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EDUCATION AMONG 
 THE JEWS 
 
 FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE END 
 OF THE TALMUDIC PERIOD, 50O A. D. 
 
 PAUL E. KRETZMANN, Ph.D. 
 
 BOSTON: RICHARD G. BADGER 
 
 TOEONTO: THE COPP CLAKK CO,, WMITBU 
 
Copyright, 1916, by Paul E. Kretzmann 
 
 All Rights Reserved 
 
 ^1 
 
 A t ^'^" 
 
 The Gorham Press, Boston, U. S. A. 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 In publishing ^this J.iul£ booklet, the author is 
 very w ell ay^ are that he is placing himself in the 
 niost _un favorable light ana courting the most ad - 
 verse and abject criticism of so-called scientific schol- 
 arship of the Bible. But he freely acknowledges 
 and proudly confesses his absolute rejection of all 
 scientific criticism of the Bible outside of textual re- 
 search and stands squarely for the infallibility of 
 Holy Scriptures. The Christ Whose words even 
 the most rabid critics admit to be historically true: 
 ''The scripture cannot be broken," John 10,35. *'Till 
 heaven and earth pass, one jot or one tittle shall in 
 no wise pass from the law, till all be fulfilled," 
 Matth. 5,18., was either what He claimed to be, 
 the eternal Son of God, Who gladly permitted the 
 attribute of Omniscience to be ascribed to Him, and 
 Who in these words is a frank exponent of the in- 
 fallibility of Holy Scriptures, or He was the most 
 despicable hypocrite and cheat the world has ever 
 known. And I confess that I believe it far better 
 to stand with Him foursquare against all criticism 
 of His eternal word, which is the revelation of His 
 divine Essence, than to stand on the uncertain 
 ground of modern Biblical criticism and degenerate 
 into a vapid spouter of moral platitudes. Much bet- 
 ter by far to accept the inspired Scriptural account 
 of the creation of the world and of the history of 
 
 345296 
 
the Jewish people word for word which has stood 
 the test of the ages and endured the vain mutterings 
 of foolish criticism both here and abroad than to ac- 
 cept the inane theory of a so-called cosmic evolu- 
 tion. Which is the more reasonable and more con- 
 formable with common sense: the plain, unadorned 
 Scriptural account that bears on its face the stamp of 
 veracity, or the bolstered-up bombast of the forfend- 
 ers of evolutionistic doctrines? The author's stand 
 will not be misconstrued by people that have made 
 a study of both sides of the question. In any ques- 
 tion pertaining to this world's wisdom I believe in 
 research and criticism to the full extent, but far be 
 it from me to profane the Holy Book of God with 
 sacrilegious hands. So much for the spirit in which 
 the author has used the Bible as source material. 
 
 So far as the subject matter is concerned, the 
 word education is here used in its widest sense, in- 
 cluding the entire bringing-up of the children, at 
 home as well as in the school. Only in this way 
 may justice be done to the people whose educational 
 history is here briefly outlined. 
 
 The form may seem clumsy to the casual reader, 
 but it will certainly aid in reference work, since the 
 periods treated are those of Hasting's Bible Dic- 
 tionary. 
 
 The author freely acknowledges his indebtedness 
 to the Rev. Prof. W. H. T. Dau, of St. Louis, Mo., 
 for looking over the manuscript. 
 
 St. Paul, Minn., June, 1915. 
 
/ 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 THE NATIVE PERIOD 9 
 
 From the Earliest Times to the Division 
 of the Kingdom, 953, B. C. 
 
 a. Before the Flood. 
 
 b. The Patriarchal Period. 
 
 c. The Time of the Judges. 
 
 d. The Time of David and Solomon. 
 Education During the Native Period. 
 
 THE PROPHETIC PERIOD, 953- 
 
 586-B. C 30 
 
 \ Historical Survey. 
 
 Education During the Prophetic Period. 
 
 IIM^HE EXILIC PERIOD, 586-536-B. C. 42 
 Op \ From the Taking of the Last Band of 
 YV Jews into Babylonia to the Return 
 
 / . of the First Exiles. 
 
 Historical Survey. 
 
 Education during the Exilic Period. 
 
 THE PERSIAN PERIOD, 538-332- 
 
 B.C 47 
 
 Brief Historical Survey, 
 
 Education During the Persian Period. 
 
\ 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 V THE HELLENIC PERIOD, 332-165- 
 
 B. C 53 
 
 From the Conquest of Judea by Alexander 
 the Great to the Defeat of the Syrians 
 by Judas Maccabeus. 
 Historical Survey, 
 
 THE MACCABEAN PERIOD, 165- 
 
 63-B. C 61 
 
 From the Defeat of the Syrians by Judas 
 Maccabeus to the Conquest of Jeru- 
 salem by Pompey. 
 Historical Summary, 
 Education during the Maccabean Period. 
 
 VII THE ROMAN PERIOD, 63-B. C.-70 
 
 A. D 64 
 
 Historical Summary, 
 ^he Talmudic Period. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 98 
 
Education Among the Jews 
 
 THE NATIVE PERIOD 
 
 From the Earliest Times to the division of 
 THE Kingdom, 953 B. C. 
 
 (a) Before the Flood 
 
 THE history of the Jewish people, If we 
 may speak of them as such at this time 
 of the world. Is told briefly In the first 
 six chapters of Genesis. In this age of 
 the Infancy of the world, there Is no record of any 
 special transmlttance of knowledge, of any system of 
 education. That the history of the first people was 
 handed down, by tradition, from father to son. Is, 
 of course, very evident from the preserved narra- 
 tive. And that the moral precepts and the Gospel 
 news of salvation were transmitted In much the 
 same manner, appears from Gen. 4,26: "Men began 
 to proclaim the name of the Lord.'' That the tradi- 
 tions were discussed quite freely and were made a 
 basis of fervent hope. Is shown In the case of Eve, 
 9 
 
lo EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 Gen. 4,1 ; "I have gained (by creative bearing) a 
 man — the Lord," and that of Lamech, w^ho said, 
 after the birth of Noah: "This same shall comfort 
 us concerning our work and toil of our hands, be- 
 cause of the ground which the Lord hath cursed," 
 Gen. 5, 29. Both of these expressions have the 
 same motive, the hope in the coming Messiah, the 
 seed of the woman. Whether the various kinds of 
 handicraft and arts, which had their inception in 
 these early days, such as the music of Jubal and the 
 brass-and ironwork of Tubalcain, were transmitted 
 by any method but that of teaching the craft to the 
 sons, is not apparent, although Jubal is called the 
 father of all such as handle the harp and organ, Gen. 
 4, 21. Whether Lamech, on account of his poetical 
 couplets. Gen. 4, 23, 24, is to be regarded as the 
 father of poetry, is a question which has often been 
 discussed. Owing to the meagre source material, 
 definite conclusions can hardly be drawn. 
 
 (b) The Patriarchal Period 
 
 After the flood and the subsequent confusion of 
 tongues, the real history of the Jewish people opens 
 with the journey of Abram, afterwards Abraham, 
 from Mesopotamia to the Land of Promise. His 
 sojourn there was marked by various incidents, 
 chief of which was the birth of Isaac. The blessing 
 
THE NATIVE PERIOD il 
 
 of Abraham was transmitted by Isaac to Jacob, the 
 second son of Rebecca, who thereupon had to flee to 
 Mesopotamia. The sons of Jacob became the fore- 
 fathers of the twelve tribes of Israel. Joseph, one 
 of these sons, became the savior of his brothers dur- 
 ing the great famine and obtained for them and 
 their children a place of refuge in the land of Gosh- 
 en. For several centuries the children of Israel 
 lived in Egypt, until, with a change in the reigning 
 dynasty, there came a crisis in the aflairs of the peo- 
 ple. Moses became the leader of his brethren, led 
 them out of the house of bondage and to the very 
 borders of Palestine. 
 
 (c) The Time of the Judges 
 
 Joshua took the place of Moses at the boundary of 
 the new country. Under his leadership the tribes 
 which inhabited the land were subjugated and the 
 country divided among the twelve tribes of Israel, 
 Judah and Benjamin occupying the southern part, 
 Reuben, Gad, and Manasseh principally the land 
 east of the Jordan, and Asher, Dan, Ephraim, Is- 
 sachar, Naphtali, Simeon, and Zebulun, the north- 
 ern and eastern part. The form of government at 
 this time was theocratic, the people being guided 
 entirely by the laws and ordinances which Moses had 
 delivered to them. Although the tribes had received 
 
12 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 the command to annihilate the heathen nations, some 
 of these had been spared. And these were the very 
 ones that made constant inroads upon the country, 
 harassing the inhabitants and plundering and rob- 
 bing their property. At such times Judges (Saviors) 
 were called to lead the people against the enemy. 
 This entire period was a time of unrest, of an at- 
 tempt to accommodate themselves to new conditions 
 The unfortunate ones that had been held in the serf- 
 dom of Egypt, had all died in the wilderness; their 
 children occupied the Land of Promise, they were 
 obliged to become accustomed both to liberty and to 
 self-government, or rather self-restraint. Under such 
 conditions a well-ordered community can hardly be 
 conceived of. 
 
 (d) The Time of David and Solomon 
 
 With the growing prosperity of the people and the 
 feeling of national power there came the demand 
 for a king, as all the heathen about them had. Sam- 
 uel, who at that time was the spiritual leader of the 
 people, was very angry with them for the request 
 they voiced. But his objections were overruled and 
 Saul was chosen by lot as the first king of the Jewish 
 nation. The beginning of his reign was very success- 
 ful, but after a few years he turned aside from the 
 divine ways. This apostasy, together with the wars 
 
THE NATIVE PERIOD 13 
 
 against the heathen nations and the persecutions of 
 David, made the last years of his reign more of a 
 curse than a blessing for Israel and hindered the de- 
 velopment of the nation perceptibly. The reign of 
 David, second king of Israel, opened rather unfav- 
 orably with a revolt of a faction of Saul and wars 
 against the Jebusites and other heathen nations. The 
 successful termination of all these difficulties gave 
 David a position of power and gained for his people 
 an era of prosperity and peace. Moreover, since 
 David himself was a poet and writer of the foremost 
 rank, he very greatly favored the arts and sciences. 
 This happy state of affairs continued and became 
 even more pronounced during the reign of Solomon, 
 the 'Vise" king. His accession marked the begin- 
 ning of the first "golden era" of the Jewish people. 
 This happy state was not to endure for a long time 
 though. Rehoboam, the son of Solomon, began his 
 reign with a foolish decision. The result was that 
 ten of the tribes seceded and formed a kingdom of 
 their own, while only two, Judah and Benjamin, re- 
 mained with Rehoboam. 
 
 Education During the Native Period 
 
 As stated above, the history of the Jewish people 
 really begins with the coming of Abraham to the 
 Promised Land. Abraham was therefore at all 
 
14 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 times looked upon as the father of the Jews, or He- 
 brews, as they were called very early, perhaps in al- 
 lusion to their coming across the river Jordan. And 
 the very history of Abraham furnishes evidence for 
 the early germs of education in the Jewish people. 
 If Abraham had not been a prince of royal blood or 
 a member of the nobihty in his native country, Chal- 
 dea, he at least had been a member of a prominent 
 and wealthy family. He also associated on terms 
 of equality with the king of Egypt, with Melchize- 
 dek, the king of Salem, and with Abimelech, the 
 king of Gerar. He was therefore at different times 
 of his life in close contact with the Chaldean, with 
 the Egyptian, and with the Hittite learning. Now 
 the civilization of Babylonia (Mesopotamia and 
 Chaldea) was at that time very far advanced. Read- 
 ing and writing were general attainments throughout 
 the country. According to Prof. Sayce, schools and 
 libraries were flourishing in Babylonia long before 
 Abraham was born, and the arts and sciences were 
 fostered. The Babylonia of the age of Abraham 
 was a more highly educated country than the Eng- 
 land of George HI. The same was true of Egypt. 
 The country was full of schools and libraries, of 
 teachers and pupils, of poets and prose writers, and 
 of literary works which they had composed. The 
 man of business, the wealthier fellaheen, even to 
 overseers of the workmen, were acquainted with 
 
THE NATIVE PERIOD 15 
 
 the hieroglyphic system of writing and the hieratic or 
 cursive hand which had developed out of it. No one 
 could live in Egypt without coming under the spell 
 of its literary culture. As to the Hittites finally, 
 whose very existence was denied a few years ago, re- 
 cent explorations and excavations have proved defi- 
 nitely that this people also possessed a high degree 
 of learning and exerted a more or less pronounced 
 influence on some of the nations with whom they 
 came in contact. The possibility of Abraham's hav- 
 ing remained uninfluenced by the culture with which 
 he was in almost continual contact, can hardly be 
 conceived of. Josephus even goes so far as to say: 
 "He (Abraham) communicated to them (the Egyp- 
 tians) arithmetic and delivered to them the science 
 of astronomy; for, before Abram came into Egypt, 
 they were unacquainted with those parts of learning" 
 (Antiq. of the Jews, Book I, Ch. VIII, 2). The 
 Jewish people then present the somewhat unique ex- 
 ample of having as their progenitor a wealthy, influ- 
 ential, and highly cultured man, whose influence 
 along educational lines was bound to be most marked. 
 The following patriarchs, Isaac and Jacob, occu- 
 pied a position which was hardly less prominent. 
 Neither were their relations with the heathen na- 
 tions less significant or without permanent influence. 
 And while it may readily be admitted that the no- 
 madic life of the sons of Jacob as well as the sojourn 
 
i6 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 in Egypt were not conducive to literary and artis- 
 tic advancement, it must be remembered, on the oth- 
 er hand, that both Joseph and Moses received, the 
 former a part, the latter all of his training, at Helio- 
 polis, the college city of Egypt. Of Moses espec- 
 ially it w^as said that he was learned in all the wis- 
 dom of the Egyptians, and was mighty in words and 
 in deeds. Acts 7, 22. It is also hardly conceivable 
 that a contact with the learning of Egypt, which 
 lasted for several centuries, should not have left its 
 impression on the young nation in its own country.. 
 During the centuries when the Jews were without a 
 stable government, the eflorts to establish and main- 
 tain an educational system may indeed have been 
 more or less desultory, but the strength of the hier- 
 archical system as well as the principle of the theo- 
 cracy, at least outwardly upheld, may be cited as an 
 argument in favor of at least a partial educational 
 system as well as one against general education. 
 Jewish tradition has it that there were regular es- 
 tablished schools as early as the time of Isaac, and 
 that Jacob and Esau both attended the primary 
 school. We have no way of either substantiating or 
 disproving tradition on this score. Skeptics may dis- 
 claim the very possibility of so great an achieve- 
 ment at so early a date. But it will always be well 
 to remember that an argument "e silentio" has very 
 little in its favor, while the fact that the patriarchs 
 
THE NATIVE PERIOD 17 
 
 had a household embracing several hundred souls 
 and could very well enjoy the services of stewards, 
 would surely not preclude the possibility of their em- 
 ploying a teacher for their clan. And if so much 
 may be said in favor of a well-developed educational 
 system at so early a date, the assumption of at least 
 a rudimentary stage in education at the time of the 
 Judges can hardly be said to be too daring. The 
 factors favoring a more thorough establishment of 
 an educational system with the beginning of the 
 Monarchial Period have been outlined above. Every- 
 thing that is related of David and Solomon makes 
 the probability of their having been the patrons of 
 the arts and sciences more certain. The "golden era'' 
 was one of peace, not war. 
 
 After this preliminary general survey we are now 
 prepared to understand the specific instances of ed- 
 ucational references in the historical books of the 
 Jews pertaining to this time. 
 
 The very high regard in which the Jews held 
 children as gifts of God and their earnest and pray- 
 erful longing for ofifspring colored and influenced 
 their whole life. Eve's joyous cry at the birth of 
 Cain: "I have gotten a man from the Lord," Gen. 
 4, I, is usually cited as an instance of the longing of 
 the people of the old covenant for the promised 
 Messiah. But aside from this evident interpretation 
 there is an underlying thought which voices the sen- 
 
i8 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 timent of the mothers of the old covenant. The verb 
 kanah is used principally of supernatural, creative 
 begetting, so that Eve's thought also included : The 
 Lord has graciously granted to me, through special 
 creative power, a son. It is said of Jacob Gen. 37, 3 : 
 *'Now Israel loved Joseph more than all his children, 
 because he was the son of his old age." The fervent 
 longing and earnest supplication of Hannah, the 
 wife of Elkanah, is voiced in the prayer i Sam. i, 
 1 1 : ''Give unto thine handmaid a manchild." So 
 highly did Hannah, together with the other women 
 of Israel, value the gift of children, that her barren- 
 ness rested upon her as a curse of God. So sincere 
 was her longing for a son that she promised in a vow 
 that she would give back her son to the Lord, i. e. 
 that she would have him trained for divine service 
 from his infancy. And she fully redeemed her vow 
 when she brought the young Samuel to the priest Eli 
 at the tabernacle, when the boy was but three years 
 old. Other instances illustrating the same love and 
 longing for children are the examples of Sarah, Gen. 
 16, I, 2, Rebeccah, Gen. 25, 21, Rachel, Gen. 30, 
 I, Ruth, Ruth 4, 13, and Michal, 2 Sam. 6, 23. 
 
 But not only in these specific instances is the high 
 regard and the tender love of parents toward their 
 children set forth, but also in passages of a general 
 nature, thus proving conclusively that the Jews made 
 this a basic principle in their national life. A poem 
 
THE NATIVE PERIOD 19 
 
 of the time of Solomon contains the well-known 
 lines: "Lo, children are an heritage of the Lord, 
 and the fruit of the womb is his reward. As arrows 
 in the hands of a mighty man, so are children of the 
 youth. Happy is the man that has his quiver full 
 of them!" Ps. 127, 3-5. And again: "Thy wife 
 shall be as a fruitful vine by the sides of thy house, 
 thy children like olive plants round about thy table. 
 Behold that thus shall be blessed the man that 
 feareth the Lord. . . . Yea, thou shalt see 
 thy children's children, and peace upon Israel!" Ps. 
 128, 3, 4, 6. The same sentiment is voiced Prov. 
 3, 12b, where a father is spoken of as delighting in 
 his son. The verb razah used here means *to love, 
 to be well pleased with.' It is represented as a pater- 
 nal trait of character, as a foregone conclusion that 
 a parent love his son and take delight and pride in 
 him. ^ 
 
 In thorough accordance with this position of the 
 parents we find the attitude of the children toward 
 their parents and toward all those in authority. 
 When, after the incident at Shechem, Jacob re- 
 proved his sons, they accepted the rebuke, thus recog- 
 nizing their father's authority. Gen. 34, 30. The 
 motive that prompted Joseph to bring the evil re- 
 port of his brothers before the father, was doubtless 
 principally one of loyalty to authority. Gen. 37, 2. 
 When all the sons and daughters rose up to com- \ 
 
20 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 fort Jacob, there was as much recognition of his po- 
 sition as remorse for their evil deed in their action, 
 Gen. 37, 30. When the Jews received the Law by 
 the hands of Moses, they were not left in doubt as 
 to the authority which God had given the parents. 
 The commandment of the Decalogue reads: "Honor 
 thy father and thy mother, that thy days may be 
 long upon the land which the Lord thy God giveth 
 thee," Ex. 20, 12. This is emphasized Lev. 19, 3: 
 **Ye shall fear every man his mother and his father," 
 and repeated Deut. 5, 16: "Honor thy father and 
 thy mother, as the Lord thy God hath commanded 
 thee." In conformity with these commandments 
 we read : "My son, keep thy father's commandments, 
 and forsake not the law of thy mother: Bind them 
 continually upon thy heart, and tie them about thy 
 neck. When thou goest it shall lead thee ; when thou 
 sleepest, it shall keep thee, and when thou awakest, 
 it shall talk with thee," Prov. 6, 20-22. In the 
 same way: "Hearken unto thy father that begat 
 thee, and despise not thy mother when she is old," 
 Prov. 23, 22. That the authority of the parents 
 was sovereign, is evident from Prov. 19, 26: "He 
 that wasteth (shows lack of respect toward, is con- 
 temptuous toward) his father and chaseth away his 
 mother, is a son that causeth shame, and bringeth 
 reproach." And again Prov. 28, 24: "Whoso rob- 
 beth his father and his mother and saith: It is no 
 
THE NATIVE PERIOD 21 
 
 transgression, the same is the companion of a de- 
 troyer." 
 
 These principles necessitated the maintenance of 
 the strictest and most uncompromising discipline. 
 The first step in discipline was earnest admonition, 
 reprimand, and reproof. Prov. i, 8: "My son, 
 hear the instruction (Hebr. musar, admonition) of 
 thy father, and forsake not the law of thy mother." 
 Prov. 13, I : "A wise son heareth his father's instruc- 
 tion; but a scorner heareth not rebuke (German: 
 Der Spoetter hoert nicht auf Verweise)." Prov. 
 15, 5: "A fool despiseth his father's instruction; 
 but he that regardeth reproof is prudent." Prov. 3, 
 12: "Whom the Lord loveth He correcteth" (jakah, 
 Greek paideuo). Prov. 6, 23b: "Reproofs of in- 
 struction are the way of life" (rebuking reprimands, 
 Greek: kai elegchos kai paideia; French: les remon- 
 strances de la discipline). 
 
 If reprimands and remonstrances proved futile, 
 the next step in discipline was corporal punishment, 
 usually in the form of whipping. Prov. 13, 24: 
 "He that spareth his rod hateth his son, but he that 
 loveth him chasteneth him betimes." Such pun- 
 ishing should, however, be done without carnal an- 
 ger and in moderation. Prov. 19, 18: "Chasten thy 
 son why there is hope, and let not thy soul spare for 
 his crying" ( Hebr. : but to kill him let not thy soul 
 be driven). Prov. 22, 15: "Foolishness is bound in 
 
22 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 the heart of a child, but the rod of correction shall 
 drive it far from him." Prov. 23, 13, 14: ''With- 
 hold not correction from the child: for if thou beat- 
 est him with a rod, he shall not die. Thou shalt 
 beat him with a rod and shalt deliver his soul from 
 hell." Prov. 29, 15, 17: "The rod and reproof 
 give wisdom, but a child left to himself bringeth his 
 mother to shame. Correct (punish) thy son, and 
 he shall give thee rest, yea, he shall give delight unto 
 thy soul." It was an exceedingly wise provision that 
 punishment of this kind was to be tempered with 
 wisdom and moderation, having in mind always the 
 end to be gained, the welfare of the child and of 
 the whole community, rather than a base desire for 
 vengeance or the venting of a spite. 
 
 When even the harsher methods failed, then the 
 final step was expulsion and exile, and even death. 
 The latter punishment, however, was in the hands of 
 the community or government, the parents them- 
 selves having no jurisdiction over life and death. In 
 the case of the unruly Ishmael in the house of 
 Abraham, Sarah's request was brief and to the point : 
 ''Cast out this bondwoman and her son, for the son 
 of this bondwoman shall not be heir with my son," 
 Gen. 21, 10. Deut. 27, 16: "Cursed be he that set- 
 teth light by his father or mother," Prov. 20, 20: 
 "Whoso curseth his father or his mother, his lamp 
 shall be put out in obscure darkness." It is not evi- 
 
THE NATIVE PERIOD 23 
 
 dent from the text whether a general curse Is here 
 pronounced, or whether the specific punishment Is 
 exile or death. That the final, most severe punish- 
 ment was by no means beyond the pale of possibility, 
 appears from several passages, for which no claim of 
 ambiguity may be advanced. Prov. 30, 17: "The 
 eye that mocketh at his father, and desplseth to obey 
 his mother, the ravens of the valley shall put It out, 
 and the young eagles shall eat It." The Instances, 
 in which capital punishment was prescribed by God, 
 are carefully enumerated. Ex. 21, 15, 17: '*He that 
 smiteth his father or his mother, shall be surely put 
 to death. He that curseth his father or his mother, 
 shall surely be put to death." Lev. 20, 9: ''For every 
 one that curseth his father or his mother, shall be 
 surely put to death ; he hath cursed his father or his 
 mother: his blood shall be upon him." In Deut. 21, 
 18-21, the entire mode of procedure In a case of this 
 kind Is outlined. A stubborn and rebellious son was 
 to be brought to the elders of the city in the gate, 
 where the formal accusation and condemnation 
 should be made, ''and all the men of his city shall 
 stone him with stones, that he die: so shalt thou 
 put evil away from among you, and all Israel shall 
 hear, and fear." 
 
 With such strict discipline it was inevitable that 
 good results were obtained, at least In outward drill. 
 In training by rote. Instruction in the fundamentals 
 
24 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 of the Law or moral training was the basis of edu- 
 cation. Prov. I, 1-6 speaks in general of instruc- 
 tion in wisdom, justice, judgment, and equity. So 
 far as moral efficiency and breadth of view is con- 
 cerned, this would make an excellent basis for Mil- 
 ton's requirement. Prov. 2, lO, ii : **When wisdom 
 entereth into thine heart, and knowledge is pleasant 
 unto thy soul; discretion shall preserve thee, under- 
 standing shall keep thee." Prov. 4, 5 : "Get wisdom, 
 get understanding, forget it not." Prov. 16, 16: 
 "How much better it is to get wisdom than gold! 
 and to get understanding rather to be chosen than 
 silver." These texts are so general that it hardly 
 seems possible to limit them to a knowledge of the 
 Law alone, although indeed Ps. iii, 10, says: "The 
 fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom, a 
 good understanding have all they that do his com- 
 mandments." And Job 28, 28: "Unto man he 
 said: Behold the fear of the Lord, that is wisdom, 
 and to depart from evil is understanding." Religious 
 teaching and moral training were the basis, the very 
 foundation of education among the Jews in this 
 period. The precepts of the books of this period have 
 set the standard of morality for the whole world. 
 The virtues that were emphasized and lauded in 
 these books have received the approval of the ages, 
 and the vices there condemned are considered so uni- 
 versally to this day. The praise of an ideal house- 
 
THE NATIVE PERIOD 25 
 
 wife Prov. 31, 10-31 is called the golden ABC of 
 the wedded woman and regarded as the best presen- 
 tation of so comprehensive a subject that has ever 
 appeared. 
 
 But while the ancient Jews thus made religious 
 training the basic principle of their education, they 
 did not neglect secular teaching. The art of writ- 
 ing and therefore also of reading was undoubtedly 
 known to Abraham, as shown above, and there are 
 evidences throughout this period that it was a very 
 general accomplishment. Joseph in Egypt (Gen. 
 41, 49) surely made use of it. Moses wrote the 
 words of the Law at the command of God, Ex. 17, 
 14. Ex. 24, 4. Deut. 31, 9, 22. So general was 
 this attainment that the command was given to all 
 Israelites: "Thou shalt write them (the words of 
 the Law) upon the door-posts of thy house, and 
 upon thy gates,'* Deut. 11, 20. Moses also com- 
 manded the people to set up great stones, when they 
 had come into the Promised Land, "and thou shalt 
 write upon them all the words of this law, when 
 thou art passed over," Deut. 27, 2, 3. The passage 
 Joshua 4 does not in any way conflict with this state- 
 ment, because the stones spoken of there were merely 
 monuments. The men whom Joshua sent out de- 
 scribed the land in a book. Josh. 18, 9. Joshua him- 
 self wrote, Josh. 24, 26. Samuel wrote, i Sam. 10, 
 25. The Book of Jasher was written, 2 Sam. 1,18. 
 
a6 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 David wrote a letter, 2 Sam. 11, 14-16. That there 
 were special scribes or secretaries at that time (2 
 Sam. 8, 17) does not signify any more than it does at 
 the present time. See also Judges 8, 14. 
 
 Where writing and reading were such general ac- 
 complishments it is hardly conceivable that other 
 branches of learning should have been neglected en- 
 tirely. From the exactness of descriptions in Exodus, 
 Deuteronomy, and Joshua, there must have been 
 some knowledge of geography during this period. 
 There was also at least some knowledge of arithme- 
 tic, if not of geometry, most likely also of astronomy 
 (Job), and of music (i Chron. 16, 42. i Chron. 
 25). 
 
 The training in this period, at least in the earlier 
 part, so far as is apparent from Biblical sources, was 
 in the hands of the parents, although it is by no 
 means improbable that there were special teachers or 
 tutors at a very early time. Perhaps it was held 
 merely that the parents had to assume all responsi- 
 bility for the training of their children. Gen. 18, 19, 
 it is said of Abraham: "I know he will command 
 his children and his household after him, and they 
 shall keep the way of the Lord, to do justice and 
 judgment." Deut. 6, 6, 7 : *'And these words which 
 I command thee this day, shall be in thine heart: 
 and thou shalt teach them diligently unto thy chil- 
 dren" (drill thy children in them). Deut. 11, 18- 
 
THE NATIVE PERIOD 27 
 
 20: ^'Therefore shall ye lay up these my words 
 in your heart and in your soul . . . and 
 ye shall teach them your children, speaking of 
 them when thou sittest in thine house, and 
 when thou walkest by the way, when thou 
 liest down, and when thou risest up." Ex. 10, 
 2: "That thou mayest tell in the ears of thy son, 
 and of thy son's son, what things I have wrought in 
 Egypt." Ps. 71, 18: ''O God forsake me not, until 
 I have shewed thy strength unto this generation, 
 and thy power to every one that is to come." Ps. 78, 
 3, 4. ''I will utter dark sayings of old which we 
 have heard and known, and our fathers have told us. 
 We will not hide them from their children, shewing 
 to the generations to come the praises of the Lord 
 and his strength. Vs. 6. That the generations to 
 come might know them, even the children which 
 should be born; who should arise and declare them 
 to their children." Prov. 22, 6: "Train up a child 
 in the way he should go ; and when he is old, he will 
 not depart from it." This passage has often been 
 misconstrued, the contention being that the text 
 speaks of unfolding or developing natural gifts and 
 abilities. But an examination of the Hebrew text 
 shows the verb chanak, which can be understood of 
 initiatory rites only. Besides, the passage is evident- 
 ly objective. The German translation: Wie man 
 einen Knaben gewoehnt; and the French: Instruis le 
 
28 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 jeune enfant a Tentree de sa voie; are truer to the 
 original. 
 
 Outside of the home, education was to some ex- 
 tent in the hands of the priests. Samuel was edu- 
 cated by Eli, the priest at Shiloh, i Sam. 2, 11, 21. 
 The Jewish tradition that Samuel established pro- 
 phet schools at Ramah and elsewhere, seems to be 
 borne out by i Sam. 10, 10, and i Sam. 19, 19. So 
 far as private teachers or tutors are concerned, Nath- 
 an seems to have occupied that position in the house 
 of David, 2 Sam. 12, 25. 
 
 But there were also professional teachers, whether 
 apart from the hierarchy or not, cannot be determ- 
 ined definitely. They were known as ^teachers' or 
 *men of wisdom.' Ps. 84, 7: "The teachers are 
 blessed abundantly." Ps. 119, 99, 100: "I have more 
 understanding than all my teachers." Ps. 141, 6: 
 "When their judges (wise men) are overthrown in 
 stony places." Prov. 5, 13: "Have not obeyed the 
 voice of my teachers." Prov. 13, 20: "He that 
 walketh with wise men shall be wise." 
 
 There is no evidence pointing to the existence of 
 special rooms or buildings for school purposes, al- 
 though this idea would not be excluded. The in- 
 struction that was not given at home or in the dwel- 
 ling of the teacher, may well have been imparted in 
 the conversational form, as indicated in some of the 
 passages above, of which we have a striking example 
 
THE NATIVE PERIOD 29 
 
 in the methods of Jesus at a later period. The 
 school for musicians mentioned above was in Jeru- 
 salem, since its purpose was to train singers and mu- 
 sicians for chorus and orchestra work in connection 
 with the liturgical part of the temple services. 
 
II 
 
 THE PROPHETIC PERIOD, 953-586 B. C. 
 Historical Survey 
 
 WITH the division of the kingdom un- 
 der Rehoboam there began a gradual 
 disintegration of the nation. The 
 northern kingdom of Israel, owing 
 perhaps to a lack of vitality and stamina, w^as the 
 first to suffer. Its rulers were, for the most part, 
 conscienceless, immoral, selfish creatures, overbear- 
 ing, cruel, and rapacious, so far as their own sub- 
 jects were concerned, and fawning and hypocritical 
 toward the mightier rulers of the surrounding coun- 
 tries. Jeroboam, the leader of the secessionist forces, 
 was the first king of Israel. He was followed, in 
 turn, by Nadab, Baesa, Ela, Simri, and Amri. Un- 
 der Ahab the country suffered from a severe and 
 prolonged drought. His introduction of Phoenician 
 worship was a prime factor in overthrowing tradi- 
 tion and ancient usages. Even the schools of the 
 prophets, which were by this time an established In- 
 stitution, did not escape his tyrannical policy, i Kings 
 1 8, 22. The country, torn by internal dissensions, 
 30 
 
THE PROPHETIC PERIOD 31 
 
 had no strength to combat an aggressive adversary. 
 It w^as only by marshalling all his forces that Ahab 
 succeeded in defeating the Syrian king, Ben-Hadad. 
 There foUow^ed several weak rulers, Ahaziah and 
 Jehoram. Jehu had a long, but not exceptionally 
 successful reign. It is significant that the final ruin 
 of the nation began at this time: *'In those days the 
 Lx)rd began to cut Israel short," 2 Kings 10, 32. 
 Jehoahaz and Jehoash had a rather colorless reign. 
 Under Jeroboam II Israel once more, by a last ef- 
 fort, regained a position of respect and power. He 
 extended the boundaries of his kingdom to the Eu- 
 phrates in the East, to Damascus in the North, to 
 the Dead Sea in the South. His son, Zachariah, 
 however, ruled only six months. His assassin Shal- 
 lum was in turn slain by Menahem. It was only 
 by the payment of high tribute that this ruler was 
 able to maintain a semblance of a kingdom over 
 against the Assyrians. His son, Pekahiah was mur- 
 dered after a short reign by Pekah. After this ruler 
 had, in turn, been removed by assassination, Hoshea, 
 the murderer, became guilty of a last foolish move. 
 He refused to pay tribute to the Assyrian king Shal- 
 maneser, trying, at the same time, to win So, the 
 king of Egypt, with presents. So the end came rath- 
 er abruptly. Hoshea, together with the people of 
 Israel, was led away into Assyrian captivity. And 
 the result is stated thus: "Therefore the Lord re- 
 
32 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 moved them out of his sight: there was none left 
 but the tribe of Judah only," 2 Kings 17, 18. 
 
 The history of the kingdom of Judah is not quite 
 so dark and cheerless, but is also nothing but a re- 
 cital of gradual disintegration and final ruin. Even 
 under Rehoboam, the kingdom became so w^eak that, 
 for the first time, an enemy succeeded in taking the 
 city of Jerusalem. That w^as Shishak, king of Egypt. 
 He even dared to plunder the temple and the palace 
 w^hich Solomon had built. Under the reign of Abi- 
 jah and Asa things began to look better. Some of 
 the strongest enemies were conquered or gained for 
 Judah, and when the reformation of the Church and 
 the judiciary was completed under Jehoshaphat, an 
 era of renewed prosperity began for the southern 
 kingdom. This did not last very long, however, 
 With Jehoram, a gradual decline set in, which was 
 intensified under the following rulers: Ahaziah, the 
 queen-regent Athaliah, Joash, and Amaziah. The 
 accession of Uzziah ushered in a century of greater 
 prosperity. He was very fortunate in war and took 
 a great deal of interest in the welfare of his people. 
 These favorable conditions continued under Jotham, 
 were reversed very markedly under Ahaz, but were 
 emphasized under Hezekiah, the last king of im- 
 portance. He made every effort to restore Judah to 
 the glory of its "golden era." But it was the last 
 flickering before the final extinction. The fate of 
 
THE PROPHETIC PERIOD 33 
 
 the northern kingdom, which was settled during his 
 reign, presaged the fate of Judah. The remaining 
 kings Manasseh, Amon, Josiah, Jehoahaz, Jehoiakim, 
 Jehoiachin, Zedekiah, were, almost to a man, either 
 violently deposed or assassinated. In the year 605 
 B. C. Nebuchadnezzar took the first captives to 
 Babylon, and twenty years later the remaining Jews 
 with the exception of a little band which fled to 
 Egypt, taking the unwilling Jeremiah with them, 
 were led away into the Babylonian captivity. 
 
 Education during the Prophetic Period 
 
 It is evident from this brief historical survey 
 that the conditions in both kingdoms were decidedly 
 unfavorable to education and the fostering of the 
 arts and sciences in general. For under such condi- 
 tions of uncertainty and internal strife, of turmoil, 
 disruption, and disintegration, the highest develop- 
 ment of a people in sciences and arts cannot be 
 reached, or if it has been attained to before, it can- 
 not be maintained, or, at least, its existence is an 
 extremely precarious one. The country was torn 
 by civil war, overrun by hostile forces, the very ex- 
 istence of the nation was often threatened, and its 
 final ruin but a question of time. 
 
 But while there are evidences of retrogression in 
 certain respects, while there were times when syste- 
 
34 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 matic education for the masses was out of the ques- 
 tion, it is significant that the educational ideals of 
 the people were not altered. We have essentially 
 the same precepts, the same means, and the same 
 aims as in the previous period. And whenever there 
 was an interval of peace, the recovery of lost ground 
 was little short of marvellous. 
 
 So far as the attitude of parents toward their chil- 
 dren is concerned, there is the same longing for off- 
 spring, the same love of children, the same authority 
 over the young, as in the early days of Jewish his- 
 tory. The Shunammite at the time of Elisha had 
 one supreme wish, that of becoming a mother to a 
 son, 2 Kings 4, 16. And when her desire had been 
 fulfilled and her boy afterward died, her great love 
 for the child is shown in her every word and action, 
 2 Kings 4, 28. As one of the greatest curses of 
 God pronounced upon a disobedient people, is men- 
 tioned **the miscarrying womb, and dry breasts," 
 Hosea 9, 14. That the authority of parents over 
 their children was in no wise curtailed, is evident 
 from the passage Jer. 29, 6: ''Take wives for your 
 sons, and give your daughters to husbands.'* The 
 example of Tobith is sufficient to show that this 
 authority was unquestioned. That there were times, 
 however, when the respect of the children toward 
 their parents was forgotten, and the honor due to 
 their station was not accorded them, appears from 
 
THE PROPHETIC PERIOD 35 
 
 Micah 7, 6: '*The son dishonoreth the father, the 
 daughter riseth up against her mother, the daughter- 
 in-law against her mother-in-law." But of course 
 the very fact that such a complaint was voiced is 
 sufficient evidence for the assumption that the posi- 
 tion of the parents as the natural superiors of the 
 children was rigidly upheld and guarded. 
 
 This is evident also from the methods of disci- 
 pline which were employed. The rigor of the prev- 
 ious period had in no wise been mitigated. Is. 45, 10; 
 "Woe unto him that saith unto his father, What 
 begettest thou? or to the woman. What hast thou 
 brought forth?" This 'woe' of which the text speaks 
 is undoubtedly the same punishment which is spoken 
 of in the Law, and consisted in either expulsion or 
 death. 
 
 Upon the parents rested the responsibility for the 
 education of the children, especially their moral and 
 religious training. As the Law had been passed 
 on from father to son throughout the generations, 
 and had been preserved also through the agency of 
 the prophets and priests and other teachers, so the 
 prophecies should be preserved by tradition. "Tell 
 ye your children of it, and let your children tell 
 their children, and their children another genera- 
 tion," Joel I, 3. The worship of Jahweh indeed 
 often gave way to the worship of Baal, at least by a 
 part of the people, and religious training in the 
 
36 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 specific Jewish religion was often virtually aband- 
 oned, as in the days of Elijah, but occasional efforts 
 at reformation, as those of Jehoshaphat, Uzziah, and 
 Hezekiah, served to keep interest in the Jewish reli- 
 gion awake. Whenever such eras were ushered in, 
 there was a revival of old-time religious instruction. 
 To this, no doubt, Joel had reference, when he 
 writes: "Be glad then, ye children of Zion, and re- 
 joice in the Lord your God, who giveth you teachers 
 unto righteousness," Joel 2, 23. That the prophet 
 schools were continued, at least in the early part of 
 this period, is evident from several passages. "The 
 sons of the prophets came forth to Elisha," 2 Kgs. 2, 
 3, 5. "Fifty men of the sons of the prophets went 
 and stood to view afar ofif," vs. 7, 15. "And Elisha 
 came again to Gilgal: and there was a dearth in 
 the land: and the sons of the prophets were sitting 
 before him," 2 Kings 4, 38 fif. There were, accord- 
 ing to the text, one hundred men at this school. 
 "And the sons of the prophets said unto Elisha, Be- 
 hold now, the place where we dwell with thee is 
 too strait for us. Let us go, we pray thee, unto 
 Jordan, and take thence every man a beam, and let 
 us make a place there, where we may dwell," 2 Kings 
 6, I ff. It appears from these passages that the pro- 
 phet schools at this time were boarding schools, the 
 buildings of which were erected by the pupils them- 
 F«tlves, and who were supported, to a gres^t extent. 
 
THE PROPHETIC PERIOD 37 
 
 by voluntary contributions and loans. "There came a 
 man from Baalshalisha, and brought the man of 
 God bread of the first fruits, twenty loaves of barley, 
 and full ears of corn in the husk thereof. And he 
 said. Give unto the people that they may eat. And 
 his servitor said. What? should I set this before an 
 hundred men?" 2 Kings 4, 42, 43. It is not express- 
 ly stated whether there was any instruction outside of 
 the teaching of the Law, but from the entire history 
 of the time it would surely not be too bold to con- 
 clude that reading and writing were also taught. In 
 fact, in carrying out the commands of the Torah, 
 it devolved upon the leaders of the prophet schools to 
 teach their pupils to read and to write. 
 
 In many of the royal houses of this period we 
 find private tutors, to whom the education of the 
 children was entrusted. In the case of Ahab's chil- 
 dren these *men are called *bringers-up of the chil- 
 dren,' 2 Kings 10, I, 5. Jehoiada, the priest, was 
 tutor and guardian of king Joash, 2 Chron. 24. Uz- 
 ziah had Zechariah for a teacher at his court, 2 
 Chron. 26, 5. It is very probable that the training 
 which the royal children of the Jewish nation re- 
 ceived was quite as far advanced as that of the 
 princes in the surrounding countries. 
 
 However, there was also instruction for the people 
 in general, with specially trained teachers. Jehos- 
 haphat "in the third year of his reign sent to his 
 
38 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 princess ... to teach in the cities of Judah. 
 and with them he sent Levi , , , and 
 priests. And they taught in Judah, and had 
 the book of the law of the Lord with them, 
 and went about throughout all the cities of Judah, 
 and taught the people," 2 Chron. 17, 7-9. The 
 scribe {sofer)^ the learned man, seems to have been 
 the professional teacher from this time on. "Where 
 is the scribe?" Is. 33, 18. "Thy teachers (inter- 
 preters) have transgressed against me," Is. 43, 27. 
 ''The Lord God hath given me the tongue of the 
 learned" (professional teacher), Is. 50, 4. "The 
 priests said not, Where is the Lord and they that 
 handle the law knew me not : the pastors also trans- 
 gressed against me, and the prophets prophecied by 
 Baal," Jer. 2, 8. Although the argument of varia- 
 tion might be advanced here, the fact that the words 
 were in use seems to point to the existence of sepa- 
 rate offices. "From the prophet even unto the priest 
 every one dealeth falsely," Jer. 6, 13. "The law 
 shall perish from the priest, and counsel from the 
 ancients," Hesek. 7, 26. This is commonly regarded 
 to mean that there were teachers outside of the 
 priests, who were interpreters of the Law, expound- 
 ing it in the schools and applying it to every circum- 
 stance and condition of everyday life. 
 
 Whether there were specially equipped general 
 schools with buildings or rooms set apart for that pur- 
 
THE PROPHETIC PERIOD 39 
 
 pose at this time, cannot be determined from the ma- 
 terial available. ,., But that reading and writing were 
 general, commoii accomplishments, is evident from 
 several passages. That Shaphan the scribe was also 
 the reader in public cannot be advanced as a valid 
 counter-argument, 2 Kings 22, 8 ff. 2 Kings 23, 2. 2, 
 Chron. 34, 18. The writing of letters by Jehu and 
 the reading of them by the elders of Jezreel is not 
 recorded as anything extraordinary, 2 Kings 10, i. 
 "Read this (book) I pray thee: and he saith, I can- 
 not for it is sealed: And the book is delivered to 
 him that is not learned, saying. Read this, I pray 
 thee: and he saith, I am not learned," Is. 29, 11, 
 12. This same example could be used in our days 
 without reproach. It argues for a. general knowl- 
 edge of reading, not against it. ''Write the vision 
 and make it plain upon tables, that he may run that 
 readeth it," Hab. 2, 2. ''Take thee a roll and write 
 therein," Baruch wrote. Jer. 36, 2. Upon the occa- 
 sion of a transfer of property, Jeremiah subscribed 
 the evidence, but the witnesses also subscribed the 
 book of the purchase, Jer. 32, 10, 12. Both forms 
 of writing were apparently in use, according to these 
 passages: the writing on (clay) tablets and also in 
 rolls. 
 
 From all the available material we may conclude 
 that the teaching of the Law, including the prophe- 
 cies (Torah, Nebiim, Ketubim) was general during 
 
40 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 the period, that reading and writing was a common 
 accomplishment, and that a great majority of the 
 people, who enjoyed the services of interpreters, 
 scribes, or teachers, also had some knowledge of 
 arithmetic, geography, music, astronomy, arts and 
 crafts. Is. 44, 12, 13. Is. 46, 6. 
 
 Before continuing in the discussion of the next 
 period of Jewish history, it must be noted that with 
 the leading away of the Jews into exile, there begins 
 that period of their history which produced the 
 Talmud (in the general, more comprehensive mean- 
 ing). As soon as Nebuchadnezzer had taken down 
 large numbers of the population of Judea into Baby- 
 lonia, so tradition has it, king Jehoiachin founded 
 an academy of Jewish learning at Nehardea, erec- 
 ting a special building for that purpose. This school 
 apparently existed for several centuries. The acad- 
 emy of Ezra was near Huzal. While the Great 
 Synagogue cannot be established as historical, yet 
 there are sufficient evidences of oral tradition lead- 
 ing back to some such body, and making the be- 
 ginnings of Talmudic interpretation very probable 
 for the period of the exile. It is quite true that 
 there are no authentic written documents, and yet 
 the tradition cannot be ignored. 
 
 In order to avoid confusion and to retain the di- 
 vision of historical periods in our discussion, we 
 shall continue to give a short historical survey of the 
 
THE PROPHETIC PERIOD 41 
 
 remaining periods of the Jewish history: the Exilic, 
 the Persian, the Hellenic, the Maccabean, and the 
 Roman periods, together with a brief presentation 
 of the status of education from Biblical and Apocry- 
 phal sources, and then finally embrace the time from 
 the beginning of the exile to the decline of the acad- 
 emies in Palestine and Babylonia, and discuss the 
 education of this entire period as shown in passages 
 of the Talmud. 
 
Ill 
 
 THE EXILIC PERIOD, 586-536 B. C. 
 
 From the Taking of the Last Band of Jews 
 
 INTO Babylonia to the Return of the 
 
 First Exiles 
 
 Historical Survey 
 
 JERUSALEM and the temple had been de- 
 stroyed by the Bablyonian invaders. This fact 
 also had a very definite influence on the hopes 
 >f the Jews as to their speedy return. Most 
 of them followed the advice of Jeremiah (29, 5-7) 
 and Ezechiel (39) and prepared for a stay of sev- 
 eral generations. They built themselves houses and 
 dwelt in them, they planted gardens and ate of their 
 fruit. They were in general, several disagreeable in- 
 cidents excepted, permitted the free exercise of their 
 religion. They gave up none of their established 
 customs. And since they looked upon the exile as a 
 punishment of God for their laxity and denial, they 
 were more than ever anxious to return to the wor- 
 ship of the true God and the keeping of all the com- 
 mandments and statutes delivered to Moses. Every- 
 thing was auspicious, not only for a revival of the 
 42 
 
THE EXILIC PERIOD 43 
 
 revealed religion, but also for quiet internal growth 
 and an almost imperceptible process of assimilation 
 of secular knowledge and learning. From fifty to 
 seventy years they had been in exile, when the prom- 
 ised deliverance came. It was in the year 538 B. C. 
 that Cyrus vanquished the Babylonian army. He 
 made Kyaxares, called by Daniel Darius of Medea, 
 nominal ruler of the empire. But when Darius had 
 died, in 536, Cyrus himself took up the reign. One 
 of his first official acts was a proclamation permit- 
 ting the exiled Jews to return to their country, not, 
 indeed, as a politically independent people, but with 
 the assurance of full religious liberty. It must be 
 noted, however, that not all the Jews returned to Je- 
 rusalem at, this time, but only a small part. The 
 younger generation apparently looked upon Baby- 
 lonia as their home country. But the academies 
 fostered the feeling of nationalism and nourished the 
 hope of the return of the ancient glory. 
 
 Education during the Exilic Period 
 
 The passages of the Bible concerning the status of 
 education during this period are few in number and 
 very meagre as to contents. But from the material 
 at hand and from the spirit of the writings trans- 
 mitted to us there can be no doubt that the same 
 principles as to the bringing up and the education of 
 
44 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 children prevailed at this time as in the previous 
 periods. Children were esteemed very highly as 
 special blessings of God. One of the most terrible 
 curses pronounced upon the idolatrous Jews was: 
 "Famine and evil beasts shall bereave thee," Ezek. 
 •5, 17. According to this passage, the relation be- 
 tween parents and children was that of kindness and 
 tender solicitude, and to be deprived of children was 
 considered a most terrible visitation of God. The 
 power of parents over their children was practically 
 unlimited, with the object, however, of serving their 
 interests, Jer. 29, 6. On the other hand, a "criminal 
 son shall surely die, his blood shall be upon him," 
 Ezek. 18, 13. 
 
 That systematic instruction was given, at least in 
 certain circles, seems to be evident from the story of 
 Daniel and his friends. Ashpenaz was told to se- 
 lect from among the captive young men "children in 
 whom was no blemish, but well favored, and skillful 
 in all wisdom, and cunning in knowledge, and un- 
 derstanding science, and such as had ability in them 
 to stand in the king's palace, and whom they might 
 teach the learning ... of the Chaldeans," 
 Dan. I, 4, 17. Now although these four were "of 
 the king's seed, and of the princes," yet the text 
 does not in any way limit the accomplishments men- 
 tioned to these young men. It seems more in con- 
 formity with the words to believe that a fair degree 
 
THE EXILIC PERIOD 45 
 
 of knowledge was general among the Jewish young 
 men, and that these four, in a competitive examina- 
 tion, ranked highest. So far as Daniel is concerned, 
 Josephus even states that he was "already sufficiently 
 skilled in wisdom" to meet all the requirements of 
 the king. Outside of this one passage, special sub- 
 jects of instruction or study are not mentioned in the 
 books pertaining to this period. We have no reason 
 to assume, however, that the ability to read and write 
 was not a fairly general accomplishment, as well as 
 the other branches necessary for commercial pur- 
 suits and professional life. Even the art of map 
 drawing witb the incidental knowledge of geography 
 and arithmetic, is introduced in a rather casual 
 manner, Ezek. 4, i. 
 
 There were specially appointed teachers during 
 this period, not primarily, indeed, for secular, but 
 for religious instruction. Since, however, the inter- 
 pretative method of teaching made necessary at 
 least an elementary knowledge of the common school 
 branches, we may well speak of regular and general 
 instruction and training, not very elaborate under 
 the circumstances, to be sure, but still of consid- 
 erable importance. "They that understand among 
 the people shall instruct many," Dan. 11, 33. "And 
 they that be wise shall shine as the brightness of the 
 firmament; and they that turn many to righteous- 
 ness as the stars for ever and ever," Dan. 12, 3. 
 
46 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 These passages refer to teachers, to them that in- 
 struct, to the wise men, and that there were quite a 
 number of them, even during the exile, appears from 
 this very general remark. 
 
IV 
 
 THE PERSIAN PERIOD, 538-332 B. C. 
 Brief Historical Survey 
 
 WITH the overthrow of the Babylon- 
 Ian empire, the Jews did not, indeed, 
 regain their liberty, neither in a po- 
 litical nor a commercial respect, but 
 their condition was, nevertheless, ameliorated to a 
 great extent. Cyrus proved rather friendly to them, 
 especially so far as their religion was concerned. 
 Immediately upon his accession to the throne, he 
 issued the proclamation permitting the Jews to re- 
 turn to their country. At the same time, he brought 
 forth the vessels of the house of the Lord, which 
 Nebuchadnezzar had taken as trophies of war from 
 Jerusalem. Under the leadership of prince Zer- 
 ubbabel and the high priest Jeshua some 60,000 peo- 
 ple made the journey back to the desolate city Jeru- 
 salem. The first attempts at restoration, especially 
 the rebuilding of the temple, were such pitiful ef- 
 forts in comparison with the former glory that the 
 older members of the people that had seen Solomon's 
 temple, burst into tears. In addition to that, the 
 Samaritans did everything in their power to hinder 
 47 
 
48 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 the progress of the work. It was not until 516 B. C. 
 that the Jews were able to dedicate their new tem- 
 ple. This was during the reign of Darius Hystaspis. 
 During the next sixty years, the Jews that re- 
 mained in Babylonia suffered somewhat from op- 
 pression, but were finally liberated in a most glorious 
 manner. Xerxes is very probably the king of whom 
 the Book of Esther speaks. In 458 B. C. the priest 
 and scribe Ezra, who seems to have had some influ- 
 ence at the Persian court, went back to his native 
 country. He had been in charge of an academy in 
 Babylonia and his purpose was to effect a thorough- 
 going reform of religion in Judea. A great number 
 of exiles accompanied him and aided very greatly in 
 the work that he had set himself to do. While he 
 had some success, the material prosperity of the Jews 
 at Jerusalem was not enhanced. When Nehemiah, 
 the cupbearer of the Persian king Artaxerxes (Long- 
 imanus), heard of this, he was moved to give up his 
 important position and hasten to the aid of his 
 brethren. It was fortunate that the king gave him 
 full commission and power to act, because the state 
 of things at Jerusalem was approaching chaos when 
 Nehemiah appeared. He had the walls repaired 
 and the gates restored. He also, together with Ezra, 
 again established religious services and brought or- 
 der into the civic body. And when, after his return 
 to his position in the East, the succeeding governors 
 
THE PERSIAN PERIOD 49 
 
 were not equal to the situation, he returned to the 
 city, and eventually drove the Moabite Saneballat, 
 the chief mischief-maker, into Samaria. The next 
 century under Persian sovereignty was comparative- 
 ly uneventful. During this time of peace, however, 
 the Jews had the best opportunity for readjustment 
 and thorough organization of their educational meth- 
 ods. The influence of the Babylonian academies and 
 the Great Synagogue was being felt with increasing 
 strength. While the extent of this influence can- 
 not be measured exactly, in the absence of authentic 
 information, there can be no doubt that it was very 
 great and lasting. 
 
 Education during the Persian Period 
 
 All the factors enumerated above: the influence 
 of a strong, but wise government, the reformation of 
 the church and the restoration of the religion of 
 Moses, the contact with people of great enlighten- 
 ment, — they all had a very definite influence on the 
 Jewish people, especially in education. While sec- 
 ular subjects had never been entirely neglected 
 among them, a new impetus was now given to their 
 study, and the imperative need of a thorough and 
 comprehensive system in education and of a proper 
 equipment for such a system was coming to be felt 
 more and more. 
 
50 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 The order regarding the relation between parents 
 and children was obviously insisted upon with great- 
 er vigor. The power of parents over their chil- 
 dren was practically unlimited. The giving and 
 taking in marriage was a right which the parents 
 dared not to abrogate. ''Give not your daughters 
 unto their sons, neither take their daughters unto 
 your sons : that ye may be strong and eat the good of 
 the land, and leave it for an inheritance to your chil- 
 dren forever," Ezra 9, 12. ''Ye shall not give your 
 daughters unto their sons, nor take their daughters 
 unto your sons, nor for yourselves," Nehem. 13, 25. 
 In accordance with this provision of the law, the obe- 
 dience of children and of those under authority was 
 almost absolute. "Esther (as queen) did the com- 
 mandment of Mordecai, like as when she was 
 brought up with him," Esther 2, 20. Esther had 
 been Mordecai's ward and he had, according to Jew- 
 ish law, been completely 'in loco parentis' toward her, 
 and she obeyed him as a matter of course. "A son 
 honoreth his father," Mai. i, 6. That was the self- 
 evident status, the father occupying, by virtue of his 
 parenthood, a position of honor, and the son, by vir- 
 tue of his sonship, giving his father the respect and 
 obedience due his position. 
 
 That schools were established in Palestine, at least 
 during the early part of this period, seems very im- 
 probable from the material at hand. Writing was 
 
THE PERSIAN PERIOD 51 
 
 generally known, and therefore reading also, to the 
 Jews in the exile at the time of Xerxes, for the 
 proclamation for the Jews was written in their writ- 
 ing and their language and was therefore evidently 
 read by them also, Esther 8, 9. Whether the bilin- 
 gual question, with which Nehemiah was obliged to 
 contend at his time, ever reached the schools, is not 
 evident from the passage, Nehem. 13, 24. 
 
 Certain it is that regular teaching was carried on 
 in the time of Ezra and Nehemiah, but whether this 
 included religious instruction only, or was extended 
 to embrace secular subjects also, does not appear 
 from Biblical sources. The Levites were the regu- 
 lar teachers of the peoples, Nehem. 8, 7, 9. "Ezra 
 had prepared his heart to teach in Israel statutes and 
 judgments," Ezra 7, 10. The ''men of understand- 
 ing" mentioned by Ezra were the teachers of the peo- 
 ple, who gave them understanding of the law, Ezra 
 8, 16, 18. ''The priest's lips should keep knowl- 
 edge," Mai. 2, 7. 
 
 The passages adduced here have reference exclu- 
 sively to religious teaching, or the reading and teach- 
 ing of the Law. But, aside from evidence which 
 will be introduced later, it would be a mistake to 
 argue *e silentio' that instruction in secular branches 
 was unknown during this period. It is expressly 
 stated that the teachers not only read the law 
 (taught by rote), but they also "gave the sense and 
 
52 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 caused the people to understand the reading/' 
 Nehem. 8, 8. According to Jewish custom, that can 
 mean but one thing, that they took up all the ques- 
 tions touched upon in the holy books, and heard dis- 
 cussions of the elements of all branches of knowledge. 
 
THE HELLENIC PERIOD, 332-165 B. C. 
 
 From the Conquest of Judea by Alexander 
 
 THE Great to the Defeat of the Syrians 
 
 BY Judas Maccabeus 
 
 Historical Survey 
 
 THE transition from Persian to Hellenic 
 sovereignty in Judea was attended with 
 but little disturbance, as Josephus relates 
 the story. After the Samaritan leader 
 had renounced allegiance to Darius, and Alexander, 
 after taking the city of Tyre, was marching down 
 through Judea on his way to Egypt, the high-priest 
 Jaddua conceived of a daring plan to gain the good- 
 will of the conqueror. Clad in all his robes of office, 
 attended by the priests, and followed by the inhabi- 
 tants of Jerusalem, he went out to meet Alexander. 
 His plan succeeded splendidly. Alexander bowed 
 down before Jaddua and explained to his officers that 
 he had once in a dream seen a man in such vestmentS; 
 who had promised him the conquest of Asia. He 
 then inspected the city and the temple, made a sac- 
 rifice on the main altar, excused the Jews from the 
 53 
 
54 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 payment of taxes for one year, and granted them 
 free exercise of their religion. With the death of 
 Alexander, however, only ten years later, the Jew- 
 ish hopes received a temporary setback. Ptolemaeus 
 Lagus, after a long struggle, gained the mastery 
 over Egypt and Judea. He, as well as his successor, 
 Ptolemaeus Philadelphus, took an active interest in 
 the arts and sciences, and many Jews were induced 
 to move to Egypt with the prospect of great mater- 
 ial advantages. Most of these settled at Alexan- 
 dria, where they became acquainted with Greek 
 learning. The immense library of Alexandria was 
 begun by Ptolemaeus Philadelphus and the transla- 
 tion of the Old Testament into Greek, the so-called 
 Septuagint, was probably made at his instigation. 
 
 About the year 247 B. C, the old struggle be- 
 tween the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucidae of 
 Syria was renewed and continued for almost fifty 
 years. Judea was often the battle-ground, and Jeru- 
 salem very often had to bear the brunt of the con- 
 flict. Antiochus HI finally vanquished the Ptolemies 
 and Judea apparently was to have an era of peace 
 and prosperity. Antiochus proved a friend of the 
 Jews, he permitted them to repair the temple, 
 granted full religious liberty, and persuaded many 
 of the Jews to form colonies in various parts of 
 Asia Minor, as well as in Mesopotamia. This happy 
 condition was radically changed under Antiochus 
 
THE HELLENIC PERIOD 55 
 
 the Noble. When one of his favorites, Jason, who 
 had usurped the position of high priest in Jerusalem, 
 and introduced pagan ceremonies, was driven from 
 the city, he began a series of atrocious assaults. Jeru- 
 salem was taken, thousands were killed, other thou- 
 sands sold as slaves, the walls of the city were razed 
 and the Jewish religion was declared obsolete. The 
 final result was that a staunch Jewish patriarch, 
 Mathathias, gathered the faithful about him, en- 
 trenched himself in the mountains, made sudden 
 attacks upon the enemy, and gradually recovered a 
 considerable portion of the country. And his son, Ju- 
 das Maccabeus, took up the work where he had re- 
 linquished it. He routed the Syrians in several 
 great battles, took the city of Jerusalem, and re- 
 stored the Jewish religion. 
 
 Education during the Hellenic Period 
 
 It appears from the history of this period that 
 there were two eras of quiet, one of rather short 
 duration, at the end of the fourth century B. C, and 
 the other during the time of the first Ptolemies. 
 These periods, especially the latter, were very favor- 
 able to the development of the arts and sciences. 
 With Greek learning, especially to the extent in 
 which it was introduced, came, in some measure at 
 least, the Greek system of education. If there was 
 
56 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 no definite educational or school system established, 
 by which the results of Greek learning were com- 
 municated to the young, there must, at least, have 
 been sufficient intercourse to permit of an absorption 
 of Greek learning by the leaders of the Jewish peo- 
 ple. More definite conclusions can be drawn only 
 for the succeeding historical periods, and in the final 
 summary of the entire Talmudic period the addi- 
 tional information will enable us to reach more defi- 
 nite conclusions. 
 
 The only book from which we may obtain relia- 
 ble information, though rather meagre, as to the 
 status of education during this period, is the Book 
 Ecclesiasticus, commonly known as the "Wisdom of 
 Jesus, the Son of Sirach." The date of this book is 
 given as pertaining to the next period, but its con- 
 tents belong to this period, since the proverbs were 
 gathered by the men of one family during the course 
 of three generations. We have, therefore, a fair 
 picture of the conditions and of the ideals of the 
 time, about the end of the third and the beginning 
 of the second century before Christ. 
 
 It appears from this book that the educational 
 ideals of earlier times were insisted upon with even 
 greater emphasis at this time. The new feeling of 
 nationalism and the thorough reformation of the 
 church insisted upon a slavish return to ancient laws 
 and customs, and the movement was aided by the 
 
THE HELLENIC PERIOD 57 
 
 academies and synagogues in the various larger cit- 
 ies and influential centres to such a degree, that lit- 
 eral interpretations of the law and slavish adherence 
 to its very letter was practiced among the conserva- 
 tive Jews, who were the leaders of the people. The 
 position of the parents is defined with unequivocal 
 definiteness. "If thou hast children, bring them up 
 well, and bend their neck from their youth up. If 
 thou have daughters, preserve their body and do not 
 pamper them. Counsel thy daughter, then hast thou 
 done a great deed, and give her to a sensible man," 
 Sir. 7, 25-27. "Rejoice not, because thou hast many 
 evil children, neither boast, because thou hast many 
 children, if they fear not God. It is better to have 
 one pious child than a thousand impious. And it is 
 better to die without children than to have godless 
 ones," Sir. 6, 1.3.4. Children were most desirable 
 treasures then, and considered great gifts of God, 
 and their bringing up, their moral training was en- 
 trusted to the parents, upon whom the full responsi- 
 bility rested. The power of the parents was just as 
 unlimited as in any of the previous periods. 
 
 On the other hand, the relation of children to par- 
 ents was defined just as exactly. "The Lord will 
 have the father honored of the children, and what- 
 soever a mother commands the children, He wants 
 the same kept," Sir. 3, 3, 7, fl. "Whosoever hon- 
 ors his father, will live all the longer, and whosoever 
 
58 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 is obedient for the Lord's sake, is a consolation to 
 his mother"; vs. 9: "Honor thy father and thy moth- 
 er with deeds, words, and patience, that their bless- 
 ings may come upon thee. For the blessing of the 
 father builds houses for children, but the curse of 
 the mother destroys them." "Honor thy father with 
 all thy heart, and forget not what a care thou hast 
 been to thy mother," Sir. 7, 29. "An impertinent 
 son is a dishonor to his father. A sensible daugh- 
 ter will very likely get a husband, but a spoiled 
 daughter is unsought and brings care to her father," 
 Sir. 22, 3, 4. "Forget not the teaching of thy 
 father and thy mother, so shalt thou sit among the 
 lords," Sir. 23, 18. Respect, honor, obedience, a 
 careful regard for the teaching of the parents were 
 required absolutely of children, while impertinence, 
 lack of respect, want of shame, and vileness were 
 condemned. 
 
 These demands, moreover, were required to be en- 
 forced with the utmost strictness. As the home was 
 considered the foundation of the nation and the chil- 
 dren the future representatives of God*s chosen peo- 
 ple before the world, laxity in discipline was con- 
 sidered not merely foolish, but almost criminal. Sev- 
 eral chapters are devoted almost exclusively to this 
 topic, notably chapters 26 and 30. Some of the sig- 
 nificant verses are the following. "If thy daughter 
 be not chaste, keep her very strictly, lest she perform 
 
THE HELLENIC PERIOD 59 
 
 her wantonness, if she have too much liberty," Sir. 
 26, 13. ''He that loves his child, holds it under the 
 rod, in order that he may afterward experience joy 
 from the same. ... A spoiled child becomes 
 wanton, like a wild horse. . . . Do not give 
 him license in his youth, and excuse not his foolish- 
 ness," Sir. 30, I ff. It may be worthy of note here 
 that the death penalty for an unruly child is not 
 mentioned, but that in general the severity of deal- 
 ing with a disobedient son is emphasized even more 
 than in previous periods. 
 
 So far as systematic instruction is concerned, there 
 is no evidence of a general school system at this 
 time, with the exception of religious schools, Sirach 
 38, 25. 39, 1-15, which were probably conducted, 
 especially in the Diaspora, in connection with the 
 synagogues. But we may infer that the influence of 
 the great academies was far-reaching even at this 
 time and that Greek learning and education was 
 also a factor in determining thought and trend 
 among the leaders of the Jews. Men like Jesus 
 Sirach, for instance, undoubtedly were educated 
 fully up to the demand of the times. It might be 
 argued from Sir. 38, 38, 39, that even such simple 
 accomplishments as reading and writing were unusual 
 at that time. But from that passage as well as from 
 vs. 38 fF. in the next chapter one may argue with 
 equal plausibility that the Book of Ecclesiasticus was 
 
6o EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 written for the use of the general public and that 
 everybody was expected to be able to read its precepts 
 readily. If there is at all such a thing as advance- 
 ment and building up on an excellent foundation, it 
 would be far more in keeping with the circumstances 
 to infer the existence of religious schools, where ele- 
 mentary training was given, at least in the principal 
 cities. For that these schools did not confine them- 
 selves to the teaching of religious and moral pre- 
 cepts, has been emphasized above, and shall be dis- 
 cussed in a more extended manner from the Tal- 
 mud. 
 
VI 
 
 THE MACCABEAN PERIOD, 165-63 B. C. 
 
 From the Defeat of the Syrians by Judas 
 Maccabeus to the Conquest of Jerusa- 
 lem BY POMPEY 
 
 Historical Summary 
 
 AFTER the defeat of the Syrians and the 
 conquest of Jerusalem by Judas Macca- 
 beus, the power of the Syrians was al- 
 most broken. The first concession the 
 victorious Jews insisted upon was full religious lib- 
 erty with all attendant privileges. Jonathan Mac- 
 cabeus, by a fine stroke of diplomacy, succeeded in 
 obtaining the ofBce of high priest for himself. The 
 third brother, Simon Maccabeus, went a step far- 
 ther and gained for his family the hereditary eth- 
 narchy. His grandson, Aristobulus, the son of Hyr- 
 canus, changed the government to a kingdom, as- 
 suming the title of king for himself. And his 
 brother, Alexander Janneus practically restored the 
 independence of the kingdom, regaining for it also 
 the extent and virtually the power of the time of 
 David. Owing to the fact, however, that the office 
 61 
 
62 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 of king and that of high priest were vested in one 
 person, the more zealous among the Jews incited the 
 people and precipitated a civil war which, a few 
 years later, gave the Roman general Pompey a wel- 
 come excuse for intervention. The inevitable result 
 was the conquest of Judea and the seizure of Jeru- 
 salem by the Romans, 63 B. C. Aristobulus the king 
 and his children were taken to Rome to be exhibited 
 in the triumphal pageant, and the independence of 
 Judea was a thing of the past. 
 
 Education during the Maccabean Period 
 
 "At this time there were three sects among the 
 Jews," relates Josephus, "the Pharisees, the Sad- 
 ducees, and the Essenes," Antiq., Book XIII, Ch. 
 V. This remark is significant, because it shows a 
 high development of learning among the Jews at 
 that time. The era was certainly an auspicious one 
 for advance along all lines, including educational 
 matters. There was, especially at the time of the 
 great festivals, intercourse with the Jews who had 
 founded colonies in Babylonia, in Egypt, through- 
 out Asia Minor, and elsewhere, but retained the re- 
 ligion and all their customs. Ever ready to accom- 
 modate themselves to their own advantage, the Jews 
 absorbed the learning of the most civilized nations 
 of the time by contact, if not by actual study in the 
 
THE MACCABEAN PERIOD 63 
 
 foremost schools and universities of the world. In 
 one respect alone they remained perfectly isolated, 
 in their religion and, to some extent, in their lan- 
 guage, the Hebrew-Aramaic, which was their home 
 tongue. Just how much the Jews advanced along 
 all lines at this time, will be shown in the discussion 
 of the Talmudic period. In the apocryphal books, 
 we have, for this period, the account of the Mac- 
 cabees, their wars and the political activity, with no 
 special reference to educational matters. There can 
 be no doubt, however, from passages like 2 Mace. 
 7, 28, that the love of parents toward their chil- 
 dren and their authority was just as great as in form- 
 er periods. Incidentally, it is told that the Hebrew 
 mother nursed her child about three years, this, then, 
 being considered the time of infancy. 
 
VII 
 
 THE ROMAN PERIOD, 63 B. C— 70 A. D. 
 
 Historical Summary 
 
 WHEN the Romans, as Josephus re- 
 lates, had made Jerusalem tributary to 
 their empire, Hyrcanus II remained 
 at first both high priest and ethnarch, 
 with the full power of both offices. It was not long 
 though before Antipater, upon whom Caesar had 
 already bestowed the privilege of the Roman citizen- 
 ship, succeeded in becoming the procurator of Judea. 
 By this decree of Caesar the Jews lost the last vestige 
 of political independence and became a dependent 
 principality. Antipater made his son Phasaelus gov- 
 ernor of Jerusalem, and Herod, of Galilee. The 
 Roman Anthony later elevated both of them to the 
 rank of tetrarch. Herod the Great assumed the ti- 
 tle of king. After his death, the Jewish country was 
 divided among his three sons, Archelaus having the 
 provinces of Idumea, Judea, and Samaria, with the 
 title of ethnarch ; Philip the country east of Jordan, 
 with the title tetrarch; and Herod Antipas, Gali- 
 
 64 
 
THE ROMAN PERIOD 65 
 
 lee and Peraea, with the title tetrarch. Archelaus 
 (Matth. 2, 22) began his reign with such acts of 
 cruelty and revenge that he was soon banished to 
 Gaul. After that, these provinces were under the 
 jurisdiction of governors (Pontius Pilate, Felix, Fes- 
 tus, etc. ) , who, in turn, were responsible to the pro- 
 praetor or proconsul of Syria. Herod Antipas tried 
 to gain the title of King for himself, , but was cir- 
 cumvented by his nephew, Herod Agrippa I, through 
 whose machinations he found himself exiled to Gaul. 
 Herod Agrippa I succeeded gradually in having 
 Palestine made a province separate from that of 
 Syria. He was followed by his son, Agrippa H, 
 who held the title of king. It was under his reign 
 that the party of Zealots in Jerusalem became so 
 strong that they stirred up a rebellion against the 
 Romans. The result is well-known. The Roman 
 general Vespasian began the conquest of the prov- 
 ince and made the plans for the siege of the city, and 
 his son Titus took Jerusalem. The conquerors knew 
 no mercy. The city was sacked and plundered, 
 razed and burned. The number of captives remain- 
 ing is given by Josephus as amounting to 97,000. 
 Seventeen thousand young men were sent to Alex- 
 andria as slaves, other thousands were kept for the 
 plays in the arena. The Jewish nation ceased to 
 exist. The Jews were dispersed among all nations. 
 That was in the year 70 A. D. 
 
66 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 Education During the Roman Period 
 
 There is a great deal more to be said for this 
 period than that which is contained in Biblical pas- 
 sages. Nevertheless, the material from which con- 
 clusions may be drawn is comprehensive and satis- 
 factory to a greater extent than in the preceding 
 periods. Whether Roman learning ever exerted a 
 great influence on the Jewish people or their educa- 
 tional system, is not evident and is highly improba- 
 ble. The superscription on the cross was indeed 
 in the Hebrew, the Greek, and the Latin tongue, 
 but it is probable that the Latin was merely for the 
 sake of the soldiers and to emphasize the fact that 
 judgment had been passed under Roman jurisdiction. 
 In the Roman decrees quoted by Josephus, the sep- 
 aration or isolation of the Jews from the people 
 among whom they were living is commented upon, 
 and they were allowed to live and act in all things 
 according to the customs of their forefathers. 
 
 It cannot be a matter of surprise then, that, in 
 their comparative isolation, the Jews retained all 
 their laws and customs, and exercised jurisdiction 
 over the members of their nation in all minor mat- 
 ters pertaining to their Law. The relation of par- 
 ents to their children, their authority, their respon- 
 sibility, and also the love which they owed their 
 offspring, is emphasized in several cases. "Behold 
 
THE ROMAN PERIOD 67 
 
 thy father and I have sought thee sorrowing," Luke 
 2, 48. "If ye, then, being evil, know how to give 
 good gifts unto yoyr children," Matth. 7, 11. ''The 
 children ought not to lay up for the parents, but the 
 parents for the children," 2 Cor. 12, 14. '*Ye fath- 
 ers, provoke not your children to wrath, but bring 
 them up in the nurture and admonition of the Lord," 
 Eph. 6, 4. The relation of the children toward their 
 parents is again one of respect, love, and obedience. 
 ^'^The child grew and waxed strong in spirit, filled 
 with wisdom, and the grace of God was upon Him. 
 . . . He was subject unto them. He increased 
 in wisdom, and in stature, and in favor with Grod 
 and man," Luke 2, 40, 51, 52. "Honor thy father 
 and mother, which is the first commandment with 
 promise: that it may be well with thee and thou 
 mayest live long on the earth," Eph. 6, 2. In order 
 to maintain the right relation between parents and 
 children, the discipline spoken of in the Law was 
 maintained with all the rigor which the Jews were 
 still permitted to use. "God commanded, saying: 
 Honor thy father and mother; and: He that curs- 
 eth father and mother, let him die the death," 
 Matth. 15, 4. "What son is he whom the father 
 chasteneth not? But if ye be without chastisement, 
 whereof all are partakers, then are ye bastards, and 
 not sons," Hebr. 12, 7, 8. 
 
 Parents were held responsible for at least the reli- 
 
68 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 gious instruction of their children, for the bringing 
 up in the nurture and admonition of the Lord. The 
 instruction, however, was not confined to the home. 
 The synagogues (houses of assembly, of prayer, of 
 teaching) that are mentioned throughout the histor- 
 ical books of the New Testament, had their origin 
 at the time of the first kings: '*They have burned up 
 all the synagogues of God in the land,'' Ps. 74, 8. 
 At the time of the Romans, there was a synagogue in 
 every city of any size in Palestine, as well as in 
 many other cities where the Jews were at all numer- 
 ous. "Jesus went about all Galilee, teaching in 
 their synagogues," Matth. 4, 23. 9, 35. 13, 54- 
 Mark i, 21, 39. 6, 2. Luke 4, 15. 13, 10. John 
 
 18, 20. There was a synagogue at Antioch in Pisi- 
 dia (Acts 13, 14), Iconium (Acts 14, i), Thessa- 
 lonica (Acts 17, i), Berea (Acts 17, 10), Athens 
 (Acts 17, 17), Corinth (Acts 18, 4), Ephesus 
 (Acts 18, 19) ; there were several in Damascus 
 (Acts 9, 2, 20), Salamis in Cyprus (Acts 13, 5), 
 Alexandria' in Egypt, and Antioch in Syria. These 
 synagogues were not used for services only, consisting 
 of Scripture readings and prayer, but also for lec- 
 tures and expositions of the Scriptures (Luke 4, 
 21 fif.) These lectures may sometimes have been 
 held in the adjoining "house of learning," Acts 19, 
 
 19. The school of Tyrannus mentioned in this pas- 
 sage was probably a school patterned after the 
 
THE ROMAN PERIOD 69 
 
 Greek "Gymnasia." That there were also other 
 schools at this time, appears from several references 
 in the New Testament. ''After three days they 
 found him in the temple, sitting in the midst of the 
 doctors, both hearing them and asking them ques- 
 tions," Luke 2, 46. Here we have a school of a 
 special kind, which will be spoken of later. "Paul 
 was brought up in Jerusalem at the feet of Gamaliel, 
 and taught according to the perfect manner of the 
 law of the fathers," Acts 22, 3. Here we have a 
 school of a still different kind, and apparently a very 
 advanced one, for Paul was versed not only in the 
 Law, but also in secular knowledge, and even showed 
 familiarity with Greek poetry. It is evident, then, 
 that the educational system of the Jews was devel- 
 oped quite highly in this period. Just how far the 
 Jews were advanced, will be evident from the dis- 
 cussion of Talmudic times. 
 
 THE TALMUDIC PERIOD 
 
 The Talmudic period, though considered as be- 
 ginning after the destruction of Jerusalem and the 
 dissolution of the Jewish nation, may nevertheless be 
 said to extend back to the time of the exile. There 
 are three principal reasons for this statement. In 
 the first place, as noted above, Jewish tradition in 
 regard to the Great Synagogue and the oral trans- 
 
70 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 mission of rabbinical exposition cannot be ignored 
 entirely. In the second place, the nucleus of the 
 Mishna in its unwritten form extends back several 
 centuries before Christ. The cessation of prophecy re- 
 moved a certain restriction upon w^riting, and the ex- 
 ample of Jesus Sirach w^as undoubtedly imitated of- 
 tener than accounts relate. And lastly, many of the 
 institutions referred to in the Talmud date back sev- 
 eral centuries, and the discussion thus throvs^s light 
 on conditions that existed long before the actual 
 gathering of the materials in book-form. It is, un- 
 fortunately, extremely difficult to fix dates in the 
 discussion w^ith the necessary exactness, but the ap- 
 proximate time may be given according to tradition. 
 Even at the time of Jesus, the ''tradition of the 
 elders" played an important part in some discussions, 
 Matth. 15, 2, 3, and elsevs^here. And the schools of 
 Gamaliel, of Hillel and Shammai, where the pre- 
 cepts of tradition were taught (Mishna) were in a 
 flourishing condition even before the fall of Je- 
 rusalem. After the destruction of Jerusalem, Rabbi 
 Johanan ben Zakkai, who had gained the favor of 
 Vespasian, asked permission to establish a school of 
 Jewish law, and when this was given, settled at Jab- 
 neh, or Jamnia, near Joppa. In this school, to 
 which Jews from all over the world sent their sons, 
 was begun the final development of the form of the 
 tradition or exposition of the Law. Gamaliel the 
 
THE ROMAN PERIOD 71 
 
 Younger and Akiba were especially influential 
 teachers. About the end of the second century, Rab- 
 bi Juda ben Simon was the leader of this school. He 
 established as authoritative and decisive the Mishna 
 of Akiba, which probably at this time ceased to be 
 oral and was committed to writing. The Jabneh 
 school was transferred to Tiberias, but soon deteri- 
 orated. The scholastic center shifted to Babylon in 
 the production of the Gemara or the Talmud prop- 
 er. The great teacher instrumental in effecting this 
 change was Rabbi Abba Rab, whose school at Ba- 
 bylon soon had 1200 students. His academy was 
 located at Sura, but was often transferred to Pum- 
 bedita. Samuel's academy was at Nehardea, a con- 
 tinuation, according to tradition, of the academy 
 founded by king Jehoiachin. 
 
 In the fifth century A. D., Rabbi Aschi had the 
 oral explanations, discussions, decisions, etc., based 
 on the Mishna collected in the Babylonian Talmud. 
 About the same time, the teachers in Palestine made 
 a similar collection, which is known as the Jerusalem 
 Talmud. The Mishna, then, is the oral tradition, 
 or the oral common law of the Jews since the time 
 of the exile, and, in part, probably dating back even 
 farther. The Midrash, or commentary in general, 
 embraces every kind of explanation or elucidation of 
 Scripture, including the Mishna, but especially the 
 Gemara, or Talmud proper, and the Tosephta. The 
 
72 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 Haggadah is the Illustrative and practical, the Hala- 
 chah the exegetical commentary on the Old Testa- 
 ment. The Halachah collection of Judahha-Nasi 
 (63 tracts) is generally known by that name, while 
 other collections of Halachah are designated as Bar- 
 aitha. Among these collections were those called 
 Tosephta. Peters says: ** Rabbi Judah Hanassi col- 
 lected all attainable rulings and precedents and pub- 
 lished them in what we call the Mishna (1532 years 
 after the giving of the Torah). . . . Many de- 
 cisions not included (in the Mishna) were collected 
 later under the name of Boraithoth in a work called 
 the Tosephtha, or Addition (Supplement). . . . 
 Yet other Boraithoth are to be found in the Gemara. 
 The Gemara is a comment on the Mishna, just as 
 the Mishna is a comment on the Torah or Law," p. 
 
 7-9. 
 
 That the education of the Jews about the time of 
 the destruction of Jerusalem was very highly ad- 
 vanced, is evident from such examples as that of 
 Paul (mentioned above) , and that of Josephus. The 
 latter says of himself: "I was brought up with my 
 brother, . . . and I made mighty proficiency in 
 the improvements of my learning, and appeared to 
 have both a great memory and understanding. More- 
 over, when I was a child, and about fourteen years 
 of age, I was commended to all for the love I had 
 to learning; on which account the high priests and 
 
THE ROMAN PERIOD 73 
 
 principal men of the city came then frequently to 
 me together, in order to know my opinion about the 
 accurate understanding of points of the law" (Life 
 of Flavius Josephus, No. 2). "For those of my own 
 nation freely acknowledge that I far exceed them in 
 the learning belonging to Jews; I have also taken 
 a great deal of pains to obtain the learning of the 
 Greeks, and understand the elements of the Greek 
 language, although I have so long accustomed my- 
 self to speak our own tongue that I cannot pronounce 
 Greek with sufficient exactness; for our nation does 
 not encourage those that learn the languages of many 
 nations, and so adorn their discourses with the 
 smoothness of their periods; because they look upon 
 this sort of accomplishment as common, not only to 
 all sorts of free men, but to as many of the servants 
 as please to learn them. But they give him the 
 testimony of being a wise man, who is fully ac- 
 quainted with our laws, and is able to interpret 
 their meaning ; on which account, as there have been 
 many who have done their endeavors with great 
 patience to obtain this learning, there have yet hard- 
 ly been so many as two or three that have succeeded 
 therein, who were immediately well rewarded for 
 their pains" (Antiq., Book XX, Chap. XI). 
 
 Someone may argue that both Paul and Josephus 
 were exceptions, being extraordinary men, even 
 geniuses or at least unusually gifted. But the facts 
 
J 
 
 74 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 show that they had the opportunity to study and to 
 advance themselves in knowledge, right in the midst 
 of their own people. Moreover, Josephus writes in 
 a very general way: "Our principal care of all is 
 this, to educate our children well, and we think it to 
 be the most necessary business of our whole life, to 
 observe the laws that have been given us, and to 
 keep those rules of piety that have been deliverd 
 down to us" (Against Apion, Book I). 
 
 As a matter of fact, while private schools, pro- 
 phet schools, academies of learning, and synagogues 
 had been in existence for quite a number of centuries, 
 and some of them, at various times, had been in a 
 flourishing condition, it was in the last century of 
 the existence of the Jewish nation that the Jews 
 advanced still farther and founded a school system 
 for all boys, a public school system, maintained at 
 public expense. Simon ben Shetah, who lived in the 
 reign of Alexander Janneus and queen Alexandra 
 (about 106-70 B. C.) ordered the establishment of 
 schools in all the large cities of Palestine. And 
 during the reign of Agrippa II (44-70 A. D.) 
 Joshua ben Gamla extended this order in so far as it 
 now included all cities of Palestine and fixed a min- 
 imum age for school boys as from six to seven years, 
 or, according to another account, the completed fifth 
 year. 
 
 The educational maxims scattered throughout the 
 
THE ROMAN PERIOD 75 
 
 various tracts of the Talmud enable one to gain a 
 very fair estimate of the educational ideals of the 
 Jews. By the saying: *'Who is a w^ise man? He 
 who learns from everybody," Tract Aboth (IX, 82), 
 regular school instruction was by no means ex- 
 cluded. "A city where there are not ten unemployed 
 men who devote all their time to the study of the 
 Law must be considered as a village," Tract Megilla 
 (Vni, 6 ff.). These men were commonly known 
 as scribes and belonged to the teaching force of the 
 city. There was, then, "no excuse for illiteracy, 
 neither poverty nor family," Tract Aboth (IX, 29- 
 30). There was indeed, at one time, a discussion 
 whether instruction ought not to be restricted to the 
 members of the richer, better families, but apparent- 
 ly the argument for a general, unrestricted instruc- , 
 tion prevailed. "The school of Shammai maintain 
 that one shall teach only those who are wise, modest, 
 rich, and come from a good family: the school of 
 Hillel, however, hold that one may teach every one, 
 as there were many transgressors in Israel, and after 
 they had become upright men, pious, and righteous, 
 engaged in the study of the Law, they had the good 
 fortune that from them descended men of upright- 
 ness, piety, and righteousness," Tract Aboth (IX, 
 19). Some of the more gifted scholars among the 
 Jews must have attained to a very high degree of 
 learning, for it is said of the Sanhedrin: "Some of 
 
76 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 its members must be able to speak seventy languages, 
 so an interpreter would not be needed," Tract Sanhe- 
 
 * drin (XV, 40). Women were not entirely excluded 
 from all learning. "It is obligatory for women to 
 hear the reading of the Megilla," Tract Megilla 
 V^ (VIII, 7). The Megilla includes the Song of Sol- 
 omon, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, and Esther. 
 There is no evidence, however, that women were ex- 
 cluded from the general reading and study of the 
 Law, especially since so many of the ordinances con- 
 cerned them. Some women among the Jews were 
 even highly educated. "Culture in a woman is bet- 
 ter than gold," Peters, p. 159. As for the children, 
 though they were prized very highly, as will be 
 shown presently, their position was always a subor- 
 dinate one." "One adduces no proof from a minor," 
 Tract Megilla (VIII, 54). 
 
 The office of the teacher was a highly respected 
 and a most important one. A good teacher was val- 
 ued as highly as the most important official of the 
 state, though, at times, especially in the academies, 
 he served without pay, Tract Aboth (IX, 35). "The 
 teachers are the guardians of the State," Peters, p. 
 161. "He who instructs a child is as if he had cre- 
 ated it," ibid. "You should revere the teacher even 
 more than the father. The latter only brought you 
 into the world, the former indicates the way into 
 
 ^the next. But blessed is the son who has learned 
 
THE ROMAN PERIOD 77 
 
 from his father: he shall revere him both as his 
 father and his master; and blessed is the father who 
 has instructed his son," Peters, p. 165. This rever- 
 ence was carried so far that we read: "He who 
 learns from another one chapter, one halachah, one 
 verse, or one word or even a single letter, is bound 
 to respect him," Tract Aboth, Chap. 6, Mish. 3. The 
 teaching and the studying of the Law were placed 
 above everything else. "The honoring of father and 
 mother, acts of benevolence, hospitality to strangers, 
 visiting the sick, devotion in prayer, promotion of 
 peace between man and man, and study in general 
 (remain intact against the exigencies of the world 
 to come), but the study of the Law outweighs them 
 all," Tract Shabbath (Hershon, 13, 49). "The 
 study of the Law is of greater merit to rescue one 
 from accidental death than building the temple, and 
 greater than honoring father or mother," Tract 
 Megilla (Hershon, 13, 49). This fact, that teach- 
 ers were held in such high respect, is not even 
 changed by reference to the somewhat obscure pas- 
 sage: "Seven have, in the popular regard, no portion 
 in the world to come : a notary, a school-master, the 
 best of doctors, a judge in his native place, a con- 
 juror, a congregational reader, and a butcher," 
 Tract Aboth d'Rabbi Nathan. This difficult pas- 
 sage is, however, explained to some extent by the 
 following: "The judge should ever regard himself 
 
78 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 as if he had a sword laid upon his thigh, and Ge- 
 henna were yawning near him; the best physicians 
 are destined for hell, the most upright butcher is a 
 partner of Amalek." The underlying idea seems to 
 be that school-masters, like the other professional 
 and trades-people mentioned, are so liable to sin 
 grievously in their calling that there is little hope for 
 them to escape everlasting punishment. A teacher 
 was admonished : "Teach the children of the poor 
 without compensation, and do not favor the children 
 of the rich," Peters, p. 163. Only even-tempered 
 men were permitted in this important station. ''No 
 irritable man can be a teacher," Tract Aboth (IX, 
 60, 61 ). The older and more experienced the teach- 
 er was, the greater was his value to the community. 
 ''Whom does he resemble who learns from the 
 young? Him who eats unripe grapes and drinks the 
 wine fresh from the winepress. But whom does he 
 resemble who learns from old men? Him who eats 
 ripe grapes and drinks old wine," Tract Aboth 
 (IX, 87). The ideal teacher is described as follows: 
 "The following fifteen customs are ascribed to the 
 sages: He is pleasant in entering, and so also when 
 leaving ; is prudent in his fear for Heaven ; versed in 
 wisdom; wise in his ways, has a good conception, a 
 retentive memory, is clear in his answers, questions 
 to the point and answers according to the Law; he 
 learns something new from every chapter taught to 
 
THE ROMAN PERIOD 79 
 
 him; he is going to the wise, he learns for the pur- 
 pose of teaching it and performing it," Tract Derech 
 Eretz-Zuta (IX, 23). That a teacher who made 
 a habit of flogging was not retained is shown in the 
 case of a school-master who was removed "because 
 he struck too much the pupils," Tract Maccoth 
 (XVII, 40). 
 
 The relation between teachers and pupils in gen- 
 eral was to be one of respect and consideration for 
 each other. The school-children were regarded as 
 the greatest asset of the nation. "The world de- 
 pends on its school-children," Peters, p. 158. "A 
 town which has no school should be abolished," ibid. 
 "Jerusalem was destroyed because the instruction of 
 the young was neglected," p. 159. "The world is 
 only saved by the breath of the school-children," 
 ibid. "Even for the re-building of the Temple the 
 instruction of the children must not be interrupted," 
 ibid. A great teacher said of himself: "I learn 
 much from my masters, more however from my col- 
 leagues, and still more from my disciples," Tract 
 Maccoth (XVII, 25). On the other hand, respect- 
 ful consideration should actuate the pupil. "If the 
 master err, the scholar should inform him, and not 
 wait until it is published in order to gain honor for 
 himself," Tract Shebuoth (XVII, 50). 
 
 So far as pupils^ disciples, or scholars in general 
 are concerned, there are some interesting classifica- 
 
8o EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 tions to be found in the Talmud. "There are four 
 kinds of pupils: one understands readily but forgets 
 soon — there the advantage is swallowed by the fail- 
 ing; another grasps but slowly and seldom forgets — 
 there the failing is outweighed by the talent ; a third 
 understands readily and is slow to forget — his is a 
 good portion; a fourth understands slowly and for- 
 gets quickly — ^his is a poor endowment/' Tract 
 Aboth (IX, 131). Almost of the same kind is a 
 passage following shortly after: "There are four 
 kinds of the disciples of the wise: sponge, funnel, 
 strainer, and sieve: sponge — sucking up all things; 
 funnel — allowing all that is received in the one end 
 to flow out at the other; strainer — letting the wine 
 run through and retaining the dregs ; sieve — blowing 
 off the bran and keeping the flour," Tract Aboth 
 (IX, 138). A passage which presents the same idea is 
 found a few pages before (IX, 98). That the ad- 
 vantage of absorbing readily, of a perceptive mem- 
 ory, lies with the young, is expressed in the follow- 
 ing passage: "One who is taught when young ab- 
 sorbs the words of the Torah in his blood, and he 
 can utter them explicitly, but the reverse is with one 
 who is taught when old. There is also a proverb 
 to this effect: If thou hast not desired them in thy 
 youth, how wilt thou reach them in thy old age?" 
 Tract Aboth (IX, 88, also 85). "To what may he 
 be compared who teaches a child? To one who 
 
THE ROMAN PERIOD 8i 
 
 writes on clean paper; and to what may he be com- 
 pared who teaches an old man? To one who writes 
 on blotted paper," Peters, p. 162. For a complete 
 religious education a knowledge not only of Scrip- 
 ture, but of the Mishna and Gemara (Midrash) 
 also, including the Halachah, was required. 'Who- 
 soever is versed In Midrash, but not in Halachah, 
 has not tasted of wisdom; and he who Is the oppo- 
 site, has not tasted of the fear of sin. . . . One 
 who is versed in Midrash, but not in Halachoth, Is 
 like unto a strong man, but who Is unarmed; one 
 who is opposite Is like an armed weakling. One, how- 
 ever, who is versed In both is like unto a man who is 
 both strong and armed," Tract Aboth (IX, loi). 
 The meaning Is that theoretical knowledge and prac- 
 tical application must go hand in hand. The age, at 
 which the various parts of religious instruction 
 should be given, is stated as follows: "One five years 
 old should study Scripture; ten years — Mishna; 
 thirteen years old should practice the commandments ; 
 fifteen years old should study Gemara; at twenty, 
 pursue the study of the Law," Tract Aboth (IX, 
 133). The ages given In this outline are approxi- 
 mately the ages of the pupils In the various schools : 
 Infant school, elementary school, secondary school, 
 academy or college. 
 
 In study ^ the greatest Industry, the most painstak- 
 ing application wgs required on the part of the pu- 
 
82 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 pil, and, at the same time, the most indefatigable pa- 
 tience on the part of the teacher. ''Every disciple 
 who has studied and then abandons his studies, has 
 no share in the world to come. . . . Whoever 
 does not visit the college which is in his city, has no 
 share in the world to come." Tract Aboth (IX, 
 122). "If you interrupt your studies for one day, 
 it will take you two to regain what you have lost," 
 Peters, p. 162. The patient teaching and learning 
 by rote was carried so far that ''Rabbi Perida had a 
 pupil to whom he had to rehearse a lesson four hun- 
 dred times before the latter comprehended it," and 
 in one case, when the mind of the pupil had been dis- 
 tracted, "he repeated the lesson a second four hun- 
 dred times," Tract Eiruvin (Hershon, 242, 57). 
 The rule was : "A master is bound to rehearse a 
 lesson to his pupil four times," Tract Eiruvin, Her- 
 shon, 73, 26. The rehearsing and the memorizing 
 of a lesson was to be carried on aloud. "It is re- 
 corded that Rabbi Eliezer had a disciple who also 
 studied in silence, but that after three years he for- 
 got all that he had learned," Tract Eiruvin, Her- 
 shon 224, 29. "Rav says a man should never ab- 
 sent himself from the lecture-hall, not even for one 
 hour; for the above Mishna had been taught at col- 
 lege for many years, but the reason of it had never 
 been made plain till the hour when Rabbi Chanina 
 ben Akavia came and explained it," Tract Shab- 
 
THE ROMAN PERIOD 83 
 
 bath, Hershon, 9, 31. The amount of study ex- 
 pected from a boy was so great that it endangered 
 his health. "A boy at thirteen years of age is bound 
 to observe the usual fasts in full, i. e. throughout the 
 whole day. A girl is bound to do so when only 
 twelve. Rashi gives this as the reason: A boy is 
 supposed to be weaker than a girl on account of the 
 enervating effect of much study," Tract Kethuboth, 
 Hershon, 162, 27. It was only after the efforts of 
 several years had resulted in total failure that a pu- 
 pil was discouraged from continuing his studies. "A 
 learner who, after five years, sees no profit in study- 
 ing, will never see it. Rabbi Yossi says, after three 
 years, as it is written (Daniel i, 4, 5), 'That they 
 should be taught the literature and the language of 
 the Chaldeans,' so educating them in three years," 
 Tract ChuUin, Hershon, 88, 35. 
 
 The education of the children began at home, and 
 the responsibility of the parents for the instruction 
 of the children never ceased until they had reached 
 manhood. In order to make the fulfillment of these 
 obligations possible, it was required of children that 
 they honor and obey their parents. "Where the chil- 
 dren honor their parents, there God dwells, there He 
 is honored," Peters, p. 64. "The honor and rever- 
 ence due to parents are equal to the honor and rev- 
 erence due to God," ibid. "Respect your parents as 
 you respect Me, says God," p. 65. "A son must, if 
 
84 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 necessary, feed and support his parents," ibid. "A 
 child owes his life to three: to God, to his father, and 
 to his mother," ibid. "He who honors his father 
 and mother enjoys the fruit in this life, and stores 
 up a treasure for the future," p. 66. "While the 
 son honors his parents, God holds it as if He were 
 dwelling near the child, and were Himself receiv- 
 ing honor," ibid. "Even if it happens that the son 
 is a teacher, yet if the father is present, the son must 
 rise before him in the presence of all his pupils," ibid. 
 "A child must not contradict his father, and when he 
 names him, he must use a term of respect, such as 
 *my honored father,' " p. 67. "A child must love 
 and honor his parents while they are living, and must 
 love and respect them after they are dead; and as 
 they loved and honored God, he must love and honor 
 God, and thus make his parents live again in his own 
 good deeds," ibid. "If in after life the son prospers 
 and is richer than his father, he must see that his 
 prosperity is shared by his parents. He must not 
 live in greater luxury than they; he must not allow 
 them to suffer poverty while he enjoys wealth," ibid. 
 In order to show to what extent one is bound to 
 honor his father and mother, Rav Ulla told the story 
 of the Gentile son who would not even wake his 
 father, though he had the promise of great gain, 
 should he do so. Tract Kiddushin, Hershon, 274, 13. 
 The general duty of the parents toward their chil- 
 
THE ROMAN PERIOD 85 
 
 dren consisted in this that they were responsible for 
 their bringing up and had to make this their special 
 care. "He who loves his wife as his own self, and 
 he who educates his children in the right way, to 
 him applies the divine promise, 'Thou shalt know that 
 there is peace in thy tent ' " Peters, p. 62. "The 
 daughter is as the mother was," p. 63. "What the 
 child says out of doors, he has learnt in doors," ibid. 
 "What a child speaks in the street, it has heard 
 either from its father or from its mother," Tract 
 Succah (Vn, 92). "It is a woman alone through 
 whom God's blessings are vouchsafed to a house. She 
 teaches the children, speeds the husband to the house 
 of worship and instruction, welcomes him when he 
 returns, keeps the house godly and pure; and God's 
 blessings rest upon all these things," Peters, p. 63. 
 "The daughter's doings have been the mother's acts," 
 p. 64. The responsibility of the father included not 
 only the providing of instruction in schools, but the 
 teaching of a trade to his sons. "It is a father's 
 duty, not only to provide for his minor children, but 
 also to take care of their instruction, and to teach 
 his son a trade and whatever is necessary for his fu- 
 ture welfare," Peters, p. 64. "He who teaches his 
 son no trade is as if he taught him to steal," p. 86. 
 "He who does not teach his son a handicraft trade 
 neglects his parental duty," ibid. "Beautiful is the 
 intellectual occupation, if combined with some prac- 
 
86 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 tical work," p. 87. "It Is well to add a trade to your 
 studies, you will then be free from sin," ibid. 
 
 During the first years of the child's life, from its 
 birth or, more exactly, from the time it was weaned 
 (i Sam. I, 24, 2 Mace. 7, 28) till the completed 
 fourth or fifth year, so long as it remained exclusively 
 in the home, the parents had the special duty of be- 
 ginning its instruction in the Scriptures. "As soon 
 as he can talk, his father shall teach him the Torah 
 and to read Shema. (What is meant by Torah? 
 . . . The verse of Deut. 33, 4: The law which 
 Moses commanded us is the inheritance of the con- 
 gregation of Jacob. What is meant by Shema? 
 The first verse, Deut. 6, 4: Hear, O Israel!" The 
 prayer Kaddish in its various forms, a liturgical 
 prayer or doxology based upon Ezek. 38, 23, begin- 
 ning, as a rule, with the words: "Magnified be Thy 
 name, O Lord!" used especially upon very solemn 
 occasions, was also taught in early youth and was 
 thought to have great power, notably also for pre- 
 serving from Gehenna, Tract Kitzur Sh'eh, Her- 
 shon, 332, 10. It is related of Lois, the grandmoth- 
 er, and Eunice, the mother of Timothy, that they in- 
 structed him in the Holy Scriptures "from a child," 
 2 Tim. I, 5. 3, 15. The expression apo brephous 
 shows that the beginning of Timothy's religious in- 
 struction had been made in his infancy. That even 
 the very small children were accustomed to religious 
 
THE ROMAN PERIOD 87 
 
 observances, appears from the following passage: 
 ''Children are not made to fast on the Day of Atone- 
 ment, but when one or two years old, they are ac- 
 customed to do it, so that they become habituated to 
 obey the religious commandments," Tract Yomah 
 (VI, 124). In their entire treatment of children 
 parents were warned to be entirely impartial, for 
 nothing so harms discipline as injustice. "A man 
 should never show preference for one child above 
 his other children," Tract Sabbath (i, 19). 
 
 With the completion of the fourth or fifth year, 
 according to the order of Joshua ben Gamla, the 
 time came for the pupil to go to the first school, the 
 infant school, the Talmudic timukot shel bet rab- 
 ban, the 'babies of the teacher^s house.' This school 
 was later, together with the elementary school, called 
 Heder. It is concerning the discipline in a school of 
 this kind, probably, that we read: "Never tease a 
 young pupil . . . their kingdom is behind their 
 tears (i. e. when they become older they seek re- 
 venge)," Tract Pesachim (V, 38). It has been 
 thought that scribes had charge of the infant school. 
 Information on the subject is wanting. In the later 
 Heder, a lower Rabbi was teacher. Besides contin- 
 uing their Scriptural studies (principally by rote), 
 the young pupils were now taught the Hebrew alpha- 
 bet. A very ingenious and interesting method of 
 making the memorizing of the letters easy, by com- 
 
88 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 paring them with animals and other well-known ob- 
 jects, is given in Tract Sabbath (ii, 208). The 
 pupils also learned to count, which was quite easily 
 taught, since the letters of the Hebrew alphabet are, 
 at the same time, their numbers. 
 
 With his entry into the elementary school, the 
 Bet-ha-Sefer or * House of the Book,' the boy was 
 fully launched into his education. Boys from their 
 sixth to their completed ninth year attended this 
 school. It happened, however, especially in later 
 years, that children up to the age of thirteen were en- 
 rolled in the primary school. It seems that a fee 
 was required of the boys, at least at some time : "To 
 begin the study of the Torah required 200 zuz," 
 Tract Baba Bathra (XIV, 323). If there was no 
 building erected for the purpose, a dwelling was con- 
 verted into a school-house J and the equipment was 
 very meagre. There was an elevated place or plat- 
 form for the teacher. The pupils, in early times, 
 squatted before him on the floor or ground. Later 
 on, at least in some of the schools (HilleFs), there 
 were chairs for the pupils. "Let thy house be the 
 meeting-place of the wise; sit gladly at their feet, 
 and drink in their words with avidity. The house 
 should be for the use of the scholars and their dis- 
 ciples. (The pupil) shall not sit before thee on 
 the bed, chair, or bench, but on the floor, and every 
 word that thou utterest he shall receive with awe, 
 
THE ROMAN PERIOD 89 
 
 terror, fear, and trembling," Tract Aboth (IX, 27 
 ff.)« Twenty-five children was the highest number 
 of pupils permitted to each teacher in a class for j 
 elementary instruction. There should be an assistant \ 
 appointed, if there be forty in number; and if fifty 
 there should be two competent teachers. Tract Baba 
 Bathra, Hershon, 179, 77. There is a story told in this 
 connection about a teacher's negligence and superfi- 
 ciality which is very significant. The rabbi or 
 city penman J who taught the boys, was designated as 
 teacher. His Hebrew name was modeled after the 
 Greek paidagogos. There were also artisan mas- 
 ters for the instruction in the trades, upon which the 
 Talmud insisted, Tract Sabbath (i, 22). The re- 
 ligious subjects taken up in the Bet-ha-Sefer were 
 the book of Leviticus, followed by all the books of 
 the Bible. This is the order in which Aquiba and his 
 son studied. In addition, there was the review of the 
 alphabet and the alphabet backwards, reading and 
 writing, grammar and composition. Some attention 
 was also given to hygiene in the question of proper 
 diet for school-boys. Tract Sabbath, 11, 318. The 
 age of the boys in this school was considered the 
 best for memory work. ^'He who learns as a lad, 
 what is he like ? To ink written on fresh paper. And 
 he who learns when old, what is he like? To ink 
 written on blotted paper,'* Tract Aboth (IX, 67). 
 The secondary school, Bet-ha-Midrash, the *house 
 
90 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 of study' or ^house of learning/ was the next step in 
 the boy's education. According to rabbinical tradi- 
 tion, this school looks back upon a long term of ser- 
 vice. The school of Samuel at Rama (i Sam. 19, 
 19) was said to have been one of this type. Solo- 
 mon built many, Hezekiah fostered them, the young 
 men of the tribe of Issachar, with the aid of Zebulun, 
 the merchant, attended them. At the time of Vespa- 
 sian, Jewish writers assert, there were 480 schools, 
 Bet-ha-Sefer together with Bet-ha-Midrash, in Jeru- 
 salem. There were houses or rooms set apart for 
 the purpose of teaching, called houses of learning, 
 where the pupils sat before their masters, at the 
 time of Hillel, on chairs, Tract Aboth (IX, 137). 
 The average age of the pupils in this school was from 
 ten to fourteen years. The rabbis, who had charge 
 of the schools, were not to receive pay from the pu- 
 pils, Tract Derech Eretz-Zuta (IX, 24). There 
 was evidently a privilege as to choice of teachers, 
 though the passage may refer to academies only. 
 'When thou hast studied under one master, say not: 
 'It is enough!' but go and study under another. 
 . . . It is a duty to study under three masters. . . . 
 Because thou canst not know which master's teach- 
 ing will remain with thee, or perhaps all are good," 
 Tract Aboth (IX, 20). The instruction consisted 
 principally in the Mishna, Tract Kethuboth, Her- 
 shon, 138, 19, which was memorized and explained 
 
THE ROMAN PERIOD 91 
 
 because a boy of thirteen was to perform the com- 
 mandments, Tract Aboth (IX, 133). The reason 
 why there was such a thorough drill in religious in- 
 struction with its applications is given: "Without 
 the knowledge of religion there can be no true cul- 
 ture, and without true culture there is no knowledge 
 of religion. Where there is no wisdom, there is no 
 fear of God, and without fear of God there is no 
 wisdom,'' Tract Aboth (IX, 79). There was spec- 
 ial zeal in the effort to get the lessons soon and not 
 procrastinate. "Children in their rabbi's house 
 (school) have arranged their paragraphs and read be- 
 fore the lamplight," Tract Sabbath (i, 24). The 
 course of study was an unintermittent one. "Why 
 do disciples die while young? Not because they are 
 adulterers, or robbers, but because they interrupt 
 their studies, and occupy themselves with idle con- 
 versation, and also because they do not begin again 
 where they stopped," Tract Aboth (IX, 93 ff.). 
 The discipline of the school was, according to rab- 
 binical rules, administered with the greatest wisdom. 
 "Mar Zutra the Pious, when a young scholar was 
 delinquent and deserving to be reprimanded, first 
 reprimanded himself and then the young scholar," 
 Tract Moed Katan (VII, 33). 
 
 It may be interesting, before continuing in the 
 discussion of the college, to note that there was a 
 similar institution called Bet Waad, 'meeting-place 
 
92 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 of scholars/ in the days of Jose ben Jaezer of Zereda 
 in Maccabean times, where the hearers or disciples 
 sat on the ground before their teachers. 
 
 There was one high school of special renown in 
 Jerusalem in the temple hall, where advanced pu- 
 pils were admitted and discussions of the Law and 
 the Mishna were held. That was the Bet-ha-Mid- 
 rash-ha-gadol, which the boy Jesus visited, when he 
 was twelve years old, Luke 2. 
 
 The college was the meeting-place of advanced 
 scholars, such as had finished the Torah and Mishna, 
 as well as the elementary studies in other branches. 
 For though the Jews made religious teaching the 
 basis of all instruction, yet they did not by any means 
 confine their school system to religious instruction. 
 "It is necessary to have a knowledge of the world, 
 beside a knowledge of the Holy Law," Peters, p. 
 164. And their aim was certainly a splendid one. 
 "The ultimate end of all knowledge and wisdom is 
 man's inner purification and the performance of 
 good and noble deeds," p. 163. Though the various 
 schools were not so sharply defined as to age as in 
 our day, the rule was that the pupils of the college 
 were from fifteen to eighteen or twenty years old. 
 There was a college in every larger city, apparently, 
 because the Talmud speaks of them quite casually. 
 Tract Aboth (IX, 122). The term academy seems 
 to have been confined to the schools of the great 
 
THE ROMAN PERIOD 93 
 
 educational centers of Nehardea, Sura, and Pumbe- 
 dita, in Babylonia, and Jerusalem, Jamnia, and Ti- 
 berias, in Palestine. In many of the colleges the stu- 
 dents were evidently crowded for room, because it 
 is stated that four and even six men sat to one 
 (square?) ell, Tract Erubin (III, 119). The col- 
 leges seem to have been conducted to some extent on 
 the boarding-school plan. "The disciples of the col- 
 lege ate in the inns of the valley and passed the 
 night at the college," Tract Erubin (III, 171). 
 There was a hostelry (inn) started in the 
 neighborhood of the college of Eliezer, Tract 
 Aboth (IX, 30 ff.). In the college, a teach- 
 er was not limited to twenty-five pupils as in the ele- 
 mentary grades, because Hillel the First had eighty 
 disciples. Tract Aboth (IX, 54). Moreover, "in 
 the college the most scholarly has preference to age," 
 Tract Baba Bathra (XIV, 236). 
 
 As to the subjects taught, the religious subjects of 
 course ranked first. The passages praising the study 
 of the Law are almost innumerable. A few of the 
 shorter ones are: "There is no love such as the love 
 of the Torah. The words of the Torah are as dif- 
 ficult to acquire as silken garments," Tract Aboth 
 (IX, 97). "Turn it and turn it again, etc.," Tract 
 Aboth (IX, 133 ff.). "Study Law in old age as 
 well as in youth, in years of famine as well as in 
 years of plenty," Tract Aboth (IX, 20). The sub- 
 
/ 
 
 94 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 jects taught are enumerated in Tract Succah (VII, 
 37 f.) as follows: ^'Bible, Mishna, Gemara, Halak- 
 hoth, Agadoth, observations of the Bible, observa- 
 tions of the scribes, lenient ones and vigorous ones, 
 the analogies of expression, equinoxes, geometries, the 
 language of the angels and the language of the evil 
 spirits, and the language of the trees, the fables, the 
 great things, the heavenly chariots and the small 
 things, the discussion of Abayi and Rabha.'' It does 
 not occasion surprise therefore that we hear of lec- 
 tures on profane subjects by a noted teacher. Tract 
 Pesachim (V, 38). And since the Torah was taught 
 and reviewed in the college, not merely by memoriz- 
 ing, but by discussion and argumentation as well, 
 there was a training in logic and rhetoric which was 
 of great value. There must also have been instruc- 
 tion in medicine given, at least to some extent, be- 
 cause physicians are so often spoken of and various 
 remedies discussed. It is true, of course, that a 
 great many remedies were those of superstitition and 
 witchcraft. 
 
 The training at the college was a very strict one, 
 and a thorough knowledge was insisted upon. "Schol- 
 ars engaged in studying Law must stop for the read- 
 ing of Shema, but they need not stop for prayer,'* 
 Tract Sabbath (I, 20). "Man should not absent 
 himself from the house of learning, even for one 
 hour. Man should never absent himself from the 
 
THE ROMAN PERIOD 95 
 
 house of learning, even when at the point of death," 
 Tract Sabbath (I, i6i). The explanation was thor- 
 ough, Tract Erubin (III, 126 ff.). "One shall not 
 willfully sleep till past the hour of reading the 
 Shema, for by doing so he neglects the Law. . . . 
 One should not make a practice of talking to his 
 wife, sons, or daughters, when he is studying at 
 home, for by doing so he neglects the Torah. . . . 
 One should not lounge with idlers in the market, 
 lest he neglect the Torah," Tract Aboth (IX, 80, 
 81). "One who walks by the way and learns, and 
 breaks oflE his studying and says. How beautiful is 
 this tree! and. How fine this furrowed field! is en- 
 dangering his own life," Tract Aboth (IX, 76). 
 "Never in my life came a man to the house of learn- 
 ing before me, and I never slept in the house of 
 learning a long or a short time; I never left a man 
 in the house of learning when I went away," is the 
 boast of a great rabbi, Tract Succah (VII, 37). 
 
 In regard to the students and their abilities, we 
 find some keen observations. "There are four kinds 
 of visitors in the house of learning: he that goes and 
 does not practice (i. e. he accepts the lessons with- 
 out any examination or study of them), the reward 
 of going only remains with him; he that practices 
 (i. e. he that studies at home) and does not go, the 
 reward of practice remains with him; he that does 
 both is pious; he that enrolls among the college vis- 
 
96 EDUCATION AMONG THE JEWS 
 
 itors, but neither goes not practices, is wicked," 
 Tract Aboth (IX, 131 f.). "Gamaliel the Elder 
 compares disciples to the following four kinds of 
 fish : an unclean, a clean fish, a fish found in the Jor- 
 dan, and one found in the Ocean. By an unclean fish 
 is meant a disciple of poor intellect, who, notwith- 
 standing his study of Scripture, Mishna, Halakhoth, 
 and Agadoth, still remains poor-minded. By a clean 
 fish is meant a disciple of rich intellect, who studies 
 Scripture, Mishna, Halakhoth, and Agadoth, and 
 develops his mind. By the fish from the Jordan is 
 meant a scholar who has studied all the mentioned 
 subjects, but has not acquired the faculty of an- 
 swering questions put to him. And by a fish found 
 in the Ocean is meant a scholar who studied all the 
 above subjects and has the ability of answering the 
 questions put to him," Tract Aboth (IX, 138 fl.). 
 
 The subjects, then, in which a Jewish boy, could 
 expect instruction, were: A systematic, thorough in- 
 struction in Religion, Reading, Writing, Grammar, 
 Rhetoric, Logic; a less systematic, perhaps some- 
 what insufficient instruction in Philosophy, Geogra- 
 phy, History, Geometry, Physiology and Hygiene, 
 Astronomy, Zoology, Botany, Music, Medicine. 
 The order of subjects taught in the twelfth century 
 was as follows: Reading, Writing, Torah, Mishna, 
 Hebrew Grammar, Poetry, Talmud, Philosophy of 
 Religion, Logic, Arithmetic, Geometry, Optics, As- 
 
THE ROMAN PERIOD 97 
 
 tronomy, Music, Mechanics, Medicine, Metaphysics. 
 This list is given only for the sake of comparison. 
 
 In conclusion, it seems but fair and just to say 
 that the comparatively high development of the 
 Jewish educational system has done much to give 
 the race the intellectual prominence which it now 
 enjoys. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 The Hexaglot Bible. 
 
 Josephus, Wars of the Jews, Antiquities of the 
 Jews, Against Apion. 
 
 Rodkinson's Babylonian Talmud. 
 
 Hastings Bible Dictionary. 
 
 Schaff-Herzog, Encyclopedia of Religious Knowl- 
 edge. 
 
 Jewish Enx:yclopedia..<; ; ' 
 
 Catholic Encyclopedia. 
 
 Matthew Henn/, Cbmmcntary. 
 
 Meyer, Commentary; LWge, Commentary. 
 
 Peters, Madison C, Wit and Wisdom of the 
 Talmud. 
 
 Hershon, A Talmudic Miscellany. 
 
 Kent, History of the Jewish People. 
 
 Day, Social Life of the Hebrews. 
 
 Delitzsch, Jewish Artisan Life in the Time of 
 Jesus. 
 
 Leipziger, Education of the Jews. 
 
 Schenk, The Sociology of the Bible. 
 
 Cheyne, Jewish Religious Life after the Exile. 
 
 Kent, Israel's Historical and Biographical Nar- 
 ratives. 
 
 Baehr, Symbolik des mosaischen Kultus. 
 
 Goodwin, Moses et Aaron seu Civiles et Eccle- 
 siastici Ritus. 
 
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