^Fffii.>-i;i]-['J;J;^i|i»pi " SIXTH TEAR Books VII AND THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES STATE flORF^AlSCmOL ri. I LOS AKGELES UBRARX — %.''• P/!f A T ' ' ( HV it U TEACHER'S MANUAL PART IV FOR The Prang Elementary Course IN ART INSTRUCTION Books 7 and 8 SIXTH YEAR BY JOHN S. CLARK, MARY DANA HICKS WALTER S. PERRY » • ■'. J r * THE PRANG EDUCATIONAL COMPANY BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO Copyright, 1899, by THE PRANG EDUCATIONAL .COMPANY. STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, ARTS N 3 5^ AUTHORS' PREFACE. No person can be oblivious to the great educational development of the past few years. The introduction of the kindergarten, of manual train- ^ ing, of nature study, of drawing, of modeling, and of color work into the schools have all led the way to a broader and fuller recognition of the subject of art as an essentially important feature of public education both for the proper development of the individual child and also as a preparation for practical social life. Art for Social Well-being. The psychological developments of the past few years, whether psy- chology be regarded from the old metaphysical, or faculty, standpoint, or from the newer standpoint of physiological investigation, also establish the supreme ftnportance of art as the expression of individual creative activity in the training of youth for social well-being. Art as a Subject of Public Instruction. In the opinion of the authors of this Course the time has therefore come when the subject of (art as a definite, fundamental feature of public instruction should be clearly recognized ; and this Course is a serious at- tempt to formulate for the schools a system of art instruction upon a distinctly psychological and educational basis. XThe instruction starts with the assumption that all art work is in it^ nature the product of creative self-activity, using the study of nature and of art for certain definite, conscious ends, and that drawing, modeling, and work with color are but the means by which this activity is manifested/ Accordingly, in this series there are presented principles and methq^of instruction radi- cally different from any that have been presented heretofore, and embodied in IV AUTHORS PREFACE. in an entirely new set of exercises. And the authors fully believe that the time is ripe for such a system of art instruction as is here presented. Artists and Art Teachers. There are now a goodly number of trained art teachers directing the work in the schools, who not only fully understand the technicalities of art, but who are also acquainted with its psychological and educational aspects. And then, most significant of all, the series includes contribu- tions from some of our most eminent American artists : — John La Faroe, Frederick S. Church, Abbott Thayer, Ross Turner, Edwin H. Blashfield, Arthur W. Dow, WiNSLOw Homer, Herbert Adams. A Distinctive Course. The authors of this system do not feel it necessary to dwell upon the distinctive features which make this Course an essentially new one for our public schools. A mere glance at the illustrations and the nature of the exercises shows how essentially different in aim and method this system is from any which has preceded it. In the preparation of this Course the authors have received assistance from very many persons, and they take a special pleasure in acknowledging the valuable assistance they have re- ceived from the leading supervisors and teachers of art instruction in the country. The authors desire to acknowledge the very great assistance received from Mrs. Edith Clark Chadwick, in the preparation of the illustrations. Valuable Counsel. The authors also desire to acknowledge their obligations for valuable counsel to Mrs. Hannah J. Carter, The Prang Normal Art Classes ; Mrs. M. E. Riley, Supervisor of Drawing, St. Louis, Mo. ; Mr. James Frederick Hopkins, Art Director, Boston, Mass. ; Miss Josephine C. Locke, Super- visor of Drawing, Chicago, 111. ; Prof. W. S. Goodnough, Supervisor of Drawing, Brooklyn, N. Y. ; Miss Katherine E. Shattuck, Normal Class, AUTHORS PREFACE. V Art Department, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y. ; Miss Sara A. Fawcett, Supervisor of Drawing, Newark, N. J. ; Miss Elisa A. Sargent, Supervisor of Drawing, Wilkesbarre, Pa. ; Miss Augusta L. Balch, Supervisor of Draw- ing, Salem, Mass. ; Miss Helen Fraser, Supervisor of Drawing, Columbus, O. ; Miss Myra Jones, Supervisor of Drawing, Detroit, Mich. ; Miss Stella Skinner, Supervisor of Drawing, New Haven, Conn. ; Miss Mabel S. Emery, Boston, Mass. ; Mrs. Lucy Fitch Perkins, Chicago, 111. ; Miss Edith Palmer, Director of Art, Tome Institute, Port Deposit, Md. ; Mr. Alfred V. Churchill, Director of Art, Teachers' College, New York; Miss Eliza B. Richardson, Mrs. Alice Brannan Haley, The Prang Normal Art Classes ; Miss Wilhelmina Seegmiller, Supervisor of Drawing, Indianapolis, Ind.; Miss Ruth Warner, Art Instructor, Teachers' Training Classes, Brooklyn, N. Y. ; Miss Bonnie Snow, Supervisor of Drawing, Minne- apolis, Minn. ; Miss Harriette L. Rice, Supervisor of Drawing, Providence, R. I. ; Miss Mary W. Gilbert, Supervisor of Drawing, New Bedford, Mass. ; Miss Ida E. Boyd, Primary Supervisor of Drawing, Brooklyn, N. Y. ; Mrs. Lucy Booth, Boston, Mass. ; Mrs. Franc Elliott, Supervisor of Drawing, Salt Lake City, Utah ; Miss Mary E. Garretson, Supervisor of Drawing, Allegheny, Pa. ; Miss Estelle E. Potter, Supervisor of Drawing, New London, Conn. ; Miss Ruth Gould, Chicago, 111. JOHN S. CLARK, MARY DANA HICKS, August I, iSgg. WALTER S. PERRY. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE AUTHORS' PREFACE iii-v TABLE OF CONTENTS vii INTRODUCTION Art and Art Education . . 1-3 What is Needed for Art Training 3, 4 The Subject Divisions of Art Instruction 4 Representation 5-22 Decoration 22-38 Construction c' . . . . 3S-45 Composition 45-50 Training of /Ksthktic Judgment . , 51-56 General Directions , . . . 57-64 PRANG COURSE. Purpose of the Course , 67 Plan of the Series . , 68-71 BOOKS 7 AND 8. General Plan for the Sixth Year 71-78 BOOK 7. Millet. — John La Farge. — Branches, Berries. — Trees. — Type Solids: Cube, Square, ^^ Prism. — Familiar Objects. — Figure Studies. — Window Study. — Egyptian Orna- ment. — Greek Ornament. — Space Relations : Mouldings, Door Casings and Window Frames. — Arthur W. Dow. — Egyptian Art 79-166 vii Vlil TABLE OF CONTENTS. BOOK 8. PAGE Edwin H. Blashfield, Anna E. Klumpke. — Hokusai's Daughter, Hiroshige. — Beautiful Objects. — Light and Dark, Light and Shade. — Animal Studies. — Greek Orna- ment. — Type Solids or Objects: Views, Patterns. — Floor Plans. — Problems. — Bracket Designs. — Spring Flowers. — Decorative Design from a Flower, Space Relations. — Landscape, Elementary Composition. — La Farge, Rembrandt. — Greek Art 167-267 APPENDIX, Theoretic Perspective , 269 INTRODUCTION. ART AND ART EDUCATION. The Prang Elementary Course of Art Instruction assumes that Art properly understood is not an imitative copy of nature, but a new creative use of nature's materials for human purposes. The primitive industrial arts — building, weaving, pottery-making, and the like — stood, not for the mere reflection or multi- plication of already existing natural objects, but for human ideas (at first very dim) about the needs of life and about ways of meeting those needs. The great con- structive, industrial arts of to-day, which have grown out of these rude, primitive arts, rise from the same source, a source within human nature ; and that source is what is called creative imagination. But the human race has other needs than those for shelter, food, and clothing to the satisfaction of which the industrial or " useful " arts are chiefly directed. Men have not alone bodies to be cared for, but also hearts, minds, and souls' crying out for nourishment, for exercise, for growth. Feelings of love, admiration, and awe are as " natural " as feelings of cold and hunger, only they have to do with a higher phase of human nature than that which pertains to the body. They are that for which the body exists. iMan instinctively tries to express his best self in a way to appeal to others ; and thus the so-called " Fine Arts " have come into existence, including painting, sculpture, and architecture, all interrelated in practical affairs and all related so closel>^ to the industrial or " useful " arts that the dividing line between them is more theoretic than real. The source of the Fine Arts, therefore, is within our human nature. It is the creative imagination, directed by the heart, mind, and soul, which here uses nature's facts in its own way. This is, in brief, the general idea of art which the authors aim to embody in The Prang Elementary Course of Art Instruction. It is by no means desired that philosophic theories of art be imposed upon children. If teachers grasp the underlying idea, they will naturally use more consistent and practical methods of class-work than are sometimes followed in a haphazard way, in the absence of any real understanding of what art is. I • 2 INTRODUCTION. With this idea of art and its place in the world, as a basis in the teacher's mind, it will be apparent that elementary art instruction should aim to develop the best mental powers of each individual child. The growth of the children's creative imagination along healthy hnes, accompanied by growth in manual skill as the result of actual practice in doing things, is the main purpose of the whole course. To this end the child is led to make and classify in his mind observations of form and color in nature, and observations of form and color as used by master-workers \ in already existing art creations. These two correlated lines of observation — together with the exercise of personal, creative activity — are of the greatest educa- tional importance. The helpful influence of studying good art examples cannot be overestimated, quickening as they do the child's artistic sense, inspiring him with fresh interest and leading him to work toward higher ideals than those which he would perceive unaided. For instance, in connection with the study of Nature for her material facts and her spiritual meanings, the pupil studies fine artistic renderings of nature, — plant Hfe, animal life, and landscape, where beauty of space arrangement is well con- sidered, — leading up to studies of fine landscape motives in the best decorative composition, and to the creative utilization of landscape motives in original compositions. In connection with the study of Industrial Construction pupils are led to consider not only fitness of form to material and to purpose, but also beauty of form and proportion and of space relations. Examples of constructive drawing where all these elements have been carefully considered are presented for study in the various grades, giving* a wide variety of subjects, and in the higher grades broadening into the study of examples of architectural masterpieces. In connection with the study of Historic Ornament and Decorative Design the pupil also studies space relations, both through observation of examples and through original, creative work, learning to see in the characteristic ornaments of different nations and different ages not simply a record of environments and race histories, but also and above all a showing of the manifold ways in which people have tried to express their own ideals of beauty and harmony in form and color and in space relations. Pose Drawing, begun in the lowest grades and there incidentally utilized as a means of illustrating stories of human character and action, is strengthened in every grade by the presentation of artists' drawings from the pose ; and, as the study of beauty in space relations gradually shows its bearing upon pose drawing, the exam- ples given from great artists like Thayer, Sargent, Blashfield, and La Farge lead ART AND ART EDUCATION. 3 pupils' power of appreciation up toward the supreme artistic utilization of the human figure in the greatest decorative art, where man's own image is used to show forth the finest feelings, the most exquisite fancies, and the greatest thoughts of the masters. To reach these ends necessarily implies careful training for the pupil. Draw- ing is not " natural " to children in the same sense in which speaking, walking, and eating are natural. Counting out the rare artistic geniuses that appear not once or twice in a whole generation of children, it must always remain true that good drawing cannot be secured merely by giving children opportunity for the expression of their present selves, but by sympathetic, intelligent, conscientious training, leading them toward still higher stages of appreciation and of creative power. Yet the development of personal skill in drawing is only a part of the purpose of the Course. The cultivation of readiness in the use of drawing in connection with other studies is also a part of the purpose. These are means toward an end. The end is twofold ; it includes the development of individual, creative power according to the measure of each child's natural endowment, and it includes the development of individual, appreciative power, each child rising gradually from the point where he enjoys only the sort of thing which he can do for himself, up to a point where he is able to enter in some measure into the thought and feeling of really great artists. What is needed for Art Training. In preparing material for such art training, the needs of the supervisor or director of the teachers and children must be carefully considered. The drawing- book with fine examples of painting, sculpture, and architecture from masters on illustrative pages and with special examples on the drawing pages is needed. Such a drawing-book gives inspiration and instruction to teachers and children by examples of good composition and rendering, of historic ornament, and of conven- tions of industrial drawing, and also by providing that sequence of work which is so essential for all true progress. The supervisor or director may direct and personally inspire the teachers through meetings, classes, visits, and courses of study, but even with drawing-books these cannot suffice for the needs of the teachers in the absence of the supervisor. Therefore, manuals are provided which enable the supervisor or director to put into the hands of the teachers the general plan, principles, and methods of Art Instruction for reference and for study. 4 INTRODUCTION. 4 In addition to drawing-books and manuals, the teachers should be supplied with material which will serve to educate and elevate the pupils — objects of nature and of art which will help in the formation of ideals. Growing plants in the windows of the schoolroom will do much to bring the child to a love and apprecia- tion of nature. Types of form — the type models, and types of color as found in the color unit, are needed as standards by which to classify and to appreciate general form and color. Beautiful objects of art as subjects for study and for drawing aid very much in the cultivation of taste. A collection of fine pottery forms is a valuable adjunct in Art Instruction. And finally, examples of the great art conceptions of the world, simply framed and hung upon the walls of the schoolroom, will create an atmosphere of fine thought and feeling conducive to that appreciation and production of the beautiful by each individual pupil for which Art Instruction aims. THE SUBJECT DIVISIONS OF ART INSTRUCTION. There are three distinct yet correlaf?d subjects in Art Instruction which call for careful consideration : — Representation, the science and art of delineating or representing objects as they appear to the eye. Decoration, the science and art of producing beauty in ornament. Construction, the science and art of making diagrams or working-drawings, which give the facts of objects, and from which objects may be constructed. Every course of drawing should give well-balanced and closely connected instruction in the three subjects, — Representation, Decoration, Construction, — should lead to the appreciation of beautiful form in each of the three subjects, and should provide suitable examples of " rendering " as well as of historic ornament. Care should be taken to have the nature of these three subjects clearly devel- oped in the minds of the pupils ; and frequent opportunity should be taken to recall and impress them. Instruction in the three subjects should be as nearly parallel as possible ; it would be found a great disadvantage to pursue one of them for six months at a time to the exclusion of the other two. REPRESENTATION. 5 Composition is essential in all these subjects. It includes selection, arrange- ment, proportion, space relations. Thus there is composition in pictures — com- position in ornament — composition in constructive design. Composition in art, as in literature and in music, may be studied in the work of artists, but it can be produced only by the individual, as it of necessity implies original work. Representation; or, Drawing as Applied in Representing the Appearance of Objects. Representation not only deals with the truth of appearance : it also requires the making of a picture by composition as well as by drawing. The art principles of selection and arrangement can be applied in elementary composition by the pupils, not only in the selection and grouping of objects to make a picture, but also in selection and arrangement in landscape. Here space relation and line direction play important parts. It must be remembered that composition appeals directly to the creative faculty. What a Picture is. — A true picture not only shows how an object or a group of objects appears, but it also tells something of the one who has drawn the picture. It tells how the object looked to him ; it tells not only what he saw, but also what he thought about the objects. For whoever draws a picture indicates, or tries to indi- cate, in the drawing what parts he cared for most. He also endeavors to show his ideas of beautiful composition. This human element, added to the true presentation of the appearance of objects, makes the real picture. Now a picture may be in outline, in light and dark, in light and shade, or in color. The study and drawing of the appearance of simple models and objects for the mere outline is valuable in order to attain a realization of the true appearance in different positions. Along with this, there should be a study of the best methods of express- ing the relative importance of objects, of showing the greatest beauty of contour and of light and shade, and of giving feeling to the work by drawing ; also of suggesting color through light and dark by " pencil-painting " or by ink and the brush, or by painting with color. Pictorial Composition. Its Purpose. — One of the most important elements in Representation is that of composition. This element enters into all Representation, whether of single objects or a group of objects. Its purpose is to create a subtle arrangement or syn- thesis of lines, of forms, of colors, which shall present a beautiful whole. The final 6 INTRODUCTION. test of composition must be its effect in producing a beautiful impression as a whole — an impression attained only through that interrelation and subordmation of parts which make oneness — unity. Ruskin defines composition as " the help of every- thing in the picture by everything else." The first step toward composition is selec- tion, looking toward harmony. The objects selected for a group may be beautiful in themselves, and yet, if their relation to each other, if their mutual " help " is not considered, if, in other words, they are not " composed," the effect as a whole will not be beautiful. Selection of Objects. — It is well to remember that even in its beginnings this work should be pictorial art. For this purpose, select objects which are beautiful in form and pleasing in association. The many pleasant associations that we have with objects which are constant companions form a good basis for direct study. The selection of natural objects must be made with equal care. It is frequently said that "Nature never makes a mistake." The inference made by some from this statement is that all natural objects are beautiful. A moment's reflection will show that this is not true. In selecting natural objects, of any definite kind, for Form Study and Drawing, the guiding thought should be to choose characteristic and beautiful examples. A Group. — In making a group, determine first the idea to be expressed, thus leading to the selection of objects having harmonious relations. The idea of the group, then, controls the selection of the objects — here again appears the maxim, as true in art as in education, the whole before the parts. If the idea is to express the beauty of fruit, let the group be wholly of fruit. If the idea is to express the beauty of vegetables, — fruits of the earth, — let the group be wholly of vegetables. A variety of things having no apparent connection with one another gives no pleasure in a picture, and distracts rather than composes. For instance, a group of delicate fruit with rougher vegetables seems inharmonious. They have not enough in common, either in the purpose which they serve or in their general appearance. The arrange- ment is incongruous. Only the most hardy fruit should be grouped with vegetables. The Arrangement of a Group. — If a picture of a group is desired, it will not, then, be satisfactory to place the objects at random and draw them. Some thought must be given to the arrangement ; for, if arranged in one way, the group may be very pleasing, while if arranged differently, the group may not be at all pleasing. If such arrangements are considered thoughtfully, it will be found that, in the one case, the simple principles of elementary composition have been regarded, and in the other they have been disregarded. It will be found, moreover, that these principles of composition are so simple and natural that children may be led to discover them. In studying the arrangement of a group, consider : — REPRESENTATION. 7 1. The place of the principal object. 2. The place of the secondary objects. 3. The figure made by the group on the ground or table. 4. Partial view of some of the objects. 5. Upper line of the group. 6. Variety in the positions of the axes and in the faces visible. 7. Repose of the objects. 8. Unity of the group — distance between objects. (i) Choose the principal object, and, generally, place it centrally but not exactly in the centre ; (2) do not place the other objects in a straight line with the principal object; (3) try the effect of placing the objects so that if the centres of their bases were connected an irregular figure would be made ; (4) place them as if they were good friends and belonged together, and (5) so that they will appear at rest. But remember (6) that the objects should not have the same positions, that is, their axes should not be all upright or all horizontal ; they should not be parallel or at right angles to each other ; and they should not present exactly the same faces; and (7) one of the objects should be partially hidden behind another, even if there are no more than two objects in the group. Look now (8) to see if, in the group that you have made, the objects will appear of the same height when drawn. If so, change them, for the effect will not be pleasing. By skilful questioning, the pupils can be led to these points. It will be noticed that unity, repose, and variety are emphasized as of particular importance. They are indeed essentials in all good pictorial composition. Both variety and repose should be tributary to unity in any composition. Where unity is lacking, repose is always lacking. Consider also the arrangement with reference to carrying the eye into the picture. Placing one object farther back than another suggests distance into the picture, which is always pleasing, as it brings with it the feeling of freedom and atmosphere. If one of the objects is placed so that its axis or its leading lines tend from you, it will aid in producing the effect of distance. And as a test of the whole, consider the general space relations. These may be shown in a very satisfactory way by enclosing the group, as it were, by observing it through an oblong opening cut in paper, which will make a frame for the group. The hands held first vertically and then horizontally also suggest a frame. Placing. Placing Objects or Groups. — Thought should be given to the placing of the various sprays, objects, or groups, so that they may be advantageously seen. It is 8 INTRODUCTION. always better for a pupil to draw from an object or group on some desk other than his own, to get the softening and unifying effect of distance : and frequently it is well that the object or group drawn should be at considerable distance. After the objects or groups are placed, let each pupil look about the room to find that which he likes the best and which he can see in its best position ; for art seeks for the best. The placing of objects is generally something of a problem. But in the case of an upright cylindric or conic object, which always appears the same, the solution is easy. Boards may be procured long enough to extend across the aisles between the desks. Two such boards would be required for each alternate aisle, one being needed at the front and one halfway down the aisle. Cleats may be screwed on the ends of the boxes of the desk to serve as supports for these boards when they are needed for the drawing exercise. The other aisles will be left free for the teacher or pupils. At the close of the exercise, the boards can be removed and put away. Other models and objects may be arranged on the desks. Each pupil may pile three or four books far back upon the desk, alternately at the left and right. If there is absolutely no level part of the desk, raise the pile by placing a folded paper under the front, so that there may be a surface about level for the models. On the upper book place a sheet of manila paper, and then arrange the models or objects to make a pleasing group. Be careful that the objects are not too far below the eye. If branches are to be drawn they may be hung in various places, so as to give the best opportunity for study to the greatest number. If they are hung on the blackboard for the pupils in the front seats, a piece of white or neutral-tinted paper should be placed behind them. A pasteboard folded like a table picture-frame or an open book standing on a board across the aisle serves very well as a support foi a small branch. A spray of leaves or flowers should be studied from all sides to discover its most REPRESENTATION. 9 pleasing aspect. It is well to have a spray placed in a vase of good form ; if that is not practicable, it is frequently possible to keep the spray in good position by plac- ing the end between the leaves of a closed book which is standing. It is well, also, to have the spray at some little distance from the pupil who is drawing it. It may sometimes be desirable to remove part of the stem or a leaf or two, or perhaps to add another spray, in order to get a good effect. The Japanese make the arrange- ment of leaves and flowers a very serious study. There is an interesting book by Conder on this Japanese art. Appearance of Objects. Technical Points. — There are certain technical points and general principles which follow concerning the appearance of objects that every teacher should know. The pupil in the primary and lower grammar grades learns these points simply as matters of experience without definite statement, but in the upper grammar grades generalization concerning these points begins and teachers should be prepared. Why the Appearance of Objects differs from their Facts. — The appearance of an object as to outhnes depends on two conditions : — I. Its position in regard to the observer. 2. Its distance from the observer. Position affects the apparent FORM of an object ; distance affects the appai-ent size. The apparent form of any object, except a perfect sphere, varies with every posi' Hon in which it is placed in regard to the observer. The apparent size of an object decreases as its distance front the observer increases. The effect of distance on the apparent size of an object is a matter of common observation. Compare a vertical measurement on the pencil (see page lo) of an object at a distance of three feet, with a vertical measure of the same object at a distance of ten feet. Measurement on the Pencil. — The use of measurement on the pencil is to ohia.m proportion. If pupils do not already know how to measure on the pencil, the following practice is desirable. The teacher draws upon the board at the front of the room vertical oblongs of different proportions. If the schoolroom is wide, it will be better to have several such oblongs, — some at the left, some in the middle, and some at the right end of the board. The teacher gives the following directions, and sees that each is intelligently carried out before proceeding to the next, explaining that the measurement to be taken first is the width of the oblong, — next the height of the oblong. The exercise may be varied by measuring objects in the room, as window-panes, door-panels, etc. Remember that these measurements give proportion only, not size. 10 INTRODUCTION. In measuring horizontally, take great care that the pencil is parallel to the line of the eyes ; in measuring vertically, that the pencil does not incline either back- ward or forward, either to the right or to the left ; that it is kept in the same plane, as if against a vertical pane of glass directly in front of the eye.^ As it is necessary that the distance of the pencil from the object should be absolutely the same while studying any one object or group, all measurements should be taken with the shoulders resting firmly against the back of the chair, and the pencil at arm's length ; it will be necessary also to take all measurements with one eye closed. Position and Practice by Pupils in Holding the Pencil for Measurement. — Sit well back in the chair, with head erect, and shoulders resting firmly against the back of the chair. Grasp the pencil in the middle with the fingers, leaving the thumb, and as occasion demands, the forefinger, free to move along the pencil. '^j-' Hold the pencil horizontal zxA parallel \.o the line of the eyes, at arm's length,, with the point to the right. Drop the hand to rest. Hold the pencil vertical (not inclining either backward or forward, either to the right or the left), at arm's length, with the point downward. Measuring Horizontally. — Sit back in the chair, close one eye, and hold the pencil horizontal, at arm's length, with the point to the right, and so that the left end appears to be just at the left side of the form or figure to be measured ; move the thumb until it appears to be just at the right side. Fig. i, page ii. 1 These are the accepted rules for measurement, and at present they seem the most practical ones. Cylindric, conic and spheric perspective bring up some problems with regard to these rules that are not yet worked out. Those who are interested in the subject of perspective problems will find them admirably treated itv " Modern Perspective," by Professor William R. Ware. REPRESENTATION. 11 Measuring Vertically. — Hold the pencil vertical, at arm's length, with the point downward, at such a height that the upper end of the pencil appears to be exactly on a line with the upper side of the form or figure to be measured ; move the thumb up or down the pencil until the thumb appears to be on a Hne with the lower side of the form or figure, Fig. 2, below. Comparing Two Measurements. — Remember always to take the same position (back in the chair, pencil at arm's length) for any two measurements that you wish to compare ; an^ that the tneasurements give proportion only, not size. Take the shorter measurement on the pencil, keep it by holding the thumb fixed ; turn the pen- cil and compare this measurement with the longer, by seeing how many times the shorter measurement can be repeated in the longer. Decide carefully upon the proportion between the two measurements. Fig. I. Fig. 2. As a preliminary to the exercises in Representation, this practice can be given in measurement on the pencil. It is not intended, however, that in the early exer- cises the objects shall be studied by measurement on the pencil, as it is desired to lead the pupils to see approximately the appearance of objects without this aid. It would be well to call for judgment by the eye first, then measurement on the pencil. And even when measurements on the pencil are made, it must be remembered that they are of assistance only in determining general proportion. It is almost impos- sible to secure absolutely correct measurements by such means ; the eye must always be the final test. Study of Direction of Edges. — In order to study the direction of a horizontal edge, hold a pencil horizontal and parallel to the line of the eyes, at arm's length, with the point to the right. Raise or lower the pencil as the edge to be observed may be higher or lower ; but keep it always horizontal and parallel to the line of the eyes. Compare the direction of the edge observed with that of the pencil. The observation, by this means, of the upper edge of a door or of a window-blind, open and shut, brings out admirably the difference in apparent direction. 12 INTRODUCTION. General Principles. — Nearly all the principles in this subject can be gained from the study of the appearance of type forms, the simplest geometric solids. These type forms may be broadly classified as : — I. Cylindric forms. 2. Rectangular forms. By observations of such forms, pupils may be led to see, and to express orally and by drawing : — /. T/iai a circle seen obliquely always appears like an ellipse. 2. That the more obliquely the circle is seen, the more nearly the ellipse approaches a straight line. 3. That the less obliquely the circle is seen, the more nearly the ellipse approaches a circle. 4. That a horizontal face, when above or below the eye, always appears foreshortened. L.ofE. VP 5. That the farther of two edges, horizontal from left to right, appears shorter than the nearer. 6. That all parallel horizontal edges, receding from the eye, appear to converge. 7. That all receding horizontal edges appear to incline toward the level of the eye, and must be so drawn. REPRESENTA TION. 13 8. Thai all parallel horizontal edges receding from the eye appear to converge to a point on the level of the eye, and must be drawn so that, if produced, they will meet in a point on the level of the eye (Z. of E.). g. That parallel horizontal edges receding to the left appear to cojiverge to a point on the level of the eye at the left of the object ; those receding to the right appear to converge to the right of the object. These points are called respectively Vanish- ing Point I {V. F. i) and Vanis hi Jig Point 2 {V. P. 2}. L.ofE. 10. ij. 12. That for rectans^nlar objects standing with side faces turned equally away, the vanishing points are equidistant from the object. That the farther vertical edges appear shorter than the nearer, and should be so drawn. That for rectangtdar objects standing with side faces turned unequally away, V. P. I and V. P. 2 arc unequally distant from the object, according to the angles at which the object stands. V.P.L V.P.2. The illustrations of the appearance of the group of objects and of the square prism below the level of the eye exemplify principles 1-8. The illustrations given of the cube turned and bt:lo\v the level of the eye are an exemplification of principles 6-1 1. These principles can also be confirmed and impressed by the study of square plinths above the eye, as in the case of the abacus of a column. The illustrations of these principles are made from models, as the exact forms of the models show the application of these principles more clearly than irregular objects would do. It is delightful to see how pupils will deduce the essential laws of the change in the appearance of objects in different positions, from their own observation. This deduction, however, should not be forced, but should come as a natural growth. 14 INTRODUCTION. Rendering. Outline, Light and Dark, Light and Shade. — There are three ways of carrying out a picture with pencil, pen, or brush in monochrome — in outline, in light and dark, in light and shade. In outline, as has been said above, the hnes should vary accord- ing to texture and importance and a slight expression of light and shade may also be given. In what is known as light and dark, color contrasts and values are shown by means of masses of light and dark, sometimes in two tones, sometimes in more. Examples of expression of color and of pleasing space relations by light and dark will be found all through the drawing-books, notably in the illustrations from the Japanese and those by Arthur W. Dow. In light and shade, the effect of sunlight and shadow is represented. See Light and Shade, page i6. Color effects shown by light and dark and the effects of light and shade are frequently found in the same drawing. Blocking-in. — It is a great art principle to look for the mass first, whether in form, or in light and shade. Every exercise in Representation should tend to fix this great principle. Blocking-in — that is, getting the general shape and proportion in the quickest and simplest manner possible — is one of the means by which atten- tion is directed first to the mass, the object as a whole, rather than to the details — to the group as a whole, rather than to individual objects in the group. Therefore it is well to block in an object or a group. But very few lines should be used ; for if every change in direction should be represented by a line, the process of blocking-in would become that of studying details. See Plate I and also the illustration on page 15. You will note that the blocking-in lines sometimes touch the outlines of the objects, sometimes cross them, and sometimes do not touch them at all, as there may sometimes be subordinate objects or outlines, that do not affect the outer Hrait of the group. The blocking-in lines may be continuous, or may be simply indica- tions of direction. The illustration, page 15, shows how a few lines will bring out the general mass ; a few more have been added to bring out each object as a whole. The special points in blocking-in are proportion of the mass, shape of the mass, size suited to the space. There is no rule for blocking-in which excludes any of these conditions ; any of these ways may be taken which will help to express the general shape of the mass. Whatever way is taken, however, blocking-in lines should be very light, that they may not interfere with the later stages of the drawing. And there should not be a feeling that they must be absolutely adhered to ; it frequently happens that changes are found necessary as the drawing progresses. PLATE I- ^^,(!S5HW«^^***''~" f ■SfUn^. fllWLaa;_^Xi.i. Blocking-in. REPRESENTATION. 15 Blocking-in has more than the immediate effect of getting the shape of the particular thing to be drawn. It induces a habit of mind ; it leads to study of the mass everywhere, to large views, to looking at the whole before the parts, beginning first in judgment of form in mass, then in detail of a group of forms, continuing this habit in judgment of actions and of events. H Quality of Line. — Every drawing should show a feeling for the character of the material of the object drawn. This is always seen in what is called artistic rendering. Natural objects differ from manufactured objects in substance and texture, and they have varying outlines. The wooden models are exact in form and outline ; therefore, in drawing their outlines, a more definite but still transparent line should be used. Outlines not only vary in direction, but are more decided and definite in some parts than in others. This variation in direction and in definiteness is expressive of the varying forces of life and growth, and must be rendered by a similarly vary- ing line in the drawing. A lemon, being somewhat indefinite in outline, on account of the peculiar texture of the skin which holds its delicious fragrance, should be drawn with a line varying in thickness and not quite continuous. The skin of the apple is smoother ; this will need a somewhat lighter line and more continuous throughout than the line for the lemon. Remember also that it is the general form which should be expressed, and not the small details. Table-Line. — In order to show that an object or group is resting on some- thing, and thus to give an effect of rest in the drawing, what is called a table-line is frequently added. This line represents the farther edge of the table or shelf on which the object rests. Place an apple on a book slightly below the level of the 16 INTRODUCTION. eye, and observe how high up on the outhne the farther edge of the book appears to be. This will help you in drawing the table-line. In order to have the table-line properly observed, the teacher must see that objects are not placed too near the farther edge nor too far in front of it. In the former case, the table-line will appear too low, and as if the object were in danger of tumbling off; in the latter case, the table-line will appear too high, and as if the object were surrounded by too much space. A good general rule is to place the object so that the farther edge of the table or object on which it rests will appear to be less than halfway up the height of the object. The table-line should always be made a little lighter than the Une of the object, to express distance and subordination. Rendering of a Group. — Having blocked in the group, the next thought must be how to finish it so that it may best tell its story. The rendering of a group of objects — that is, the quality and the variety of line used — should be such as to suggest the leading ideas of a group. Therefore, in completing any drawing, keep in mind the whole thought which is to be expressed, and aim to express as far as possible by the rendering, the same ideas that were specially considered in the arrangement of the group. The Principal Object. — It is necessary that one object should be more notice- able than others, in order to have the eye at once attracted. The principal object in a picture may not be consciously observed first, but the eye finds there a resting- place ; if, on the contrary, there are two or three objects equally prominent, the eye is distracted, and the attention wanders. The principal object should be drawn in such a way as to attract the eye at once. Secondary Objects. — One object alone is not so interesting as a group of objects ; for an agreeable element of contrast is added by means of the relation of other objects to the principal object. As they are subordinate to the principal object, they should be rendered by fines not as strong and not as definite as those of ttie principal object. Distance. — The effect of distance into the picture, obtained by the placing of some of the objects farther back than others, must be expressed in the rendering by making the lines for the farther objects somewhat lighter and less definite than those of the principal and nearer objects. By the addition of a background, there will be in such an arrangement, foreground, middle distance, background. Light and Shade. — In addition to the expression of distance, an emphasis on the side of the objects opposite the light, to suggest shade, will also add to the effect. If the light comes from the left, — as it should in every schoolroom, — the right side of the objects would be in shade, and hence the right side should be emphasized. But the light comes from above also, so that the lower part may also REPRESENTATION. 17 be strengthened. These dark lines suggest, shade, but they also suggest light ; for there would be neither shade nor shadow were it not for the light. So the touches for shade really introduce the thought of light into the group. Still further the shade and shadow may be expressed by hnes, varying accord- ing to the degree of shade and shadow, as illustrated in the Drawing-Books, and on Plates II and III. Look at any object placed in the light ; the part toward the light is of a different tone from the part away from the light and the object casts a shadow. We have, then, light on the part toward the light, shade on the part away from the light, and the shadow cast by the object — three distinct conditions as regards the Hght. These conditions, generally included under the term light and shade, are to be studied in this exercise. When the light comes but from one part of the room, the light on the object is strong, the shade and shadow are well defined. If light comes from two or more directions, there will be cross lights, which will cause perhaps two or three shadows mingling with each other, and render the limits of shade and shadow vague. In any elementary study of light and shade, therefore, the light should be arranged as far as possible to fall in one direction. The best effects can be obtained in a schoolroom where the light comes in from the side alone. ^ If the room is lighted from one side and the back, shut off the light from the back and from all but one or two windows at the side. If the lower part of these windows can be screened, it will be better. In the case of cross lights, only the strongest shades and shadows should be studied. Study of Effects. — Even more care is necessary in the arrangement and plac- ing of objects for study of light and shade effects than for mere outline drawing. A group of two or more models affords more variety and contrast than if but one model is taken. Suppose the sphere and cylinder to be chosen. Lead the pupils to discover that the sphere shghtly in front of the cylinder makes a more agreeable arrangement than beside or behind the cylinder. To keep the spheres stationary, place them on tiny brass or rubber rings, which may be bought by the box, and distributed and collected with the models. If the teacher, in preparing for this lesson, will work at a pupil's desk, any peculiarities in the situation will become apparent. Observe the general form of the whole group — the proportion of one model to the other. Sketch lightly, but carefully, the cylinder and sphere. Half close the eyes, and look carefully at the 1 Where position can be chosen, it is well to place the objects so that the light comes from the left and above, for elementary work. The light on the drawing will not then be obstructed by the hand. 18 INTRODUCTION. shade upon the models and the shadows cast by each model upon the paper. You will see what artists call the breadth of light and the breadth of shade on the models — that is to say, the light side as a whole, and the dark side as a whole. Still " looking through the eyelashes," see how far the breadth of shade extends upon the cylinder, upon the sphere — the shape of the shade. See the illustration below. With a line so faint that it will not be observed when the shade is expressed, sketch on the drawing of the cylinder, the blocking-in of the limit or outline of the shade — the same upon the sphere. Study the cast shadows most carefully as to general shape — they often fall in a most unexpected way. The foreshortening on a -— rti-T-v- *--t^nr:-,- horizontal surface must not be forgotten, and the absolute change of general direc- tion when continued on a vertical surface. Notice the shape of the cast shadow of the cylinder, of the sphere, and that the shadow of the sphere may run up on the cylinder. Block in very lightly the outlines of the shadows wherever they fall. It must be borne in mind that the shades and shadows will be different for each pupil. Each one must study for himself. Those in the front seats may get the light a Uttle over the shoulder, so that their shades and shadows will not be Hke those for whom the light falls more directly. Now give careful study to the relative tones of the light, shade, and cast shadow. Which is lightest ? Which is darkest ? Which is the middle tone ? Cast shadows REP EE SEN TA TION. 1 9 are always slightly darker than the shade upon objects. Look at various objects upon which the light falls from one direction for examples. Expression of Shade and Shadow. — Keep at first to simple breadth of light, breadth of shade, and cast shadow. Express these planes by drawing simply, first blocking-in as on page i8 and then showing planes of shade as in Fig. i, Plate 11. After this is attained, a closer study of effects — of the contrasts and relations of light and shade — of what are known as values, as on Plate II, may be under- taken. Where is the deepest tone of shade ? Express this, studying the method shown in Fig. 2, Plate II. As the study progresses, the tender gradation and flow of shade will become more and more visible, and the beautiful relations of light and dark will appear more and more. Figs, i and 2, Plate III, show how different planes and values are expressed. Study all of these illustrations, and observe the different handling or technique. Remember that each medium used in drawing should be handled in its own way. It is not well to work with the pencil for a scumbled effect similar to charcoal, — the touches of the pencil should be definite and sure, but not mechanical. The methods illustrated here are not to be taken as rules given, but as suggestions and helps. The blocked-in method, keeping planes of light and shade according to mass, is very good for beginners. Notice that there is a difference between a drawing merely suggesting light and shade by emphasis, and one in which light and shade is studied for relations and values. Notice that in all the illustrations the lines are parallel and close enough to merge a little, and not close enough to cover the surface of the paper; that in the illustrations, Figs, i and 2, Plate II, showing breadth of light and shade, or planes of light and shade, the lines are oblique, except on a horizontal surface. This direc- tion is preferred because it seems the nearest to neutrality ; that in the illustrations showing more of values. Figs, i and 2, Plate III, the direction of the surface is expressed by hues, straight lines being used for plane faces and curved lines for rounding faces ; that when a shadow falls upon a horizontal surface it is expressed by horizontal lines, and that if a part of the same shadow falls upon a vertical face or surface, the lines expressing the shadow are vertical. These suggestions as to direction of line must not, however, be considered as absolute or prescriptive. The strengthening of the outline away from the light that is practised in outline drawing is omitted in light and shade drawing. The limit of the model is expressed by the shade. Always trust as far as possible to the mass of shade to define the form. Variety. — The element of variety will appear in the rendering already sug- gested. In addition it must be remembered that the texture of the line should vary according to the character of the object. If the object is manufactured, the edges and profiles will be sharper and more even than those of a natural object. The 20 INTIiODUCTION. edges of the models are well defined. The outline of fruit shows yielding irregu- larity ; the outline of leaves and flowers is tender and delicate. These qualities should be shown in the line. Unity. — The effect of unity produced by the arrangement of the objects can be increased in the rendering by putting the emphasis on the principal object, and keeping the others in their proper relation. This can be done not only by keeping the secondary objects more subdued in line than the principal objects, but also by a greater omission of detail. Repose. — This is one of the highest quahties in pictorial composition, but some of its elements may be brought out even in early work. The effect of repose is produced by the proper and restful arrangement of objects. This effect will be increased in the rendering if the transitions from light to dark, from definite to indefinite, are gradual and not violent. The table-hne is a very necessary, though minor, element of repose, as it gives the idea of support. It should be in lighter line than the group. Values. — The proper relation of objects in regard to their importance in the group or picture is expressed by what are known as values. The rendering must be such that it will show the relative importance of the parts of a group or a picture / — that is to say, the values. In artistic rendering of outline, the principal and the secondary objects, the nearer and the farther objects, the light and the shade, are all made manifest by the difference in quality and emphasis of hue. The principal object has the strongest emphasis or accentuation, and all other objects receive less in proportion to their importance. This inust be carefully borne in mind ; for an eager worker often forgets the need for expressing the relation between the princi- pal and the subordinate objects, and emphasizes equally the shade on all, ignoring values, and producing a staring and " spotty " effect, quite different from that pro- duced when a due regard is paid to subordination of the less important, and appre- ciation of the more important, parts. From what has been said, it will be seen that in the rendering of secondary objects, strong contrasts should be avoided; the effects of the secondary objects as a whole should be subdued. In the treatment of light and shade and shadow, the study of values can be carried much farther, of course, than in outline, as in Plates 11 and III ; and the values can be most subtilely expressed. When a picture is worked up toward full values, there will appear foregtvund, middle distance, background. These may be carried out even in a simple group — the principal object being in the foreground, the secondary objects being in middle distance, the background being added as in Fig. 2, Plate III ; see also Plate II. In rendering, the foreground should have the stronger, clearer touches, the middle PLATE II f'h:- Groups of Models. REPRESENTATION. 21 distance the more subdued touches, and the background should be entirely subor- dinate, fainter and less defined than any other part of the picture. Remember, however, that the background should be drawn with careful control, and with a con- sideration of its purpose. Herein lies the lesson of restraint, as valuable in life as in art. Expression of Feeling. — In representing natural objects, a greater variety of direction must be distinguished and represented than with models. The teacher is not to analyze the rendering of printed reproductions further than to ask the pupils to note the expression of masses, the direction of the several lines, and how they adapt themselves to the surface to be suggested. All good rendering of natural forms requires elimination on the part of the artist or worker. Skill and genius are shown in selecting what to depict as convey- ing a ch^acteristic impression of the object, and this involves an understanding of what to omit. This selection is again largely a matter of individual feehng, and it is here that there is infinite opportunity for independent expression. As the artist feels for the surface of his object, he unconsciously adapts his lines to expressing this feeling. Feeling counts for more than physical seeing in all nature work. Remember all artistic rendering of nature is a translation, not an imitation — an imitation of nature is always imperfect and unsatisfactory ; in seeking for realistic details the spirit is sacrificed. The truth of realism must always be partial and one- sided if it starts on the basis that the physical senses are the measure of the human soul. The truth of idealism is the all-embracing truth of art, and that to which it is consecrated. Copying Good Examples. — The work in Representation should not be con- fined to drawing from models and objects only ; there should be good and careful study through copying good examples. The copying should not be superficial and imitative, but should be rather an endeavor to enter into and represent the feeling of the one who drew the example. True copying is endeavoring to see and to draw what the eyes of another and a greater has seen as shown through his repre- sentation ; drawing from models and objects is seeing through one's own eyes. To the advantage of personal experience in any study there should always be added the advantage of the richness of others' experience. The work in Representation should be presented by the teacher in this spirit, developing in the pupils, not merely reliance in their own ability to see and to draw, but also an appreciation and admiration for what has been done by others, with a desire to attain through earnest study to real art expression. 22 INTRODUCTION. Remember that a drawing may be absolutely correct as far as giving the prin- ciples governing the appearance of an object or group or scene is concerned, and yet wholly without what is known in art as expression. Lead your pupils through the study and sympathetic drawing of good examples, through a store of associa- tions in hterature and in life, through a spirit of recognition and appreciation, to a conscious feeling for the beautiful, and a desire for its expression in drawing. Decoration; or, Drawing as Applied in Ornament. Decoration is the science and art of producing beauty in ornament. Orna- ment, the product of purely decorative art, is always employed to beautify objects created for some purpose, independent of their decoration. It is truly an expres- sion of love for the object — a desire to make it beautiful. It produces its legiti- mate effect when, without concentration upon itself, it makes the object to which it is applied more pleasing than if unadorned. Lead pupils during their study of ornament to the discovery of the principles which have been given and to the use of them in decorative design. Decorative design is closely akin, in many ways, to music : it has rhythm and accent through repetition, melody through curvature and color, and harmony through proportion and relation of parts to make a " perfect whole." It will not be difficult for a teacher to make these analogies apparent. All art is one, whether of word, form, sound, or color. Creative Power. — The subject of Decoration opens a wide field for creative power — for the expression of the individual. Gradually the pupil should be led through sequential exercises involving modes of arrangement, space relations, and distributions as well as the study of fine examples of ornament, to the expression of his own ideas of the beautiful in terms of art. Mere acquisition, whether of money, knowledge, culture, or sesthetics, is selfish ^ and all selfishness is barren. Whatever the subject may be in education, it should aim to ultimate in productive power through creative activity. In the subject of Representation, the aim is to reach this end not only through practice in drawing the appearance of objects and study for its principles, but also through Representative Design or pictorial composition. So in the subject of Deco- ration, aim to increase the productive power of the pupils by leading them to a realizing sense of the need for architecture and ornament to meet the requirements of hfe at the present day. This can be done by giving some very simple problems DECORATION. 2S in planning a room, in considering its coloring, its decoration and furnishings, and also in designing oblongs of good proportion, corresponding to the shape of one external face of a building. Within these oblongs may be arranged other oblongs, corresponding to openings for doors and windows of good proportion in themselves and bearing the proper relationship to each other and to the external oblongs. Such problems will lead to the consideration of what is fitting and beautiful in buildings, as well as in details, and will bring up inquiry as to the general principles of good taste. As a means of answering this inquiry, lead pupils to study fine historic architec- ture and ornament (that which has been accepted as exemplifying the beautiful in form and proportion), to see how the principles which underUe all design and which make for the production of the beautiful have been applied. The study of historic architecture and ornament may be made vital by first considering the conditions under which it was produced, and by indicating how the architecture and ornament were responsive to the conditions. Such study will lead the pupils to an appreciation of fine types of ornament and will cultivate their aes- thetic judgment, inspiring them to apply the principles of beauty in modern problems. Thus creative activity, stimulated and enriched by the study of the beautiful in ornament, will ultimate in productive power. Subordination. — Fitness to its purpose is the underlying principle — the very corner-stone of all good ornament. From this principle of fitness for its purpose there arises the fundamental law of ornament — subordination. This law requires THAT ALL ORNAMENT SHALL BE MODEST AND MODERATE. Strong Contrasts and striking effects violate it. Illustrations of this requirement in matters of good taste in general are familiar to all. A loud voice in conversation is not excusable ; a forward, self- asserting manner is a mark of ill-breeding ; gaudy colors in dress are shunned ; showiness, or any other attempt to attract attention, is condemned. This require- ment holds good in all ornament, whether architectural, domestic, or personal. He is not well dressed whose dress is conspicuous ; that house is not well furnished where the furniture is obtrusive ; that building is not well ornamented whose deco- ration is not subordinate to the idea of the building. Sources of Ornament. — Ornament has two sources — Nature and Geometry. In the minds of many these are widely separated. Geometry is too often consid- ered as simply a treatise on an assemblage of figures and forms which have no particular meaning except as a basis for mathematical study. Such a view is most inadequate ; for geometry is really the study of ideal and typical forms, which while not discoverable in a perfect state in nature, are deduced by man from a study ol nature. 24 INTR on UCTION. " Above, below, in sky and sod, In leaf and spar, in star and man^ Well might the wise Athenian scan The geometric signs of God, The measured order of his plan." — John G. VVhittier. Nature presents no ideal forms : these are the result of man's thought led by nature. The forms of geometry are ideals conceived by man in " Thought's inte- rior sphere," as archetypes of nature ; they are the forms toward which nature in evolution is constantly tending. Nature and geometry are, then, but different manifestations of the divine law. A thoughtful consideration of nature will show geometric plans and forms, and modes of arrangement, in her handiwork. Order, symmetry, and proportion are all exemplified in nature in varying degrees. Materials of Ornament. — The materials of ornament are : — 1. Geometric plans, enclosing figures and units. 2. Conventionalized units derived from natural forms as motives. 3. Historic ornament. But, in order to use these materials effectively, 't is necessary to study : — a. Geometric construction and symmetric arrangement. d. The proper use of plant forms as motives. c. Well-selected examples of historic ornament. Symmetric Arrangement. — The principal forms of arrangement (all requir- ing more or less of geometric construction) are, as shown in the illustration on page 25 — 1 . A surface design, to cover a surface, as in wall-papers, carpets, drapery, and tex- tiles in general. 2. A border, to limit a surface or a surface-covering. 3. A single arrangement, complete in itself, as in a bilateral unit, as the lotus and the fleur-de-lis, or as in a rosette or centre. The parts of a design commort to the three are : — a. The enclosing figure. b. The geometric plan, which embraces not only the general geometric outline, but also the lines and divisions required by order and symmetry for the construc- tion of the design, — axes of symmetry and field lines. c. The units or motives, which are repeated in making the design. d. The ornament itself, or the filling. ■e. The background or field. DECORATION. 25 Fig. I. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. SURFACE COVERINGS. Fig. 4. i®@@®@@@ #$l 1^ !9@@@@@®ff ^^^^?\^R^^^^^?^^^^^T^^^c^'^?^^\8 voo3oo3o3o3S3S Vw.. Fig. Fig. 7. Fig. 14, Fig. 15. Fig 16. Fig. 17. Fig. iS FIGURES COMPLETE IN THEMSELVES. Fig. tg. 26 INTR OB UCTION. Nature in Ornament. — The laws of growth, which are recognized and recogniz- able in all good ornament, are derived from the laws of growth in nature. It would be a mistake, however, to conclude from what has been said that a pictorial imita- tion of nature is good in ornament. A pictorial imitation of nature represents the accidents of growth. Order, regularity, and symmetry are the normal laws of growth, while the irregular is accidental. This idea is developed in the treatment of conven- tionalization. " Flowers or other natural objects should not be used as ornaments, but conventional representations founded upon them, sufficiently suggestive to convey the intended image to the mind, without destroying the unity of the object they are employed to decorate. C/nz- ver sally obeyed in the best periods of art; equally violated when art declines.'''' "In all the best periods of art, all ornament was rather based upon an observation of the principles which regulate the arrangements of form in nature than on an attempt to imitate the absolute forms of those works, and wherever this limit was exceeded in any art it was one of the strongest symptoms of decline." — Owen Jones, Grammar of Ortiament. "We ov\e the beauty of nature the full tribute of our respectful appreciation, but we should never degrade her loveliness by putting it to unworthy service. The picture-painter throws his whole power into the attempt to reproduce natural truth ; but the designer, feel- ing the limitations of his materials, and the purpose to which his work must be applied, takes a different view, not because he appreciates nature less, but because appreciating it so much he cannot bring himself to do it discredit by inadequate representation. "We need scarcely say that any one attempting naturalistic work should have a good working knowledge of plant-structure, and even if he would hesitate to call himself a botanist, should be well acquainted with the leading laws of plant growth. A wild-rose spray, in all its picturesque beauty, is as much constructed according to law as the designer himself; the spiral growth of its foliage, and the beautiful foreshortening, therefore, of the parts that result ffom this rigid law, is as marked as any other law of nature ; and it is no more permissible to add a sixth to the ring of five fragrant petals in each of its beautiful flowers than to consider it immaterial whether we put four, five, or six toes to the human foot." — F. Edward Hulme, Birth and Development of Orna-fient. " This must be accomplished not by the mere imitative rendering of flowers and foli- age, which is a means of study, but not the end; the ornamentist must be a much deeper student, if he would found a new style. If he seeks out the mode of development of vege- table growth, he will find that regularity and symmetry are the normal laws, while all that is irregular is accidental and extraneous." — Richard Redgrave, Manual of Design. DECORATION. 27 "■ The imitation of natural objects for merely ornamental purposes usually disagrees both with the materials used and the place where they are introduced. It is also an indica- tion of poverty of invention, and a deficiency of taste for design. In carpets, where roses and other flowers are figured, the very best rose is always unlike the reality, while the imagination is diverted from the general eiTect by the comparison of this imperfect copy with the natural flower. To obtain ideas for ornamental art, nature should be carefully studied and the beauties she presents should be fully understood, but she should not be directly copied in an unsuitable material." — Sir Gardner Wilkinson, On Color and Taste. " There can be no question that the motive of ornament is not the presentation cf natural images to the mind, but the rendering the object ornamented as agreeable as possible to it, and therefore the details of decoration should have no independent character of their own, but be kept purely subservient to beauty of effect. " The designer must ever remember that the effect of the whole should never be in- terfered with by any partial attraction of the details." — R. N. WORNUM, Analysis of Orna))ient. " Experience proves that the fitting opportunity for realistic ornament very seldom occurs. It is for the most part contrary to the purpose or position of the object, ill adapted to the material and the method of working it, and most especially it is calculated to draw undue attention to the object, or, which is worse, to itself. A more subdued and reticent and altogether simpler style of design is almost invariably found to be advisable, either in the shape of pure ornament or in some adaptation of natural forms." — Lewis F. Day, Some Principles of Every-day Art. " The right method of studying nature does not consist in merely gathering her facts and applying them indiscriminately to any object as decoration, but in the endeavor to understand the principles upon which nature works, so that we may use her endless treas- ures with artistic wisdom. Moreover, by adopting this mode of studying nature we shall find that all the records of ancient art will have a new meaning for us." — Frank G. Jackson, Lessons on Decorative Design. " Ornament should be natural ; that is to say, should in some degree express or adopt the beauty of natural objects. Observe, it does not hence follow that it should be an exact imitation of, or endeavor in a.iy wise to supersede, God's work. It may consist only in a part adoption of, and compliance with, the usual forms of natural things, without at al going to the point of imitation ; and it is possible that the point of imitation may be closely reached by ornaments which, nevertheless, are entirely unfit for their place, and are the signs only of a degraded ambition and an ignorant dexterity. Bad decorators err as easily on the side of imitating nature as of forgetting her, and the question of the exact degree in which imitation should be attempted under given circumstances is one of the most subtle and difficult in the whole range of criticism." — John Ruskin, Ttw Paths. o^ 28 INTRODUCTION. Idealization. — The subject of conventionalization is frequently misunderstood. Some, having a totally wrong impression of conventionaUzation, think of it only as a means of taking all the hfe and grace out of a leaf or a flower, and reducing it as nearly as possible to the hard lines of a geometric figure. This is a wholly wrong conception. True conventionalization is idealization ; it searches for the life and the marvellous manifestations of growth in the leaf or flower. Natural leaves are more or less unsymmetric ; a leaf type would usually be symmetric ; idealization rejects the occasional irregularity, and accepts the beauty of symmetry in the type form. Idealization seeks in the natural leaf for the beauty of symmetry, the beauty of general form, the beauty of radiation, — or, as it might be phrased, the beauty of stability, — the beauty of proportion, the beauty of general curvature, and renders them in the ideahzed leaf. Every line of the conventionalized or ideahzed leaf can be traced as typical of the natural leaf. Pupils should be led to seek for type forms of natural leaves by comparing many leaves of one kind, and to discover and express the peculiar beauty of each type form. This will be true conventionalization. The purpose is entirely distinct from that of botanic study. In botanic study, the various parts and organs are studied with minuteness, and all the wonderful structure is revealed. In studying a flower for decorative purposes, the details are not taken up, unless for a special end ; but the general plan as to form is studied, and is rendered with faithfulness to the type form, and not to the individual. Lead pupils as deeply as possible into, the study of nature, in order that they may see for themselves the spit-it of the plant which they are studying, as well as the more formal matter of arrangement. Then let them idealize plant forms for use in ornament, by keeping the characteristics of growth, curvature, and proportion, while simplifying outlines and omitting details. Historic Ornament. — In the past, many nations have produced certain orna- ment so repeatedly that the ornament has become characteristic of those nations. As the account of what nations have done is called history, so the ornament pro- duced by nations is called historic ornament. Different nations have developed different kinds of ornament ; each kind, however, has a character or style of its own, hence styles of ornament are spoken of. The great historic styles are : the Egyp- tian, Greek, and Roman, — the ancient; the Byzantine, Romanesque, Saracenic, and Gothic, — the middle age ; and the Renaissance, which may be called the modern. Among the ancient styles, the Assyrian and Persian are ranked as second- ary, but they are coming more and more into prominence as new discoveries are made. The Persian, Indian, Chinese, and Japanese are called the Oriental styles. All of these would be taken up in a more advanced study of historic ornament. DECORATION. 29 The study of special styles is begun in Book 7, and pursued in the order given above. This will lead to an appreciation of the characteristics of each style as well as of the influences which formed the style. As the study progresses, the interrelation of these styles will be seen. The beauty produced by finely proportioned and delicately contrasted spaces should be emphasized in all study of historic ornament. The gradual training of the eye and the mind to a fine appreciation of this important element will lead the pupils to a right understanding of what constitutes good work, and will ultimately express itself in their creative efforts. The study of historic ornament as one proceeds leads to its interpretation as a visible manifestation of the history, life, and spirit of the people who produce it. The contact of various nations or peoples, either through war, commerce, or travel, can be traced in their ornament ; and it is an evidence in the various phases of progress and civilization. Good historic ornament is always ennobling, for it is an expression of the best and most en- during feeling ; it is, in a very high sense, " a survival of the fittest." A lesson in historic ornament may and should be not merely a lesson in drawing, but also, to a greater or less degree, a lesson in history and aesthetics, in living and in doing. Decorative Design. — Historic ornament serves as a broad field for the discov- ery of those elements which make for beauty in decorative art. The study of good examples of ornament leads to the development of certain general principles. It is found that unity is essential to the production of beauty in ornament. Unity requires that the effect of a design, as a whole, should be considered, and that the parts should be subordinate to the whole effect. The leading principles which through unity lead to the creation of the beautiful in decorative design may be stated as — From Antae, Temple at Eleusis. SYMMETRY, PROPORTION, RHYTHM, ORDER. CONTRAST, INTRICACY, BREADTH, STABILITY, REPOSE. Symmetry. — Symmetry is produced by balancing the parts one against another. The balance maybe of form (page 25) or of value (Antas, Temple of Eleusis illustrated above). Figures may be bi-symmetric or multi-symmetric; in other words, there may be symmetry on an axis (Figs. 14-19) or about a centre (Figs. 8-13, page 25). 30 INTRODUCTION. Proportion. — " As in every perfect form of architecture a true proportion will be found to reign between all the members which compose it, so throughout the decora- tive arts every assemblage of forms should be arranged on certain definite propor- tion's ; the whole and each particular member should be a multiple of some simple unit of proportion." The units of a design must not be too small in proportion to the ground to be covered. The ornament or filling should, as a general rule, occupy about two-thirds of the space within the enclosing figure. Color as well as space values should, however, be carefully considered as modifying elements. (See also Intricacy, below, and Proportion, page 47, lender Composition.) Rhythm. — As the effect of rhythm in music is produced by the regular recurrence of measures of time, in decoration, it is produced by the regular repetition of the parts of a design. There are three ways of repeating units of design: (i) to cover a surface; (2) on a straight line; (3) around a centre. (See pages 24 and 25.) Repetition may be close or open, simple or alternate. In close repetition, the units touch each other; in open repetition, a space intervenes. In simple repetition, one unit only is repeated. In alternate repetition, two or more units are repeated, one alternating with the other. Counterchange and interlacing are forms of alternate repetition. Order. — Order, so essential to the beauty of a design, depends upon a definite plan of geometric arrangement. This plan is secured by enclosing forms, axes of symmetry, and field lines for the units. (See pages 24 and 25.) Contrast. — In a decorative design, there should be a pleasing contrast of direc- tion or directness in line, of proportion in space, of shape in figures, of tone and hue in color. Color may be produced by the brush, by colored paper, or in a representative way by half-tone. Half-tone is produced with the pencil or pen by covering the surface evenly with lines or by pencil painting, and may be employed to distinguish the ornament from its background (page 58). Half-tone may be used either upon the background or the orna- ment ; whichever covers the least surface should be in half-tone. When there is more half- tone than white surface, the design is likely to appear heavy. Mechanical results are not desirable in half-tone in freehand work. Intricacy. — There is great beauty in that intricacy of form produced by subtility of proportion and curvature. The simpler the proportion, and the more easily it is detected by the eye, the less pleasing is the effect ; while the more subtile the proportion, and the more difficult it is for the eye to make it out, the more pleasing is the effect. So, also, the more subtile of two curves affords the eye the greater pleasure. Compare the circle and the oval. Breadth. — There is much more beauty in the simple arrangement of good, well-drawn figures, having a large proportion to the surface which has to be covered, producing a cer- tain strength or breadth of effect, than in a profusion of complicated details on a small scale. If there are subdivisions of units, they must be made subordinate to the effect of the unit a? a whole. DECORATION. 31 Stability. — The union of parts produces stability. In a surface design, this union is secured by its enclosing figures ; in a border, by its marginal lines ; in a rosette, by a strong central figure or a tendency toward the centre. Repose. — It is essential that there should be repose in ornament ; that is, there should not be too violent contrasts of form or of color in the parts, but they should harmonize while they vary. Curved lines should unite tangentially with curved or with straight lines. Tangential union showing laws of growth is a simple example of harmony. (See below.) Study of Growth, — By observing plant forms and tree growth, it will be seen that in a general way plant growth falls into three classes as to direction, — erect, as in trees and shrubs (under this head may also be placed ascending growth, rising obliquely from the root) ; twining or climbing, as the morning-glory, the pea, bean, and nasturtium; the running or creeping, as the strawberry. Erect growth is sug- gestive in its vertical symmetry for bilateral units in ornament, and in the radiation seen in the top view for arrangements about a centre. The twining or climbing plants suggest spiral growth in ornament, and the running plants give motives for horizontal ornament and for a garland treatment. Tangential Union. — The law of tangential union, always observed in nature, should govern decorative design. Owen Jones states this law thus, " All junctions of curved lines with curved, or curved with straight, should be tangential to each other," or, in other words, they should be so drawn that they would touch, but if produced would not cut each other. Owen Jones further says : " Oriental practice is always in accordance with it. Many of the Moorish ornaments are on the same principle which is observable in the lines of a feather and in the articulations of every leaf; and to this is due that additional charm found in all perfect ornamentation, which we call the graceful." It may be called an example of harmony of form. The suggestion here given of the interrelation of beautiful form and music opens a \yide door. Tangential union applies to all lines starting from a centra! line or stem ; hence the lines of division in a unit should unite tangentially, the sides branching from the central division, and all uniting in the stem or trunk below. The law of tangential union should govern the union of the divided parts of a unit. Tangential union is therefore a large factor in the effect of growth and vigor in an ornament, and teachers should make its importance and beauty very well known to pupils. The illustration shows on / / 32 INTRODUCTION. the right a Hne uniting tangentially with the vertical, thus showing tangential or " touching " union ; on the left, a line which, if continued, would cut the vertical, thus showing secant or " cutting " union. Symmetry. — The laws of decorative design, as has been said, are derived from a study of nature and of geometry, and underlie all good historic ornament. Thus the idea of symmetry is found constantly suggested and approached in nature, but never actually displayed ; in geometry it is perfected. From the suggestions of nature and the idealizations of geometry, the element of symmetry in decorative design has been developed. Bilateral Unit. — A decorative design is planned to fill the space it is to occupy ; therefore, bilateral units vary in proportion according to the place in which they are to be used. But there are certain general ideas of decorative treatment which pertain to all the variants. These ideas can best be developed by the use of the general type of the bilateral unit, which has come to be known as the kite- shaped unit, as seen in Fig. 2. This has always been a great favorite, as it seems to meet an innate desire for symmetry, proportion, and variety. It is very interesting for pupils to discover this type in examples of ornament of various styles. The lotus palmette is of this type. Symmetry is produced by repetition on an axis, called the axis of symmetry. Proportion in art is the pleasing relation of unequal parts. The kite-shaped unit is susceptible of innumerable changes of outhne and proportion, while still retaining its chief characteristic — unequal tapering at the two ends of the axis — through all the changes. The greatest width of the kite-shaped unit may be at any point in the axis outside the centre ; or, in other words, considering the figure in its normal position, the greatest width may be above or below the centre, but not at the centre of the axis. Its normal position is with the axis vertical. Modifications. — The line of illustrations below shows some of the simple modi- fications that may be made in the kite-shaped unit by changing a part or the w^hole of the outline from straight to curved lines. Still further modifications are intro- duced to give stability, strength, and variety. Fig. I. Fig. DECOEA TION. 33 Stability. — Study tree form, and see how stability is there secured. Sketch a tree roughly in mere outlme ; note the general shape obtained — a strong trunk, broad branching at the top, an expansion at the roots. Study now Figs. 7 to 10, and note the expansion at the root or base, which gives the appearance of stability to the unit. A unit with insufficient expansion at the base is weak. This is, then, an important modification. Strength. — While considering expansion at the base, provision must also be made for the strength- of the unit, which can be best attained by sufficient width of stem or trunk. If the trunk or stem is made too slender, the unit becomes painfully weak. In a tree, the trunk is generally slender in proportion to the width of the branching, but in a tree much strength comes from the growing life. In a figure, strength must be expressed in the trunk or stem by a greater proportional width. Fig. 6. Fig. 7. Fig. 9. Variety. — The unit may be modified by division, so as to secure greater variety ; this division may be partial, as in Figs. 8 and 9, or entire, as in Fig. 10. In the use of division, care must be taken not to impair the strength of the unit. The divisions of Fig. 8, a partially divided figure, are held together by the strong undivided stem, as the trunk of a tree holds the branches together. Draw this on the board, and lead pupils to see that if the divisions are carried too low, there will be an apparent tendency to split, and thus the strength of the unit will be lost. Pay special attention to the proportional width of parts in these units, the central part being broader than those at the sides. Division of the unit introduces a very beautiful phase of -proportion — proportional parts. The beauty of propor- tional parts may be illustrated not only by the study of the figure, but also by the study of nature. Three and five lobed leaves show this regard for proportional parts. Note also that these parts seem to grow from the stem, and that their curves, if continued, would pass within the stem. This is an important point. If the unit is wholly divided, as in Fig. 10, stability may be obtained by holding the parts together by a band. Care must be used, however, to place the band at the narrowest part of the unit, where it would really be of use. Show 34 INTRODUCTION. this by drawing on the board. The good -effect of fine curvature and pleasing proportion may be largely destroyed by placing the band above or below the narrowest part of the unit. The effect given is that of insecure holding, which detracts greatly from the repose necessary in ornament. Division may also be tised in a moderate degree to give variety to the base. How to Judge a Unit. — It is not an easy matter for beginners to draw simple and beautiful units, and teachers are sometimes at a loss to know how to help their pupils. It is necessary first to consider the characteristics of a good unit. A unit complete in itself should possess symmetry, proportion, contrast, breadth, stability, and repose, and should be judged according to its possession or lack of these characteristics. In judging units, the following questions will be helpful : — Symmetry. — Is the unit symmetric, or is it one-sided? Pupils should be lea to see the beauty of symmetry, by which one part is the reflex of the other, and therefore in harmony with it. Proportion. — Is the proportion of the unit agreeable as to general dimensions? The effect will not be good if the two dimensions are either very nearly alike or widely different. If the unit is partially divided, what is the relative proportion of its parts? There should be a moderate inequality between the central part and those at the side, the central part being larger than the other two. The proportion of each part should be that of slenderness, rather than of breadth. If the parts are made too wide, the unit, as a whole, will lack elegance of proportion. Contrast. — Is there a pleasing contrast of straight and curved lines, or of inner and outer curves, or of curves and points? Thgre is often a monotony of outline in a unit, produced by several curves of the same sort, or by continuous curves of no very strong character. Breadth. — Is the unit simple? Simplicity is a great beauty in decoration. If the Ainit is cut up into many petty parts, this beauty is lost. Stability. — Is the stem of the unit broad enough to be strong? Does the unit expand at the base? If partially divided, would the curves of each part, if extended downward, pass within the stem, or would they cut through it? To be true to the laws of growth, they should pass within the stem. Notice whether the curves which divide the unit into three parts would, if continued downward, cross the outer lines of the stem. If wholly divided and held by a band, is the band so placed that it can perform its office? Repose. — Is there anything startling about the unit? Has it many sharp points? or unusual curves? If so, it cannot be restful. Are the curves easy, flowing, and graceful? The higher qualities of repose are obtained through symmetry, proportion, breadth, and stability. "Teach them the music fine In the curve of a perfect line." DECORATION. 35 Rosette. — A rosette may or may not have an enclosing figure. When it is desired for any reason to call particular attention to the shape of a rosette, or to indicate more clearly its fitness to occupy a certain place, an enclosing figure is added to emphasize the shape. A rosette is usually made up of symmetric units, which occupy c(\u2i\ fields. A field is that part of the ground of a design that a unit is to occupy. If the rosette is from a flower form the number of units is deter- mined by the petals in the flower chosen. To aid in preserving the symmetry and order of the rosette, the axis of the units should be drawn. In a circular figure, the radii of the circle will sei-ve as axes of the units. The unit, however, must not touch the enclosing circle, for that would give a crowded look ; a feeling of restriction and constriction would ensue, and the repose of the figure would be lost. A space, therefore, should be left between the ornament or filling and the enclosing figure ; at least two-thirds of the ground should be filled. A skilful teacher will lead pupils to this study of space relations. Study of Nature. — Study a flower, observe its general outline, the arrange- ment about the centre, the radiating petals, their graceful shape, the way in which they are held at the centre, the stamens and pistils filHng the centre. Try to ex- press this in a broad, simple way, by drawing with an even line. You will have a rosette with regular, radiating units of beautiful outline, and a strong, simple ■centre. The details of stamens and pistils are too minute for representation here — the result would be only dots, which would seem characterless. The centre of the rosette, holding the units together, is simply a reflex in the drawing of that mysterious power of life that sends out the flower and holds the petals with a circling hand. This is a delightful exercise, and is always enjoyed by pupils, as it is not beyond their comprehension, and it gives them an opportunity to discover the elements of beauty ; and so insight grows. Besides the wonderful beauty of appearance and the marvellous physical structure of a flower, there lies within it a perfect manifestation of order, of sym- metry, of proportion, of unity, of aesthetic beauty. The aesthetic is the highest type of the ideal. In studying a flower for a motive of ornament, the attempt must be, through the study of the flower, to reach its ideal. A Surface Covering. — Probably the idea of designs for surface covering arose from the patterns brought out in weaving. Thus from the beginning order was suggested ; and still, order resulting from a geometric plan is one of the essentials in a surface covering. Walter Crane, in speaking of designs for surface coverings, says, " Most of us who have given thought to the subject feel that a design must be constructed on some systematic plan, if not absolutely controlled by a geometric basis." 36 INTRODUCTION. The first step then in the actual drawing of a design must be ,a plan on which to lay it out. It must be determined also whether it is to be used horizontally or vertically. A bilateral unit is always suitable for a vertical surface covering. A rosette is suitable for either a vertical or a horizontal surface covering. Have some examples of simple surface covering in textiles or wall-paper, and let pupils discover the geometric arrangement or plan that underlies the placing of the figures. Sometimes this plan is easily traced, and sometimes it is apparently hidden ; but a httle search will always find it. The usual plans of surface coverings are based on squares, rhombuses, or hexagons repeated. In some of these designs, the geometric plan shown by light lines in Fig. 5, Plate IV, and in the illustration below, i/oes not appear in the finished work ; only the decorative figures remain. In others, as in Fig. 3, the geometric plan is left to form part of the design. Plate IV gives various examples of surface coverings which plainly show geometric plan. Fig. i is Japanese ; Fig. 2 is Persian ; Figs. 3 and 4 are Egyptian ; Figs. 5 and 6 are modern, and were taken from Lewis Day's Anatomy of Pattern. When in a surface design the units only appear, the geometric laying out of the space having been erased, the arrangement is technically known as powdering. Figs. 2, 4, 5, and 6, Plate IV, are examples of powdering. Distribution over the surface is now to be considered. Care should be taken that the unit be not too large for the allotted space, so that the design shall not look crowded ; and also that the units shall not be too small, so that the unit will not seem scattered and lost. As a general rule, about two-thirds of the surface should be covered in a surface covering. The units in a surface covering taken collectively are known as the fiUing; the space uncovered is known as the ground or field. The propor- tion of the fiUing to the ground should then be about as two to three. Decorative Treatment. — The decorative treatment of a natural form occupies a middle ground between a picture and a decorative design. In all three, the com- position of line, mass, and color is a decided element. In a decorative design the composition has a geometric basis ; while in a picture and in a decorative treat- PLATE IV. Fig. Fig. ^ ^3 Fig. 4. Fig. 6. A Page of Designs for Surface Covering. DECORATION. 37 nient, the composition depends on agreeable contrasts of line, mass, and space, with more regard to pictorial effect than to geometric order. In a picture, the repre- sentation of the object in light and shade, with all the harmonizing accessories of composition of line, hght, and dark, etc., is the main thing. In a decorative treatment, the composition of line, mass, and color is the chief element, while the representation is carefully kept. The drawing is true and spirited, but without the pictorial element and the modeling given by light and shade. The contrasts are not of light and shade, but of light and dark, or of light, dark, and middle tone, as will be seen in Plate V. Everything is kept in flat effect, whether the work be in black and white or in color. Mr. La Farge says, " We compose when we select." The selection of a suit- able motive, and of a beautiful aspect of this motive, is one of the elements of com- position for decorative treatment. The selection of a well-proportioned enclosing figure is of importance, as well as the disposition of the motive in the figure. The relation of the open spaces to each other should be studied, as well as the beauty, contrast, and harmony of line, mass, and color, in the motive itself. Decorativ^e treatment is used more for single effects than for repetition. Decorative Design. — The purpose of decorative design, however, is mainly to produce subordinate effects for repetition ; hence, the mode of composition differs greatly from that for decorative treatment. In decorative design, conventionalization and a geometric plan subordinate the pictorial^ and tend to make the decoration quiet, restful, and undemonstrative. Decoration should attract by its harmony, repose, and unobtrusiveness. It should surround one with companionship of thought as expressed in the beautiful without any element of domination. Method of Study. — For a decorative treatment seek a beautiful motive and the most beautiful aspect of that motive ; if the enclosing figure is not fixed, look for one beautiful in itself and suited to the motive ; consider how the motive may be best arranged to make the contrasts with the open spaces agreeable ; try to express the life and grace of the motive in the lines, masses, or colors ; but keep all the treat- ment flat, without expression of light and shade. Study, however, the relation of light and dark. If a certain fixed space is to receive a decorative treatment, seek for a motive fitted to the space, selecting its most beautiful aspect. In decorative design, however, consider first the mode of repetition, whether for a unit, a centre, a border, or a surface covering. Select a beautiful motive, and consider the geometric plan for the design. Draw the lines and masses which represent the ideal of the motive, rejecting all pictorial effects. In decorative treatment the motive is the main feature ; in decorative design the motive is used to enhance the beauty of geometric order and arrangement. 38 INTRODUCTION. Mode of Expression. — This may be with pencil or brush, in outline, light and dark, or color. In Representation, a drawing is intended to represent the appearance of an object, or group of objects, and therefore to express not only the appearance as to mere outline, but also as to distance, as to direction of light, and as to relative importance of parts. It is in Representation, therefore, that what is known as " rendering " is used, giving more emphasis to some parts, and less to others, according to their light, their distance, and their value, by Unes varying in thickness and in shade. In Decoration the purpose is different. No effect of light, shade, distance, or value is desirable in flat decoration. A decorative figure should be drawn in the simplest possible way. It should be drawn with intelligence, with strength, with purpose, with firmness. The line should be open in texture, of an even gray color, and of an even width. Venation may be expressed (it should be sparingly, how- ever) by a line tapering in width. Unevenness of Hne in decorative outhne detracts from repose. Accent in line — that is, the line rendered as it would be in pictorial drawing — is out of place in flat decoration. The line may sometimes be irregular, as in the drawing of historic ornament, but it should retain the effect of flatness. Construction; or, Drawing as Applied in Conveying Ideas of the Facts of Objects. Construction deals with the facts of form, and shows the use which is made of the drawing of these facts in the world of industry. Its importance, both educa- tionally and practically, cannot be too strongly emphasized. Working-Drawings. — Constructioji as used in graphic study is the science and art of making drawings which give the facts of size and structure of objects and from which objects may be constructed. These are called working-drawings, and are necessary to guide the workman in nearly every branch of manufacture. Practical Value. — The practical value of constructive drawing will be more and more recognized as knowledge grows of the way in which ideas of form, that is to say, constructive designs, are expressed so as to be carried out in manufacture and industry. Every detail of building construction, from the stone foundation and the beams to the finished exterior views of the house, or church, or cathedral, has first to be imagined, and then shown by working-drawings ; from these drawings the builders work. Every new invention, from the simplest detail in machinery to PLATE V From Japanese Drawings. ^TATFrJODIlU! N.r:.. CONSTBUCTION. 39 a great engine as a whole, must not only be thought out before it can be made practical, but it must also be expressed and be made intelligible through working- drawings. It is through working-drawings that every new object manufactured is made possible, is materialized, so to speak. Designs for all landscape gardening and outdoor improvements — roads, parks, drives, etc. — must be expressed in working-drawings, that they may be carried out by workmen. The great works of civil and mining engineering depend upon working-drawings for their ultimation. There is no walk in life in which a knowledge of the methods of expression under- lying working-drawings and the ability to interpret them are not of service. Creative Imagination. — But beyond the practical benefits arising from a knowl- edge of constructive drawing there lies the great educational value in the subject of Construction well presented. It calls for most accurate observation, most careful .consideration of the relation of parts and of form values, of the adaptation of form to purpose, of agreeableness and beauty of form — all in the service of the creative imagination. The principles which govern the expression of thought in the subject of Construction are fixed, and take their place among the exact sciences. From these considerations, the value of construction will be seen, as a subject of study^ not only for the few who wish to pursue its special lines, but also for all students. A Working-Drawing. — A working-drawing is a drawing which gives all the facts of form, size, and structure of an object. Its purpose is to show a workman with accuracy all the facts of an object which is to be made. This object may be one already made or it may exist only in the brain of the inventor or designer. A working-drawing is, therefore, composed of as many different geometric views of an object as are necessary to the complete understanding of the object. A geometric view shows an object under the simplest possible conditions ; that is, as seen with but two dimensions. For such a view, the object is supposed to be placed not only directly in front of the eye, but as though each individual part was directly in front of the eye. The different views required in a working-drawing are named from the part represented in the view ; thus the front view represents the view obtained by looking directly at the front of the object ; the top view represents the view obtained by looking directly down upon the ebject, and so on with the other views. It has been agreed by long custom to represent certain things in working-drawings by certain kinds of lines ; agreements of this sort have come to be known as "conventions." The "conventions " of Construction to be noted at this time are few. The various kinds of lines used are centre lines, working lines, visible lines, invisible lines. In lead-pencil drawing, the centre line — that is, the line for placing the views — is usually made a short-and-long-dash line , the long dashes being made longer than those for "invisible lines." Working lines, by means of which distances ar? 40 INTRODUCTION. transferred from one view to another, are frequently made short-dash lines, but they may be made light lines. Working lines, however, are used only in elementary practice. All visible edges and outlines — that is, edges and outlines which are actually seen in the view to be drawn — are represented by clear, full Hnes, called "visible hues," perfectly even and uniform, not too strong nor yet too fine. " Invisible lines " representing edges or out- lines which are known to exist in the object, but which are hidden in the particular view which is being drawn, are always made long-dash lines , and should be of the same strength as the full lines. By means of these conventions the purpose of these various lines is seen at a glance. Dimension lines figured show the size of the object. They are limited by arrow- heads ; they may be either short-dash lines, as illustrated on page 41, or they may be long fine lines < o' — 6" > broken by the insertion of the figuring necessary to show the size. In making a working-drawing it is frequently necessary to make the drawing smaller than the object. In order to keep the proportions of the object in the drawing, the method of "drawing to scale" has been adopted. If the scale is decided to be |" to I'-o", then for every foot in the object, half an inch is laid off on the drawing. The drawing is then i'' to i'-o"or Scale ^' marked: Scale i" to i'-o"or Scale A" = I'-o" It is necessary to multiply the views as the details of the object increase and as the construction becomes more complicated ; but it is not often in simple objects that more than three outside views are required. Yet there are six outside views of any rectangular object : top view ; bottom view ; front view, sometimes called up- right view, face view or elevation ; back view ; left side, or end view ; right side, or end view. In addition to these, there may be as many sectional views as are re- quired for a clear understanding of the internal construction and details. A sectional view is a representation of an object, which gives two dimensions and details of the object, as seen when it is cut through horizontally, or vertically, or obliquely, thus showing the construction of the interior. Illustrations of working-drawings of simple objects will be found on page 41. Fig, I shows two views of a hoop ; Fig. 2, two views of a slate ; Fig. 3, three views of a square frame, square in section ; Fig. 4, three views of a circular frame, square in section; Fig. 5, three views of a circular frame, circular in section; Fig. 6, two views of a screw ; Fig. 7, four views of a hollow cylinder, closed at the upper end. It will be seen that in Figs. 3, 4, 5, and 7 sectional views are necessary to show the facts of form of the objects. The "conventions" mentioned above — centre lines, visible lines, invisible lines — are illustrated in these working-drawings. It will be noticed that these draw- ings give the facts of size as well as of form. Working lines are illustrated in the Drawing Books and Manuals for the Fourth to the Eighth years. CONSTRUCTION. 41 If 1 I 1 ^ 1 1 Fio. 1 View Section on A 15 Fig. 3. FiG. 2 , igi''jf — ;4'c-j(i"^ Top View I idKCTION ON CI> Fig. 4. I l.v Top View 1^ ^ I 1 1 00 1 1 ■ ! - I'aOKT \'IEV.- I 'l ^v-i^'--f"> i C) i n Toi> View I Section on KF Fig. 5. I Fkont View Front View Front Vfew Fig. f-i"!--j 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i i 1 i 1 1 1 1 i 1 I'hont \ikw Front V ^^ c..2._l._^ D. ^ i ^ Section on AB Section on CD Bottom View ONT VIEW Bottom View 42 INTRODUCTION. Dimensions. — Clear ideas of dimensions are necessary in the subject of Con* struction. Dimension is extent in any one direction. Dimension in only one direction, as of a line, is known as length. When there are two dimensions, as of any surface, the two dimensions are called length and breadth. When there are three dimensions, as of a solid, the longest dimension is known as length, the next is known as breadth, and the shortest is known as thickness. Thickness, however, always expresses solidity, and is never used to express the third dimension of a hollow object. The terms just spoken of are applied to solids and objects without reference to position. Let a solid now be considered with regard to both dimension and position. It has three dimensions, as before, but the dimensions now have definite direction, — it has one vertical dimension and two horizontal dimensions. The vertical dimension is known as height ; and the horizontal dimensions are designated by width : I, width from left to right ; 2, width from back to front. When the vertical dimension is less than the shorter of the horizontal dimen- sions, it is sometimes known as thickness. It is better, however, as a general rule, to adhere to the terms height, width from left to right, width from back to front, in speaking of objects in a definite position. Pupils may be called on to measure the length of certain lines in the room, whether vertical, horizontal, or oblique. Then they may measure faces, — so many inches one way, so many inches the other way. Then they may measure solids, — so many inches one way, so many inches another way, so many inches another way ; thus gaining the idea of measurements in different directions, and from that the idea of extension or dimension in different directions. In a similar way the idea of height, of width from left to right, and of width from back to front, as dimensions in different directions, may be developed, and probably the pupils can be led to express these by the proper terms. Pupils will now be ready to see that in a geometric view but two dimensions are represented, and that in order to represent three dimensions of an object two geometric views are necessary. Views of Solids. — When a solid is simple and regular, the facts of its form can be shown in two views, — the front and top views. These views should be placed in the same relation to each other that they have in the object ; that is to say, the top view should be placed above the front view. The top and front views of twelve solids ' 1 A full statement of their characteristics and applications will be found at the end of this Manual. CONSTRUCTION. 43 are here illustrated — the top and front views of the sphere, Fig. i, — the cube, Fig. 2, — the cylinder. Fig. 3, — the hemisphere. Fig. 4, — the square prism. Fig. 5, — the right-angled triangular prism, Fig. 6, — the top and front views of the ellipsoid. Fig. 7, — the ovoid, Fig. 8, — the equilateral triangular prism facing, Fig. 9, — the same with a long edge toward you, Fig. 10, — the cone. Fig. 11, — the pyramid, Fig. 12, — the vase form, Fig. 13, are seen. Fig. I. Fig. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 6. O A VO Fig. 7. Fig. 8. Fig. 9. Fig. 10. Fig. II. Fig. 12. Fig. 13. More than Two Views, — It is frequently desirable to have more than two views. In this connection, the triangular prisms show some interesting facts, as will be seen by the study of their views. Take first the right-angled triangular prism in a vertical position. This prism has two right-angled triangular faces, two narrow oblong faces, and a broad oblong face. If it is placed vertically, with one narrow oblong face facing you and the other on the left side, its top, front, bottom, and right- side views -will be as in Fig. i. As, in the solid in this position, the vertex of each triangular face points away from the front face, so the vertexes of the triangles in the top view and in the bottom view point away from the front view. The side view of a solid shows its width directly from back to front, therefore the left and right side views of a solid must be of the same width, and the right- side view of the prism in this position must be a narrow oblong, no wider than the left face, although, in looking at the right-side view, the broader oblong face is in sight. 44 INTRODUCTION. Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. If the prism is placed so that one narrow oblong face is at the left and the other is at the back, its views will be as in Fig. 2. If it is placed with the broad oblong face at the back, its views will be as in Fig. 3. The right-side view cannot be wider than the width of the solid from back to front, as seen in the top view. If the prism is placed with the broad oblong face facing, its views will be as in Fig. 4. These views will be readily understood if they are studied from the solid. The study of the equi. tri. prism placed vertically and horizontally as Figs. 9 and 10, page 43, would also show facts of a similar nature. The left end, front and top views of the horizontal equi. tri. prism, in various positions, are seen in the illustrations below. In Fig. i, the prism rests on an oblong face; the front view is not as high as the front face would measure, for the front view cannot be higher than the end view. The width of the top view, from back to front, equals the width of the left end. Similar facts will be observed in Figs. 2 and 3. In Fig. 3, the prism is supposed to rest on a long edge, with an oblong face facing you. Fig. Fig. Fig. Patterns. — A pattern is anything cut or drawn or formed to correspond to an object to be made, and serving as a guide for determining its exact shape or form and its dimensions. A flat pattern of a solid is made by what is called the development of the sur- face of the solid. The surface is, as it were, unfolded and spread out flat, thus making a pattern, which, when folded, will show the form of the solid. The devel- COMPOSITION. 46 opment of the surface of the square prism is shown below ; also the pattern of a cube with laps for pasting. The subject of patterns and development is carried in this Course as far as the development of a four-part elbow. Manual Training. — Both educators and practical men are now seeking the introduction of manual training into regular school work. Such training will, how- ever, fall short of the desired result, both educational and practical, unless pursued in connection with regular, systematic, thoughtful work in Form Study and Drawing, as form is the basis of all work in manual training. By means of pattern sheets, definite exercises in regular sequence, and in immediate connection with the Form and Drawing exercises, are provided. Making objects from the patterns also fur- nishes objects for study, as well as opportunity for care and skill in manual work. The pattern sheets are provided so that accurate models may be made. Where instruments are provided for children, it will be much better for them to lay out and draw their own patterns, instead of using the printed patterns. Composition. Composition, as the word is used in art, is a general term covering the indi- vidual worker's choice and arrangement of forms and colors, lines and spaces, in order to perfectly and beautifully express his idea and carry out his plan. He is continually collecting material for this use, through his studies of nature and of the art productions of his fellow- workers. Through such studies he fills his mind with con- ceptions of beautiful forms and colors ; he develops judgment regarding the appropriateness of certain forms, colors, plans, and arrangements to certain ideas of use and beauty ; and he cultivates his power of idealizing familiar things and their relations to each other. 46 INTRODUCTION. It is when he himself composes a bit of Representp.tion or Decoration or Construc- tion that he begins to make truly creative use of what he has acquired in other lines of his art-study. Composition, in a word, stands for individuality in art. Composition as a fea- ture of art instruction stands for the development of individual creative power in the art activities. A study of good composition already existing in the various departments of art shows that there are a few great, underlying principles on which the best workers of different times and places have consciously or unconsciously agreed. These principles seem to be fundamental in art just as certain other principles are fundamental in nature. In nature-study children are led to see how certain princi- ples or laws keep the natural world in beautiful order, and how a man's wise utiliza- tion of these laws in his own work makes that work effective. So in art-study chil- dren should be led to see how certain principles underlie all good composition, and to utilize these same principles in their own creative work. Good composition results from a harmonious arrangement or grouping of parts — each part being subordinate to the whole and in a pleasing relation to the other parts — so that the whole is beautiful. While this work in its result is original and individual, there is of necessity an orderly procedure underlying every composition. The geometric plan is first determined. In pictorial compo- sition, the geometric plan is simply the shape of the space to be filled — some plane geometric figure ; in decorative composition the geometric plan may be merely the shape of the space to be filled, it may require in addition the geometric laying out of the repeats, and it may require also the geometric symmetry of the repeats themselves ; in constructive composition, either industrial or architectural, the third dimension may be involved, and solid as well as plane geometry may give the geometric plan. ^ Having the geometric plan determined and having decided on the motive, — whether lines, spaces, plant, landscape, figure, etc., — the great effort, the art effort, is to so present that motive that the general effect will be harmonious, that its hnes shall contrast agreeably, and that its spaces shall bear pleasing relations. To secure this the student, bearing in mind that harmonious proportion of the parts to each other and to the whole is secured through the simple laws of principality, opposition, and balance, works out this problem in various ways striving to show his own con- ception of beauty. By these efforts and by the study of fine works of art, he learns COMPOSITION. 47 the need of breadth, simplicity, and repose. If he is working in decorative composi- tion, he considers symmetry, rhythfti, and order. ^ffi^ ^S Principality requires that one part be more important and the others subordi- nate, hence contrast of dimension or of value ensues. Opposition requires that there be a variation or contrast in direction or direct- ness of hne and in shape. Balance requires that there be such a mediation or reconciliation of these con- trasts that the whole effect will be harmonious. All nations have shown their ideas of composition in their paintings, their sculpture, their decoration, and their architecture. To the Greeks we owe that magnificent example of architectural composition, the Parthenon. Their feeling for proportion, for space and form relations, has never been surpassed. From the great masters of pictorial art of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, as well as from the builders of the Romanesque, Gothic, and Renaissance periods, we receive lessons in composition. " In my experience, art instruction must begin by awakening the perceptions of beauty, by causing an exercise of choice and judgment, by the effort to originate something that is fine, — that reflects the personal thought or emotion of the student. That is the purpose of the simple problems in elementary line. The pupil makes several designs, chooses the best, compares them with similar things in the art of the world, and is helped to perceive the style and distinction of- the really fine things. By continually exercising his judgment and personal feeling, he gains creative ability ; and when he desires to express his thoughts by representing nature, he has acquired a language in which to do it, and his eagerness to do it will lead him to draw with enthusiasm. This simple beginning underlies Painting,, Sculpture, Architecture, and Decoration. " From the beginning this thought is emphasized, viz. : that neither applied design nor representation of nature can be called Art unless the fundamental ideas of Proportion. Opposition, Principality, and others have been considered and appreciated. " The study of composition means an art education for the entire people, for every 48 INTRODUCTION. child can be taught to compose — that is, to know and feel beauty and to produce it m simple ways." — Arthur W. Dow. " Flowers,' by their great variety of line and proportion, are particularly valuable, as well as convenient, subjects for elementary composition. y ^h^^ " Their forms and colors have furnished themes for painters and sculptors since the beginning of Art, and the treatment has ranged from abstractions to extreme realism : from the refinements of lotus-derived friezes to the poppy and rose wall-papers of the present time. "In flower composition as here suggested, there is no intention of making a design to apply to anything as decoration, hence there need be no questions as to the amount of nature's truth to be introduced. The flower may be rendered realistically, as in some Japanese design, or reduced to an abstract suggestion, as in the Greek, without in the least affecting the purpose in view, viz., the setting of its lines into a space in such a way that beauty shall result — ■ in other words, making it serve as a subject for a composition exercise. " It is essential that the space should be cut by the main lines ; a small spray in the middle of a big oblong, or disconnected groups of flowers, cannot be called compositions ; all the lines and areas must be related to one another by connections and placing so as to form a beautiful whole. "Not a picture of a flower is sought — that can be left to the botanist — but rather an irregular pattern of lines and spaces, something far beyond the mere drawing of a flowei from nature and laying an oblong over it, or vice versa. " The instructor draws a flower in large, firm outlines on the blackboard, avoiding con- fusing detail, and giving the character as simply as possible. The pupil first copies the instructors drawing, then he decides upon the shape into which to compose this subject — a square or rectangle will be best for the beginner. He makes several trial arrangements roughly, with pencil or charcoal. Having chosen the best of these, he improves and refines 1 From a book on " Composition," now in preparation, by Arthur W. Dow. The iUustrations given in this section are from the work of Mr. Dow's pupils at Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N.Y. In The Prang Elementary Course of Art Instruction, Drawing-Book 7, there is a full-page illustration (page 15) of Mr. Dow's work in Flower Composition. COMPOSITION. 49 them, first on his trial paper, and later by tracing with brush and ink on thin Japanese paper. Effort must be concentrated on the arrangement, not on botanical correctness. " Many line compositions can be derived from one flower subject, but each of these can in turn be made the source of a great variety of designs by carrying the exercise farther into the field of Dark-and-Light. Paint certain of the areas black, and at once a whole new series suggests itself from a single line design. To the beauty of the line is added the beauty of opposing and intermingling masses of black and white. "In this part of the work the arrangement of shapes of light with shapes of dark occupies the attention, rather than shading, or the rendering of shadows. Hence the flowers and leaves and stems, or parts of them, may be black or white, according to the feeling of the student. " Let him choose, out of his several drawings, those which he considers best. The instructor can then criticise, pointing out the best and the worst, and explaining why they are so. " A mere aimless or mechanical blackening of paper, without effort to arrange, will result in nothing of value." — Arthur W. Dow. Mr. La Farge whose decorative work in Trinity Church, Boston,^ whose stained- glass and whose general composition show the finest feeling for proportion and spac- ing, writes of art in " Letters from Japan " : — " I have far within me a belief that art is the love of certain balanced proportions and relations which the mind likes to discover and to bring out in what it deals with, be it thought or the actions of men, or the influences of nature, or the material things in which necessity makes it to work. I should then expand this idea until it stretched from the patterns of earliest pottery to the harmony of the lines of Homer. Then I should say that in our plastic arts the relations of lines and spaces are, in my belief, the first and earliest desires. And again I should have to say that, in my unexpressed faith, these needs are as 1 The illustrative pages in Drawing-Book 12 of The Prang Elementary Course in Art Instruction give examples of his composition. 50 INTRODUCTION. needs of the soul, and echoes of the laws of the universe, seen and unseen, reflections of the universal mathematics, cadences of the ancient music of the spheres. •^ For I am forced to believe that there are laws for our eyes as well as for our ears, and that when, if ever, these shall have been deciphered, as has been the good fortune with music, then shall we find that all the best artists have carefully preserved their instinctive obedience to these, and have all cared together for this before all. " For the arrangements of line and balances of spaces which meet these underlying needs are indeed the points through which we recognize the answer to our natural love and sensitiveness for order, and through this answer we feel, clearly or obscurely, the difference between what we call great men and what we call the average, whatever the personal charm may be. " This is why we remember so easily the arrangement and composition of such a one whom we call a master — that is why the ' silhouette ' of a Millet against the sky, why his placing of outlines within the rectangle of his picture, makes a different, a final, and decisive result, impressed strongly upon the memory which classifies it, when you compare it with the record of the same story, say, by Jules Breton. It is not the difference of the fact in nature, it is not that the latter artist is not in love with his subject, that he has not a poetic nature, that he is not simple, that he has not dignity, that he is not exquisite ; it is that he has not found in nature of his own instinct the eternal mathematics which accompany facts of sight. For indeed, to use other words, in what does one differ from the other.? The arrangement of the idea or subject may be the same, the costume, the landscape, the time of day, nay, the very person represented. But the Millet, if we take this instance, is framed within a larger line, its spaces are of greater or more subtle pondera- tion, its building together more architectural. That is to say, all its spaces are more surely related to ojte another and not only to the story told nor only to the accidental occurrence of the same. The eternal has been brought in to sustain the transient. . . . " Yes, the mere direction or distance of a line by the variation of some fraction of an inch establishes this enormous superiority — a little more curve or less, a mere black or white or colored space of a certain proportion, a few darks or reds or blues. And now you will ask. Do you intend to state that decoration ? To which I should say, I do not mean to leave my main path of principles to-day, and when I return we shall have time to discuss objections. Besides, ' I am not arguing ; I am telling you.' " — John La Farge. The following books, treating of Composition, may be useful to teachers : — Treatise ofi Cotnposition. John Burnet. Composition in Pictures. Susan Carter. The Graphic Arts. P. G. Hamerton. An Af'tisfs Letter from Japan. Consideration on Painting. John La Farge. The Genesis of Art Forms. George Lansing Raymond. Practical Treatise on Composition. Harry Willson. Composition. Arthur W. Dow. COMPOSITION. 51 Training of the ytsthetic Judgment. A twofold purpose should run through all art training, namely, the development of both the creative and appreciative powers of the child. That training which aims purely to develop the child to his higher possibilities as an individual is insufficient. He needs as well that training which will make him a desirable and useful member of society. While both lines of work minister to every activity in life, yet in a special sense the development of the creative powers prepares the child for his work as a producer — or brings him to his full powers as an individual. The training of his appreciative powers, or aesthetic judgment, prepares him for his place as a consumer — or as a member of society. Production and Consumption. — Every working member of society is in a sense a producer. He is a producer in a special sense who uses raw material of any kind for the manufacture of a product. While every person in this special sense is not a producer, all are consumers, and all are consumers of art products, or products resulting from the application of Art to Industry. The common envi- ronment of everyday life cannot be supplied without dependence upon this creative work of others. The element of design enters into everything made by man, and that design may be either good or bad ; therefore design as applied to construction, the making of things, affects the life of all more constantly and directly than the more purely imaginative arts of painting and sculpture. All cannot as yet have paintings and statues in their houses, but all must have houses, furniture, and clothing. Fortunately, a chair or table may be truly a work of art, if it be designed according to correct principles. Fortunately, too, good design is not dependent upon expensive material. Objects may even be made beautiful for less than is often expended in making them ugly, for were the florid ornamentation so often seen omitted, this expense would be eliminated, and the object itself would be better in design. The responsibility for the quality of design rests primarily with the consumer. The producer — trained to his creative work, may desire to make truly artistic products, but he is not wise to manufacture what the public will not buy. If the consumer insists upon furniture covered with meretricious ornament the producer is obhged to supply it, or go out of the business. In any broad sense the standard of production can be Hfted only as the aesthetic judgment of society is developed to the point of demanding better things. The producer and consumer 62 INTR OB UCTIOJSf. are thus seen to be mutually dependent, for good design in the common surround- ings of life, and the necessity for the development of the aesthetic judgment as an inherent part of art education, becomes apparent at once. How may the Esthetic Judgment be Trained? — Are there any principles which, when understood, will enable us to select with judgment, and to surround ourselves with beauty instead of ughness, and thus raise the standard of production by the demand for good design ? The selection of products has for the most part been determined by the mere personal preferences of the buyer, his standard of value being simply " I know what I like." For example, one is fond of roses, and influenced by this fact purchases a lamp-shade heavily decorated with naturalistic representations of his favorite flower. Or, one admires color and sparkle, and selects a gilt chair for a reception room. The universal admiration for feminine beauty betrays another into buying a plate with a portrait of Madame Recamier painted upon it. In these instances the judgment fails to remind the purchaser that the roses obscure the hght of the lamp, that the gilt chair is a palpable deception, and that it is unpleasant to spread food upon even a beautiful countenance. The fact that the schoolboy may prefer the history of " Sure Shot Sam " to " Hiawatha " does not prove that it is better literature. It is generally conceded that the choice of " rag-time " in preference to the " Fifth Symphony " is not evidence that it is better music. Neither is the mere personal preference for one design rather than another evidence that the design chosen is good. These illustrations lead us to an obvious principle. Personal choice is not the standard by which the quality of any art product may be determined. Or, stated positively — the aesthetic quality of a design must be determined by its relation to certain principles. These principles must be simple and of universal application, or they cannot be permanent measures of value. The value of a design is not determined by its historic accuracy of style. The styles of architecture and ornament are themselves measured by principles. As the principle of number antedates and underlies all systems of computation, — so the principles of design antedate and underlie the architectural orders and the grammar of orna- ment. These derive their authority only from their exposition of principles of design. To know how to select a good chair is to know the principles by which all constructive design must stand or fall. The principles involved in the design of a tea-cup govern the design of a cathedral. To help the child to see these principles expressed in simple objects is the best preparation for judgment of more complex forms later. As a generalization, the saying of William Morris, " Keep nothing in your house that you do not know to be useful or believe to be beautiful," is very COMPOSITION. 53 Yet useful. Another valuable definition of more recent date is this : " Good design is the solution of the problem of utility in terms of beauty." Every common object is made to serve some purpose. It should be made of the material and of the form best adapted to meet that purpose. This is an axiom, yet in it are involved the first two principles of good design. 1. Fitness of form to function. 2. Suitability of material. 3. Honesty of construction. These three principles relate primarily to the use of the object, for no object can be truly beautiful without these quaUfications. There are three other principles which concern more essentially the beauty of the object : they may be called Proportion, Beauty of Form, Beauty of Color. These six principles, however expressed, may be regarded as the golden rule of good design. Fitness of Form to Function. — This may be illustrated in the schoolroom by any object at hand, or by reference to any common object at home. Take for example a chair. Consider first its purpose. All chairs are made to sit in one chair may be good in design for the very quality which makes another chair bad in design. The easy- chair should give a chance to recline, and should therefore have the back at quite an obhque angle, while a dining-room chair so constructed would be obviously unfit for its function. The Morris chair, designed by William Morris, is an example of excel- lent design in reference to all these principles. The back is adjustable by a simple device, and the chair can thus be made to suit the comfort of the user to an unusual degree. The free cushions allow perfect cleanhness. It meets with equal success the other demands of good desigs. The material is suited to the purpose ; the wood is without ornament, its beauty being brought out by the finish of the natural wood itself. The construction is so simple and straightforward that a child may understand it. Here " the problem of utility " is indeed " solved in terms of beauty." Fitness of form to function may be safely considered the most inclusive and fundamental of all the elements of good design. In a sense it includes all the others. The illustration of the Morris chair is used because it embodies in a simple form all the principles mentioned. Fitness to *«Wl«i#»"w"«i Kf"-*" 54 INTRODUCTION. purpose would demand for the dining room a much more erect and formal chair. It should be designed with reference to the height of a dining room table. It should be light in order that it may be easily moved. It should be free from dust-collecting ornamentation and have a smooth surface to admit of perfect cleanliness. Apply these principles to some simple object like a milk pitcher. Fitness to purpose demands that it be light so it may be Hfted easily. It must be of good shape so that the milk will pour without spilling. The handle must be large enough to take hold of, and the opening large enough to allow thorough cleaning. The first question to ask of any object in judging its design is, What is its purpose? Then, Does its form suit that purpose ? Suitability of Material. — This is really a corollary to the principles of fit- ness to purpose. Nothing can be truly fit for its use unless made of appropriate material. Illustrations of unsuitable material may be found in the plush covering of seats in railway or street cars, or in furniture for common use in the house. This material so holds dust and dirt that it is obviously unsanitary. Coverings of woven straw or of leather answer the needs of comfort and beauty quite as well, and have the quality of suitability. The paper lamp-shade may be beautiful in itself — the material is charming in texture and color — but its inflammable nature renders it unsuitarble material for that purpose. So with the Japanese lantern — it answers every one of the requirements except that of suitability of material. The use of the candle renders it always dangerous. In form, proportion and color, it excels. In suitability, and therefore in fitness, it is deficient. Another illustration of material beautiful in itself, but bad through misuse, is the selection of silks and satins for children's dresses. The unsuitability is obvious. A white and gold book binding may be exquisite in design, beautiful intrinsically, but its tendency to show soil renders it unsuitable for any purpose which requires much handling. Suitability concerns itself largely with considerations of cleanliness, sanitation, and safety. Honesty of Construction. — This means that the structure of the object shall honestly appear in its form. This is perhaps the most frequently violated of any of the principles of design. Negative illustrations rush at once to the mind. The folding-bed is a flagrant example of structural hypocrisy. Pretending to be a desk or a family organ it unblushingly confronts the undeceived beholder. Imitation of one material in another is always unsafe. " Tapestry effects " in wall-paper, " silkoline," or cotton made to look Hke silk, basket or lace patterns on china or pottery, wooden spindles made like twisted ropes, all such things violate the principle of honest construction. Houses are frequently seen made of brick with a COMPOSITION. 55 veneer of stone in front. A house built wholly of a cheaper material is better in design than a brick house which tries to pass itself off for stone. Terra-cotta ornament in buildings is treated like carved stone, and cast-iron window frames, used everywhere in commercial buildings, too often also masquerade as stone. A simple straightforward construction Hke that of the Morris chair is the only safe course. The moment we apologize for structure by conceahng it we are violating an essential principle of design. This does not mean that seams should be outside and the structure of the object obtruded upon the eye. It merely means that there shall be no attempt to deceive the eye. Proportion, Form, and Color. — These may be treated together, as it is difficult to separate them even for definition. Proportion and form are so dependent upon use that it is hardly possible to consider them abstractly. Proportion is the har- monious relation of parts to each other. All necessities may be met and the object still be unpleasing in proportion. Take, for instance, a pitcher. All the demands for use might be answered by the first form, but the eye is not pleased. All the requirements of use are equally well answered in the other designs, and they have also the elements of proportion and good form. Proportion must be judged by use. A tall, slender vase for holding two or three roses is in beautiful proportion for that purpose, while for a pitcher for com- mon use it would be bad. Harmonious relation of parts expressed with grace of line, make beauty inevitable. | Color is the most distinguishable and separate of qualities. Beautiful color adds incalculably to the aesthetic value of any object. But of itself it is not enough to make an object beautiful. An illustration of this is the wonderful work of the Tiffliny Company in the manufacture of their Favrile glass. Here color effects of surpassing beauty have been obtained. When this color is added to a beautiful form the effect is complete and satisfying, while the 56 INTRODUCTION. color alone is not enough to redeem a clumsy form. An example of good design in every point is difificult to obtain, and it therefore becomes all the more essential to look for the good points in each object, though none will, perhaps, qualify in all. A chair that is good in construction may be covered with poor material. Let us be sure to recognize its positive quaUty. A dish is perhaps excellent in everything but decoration. By all means make the most of its good points, and in every illustra- tion lead the children to emphasize the positive quality rather than the negative. Criticism by appreciation rather than depreciation is the law by which the aesthetic judgment may be trained on the optimistic and positive side. When negative illustration serves to point a positive principle it may perhaps be employed, but the emphasis should always be upon the points in which objects meet the requirements of good design. Let us look for fitness and beauty as exempUfied in this design for a lamp. Here, under Fitness of Purpose, we note that it is stable in form. It will not easily tip. The handle is firm, large enough, and well placed. The shade of bamboo and stretched silk is light in weight. It is suitable in material, since by its shape and mechanical arrangements the danger of burning is avoided. It is decorated enough to give charm without obscuring light, and the decoration is flat and appropriate. The construction honestly appears through- out. The proportion and form are simple and pleasing, and the color of the original enhances the effect of all the parts. The color of the base is echoed more delicately in the shade, bringing all the parts into unity. This seems to meet all the utihtarian requirements of a hand lamp, which must be carried from room to room, and to meet the requirements of beauty as well. Another shape might perhaps better answer other requirements, as for instance, a lamp for the dining table would necessarily be higher, in order to throw light down, while a reading lamp would not need to be so light in weight, the consideration of use being first in each case in determining the excellency of the design. GENERAL DIRECTIONS. Drawing. Freedom of Movement. — The importance of freedom of movement in drawing cannot be overestimated. It produces lightness of touch, quickness in execution, begets confidence in one's ability to draw, and when acquired by a class of pupils, materially lessens the work of the teacher. Experience among thousands of pupils shows conclusively that too much stress cannot be laid on the need for the early development of freedom of movement. The ability to sketch rapidly and easily cannot be attained without it. A set of drawing-books, finished as draughtsmen would finish them, rarely indicates the best teaching. It is of far more importance that the child should have opportunity to work first for freedom of movement rather than for straightness of line. Position. — The children should sit on the left half of the seat facing the desk. They should sit erect, feet flat on the floor, the eyes never nearer the paper than is necessary for a clearer view of the lines. They should not bend forward unnecessarily, and should learn to work at a distance, as thus they can get a better idea of their work as a whole. In draw- ing at the blackboard, children should stand at arm's length from the board. Pencil. — For general work the Prang school pencil S. M. is recommended. For work in light and shade, color, pencil-painting, and all methods of artistic rendering the S. M. is especially effective. Young children should be led to use such a pencil with restraint so as not to get extreme effects, that is, the rendering too heavy and black. The pencil should be used for drawing only. Short pencils should not be used. For ordinary work, the pencil should be held lightly three or four inches from the point, so that it will have the support of the middle finger and be, held by the thumb and forefinger, as shown in the illustration. Lead the pupils to attain this pencil-holding from a desire to draw freely and well. The pupils should be led to see that frequent erasing injures the surface of the paper and the eraser is disastrous when applied to shade or shadow, therefore it is better that the pupils should draw at first with very light lines, correcting these if necessary by drawing other light lines over them. When a satisfactory outline (or blocking of the whole) is secured then the pupil may proceed to carry out the effect desired, any obtrusively in- correct lines being first taken out with an eraser. 57 58 INTRODUCTION. Yor pencil-paintingwhQXt the drawing is done in mass with broad intermingling strokes, the pencil should be held under the fingers as shown in the second illustration. Practice Paper. — It is desirable that pupils should have some practice in free move- ment in connection with work in the drawing-book and some of the exercises call for quick sketches by the pupils in order to fix in the mind the purpose of an exercise, as in the pose or animal study, that the lines of action may be studied from life as preliminary to work in the drawing-book. For such purposes sheets of manila paper, six by nine inches, are desirable.^ The sheets may be used on both sides for drawing. Provision should be made for at least twenty-five to thirty sheets for each pupil for use with one drawing-book. The teacher should guard against too much practice as preliminary to any exercises in the drawing-book lest the children lose interest and the spontaneity of their effort suffer. Still further, the work in the book should generally differ from that upon practice paper. For instance, if sketches have been made of clusters of grass on practice paper, it is well to use a different cluster for the drawing-book page. Materials and Methods for Brush Work. Ink. — For work in black and white common writing ink answers very well, though, of course, india-ink has more body and brilliancy. India-ink is prepared in the most convenient form for use in bottles, and Higgins's Waterproof Liquid Ink (white label) is recommended. India-ink of excellent quality can also be obtained in sticks directly from Japanese dealers at about fifteen cents a stick from two to three inches in length. When in this form it should be prepared for use by each child by rubbing an end with a little water in a small dish (individual butter-plate), adding more water drop by drop until there is enough for the lesson. The proper consistency can soon be estimated by trial and also the amount needed for the lesson. The ink is easily thinned by adding water and mixing it in the dish. The stick ink might be preferred in the upper grades as it gives a better effect than common writing ink. When the stick ink is used it should be carefully dried and wrapped in paper after using to prevent crumbling or cracking. Brushes. — The quality or size of the brushes is not so important as the method of using them. The brush may be a flat bristle (for flat wash), or a Japanese pointed brush, or a camePs hair or sable brush of medium size. If a Japanese brush is used, it will be found that the bristles are partially held together near the base by a sort of glue. Care 1 The paper is put up in packages of loo sheets, and may be obtained of booksellers and of The Prang Educational Company. GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 59 should be taken not to remove this glue for outline work as its presence helps to give greater firmness to the brush ; for general work in washes, its presence is not desirable. Brushes may be kept singly in the paint-box or together, using a box longer than the brushes so that the points may not be injured. Brushes should never be kept in water or put in the mouth. The paint-box and brushes should be put away clean. When put away for the summer it is well to add a piece of camphor. Water-Colors. — Water-color paints are furnished to the schools in various forms. There are liquid paints in bottles, moist water-color paints in tubes, and paint-boxes with cakes of paint. Perhaps the most practical for general use in the public school is a paint- box with three colors of excellent quality.^ The scientific knowledge of color is of little or no value as a training of the color sense or aesthetic preception ; but by mixing or combining (by juxtaposition) the three primary colors, red, yellow, and blue, the children may obtain much practical knowledge of pigments, their possibilities, and their limitations. The paraphernalia for such work should be as simple as possible, so as to reduce the time required in handling it, and also the expense. One lesson a week, taking the time of two periods, is better than two shorter lessons. Large heavy cups or small bowls may be used for water — distributed by monitors and filled by the teacher from a long-nosed vessel, such as a coffee-pot. With care one supply of water will be sufficient for a lesson. The papers may be white or slightly tinted. An American drawing paper answers every pur- pose ; the manila practice paper is good. For all line work in ink or water-color the brush should be held as nearly vertical as possible, with the fingers slightly resting upon the paper and the whole arm moved instead of merely the fingers. Broad washes are obtained by charging the brush with considerable water and color and working with the side and not the point of the brush. To obtain con- trol and power of expression, it is well to encourage even young children to use the brush in both ways. How to Use the Brush. — For practice with the point of the brush it is well for children to reproduce borders which have been previously laid with sticks, or perhaps drawn, as this will not only keep a direct connection with other work, but will give excellent practice in handling. The constant and laborious drill which Japanese children are obliged to go through in order to learn to write their peculiar characters with ease and freedom and cor- rectness is undoubtedly a great means in developing their mastery of the pencil and brush in their characteristic art. The Japanese do not rest the hand even on the fingers, but move the whole arm, holding the pencil and brush vertical. If children can draw with the brush without first sketching the leading lines with 1 The Prang Water-Color Box No. i is recommended. This box contains three cakes of fine quality and e.xtra size, — one each of carmine, ultramarine, and mineral yellow. The colors work easily and smoothly and mix readily into secondaries, tertiaries, and mtermediates and broken colors. They are put up in attractive boxes with hinged covers. Two quill brushes of good quality and generous size, with wooden handles, are included in each box. The inside of the box cover is finished for use as a palette with three divisions. 60 INTRODUCTION. pencil, it will not be well to repress such eflfort. Young children are less self-conscious than older ones, and if technical results are not expected beyond their power to produce they will show great courage and often surprising ability. They should, however, think carefully before making a line and perhaps practise the movement just over the paper, before making the stroke. A tactful teacher will see ways to gently guide or restrain, but it should be borne in mind that it is especially desirable in all this work that the children should have as much freedom as possible. It is not direct results that we should expect, but the development of power. Sketching the outline is necessary in some examples of historic ornament or decora- tive design. In order to avoid erasing upon the paper, which seriously injures the surface for water-color or ink, it is well to have the pupils sketch the design first upon thin paper and then transfer to the sheet which is to receive the color or ink. How to Use Water-Colors. — Washes may be laid perfectly flat by working with the brush full of wet color, beginning at the top of the figure and carrying the color across the enclosing space from left to right, inclining the paper slightly and dragging the color down as it pools. The excess of color at the lower edge may be lifted with the bru. h if the brush is nearly dry. If the first wash does not produce a tone of sufficient depth, another or several others may be added, taking care that one wash is thoroughly dry before applying another. For practice in laying flat washes the children are much interested in filling squares, oblongs, circles, triangles, quatrefoils, trefoils, etc. These decorative motives may be painted and the enclosed spaces filled by the children ; they may be drawn by the teacher (by drawing one sheet carefully and pricking through many sheets to secure proper dimen- sions and connecting points by lines or curves) or the children may color their own draw- ings.^ The hektograph is also a great aid to teachers. A graded wash from the full tone to a pale tint may be laid by starting with a brush full of color (very wet) and carrying the tone as far down as the full depth of the color is desired, then by adding water and no more color every time the brush starts from the left to the right, the full tone will change, giving a graded effect ending in a pale tint. Long vertical oblongs are excellent for this exercise. Blotted washes are made by alternating the full depth of a color with a tint of the same color added at irregular intervals. Sometimes different colors are used, as Prussian or ultramarine blue and touches of emerald green or raw sienna, thus producing stained- glass effects. This work is delightful for color composition. Simple sky effects may be obtained by the use of a blue wash, lifting the color in places by means of the brush to simulate clouds. Practice in laying washes is very essential as a preliminary to the study and render- ing of examples of historic ornament and original design. Color for the washes may be prepared or mixed in the depressions for that purpose 1 The Prang Outline for Color Work. These consist of 28 different decorative examples, lightly printed on heavy white paper, suitable for water-color washes. The sheets are 6x6, one figure only on each sheet. Blank sheets of the same size can also be supplied for optional exercises. GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 61 on the inner surface of the lid of the paint-box. If moist color in tubes is used special pans are necessary for mixing. The effect of the juxtaposition of colors may be practically demonstrated by surround- ing squares or circles of the same color with different colors, as, for example, surrounding a red square with yellow, another red square with orange, and so on with blue, green, and violet. The children will thus see for themselves the change in effect. (These same experiments may be carried out with colored paper, the children cutting the decorative shapes and thereby gaining much in manual dexterity.) Compositions of flowers or sprays of leaves, budding twigs or seed vessels, within an enclosing space, as a circle, square, or oblong, may be painted in early work in mono- chrome, as, for example, in quite a full tone of blue, the blue being modified in later stages with enough of red and yellow to neutralize it. The blue of Canton china is an excellent tone for such work. Landscape composition may be well carried out in several values in ink or water-color, keeping the washes very flat. This flat treatment is perfectly satisfactory to the child, and, by dealing in clear washes handled directly, muddy combinations are avoided. tVhen more pictorial treatment is attempted, the same direct treatment should be encouraged and the children led to see the value of using as pure color as possible. The best artists, at present, use very few, if any, brown, gray, or any so-called neutral pigments,^ but depend for such effects upon the juxtaposition of pure colors or upon the mixing of red, yellow, and blue with a dash here and there of pure color. A clear sunset sky may be vivid with yellow and red, while against it the trees are very dark green and in some places very deep blue. The artist will mix the colors very little, but while working rapidly will lift the wet color in one place nearly off the paper and add depth of color in another, suggesting grays, violets, and neutral tones by the juxtaposition of colors which produce their effect.. This preserves the richness of the colors and their depth and brilliancy. It is not meant by this that "outdoor effects" should be sought as shown in the works of Manet, Monet, and others where pure colors are juxtaposed in small masses, the pictures to be viewed at a distance. It is meant, however, that the clearer and purer the pig- ments are used the more brilliant is the result, and in decorative or pictorial work gray (and various broken colors) can be produced not only by the juxtaposition of colors, but also by working as directly as possible from the paints, keeping the brush full of color and water and letting the color blend in the brush or on the paper rather than doing much of the mixing on the pan. The effects produced in modern stained-glass are good illustra- tions of such a use of color. The mixing of colors and the use of flat washes, both so necessary for decorative effects, will lead the children to see the results of various combinations of color. When expressing in a pictorial and not a decorative way, the work should be as 1 An artist's box usually contains more than one yellow, red, or blue, with very few neutrals. A master of technique can use almost any pigment or combination of pigments, and produce good results, because he knows just what effects he desires to bring out and just how far it is safe to combine the pigments. But children without this experience are safer with a very simple palette and no neutrals. 62 INTRODUCTION. individual as possible, that is, the children should express as they individually see. It would be a mistake for the teacher to give directions or definite advice as to what colors to combine or juxtapose to give the exact tint or tone of a flower, leaf, or stem, as different children may see or feel the color differently. One child sees green in the shadows or a glow in the reflected light and should express what he sees as well as he can. One child sees red in the stem and he puts it there ; another sees the same part as brown ; into his red he touches a bit of blue and perhaps of yellow. In such work children should be encouraged to work as much as possible directly from the paint, avoiding much mixing and yet keep the color very wet. If the teacher can possibly do it, it would be well to study into the methods of treat- ing water-color when used decoratively and pictorially, practising in both methods. It will be a fascinating study, and the teacher will be well repaid in knowing better how to help the •children. THE PRANG ELEMENTARY COURSE IN ART INSTRUCTION. PLAN OF THE SEBIES. 65 PURPOSE OF THE PRANG COURSE IN ART INSTRUCTION. The purpose of The Prang Course in Art Instruction is to lead the child through a study of form and color, as manifested in nature and in art, to the use of his own individual creative ability through expression by pencil and by brush in terms of art. In the first two primary years of school, this purpose is developed — By exercises in modeling, By acquainting the children with type forms and shapes through such occupations as building, arrangement, paper folding and cutting, etc., By exercises with color tablets, colored paper, and the brush to develop color percep- tion and expression. By observation of fine pictures suited to their grade, By imaginative drawing stimulated by well-selected quotation, with some simple attempts at composition, and By free drawing from the pose, from animals, from grasses and flowers, and from models and objects. All these exercises stand in close relation to eacn other in their appeal to the child through interest, and in their progressive nature. After the first two years, children are prepared for more conscious effort ; as their experience widens, they come to realize that their own drawing fails to express their ideas and to reach their ideals. They desire to know how others draw and are eager for more definite instruction. To meet this desire and to steadily develop their creative power along sequential lines, more definite means are required. The Prang Elementary Course in Art Instruction, consisting of a series of drawing-books and manuals, provides such means. In this course, the work has three interrelated and complementary fines, — observation of form and color in objects and the graphic record of this observation — observation of works of art — the utilization of all these observations in creating beautiful compositions. The exercises have been planned with relation, on the one hand, to their near- ness to the child, to his interest, and to their adaptation to his growing powers and capabilities, and, on the other hand, to their provision for opening a wider horizon, and for developing richer concepts than his ordinary experience would furnish, that he may be thus incited to individuality in beautiful creations. From this statement it will be seen that the vital feature in all this work is the development of the crea- tive activity of the child toward the production of the beautiful. 66 TEACHER'' S MANUAL. With this ultimate purpose, the authors have endeavored — 1. a. To come in touch with the child through things that are near him — that appeal to him — through the study of • children, animals, plants, familiar objects, good drawings and pictures. d. To lead him to appreciation of beauty by the selection of beautiful examples and aspects of all these objects. c. To enlarge his horizon and furnish him with new concepts and new materia! for creative imagination by giving him objects that are new to him, but kindred to those which he already knows. 2. To aid him to classify his concepts so that they may stand in his mind in the proper relation to each other and be easily at his command. 3. To incite him through his own study of objects and of artistic examples to use the concepts thus gained to make new creations, which shall show his own feeling for the beautiful. These aims furnish the key to the sequence of the exercises in The Prang Ele- mentary Course in Art Instruction. General Plan of the Series. The Prang Elementary Course in Art Instruction is intended to cover the time from the third to the eighth years of school life. As different periods of promotion prevail in different towns, some promoting half-yearly, and others yearly, the drawing-books of this series are issued in two forms — one form giving the work of a half-year in a book, the other form giving the work of a whole year in a book. The half-year books are designated by num- bers, Nos. I, 2, 3, 4, etc.; the year books are designated by years, Third Year, Fourth Year, etc. The drawing-books are accompanied by Manuals for teachers, equally available for the half-year or the year drawing-books. Each drawing-book contains Illustrative Pages showing the work of masters. Drawing Pages giving fine examples and sequence of work. Illustrative Pages. — The illustrative pages are given to show examples of good art by acknowledged masters, which will not only give pleasure to the children, but will also show them that there are very many ways of drawing, that it is not neces- PLAN OF THE SERIES. 67 -sary always to express outline and light and shade in the same way ; but that the great point is to have first thought and feeling, then study and training, each enlarging the possibilities of the other. The wide range in these illustrative pages gives great variety of style and rendering, encouraging freedom and originality in the pupils' own work. They show admirable technique with pencil, pen and ink, charcoal and brush. Some are in pure outline, some show study for masses of light and dark and of color, others show light and shade simply expressed. Examples are given from the work of both old masters and artists of the ■day : — Da Vinci, Raphael, Van Dyck, Rembrandt, Landseer, Millet, Barye, Le Rolle, William Hunt, Wm. Hamilton Gibson, John La Faroe, Elihu Vedder, Abbott Thayer, John S. Sargent, Edwin H. Blashfield, Ross Turner, C. D. Gibson, Herbert Adams, WiNSLOw Homer, F. S. Church, Arthur W. Dow, C. H. Woodbury, Edith Clark, Lucy Fitch Perkins, Anna Klumpke, Tanyu, HiROSHIGE, HoKUSAi's Daughter. There are also illustrations of the finest examples of architecture in the various styles. Drawing Pages. — The illustrations on the drawing pages give help in drawing from nature — from plant, animal, bird, and insect life, and from the human figure, from familiar objects, and from simple effective buildings ; — from type models singly and combined, in various positions ; — and from historic ornament from the flat, relief, and round, both detached and in interesting applications in architecture, ceramics, etc. They include also examples of pictorial, decorative, and industrial composition. Working-drawings, patterns, and views are clearly illustrated. The illustrations on the drawing pages are printed to give pupils good examples of form, line, and composition, to interest them in the work of others, to lead to a higher standard of excellence than exists in the individual, and to be a stimulus and help to the pupils by their suggestiveness as to subject and as to manner of render- ing. They assist in providing a regular sequence of study and save time of teacher and pupil. Good copies are as necessary and helpful to the child as art-studies to the adult. In some cases the children may gain much by copying, although the 68 TEACHER S MANUAL. examples are of such a character and so arranged that there is abundant opportunity on every page for free, original, and individual work. Application in Other Studies. — As will readily be seen, the use of these text- books will be of great practical value in securing goo^ drawing in other studies. The examples given include many which are immediately suggestive of good com- position and rendering in the sketching of specimens studied in Elementary Science lessons (botany, zoology, entomology, geology, etc.), the sketching of historic build- ings and furniture, and of objects interesting in geography ; the sketching of buildings and scenes associated with the study of literature, and the imaginative illustration of poems and stories, including the human figure. Mediums for Drawings. — It is assumed that in most schools the lead pencil will be the most available medium for drawing. The drawing-book pages present, however, a paper which can be used for brush work, or for pen and ink if desired. Color. — Opportunities are given for the expression of color in three ways : — By pencil-painting, as shown in certain examples of pose-drawing, drawing of animal life, foliage, and still-life, and historic ornament. By the use of colored papers, cut and mounted in connection with the study of historic ornament and of decorative design. By the use of water-colors. NATURE OF THE WORK. Throughout the series each pupil is encouraged to express himself freely and according to his own feeling, and at the same time he is offered the broadening and enriching influence of what has been done by masters in art ; so that while on the one hand he is growing in individual power to express by drawing, on the other hand he is gaining through acquiring more and more of thought and beauty to express. The creative powers are stimulated and each child learns to feel that he himself has something of his own to tell with pencil or brush. The exercises require drawing From Nature, From Art Examples, From Objects Made by Man, From Memory, to culminate in composition — the work of the creative imagination. STUDY OF FORM AND COLOR. In the first two primary years the children have selected the models of type forms from their groups of objects, have built with them, have handled and moved them, PLAN OF THE SERIES. 69 have arranged them, have imagined them to be all kinds of familiar things, have talked about them and have drawn them until the sphere, cube, and cyUnder, and their relations, the ellipsoid, ovoid, the prisms, the cone, the pyramid, and vase form have become not only as "household words" in the children's speech, but through pleasant associations have also come to be mental companions, which are summoned at will. The work now given in form will be such as to keep in remembrance these types and also to lead to their further study. In a like way in their primary years through a loving, happy study of grass and sky, of leaf and flower, and of types of color, the children have learned to know and to feel the colors red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet in normal and lighter tones. They are now carried farther in color study and expression, by the use of colored paper and of the brush. By this study of form and color, the pupils gain fine material for use in ex- pressing their ideas of composition. If we should wait until the pupils were equal to producing drawings which would compare not unfavorably with the examples in the books, even Book i would not be appropriate for young children. We must put aside the idea that ability to draw well can come as any immediate result of studying good examples or of drawing from objects. There may be art feeling in the simplest and crudest effort, while it may be a poor drawing from the adult or technical standpoint. These books with their beautiful illustrations will fail in the inspiration they might other- wise give if the children are forced beyond their powers. Pupils will gain in individual expression and appreciation by seeing beautiful things, just as they gain along similar lines by hearing and reading fine examples in literature. Therefore, in order that the children may develop in a natural manner, it is hoped that the teacher will accept with tranquillity even very crude results, if they express the best efforts of the pupils. BOOKS 7 AND 8. SIXTH YEAR. GENERAL PLAN OF EXERCISES FOR THE SIXTH YEAR. Books 7 and 8. — Sixth Year Book. Showing their Purpose, Sequence, and Interrelation. The exercises for the Sixth Year are chosen to open to the pupil more widely still than in previous years the world of nature and of art, by the presentation of the drawings of artists, and of exercises for drawing from life, and from familiar and beautiful objects. These exercises appeal to him through his innate delight in beauty of form and color, — a beauty resulting from simplicity, harmony, and repose — and thus lead him to creative activity. The exercises include the following : — Branches and berries. Flowers. Landscape — window study. From Nature. ■ Life in growth. Figure studies. . Animal studies. I Life in growth, action, J and feeling. Association. r Idealization and struction. From Art. con- Tangential Familiar and beautiful objects. Fine buildings. Type forms. Working drawings — views, sections, plans, \ patterns, and development. Beautiful objects. Historic Ornament — Egyptian, Greek. Historic architecture — drawings, capitals, plans. Space relations in mouldings, doorways. Space relations in flower forms and simple landscapes. Patterns of type forms and objects. Plans of rooms. Brackets — constructive design. Decorative arrangement. These exercises are classified generally as above, yet all are closely interrelated as pages 76-79 show. To maintain closely this interrelation, the illustrations on the 73 Creative Work BY Pupils. Rhythm and beauty. Radiation union. Space distribution Individual power. 74 TEACHER S MANUAL. drawing-book pages were prepared with reference to more than one subject ; there- fore the same illustration sometimes occurs on pages 76-79 in more than one connection. Nature. — Plant Life. — Outdoor Study. Book 7, p. 3. Book 7, p. 4. ^ f f,J I if Boc j )k 8, p. 12 The study of nature is seen in the exercises on berries, flowers, and leaves, and in the landscape exercises and in the window study. The study of nature is taken according to the season of the year. Familiar and Beautiful Objects. I — ii Book 7, p. 6. Book 7, p. 7. Book 8, p. 4. B^ Book 8, p. 3. Book 8, p. 6. The study of simple, familiar, and beautiful objects is given in the wall and the columns, in the books and chair, in the pottery forms,^ and in the cylinders, brack- ets, etc., used for the constructive work. 1 The Prang Educational Company has had manufactured abroad, expressly to their order, a large variety of pottery and basket-ware forms, to furnish the schools with beautiful modifications of the simple type forms, embodied in vases and other interesting objects, made additionally attractive by good color. GENERAL PLAN OF EXERCISES. 75 The Pose and Animals. fy t^^' m- t 0^' Book 7, p. I. Book 7, p. 2. '"^mx Book 8, p. 5. A human being is the object which is the nearest to the pupil, being related to him by life, action, and emotion kindred to his own. Therefore the pose of a figure is given. This exercise is related to the special interests of the child through appeal to experience — and to leaves, fruits, flowers, and animals through the life principle. The pose appears again in other illustrations. Next in nearness are animals — domestic animals are especially studied in this year. Type Forms. B Book 7, p. 6. Book 7, p. 7. tnio m a D iDl Book 8, p. 8. li^^^ .m Book 8, p. 9. The teacher should note that the idea of type form underlies all the exercises of the year. They are especially called for on two pages. They are illustrated on other pages, and form the basis for simplicity of choice of objects. Decoration. The pages of ornament appeal to the pupil through simplicity and rhythm, through interest in familiar ornaments, rosettes, etc., through the symbolism, orna- 76 teacher's manual. ment, and history of the Egyptians and Greeks, and through original design for units, borders, and surface coverings. They are related to types of form and to plane figures through the circle, square, triangle, and simple rectangular and parallel effects, produced with both curved and straight lines. In these pages there are introduced borders, units, and figures complete in themselves, some of which can be discovered by the pupils in their daily sur- roundings. ^^ ^y ^M^^^ '^m Book 7, p. ID. Book 7, p. 12. Book 7, p. 13. Book 8, p. 6. Book 7, p. 14. ^mm Book 8, p. 7. The examples of historic ornament are also very closely related to composition, furnishing very fine examples of space relations. They are to be especially studied with reference to beauty produced by spacing and proportion. Working-Drawings. One of the chief ways in which the creative faculty may be exercised for social well-being and for beauty is through the subject of Construction, which furnishes through its various drawing conventions the graphic language for industry and manufacture. Looking forward to this end, the exercises in making working-draw- ings of the simple types and kindred objects which appeal to the child are given. These connect directly with the type forms, and with objects familiar and pleasing by association. GENERAL PLAN OF EXERCISES. 11 Individual creation in space relations through the division of spaces by vertical and horizontal lines for paneling, and the use of simple landscape features and of flowers as motives is definitely called for. Examples showing the general nature of this work are given here. prnhn ^ @ m Q ^ Book 8, p. 8. Book 8, p. II. Space Relations. The development of the creative power of the child in the production of the beautiful is the supreme purpose of the exercises. Underlying the production of the beautiful is the great principle of fine space relation. Book 7, p. 14. Book 7, p. 15. Book 8, p. II. J^ Book 8. p. 13. This principle is something which the pupils can gradually be led to feel through the study of good examples and through various exercises calling for selection of form and aspect, for grouping, for placing upon the page, and for rendering. These are all features of composition, of beauty expressed in terms of art. To this end the choice selections are given from the works of masters on the illustrative pages of the drawing-books. BOOKS 7 AND 8. — SIXTH YEAR. REPRESENTATION. Appearance of Form. Picture=Drawings. DECORA TION. Ornamentation of Form. Original Design. CONSTRUCTION. Facts of Form. Working=Drawings. FINE EXAMPLES. NATURE: Berries; Trees; from the Pose, from Animals; Flowers; Landscape. OBJECTS: Books, Chairs, Vases, Pitchers, and other familiar objects ; Towers. TYPE SOLIDS: Cube, Square, Prism, HISTORIC ORNAMENT : Egyptian and Greek. COLOR: Colored Paper, Brush, Light and dark. SOLIDS: Cube, Square, Prism, Equi. Tri. Prism, Cone, Pyramid. PATTERNS: Cone, Pyramid; Objects similar in form. WORKING-DRAWINGS: Two and Three Views, figured. From Rembrandt, Millet, Arthur W. Dow, John La Farge, Edwin Blashfleld, and Anna Klumpke. From Japanese artists — Hokusai's daughter and Hiro- shige. From Egyptian and Greek architecture. COMPOSITION. REPRESENTATION: Groups of Models or Objects; Landscape. DECORATION : Space Relations ; Light and Dark, Color ; Flower Composition. CONSTRUCTION: Mouldings; Doorways; Brackets. 78 BOOK 7. SIXTH YEAR. — FIRST HALF. The Prang Elementary Course in Art Instruction is pub- lished in two separate editions, prepared to meet the varying conditions of the use of one or two books a year. In the edition providing for the use of two books a year, the books are designated as " No. i,""No. 2," -No, 3," "No. 4," -'No. 5," " No. 6," etc. ; in the edition providing for the use of one book a year, the books are named "Third Year,'" "Fourth Year," " Fifth Year," etc. This Manual text has been espe- cially prepared to meet the needs of both editions. ILLUSTRATIVE PAGES. 81 BOOK 7, PAGE I. SIXTH YEAR BOOK, PAGE i. ILLUSTRATIVE PAGES. Figures. — Millet. « Illustrations. — The drawings on page i are by Millet; simple in treatment, calm, strong, and true, telling of the nobiUty of labor as seen in French peasant life. Jean Francois Millet (1814-1875), who was born at Gruchy, France, was one of the great modern painters. He was born a peasant ; his father and mother were peasants, and together they toiled in the fields. His father, however, found time to see the beauties of nature and to point them out to the boy, saying to him of a tree, " See how fine ! Look at that tree, — how large and beautiful ! It is as beautiful as a flower" ; or looking out of the window, "See ! " he would say, "that house half buried by the field is good, — it seems to me that it ought to be drawn that way." He also modeled in clay and carved in wood for his son. His sister Emilie remembered, that once when Francois was a child of four or five, his father asked the little ones what professions they would choose when they grew up, and the boy replied, " I mean to make pictures of men." One of the professors of the high school at Versailles, who chanced during his vacation to meet and talk with young Millet, said, " I have met a child whose soul is as charming as poesy itself." And soon that child began to express himself, not only by words, but also by drawing. When he was eighteen years old he drew with a bit of charcoal, upon a white wall, the picture of a tree, or an orchard, or a peasant plodding home from work. They talked these drawings over at home, and decided that Jean should study to be an artist. His teachers in Cherbourg could not help him much ; and in 1837, at the age of twenty-three, he went to Paris to the studio of the famous artist Delaroche. He was a fair, broad-chested peasant, with long light hair falling wildly about his shoulders. His fellow-students called him " the man of the woods." Diaz, Rous- seau, and Corot, who afterward became such great artists, were among the pupils of Delaroche at this time with Millet. They are all now known as artists of the Barbison school. Millet soon left the studio of Delaroche, and supported himself by sign-painting, by painting portraits, and by making copies of the great pictures in the galleries. At the same time he read all that he could, for, though a peasant, he had been well 82 teacher's manual. educated. He read Virgil and Homer and Shakespeare, Walter Scott and Byron, Milton and Burns, Goethe and Schiller, Emerson and Channing. He also studied the old masters. He says : — " For a month the masters were my only occupation during the day. The early ones drew me by their admirable expression of gentleness, holiness, and fervor; the great Italians by their knowledge and charm of composition. Fra Angelico filled me with visions ; and when I returned at night to my miserable lodging I did not want to think of anything but those gentle masters who made beings so fervent that they are beautiful, and so beautiful that they are good." • Yet he kept in his heart the peasant life that he knew so well, and which was so full of humanity; and in 1849 he painted his great picture "The Sower." He constantly heard what he called " the cry of the earth," and he portrayed it in his pictures of peasant life. He had a hard time to live, for he and his family at many times had not enough to eat. In 1849 he left Paris and went to Barbison, taking a house of three rooms. He lived there with his family, and painted, happy in his privations, for he was again in the midst of his inspiration, the peasant life of toil, — " the true humanity, the great poetry." There he worked, gaining fame and moderate means, and there he died in 1875. He drew the digger, the sower, the haymaker, the thresher, the gleaner, the shepherdess, the goose girl, — all phases of peasant life and labor attracted him. Lead the pupils to see how essential the service of tilUng the soil is ; how all depend on it, and how, therefore, it may be symbolic of all service, — noble and dignified. The chief ruler of this country serves the people. The motto of the Prince of Wales, who will rule over the greatest empire of the world, is " I serve." Millet excelled in draughtsmanship, in mastery of form, and in the expression of tender and profound feeling. He sketched with great rapidity. On returning from a walk he would frequently cover many sheets of paper with sketches of what he had seen. An illustration is given of such a sheet, — a girl raking a heap of smoking weeds together, a profile of a girl, a hoe, a young shepherdess with a staff resting her cheek on her hands, a man leaning on a pitchfork, a boat at full sail, ducks on land and in water, cottages in a forest, and finally this motto so expres- sive of him : "// /au^ pouvoir /aire servir le trivial a V expression du sublime c'est la la vraie forced " Make the trivial serve in the expression of the sublime. That is true strength." He made such sketches rapidly to obtain motives for his pictures ; but when he had determined on the motive, he drew with very great care, working very slowly. ILLUSTRATIVE PAGES. 83 Sketches. — MILLET. 84 teacher's manual. His great endeavor was to portray character through types rather than indi- viduals. The peasant was to him a hving being who, through his toil, symbolized humanity. Among his best pictures are "The Gleaners," "The Sower," "The Sheep Fold," and "The Angelus." It will be interesting to pupils to make col- lections of his pictures. He was known, however, as well by his drawings as by his paintings ; and some of his best drawings have been reproduced for these drawing- books, that they may stand as an inspiration to the pupils. His art principle was that the picture must be a whole and must give one single impression. He sought then for a fundamental note for his picture — determined on the central thought and then made everything contribute to that thought. He selected and rejected details, and he carefully composed his pictures. There was no hap-hazard work ; it was all carefully thought out. The figure was the main thing ; nature was the frame, for the life of the peasant is in nature, but that nature was chosen that would be in harmony with the thought of the picture. The point to which he never ceased to return is character, and this was expressed by careful selection of costume, attitude, gesture, features, and of the landscape accessories, eliminating everything that would detract from the character sought. Moreover, he always worked for a type — the ideal — believing it to be more true than the real just as Aristotle said poetry was more true than history. The Sower. — And now we come to one of his great pictures. The illustra- tion in the drawing-book was taken from a reproduction of a drawing.' See how simple the picture is ! A single figure, sturdy, well-planted, in peasant costume, grain bag at his side, scattering the seed with powerful fling, grandly treading the newly ploughed field that stretches its span so far, while away in the distance some buildings faintly rise — and a man and horses are ploughing. See how everything is concentrated — the details in the distance are just enough to suggest the expanse of ground — the largeness of the task. The moving clouds seem in a way to accent the motion of the strong arm. The man and the work are the great things, so the field is broader than the sky. The work is only begun, so the space ahead of the man is more than that behind him. The light is so thrown that the man is illumi- nated — his work is ennobled. And how all the technical rules of composition have been obeyed — the vertical figure and the horizontal edge of the field balance and are mediated by the oblique 1 There are two great paintings of The Sower — one is owned abroad — the other is owned by Mr. Quincy Shaw, Boston. ILLUSTRATIVE PAGES. 85 arm of the sower, which again is rhythmically reproduced in the clouds. All is in harmonious composition and all supports and strengthens the main thought — noble labor. I saw a Sower walking slow Across the earth, from east to west. — James Russell Lowell. The Angelus. — And how shall we study this great picture? Again, how simple ! The sun has set, a broad peaceful twilight sky sending its last rays across the field, where two peasants are about finishing their day's work ; the wheelbarrow is filled with bags, the basket is at her feet, and the fork is beside him ; they stand with bowed heads full of devotion — far from the distant church spire just visible on the horizon, from which sounds The Angelus, the bell for evening prayers. When Millet first showed the picture, M. Sensier cried, " It is the Angelus ! " " It is indeed," Millet answered, " you hear the bells." And this picture too is for the uplift of labor. See how details are left out, how only those things are given that tell the thought, the humanity that makes these peasants akin with all. The composition has only simple elements — the long horizon, the vertical figures, relieved by the incline of the fork, while in mass and in direction the basket and the wheelbarrow complement each other and rhythm shows in the handles of the wheelbarrow. But moreover, through this composition the thought is emphasized — it is labor, whose implements are there, and which being placed just so tell best their story. How grand and strong the lines of the figures are, how beautiful the bowed heads ! A firm will directed the work, leaving nothing to chance. "Against the sunset glow they stand, Two humblest toilers of the land, Rugged of speech and rougli of hand, Bowed down by tillage ; No grace of garb or circumstance Invests them with a high romance. Ten thousand such through fruitful France, In field and village. " The day's slow path from dawn to west , > 'p-K» Has left them soil-bestained, distrest, ^'i ^^^v No thought beyond the nightly rest, — ,. (^ ' , New toil tomorrow ; ■ ', t*^ k ! c i 1 , r-" t. > '-■ ■']^ c. ./; 86 teacher's manual. Till solemnly the " Ave " bell Rings out the sun's departing knell, Borne by the breeze's rhythmic swell O'er swathe and furrow. " O lowly pair ! you dream it not Yet on your hard unlovely lot That evening gleam of light has shot A glorious passage ; For prophets oft have yearned and kings Have yearned in vain to know the things Which to your simple spirits brings That curfew message. ***** ''■ enough for us The two lone figures bending thus, For whom that far-off Angelus Speaks Hope and Heaven." — Lord Houghton. ILLUSTRATIVE PAGES. 87 BOOK 7, PAGE 2. SIXTH YEAR BOOK, PAGE 2. ILLUSTRATIVE PAGES. Sketches and Studies. — John La Farge. Illustrations. — The sketches and studies reproduced from pencil drawings by John La Farge, on the drawing-book page, show the method of an artist in working for a picture — first a sketch giving the conception of the whole, then careful study for the various parts to be used to make the whole. John La Farge, the elder, father of the great American artist, was a French officer, who after various adventures by sea and land, reached America in 1806. He became quite wealthy and settled in New York City, where John La Farge, his son, the artist, spent his early days, and where he received a legal and classical education. He was taught to draw in a rather minute, precise way by his grand- father, who was a miniature painter. When he went abroad he found himself with an inclination to know something of painting as an accomphshment. With this thought, he entered the studio of the great French artist, Couture. Of his work there, Mr. La Farge says : — " My stay at the atelier was not a long one. It was mainly taken up with drawing from the model. My master not only approved of my work, but warned me of the danger of imitating. his manner through the methods of his students. . . . The master's advice was to study and copy the drawings of the old masters in the Louvre and to postpone the practice of painting. ... I made drawings from Correggio, Leonardo, and others. My greatest fascination, however, was Rembrandt in his etchings." Returning to New York, he grew more and more interested in painting, and found a master in William Morris Hunt. At this time, Hunt was growing in appreciation and enthusiasm for Millet. La Farge and his master worked together, not always agreeing in method or theory, but always friends. The sketch- books of this time are many ; they contain first thoughts and also carefully worked out studies — mere records, sometimes of pose and gesture, or most minutely drawn studies from nature, showing a pre-Raphaelite tendency. He drew and painted assiduously ; he made many drawings on wood for magazines and books, for wood engraving was the chief means of book illustration at that time. About the time of the Civil War he began to make his qualities 88 teacher's manual. as an artist felt. At this time, he painted his fine figure of St. Paul, described by G. P. Lathrop in Scribnefs Mo7ithly, 1881. Among Mr. La Farge's greatest works are the decoration of Trinity Church, Boston, and the painting of "The Ascension" in the Church of the Ascension, New York. Both these churches are easily accessible to visitors, being open nearly every day. Mr. La Farge is well known, also, through his remarkable and individual work in stained glass. He uses in this work many methods that are peculiarly his own, to bring out the richness and opalescence of color that he so strongly feels. In all his work his subjects are noble and uplifting. To the nobility of subject he joins nobility of composition. Of art, he says, in " An Artist's Letters from Japan " : — " I have far within me a belief that art is the love of certain balanced proportions and relations which the mind likes to discover and to bring out in what it deals with, be it thought or the actions of men, or the influences of nature, or the material things in which necessity makes it to work. I should then expand this idea until it stretched from the patterns of earliest pottery to the harmony of the lines of Homer. Then I should say that in our plastic arts the relations of lines and spaces are, in my belief, the first and earliest desires. And again I should have to say that, in my unexpressed faith, these needs are as needs of the soul, and echoes of the laws of the universe, seen and unseen, reflections of the universal mathematics, cadences of the ancient music of the spheres.'' Special Examples. — The upper illustration at the right on the drawing- book page shows sketches for the following verse from Longfellow's " Skeleton in Armor " : — " Far in the Northern Land, By the wild Baltic's strand, I, with my childish hand, Tamed the gerfalcon." The illustration at the left shows careful studies for the same subject. His sketches and studies are very frequently accompanied by notes on the margin. In this case, the feathers at the top are noted as being one-third the length of the bird. The studies of the bird's head will be suggestive as to what pupils can do. They are learning now to make very quick sketches and produce very creditable sheets of drawings made from a pet bird brought to school. ILLUSTRATIVE PAGES. 89 The lower illustration at the right is a sketch for the following verse from Tennyson's " Enoch Arden " : — " Here on this beach a hundred years ago Three children of three houses, Annie Lee, The prettiest little damsel in the port, And Philip Ray, the miller's only son. And Enoch Arden. a rough sailor's lad Made orphan by a winter shipwreck, play'd Among: the waste and lumber of the shore." '& Pupils will be interested to tell what the artist had to say in these two sketches. The sketch for the verse from The Skeleton in Armor expresses so much. The grace- ful lines of the boy's figure show youthful alertness ; the wind, too, is blowing there on "the wild Baltic's strand" ; the upstretched "childish" arm and "hand" are in beautiful balance to the "gerfalcon" perched on the other arm. Evidently Mr. La Farge had in his mind that he could bring out his subject best through " certain balanced proportions and relations " of which he spoke in " An Artist's Letters from Japan." In the sketch for Enoch Arden, what had he to say? We should all know " Annie Lee, the prettiest damsel in the port," but which is " Philip Ray, the miller's only son," and which is " Enoch Arden, a rough sailor lad " ? Mr. La Farge doubt- less had in his mind the whole story (which was really that of Enoch Arden) even in the sketch of the children and made everything tend toward emphasizing Enoch Arden. So here the rough sailor lad is undeniably shown in the sturdier boy in heavy, awkward clothes, while in the distance are the wharf and the ships, to repeat the thought of the sailor boy. " Beyond, red roofs about a narrow wharf In cluster ; then a mouldered church ; and higher A long street climbs to one tall-tower'd mill." THE SUBJECT OF REPRESENTATION. In the earlier books of this series, emphasis was put upon the interesting aspects of the things studied rather than on the pupils' methods of representing them. It is assumed now, in the higher books of the series, that pupils who have advanced to this grade will have acquired habits of sympathetic observation, both of objects and of pictures. The instruction, from this point onward, puts steadily increasing emphasis on the development of individual power through wise selec- tion of motives, through the expression of beauty of forms and values in composition and through the mastery of skill in the artistic ren- dering of effects of perspective, texture, light and shade, color and atmosphere. BEPRESENTA TION. 91 BOOK 7, PAGE 3. SIXTH YEAR BOOK, PAGE 3. REPRESENTATION. Nature. — Branches. Berries. Art. — Selection. Composition. Choice of Aspect. Rendering. [The pupil selects and arranges branches of berries and sketches them ; chooses one that presents a beautiful aspect and fine balance, and draws it in the book, seeking for beauty in the rendering.] Preparation for the Lesson. — When sprays or flowers are used for study, cut them the night before the lesson, plunge the stems in water, and keep in a cool place until needed. Plants usually wilt after cutting, but if so treated will revive later, and remain about the same for some time. Plant life is not at its best when wilted ; the pupils feel this, and their interest once roused they will delight in sharing the responsibility of providing and caring for such material. Incidentally it will help in nature study. The alder berry, snow berry, bitter sweet, and woodbine are good as selec- tions. The fruitage, or seed vessels of the burdock, bagweed, shepherd's purse, stramonium, milkweed and rose hips are all very beautiful and are not only inter- esting subjects for a drawing lesson, but are excellent as motives for decorative design and for treatment in ink and water color. " Weeds " as we call them are often rare plants in some other country. We pass them by because they are so common, growing everywhere by the wayside, in the field or meadow. In England, the many petaled daisy, the pink primrose and the forget-me-not, all so rare with us and not often found outside of gardens or greenhouses, cover the ground in the springtime, in every direction. " Once in a golden hour I cast to earth a seed. Up there came a flower, The people said, a weed. "Then it grew so tall It wore a crown of light. But thieves from o'er the wall Stole the seed by night, " Sow'd it far and wide By every town and tower, Till all the people cried, " Splendid is the flower." "And some are pretty enough And some are poor indeed ; And now again the people Call it but a weed." — Alfred Tennyson. Let the specimens selected be healthy and normal in growth as a rule, for while it is true that worm-eaten or ragged leaves sometimes add a certain picturesqueness 92 TEACHER'S MANUAL. to the effect, just as an old and dying tree is often beautiful in its decay — our general purpose is to select typical examples for study which are seen at their best when full of vigorous life. When practicable, it is well for the pupils to bring in the vines or sprays themselves or certainly to help the teacher in supplying the class. As a matter of ethics it is not well to wait upon pupils too much ; besides they take more interest in a lesson when they contribute to its success by a distinct effort of their own. A sufficient number of sprays should be distributed, that each pupil may have a clear, but not too close view. Anywhere from four to six feet is a good distance from the eye, according to the size and character of the sprays. Large plants like the palm or rubber plant should be viewed across the room. If the stem is woody and the leaves thick (so as not to wilt easily), then the spray may be pinned against a sheet of gray, manila, or white paper, the whole resting against a pile of books. Two sheets of cardboard can be connected and placed in such a way as to form a sort of easel, the spray can be arranged and pinned upon it in a desirable position, thus exercising the taste of the individual pupil. Such an arrangement can be set behind sprays of flowers which are in a vase or bottle, thus serving as an effective background, and helping, perhaps, to cut off the light on the shade side on the principle of a shadow box. These sheets of card- board can be adjusted at any angle, and are easily collected, folded, and placed away for future use. Once provided, they are less trouble than a sheet of paper against a pile of books. If the sprays are of a species that wilt easily it may seem necessary to keep the ends of the stems in water. Bottles are better for holding the stems than tumblers, if only the spray is drawn. The spray may be kept in place better by the addition of sand. If Drawing-book 7 should be used in the early spring instead of fall, budding twigs, pussy-willows or leafless branches of various kinds may be substituted for berries or seed-vessels. An example of a pleasing treatment of pussy-willows can be found on page 1 2 of Drawing-book 4. Leafless twigs at any season of the year are beautiful when they show the characteristics of their growth. The space on the drawing-book page may be divided into one vertical oblong and two horizontal oblongs beside it, or two horizontal oblongs, or two vertical oblongs, and within these spaces budding or leafless twigs may be arranged with the thought of the best possible composition in each. The character, force, and strength of the twig should be very carefully studied, and each pupil should make his own arrangements in the same way he would seek to solve a problem. A sheet of prac- tice paper should be furnished to each pupil that he may by a series of rough REP BE SEN TA TION. 93 sketches finally decide upon the arrangements to be placed in the drawing-book. The examples on page 15 of the drawing-book, showing flower composition, suggest how sprays of berries might be " composed " in an oblong. It is of great value sometimes to come as near as possible to combinations of abstract lines, to realize their possibilities and their limitations. In our delight in pictorial treatment we are in considerable danger of overlooking the great value of drawing in line. Suggestions of Methods. — Whatever example of plant form is chosen, it is better to have the same kind for the whole room, if possible. Lead the pupils to observe its habit of growth, first as a whole ; then the growth of the leaves, alternate or otherwise. Does the leaf connect closely with the main stem, or has it a tiny stem of its own? Notice the form and the color of the berries. Do they grow singly or in clusters ; do they appear darker or lighter than the leaves? Call attention to such salient points, but do not say much. Leave the pupils to discover and feel as much as possible for themselves. Let them consider carefully the placing upon the drawing-book page, with a view to good space relations, and make a few leading lines upon practice paper before starting the drawing in the book. This is only to concentrate thought, and such sketching upon the practice paper should not proceed far. It is important not to exhaust the interest in the subject by an over-amount of preparation for the drawing in the book. While the work in the drawing-book should be the result of the pupil's best effort, it should be considered as a means and not an end. Even when falling far short of excellence it may show vigorous effect and intelligent observation, which will be a help to greater general culture as well as technical attainment in the future. The highest types in the wviy of art examples are contained in these books as an inspiration to teacher and pupils, but in no case should results be expected beyond the normal power of production. An effect of color is shown in the examples on page 3 of the drawing-book, by the dark and light tones used. These can be admirably carried out with the lead pencil. These several tones are sometimes called " tone values " and even " color values." A soft pencil will produce a dark sufficiently strong to indicate the dark berries while the leaves may be rendered lighter, with perhaps the stem lighter or darker than the leaves, according to their real color relation. A stem may be brown and the leaves dark green and both of about the same color value, but the stem may appear lighter than the leaves, here and there, if it has a smooth surface and catches glints of light. In fact, by color in pencil draw- ing, or any medium for rendering in "black and white " is meant this variation or difference in tones of light and dark which, when well handled, will suggest the difference in color which exists in the object drawn. 94 TEACHER'S MANUAL. As the same spray will appear different in color in different positions, and as all persons do not see color alike, the pupil's work may vary considerably even from the same examples. There should, though, be a general effort to keep breadth of treatment with not many tones. If the leaves are very narrow and of a deep color, pencil painting (see Manual, pages 59 and 60) may be used. In any case the pencil should not be sharp. Pencil painting should be limited to sprays with small leaves as it is not a suitable method for the expression of the different planes of a large leaf. Pencil painting is best suited to piquant effects, which show sparkling color, as the high light of a berry or a smooth and glittering stem. It is also admirably adapted to the treatment of some delicate grasses. If water colors are supplied in the school, this page will furnish a good chance for their use. Sometimes it is interesting to transpose examples like those upon page 3 of the drawing-book into ink or water color. The two sprays show plainly that one has white berries and the other dark blue or nearly black. In ink or water color the treatment should be kept simple and direct, the effect obtained if possible in one wash. Where berries are highly polished, showing a glint of high light, the paper may be left for that light. Reflected light is usually warm, so that when painting in water color a dark blue berry will often show a touch or tendency to red on the side away from the light. By keeping the brush full of water and color, and touching first on one paint and then on another, as the color seems to need change or modification, a very good expression of the whole can be obtained at once. Remember that water colors dry lighter than they appear when applied. If greater depth of color is desired in some places after the first touches are made, wait until the first wash is dry before applying more paint. Only very skilful workers can apply more color while the paper is wet without producing a muddy effect. Experience will show just the right way to apply ink or water color to produce a brilliant and sparkling result with ink, or clear and transparent in water color with the full beauty of the pigments brought out by their proper use. In early work in water color, flat washes are often desirable, especially in dec- orative compositions where the expression of values is not carried far, but to give the various modifications of form as well, it is desirable to work more directly from the paints, changing and blending as one goes along, and so expressing light, shade, and shadow at the same time. Sometimes it is an advantage to allow one color to run or pool into another, thus giving more atmosphere to a landscape or breaking the hard contour of an object in a group of still life. PLATE V\ I Examples of Pencil Painting. THE STUDY OF COLOR. 95 THE STUDY OF COLOR. It seems well in the fall of the year to give time to color study, for nature is then dressed in her gayest hues. The scales of color from light to dark are then full and rich while the scales from one color to another, as from red to yellow, are unsurpassed. " A maze of leaves in a rich mosaic, Brown and yellow and flaming red, A fringe of gray and a sweep of yellow Crimson streaks and a belt of brown, Mingled in with the sunshine mellow And sun-tinged leaves soft floating down." Ernest McGaffey. If any one were asked to tell the three most distinctive colors, undoubtedly the reply would be, yellow, red, and blue ; for these colors do not at all partake of each other's color-nature. Therefore, the first color study is of yellow, red, and blue, to be sought in flowers, leaves, and fruit, in plumage, and in the sky, in fabrics, in decoration, and in pottery. Hannah Parker Kimball has made a yellow, red, and blue study in her little poem called " Sun, Cardinal, and Corn Flowers." *' Whence gets earth her gold for thee, O Sunflower ? Her woven, yellow locks so fine Must go to make that gold of thine. *' And whence thy red beside the stream, O Cardinal-flower ? She pricks some vein lies near the heart That thy rich, ruddy hues may start. " And whence thy blue amid the corn, . O Corn-flower ? Her deep-blue eyes gleam out in glee, The glories of her work to see." The three colors that follow yellow, red, and blue are those that each partake of the nature of two of the first. " Saff"ron and sapphire and red Waved aloft to their sisters below." — George Meredith. 96 TEACHER'S MANUAL. Thus orange inclines to yellow and to red ; green inclines to yellow and to blue, and violet inclines to red and to blue, as J. G. Holland says : " To atmospheres of red and blue That blent in violet aureole." Seeking the relationship of these six colors, they arrange themselves as Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Violet : " First the flaming red Sprang vivid forth ; the tawny orange next, And next delicious yellow ; by whose side ~ Fell the kind beams of all-refreshing green. Then the pure blue that swells autumnal skies, Ethereal play "d ; . . . While the last gleamings of refracted light Died in the fainting violet away." — James Thomson. After these come colors of still closer relationship which bear double names showing whence they spring : red orange, yellow orange, yellow green, blue green, blue violet, red violet. These colors are called intermediate colors and arrange themselves readily with the six leading colors mentioned above so that there will be a color unit of 12 colors. These colors are frequently men- tioned by their symbols — the initial letters of their names, thus R, RO, O, YO, Y, YG, G, BG, B, BV, V, RV, showing a continuous flow of color. If the colors of this unit be considered as arranged in a circle instead of a straight line, the flow will be continuous around the circle ; for the red violet at the end of the line is closely related to the red at the beginning of the line, which it would meet were the line made a circle. Pupils should gain their ideas of the standards of these colors, and their tints and shades, from colored paper. At this stage of the work pupils should have become quite familiar with the six leading colors, the six intermediate and their tints and shades. It will be remembered that the various degrees of a color, from light to dark, are called tones, the tones lighter than the normal (the full, pure state of a color) being called tints, and the tones darker than the normal being called shades. A color and its tints and shades — the tints placed above the normal and the shades below — form a scale. It is very interesting, as well as admirable color THE STUDY OF COLOR. 97 training for pupils, to form these color scales first in colored paper, and then in bits of textiles, or to select a beautiful colored object — as a feather, a spray of leaves, a flower — and discover the scales of color in the object, and reproduce those scales in colored paper. Each strong individual color should, however, have its special study. Color days or color weeks, in which one particular color rules, or days in which yellow, red and blue, or orange, green, and violet prevail, are a special delight to pupils, while at the same time their color perception is being strengthened. On such color days (it may be an orange day) there would appear on the cabinet a bit of orange pottery, girls would wear an orange bow and boys an orange tie, coreopsis and other brilliant orange flowers — nasturtiums show the tints and shades in a wonderful way — would be placed on the teacher's desk, and some oranges near by might finish the scheme. The pupils' work would be in borders of orange, in scales of orange, and in harmonious arrangements. In the fourth year broken colors were introduced in the regular order of color study, for the shades of the six leading colors were given. The shades of color, as well as the different grays, are broken colors. In the fifth year broken colors were studied still further in the shades of the intermediate colors. In the sixth year a special study of grays is introduced. These grays range themselves readily under the color names already given. They are red gray, orange gray, yellow gray, green gray, blue gray, violet gray. These take various names in literature, red gray being frequently spoken of as russet. "When her fragrant fruit the orchard shed, They helped to gather the apples spread On the soft grass, — yellow, russet, red." — Phcebe Cary. Orange gray is very, well known by its familiar name of brown. If you study the color in the " great ripe nuts, kissed brown by the July sun," you will feel the yellow and red and gray. " Yellow and red were the apples, And the ripe pears russet brown ; And the peaches had stolen blushes From the girls who shook them down." — John G. Whittier. 98 teacher's manual. Yellow gray has also the name of citrine. Yellow has so much the color of light and of the glint of gold that it is often expressed by gold. " This lovely mountain-side, In faintest purple dyed. And golden gray." — Edmund Gosse. Green gray is the same as olive. The color, in its tints, is like that of the leaves of the olive tree and of the poplar. " Hard by a poplar shook alway, All silver green with gnarled bark." — Alfred Tennyson. Blue gray is frequently called slate color, a name used largely in connection with fabrics. "Down through the blue gray thyme, which roofs their courses with odor, Rivulets, gentle as words from the lips of beauty, are flowing." — Lord Houghton. And finally, violet gray may be expressed by heliotrope, although heliotrope is perhaps slightly redder than violet gray. A most beautiful transition of color through the day is given in the poem " Day and Night." " From gray of dusk, the veils unfold To pearl and amethyst and gold — Thus is the new day woven and spun : From glory of blue to rainbow-spray, From sunset gold to violet gray — Thus is the restful night re-won." — Fiona Macleod. Scales of these grays from lighter to darker should be made in colored paper for the purpose of developing clear color perception.^ They may also be studied in nature, in fabrics, and in pottery. Chords of color, studied from nature, may be carried out in colored paper. The figures in historic ornament and in design may also be carried out in colored paper, as suggested in the several exercises on these subjects through this Manual. 1 See the color manual " Suggestions for Instruction in Color." Published by The Prang Educa- tional Company. The references to drawing-book pages in the color manual do not apply to the books of the Elementary course. THE STUDY OF COLOR. 99 With the growing introduction of water-color into the schools, there is opportunity for enlarging the field of color work. Colored paper furnishes standards of color to be studied and arranged for the development of color perception and color expression ; the providing of water-colors as school material adds another means of color expression, which is most responsive. Water-colors may be used for work in Representation, in Composition of color harmonies and of landscape, and in Decoration.^ See How to Use Water- Colors, page 62. In water-color, the use of three colors only — yellow, red, and blue — has much greater educational possibilities, develops more individual power and gives finer results in a direct way than the use of a greater number of colors. See "Water-Colors, page 61. The printed water-color outlines of historic units furnish a remarkable oppor- tunity for color composition. As the outlines are all ready> the pupil can give him- self wholly to his expression of color harmony. See Blotted Washes, page 64. Fine Thought. — The Color Manual furnishes suggestions concerning the various colors and tones to be used in this year and the method of study, together with poetical quotations to enhance the delight of color study. Other quotations are added here. Red. — The children will be eager to continue their search for references to color and will seek for examples in descriptions of flowers. " O poppies in the meadow, red and red And red and red through all the ripening corn." — Edward C. Lefroy. They will also be delighted if successful in finding some suggestion of the shades of red. The wild tulip is a dark red. "Mid the sharp, siiort emerald wheat, scarce risen three fingers well. The wild tulip at the end of its tube, blows out its great red bell." — Robert Browning. Orange. — Once known it is impossible to mistake this brilliant color, or to pass it by unnoticed. It makes its glowing presence known in many gay blossoms 1 Mr. Ross Turner gives valuable suggestions in his " Handbook to accompany a color scheme for the kindergarten." Published by The Prang Educational Company. 100 TEACHER'S MANUAL. and berries, and gives a hint of its beauty in bird and butterfly, in the dazzling tones of sunset, and the changing hues of the fire. Lowell tells of the oriole of the and that " Cheering his labor with a note Rich as the orange of his throat." "Gold of the reddening sunset." " Here dozed a iire of beechen logs, that bred Strange fancies in its embers golden-red." These quotations seem particularly apt when we think how yellow and red, playing together, make orange. And then there is in the bitter-sweet the presence of the two colors. "Now overhead. Where the rivulet loiters and stops, The bitter-sweet hangs from the tops Of the alders and cherries Its bunches of beautiful berries. Orange and red." — Archibald Lampman. Yellow. — The gay tones of yellow are described in many a pleasant verse : " Upon the lawn lie floods of yellow light, And yellow puff balls, downy, soft and round. The dandelions, make the greensward bright ; Upon the lawn lie floods of yellow light. Above are yellow buttercups in flight, Gay sparks of light that flicker from the ground ; Upon the lawn lie floods of yellow light. And yellow puff" balls, downy, soft and round." — Hannah Parker Kimball. And the yellow is very likely to pass into yellow green as in the lines just quoted. This fresh dehcate color is an emblem of springtime. " Sweet grows the world to-day and fair, Seen through the Springtime's lovely sheen, — A tender mist of golden-g-reen That veils the earth and fills the air." — Harriet McEwen Kimball. THE STUDY OF COLOR. 101 Green. — The search for reference to color in Uterature is an unconscious training in color discrimination. The children cannot fail to feel the quality of this color, — '' For green is to the eye, what to the ear is harmony, or to the smell the rose." The pupils will also like some reference to the shades and to the variations in hue : — " Behind the mowers, on the amber air, A dark green beech-wood rises still and fair, A white path winding up it like a stair." — Edmund Gosse. " In spring they lie one broad expanse of green, O'er which the light winds run with glimmering feet ; Here, yellower strips track out the creek unseen. There, darker growths o'er hidden ditches meet ; And purple stains show where the blossoms crowd. As if the silent shadows of a cloud Hung there becalmed, with the next breath to fleet." — James Russell Lowell. Blue and Violet. — The children may make special search for references to the tones of blue and of violet. " The daisy, primrose, violets darkly blue, And polyanthus of unnumbered dyes." — James Thomson. " And Canterbury bells a-swinging, Dim blue like bits of April sky." — Rose Terry Cooke. " Far in the west sinks down the sun On bars of violet and gold." — Lewis Morris. They will be doubly delighted if they can find reference to two colors in association, or playing one into the other, as blue into green, or into violet. " Where, like a shoaling sea, the lovely blue Played into green." " Turkoise, in blue stars set, with lolite, That violet-tinted gem which somewhile hides In Indian hills. Azures and purples bright Play daintily across its sparkling sides." — Edwin Arnold. 102 teacher's manual. BOOK 7, PAGE 5. SIXTH YEAR BOOK, PAGE 5. REPRESENTATION. Nature. — Trees. Form. Life and Growth. Art. — Selection. Choice of Aspect. Rendering. [The pupil sketches trees, studies the examples given on the dra-w- ing-book page for suggestions as to rendering, chooses a tree and studies its most beautiful aspect, and draws it in the book, expressing the characteristics of the tree and seeking for beauty in the rendering.] Tree Structure. — Before starting on this page, lead the pupils to see that the structure of a tree is shown in the trunk, branches, and stems, which are clothed with foliage, just as the bones and muscles in men and animals are covered with flesh. Young firs of various kinds often have their lower branches very near or touch- ing the ground. The limbs of the oak, apple, and elm divide early from the trunk, and are generally massive. The maple and forest pine usually branch high upon the trunk. Trees like the elm, ash, walnut, and chestnut are similar in the general effect of the foliage, though varying in form. The apple tree in trunk and branches is much like a gnarled and stunted oak. It seldom rises above the buildings near which it is planted, but spreads its branches to a considerable distance over the ground. The bark of most fruit trees is rougher and darker than that of forest trees, with the exception of that of the cherry, which is ligher and smoother, something like the birch. The willow often grows beside streams or in wet places by the road- side. It is a tree beloved by the artist as its tender green gives great beauty and charm to a spring landscape and when it is old it has a tendency to divide in the trunk, forming all kinds of picturesque angles. "As the oak is the Hercules of the trees so the ash may be called the Venus." The ash is inferior to none in height, gracefulness of form, or elegance of foliage. Though seen everywhere, its favorite haunt is the mountain stream, where its branches hang gracefully over the water, adding much to the beauty of the scene. The shape of leaves is not visible in shadow or in the mass of foliage when a tree is far distant. A tree in the foreground will show its character in its general form, the growth and disposition of branches, and appearance of its outhne against the sky or other objects ; it will depend upon its position and relation to its surroundings as to the amount of detail to be expressed. REPBESENTA TION. 103 The structure and habits of trees have been a favorite theme for poets and writers of all ages. ''Mine be a cot beside the hill ; A beehive's hum shall soothe my ear ; A willowy brook, that turns a mill, With many a fall shall linger here." — Samuel Rogers. " These green-robed senators of mighty woods, Tall oaks, branch-charmed by the earnest stars, Dream, and so dream all night without a stir." — John Keats. *' Amid the brook Gray as the stone to which it clung, half root. Half trunk, the young ash rises from the rock ; And there the parent lifts its lofty head, And spreads its graceful boughs ; the passing wind With twinkling motion lifts the silent leaves And shakes its rattling tufts." — Robert Southey. 'e> " Who liveth by the rugged pine Foundeth a heroic line." — Ralph Waldo Emerson. For treatment in pencil no special touch or stroke can be recommended for the foliage of different trees, as that must be largely the result of attention, study, and individual feeling. Trees which are irregular in form are usually the most effective, — as an old, stumpy, and hollow willow, with scant and shaggy foliage which is, notwithstanding its shattered condition, very picturesque. Corot was especially fond of old willows, and rendered them with a peculiar spiritual beauty. Daubigny made good use of tall poplars to give points of accent to his landscapes and relieve the monotony of the composition, while Diaz treated the deep forests something as Rembrandt did a group of figures, by concentrating the light in one place, thus increasing the pervad- ing gloom. Suggestions for the Lesson. — If Drawing-book 7, page 5, is to be drawn upon at a time of year when the pupils can go out of doors to sketch, a preliminary study could be made from nature, involving one or more trees, and later might be car- ried out in the drawing-book. If out-of-door sketching is not practicable, it might be well for the pupils to copy page 4 or a part of it, as it shows the individual charac- teristics of various trees. If a part, then the placing upon the page should be a fea- ture of the lesson, so that the effect will be good as a whole. If an individual tree is 104 teachee\s manual. copied, then a slight suggestion of distance may be added. A good composition could be made by having the oaks, for example, in the middle distance, massing them simply as on page 4 and adding a bit of roadway, stones, etc., for the fore- ground, or perhaps a fence. Lead the pupils to realize that we do not see directly all the details of a landscape when we look at it, some parts are out of focus and simply serve as accessories to the object or objects of chief interest. If the trees are used as a part of one or more compositions, a " finder " will be useful to deter- mine the best size and placing upon the paper. A finder may be made by cutting an opening out of stiff cardboard, generally an oblong, and holding it between the eye and the object or scene to be studied. It is well to have several sizes with different shaped openings, as oblongs of different proportions. They are very practical helps to good composition. Should both near and distant trees be drawn, the effect of distance can be obtained by a lighter and less distinct treatment. Lowell gives a suggestion for the treatment of the distant pine in color. " Far up on Katahdin thou towerest Purple-blue with the distance and vast." — James Russell Lowell. Drawing (either with brush or pencil) need not, by necessity, always be from nature. Because copying is sometimes hfeless and meaningless, it does not prove that it has no value. Let us use a variety of ways to promote art culture, and guard ourselves against too great devotion to any one way. A good copy carefully studied with an effort to catch the spirit of the original, is sometimes of far more value than a crude and hasty drawing directly from nature. " Nothing could be more interesting than a summary of the different ways in which different artists have accomplished their ends ; how some have painted their masterpieces out in the open air, while others have done their work in the seclusion of a studio and from notes remarkable in their brevity. That Corot did most of his work out of doors is an astonishing fact ; that a style so severe should have been developed under circum- stances so disturbing seems almost miraculous ; yet so it was. The advantage of the two methods depends entirely on temperament. The placid and unexcitable person may work where he likes, whilst he of nervous temperament must work where he can." — Arthur Tomson. Connection with other Studies. — The study of trees for artistic rendering may be correlated with botany and with manual training. For example — in the fall a certain tree may be studied, taking its seeds, fruit or nut, its root, bark, manner of branching, buds, leaves, color they turn, when the buds form and how they go BEPRESENTA TION. 105 through the winter, etc. The children go out and observe the tree (perhaps find out what creatures inhabit the tree). In connection with manual training they study the character of the wood, compare it with other woods, and consider its industrial use. Not only literature but history has much of interest concerning trees. Among historic trees may be mentioned : — The Charter Oak at Hartford, Conn., in which Captain James Wadsworth con- cealed the State Charter to prevent its resumption by Geo. Edward Andros in 1687. This tree was blown down August, 1856. The Washington Elm at Cambridge Common, Mass., under which George Washing- ton assumed command of the American army in 1775. A celebrated willow overshadowing the tomb of Napoleon at St. Helena. Slips from this tree, from time to time, have been sent to all parts of the world. Such a tree might be taken for a subject, the details looked up from various sources and a composition or abstract written, which might be very simply illustrated. .•\11 such work would tend to cultivate a student attitude of mind, develop greater power of observation, and more feeling and interest would naturally be put into art expression. Care must be taken, however, not to absorb the time appointed for definite art training in such study, valuable as it may be. 106 TEACHER S MANUAL. BOOK 7, PAGE 6. SIXTH YEAR BOOK, PAGE 6. REPRESENTATION. -J I !- Type Solids. — Cube. Square Prism. Appearance. Proportion. Convergence. Foreshortening. Art. — Position of Models. Rendering. [The pupil sketches the cube and square prism turned in various ways, studies thoughtfully for the principles of perspective involved in the appearance, and draws in the book, striving for truth of representation and for beauty in rendering.] Elements of Perspective. — In pictorial expression, whatever the interest in arrangement, color, or light and shade may be, good drawing, or a true regard for _^_ — _- the appearance of objects, must always stand as a necessary factor. Up to this time the pupils have expressed their ideas of the appearance of type forms freely, putting down their im- pressions of the objects as seen. It seems well now to lead the pupils to a more definite study of the principles underlying the pictorial representation of objects, so that, by comparison and reasoning,, the drawing of a large class of objects may be com- prehended with as much ease as the drawing of a single object, and the habit of correct drawing be formed. They are now old enough to discuss and study seriously some of these leading principles, such as the convergence of lines and the foreshortening of planes. By so doing they will apply the principles of perspective to model and object draw- ing. Owing to their simplicity of structure, type solids are the best of objects for such study. They can be invested with interest by calling the attention of the pupils to the underly- ing construction of buildings. One with towers may suggest the square or the hexagonal prism. Some artists seem to have a feeling that perspective be- ing an exact science, any particular knowledge of it may injure the aesthetic feeUng, yet a lack of understanding in this direction often causes a drawing to be inaccurate and mis- leading, when the execution is otherwise acceptable. It is not necessary to enter into an exhaustive study of scientific perspective, interesting as it might be, in order to grasp some of the important principles. A lack of some knowledge in this direction is often the cause of perplexity and embarrassment. T { I REPRESENTATION. 107 It is no unfcommon thing in a Studio abroad for an artist to call to his aid a professional expert who tests and corrects the leading lines of the picture which he has just begun. If the underlying principles of perspective and the foreshorten- ing of objects were understood by the artist, this would not be necessary. Many illustrations in current books and magazines are very faulty in perspective from the failure to understand and apply a few simple principles. Who has not seen the floor of a room drawn with such violently converging lines that it looked like an inclined plane which it would be necessary to climb rather than to walk comfortably upon? It is necessary to be careful when taking a position to draw an exterior or interior of a building not to be too near the part to be drawn as in that case the leading lines will appear unnatural and in too violent perspective. Such an effect may be observed in some photographs of buildings when the position of the camera has by necessity been too near, thus distorting the perspective. Some of these principles are discussed more fully in the Appendix. The Exercise. — On this page there may be drawn a square prism vertical or horizontal, or a cube in one or more positions, or a sphere on a cube turned. If the sphere is placed upon the cube, it may be held in place by resting it upon a small brass button rirfg. The model may be above or below the eye and should be placed so as to make angles to the left and right. If one large drawing is made, as large as will look well in the space upon the drawing-book page, let the line be free and transparent. Whether the drawing \)e of a model or of an object, try to have it a lesson in seeing. " I am impressed with the fact that the greatest thing a human soul ever does in this world is to SEE something, and tell what it saw in a plain way. Hundreds of people can talk for one who can think, but thousands can think for one who can SEE. To see clearly is poetry, prophecy, and religion — all in one." — John Ruskin. If the principles involved seem to be well understood, and can be proved by having the class make a few quick sketches upon paper as preliminary practice, then a line drawing of a chimney with perhaps a few leading lines of the roof, or the top of a square towsr or cupola may be placed on the drawing-book page. The underlying type may be used as a " thumb-nail " sketch in the upper corner. As an object slightly below, or very near the level' of the eye, a gate post and a part of a wall may prove to be an interesting subject and a good illustration of principles. Whatever the object chosen let the treatment be very simple and carried out in line, not too rigid, but careful in drawing. Let nothing obscure the truth of con- struction in the object drawn. Faults of construction in a drawing are often partly 108 teacher's manual. or wholly concealed under an attractive treatment of light and shade or color, just as some pottery or porcelain may be attractive in its decoration, but poor and un- worthy in form. The following quotation is suggestive in this connection. " People will not realize sufficiently this absolute truth — as it seems to me — that art is not a condition designed to cover the defects of the dish that has failed." — Gabriel Mourey. Lead the pupil to see that all parallel horizontal edges when seen above the eye should be drawn as though converging downward to a point on a level with the eye, and that all lines below the eye (when ex- ^ pressing parallel edges) should appear to converge upward to a point on the level of the eye. Such points cannot be placed upon the paper without making the drawing too -^ — " small or the perspective too violent, but must be imagined. Notice in the illustration of the cube that the vertical sides are contained in planes which gradually grow less in height as they vanish or converge toward the level of the eye. The distance from the front edge of the cube to the farther edges appears less than the height of the nearest edge, showing that the sides of the cube are foreshortened because turned from the eye. The top of the cube does not appear as a square, but, if not far below the eye, seems very much foreshortened. VJ"! 7P&' One fact must be well kept in mind by teacher and pupils, and that is that objects appear unnatural and distorted in perspective if viewed either too far above, too far below, or too near the eye. For that reason it is desirable that objects should not be placed too low nor pupils seated too near them. Another advantage secured by having sufficient distance from the eye is that small details are lost. There is much significance in the remark of an artist to his pupil who said she saw certain unimportant details. " Sit farther back, you see too much." Art expression is in a way analogous to life, we lose breadth of view if we make too much of non-essentials. REPRESENTA TION. 109 The Examples. — The illustrations upon the drawing-book page should be commented upon, first getting the thought of the pupils. They may be led to see and explain the application of perspective principles to them. One is a part of a stone wall, the other a fragment from an Egyptian temple at Denderah, nearly buried in sand, and seen partly above the eye. The wall is built of type forms and clothed with the vine. So the architect and the Egyptian build with types and clothe these types with decorative lines — with curving cornice, with flowering capital — and with divided architrave for the beauty of such division. The Old Gate of Basle. The Underlying Type Forms. 110 teacher's manual. BOOK 7, PAGE 7. SIXTH YEAR BOOK, PAGE 7. REPRESENTATION. Familiar Objects. — Form. Appearance. Art. — Selection. Arrangement. Choice of Aspect. Rendering. [The pupil arranges familiar objects, singly or in groups, striving for good composition, makes sketches, chooses an object or a group, studies its most beautiful aspect, and dra'ws it in the book, mak- ing application of the principles discovered in the preceding exercise, and seeking for beauty of relationship and rendering.] Application of Principles. — As the object of this exercise is, in a large degree, to apply the principles learned in the preceding lesson, the greater the variety and number of sketches showing a power to express convergence, foreshortening, and proportion, the better. Encourage the pupils to sketch interesting bits of furniture or groups of books at home, illustrating the convergence of lines, with- out finish or detail. Lead them to criticise these from the point of view of the preceding lesson, and to correct them. The carrying out of the perspective princi- ples involved in such sketches would help greatly toward correct drawing in school, either from the object or from one of the sketches selected and placed upon the drawing-book page. Objects to be drawn and Methods. — Books are always available in the schoolroom, and interesting groups can be made with them. They should be arranged at an angle and slightly below the eye. The pupils should study to find the best point of view. Avoid an arrangement exactly like the illustration on the drawing-book page. For the exercise the pupils will need no practice paper this time, but may sketch very lightly the leading lines directly on the drawing-book page, holding the pencil from time to time between the eye and the group in order to see more clearly the direction of the converging lines. It would be desirable to render in outline, accenting those parts that are nearest the eye or that seem to call for emphasis. Any details upon the back or sides of the books should be made little of, and the group should not be near enough to the eye for lettering or ornament to be distinctly legible or definite. A few suggestive touches for such details where the pupil feels that they should be placed will be sufiicient. Color has its value as a means of art training, light and shade may help to the expression of beauty which the pupil sees and feels, but the most useful method foi the practical needs of life is the power to draw correctly and effectively in line. PLATE VII. Books. — Edith CI irk. .i^^ Still Life. — Edith Clark. REPRESENTA TION. Ill The value of line is especially recognized by artists, as they realize in their own work the power of line. '' Remember always, form before color and outline, silhouette before modeling ; not because these latter are of less importance, but because they can't be right if the first are wrong." — William Morris. The treatment of line upon the drawing-book page is an excellent example for the pupils to study. The objects are simply rendered and the quality of the line is free and transparent. It is not continuous but broken in places, thus helping to express texture. ••Could not a little sermon be preached upon the saving grace of a return to line? A text might be taken enforcing the reticence of workmanship, economy, and expressive- ness of • line.'' Your excellent young men know something of Forain, as they know Phil May. The Japanese they will receive gladly. I should like to take them into other worlds as well. For when you insist upon the expressiveness of Mine ' and the economi- cal use of it. you insist practically upon the value of a quality recognized not only by the modern Frenchman and the Japanese, but the property rather of nearly all great artists, from tlie days when, in whatever land, pictorial art first became mature." — Frederick VVedmore. Lead the pupils to observe carefully the covers of books, and to notice that they project beyond the leaves. Unless a book is very old and loose in the binding, the ^^^>i^^ corners of the upper covers will be directly above those of the lower cover at what- ever angle the book maybe placed. An open book resting against other books 112 TEACHERS MANUAL. makes an interesting group,, Be careful that the books are not placed too far below the eye, and that the pupils do not sit so near as to see too much detail. A draw- ing of a book by a pupil of the sixth year in school is reproduced on a smaller scale below. A simple table is a good object from which to draw and to illustrate the con- vergence of lines. Like the books, it should be placed at an angle with the eye. If chairs are chosen, then they should be plain in construction, — the old-fashioned rush bottom (similar to the illustration) being the best. If possible, place chairs at the forward end of each aisle, resting on the floor or platform, and turned at an angle. If there is a hall or general assembly room in the school building in which there are movable chairs or settees, a hollow circle or square might be formed, with one or more chairs for study placed within. Such an arrangement gives every pupil a different point of view and unobstructed vision. Let each child decide where the drawing will look best upon the page, and how large it will be. There should be more thinking than talking, either by the teacher or pupils. In all such exercises awaken as much interest as possible in the children, that the drawings may show feeling and artistic quality, even if imperfectly expressed. The objects in "The Angelus," on page 2 of the drawing-book, though kept subordinate, are drawn carefully, and with much feeling. Historic Associations. — Chairs, indeed many objects in furniture, even have historic value. At Plymouth, Mass., there are a great many household objects of interest connected with the Pilgrim Fathers. In Boston (Old South Church), at Philadelphia (Independence Hall), and in various places in this country, there are pieces of furniture — such as chairs, tables, etc. — associated with colonial and revo- lutionary times. The first governor of Massachusetts, John Carver^ who sailed from Plymouth, England, in the Mayflower, August, 1620, brought over a chair — which was one of his best articles of furniture, and yet was very simple in construction — very similar to the one upon the drawing-book page, only with arms and a rush REPRESENTA TION. 113 bottom. How forcibly does such an example show the simplicity of taste of that period ! Straight-backed chairs seem to be associated with dignified, simple, and old-fashioned manners. Coronation and altar chairs are of interest, both in form and association, and there are many fine examples in the museums and churches abroad. Very ancient furniture is of great solidity, and this is probably largely due to the fact that the first carpenters were carvers rather than experts in the use of the saw and the plane, because in the earlier states of culture we always find that hollow objects — such as canoes, boxes, drinking-vessels, drums, etc. — were dug out of one soUd log of wood instead of being put together in several pieces. Later, when parts of furniture, especially chairs, were worked out by hand, they were put together with wooden pegs, which were so firmly wedged as to become almost a part of the chair itself. If there are any historic chairs in the vicinity, perhaps they could be borrowed for the pupils to draw from. Some of the pupils may have suitable chairs at home that they would like to bring for the lesson, or a local furniture dealer may be willing to send some examples. The public will often respond readily if taken into confi- dence and personally appealed to. Home sketches might be made of chairs having personal significance to the individual pupils. *- 1 love it, I love it, and who shall dare To chide me for loving that old arm chair ? " — Eliza Cook. John Carver's Chair. 114 teacher's manual. BOOK 7, PAGE 8. SIXTH YEAR BOOK, PAGE 8. REPRESENTATION. Nature. — Figure Studies. Action. Proportion. Art. — The Pose. Choice of Aspect. Rendering. [The pupil makes sketches of a figure posing, expressing the gen- eral characteristics, and omitting detail, makes thoughtful criticism of the work, comparing it -with, the model, and draws in the draAving-book from the pose, studying the examples for suggestions as to rendering.] The Example. — This illustration appeals to us for its imaginative quality. Perhaps it is a Puritan maiden standing near the sea and thinking of her English home. The dreamy expression of the face shows that her thoughts are far away. Subordination of Detail. — The rendering of the figure is only light and dark, while the fence upon which she leans is treated without special accent or detail, and thus becomes accessory to the figure. This subordination of details to the centre of interest often makes the difference between a work of art and a literal copy of nature. On page i of the drawing-book observe that Millet subordinated everything to the thought to be expressed. He shows the ploughed ground, but the clods of earth are not prominent. The barrow, basket, and hoe are not obtrusive. The eye and thought concentrate upon the figures and the distant spires. It will be inter- esting also to study the figures by La Farge on page 2 of the drawing-book. A pupil of Hunt's took note of some of his remarks and advice to his students, and published them under the title of Ta/ks on Art, from which the following quotation is taken : — " When Browning describes the ocean or a movement he simply swings an adverb that tells the whole story. When Michel Angelo used details he knew what he was about. If people would finish their large masses they would see that the details generally find them- selves completed. If you are drawing an eye, draw the whole mass carefully. To draw a nostril, look well to the attachment of the nose to the cheek and the outline of the nostril, and the nostril is done. But you make details like drawing currants on a slice of cake." — William M. Hunt. Method of Procedure. — If it is feared that the pupils do not see a figure sufficiently in mass, it might be well, after studying the illustration in the drawing- book very thoughtfully, for them to copy it upon practice paper, considering only the entire mass, and rendering the figure in silhouette with ink. This would be a good preparation for the study from life to be placed upon the drawing-book page, as .they HEPRESENTA TION. 115 116 TEACHER'S MANUAL. would by necessity be led away from small details in trying to see the truths of action, mass, and proportion. It would help them to discriminate between essen- tials and non-essentials, so that later, when the drawing in the book is made, the pupils would not put in meaningless lines. A well-proportioned silhouette, full of action and life, makes a very effective drawing. Ask the pupils if they ever saw an " old-time " silhouette which was usually only the head and shoulders cut from black paper, mounted upon white. These were in vogue before the days of photography, and some of the likenesses cut in such a way were very remarkable. " It is an excellent plan to represent the figure in silhouette with ink as a preliminary to drawing in outline. We do not really see things in outline but in the mass, but outline is an accepted symbol, a language which everyone recognizes as standing for something really very different. A sphere we know to be solid and round, yet we are satisfied to have it represented by a circle without light and shade. We see the human body as a solid body, consisting of many surfaces of light and dark, yet we know these may be repre- sented in outline and give an intelligent idea to the observer." — " Talks to a Beginner," T/te Art Student. Encourage the pupils to make mental notes, as well as pencil sketches, of the leading lines of some characteristic figure, and to try later to produce it from memory. A street or steam car may furnish interesting motives. A baseball or a football game gives an excellent opportunity to study action, and to observe the leading lines of the figure in different positions. The pupils will see that such violent action is dependent upon the angles the limbs make. A small sketch-book or a pad of paper suitable for pencil work will prove valuable as a help to memory work, and as a means to secure still more thoughtful and careful study of the figure than the time in the schoolroom allows. Encourage sketching at home from hfe, and to keep from over-elaboration of details suggest that it be done in silhouette or light and dark. The silhouette, with brush and ink, would express the entire mass of the figure, while in working in light and dark there may be some variation and a slight division into parts by using the full strength of the ink for the main part of the figure, _l a. 4^'- H < Vi '-^ ..V •■«. ^ V f*. I /■ 'tr \; -\ * * JAx..: / / / / r-j / / ' J- t /y t * ./ / \ /" ^ii' •' .y .^^ / 1 .'•' ^"'" * ^ .- -'y''' ,^' , ,--'■ ,../■ , ^"' _,*• ..^^- ..^'' .../" ,.^'' .,,,->- ,..--^^ ^1 „- •■■■'■' ^^"' ' l- ■'^-■•^.,^-- •. •cV'-''.. '^■-^ 1 ^^j'^ V > ""s!'. ■-. ^— ..,.,.. J 7 ■-.\ •\ -&> "%. ■*:■> i / ■ -- ■••■0 >" fe ••7 1 "^■^ siT*^ in z I— « Oh o u to U CO REPEESEN TA TION. 117 and ink slightly diluted with water for the other parts. One wash may be prevented from running into another by leaving a slight space of paper between the washes ; this will also help to define the shape of the parts. This method is admirably illus- trated upon page 15 of the drawing-book. Notice the petals of the roses and the tulips, and the spaces which separate the parts. When a form is indicated by masses of light and dark the outline of these masses should first be carefully and lightly drawn with pencil, filling it in afterwards. This is the method employed by most of the artists when working in this way, and the more carefully this outline is made the more fully can the mass be put in, as it will be evident just where it should be placed. Such work is sometimes carried out on tinted paper, using it as a back- ground, with black for all the dark and white paint (Chinese white) for the high lights. Much of the work of Boutet de Monvel (as in his illustrations of Joan of Arc) is carried out in tones of light and dark. Peter Newell employs this method in his humorous sketches in current numbers of Harper's Magazine. Choice of Model. — The dress will not be hard to arrange, but it will be better to secure a young girl of sixteen or eighteen for a model, if possible, rather than one of the pupils in the room, as the proportion of a child's figure is not the same as that of the youth or adult. A nurse's costume is pleasing. The cap, kerchief, and apron can be made from tissue paper very quickly. Perhaps an older sister of one of the pupils will be willing to pose for the class. If it seems necessary to study a girl younger than the sketch upon the drawing-book page suggests, the lesson will prove more interesting if something in the way of costume is attempted, even if not directly along the same lines. A girl in a long waterproof garment, carrying a school satchel, or an umbrella closed or open, and held over the head, will make a characteristic sketch, and, well managed, will not suggest too much detail. A boy holding his cap high above his head as though about to cheer, is an interesting attitude, and gives a good chance to study long leading lines. If the pose is one calling for considerable action the model will need frequent short times to rest, as sustained action in some positions becomes torture, which a manly boy might endure at the expense of his nerves, rather than ask for relief. During the "rests" a good chance occurs for the teacher to give a helping comment here and there, where it seems needed. Care should be exercised not to help too much. Emerson says, " Every brave youth is training to ride and rule his own dragon," and the ear- nest teacher must beware and not disturb the individuality of each pupil's work. Underlying Structure. — Nature delights in angularity in her curves, if we may so express it, balancing constantly the most beautiful curves with bits of strong 118 TEACHER' S MANUAL. straight lines. We see this in the trunks and branches of trees, as well as the more subtile construction of the human body. Babies are all curves, with little or no neck, wrists, or ankles ; later the relation and proportion of the parts change, and curves modify. The head is much larger, in proportion to the whole figure, in the child than in the adult. Sometimes illustrators overlook this fact, and children are drawn so as to look like little old men and women. A common fault, also, is that of drawing the hands and feet too small, with the curves too round and smooth, and showing no underlying bony structure or suggestion of muscles. The long leading lines of a figure once obtained, the proportions are easily found and their relation to each other. One line may be corrected by another drawn over it. Discourage erasing, as it easily becomes a pernicious habit. This method of starting will tend to keep the pupils from making too much of minor parts. Artists often use a " plumb-line " as a help to determine the direction of other lines. Such a line is made by tying a weight, usually a piece of lead (like the sinker of a fish line) to a string. This string is held between the eye and the model, the weight dropping near the floor. If the use of such a line is not practi- cable in the schoolroom, tell the pupils about it, and ask them to compare the angles of the figure with some vertical edge near by, as the edge of a wall or a window. SUGGESTIONS FOR BLANK PAGES. 119 Suggestions for the Blank Pages in Book 7. Choice. — Some of the teachers may wish to use the space on all of the pages for progressive work in some particular line, as in out-door sketching, or in flower composition, in which Mr. Dow's Examples, on page 15 of the draw- ing-book, will be helpful — or for advanced work in decoration, and this will prove especially enjoyable if brush-work is possible. Individual pupils may be permitted to copy some of the work on the illustrative pages. In some instances it may be considered desirable to devote these pages entirely to color work. For those who desire work definitely laid out for the four pages, the following lines are suggested, to be carried out on the respective pages in the order given. 1. The pose with accessories. 2. Landscape with trees. 3. Berries in composition — brush-work or work in colored paper. 4. Window sketching — roofs or towers. The Pose with Accessories. — This may be carried out directly from the pose or various sketches having been made of the pose, the drawing may be made from the mental images received. The following poems suggest poses within the reach of the pupils. The first may be easily arranged and brings in the objects already studied on page 7 of the drawing-book. "Deep in his oaken elbow-chair, Bright-plumaged birds of tropic clime In fur-trimmed gown, the old-world student Lie right and left, a strange collection, Sits toiling with concentrate air, With fruitage of the autumn-time, And earnest underlip protrudent ; The frugal scholar's spare reflection. Around him, piled on floor and desk, His open books in wealth unstinted, — " On sill and shelf a dusty bloom. Black letter chronicles grotesque, — Sad scandal to industrious Janet ; The mellow pages Aldus printed. Dust on the gods from Pharaoh's tomb, On figured globe and pictured planet ; " A winter sunbeam warms the pane A dreamful silence holds the house, Where proudly ramps the lion argent ; Time checks his passage down the ages, Fleshless and grim, an Afric crane And tempts a greatly-daring mouse Stands facing, like some spectral sergeant ; To feast on Pliny's yellowing pages." — Lord Houghton 120 TEACHER^S MANUAL. The second adds some new elements — the trees famihar, however, through the study for page 5 of the drawing-book — and calls for more thought and more imaginative powers. Two or more pictures can be obtained from this poem : — ^'The windows open on the park Where the tall trees, from glade to glade, With arching foliage greenly dark, Bathe all the summer lawns in shade. *'■ I turn about to rest anew My head in yonder easy-chair, When lo ! the landscape still I view, Reflected in the mirror there. "Idly I smile, as o'er and o'er Two parks to right and left of me. Now through the glass, now thro' the door Repeat each other, tree for tree ; . ■" And, by a pretty sort of chance. The two young sisters sit apart, Complete in dainty elegance, To play the music of Mozart. "Just as the landscape double seems, The other's copy each appears, And the same golden jewel gleams Repeated in the four small ears. " Their eyes upon the keys are bent, So I may scan, as I repose, The same rose in their tresses blent, And on each mouth too the same rose. " And, sometimes, rising from my place, I steal to the piano near, And lean upon the ebon case To see them rather than to hear." — Selected, Translation from Coppee. Landscape with Trees. — At this time of year it may not be practicable to make out-door sketches. But pupils may be asked to draw from memory or to •compose a landscape in which there shall be trees. '' And here's the field with light aglow, How fresh its boundary lime trees show, And how its wet leaves trembling shine ! Between their trunks come through to me The morning sparkles of the sea, Below the level browsing Hne." — Jean Ingelow. " Under the open window where they stood A river ran ; green farm-lands lay beyond, And forests, dark against the dreamy hill." — Lucy Larcom. PLATE IX. Landscape Compositions in Ink. — By Pupils of the Sixth Year. SUGGESTIONS FOR BLANK PAGES. 121 Or the page may be given to sketches of single trees, selecting different kinds to get different characteristics. " Time is never wasted, listening to the trees ; If to heaven as grandly we arose as these, Holding toward each other half their kindly grace, Haply we were worthier of our human place. " Bending down to meet you on the hillside path, Birch and oak and maple each his welcome hath ; Each his own fine cadence, his familiar word. By the ear accustomed, always plainly heard. " Every tree gives answer to some different mood ; This one helps you, climbing : that for rest is good : Beckoning friends, companions, sentinels, they are ; Good to live and die with, good to greet afar." — Lucy Larcom. Or the landscape may be carried out in water color. " An artist one day at his easel stood And sketched with a pencil free. The gold of the meadow, the green of the wood. And the purple and gray of the sea." — Lucy Larcom. Here is a very suggestive verse, to be carried out in broad, simple effects. Flat washes would be very telling. " The world lies east ; how ample, the marsh and the sea and the sky ! A league and a league of marsh-grass, waist-high, broad in the blade, Green, and all of a height, and unflecked with a light or a shade, Stretch leisurely off, in a pleasant plain, To the terminal blue of the main." — Sidney Lanier. Berries in Composition. — One or two sprays of berries can be arranged in an oblong — vertical if the stem is sturdy and shoots upward — vertical or horizontal according to selection if the growth is flexible. The arrangement should be care- fully thought out to secure balance without symmetry. Study the illustrations on page 15 of the drawing-book to see how lines and spaces balance. While a sym- metrical arrangement is not desired here, symmetry should be the foundation of the arrangement, for constant thought should be given to the relations of the parts with regard to the centre. The arrangement should be carried out in ink, sharp and I. 29 teacher's manual. brilliant or with water-color in flat washes, no attempt being made at light and shade. Work in Colored Paper. — If the page is to be used for colored paper, it would be better not to carry out the work until after the drawing-book pages in historic ornament have been carried out. In the text for those exercises there will be found some suggestions. . See also page 95-101 of this manual. Remember that if the opposite page was carried out in water-color, it will not be well to have work in colored paper on this page. Window Sketching — Roofs or Towers. — A number of sketches of roofs or towers visible from different windows may be made on this page. It is quite surprising how effective a few roofs may be made if treated in the right way. The details should be omitted — only the essentials rendered — simple, strong drawing — not being particular to join all lines at the corners and sometimes leaving out a part of a line, leaving something to the imagination. If there is nothing to be seen from the window, it will be profitable to have the pupils translate some of the illustrations on page 16 of the drawing-book into sim- ple, outline work. The illustration is from a drawing by a pupil of the sixth year. " Dropping blossoms yellow, Crowd fair lindens blooming ; And around stand mellow, Peaked old houses looming. " Gables piled together, Rising high and higher ; Moonlight, this clear weather: — Then from the church spire, " Into space out-sweeping, As the moon shines clearer, Myriad bats are keeping Revels queer and queerer, " Whirling in strange manner From this Christian steeple, Worshipping Diana, Scandalizing people ! " — Hannah Parker Kimball ^ii ■ ' }-■ \ ^i> REPRESENT A TION. 123 BOOK 7, PAGE 9. REPRESENTATION SIXTH YEAR BOOK, PAGE 9. Square Towers. — Window Study. Form. Proportion. Appear- ance. Space Relations. Art. — Selection. Choice of Aspect. Rendering. [The pupil sketches towers seen from the window, chooses the most beautiful aspects, t-tudies thoughtfully, considering ap- pearance, form, proportion, surroundings, and the space re- lations shown, and draw^s the tower or towers, or composition with towers, in the book, seeking for beauty of effect.] Architectural Construction. — In some parts of Italy during the Gothic period detached buildings were erected for the purpose of containing bells. The illustration shows one of the iiiost famous, the Campanile of Giotto in Florence, which Charles Eliot Norton calls " the most exquisite building of modern times," and Longfellow characterizes as " The lily of Florence blossoming in stone, A vision, a delight, and a desire." The illustration of the tower is drawn with the level of the eye about at the first marked division of spaces below the upper windows. This shows that the " point of view " was taken opposite that part of the building. Collections. — In leading to an appreciation of towers, pictures or photographs of fine historic towers may be studied, — the towers of Westminster Abbey, of Notre Dame, the Campanile in St. Mark's Square, and others. Papers and magazines abound in illustra- tions of architectural features, and the Architectural Record and the Architectural Review give excellent examples for study. The Prang Note-book Illustra- tions give some fine specimens of architecture with towers. Pupils are fond of collecting pictures showing points of interest, and are much helped by so doing. That is, they are helped if such a collection means something more to them than merely a number of pictures of historic buildings, the collection consisting of a greater or larger amount according to the interest and enterprise of the individual making the collection. As the art and architecture of a country tell the story of its :< Giotto's Tower. 124 teacher's manual. people, so each picture may tell its own story of history, legend, or verse all inter- woven with the art of the time. Perhaps it may be desirable to have a school collection, which may be kept in a portfolio or several manila paper scrap-books, and occasionally passed about the room for comment and study. Pupils will be interested to contribute to such a col- lection by adding pictures or new thought or light upon what they have. Sheets of paper could be attached to single pictures (if they are kept in a portfolio) or inserted in the scrap-books, upon which to write additional information. It will be neces- sary however, to guard against a mere collection of facts, such as dates, names, and styles, which are unimportant compared with the art feeling shown in the architec- ture, and its broad meaning as an expression of the life and art of a people, by whom and for whom such masterpieces were built. Art teaching should be broad enough to cover all its various phases. " Surely impressions only of things are not sufficient for all of us. Cultivation must increase the subtlety of our emotions. Our interest grows and our delight in the pictorial representations of a wider range of subject, embracing history, architecture, legend, details of things beautiful in themselves, not only from their craftmanship, but the disposition on them of materials, precious from their receptivity of color harmonies, and from many other combinations, showing them as priceless expressions of greater minds. — S. R. Spence. Associations. — History and literature are full of beautiful associations and legends regarding towers. The Tower of London, what tales it could tell could it speak ! The origin of towers, the watch-towers of a city when it was necessary always to be ready for an enemy ! The tower as the home of the bells ; the ringing of the bells on many joyful occasions ; the legend that the angels ring the bells on Christmas Eve ! All these things can be brought to the thought of the pupils and give food for the imagination and for creative power. The young mind needs quickening and awakening to the beauty and meaning of the past as well as its immediate surroundings. " So shall the drudge in dusty frock Spy behind the city clock Retinues of airy Kings, Skirts of angels, starry wings, His fathers shining in bright fables, His children fed at heavenly tables." — Ralph Waldo Emerson. General Method. — As most school buildings are built in an open space, there are often one or more towers to be seen from the windows. Cathedrals and churches generally have bell-towers which, when based upon the form of the REP RE SEN TA TION. 125 square prism, will show the same constructional lines. Sometimes one is suf- ficiently near to be seen from the schoolroom seats. When this is not the case, let the pupils make quick sketches upon practice paper at the windows for the leading lines, noting carefully the kinds of windows, if any, in the tower and their position in relation to other parts ; then the sketch may be reproduced in the book, adding details from memory, occasionally verifying the drawing by going to the window. It may be best for the pupils to go out and study towers, fix the lines in their minds and draw later from memory. Attractive sketches may often be made of all the various towers in the town, or school district, studying the excellences and defects. If practicable, the entire class might go out-doors sketching. Horizon in Relation to the Eye. — If the school building is upon a hill overlooking some houses, then the horizon will be high and the upper lines of the tower may be nearly on a level with the eye, while some of the surrounding roofs will be below the eye. The horizon will also appear higher from an upper window than from the ground floor. If the tower of the church or building is the only part entirely drawn, it would be well to signify by suggestive lines some of the surround- ings. If a few are given, they will show that the tower has a solid connection with the building and is not floating in space. Position of Apex, Windows, and Some Features of Construction. — As it is a common fault for the apex of a tower to be drawn out of its proper position it will be well to call attention to the fact that it should be drawn directly over the centre of the tower. This centre can be easily obtained by drawing 126 teacher's manual. light lines for a horizontal section of the tower, and diagonals drawn across this perspective square will give the position of the apex. The sketches above will make the method clear. The perspective centre of a window on the side of a tower can be obtained by the same method, by sketching the diagonals of a section of the side. Spaces appear to decrease the farther they are from the eye, thus the distance from the vertical edge of a window to the nearer edge of the tower will be greater than the distance from the farther edge of the window to the farther edge of the tower, although the spaces are actually the same. This is on the same principle that makes a series of telegraph poles or railroad ties appear nearer together the farther they are from the eye, while nearly the same distance apart. Lead the pupils to observe carefully the importance of the strong upright lines of a tower which give strength and character. When these are crossed by horizon- tals, effective spaces are produced which in turn are cut by the window spaces. The force and beauty of upright construction lines may be seen in many things, the tall pine upon the hilltop, the grim sentinel and landmark for many a mile, — the masts of ships, flagstaffs, monuments, — such as Bunker Hill and Washington Monuments. Foreshortening. — If round towers are visible (as the slight suggestion of the dome in drawing-book, page 9), recall the appearance of the base of the cone above and below the eye. An occasional quick review of the appearance of the different solids in different positions may be made interesting and profitable. Suggestions for the Teacher. — In this work the class will need to work in detachments. Pupils who cannot be at the window might be making a compo- sition from the drawing on the drawing-book page or from some one of the pictures of towers collected by the class. A teacher of architecture in one of the leading colleges found this translation of photographs into line drawings an effective means of study. Suggestions for the Pupils. — Study the view from each schoolroom window. How many towers can you find? Which seems most beautiful to you? Compare this tower with the picture on the drawing-book page. What resemblances? Look at the drawing of Giotto's tower and see the parts of other buildings sketched around it. Cut an open- ing one inch by two inches, or smaller, in a piece of paper. Hold the paper so the opening is vertical, and look at the tower you like through it. Try with the opening horizontal. Study the tower and its surroundings. Sketch either a vertical or hori- zontal oblong on your paper and within it the tower and its surroundings. Study the example in the book for ideas of finishing your drawing. Make one or more of these sketches in your book, arranging them with care. THE SUBJECT OF DECORATION. In the earlier books of this series children have been lead, through both observation and original experiment, to feel the main essentials of beauty in ornament. From the present point onward, the effort is not only to deepen and strengthen their sense of beauty and their creative imagination, but also to lead them to use in their decorative design all the knowledge and skill acquired through other lines of art instruction, and to apply them to definite ends or pur- poses. Studies of landscape, animals and human figures, as well as studies of plant growth, geometric form and simple space divisions, are to be used as material and as means in creative compositions. Henceforth the underlying ideas of principality, opposition and balance are to be more definitely studied ; symmetry, proportion, rhythm, contrast, breadth, stability and repose are to be sought for in original work. Examples of the best mural decoration of living masters are to be studied as the course advances, for their inspira- tion and suggestiveness along these lines. It is in Decoration of the highest type that man's art creation culminates, completing and crowning the best industrial art with the noblest phase of fine art. It is this phase of art study which gives the greatest opportunity for the development of the highest creative powers of the pupils. 127 128 teacher's manual. BOOK 7, PAGE II. SIXTH YEAR BOOK, PAGE ir DECORATION. Examples. — Historic Ornament. Egyptian. Space Relations. Art. — Selection. Rendering. Expression of Color. [The pupil studies the examples in the drawing-book, observing beauty of form and curvature, and of space relations; sketches several, chooses t-wo or more, and reproduces them in the draw- ing-book, planning carefully for the space relations produced, showing color by pencil-painting, or the brush, if desired, and seeking for beauty in relationship and in color expression.] Historic Ornament. — The needs of many people are primarily food, clothing, and shelter ; then follows that higher spiritual want, the desire for beauty. It is of I M Jw M great interest to see how the various people I j^\ ^^i\ KL ^^ ^^^ world have striven to meet that desire.