elected Pope, without being priest or 
 deacon. Stephen V. — Pope from 816 to 
 817. Successor of Leo HI. Anointed 
 Louis the Kind. Stephen VI. — Pope 
 from 886 to 891. Roman, raised to the 
 Pontificate in spite of him. He crowned 
 Guido, Duke of Spoleto, in the quality of 
 emperor, and received from him the con- 
 firmation of the gifts made by Pepin and 
 Charlemagne to the Holy See. Stephen 
 VII. — Pope from 896 to 897. He was the 
 first Pope who grievously disgraced his 
 
Stephen 
 
 665 
 
 Stole 
 
 high office. Yielding to party spirit, he 
 had the body of Formosus unearthed, and 
 in a council assembled for that purpose, 
 declared his election to the papacy irregu- 
 lar; after cutting oflf three fingers of the 
 right hand, the body was cast into the 
 Tiber. The ordinations which Formosus 
 had conferred were declared invalid. The 
 barbarity of this act, which, it is consoling 
 to know, was committed by an intruder, 
 aroused the indignation of the people, by 
 whom the perpetrator of the outrage was 
 seized and strangled in prison. Stephen 
 VIII. — Roman, elected in 929, died in 
 931. Stephen IX. — Roman, elected in 
 939, died in 942. Stephen X. — Pope from 
 1057 to 1058. A man of the loftiest and 
 most determined spirit. Continued the 
 measures of reform adopted by his pred- 
 ecessors against ecclesiastical abuses ; only 
 men of merit were raised to ecclesiastical 
 dignities, among whom Peter Damian was 
 created by him bishop and cardinal of Ostia. 
 
 Stephen (St.). — First deacon and first 
 martyr. Stoned about the year 35. A 
 young man, called Saul, who watched the 
 garments of his executioners, was touched 
 by grace and became the apostle St. Paul. 
 The body of St. Stephen was found in 415, 
 and the Church celebrates the Invention 
 of his remains on Aug. 3d. F. Dec. 26th. 
 
 Stephen (St.) (979-1038). — First king 
 of Hungary. His first act, on ascending 
 the throne (997-1038), was to unite himself 
 to Latin Christendom. By his marriage 
 with Gisela, the sister of Emperor Henry 
 n., he became closely connected with 
 Catholic Germany whose civilization he 
 sought, by every means, to introduce 
 among his subjects. Assisted by German 
 and Bohemian priests, Stephen succeeded 
 in extending the Christian religion over 
 the whole kingdom ; throughout the land 
 churches and monasteries rose. He sent 
 an embassy to Pope Sylvester H., and re- 
 ceived from him the present of a royal 
 crown and a papal edict empowering him 
 to regulate the ecclesiastical affairs of his 
 realm. His religious zeal gained him the 
 title of "Apostolic King" from Pope 
 Sylvester H., with the right of having the 
 cross borne before him. F. Sept. 2d.^ 
 
 Stephen Harding (St.). See Cister- 
 cians. 
 
 Stigmata (brands or marks upon the 
 body). — After the vision of St. Francis of 
 
 Assisi, the hands and feet of the saint were 
 found to be marked as with nails, and there 
 was a wound in his side. The wounds 
 were seen by many persons, among whom 
 was Pope Alexander IV., during the life- 
 time of the saint. 
 
 Stole. — The word stole comes from the 
 Greek stole and was employed anciently to 
 signify clothing in general, and especially 
 the outer or best robe. This outer robe 
 was usually a short-sleeved white tunic 
 which fell in folds and reached nearly to 
 the feet. It was adorned with two verti- 
 cal stripes or bands, and was worn origi- 
 nally by both men and women, but among 
 the Romans it was thought eflfeminate for 
 men to wear it, and it became the charac- 
 teristic dress of the matron. It was, how- 
 ever, worn by the early Christians of both 
 sexes. Over the stole and around the neck 
 was worn an oblong piece of linen called 
 the Orarium, which served the purpose of 
 a handkerchief, and was by females spread, 
 in time of prayer, over the head and 
 shoulders, falling around the body like a 
 veil. The Orarium worn by ecclesiastics 
 was bordered with stripes of purple, and 
 when, in course of time, its dimensions 
 were contracted, those ornaments were re- 
 tained as marks of honor, while the plain 
 linen portions were cut away in such a 
 manner, that it was reduced to a band 
 which surrounded the neck and fell down 
 below the knees on both sides of the body. 
 It afterwards exchanged the denomination 
 of Orarium for that of stole, by which 
 name it is now known. Before the use of 
 the tunic called Colobium and the later 
 privilege of wearing the Dalmatic were 
 granted to the deacons in general, the 
 stole was the insignia of their order. 
 When the stole became peculiar to the 
 ministers of the altar, it ceased to be made 
 of linen, and was composed of the same 
 materials as the chasuble or upper gar- 
 ment. As in the Latin, so in the Greek 
 and Oriental Churches, the stole is a very 
 conspicuous ornament among the vest- 
 ments peculiar to the higher ministers of 
 the altar. It is mentioned in all their lit- 
 urgies. The mystic signification which 
 the Church attaches to this vestment is 
 beautifully expressed in the words of the 
 prayer which the priest is directed by her 
 to recite when he puts it on : " Restore 
 to me, O Lord, the robe of immortality, 
 which was forfeited by the prevarication 
 of our first parents ; and though unworthy 
 
Stylites 
 
 666 
 
 Suicide 
 
 to celebrate so august a mystery, grant 
 that I may attain to everlasting glory."' 
 
 Stylites. — Surname given to a class of 
 solitary ascetics who had built their cells 
 on ruined porticos or colonnades. The 
 institute of the Stylites was honored in the 
 Eastern Church, and one was admitted 
 only with religious ceremonies. St. Sim- 
 eon was the first of the Stylites, and he 
 had successors who continued this kind of 
 life in Syria until the twelfth century, we 
 still find some traces thereof in Meso- 
 potamia, in the fifteenth century. 
 
 Suarez (Francis) (1548-1617). —Jesuit 
 and theologian, born at Grenada. Taught 
 at Segovia, Valladolid, Rome, Alcala, 
 Salamanca, and Coimbra. Two of his 
 works refer, more especially, to philosophy : 
 the Metaphysical Disputes and his Treatise 
 on Laivs. But his most famous work was 
 his Defense of the Chtholic Faith against 
 the Errors of A nglicanism. He wrote the 
 work at the request of Pope Paul V. 
 
 Subdeacon (minister of the Church who 
 ranks next to the deacon). — "No one," 
 says the Council of Trent, " shall for the 
 future be promoted to the order of sub- 
 deaconship before the twenty-second year 
 of his age. . . . Such as have good 
 testimonial, and have been already tried in 
 minor orders, and are instructed in letters 
 and in those things which belong to the 
 exercise of their orders, shall be ordained 
 subdeacons and deacons. They shall have 
 a hope, with God's help, to be able to live 
 continently" (Sess.xxiii. c. 13). The func- 
 tions of the subdeacons may be reduced to 
 six : I. To take care of the sacred vessels. 
 
 2. To pour wine and water into the chalice, 
 
 3. To sing the Epistle at high Mass. 4. 
 To hold the book of the Gospel to the 
 deacon and to carry it to the celebrant to 
 kiss. 5. To carry the cross in processions. 
 6. Assist the deacon in all his functions 
 and receive the offerings of the people. 
 In the primitive Church they served as 
 secretaries to the bishops, instructed the 
 Catechumens, and guarded the entrance 
 of the sanctuary. At their ordination, the 
 subdeacons contract the obligation to ob- 
 serve continence, to say the Breviary and 
 to wear the ecclesiastical garment. 
 
 Subunists. — Communicants under one 
 kind. See Hussites. 
 
 Suffragan. — The name given to a bishop 
 in an ecclesiastical province, relatively, to 
 
 the metropolitan, primate, or patriarch, in 
 whose province he is ; also to a titular 
 bishop, or bishop in partibus, who is ex- 
 ercising the Pontifical functions and ordi- 
 nations for the ordinary bishop whom he 
 has been invited to assist; also to a titular 
 bishop, who is under a titular patriarch or 
 archbishop. Such are Suffragans, nomi- 
 nally. 
 
 Suicide (action of one killing himself). — 
 The suicide commits : i. An attack against 
 God whose holy laws he violates and whose 
 power he audaciously usurps. God has 
 said: "Thou shall not kill." The one 
 who renders himself guilty of suicide 
 tramples, therefore, on the laws of God. 
 Holy Scripture tells us that " the life of 
 man upon earth is a warfare"; the one 
 who leaves his post without the orders of 
 His chief, before He has relieved him, is no 
 soldier of Jesus Christ, but a coward who 
 flies before having combated. God hav- 
 ing given life to us, it does not belong to 
 us, but, properly speaking, belongs to 
 God, like our whole being; it is a deposit 
 which He has placed in our hands; conse- 
 quently, we are no more permitted to 
 dispose thereof, than a trustee is per- 
 mitted to dispose of a trust that was com- 
 mitted to him, than any man is permitted 
 to dispose of a good of which he is not the 
 proprietor. Suicide is: 2. A crime 
 against society. After God, it is to so- 
 ciety that we owe almost all our advan- 
 tages. In return of what it has done for 
 us, has society not a right that we should 
 be useful to it, and not become injurious 
 to it ? But the one who puts an end to his 
 days, deprives society of all the services it 
 has a right to expect. Suicide, so prej- 
 udicial to civil society, has, for domestic 
 society, still more immediate and una- 
 voidable consequences. Suicide is : 3. 
 A cruelty towards oneself, because to ren- 
 der oneself guilty of this crime, is com- 
 promising his happiness in this world and, 
 in the other, his eternal salvation. Con- 
 sidering the crime of suicide under such 
 odious feature peculiar to it, can we be 
 astonished that it was always held in ab- 
 horrence, and that both civil and religious 
 legislation, branded it with the most infam- 
 ous punishment? At Athens and Thebes 
 they pressed the seal of ignominy on the 
 corpse of the suicide and in pagan Rome 
 they deprived it of religious burial. The 
 Church denies Christian burial to the one 
 who has died by his own hand, unless in- 
 
SULPICIANS 
 
 667 
 
 Surplice 
 
 sanity had rendered him irresponsible. The 
 refusal of the burial rites is not intended as 
 a condemnation of the individual, but to 
 express horror of the crime, and to act as 
 a deterrent to others. The prevalence 
 of suicide is principally and generally to 
 be ascribed to the lack of religion, of a 
 firm belief in a future life, of confidence of 
 God's willingness to aid the unfortunate, 
 and to pardon the repentant sinner. Ex- 
 perience teaches that as religion in a land 
 decreases, the number of suicides in- 
 creases. Also the godless press of the day 
 contributes largely towards suicide by 
 praising the self-murderer, saying : He 
 expiated his crime with his life. Instead 
 of expiating a crime, he adds another to it. 
 
 Sulpicians, or " Priests of the Congre- 
 gation of St. Sulpice." A community 
 founded by the sainted Jacques Olier, in 
 1642. Their chief object is the direction 
 of ecclesiastical seminaries and the train- 
 ing of candidates for the priesthood. 
 They came to the United States in 1790; 
 have charge of St. Mary's Seminary, Bal- 
 timore, Maryland. ; Brighton Seminary, 
 Boston, and St. Joseph's Seminary of Dun- 
 woodie. New York. 
 
 Sulpicius Severus. — Ecclesiastical his- 
 torian, born in Gaul, about the year 363. 
 Was a famous lawyer, but, on the death of 
 his wife, he embraced an ascetic life. He 
 died in 406. His writings comprise : The 
 Life of St. Martitt; Three Dialogues on 
 the virtues and miracles of St. Martin, and 
 on the virtuous example of the Oriental 
 monks; A Sacred History, in two books, 
 from the beginning of the world to the 
 year 400, in which he furnishes much in- 
 formation respecting the ancient Church of 
 Gaul; and a collection of letters to St. 
 Paulinus and others. His pure, classical 
 style has merited for him the name of the 
 " Christian Sallust." 
 
 Sunday (the first day of the week, con- 
 secrated to the practice of the Christian 
 religion). — The Jewish Christians in the 
 early Church, after the example of our 
 Lord, continued to keep holy the ancient 
 or legal Sabbath, but afterwards, in its 
 stead, the first day of the week, or Sunday 
 was observed, as appears from the Scrip- 
 ture (Acts XX. 7; I. Cor. xvi. 2), by the 
 Apostles themselves, who called it the 
 Lord's Day (Apoc. i. 10), and was espe- 
 cially consecrated to divine worship in 
 honor of the Resurrection of our Lord. 
 
 Supererogation ( Works of) (Lat. sufer- 
 rogata, over and above things required). 
 — A class of works, which, in the Catholic 
 system, are described as not absolutely re- 
 quired of each individual as conditions to 
 his eternal salvation. A consequence of 
 this doctrine is, that God may accept the 
 superabundant works of one in atonement 
 for the defective service of another; and 
 hence, in the Catholic indulgences, along 
 with what they regard as the infinite and 
 inexhaustible treasure of the merits of our 
 Lord, they also regard, although in a de- 
 gree infinitely inferior, the superabundant 
 merits of the saints as forming part of 
 that "treasure of the Church" which is 
 applied in the form of indulgences. 
 
 Superstition (false ideas which one has 
 of certain practices of religion, to which 
 one attaches a too great fear or a too great 
 confidence). — We understand sometimes 
 by superstition the divine worship ren- 
 dered to creatures, although it belongs to 
 God alone. In this sense the pagan peo- 
 ples were given up to all kinds of supersti- 
 tion. On the other hand, the theologians 
 apply the same denomination to the wor- 
 ship rendered to the real God, but in a 
 manner which He does not approve of and 
 which constitutes a vain ceremony. It is 
 principally in matters of worship that there 
 is question of superstition. A false wor- 
 ship, such as the veneration granted to 
 false relics, is a superstition. To add to 
 the rites of the Church ceremonies or words 
 of which she does not make use, would be 
 also a superstition. Or again, it is a su- 
 perstitious practice, if one attaches in his 
 mind, to an object, words or rites, some 
 power which is not attached to it either by 
 the institution of God or by the Church. 
 Superstition being an excessive credulity, 
 arises principally from ignorance and dis- 
 appears with religious instruction. 
 
 Supralapsarians. — Calvin's rigid theory 
 on predestination encountered much oppo- 
 sition even in the bosom of his own sect. 
 A very violent contest arose on that ques- 
 tion among his followers in Holland. There 
 the parties of " Supralapsarians " and " In- 
 fralapsarians " stood opposed to each other 
 in battle array. The former asserted that, 
 prior to the fajl of Adam, the predestina- 
 tion to eternal felicity and damnation was 
 already decreed ; the latter, that it was 
 subsequent to the event. 
 
 Surplice. — The surplice is a white linen 
 garment which is worn not only by all 
 
Susanna 
 
 668 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 clerics, but also by those who, in the ab- 
 sence of clerics, are allowed to assist in 
 the choir or sanctuary during the celebra- 
 tion of divine service. The use of white 
 garments by the members of the sanctuary 
 is continually referred to by the holy Fa- 
 thers. Honorius of Autun (died, 1130) 
 describes the surplice as a white loose 
 vestment, that reached down to the feet ; 
 and from several passages in the works of 
 ecclesiastical writers, and in the canons of 
 various provincial synods, it would appear 
 that the surplice was a variation of the alb, 
 from which it differed, during a long pe- 
 riod of years, merely by being somewhat 
 shorter and having wider sleeves. Duranti, 
 who composed his work on the Divine Of- 
 fices about the year 1286, traces up the 
 etymology of the Latin suferpellicium, 
 whence, it is obvious, our English appella- 
 tion, surplice, is derived, to a custom of 
 wearing tunics which anciently prevailed 
 in the Church, made from the skins of 
 such animals as the country furnished, 
 over which was cast a white linen alb or 
 vestment, denominated, from that circum- 
 stance of its being worn over fur, sufer- 
 fellicium. While indicating the derivation 
 of its name, Duranti has also pointed out 
 the spiritual meaning of the surplice, 
 which, as he remarks, has been regarded 
 as symbolical of that robe of innocence, 
 purity, and righteousness that our divine 
 Redeemer purchased for the human race 
 by the price of His glorious atonement, 
 and with which He arrays the soul of the 
 regenerated or repentant sinner, and ef- 
 faces man's iniquities, figured by the skins 
 of animals, since it was with garments 
 formed from such materials that fallen 
 Adam, after being chased from Paradise, 
 was covered. 
 
 Susanna. — Jewish woman of the tribe 
 of Juda, famous on account of her chas- 
 tity ; wife of Joachim, whom she had fol- 
 lowed to Babylon during the captivity ; 
 was accused of adultery by two aged men, 
 whose impure proposals she had rejected, 
 and was condemned to death. The young 
 Daniel proved her innocence, and the two 
 old men, convicted of imposture, suflfered 
 capital punishment. 
 
 Suspension is a censure inflicted on a 
 cleric, designed for remedial purposes, 
 and takes away for a fixed time, or until 
 he repents and makes satisfaction, the 
 right to exercise his sacred functions in 
 his office or benefice. The term suspension 
 
 is not earlier than the fourteenth century, 
 but the discipline is far more ancient. 
 Traces of suspension are found in the 
 Councils of the sixth century; in some 
 cases, V. g-., an ordination before a 
 canonical age, suspension was a penalty 
 inflicted on account of the fault of another. 
 It was thus that Pope Honorius HI. sus- 
 pended a deacon until he had attained the 
 canonical age. There are three kinds of 
 suspension: 1. Ab ordine, when a cleric 
 cannot exercise his ministry. 2. Ab of- 
 ficio, when he is forbidden to exercise it 
 in his official charge or congregation. 3. 
 A beneficio, when he is deprived of the 
 revenues of his benefice. In all these cases 
 the incumbent retains his orders, rank, 
 and benefice in contradiction to the pen- 
 alty of solemn deposal and degradation, 
 by which he forfeits all rights of his or- 
 ders and benefice. See Deposal ; Degra- 
 dation. 
 
 Sweden {The Church in). See Den- 
 mark. 
 
 Svredenborg (Emanuel Svedberg of) 
 (1688-1772). — Famous theosophist, born 
 at Stockholm, died in London. Son of a 
 Lutheran bishop, he at first occupied him- 
 self with poetry and learned inquiries, 
 cultivated all the natural sciences, es- 
 pecially mineralogy, was named assessor 
 of mines (17 16), received letters of no- 
 bility (1719), and became a member of the 
 Academy of Sciences of Upsal (1729). 
 His visions commenced in 1743. He pre- 
 tended to have communications with the 
 souls of the dead, with angels, with God 
 Himself, and to be charged with the re- 
 generation of Christianity. He became 
 the founder of a new sect, " The New 
 Church of Jerusalem," which still counts 
 adherents in Sweden, Russia, England, in 
 the United States, etc. A Swedenborgian 
 society was established in London (1783). 
 The system of this dreamer is a kind of 
 pantheism. It was condemned as hereti- 
 cal, even by the Protestants. 
 
 Swithin (St.). — Anglo-Russian prelate, 
 died in 823. Chaplain of King Egbert, 
 chancellor under Ethelwulf, whose pre- 
 ceptor hp had been, became bishop of 
 Winchester in 852, F. July 2d. 
 
 Switzerland {Christianity in). See 
 
 COLUMBAN AND GaLL. 
 
 Switzerland {Worship in). — According 
 to the census of 1890 there are in Switzer- 
 land, 1,667,109 Protestants of the so-called 
 
Syllabus 
 
 669 
 
 Synod 
 
 Helvetic communion; 1,160,782 Catholics; 
 6,373 Israelites, and 10,838 of different re- 
 ligions. 
 
 Syllabus (Latin word which signifies 
 record, list, role). — It is employed in the 
 Catholic language to designate a collec- 
 tion or catalogue, under ten heads, of 
 eighty current errors, or erroneous propo- 
 sitions, condemned by Pope Pius IX. at 
 various times — theories, which under the 
 specious names of Liberalism, of Progress, 
 and of modern Civilization, have been 
 more or less extensively adopted of late in 
 the various countries of Europe. While 
 on the one hand the publication of the 
 Syllabus was hailed with joy and admira- 
 tion, its appearance excited the anger and 
 hatred of the enemies of the Church. 
 
 Sylvester (name of three Popes.) — 
 Sylvester I. — Pope from 314 to 335. Gov- 
 erned the Church in the first years of her 
 temporal prosperity and triumph over her 
 persecuting enemies. His long and glori- 
 ous Pontificate is marked by the First Ecu- 
 menical Council, that of Nice, and by the 
 suppression of the Arian heresy. In his 
 reign also occurred the happy discovery of 
 the true cross and holy tomb of our Lord, 
 by the Empress St. Helena, in 326. To 
 the Pontificate of Sylvester is assigned the 
 pretended donation of Constantine. Syl- 
 vester II. — Pope from 999 to 1003. No 
 Pope so truly great had occupied the Pa- 
 pal Chair since the time of Nicholas I. He 
 displayed great zeal, talent, and severity 
 in his administration, especially in reform- 
 ing and elevating the clergy. His un- 
 common knowledge of the fine arts and 
 sciences, and his rapid elevation to the 
 highest dignities in the Church, caused 
 him, in a barbarous age to pass for a 
 magician. To King Stephen of Hungary 
 and his successors he gave the title of 
 "Apostolic Majesty," and the right to 
 have the cross borne before him. Sylves- 
 ter was the first Pope that conceived the 
 idea of arming Christendom for deliver- 
 ing the Holy Land from the hands of the 
 Mussulmans. But this plan perished with 
 the death of Otho III., in 1002, whom the 
 Pope followed to the grave in the suc- 
 ceeding year. Sylvester III. — Bishop of 
 Sabina. Antipope, born at Rome. The 
 Romans elected him in 1044, after having 
 driven away Benedict IX., but three 
 months afterwards, the latter returned to 
 Rome, and expelled his competitor. 
 
 Symachus. — Pope from 498 to 514, born 
 in Sardinia. Successor of Athanasius II., 
 he had for rival the archdeacon Lawrence, 
 who was upheld by King Theodoric; ap- 
 proved several Councils, zealously com- 
 bated the heresies of Nestorius and 
 Eutyches. They attribute to him the in- 
 troduction into Mass of the '■^Gloria in 
 Excelsis." 
 
 Symachus. — Greek writer, born at Sa- 
 maria. He lived under Emperor Severus 
 and belonged to the sect of the Ebionites. 
 His Greek version of the Old Testament 
 was, according to St. Jerome, excellent. 
 Only few fragments thereof are left to us. 
 
 Symbol. See Creed. 
 
 Synagogue. — An organization of the 
 Jews for the purpose of religious instruc- 
 tion and worship. Also the building where 
 such instruction and worship are main- 
 tained. The synagogue came into prom- 
 inence in the religious life of the Jewish 
 people during the exile, and, since the de- 
 struction of the temple and the dispersion 
 of the Jews, constitutes their customary 
 place of worship. The organization of a 
 synagogue consists of a board of elders 
 presided over by a ruler of the synagogue 
 (Luke iii. 41, 49, xiii. 14). The worship is 
 conducted according to the prescribed 
 ritual, in which the reading of the Scrip- 
 ture constitutes a prominent part. For- 
 merly the officers of the synagogue 
 exercised judicial functions, and the syna- 
 gogue itself was the place of trial (Luke xii. 
 II, xxi. 12), but this is no longer the case. 
 
 Synaxis. — Name given to the reunions 
 of the primitive Christians, and to holy 
 communion. 
 
 Syncellus( George). — Byzantine chron- 
 icler of the ninth century. He wrote a 
 chronicle from Adam to Diocletian. 
 
 Synesius. — Bishop of Ptolemais in 
 Egypt. Was born at Cyrene, in Africa, 
 died in 414. Of his many writings there 
 remain one hundred and fifty-five letters, 
 besides several homilies and minor trea- 
 tises. 
 
 Synod {Diocesan). — Diocesan synods, 
 we call those meetings where the bishop 
 assembles the clergy of his diocese in or- 
 der to treat of matters that relate to the 
 pastoral charge or the care of souls. The 
 enactments of diocesan synods are called 
 statutes, decrees, constitutions. Diocesan 
 synods are to be held in the United States 
 
Syrian Christians 
 
 670 
 
 Tache 
 
 once every year, wherever this is feasible. 
 Bishops or administrators of dioceses, 
 alone, have the right to convene diocesan 
 synods. To attend diocesan synods are 
 obliged : first, all the priests v*fho have the 
 care of souls, whether they are seculars or 
 regulars ; secondly, all superiors of monas- 
 teries situated in the diocese and not gov- 
 erned by a general chapter. In these 
 assemblies the bishop is the sole law-giver, 
 and therefore he alone has a decisive vote, 
 the other members having but a consultive 
 vote. See Council. 
 
 Syrian Christians, or Catholics, who are 
 converts from the Jacobite, or Monophysite 
 Church in Syria, in 1840, were catalogued 
 at 30,000, which number has since been con- 
 siderably increased by wiany conversions. 
 They have four archbishops and eight 
 bishops under the " Syrian Patriarch of 
 Antioch." The number of Catholics in 
 Syria, including all rites, exceeds 800,000, 
 while the Catholic population of the Latin 
 Patriarchate of Jerusalem is given at 22,- 
 000. For more particulars, see Oriental 
 Rites. 
 
 Tabernacle (Hebr. tent of meeting). — 
 In Jewish history a tent, constructed to 
 serve as the portable sanctuary of the na- 
 tion before the final settlement in Palestine. 
 This " Tabernacle of the Congregation " 
 is fully described in Ex. xxv.-xxvii. and 
 xxxvi.-xxxviii. It comprised besides the 
 tent, an inclosure or yard, in which were 
 the altar of burnt offerings and the laver. 
 The tabernacle proper was a tent divided 
 into two chambers by a veil — the inner 
 chamber, or Holy of Holies, containing the 
 Ark of the Covenant and the Seat of Mercy ; 
 the outer department contained the altar 
 of incense, the table of the showbreads, 
 the golden candlestick. The tabernacle 
 was of a rectangular figure 45 feet by 15, 
 and 15 feet in height. The court or yard 
 was 150 feet in length by 75 feet, and sur- 
 rounded by screens 7)^ feet high. The 
 people pitched their tents around the taber- 
 nacle by tribes in a fixed order during the 
 wanderings, and the pillar or cloud of fire, 
 denoting Jehovah's presence, rested upon 
 it, or was lifted from it according as they 
 were to remain stationary or were to go for- 
 ward. After the arrival into the Promised 
 Land it was set up in various places, espe- 
 cially at Siloe, but gradually lost its ex- 
 clusive character as the center of national 
 worship by the building of Solomon's Tem- 
 ple, in which its contents were eventually 
 placed. 
 
 Tabernacle {Eucharistic) is the name 
 given to a species of small tower erected 
 on the central part of the high altar, to 
 preserve therein the Blessed Eucharist, 
 not only for the use of the sick, but also, 
 to be occasionally exposed to the adora- 
 tion of the people and to be perpetually 
 
 present to excite their devotion and to 
 draw the Faithful to the house of God. 
 
 Tabor. — A mountain of northern Pal- 
 estine, rising solitarily in the northeastern 
 part of the plain of Esdraelon, to about the 
 height of one thousand feet, and command- 
 ing the most extending view in the Holy 
 Land. 
 
 Taborites. See Hussites. 
 
 Tach6 (Alexandre Antonine). — 
 
 Canadian prelate ; a son of the Canadian 
 statesman. Sir Etienne Paschal Tach^; 
 born in Riviere-du-Loup, Canada, July 
 23d, 1823. After graduating at the college 
 of St. Hyacinth, and studying theology 
 in the Seminary of Montreal, he became 
 professor of mathematics at his old college. 
 Remaining at St. Hyacinth but a few 
 months, he went to Montreal, and there 
 became monk of the Oblate Order. He at 
 once began laboring as a missionary among 
 the Indians of the Red river. Suffering 
 privations of every kind, cold, hunger, and 
 fatigue, he reached St. Boniface on Aug. 
 25th, 1845. Here he was raised to the 
 priesthood, and was the first priest or- 
 dained on the banks of the Red river. He 
 spent but a few months at this mission, and 
 then went seeking other fields of labor. 
 His piety and zeal attracted attention, and 
 later he was summoned to France by the 
 superior of the Oblate Fathers, and conse- 
 crated bishop of Arath in the cathedral of 
 Viviers, on Nov. 23d, 1851. He made a 
 visit to Rome, and then returned to Can- 
 ada to his missionary work. He founded 
 new missions, and through him many 
 chapels and schools were built. About 
 this time the Metis had some grievances, 
 which Bishop Tache laid before the Cana- 
 
Tadmor 
 
 671 
 
 Taxa Innocentiana 
 
 dian government, but to them no attention 
 was paid. He was obliged to go to Italy 
 to take part in the Council of the Vatican 
 at Rome, and during his absence the 
 troubles came to a crisis. He at once re- 
 turned and quieted the Insurrection. On 
 Sept. 22d, 1871, St. Boniface was erected 
 into a see and Bishop Tachewas appointed 
 archbishop. He died at Winnipeg, June 
 22d, 1894. 
 
 Tadmor. — Ancient name of Palmyra, a 
 city situated on the oasis, in the desert 
 east of Syria, said to have been built by 
 Solomon. 
 
 Tanchelin. — A heretic of Antwerp, an 
 illiterate and fanatical demagogue, became 
 the founder of a sect in the Netherlands. 
 He proclaimed himself the Son of God 
 and the spouse of the Blessed Virgin. He 
 rejected the priesthood of the Church, and 
 the Sacraments, especially the Holy Eucha- 
 rist, as unnecessary for salvation ; and was 
 guilty of all sorts of blasphemy and the 
 greatest licentiousness, seducing many wo- 
 men, who, in their frenzy, delivered to 
 him their daughters. He surrounded him- 
 self with a bodyguard of three thousand 
 armed men, and feasted sumptuously on 
 the spoils of plundered churches and 
 monasteries. Tanchelin was slain in 1124, 
 but his sect survived him. St. Norbert 
 preached against these sectaries, and suc- 
 ceeded in bringing back the deluded citi- 
 zens of Antwerp to the Church. 
 
 Tantum Ergo. — In Catholic liturgy, the 
 last two stanzas of the hymn, beginning 
 ^^F'ang-e. Lingua" which are sung when- 
 ever the Blessed Eucharist is carried in 
 procession and in the office of the Church 
 at the Benediction with the Blessed Sacra- 
 ment. The "Pattge Lingua''^ was com- 
 posed by St. Thomas Aquinas. 
 
 Tarasius (St.). — Patriarch of Constan- 
 tinople, born in this city, where he died in 
 806. Of a patrician family, secretary of 
 State and consul, became the successor of 
 Paul III. on the patriarchal see of Con- 
 stantinople, in 784. Caused the condemna- 
 tion of the Iconoclasts in the Second 
 Council of Nice (787) and opposed the di- 
 vorce of Emperor Constantine V. We owe 
 to him Letters inserted in the Collection of 
 Councils by Labbe. F. Feb. 23d. 
 
 Taschereau (Elzi^ar Alexandre). — 
 Cardinal and archbishop of Quebec, was 
 born at Sainte Marie de la Beauce, Quebec, 
 Feb. 17th, 1820. He was educated at the 
 Seminary of Quebec and in Rome, receiv- 
 
 ing the tonsure at the age of eighteen. In 
 1842 he was ordained priest at Quebec, 
 and from that year until 1854 occupied the 
 chair of moral philosophy at the Quebec 
 Seminary. He resumed his studies in 
 Rome in 1854, ^"'^ ^^ ^^56 the degree of 
 doctor of canon law was conferred upon 
 him in Rome. Returning to Quebec, he 
 was director of the Petit Seminaire until 
 1859, when he became director of the Grand 
 Seminaire and a member of the Council of 
 Public Instruction for Lower Canada. He 
 was made superior of the Grand Seminaire 
 and rector of Laval University in i860, 
 and vicar general of the diocese of Quebec 
 in 1862. He was consecrated archbishop 
 of Qiiebec in 187 1, and in 1886 was made 
 cardinal, being the first Canadian to re- 
 ceive this dignity, and was congratulated 
 alike by the Protestant and by the Catho- 
 lic press, his advancement being regarded 
 as the merited reward of a long life de- 
 voted to educational progress. Died at 
 Quebec, April 12th, 1S98. 
 
 Tatian. — Apologist ; was born in As- 
 syria, about the year 130, had received a 
 heathen education and had been a teacher 
 in pagan schools, when, by reading the 
 Holy Scriptures, he was converted to 
 Christianity. After the death of Justin, 
 his master, he returned to the East, 
 adopted Gnostic views and became the 
 founder of a sect known as " Tatianists." 
 Of his many writings only his Discourse 
 to the Greeks has been preserved, in which 
 he contrasts Christianity with Paganism, 
 censures the Greeks for rejecting the 
 Christian religion, and criticizes the morals, 
 religion, and philosophy of the pagans. 
 Tatian died in 170. 
 
 Taxa Innocentiana. — By authority of 
 Pope Innocent XL, a decree, written in 
 Italian, was issued in 1678, fixing the emolu- 
 ments that can be asked or received for the 
 various acts, instruments, or writings of 
 the episcopal chancery. The object of 
 this decree, usually named " Taxa In- 
 nocentiana," was to introduce as far as 
 possible, a uniform rate of taxation into 
 all episcopal chanceries. Its chief regula- 
 tions are : Neither bishops nor their vicars 
 general or other officials can ask or receive 
 anything, even though it be voluntarily of- 
 fered : (i) For the conferring of orders or 
 for other acts pertaining to ordination, 
 V. g., for permission to receive orders 
 from some other bishop. (2) For appoint- 
 ments to benefices or parishes. (3) For 
 
Te Deum 
 
 6"]: 
 
 Tenebrae 
 
 dispensations from impedirpents of mar- 
 riage or from the publication of the bans 
 and the like. — Though bishops, in granting 
 matrimonial dispensations, cannot accept 
 any honorary, they are, as a rule, allowed 
 to receive suitable alms, to be applied for 
 charitable purposes. 
 
 However, the chancellor of the bishop 
 may receive a moderate fee for his labor in 
 drawing up the requisite papers in the 
 above cases. As a rule, the chancellor's 
 fee for each instrument should not exceed, 
 at the highest calculation, one dollar. But 
 he cannot receive any fee for letters giving 
 permission to say Mass, administer the 
 sacraments, preach, and the like. 
 
 Te Deum. — An ancient hymn in the 
 form of a Psalm, sung at matins, or morn- 
 ing prayer, and also separately as a service 
 of thanksgiving on special occasions. The 
 Te Deum is first mentioned early in the 
 sixth century. Its authorship is popularly 
 attributed to St. Ambrose and St. Augus- 
 tine. The Te Deum is sung at the close of 
 matins on Sundays and feast days, but not 
 in Advent nor from Septuagesima to Eas- 
 ter, except on feasts, and also during the 
 octaves of Easter and Pentecost. 
 
 Teglath-Phalasar. — Second king of the 
 second Assyrian empire ; reigned at Ninive 
 from 742 to 724 B. c. ; entered into an al- 
 liance with Achaz, king of Juda, and con- 
 quered a part of Syria and Palestine. He 
 had for successor, his son Salmanasar. 
 
 Telesphorus (St.). — Pope from 127 to 
 138. Greek by birth, anchorite of Mount 
 Carmel, became the successor of Sixtus I. 
 and died a martyr in Rome under Hadrian. 
 He instituted the practice of saying three 
 Masses on Christmas Day. F. Jan. 5th. 
 
 Temperance is a virtue, which regulates 
 and moderates our tastes for those things 
 that appeal to our senses, thereby prevent- 
 ing any excessive indulgence. It teaches 
 restraint in all things, abstinence in food, 
 sobriety in drink. Also, chastity in main- 
 taining the purity of that state of life to 
 which we are called, whether virginity, 
 celibacy, matrimony, or widowhood. 
 Temperance embraces mortification in 
 words and actions, " as becometh saints " 
 ( Eph. v. 3) ; for no " obscenity, or foolish 
 talking, or scurrility ... no fornica- 
 tor, or unclean or covetous person, hath 
 inheritance in the kingdom of Christ" 
 (Eph. V. 5). See Matthew (Theobald). 
 
 Templars. See Knights. 
 
 Temple of Jerusalem. — The religious 
 edifice of the Jews in Jerusalem. There 
 were three buildings successively erected 
 on the same spot, and entitled, from the 
 names of the builders, the Temple of Solo- 
 mon, the Temple of Zorobabel, and the 
 Temple of Herod. The first was built by 
 Solomon and destroyed by Nabuchodono- 
 sor about 586 b. c. The second was built 
 by the Jews on their return from captivity 
 (about 537 B. c.) and was pillaged or partly 
 destroyed several times, especially by Anti- 
 ochus Epiphanes, Pompey, and Herod. 
 The third, the largest and most magnifi- 
 cent of the three, was begun by Herod the 
 Great, and was completely destroyed at 
 the capture of Jerusalem by the Romans 
 (a. D. 70). Various attempts have been 
 made towards the restoration of the first 
 and third of these temples, but all to no 
 purpose. The ornament and design were 
 in any case of severe and simple character, 
 though rich materials were used. The 
 successive temples all consisted of a com- 
 bination of buildings, comprising courts 
 separated from and rising one above an- 
 other, and provided also with chambers for 
 the use of the priests, and for educational 
 purposes. The inclosure of Herod's tem- 
 ple covered nineteen acres. It comprised 
 an outer court of the Gentiles, a court of 
 the women, a court of Israel, a court of the 
 priests, and the temple building with the 
 holy place, and, within all (entered only 
 once a year by the high priest) the Holy 
 of Holies. Within the court of the priests 
 were the great altar and the laver; within 
 the holy place, the golden candlestick, the 
 altar of incense, and the table of the show- 
 bread; and within the Holy of Holies, the 
 Ark of the Covenant and the Seat of 
 Mercy. 
 
 Temporal Power of the Pope. See 
 Power. 
 
 Tenebrae is the name given to the matins 
 and lauds, which are usually sung on the 
 afternoon or evening of Wednesday, 
 Thursday, and Friday of Holy Week. 
 The "■Gloria Patri" at the end of the 
 Psalms and in the responsories, the hymns, 
 antiphones of the Blessed Virgin, etc., are 
 omitted in sign of sorrow. The lessons of 
 the first nocturnes are taken from the 
 Lamentations of Jeremias, the Hebrew 
 letter which begins each verse in the acros- 
 tic poems being retained in Latin. At the 
 
Tertiary 
 
 673 
 
 Theatines 
 
 beginning of the office, fifteen lighted can- 
 dles are placed on a triangular candela- 
 brum, and at the end of each Psalm one is put 
 out, till only a single candle is left lighted 
 at the top of the triangle. During the 
 singing of the Benedictus the candles on 
 the high altar are extinguished, while at 
 the antiphon after the Benedictus the sin- 
 gle lighted candle is hidden at the Epistle 
 corner of the altar, to be brought out 
 again at the end of the office. The extinc- 
 tion of lights (whence probably the name 
 Tenebree, or darkness) is best explained by 
 Amalarius Fortunatus, who says: "It 
 figures the growing darkness of the time 
 when Christ, •the light of the world,' was 
 taken." The last candle, according to 
 Benedict XIV., is hidden, not extin- 
 guished, to signify that death could not 
 really obtain dominion over Christ, though 
 it appeared to do so. The clapping heard 
 at the end of the office, is said to symbolize 
 the confusion consequent of Christ's death. 
 
 Tertiary (Lat. Tertiarius, one of the 
 third rank) . — A name given by the Church 
 writers to a class in the Catholic Church 
 who, without entering into the seclusion 
 of a monastery, aspire to practice in or- 
 dinary life all the substantial obligations 
 of chastity and poverty. It was under St. 
 Francis and the mendicant orders, that the 
 Tertiary institute reached its full develop- 
 ment. 
 
 Tertullian (160-240). — Doctor of the 
 Church, was born at Carthage, and was 
 brought up a pagan. Tertullian is the first 
 writer of the Latin Church. He was an 
 advocate by profession, a man of great 
 learning and of remarkably strong intel- 
 lect and character. His conversion took 
 place in mature life, about the year 190, 
 being ordained priest soon after. He was 
 a zealous and valiant champion of Catho- 
 licity against all forms of infidelity and 
 heresy until the year 203, when, captivated 
 by the exaggerated austerity and severe 
 morality of the Montanists, he was drawn 
 into their heresy. That he afterwards be- 
 came reconciled with the Church, is sur- 
 mised by some, but cannot be ascertained. 
 As a writer, Tertullian was profound and 
 fruitful and showed great acuteness and 
 dialectic dexterity; but the style, resem- 
 bling the asperity of his mind, is inelegant 
 and intricate. He first used the terms, 
 "substantia," " trinitas," " satisf actio," 
 " sacramentum," etc. His numerous writ- 
 ings relate to the most varied points of 
 
 43 
 
 Christian doctrine and of Christian life; 
 they were well known and highly appre- 
 ciated in the early Church. St. Cyprian, 
 who read them daily, in asking for them 
 was accustomed to say : Da magistrum 
 {^Give me my master). His most impor- 
 tant works are : The Apology, On the 
 Prescription of Heretics, and On Penance, 
 which were written before the author be- 
 came a Montanist. Yet, even the works 
 which Tertullian wrote after his apostasy, 
 are highly valuable, because of the testi- 
 mony they contain as to the faith and prac- 
 tices of the early Church. Among these 
 are the works: Against Valentinian; 
 Against Marcion ; On the Body of 
 Christ; On the Resurrection of the Body^ 
 and a number of other treatises. 
 
 Testament. See Bible. 
 
 Tetrarch (ruler of a fourth part). — A 
 title at first given to one who governed a 
 fourth part of a province, but afterwards to 
 one who governed any portion of a given 
 territory (Luke iii. i). Herod Antipas 
 was tetrarch of Galilee and Peraea (Matt, 
 xiv. I ; Acts xiii. i). ' 
 
 Tetzel (John) (1470-1519). — A Ger- 
 man Dominican monk and inquisitor; 
 born at Leipsic. Pope Leo X. had en- 
 trusted him with the publication of the in- 
 dulgence in Germany. Tetzel was a moral 
 man, charges to the contrary are without 
 foundation ; the stories of his greed origi- 
 nated with his enemies. He preached in 
 ardent and energetic language on indul- 
 gences, always insisted on a worthy con- 
 fession and true sorrow, as may be seen 
 from Protestant extracts of his sermons 
 still extant, and his wholesome instruc- 
 tions to the confessors of the Church. 
 
 Teutonic Knights. See Knigh.ts. 
 
 Thabor. See Tabor. 
 
 Thaddeus. See Jude. 
 
 Thanksgiving Day. — An annual festi- 
 val of thanksgiving for the mercies of the 
 closing year. Practically, it is a national 
 harvest festival, fixed by proclamation of 
 the President of the United States and 
 ranks as a national holiday. 
 
 Theatines. — Members of a monastic 
 order of clerks regular founded at Rome, 
 by St. Cajetan and Archbishop Peter 
 CarafTa of Theate, afterwards Pope Paul 
 IV. Besides taking the usual monastic 
 vows, the Theatines bound themselves to 
 
Theban Legion 
 
 674 
 
 Theodicy 
 
 abstain from the possession of property 
 and from soliciting alms, and to trust 
 wholly in Providence for support, expect- 
 ing, however, that this support would be 
 derived from the voluntary contributions 
 of the charitable. There were also Thea- 
 tine nuns. The order flourished to some 
 extent in Spain, Bavaria, and Poland, but 
 its influence is now confined chiefly to Italy. 
 
 Theban Legion. See Legion. 
 
 Thecla (St.) —Christian virgin, born at 
 Iconium in the first century, converted to 
 the faith by St. Paul. Exposed to ferocious 
 beasts, she miraculously escaped martyr- 
 dom. F. Sept. 23d. 
 
 Theiner (Augustin) (1804-1874). — 
 Catholic theologian, born at Breslau, died 
 in Rome. Dragged along for a short time 
 by the ideas of his brother Johann Anton 
 (professor of exegesis and canon law) 
 against Roman Catholicity, he separated 
 himself from him and went to Rome, 
 where, after staying with the Jesuits for 
 some time, he became a member of the 
 Oratory. Keeper of the secret archives of 
 the Holy See until 1870. He published 
 quite a number of historical works. 
 
 Theism — The word theism is taken in 
 opposition to that of atheism, which is 
 the system of those who deny the existence 
 of God, as deism is opposed to the belief 
 of a revealed religion. The two words are 
 not synonymous ; we may understand the 
 word theism in an orthodox sense, because 
 deism is an error condemned by the Church, 
 and which designates the system of those 
 who reject all revelation, believing only in 
 the existence of God, joining to this belief, 
 the natural religion. Deism, it is true, 
 acknowledges a God like theism, or rather, 
 it names God ; but its God, purely abstract 
 and ideal, is blind, deaf, and dumb. The- 
 ism and atheism are the two extreme terms, 
 the one positive, the other negative. De- 
 ism would like to be the middle term, be- 
 tween two contraries that do not admit a 
 middle term. Theism admits the dogma 
 of the creation, of Providence, and of rev- 
 elation. Some Deists admit a God creator, 
 but deny divine Providence; if they ad- 
 mit the presence of the Deity, this presence 
 is purely ideal ; the god of the Deists is a 
 sluggish god ; he assists at the march of 
 the universe without directing it; he is in- 
 sensible, inactive, and powerless. Hence, 
 the reason Bossuet said : *' Deism is only 
 a disguised atheism." 
 
 Theocatognosts. — Name given by John 
 Damascene to heretics who condemned 
 certain words attributed to God in the 
 Scripture. 
 
 Theocracy. — A form of government in 
 which God is recognized as the supreme 
 civil ruler of the State, and His laws are 
 taken as the statute-book of the kingdom. 
 Usually applied to the Jewish common- 
 wealth from the time of its organization 
 under Moses until the inauguration of the 
 monarchy under Saul. Josephus Flavius 
 was the first who, in his book against 
 Apion, the Grammarian, made use of the 
 term Theocracy to characterize the re- 
 ligioso-political constitution of the Hebrew 
 people, in opposition to the forms of mon- 
 archic, oligarchic, and democratic govern- 
 ments of other nations. Theocracy was 
 the first and the most ancient of all the 
 political constitutions among the chief na- 
 tions of antiquity. It obtained its apogee 
 in the revealed law of God, promulgated 
 by Moses and realized by the people of 
 Israel, and essentially distinguishes itself 
 from all the pagan theocracies. It has for 
 peculiarity, that it identifies both the re- 
 ligious sphere and the political sphere; 
 every law, every religious obligation is at 
 the same time a law, a political obligation, 
 and vice versa, so that every violation or 
 omission of any prescription, even a 
 most superficial one, is a direct infraction 
 of the divine will, and, consequently, a 
 sin. All the laws emanate from God and 
 His holy will; God is the supreme end of 
 all ordinances. Theocracy, besides its 
 immediate object concerning Israel, had a 
 universal object, which determines the 
 place and indicates the peculiar nature of 
 the chosen people, in the history of Re- 
 demption. Israel chosen, receives the 
 Law and its institutions. God is its king, 
 its master, and legislator; theocracy is 
 founded in order that, in its bosom and 
 through it, the salvation of mankind may 
 be prepared ; the Law is to be the peda- 
 gogue of mankind in view of the Christ ; 
 it becomes this by pointing towards sin, 
 the fall of man, the need of a redemption, 
 and the desire of the Messias promised to 
 sinful mankind. 
 
 Theodicy. — An exposition of the theory 
 of divine Providence with the view to the 
 vindication of the attributes, particularly, 
 of the holiness and justice of God, in es- 
 tablishing the present order of things, in 
 which civil, moral, as well as physical 
 
Theodore 
 
 675 
 
 Theodore 
 
 order, largely exists. Theodicy has for ob- 
 ject to justify God's providence by refut- 
 ing the objections drawn from the exist- 
 ence of evil, both physical and moral. 
 Leibnitz is the first that made use of the 
 term Theodicy. But the idea which it 
 represents is very ancient. It generally 
 signifies justification or apology of God ; 
 there is question of reconciling the exist- 
 ence, especially God's unity, with the ex- 
 istence of evil. The most important texts, 
 in regard to this subject, are found in the 
 Book of Job, in St. Paul, and in the City 
 of God of St. Augustine. Already the 
 ancient philosophers had posed the ques- 
 tion of the origin of evil. From the more 
 general point of view of God's existence, 
 the Eleatic School places God on top of 
 the beings to govern them : timis est Deus 
 deorum hominumque summus. On the top 
 of the world, said the Pythagoreans, is the 
 unity, the pure monade; and below it the 
 beings are arranged according to grada- 
 tion. Empedocles of Agrigentum admits 
 above the sensible world, inferior genii and 
 deities, and above these a superior God, a 
 pure, holy, perfect, and unchangeable 
 spirit, whose rapid thought overlooks all 
 things. This philosopher teaches "that 
 there is in nature, as in the animals, an in- 
 telligent cause of the arrangement and of 
 the order of the universe." Socrates goes 
 a step farther: "There exists an eternal 
 and immense God, regulator and governor 
 of the world"; and the proof for this, he 
 draws from the efficient and final causes. 
 Plato perfected the science of the Theodicy. 
 He said: "He who knows God, is really 
 wise; he who does not know Him is evi- 
 dently ignorant and wicked." Again he 
 says : " We must hold the existence of 
 God above all demonstration." Plato had 
 already a correct notion of Providence. 
 Aristotle arrives at formulating the prin- 
 ciples of Theodicy. The principal argu- 
 ment he brings forward in favor of God's 
 existence is the proof drawn from the 
 movement. 
 
 Both the middle and the scholastic ages 
 embraced about this subject the ideas of 
 Plato and of Aristotle. In the seventeenth 
 and eighteenth centuries, the question was 
 debated more lively than ever. The con- 
 troversies of Jansenism, says V. Cousin, 
 caused a debate on the highest philoso- 
 phical questions, liberty, and grace, the 
 reason for the good and evil, the nature of 
 God, the end of creation, etc. Spinoza 
 believed to solve the question by admitting 
 
 one sole substance. Bayle, resuscitating 
 Manicheism, maintained that, in the face 
 1 of the evil, reason is in some sort forced 
 to admit two principles, the one good the 
 other evil ; that a blind faith alone could 
 adhere to the Christian idea of the Deity. 
 The most remarkable work on this subject 
 was the Essay on the Theodicy, by Leib- 
 nitz, a work which had for its object the 
 solving of the great problem of the origin 
 of evil, a book, says V. Cousin, which is 
 the twelfth book of the Metaphysics of 
 Aristotle and the seventh of the Republic 
 of Plato. The fundamental thought we 
 can draw from it, is that God has per- 
 mitted sin, because it had been involved 
 in the best plan of the universe. The ob- 
 ject of this book was to justify God's jus- 
 tice and man's liberty, and to show that 
 evil is compatible with both of these at- 
 tributes. There is no antinomy between 
 the human liberty and the divine attributes. 
 The evil, according to Leibnitz, is derived 
 from the very nature of the created beings, 
 which cannot be perfect without confound- 
 ing themselves with the Creator and with- 
 out becoming indiscernible. Perfection 
 cannot realize itself ex abrupto. Nothing 
 is done at once ; the end supposes the 
 means, which, evil in themselves, may be- 
 come good to arrive at a perfect end. 
 
 This explanation is insufficient*, it ends 
 by placing the origin of evil in the eternal 
 laws of the intelligence to which God 
 would be forced to subject Himself as to a 
 kind of destiny. There are always two 
 great problems that await an explanation 
 and a definitive solution : How does the 
 evil, even the provisory evil, reconcile it- 
 self with God's power and goodness ? How 
 does God's prescience reconcile itself with 
 human liberty? These truths are mys- 
 teries, and, consequently, only an object of 
 faith. Leibnitz does not, properly speak- 
 iug, give the proof of the truth of God's 
 existence ; he supposes it a priori, on the 
 ground of the existence of the contingent 
 beings. 
 
 Theodore (name of two Popes). — Theo- 
 dore I. — Pope from 642 to 649; born at 
 Jerusalem, but Greek by nation. Suc- 
 cessor of John IV. ; vigorously combated 
 Monothelism. Theodore II. — Pope in 
 898; Roman by birth ; reigned only twenty 
 days. 
 
 Theodore (Ascidas). — At first head of 
 a monastery in Palestine, came to Con- 
 stantinople (535) to propagate there the 
 
Theodore of Canterbury 6^6 
 
 Theodotus 
 
 heresy of the Origenists. Upheld by the 
 Empress Theodora, who named him bishop 
 of Caesarea, he came in conflict with Pope 
 Vigilius. In 563, the Council of Con- 
 stantinople solemnly condemned him. 
 Abandoned by Theodora, he lived from 
 that time in retreat. 
 
 Theodore of Canterbury (St.) (602- 
 690). — Archbishop of Canterbury, and a 
 Greek monk of Tarsus in Cilicia. Named 
 by Pope Vitalian to the see of Canter- 
 bury, and primate of Great Britain (668). 
 Created schools, propagated the arts and 
 sciences, introduced the Gregorian chant 
 into his diocese and presided over the 
 Council of Hetfield (680). Has left a 
 Penttentiale, a collection of canons regu- 
 lating the time of public penances. F. 
 Sept. 19th. 
 
 Theodore of Heraclea. — Greek prel- 
 ate, born at Heraclea, died about 355. 
 Named by Constantine bishop of his na- 
 tive city, he became one of the chiefs of 
 the Arian party, was charged to oppose 
 St. Athanasius (336), presented to Con- 
 stantius the constitution of Antioch (342) 
 and, although deposed by the Council of 
 Sardica (347), kept his episcopal see and 
 continued to spread Arianism. 
 
 Theodore of Mopsuestia (350-429). — 
 Greek ecclesiastical writer, born at Anti- 
 och. Bishop of Mopsuestia in Cilicia. 
 St. Chrysostom, his schoolfellow, induced 
 him to embrace the monastic and clerical 
 state. As interpreter of the Holy Scrip- 
 tures, he gained great renown. Nes- 
 torius, the heresiarch, was among his 
 pupils. In his writings On the Incar- 
 nation against the ApoUinarian heresy, 
 Theodore laid the seeds of Nestorianism. 
 He is likewise accused of having favored 
 Pelagianism. Of his numerous writings, 
 which were condemned by the Fifth Gen- 
 eral Council (553), only fragments have 
 been preserved . He died, it is said, in 
 communion with the Church. 
 
 Theodore of Pharan. — Bishop of Pharan 
 in Arabia, in 626. He is looked upon as 
 the author of Monothelism, heresy which 
 attributes to Jesus Christ two n^ures, but 
 only one will and one sole operation. His 
 writings were condemned in the Lateran 
 Council (649), and this sentence was con- 
 firmed by the Sixth General Council in 680. 
 
 Theodore the Reader. — Historian of 
 the sixth century. Was reader of the 
 
 Church of Constantinople. Has left a 
 Church History which extends from the 
 twentieth year of Constantine to Julian the 
 Apostate. 
 
 Theodoret of Cyrus (386-457). — Bishop 
 of Cyrus in Syria, was born at Antioch. 
 He was one of the most learned men of his 
 age. His friendship for Nestorius em- 
 broiled him with St. Cyril of Alexandria. 
 When the Ecumenical Council of Ephesus 
 met in 431, he refused to enter it and took 
 part in the schismatical conventicle which 
 pretended to excommunicate the Fathers 
 of the lawful Council. After a prolonged 
 controversy with St. Cyril, he finally sub- 
 mitted and, at the Council of Chalcedon 
 in 451, subscribed to the condemnation of 
 Nestorius. Theodoret is esteemed as a 
 profound exegetist and eminent historian. 
 He wrote, besides various exegetical works, 
 an Ecclesiastical History from A. d. 320 to 
 328, an Epitome of Heretical Fables, and a 
 Religious History containing the lives of 
 thirty-three hermits. In addition to these 
 there are extant 179 letters. His writings 
 against St. Cyril and the Council of 
 Ephesus, together with those of his master, 
 Theodore, were condemned at Constanti- 
 nople, in 553. 
 
 Theodosius the Great (346-395). — Born 
 at Cauca, in northern Spain, died at 
 Milan. Roman Emperor, son of Flavius 
 Theodosius, a general (chiefly noted for 
 his campaigns in Britain) of Valentinianl. 
 He commanded in Moesia in 374; was 
 made joint emperor by Gratian and ruler 
 over the East in 379. From him the ex- 
 piring paganism received the heaviest 
 blows. Apostates from Christianity were 
 disqualified either to make or receive tes- 
 tamentary bequests, divination by the 
 entrails of victims were forbidden, and 
 numbers of heathen temples destroyed. 
 At last, in 392, pagan worship was formally 
 proscribed and declared high treason. He 
 also took the churches from the Arians, 
 restoring them to the Catholics, and pro- 
 hibited the assemblies of heretics, Theo- 
 dosius I. subjected himself to a humiliating 
 penance imposed upon him by St. Am- 
 brose, for the indiscriminate massacre of 
 about 7,000 persons, which, in a moment of 
 irritation, he had ordered at Thessalonica, 
 in 390, for having killed the governor and 
 several imperial officers. 
 
 Theodotus (name of two heretics of the 
 third century). — Theodotus the Elder was 
 
Theology 
 
 e-jy 
 
 Theology 
 
 a tanner of Byzantium. Having denied 
 Christ in time of persecution, in order to 
 extenuate his guilt, maintained that he had 
 denied only a man and not God. He 
 claimed Jesus to have been mere man until 
 at his baptism, Christ descended upon 
 Him. He was excommunicated by Pope 
 Victor. His disciples were Asclepiades 
 and the younger Theodotus, surnamed the 
 Banker, who was the author of the Mel- 
 chisedechian heresy, teaching that Mel- 
 chisedech was greater than Christ. Natalis, 
 a confessor of the faith, was won over by 
 these sectaries and made bishop of their 
 party, but returned to the communion of 
 the Church, under Pope Zephyrinus. 
 
 Theology (science which has for its ob- 
 ject divine things, the dogmas, and reli- 
 gious precepts). — Science which, founded 
 upon the principles furnished to us by 
 faith, draws consequences on the super- 
 natural truths and the divine things, that 
 is, on all that has relation to God, as the 
 effect to its cause : for instance the crea- 
 tures ; as the means to their end : the human 
 acts ; as the way to the end : Jesus Christ, 
 through whom we go to God ; as instru- 
 ment of grace : the sacraments ; these are 
 so many branches that enter the plan and 
 frame of theology. The material object 
 of theology is God Himself, and all that 
 has reference to God ; the formal object is 
 the divinity, the divine Being considered 
 in His attributes and proprieties, that is, 
 theology considers its object in so far as it 
 is essentially or relatively divine. Its 
 first foundation is revelation, which is, at 
 the same time, its principal criterion of 
 certitude. We say that theology is a sci- 
 ence, for, to use the terms of the School, 
 although it has not the evidence conse- 
 quent, it has, however, the evidence of 
 consequence, that is, it is evident that the 
 conclusions which it draws from the prin- 
 ciples of faith are necessary consequences 
 thereof, although its truths are not evident 
 in themselves. Theology has, therefore, 
 all that is necessary to constitute a science 
 whose principles are not of the natural or- 
 der; but this does not hinder us from say- 
 ing that it is, also, a science of the natural 
 order, because the order in which it is a 
 science, is not taken from the quality of 
 the principles which it employs, but from 
 the manner it proceeds. Now, theology 
 proceeds by way of argumentation, a pro- 
 ceeding which belongs to a purely natural 
 order. 
 
 Division. — Theology in regard to its 
 principal object, God, is a speculative sci- 
 ence ; in regard to its second object, it is a 
 practical science, for by the rules of morals 
 which it prescribes, it directs the will of man 
 towards God, as his final end. From the 
 standpoint of doctrinal teaching, it is posi- 
 tive or scholastic ; the first is a simple ex- 
 position of the truths which naturally flow 
 from the principles of faith ; this was the 
 method of the Fathers ; the second gives 
 rules, draws consequences and, by a series 
 of reasonings, proves the truths that flow 
 from the premises ; the latter, although it 
 is not absolutely necessary like the other, is, 
 however, of great usefulness to refute the 
 sophisms of error. The model far excel- 
 lence of this method is St. Thomas. 
 
 Historical. — The word theology has a 
 much more extensive sense than its etymol- 
 ogy indicates. The Greeks called theo- 
 logians the ancient poets, who had identified 
 the development of nature with that of the 
 gods; cosmogony with theogony: such 
 were Orpheus, Hesiod, Homer, to whom 
 they opposed, later on, the philosophers and 
 the physiological naturalists. Then they 
 designated as theology that part of phi- 
 losophy which occupies itself, especially, 
 with the absolute. Aristotle calls philosoph- 
 ical theology, the metaphysics or science 
 of the principles in opposition to the mathe- 
 matical or physical philosophy. However, 
 the name theology remained, especially, 
 consecrated to ancient mythology. In the 
 first centuries of the Christian era, they 
 gave the name philosophy to the science of 
 faith; but since it might be confounded 
 with Greek philosophy, the term was 
 abandoned, and in St. Irenseus, Tertullian, 
 Clement, and Origen, the Christian science 
 soon became the antithesis of philosophy; 
 it did not yet take the name theology. At 
 first they reserved this name to that branch 
 of Christian science which treats exclu- 
 sively of God ; thus for St. Athanasius 
 the doctrine on the Trinity belongs to 
 theology. The doctrine on the creation 
 and gcTvernment of the world they called 
 economy. About the end of the patristic 
 period, the word theology commences to 
 be employed in a more extensive sense ; it 
 is not only the doctrine on God, but in 
 general, every doctrine having relation to 
 God. As far back as St. Augustine, the 
 word theology is taken as a synonym of 
 Christian doctrine, and in the same sense 
 as we understand it to-day. During the 
 Middle Ages this denomination was 
 
Theology 
 
 678 
 
 Theology 
 
 reserved to that part of doctrine which treats 
 especially of God. About the end of the 
 Middle Ages they applied that name to the 
 whole sacra doctrina, preserving, for a 
 long time, the latter expression. The idea 
 itself being profoundly modified, a new 
 classification of the sacred science made 
 itself felt. Scholasticism embraced both 
 dogmatic and moral theology, and yet 
 these two parts were then not very dis- 
 tinct; they comprise several branches, 
 such as cannon law, liturgy, pastoral the- 
 ology, etc. They had not yet arrived at 
 an understanding whether theology was a 
 speculative or practical science. Later on, 
 the heresies attacking several points of 
 Catholic doctrine, determined the devel- 
 opment of other branches of the sacred 
 science. Thus arose apologetic, exegesis, 
 biblical criticism. Church history, and 
 later on, hermeneutic, the science of the 
 rubrics, homiletic, etc. In the course of 
 time it was found that all these sciences were 
 constituitive parts of one and the same 
 doctrinal body which they called Theology. 
 We distinguish natural theology, which 
 is founded upon the lights of reason, from 
 revealed theology, which supports itself 
 upon the belief in revelation. Theology, 
 concerning reason and faith, owes to each 
 its share. It is evident, that if each one 
 remains in its proper sphere, there can be 
 no conflict between faith and reason. (See 
 Science and Faith.) This has always 
 been the belief of the Church. Only in 
 our days did reason proclaim its au- 
 tonomy. Not only the Rationalists reject 
 revelation, but also the Naturalists, Posi- 
 tivists. Freethinkers, Critics, Progress- 
 ists, Deists, and Spiritualists ; then there 
 are others who, on the contrary, maintain 
 the opposite thesis, namely, that reason 
 cannot, by its own powers, acquire any 
 certitude of the natural truths, but that it 
 must receive this from tradition, that is, 
 from divine revelation or from a social 
 transmission : these are the Traditionalists 
 or Fideists. The first sacrifice, faith to 
 reason, the second, reason to faith. The 
 Council of the Vatican has condemned the 
 doctrine of those who pretend that reason is 
 completely independent and that faith can- 
 not be imposed upon it by God (C. vat. 
 de fide, c. iii.). Since created reason is 
 naturally and necessarily subject to uncre- 
 ated reason, we are bound to give the as- 
 sent of our intelligence to God who 
 reveals. This assent is, besides, so rea- 
 sonable that it appears surprising that 
 
 Rationalists, who proclaim that our rea- 
 son has a right a friore to reject the act 
 of faith. Is it not reason itself which, 
 adds Leo XIII. (Encyclc. yEterni Pa- 
 tris, Aug. 4th, 1884), declares to us that 
 the evangelical doctrine was confirmed 
 from the beginning by miracles, sure ar- 
 guments of a sure truth .? Moreover, the 
 Church, on account of her wonderful prop- 
 agation, eminent holiness, and inex- 
 haustible fruitfulness for every good, on 
 account of her Catholic unity and invinci- 
 ble stability, constitutes herself a great 
 and perpetual argument of credibility. 
 To believe in the word of another, there 
 must be reasons ; now these reasons are 
 none other than the motives of credibility; 
 whence it results that the exercise of rea- 
 son must precede faith, as both the 
 Church and theology teaches. Therefore, 
 the act of faith is rational, and if it is ra- 
 tional, God can propose it to reason. 
 If we consider the manifold condemna- 
 tions fulminated by Leo. XIII. against 
 modern errors, the same conclusion must 
 impose itself. The Roman Pontiffs in 
 condemning rationalism, have condemned, 
 at the same time, the doctrines akin to it, 
 like Lamennesianism, which pretended that 
 reason, having for criterion of certitude 
 the universal and traditional belief of man- 
 kind, is the only rule by which we can 
 have knowledge of the truths necessary 
 for salvation; Hermesianism or semi- 
 rationalism of Germany which placed the 
 methodic doubt as basis of theological 
 science and posed as principle, that rea- 
 son is the sovereign rule and only means 
 to acquire the knowledge of the super- 
 natural truths; the Progressists, who make 
 of the Catholic religion a purely human 
 work or a purely philosophical discovery, 
 which one can perfect by human means. 
 
 Conclusion. — Catholic theology is a 
 science which has for its end a knowledge 
 of the Catholic religion and to show that 
 it is founded upon reason. In the Catho- 
 lic religion we can distinguish : i. Faith 
 which is the foundation thereof. 2. The 
 manifestation of this faith in the Church. 
 3. The confirmation of this faith in life 
 and in all the free and moral acts of man. 
 These three parts constitute the theoret- 
 ical, ecclesiastical and practical part of re- 
 ligion. Whence it results that Catholic 
 theology has one sole object under a 
 triple form, namely: the science of faith 
 as such ; the science of ecclesiastical life ; 
 and the science of Christian life. 
 
Theophanes 
 
 679 
 
 Theresa 
 
 Theophanes (Isaurus) (758-818). — Byz- 
 antine historian, abbot of the monastery 
 Ager, in Mysia, Asia Minor; defended the 
 veneration of images in the Council of 
 Nice (787), was imprisoned by order of the 
 Iconoclast Emperor Leo V., banished on 
 the island of Samothracia, where he died. 
 He continued the Chronology of George 
 Syncellus. 
 
 Theophilus (St.). — Bishop of Antioch 
 and one of the Fathers of the Church, 
 born and raised in paganism, embraced the 
 Christian faith by reading the Scriptures ; 
 became bishop of Antioch about 168, and 
 combated the errors of the Gnostics ; died 
 in 181. Of his works which he wrote in 
 defense of the Christian faith, we have en- 
 tire, his Three Books of Antolycus, which 
 contain an apology for the Christian reli- 
 gion and which appeared during the reign 
 of Commodus. He composed also, a com- 
 mentary on Holy Scripture. 
 
 Theophilus of Alexandria. — Patriarch 
 of Alexandria in 385. His zeal against the 
 Origenists animated him against St. John 
 Chrysostom, whom he believed to be an 
 adherent to them. He died in 412, after 
 having reconciled himself with the Saint. 
 
 Theosophy. — Doctrine of certain mys- 
 tics who pretend to enter into communica- 
 tion with God, and to receive from Him 
 particular lights and special gifts. The 
 theosophists, without following the method 
 of philosophers and theologians, claim to 
 arrive directly at the knowledge of God ; 
 to believe them, God manifests Himself to 
 them immediately, that is, without any in- 
 termediary. Theosophy forms a part of 
 mysticism, but only of non-Christian mys- 
 ticism. For Christian mysticism does not 
 cease to adhere to the belief of the Church, 
 as the fundamental basis of all divine 
 science, while the non-Christian mysti- 
 cism, as soon as it occupies itself with 
 God, becomes theosophic. It was Aristo- 
 bulus, an Alexandrian Jew (in the first cen- 
 tury), who founded theosophy. Philo, 
 following in his footsteps, explained the 
 Old Testament by allegories or in a mys- 
 tical manner. It was his desire to recon- 
 cile philosophy with the dogmas of Scrip- 
 ture; there exists, according to him, two 
 worlds: one only intelligible, and which 
 is of the domain of pure intelligence ; and 
 the other sensible, formed after an ideal 
 type, unchangeable, coeternal like God 
 Himself. Philo personified these ideas 
 
 under the name of log-os or -word, and con- 
 sidered this word as an emanation of God 
 and son of God. He was the precursor of 
 Neoplatonism. The best known chiefs of 
 this school were Plotinus, Jamblicus, and 
 Proclus. Later we see these ideas re- 
 newed in a number of visionaries gone 
 forth from Protestantism, as the disciples 
 and followers of Paracelsus, who, however, 
 died a Catholic; Valentin, Weigel and his 
 followers. We can count among the theos- 
 ophists the Illuminati of all kinds. Spir- 
 itism has its direct filiation in theosophy. 
 Theosophy rests upon principles, whose 
 application annihilates human reason by 
 submitting it entirely to the passion of a 
 delirious imagination, profanes the Sacred 
 Scriptures by delivering them to the cab- 
 ala, which seeks secrets therein which 
 they do not contain. Reason regulates 
 the limits which separate religion from 
 philosophy, but at the same time it calls 
 upon faith as an indispensable auxiliary ; 
 it understands that we must receive through 
 the Church the real sense of the Sacred 
 Books, under pain of finding therein a 
 source of ridiculous and sometimes crim- 
 inal inspiration. 
 
 Theotokos (G r . God-bearing) . — The 
 mother of God; a title of the Blessed Vir- 
 gin Mary. 
 
 Therapeutae. — Jewish monks, who de- 
 livered themselves to a contemplative and 
 mortified life. The Therapeutae were 
 spread in diverse places ; but most of them 
 lived in Egypt, near Alexandria. They led 
 a more solitary and contemplative life 
 than the Essenes, occupying themselves 
 only with prayer, reading and meditating 
 upon the law. Ordinarily, they ate noth- 
 ing else but bread, and this only in the 
 evening. They assembled on the day of 
 the Sabbath and on Pentecost, to pray and 
 eat together. 
 
 Theresa (St.) (1515-1582). — One of the 
 most remarkable of the female saints of 
 the modern Roman calendar, born at 
 Avila, in Old Castile; was the daughter 
 of Alphonso, of the noble house of Sanchez 
 de Ceyeda. In her eighteenth year she 
 entered a convent of the Carmelite Order 
 in her native city, where she continued to 
 reside for nearly thirty years. The most 
 noble fruit of the enthusiastic spirituality 
 of Theresa, is the reform of the Carmelite 
 Order, of which she became the instru- 
 ment. Theresa was canonized in 1621. 
 
Thessalonians 
 
 680 
 
 Thomas a Becket 
 
 She left a number of works which have at 
 all times maintained a high reputation. 
 F. Oct. 15th. 
 
 Thessalonians {Epistles to the). — St. 
 Paul, having been obliged to leave Thes- 
 salonica, a city of Macedonia, learned at 
 Corinth, through Silas and Timothy, of 
 the state of the Church in that city. They 
 told him that several were not sufficiently 
 detached from the world, nor instructed 
 enough about the coming of the Lord and 
 and the last judgment. They also notified 
 him that there were some idle, curious 
 and restless. These advices gave occasion 
 to the Apostle to write to them two Epis- 
 tles. We can regard as certain that the 
 first was written from Corinth in the year 
 52 or 53. The Apostle in this letter wished 
 to excite the Thessalonians to persevere 
 ■with courage in the faith and not to per- 
 mit themselves to be discouraged by 
 obstacles and tribulations, to instruct of 
 certain truths those who still doubted, to 
 chide, but with mildness, those that erred 
 in evil ways. The second Epistle was also 
 written from Corinth, shortly after the 
 first. The end and subject have great re- 
 lation to those of the first. 
 
 Thomas (St.) (also called Didymus). — 
 One of the twelve Apostles. He is rarely 
 mentioned in the New Testament. Ac- 
 cording to Origen and Sophronius, he 
 preached in Parthia, Media, Persia, Car- 
 mania, Hyrcania, and Bactria, extending 
 his missionary labors as far as India. The 
 Persian Magi, who adored Christ our Lord 
 in Bethlehem, are also numbered among 
 those who were baptized by this Apostle. 
 The Roman martyrology represents him 
 as suffering martyrdom by a lance at 
 Calamina, near Madras, in India. The 
 *' Christians of St. Thomas" in East India 
 claim the Apostle St. Thomas for their 
 founder. Apocryphal Acts and a Gospel 
 were published at Leipsic, in 1823. F. 
 Dec. 2ist. 
 
 Thomas Aquinas (St.) (1225-1274). — 
 The angel of the school, Doctor Angelicus , 
 born at Aquino, a town near Naples. His 
 family was connected by marriage with the 
 Hohenstaufen. His early education was 
 entrusted to the care of the Benedictines 
 of Monte Cassino. After completing his 
 studies at the University of Naples, he en- 
 tered the Dominican Order, and became 
 the scholar of Albertus Magnus. He 
 taught with universal admiration at Co- 
 
 logne, Paris, Bologna, Naples, and other 
 places ; he was equally famous as a preacher. 
 He persistently refused any ecclesiastical 
 dignity. Called by Gregory X. to assist 
 at the Ecumenical Council of Lyons, in 
 1274, he fell sick on the journey and died 
 in the Cistercian monastery of Fossanova, 
 before he had completed his fiftieth year. 
 He was solemnly canonized by John XXII., 
 in 1323, and ranked among the great Doc- 
 tors of the Church, by Pius V., in 1567. 
 His most renowned work is the Summa 
 Theologice. He composed many touching 
 prayers, such as the Office of Corpus 
 Christi, and hymns : Pange Lingua, Sacris 
 Solemnis, Verbiim Supernum, Adoro Te 
 Devote, l^auda Sion Salvatorem. See 
 Thomism. 
 
 Thomas i Becket (St.) (1118-1170). 
 — An English prelate, born at London, 
 The son of a wealthy merchant, he was 
 early introduced into the household of 
 Archbishop Theobald, whose favorite he 
 soon became. To improve himself in 
 every knowledge, especially in civil and 
 ecclesiastical law, Thomas, with the per- 
 mission of his patron, frequented the 
 University of Paris, and then went to 
 Bologna, where he attended the lectures 
 of the celebrated Gratian. On his return 
 to England, he was employed in some im- 
 portant negotiations, and gradually rose 
 to the archdeaconry of Canterbury. When 
 Theobald died, in 1161, King Henry II. 
 resolved to raise his esteemed chancellor 
 to the vacant see. Only at the instance 
 of the legate, Cardinal Henry of Pisa, 
 Thomas at last yielded in accepting the 
 dignity and was consecrated in 1162. 
 From that time he became a strong advo- 
 cate of the Church's rights, defending her 
 against the king, who aimed at the com- 
 plete subjection of the hierarchy to the 
 Crown. He refused to consent to the 
 constitutions of the Council of Clarendon, 
 which restrained the jurisdiction of the 
 bishops and attempted to bring the clergy 
 under secular jurisdiction. After a fruit- 
 less resistance, Thomas was persuaded to 
 sign the constitutions. Soon after, how- 
 ever, he repented of his condescension and 
 withdrew his assent. Henry cited him 
 before a Council at Northampton to an- 
 swer for the charge of high treason. In 
 this struggle for the liberties of the 
 Church, Thomas stood alone ; he was de- 
 serted even by his brother bishops. See- 
 ing that the king was determined to crush 
 
Thomas a Kempis 
 
 68 1 
 
 Thomism 
 
 him, he appealed to the Pope, and then, 
 secretly leaving the kingdom, fled to 
 France for shelter. Henry confiscated the 
 property, and banished all the kindred 
 of the fugitive archbishop. From France, 
 Thomas went to Rome, where Pope Alex- 
 ander III. received the saint with every 
 mark of respect and veneration. Anxious 
 to end the quarrel. Pope Alexander made 
 every possible effort to accomplish a rec- 
 onciliation between the English King and 
 the Primate. King Louis of France did 
 the same. Finding all efforts fruitless, 
 the Pope, at last, gave permission to em- 
 ploy the weapon of ecclesiastical censures 
 against his persecutors. Accordingly, at 
 Vezelay, in 1166, the Primate solemnly 
 condemned the constitutions of Claren- 
 don, and excommunicated all advisers and 
 supporters thereof, and all invaders of 
 Church property. Fearing that the Pri- 
 mate would lay the kingdom under an in- 
 terdict, Henry began, at last, to show a 
 sudden desire for peace. Thomas returned 
 to England, where he was greeted by the 
 people with transports of joy. He had 
 received letters from the Pope, suspend- 
 ing and excommunicating three prelates. 
 The conduct of these bishops obliged the 
 Primate to carry out the Pope's inten- 
 tions. When Henry heard of this, he 
 broke out into one of his usual fits, say- 
 ing: "Is there no one to rid me of that 
 troublesome priest ? " Four knights, act- 
 ing on these words, immediately set out 
 for England, and murdered the holy arch- 
 bishop, Dec. 29th, 1 170. Thomas was 
 canonized in 1172, and in 1220 his remains 
 were removed to Trinity Chapel, where 
 they were for several centuries, the object 
 of pilgrimages. Henry VIII. destroyed 
 the Chapel, and burned and scattered his 
 bones. 
 
 Thomas k Kempis. See A Kempis. 
 
 Thomas of Celano. — A native of Celano, 
 southern Italy, and, about 1221, general of 
 the Franciscan Order in Germany, is gen- 
 erally recognized as the author of the 
 oldest biography of St. Francis of Assisi, 
 and of the celebrated hymn or Sequence 
 Dies tree, dies ilia. 
 
 Thomas of Villanova (St.) (1488-1555). 
 — Prelate, born at Fuenlana (Leon), Spain, 
 died at Valencia. Professor in the Uni- 
 versities of Alcala and Salamanca ; Augus- 
 tinian religious, preacher at the court of 
 Charles V., Archbishop of Valencia, in 
 
 1545, merited the glorious surname of 
 " Father of the Poor." 
 
 Thomism. — Doctrine of St. Thomas 
 Aquinas. Theological and philosophical, 
 it comprises the method, the theodicy, 
 metaphysic, psychology, and moral. I. 
 Ordinary Thomistic Method. — i. St. 
 Thomas always starts by metaphysical 
 questions and only finally arrives at the 
 point of fact and detail. Proceeding he 
 naturally draws the conclusion from the 
 method he has followed ; he employs the 
 syllogistic and deductive method, a method 
 whose model and type we find in his Sum 
 of Theology. II. Theodicy. — Existence of 
 God ; divine attributes ; relations to God 
 and the world, i. Existence of God. St. 
 Thomas proves the existence of God by the 
 movement, existence, gradation, and order 
 of the contingent beings, by the traces of 
 intelligence found even in the unreasonable 
 beings. He does not separate the will 
 from the other divine perfections ; reject- 
 ing the error of those who attribute the 
 creation to an arbitrary decree, he con- 
 siders the world and the laws that govern 
 it, as a manifestation of the wisdom and 
 goodness of the First Cause. He puts the 
 question what God is, or rather what He 
 is not. 2. Divine attributes. As to the 
 essential nature of God, St. Thomas, like 
 Plato, subordinates the will to the intelli- 
 gence; the philosophy of St. Thomas was 
 the philosophy of intelligence and of rea- 
 son, while Duns Scotus founded his upon 
 the will. Man, it is true, cannot know the 
 divine essence; however, he can, even by 
 his sole natural powers, know the attributes 
 essential to the Deity, understanding, will, 
 science, activity, and liberty. God know- 
 ing Himself, knows at the same time with- 
 in Himself the beings that are not Him. 
 For us, we know in time; but God per- 
 ceives all things all at once, from all eter- 
 nity; for Him there is neither past nor 
 future. The first object of the will in God 
 is His own essence. This will, in so far as 
 it exercises itself outside of Him, is essen- 
 tially free. God was not under the neces- 
 sity to will His creatures. He wills them 
 only on account of their relations in so far 
 as they contribute to the general good of 
 the universe ; this will is not arbitrary, 
 but always exercises itself according to the 
 order of His wisdom ; the same holds good 
 in regard to His power, which implies no 
 contradiction. 3. Relations of God with 
 the world. God is the creator and preserver 
 
Thomism 
 
 682 
 
 Thomism 
 
 of the world. God is present in the world 
 and distinct from the world. God has cre- 
 ated the world willingly and ex nihilo. This 
 nothingness is neither the matter, nor the 
 cause of the creation, it is only the simple 
 relation of time : the being succeeded 
 nothingness, like day succeeds the dawn. 
 God creating the world had to create it per- 
 fect, in its whole and in its parts. Thus, 
 concludes St Thomas, a natural justice pre- 
 sides at the creation and propagation of the 
 beings. Here the question of the eternal 
 creation presents itself. Creation is not a 
 question of science, for human reason, 
 which can destroy the arguments contrary 
 to the dogma, cannot, however, establish 
 its dogma directly. Creation is an object 
 of faith. God, absolutely speaking, could 
 have created from all eternity. In regard 
 to the preservation of the world, St. 
 Thomas arises against the system, accord- 
 ing to which the creatures would be de- 
 spoiled of all real activity. In regard to 
 the question of the will and its relations 
 with the action of the almighty power. St. 
 Thomas wished, in his theory of the phys- 
 ical premotion or natural predetermination, 
 to reconcile the liberty with a sort of de- 
 terminism. This theory consists in main- 
 taining that the sovereign and irresistible 
 impulse of the Divine will, may obtain 
 from the human will acts which neverthe- 
 less remain free, for " God moves all the 
 beings conformable to their nature " ; and 
 since, if He moves the natural causes. He 
 does not hinder the acts to be unnatural ; 
 so also if He acts on the voluntary causes. 
 He does not hinder their actions to be 
 voluntary : thus I am naturally moved be- 
 forehand, as the word premotion indicates, 
 I am predetermined, but predetermined to 
 act freely. Always the questions remain : 
 How our acts can be at once necessary and 
 free? What constitutes the proper and 
 distinct existence of each being ? Since St. 
 Thomas, philosophy has made great prog- 
 ress in the study of the will ; having only 
 an imperfect knowledge of this faculty, St. 
 Thomas could not have an adequate idea 
 of the principle of individuality. Duns 
 Scotus was the first who preoccupied him- 
 self with this principle. The solution of 
 this problem was the consequence of the 
 dispute between the Realists and Nomi- 
 nalists. To discover the nature of the 
 universal ideas, they had to inquire at the 
 same time about the nature of the indi- 
 vidual existences. According to Duns 
 Scotus, the individuality is the principle 
 
 of the action, and, consequently, the will is 
 the foundation of the being and not reason, 
 chained to its unchangeable forms and sub- 
 ject to determination and necessity, as the 
 Thomists maintain. According to St. 
 Thomas, on the contrary, the form of the 
 beings, considered independently from all 
 matter, is universal. What, therefore, 
 constitutes the distinction of the indi- 
 viduals.? It is matter where the form 
 manifests itself, that is to say, the limita- 
 tion, the relations in space and time. In 
 the solution which he gives of the problem 
 of evil, St. Thomas shows himself an opti- 
 mist, but not according to the manner of 
 Malebranche and Leibnitz. God's good- 
 ness is not tied to the production of the 
 actual world ; but the actual world, such as 
 it is, is the most faithful expression of the 
 designs of the Creator; no hand could add 
 to the perfection of one single being with- 
 out troubling the harmony of the whole. 
 III. Metaphysic. — Metaphysic has for ob- 
 ject the being in so far as being. There 
 are two kinds of beings: the beings really 
 existing, that is, objectively {esse in re), 
 and the beings which are only abstractions 
 of the mind, like poverty, blindness, the 
 defect in general, which are entta but not 
 essentice. The essences are simple or com- 
 posed ; there is only one simple essence or 
 pure form without mixture of matter, this 
 is God. All the rest is composed of form 
 and matter, both of beings {eniia). The 
 form is in actu and matter in potentia. It 
 is the form that gives the being ; it is sub- 
 stantial or accidental. The union of mat- 
 ter and form is the substantial or acci- 
 dental generation; the diversity of the 
 forms constitutes the kinds, the species 
 and the individuals. IV. Thomistic Psy- 
 chology. — St. Thomas, like Descartes, ad- 
 mits only one principle for thought and 
 life. He is inclined to derive all our 
 knowledge from sensible experience ; he 
 admits, however, the first notions, which 
 are the basis of reasoning ; he forcibly de- 
 fends, against Averroism, the personality, 
 the activity, and liberty of the thinking 
 subject. The starting point of knowledge 
 is the sensible perception by the means of 
 the five faculties ; the exterior senses, the 
 common sense, judgment, imagination, and 
 memory. Above the sensible perception 
 is the understanding, which is peculiar to 
 man. The Thomistic psychology does not 
 behold any difference of nature between 
 passion and will ; both enter the appetitive 
 faculty; thus will and liberty are one and 
 
Thomism 
 
 683 
 
 Tiberias 
 
 the same power diversely applied. The will 
 attaches itself to the general good, liberty 
 to the particular good. V. Thomistic 
 Moral. — The moral, in St. Thomas, is 
 equally connected with the intellectual 
 and rational principles. He acknowledges 
 an eternal law which has its foundation in 
 divine reason, a law which is the origin 
 and basis of all others. The civil law "is 
 an order of reason imposed for the com- 
 mon good." The essential attribute of 
 the sovereignty is the power to make laws 
 (Sum. 1-2, 90, 4), and this power belongs 
 to the people or to its representatives. If 
 the power be unjust, the subjects have the 
 right to reject it. The tyrannical govern- 
 ment is not just, because it is not ordained 
 for the common good, but for the good of 
 the one who governs (Sum. 1-2, 105, i, 2-2, 
 42, 3). St. Thomas upheld a correct 
 medium between the principle of authority 
 and liberty, by leaving the predominant 
 role to the first. His system is a learned 
 organization which expresses, even in 
 philosophy, the Catholic organization and 
 discipline. 
 
 Thomism, they also called the school 
 founded by Banez, Dominican (died, 1604). 
 It claims to rest on the authority of St. 
 Thomas; represents that there are two 
 species of grace, the one which is given 
 more abundantly than the other. To the 
 first the much-abused name of sufficient 
 grace is given : this makes it possible for a 
 man to do the salutary act, but if no more 
 be given, he will not use the grace offered. 
 But so often as, in virtue of a Divine de- 
 cree of premotion, the act is to be done, 
 then the second kind of grace is given, and 
 the act is done under its influence, for 
 which reason it is said to be efficacious. 
 Billuart was the leading supporter of this 
 view. 
 
 Three Chapter Controversy. See Chap- 
 ters. 
 
 Thummim. See Urim. 
 
 Thurible. See Censer 
 
 Thurificati, they called those Christians, 
 in the early Church, who, during persecu- 
 tion, had offered incense to pagan deities. 
 
 Thursday (//o/y) . — The Thursday before 
 Easter. On this day only one Mass can 
 be said in the same church, and that Mass 
 must be a public one. The Mass is cele- 
 brated in white vestments, because the in- 
 stitution of the Eucharist is joyfully 
 
 commemorated, but at the same time there 
 are certain signs of the mourning proper 
 to Holy Week. The bells, which are rung 
 at the Gloria, do not sound again till the 
 Gloria of Holy Saturday, and the Church 
 returns to her ancient use of summoning 
 the Faithful or arousing their attention by 
 a wooden clapper. Nor is the embrace of 
 peace given. The celebrant consecrates 
 an additional host, which is placed in a 
 chalice and borne in procession, after the 
 Mass, to a place prepared for it. The 
 "Pange Lingua^^ is sung during the pro- 
 cession, and the place to which the 
 Blessed Sacrament is removed — often 
 called the sepulchre, but properly the re- 
 pository — is decked with flowers and 
 lights. Afterwards the altars are stripped, 
 to remind the Christians of the way in 
 which their Master was stripped of His 
 garments. In some churches, the priest or 
 prelate, assisted by deacon and subdeacon, 
 washes the feet of twelve poor men, in 
 imitation of our Saviour who washed the 
 feet of His Apostles. Since the seventh 
 century the holy oils, formerly consecrated 
 at any time, have been blessed by the 
 bishop in the Mass of this day. See Holy 
 Week. 
 
 Thyatira. — Ancient city of Lydia, in 
 Asia Minor, near the river Lycus, between 
 Sardis and Pergamos, founded bySeleucus 
 Nicator. Dyeing was an important branch 
 of its business. Here the Christians estab- 
 lished one of their first churches. 
 
 Tiara. — 'The triple crown of the Pope, 
 which is considered to be symbolical of 
 his temporal, as the keys are of his spirit- 
 ual authority. It is composed of a high cap 
 of gold cloth, encircled by three coronets, 
 with a mound and cross of gold on the 
 top. From the cap hang two pendants, 
 embroidered and fringed at the end. The 
 original Papal crown consisted of the 
 cap alone, and was first used by Pope 
 Damasus II., in 1048. Pope Boniface 
 VIII. added the second crown and Bene- 
 dict XII. the third. Hence it was only in 
 the fourteenth century that the Tiara ob- 
 tained its actual form. 
 
 Tiberias. — An ancient town in Pales- 
 tine, situated on the western shore of the 
 sea of Galilee, in the tribe of Zabulon, 
 seventeen miles east-northeast of Nazareth, 
 the modern Tabariya. It was founded by 
 Herod Antipas in the first half of the first 
 century a. d. Population 3,000. 
 
Tiberias 
 
 684 
 
 Titus 
 
 Tiberias (Sea of). See Genesarkth. 
 
 Timothy (St.). — Disciple of St. Paul, 
 bishop of Ephesus and martyr, died in 97. 
 Born at Lystra, Lycaonia; attached him- 
 self about the year 51 to St. Paul, who as- 
 sociated him in all his apostolic labors; 
 became the first bishop of Ephesus in 65, 
 where, being opposed to the celebration of 
 a feast in honor of Diana, he was stoned. 
 We have two Epistles of St. Paul to 
 Timothy. F. Jan. 24th. 
 
 Tithes (from the Lat. decimus, tenth). 
 — The Israelites were subject to three 
 kinds of Tithes : the lit/ie of the Levites, 
 which had to be paid under pain of death ; 
 the tithe of all revenues, payable at Jeru- 
 salem and applicable to the expenses while 
 stopping in the city ; the tithe of the poor, 
 payable every third year, even by the 
 Levites, but which fell into disuse. Among 
 the first Christians it was a duty of con- 
 science to support the priests, and this duty 
 soon became a canonical law and during 
 the time of Charlemagne it became a State 
 law, under the form of tithe. Limited at 
 first to the crops, it was soon extended to 
 cattle, products of labor and commerce 
 (Council of Aries, 813), then the soldier 
 and artisan became subject to it (Council 
 of Trosly, 909). The obligation of the 
 tithe was absolute ; only the Crusaders 
 were excepted. In England and Ireland, 
 the tithes still constitute the salary of the 
 clergy, but are no longer paid in natural 
 products. Their value was fixed in 1835, 
 after an estimation of the crops, figured on 
 an average of seven years and amounting 
 to about forty million dollars. 
 
 Title {Catholic). — According to the or- 
 der of precedence to which dignitaries in 
 the Church are entitled, the following are 
 the ecclesiastical titles in use and the forms 
 of address proper to the several dignitaries : 
 The Pope is called "His Holiness," and 
 addressed " Your Holiness," or '* Holy 
 Father." A Cardinal is entitled "His 
 Eminence, " and addressed in letters, 
 " Most Eminent and Most Reverend Sir." 
 If a Cardinal is also a bishop of some resi- 
 dential see, the address may be, "To His 
 
 Eminence, Cardinal , Bishop of 
 
 ." A Patriarch is entitled "His 
 
 Excellency, the Most Reverend A 
 
 B , Patriarch of ." The Vice- 
 Chamberlain of the Holy Roman Church, 
 the Auditor of the Camera and the Major- 
 Domo of His Holiness have the same title 
 
 and address. Custom has sanctioned a 
 similar form for Papal Nuncios and 
 Delegates Apostolic, though in practice 
 of the Roman court they are addressed 
 like an archbishop or bishop, the words 
 used being Amplitudo Ttia, " Your Gran- 
 deur," " Your Lordship," " Your Grace." 
 A letter to them is begun " Most Illustri- 
 ous and Most Reverend Sir," or " Your 
 Excellency." An Archbishop, or Bishop, 
 is entitled " His Grandeur," " His Lord- 
 ship," " His Grace," in Latin Amplitudo, 
 and, in this coutry, the archbishop is ad- 
 dressed "The Most Reverend A 
 
 B , Archbishop of ." A bishop 
 
 "The Right Reverend - 
 
 — , Bishop of 
 
 ." However, P. A. Baart claims 
 
 that it is an abuse to call a bishop " Right 
 Reverend," and he wants both a bishop and 
 archbishop to be addressed " The Most 
 Reverend." So, also, this same author 
 claims that the letters D. D. (Doctor of 
 Divinity) to a bishop's name, is not only 
 against Roman practice and condemned 
 by the best authorities, but is, moreover, 
 redundant, for the reason that a bishop is 
 ex officio a teacher of divinity. A Vicar 
 General is entitled " The Very Rever- 
 end " ; Abbots or inferior Prelates are 
 called " Most Reverend Father Abbot." 
 The Latin is Reverendissimus, which word 
 by custom has been rendered " Right Rev- 
 erend " in English. Roman Prelates, con- 
 sisting of pronotaries apostolic, domestic 
 prelates of the Pope, private chamberlains 
 of the Pope, are entitled " Monsignor." 
 Diocesan Dignitaries and other inferior 
 dignitaries are entitled " Very Reverend,'* 
 and addressed "Very Reverend Father" 
 or " Very Reverend Sir." A Prtest is 
 entitled "Father" or "His Reverence" 
 and addressed " Reverend Sir "or" Rever- 
 end Father." A Doctor's degree "D. D " ;■ 
 "LL. D."; "Ph.D."; etc., entitles the 
 holder to be addressed as "Doctor." 
 
 Titular Bishop. — His Holiness Leo 
 XIII., by a decision given several years 
 ago substituted the phrase " titular bishop" 
 for " bishop in partibus,'' which applies to 
 such bishops that have jurisdiction over 
 certain countries where no longer any, or 
 very few Catholics are found, partes in- 
 fdelium. 
 
 Titus (St.). — Titus was a Greek by 
 birth and the son of gentile father and a 
 Jewish mother. He accompanied St. Paul 
 to Jerusalem to the Council, and on his 
 various extensive journeys, and was finally 
 
Tobias 
 
 685 
 
 Toleration 
 
 established hy him, Bishop of Crete, about 
 the year 62. He died about 105, at the ad- 
 vanced age of 94 years. St. Paul wrote an 
 Epistle to him, which contains instructions 
 for his disciple. F. Jan 4th. 
 
 Tobias. — Name of two Jews, the father 
 and the son, of the city of Cades, in the 
 tribe of Nephtali. Both led away into 
 captivity to Ninive by Salmanasar, re- 
 mained there faithful to the law of Moses. 
 The father, attached to the house of Sal- 
 manasar, out of favor by Sennacherib, on 
 account of his attachment to the faith of 
 his Fathers and his zeal in relieving his 
 compatriots, assisting the one, consoling 
 the others, burying the dead, he was obliged 
 to hide himself to save his life. He reob- 
 tained his goods at the death of Sennacherib 
 (712 B. c), but lost his eyesight. Believ- 
 ing his death to be near, he charged his 
 son to go to Rages, Media, to claim from 
 his relative Gabelus ten talents of silver. 
 Led by the angel Raphael, who had as- 
 sumed the figure of a young man, the 
 younger Tobias happily accomplished his 
 voyage. At Ecbatana he married his 
 cousin Sara, daughter of Raguel, who was 
 delivered from a demon, thanks to the 
 counsels of Raphael. On his return, fol- 
 lowing the advice of the angel, he restored 
 his father's eyesight, by rubbing the eyes 
 with the gall of an enormous fish, which 
 he had captured in the Tigris. The elder 
 Tobias died at Ninive, at an age of 102 
 years; his son retired to his father-in- 
 law at Ecbatana, and died there at the age 
 of 99 years. 
 
 Tobias {Book of). — One of the Deu- 
 terocanonical Books of the Old Testament. 
 The Jews did not accept it among the 
 canonical books, because it was not writ- 
 ten in Hebrew. It was translated into 
 Latin by St. Jerome after a Chaldaic ver- 
 sion. According to the general opinion, 
 the two Tobias wrote the book which car- 
 ries their name until the account of the 
 death of Tobias the Younger, an account 
 which very probably, was added by one 
 of his relatives. 
 
 Toleration {Religious). — Very often 
 our Protestant brethren tell us that the 
 Catholic Church is and was, at all times, 
 very intolerant. But we may ask, what 
 was the teaching of the Reformers on this 
 head.? Did not they follow the very 
 maxim that Protestants of to-day censure 
 so severely.? Did not Luther find his 
 chief delight in cursing the Pope? Did 
 
 he not call upon Christians '* to seize the 
 Pope, and all the popish entourage of 
 idolatry .? to tear out the tongues of the ac- 
 cursed crew by the roots?" To pitch 
 into the sea " all the hateful scoundrels, 
 bag and baggage — Pope, and Cardinals, 
 and the whole papal rabble?" Kohler 
 cooly remarks : *' Luther, as well as the 
 whole age of Reformation, had not dis- 
 covered the golden means between the 
 principle of liberty of conscience and the 
 moral duty of rulers to protect religion ; 
 hence it is not to be wondered at, if he has 
 strongly contradicted himself on this 
 point." Luther, Brenz, Bucer, Capito, 
 teach that all heretics should be extirpated, 
 and the " meek and gentle " Melanchton 
 seeks to defend this doctrine. Dollinger, 
 an unprejudiced witness, thus writes : 
 " The Protestant theory of the absolute 
 authority of the State in ecqlesiastical 
 matters made it impossible for the civil 
 power to be tolerant. Historically, noth- 
 ing can be less true than the assertion that 
 the Reformation was a movement in favor 
 of liberty of conscience. The precise con- 
 trary is the truth. Lutherans and Calvin- 
 ists, indeed, like all men in every age, 
 claimed liberty of conscience for them- 
 selves, but it never occurred to them, when 
 they had the upper hand, to extend it to 
 others. The complete suppression and 
 extirpation of the Catholic Church was 
 the goal of all the Reformers. From the 
 very first they called upon princes and 
 magistrates to abolish by force the ritual of 
 the ancient Church. In England, Ire- 
 land, Scotland, and Sweden, they pro- 
 ceeded to such extremes as to punish 
 every exercise of the Catholic religion 
 with death." Were authentic statistics 
 forthcoming as to the number of those 
 who suflFered for the Catholic faith in 
 these countries, the number of victims, 
 would at the very least, be as great as 
 those who suffered, often on purely secu- 
 lar grounds, at the hands of the Inquisi- 
 tion. (See this word.) 
 
 Did not something similar take place in 
 our country? Maryland was to be some- 
 thing more than a Catholic colony. It 
 was to be *' a free soil for Christianity." 
 Lord Baltimore purposed to make all 
 creeds equal in his province. To this 
 '* Land of the Sanctuary," therefore came 
 the Puritans who were whipped and op- 
 pressed in Anglican Virginia, and the 
 Quakers and Prelatists who fled from Puri- 
 tan New England. The Maryland Catholics, 
 
Toleration 
 
 686 
 
 Toleration 
 
 however, were ill requited for their magna- 
 nimity by their Protestant guests. Allying 
 themselves to Clay borne, the sworn enemy 
 of Baltimore, the ungrateful Puritans, in 
 1645, raised an insurrection against the 
 Catholics and their governor, and made 
 themselves masters of the province. The 
 Jesuit missionaries were sent in chains to 
 England, and many Catholics were de- 
 prived of their possessions and banished. 
 "The Puritans," says Bancroft, ''had 
 neither the gratitude to respect the rights 
 of the government by which they had been 
 received and fostered, nor magnanimity 
 to continue the toleration to which alone 
 they were indebted for their residence in 
 the colony." After the execution of 
 Charles I., the Puritan faction hastened to 
 espouse the fortunes of Cromwell. They 
 rose against and deposed the governor ap- 
 pointed by Lord Baltimore, and estab- 
 lished a government of their own liking, 
 one of whose first acts was to revoke the 
 Toleration Act. The Provincial Assembly, 
 called together in 1654, from which Cath- 
 olics were rigidly excluded, passed an act 
 concerning religion which declared that 
 " none who professed and exercised the 
 Popish (commonly called the Roman 
 Catholic) religion, could be protected in 
 the province, but to be restrained from 
 the exercise thereof." On the restora- 
 tion of the monarchy in England (1660), 
 Lord Baltimore regained his rights as 
 proprietor, and the Toleration Act was re- 
 vived to its fullest extent. Peace and 
 tranquillity once more reigned in Mary- 
 land, and remained undisturbed until the 
 accession of William and Mary (1688), 
 when the Puritans, under Coode, for the 
 third time rose in arms, formed an "As- 
 sociation for the defense of the Protestant 
 religion," and abolished the authority of 
 Lord Baltimore. Maryland became and 
 remained a royal province for a quarter of 
 a century. The Maryland Catholics now 
 entered on a period of great trial. Reli- 
 gious liberty and political equality of all 
 Christians were abolished. In 1692, the 
 colonial Legislature declared the Church 
 of England to be the established religion 
 of Maryland ; disfranchised Catholics and 
 compelled them to pay tithes for the sup- 
 port of the Anglican Establishment. By a 
 law passed in 1702, all Protestant dissenters 
 ■were entitled to the full benefit of the acts 
 of toleration passed under William by the 
 English parliament. But this grace was 
 strictly withdrawn from Catholics, who 
 
 had been the first to grant toleration to 
 other people. In 1704, an "Act to prevent 
 the increase of Popery in the Province," 
 forbade all bishops and priests to say Mass 
 or exercise any functions of their ministry 
 in public, and enacted that any Catholic 
 priest attempting to convert a Protestant, 
 or undertaking upon himself the education 
 of youth, should be transported to Eng- 
 land, that he might there undergo the 
 penalties which English Statutes inflicted 
 on such actions. Catholics could hear 
 Mass only in their own houses, and it was 
 only under this restriction that Catholic 
 worship could be practiced in Maryland for 
 a period of seventy years. Another law 
 declared Catholics incompetent to pur- 
 chase lands, or to take lands by inheritance, 
 and, moreover, provided that a Catholic 
 child, by becoming a Protestant, could ex- 
 act his share of property from his parents 
 "as though they were dead." Catholics 
 were taxed twice as much as Protestants. 
 A law passed, in 1615, placed " Irish Pa- 
 pists " on a footing with negro-slaves and 
 imposed a tax on the importation of serv- 
 ants from Ireland "to prevent importing 
 too great a number of Irish Papists into 
 the Province." 
 
 Anti-Catholic legislation was not con- 
 fined to Maryland ; the penal laws of the 
 other colonies against the Catholics were 
 equally, if not more, severe. In Virginia 
 the original settlers, who professed the reli- 
 gion of the English Episcopal Church, 
 embodied in their code all the ferocious 
 laws of the mother country against the 
 Catholics. Attendance at the Anglican ser- 
 vice was compulsory ; nonconformists, in- 
 cluding Protestants of other denominations, 
 were fined or expelled. Lord Baltimore, 
 who, in 1629, visited Virginia on a tour of 
 observation, was promptly ordered to leave 
 because he was a Catholic. A Catholic 
 was not permitted to hold office, to vote or 
 to keep arms; he could not even own a 
 horse worth over £5. An act of 1705, un- 
 paralled in history, declared Catholics in- 
 competent as witnesses, and this fearful 
 law was, in 1753, extended to all cases 
 whatever. The Dutch, who settled in 
 " New Netherland," now the State of New 
 York, were zealous Calvinists, and Calvin- 
 ism was the acknowledged religion of the 
 colony. Yet no special intolerance was 
 evinced towards other creeds. In 16S3, 
 after the country had passed into the hands 
 of the English, a Catholic, Colonel Dun- 
 gan, was appointed governor by the Duke 
 
Toleration 
 
 687 
 
 Toleration 
 
 of York — afterwards James II. — from 
 whom it received its name. Under him 
 the first New York Legislature convened 
 and enacted a "Charter of Liberties," 
 securing freedom of conscience and reli- 
 gion to all peaceable persons who profess 
 faith in God by Jesus Christ. Thus, in 
 New York, also, religious liberty was first 
 proclaimed by Catholics. But the acces- 
 sion of William and Mary to the throne 
 blasted all hopes of the true faith in New 
 York. In 1691, the General Assembly en- 
 acted a law, the so-called •' Bill of Rights," 
 annulling the " Charter of Liberties " of 
 1683, and denying " liberty to any person 
 of the Romish religion to exercise their 
 manner of worship, contrary to the laws 
 of England." By a law passed in 1700 for 
 the purpose of checking the Catholic mis- 
 sions among the Indians, it was enacted 
 that every Jesuit or Popish priest, coming 
 into the province, should be subjected to 
 personal imprisonment, and in case of es- 
 cape and recapture, to the punishment of 
 death. Another law excluded Catholics 
 from office and deprived them of the right 
 to vote. As late as 1778, Father de la 
 Motte was cast into prison in New York 
 for saying Mass. 
 
 The laws of the New England colonies 
 against Catholics were equally severe. 
 By a statute of Massachusetts, passed in 
 1647, " Jesuits and Popish priests," were 
 subjected to banishment, and in case of 
 their return, to death. In Rhode Island, 
 Catholics were excluded from the rights 
 of citizenship. Among the Blue Laws of 
 Connecticut we find enacting that " no 
 priest shall abide in the dominion; he 
 shall be banished and suffer death on his 
 return. Priests may be seized by anyone 
 without a warrant." Although the Puri- 
 tans had fled from England on account 
 of religious persecutions, they refused to 
 grant to others the liberty of conscience 
 which they claimed for themselves. The 
 only approved churches in the New Eng- 
 land colonies were those organized on the 
 congregational system; all others, the 
 English Episcopal Church included, were 
 illegal. None but members of the ap- 
 proved Church could be admitted free- 
 men. To be a freeman one had to be a 
 Puritan. Every year Guy Fawkes Day 
 (5th of November) was celebrated through- 
 out New England by burning the Pope in 
 effigy. George Washington in the begin- 
 ning of the War of Independence, checked 
 *' the ridiculous and childish custom " as 
 
 it was called by him. Religious intoler- 
 ance was carried to such an extent by the 
 New England Puritans, that they actually 
 tormented and even put to death persons 
 holding dissenting doctrines. By a law of 
 Massachusetts, passed in 1657, " Quakers 
 and other blasphemous heretics " were 
 prohibited from emigrating into the 
 colony; if they did, they were to have 
 one of their ears cut off; and for a third 
 offense, they were to have their tongue 
 bored through with a hot iron. In 1629 
 four Quakers were executed on Boston 
 Common. Persons who conformed to the 
 Anglican Church, or who disapproved of 
 infant baptism, were banished from the 
 colonies. Roger Williams, the first of 
 American Baptists, was obliged to flee 
 from Puritan intolerance in Massachusetts 
 on account of his theological views, 
 especially for denying the authority of 
 the magistrates in matters of religion. 
 But New Plymouth disgraced itself es- 
 pecially by the many judicial murders 
 attending the witchcraft frenzy. Four 
 persons were put to death for *' crime of 
 witchcraft," in Massachusetts, in 1645, 
 and three in Connecticut, in 1662. In 
 1692, nineteen of twenty-eight supposed 
 witches, who had been capitally convicted, 
 were hanged in Salem, and one, who re- 
 fused to plead, was pressed to death, while 
 150 persons were in prison on the same 
 charge, and complaints against 200 others 
 had been presented to the magistrates. 
 Most disgraceful, and truly worthy of bar- 
 barians, was the policy that guided the 
 Protestant colonists in their dealings with 
 the aboriginal inhabitants of our country. 
 Populous Indian tribes, who might have 
 been easily won to Christianity and civili- 
 zation, were literally exterminated. In 
 Rhode Island the poor savages were sold 
 like cattle, while in Massachusetts it was 
 the same to shoot a wolf, as an Indian. It 
 is calculated that upwards of 180,000 of 
 the poor savages were slaughtered in 
 Massachusetts and Connecticut alone. 
 While the tribes evangelized by the French 
 and Spanish subsist to this day, except 
 where brought in contact with the English 
 colonists, all the Indian tribes which 
 formerly inhabited the territory of New 
 England have wholly disappeared and 
 exist only in memory. Cf. J. Grahame, 
 History of the United States of North 
 America, Book II. ch. v. Bancroft, II. 564. 
 With regard to the intolerant spirit in 
 other countries see the various articles, 
 
Tonsure 
 
 688 
 
 Tradition 
 
 V. g.. Reformation in England, Scot- 
 land, Germany, Sweden, etc. 
 
 Tonsure. — The candidate for the priest- 
 hood is initiated into the ranks of the 
 clergy by a ceremony, which is called 
 Tonsure. It is thus named, because the 
 hair is cut in the form of a crown, sol- 
 emnly made by the bishop. With it the 
 bishop gives to the candidate the surplice 
 or ecclesiastical dress, to indicate " the 
 putting off of the old, and the clothing 
 with the new man," but imparts no spirit- 
 ual powers. It is a sort of preparation 
 and noviceship for orders, in which per- 
 sons are to strive to render themselves 
 worthy to be elevated to the rank of sa- 
 cred ministers. Hence, it ought to be 
 conferred only on such as have this inten- 
 tion. Whatever was the time and manner 
 of its origin, it is customary in the 
 Church for all who aspire to orders, to 
 commence by receiving the Tonsure. The 
 Second General Council of Nice speaks of 
 it as a thing received in the Church, and 
 some writers date its origin to the time of 
 the Apostles. 
 
 Tractarians(English tract, treatise, little 
 works in which a doctrine is exposed). — 
 Name given to Anglo-Catholics, a new 
 sect which admits the Catholic unity with- 
 out acknowledging the supremacy of the 
 Pope, and which repudiates the alliance 
 of Church and State such as it exists in 
 England. 
 
 Tractus. — In all Masses from Septua- 
 gesima till Holy Saturday, on week days 
 in Advent, and on all vigils, observed as 
 feasts, the Alleluia is omitted, and re- 
 placed by a portion of a Psalm, called 
 Tract (Lat. Tractus), that is, without 
 break or interruption of other voices. 
 
 Tradition (action by which one delivers 
 something to another). — In the theological 
 sense it is a testimony attesting to the 
 truth of a fact, of a dogma, or of a custom. 
 Tertullian (7L»3. de Cor., iv.) defines it: 
 "A doctrine received by living voice and 
 deriving, by way of succession, from the 
 holy Fathers to us " ; according to him, it 
 carries a triple testimony: it is as the in- 
 ventory of Holy Scripture, and at the same 
 time its most authorized commentary, the 
 perpetual custom of the Church confirms 
 it; faith always made use of it as a funda- 
 mental basis. Besides oral tradition, which 
 is tradition, properly speaking, we admit 
 
 also the written tradition. We distinguish 
 again the doctrinal tradition or faith, 
 which disposes in favor of truths that form 
 a part of the dogmas : tradition of dis- 
 cipline and tradition of rites. There are 
 also the divine traditions, the apostolic 
 traditions, and the ecclesiastical traditions. 
 Tradition is, together with Holy Scripture 
 and the decisions of the Church, the basis 
 of the Catholic religion. The great ques- 
 tion between Catholics and Protestants, is 
 to know whether tradition must be consid- 
 ered as rule of faith. From the Catholic 
 point of view, tradition is the constant and 
 perpetual teaching of the universal Church, 
 known through the uniform voice of its 
 pastors which she calls the Fathers; 
 through the decisions of the councils, the 
 practices of public worship, the prayers 
 and ceremonies of liturgy, and even 
 through the testimony of profane and 
 heretical authors. It is tradition, whose 
 deposit has been intrusted to the Church, 
 which makes us accept the canon of the 
 Scriptures and their interpretation. Hence, 
 the Church always protested against hav- 
 ing departed from the sense of the holy 
 Fathers, and never promulgated any 
 dogma which is not conformable with tra- 
 dition. Jesus Christ, having written noth- 
 ing, has established His doctrine solely on 
 preaching. The Apostles founded the first 
 Church, and during a long time it sup- 
 ported itself solely on tradition. Both the 
 Jews and pagans become converted, and it 
 is the unwritten word, that is, tradition, 
 "which has rendered them Christians. Tra- 
 dition has, therefore, been, in the order of 
 time, the first rule of faith of the Chris- 
 tian Church ; it made known to them, in a 
 certain manner, the doctrine of Jesus 
 Christ, His miracles, the miracles of the 
 Apostles and, in general, all the facts that 
 have reference to the establishment of 
 Christianity. Since the beginning of the 
 Church, error was often mingled with 
 truth ; then the Apostles, either by living 
 voice, or by writing, each one individually 
 or united in council, cleared up the facts, 
 refuted the doctrinal errors and always 
 prescribed to the Faithful to keep faith- 
 fully the traditions (II. Thess. ii. 14). 
 Such was the origin of the books of the 
 New Testament; they were the work of 
 tradition. They were originally, according 
 to St. Justin, simple memoirs, addressed 
 to some particular churches, to relate 
 and explain the facts collected by tra- 
 dition. These writings, once admitted 
 
Traditionalism 
 
 689 
 
 Traditionalism 
 
 by the universal Church, became a new 
 rule of faith. Tertullian refutes the 
 erroneous interpretations of the heretics, 
 by simply opposing to them tradition ; 
 it is constant, he answers them, that what 
 is the most ancient is the most true and 
 that what is the most ancient is that what 
 is since the beginning. The Church has 
 always followed this rule : thus when she 
 wishes to solve doctrinal questions, she 
 consults the writings of the holy Fathers 
 and of the holy Doctors, who, in their en- 
 semble, form a chain whose first ring goes 
 back to the apostolic times. The Church 
 also professes that she teaches nothing of 
 herself and that she invents nothing new 
 in the doctrine. The Council of Trent 
 (4th Sess.), has defined, against the Prot- 
 estants, that we must receive and revere 
 the apostolic traditions just like the Sacred 
 Scriptures. The authenticity of the his- 
 torical books can be established only by 
 the authority of tradition, to which we 
 ought to apply the rules of historical 
 criticism. Why, therefore, when there is 
 question of the Sacred Books, ought we to 
 refuse the testimony of the same tradition ? 
 I would not believe in the Gospel, said St. 
 Augustine, if I were not determined to 
 this by the authority of the Christian so- 
 ciety. The Protestants themselves, if they 
 are sincere, are they not forced to avow 
 that when they possess Holy Scripture, 
 they owe this to tradition faithfully pre- 
 served in the Catholic Church.? Vincent 
 of Lerins said that tradition must be pro- 
 gressive, not that the Church can increase 
 the number of truths transmitted by tradi- 
 tion, but, in the sense, that these truths 
 develop themselves successively and, in a 
 given moment, formulate themselves more 
 clearly. We must remark, in fact, that 
 the dogmas of faith have been defined 
 only according to the measure they were 
 attacked by the heresiarchs, and that, in 
 order to define them, the Church acts just 
 the contrary to heresy : Nestorius had 
 maintained that Mary was not the Mother 
 of God, the Church proclaimed in the 
 Council of Ephesus that, henceforth, Mary 
 should be called the Mother of God. At 
 the commencement of the Reformation, 
 when the Protestants had yet preserved 
 most of the fundamental truths of the reli- 
 gion of Jesus Christ, they accepted tradi- 
 tion, at least that of the first five centuries ; 
 but, since that time, they have rejected it 
 entirely and, thereby, have put into ques- 
 tion all the dogmas of faith, and thus 
 
 44 
 
 opened the gate to rationalism. To-day, 
 in face of increasing infidelity, the doctors 
 of the Anglican Church, returning to their 
 first steps, behold only one dam to oppose 
 to the rising flood of impiety, namely, that 
 of tradition ; hence the University of Ox- 
 ford teaches that tradition, in harmony 
 with Scripture, must be considered a rule 
 of faith. 
 
 Traditionalism (attachment to the tradi- 
 tions, to the ancient customs). — Tradition- 
 alism teaches the original dependence of 
 reason and the necessity of a primitive 
 revelation, even before the fall. This doc- 
 trine, without having been condemned by 
 the Church, not even censured like Fide- 
 ism, has been blamed and its principal 
 authors received warnings. Both faith 
 and reason, says St. Thomas, having God 
 for authors, cannot contradict themselves. 
 Reason must demonstrate the truth of 
 faith, uphold and defend it; faith, for its 
 part, must present itself to reason to free 
 it from all error, and to perfect it, through 
 the knowledge of divine things. Thus, by 
 the sole light of reason, philosophy may dis- 
 cover the truths of the natural order and 
 take hold of the testimonies which demon- 
 strate the existence of a supernatural order. 
 But the existence of a supernatural order 
 once established, it cannot, without impiety, 
 maintain that the purely philosophical 
 and natural doctrine gives to men the last 
 word about their destiny, and place hu- 
 man science above revelation. Man has 
 been created good and perfect, in his or- 
 der, but, to use the terms of the school, in 
 fotentia, sed non in actu, as the spiritualists 
 pretend, who say that man has been cre- 
 ated in a state of natural and continued 
 perfection. He has been created, not in a 
 state of absolute perfection, in the best of 
 the worlds possible, as the optimists claim, 
 but in a relative and progressive per- 
 fection (which the traditionalists deny). 
 The system of traditionalism is connected 
 with the question of the supernatural ori- 
 gin of language, propagated by M. de 
 Bonald. Traditionalism destroys the na- 
 ture of man, for it runs counter to the 
 state of primitive perfection. The tradi- 
 tionalists suppose a primordial revelation, 
 in the earthly Paradise. The Church 
 teaches, it is true, that man has never been 
 in a state of pure nature and that at his 
 creation, he was raised to a supernatural 
 order, but this is far from the doctrine 
 of Bonald and Condillac, who deny the 
 
Traditores 
 
 690 
 
 Transubstantiation 
 
 innate ideas and who pretend tliat God did 
 directly transmit to man both thought 
 and language. God had created man per- 
 fect, in his order; according to St. 
 Thomas, he comprises in himself the most 
 perfect degree of life, and when, in the 
 garden of Eden, He communicates with 
 man, it is as with a being already in full 
 possession of the intelligence and word. 
 Thus God does not outline His work, 
 there is no mutilated creation. When ra- 
 tionalism grants too much to reason, we 
 can say that traditionalism does not grant 
 enough to it. There is a certain relation- 
 ship between fatalism which denies the 
 fall, and traditionalism which denies the 
 power of reason. Both derive the ideas 
 from the outside and lead to sensual- 
 ism ; in placing, at the beginning, on the 
 one side, ignorance, and on the other, 
 misery, they destroy or darken the idea of 
 creation and thereby run counter to the 
 true traditions of mankind. 
 
 Traditores. — Name given to those who, 
 in time of persecution, gave up to the offi- 
 cers of the law the Scriptures, or any of the 
 sacred vessels, or the names of their breth- 
 ren. 
 
 Transubstantiation (change of one sub- 
 stance into another). — Before consecra- 
 tion, there is upon the altar only bread 
 and wine. But, through consecration, the 
 word of the Lord made itself heard ; God 
 has spoken through the mouth of His min- 
 ister, and the effect has been produced ; 
 the Lord has ordained, and the prodigy 
 has been operated. After consecration, 
 Jesus Christ is upon the altar. We call 
 this change Transubstantiation, that is, 
 change of one substance into another. 
 The Body of Jesus Christ, present in the 
 Eucharist (see Real Presence), is not 
 present with the substance of the bread, 
 which would be called " Consubstantia- 
 tion"; nor in the bread, which might be 
 named '* Impanation." Consecration re- 
 places the substance of the bread, which is 
 destroyed and changed into the body of 
 our Lord, as the substance of the wine is 
 changed into His blood ; this is what we 
 call Transubstantiation. This truth is 
 proved from the words of the institution 
 of the Eucharist. In fact, Jesus Christ 
 said to His Apostles : This is My Body, 
 •which shall be delivered for you; this is 
 My Blood, the Blood of the New Testa- 
 ment, which shall be shed for many unto 
 remission of sins. Now then, in the body 
 
 which Jesus Christ went to deliver for his 
 Apostles, there was no mixture of bread ; 
 and in the blood which was to be shed, 
 there was no mixture of wine. 
 
 Transubstantiation is a mystery, and per- 
 haps the most astonishing of mysteries ; but, 
 to operate this miracle, an infinite power, 
 the power of God intervenes ; therefore, rea- 
 son can allege nothing against it. Hence, 
 after consecration there is no longer any 
 bread and wine upon the altar; only the 
 species or appearances remain, that is, what 
 appears to our senses, like the color, figure, 
 and taste. The exterior qualities of the bread 
 and wine, that we call species or appear- 
 ances, like the form or figure, the odor 
 and taste, still remain after the consecra- 
 tion. What we see upon the altar has the 
 resemblance of bread and wine, has the 
 taste of bread and wine ; the host is round, 
 is white, like before consecration, but, in 
 reality, there is neither bread nor wine, 
 since through the power of the words pro- 
 nounced by the priest, at the moment of 
 consecration, these two substances have 
 been changed into the body and blood 
 of Jesus Christ. As long as the species or 
 appearances of bread and wine remain in 
 their integrity, the sacrament continues to 
 exist and Jesus Christ is really present : 
 hence the custom of the Church has always 
 been to preserve the Blessed Sacrament for 
 the wants, consolation and happiness of 
 the Faithful. Jesus Christ, being alive in 
 the Eucharist, is whole and entire under 
 the appearance of bread and whole and 
 entire under the appearance of wine. 
 Jesus Christ, in the Eucharist, is alive as 
 He was when He said to His Apostles: 
 This is My Body. Now then, when He pro- 
 nounced these words, His body was united 
 with His soul ; it was also united with 
 His divinity; thus the sacrament of the 
 Eucharist contains not only the body of 
 Jesus Christ, but also His soul and divinity. 
 The body of Jesus Christ is, under the 
 Eucharistic species, a living body; but, 
 that a body may be alive, both the blood 
 and the soul must be united therein ; thus, 
 wherever there is the body of Christ, there 
 are also His soul and His blood ; and, in vir- 
 tue of the ineffable union of the divine na- 
 ture, with the human nature, wherever there 
 is the body, the blood and soul of Jesus 
 Christ, there is also His divinity. When 
 the priest divides the host, he does not 
 divide the body of Jesus Christ, but only 
 the appearances, and Christ remains whole 
 and entire in each particle of the host 
 
Trappists 
 
 691 
 
 Trent 
 
 divided. Jesus Christ raised from among 
 the dead, can die no more; His body, con- 
 sequently, cannot be divided, separated 
 into several parts. Therefore, when the 
 priest divides the host, not the body of 
 Christ is divided, but solely the species or 
 appearances. When the species are di- 
 vided, each particle occupies a less extent, 
 but they are always Eucharistic species ; 
 thus, they still contain the body and blood 
 of Jesus Christ, who is whole and entire 
 under each particle of each species. 
 
 Trappists. — Members of a monastic 
 body, a branch of the Cistercian order. 
 Its name is derived from the village of 
 Soligny-la-Trappe, in the department of 
 Orne, France, where the abbey of La 
 Trappe was founded in 1140 by Rotrou, 
 Count of Perche. The abbey soon fell 
 into decay, and was governed for many 
 years by titular or commendatory abbots. 
 De Ranee (died, 1700), who had been 
 commendatory abbot of La Trappe from 
 his boyhood, became its actual abbot in 
 1664, and thoroughly reformed and reor- 
 ganized the order. The rules of this 
 order are noted for their extreme aus- 
 terity, and inculcate extended fasts, se- 
 vere manual labor, almost perpetual 
 silence, abstinence from flesh, fish, etc., 
 and rigorous asceticism in general. The 
 order was suppressed in France during 
 the Revolutionary and Napoleonic pe- 
 riods. At the fall of Napoleon, Don Au- 
 gustin. Abbot at Val-Sainte, bought La 
 Trappe, and gradually the ancient monas- 
 teries were restored and new ones founded. 
 There are branch monasteries in France, 
 Belgium, Great Britain, Italy, etc., and 
 two in the United States (Abbey of Geth- 
 semane, Kentucky, and Mellery, Iowa). 
 
 Trent {Council of) (1545-1563). — 
 Nineteenth Ecumenical Council, held 
 against Protestantism. At first it had 
 been provoked by the demands of the Prot- 
 estants, who, later on, according to the 
 ordinary proceeding of heretics, refused 
 to submit to it. The Church, by ordain- 
 ing to reform itself in her head and mem- 
 bers, not in denying itself in her essence, 
 but by returning to the primitive spirit, 
 distinguished herself from the so-called 
 Reformation, which, in defiance of all 
 tradition, wished to do away with all the 
 Christian institutions. For some time the 
 need of a General Council had made itself 
 felt, and, already. Pope Clement VII. had 
 projected its holding, from 1530; but the 
 
 wars of Charles V., emperor of Ger- 
 many, and of Francis I., king of France, 
 as well as the invasion of the Turks, de- 
 layed its reunion. After negotiations 
 which lasted ten years, between the Pope 
 and the Emperor, they finally agreed upon 
 an Ecumenical Council to be held at 
 Trent, on Nov. ist, 1542. New difficulties 
 having supervened, this project was pro- 
 rogued until March 15th, 1545. In view of 
 the small number of bishops who indi- 
 cated their presence, the Council could 
 not be opened on the date appointed in 
 the Bull of Pope Paul III. The project of 
 convoking a General Council was assented 
 to by the Catholics, but obstinately op- 
 posed by the Protestants. Assembling at 
 Smdlkald, in 1537, the Lutheran princes 
 drew up the pretexts upon which they re- 
 jected the proposed Council. They were 
 upheld in their opposition by Henry VIII. 
 of England, who refused to acknowledge 
 any synod summoned by the Pope, claim- 
 ing that to princes alone pertained the 
 right of summoning such an assembly. 
 The Peace of Crespy, which put an end to 
 the bloody war between Charles V. and 
 Francis I., at length rendered the Council 
 possible, which Paul had summoned to 
 meet at Trent, a city on the confines of 
 Germany and Italy. The Holy Ecumen- 
 ical Council of Trent opened Dec. 13th, 
 1545. Its 1st Session was devoted to the 
 solemn opening of the assembly and to 
 the formation of the different committees. 
 In the 2d Session (Jan., 1546), a discourse 
 in Latin was held, exhorting the Fathers 
 to sanctify themselves ; decided on the or- 
 der of the questions to be treated by each 
 of the particular or general committees, 
 and passed a decree on the conduct of the 
 Fathers and Faithful during the Council. 
 In the 3d Session (Feb., 1546), the Fathers 
 made a profession of the faith. They also 
 read therein the decree which ordained to 
 inscribe at the head of the acts of the 
 Council the Symbol of Nice and of Con- 
 stantinople. In the 4th Session (April 8th, 
 1546), they treated on the sources of faith. 
 The important decree on Scripture and 
 tradition was adopted. The Council de- 
 clared that it received both the Written 
 Word of God and the unwritten traditions 
 "with an equal affection of piety and rev- 
 erence," and ordained that the Vulgate 
 version should everywhere be accepted as 
 authentic, and that no one should " pre- 
 sume to interpret the Sacred Scriptures 
 contrary to the declared sentiment of the 
 
Trinitarians 
 
 692 
 
 Trinity 
 
 Church, or the unanimous consent of the 
 Fathers." In the 5th session, the doctrine 
 of Original Sin was defined. In the 6th 
 Session, the synod promulgated the cele- 
 brated decree on justification, giving in 
 clear and precise terms the teaching of the 
 Church on that important subject. The 
 Lutheran errors on free-will, grace and 
 justification were condemned in thirty- 
 three canons. The decrees of the 7th 
 Session (March 3d, 1547) defined the 
 Catholic doctrine on the Sacraments 
 in general, and on Baptism and Con- 
 firmation in particular. An epidemic 
 which broke out at Trent, necessitated the 
 removal of the Council to Bologna. But 
 as the imperial bishops refused to leave 
 Trent, the Pope, who had some apprehen- 
 sions of a schism, would not allow the 
 Fathers at Bologna to publish any decrees, 
 and, at length, in Sept., 1547, suspended 
 the Council. Two Sessions, the 9th and 
 10th had been held at Bologna. Pope 
 Paul III. died in Nov., 1549. His successor 
 Julius III. (1550-1555), reopened the Coun- 
 cil at Trent on May ist, 1551. During this 
 second period of the Council, extending 
 from the nth to the i6th Session, the doc- 
 trines of the Sacraments of the Altar, Pen- 
 ance and Extreme Unction were defined, 
 and two reformatory decrees on the jurisdic- 
 tion of bishops and the reformation of the 
 clergy were passed. The war which had 
 broken out between the Protestant princes 
 and the emperor caused the Pope, in April, 
 1552, to suspend the Council for two years. 
 But the time of suspension had to be ex- 
 tended and lasted six years. Pope Pius 
 IV. (1559-1565) again convoked the Coun- 
 cil of Trent, which was reopened, at the 
 17th Session, in January, 1562. The de- 
 crees adopted, during this period of the 
 Council, ordered an " Index of Prohibited 
 Books" to be made, and defined the doc- 
 trines of the Sacrifice of the Mass, of 
 Christian Marriage, of Purgatory, of the 
 Invocation and Veneration of Saints and 
 Holy Images, and of Indulgences. With 
 the 25th Session, the Fathers of Trent con- 
 cluded their labors. The decrees of the 
 Council were signed by 255 Fathers, that 
 is : 4 legates of the Pope ; 2 cardinals ; 3 
 patriarchs ; 25 archbishops ; 168 bishops ; 39 
 representatives of bishops absent ; 7 abbots 
 and 7 generals of religious Orders. Its de- 
 crees were confirmed by Pope Pius IV., in 
 his Bull, "Benedictus Deus,'' Jan. 26th, 
 1564, and were accepted by all Catholic na- 
 tions without restriction. France objected 
 
 to some of the decrees on discipline as being 
 opposed to the liberties of the Galilean 
 Church or to the rights of the Crown. It 
 was only after protracted delays that the 
 disciplinary enactments of Trent were in- 
 troduced in France. 
 
 The Council of Trent must ever be re- 
 garded as one of the most important ever 
 held in the Church. No former synod 
 treated so many important and difficult 
 subjects with such marked ability, and de- 
 fined so many doctrines with such precision 
 and clearness. By its dogmatical defini- 
 tions, it confirmed the Faithful in their 
 adherence and loyalty to the Church, and 
 instructed them in the clearest manner con- 
 cerning many articles of faith. By its disci- 
 plinary enactments, it inaugurated a gen- 
 uine reformation of all classes and awoke 
 new life and zeal in the Church. And 
 though its eflForts to reunite those who were 
 separated from the Church were vain, yet 
 it stamped the new heresies with the seal of 
 condemnation, and thus opposed a power- 
 ful barrier to their further progress. Before 
 the Council, entire nations abandoned the 
 faith of their fathers ; after the Council, no 
 single instance can be adduced of any ex- 
 tensive revolt from the authority of the 
 Church. 
 
 Trinitarians. — Members of a religious 
 order who had for end the redeeming of 
 Christian captives from the hands of infi- 
 dels. This order, founded (1198) by two 
 Frenchmen, St. John of Matha and St. 
 Felix of Valois, had for cradle Cerfroid. 
 Was approved by Innocent III., and counted 
 in the fifteenth century more than 800 
 houses spread all over Christendom. The 
 religious wore a white habit with a red 
 and blue cross on the breast. After having 
 established themselves in Paris, in 1228, in 
 an ancient Benedictine Abbey dedicated to 
 St. Mathurin, they took the name Mathu- 
 rins. The order was driven from Ger- 
 many by the Reformation and counted 94 
 houses in France when it was suppressed 
 in 1789. 
 
 Trinity (one God in three Persons : The 
 Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost). — 
 We unite here, at least as enunciations, the 
 principal dogmatic truths on God. God is 
 the infinitely perfect Being, Creator and 
 Sovereign of all things. God is one, and can 
 be only one ; there is only one God and there 
 can be but one God. God is simple, be- 
 cause He is one ; He is simple because He 
 is not composed ; He is simple, because He 
 
Trinity 
 
 693 
 
 Trinity 
 
 is indivisible ; He is simple, because He is 
 unchangeable; in one word, He is abso- 
 lutely simple in His essence. God, being 
 simple by nature, is thereby also neces- 
 sarily incorporal, immaterial. He is a 
 pure spirit; has no body and does not 
 form part of any body. God is eternal. He 
 is, always has been, and always will be. 
 He had no beginning and will have no end. 
 He is of Himself; He could not give ex- 
 istence to Himself, nor receive it from 
 another. As necessary Being, He is neces- 
 sarily what He is ; whatever we might sup- 
 pose, we cannot conceive Him as not 
 existing. God is eternal, because He is in- 
 finite; He is immense, because His nature 
 is without limits. His immensity com- 
 prises eminently all the existing and pos- 
 sible places, without being circumscribed 
 by space. God is everywhere, He is 
 present to all. He substantially fills every- 
 thing. He penetrates all, without ceasing 
 to be simple, without dividing Himself 
 with the creatures. God is unchangeable; 
 He is the One who is ; He is of Himself ; He 
 is necessarily all that He is, necessarily all 
 ihat can be ; He is independent, of an abso- 
 lute independence, independent from time 
 which He has created and from space which 
 He has formed, independent from all things 
 that are outside of Him, depending Him- 
 self only upon His nature, which is sover- 
 eignly simple, sovereignly indivisible. God 
 is all powerful. Almighty, that is. He can 
 will everything that is not contrary to His 
 nature. God is intelligent and sovereignly 
 intelligent ; having the plenitude of the Be- 
 ing, as necessary Being, He has necessarily 
 the plenitude of intelligence ; all that is God, 
 all that is in God, all that belongs to God, 
 is infinite like God Himself. Hence, God 
 knows all, absolutely all. He knows Him- 
 self; He knows all that exists and all that 
 may exist, all that is and all that may be: 
 the past, the present and the future ; the 
 future things, absolute or conditional. God 
 is sovereignly free. He has the faculty to 
 will or not to will, to act, to do such or 
 such a thing or not to do it, without 
 necessity or restraint. It is a Catho- 
 lic dogma that God is free in regard 
 to the creation and to the government of 
 the universe. God is infinitely wise and 
 infinitely holy. God is sovereignly just, 
 sovereignly good, and sovereignly merci- 
 ful. It is a Catholic dogma that God is the 
 Creator of the universe ; every Christian 
 believes in one sole almighty God, Creator 
 of heaven and earth, of all the visible and 
 
 invisible things. Every Catholic pro- 
 fesses, with the Fathers of the Fourth Gen- 
 eral Council of Lateran, that there is only 
 one God, principle of all things, Creator 
 of the visible and the invisible things, 
 who, by His almighty power, has, at the 
 beginning of time, made from nothing 
 both substances, the spiritual substance 
 and the corporal substance, the angelic 
 substance and the material substance. 
 God has created the angels and man. 
 He created the latter composed of a 
 body and of a soul, after His own image 
 and likeness, spiritual, free, immortal. He 
 created man in the state of original justice 
 and holiness. God occupies Himself with 
 His creatures, and governs the world. 
 Notwithstanding the fall of man, God de- 
 sires to save all men. He punishes those 
 who die impenitent. He rewards the just 
 in another life. The just who have not en- 
 tirely satisfied divine justice, will complete 
 their salvation in purgatory. Finally, in 
 order that man in his entirety may be 
 punished or rewarded, the bodies will rise 
 again and God will judge all men. 
 
 The Mystery of the Blessed Trinity is 
 one sole God in three Persons : the 
 Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost. 
 The Father is God, the Son is God, and 
 the Holy Ghost is God ; and nevertheless 
 they are not three Gods. The three di- 
 vine Persons are only one and the same 
 God, having all three one and the 
 same nature, only one and the same di- 
 vinity. There is only one God ; this truth 
 is the foundation of the Christian faith. 
 But this same faith also teaches us that 
 the unity of God is a fruitful one ; that the 
 divine nature, without ceasing to be nu- 
 merically one, communicates itself by the 
 Father to the Son, and by the Father and 
 the Son to the Holy Ghost. These three 
 Persons are really distinct : the Father is 
 not the Son nor the Holy Ghost; the Son 
 is not the Father nor the Holy Ghost; the 
 Holy Ghost is not the Father nor the Son; 
 but the Person of the Father, and the Per- 
 son of the Son, and the Person of the Holy 
 Ghost, exist in the divine nature, which is 
 one sole and same nature in the three Per- 
 sons. 
 
 Among the ancient heretics, who sepa- 
 rated themselves from the Catholic dogma 
 in regard to the mystery of the Blessed 
 Trinity, we remark in the second and 
 third century, Praxeas of Phrygia, Noe- 
 tus of Ephesus or of Smyrna, Sabellius of 
 Lybia, and Paul of Samosata, bishop of 
 
Trinity Sunday 
 
 694 
 
 Ulfilas 
 
 Antioch ; they rejected the distinction be- 
 tween the three divine Persons. The 
 fourth century saw arise successively, 
 Arius, priest of Alexandria, who attacked 
 the dogma of the Trinity, in attacking the 
 divinity of the Son ; and Macedonius, 
 bishop of Constantinople, who in denying 
 the divinity of the Holy Ghost, denied 
 equally the dogma of the Trinity. These 
 errors were renewed in the sixteenth cen- 
 tury, by the Socinians; and, in modern 
 times, by the Deists and Rationalists who, 
 accepting only reason for guide in matters 
 of religion, absolutely reject all the mys- 
 teries of Christianity. We establish the 
 mystery of the Blessed Trinity by Holy 
 Scripture, the Ancient Fathers, the Coun- 
 cils, and the universal and perpetual belief 
 of the Church. 
 
 Trinity Sunday we call the first Sunday 
 after Pentecost. 
 
 Trisag^on (Gr. thrice holy ^ name given to 
 the hymn Sanctus, Sanctus, Sanctus, called 
 also Cherub Hymn). — This hymn is chanted 
 in the Latin Church on Good Friday, dur- 
 ing the adoration of the cross. It was first 
 introduced, as a public prayer, at Constan- 
 tinople, in the reign of Theodosius the 
 Younger, during the supplications made to 
 God by the whole city to avert the horrors 
 of an earthquake. 
 
 Troas. — A city of Lesser Mysia. It was 
 visited twice by St. Paul and possessed 
 a bishopric from the first century of 
 Christianity. 
 
 Truce of God. — Agreement which the 
 Church established in the eleventh cen- 
 tury, among the fuedal lords, and in virtue 
 of which all hostilities should cease among 
 them, beginning with the eve of Thursday, 
 until Monday morning, through respect of 
 the days on which were accomplished the 
 last mysteries of the life of Christ. 
 
 Trullan Synods. — By the Trullan Syn- 
 ods we understand : i. The Sixth Ecu- 
 menical Council held in the imperial 
 palace in Constantinople, Nov. 7th, 680 to 
 Sept. i6th, 681, so named from the place 
 of meeting, which was a vaulted hall. In 
 this Council the Dogmatic Epistle of Pope 
 Agatho, defining the Catholic doctrine of 
 the two Wills in Christ, were received by 
 the assembled fathers with acclamations 
 as "the voice of Peter." In conformity 
 with the papal letter, the Council con- 
 demned the Monothelite heresy, and ex- 
 communicated the dissenters, with their 
 chiefs. Pope Honorius was also con- 
 demned, not, however, for heresy, but for 
 conniving with heretics ; by his untimely 
 silence, he emboldened the Monothelites. 
 See (HoxoRius II.). 2. The Second 
 Trullan Synod took place in 692, and had 
 been summoned by the Emperor Justinian 
 II. It made celibacy obligatory, only, on 
 monks and bishops. Pope Sergius I. re- 
 fused to sanction this synod. 
 
 Tunic. — The Tunic is a vestment as- 
 signed to the subdeacon in his ministry 
 about the altar. Were the regulations of 
 the Church followed in all their precision, 
 this garment would be longer than, but 
 not so ample as the dalmatic of the deacon. 
 According, however, to a custom which 
 prevails almost everywhere, both these 
 vestments are exactly alike. The Tunic, 
 denominated "Tunicella" by liturgical 
 writers, was also known by the term " Sub- 
 tile." 
 
 Turibius (St.) — Third archbishop of 
 Lima. Died in 1606, and is regarded as 
 the Apostle of Peru. With unwearied zeal 
 he traversed his extensive diocese, to re- 
 vive or propagate religion. The glorious 
 St. Rose of Lima, a Dominican Tertiary, 
 the first canonized saint of America, flour- 
 ished under his episcopate. F. April 27th. 
 
 u 
 
 Ubiquitarians. — Name given to those 
 Lutherans who, to defend the Real Pres- 
 ence of Jesus Christ in the Blessed Eucha- 
 rist, without admitting the transubstantia- 
 tion, maintain that the body of Jesus Christ 
 is everywhere, as well as His divinity. 
 
 Ulfilas. — Apostle of the Goths born 
 310 or 311 in the northern Gothic country 
 
 of the Donau, of Greek Christian parents, 
 whom Goths had carried off from their 
 Cappadocian home ; became Arian bishop 
 in 341. When Athanarich (348) began a 
 persecution of the Christians, Ulfilas, to- 
 gether with Arian Goths, took refuge 
 under the East-Roman emperor, converted 
 many pagan Ostrogoths, and died at Con- 
 stantinople, in 381. Ulfilas rendered him- 
 
Unigenitus 
 
 695 
 
 Unity of God 
 
 self famous by inventing the Gothic char- 
 acters of the alphabet, and by translating 
 the Bible into the Gothic language, the 
 greater part of this work being still extant. 
 
 Unigenitus (Bull). — Constitution of 
 Pope Clement XI. given in the month of 
 September, 1713, and which commences 
 with the words: Unigenitus Dei Filius, 
 and which condemns loi propositions 
 drawn from the book of Pasquier-Quesnel, 
 priest of the Oratory, entitled : "The New 
 Testament translated into French, with 
 moral reflections." These reflections re- 
 duce themselves to sixty heads of doctrine 
 which are so many errors and which had 
 been already condemned in the writings 
 of Bajus and of Jansenius. 
 
 Unitarians (Sectarians) . — Unitarianism, 
 which asserts the unity of persons in God, 
 was first propagated in Poland, whither it 
 had penetrated almost contemporaneously 
 with the heresies of Luther and Calvin. 
 The two most noted Unitarians were the 
 two Italians, Laslius Socinus, who died in 
 1562, and his nephew Faustus Socinus, 
 who died in 1604. They succeeded in 
 elaborating the Unitarian doctrine respect- 
 ing the Trinity into a system, and in form- 
 ing its adherents into a community. 
 Henceforth the Unitarians changed their 
 name for that of " Socinians." Socinian- 
 ism is essentially rationalistic; its funda- 
 mental principle being, that, both in the 
 interpretation of the Scripture and in ex- 
 plaining and demonstrating the truths of 
 religion, reason alone must be consulted ; 
 that, consequently, anything contrary to 
 '♦ Right Reason," that is to say, to the un- 
 derstanding of the Socinians, must not be 
 considered a revealed doctrine. Respect- 
 ing God and the person of Christ, the 
 Socinians hold the Father, 6nly, to be God ; 
 the Son of God to be a mere man, who was 
 conceived by the Holy Ghost, and there- 
 fore called the Son of God ; the Holy 
 Ghost to be a power and eflSciency of the 
 Deity. Christ was, before beginning His 
 public ministry, raised into heaven where 
 He received His commission relative to 
 mankind. They reject the vicarious satis- 
 faction on the part of Christ, and the im- 
 putation of His merits as pernicious to 
 morality. They declare justification to be 
 a mere judicial act of God, whereby man 
 is acquitted and absolved from all guilt ; 
 finally, they deny original sin and the per- 
 petuity of hell-punishment, and teach an 
 annihilation of the damned. 
 
 Unitarianism was introduced into the 
 United States about the end of the eight- 
 eenth century. In 1796 a Unitarian con- 
 gregation was formed in Philadelphia. In 
 1895, there were in the United States and 
 Canada, 455 Unitarian societies, 519 minis- 
 ters, and a total estimate of membership, 
 as given in the tables of the " Independent," 
 of 68,500. 
 
 United Armenians, Copts, Greeks, etc. 
 See ( Oriental) Rites. 
 
 United Brethren in Christ. — A reli- 
 gious denomination founded in the Sus- 
 quehanna Valley, Pennsylvania, in 1800. 
 Its inception was due to Philip William 
 Otterbein, a minister of the German Re- 
 formed Church, and of Martin Boehm, a 
 Mennonite pastor in Pennsylvania, who, 
 in a series of "revival" meetings, drew 
 large accessions to the churches they 
 served. Other Protestant ministers joined 
 Otterbein and Boehm, and with some of 
 their followers met in formal conference 
 at Baltimore, Maryland, in 1789. The 
 fellowship increased until, in 1800, at a 
 conference held in Frederick county, 
 Maryland, it was decided to organize a 
 separate denomination under the title of 
 •' United Brethren in Christ." Their doc- 
 trines were Arminian, the confession con- 
 sisting of thirteen articles, setting forth the 
 general faith of the Methodist Church, 
 belief in the Trinity, the Holy Scriptures, 
 justification and regeneration. In 1889 
 some changes were adopted in the disci- 
 pline, which resulted in a split in the 
 denomination. The two branches have 
 since maintained a separate organization. 
 The membership is strongest in Ohio, In- 
 diana, and Pennsylvania. 
 
 Unity of God. — God is one. He can be 
 only one; there is only one God, and there 
 can be but one God. When Moses pre- 
 sents himself from the part of God before 
 the children of Israel, he says to them : 
 The One who has sent me to you. He does 
 not say : Those who are, but the One who 
 is, the one, the one whose Being is the es- 
 sential, eternal, incommunicable name. "/ 
 am -who am, is my name for all eternity : 
 Ego sum qui sum; hoc nomen mihi est in 
 eternum.^' Also the Lord said to the Jew- 
 ish people: "Consider that I am the only 
 God, and that there is no other God but 
 Me." Such is, besides, the belief of the 
 patriarchs, of the Israelites and Christians. 
 The belief of the different peoples, although 
 
Unity of the Church 
 
 696 
 
 Urban 
 
 altered through the superstitions of pagan- 
 ism, is in accord, as to the unity of God, 
 with primitive tradition. God is the one 
 who is, the one who is through Himself, 
 who necessarily exists, who is independ- 
 ent, infinite, and sovereignly perfect. Now, 
 the one who is through Himself, who neces- 
 sarily exists, who is independent, infinite, 
 sovereignly perfect, is one, and He can be 
 but one. To suppose several infinites, is 
 evidently denying the infinite ; to suppose 
 several beings infinitely perfect, is to deny 
 the sovereign perfection ; to suppose several 
 gods, would, therefore, also be the denial 
 of the Deity: Deus si non unus est, non 
 est, says Tertullian. Finally, the wonder- 
 ful order which reigns in the universe, of- 
 fering to us one of the most striking proofs 
 of the existence of God, offers to us at the 
 same time a no less sensible proof of His 
 unity. Everything, in both the physical 
 and moral world, shows us the unity of 
 thought, the unity of will, and the unity in 
 execution. Now then, this unity necessarily 
 supposes that there is but one supreme in- 
 telligence, only one supreme legislator, 
 only one Providence which governs all, 
 which extends itself over all, and which 
 provides for all. See Trinity. 
 
 Unity of the Church. — It is certain that 
 Jesus Christ speaks of His Church as One. 
 " On this rock I will build my Church " 
 (Matt. xvi. 18), not churches. There can, 
 consequently, be only one society, which 
 is His organ, and represents Him : " One 
 body and one spirit," as ** there is but one 
 Lord, one faith, and one baptism — there is 
 but one God, the Father of us all " (Eph. 
 iv. 5, 6). The unity of the Church is es- 
 sential to its nature and to its end. The 
 Church is the Christian religion embodied, 
 and in action under an exterior visible 
 form. The Christian religion is one, 
 teaches to mankind one faith, aggregates 
 men under Christ, and makes them mem- 
 bers of one household, termed by the 
 Apostles "the house of God." If a per- 
 son is not a member of this one society, he 
 is not in union with Christ, the Head, be- 
 cause the head presides only over the 
 members of the body. The doctrines, the 
 spirit, the virtues of Jesus Christ are with 
 His Church, and cannot be claimed by 
 mere human societies and organizations. 
 Hence all Christendom, except such as 
 from interest or passion were found sep- 
 arated from the society which Christ 
 founded, has subscribed to the declaration 
 
 of St. Cyprian : " He who leaves the 
 Church will not obtain the recompense of 
 Christ. He is a stranger, a profane per- 
 son, an enemy. No one can have God for 
 his Father who has not the Church for his 
 mother" {De Unitate Eccles.). Only one 
 society has inherited the promise, the 
 graces, and the merits of Christ. That 
 society, which was in embryo under the 
 patriarchs, and shown to the world amid 
 types and figures under the Jewish dispen- 
 sation, and in fulfillment of promises and 
 prophecies, was "purchased by the blood 
 of Christ" on Calvary, and being organ- 
 ized under the visible headship of St. 
 Peter, received the Holy Ghost on the Day 
 of Pentecost, in order to become " a city 
 upon the mountain," for the salvation of 
 all the nations upon the earth, is the only 
 society that can truly claim to be the 
 Church of Christ. It is a doctrine of faith 
 that there is only one Church of Christ. 
 The Church is one only, or else there is no 
 Church of Christ, says St. Augustine : 
 Aut una, aut nulla. 
 
 Universalists. — Name given to those 
 among the Protestants who maintain that 
 God gives graces to all men to arrive at 
 salvation. This opinion, which is, they 
 say, that of all the Arminians, is opposed 
 to that of the Calvinists, called by them 
 Particularists, who claim that God by an 
 eternal and irrevocable decree, has pre- 
 destinated certain men to salvation and 
 consigned the others to damnation, without 
 regard to their future merits or demerits; 
 that, consequently. He gives to the pre- 
 destinated irresistible graces by which 
 they infallibly obtain eternal happiness, 
 whereas He refuses these graces to the 
 reprobates, who, for want of assistance, 
 are infallibly damned. The Universalists 
 in the United States trace their origin to 
 John Murray, a native of Alton, England 
 (1741-1815), who came to America in 1770. 
 In 1895 the Universolists in this country 
 counted a membership of 47,986 persons. 
 
 Universities. See Schooi-s. 
 
 Ur. — Locality of Chaldea, country of 
 Abraham and of Thare. They kept up 
 there a sacred fire in honor of the sun. 
 The site of this place is disputed ; the 
 terms of Genesis (xii. 28) do not even per- 
 mit us to decide whether it was a city or 
 a country. 
 
 Urban (name of eight Popes). — Urban 
 I. — Pope in 230. Successor of Calixtus I. 
 
Urias 
 
 697 
 
 URSU LINES 
 
 They attribute to him a letter and some de- 
 crees. Urban II. — Pope from 10S8 to 1099. 
 A most active and influential Pope. He 
 convened no less than twelve Councils. He 
 passed stringent laws, especially in the 
 Council of Melfi, in 1089, against simony, 
 clerical marriage, and lay investiture. To 
 liberate the priesthood from the shackles 
 of feudal servitude, in the celebrated Coun- 
 cil of Clermont, 1095, he passed a canon 
 which prohibited bishops and priests to 
 take the oath of fidelity to either king or 
 layman. He excommunicated Philip I. of 
 France, Henry IV. of Germany, the anti- 
 pope Guibert, and furthered the first Cru- 
 sade. Urban III. — Pope from 1185 to 
 1187. When told of the taking of Jerusa- 
 lem by Saladin, he died of grief. Urban 
 
 IV. — Pope from 1261 to 1264. He insti- 
 tuted the feast of the Blessed Sacrament, 
 whose office he caused to be composed by St, 
 Thomas Aquinas ; deposed Manfred of Sicily 
 and published a crusade against him. Urban 
 
 V. — Pope from 1362 to 1370. Himself a 
 pattern of every virtue, strove to make the 
 papal court a model of Christian life. He 
 was a magnificent patron of learned men, 
 and most liberal to the poor. One of his 
 first cares was to carry on the expedition 
 for the recovery of the Holy Land, begun 
 by his predecessor. Innocent VI. Con- 
 vinced that the residence of the Popes at 
 Avignon was injurious to the interests of 
 the Church, he returned to Rome, in 1367, 
 and was received amid great rejoicings. 
 The factious and turbulent spirit of the 
 Italians induced him to retransfer the papal 
 residence to Avignon, in 1370. Urban VI. 
 — Pope from 1378 to 1389, was a stern re- 
 former, and a man of great merit and in- 
 tegrity, but his seeming harshness and 
 severe reproaches soon alienated from him 
 the minds of the cardinals. A number of 
 them, under the pretext that the election 
 of Urban was void, retired to Anagni, de- 
 clared the Holy See vacant and chose the 
 warlike Cardinal Robert of Geneva, who 
 took the name of Clement VII. Thus be- 
 gan the great schism which divided the 
 Western Church for thirty-nine years (1378- 
 1417). Urban VII. — Pope in 1590, for 13 
 days. He was the successpr of Sixtus 
 V. Urban VIII. — Pope from 1623 to 
 1644, was a man of letters, and an elegant 
 writer and poet, and a generous patron of 
 learning. He enlarged the powers of the 
 Propaganda and founded the college that 
 bears his name, Collegium Urbanum, where 
 young men of every nationality might be 
 
 trained and prepared for the missions 
 among the heathens and heretics. In the 
 Pontificate of Urban VIII., the celebrated 
 case of Galileo occured, which hostile 
 writers have always used to represent the 
 Church as an enemy of science. 
 
 Urias. — Hebrew officer. David having 
 seduced Bethsabee, the wife of Urias, 
 wrote to Joab, his general in chief, to ex- 
 pose him in a battle and allow him to 
 perish, which was executed. David then 
 married Bethsabee. Later on, he sin- 
 cerely bewailed his fault. 
 
 Urim and Thummim. — Breast-plate of 
 the Jewish high-priest and by means of 
 which he gave oracular responses. The 
 true nature of the urim and thummim 
 (literally "lights and perfections") is not 
 known. They seem to have been small 
 objects inside the so-called " breast- 
 plate," which was folded double, and many 
 authorities believe them to have been 
 precious stones or figures, used as lots or 
 otherwise. There is no indication of their 
 use, after the time of David, and after the 
 captivity they are alluded to as lost. 
 
 Ursula (St.). — Virgin and martyr, 
 daughter of a prince of Great Britain, was 
 put to death by the Huns, with a great 
 number of other virgins, at Cologne (383). 
 They show in the Church of St. Ursula of 
 Cologne, not only the tomb of the saint, 
 but also the arrow with which she was 
 pierced, and in the same church are num- 
 berless relics of her companions. F. Oct. 
 
 2ISt. 
 
 Ursulines (members of a religious com- 
 munity). — The Ursulines were at first an 
 association of pious ladies, formed at 
 Brescia about the year 1537, by Angela 
 de' Merici, a native of Desenzano, a town 
 on Lake Garda. This angelic soul, who is 
 better known as Angela of Brescia, found 
 her only joy in communing with God, 
 forgeting self and ministering to the 
 wants of others. In this spirit of self- 
 denial, she gathered about her a few ladies 
 as unselfish and generous as herself, and 
 placing the little band under the patronage 
 of St. Ursula (Nov. 25th, 1535), began the 
 work of reclaiming unfortunate women. 
 The members of the Association, while 
 tending the sick, relieving the poor, in- 
 structing young girls, and doing other 
 works of charity, continued to reside in 
 the homes of their parents and relatives. 
 After the death of the foundress, January 
 
Utraquists 
 
 698 
 
 Vatican Council 
 
 27th, 1540, the Association soon grew to 
 be an Order, and was approved June 9th, 
 1544, by Paul III., who also gave the mem- 
 bers leave to make such changes in their 
 rules as circumstances might require. The 
 leading object of the Order was now the 
 education of young ladies. The organi- 
 zation of the Ursulines being still further 
 perfected by St. Charles Borromeo, their 
 special patron, was again approved by 
 Gregory XIII. From Upper Italy the 
 Order spread to France, where it was in- 
 troduced by the accomplished widow 
 Madeleine de St. Beuve. She established 
 a mother house in Paris, to which many 
 affiliated convents were soon attached. 
 Their Rule, drawn up by Father Gontery, 
 assisted by other Jesuits, and approved by 
 
 Paul v., for the use of the Congregation 
 Regular of Ursulines (1612), was based 
 upon the Rule of St. Augustine, but, in 
 its present form, embraces, besides twenty- 
 five chapters of "Admonitions" and 
 eleven " Legacies," so called because they 
 were drawn from the posthumous writings 
 of St. Ursula of Brescia. From this time 
 forth the education of young girls of every 
 age from childhood up was almost wholly 
 in their hand, and their presence was 
 hailed with joy in every country of Chris- 
 tendom. Before 1789, the Order counted 
 in France more than 300 houses. The 
 Ursulines have many houses in the United 
 States. 
 
 Utraquists. See Hussites. 
 
 Valentinians. — A Gnostic sect, who had 
 for founder a certain Valentinus, an Alex- 
 andrian by birth (died, 161). Valentinus' 
 system of Gnostic ideas is, of all, the most 
 elaborate and ingenious, and his sect was 
 the most widely spread. He asserted 
 ** Gnosis," or knowledge to be superior to 
 faith and good works, the latter being nec- 
 essary to the Psychites, or Catholics, but 
 not to the Gnostics. The doctrine of the 
 Valentinians, concerning the redemption 
 and the person of Christ, was similar to 
 that of the Basilidians. 
 
 Valentinus. — Pope in 827. Died six 
 weeks after his election. He was the suc- 
 cessor of Eugene II. 
 
 Valesians. — Heretics, disciples of Vale- 
 sius, philosopher of Arabia, who appeared 
 about the year 250. Valesius believed that 
 concupiscence acted upon man with such 
 a violence that he cannot resist it, even 
 with the help of grace; and, upon this 
 false principle, he taught that man cannot 
 be saved except he is an eunuch. This sect 
 spread considerably in Arabia. 
 
 Vallombrosa ( Order of) . — A celebrated 
 abbey, in Tuscany, founded in the year 
 1038 by St. John Gualbert, a member of a 
 noble Tuscan family. Our saint had been 
 charged by his father to take a bloody re- 
 venge upon the murderer of his brother 
 Hugh, and, coming up with the object of 
 his search on Good Friday, in a narrow 
 defile, where escape was impossible, he 
 
 made directly for him. The murderer 
 threw himself upon his knees, and, ar- 
 ranging his arms in the form of a cross, 
 besought his antagonist to show mercy out 
 of love of Him who that day suffered for 
 all. From respect for the symbol of sal- 
 vation, and touched with the beauty of the 
 appeal, John not only granted the prayer 
 of the murderer, but took him to his bosom 
 and adopted him in place of the brother 
 he had lost. He then withdrew to pray in 
 the neighboring monastery of San Miniate, 
 and, while kneeling there before a crucifix, 
 saw the figure of our Saviour incline its 
 head towards him. Accepting this as a 
 token of divine approval of what he had 
 done, he at once entered upon an ascetic 
 life, commenced the practice of great 
 austerities, and ended by founding an or- 
 der, whose members were clothed in an 
 ash-colored garment and observed the Rule 
 of St. Benedict in its more severe form. 
 At the death of St. John Gualbert (1072), 
 the community counted twelve monas- 
 teries. 
 
 Vatican Council. — Twentieth General 
 Council and the First Council of the Vati- 
 can. It was convened by Pope Pius IX., 
 by the Bull yEterni Pair is, published on 
 June 29th, 1868, who summoned the Coun- 
 cil to meet at Rome on Dec. 8th of the 
 ensuing year. The chief objects of the 
 Council as stated in the Bull of indiction 
 were : To examine and decree what per- 
 tained to the integrity of faith, and splen- 
 
Vatican Palace 
 
 699 
 
 Vatican Palace 
 
 dor of divine worship; to enforce the 
 observance of ecclesiastical laws ; to efTect 
 a general reformation of customs ; to pro- 
 vide remedies for the ills of both Church 
 and Society; and to bring back to the 
 Church those wandering outside her pale. 
 With this view Pius IX. invited also "all 
 bishops of the Churches of the Oriental 
 rite not in communion with the Apostolic 
 See," and " all Protestants and non-Cath- 
 olics " to attend the Council, exhorting the 
 latter in particular, "to consider whether 
 they were walking in the way marked out 
 by Christ and leading to eternal salvation." 
 When the Council was opened, there were 
 present 719 Fathers, which number in- 
 creased to 769. At the second public ses- 
 sion, on Jan. 6th, 1870, the Pope made his 
 profession of faith, after which all the 
 Fathers followed, declaring at the Chair 
 of St. Peter their adhesion to the one com- 
 mon faith pronounced by the Pastor and 
 Teacher of all. The other constitution, 
 the " First on the Church of Christ," in 
 three chapters treats of the institution, the 
 perpetuity, and nature of the primacy of 
 the Roman Pontiff; the fourth and last 
 chapter defines the infallible teaching of 
 the Pope in matters of faith and morals. 
 On July i8th, the fourth public session was 
 held and the constitution Pater .^ternus, 
 containing the definition of the Papal In- 
 fallibility was promulgated. Of the 535 
 Fathers who were present on this mo- 
 mentous occasion, 533 voted Placet, and 
 two only — one from Sicily, the other from 
 the United States — Anhyvtred JVon-Placet. 
 Fifty-five bishops, who, indeed, accepted 
 the doctrine of Infallibility, but deemed 
 its definition " not opportune," had ab- 
 sented themselves from this session. The 
 Pope sanctioned with his supreme author- 
 ity, the action of the Council, and pro- 
 claimed officially the decrees and canons of 
 the " First Dogmatic Constitution on the 
 Church of Christ." The two above-men- 
 tioned bishops who had voted in the nega- 
 tive, as well as all the others who had ab- 
 stained from voting, or bad been called 
 h£me before the vote was taken, subse- 
 quently sent in their adhesion to the con- 
 stitution. 
 
 On the same day that the Vatican Coun- 
 cil defined the dogma of the Infallibility, 
 Napoleon III. declared war against Prus- 
 sia. The withdrawal of the French troops 
 from Rome and the occupation of that city 
 by the Piedmontese king, Victor Em- 
 manuel, caused the Pope (Oct. 20th) to 
 
 indefinitely suspend the sessions of the 
 Council of the Vatican. 
 
 Vatican Palace. — The Vatican Palace 
 in Rome is the principal residence of the 
 Pope, and the seat of the great library and 
 the museums, and collections of art, an- 
 cient and modern, which, for visitors, con- 
 stitute one of the chief attractions of the 
 city of Rome. The Popes, very soon 
 after the establishment of the peace of the 
 Church under the Emperor Constantine, 
 had a residence at the Vatican, which they 
 occupied, although at certain intervals, 
 conjointly with that of the Lateran. For 
 a long time, however, through the me- 
 diaeval and especially the late mediaeval 
 period, the Vatican appears to have been 
 neglected. It was Nicholas V. who began 
 the systematic scheme for the improve- 
 ment and embellishment of the Vatican, 
 which has resulted in what, taken alto- 
 gether, may be regarded as the noblest of 
 princely residences. The Popes Paul II., 
 Paul III., Sixtus IV., Leo X., Sixtus V., 
 Benedict XIV., Clement XIV., Pius VL, 
 and Pius VII. pursued the same plan. 
 It forms a long square, from the south to 
 the north. It has three stories; they 
 count therein 20 courts, 8 great staircases, 
 200 staircases for service, 13,000 rooms 
 (the underground apartments included). 
 Most remarkable therein is the Sistine 
 Chapel (with the Last Judgment of 
 Michael Angelo) and the Pauline Chapel, 
 which is reached by the royal staircase 
 {scala regia), built by Bernin ; the court 
 of St. Damasus, surrounded on three 
 sides by several portico-stories {loggia), 
 who have given their name to a series of 
 52 paintings called Loggia of Raphael; 
 the Stanza or chambers of Raphael j 
 chambers of the Fire of Bourg (France), 
 of the School of Athens or of the Signa- 
 ture, of Helodorus and of Constantine; 
 the Pinakothek or gallery of tablaus (with 
 the Transfiguration oi Raphael); the gal- 
 lery of the A razzi or tapestries of Raphael ; 
 the Borgia apartment (books and engrav- 
 ings) ; the Chamber of the Aldobrandinian 
 Nuptials (antique paintings) ; the Vatican 
 Library (24,000 manuscripts) ; the Chiara- 
 monti and Pio-Clementino museums (the 
 latter occupying the part of the palace 
 called the Belvedere), which contain the 
 most beautiful antique marble monuments ; 
 several other museums; sacred, profane, 
 Etruscan, Egyptian museums, a stone gal- 
 lery, etc. On the west of the palace is 
 
Vaughan 
 
 700 
 
 Vespers 
 
 situated the great Vatican Garden, with 
 the Pia villa. 
 
 Vaughan (Herbert). — An English Ro- 
 man Catholic prelate ; born at Gloucester, 
 April 15th, 1832. He was educated at 
 Stonyhurst College, and at Rome, where 
 he attended the Accademia Del Nobili Ec- 
 clesiastici ; was ordained priest in 1854, re- 
 turned to England, founded and became 
 president-general of St. Joseph Foreign 
 Missionary College, Mill Hill, Middlesex, 
 and in 1871 accompanied to Maryland the 
 first detachment of priests who were sent 
 on a special mission to the colored popula- 
 tion of the United States. He was elected 
 bishop of Salford in 1872. In March, 1892, 
 he succeeded the late Cardinal Wiseman as 
 archbishop of Westminster, and in 1893 
 was himself created a cardinal. He iden- 
 tified himself with the movement against 
 intemperance, took an active part in the 
 rescue of children and in commercial edu- 
 cation, in the interest of which he built St. 
 Bede's College. He was appointed Pri- 
 mate of the Catholic Church in England, 
 and is the proprietor of the Tablet and the 
 Dublin Revieiv. 
 
 Veil of the Religious. — We distinguish 
 several kinds of veils : the veil of profes- 
 sion, the veil of consecration, the veil of 
 ordination, the veil of prelature, the veil of 
 continence and of observance ; lately they 
 have added the veil of probation, i. The 
 veil of profession is that which is given to 
 the religious when they pronounce their 
 vows. 2. The veil of consecration is that 
 which the bishop gave to the virgins, with 
 certain ceremonies which are no longer ob- 
 served in the ordinary profession and which 
 formerly took place on the day of Epiphany, 
 during the octave of Easter and on the 
 feasts of the Apostles. The bishop gave a 
 ring to the religious who contracted an al- 
 liance with Jesus Christ and observed 
 other ceremonies which are seldom ob- 
 served to-daj', except among the Carthusian 
 nuns, and some others. 3. The veil of or- 
 dination is that of the deaconesses who, in 
 virtue of particular blessings which the 
 bishop gave to them, could solemnly sing 
 the Gospel at matins, but not during high 
 Mass. 4. The veil of prelature or of su- 
 periority was that given to abbesses when 
 they were blessed. 5. The veil of conti- 
 nence and of observance is that which they 
 gave to the widows and married ladies 
 separated from their husbands, and who 
 engaged themselves to pronounce religious 
 
 profession. 6. The veil of probation is the 
 one still given to-day to young novices at 
 their first reception, and which is generally 
 white. 
 
 Veil ( The) in Liturgy. — At solemn high 
 Mass, the subdeacon during the part of the 
 ceremony, has his arms and shoulders muf- 
 fled with a species of scarf of an oblong 
 shape, which is usually composed of the 
 same material as the vestments, and is 
 called Veil. In the primitive ages of the 
 Church, the number of those who partook 
 of the Blessed Eucharist every Sunday, to- 
 gether with the priest was very great, and, 
 in consequence, the paten or sacred disc, 
 from which the sacred species used to be 
 distributed, was so large in its dimensions 
 that convenience required it to be removed 
 from the altar as soon as the oblation had 
 been made, and not brought back until the 
 time for giving the communion to the 
 Faithful. The ''Liber Pontificalis" enu- 
 merates several of these patens or discs of 
 gold and silver, which weighed as much as 
 twenty-five or thirty pounds. See Paten. 
 
 Veronica (St.). — A Jewish woman who 
 wiped the face of our Saviour on His 
 journey to Calvary, with a linen which re- 
 tained our Lord's imprint. This is the 
 chief picture of the Saviour which they 
 call the " Holy Face " or Veronica. It is 
 preserved in the basilica of the Vatican. 
 According to tradition, St. Veronica came 
 into Gaul with St. Martial and St. Ama- 
 tor; assisted them in their apostolic la- 
 bors, and died at Soulac (Gironde), in the 
 year 70. F. Feb. 3d. 
 
 Vespers are the sixth part of the canon- 
 ical hours. Vespers, in the primitive Church, 
 were the prayers which answered to the sac- 
 rifice which, under the law of Moses, they 
 offered at Jerusalem at sunset, and during 
 which they burned incense. The Church 
 does not oblige, in a strict manner, the 
 Faithful to assist at Vespers on Sunday ; but 
 they should make it a duty not to miss Ves- 
 pers, if they wish to keep the Sunday holy. 
 Vespers, undoubtedly, go back to great 
 antiquity in the Church, which has insti- 
 tuted them, according to grave authors, 
 to honor the burial of our Lord and to 
 give an occasion to the Faithful to praise 
 God and to thank Him for the benefits 
 with which He overwhelms us every day. 
 The ancient canons required the Faithful to 
 assist at Vespers, as at Mass, and during 
 many centuries the Faithful assisted at the 
 
Vestments 
 
 701 
 
 Vestments 
 
 evening office as well as at the morning 
 office. To-day, there is no precept in this 
 regard, and it is no sin in itself not to as- 
 sist at Vespers ; but there may be a venial 
 sin in virtue of an ancient and general cus- 
 tom among us, if one omits them without 
 sufficient reason, through negligence or 
 sloth. Also, the Faithful who are anxious 
 to sanctify the day of the Lord, make it a 
 duty not to miss Vespers. We cannot 
 praise enough the conduct of a great num- 
 ber of Faithful who, finding it impossible 
 to assist at Vespers, recite them at home. 
 Although they are not obliged to do this, 
 they cannot fail in acting thus, to draw 
 down upon themselves the blessings of 
 heaven. The Vespers of Sunday, and 
 ordinary holy days of the year, are com- 
 posed of five Psalms and five antiphons, 
 a chapter, hymn, Magnificat, and a 
 prayer. 
 
 Vestments {Sacred). — From the con- 
 current testimony of writers who have be- 
 stowed much laborious research upon the 
 investigation of this subject, it appears, 
 that during the infancy of the Church, the 
 garments worn by her priesthood when 
 employed in offering up the holy Eucha- 
 ristic Sacrifice, were identically the same 
 in form and composed of similar materials 
 with those corresponding articles of dress 
 in the ordinary apparel, adopted by persons 
 of that period. One distinction, however, 
 was observed. The garments once em- 
 ployed in the celebration of the sacred 
 mysteries were forever afterwards exclu- 
 sively appropriated to the same holy pur- 
 pose ; and it was regarded as highly inde- 
 corous, if not a profanation, to alienate 
 them from the service of the altar, and to 
 wear them when otherwise engaged. In 
 ancient, as in modern days, fashion had 
 her waywardness, though her changes 
 were not so sudden nor so capricious as 
 at present. But her innovations were not 
 permitted to invade the precincts of the 
 sanctuary, and the ecclesiastical vestments 
 retained their original form, while the cos- 
 tume of civil society underwent a perfect 
 but gradual transformation. In process of 
 time those garments, which once were uni- 
 versally worn, without regard to age, sta- 
 tion, or employment, by the more respect- 
 able members of society, became peculiar 
 to the servants of the altar. This began to 
 be discernible about the close of the fourth 
 century. From the moment that Con- 
 stantine declared himself a Christian, the 
 
 ceremonies of the Church were performed 
 with splendor, and regal magnificence 
 throughout the sacred ritual. Before this 
 period, the vestments of the priesthood at 
 the altar, though not always, were more 
 frequently composed of the less expensive 
 materials, and decorated merely with a 
 scarlet stripe, which was then denominated 
 latus clavus. This was now exchanged for 
 a vesture the same, indeed, in form, but 
 manufactured of the richest stuff. Re- 
 ligion suggests, and propriety insists on 
 the appropriation of a distinctive habit to 
 the priest and his attendants at the al- 
 tar while occupied in the public functions 
 of their ministry. That amid the other 
 members of the commonwealth its public 
 functionaries should be distinguished by 
 some appropriate costume is, and, from 
 time immemorial, has been everywhere 
 acknowledged. For in every government, 
 whether it be a republic or a monarchy, a 
 distinctive uniform is assigned to a soldier, 
 a magistrate, a judge seated on his tribunal 
 of justice, and an advocate while pleading 
 at bar. Similar motives of propriety have 
 influenced the Church in ordering her 
 ministers to array themselves in certain 
 vestments while employed in the public 
 celebration of her liturgy and the adminis- 
 tration of her sacraments. In the Old 
 Law we find that the Almighty instructed 
 Moses with minute precision, relative to 
 the sacred vestments (Ex. xxviii. 2-6,33; 
 Ezech. xlii. 14). The peculiarities of 
 style in building will help to fix the era in 
 which an edifice was erected ; the form of 
 character, together with the material on 
 which it is written, will materially assist 
 the antiquary in detecting the date of an 
 inscription ; the costume of a state or the 
 accessories of a picture, will serve to as- 
 certain the period when the individual 
 represented flourished, as well as to an- 
 nounce his rank or condition. So it is 
 with the Catholic Church. Both her vast 
 and spiritual edifice declare that her archi- 
 tect was Christ, while the Apostles were 
 the builders ; her language proclaims what 
 tongues were common to the world at 
 that period of her birth, and have ever 
 been familiar to her from her infancy up- 
 wards; while the antiquated fashion of 
 those garments which her ministers put on 
 when officiating, not only speaks to us of 
 centuries gone by, and can alone furnish 
 us with remnants of the dress of republi- 
 can or imperial Rome, but announces to 
 us her jealousy, not only of guarding the 
 
Viaticum 
 
 702 
 
 Victor 
 
 deposit of faith, but of retaining the use of 
 things indifferent in themselves. 
 
 Viaticum. — Holy communion given to 
 those in danger of death. We call it Vi- 
 aticum because it strengthens and fortifies 
 in the painful voyage from time to eternity. 
 One can communicate as Viaticum even 
 without fasting, when the danger of death 
 continues. One can repeat the administra- 
 tion of the Viaticum during the same sick- 
 ness. The Church makes it an obligation 
 to receive holy communion, if this can be 
 done, when one is in danger of death, even 
 when one has fulfilled the duty of Easter 
 communion before becoming dangerously 
 iU. 
 
 Vicar Apostolic. — Name given to bish- 
 ops which the Pope names to ancient sees 
 situated now in infidel countries, such as 
 Turkey, Africa, and to whom he gives au- 
 thority in any country, under the title as 
 immediate vicars of the Holy See on which 
 they depend directly, while the local 
 bishops, in a country hierarchically organ- 
 ized, depend on the metropolitans. There 
 are vicars apostolic in the missions, the 
 colonies, in heretical States, as formerly in 
 England and in the United States. The 
 Vicar Apostolic is instituted by the Pope 
 to exercise in his name certain functions 
 which His Holiness alone can perform. 
 The Pope gives the title of Vicar Apostolic 
 to bishops which he sends into the Oriental 
 missions; and they are mostly all bishops 
 in partibus; many have coadjutors. 
 
 Vicar {Capitular). — When a bishopric 
 or an archbishopric becomes vacant, either 
 by the death of the one who occupied it, or 
 by his being transferred to another see, or 
 by any other circumstance, the Chapter, 
 according to the Council of Trent, is ex- 
 pressly bound to elect, within eight days, an 
 official or vicar, or to confirm the one who 
 is established. The vicar thus elected by 
 the Chapter (cap itulum), is called Capitu- 
 lar Vicar. Should they neglect to do so, 
 this duty will devolve on the metropoli- 
 tan, or in case that the metropolitan see is 
 vacant, then this duty devolves on the 
 most ancient bishop among the sufifragans. 
 
 Vicar General. — Name given to the ec- 
 clesiastic, who is named by the bishop to 
 exercise his voluntary and gracious juris- 
 diction, for the contentious jurisdiction is 
 exercised by the official especially ap- 
 pointed by tlie bishop. The origin of 
 Vicar Generals, such as they are consti- 
 
 tuted to-day, does not appear to be very 
 ancient, because we find no trace thereof 
 in the ancient canons. Their powers reg- 
 ulate themselves, on the one hand, accord- 
 ing to the general dispositions of canon 
 law, and on the other, according to the 
 content of his commission, which supplies 
 what the law does not express and some- 
 times curtails what the law expresses ; for 
 the bishop can, in his commission, limit 
 the power of the Vicar General, and forbid 
 him to take knowledge of certain affairs, 
 which are, moreover, comprised in the gen- 
 eral commission. The common practice of 
 the Church and the texts of canon law seem 
 to authorize only one Vicar General for a 
 diocese. 
 
 Vicar or Assistant. — Name given to the 
 priest who assists a curate in the pastoral 
 functions. He has for title only the mis- 
 sion or approbation of the bishop, who, 
 consequently, can change him or revoke 
 him at will. It belongs to the bishops to 
 judge of the necessity there may be to ap- 
 point assistants in parishes. The Council 
 of Trent attributes this power to them. 
 
 Victor. — Bishop of Vita in Africa, was 
 exiled by the Arian King Huneric. He is 
 the author of a History of the Vandalic 
 Persecution which he wrote in 487, and is 
 one of the principal sources of the history 
 of the Vandals. 
 
 Victor (name of three Popes). — Vic- 
 tor I. — Pope from 192 to 201. A native 
 of Africa, exerted his zeal particularly in 
 the controversy relating to the celebration 
 of Easter. For the settling of this ques- 
 tion he held a synod at Rome, and called 
 upon the bishops everywhere to meet in 
 Councils for the same purpose. He ex- 
 communicated Theodotus of Byzantium 
 and decided that common water might, in 
 case of necessity, be used in baptism. 
 Victor II. — Pope from 1054 to 1057. A 
 native of Germany. He continued the 
 reforms begun by his predecessors. Held 
 a Council in the presence of Emperor 
 Henry IH. at Florence, in which decrees 
 were enacted against the alienation of 
 Church property, and the prevailing vices. 
 Victor III. — Pope from 1086 to 1087. 
 Owing to machinations of the imperialists, 
 he dared not remain long in Rome; he re- 
 tired to Lower Italy. In 1087, he held a 
 Council at Beneventum, which renewed 
 the excommunication of the antipope, 
 Guibert of Ravenna, and the condemna- 
 tion of simony and lay investiture. 
 
Victor 
 
 703 
 
 Vincent 
 
 Victor (St.). — Martyr at Marseilles. 
 Soldier in the Roman armies, upheld the 
 courage of the Christians during persecu- 
 tion, and was beheaded, under Diocletian 
 and Maximian (290) . With him suffered 
 three other soldiers whom he had con- 
 verted : Alexander, Felician, and Longinus. 
 F. July 2ist. 
 
 Victorinus (surnamed Petaviensis or 
 Pictaviensis). — Latin ecclesiastical 
 writer, bishop of Petavium (Styria), mar- 
 tyr under Diocletian, about 303. His 
 works, praised by St. Jerome, have not 
 reached us; they confounded him often 
 with the next. 
 
 Victorinus (Fabius Marius) (surnamed 
 the African). — A famous rhetorician, 
 who had the honor of having a statue set 
 up in the Roman Forum. He was ad- 
 vanced in age, when, to the amazement of 
 the pagans and the joy of the Christians, 
 he embraced Christianity, in 361. He 
 wrote several works against the Arians 
 and Manicheans, and commentaries on 
 three of St. Paul's Epistles. 
 
 Vienna is a city in the department of 
 Isere, France, sixteen miles south of 
 Lyons. It was the earliest center of Chris- 
 tianity in Gaul. The Archbishop of Vi- 
 enne was the Primate of Gaul until the 
 French Revolution. Several ecclesiastical 
 councils were held there, of which the 
 most important is that of 1311-12, in 
 which Pope Clement V. suspended the 
 order of the Templars (Bull of May 2d, 
 1312). 
 
 Vigil, we call the day that immediately 
 precedes a feast. We call it vigil or 
 watch, because in ancient times the Faith- 
 ful assembled in the churches on the eve of 
 the solemnities, and passed therein a part 
 of the night in praising God by singing 
 Psalms and reading Holy Scripture. Sev- 
 eral abuses having crept into these noc- 
 turnal assemblies, the Church suppressed 
 them, with the exception of the vigil of 
 Christmas. The office commenced gen- 
 erally about nine o'clock in the evening, 
 and ended about one o'clock in the morn- 
 ing. The Church has instituted the fast 
 of the vigils of certain great feasts, in or- 
 der that detaching ourselves through pen- 
 ance and mortification, from the inordinate 
 love which we have for our body, we may 
 elevate ourselves more easily to spiritual 
 and divine things, and celebrate more 
 
 worthily the great mysteries of religion. 
 If the vigil of a feast falls on a Sunday, as, 
 according to the apostolic constitutions, it 
 is not permitted to fast on this day, because 
 it is a day of rejoicing, the fast is advanced 
 and kept on Saturday. Some vigils are 
 celebrated without fasting, like that of 
 Epiphany and of the Ascension ; the rea- 
 son why the Church has not prescribed 
 fasting on these days, is because it appears 
 incompatible with the joy with which the 
 birth and resurrection of Christ inspire 
 us. The vigils of feasts are fast days of 
 obligation. They are: the vigils of Eas- 
 ter, Pentecost, Assumption of the Blessed 
 Virgin, All-Saints, and Christmas. 
 
 Vigilantius (Heretic of the fourth cen- 
 tury). — A priest of Barcelona, Spain; ac- 
 companied St. Jerome into Palestine and, 
 at his return into Gaul, attacked fasting 
 and the veneration of saints and relics 
 which he declared a pagan superstition, 
 celibacy of the priests, the monks, etc. 
 He was refuted by St. Jerome. 
 
 Vigilius. — Pope from 540 to 555. Born 
 at Rome; papal apocrisiary in Constanti- 
 nople, was forced upon the Romans as 
 Pope by the Empress Theodora in 536, 
 against the legitimately elected Silverius. 
 After the death of the latter, in 540, Vigilius 
 resigned the papal dignity which he had 
 usurped, but was then canonically re- 
 elected, after which he defended the 
 orthodox doctrine, and declared himself 
 against the Monophysites. Called to Con- 
 stantinople by Emperor Justinian (546), 
 on account of the dispute of The Three 
 Chapters, he only gave, after illtreatment, 
 imprisonment and exile, his consent to the 
 decrees of the synod of Constantinople 
 (Fifth General Council) and died while re- 
 turning to Syracuse, in 555. See Chap- 
 ters {The Three). 
 
 Vigilius. — Bishop of Thapsus, in Africa, 
 about the end of the fifth century. Per- 
 secuted by Huneric, king of the Vandals, 
 he retired to Constantinople. He wrote 
 against the Arians, Eutychians, and Nes- 
 torians, and published his works under 
 the name of St. Augustine and St. Athana- 
 sius, so that it is difficult to determine 
 those which properly belong to him. 
 
 Vincent (St.). — Deacon and martyr of 
 Saragossa (304). By his heroic courage in 
 suffering the most cruel torments, he con- 
 verted his tormenter. F. Jan. 22d. 
 
Vincent of Beauvais 
 
 704 
 
 Virtues 
 
 Vincent of Beauvais (Lat. Vincentius 
 Bellovacensis). — A Dominican monk of 
 the thirteenth century, friend and precep- 
 tor of Louis IX., died in 1264. His chief 
 work is Speculum, i. e., Mirror, encyclo- 
 paedia of universal knowledge in his time, 
 and contains more that 2,000 extracts from 
 works, mostly lost. It was first printed at 
 Strassburg, 1473. 
 
 Vincent of Lerins (St.). — Born at Toul, 
 France, died about 450. Monk of Lerins; 
 rendered himself famous by his admirable 
 Commonitory against Heretics, which he 
 composed to guard the Faithful against 
 the snares of false teachers. F. May 24th. 
 
 Vincent of Paul (St.). Se^PAUL. 
 
 Virginity (state of being a virgin). — In 
 religion, the state of a person that has re- 
 nounced marriage to consecrate herself to 
 God. At all times, and in all nations, this 
 state has been an object of respect. Sev- 
 eral deities, according to the ideas of pa- 
 gans, were virgins. Minerva, Diana were 
 virgins ; the poets call Justitia or Themis 
 the virgin par excellence. We know of the 
 veneration the Romans had for the vestals, 
 that of the Peruvians for the virgins con- 
 secrated to the sun. The Chinese, the 
 savage tribes of both North and South 
 America also honored virginity. Our 
 Lord, not only insisted on the indissolu- 
 bility of marriage, but He went further, 
 and enjoined under certain circumstances, 
 complete continence. " For there are eu- 
 nuchs who have made themselves eunuchs 
 for the kingdom of heaven. He that can 
 take, let him take it" (Matt. xix. 12). 
 No sane man would suggest here a literal 
 interpretation, but the spiritual interpreta- 
 tion will lead of necessity to the doctrine 
 of voluntary restraint, for the sake of the 
 kingdom of heaven. It does not con- 
 travene the doctrine of the sacredness of 
 marriage, but it suggests a higher state of 
 perfection for those to whom it isgiven by 
 God to pass their lives wholly in the service 
 of the Lord, and to take, as their model not 
 Martha with her homely carefulness about 
 many things, but the contemplative Mary. 
 The God — Man set the example Him- 
 self. The disciples copied it in their way ; 
 for we are not aware that any of them mar- 
 ried after entering the service of our Lord ; 
 but we know that every one of them left 
 all things and followed Him ; and what Jesus 
 meant by "all things" we learn from His 
 own words : •' Every one that hath left 
 
 house, or brethren, or sisters, or father, or 
 mother, or wife, or children, or lands for my 
 name's sake, shall receive a hundred fold, 
 and shall possess life everlasting." (Matt. 
 xix. 29). The " woman " or " sister " men- 
 tioned in I. Cor. ix. 5, does not prove that the 
 Apostles went on their missionary journey's 
 with their wives. All the ancient writers 
 took for granted that John, whom the Lord 
 loved, was a virgin. Concerning virgins, 
 St. Paul gives a counsel not a command of 
 the Lord, but thinks that he has received 
 from the Lord the grace to be faithful. The 
 drift of the counsel is that it is good for 
 man to be able to remain even as he is, and 
 that the married should live as unmarried. 
 The undivided service of God is above 
 earthly considerations. " It is indisputa- 
 ble," says Weizacker, "that the Apostle 
 sets out with the conviction that virginity 
 ranks higher than the married state." 
 Voluntary continence is to be esteemed 
 holy, and hence the glorious state of vir- 
 ginity is to be honored. In the course of 
 time, virginity, like widowhood, became a 
 widespread institution in the Church. 
 Anyone reading the spiritual panegyrics 
 of the Fathers : Chrysostom, Basil, Am- 
 brose, and others on virgins consecrated 
 to God, must feel convinced that the 
 Church has in this, solved not only a re- 
 ligious and moral, but even a great social 
 problem. How powerful is the contrast 
 drawn by St. Ambrose between the vestal 
 virgins of Symmachus, and the choir of 
 Christian virgins. 
 
 Virtue. — Virtue is that habit or quality 
 which enables and inclines us to do good 
 works ; in other words, it is the facility 
 and constant inclination of doing the will 
 of God. Virtue implies more than a single 
 action. He who has performed a good ac- 
 tion is not, therefore, virtuous ; and he who 
 has done an evil deed may still be virtuous. 
 Virtue denotes a permanent quality, a last- 
 ing fitness and facility to do good. As 
 there are natural and supernatural good 
 works, so there are also natural and super- 
 natural virtues, according as the fitness 
 and facility of doing good has been natu- 
 rally acquired by the repetition of good 
 actions or proceeds from a supernatural 
 source. 
 
 Virtues {Cardinal). — So called be- 
 cause they are exercised in the sphere of 
 moral action^, as the four cardinal points 
 {car dines coeli). They are in the number 
 of four and contain all the others : i. Pru- 
 
Virtues 
 
 705 
 
 Vision 
 
 dence : moral state in which the intelligence 
 enables the understanding of what is 
 morally good to do or to avoid ; a virtue 
 which has its foundation in the will, which 
 determines the direction of the intellectual 
 faculties. It comprehends foresight, cir- 
 cumspection, suppleness, modesty, dis- 
 trust. 2. Justice : it consists in rendering 
 to each what belongs to him. It is accom- 
 panied with piety, devotion, obedience, re- 
 spect, probity, moderation, gratitude, 
 disinterestedness. 3. Temperance: it con- 
 sists in the control, which one exercises 
 over his affections, passions, and instincts, 
 which he subordinates to more elevated 
 purposes, which the will endeavors to at- 
 tain. It is accompanied with sobriety, 
 benevolence, mildness, humility in a strict 
 sense, chastity and continence. 4. Strength 
 or Courage, which reveals itself in the 
 moral firmness with which we surmount 
 obstacles, opposed to the consummation 
 of good. With courage are associated pa- 
 tience, perseverance, magnanimity. The 
 Stoics have the merit of being the first to 
 formulate these virtues into theory and 
 some among them almost put them into 
 practice. These virtues are in themselves 
 the accomplishment of the natural law. 
 The theological virtues are, on the con- 
 trary, especially Christian virtues. 
 
 Virtues ( Theological) . — Theological 
 virtues we call : Faith, Hope, and Charity. 
 These virtues, whether considered in 
 themselves, or in their effects, or in their 
 growth and perfection, occupy the first 
 place in Christian life. If compared with 
 the moral virtues, the theological virtues 
 occupy the place of the end, to which the 
 former are a means. For, by the moral 
 virtues we are inclined so to regulate our 
 actions, as to remove all obstacles from our 
 union with God, and to procure the means 
 towards our union with Him. By the di- 
 vine virtues, on the other hand, we are 
 actually united with God — the all-truthful, 
 by faith, with God the all-faithful, by hope, 
 with God the chief good, by love. In the 
 same proportion, therefore, as the end is 
 superior to the means, the divine virtues 
 are superior to the moral. The object of 
 the Christian life is to- prepare us for the 
 future possession of God, our supernatural 
 end. Now, this end is chiefly attained by 
 the three theological virtues. For faith 
 teaches us to know God as our super- 
 natural end ; hope arouses in us the long- 
 ing to possess Him ; love unites us with 
 45 
 
 Him as far as this is possible here on 
 earth. The three divine virtues comprise 
 the entire Christian life. For faith is the 
 beginning of salvation, the foundation 
 and root of justice; the hope of the posses- 
 sion of God, as the object of eternal hap- 
 piness urges us to implore God's grace 
 and to make use of the means of grace ; 
 charity insures the observance of God's 
 commandments, since it is active in its 
 very nature, and cannot exist without the 
 fulfillment of the law. The growth and 
 perfection of the three divine virtues im- 
 ply at the same time the increase and per- 
 fection o^ the whole internal spiritual life. 
 Since the divine virtues are infused into 
 the soul as permanent habits to enable us 
 to perform the functions of supernatural 
 life, it follows that in proportion as the 
 supernatural life itself, or sanctifying 
 grace, is augmented, those virtues them- 
 selves are increased and perfected. The 
 theological virtues are, consequently, in- 
 creased by the same means as sanctifying 
 grace itself. 
 
 Vision {Intuitive) or Beatific Vision we 
 
 call the vision by which the Bles.sed see 
 God in heaven. Some heretics have pre- 
 tended that man, through the sole power 
 of nature, can arrive at the intuitive vision 
 of God ; this error has been condemned by 
 the Council of Vienne (1311). It is evi- 
 dent, indeed, that for the meritorious 
 works, which are the means of salvation, 
 man is in need of grace, with much more 
 reason is he in need of supernatural help 
 for salvation itself, which is in itself noth- 
 ing but the beatific vision. The Church 
 teaches that the just who are free from all 
 sin and all punishment due to sin enjoy 
 beatific vision immediately after death. 
 Pope John XXII. had, speaking in his per- 
 sonal name and as individual doctor, 
 taught that, until the day of resurrection, 
 the souls would not see the face of God, 
 and that the Blessed enjoy only the vision 
 of the humanity of Christ. If he did not 
 teach this, as received doctrine, in the 
 Latin Church, it was at least his desire, 
 that this opinion should be considered as 
 problematical. But he never decided any- 
 thing about the subject, and, at the ap- 
 proach of death he retracted all he might 
 have said and believed about the question. 
 This doctrine, borrowed from the Greeks, 
 and which apparently could not be recon- 
 ciled with that of the invocation of saints, 
 excited the minds a good deal. The Paris 
 
Visit ad Limina 
 
 706 
 
 SS. Apostolorum 
 
 University declared it erroneous; twenty- 
 four theologians of the theological faculty 
 of Paris, assembled by King Philip the 
 Fair, decided that the souls of the Blessed 
 are admitted to a clear, intuitive, beatific 
 and immediate vision of the divine essence, 
 a vision which the Apostle calls " face to 
 face." Pope Benedict XI. and the Coun- 
 cil of Florence decided the question like 
 the doctors of the Paris University did. 
 The Council of Trent confirmed these de- 
 cisions. Protestants have made use of this 
 circumstance to argue against the infalli- 
 bility of the Pope; they refuse to admit 
 that Pope John XXII. spoke here only in 
 his individual name and not ex cathedra 
 and as head of the Church. This truth 
 had not yet been defined as an article of 
 faith. This was done only in the Council 
 of Florence (1439). 
 
 In what does the intuitive vision consist? 
 It is not an ideal representation of the 
 Deity, such as we have in this life, but an 
 immediate manifestation which God makes 
 of Himself to the Blessed. St. Paul speaks 
 of this vision when he says : " We see 
 now through a glass in a dark manner; 
 but then face to face" (I. Cor. xiii. 12). 
 And we read in the Gospel: "The angels 
 in heaven always see the face of my 
 Father who is in heaven " (Matt, xviii. 
 10). Moreover, the theologians say that 
 the Blessed see all things in the Word, as 
 in a (concentric) looking-glass wherein all 
 things reflect themselves, for it is in His 
 Word that God has the ideas of all things. 
 The beatific vision is not for all alike : 
 " There are several mansions in the house 
 of my Father," .says our Lord (John xiv. 
 2). And the Apostle says: "One star 
 differs in brightness from another star " 
 (I. Cor. xiv. 41). This vision, although 
 intuitive, will not, on this account, be 
 completive, that is, the created spirit, al- 
 though assisted by the light of glory, will 
 nevertheless not be capable of embracing 
 the whole extent of the divine essence, and 
 the creature is essentially limited. Al- 
 though it is not absolutely repugnant that 
 God may grant, in the present life, to a 
 man, the beatific vision, nevertheless, 
 theologians generally agree that God 
 never did grant this to any creature. 
 
 Visit ad Limina SS. Apostolorum 
 
 (visiting the place where the Pope re- 
 sides). — The Pope has supreme and 
 unappealable jurisdiction, not only in 
 matters of faith and morals, but also of 
 
 discipline. It is the duty of the sovereign 
 Pontiff to watch over the discipline of the 
 entire Church. He must, therefore, know 
 the condition of all the churches or 
 dioceses in the world. Hence, he must 
 have the right to demand from bishops an 
 account of the state of the dioceses. 
 Bishops, therefore, are obliged to visit 
 Rome in person at certain intervals, and 
 report the exact state of their dioceses. 
 The bishops of Italy and Greece must go to 
 Rome once every three years ; the bishops 
 of Germany, France, Spain, Portugal, 
 Belgium, England, Scotland, once every 
 four years ; the bishops of Ireland, of the 
 rest of Europe, of North Africa, once 
 every five years; finally, the bishops of 
 America, once every ten years. From 
 this right of supreme direction, inherent 
 in the Pontiff, there follows to him the 
 right, in the exercise of this his office, of 
 freely communicating with the pastors 
 and flocks of the whole Church. 
 
 Visitation (Episcopal). — A bishop, in 
 order to be able to properly govern his dio- 
 cese, and report correctly to the Holy 
 See, when he pays his visit ad sacra limina, 
 should be well informed of the state of his 
 diocese. Now, he can best inform himself 
 on this head by traveling over his diocese, 
 and thus personally inspect the condi- 
 tion of its various churches. In the East, 
 bishops from the earliest times deputed 
 priests to make the visitation ; while in the 
 West bishops were, in the sixth century, 
 obligated to personally traverse or visit 
 their dioceses. These visitations which 
 had to some extent, fallen into desuetude, 
 were re-established by the Council of Trent, 
 and made obligatory on bishops and others 
 having the right to make visitations. The 
 object of visitations is chiefly to maintain 
 sound doctrine and preserve good morals, 
 correct abuses, etc. 
 
 Visitation (i^.eaj/ of the). — Festival in- 
 stituted in commemoration of the Blessed 
 Virgin visiting her cousin, St. Elisabeth. 
 It is celebrated on July 2d. Established by 
 St. Bona venture, in 1263, for the Order of 
 St. Francis, it was extended to the univer- 
 sal Church by Urban VI. in 1379. 
 
 Visitation ( Order of the). — A religious 
 order founded by the joint efforts of two 
 devout souls, viz., St. Francis de Sales 
 (see this subject) and Madame Frances de 
 Chantal, at Annecy, in 1610. The mem- 
 bers of the congregation were not at first 
 
VlTALIANUS 
 
 707 
 
 Vulgate 
 
 strictly bound to observe the rules of the 
 religious bodies living in common, the 
 chief aim of the good ladies being pri- 
 marily to serve the sick. Some time later, 
 St. Francis enjoined upon them the ob- 
 servance of the Rule of St. Augustine, to 
 which he added some particular constitu- 
 tions of his own; and in 1618 Pope Paul V. 
 raised the congregation to the rank of a 
 religious order, under the title of the " Or- 
 der of the Visitation of the Blessed Vir- 
 gin." To their original purpose, that of 
 educating the youth of their own sex was 
 now added. Before the death of St. Francis, 
 the Order counted eighty-seven houses in 
 France and Savoy alone, and since that 
 time they have become numerous in Italy, 
 Germany, Poland, and North America. 
 
 Vitalianus. — Pope from 657 to 672. 
 Born at Segni in Campania; had to com- 
 bat the Monothelites as well as the schism cf 
 Ravenna. He insisted on the ecclesiastical 
 discipline, and introduced into England 
 the ecclesiastical hierarchy (668) through 
 Theodore, archbishop of Canterbury. He 
 has left eleven Letters. 
 
 Voltaire (FRANgois Marie Arouet 
 de) (1694-1778). — French writer and 
 poet; was born at Paris, and when ten 
 years old entered the Jesuit College. Be- 
 fore he was out of college he began writ- 
 ing poetry. His wit as well as the 
 iniluence of his godfather, the Abb^ de 
 Chateauneuf, secured for him an intro- 
 duction into the most aristocratic circles 
 of Parisian society. But the freedom of 
 his utterances soon brought him into trou- 
 ble. Between 1716 and 1726 he was twice 
 exiled from Paris, and twice thrown a 
 prisoner into the Bastille. In 1725 he had 
 to leave the country and then went to 
 England, where he stayed three years. In 
 1729 he returned to France, and in 1750 
 'we find Voltaire at the court of Berlin, 
 where he stayed three years, the result be- 
 ing a quarrel with Frederick II., king of 
 Prussia. Soon after this he settled at 
 Ferney, where the rest of his life was 
 spent. His literary works embrace 70 oc- 
 tavo volumes. Voltaire was the chief of 
 the French philosophers of the eighteenth 
 century, who had entered a systematic 
 warfare against Christianity. Voltaire's 
 watchword was: Ecrassez Vinfa7ne'. 
 (Crush ilie infamous thing'!) thereby 
 meaning Christianity. His glowing and 
 fervent hate speaks out in his witty and 
 obscene pages. He calls the narrative of 
 
 Holy Writ imitations of the mythological 
 fables, and revives the calumnies of Cel- 
 sus against the Apostles and the first Chris- 
 tians. He overwhelms the ceremonies of 
 the Church, the bishops and priests, with 
 a stream of insults and vile suspicions. 
 
 Vo^y. — A vow is a solemn and deliberate 
 promise, given with full understanding of 
 the gravity of the obligation and duty en- 
 tered upon, and with free consent, by which 
 we make some formal engagement with 
 God, and in His service, from which we can- 
 not release ourselves without sin, either 
 mortal or venial, according to the character 
 of the vow made. '* If any man make a 
 vow to the Lord, or bind himself by an oath : 
 he shall not make his word void but shall 
 fulfill all that he promised " (Num. xxx. 3). 
 A vow may be positive, that is, uncondi- 
 tional; conditional, that is, to be executed 
 under certain circumstances; personal, 
 that is, binding no other person; real, 
 that is, concerning the gift of some object, 
 an obligation which may descend to suc- 
 cessors ; temporary, that is, for a time only ; 
 perpetual, that is, forever; private, that 
 is, peculiar to one's self; of religion, that 
 is, a vow made to enter a religious order. 
 A vow ceases to be binding, only, when a 
 change of circumstances renders its ac- 
 complishment impracticable, or so exceed- 
 ingly difficult as to cause undue detriment 
 to the person concerned. Also, when the 
 obligation is annulled or suspended by a 
 superior, to whom the person taking the 
 vow is really subject. Also, when dispen- 
 sation or commutation is obtained by ec- 
 clesiastical authority in the power our 
 Lord gave His Church to "bind" and to 
 "loose" (Matt. xvi. 19; xviii. 18). Avow 
 should never be undertaken without mature 
 reflection, ample time for consideration, 
 and advice from a spiritual director who 
 knows all the circumstances and conditions 
 involved, and who has full power to judge 
 and counsel. 
 
 Vulgate. — Latin version of the Holy 
 Scriptures, which is in use in the Catholic 
 Church. It replaced, in the Latin Church, 
 the ancient version called Italic, and has 
 always enjoyed a great authority. The 
 Council of Trent has declared it authentic 
 and prescribed its usage in controversies, 
 public readings, preaching and in explain- 
 ing the Scriptures, by giving to it the pref- 
 erence over all the other versions, and by 
 declaring expressly that nobody, under 
 whatever pretext it might be, should have 
 
Waldenses 
 
 708 
 
 Walsh 
 
 the audacity or presnmption to reject it. 
 The Vulgate comprises: i. The proto- 
 canonical books of the Old Testament, 
 translated by St. Jerome from the Hebrew, 
 and the Books of Tobias and Judith, trans- 
 lated from the Chaldaic. 2. Books of the 
 Old Testament, such as they were found in 
 the ancient Italic, that is the Book of Wis- 
 dom, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch, the first and 
 second of the Machabees, and the letter of 
 Jeremias. St. Jerome, it is true, had trans- 
 lated the whole Psalter from the Hebrew ; 
 but this version has not been adopted, on 
 account of the long usage one had made in 
 the Church of the Psalter of the ancient 
 Italic. 3. The Books of the New Testa- 
 ment of the ancient Italic, corrected from 
 the Greek text by the same Father, accord- 
 ing to the request of Pope Damasus. St. 
 Isidore of Sevilla, affirmed, about the year 
 630, that the version of the Sacred Scrip- 
 
 tures, made from the Hebrew into Latin 
 by St. Jerome, was generally in use in all 
 the Churches. It is certain that, shortly 
 after the time of St. Isidore, all the Laun 
 Churches made use exclusively of the new 
 Vulgate, with the exception of the Psalter 
 according to the Septuagint, which has 
 been preserved. Thus the force of custom, 
 as well as the unanimous consent of the 
 Churches by introducing the Vulgate, pre- 
 pared the way for the decrees of the Coun- 
 cil of Trent. The famous Protestant 
 interpreter Drusius praises the Council 
 for having given to the Vulgate the sanc- 
 tion of its authority, " because," he says, 
 " the new versions are no better and have 
 perhaps greater defects." As to the di- 
 verse editions of our Vulgate, we limit 
 ourselves here to point out that of the 
 learned Barnabite Father Charles Vercel- 
 lonne, Rome, 1861. 
 
 w 
 
 Waldenses (a sect of the twelfth cen- 
 tury). — The Waldenses derive their 
 name from their founder, Peter Waldo, a 
 rich merchant of Lyons. The sudden 
 death of a near relative caused him to re- 
 tire from the world and to dedicate him- 
 self to a life of poverty and to the 
 instruction of the people. He conceived 
 the design of bringing back the Church, 
 which, in his opinion, by its wealth and 
 temporal possessions, had become corrupt, 
 to primitive and apostolical simplicity. 
 He gathered disciples around him and 
 sent them two by two into the neighboring 
 villages to preach the Gospel. They were 
 known as the " Poor Men of Lyons," 
 while they styled themselves the " Humble 
 Ones" from their affected humility. The 
 earlier Waldenses probably contemplated 
 no secession from the universal Church, 
 and were treated at first as Schismatics, for 
 usurping the functions of the priesthood 
 and refusing obedience to the ecclesias- 
 tical authorities. Although mere laymen 
 they presumed to preach, notwithstanding 
 they had been interdicted by their ordi- 
 nary, and by Pope Alexander III. Pope 
 Lncias III., in 1184, formerly excommuni- 
 cated them together with other heretics. 
 But they refused to submit, and persisted 
 in preaching, claiming that they had a 
 divine mission therefor, and that, conse- 
 quently, they must obey God rather than 
 
 man. Their rebellion against the Church 
 naturally led the Waldenses into heresy. 
 The Church of Rome, they asserted, 
 ceased to be the true Church, from the 
 time it possessed temporalities. They re- 
 pudiated the priesthood and the entire 
 ritual system, except communion and 
 preaching, rejected prayers for the dead, 
 purgatory, festivals, and the invocation of 
 the saints; they claimed the right to 
 preach and administer the sacraments for 
 laymen, and even for women. They de- 
 voted much of their time to the reading 
 of the Bible, of which they admitted only 
 a literal interpretation. Peter Waldo is 
 said to have died in Bohemia. His sect 
 spread throughout Southern France, Upper 
 Italy, Bohemia, and even Spain. The Wal- 
 denses have maintained themselves in the 
 mountains of Dauphine and the Pied- 
 montese Alps, down to the present day. 
 They count about^ 20,000 members. In the 
 sixteenth century, they united in Bohemia 
 with the Hussites, and in France with the 
 Calvinists. 
 
 Walsh (William J.). — A Roman Cath- 
 olic prelate and Primate of Ireland ; born 
 in Dublin, 1841 ; educated at St. Lawrence, 
 O'Toole's Seminary in Dublin, at the 
 Catholic University of Ireland, at May- 
 nooth College, and at the Dunboyne Es- 
 tablishment. In 1867 he was professor of 
 
Washing of Feet 
 
 709 
 
 Water 
 
 theology at Maynooth; in 1878 vice-presi- 
 dent of the college, and in 1880 its presi- 
 dent. In 1885 he was appointed archbishop 
 of Dublin. He interested himself in the 
 political and industrial condition of Ire- 
 land; advocated some system of arbitra- 
 tion for the settlement of disputes between 
 landlords and tenants ; urged an equality 
 between Catholics and Protestants in Ire- 
 land in educational privileges ; and actively 
 intervened in the settlement of strikes in 
 Dublin and on the Great Southern and 
 Western railway in 1890. His work in the 
 cause of sobriety resulted in temperance 
 organizations in all the dioceses of his offi- 
 cial province. He contributed to the Con- 
 temporary RevieTV, the Dublin Revietv, 
 and to the Irish Ecclesiastical Record. 
 Among his published works are : Human 
 Acts; Harmony of the Gospel Narrative 
 of the Passion; Plai?i Exposition of the 
 Land Act of 1881; A Statement of the 
 Chief Grievances of the Catholics of 
 Ireland in the Matter of Education, Pri- 
 mary, Intermediate, and University; Bi- 
 metallism and Monometallism (1894). 
 
 Washing of Feet. — The magnificent 
 office of Holy Thursday concludes, in 
 some churches, with the washing of feet. 
 This ceremony is founded on the action of 
 our Saviour, washing the feet of His Apos- 
 tles (John xiii. 13). The early Christians 
 practiced it, not only to renew the memory 
 of what the Saviour had done, but also to 
 perform an act of humility and charity. 
 Hence, among them, the universal and sa- 
 cred custom of washing the feet of guests. 
 In the course of time, when people of 
 the world had ceased to wash the feet of 
 their guests, the Church, not wishing to 
 part with a custom so pious and instructive, 
 made it a regular practice, intended to 
 perpetuate the memory of our Lord's act 
 from generation to generation. She wished 
 that her principal ministers should wash 
 the feet of the clergy, representing the 
 Apostles, or of the poor, as subjects to- 
 wards whom it was proper to exercise that 
 humility which the Saviour so much rec- 
 ommended by His abasement. And be- 
 hold ! for so many ages the world, on 
 Holy Thursday every year, sees Popes, 
 bishops, emperors, kings, and queens, 
 humbly prostrate before some poor people, 
 washing their feet and kissing them re- 
 spectfully, and considering themselves 
 highly honored in being allowed to walk 
 thus in the footsteps of the Man — God. 
 
 Washing of Hands. — Before he robes 
 himself in the eucharistic vestments, the 
 priest, clad in his cassock, washes the tips 
 of his fingers. It has been invariably the 
 custom, at all times, and in every nation, 
 for the ministers of the altar to wash their 
 hands previous to offering the sacrifice. 
 The old Law expressly commanded this 
 observance (Ex. xxx. 18-20). Though re- 
 spect alone for the decorum of religion, 
 would inspire such a practice, however, 
 the Church attaches a spiritual meaning to 
 it, and studies to convey to her ministers, 
 by the symbol of exterior ablution, in- 
 structions to cleanse the heart by an in- 
 terior piety, which she teaches them to 
 solicit in prayer particularly adapted to 
 the purpose. 
 
 Water {Holy). — The use of holy water 
 is an act of piety instituted by the Church, 
 common among the Faithful, and em- 
 ployed in all religious ceremonies. Holy 
 water is used to drive away all that is evil 
 and impure, and to draw down divine aid 
 upon us, whether for the good of our soul 
 or body. That holy water is productive 
 of these effects we know from the prayers 
 of the Church while blessing it, which 
 asks of God all that is beneficial to the 
 bodies and souls of those who make use of 
 it, and the banishment of what is foul and 
 corrupt. These prayers are efficacious 
 from the promises made in favor of faith, 
 and the power given to the Church. We 
 also know that holy water avails to pro- 
 cure the remission of sins, if those who 
 employ it are rightly disposed. It is a 
 customary practice to make the sign of 
 the cross with holy water on entering or 
 quitting a church ; and at home in illness, 
 temptation, or danger; a practice we 
 should ever keep up in a spirit of faith 
 and penitence, that we may derive, there- 
 from, all the salutary effects it meant to 
 produce. Holy water is also used by the 
 priest in the sprinkling of the altar, and 
 the Faithful, whether living or dead, and 
 of any object of piety blessed by the 
 Church. 
 
 Both the Jews and pagans made use of 
 water in the ceremonies of worship, by 
 giving to it the symbolical meaning of 
 cleansing the soul. The pagans sprinkled 
 themselves with lustral water in entering 
 the temple or, sometimes, the priests 
 made this aspersion by using a green 
 branch. The Jews employed the hyssop. 
 In the temple, between the tabernacle and 
 
Weights and Measures 
 
 710 
 
 Westphalia 
 
 altar, there was a brazen basin for the 
 purification of the priests. The Greek, 
 like the Latin Church, blesses holy water 
 and sprinkles it around the church and 
 upon the congregation, just as we do. 
 Once a year, on the feast of Epiphany, the 
 Greeks, Armenians, and other Oriental 
 Christians perform a more solemn bless- 
 ing of the holy water in commemoration 
 of the Baptism of Christ in the river Jor- 
 dan. 
 
 Vases containing holy water are placed 
 on the right side of all entrances to churches 
 and chapels. Into these the Faithful dip 
 the tips of the fingers of their right hand, 
 and afterwards make the sign of the cross. 
 It is in this manner that the Church en- 
 deavors to address her children at the 
 very threshold of the tabernacle, and to 
 exhort them to understand, bj' the water 
 which she holds out to them, that they 
 must bring purity and cleanness of heart to 
 the sanctuary, and thus comply with the 
 exhortations of St. Paul, and " lift up pure 
 hands " to the throne of Him whose cross 
 they have just figured on their foreheads, 
 and through the merit of whose death and 
 suflFering they can alone expect to receive 
 the pardon of their sins and obtain eternal 
 life. 
 
 Weights and Measures. — The ancient 
 Hebrews weighed all the gold and silver 
 used in trade. The shekel, the mineh, the 
 talent, were all original names of weights. 
 The "shekel of the sanctuary" (Ex. xxx. 
 13) was the standard weight, preserved in 
 some apartment of the sanctuary. The 
 weights of the Jews were the shekel (Amos 
 viii. 5), half an ounce avoirdupois; the 
 mineh or mina (Ezech. xlv. 12), 100 shekels 
 or 50 ounces = 3 pounds, 2 ounces avoir- 
 dupois; and the talent (II. Ki. xii. 30), 
 3,000 shekels, 30 maneh, 1,500 ounces = 93 
 pounds, 12 ounces avoirdupois. The Ro- 
 man money mentioned in the New Testa- 
 ment is thus valued in the U. S. coinage 
 mite = $1.87 ; 2 mites = i farthing = $3.75 ; 
 4 farthings =1 penny ^15 cts. ; 100 
 pence = i pound = $15.00. 
 
 Measures of Length were derived from 
 the human body, «. e., from the finger, 
 hand, and arm, not the foot or pace. The 
 hand-breadth (III. Ki. vii. 26) was the 
 breadth of four fingers, from 3 to 3)^ 
 inches. The span (Lam. ii. 20) was the 
 distance from the extremity of the thumb 
 to that of the little finger, stretched as far 
 apart as possible, say 9 to 10 inches. The 
 
 i cubit, the distance from the elbow to the 
 ! end of the middle finger, about 18 inches. 
 The cubit, however, varied somewhat. 
 The fathom (Acts xxvii. 28) was from 6 to 
 6)^ feet. The measuring reed (Ezech. 
 xlii. 16) was 6 cubits, or from 10 to ir feet. 
 The y"«r/o«^ (Luke xxiv. 13) was a Greek 
 measure = one-eighth of a mile or 40 rods. 
 The mile, mentioned only once (Matt. 
 V. 41), was the Roman miliarium, which 
 contained 1,000 paces = 1618 yards; but 
 the Jewish mile was longer or shorter ac- 
 cording to the pace in use in the various 
 parts of the country. The Sabbath Day's 
 journey (Acts i. 12) was the distance tra- 
 dition said one might travel on the rest- 
 day without breaking the law, about seven- 
 eighths of a mile. ' A day's journey (Num. 
 xi. 31 ; Luke ii. 44) indicated the distance 
 which a person ordinarily accomplishes on 
 foot or on a camel, about 20 miles. 
 
 Measures of Capacity. — The dry meas- 
 ures were the cab or kab {hollow) (IV. Ki. 
 vi. 25), one-third of an omer or 2 pints; 
 the omer (a sheaf), the tenth of an ephah 
 or 6 pints (Ex. xvi. 36); the seah {measure), 
 one-third of an ephah or 20 pints (Gen. 
 xviii. 6; Matt. xiii. 33; Luke xiii. 21), 
 the ordinary measure for household pur- 
 poses; the homer or cor (Is. v. 10), the 
 largest dry measure of the Hebrews, 100 
 omers or 600 pints, about 8 of our bushels. 
 The Roman modius, translated " bushel " 
 (Matt. v. 15), was nearly the same as the 
 English peck. 
 
 The liquid measures were the log {basin), 
 which was the smallest, and contained one- 
 twelfth of a hin or about five-sixths of a 
 pint (Lev. xiv. 10); the hin, one-sixth of a 
 bath, the largest, and containing one-tenth 
 of a homer, 7)^ gallons or 60 pints (III. Ki. 
 vii. 26). The firkin (John ii. 6) was a 
 Greek measure containing 7^ gallons. 
 
 Wesel (John). — German theologian, 
 died in 1481. Vice rector of the Univer- 
 sity of Erfurt. He is regarded as one of 
 the precursors of Reformation. He in- 
 veighed against the hierarchy, rejected 
 transubstantiation and indulgences, and 
 denied the right of the Church to expound 
 the Scriptures, which he asserted belonged 
 to Christ. He was sentenced to confine- 
 ment in the Augustinian monastery at 
 Mentz, in 1479, where he died two years 
 later. 
 
 Wesley (John). See Methodists. 
 
 Westphalia (Peace of). See Peace. 
 
Whitefield 
 
 711 
 
 William of Tyre 
 
 Whitefield (Gborgk). See Metho- 
 dists. 
 
 Whitsunday. — The common English 
 name for Pentecost. 
 
 Wilfrid (St.) (634-709). — English Pre- 
 late, born in Northumberland. Of noble 
 origin, monk of Lindisfarne, founder of the 
 monastery of Stamford (661) of that of 
 Ripon, of which he became abbot. Arch- 
 bishop of York in 669, he was banished on 
 account of his zeal for the defense of 
 ecclesiastical laws against the powerful of 
 that time (677-686, 689). He was cast, the 
 first time, on the shores of Friesland; 
 evangelized that country and thus prepared 
 the ground for St. Wilibrord, and on the 
 return to his country, •died in the mon- 
 astery of Oundla. F. Oct. 12th. 
 
 Wilibrord (St.) (658 (?)-738). — Apostle 
 of the Frisians. He was a native of North- 
 umbria and was educated in the monas- 
 tery of Ripon. To prepare himself for his 
 mission, he went to Ireland, where he had 
 as masters the monks Egbert and Wig- 
 bert, who had spent two years preaching 
 the Gospel in Friesland. In 691, with 
 eleven associates, Wilibrord entered upon 
 his mission and labored with wonderful 
 success in that part of Friesland which 
 had been conquered by the Franks. In 
 696, he repaired to Rome and was made 
 bishop by Pope Sergius I. over all the 
 converted Frisians. He fixed his see at 
 Utrecht and extended his mission as far 
 as Denmark. F. Nov. 7th. 
 
 Will ( Free) and Grace. See Grace. 
 
 Wills in Christ. — Our Lord had two 
 wills : the human will and the divine will. 
 His human will was free like our own, but 
 had not, as in our case, to contend against 
 sin, nor was it exposed, as ours, to prefer 
 evil to good. The perfection of His soul, 
 especially through its union with the God- 
 head, made evil repugnant to Him. Our 
 Saviour Himself spoke of His human will 
 when saying: "Father, if Thou wilt, re- 
 move this chalice from Me : but yet not 
 My will, but Thine be done" (Luke xxii. 
 42; Matt. xxvi. 29). Thus the human will 
 was entirely subordinate to the divine will ; 
 nevertheless, it was a human will by nature 
 and essence, so that Jesus Christ did not 
 perform the divine actions only as being 
 God, nor the human actions only as being 
 man, but performed both, as being God 
 and man together. Hence, these opera- 
 
 tions are called by theologians " theandric 
 operations." The distinction of the two 
 wills in Jesus Christ is an article of faith 
 supported by Holy Scripture and on the 
 constant doctrine of the universal Church. 
 Thus the Council of Constantinople, Sixth 
 General Council, condemned the error of 
 the Monothelites, that is, those who ad- 
 mitted only one will in Jesus Christ. 
 
 William of Champeaux. — Scholastic 
 philosopher, born in the village of Cham- 
 peaux, France, about the end of the eleventh 
 century. Disciple of Anselm of Laon, he 
 taught theology in the school of Notre 
 Dame of Paris, had for disciple and adver- 
 sary the famous Abelard. Founded in 
 1113 the celebrated abbey of St. Victor. 
 Bishop of Chalons-sur-Marne in 11 16; en- 
 tered (in 1 1 19) the Order of Citeaux, where 
 he died. His principal works are : Moralia 
 abreviata and De origine animae. 
 
 William of Malmesbury (1066 ?-i 1 50 ?) . — 
 Anglo-Norman chronicler and Benedictine. 
 Wrote: Historia regum Anglorum (His- 
 tory of the English Kings), a continuation 
 of De Gestis, bringing the history down to 
 1 142 (these books have been the foundation 
 of all the more recent histories of Eng- 
 land) ; De Gestis Pontificum Angelorum 
 ( History of the Prelates of England) ; De 
 Antiquitate Glastoniensis Ecelesice (His- 
 tory of the Church of Glastonbury) ; lives 
 of St. Patrick, St. Dunstan, St. Wulfstan 
 (from the Anglo-Saxon) ; several books on 
 miracles ; and the Itinerary of John, Ab- 
 bot, of Malmesbury, to Rome. 
 
 William of Orange. See Nether- 
 lands. 
 
 William of St. Amour. — French canon, 
 born at St. Amour, died in 1272. Doctor 
 of theology, canon of Beauvais. The 
 Paris University, which felt offended by 
 the privileges granted to the mendicant 
 religious orders, sent him to Rome ; here 
 he fulfilled his mission with fanaticism. 
 His book De fericulis novissimorum tern- 
 forum, composed on this occasion, is a 
 violent diatribe against the Dominicans. 
 Alexander IV. deprived him of all his 
 benefices, forbidding him, in spite of skill- 
 ful defense, to return to France, to teach or 
 preach. 
 
 William of Tyre (1127-1190). — Arch- 
 bishop of Tyre, born at Jerusalem. He 
 made his studies in Paris. On his return 
 to his country, he became archdeacon of 
 
Williams 
 
 712 
 
 Witchcraft 
 
 the Church of Tyre ( 1 167) , then chancellor 
 of the king (1173), finally archbishop of 
 Tyre. Charged with several missions 
 at Rome and Constantinople, William 
 fulfilled them all with success. He as- 
 sisted at the Lateran Council of ii79i 
 drew up its acts, and died of poison, it is 
 believed, by order of Heraclius, patriarch 
 of Jerusalem. He has left: History of the 
 Arabs, which is lost, and History of 
 the Crusades, remarkable for its exacti- 
 tude, equity of judgment, real erudition, 
 and sufficient geographical knowledge. 
 
 Williams (David) (1738-I816). — An- 
 glican ecclesiastic and publisher. Founder 
 of a religious sect which had many rela- 
 tions with that founded later on at Paris 
 by Abbe Chatel ; it was a new worship, 
 the •' Worship of the Priests of Nature," 
 conformable to Deism and to the princi- 
 ples of education of J. J. Rousseau, to the 
 ideas of Helvetius, Voltaire, and Fred- 
 erick, king of Prussia, 
 
 Windthorst (Ludwig). — A German 
 statesman; born at Kaldenhof, Hanover, 
 Jan. 17th, 1812; educated at the Carolinum 
 Gymnasium and in law at Gottingen and 
 Heidelberg; was attorney for Catholic so- 
 cieties, and in 1848 was appointed chief 
 judge of the Court of Appeals at Celle. In 
 1849 he entered the Second Chamber of 
 Hanover as leader of the Ministerial party, 
 became president of that house in 1851, 
 and was Minister of Justice in the cabinet 
 from 1851 to 1853. As leader of the Cath- 
 olic or Center party he was prominent in 
 the North German Parliament and the 
 Prussian House of Deputies from 1867 un- 
 til the opening of the German Reichstag 
 in 1871, Windthorst was Bismarck's most 
 powerful opponent, fighting against the es- 
 tablishment of the so-called May Laws, the 
 expulsion of the Jesuits and other religious, 
 dictatorial rule in Alsace-Lorraine, the is- 
 sue of the anti-socialist laws and other 
 propositions of the prince, though he sus- 
 pended his opposition upon the com- 
 promise between the German government 
 and the Holy See, but renewed his resist- 
 ance upon the refusal of the government to 
 grant certain concessions. He died in Ber- 
 lin, March 14th, 1891, 
 
 Winebrenner(JoHN) (1797-1860). — Born 
 in Frederick county, Maryland ; died at 
 Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. An American 
 clergyman, pastor of a German Reformed 
 Church in Harrisburg. He separated from 
 
 that denomination and organized, in 1830, 
 the new sect called ** The Church of God," 
 or Winebrennarians. The organization 
 met with remarkable success, especially in 
 the Central Eastern and Middle Western 
 States, in 1889 having 522 ministers, 479 
 organizations, 22,511 communicants, and 
 338 church edifices valued at $643,185, be- 
 sides a domestic and foreign missionary so- 
 ciety, a book repository, and a printing 
 establishment at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. 
 " The Church of God " maintains three 
 positive ordinances : Baptism by immer- 
 sion, the washing of feet, and the Lord's 
 Supper, 
 
 Wiafrid. See Bonifacb. 
 
 Wisdom {Book of). — Canonical book 
 of the Old Testament. In this work, by 
 striking examples taken from early Jewish 
 history, kings and others in power, are 
 urged to study wisdom and the fear of 
 God. It is styled the Wisdom of Solomon, 
 but St. Jerome and St. Augustine think it 
 was the work of some other person, now 
 unknown. 
 
 Wiseman (Nicholas Patrick). — Eng- 
 lish Catholic prelate, offspring of an Irish 
 family, born at Seville in 1802 ; died at 
 London in 1865. Educated in England in 
 the Catholic college of St. Guthbert, 
 studied theology in Rome, where he re- 
 ceived holy orders and became professor 
 of theology. In 1827, he occupied the 
 chair of oriental literature in the college 
 of St, Guthbert, and was named its vice 
 rector. Under the Pontificate of Gregory 
 XVI., he suggested to the Holy See, to 
 increase the number of prelates in Eng- 
 land. He, himself, was appointed coad- 
 jutor to Bishop Walsh. In 1847, he took 
 new steps to obtain the complete restora- 
 tion of the hierarchy in England, which 
 was realized by Pius IX. in 1850, after it 
 had been suppressed for nearly three hun- 
 dred years. Then Wiseman was desig- 
 nated as archbishop of Westminster and 
 raised to the dignity of cardinal. He 
 proceeded with the greatest prudence, in 
 order not to hurt or prejudice, and to per- 
 mit public opinion to get over its emotion, 
 if not hostility. His public conferences, 
 books, moderation, and his qualities as a 
 man of the world, reconciled the spirits 
 and caused him to be greatly admired. 
 
 Witchcraft (the belief in a compact 
 with the devil to do harm). — The belief 
 in witchcraft became general only in the 
 
WOLSEY 
 
 713 
 
 Works 
 
 fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. We 
 find it more firmly established and deeply 
 rooted in Germany than elsewhere, and it 
 accompanies the moral decay caused, 
 chiefly, by the forerunners of Reforma- 
 tion in this country. But witchcraft did 
 not limit itself to Germany, and it has been 
 the belief of serious minds that the suits of 
 w^itchcraft contributed a good deal to the 
 propagation of the belief in witches. 
 Those who deny the reality of witchcraft, 
 seeing therein nothing else but a very dan- 
 gerous and much spread illusion, treat 
 the facts according to their manner of see- 
 ing. The formal and absolutely positive 
 avowals of a large number accused of 
 witchcraft, would be solely due to the tor- 
 ments they had to endure. Leibnitz quotes 
 Father Spec, a Jesuit, who had accom- 
 panied to the place of execution, a great 
 number of condemned as witches, and 
 these unfortunates, justly punished for 
 many crimes, he still remained convinced 
 that none of them were really sorcerers. 
 For others, the belief in sorcerers was a real 
 state of disease, both a mental and phys- 
 ical epidemic, peculiar to men at an ap- 
 pointed time. In every case, not only the 
 Church pursued and condemned the sor- 
 cerers ; the civil power, bound to main- 
 tain order in society, did not show itself 
 less zealous, not less persevering in the 
 same direction. 
 
 Wolsey (Thomas) (1471-1530). — Eng- 
 lish prelate and statesman. Born at Ips- 
 wich ; young Wolsey was educated at 
 Magdalen College, Oxford, where he ob- 
 tained his degree when hardly fifteen. 
 Wolsey soon secured the notice of Henry 
 VII., who made him dean of London. His 
 advancement, under Henry VIII., was rapid 
 and brilliant. He became almoner to the 
 king, and in quick succession was promoted 
 to the bishopric of Lincoln, the arch- 
 bishopric of York, and the office of Lord 
 Chancellor, which dignities were crowned 
 in 15 1 5, by the reception of a cardinal's hat 
 from Pope Leo X. and the appointment to 
 be Legatus a latere for England. He was 
 devoted to the interest of the king, more 
 so, perhaps, than to those of the Church, 
 and was bent upon exalting the royal au- 
 thority. But Wolsey fell into disgrace; 
 Henry VIII. accused him of having be- 
 trayed him in his cause of divorce with 
 Catharine of Aragon, and of having squan- 
 dered the finances of the kingdom. Pros- 
 ecuted in 1529, under the " Statute of 
 
 Praemunire," Wolsey was deprived of the 
 Great Seal, and all his personal property, 
 which was declared forfeited to the Crown. 
 Parliament declared Wolsey not guilty. 
 Hereupon, the cardinal withdrew into his 
 archbishopric and delivered himself en- 
 tirely to the administration of his Church. 
 One year after, Wolsey was again arrested, 
 because he refused to recognize Henry as 
 head of the Church. On his way to Lon- 
 don, the fallen minister died at Leicester, 
 uttering, a little before his death, these re- 
 markable words: "Had I but served my 
 God as faithfully as I have served my king, 
 He would not have thus abandoned me in 
 my grey hairs. But this is my just reward 
 for my pains and study, not regarding my 
 service to God, but only my duty to my 
 prince." 
 
 Wood (James Frederick). — An 
 American Catholic prelate ; born in Phila- 
 delphia, Pennsylvania, April 27th, 1813; 
 in 1836 was a bank cashier in Cincinnati, 
 Ohio, and that year was admitted to the 
 Roman Catholic Church, and went to 
 Rome to prepare himself for the priest- 
 hood. He was ordained in 1844; assistant 
 rector of the Cincinnati cathedral from 
 1844 to 1854; appointed bishop of Gra- 
 tianopolis in 1857, and sent to Philadelphia 
 as coadjutor to Bishop Newman ; and in 
 i860 became bishop of Philadelphia. He 
 was made an archbishop in 1875. To him 
 are due many of the Church institutions 
 in Philadelphia, and to his energy the 
 strength of the Church in Pennsylvania. 
 He died in Philadelphia, June 20th, 1883. 
 
 Works ( Necessity of Good) . See Merit. 
 
 Works of Supererogation. See Super- 
 erogation. 
 
 Works (Satisfactory) . — Works by 
 which we satisfy God for our sins, like 
 prayer, alms, and fasting, especially desig- 
 nated in Scripture, and recommended by 
 the holy Fathers. We understand here 
 by prayer, all the exercises of piety and of 
 religion, like Mass, the divine office, medi- 
 tation, pilgrimages, etc. Fasting em- 
 braces all kinds of corporal and spiritual 
 punishments, such as abstinence, poverty, 
 labor, mortifications, etc. Alms comprise 
 all the good deeds rendered to our neigh- 
 bor in his corporal or spiritual needs. 
 But, we have to remark, in order that 
 these works may be meritorious and satis- 
 factory to God, it is not necessary that they 
 are performed in the state of grace, because 
 
Works 
 
 714 
 
 Worship 
 
 they formerly imposed them, and still im- 
 pose them quite often upon the penitents, 
 long before reconciling them with God by 
 absolution, which they would not have 
 done, and which they would not do, if they 
 judged them entirely useless and without 
 value. They must be done, if not in the 
 state of habitual grace, at least without 
 afJection to mortal sin ; or, which is the 
 same thing, in a state of commenced justice 
 and with an actual love of God, produced 
 by an impulse of the Holy Ghost, who, not 
 yet dwelling in the soul, but exciting it, 
 makes it seek the friendship of God above 
 everything, even before it is reconciled 
 with Him. 
 
 Works {Servile). — On Sundays and 
 holy days, servile works are forbidden. 
 By servile works are understood such as 
 are performed chiefly by physical strength, 
 and have for their object bodily comfort, 
 such as are performed by servants, trades- 
 men and laborers in general. From serv- 
 ile works are to be distinguished the so- 
 called liberal pursuits, which occupy the 
 mind more than the body and have for 
 their chief object the benefit of the mind 
 (writing, teaching, etc.). These latter as 
 also physical exercises (walking, riding, 
 etc.), are not prohibited. A servile work 
 does not cease to be such by the fact, that 
 it is performed for the sake of recrea- 
 tion ; but the exercise of a liberal pursuit, 
 though it may be undertaken for pay, does 
 not therefore become servile and forbid- 
 den. The obligation to abstain from serv- 
 ile works extends only to those who are 
 baptized and have attained the years of 
 discretion ; for the baptized, only, are sub- 
 ject to the authority of the Church ; and 
 those, only, who have the use of reason 
 are capable of obligation. The obligation 
 may cease in certain cases by dispensation, 
 necessity, or charity. Certain secular 
 transactions and occupations are also for- 
 bidden on Sundays and holy days, because 
 they obstruct the religious celebration of 
 Sundays and holy days. Such are, for in- 
 stance, legal and judicial proceedings, 
 public negotiations, political deliberations, 
 etc. Sinful and dangerous amusements, 
 though not formally opposed to the com- 
 mandment to keep holy Sundays and holy 
 days, are contrary to its purpose, which is 
 the honor of God and our own sanctifica- 
 tion. Recreation and lawful amusements, 
 however, are not of themselves opposed to 
 the object of the Sunday observance, pro- 
 
 vided they are not carried on at the time 
 of divine service and divert the Faithful 
 from their religious duties. 
 
 Worms ( Concordat of) . — Agreement 
 (1 122) between Pope Calixtus II. and Henry 
 v., emperor of Germany, which put an 
 end, after a period of more than fifty years, 
 to the contest of ecclesiastical investitures. 
 By this compact the emperor resigned for- 
 ever all pretense to invest bishops by ring 
 and crosier, and recognized the liberty of 
 ecclesiastical election. In return, the Pope 
 conceded that elections should be made in 
 the presence of imperial officers, without 
 violence or simony, and that the new 
 bishop should receive investiture of their 
 fiefs from the emperor by the sceptre. 
 
 Worship. — The word worship is used 
 in various senses. Often it refers to honor 
 rendered by one man to another on purely 
 civil or personal grounds, having no con- 
 nection with religion ; often it means the 
 honor due from a creature to his Creator. 
 Both these are legitimate uses ; but we 
 contend that there is a third true sense, 
 where worship is rendered to creature, out 
 of a motive of religion. That this may be 
 understood, we must make an analysis of 
 the idea of worship. 
 
 All worship is based on a conviction of 
 the worthiness of the object of the wor- 
 ship : that from some point of view he is 
 worthy that we should judge him superior 
 to ourselves. Again, there must be the 
 will to assume the position in regard to 
 him which our intellect has shown us to 
 be suitable. Thirdly, there must be some 
 external act signifying the presence of this 
 interior conviction and will. The worship 
 oflFered will vary in kind according to the 
 ground of the conviction from which it 
 starts. When the ground is some superior- 
 ity in personal qualities or in some office 
 held in the society to which we belong, the 
 word respect is more usual than worship, 
 but the meaning is the same; wefiavehere 
 civil worship. If the ground is the sense of 
 the infinite superiority of the Creator over 
 the creature, this worship is of the highest 
 possible nature, and receives the special 
 name of Latria, a Greek word equivalent 
 to the Latin Culfus, or worship, but re- 
 stricted by usage to the worship due to God 
 alone. But the conviction may depend 
 upon our sense that some person is far su- 
 perior to us in holiness and union with 
 God, and we are willing to honor God by 
 outward signs of our regard for this person ; 
 
Worship and 
 
 715 
 
 Its Development 
 
 this worship is a religious act, and yet is 
 totally different from Latria; it is called 
 Dulia, which also is a Greek word mean- 
 ing service, but appropriated to mean the 
 worship given to the saints. In the case 
 of the Blessed Virgin, her dignity and 
 closeness to God are so transcendently 
 higher and closer than what any other 
 creature will ever enjoy, that the worship 
 rendered to her is of a higher kind than 
 that rendered to the saints, and is distin- 
 guished as Hyperdulia, for it is something 
 beyond Dulia, though still infinitely short 
 of Latria. 
 
 Worship (^Ancestor). — Ancestor wor- 
 ship is a form of worship of the dead, still 
 existing in uncivilized countries and is- 
 lands of Africa and Oceanica. Among 
 the Amazulus, for instance, a hierarchy 
 has established itself in the category of 
 their ancestors ; they distinguish between 
 those they have seen live and die, as their 
 immediate ancestors, and those, whose 
 memory is still preserved in the family, 
 tribe, or nation ; one of these ancestors, 
 Unkulukulu, has become the national god 
 of the race. The same worship of ances- 
 tors has existed among the aborigines of 
 South America. The Peruvians distin- 
 guished the immediate ancestors, gods of 
 the family home, and the remote ances- 
 tors, gods of the village and nation. 
 Then, above all local protectors stood the 
 Inas, the first civilizers and supreme an- 
 cestors. Among the Chinese, the an- 
 cestors have not ceased to have their 
 temples and offerings. 
 
 The worship of the dead existed also 
 among the Chaldeans, Assyrians, ancient 
 Arabs, Egyptians, and diverse branches of 
 the Aryan race. The deified ancestors 
 were to their adorers, perfectly material, 
 who nourished themselves and made use 
 of the meats, animals, arms, captives of- 
 fered or immolated on their tombs, who 
 dwelled for a more or less time in their 
 sepulchres, and continually came to claim 
 the honors and nourishment that were due 
 to them. The belief in their returning is 
 perhaps a remainder of these antique be- 
 liefs. M. Fustel of Coulanges, in his 
 beautiful book The Antique City, draws 
 from this primitive worship of the an- 
 cestors, every organization of the antique 
 family and city of the Greeks and Ro- 
 mans. From this work we get a summary 
 of the author's opinion; from this com- 
 mon belief in the Aryan race, that the 
 
 soul after death, remained near the men 
 and continued to live under the earth, de- 
 rived the necessity of the burial ; the soul 
 which had no tomb, had no dwelling. Un- 
 fortunately she became malicious. The 
 dead passed as sacred beings (demons or 
 heroes at the Greeks, lares, manes, genii 
 at the Latins), whose tombs were the 
 temples. The house of a Greek or of a 
 Roman contained an altar, whose fire was 
 kept up day and night. The fire of the 
 hearthwastheprovidenceofthefamily; fam- 
 ily extinguished and hearth extinguished 
 were synonymous expressions. It is prob- 
 able that the dead were anciently buried in 
 the house and that the worship of the hearth 
 was at the beginning only the symbol of the 
 worship of the dead. These beliefs formed 
 the domestic religions, anterior to the na- 
 tional religions, when each god could be 
 adored only by a family, for the offering 
 to the dead should be made only by his 
 descendants. This religion of the hearth 
 and of the ancestors has constituted the 
 antique family which is before all a re- 
 ligious association. — We have to remark 
 that this worship of the ancestors is far 
 from resting on the same ideas as the ven- 
 eration of the saints in theCatholic Church, 
 and also that the prayers which we address 
 to God for the repose of the souls of the 
 dead, are based upon different grounds. 
 
 Worship and Its Development. — By 
 
 worship we understand the honor we ren- 
 der to God by both internal and external 
 acts of worship. Worship or Cultus and 
 liturgy of the Church furnish an instance 
 of doctrinal development, not indeed di- 
 rectly, but only indirectly, because of their 
 connection with the doctrines they sym- 
 bolize. Nevertheless, as is easily under- 
 stood, development in this sphere is natu- 
 rally greater and more notable than in the 
 domain of faith and doctrine, because be- 
 sides being the worship of God, liturgy is 
 intended to raise man up to God, by bring- 
 ing into play the elements of sense and 
 reason, and thus stirring up the spiritual 
 influences lying dormant within him. 
 Christian liturgy has its foundations laid 
 deep down in Scripture and tradition. 
 Our Lord Himself taught the disciples 
 how to pray; He Himself instituted the 
 sacrifice of the new and eternal Testament, 
 and commanded His Apostles to do it in 
 memory of Him; He Himself instituted 
 the sacraments, some of which Baptism 
 and Confirmation, for examplej used to be 
 
Worship and 
 
 716 
 
 Its Development 
 
 administered with the holy Eucharist. 
 Again, Christ's words : " Give not that 
 which is hoi J to dogs ; neither cast ye your 
 pearls before swine" (Matt. vii. 6), be- 
 sides prompting the disciples to withdraw 
 sacred things from the profane, also taught 
 them to treat these sacred things with the 
 greatest reverence. 
 
 The Faithful in Jerusalem, we learn from 
 the Acts, assembled together to break 
 bread. This breaking of bread became to 
 them a solemn divine service, in other 
 words, a liturgical action. St. Paul's di- 
 rections about the celebration of the Lord's 
 Supper point to a regular divine ser\nce. 
 Furthermore, from his Epistles it would 
 seem that hymns and edifying discourses 
 added to the solemnity. . . . " Be ye 
 filled," he says, "with the holy spirit. 
 Speaking to yourselves in psalms and 
 hymns, and spiritual canticles, singing and 
 making melody in your hearts to the Lord : 
 Giving thanks always for all things in the 
 name of our Lord Jesus Christ, to God 
 and the Father" (Eph. v. 18-20; Col. iii. 
 16). Do not the following words also 
 sound like part of a liturgical hymn ? "And 
 evidently great is the mystery of godli- 
 ness which was manifested in the flesh, was 
 justified in the spirit, appeared unto angels, 
 hath been preached unto the gentiles, is be- 
 lieved in the world, is taken up in glory" 
 (I. Tim. iii. 16). 
 
 From these indications we may fairly in- 
 fer that, even in Apostolic times, the lit- 
 urgy had been considerably developed not 
 only in the communities of Jewish Chris- 
 tians, who retained their own usages and 
 forms of prayer, but also among gentile 
 Christians. In the post-apostolic churches 
 these ordinances of the Apostles continued 
 in force, and received still further devel- 
 opment, as we learn from several historical 
 documents and from the old liturgies, 
 which emanated in substance from the 
 Apostles whose names they bear. Pliny 
 the Younger, in his letter to Trajan, dis- 
 tinctly asserts that the Christians met on a 
 certain day before sunrise and sang hymns 
 to Christ their God. Eusebius also states 
 that, in his time, the Faithful were still 
 wont to sing canticles, handed down from 
 the early Christians, in which they honored 
 Christ as God (H. E. v. 28, 32, 5). 
 
 From the writings of Justin, and the re- 
 cently discovered Didache, we gather that 
 divine worship centered in the reading of 
 Scripture and celebration of the holy 
 Eucharist. The liturgical prayer of thanks 
 
 {eucharistia) contained the Apostolic rule 
 of faith, and hence was called the Canon. 
 Speaking of the liturgy of his time, Ter- 
 tullian invokes tradition on its behalf, say- 
 ing that what originated in tradition, was 
 obser^•ed in faith, and was ratified by con- 
 stant use. The Fathers by affirming that 
 usages in the Church, not historically 
 traceable to positive institution, have come 
 down from the Apostles, recognize tradi- 
 tion as their leading principle. Not that 
 they were unaware that cultus and liturgy 
 had undergone development since Apos- 
 tolic times. But they knew that they were 
 a natural growth from the seeds sown 
 by the Apostles. From the fundamental 
 Christian mysteries, as it were from a root, 
 have sprung up the many branches and 
 fragrant flowers of the liturgy, as these 
 mj-steries bear chiefly on our Lord's life, 
 they naturally issued in a corona of feasts, 
 which as the year runs its course, call to 
 mind Christ and the redemption that He 
 accomplished. In this way arose feasts in 
 honor of our Lord and the martyrs, to 
 which were added others in honor of the 
 Apostles and of the Blessed Virgin, which 
 gave new life and solemnity to the liturgy. 
 And here we may be allowed to point 
 out how the Catholic Church differs from 
 other communions in this matter. The 
 first great liturgical dispute, that, namely, 
 concerning the celebration of Easter, seems 
 to show that the Eastern Church began to 
 regard tradition as a dead principle. No- 
 where had the liturgy developed so rapidly 
 and so richly as in the Greek Church. But 
 the vigorous life that at first pulsated in 
 her liturgical veins soon ceased to flow, 
 and then she became listless and shrivelled 
 up into a skeleton of antique forms. What 
 avails her boast of having preserved the 
 most ancient traditions, if life and energy 
 have gone out of them ? The conservative 
 principle, as understood or rather nxisun- 
 derstood by her, has dammed the stream 
 of progress in theology, worship, and dis- 
 cipline. What a different sight meets our 
 eyes in the Catholic Church. How beauti- 
 fully the old blends with the new in her 
 worship ! Like an evergreen planted by 
 the side of the running waters, the living 
 Church is ever sending forth new offshoots. 
 But, however varied its manifestations, 
 however new at first blush they often seem, 
 they have all grown out of the tree planted 
 by the Apostles, and have derived their 
 nourishment from the life-force that has 
 animated Catholic worship for centuries. 
 
Writers 
 
 717 
 
 Wycliffe 
 
 Of a truth, in comparing modern worship 
 with the worship of the first two centuries, 
 or in tracing modern liturgy to its rise 
 and early growth, we cannot fail to notice 
 a manifold diversity side by side with re- 
 semblance in the main outline. But in this, 
 even more than in doctrinal development, 
 we must beware of cutting down to the 
 roots the great tree that, in the course of 
 centuries, has overspread the whole earth. 
 If the Holy Spirit abides in the Church, 
 her whole life must expand under His 
 guidance. 
 
 Writers {Ecclesiastical). — In a general 
 sense, the name of " Ecclesiastical Writer," 
 as distinguished from inspired writer, may 
 be given to all those who, ever since the 
 days of the Apostles, have written in ex- 
 planation or defense of the Christian doc- 
 trine. But in the narrower or specific 
 sense, ecclesiastical writers differ from 
 those who are called Fathers or Doctors of 
 the Church. The difference derives from 
 the character of their lives and writings. 
 Ecclesiastical writers are called those men 
 who, though living in the communion of 
 the Church, have yet not always in their 
 lives and writings expressed her pure and 
 genuine traditional doctrine, as, for in- 
 stance, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, 
 Tertullian, Lactantius, Eusebius, Rufinus, 
 Cassian, Thodoret of Cyrus, and others. 
 If St. Irenaeus, in spite of his chiliastic 
 opinions, and St. Gregory of Nyssa, in 
 spite of his Origenistic ideas, are counted 
 among the Fathers, it is because they did 
 not propound their opinions apodictically 
 as the teaching of the Church. Those 
 Christians who have left behind writings 
 on matters of faith, but did not live in the 
 communion of the Church, as, for instance, 
 Novatian, are called Christian -writers. 
 
 Wulfram (St.) (647-720). — French Pre- 
 late, born at Milly, France, died in the mon- 
 astery at Fontenelle, whither he had retired. 
 Counselor of Clotaire III. and of Thierry 
 III. Archbishop of Sens (693), resigned 
 his see (695), in order to become one of the 
 apostles of the Frieslanders. F. March 20th. 
 
 Wycliffe (John) (1324-1387). — Heresi- 
 arch, born at Hipswell (Yorkshire). 
 Rector of the College of Baliol at Oxford 
 (1361), then of the College of Canterbury 
 (1365); but deposed by the archbishop of 
 Canterbury (1367), he commenced to at- 
 tack the mendicant monks and the funda- 
 mental institutions of the Church. He 
 gained to his party the princess of Wales, 
 
 mother of the young prince Richard, and 
 grandson of the king. To give his doc- 
 trine more authority, he wished to preach 
 by example ; he went barefooted and 
 poorly dressed, accompanied by young 
 priests, his disciples, who showed an in- 
 credible zeal and ardor to propagate his 
 doctrine. They spread themselves all 
 over the provinces, preaching everywhere 
 against the riches of the clergy, the lux- 
 ury and abuses which, according to Wy- 
 cliffe, had introduced themselves into the 
 Church since the time of Pope Sylvester. 
 Pope Gregory XI. wrote to the king and 
 to the bishops, in order to put an end to 
 the revolt. The number of his adherents 
 was so great at the University of Oxford, 
 that they had difficulty to receive the 
 Brief of the Pope. Finally the University 
 accepted the Bulls, but decided to annul 
 their effect by delays. The archbishop of 
 London and the bishop of Canterbury 
 pressed the chancellor and cited Wycliffe 
 before their tribunal (1378). He pre- 
 sented himself with boldness, feeling him- 
 self supported by the people and powerful 
 protectors. The bishops did not dare 
 to condemn him and contented themselves 
 by imposing silence upon him. But he, 
 nevertheless, continued to dogmatize. 
 Meanwhile^he wrote to Pope Urban VI., 
 lately elected, in order to belabor him in his 
 favor. Inlthe meantime, the schism having 
 formed itself in the Church, by the nom- 
 ination of Clement VII., they suspended 
 the pursuits against Wycliffe. The heresi- 
 arch profited by all these circumstances 
 to propagate his heresy. Besides the 
 eight hundred errors which some authors 
 pretend of having drawn from his writ- 
 ings, besides what he had written against 
 the primacy of the Pope and authority 
 of the Church, he abolished the religious 
 orders, the monastic vows, the venera- 
 tion of the saints, the ecclesiastical hier- 
 archy, the ceremonies of the Church, and 
 confession ; he attacked the liberty of man, 
 tradition, the decisions of the councils, the 
 authority of the Fathers of the Church, 
 and the authority of the temporal princes. 
 He established equality and independence 
 among men. His disciples spread his 
 doctrines among the people during the 
 years 1379-1380 and incited the peasants, 
 who, according to the laws of England, 
 were then subject to a kind of slavery. An 
 army of more than 100,000 men ravaged 
 several provinces, advanced to London 
 and murdered the archbishop of Canter- 
 
Xaverian Brothers 
 
 718 
 
 Yves 
 
 bury. The king was forced to grant them 
 the liberty they asked for. This troop of 
 revolters was dispersed by the death of 
 their chief, Wat Tyler, whom the mayor 
 of London killed with his sword. The 
 archbishop of Canterbury, in the quality 
 of papal legate, convoked at London (1382) 
 a national council, wherein they con- 
 demned twenty-two propositions drawn 
 from the books of Wycliffe. King Rich- 
 ard caused the publication of a declaration 
 
 to support the decisions of the council and 
 to command the University of Oxford to 
 expel therefrom Wycliffe, and all his fol- 
 lowers. During this time, Wycliffe pre- 
 tending that he did not favor the revolt, 
 had retired into his parish of Luterword. 
 After the death of Wycliffe, two councils 
 held in London (1390 and 1408), con- 
 demned his doctrine. The Council of 
 Constance (May 4th, 1415), confirmed and 
 renewed all the anterior condemnations. 
 
 Xaverian Brothers. — A religious com- 
 munity, founded at Bruges, Belgium, by 
 Brother Francis Xavier (Thomas James 
 Ryken) in 1839, and introduced into the 
 United States by Bishop Spalding, of 
 Louisville, Kentucky, in 1854. They have 
 under their charge, besides parochial 
 schools, several colleges. 
 
 Xavier (Francis). See Francis. 
 
 Xavier (Jerome). — Spanish Jesuit and 
 missionary, kinsman of St. Francis Xavier, 
 born in Navarre, departed for Goa in 1571, 
 became there director of the novices ; after- 
 wards went into Mogul, wrought several 
 conversions at the court of King Lahore, 
 and died at Goa, in 1617, at the moment 
 when King Philip IIL named him arch- 
 bishop of Angamale. 
 
 Ximenes de Cisneros (Francis) (1436- 
 15^7)- — Cardinal and regent of Spain, 
 born at Torrelaguna, Castile. He re- 
 ceived holy orders, lived in Rome from 
 1455 to 1461, and received from Pope Six- 
 tus V. a bull of expectancy for the first 
 vacant benefice at Toledo ; but the arch- 
 bishop, far from granting him right, pur- 
 sued him and even kept him a prisoner at 
 San-Torcaz. In 14S0, the bishop of Si- 
 
 guenza chose him for his vicar general. To 
 escape the world, he entered the Francis- 
 cans (1484); Queen Isabella took him for 
 her confessor and intimate counselor. 
 Named Provincial of the Franciscans 
 (1492), he energetically arose against 
 abuses, and pursued his projects of re- 
 form, in spite of the resistance of the 
 general of the Order himself. Forced by 
 an order of the Pope, to accept the arch- 
 bishopric of Toledo (1495), he continued 
 in his monastic severity. Isabella con- 
 siderably followed his counsels, and verj' 
 probably Christopher Columbus owes it 
 to him that his propositions were ac- 
 cepted. When the Queen died (1504), 
 Ximenes knew how to keep order in Cas- 
 tile. After the death of Philip the Fair, 
 he assured the regency of the kingdom to 
 Ferdinand the Catholic (1506). The king 
 procured for him the cardinal's hat (1507). 
 In order that the Moors might abandon all 
 hope to reconquer Grenada, Ximenes re- 
 solved to carry the war into Africa. 
 Ximenes founded several libraries, the 
 college of Siquenza, the university of Al- 
 cala, and printed the Complutensian Poly- 
 glot Bible at his own expense (1502-1517), 
 4 vols, in fol. 
 
 Year {Ecclesiastical). — The ecclesias- 
 tical or liturgical year is the regular return 
 in the course of a year of the days, more 
 especially appointed for worship, with the 
 time of preparation (Advent, Lent, etc.) 
 and their sequels (Octaves, Sundays after 
 Epiphany, after Easter, after Pentecost). 
 The ecclesiastical year is divided into three 
 great cycles : that of Christmas, Easter, 
 and Pentecost. 
 
 Young (Brigham). See Mormons. 
 
 Yves (St.) (Lat. /wo) (io4o(?)-i|i6).— 
 Bishop of Chartres. Born in Beauvais, 
 died at Chartres. Gloriously directed the 
 abbey of St. Quentin of Beauvais. Bishop 
 of Chartres in 1091, he highly disapproved 
 of the marriage of Philip I. with Bertrada. 
 The king, irritated, kept him a prisoner 
 during two years and confiscated the goods 
 of his Church. Protector of letters, he in- 
 creased the celebrity of the schools of 
 Chartres, in procuring skillful professors, 
 and embellished the cathedral. F.May 28th. 
 
Zabulon 
 
 719 
 
 Zambri 
 
 Zabulon. — City of the tribe of Aser, 
 near Ptolemaid; was given, during the di- 
 vision of the Promised Land, to the tribe 
 of Zabulon ; it was one of the most popu- 
 lated cities of Palestine. 
 
 Zabulon. — Sixth son of Jacob and of 
 Lia. Gave his name to one of the twelve 
 tribes of the Old Testament. The tribe of 
 Zabulon extended from Lake Tiberias on 
 the east, to the Mediterranean on the west, 
 limited on the north by the tribes of 
 Aser and Nephtali, and on the south by 
 that of Issachar. It formed the southern 
 part of Galilee. Principal cities : Bethu- 
 lia, Sephoris, Jezrael, Nazareth, Cana, and 
 Tiberiades. 
 
 Zacharias. — King of Israel, succeeded 
 his father Jeroboam II. (767 b. c.) and 
 reigned only six months. Having done 
 evil in the eyes of the Lord, he was killed 
 by Selum, son of Jabes, who reigned in his 
 place. 
 
 Zacharias. — Son of Joiada, high-priest 
 of the Jews ; was stoned by the order of 
 Joas. He is also called Azarias. 
 
 Zacharias. — The eleventh of the minor 
 prophets, son of Barachias and grandson 
 of Addo; lived in the sixth century b. c. 
 He returned from Babylon together with 
 Zorobabel and commenced to prophesy the 
 second year of the reign of Darius, son of 
 Hystaspes (520B. c). Thus like Aggeus, 
 he encouraged the people to resume the 
 work of the temple. His prophecy, which 
 is composed of fourteen chapters, com- 
 mences with an exhortation in which he 
 tells the Jews to do penance, and not to 
 imitate the hard-heartedness of their fa- 
 thers. Then he foretells several great 
 events, either in regard to Jerusalem, 
 or of the four principal monarchies. 
 Finally he speaks of the coming of the 
 Messiah, the establishment and grandeur 
 of the Christian Church, the persecutions 
 she will have to suffer, the chastisement 
 she will exercise against her enemies and 
 particularly the misfortunes that will befall 
 the Jews for having killed the Messiah. It 
 was this Zacharias, and not the next, whom 
 Jesus Christ reproached the Jews of having 
 killed, between the temple and the altar. 
 
 Zacharias. — Priest of the family of 
 Abia, father of St. John the Baptist. He 
 
 was already advanced in years, and with- 
 out child, when the angel Gabriel came to 
 him to announce the birth of a son ; and 
 as he showed some incredulity, the angel 
 struck him with dumbness until the fulfill- 
 ment of the prophecy. Some Fathers 
 believed that Zacharias was high-priest, 
 but this does not appear in the Gospel. 
 The Proto- gospel of St. James relates sev- 
 eral circumstances of his death ; and upon 
 these foundations, undoubtedly, they be- 
 lieved that he had been put to death for 
 having announced the coming of the Mes- 
 siah. The Greeks celebrate his feast on 
 September 5th, the Latins on November 
 5th, with that of St. Elisabeth, his wife. 
 
 Zacharias (St.). — Pope from 741 to 752. 
 Born in Syria, canon regular, Benedic- 
 tine, successor of Gregory III., became the 
 umpire of princes and sovereigns, suc- 
 ceeded in conciliating the Lombards, and 
 saved the Roman Duchy from their further 
 invasions. By a visit to King Luitprand, 
 he obtained peace for the Exarch of Ra- 
 venna and the restoration of the captured 
 town to the emperor. Upon Rachis, suc- 
 cessor of Luitprand, the dignified appear- 
 ance of the Pope made such an impression, 
 that the king relinquished, not only his 
 conquests, but also the world, and became 
 a monk in the monastery of Monte Cas- 
 sino. Pope Zacharias, appointed Boniface 
 archbishop of Mentz and Primate of Ger- 
 many. By order of the same Pope, the 
 saint, in 752, crowned Pepin the Short, 
 king of the Franks. 
 
 Zacheus. — Chief of the publicans he 
 had the great honor to receive our Saviour 
 into his house. According to an ancient 
 tradition, confirmed by the authority of 
 Pope Martin V. (Bull of 1427) and the 
 recent hagiographal discoveries, the 
 Zacheus of the Gospel came into Gaul, re- 
 tired into a solitude of Quercy (Lot), and 
 the people gave to him the name Amator, 
 changed later on into that of Amadour ; 
 he is therefore regarded as the founder of 
 Roc-Amadour. 
 
 Zambri. — King of Israel ; usurped the 
 throne after having assassinated Ela, in 918 
 B. c. He exterminated the whole family 
 of his victim and all his followers ; thus 
 was realized what the Lord said to Baasa, 
 
Zeno 
 
 720 
 
 Zoroaster 
 
 father of Ela, through the Prophet Jehu. 
 These massacres did not firmly establish 
 his power, for he only reigned seven days. 
 Besieged in Thersa, the place of his crime, 
 by the army returning from the siege of 
 Gebethon and commanded by his general 
 Amri proclaimed king, Zambri burned 
 himself in his palace with all his riches. 
 
 Zeno (St.). — Bishop of Verona, his na- 
 tive place, in 362. He is honored as a con- 
 fessor of the faith, and, by St. Gregory the 
 Great, is styled a martyr, on account of the 
 persecutions he drew upon himself though 
 the zeal he displayed in opposing Arianism 
 and in the conversion of heathen. He 
 died in 380. There are extant ninety -three 
 of his Treatises, a title given in that age to 
 familiar discourses made to the people. 
 He is the first among the Latin Fathers, 
 whose sermons were collected and pub- 
 lished. F. April I2th. 
 
 Zephyrinus (St.). — Pope, born in 
 Rome, died in 217. Successor of Victor 
 I. in 197. Governed the Church with as 
 much prudence as holiness and had for 
 successor Calixtus I. Having lived under 
 pagan emperors he is counted among the 
 martyrs. F. Aug. 26th. 
 
 Zinzendorf. See Herknhutbrs. 
 
 Ziska. See Hussites. 
 
 Zoroaster or Zarathustra. — Prophet 
 and legislator of the ancient Persians, 
 lived in the seventh century b. c. He 
 studied under the prophet Daniel and, af- 
 ter having lived twenty years in retreat, 
 he went forth to prophesy and give his 
 laws under the reign of Darius. He knew 
 certain plants whose sap had the pecul- 
 iarity to harden the skin against the action 
 of fire. Hence, he went to see the king 
 and presented to him the Zend-Avesta, a 
 book which he had composed in his retreat 
 and in which his whole doctrine was con- 
 tained. The king, in order to believe, 
 asked him for miracles. Zoroaster kindled 
 a great fire around himself and went forth 
 from its flames, his book in hand, without 
 the least harm. Hereupon, Darius 
 adopted the new doctrine. But the Sages, 
 whose influence Zoroaster came to de- 
 stroy, united to destroy him and to accuse 
 him of magic. They succeeded to change 
 the king's mind in such a manner, that 
 the latter caused Zoroaster to be im- 
 prisoned. But Zoroaster performed other 
 prodigies. The king convinced, embraced 
 
 the doctrine of the Zend-Avesta and 
 caused it to be adopted by his people. The 
 doctrine of Zoroaster, contained in the 
 Zend-Avesta, admits first one principle, 
 which is eternal, invisible, spiritual, from 
 which arose, before time, the two pri- 
 mordial beings : Ahura-Mazda (Ormuzd), 
 the good principle of light, and Anra- 
 Mainyn (Ahriman), the evil principle of 
 darkness. Ormuzd created at first the 
 Amschaspands, that is, the immortal 
 saints, his co-operators, in the number of 
 six; then the Izeds, that is, the adored, 
 who are at the head of the natural things, 
 the sun, the fire, etc. ; the others, who are 
 personifications of metaphysical ideas, like 
 truth, purity, law, etc. The most important 
 of the Izeds is Mithra, god of the sun, and 
 as the setting sun divides the world be- 
 tween the light and darkness, and conse- 
 quently between Ormuzd and Ahriman, he 
 is called mediator. Finally, Ormuzd cre- 
 ated the fervors, the tutelary genii of men. 
 Ahriman created the devas or evil spirits, 
 to whom especially belongs the kingdom 
 of the dead, and upon whom depends all 
 kinds of magic and sorcery. Ormuzd 
 reigned alone 3,000 years ; during this time 
 he created the material world ; he con- 
 cealed the seed of life in an ox; but the 
 time had arrived ; Ahriman introduced 
 himself into the world and killed the ox. 
 The Izeds saved a great part of the seed 
 of life, which they spread in the world, 
 but Ahriman infected the whole with his 
 poison. And from that time, the good and 
 evil, light and darkness, became mingled 
 and are in perpetual warfare. When maij 
 has faithfully served Ormuzd, he enters 
 after his death, into eternal happiness, 
 while the servants of Ahriman are cast 
 into hell. The war between the two prin- 
 ciples is fixed for 12,000 years. The su- 
 preme victory is reserved to Ormuzd. The 
 wicked, if once purified, will be delivered 
 from their sufferings. The fire will purify 
 all ; Ahriman himself and his devas will 
 enter the kingdom of light. From these 
 two principles quite a moral code proceeds ; 
 man must combat the evil and keep himself 
 pure in thought, word, and action. The 
 doctrine of the Parsees has never been 
 dualistic, at least in the sense of the two 
 equal deities opposed to one another. 
 Ormuzd alone is adored as the supreme 
 god. The moral doctrine of Zoroaster 
 is conformable to his metaphysics: the 
 moral good is truth, whose expression is 
 the sincerity of the words and the purity 
 
ZOSIMUS 
 
 721 
 
 ZWINGLE 
 
 of the actions. Hence the respect of the 
 Parsees for truth, sincerity, and purity, 
 pictures of the visible light, and of the in- 
 visible light, which they adore under the 
 symbol of fire and which will disperse, at 
 the end of time, the darkness and the lie, 
 as the day disperses the night. We find, 
 in the religion of Zoroaster, among the 
 errors, certain truths borrowed from primi- 
 tive revelation. 
 
 Zosimus (St.). — Pope, Greek by birth, 
 died in Rome in 418. Successor of Inno- 
 cent I. in 417. Pelagius and CcElestius, 
 condemned by Synod of Carthage, had 
 succeeded by imposing upon him ; but 
 soon he recognized their errors and an- 
 nounced them to the Christian world. 
 That Pope Zosimus taught a doctrine dif- 
 ferent from that of his predecessors in the 
 Pelagian controversy, as is asserted by the 
 opponents of papal infallibility, is utterly 
 false and distinctly denied by St. Augus- 
 tine. His controversy with the African 
 bishops regarded not the doctrine, but 
 solely the personal orthodoxy of Coelestius. 
 
 Z^ckau {Prophets of). — "Visionary 
 prophets " at Zwickau, Saxony, so called 
 from the visions which they claimed to 
 receive from heaven, after the manner of 
 the ancient prophets. Thomas Miinzer, 
 a priest, and Nicholas Storch, a weaver, 
 were their leaders. Gathering around 
 them twelve apostles and seventy disci- 
 ples, Miinzer and Storch organized a new 
 society, which developed into the sect of 
 Anabaptists, or rebaptizers. They re- 
 jected infant baptism, as contrary to Scrip- 
 ture; believed in the millennium, and 
 c&mmenced the establishment of a new 
 Kingdom of Christ on earth. Expelled 
 from Zwickau, they proceeded to Witten- 
 berg, where Carlstadt, Didymus, and 
 others joined them. Boasting of interior 
 teaching by the Divinity, the new prophets 
 rejected all human science. Didymus ad- 
 vised parents to withdraw their sons from 
 studies, and Carlstadt required the candi- 
 dates of theology to apply themselves to 
 manual labor, rather than to studies in 
 order not to impede the inward inspira- 
 tions of the Holy Ghost. He was seen 
 visiting workshops, with the Bible in his 
 hands, to be instructed by simple artisans 
 in the true sense of Holy Writ. Many of 
 the clergy at Wittenberg being opposed 
 to the new doctrines, Carlstadt and Didy- 
 mus, raising a mob, attacked churches and 
 monasteries and destroyed altars and im- 
 46 
 
 ages of Christ and the saints. Similar 
 scenes were enacted elsewhere. The 
 troublesome prophets, including Carlstadt, 
 were compelled to leave the city. Carl- 
 stadt, especially, aroused the wrath of Lu- 
 ther, by attacking his teaching on the real 
 presence of Christ in the sacrament of the 
 altar. From that time the two "Re- 
 formers" remained unrelenting enemies, 
 and Luther did not cease to pursue his 
 former teacher, till he was banished from 
 the country. Carlstadt, after leading for 
 several years, an unsteady nomadic life, 
 betook himself to Switzerland, where he 
 was received and assisted by Zwingle. He 
 was appointed preacher and professor of 
 theology in Basle, where he died in 1541. 
 
 Zwingle and Zwinglians. — U 1 r i c h 
 Zwingle (1484-1531), was born at Wilde- 
 hausen, Switzerland. Named, in 1502, 
 regent at Basle, then curate of Glarus 
 (1506), he delivered himself to the study 
 of languages. In 1516, he was appointed 
 pastor of Notre Dame at Einsiedeln ; and 
 lastly, he became preacher in the cathe- 
 dral at Ziirich. Twice he went to Rome, 
 in 151 1 and 1515, accompanying, as chap- 
 lain, the Swiss troops in the Italian wars. 
 In his sermons, he expounded the various 
 books of the Bible, chapter by chapter. 
 Zwingle would not acknowledge himself a 
 disciple of Luther; he boasted that he had 
 preached the true doctrine of Christ, 
 which he had learned from God's word, 
 even before Luther, and that, while the 
 name of the Saxon " Reformer" was still 
 unknown in Switzerland, he had " relied 
 upon the Bible, and the Bible alone." 
 Already in Einsiedeln, Zwingle had given 
 great oflFense both by his immoral conduct 
 and his preaching against the priesthood, 
 invocation of the saints, monastic vows, 
 and other Catholic institutions and prac- 
 tices. Like Luther, he assailed the preach- 
 ing of the indulgences granted by Leo X., 
 which he caused to be interdicted by the 
 bishop of Constance. In 1520, Zwingle 
 obtained a decree from the Council of 
 Zurich, forbidding anything to be 
 preached except what could be proved 
 from Holy Writ. Two years later he pre- 
 sented a petition, signed by himself and 
 several other priests, to the bishop, re- 
 questing that the law of clerical celibacy 
 be abolished. Without waiting for an 
 answer from the bishop, who sent the 
 question to Rome, Zwingle, severing 
 his connection with the Church, openly 
 
ZWINGLE 
 
 722 
 
 ZWINGLE 
 
 rejected the authority of the Popes and 
 Ecumenical Councils in matters of faith, 
 as tyrannical, and stigmatized the celib- 
 acy of the clergy as an invention of the 
 devil. The paternal remonstrances of Pope 
 Adrian VI. failed to make any impression 
 on the erring priest. In 1523, Zwingle pre- 
 vailed on the Council of Ziirich to appoint 
 a religious conference, in which also, the 
 bishop of Constance was invited to take part. 
 The theses, sixty-five in number, which 
 Zwingle presented for discussion at the 
 conference, were substantially the same 
 as those defended by Luther. The Coun- 
 cil of Zurich, favoring the " reformed 
 doctrines," declared Zwingle victorious, 
 notwithstanding the latter's pointed con- 
 futation by John Faber, vicar general of 
 Constance. Encouraged by the Council, 
 Zwingle now completed his separation 
 from the Catholic Church by marrying 
 Anna Reinhard, a widow, with whom for 
 some years, he had entertained criminal 
 relations. His example was followed by 
 other ill famed priests. Zwingle named 
 rector of the gymnasium, he reorganized 
 the studies of this city. The heresy rap- 
 idly established itself at Ziirich. They 
 successively abolished all the religious 
 practices condemned by Zwingle. Mass 
 was the last suppressed. On Holy Thurs- 
 
 day (1524) they celebrated for the first 
 time the Last Supper according to the 
 doctrine of Zwingle, that is, as a simple 
 act of commemoration of the death of 
 Jesus Christ. Then the heresiarch pro- 
 posed to put the clergy under the common 
 law and place the goods of the Church at 
 the disposition of the State. However, 
 the Diet of I^ucerne showed itself opposed 
 to the pretended reform and a conference 
 held at Basle condemned it. But the 
 Great Council of Berne approved of the 
 doctrine of Zwingle and proclaimed the 
 adoption of the reform (1528). Zwingle 
 expected that it would spread over Swit- 
 zerland, but the Catholic cantons were 
 opposed to it, and war broke out between 
 the Catholics and the reformers ; this war, 
 smothered by a peace (1529), broke out 
 anew. Zwingle lost his life in the battle of 
 Cappel, where his party was beaten (1531). 
 He addressed, at the Diet of Augsburg and 
 to Francis I. his confession, in which he 
 places Hercules and Thereus among the 
 saints. Shortly after his death, his follow- 
 ers joined the Calvinists. Alteration, the 
 weakening of both the religious and Chris- 
 tian sense, the crushing of the unity of 
 the Helvetic Confederation, behold what 
 Zwingle bequeathed to his country. This 
 alone, must render his name odious. 
 
INDEX OF ARTICLES 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Aachen 
 
 Aaron 
 
 Abaddon 
 
 Abarbanel 
 
 Abarim 
 
 Abasement of Christ 
 
 Abba 2 
 
 Abbadie (James) 2 
 
 Abbe 2 
 
 Abbess 2 
 
 Abbey 2 
 
 Abbo of Fleury (St.) 2 
 
 Abbot 2 
 
 Abbreviator 3 
 
 Abdenago 3 
 
 Abdias 3 
 
 Abdon and Sennen 3 
 
 Abecedarians 3 
 
 Abecedarian Psalms 3 
 
 A Becket (Thomas) 3 
 
 Abel 3 
 
 Abelard (Peter) 3 
 
 Abelites 4 
 
 Abgar 4 
 
 Abia 4 
 
 Abiathar 4 
 
 Abib 4 
 
 Abigail 4 
 
 Abilene 4 
 
 Abimelech 4 
 
 Abiu 5 
 
 Abjuration 5 
 
 Ablution 5 
 
 Abner 5 
 
 Abortion 5 
 
 Abraham 6 
 
 Abraham a Sancta-Clara 6 
 
 Abrahamites 6 
 
 Abraxas 6 
 
 Absalom 6 
 
 Absolon or Axel 6 
 
 Absolution 6 
 
 Abstainers 7 
 
 Abstinence 7 
 
 Abstinents 7 
 
 Abucara (Theodore) 7 
 
 Abuna 7 
 
 Abyssinia 7 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Acacians 7 
 
 Acaron 8 
 
 Acceptants 8 
 
 Access 8 
 
 Accidents (Eucharistic) 8 
 
 Accho _ 8 
 
 Accolti (Pietro) 8 
 
 Accommodation 8 
 
 Accommodation (Controversy of). . . . 8 
 
 Acephali 8 
 
 Achab 8 
 
 Achaia 9 
 
 Achaz 9 
 
 Achimelech , . . . 9 
 
 Achitophel 9 
 
 Acoemeti 9 
 
 Acolyte 9 
 
 Acre 9 
 
 Actor Ecclesise 9 
 
 Acts of the Apostles 9 
 
 Acts of the Martyrs 9 
 
 Acts of the Saints or BoUandists 9 
 
 Adalbert (St.) of Prague ^ 10 
 
 Adalbert of Bremen id 
 
 Adam 10 
 
 Adamites i 
 
 Adelbert or Aldebert i 
 
 Adelheid (St.) i 
 
 Adelm or Aldhelm (St. ) r 
 
 Adelphians i 
 
 Ademar of Chabannes i 
 
 Adeodat (St.) i 
 
 Adiaphorists i 
 
 Adonai i 
 
 Adoptionism i 
 
 Adoration 12 
 
 Adoration (Perpetual) 12 
 
 Adoration (Religious of the) 12 
 
 Adramelech 12 
 
 Adrian (name of 6 Popes) 12 
 
 Adollam 12 
 
 Adultery 12 
 
 Advent 13 
 
 Adventists 13 
 
 Advocate of the Devil 13 
 
 Advocates of St. Peter 13 
 
 ^desius 13 
 
 yEgidius Colonna 13 
 
 yElana 14 
 
 (723) 
 
724 
 
 INDEX OF ARTICLES 
 
 PAGE 
 
 ^neas Sylvius 14 
 
 Brians 14 
 
 ^tius 14 
 
 Affinity 14 
 
 AfFre (Denis-Auguste) 14 
 
 Africa (Evangelization of) 14 
 
 Agag 14 
 
 Agapae 15 
 
 Agapetae 15 
 
 Agapetae 15 
 
 Agapetus (name of 2 Popes 15 
 
 Agareneans 15 
 
 Agatha (St.) 15 
 
 Agatho (St.) 15 
 
 Age (canonical) 15 
 
 Agelli (Anthony) 15 
 
 Agenda 15 
 
 Aggeus 15 
 
 Agnes (St.) 15 
 
 Agnoetae 16 
 
 Agnus Dei 16 
 
 Agobard (St.) of Lyons 16 
 
 Agonistici 16 
 
 Agricius (St.) 16 
 
 Agricola (John) 16 
 
 Agrippa 16 
 
 Aguirre (Joseph Saenz) i6 
 
 Aidan (St.) 16 
 
 Aileranus 16 
 
 Ailly (Peter d') 17 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle 17 
 
 A-Kempis (Thomas) 17 
 
 Akiba-Ben-Joseph ; . . 17 
 
 Alanus-ab-Insulis 17 
 
 Alanus ( Anglicus) 17 
 
 Alb 17 
 
 Alban(St.) 18 
 
 Albanians 18 
 
 Albert the Great 18 
 
 Albigenses 18 
 
 Alcantara (Knights of) 19 
 
 Alcuin 19 
 
 Alexander (name of 8 Popes) 19 
 
 Alexander of Alexandria (St.) 20 
 
 Alexander of Hales 20 
 
 Alexander (St.) the "coal-seller". ... 20 
 
 Alexander (St.) of Constantinople... 20 
 
 Alexander (St.) of Jerusalem 20 
 
 Alexandria (Councils of) 20 
 
 Alexandria (Patriarchate of) 21 
 
 Alexandrian Christian School 21' 
 
 Alexandrian Library 21 
 
 Alexandrian Schools 21 
 
 Alexians or Cellites 22 
 
 Alfred the Great 22 
 
 Algiers (The Church in) 22 
 
 Allatius (Leo) 22 
 
 Allegorical 22 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Alleluia 22 
 
 Allen (Cardinal) 23 
 
 Allies (Thomas W.) 23 
 
 Allioli (Joseph F.) 23 
 
 All-Saints' Day 23 
 
 All-Souls' Day 23 
 
 Almoner 23 
 
 Alms 23 
 
 Alogi 24 
 
 Alpha and Omega 24 
 
 Altar 24 
 
 Altar Bread 25 
 
 Altar Cards 25 
 
 Altar Cloths 25 
 
 Altar ( Main ) 25 
 
 Altar (Mosaic) 25 
 
 Altar of Holocausts 25 
 
 Altar of Incense 26 
 
 Altar of the Show Breads 26 
 
 Altar (Portable) 26 
 
 Altar (Privileged) 26 
 
 Altar Stone 26 
 
 Alvarez (Diego) 26 
 
 Alzog (J. Baptist) 26 
 
 Amalecites 26 
 
 Aman 27 
 
 Amasa 27 
 
 Amasias 27 
 
 Ambo 27 
 
 Ambrose (St.) 27 
 
 Ambrosian Chant 27 
 
 Amen 27 
 
 America (The Church in) 27 
 
 Amice 27 
 
 Ammonites 28 
 
 Ammonius Saccas 28 
 
 Ammonius (St.) 28 
 
 Amorites ; . . 28 
 
 Amort (Eusebius) 28 
 
 Amos 28 
 
 Amphilochius 28 
 
 Amphipolis 28 
 
 Ampulla 28 
 
 Amri 29 
 
 Amsdorfians 29 
 
 Amula 29 
 
 Amulets 29 
 
 Anabaptists 29 
 
 Anabolagium 31 
 
 Anacletus (St.) 31 
 
 Anagnost 31 
 
 Anamelech and Adramelech j . . 31 
 
 Ananias 31 
 
 Anaphora 32 
 
 Anastasia (name of several saints) ... 32 
 
 Anastasius (name of 4 Popes) 32 
 
 Anastasius the Librarian 32 
 
 Anastasius of Constantinople 32 
 
INDEX OF ARTICLES 
 
 725 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Anastasius (St.) of Antioch 32 
 
 Anastasius Sinaita (St.) 32 
 
 Anathema 32 
 
 Anatolius (St.) 33 
 
 Anchor -. 33 
 
 Anchorite 33 
 
 Ancient 33 
 
 Ancyra 33 
 
 Andrew of Crete 33 
 
 Andrew ( St. ) the Apostle 34 
 
 Angel 34 
 
 Angela de Mericia (St.) 35 
 
 Angelicals 35 
 
 Angelics 35 
 
 Angelic Salutation 35 
 
 Angelites 35 
 
 Anglicanism or Anglican Church. ... 35 
 
 Angustia Loci 37 
 
 Anicetus (St.) 37 
 
 Animals (pure and impure) 37 
 
 Animism 38 
 
 Anna (St. ) 39 
 
 Annas 39 
 
 Annats 39 
 
 Anna the Prophetess 39 
 
 Anniversary 39 
 
 Annunciade 39 
 
 Annunciation (Feast of the) 39 
 
 Anomceans .• 39 
 
 Anscharius (St.) 40 
 
 Anselm (St.) 40 
 
 Antependium 40 
 
 Anterus (St.) 40 
 
 Anthem 40 
 
 Anthonists 41 
 
 Anthony ( St. ) 41 
 
 Anthony of Padua (St.) 41 
 
 Anthropomorphism 41 
 
 Anthropophagy 41 
 
 Antichrist 42 
 
 Antidicomarianites 42 
 
 Antidoron 42 
 
 Antimensium 42 
 
 Antinomians 43 
 
 Antioch a-^ 
 
 Antiochus (name of 12 kings) 43 
 
 Antiochus (Monk) 43 
 
 Antipaedo-Baptists 43 
 
 Antipas (St.) 43 
 
 Antipatris 44. 
 
 Antiphon aa 
 
 Antiphonarium 44 
 
 Antipope 44 
 
 Antisabbatarian 44 
 
 Antitactes 44 
 
 Antitrinitarian 44 
 
 Antitype 45 
 
 Antonius (St. ) 45 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Aod 45 
 
 Apelles, a Gnostic 45 
 
 Apelles the Christian 45 
 
 Aphec 45 
 
 Aphraates (James) 45 
 
 Aphthartodocetae 45 
 
 Apis 45 
 
 Apocalypse 45 
 
 Apocalypse of Moses 46 
 
 Apocalyptic Number •. 46 
 
 Apocrisarius 46 
 
 Apocryphal Writings 46 
 
 Apodipne 47 
 
 Apokatastasis 47 
 
 Apollinaris (St. ) 47 
 
 Apollinaris the Apologist 47 
 
 Apollinarists 47 
 
 Apollo 47 
 
 Apollonia 47 
 
 Apollonius 47 
 
 Apollonius of Tyana 47 
 
 Apologetic 48 
 
 Apologist 49 
 
 Apolyctic Prayer 49 
 
 Apostate 49 
 
 Apostle 49 
 
 Apostles' Creed 50 
 
 Apostles (Doctrine of the Twelve).. . 50 
 
 Apostleship of Prayer 51 
 
 Apostolate (Catholic) 51 
 
 Apostolate of the Press 51 
 
 Apostolians 51 
 
 Apostolic Canons 52 
 
 Apostolic Council 52 
 
 Apostolic Fathers 52 
 
 Apostolic King 52 
 
 Apostolic Majesty 52 
 
 Apostolic Notaries 52 
 
 Apostolic Nuncio 52 
 
 Apostolic Prefects 52 
 
 Apostolic Sees 52 
 
 Apostolic Succession 52 
 
 Apostolic Times 52 
 
 Apostolicse Sedis 52 
 
 Apostolicity 53 
 
 Apostolicity of the Church 53 
 
 Apotheosis 53 
 
 Apparitions 53 
 
 Appeal 55 
 
 Appeal as Abuse 55 
 
 Approbation 56 
 
 Aquarians 56 
 
 Aquila and Priscilla 56 
 
 Aquileia 56 
 
 Arabia 56 
 
 Arabici 57 
 
 Aram 57 
 
 Ararat 57 
 
726 
 
 INDEX OF ARTICLES 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Arator 57 
 
 Arbela 57 
 
 Arbrissel ( Robert of ) 58 
 
 Archangel 58 
 
 Archbishop 58 
 
 Archbishopric 58 
 
 Archchaplain 58 
 
 Archconfraternity 58 
 
 Archdeacon 58 
 
 Archelaus, King 58 
 
 Archelaus, Bishop 59 
 
 Archimandrite 59 
 
 Architecture (Early Church) 59 
 
 Archives 60 
 
 Archontics 60 
 
 Archpriest 60 
 
 Aretas 60 
 
 Arianism .... 60 
 
 Arias Montanus 63 
 
 Ariel 63 
 
 Arimathea 63 
 
 Arioch 63 
 
 Aristides (St.) 63 
 
 Aristo of Pella 63 
 
 Aristobolus 63 
 
 Ark of the Covenant 63 
 
 Aries 64 
 
 Armenia 64 
 
 Armenia (Christianity in) 64 
 
 Arminius and Arminians 64 
 
 Arnauld (Angelica) 64 
 
 Arnauld (Antoine) 65 
 
 Arnauld (Antoine) 65 
 
 Arnobius 65 
 
 Arnoldists 615 
 
 Arnon 65 
 
 Arphaxad 65 
 
 Art (Christian) 65 
 
 Artemon and Artemonites 66 
 
 Articles of Perth 67 
 
 Articles of Schmalkald 67 
 
 Articles (The Lambeth) 67 
 
 Articles (The Six) 67 
 
 Articles (The Thirty-Nine) 67 
 
 Asa 68 
 
 Asael 68 
 
 Asaph 68 
 
 Ascalon 68 
 
 Ascension Day 68 
 
 Ascetic 69 
 
 Ascetical 69 
 
 Asceticism 69 
 
 Ashdod 69 
 
 Ashima 69 
 
 Ashtoreth 69 
 
 Ash Wednesday 69 
 
 Asia 70 
 
 Asia Minor 70 
 
 P.AGE 
 
 Asiongaber 70 
 
 Asmodeus 70 
 
 Asmoneans 70 
 
 Asor 70 
 
 Aspersion 70 
 
 Assar-Haddon 71 
 
 Assemani 71 
 
 Assuerus 71 
 
 Assumption ^ 71 
 
 Assyria 72 
 
 Astarte 73 
 
 Asterius of Emesa 73 
 
 Asterius (Urbanus) 73 
 
 Astrology 73 
 
 Astronomy 73 
 
 Asylum 75 
 
 Athanasian Creed 76 
 
 Athanasius (St.) 76 
 
 Atheism 76 
 
 Athenagoras 77 
 
 Athos 77 
 
 Atomism 77 
 
 Atonement 78 
 
 Attila . 78 
 
 Attributes of God 78 
 
 Attrition 78 
 
 Audians 78 
 
 Audients 78 
 
 Augsburg Confession 78 
 
 Augsburg Peace 78 
 
 Augustine (St.) 78 
 
 Augustine or Austin (St.) 79 
 
 Augustinian Hermits 79 
 
 Aureola Sanctorum 79 
 
 Auricular Confession 79 
 
 Australia 79 
 
 Australia (The Church in) 80 
 
 Austria (Christianity in) 80 
 
 Austria (Worship in) 80 
 
 Authenticity (Holy Scripture) 81 
 
 Authority 81 
 
 Autocephali 81 
 
 Auto Da Fe 81 
 
 Ave Maria 81 
 
 Avignon (The Popes at) 82 
 
 Aviz (Order of St. Benedict) 82 
 
 Azarias 82 
 
 Azimites 82 
 
 B 
 
 Baader (Franz X.) 82 
 
 Baal or Bel 82 
 
 Baalah 82 
 
 Baanites 82 
 
 Babel 82 
 
 Babylon 82 
 
 Babylonian Captivity 83 
 
INDEX OF ARTICLES 
 
 727 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Bacon or Baconthorp (John) 83 
 
 Bacon ( Rof?er) 83 
 
 Baden ( Worship in ) 83 
 
 Baius (Michael) 83 
 
 Balaam 83 
 
 Baldachin 83 
 
 Ballerini (Anthony) 83 
 
 Ballerini ( Jerome) 84 
 
 Ballerini (Peter) 84 
 
 Balmes ( Jaime L. ) 84 
 
 Balsam 84 
 
 Balthasar 84 
 
 Baltimore Councils 84 
 
 Baltimore (Lord) 84 
 
 Banner 85 
 
 Banns of Marriage 85 
 
 Baptism 85 
 
 Baptism (Ceremonies of) 88 
 
 Baptistery 89 
 
 Baptistines 89 
 
 Baptists 89 
 
 Barac 90 
 
 Barabbas 90 
 
 Baraga (Frederick) 90 
 
 Barbara (St. ) 90 
 
 Bar-Cochebas 90 
 
 Bardesanes 90 
 
 Barnabas (St.) .-^ 90 
 
 Barnabites 90 
 
 Baronius (Caesar) 91 
 
 Barsabas (Joseph) 91 
 
 Barsabas , . 91 
 
 Barsanians 91 
 
 Bartholomew's Day 91 
 
 Bartholomew (St.) 91 
 
 Bartholomites 91 
 
 Baruch 92 
 
 Baruli 92 
 
 Basan or Batanea 92 
 
 Baselian Manuscript 92 
 
 Basil of Ancyra 92 
 
 Basil the Great (St.) 92 
 
 Basil the Heretic 92 
 
 Basilians 92 
 
 Basilica * 93 
 
 Basilidians 93 
 
 Basle (Council of) 93 
 
 Bassians 94 
 
 Bath or Ephah 94 
 
 Bautain (Louise E. M.) 94 
 
 Bavaria (Christianity in) 94 
 
 Bavaria (Worship in) 95 
 
 Bayley ( James R.) 95 
 
 Bdellium 95 
 
 Beads 95 
 
 Beatific Vision 95 
 
 Beatification 95 
 
 Beatitudes (The Eight) 95 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Beaton (Cardinal) 96 
 
 Bee 96 
 
 Becket (Thomas a) 96 
 
 Bede, The Venerable 96 
 
 Beelphegor 97 
 
 Beelsamen 97 
 
 Beelzebub , 97 
 
 Beghards 97 
 
 Beguines 97 
 
 Bel 97 
 
 Belgium (Christianity in) 97 
 
 Belgium (Worship in) 97 
 
 Bellarmin (Robert) 98 
 
 Bells 98 
 
 Belphegor 98 
 
 Benedict (name of 14 Popes) 98 
 
 Benedict Biscop. 99 
 
 Benedict of Aniane (St.) 99 
 
 Benedict (St.) 99 
 
 Benediction 106 
 
 Benefice (Ecclesiastical) 100 
 
 Benignus (St. ) 100 
 
 Benjamin 100 
 
 Berengarius (Heresy of) loi 
 
 Bernard (St. ) loi 
 
 Bernardin (St.) of Siena 102 
 
 Bernardines 102 
 
 Bernice 102 
 
 Beryl 102 
 
 Beryllians 102 
 
 Besor 102 
 
 Bessarion (John) 102 
 
 Bethany 102 
 
 Beth-Arab 102 
 
 Bethel 102 
 
 Beth-Horon 102 
 
 Bethlehem 102 
 
 Bethlehemites 103 
 
 Bethphage 103 
 
 Bethsaida 103 
 
 Bethsan 103 
 
 Bethsur 103 
 
 Bethulia 103 
 
 Beza (Theodore) 103 
 
 Bible 103 
 
 Bible (Canon of the) 106 
 
 Bible (Geneva or Breeches) 106 
 
 Bible ( King James's) 107 
 
 Bible Societies 107 
 
 Biblia Pauperum 107 
 
 Bigamist and Bigamy 107 
 
 Bination 108 
 
 Biretta 108 
 
 Birgit (St.) 108 
 
 Bishop 108 
 
 Bishop (Auxiliary) 109 
 
 Bishop (SuflFragan) 109 
 
 Bishops(Appointmentof,in the U. S.). 109 
 
728 
 
 INDEX OF ARTICLES 
 
 Bishop's Coadjutor 
 
 Bithynia (The Faith in) 
 
 Black Friars 
 
 Blanc (Anthony) 
 
 Blanchet (Francis N. ) 
 
 Blasius (St.) 
 
 Blasphemy 
 
 Blessing 
 
 Blood- Avenger. . 
 
 Blood (Congregation of the Most Pre- 
 cious) 
 
 Blue Laws 
 
 Bockhold ( John) 
 
 Boehme (James) 
 
 Boethiixs 
 
 Bogomiles 
 
 Bohemian Brethren 
 
 Boleyn ( Anne ) 
 
 Bollandists 
 
 Bolsena (Mass of) 
 
 Bona (Giovanni) 
 
 Bonaventure (St.) 
 
 Boniface (name of 9 Popes) 
 
 Boniface (St.) 
 
 Bonosians 
 
 Book of Common Discipline 
 
 Book of Comn>on Prayer 
 
 Borborites 
 
 Borromeo (St. Charles) 
 
 Borromeo Union 
 
 Bossuet ( Jacques B. ) 
 
 Bourdaloue (Louis) 
 
 Bourignists 
 
 Bradwardine (Thomas) 
 
 Brahmanism 
 
 Bread (Liturgical) 
 
 Breads of Proposition 
 
 Brebeuf (Jean de) 
 
 Brendan (St.) 
 
 Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit 
 
 Brethren (Apostolic) 
 
 Brethren of Our Lord 
 
 Brethren (Plymouth) 
 
 Breviary 
 
 Brethren (United) 
 
 Brethren (White) 
 
 Bridget (St.) 
 
 Bridgittines (Religious) 
 
 Brief (Apostolic ) 
 
 Brothers (Congregations of) 
 
 Brothers of Charity 
 
 Brothers of the Common Life 
 
 Brown (Robert) 
 
 Brownson (Orestes A.) 
 
 Bruno (Giordano) 
 
 Bruno (St.) 
 
 Bruys (Peter) 
 
 Buchanites 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Buddhism 122 
 
 Bugenhagen ( John) 125 
 
 Bull 126 
 
 BuUarium 126 
 
 Burgundians (Conversion of the) 126 
 
 Burial ( Christian ) 126 
 
 Bursa 126 
 
 Busenbaum (Hermann) 126 
 
 Butler (Alban) 127 
 
 Byrne (Andrew) 127 
 
 c 
 
 Cab 127 
 
 Cabala 127 
 
 Cades , . 127 
 
 Caecilia (St.) 127 
 
 Caelestius 127 
 
 Caesar 127 
 
 Csesarea 127 
 
 Caesarius of Aries (St.) 128 
 
 Cahenslianism 128 
 
 Cain 128 
 
 Ca,inan 128 
 
 Cainites 128 
 
 Caiphas 128 
 
 Caius or Gaius 128 
 
 Caius (St.) 128 
 
 Cajetan (Cardinal) 128 
 
 Cajus 129 
 
 Calatrava (Order of) 129 
 
 Calderon de la Barca (Pedro) 129 
 
 Caleb 129 
 
 Calendar (Ecclesiastical) 129 
 
 Calendar (Gregorian) 129 
 
 California (Missions in) 129 
 
 Calixtines 129 
 
 Calixtus (name of 3 Popes) 129 
 
 Calmet (Augustine) 130 
 
 Calotte 130 
 
 Caloyers 130 
 
 Calumny and Slander 130 
 
 Calvary or Golgotha 130 
 
 Calvary (Daughters of) 130 
 
 Calvary (Priests of) 130 
 
 Calvin and Calvinism 130 
 
 Camaldolites 131 
 
 Camerarius 131 
 
 Camerlengo 131 
 
 Cameronians 131 
 
 Camillians 131 
 
 Camisards 131 
 
 Campbellites 132 
 
 Campeggio (Lawrence) 132 
 
 Cana 132 
 
 Canada (Missions in) 132 
 
 Canada (The Church in) 132 
 
 Candace 132 
 
INDEX OF ARTICLES 
 
 729 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Candle (Paschal) 132 
 
 Candle (Triple) 132 
 
 Candlemas 133 
 
 Candles Used in Church 133 
 
 Canisius (Peter) 133 
 
 Canonical Hours 134 
 
 Canonist I34 
 
 Canonization 134 
 
 Canon i35 
 
 Canon Law 135 
 
 Canon of the Mass 136 
 
 Canon of the Scriptures 136 
 
 Canons (Cathedral) 137 
 
 Canons (Penetential) 138 
 
 Canticle of Canticles 138 
 
 Cantor 138 
 
 Canus (Melchior) 138 
 
 Capharnaum 138 
 
 Caphtor 138 
 
 Capital Sins 138 
 
 Capitularies 138 
 
 Cappadocia 138 
 
 Captivity of the Jews 138 
 
 Captivity of the Popes 139 
 
 Capuchins 139 
 
 Capuciati 139 
 
 Carchemis 139 
 
 Cardinals 139 
 
 Cardinal Virtues 139 
 
 Carmel 139 
 
 Carmelites 139 
 
 Caroline Books 140 
 
 Carpocratians 140 
 
 Carroll ( John) 140 
 
 Cartesianism 140 
 
 Carthage 141 
 
 Carthagh (St.) 141 
 
 Carthusians 141 
 
 Casas (Las) 141 
 
 Cassianus (John) 141 
 
 Cassiodorus 141 
 
 Cassock 141 
 
 Castelnau (Peter of) 141 
 
 Casuistry 142 
 
 Catabaptists 142 
 
 Catacombs 142 
 
 Catafalque 143 
 
 Cataphrygians 143 
 
 Catechism 143 
 
 Catechism of the Council of Trent. . . 144 
 
 Catechumenate 144 
 
 Catena 144 
 
 Catharine of Alexandria (St.) 144 
 
 Catherine of Siena (St.) 144 
 
 Catharists 145 
 
 Cathedra 145 
 
 Cathedral 145 
 
 Cathedral Schools 145 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Catholic 14s 
 
 Cathdlic Emancipation Act 145 
 
 Catholic Epistles 145 
 
 Catholicos 145 
 
 Catholic (Roman) Relief Act 145 
 
 Catholics (German) 145 
 
 Catholics (Number of) 145 
 
 Catholics (Old) 146 
 
 Cecilia 146 
 
 Cedron 146 
 
 Celebrant 146 
 
 Celebret 146 
 
 Celestine (name of 5 Popes) 146 
 
 Celestinians (ReligiousCongregation) 147 
 
 Celibacy (Clerical) 147 
 
 Cellites 148 
 
 Celsus 148 
 
 Cemetery 148 
 
 Cenites 149 
 
 Cenobite 149 
 
 Censer 149 
 
 Censure (Ecclesiastical) 149 
 
 Censure of Books 149 
 
 Central America (Missions in) 150 
 
 Centuries of Magdeburg 150 
 
 Centurion 150 
 
 Cerdonians 150 
 
 Ceremonial or Ceremonies 150 
 
 Cerinthus 151 
 
 Cerularius (Michael) 151 
 
 Cesarini (Julianus) 151 
 
 Cesena (Michael) ... 151 
 
 Cetura 151 
 
 Chair of St. Peter 151 
 
 Chalcedon (Council of) 151 
 
 Chalice 151 
 
 Challoner (Richard) 152 
 
 Chanaan 152 
 
 Chanaanites 152 
 
 Chancel 152 
 
 Chancellor and Chancery 152 
 
 Chancery ( Roman) 153 
 
 Chant 153 
 
 Chapel 153 
 
 Chaplain 153 
 
 Chapter 153 
 
 Chapters (The Three) 153 
 
 Charity 154 
 
 Charity (Sisters of) 154 
 
 Charlemagne 154 
 
 Chastity 155 
 
 Chasuble 155 
 
 Chateaubriand (Francois A.) 155 
 
 Chatel (Francis) 155 
 
 Chemos 155 
 
 Cherubim 155 
 
 Cheverus, Cardinal 155 
 
 Chili (Missions in) ,. . . . 156 
 
730 
 
 INDEX OF ARTICLES 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Chiliasm 156 
 
 China (Christianity in) 156 
 
 Chodorlahomor 156 
 
 Choir 156 
 
 Choir Bishops 156 
 
 Chosroes II 156 
 
 Chrism 156 
 
 Christ 156 
 
 Christian -' 156 
 
 Christian Alliance 156 
 
 Christian Brothers I57 
 
 Christian Endeavor (Society of) 157 
 
 Christianity 157 
 
 Christianity in America 160 
 
 Christians 161 
 
 Christians (Chaldean) 161 
 
 Christians of St. Thomas 161 
 
 Christmas 161 
 
 Christology 161 
 
 Christolytes 161 
 
 Christopher (St.) 161 
 
 Chrodegang (St.) 161 
 
 Chronicles 161 
 
 Chronology 161 
 
 Chronology (Biblical) 162 
 
 Chrysologus (St. Peter) 177 
 
 Chrysostom (St. John) 177 
 
 Church 178 
 
 Church (Greek) 179 
 
 Church (The, in the United States) . . 179 
 
 Church (The) and Basilica 179 
 
 Church and Civilization 182 
 
 Church History 186 
 
 Churching of Women 186 
 
 Ciborium 186 
 
 Cingulum 186 
 
 Circumcelliones 186 
 
 Circumcision (Feast of) 186 
 
 Cistercians 187 
 
 Clarendon (Constitutions of) 187 
 
 Clares (Poor) 187 
 
 Claudius of Turin 187 
 
 Claudius Apollinaris (St.) 187 
 
 Claver (Peter) 187 
 
 Clemangis (Nicholas of) 187 
 
 Clement (Heretic) 187 
 
 Clement (name of 14 Popes) 187 
 
 Clementinae 188 
 
 Clement of Alexandria 188 
 
 Cleobians 188 
 
 Clergy and Laity 189 
 
 Clerks Regular 189 
 
 Cletus 189 
 
 Clinic Baptism 189 
 
 Cloister 189 
 
 Clovis and (St.) Clotilda 190 
 
 Cluny (Abbey of) 190 
 
 Coadjutor Bishop 190 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Coat (The Holy) 190 
 
 Codex 191 
 
 Coele-Syria 191 
 
 Coena Domini (In) 191 
 
 Coenobites 191 
 
 Collation 191 
 
 Collect 191 
 
 Colleges 191 
 
 Collegiants 191 
 
 Collegiate Churches 191 
 
 Collydrians 191 
 
 Color of Vestments 191 
 
 Columba or Columkil (St.) 192 
 
 Columbanus (St.) 192 
 
 Columbus (Christopher) 193 
 
 Commandments 193 
 
 Commemoration in Liturgy 193 
 
 Commodianus 194 
 
 Communion (Eucharistic) 194 
 
 Communion (Liturgical) 195 
 
 Communion of Saints 195 
 
 Communion under Both Kinds 195 
 
 Communism 196 
 
 Competentes 196 
 
 Compline 196 
 
 Concanen (Richard L.) 196 
 
 Conception (Immaculate) 196 
 
 Conceptualism 196 
 
 Conclave 196 
 
 Concomitance (Sacramental) 196 
 
 Concordance . . 196 
 
 Concordats 196 
 
 Concupiscence 196 
 
 Concursus 196 
 
 Condignity, Congruity 197 
 
 Conferences 197 
 
 Confession (Sacramental) 197 
 
 Confession (Liturgical) 198 
 
 Confessional 198 
 
 Confession of Augsburg 198 
 
 Confessor 198 
 
 Confirmation 198 
 
 Confiteor 199 
 
 Confraternities 199 
 
 Congregationalism 201 
 
 Congregations (Sacred) 201 
 
 Congruity 203 
 
 Conon 203 
 
 Consanguinity 203 
 
 Conscience 203 
 
 Conscience (Liberty of) 203 
 
 Consecration 204 
 
 Consecration of Churches 204 
 
 Consistentes 204 
 
 Consistory 204 
 
 Consolamentum 204 
 
 Constance (Council of) 205 
 
 Constantine 205 
 
INDEX OF ARTICLES 
 
 731 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Constantine the Great 205 
 
 Constantinople (Councils of) 205 
 
 Constitution (Civil) of the Clergy.. . 205 
 
 Constitutions (Apostolic) 205 
 
 Consubstantial 206 
 
 Constitutum 206 
 
 Consubstantiation 206 
 
 Consultors or Bishop's Council 206 
 
 Contemplation 206 
 
 Contrition 207 
 
 Convents 207 
 
 Conversion of St. Paul 207 
 
 Convulsionaries 207 
 
 Cope 207 
 
 Copernicus 208 
 
 Copiates 208 
 
 Copts 208 
 
 Coran 208 
 
 Corban 208 
 
 Cordeliers 208 
 
 Core 208 
 
 Corinth 208 
 
 Corinthians (Epistles to the) 208 
 
 Cornelius the Centurion 209 
 
 Cornelius, Pope 209 
 
 Cornelius i Lapide 209 
 
 Corozain 209 
 
 Corporal .• 209 
 
 Corpus Christi 209 
 
 Corrigan (Michael A.) 210 
 
 Corrupticolae 210 
 
 Cosmas and Damianus (Sts.) 210 
 
 Cosmogony (The Mosaic) 210 
 
 Councils (Ecumenical) 222 
 
 Cowl 223 
 
 Cranmer (Thomas) 223 
 
 Creation 224 
 
 Creationism 224 
 
 Credence 226 
 
 Creed 226 
 
 Cremation 227 
 
 Crib 228 
 
 Crosier 228 
 
 Cross 228 
 
 Cross (Congregation of the Holy). . . . 228 
 
 Cross (Daughters of the) 228 
 
 Cross (Finding of the) 228 
 
 Cross (Sign of the) 229 
 
 Cross (Way of the) 229 
 
 Crucifix 229 
 
 Crusades 229 
 
 Crypt 230 
 
 Crypto-Calvinists 230 
 
 Cubit 231 
 
 Culdees 231 
 
 Cullen (Paul) 231 
 
 Cultus 231 
 
 Cummian (St.) 231 
 
 Curate 231 
 
 Curia Romana 231 
 
 Cusa (Nicholas of ) 231 
 
 Cush 231 
 
 Cuthbert (St.) 232 
 
 Cutheans 232 
 
 Cycle ( Easter) 232 
 
 Cycle (Dionysian) 232 
 
 Cyprian (St.) 232 
 
 Cyprus 232 
 
 Cyrene 232 
 
 Cyriacus (St.) 232 
 
 Cyril (St.) of Alexandria 232 
 
 Cyril (St.) of Jerusalem 233 
 
 Cyril and Methodius (Sts.). . . .* 233 
 
 Cyrillus Lucaris 233 
 
 Cyrinus 233 
 
 Cyrus of Alexandria 233 
 
 Cyrus, King 233 
 
 Dabir 233 
 
 Dagon 233 
 
 Dalmanutha 233 
 
 Dalmatia 233 
 
 Dalmatic 234 
 
 Damasus (name of 2 Popes) 234 
 
 Damianists 234 
 
 Damianus 234 
 
 Damianus (St. Peter) 234 
 
 Damien de Veuster (Joseph) 234 
 
 Dan 234 
 
 Dance of Death 235 
 
 Dancers 235 
 
 Dancing 235 
 
 Daniel 235 
 
 Dante-Alighieri 235 
 
 Darboy (George) 236 
 
 Darby (John) 236 
 
 Darius 236 
 
 Darwinism 236 
 
 Dataria 236 
 
 David 236 
 
 Deacon 236 
 
 Deaconess 237 
 
 Dean 237 
 
 Death 237 
 
 Debora 237 
 
 Decalogue 238 
 
 Decapolis 239 
 
 Decius 239 
 
 Decretals 239 
 
 Dedication 239 
 
 Defender of the Faith 239 
 
 Defensor Matrimonii 239 
 
 Degradation, Deposition 239 
 
 Deism 239 
 
732 
 
 INDEX OF ARTICLES 
 
 Delegate 239 
 
 Deluge (the Noachian) 239 
 
 Demas 250 
 
 Demiurge 250 
 
 Demon 250 
 
 Denarius 250 
 
 Denmark (Christianity in) 250 
 
 Denmark (the Church in) 250 
 
 Deo Gratias 251 
 
 Deposition 251 
 
 Derbe 251 
 
 Descartes 251 
 
 Desecration 251 
 
 Desert 251 
 
 Deusdedit (name of 2 Popes) 251 
 
 Deuterocanonicals 251 
 
 Deuteronomy 252 
 
 Devil 252 
 
 Devolution 254 
 
 Diaconium 254 
 
 Diana of the Ephesians 254 
 
 Diatessaron 254 
 
 Didache 254 
 
 Didon (Henry) 354 
 
 Didymus the Blind 255 
 
 Dies Irae 255 
 
 Dimissorial 255 
 
 Diocese 255 
 
 Diocletian 255 
 
 Diodorus of Tarsus 255 
 
 Diognetus (Letter to) 255 
 
 Dionysius (St. ) 256 
 
 Dionysius Exiguus 256 
 
 Dionysius of Alexandria 256 
 
 Dionysius of Paris (St.) 256 
 
 Dionysius the Areopagite 256 
 
 Dioscorus of Alexandria 256 
 
 Diptychs 256 
 
 Discalced 257 
 
 Disciples of Christ 257 
 
 Discipline ( Ecclesiastical) 257 
 
 Discipline (Penitential) 257 
 
 Discipline of the Secret 257 
 
 Dispensation 257 
 
 Dissenters 258 
 
 Ditheism 258 
 
 Divination 258 
 
 Divorce 258 
 
 Docetae 262 
 
 Doctor 262 
 
 Doctors of the Church 262 
 
 Dogmas and Matters of Opinion 263 
 
 Dolcino (Fra) 264 
 
 Dollinger (Johann Joseph I.) 264 
 
 Dominic (St.) and Dominicans 264 
 
 Dominica in Albis 264 
 
 Dominical or Linteum Dominicale. . . 264 
 Dominical or Sunday Letter 264 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Dominus Vobiscum 265 
 
 Donation of Constantine 265 
 
 Donatists 265 
 
 Donus or Domnus (name of 2 Popes). 265 
 
 Dor 265 
 
 Dositheus 265 
 
 Douay Bible 265 
 
 Dove 265 
 
 Doxology 265 
 
 Dream 266 
 
 Druids 266 
 
 Druses 266 
 
 Drusilla 266 
 
 Du Bois (John) 266 
 
 Duel 266 
 
 Dulia 266 
 
 Dungal 266 
 
 Dunkers 266 
 
 Duns Scotus (John) 267 
 
 Dunstan (St.) 267 
 
 Dupanloup ( Felix A. P. ) 267 
 
 Durandus of Saint- Pouryain 267 
 
 E 
 
 Eadmer or Edmur 267 
 
 Easter 267 
 
 Easter (Computation of) 268 
 
 Easter Communion 269 
 
 Easter Confession 269 
 
 Ebionites 269 
 
 Ecce Homo 269 
 
 Ecclesiarch 269 
 
 Ecclesiastes 269 
 
 Ecclesiasticus 269 
 
 Eccleston (Samuel) 269 
 
 Eck (John) 270 
 
 Eclectics 270 
 
 Ecthesis 270 
 
 Ecumenical 270 
 
 Eden 270 
 
 Edessa 270 
 
 Edmund (St.) 270 
 
 Edom 270 
 
 Edrai 270 
 
 Education. 270 
 
 Edward the Confessor 271 
 
 Edward the Martyr 271 
 
 Eglon 271 
 
 Einsiedeln 271 
 
 Ela 271 
 
 Elam 271 
 
 Elath or Ailath 271 
 
 Eleazar .^ 271 
 
 Eleutheropolis 271 
 
 Eleutherus (St.) Pope 271 
 
 Eleutherus (St. ) 271 
 
 Eleutherus (St.) of Tournai 271 
 
 Elevation 27' 
 
INDEX OF ARTICLES 
 
 733 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Eliachim 272 
 
 Elias 272 
 
 Eligius (St.) 272 
 
 Elim 272 
 
 Elipandus 272 
 
 Eliseus 272 
 
 Elishe (Elisaeus) 272 
 
 Elizabeth, Queen 272 
 
 Elizabeth { St.) 273 
 
 Elizabeth (St.) Queen 273 
 
 Elizabeth (St.) Queen 273 
 
 Elkesaites 273 
 
 Eloham 273 
 
 Elohim 273 
 
 Eloquence (Sacred) 273 
 
 Emancipation (Catholic) 274 
 
 Ember Days 275 
 
 Eminence 275 
 
 Emmaus 275 
 
 Emmeran (St.) 275 
 
 Emperors and Kings . 275 
 
 Empire (The Holy Roman) 279 
 
 Empiricism 279 
 
 Ems (Congress of) 279 
 
 Emser ( Jerome) 279 
 
 Encratites 280 
 
 Encyclical 280 
 
 Encyclion 280 
 
 Endor 280 
 
 Energumens 280 
 
 Engadi 280 
 
 England (Evangelization of) 280 
 
 England (John) 280 
 
 England (Protestantism in) 281 
 
 England (The Church in) 281 
 
 Ennodius (Magnus F.) 281 
 
 Enoch 282 
 
 Eon or Eudo de Stella 282 
 
 Epaphras (St.) 282 
 
 Eparchy 282 
 
 Ephesians (Epistle to the) 282 
 
 Ephesus 282 
 
 Ephesus (Councils of) 282 
 
 Ephod ; 282 
 
 Ephraim 282 
 
 Ephrem (St. ) 283 
 
 Epicureans 283 
 
 Epiphanius (St.) of Salamis 283 
 
 Epiphanius (St.) of Pavia 283 
 
 Epiphanius the Scholastic "283 
 
 Epiphany 283 
 
 Episcopacy 284 
 
 Episcopals 284 
 
 Epistle 284 
 
 Era 284 
 
 Erasmus (Desiderius) 284 
 
 Erasmus (St.) 284 
 
 Erastians 284 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Erigena (John Scotus) 284 
 
 Esau 284 
 
 Esdraelon 284 
 
 Esdras (Books of) 284 
 
 Essenes ^ 285 
 
 Esther 285 
 
 Ethelbert 285 
 
 Ethelwold 285 
 
 Ethiopia -. 285 
 
 Ethnarch 285 
 
 Eucharist 285 
 
 Eucherius (St.) 287 
 
 Euchites or Euphemites 287 
 
 Euchology 287 
 
 Eudists 287 
 
 Eudo de Stella 287 
 
 Eugenius (name of 4 Popes) 287 
 
 Eulogiag 288 
 
 Eunomians 288 
 
 Eunuch 288 
 
 Eusebius (St.) 288 
 
 Eusebius of Csesarea 288 
 
 Eusebius of Nicomedia 288 
 
 Eusebius of Vercelli (St.) 288 
 
 Eustathiens .' 288 
 
 Eusthatius of Antioch 288 
 
 Eutyches and Eutychians 288 
 
 Eutychianus (St.) 288 
 
 Evagrius 288 
 
 Evangeliarium 288 
 
 Evangelical Alliance 288 
 
 Evangelical Association 289 
 
 Evangelical Counsels 289 
 
 Evangelical Church 2S9 
 
 Evangelist 289 
 
 Eve 289 
 
 Evil (Origin of) 289 
 
 Evil-Merodach 290 
 
 Evodius 290 
 
 Evolution (Theory of) 290 
 
 Exaltation of the Cross 291 
 
 Exarch 291 
 
 Ex Cathedra 291 
 
 Excommunication 291 
 
 Exeat 292 
 
 Exegesis 293 
 
 Exile 293 
 
 Exodus 293 
 
 Exorcism and Exorcists 293 
 
 Extasy 293 
 
 Extreme Unction 293 
 
 Ezechias 293 
 
 Ezechiel 293 
 
 Eznik 294 
 
 F 
 
 Faber (Frederick W.) 294 
 
 Faber (John) 294 
 
734 
 
 INDEX OF ARTICLES 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Fabian (St.) 294 
 
 Facundus 294 
 
 Faith 294 
 
 Faith (Rule of) 294 
 
 Faithful 295 
 
 Faldstool 296 
 
 False Decretals 296 
 
 Familists 296 
 
 Fast Days 296 
 
 Fathers (Apostolic) 296 
 
 Fathers of the Christian Doctrine. . . . 296 
 
 Fathers of the Church 296 
 
 Faustinus 297 
 
 Feasts of Fools and Asses 297 
 
 Feasts of the Church 297 
 
 Feasts of the Jews 298 
 
 Febronianism 298 
 
 Feehan (Patrick A.) 298 
 
 Felicissimus 298 
 
 Felix, Heretic 298 
 
 Felix (name of 4 Popes) 298 
 
 Felix of Valois 299 
 
 Fenelon (Francois) 299 
 
 Fenwick (Benedict Joseph) 299 
 
 Fenwick (Edward D.) 299 
 
 Feria 299 
 
 Ferrara (Council of) 299 
 
 Festus Portius 299 
 
 Fetishism 299 
 
 Feuillants 300 
 
 Final Perseverance 300 
 
 Finding of the Cross 300 
 
 Firmilian (St.) 300 
 
 First Fruits 300 
 
 Fish 300 
 
 Fisher (John) ... 300 
 
 Fitzgerald (Edward) 300 
 
 Flagellants 301 
 
 Flaget (Benedict Joseph) 301 
 
 Flavian (St.) of Constantinople . 301 
 
 Flavian (St.) of Antioch 301 
 
 Flavius Josephus 301 
 
 Fleury (Claude) 301 
 
 Florence (Council of) 301 
 
 Flotte (Peter) 302 
 
 Flowers 302 
 
 Font (Baptismal) 302 
 
 Fontevrault (Order of) 302 
 
 Formosus 302 
 
 Forty Hours' Devotion 302 
 
 Fossarians 303 
 
 France (Evangelization of) 303 
 
 France (Worship in) 303 
 
 Frances of Chantal (St.) 303 
 
 Francis Borgia (St.) 303 
 
 Francis of Assisi (St.) 303 
 
 Francis of Paul (St. ) 303 
 
 Francis of Sales (St.) 303 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Francis-Xavier (St.) 303 
 
 Franciscans 304 
 
 Frankfort (Council of) 304 
 
 Fratricelli 304 
 
 Free Church of England 304 
 
 Freemasons 305 
 
 Freppel (Charles fimile) 305 
 
 Friday (Good) 305 
 
 Fridolin (St.) 306 
 
 Friends 306 
 
 Frisians (Conversion of the) 306 
 
 Frumentius 306 
 
 Fulbert of Chartres 306 
 
 Fulgentius (St.) 306 
 
 G 
 
 Gabaa 306 
 
 Gabaon 306 
 
 Gabbatha 306 
 
 Gabriel 306 
 
 Gabrielites 307 
 
 Gad 307 
 
 Gadara 307 
 
 Gage (Thomas) 307 
 
 Gajus 307 
 
 Galaad 307 
 
 Galatia 307 
 
 Galileans 307 
 
 Galilee 307 
 
 Galileo 307 
 
 Gall (St.) 308 
 
 Gallandius (Andrew) 308 
 
 Gallicanism 308 
 
 Galilean Liberties 308 
 
 Gallitzin (Demetrius) 308 
 
 Gamala 309 
 
 Gamaliel 309 
 
 Gardiner (Stephen) 309 
 
 Garizim 309 
 
 Garnet (Henry) 309 
 
 Gaza 310 
 
 Gedeon 310 
 
 Gehenna 310 
 
 Gehon 310 
 
 Gelasius (name of 2 Popes) 310 
 
 Gelboe 310 
 
 General 310 
 
 Generatianism 310 
 
 Genesareth (Sea of) 310 
 
 Genesis 310 
 
 Gennadius, Priest 310 
 
 Gennadius (George) 311 
 
 Gentiles 311 
 
 Gentilis (Valentine) 311 
 
 Genuflectentes 311 
 
 Genuflection 311 
 
 George (St.) 311 
 
INDEX OF ARTICLES 
 
 735 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Gerah .• 311 
 
 Gerara 311 
 
 Gerard (Segarelli) 311 
 
 Gerasa 311 
 
 Gerbert 3ri 
 
 German Catholics 311 
 
 Germanus of Constantinople 311 
 
 Germanus (St.) 311 
 
 Germany (Christianity in) 311 
 
 Germany (Worship in) 311 
 
 Gerson (Jean Charlier de) 312 
 
 Gertrude (St.) 312 
 
 Gervase or Gervaise 312 
 
 Gervasius and Protasius (Sts.) 312 
 
 Gessur 312 
 
 Geth 312 
 
 Gethsemani 312 
 
 Ghost (Gifts of the Holy) 312 
 
 Ghost (Holy) 312 
 
 Gibbons (James) 312 
 
 Gihon 313 
 
 Gilbert 313 
 
 Gilbert de la Poree 313 
 
 Gilbertines 313 
 
 Gilmour (Richard) 313 
 
 Gioberti (Vincenzo) 313 
 
 Girdle 313 
 
 Gloria in Excelsis 314 
 
 Gloria Patri 314 
 
 Gnosticism 314 
 
 Goch (John van) 315 
 
 God 315 
 
 Godfrey of Bouillion 315 
 
 Godparents 315 
 
 Goethe (John W.) 315 
 
 Gog 315 
 
 Golden Bull 315 
 
 Golden Calf 316 
 
 Golden Number 316 
 
 Golden Rose 316 
 
 Golgotha 316 
 
 Goliath 316 
 
 Gomarists 316 
 
 Good Friday 316 
 
 Gorden (George) 316 
 
 Gortonians 316 
 
 Gospel 316 
 
 Gospel (The) in Liturgy 318 
 
 Goths 318 
 
 Gottschalk 318 
 
 Grace 318 
 
 Gradual 320 
 
 Gradual Psalms 320 
 
 Grammont (Order of) 320 
 
 Gratian 320 
 
 Greece (The Church in) 321 
 
 Greek Schism 321 
 
 Greenland (Evangelization of) 321 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Gregorian Chant 321 
 
 Gregorian Calendar 321 
 
 Gregory (name of 16 Popes) 321 
 
 Gregory Nazianzen (St.) 324 
 
 Gregory of Nyssa (St.) 325 
 
 Gregory of Tours (St.) 325 
 
 Gregory Thaumaturgus (St.) 325 
 
 Gregory the Illuminator (St.) 325 
 
 Grey Nims 325 
 
 Grosseteste (Robert) 325 
 
 Grotius (Hugo) 325 
 
 Gualbert (John) 326 
 
 Guardian Angel 326 
 
 Gunpowder Plot t 326 
 
 Giintherianism 326 
 
 Gustavus Vasa 326 
 
 Guyon (Jeanne M. B.) 326 
 
 Gyrovagi 326 
 
 H 
 
 Habacuk 327 
 
 Hadrian 327 
 
 Hail Mary 327 
 
 Hales (Alexander of) 327 
 
 Halo ". 327 
 
 Haman 327 
 
 Hamilton (Patrick) 327 
 
 Haran 327 
 
 Hardouin (Jean) 327 
 
 Harmonies of the Gospels 327 
 
 Harmonists 327 
 
 Haydn (Francis Joseph) 327 
 
 Heart (Sacred) of Jesus 328 
 
 Heart (Immaculate) of Mary 328 
 
 Heaven 328 
 
 Heber 329 
 
 Hebrews (Epistle to the) 329 
 
 Hebron 329 
 
 Hecker (Isaac Thomas) 329 
 
 Hefele (Karl Joseph von) 329 
 
 Hegesippus 329 
 
 Heiss (Michael) 329 
 
 Helena (St.) 330 
 
 Heli 330 
 
 Hell 330 
 
 Hellenists 330 
 
 Helvidius 330 
 
 Hemerobaptists 330 
 
 Henni (John M.) 330 
 
 Henoch 330 
 
 Henoticon 330 
 
 Henricians 331 
 
 Henry IV 331 
 
 Henry VIII 331 
 
 Heracleon 331 
 
 Heresy 331 
 
 Hergenrother (Joseph) 331 
 
736 
 
 INDEX OF ARTICLES 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Herman 332 
 
 Hermas 332 
 
 Hermeneutic 332 
 
 Hermes (George) 332 
 
 Hermias the Heretic 333 
 
 Hermias the Philosopher 333 
 
 Hermits 333 
 
 Hermogenes 333 
 
 Hermon 333 
 
 Herod 333 
 
 Herodians 333 
 
 Herrnhuters 333 
 
 Hesychasts 334 
 
 Hesychius (St.) 334 
 
 Hetheans 334 
 
 Hexaemeron 334 
 
 Hieracites 334 
 
 Hierarchy 334 
 
 Hierarchy of the Church 334 
 
 Hierocles 337 
 
 Hieronymites 337 
 
 Hieronymus (St.) 337 
 
 High-Priest 337 
 
 Hilarion (St.) 337 
 
 Hilary, Pope 337 
 
 Hilary of Aries 337 
 
 Hilary of Poitiers 337 
 
 Hillel 338 
 
 Hincmar of Laon 338 
 
 Hincmar of Rheims 338 
 
 Hippolytus 338 
 
 Hiram 338 
 
 Holiness 338 
 
 Holiness of the Church 338 
 
 Holland (Church in) 339 
 
 Holy Coat 339 
 
 Holy Family 339 
 
 Holy Fire 339 
 
 Holy Ghost 339 
 
 Holy Ghost (Orders of the) 339 
 
 Holy Office 339 
 
 Holy Orders 339 
 
 Holy Places 339 
 
 Holy Water 339 
 
 Holy Week 339 
 
 Homily 341 
 
 Homoosion 341 
 
 Honoratus (St.) 341 
 
 Honorius (name of 4 Popes) 341 
 
 Honorius I. (Condemnation of) 342 
 
 Hontheim (Nicholas von) 342 
 
 Hope 342 
 
 Hor 342 
 
 Horeb 342 
 
 Horebites 342 
 
 Hormisdas 342 
 
 Hosanna 342 
 
 Hosius 342 
 
 Hospital '. 342 
 
 Hospitalers 343 
 
 Host 343 
 
 Hours (Canonical) 343 
 
 Hubert (St.) 343 
 
 Hughes (John) 343 
 
 Hugh of St. Victor 344 
 
 Huguenots 344 
 
 Humanists 344 
 
 Humiliati 344 
 
 Huss and Hussites 345 
 
 Hyacinth (St.) 346 
 
 Hyacinth (Charles Loyson) 346 
 
 Hyacintha (St.) 346 
 
 Hyginus (St.) 346 
 
 Hylozoism 346 
 
 Hymeneus 346 
 
 Hymn 346 
 
 Hyperdulia 347 
 
 Hypnotism 347 
 
 Hypostasis 348 
 
 Hyssop 348 
 
 I 
 
 bas 348 
 
 birians (Conversion of the) 348 
 
 celand (Christianity in) 348 
 
 conium 349 
 
 conoclasm 349 
 
 conostasis 349 
 
 dioms (Communication of) 349 
 
 dolatrj' 349 
 
 dumea 349 
 
 gnatius (St.) of Antioch 350 
 
 gnatius (St.) of Constantinople 350 
 
 gnatius of Loyola (St.) 350 
 
 gnorantines 350 
 
 • H.S 350 
 
 Idefonsus (St ) 350 
 
 lluminati ^ 350 
 
 lluminati (Sect of the) 350 
 
 llyricum 351 
 
 mages 351 
 
 mages (Controversy on) 351 
 
 mmaculate Conception 351 
 
 mmortality of the Soul 351 
 
 mmunities 353 
 
 mpanation 353 
 
 mpediments of Matrimony 353 
 
 mposition of Hands 353 
 
 mproperia 353 
 
 mputation ^. . 353 
 
 ncarnate Word 354 
 
 ncarnation (Mystery of the) 354 
 
 ncense 354 
 
 n Ccena Domini 354 
 
 ndex Librorum Prohibitorum 355 
 
INDEX OF ARTICLES 
 
 717 
 
 PAGE 
 
 India and China (Christianity in) 355 
 
 India and China (Worship in) 355 
 
 Indians in America 355 
 
 Indulgence 355 
 
 Indulgence (Jubilee) 35^ 
 
 Indulgences (Sale of) 357 
 
 Indult 358 
 
 Infallibility of the Church and Pope. 358 
 
 Infidels 359 
 
 Infralapsarians 359 
 
 Inneity 359 
 
 Innocent (name of 13 Popes) 360 
 
 Innocents (Feast of the Holy) 361 
 
 Inquisition 3^^ 
 
 Inspiration 3^2 
 
 Installation 3^3 
 
 Intelligence 3^3 
 
 Interdict 3^4 
 
 Interim 3^4 
 
 Interpretation of Scripture 364 
 
 Introit 368 
 
 Investiture 3^8 
 
 Ireland (Christianity in) 368 
 
 Ireland (Protestantism in) 368 
 
 Ireland (The Church in) 369 
 
 Ireland (John) 369 
 
 Irenaeus (St.) 3^9 
 
 Irene 370 
 
 Irregularity 370 
 
 Irvingites 37^ 
 
 Isaac 371 
 
 Isaac of Antioch 371 
 
 Isaac the Parthian 371 
 
 Isaias 37^ 
 
 Isboseth 371 
 
 Isidore (St.) 371 
 
 Isidore Mercator 371 
 
 Isidore of Alexandria 372 
 
 Isidore of Pelusium 372 
 
 Ismael 372 
 
 Islam 372 
 
 Israel (Kingdom of) 372 
 
 Issachar 372 
 
 Itala 372 
 
 Italy (Worship in) 372 
 
 Ite Missa Est 372 
 
 Ithacius 372 
 
 Itinerary 372 
 
 Ituraea 373 
 
 Ivo (St.) 373 
 
 J 
 
 Jabbok 373 
 
 Jabes-Galaad 373 
 
 Jabin 373 
 
 Jachin 373 
 
 Jacob 373 
 
 47 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Jacobins 373 
 
 Jacobites 373 
 
 Jacob's Well 373 
 
 Jahel 373 
 
 Jamblichus 373 
 
 James the Elder 374 
 
 James the Less . . ^ 374 
 
 Jansenius and Jansenism 374 
 
 Janssen (John) 375 
 
 Januarius (St.) 375 
 
 Japan (Christianity in) 375 
 
 Japhet 375 
 
 Jason 375 
 
 Javan 375 
 
 Jebusites 375 
 
 Jechonias 375 
 
 Jehovah 376 
 
 Jehu 376 
 
 Jephte 376 
 
 Jeremias 376 
 
 Jericho. . . . r 376 
 
 Jeroboam 377 
 
 Jerome (St. ) 377 
 
 Jerome of Prague 377 
 
 Jeronymites 377 
 
 Jerusalem 377 
 
 Jerusalem (Council of) 378 
 
 Jerusalem (Church of the New) 378 
 
 Jesuats 378 
 
 Jesuits 378 
 
 Jesuits and Their Suppression. 379 
 
 Jesus .... 380 
 
 Jesus Christ • 380 
 
 Jews *^istory of the) 381 
 
 Jethro 384 
 
 Jezabel 384 
 
 Jezrael 384 
 
 Joab 384 
 
 Joachaz 384 
 
 Joachim (St.) 384 
 
 Joachimites 384 
 
 Joachim of Fiore 384 
 
 Joakim 384 
 
 Joan ( Fable of the Popess) 384 
 
 Joan of Arc 385 
 
 Joas 385 
 
 Joatham 385 
 
 Job 385 
 
 Jocques (Isaac) 386 
 
 Joel 386 
 
 John (name of 23 Popes) 386 
 
 John (Knights of St.) 387 
 
 John Capistran (St.) 387 
 
 John Chrysostom (St.) 387 
 
 John Climacus 387 
 
 John Gualbert 388 
 
 John of Antioch 388 
 
 John of Damascus (St.) 388 
 
738 
 
 INDEX OF ARTICLES 
 
 PAGE 
 
 John of God (St.) 388 
 
 John of Matha 388 
 
 John of Nepomucene (St.) 388 
 
 John of the Cross (St.) 389 
 
 John the Almoner (St. ) 389 
 
 John the Baptist (St.) 389 
 
 John the Evangelist (St.J 389 
 
 Jonas 389 
 
 Jonathas or Jonathan ... 389 
 
 Joppe or Jaffa 390 
 
 Joram 390 
 
 Jordan 390 
 osaphat 390 
 
 Josaphat (Valley of) 390 
 
 Joseph .^ 390 
 
 Joseph (St.) 390 
 
 Joseph (Congregations of St.) 390 
 
 Josephinum 391 
 
 Josephism 391 
 
 Joseph of Arimathea 391 
 
 Josephus Flavius 391 
 
 Josias 391 
 
 Josue 391 
 
 Journalism (Catholic) 392 
 
 Jovinian 396 
 
 Jubilee (The Year of) 396 
 
 Jubilee Year 396 
 
 Juda 396 
 
 Juda (Kingdom of) 396 
 
 Judaea or Judea 396 
 
 Judaizers 397 
 
 Judas 397 
 
 Jude (St.) 397 
 
 Judgment (The Last) 397 
 
 Judgment (The Particular) 397 
 
 Judges (Book of) 398 
 
 Judges of Israel 398 
 
 Judicatum 398 
 
 Julian the Apostate 398 
 
 Julianists 398 
 
 Julius (name of 3 Popes) 398 
 
 Julius Africanus 399 
 
 Jurisdiction 399 
 
 Jus Primae Noctis 400 
 
 Just 400 
 
 Justice 400 
 
 Justification 400 
 
 Justin (St. ) 401 
 
 Juvencus 401 
 
 K 
 
 Kaaba v . . . 402 
 
 Kabala 402 
 
 Kant (Immanuel) 402 
 
 Karaites 402 
 
 Keane (John Joseph) 402 
 
 Kempis (Thomas a) 402 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Kenrick (Francis P.) 402 
 
 Kentigren (St.) 403 
 
 Kilian (St.) 403 
 
 Kings (Books of) 403 
 
 Kings and Emperors 403 
 
 Kissing the Altar 403 
 
 Kiss of Peace 403 
 
 Knights 403 
 
 Know-Nothingism 404 
 
 Knox (John ) 404 
 
 Koran 404 
 
 Kultur-Kampf 404 
 
 Kyrie Eleison 404 
 
 L 
 
 Labadie (John) 405 
 
 Laban 405 
 
 Labarum 405 
 
 Labre (Benedict Jos., St.) 405 
 
 Lachis 405 
 
 Lacordaire (J. B. H.) 405 
 
 Lactantius 405 
 
 Lacticinia 406 
 
 Laetare Sunday 406 
 
 Lainez (James) 406 
 
 Laity 406 
 
 Lamaism 406 
 
 Lamech 406 
 
 Lamennais (H.-F. R. de) 406 
 
 Lamentations 406 
 
 Lance (The Sacred) 407 
 
 Lando 407 
 
 Lanf ranc 407 
 
 Langton (Stephen) 407 
 
 Language 407 
 
 Laodicea 408 
 
 Lapsi 408 
 
 La Salle (J. B.) 408 
 
 Las Casas (Bartholomew) 408 
 
 Lateran (The) 408 
 
 Latimer (Hughes) 409 
 
 Latin Language (Use of the) 409 
 
 Latitudinarians 410 
 
 Latria 410 
 
 Latrocinium 410 
 
 Lauds. . 410 
 
 Laura 410 
 
 Lavabo 410 
 
 Lavigerie (Chas. M. A.) 410 
 
 Law 4»o 
 
 Lawrence or Laurentius Justinianus. . 412 
 
 Lawrence (St.) 4" 
 
 Lawrence O'Toole (St.) 4^2 
 
 Lazarists 4^^ 
 
 Lazarus 413 
 
 League (Holy) 4^3 
 
 Leander (St.) 413 
 
INDEX OF ARTICLES 
 
 739 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Lectionary 413 
 
 Lector 413 
 
 Ledochowski (M. H., Count de) 413 
 
 Legate 4^4 
 
 Legio Fulminatrix 414 
 
 Legion (Theboan) 414 
 
 Leibnitz (G. W. von) 414 
 
 Lent 415 
 
 Leo (name of 13 Popes) 416 
 
 Leviticus 419 
 
 Lia 419 
 
 Libanon 419 
 
 Libellatici 420 
 
 Liberius (St.) 420 
 
 Liberties (Gallican) 421 
 
 Libertines 421 
 
 Life 421 
 
 Lights at Divine Service 421 
 
 Liguori (M. A. of) 422 
 
 Limbo 422 
 
 Limbo Puerorum 422 
 
 Litany 422 
 
 Liturgy 423 
 
 Livinus (St.) . . 423 
 
 Llorente (Don Juan A.) 423 
 
 Logothete 424 
 
 Lollards 424 
 
 Lombard (Peter) 424 
 
 Lord's Prayer 424 
 
 Lord's Supper 424 
 
 Loreto 424 
 
 Lot 424 
 
 Louis (St. ) 424 
 
 Louis Bertrand (St.) 424 
 
 Louis of Gonzagua (St.) 425 
 
 Lourdes 425 
 
 Low Sunday 425 
 
 Lucia (St.) 425 
 
 Lucian 425 
 
 Lucianus (St.) 425 
 
 Lucidus, Heretic 426 
 
 Luciferians 426 
 
 Lucius (name of 3 Popes) 426 
 
 Ludmilla (St. ) 426 
 
 Lugo (John de) 426 
 
 Luitprand 426 
 
 Luke (St.) 426 
 
 Lust 426 
 
 Luther (Martin) 427 
 
 Lydia 430 
 
 Lying 430 
 
 Lyons (Councils of) 430 
 
 Lystra 430 
 
 M 
 
 Maacha 43 1 
 
 Mabillon (John) 431 
 
 Macarius (St.) 431 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Macedonia 431 
 
 Macedonius 431 
 
 Machabees (Books of the) 431 
 
 Machabees (The) 431 
 
 Machabeus (Jonathas) 432 
 
 Machabeus (Judas) 432 
 
 Machabeus (Simon) 432 
 
 Madianites 432 
 
 Magdala 432 
 
 Magdalen (St. Mary) 432 
 
 Magdalen de Pazzi (St. Mary) 432 
 
 Mageddo 433 
 
 Magi 432 
 
 Magic 432 
 
 Magnificat 433 
 
 Magog and Gog 433 
 
 Mahomet 433 
 
 Mai (Angelo) 433 
 
 Maid of Orleans 433 
 
 Malachias 433 
 
 Malachy (St.) 433 
 
 Malchus 433 
 
 Maldonatus (John) 433 
 
 Mambre 433 
 
 Mamertus (St.) 433 
 
 Mammon 433 
 
 Man and Science 434 
 
 Manahem 446 
 
 Manasses 446 
 
 Mandseans 446 
 
 Manichaeanism 446 
 
 Maniple 447 
 
 Mankind (Unity of) 447 
 
 Manna 455 
 
 Manning (Henry E.) 455 
 
 Maranatha 455 
 
 Marcellina (St.) 455 
 
 Marcellinus (St.) 456 
 
 Marcellus (name of 2 Popes) 456 
 
 Marcion and Marcionites 456 
 
 Marechal (Ambrose) 456 
 
 Marists 456 
 
 Mark 456 
 
 Mark (St.), Evangelist 456 
 
 Mark (St. ), Pope 457 
 
 Mark's Day 457 
 
 Maronites 457 
 
 Marquette (Jacques) 457 
 
 Marriage 457 
 
 Marriage (Civil) 457 
 
 Marriage (Mixed) 458 
 
 Martha 458 
 
 Martha (Religious of St.) 458 
 
 Martial (St.) 458 
 
 Martin (name of 5 Popes) 458 
 
 Martin of Tours (St.) 458 
 
 Martinelli (Sebastian) 459 
 
 Martyrologium 459 
 
740 
 
 INDEX OF ARTICLES 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Martyrs 459 
 
 Maruthas 460 
 
 Mary (Brothers of) 460 
 
 Mary Immaculate (Oblates of) 460 
 
 Mary (The Blessed Virgin) 460 
 
 Mary (Feasts of) 461 
 
 Mary (Prerogatives of) 461 
 
 Maspha 461 
 
 Mass 461 
 
 Mass of Bolsena 462 
 
 Mass of the Presanctified 462 
 
 Massilians 463 
 
 Massillon ( J. B.) 463 
 
 Massorah 463 
 
 Materialism 463 
 
 Matha (St. John of) 464 
 
 Mathew (Theobald) 464 
 
 Mathurins 464 
 
 Matins 464 
 
 Matrimony 464 
 
 Matrimony (Unity of) 465 
 
 Matthew (St.) 466 
 
 Matthias (St.) 466 
 
 Maundy Thursday 466 
 
 Maurice (St.) 466 
 
 Maurists 466 
 
 Maximus of Jerusalem (St.) 466 
 
 Maximus the Confessor (St.) 466 
 
 Maximus of Turin (St.) 466 
 
 McCloskey (John) 466 
 
 McGlynn (Edward) 467 
 
 Measures ^ 467 
 
 Mechitarists 467 
 
 Media 467 
 
 Meditation 467 
 
 Melanchthon (Philip) 467 
 
 Melania (St. ) 467 
 
 Melchiades (St.) 467 
 
 Melchisedech 467 
 
 Melchisedechians 467 
 
 Melchites 467 
 
 Meletius of Sebaste 467 
 
 Meletius the Heresiarch 468 
 
 Melita 468 
 
 Melito (St.) 468 
 
 Memento 468 
 
 Menander 46S 
 
 Mendicant Orders 468 
 
 Mennonites 468 
 
 Menologium 469 
 
 Mercy (Order of) 469 
 
 Mercy (Sisters of) 469 
 
 Merit 469 
 
 Merodach-Baladan 469 
 
 Merom ( Waters of) 469 
 
 Mesa 469 
 
 Mesopotamia 470 
 
 Mesraim 470 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Mesrop (St.) 470 
 
 Messalians 470 
 
 Messias 470 
 
 Methodism 470 
 
 Methodists in the United States 471 
 
 Methodius (St.) the Confessor 472 
 
 Methodius (St.) of Olympus 472 
 
 Methodius (St.) 473 
 
 Metrophanes 473 
 
 Metropolitan 473 
 
 Mexico (The Church in) 473 
 
 Mezzofanti (Joseph) 473 
 
 Michael (St. ) 473 
 
 Michael Cerularius 473 
 
 Micheas 473 
 
 Michol , . 473 
 
 Miletus 473 
 
 Millennium 473 
 
 Milner (John) 474 
 
 Miltiades (St.) 474 
 
 Miltiades 474 
 
 Minims 474 
 
 Minor Orders 474 
 
 Minucius Felix 474 
 
 Miracle 475 
 
 Miriam 477 
 
 Missal 477 
 
 Mission 477 
 
 Missions and Missionary Institutes. . . 477 
 
 Missions (Protestant) 478 
 
 Missions in India, China, Japan, etc. . 479 
 
 Missions in South America 480 
 
 Missions (Early) in the United States 
 
 and Canada 480 
 
 Mission Work (Statistics of) 481 
 
 Mitre 483 
 
 Mitylene 483 
 
 Mixed Marriages 483 
 
 Mizraim 483 
 
 Moab 483 
 
 Mohammedanism 483 
 
 Mohler (John A.) 484 
 
 Molinism 484 
 
 Molinos (Michael of) 484 
 
 Monarchians 484 
 
 Monastery 484 
 
 Monasticism 484 
 
 Monk 485 
 
 Monogram 485 
 
 Monophysites 485 
 
 Monothelites 486 
 
 Monseigneur 486 
 
 Monstrance 486 
 
 Montalembert (Charles F.) 486 
 
 Montanists 486 
 
 Month (Hebrew) 487 
 
 Morality of Human Actions 487 
 
 Moravian Brethren 487 
 
INDEX OF ARTICLES 
 
 741 
 
 PAGE 
 
 More (Sir Thomas) 488 
 
 Moria 488 
 
 Mormons 488 
 
 Mortal Sin 488 
 
 Mosaic Cosmogony 488 
 
 Mosaism 488 
 
 Moses 489 
 
 Mozarabic Liturgy 489 
 
 Mozart (Wolfgang A.) 489 
 
 Muratori (Ludovico A.) 490 
 
 Muratorian Fragment 490 
 
 Murder 490 
 
 Music (Sacred) 490 
 
 Mysia 491 
 
 Mystery 491 
 
 Mysticism 491 
 
 Myth •. 491 
 
 N 
 
 Naama 492 
 
 Naaman 492 
 
 Naas 492 
 
 Nabal 492 
 
 Nabataneans 492 
 
 Nabopolassar 492 
 
 Naboth 492 
 
 Nabuchodonosor 1 492 
 
 Nabuchodonosor II 492 
 
 Nadab 492 
 
 Nahum 493 
 
 Naim 493 
 
 Nantes (Edict of) 493 
 
 Nathan , 493 
 
 Nathinites 493 
 
 Nativity 493 
 
 Nazarenes 493 
 
 Nazareth 493 
 
 Nazarites 493 
 
 Neale (Leonard) 493 
 
 Neapolis 494 
 
 Nebo 494 
 
 Nechao 494 
 
 Necrology 494 
 
 Necromancy 494 
 
 Nectarius 494 
 
 Nehemias 494 
 
 Nemesius 494 
 
 Neophytes 494 
 
 Nephtali 494 
 
 Nepomuk ( John of) 495 
 
 Nergel 495 
 
 Neri (St. Philip) 495 
 
 Nero 495 
 
 Nestorianism 495 
 
 Netherlands (Protestantism in the).. 495 
 
 Netherlands (Worship in) 496 
 
 Neumann (John N.) 496 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Newman (John H.) 496 
 
 New Mexico Missions 497 
 
 New Zealand (The Church in) 497 
 
 Nicanor 497 
 
 Nice (Councils of) 497 
 
 Nicephorus (St.) 497 
 
 Nicholas (name of 5 Popes) 497 
 
 Nicholas (St.) 498 
 
 Nicholas of Clemanges 498 
 
 Nicholas of Cusa 498 
 
 Nicodemus 498 
 
 Nicolaitans 498 
 
 Nicopolis 498 
 
 Nilus (St.) 498 
 
 Nimbus 499 
 
 Ninian (St.). . . .- 499 
 
 Ninive 499 
 
 Nisan 499 
 
 No 499 
 
 Nobili (Robert de) 499 
 
 Nocturn 499 
 
 Nod 499 
 
 Noe 499 
 
 Noemi 500 
 
 Noetius 500 
 
 Nominalism 500 
 
 Nomocanon 500 
 
 Nonconformists 500 
 
 None 500 
 
 Nonjurors 500 
 
 Norbert (St.) 500 
 
 North-American Missions 500 
 
 Norway (The Church in) 500 
 
 Notker 500 
 
 Notre Dame 500 
 
 Novatian 500 
 
 Novatians 501 
 
 Novena 501 
 
 Novice 501 
 
 Numbers (Book of) 501 
 
 Nun 501 
 
 Nunc Dimittis 501 
 
 Nuncio 501 
 
 o 
 
 Gates (Titus) 502 
 
 Oath 502 
 
 Oblates 502 
 
 Oblation 503 
 
 Occam or Ockam (William) 503 
 
 Ochozias 503 
 
 O'Connell (Daniel) 503 
 
 Octavarium 503 
 
 Octave 503 
 
 CEcolampadius (John) 503 
 
 CEcumenical Council 503 
 
 Offertory 503 
 
742 
 
 INDEX OF ARTICLES 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Office (The Divine) 503 
 
 Og 503 
 
 Oils (Holy) 503 
 
 Olaf (St.)' 504 
 
 Old Catholics 504 
 
 Olier (Jacques) 504 
 
 Olives (Mount of) 504 
 
 Olivetans 504 
 
 Omer (St.) 504 
 
 Omophorion 5**4 
 
 Onkelos 504 
 
 Ontology and Ontologism 504 
 
 Ophir 505 
 
 Ophites 505 
 
 Optatus (St.) 505 
 
 Optimism *• 505 
 
 Opus Operatum 506 
 
 Orangemen 506 
 
 Orarium 506 
 
 Orate Fratres 506 
 
 Oratorians 506 
 
 Oratory 507 
 
 Oratory (The) of Jesus 507 
 
 Ordeals 507 
 
 Order (Holy) 507 
 
 Order (Third) 509 
 
 Orders (Anglican) 509 
 
 Orders (Military) 509 
 
 Orders (Minor) 509 
 
 Orders (Monastic) 510 
 
 Ordinary 510 
 
 Ordination 510 
 
 Organ 510 
 
 Ordo 511 
 
 Origen 511 
 
 Oriental Rites and Churches 511 
 
 Original Sin 514 
 
 Orosius (Paul) 514 
 
 Osee, Prophet 514 
 
 Osee, King 514 
 
 Osiander (Andreas) 514 
 
 Ostiary 514 
 
 Oswald (St.) 514 
 
 Otho (St.) 514 
 
 Othoniel 515 
 
 Ozias 515 
 
 P 
 
 Pacca (Bartholomew) 515 
 
 Paccanarists 515 
 
 Pachomius (St.) 515 
 
 Pacianus (St.) 515 
 
 Paganism 515 
 
 Painting 516 
 
 Palamites 516 
 
 Palestine 516 
 
 Palestrina (Giovanni P. da) 517 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Pall 517 
 
 Pall (Funeral) 517 
 
 Palladius (St.) 1^17 
 
 Palladius of Galatia 517 
 
 Pallavicini (Pietro S.) 517 
 
 Pallium 517 
 
 Palm Sunday 518 
 
 Palmyra 518 
 
 Pamphylia 518 
 
 Pamphylus (St.) 518 
 
 Pange Lingua 518 
 
 Pantaenus (St.) 518 
 
 Pantheism 519 
 
 Pantheon 520 
 
 Papa 520 
 
 Papal States 520 
 
 Papebroch ( Daniel ) , 520 
 
 Paphnutius (St.) 520 
 
 Paphos 520 
 
 Papias (St.) 520 
 
 Parable 520 
 
 Parabolani 520 
 
 Paraclete 520 
 
 Paracleticon 520 
 
 Paradise (Earthly) 521 
 
 Paralipomena 523 
 
 Parasceve 523 
 
 Parents (Duties of Children toward 
 
 Their) 523 
 
 Parents (Duties of, to Their Children) 523 
 
 Parish and Parish Priest 524 
 
 Parker (Matthew) 524 
 
 Parsism 524 
 
 Parthia 524 
 
 Paschal (name of 2 Popes) 524 
 
 Paschal Candle 525 
 
 Paschal Precept 525 
 
 Paschasius Radbertus 525 
 
 Passionists 525 
 
 Passion Play 525 
 
 Passion Sunday 525 
 
 Passover 526 
 
 Pastor ; 526 
 
 Pastoral Letter 526 
 
 Pastoral Staff 526 
 
 Patara 526 
 
 Patarini 526 
 
 Paten 526 
 
 Pater Noster 527 
 
 Patmos 527 
 
 Patriarchs 527 
 
 Patriarchs (Ancient) 527 
 
 Patrick (St.) 527 
 
 Patrimony of St. Peter 528 
 
 Patripassians 528 
 
 Patrology 528 
 
 Patron Saint 529 
 
 Paul (name of 5 Popes) 529 
 
INDEX OF ARTICLES 
 
 743 
 
 Paul (St.) the Apostle 529 
 
 Paul (St.), Hermit 530 
 
 Paul (St.) of Constantinople 530 
 
 Paul of the Cross 530 
 
 Paul of Samosata 530 
 
 Paul (Vincent de) 530 
 
 Paula (St.) 530 
 
 Paulianists '. 53^ 
 
 Paulicians 53^ 
 
 Paulinus (St.) 53^ 
 
 Paulinus (St.) of Treves 531 
 
 Paulinus (St.) of Acquileia 531 
 
 Paulist Fathers 53' 
 
 Pax 531 
 
 Pax Vobis 531 
 
 Pectoral Cross 531 
 
 Pelagius (name of 2 Popes) 531 
 
 Pelagius and Pelagianism 531 
 
 Penance (Sacrament of) 532 
 
 Penance Books 533 
 
 Penitential Discipline 533 
 
 Penitential Psalms 533 
 
 Penitentiary 534 
 
 Penitentiary's Court 534 
 
 Pentateuch (Authenticity of the).... 534 
 
 Pentecost 548 
 
 Pepin the Short 548 
 
 Pepuzians 548 
 
 Pergamum 548 
 
 Perge 548 
 
 Persecutions 548 
 
 Perseverance 549 
 
 Persia 550 
 
 Persia (Christianity in) 550 
 
 Peschito 551 
 
 Pessimism 551 
 
 Petavius 551 
 
 Peter (St.) the Apostle 551 
 
 Peter (Epistles of St.) 551 
 
 Peter (St.) of Alexandria 551 
 
 Peter Chrysologus (St.) 551 
 
 Peter de Bruys ^51 
 
 Peter in Rome 551 
 
 Peter Lombard 552 
 
 Peter Nolasco (St.) 552 
 
 Peter of Alcantara (St.) 552 
 
 Peter's Pence 552 
 
 Peter the Hermit 552 
 
 Peter the Venerable 553 
 
 Petrines 553 
 
 Petrobusians 553 
 
 Phacee 553 
 
 Phaceia 553 
 
 Phaleg 553 
 
 Pharan 553 
 
 Pharao 554 
 
 Pharisees 554 
 
 Pheresites 554 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Philadelphia 554 
 
 Philastrius (St.) 554 
 
 Philemon 554 
 
 Philip (St.) the Apostle 554 
 
 Philip (St.) the Deacon 554 
 
 Philippians (Epistle to the) 554 
 
 Philippine Islands (Church in the) 554 
 
 Philip the Fair 555 
 
 Philip the Tetrarch 555 
 
 Philistines 555 
 
 Philo the Jew 555 
 
 Philosophy 555 
 
 Philostratus 556 
 
 Phoenicia 556 
 
 Photinus 557 
 
 Photius 557 
 
 Phrygia 557 
 
 Phul 557 
 
 Phylacteries 557 
 
 Piarists 557 
 
 Picpus 557 
 
 Pietism 557 
 
 Pilate (Pontius) 557 
 
 Pilgrim and Pilgrimages 557 
 
 Pirkheimer (Wilibald ) 558 
 
 Pisa (Council of) 558 
 
 Piscina 558 
 
 Pistoja (Synod of) 558 
 
 Pistorius (John) 558 
 
 Pitra (John Baptist) 558 
 
 Pius (name of 9 Popes) 559 
 
 Placet 561 
 
 Placidus (St.) 561 
 
 Plagues of Egypt 561 
 
 Plain Chant 561 
 
 Platonism 561 
 
 Pliny the Younger 5^^ 
 
 Plotinus 562 
 
 Plymouth Brethern 562 
 
 Poland (Christianity in) 562 
 
 Pole (Reginald) 562 
 
 Polycarp (St.) 562 
 
 Polychronius 563 
 
 Polygamy 563 
 
 Polyglot Bibles 563 
 
 Polynesia (Missions in) 564 
 
 Polytheism 564 
 
 Pombal (Marquis de) '564 
 
 Pontianus (St.) 564 
 
 Pontifical 564 
 
 Pontus 564 
 
 Poor Man of Lyons 564 
 
 Pope 564 
 
 Pope (Election of the) 565 
 
 Pope (Temporal Power of the) 567 
 
 Pope (Prerogatives of the) 567 
 
 Popes (Future) 569 
 
 Popes (List of) 569 
 
744 
 
 INDEX OF ARTICLES 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Porphyrius 572 
 
 Portiuncula 573 
 
 Port Royal (Monastery of) 573 
 
 Portugal (Worship in) 573 
 
 Possession (Diabolical) 573 
 
 Post- Communion 574 
 
 Postulant 574 
 
 Pothinus (St.) 574 
 
 Power (Temporal and Spiritual) 574 
 
 Pragmatic Sanction 575 
 
 Prayer 575 
 
 Prayer (The Lord's) 577 
 
 Prayer (Mental) 577 
 
 Praxeans 577 
 
 Preacher 578 
 
 Preaching Friars 578 
 
 Preadamites 578 
 
 Precious Blood (Congregation of the 
 
 Most) 578 
 
 Preconization 578 
 
 Predestination 578 
 
 Predestined (Number of the) 579 
 
 Predetermination 579 
 
 Pre-existence of Souls 579 
 
 Preface 580 
 
 Prefect Apostolic 580 
 
 Prelates 580 
 
 Premonstratensians 580 
 
 Presanctification (Mass of) 581 
 
 Presbyterians 581 
 
 Presbytery 581 
 
 Prescience 581 
 
 Presence (Real) 582 
 
 Presentation 582 
 
 Presentation (Feast of the) 582 
 
 Preston (Thomas S.) 5S2 
 
 Priest 582 
 
 Primate 582 
 
 Prior 583 
 
 Priscillianists 583 
 
 Probabilism 583 
 
 Processions 584 
 
 Proclamation 585 
 
 Proclus (St.) 585 
 
 Profanation of a Church or Cemetery 585 
 
 Profession (Religious) 585 
 
 Profession of Faith 586 
 
 Promise (Divine) 586 
 
 Propoganda of the Faith 586 
 
 Propoganda of Lyons 587 
 
 Prophets and Prophecies 587 
 
 Prophets (Chronological Table of the) 589 
 
 Prophets (False) 590 
 
 Prophets of Holland 590 
 
 Property 590 
 
 Proselytes 592 
 
 Prosper( St.) 592 
 
 Protestantism (Causes and Effects of) 592 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Prothesis 593 
 
 Protocanonicals 593 
 
 Protomartyr 593 
 
 Protonotaries 593 
 
 Proverbs 593 
 
 Providence 594 
 
 Provincial 594 
 
 Prudentius e^ 
 
 Psalms ggj^ 
 
 Psalter 595 
 
 Pulcheria (St.) 595 
 
 Punishment (Eternal) 595 
 
 Purcell (John Baptist) : 595 
 
 Purgatory 595 
 
 Purification \ 595 
 
 Purification ( Feast of the) 596 
 
 Piirim 596 
 
 Puritans 596 
 
 Puteoli 596 
 
 Puseysm 596 
 
 Pyx 596 
 
 Q 
 
 Quadragesima 596 
 
 Quadratus (St.) 596 
 
 Quakers 597 
 
 Quartodecimans 597 
 
 Quesnel (Pasquier) 597 
 
 Quietism 597 
 
 Quinisextum Concilium 597 
 
 Quinquagesima 597 
 
 Quirinius 597 
 
 R 
 
 Rabanus Maurus 597 
 
 Rabbath or Rabbath-Ammon 597 
 
 Rabbi T . . . 597 
 
 Rab-mag or Reb-mag 598 
 
 Rab-saces 598 
 
 Rab-saris 598 
 
 Rabulas (St.) 598 
 
 Raca 598 
 
 Rachel 598 
 
 Radbertus Paschasius 598 
 
 Rages 598 
 
 Rahab 598 
 
 Rama 598 
 
 Ramathaim-Sophim 598 
 
 Raphael 598 
 
 Raphia 598 
 
 Raphidim 598 
 
 Rappe (Amadeus) 598 
 
 Raskolniks 599 
 
 Rationalism 599 
 
 Ratisbonne (Alphonse M.) 600 
 
 Ratisbonne (Maria Theodor) 600 
 
INDEX OF AR TICLES 
 
 745 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Ratramus 600 
 
 Ravignan (Gustave X. L.) 600 
 
 Raymond of Pennaforte 600 
 
 Realism 600 
 
 Reason and Faith 600 
 
 Recollects 600 
 
 Rector 601 
 
 Redeemer and Redemption 601 
 
 Redemptorists 602 
 
 Reformation (Causes and Effects of). 602 
 
 Regalia 602 
 
 Regeneration 602 
 
 Regina Coeli 602 
 
 Reifenstuel (Anaclet) 602 
 
 Relics 602 
 
 Religion and Virtue of Religion 602 
 
 Religion and History 603 
 
 Religions (Approximate State of ). . . . 605 
 
 Remigius (St.) 605 
 
 Remonstrants 606 
 
 Renan (Joseph E.) 606 
 
 Reprobation 606 
 
 Rescripts 607 
 
 Reservation of Cases 607 
 
 Residence (Duty of) 607 
 
 Resignation 607 
 
 Responsory 607 
 
 Restitution : 607 
 
 Resurrection 608 
 
 Retreat 609 
 
 Reuch (Francis H. ) 609 
 
 Reuchlin (John) 609 
 
 Revelation 609 
 
 Revelation (Primitive) 610 
 
 Revolution (The French) 61 1 
 
 Rhodes 611 
 
 Rhodon 6i i 
 
 Ricci(Lavifrence) 611 
 
 Ricci (Matthew) 612 
 
 Ricci (Scipio) 612 
 
 Richard of St. Victor 612 
 
 Richelieu ( Armand de) 6i3 
 
 Rimini (Council of) 612 
 
 Ring (Episcopal) 612 
 
 Ring (Fisherman's) 612 
 
 Ritual 612 
 
 Robert of Abrissel 612 
 
 Robert of Molesme 612 
 
 Roboam 612 
 
 Rochet 612 
 
 Rogation Days 612 
 
 Romans (Epistle to the) 613 
 
 Romanus (St. ) 613 
 
 Romuald (St.) 613 
 
 Ronge ( John) 613 
 
 Rosary 613 
 
 Rasati ( Joseph) 614 
 
 Roscelin ( John) 614 
 
 'PAGE 
 
 Rose (St.) of Lima 614 
 
 Rosicrucians 614 
 
 Rosmini-Serbati 614 
 
 Rota 614 
 
 Rubrics 614 
 
 Rufinus (Tyrannius) 615 
 
 Rule of Faith 615 
 
 Rupertus (St. ) 615 
 
 Russian Church * 615 
 
 Ruth 615 
 
 Ruthenian Catholics 615 
 
 Ryan (Patrick J.) 615 
 
 s 
 
 Saba 616 
 
 Sabaoth 616 
 
 Sabas (St. ) 616 
 
 Sabatine Bull 616 
 
 Sabbath 616 
 
 Sabbathians 6j6 
 
 Sabeans 616 
 
 Sabellius 616 
 
 Sabina (St.) 616 
 
 Sabinianus (St.) 616 
 
 Sackcloth 617 
 
 Sacraments 617 
 
 Sacrament (Congregations of the 
 
 Blessed) 618 
 
 Sacramentals 618 
 
 Sacramentarians 618 
 
 Sacramentary . . . .• 618 
 
 Sacred Heart 619 
 
 Sacrifice 619 
 
 Sacrifices of the Old Law 620 
 
 Sacrilege 621 
 
 Sacristan 621 
 
 Sacristy 621 
 
 Sadducees 621 
 
 Sadoc 621 
 
 Sainte Anne de Beaupre 622 
 
 Saints (Veneration of the) 622 
 
 Salem 623 
 
 Sales (St. Francis of) 623 
 
 Salesians > 623 
 
 Salle (The Abbe de la) 623 
 
 Salmanasar 623 
 
 Salome 623 
 
 Salomon 623 
 
 Salvation Army 623 
 
 Salvation (No) Outside the Church. . . 623 
 
 Salve Regina 625 
 
 Salvianus 625 
 
 Samaria 625 
 
 Samaritan Pentateuch 626 
 
 Samaritans 626 
 
 Samos 626 
 
 Samosathians 626 
 
 Samothracia 626 
 
746 
 
 INDEX OF ARTICLES 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Samson 626 
 
 Samuel 626 
 
 Sanbenito 627 
 
 Sanchez (Thomas) 627 
 
 Sanctuary 627 
 
 Sanctus 627 
 
 Sanhedrin 627 
 
 San Jago (Order of) .627 
 
 Sara ' 627 
 
 Sarabites 627 
 
 Sardica 627 
 
 Sarepta 627 
 
 Sargon 627 
 
 Satan 627 
 
 Satisfaction 628 
 
 Satolli (Francis) 628 
 
 Saturday (Holy) . 628 
 
 Saul 629 
 
 Saviour 629 
 
 Savonarola (Jerome) 629 
 
 Scapular of Mount Carmel 629 
 
 Scepticism 631 
 
 Schism 631 
 
 Schism of England 631 
 
 Schism of the East 632 
 
 Schism of the West 633 
 
 Scholastica ( St.) 633 
 
 Schools (Brothers of the Christian) . . 633 
 
 Schools and Universities 633 
 
 Science and Revelation 635 
 
 Science and the Formation of the Uni- 
 verse 638 
 
 Scotland (Evangelization of) 640 
 
 Scotland (Protestantism in) 640 
 
 Scotland (The Church in) 640 
 
 Scotus ( John) 640 
 
 Scribe 640 
 
 Sebastian (St. ) 640 
 
 Sebueans or Sebuseans 641 
 
 Secret Discipline 641 
 
 Secret of Confession 641 
 
 Secret Societies 642 
 
 Secular Clergy 642 
 
 Secularization 642 
 
 Sedecias 642 
 
 Sedulius (Coelius) 642 
 
 Seleucia 642 
 
 Sem 642 
 
 Semi-Arians 642 
 
 Seminary 642 
 
 Semi-Pelagians 643 
 
 Sennaar 643 
 
 Sennacherib • 643 
 
 Sensualism 643 
 
 Separatists . 644 
 
 Sepharvaim 644 
 
 Sephora 644 
 
 Septuagesima Sunday 644 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Septuagint 644 
 
 Sequence 644 
 
 Seraphim 645 
 
 Sergius (name of 4 Popes) 645 
 
 Sergius Paulus 645 
 
 Sermon 645 
 
 Serpent 646 
 
 Serra ( Junipero) 646 
 
 Servetus (Michael) 646 
 
 Servites 646 
 
 Servus Sers'orum Dei 647 
 
 Severians 647 
 
 Severinus (St.) 647 
 
 Severinus (St.), Pope 647 
 
 Sexagesima Sunday 647 
 
 Shakers 647 
 
 Shalmaneser III. and V ... 647 
 
 Sheol 647 
 
 Shepherd (Sisters of the Good) 647 
 
 Shrine 647 
 
 Shrovetide 647 
 
 Sichem ■ . 647 
 
 Sidon 647 
 
 Sidonius Apollinaris (St.) 648 
 
 Sign of the Cross 648 
 
 Sila or Silo 648 
 
 Silas or Silvanus 648 
 
 Siloe 6.^8 
 
 Silverius (St.) 648 
 
 Simeon 648 
 
 Simeon (St.), aged Jew 648 
 
 Simeon (St.), Disciple 648 
 
 Simeon Stylites 648 
 
 Simon (St.) 648 
 
 Simon Magus 648 
 
 Simon Stock 649 
 
 Simony 649 
 
 Simplicius (St.) 649 
 
 Sin 649 
 
 Sin (Original) 651 
 
 Sins (Capital) 653 
 
 Sinai 653 
 
 Sion 654 
 
 Sion (Missionary Priests of) 654 
 
 Sion (Notre Dame of) 654 
 
 Siricius (St.) 654 
 
 Sirmium (Councils of) 654 
 
 Sisara 654 
 
 Sisinnius ^54 
 
 Sisterhood 654 
 
 Sisters of the Free Spirit 657 
 
 Sixtus (name of 5 Popes) 657 
 
 Slavery and the Church 657 
 
 Slippers and Stockings 658 
 
 Smet (Peter J. de) 659 
 
 Socialism 659 
 
 Societies (Secret) 659 
 
 Socinianism , 659 
 
INDEX OF ARTICLES 
 
 7A7 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Socrates 660 
 
 Sodom 660 
 
 Solomon 660 
 
 Somaschians 660 
 
 Sophonias 660 
 
 Sophronius (St. ) 660 
 
 Sorbonne ,. 660 
 
 Sorin (Edouard) 660 
 
 Soter (St.) 661 
 
 Soul 661 
 
 South Africa (Catholicity in) 661 
 
 Sozomenus (Hermias) 663 
 
 Spain (Worship in) 663 
 
 Spalding (Martin J.) 663 
 
 Spener (Philip J.) 663 
 
 Spiritualists 663 
 
 Sponsors 663 
 
 Stabat Mater 663 
 
 Staff or Crosier 663 
 
 Station 663 
 
 Stations or Way of the Cross 664 
 
 Stephen (name of 10 Popes) 664 
 
 Stephen (St.), Deacon 665 
 
 Stephen (St.), King 665 
 
 Stephen Harding (St.) 665 
 
 Stigmata 665 
 
 Stole 665 
 
 Stylites 666 
 
 Suarez (Francis) 666 
 
 Subdeacon 666 
 
 Subunists 666 
 
 Suffragan 666 
 
 Suicide 666 
 
 Sulpicians 667 
 
 Sulpicius Severus 667 
 
 Sunday 667 
 
 Supererogation (Works of) 667 
 
 Superstition 667 
 
 Supralapsarians 667 
 
 Surplice 667 
 
 Susanna 668 
 
 Suspension 668 
 
 Sweden (The Church in) 668 
 
 Swedenborg (Emanuel of) 668 
 
 Swithin (St.) 668 
 
 Switzerland (Christianity in) 668 
 
 Switzerland (Worship in) 668 
 
 Syllabus 669 
 
 Sylvester (name of 3 Popes) 669 
 
 Symachus, Pope ^ 669 
 
 Symachus, Writer 669 
 
 Symbol 669 
 
 Synagogue 669 
 
 Synaxis 669 
 
 Syncellus (George) 669 
 
 Synesius 669 
 
 Synod (Diocesan) 669 
 
 Syrian Christians 670 
 
 T 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Tabernacle 670 
 
 Tabernacle (Eucharistic) 670 
 
 Tabor 670 
 
 Taborites 670 
 
 Tache (Alexandre A.) 670 
 
 Tadmor 671 
 
 Tanchelin 671 
 
 Tantum Ergo 671 
 
 Tarasius (St.) 671 
 
 Taschereau (Elzear A.) 671 
 
 Tatian 671 
 
 Taxa Innocentiana 671 
 
 Te Deum 672 
 
 Teglath-Phalasar 672 
 
 Telesphorus (St. ) 672 
 
 Temperance 673 
 
 Templars 672 
 
 Templ% of Jerusalem 672 
 
 Temporal Power of the Pope 672 
 
 Tenebrse 672 
 
 Tertiary • 673 
 
 Tertullian 673 
 
 Testament 673 
 
 Tetrarch 673 
 
 Tetzel (John) 673 
 
 Teutonic Knights 673 
 
 Thabor 673 
 
 Thaddeus 673 
 
 Thanksgiving Day 673 
 
 Theatines 673 
 
 Theban Legion 674 
 
 Thecla (St.) ' 674 
 
 Theiner (Augustin) 674 
 
 Theism 674 
 
 Theocatognosts 674 
 
 Theocracy 674 
 
 Theodicy 674 
 
 Theodore (name of 2 Popes) 675 
 
 Theodore Ascidas 675 
 
 Theodore of Canterbury (St.) 676 
 
 Theodore of Heraclea 676 
 
 Theodore of Mopsuestia 676 
 
 Theodore of Pharan 676 
 
 Theodore the Reader 676 
 
 Theodoret of Cyrus 676 
 
 Theodosius the Great 676 
 
 Theodotus 676 
 
 Theology 677 
 
 Theophanes (Isaurus) 679 
 
 Theophilus (St. ) 679 
 
 Theophilus of Alexandria 679 
 
 Theosophy 679 
 
 Theotokos 679 
 
 Therapeutae 679 
 
 Theresa (St.) 679 
 
 Thessalonians (Epistle to the) 680 
 
 Thomas Didymus 680 
 
748 
 
 INDEX OF ARTICLES 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Thomas Aquinas (St.) 680 
 
 Thomas a Becket (St.) 680 
 
 Thomas a Kempis 681 
 
 Thomas of Celano 681 
 
 Thomas of Villanova (St.) 681 
 
 Thomism (Doctrine of St. Thomas). . 681 
 
 Thomism 683 
 
 Three Chapter Controversy 683 
 
 Thummim 683 
 
 Thurible 683 
 
 Thurificati 683 
 
 Thursday (Holy) 683 
 
 Thyatira 683 
 
 Tiara 683 
 
 Tiberias 683 
 
 Tiberias (Sea of) 684 
 
 Timothy (St.) 684 
 
 Tithes 684 
 
 Title (Catholic) .* . . 684 
 
 Titular Bishop 684 
 
 Titus (St.) 684 
 
 Tobias 685 
 
 Tobias (Book of) 685 
 
 Toleration (Religious) 685 
 
 Tonsure 688 
 
 Tractarians 688 
 
 Tractus 688 
 
 Tradition 688 
 
 Traditionalism 689 
 
 Traditores 690 
 
 Transubstantiation 690 
 
 Trappists 691 
 
 Trent (Council of) 691 
 
 Trinitarians 692 
 
 Trinity (The Most Holy) 692 
 
 Trinity Sunday 694 
 
 Trisagion 694 
 
 Troas 694 
 
 Truce of God 694 
 
 Trullan Synods 694 
 
 Tunic 694 
 
 Turibius (St.) 694 
 
 u 
 
 Ubiquitarians 694 
 
 Umias 694 
 
 Unigenitus (Bull) 695 
 
 Unitarians 695 
 
 United Armenians, etc 695 
 
 United Brethren in Christ 695 
 
 Unity of God 695 
 
 Unity of the Church 696 
 
 Universalists ... 696 
 
 Universities 696 
 
 Ur 696 
 
 Urban (name of 8 Popes) 696 
 
 Urias 697 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Urim and Thummim ^ 69'/ 
 
 Ursula (St.) 697 
 
 Ursulines 697 
 
 Utraquists 698 
 
 V 
 
 Valentinians 698 
 
 Valentinus gog 
 
 Valesians gog 
 
 Vallombrosa (Order of) 698 
 
 Vatican Council 698 
 
 Vatican Palace. . , 699 
 
 Vaughan (Herbert) 700 
 
 Veil of the Religious 700 
 
 Veil (The) in Liturgy 700 
 
 Veronica (St.) . 700 
 
 Vespers 700 
 
 Vestments (Sacred) 701 
 
 Viaticum 702 
 
 Vicar Apostolic 702 
 
 Vicar (Capitular) 702 
 
 Vicar General ^02 
 
 Vicar or Assistant 702 
 
 Victor of Africa 702 
 
 Victor (name of 3 Popes) 702 
 
 Victor (St. ) 703 
 
 Victorinus Petaviensis. 703 
 
 Victorinus (Fabius M.) 703 
 
 Vienne 703 
 
 Vigil 703 
 
 Vigilantius 703 
 
 Vigilius, Pope 703 
 
 Vigilius of Thapsus 703 
 
 Vincent (St.) 703 
 
 Vincent of Beauvais 704 
 
 Vincent of Lerins (St. ) 704 
 
 Vincent of Paul (St. ) 704 
 
 Virginity ... 704 
 
 Virtue 704 
 
 Virtues (Cardinal) 704 
 
 Virtues (Theological) 705 
 
 Vision (Intuitive) 705 
 
 Visit ad Limina SS. Apostolorum. . . , 706 
 
 Visitation (Episcopal) 706 
 
 Visitation (Feast of the) 706 
 
 Visitation (Order of the) 706 
 
 Vitalianus 707 
 
 Voltaire ( Franjois M. A. de) 707 
 
 Vow 707 
 
 Vulgate 707 
 
 w 
 
 Waldenses 708 
 
 Walsh (William) 708 
 
 Washing of Feet. 709 
 
 Washing of Hands 709 
 
 Water (Holy) 709 
 
INDEX OF ARTICLES 
 
 749 
 
 Weights and Measures 710 
 
 Wesel (John) 710 
 
 Wesley (John) 710 
 
 Westphalia (Peace of) 710 
 
 Whitefield (George) 1^ 
 
 Whitsunday 7' 
 
 Wilfrid (St.) 7^ 
 
 Wilibrord (St.) .7^ 
 
 Will (Free) and Grace 71 
 
 Wills in Christ 71 
 
 William of Champeaux 71 
 
 William of Malmesbury 71 
 
 William of Orange 7^ 
 
 William of St. Amour 71 
 
 William of Tyre 71 
 
 Williams (David) 712 
 
 Windthorst (Ludwig) 712 
 
 Winebrenner (John) 712 
 
 Winfrid 712 
 
 Wisdom (Book of).. . . , 712 
 
 Wiseman (Nicholas P. ) 712 
 
 Witchcraft 712 
 
 Wolsey (Thomas) 713 
 
 Wood (James F.) 713 
 
 Works (Necessity of Good) 713 
 
 Works of Supererogation 713 
 
 Works (Satisfactory) 713 
 
 Works (Servile) 714 
 
 Worms (Concordat of) 7^4 
 
 Worship 714 
 
 Worship (Ancestor) 715 
 
 Worship and Its Development 71.S 
 
 Writers (Ecclesiastical) 717 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Wulfram (St.) 717 
 
 Wycliffe (John) 717 
 
 X 
 
 Xaverian Brothers 718 
 
 Xavier (Francis) 718 
 
 Xavier (Jerome) 718 
 
 Ximenes de Cisneros (Francis) 718 
 
 Y 
 
 Year (Ecclesiastical) 718 
 
 Young (Brigham) 718 
 
 Yves (St.) 718 
 
 z 
 
 Zabulon, City 719 
 
 Zabulon 719 
 
 Zacharias, King 719 
 
 Zacharias 7^9 
 
 Zacharias, Prophet 7^9 
 
 Zacharias, Priest ... 719 
 
 Zacharias (St.), Pope 719 
 
 Zacheus 719 
 
 Zambri 719 
 
 Zeno (St.) 720 
 
 Zephyrinus (St.) 720 
 
 Zinzendorf 720 
 
 Ziska 720 
 
 Zoroaster or Zarathustra 720 
 
 Zosimus (St.) 721 
 
 Zwickau (Prophets of) 721 
 
 Zwingle and Zwinglians 721 
 

 
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