IRLF B 3 33M *> ^ GIFT OF -g PROBSTHA1N 6- Co. 44 Oriental Booksellers, if. "241 Great Russell Street British Museum, LONDON, W.C. THE AVIFAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA AND ITS DEPENDENCIES. A SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT, WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF ALL THE KNOWN SPECIES OF BIRDS INHABITING BRITISH INDIA, OBSERVATIONS ON THEIR HABITS, NIDIFICATION, &c., TABLES OF THEIR GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION IN PERSIA, BELOOCHISTAN, AFGHANISTAN, SIND, PUNJAB, N. W. PROVINCES, AND THE PENINSULA OF INDIA GENERALLY, WITH WOODCUTS, LITHOGRAPHS, AMD COLOURED ILLUSTRATIONS, BY JAMES A. MURRAY, 1 1 MEM. NAT. HIST. SOC. AND OF THE ANTHROP. SOC., BOMBAY ; MANAGER, VICT. NAT. HIST. INSTITUTE J LATE CURATOR KURRACHEE MUNICIPAL LIBRARY AND MUSEUM ; AUTHOR OF " A HAND-BOOK TO THE GEOLOGY, BOTANY, AND ZOOLOGY OF SIND ;" " THE PLANTS AND DRUGS OF SIND ;" " KURRACHEE TO KANDAHAR ;" " THE VERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY OF SIND ;" " THE REPTILES OF SIND," &C. VOLUME I. LONDON : TRUBNER & Co., LUDGATE HILL. BOMBAY : EDUCATION SOCIETY'S PRESS, BYCULLA. 1888. 010LCWY RA 6 BOMBAY: PRINTED AT THE EDUCATION SOCIETY'S PRESS, BVCULLA ERRATA. (*SV//>.v for pasting in Vol. I.) At end of page 25 Sub'-family. CORVINE. Bill stout, long and straight ; culmen arched ; tarsi stout, scutellate. At top of page 169 FAMILY. CAMPOPHAGIM:. Bill short, a few bristles at the base ; nostrils rounded ; wings moderate, 3rd to 5th quills longest ; tarsi transversely scutellate. Correct the top heading of alternate pages from 170 to 180 to read Campophagidae instead of Prionopidae. CAMPOPHAGIDJE. CAMPOPHAGID.E. CAMPOPHAGIDiE. CAMPOPHAGIDAE. CAMPOPHAGI CAMPOP^AGID^E. PREFACE. LED on by friends, correspondents and working field and cabinet Ornithologists, as well as by the successes of all my previously published books, I began this work, which, it is hoped, will be found a useful Manual to the student and to those interested enquirers to whom hitherto a descriptive monograph of all the Birds known to inhabit British India and its dependencies was a desideratum. It is purely in- tended as a means to the acquirement of a better knowledge of the Avian inhabitants of British India and its depen- dencies, by furnishing under a generally accepted classifica- tion, and within a moderate compass, the ordinal, generic and specific descriptions of all the known species, including all the discoveries made subsequent to the publication of the late Dr. Jerdon's work, and thus rendering greater facilities to the student of the Ornis of the British Indian Empire. In every instance where a sufficiently large series of specimens was not available to me for description, and where the species had been already so fully described as to leave nothing to be desired, I have by preference given the original descriptions. These are chiefly from Sharpe, Seebohm and Gadow's valuable monographs. To facilitate the study and identification of species, I have given diagrams illustrating the different parts of Birds, with the corresponding terms used in their description. These, it is hoped, will be found useful to the student, the collector and the would-be enquirer ; while numerous woodcuts and coloured illustrations of structural, specific, generic and other characters have been added to simplify identification. The scientific and trivial English names are given of every species described, as well as the different synonyms by which a species has been known. Habits, resorts and distribution have also been given as far as the materials within my reach would permit. J. A, M. INTRODUCTION. Birds form one of the most marked and grand divisions of verte- brated animals, as well as the most lovely group in creation. They are oviparous, red and warm-blooded, feathered bipeds breathing by lungs which are bound by cellular tissue to the inside of the ribs and the sides of the dorsal vertebrae, there is therefore no distinct thoracic cavity, nor free muscular diaphragm. The cells open directly from the bronchial trunks and, though minute, are large compared with the cells of the lungs of quadrupeds. The interior of the bones, by communicating with the cells of the lungs, are respiratory organs, which communicate circuitously with the trachea. The cells which are continued from the lungs into the cavity of the abdomen, extend to the interior of the trunk, appear in the axillae, in the neck, and in the region of the pelvis. In fact, every part is impregnated with the air in which they are destined to move. The young of birds, how- ever, have the interior of their bones filled with a thin serous fluid or marrow, but this is soon displaced by air from the air-cells of the lungs which gains access at the proximal extremities, to the extent necessary for the various species according to their habits and modes of life. Being intended for flight, their external anatomy or those parts generally visible are specially organized for the purpose. The body is covered with feathers, instead of hair or wool, and the two forefeet of mammals are transformed into wings. As in other classes the form of structure of the body and all its various members as well as the modi- fications which these parts assume are discriminating characters which enable the Ornithologist to form conceptions of their respective pecu- liarities. The primary parts of birds, as of all vertebrates, are the head, body and limbs, under which subordinate members may be classed. The head is composed of the bill and the skull. The latter is joined to the body by a neck. The skull is formed of a thin, nearly diaphanous and continuous plate of bone above, with all the cranial bones anchylosed. The occipital is not separated from the parietal bones by a lambdoidal suture, nor is there a sagittal suture to separate the ji INTRODUCTION. parietals from the frontal. All these have anchylosed at a very early period. The first cranial vertebrae at the base of the occipital bone is short. The sphenoid bone and the parts in front which form the face are lengthened, while the pterygoid portions of the former are detached. The basilar part of the occipital bone ends in a single condyle, and its position at the lower margin of the foramen as well as its rotundity afford mobility to the connection of the occipital (A) bone with the slender circular atlas and the vertebral column generally. The neck being composed of numerous bones (K) is rendered flexible, and this enables a bird to preen its feathers both on the upper and lower surface of the body and to sleep with its head turned round and placed under the wing. The face of a bird is moveable upon the rest of the skull, whether articulated as in parrots or not, the thin nasal (F) bones being elastic to a certain extent. The orbits and organs of vision are large, the former being separated only by a thin translucent plate or membrane, while the latter are largely developed in lieu, to a great extent, to the want of the sense of touch. The lower jaw (P) moves freely and widens the gape very sensibly. The palatine bones are much developed in length and breadth, and these have between them a large fissure. The nostrils are very various in position, shape, and size, and the upper and lower jaws are also very variable and suited to their habits. In some the mandibles are compressed and lengthened, and terminate in a hook ; in others they termi- nate in a point as in woodpeckers; others again are broad, sharp- pointed, hooked, rounded and hard, or as in ducks long, flat, spoon- shaped, and toothed ; while birds of prey have a dense horny bill with the edges sharp, strong, and cutting, and the tip hooked. The bill is composed of two pieces corresponding to the jaws of quadrupeds ; the upper portion (a) is called the upper mandible, which is either continued far back on the forehead and there dilated as to form a casque or helmet, or there is a soft naked skin at the base as in rapacious birds, which is the cere (8) ; the lower portion (6) is the lower mandible. At the base of the upper mandible, concealed or not, and of various shapes, are the nostrils (c), while the high medial keel of the bill is the culmen (d) and the corresponding keel of the lower mandible is the gonys (2) are situated, and last the tail (x). The leg, as in quadrupeds, is composed of the thigh (gg), tarsus (hh) 9 the toes (ti), and the claws. It is scarcely necessary to give a detailed sketch of the internal anatomy of birds, since a knowledge of what is visible to the eye is almost sufficient to determine or classify them generally, or even closely allied groups though it would no doubt be of much service to the ornithologist to know the various parts or rather the osteology of birds, in order that comparisons may be made of the bones of different groups and species. Professor C. J. Sundevall, in an article '' On the Wings of Birds/' translated for the "Ibis" of 1886, by W. S. Dallas, F.L.S., considers the feather covering of the wings of birds to be of the greatest significance in their systematic arrangement. He says, " It is a truth that every external part of an animal can furnish equally certain indications of affinity or distinction between species as an internal part of the body, and that in this respect no order of precedence can be established a priori * * * *." From a physio- logical point of view, indeed, the internal parts may be regarded as more important than the external, but zoographically we must regard the external parts as possessing an equal, if not greater value, because the characters derived from them can be easily recognized and examined. Birds have much in common with mammals, and it cannot be denied that there are striking resemblances between individuals of both classes, especially in their habits. The Eagle and the Owl may be said to represent the feline tribe; the Vulture, the Hyaena; the Hawk, the Fox ; the Parrots, the Monkeys feeding on fruit; the Ostrich, the Camel ; the Cassowary, the Llama; and so on, so far as habits and character are concerned. With a few exceptions, they are essentially i v INTRODUCTION. creatures of the air, and their organization has been fitted for the purpose ; the larger birds, as the Pelican and others, are specially organized for carrying their weight by air sacs under their breasts, besides the bones in their body being rilled with air, which makes them more buoyant, and facilitate respiration under various pressures of the atmosphere. Just as is the hair or fur of a mammal or the scales of a snake the feather is a horny production of the epidermis. According to Professor Huxley, it is devolved within sacs from the surface of a conical papilla of the dermis. The external surface of the dermal papilla, whence a feather is to be developed, is provided upon its dorsal surface with a median groove which becomes shallower towards the apex of the papilla. From this median groove lateral furrows proceed at an open angle, and passing round upon the under surface of the papilla, become shallower until, in the middle line opposite the dorsal median groove, they become obsolete. Minor grooves run at right angles to the lateral furrows. Hence the surface of the papilla has the character of a kind of mould, and if it were repeatedly dipped in such a substance as a solution of gelatine and withdrawn to cool until its whole surface was covered with an even coat of that substance, it is clear that the gelatine would be thickest at the basal or anterior end of the median groove, at the median ends of the lateral furrows, and those ends of the minor grooves which open into them ; whilst it would be very thin at the apices of the median and lateral grooves and between the ends of the minor grooves. If, therefore, the hollow cone of gelatine, removed from its mould, were stretched from within, or if its thinnest part became weak by drying, it would tend to give way along the inferior median line opposite the rod-like casts of the median groove and between the ends of the casts of the lateral furrows as well as between each of the minor grooves, and the hollow cone would expand into a flat feather-like structure with a median shaft as a "vane" formed of barbs and barbules. In point of fact, in the development of a feather, such a cast of the dermal papilla is formed, though not in gelatine, but in the horny epidermic layer developed upon the mould, and as this is thrust outwards it opens out in the manner just described. After a certain period of growth, the papilla INTRODUCTION. y of the feather ceases to be grooved and a continuous horny cylinder is formed which constitutes the quill. Shortly, a feather may be said to consist of a tube or quill (calamus), a shaft, and two webs. The tube or quill is horny and transparent, varies in length according to the species, and is fixed in the skin. The shaft or rhachis is that part above the quill which is filled with an elastic, corky, white buoyant pith-like substance which bears the vane or web. It is coated on the outer or generally convex side with a horny lamella not unlike the tube, and on the inner or pithy side (also coated, though slightly) is a well-defined groove along its length up to the umbilicus or the small opening into the interior of the tube, which is closed inside by dry membrane. On the side of the shaft, from above the quill or tube, are vane rays or webs. These latter are, in general, fine, filiform, and nearly cylindrical in the smaller feathers, and flattened in the larger ones, as the quills. These, again, are furnished with barbs, barbules and barbicels, which help to give coherency to the entire web. Then there are the plumules or accessory plumes which, constructed like the larger feathers issue from the margin of the quill tube below the opening into the interior of the tube, which is regarded as an appendage checked in its growth. This is inconspicuous in galli- naceous birds, as pheasants. The plumules, unlike other feathers, have the vane rays very delicate and fibre-like; two series of barbs issue from them and from the barbs barbicels, extremely fine, entirely dis- united, and loose. In the Cassowary and the Emu this plumula accessoria is as large as the outer shaft and vane ; in others as Grouse and Falcons, about three-fourths the length, downy and incoherent. In the most well-developed feathers, as the quill feathers, the plumule is not present, and in other altogether wanting throughout the whole of their plumage, as in Strix, Columba, and Anas, while in song-birds it is very minute and downy. Feathers may be divided into those which protect the bird from extreme cold, and those specially intended for flight. Those which are next the body, and commonly known as down, are analagous to the under fur of quadrupeds. These keep the body in an equal temperature, and may be said to resist cold or wet. yi INTRODUCTION. Birds which lead an aquatic life have these feathers generally more developed than in others, for the manifest intention of affording additional warmth. The feathers intended for flight are, first, the wing quills, which may be divided into primaries (4), secondaries (5), and tertiaries (6). The primaries may be distinguished from all the others by their greater size and stiffness. These arise from the bones of the hand. In number they are usually 10; the first of which is on the second finger joint, the 2nd, 3rd and 4th upon the first finger joint, and the other 6 upon the metacarpus. In some songbirds, however, the number is only 9, and the first feather is either rudimentary or wanting, but never the longest. Secondaries are those which arise from the forearm and are inserted in the skin on the posterior side of the ulna. They are not so stiff and strong as the primaries, usually shorter than them? more curved and more mobile. The tertiaries are those attached to the proximal end of the forearm, while the scapulars lie over the humerus and scapula. The feathers on the upper surface of the wing are mostly deve- loped on the cubitus and commonly designated wing coverts. The greater series (3) cover the base or root of the quills, and in general resemble the quill feathers or primaries, and, like them, are destitute of plumules. The second series, or median coverts (2), are also seated in the fold of the skin behind the arm. The smaller feathers behind this series are the lesser coverts (i). Next is the tail, the feathers of which in the majority of birds are 12 in number, but there are others with as many as 14 to 18 ; these act in unison with the wing, during flight, and when expanded act as a rudder. The tail is longest in the Rasorial types and shortest in the natatorial and grallatorials. The tail feathers are covered at the base by the upper and under tail coverts. The tail, as the wing, in its structure shows a peculiar organization specially adapted for various purposes. An even tail is very uncommon ; rounded tails are the most prevalent, while the racket tail is exhibited in 2 or 3 groups only as Edolius, or Dissemurus and Dtssemuroides, and the lyre-shaped tail exclusively in the Rasorial order. INTRODUCTION. yii Of the osteology of birds much -will not be said. In the com- position of the frame of the body, birds may be said to have false ribs anterior and posterior to the true ribs. These cover nearly the whole short body or trunk, terminate anteriorly in a single articu- lation with the sternal ribs, and pass forwards to be fixed on the sternal appendices on the middle of the trunk. The false ribs do not at all touch the sternum (TT) or breast bone. In the act of respiration the sternum in birds plays a very important part. It is one of the most remarkable and characteristic bones of the skeleton first, for its great development ; next, for the extent to which it covers the trunk, enveloping, as it does, all the internal organs, and by the median carina in front, giving it solidity, as well as strength and power to the pectoral muscles, the limits of attachment of which latter are marked on the external surface. The surface presented by the sternum or breast-bone bears the permanent and powerful muscles of the humerus; the trunk is solid, and the scapula, situated as it is along the side of the vertebral column, gives attachment to the powerful muscles of flight, while the chief support and means of resistance is the coracoid-bone (c). The sternum is not of one shape or form throughout the class, but is variable in consonance with the habits of the different orders, and these different shapes, forms, and varieties of appearance lend considerable aid to the anatomist and systematist in working out perplexed affinities. In ducks and geese the posterior margin is replaced by membrane. In gallinaceous birds it terminates in narrow, separate bones ; this is on account of their habit of running and feeding on the ground ; while the high- flying rapacious birds have it solidly anchylosed and ossified. There are no parts of animals which vary so much in form and struc- ture as the atlantal and sacral (f) extremities; the parts remotest from the centre of the skeleton are the most mutable in form ; and the organs of progressive motion conform most to the medium in which animals reside. These parts vary so much in the same class of animals, that we might almost be induced to imagine that in organs so different as the human hand, and the fin of the porpoise or the wing of the bat, or the forefoot of the mole, all unity of compo- sition was lost; and in passing to different classes we should scarcely expect to iind the bume element of structure which compose the fin viii INTRODUCTION. of a fish or the foot of a turtle metamorphosed into the wing of the bird. But these very diversities of form of the same organ, when carefully examined, present the best proofs of the unity and simplicity of the plan upon which all organic forms are constructed. Anterior to the sternum are the clavicles which unite below and form the furcula or merry-thought bone. These are joined to the sternum by ligament or cartilage and the width of these serve to keep apart the shoulders, in opposition to the strong exertions of the muscles of the wing in flight. In most birds arboreal birds especially the legs are slender and as light as the wings. These have the long tendons of the flexors and extensors continued to the foot. By the long flexor of the toes passing over the knee and behind the heel, the bending of these joints forces them to grasp mechanically the branches on which they are perched. The leg bones consist of a short femur, long tibia with an imper- fect fibula anchylosed to it ; a patella ; an anchylosed tarso-metatarsal bone (the tarsus) and the toes. The pelvis is much extended longi- tudinally, and being anchylosed with the vertebral column, affords a large surface for the attachment of the muscles which support the trunk upon the thighs. The long iliac bones are excavated below and receive the kidneys. The ischia and pubic bones are wide and develope in their cavity the eggs, from which they are also expelled. The muscular system of this class is also adapted for their aerial life and to carry them through the atmosphere. According to Pro- fessor Grant, of the Edinburgh College, their irritability or power of contraction is the greatest in the living state, and is the most quickly lost after death, its tenacity after death being generally in the inverse ratio of the degree of activity of that power during life. The muscles are generally more firm and vascular, tougher, stronger, and of a darker colour than in the cold-blooded vertebrates. These properties are most exhibited in the high-flying rapacious birds, and less so in granivorous birds. This muscular force becomes necessary in birds in order that they may fly, either for safety or to pursue their prey through the air, as well as to follow the seasons from latitude to latitude and to perform their migrations over mountain INTRODUCTION. ix chains, continents, or the trackless ocoan. Though tho muscles of the extremities of birds are generally short and thick, the tendons are longer and slender, dense, and often ossified. The form and move- ments of birds being nearly the same, there is a great uniformity in the disposition of their muscles. Their arms and hands being appro- priated for flight, their progressive motion through the air depends chiefly on the action of ^h* pectoral is major or the humerus, a muscle surpassing in magnitude all the rest in the body and covering nearly the whole of the forepart of the trunk. The muscles of the arm, the forearm, and the hand are inserted high up, and their fleshy portions confined to near their orifice, so that only the long tendons are sent down to the points which are to be moved. There is very little motion in the phalanges of the fingers. It is not within the scope of this introduction to give an exhaus- tive or detailed classification of the organs of birds. The osseous system or the organs of support has been touched upon, also the tegumentary organs and those of motion. To detail the organs of connexion, sensibility and sensation as well as of nutrition and generation would go far beyond the intended limits of this in- troduction, while the proper treatment of these would need a more competent writer. En passant, however, a few remarks may not be out of place, especially in reference to those organs which the ornithologist and the student must neeessarily examine for instance, the testes. These, it is generally known, lie in front of, and in close proximity to, the kidneys, and although there are certain external characters which would enable the determination of the sex of a bird, yet nothing would be more satisfactory than an exa- mination of this organ of generation testes or ovaries decide the question beyond doubt. During the breeding or pairing season the testes of all male birds are much developed, while the female sex exhibit in the same situation well-developed ovaries which at other times though present, are small and granular. External sexual differences are more marked in birds than in mammals and other vertebrates; but these are not always reliable, especially in the case of birds, the young and the males of which assume the plumage of the female, or vice versa, at different seasons of x INTRODUCTION. the year. The males, with some exceptions, are as a rule larger and more highly coloured. The voice organs are placed in a glottis, at the bifurcation at the end of the wind-pipe, which is formed of entire rings of cartilage, and the call of each bird is produced by peculiar sets of muscles called the larynx. It is here, that that peculiar gift ot Nature, the voice of birds, is formed, and this one of all other attributes dis- tinguishes the class from all others in the animal kingdom. The air contained in the cells of the lungs is the force used, while the wind- pipe and the larynx with their contractions, or expansion or move- ments in the gullet, contribute to the modulations and modifications of the voice. By their song one knows of their happy and cheerful life, and by it the male woos its mate. It is a language which is not even known whether belonging to one family only, or generally intelligible among the class. The nervous system in birds and the organs of the senses run rapidly to high development. The sense of sight is also very highly developed in birds, and each class and each family and sub-family will be found to be fitted with organs developed to the extent of their wants and to suifc their living condition. The eagle and the raptores generally soar out of human sight, and yet they can see their prey notwithstanding the immense distance. The owl is consigned as a night watchman r and its organs of sight are so adapted that it can only distinguish objects with greater facility in the dusk and when all nature is desirous of repose. It is, however, compensated by a larger or more highly deve- loped sense of hearing. The sense of sight is certainly extremely keen and piercing, and this fact no doubt is an important factor in the solution of the question of the manner in which thou- sands of miles are traversed by birds in their annual migrations- This must assist them. It is doubtful whether there is any special development of the sense of taste in birds ; while that of smell, in the absence of any reliable data, may be said to be, if at all, very little developed, except in carrion feeders. INTRODUCTION. XI Like quadrupeds, birds may be classified asgranivorous, carnivorous, and mixed feeders, or those that partake of both. Granivorous birds are furnished with larger and proportionally longer intestines than carnivorous species. Their food first enters a craw where it reaches entire, but soon undergoes partial dilution by a peculiar liquor secreted from the glands thence enters another stomach, and even- tually the gizzard or true stomach, where, with the aid of powerful muscles, thick and powerful membrane and stones it is triturated and becomes fit for the action of the gastric juices. In their habits birds are either monogamous or polygamous, the latter exists generally among the Rasores or Gallinacea. Some again live a solitary life till the breeding season, when they begin their courtship and live in pairs, whilst their united efforts are necessary in forming their temporary habitation and in rearing their offsprings. There are also some, as the cuckoo, which leave their eggs to the care of a foster parent. Birds generally evince great affection for their young, and do not leave them till they can feed themselves. A great number or the majority of those known to inhabit India and its dependencies quit the country for the purpose of breeding. Each species associate in flocks and aided by their keen sight, to- gether with the advantage they possess of flying at considerable heights in the air, they are enabled with their instinctive knowledge to discover the route they are to take to migrate 'taking, probably, as a guide, the appearance of the atmosphere,, direction of winds, &c.; so that without recourse to improbable modes it is not difficult to form an idea of the speed at which they go in transporting themselves to far countries by crossing vast ocean tracts. Without the means of conveying themselves from one place to another they could scarcely subsist for the reason that climatic influences affect their food-supply. This may also be said to be one of the reasons for migrating. Besides the want of food, other causes of migration are, the want of a proper temperature of air and a convenient situation for the great work of breeding and rearing their offspring. They either remove from one^ country or climate to another or from the inland districts to hills, forest regions or to sequestered rocks or islands in the sea, or to vast sandy plains far removed from, or in the vicinity of, the sea .or x ii INTRODUCTION. river. And all this is conducted with the greatest punctuality, and the same may be said of their reappearance a few months later, It is also a noteworthy fact, proved by experiments, that birds which affect a certain station or district usually return to it year after year. The question as to how they subsist during their migrations is readily M>lvcd, when we consider the velocity of their flight together with the considerable length of time the majority continue on the wing. If we estimate the speed of a bird's flight at a mile in two minutes it would need but 24 hours to carry it as many as seven hundred miles without taking into consideration favourable wind currents which would probably nearly double the distance. Red-starts and other short- winged birds pass by gradual and slow movements as is evidenced by their appearance in different countries at different times of the year but these seldom go further than the inaccessible heights of moun- tain ranges. Many journey during the night to avoid the dangers of daylight or for the purpose of taking advantage of favourable air currents. What the true reason for migrating is, has yet to be learnt. We see their punctuality of departure and return, we note the dates very carefully, the time of theix nidification, the composition of the various structures they build for the rearing of their young, also the number of eggs they lay, their colour, size and shape as well as the changes of their plumage during the breeding season, but beyond this, and conjecture, we have not gone. The nidificatibn of birds is indeed very various, but in consonance with their habits. The high-flying rapacious birds have their eyries on the ledges of high mountains in the most inaccessible parts or on the tops of high trees ; the larger ones, including the Vulturinae, lay but one, and seldom two eggs. The lesser ones, as the Accipitrinae, build generally on trees, or on steeple tops, and lay 2 4 eggs, and seldom do more than repair their nests annually. All true vultures lay but a single egg, and their nests, as are those of eagles, are built entirely of stout sticks and twigs with a hollow receptacle lined with coarse grass or fine twigs and any soft material. Bones also form a part of the structure. Many birds build in society occupying trees, mountain ledges, plains, and the eaves of roof as sparrows, crows, herons, gulls, terns; and some when robbed of their eggs lay others very shortly after. The situation of the nests, too, are quite in consonance with their habife of life. Owls build in INTRODUCTION. xili holes in wells, caverns, and in old decayed trees ; Woodpeckers in holes in trees; Kingfishers in the banks of streams; the Swallow tribe build nests composed of mud plaster and feathers against the face of a wall, or under a roof or bridge, while others again, as the Byah or Weaver-bird, Honeysuckers, &c., build pensile nests, and all song- sters nearly, of the Timeliinae, group make small nests in bushes or shrubs; and with an instinctive knowledge endeavour to hide their nests by various artifices, as covering them with cobwebs, lichen, or plaster to give them the appearance of the surroundings of the nest. Of the Avian inhabitants of India nearly one-half are known to breed in the country. A great number go no further than the Himalayan range, while the rest may be said to be resident members, and to breed on the plains. It is not necessary to refer to the geographical distribution of species, nor to divide the country into geographical regions, as the table at the end of the volume will sufficiently show the first, and the text the latter, while it is patent to all that humid countries comprise birds of bright plumage, and those of the plains of duller plumage, and in consonance with the nature of the surroundings. The geogra- phical distribution of species has been worked out from all the materials available. It is above half a century since Major Franklin, who was the first writer on Indian Ornithology, published a paper on the Ornitho- logy of India. This paper appeared in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London. Colonel Tickell soon followed by pub- lishing in the Asiatic Society's Journal a list of the Birds of Bhorabum and Dholbum. Another equally energetic naturalist was Col. Sykes, who in 1832 began his Catalogue of the Birds of the Deccan, and continued his studies and publications for some years, not only of birds but of the mammals and fish of the Mahratta Country so desig- nated, while Mr. Brian Hodgson, who was attached as Resident at the Court of Nepaul, added largely to the store of knowledge of the avian inhabitants of the Himalayas. His contributions are spread both in the Indian and Home scientific periodicals, and his valuable MSS. and drawings, so largely referred to in every Orni- x j v INTRODUCTION. thological work, are zealousy watched over and consulted at the British Museum. Assam was next worked out by MacClelland , and his papers, also published in the Zoological Society's Proceed- ings in 1839, are full of interest, and particularly as showing the geographical distribution of the Himalayan birds. Dr. Adam collected in Cashmere, as well as in the North-West Provinces of India; Colonel Tytler in Barrackpore and Dacca; while the names of Button and numerous other observers and collec- tors are prominent in the earlier journals as contributors of interest- ing notes on habits, nidification, &c., of species in various parts of kidia. Mr. Blyth, who is rightly called the Father of Indian .Ornitho- logy, " was by far the most important contributor to our knowledge of the Birds of India." Seated, as the head of the Asiatic Society's Museum, he, by intercourse and through correspondents, not only formed a large collection for the Society, but also enriched the pages of the Society's Journal with the results of his study, and thus did more for the extension of the study of the Avifauna of India than all previous writers. There can be no work on Indian Ornithology without reference to his voluminous contributions. The most recent authority, however, is Mr. Allen O. Hume, C.B., who, like Blyth and Jerdon, got around him numerous workers, and did so much for Ornithology, that without his Journal " Stray Feathers," no accurate knowledge could be gained of the distribution of Indian birds. His large museum, so liberally made over to the nation, is ample evidence of his zeal and the purpose to which he worked. Ever saddled with his official work, he yet found time for carrying out a most noble object. His " Nests and Eggs," " Scrap Book/' and numerous articles on birds of various parts of India, the Andamans and the Malay Peninsula, are standing monuments of his fame .throughout the length and breadth of the civilized world. His writings and the field notes of his curator, contributors and collectors are the pith of every book on Indian Birds, and his vast collection is the ground upon which all Indian Naturalists must work. Though differing from him on some points, yet the palm is his as an authority above the rest in regard to the INTRODUCTION. XV Ornis of India. Amongst the hundred and one contributors to the Science in the pages of " Stray Feathers," there are some who may be ranked as specialists in this department, and their labors need a record. These are Mr. W. T. Blanford, late of the Geological Survey, an ever watchful and zealous Naturalist of some eminence. Mr. Theobald, also of the Geological Survey, Mr. Ball of the same Department, and Mr. W. E. Brooks. All these worked in Northern India, while for work in the Western portion must stand the names of Major Butler, of the 66th Regiment, Mr. W. F. Sinclair, Collector of Colaba, Mr. G. Vidal, the Collector of Bombay, Mr. J. Davidson, Collector of Khandeish, and Mr. Fairbank, each one having respectively worked the Avifauna of Sind, the Concan, the Deccan and Khandeish. The country referred to in the following volumes embraces the whole of India, including those recently acquired possessions in (now British) Burmah. Of this latter and most interesting portion of the Indian Empire, Mr. Eugene Oates, of the Public Works Department, has written a connected and detailed account, and it is from the pages of his valuable work I have been able to add much to the knowledge of the Avifauna of the Indian Empire as it now stands. In his Introduction he gives a resume oi the Ornithological explorations in that country. Colonel Tickell, whose contributions in the early numbers (1833) of the Asiatic Society's Journal are of much interest, is said to be the first Ornithologist who attempted to work Burmah. His field of work was in Tenasserim, chiefly among the higher hills and mountains to the east of Moulmein, culminating in the peak of Mooleyit, which rises about 6,000 feet above sea level. The late Mr. Blyth, after assuming charge of the Asiatic Society's Museum, found willing contributors in Captain (now Sir Arthur) Phayre, also the late Major Berdmore, Dr. Mason and others. Mr. Blyth's contributions of the birds of this country also swell the pages of the Asiatic Society's Journal, as well as those of the " Ibis," His valuable Catalogue of Burmese Birds was his last contribution, and this was published in 1875 by the late Lord Tweeddale as a posthumous work. The latter, recently known as Lord Walden, also interested himself in the xv i INTRODUCTION. Ornithology of Rurmah, and his valuable papers have also been published as a posthumous work, edited by Captain R. G. Wardlaw- Kamsay, who explored a considerable portion of Pegu. The following are other particulars given by Mr. Gates of the work done in Pegu. He says: " Turning now (1883) to those who are engaged in active work in connection with Burmese Ornithology, 1 come to a small band of hardworking fie-ld naturalists. Mr. A. O. Hume in his study and Mr. W. Davison in the field have for many years past actively worked Tennaserim*" The notes of these Naturalists enrich the pages of Oates' work, as well as of this, culled from both sources. Other workers in the field of Burmese Ornithology are Mr. W. T. Blanford, Captain Fielden, Dr. Armstrong, Captain Bingham, the late Colonel Lloyd, the late Captain Beavan, Mr. Oliver and Mr. DeWet; also Mr. Hough and Mr. Shopland. The contributions of all these gentlemen are to be found in the pages of ft Stray Feathers." British Burmah, according to Oates, is an irregular, narrow, maritime country, hardly any portion being more than 200 miles from the sea. It lies entirely within the tropics, the most northern portion of Arrakan being at a short distance from the Northern tropic, and the most Southern point of Tennasserim lying on the loth degree of North Latitude. The general character of the coun- try may be said to be mountainous, the only flat portions being strips of land along the banks of the larger rivers, and considerable areas at the mouths of these rivers. The whole of British Burmah where not cultivated is covered with dense growth of vegetation. On the elevated portions, the vegetation is composed of large forest trees and bamboos, and on the low alluvial plains, elephant grass of great height. The climate, owing to a heavy rain-fall, is said to be humid, and its effects, to cause the plumage of birds to be of great brilliancy. The same may be said of that portion of the Zoological region which comprises the Himalayas, also Eastern Bengal, and Malabar. INTRODUCTION. xvii Southern India lias been practically worked out by the late Dr. Jerdon. His admirable manual shows the energy he spent in bringing to perfection a system of classification to this day admitted as practically good though not very natural; but, yet the foundation for the past quarter of a century of every work on the Avifauna of India, and if there are any who differ from him in certain views, it is because they live in later times, and follow, though not quite, those who base their classifications on internal as well as external structure. Classification according to Jerdon may be said to be the grouping of objects according to their affinities, and their arrange- ment into divisions of various degrees of magnitude. Its object is to bring together those beings that most resemble each other, and to separate those that differ. By some it has been regarded simply as a convenient method of arrangement for shortening the labour of the naturalist, who, by its means, instead of studying all the characters which each specimen presents, is enabled, by knowing its general position, to confine his attention to a few of the minor details of structure. His labour is thus simplified by the union into one group of all the animals which agree in the most important and essential characters. The Philosophic naturalist has, however, a higher aim, and his object is to discover the natural system, or in other words, to endeavour to develop the general plan on which the Creator has formed and arranged the numberless species of natural objects. On comparing certain species with others, we find various degrees of resemblance of structure and general appearance. Those, which are nearest and most close, are called affinities, and the more distant resemblances, analogies ; and these are of every degree of nearness or remoteness. The affinities of species may be said to point out their order of succession in nature, and are easily understood and appreciable. Not so, however, the analogies exhibited by many species and groups to others, perhaps very distantly related. These nay be resemblances of structure, or of colour, or of habits. Some mturalists explain them by expressing their belief that in every xviii INTRODUCTION. group, great or small, there are certain types of structure, offering fixed characteristic marks, and that analogies are, simply, the repre- sentation in one group of a certain type in another or, to put it in other words, that analogous groups or species simply occupy a cor- responding place in their respective classes, orders, or families. This theory of representation has, perhaps, been carried out, to too great an extent, by certain writers, but, nevertheless, it appears to be founded on nature ; and the existence of these, often unex- pected analogies between distant groups and species, clearly manifests the unity of the plan of the animal creation. According to Mr. Darwin's views, such analogies might be explained on the supposition that the resemblances were due to some remote ancestral origin. The colours and markings of some birds appear to be repeated in other groups ; and, in most natural divisions, great variety of form of bills, and also of other parts is exhibited, representing several distinct types ; and, in some, more distantly related groups, analogy is shown by habits, by the colour of the eggs, by seasonal change of plumage, &c., &c. Many examples of analogy will be pointed out in the present work. On beginning at any point in any series of beings, and tracing step by step, the scale of affinities, we soon find that the supposed chain is interrupted, and that branches strike off in various directions. That a linear arrangement is quite impossible has long been conceded universally ; but what directions the divergencies take, is not agreed on ; nor, indeed, have Zoologists of the present day decided, that there is a fixed plan for any one class, still less that the same system extends through all. Strickland, and quite recently, Wallace, have attempted to show the affinites of some families and orders of birds by means of diagrams. Certain English Naturalists, and simultaneously, one or more German Botanists, have maintained that, in arranging any series of animated beings, according to their affinities, the tendency is to revert to the point whence they set out, not indeed in an unbroken line, but in a series of circles. Thus, the circular system, as it has been termed, has been strained, perhaps, too far by its exponents, but there is no doubt that in many instances this tendency to a quasi-circular INTRODUCTION. xix arrangement appears to exist in nature, and even Wallace's diagrams show this. It appearsj however, according to some, that the affinities of the species of any group are various, and cannot be expressed by figures, every natural group and species being connected not with two only, but with several ; and it is possible that any natural group, if we possessed all the forms which it comprised, would present links of transition towards all the other groups of the same family or order. Many examples might be given to show the tendency to a circular arrangement, but I shall content myself by pointing out to the student this supposed feature, to verify, or otherwise, in any group he may be studying. Many gaps of course occur in following the chain of affinities, some very great, others easily bridged over. These of course are stumbling blocks in the way of such as believe in a com- plete chain or circle ; and the fossil remains of birds, hitherto dis- covered, have not been sufficiently numerous to make these intervals much less. That a special design is exhibited in Creation there can, I think, be but little doubt. It is admitted by almost all, and most fully and unequivocally, in the best known and most highly organized group, the Vertebrata; in all the classes- of which a certain archetype of form is preserved, marked and recognizable, however disguised for special ends. It is surely more consonant to our ideas of a Creator to believe that He formed His numberless creatures with certain rela- tions to each other, than to conceive that each was brought to life independently. Indeed, a follower of Darwin might fairly argue that the evidence of design is as clearly shown by the theory of the transmutation of species, as by that of separate individual creation ; but Darwin* himself, perhaps, lays too much stress on external and fortuitous circumstances as producing varieties, and not enough on the inherent power of change, which, as he clearly shows, is now and then exhibited by various organic bodies. That species were created at hap-hazard, without any reference to others, either of the same group or more distant ones, is a doctrine so opposed to all the affinities and analogies observed throughout the animated world, that the mind refuses to accept It, and intuitively acknowledges the eviduiu ->! !.' .-ij;n. xx INTRODUCTION. That a certain system has been followed, if we allow design at all, must be admitted, but the exponent of the natural system Sharpe, Gadow, Seebohm and others too numerous to mention notwith- standinghas yet to appear. " The tendency of the present age is to accumulate facts, and not to generalize, but we have now a sufficiency of facts, and want our Lyell to explain them." By the consent of most naturalists, all objects of nature are divided jiito kingdoms, sub-kingdoms, classes, orders, families, and genera, and, in some cases, where the families are numerous, tribes, sub- families, and sub-genera are added. Birds are a class of the sub- kingdom Vertebrata, of the Animal kingdom. The Orders of birds are founded chiefly on the form of the bill, and more especially of the feet. Families are characterized by more minute distinctions of the bill and feet, together with characters drawn from the wings, tail, and certain habits, more or less common to all. A genus comprises one or many species closely resembling one another in the structure of bill, feet, wings and tail, and in habits, yet differing, it may be, in colour, size, or some minute differences of structure. To give a familiar example, the European Kite and the common Kite of India are species of the same genus, Milvus ; and the English Kingfisher and the little Indian Kingfisher, are separate species of the same genus Alcedo, each of these genera containing several species. Of late years genera have been greatly divided and multiplied, some of them being classed as sub-genera ; but, in practice, and till the whole realm of Ornithology is presided over by a master hand, no distinc- tion can be satisfactorily pointed out, or acted on. When the families of any order are very numerous, they are classed in tribes ; and when the genera of any family are numerous, or comprise several distinct forms, they are grouped into sub-families. In every natural assemblage of forms, whether it be genus, family or order, there is some one form which presents the characters that are common to all, in a more remarkable and complete manner than the rest ; and this is called the type of the group. Thus each genus has its typical species ; each family its typical genus, and so >n ; the type being, in each instance, that form to which our minds naturally revert as best exhibiting the characters that belong to the INTRODUCTION. xxi entire group. Some are very close to the type, others differ from it to such a degree that we might have failed to recognise the connec- tion, were it not for the presence of intermediate links. These are called aberrant forms. It may be asked, are the divisions, which are here indicated, natural, i.e., marked out by nature, or, in other words, designed ? That some of them are so, we may, I think, safely infer from the example already quoted of the Vertebrata. Here we have at least four, some say five, great divisions marked out by nature so broadly that the distinctions are in most cases recognizable and patent to all and, in each of these classes so clearly marked, that there are certain divisions apparent even to the uninstructed ; such, for example, among birds, are the Birds of Prey, Owls, Finches, Game birds. Ducks, &c., &c. Many genera, too, are undoubtedly exceedingly natural and clearly defined; and on the whole, I think, we may con- clude that Nature herself (could we but correctly read her lessons) has pointed out most of the divisions; or, in other words, has varied each group, small as well as great, in a certain and definite method. Many natural divisions however appear to grade into each other, and have no definite limits ; yet, for purpose of study, we must assign limits and characters; and the affinities, by which they are grouped, must be judged of by as many and as constant characters as possible, derived from all parts; but certain typical characters must be assigned. There are at present above 8,000 species of birds known and described, though much of the civilized world has yet to be explored. XVhen this has been done, what the number may be it is difficult to conjecture, but this large number has been arranged by Naturalists into six large orders, founded entirely on the organs of manducation and prehension. These are : I. Raptores, or birds of prey. II. Insessores, or perching birds. III. Gemitores, or pigeons. IV. Rassores, or game birds. V. Grallatores, or waders. VI. Natatores, or swimming birds. \xii INTRODUCTION. Though this is the basis of classification, there is a tendency in the present day to split and divide these, and to upset the order of arrangement, owing to structural and external characters combined, being made the basis, hence we see the Raptores placed after the Parrots, and the Passeres holding the first place, as in the following rather mixed arrangement : I. Passeres ; II. Macrochires ; III. Pici ; IV. Coccyges ; V. Psittaci ; VI. Striges ; VII. Accipitres ; VIII. Steganopodes ; IX. Herodiones ; X Anseres ; XI. Columbae ; XII. Gallinae ; XIII. Geranomorphse ; XIV. Limicolae ; XV. Gaviae ; XVI. Tubinares ; XVII. Pygopodes. It is needless to defend this system ; it cannot be done ; the oldest system must survive, Raptores, or birds of prey, are distinguished by their crooked bill and claws, by means of which they are enabled to overcome, and in the order of nature to prey upon other birds and small quadrupeds, to keep that necessary balance so needful. They hold the same rank among birds as the Carnivora among the quadrupeds. They are divided into two families, the diurnal and nocturnal, the latter being the owls, which issue at dusk. The diurnal species are the eagles, vultures, kites, falcons, hawks, &c. They are readily distinguished by having their nostrils placed in a naked skin or cere, and their feet bearing three toes before and one behind and their eyes placed laterally ; while the Striges, or nocturnal species, have their nostrils covered with stiff hairs, the outer toe reversible ; eyes large, and directed forwards. The Passerine birds form the largest class. They are all very nearly alike in structure, and are divided according to the position of their exterior toe, those having the midtoe united to the middle by one or two joints only ; and those with the exterior toe united to the middle one as far as the last joint but one. The next order is that of the Climbers or Scansores, with both the outer and great toe directed backwards. Following this are the Galli- naceous birds, or Rasores of some : birds of heavy gait, short, rounded wings, heavy flight, such as peafowls, game jungle cock, &c. The Waders or Grallatores, comprising the 5th order, are distinguished by the naked tarsus and a portion of their thighs also, their long legs, which they lay back under the tail feathers in INTRO! >l < I ION. XXlll flight. The last are the web-footed birds, as the ducks, charac- terized by their webbed feet, and generally broad, spathulate bills. A more detailed account of the orders, sub-orders, families and sub-families into which these have been divided will be found under the respective headings in the body of the work, which cannot from its nature have much pretensions to originality. It is only as a descriptive handbook of the birds of British India, that this work should be regarded. The idea of writing it did not originate wholly with myself, but besides the trouble and incon- venience experienced by me in my official capacity when Curator of the Kurrachee Museum in looking up literature for determining species, there was a general conviction among all my correspondents and numerous working cabinet and field naturalists that a work of this kind in a moderate compass would be welcomed as supplying a desideratum, especially if all the knowledge extant of the birds of British India were put together under one consecutive serial number, so as to remedy the present existing confusion, and simplify identi- fication. Numerous valuable \vorks have been laid under contribution in preparing the work, especially Sharpe, Seebohm and Gadow's Cata- logues ; Jerdon's valuable Manual ; Gates' Birds of British Burmah ; Stray Feathers ; Ibis ; Hume's Nests and Eggs, &c., &c., all of which have been referred to under the synonyms of species, and thus avoiding the use of inverted commas wherever they may have been required. In doing this latter I would crave the indulgence of all authors for the privilege I have taken, of in this way, so largely addingfrom their valu- able works, to the existing knowledge of the Avifauna of British India. I only trust that this small effort will find public favour. It will be made as complete as possible. As the work progresses, everything new to the Ornithology of India will be added, so that future labourers will no longer have to search far and wide, and consult large libraries of books, often too vainly, for what has been already recorded ; but in using this work will find it an unpretending manual to guide them in adding to the present accumulation of facts, much which is at present hidden and unknown to science. In concluding this Introduction, it only remains for me to acknowledge the valuable assistance received in this attempt to collate xxiv INTRODUCTION. the scattered information regarding the Avifauna of British India, into a systematic account, and, as stated in the Prospectus, arranged according to the most modern and generally accepted classification. Though seemingly simple, even this little of the ist volume has involved considerable labour and research. The whole of it cannot well be successfully accomplished without aid. Up to the present very little of this has been received, though the calls have been unceasing, and it has been left for me to work single-handed, assist- ed by only a few to the best of their abilities, when freed from the weighty cares of their office. Among those to whom I am under special obligation I would mention Mr. W. F. Sinclair, the Collector of Colaba, and Mr. J. Davidson, the Collector of Khandeish, both of whom very kindly furnished me with such specimens as they could obtain from their respective districts. To Lieutenant Henry E. Barnes, D.A.C., I am also indebted for many valuable notes in regard to nidification, &c., while the kindness of Mr. A. O. Hume, C.B., in sending me, some little time ago, a large collection of birds from British Burmah and the Himalayas generally, has helped me considerably in more accurately describing and comparing birds, which till very recently were almost unknown. I have also to acknow- ledge the assistance received from Mr. Charles Taylor, Superintendent of the Education Society's Press, in generally gettingthis work through the press with that care and neatness which is evident on every page, and in continuing the publication of the work in anticipation of better results, the total amount of subscription to date being, including the coloured plates far less than the cost of production. Lastly, I have to tender my acknowledgements to Dr. Gerson da Cunha, F.R.A.L., &c., and to Mr. Thomas Lidbetter for assistance given in precisely the most important direction, viz., introduction to the library of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, where I have the opportunity of consulting several important works which would have been otherwise inaccessible to me. a Upper mandible. b Lower mandible. c Nostrils. d Culmen or keel. e Gonys. / Margins of mandibles or commissure. /2 Ophthalmic region, or orbit, g Forehead. h Crown. i Sinciput or hind head. k Nape. / Ear-coverts. m Chin or mentum. n Throat. o Breast. p The body. q Belly or abdomen. r Vent. s Under-tail coverts. / Insterscapularies or back. v Lower back. TO Rump. W2 Upper-tail coverts. x Tail feathers. s Central or median tail feathers. aa Lateral tail feathers. bb Shoulder of wing. cc Shoulder joint (lesser wing coverts). dd Axilla, or edge of wing. ee Spurious wing or primary coverts. ff Scapulars. gg Thigh or tibia. hh Tarsus. ii Toes. 1 Lesser coverts. 2 Median coverts. 3 Greater coverts. 4 Primaries. 5 Secondaries. 6 Tertiaries. 7 Festoon. S Cere. f. tal. Parietal. .FroutaL Tympanum or on qoadrata. Nasai. i ruum. Ooraooid. Dorsal Vertebw. RUB. OoooytioAi Vertebra. Scapula, b. MOtatftTBUH. Tibia. Pelvis. munorus. Clavicles. Oervioal Vertebwe Radius Ulna. Bakarica pavonvna (L.) CONTENTS OF VOLUME I. ORDER ACCIPITRES. SUB-ORDER FALCONES. Family-VULTURIOE. Sub-family VULTURIN^. PAGE 1. Vultur, Briss 2 1. monachus, Linn 3 2. Gyps, Savigny 4 2. fulvescens, Hume 4 3. himalayensis, Hume 5 4. indicus, Blyth 6 5. pallescens, Hume 7 3. Pseudogyps, Sharpe 8 6. bengalensis, Gm 8 4- OtOgypS, Gray 8 7. calvus, G. R. Gray 9 5 Neophron, Savigny 9 8. ginginianus, Lath 9 Family FALCON IDE. Sub-family ACCIPITRIN/E. 6. Circus, Lacep 10 9. cyaneus, Linn 1O 10. melanoleucos, Forst 12 11. pygargus, Linn 13 12. macrurus, S. G, Gm 14 13. seruginosus, Linn 16 7- Astur, Gm 16 14. palumbarius, Linn 16 15. trivirgatus, Tern 17 16. badius, Kaup 18 17. poliopsis, Hume 19 18. soloensis, Horsf, 20 8. Accipiter, Briss 21 19. nisus, Linn 2i 20. virgatus, Tern 22 Sub-family BUTEONIN^:. 9. Buteo, Cuv 23 21. ferox, S. G. Gmel 23 22. desertorum, Daud 25 23. plumipes, Hodgs 25 10. Archibuteo, Brehm 26 24. strophiatus 26 Sub-family-AQUILINJE. PAGE 11. GypSetUS. Storr 27 25. barbatus, Storr 28 12. Aquila, Briss 29 26. chrysaetos, Linn 29 27. heliaca, Savigny 30 28. mogilnik, Gm 3 2 29. vindhiana, Frankl 33 30. hastata, Less 34 3 1 . clanga, Pall 35 13. Nissetus, Hodgs 3 6 32. fasciatus, Vieill 3 6 33. pennatus, Gm 37 14. LophotriorcMS) Sharpe 38 34. kieneri, Geoff. 38 i5-f Neopus, Hodgs 3 8 35. malayensis, Tern 38 16. Spizaetus, Vieill 29 36. nipalensis, Hodgs 39 37. cirrhatus, Gmel 4 38. alboniger, Blyth 41 39. limnaetus, Horsf. 42 17. Circaetus, Vieill 43 40. gallicus, Gmel 43 18. Spilornis, Gray 44 41. cheela, Lath 44 42. melanotis, Jerd 46 43. pallidus, Wald. 46 19. Butastur, Hodgs 47 44. teesa, Hodgs 47 45. liventer, Tern 48 46. indicus, Gmel 5 20. HalisetllS, Samgny 5 1 47. albicillus, Linn 5 1 48. leucogaster, Gm. ..."' 53 49. leucoryphus, Pall 54 21. Haliastur, Sdby 56 50. Indus, Bodd 56 22. Milvus, CUTJ 56 51. govinda, Sykes 57 52. melanotis, Tern. et. Schleg. ... 57 53. affinis, Gould 58 54. korschun, Gm 58 CONTENTS. PAGE 23. ElanUS, Savigny 59 55. cseruleus, Desf. 59 24. MachserampllUS, Westermann.. 6) 56. alcinus, Westermann 61 25. Pernis, Cuv 6l 57. ptilonorhynchus, S^M 61 Sub-family FALCONING. a6. Baz*, Hodgs 62 58. lophotes, Tern 62 59. sumatrensis, Lafr 63 60. ceylonensis, Legge 65 27. Microhierax, Skarpe 6 5 61. caerulescens, Lzw 05 62. fringillarius, Drap 66 28. Poliohierax, Kaup 66 63. insignis, Wald 66 29. FalCO, Linn 68 64. communis, Gm 68 65. percgrinator, Sundev 69 66. barbarus, Linn 7 67. babylonicus, Gurney 7 68. juggur, % E. Gray 7 2 69. subbuteo, Linn 73 70. severus. Horsf. 74 71. chiquera, Daud 74 72 regulus, Pall 75 30. Hierofalco, Cuv 7 73. saker, Briss ..-.. 7^ 31. Cerchneis, Boie 77 74. tinnuncula, Boie 77 75. naumanni, Fleisch 78 76. pekinensis, Swift k 79 77. amurensis, Homey 79 SUB-ORDER -PANDIONES. 32. Pandion, Savigny 80 78. halisetus, Linn 80 33. Poliosetus, Kaup 81 79. ichthyaetus, Hbrsf. 8l 80 humilis, Mull , 82 STJB-ORDER-STRIGES. Family BUB ONI DM. Sub-family BUBONIN^E. 34- Kotupa, Lesson 83 81. ceylonensis, Gntel 83 82. javanensis, Less 84 PAGE 35. J$ubo 9 Auct 84 83. bengalensis, Frankl. 84 84. coromandus, Lath 85 85. nipalensis, Hodgs 86 86. orientalis, Horsf. 87 36. Scops, Savigny 88 87. pennatus, Hodgs. 88 88. rufipennis, Sharpe 89 89. brucii, Hume 91 90. spilocephalus, Blyth 92 91. sunia, Hodgs 93 92. plumipes, Hume 95 93. lettia, Hodgs 95 94. lempiji, Horsf. 96 95. malabaricus, Jerd 98 96. sagitatus, Sharpe IOO 97. balli, Hume IOO 98. modestus, Wald IO2 37. Carine, Kavp 103 99. brama, Tern 104 100. pulchra, Hume 105 38. Heteroglaux, Hume 105 101. blewitti, Hume 105 39. Ninox, Hodgs 1 06 102. lugubris, Tickell 106 103. affinis, Beavan 107 104. scutulata, Raffl 108 105. obscura, Hume , 109 40. Glaucidium, Boie no 106. brodiei, Burton no 107. radiatum, Tick in 108. malabaricum, Blyth 112 109. cuculoides, Gould 113 Sub-family SYRNIIN^E. 41- Asio, Briss 114 no. otus, Linn 114 III. accipitrinus, Pall ijf 42. Syrnium Savigny n6 112 butleri, Hume n6 113. nivicolum, Hodgs nj 114. sinense, Lath 117 115. ocellatum, Less. .., ug 116. newarense, Hcdgs 120 117. indranee, Sykes 121 Family STRIGID^. 43. Strix, Linn 122 118. flammea, Linn 122 119. Candida, Tick 123 44. Phodilus, Isid. Geoff. St. Hilaire . 123 120 badius, Horsf. , 124 CONTENTS. ORDER II. PASSERIFORMES. STJB-ORDER-PASSERES. DIVISION-ACROMYODI. GROTJP-COLIOMORPl-LE. Pamily-CORVID^E. Sub-family CORVINE. PAGE 45- Trypanocorax, Bp 126 121. frugilegus, Linn 126 46. CorVUS, Linn 127 122. corax, Linn 127 123. umbrinus, Hedenb 127 124. lawrencei, Hume 128 47- ColOBUS, Linn 128 125. monedula, Linn 129 4S. Corone, Kaup 129 126. comix, Linn 129 127. splendens, Vieill 130 128. corone, Linn 130 129. macrorhynchus, Wagl 131 49. Nucifraga, Briss 132 130. hemispila, Vigors 132 50. Pica, Briss 132 131. rustica, Scop 132 51. Urocissa, Cab 133 132. occipitalis, Blyth 133 133. flavirostris, Blyth 134 52. Dendrocitta, Gould 135 134. rufa, Scop 135 135. frontalis, McClell 136 136. leucogastra, Gould 136 137. himalayensis, Blyth 136 138. bayleyi, Tytler 137 53. Crypsirhioa, Vieill 138 139. varians, Lath 138 140. cucullata, Jerd 139 54- Cissa, Boie 139 141. chinensis, Bodd 139 55. Platysmurus, Reich 140 142. leucopterus, Tern 140 56. Garrulus, Brits 141 143. atricapillus, Gecffr. St Hilaire. . 141 144. leucotis, Hume 142 145. bispecularis, Vigors 142 146. lanceolatus, Vigors 143 Sub-family FREGILIN^E. 57- Graculus, Koch 143 147. eremita, Koch 144 58- Pyrrhocorax, Vieill 144 148. alpinus, Vieill. ...... 144 Family ORIO LI D/E. 59- Oriolus, Linn 149. galbula, Linn 150. kundoo, Sykes 151. diffusus, Sharpe 152. tenuirostris, Blyth 153- andamanensis, Tytler. ., 154. xanthonotus, Horsf. 155. melanocephalus, Linn. 156. trailli, Vigors 145 I4 ^ 146 147 147 148 149 149 150 Family DICRURID/E. 60. Dicrurus, Vieill 157. annectens, Hodgs 61. ChibiaHodgs 158. hottentottus, Linn 62. Chaptia, Hodgs 159. aenea, Vieill 160. malayensis, Blyth 63. Buchanga, Hodgs 161. atra, Herm 162. longicaudata, A. Hay 163. cineracea, Sharpe 164. leucogenys, Wald 165. cserulescens, Linn 64. Dissemuroides, Hume. 1 66. andamanensis, Tytler & Beavan. 65. Bhringa, Hodgs 167. remifer, Tern 66. Dissemurus, Gloger i6S. paradiseus, Linn 67. Irena, Horsf. 169. puella, Lath Family PRIONO PI D/. . Sub-family PRIONOPIN^E. 68. Tephrcdornis, Swainson 162 170. pondiceriana, Gmel 162 171. pelvicus, Hodgs 163 172. sylvicola, Jerd 163 173. grisola, Blyth 164 69. Hemipus, Hodgs , 164 174. picatus, Sykes 164 175. obscurus, Horsf. 165 176. capitalis, McClell 165 70. Hypocolius, Bp 166 177. ampelinus, Bonap 166 71. PlatylophUS, Stoainson 167 178. ardesiacus, Cat 107 151 151 152 151 153 153 154 154 154 155 156 156 157 158 158 158 159 159 159 161 161 CONTENTS. 72. Cochoa, Hodgs 167 179. viridis, Hodgs 167 1 80. purpurea, Hodgs 168 GROTJP-CICHLOMORPH^. Family CAM POPHAGID^E. 73. Artamides, Hartt 169 181. dobsoni, Ball 169 74. Graucalus, Cuv 17 182. macii, Less 17 75. Campophaga, Vieill 17* 183. lugubris, Sund 171 184. intermedia, Hume 171 185. melanoptera, Riifip. I7 2 186. neglecta, Hume I7 2 76. Pericrocotus, Bole 173 187. speciosus, Lath. . 173 1 88. elegans, McClell 174 189. andamanensis, Tytler 174 190. flammifer, Hume 174 191. flammeus, Forst 175 192. igneus, Blyth 17$ 193. cinereus, Lafres 176 194. peregrinus, Linn 176 195. brevirostris, Vigors 177 196. neglectus, Hume 178 197. roseus, Vieill 178 198. Solaris, Blyth 179 199. erythropygius, Jerd 179 200. albifrons, Jerd 18o 201. immodestus, Hume. ... 180 77. Lalage, Bole 181 202. sykesi, Strickl 181 203. melanothorax, Sharpe 182 204. terat, Bodd 182 Family MUSCICAPIM:. 78. Hemichelidon, Hodgs 183 205. sibirica, Gm 206. ferruginea, Hodgs l8/ 79- Alseonax, Caba;iis 18 207. latirostris. Raffles 185 80. Muscicapa, Linn 186 208. grisola, Linn 186 209. sordida, Godw.-Ausfen 187 210. parva, Bechst 187 211. albicilla, Pall 188 212. hyperythra, Cab , 188 PAGE 81. Pratincola, Koch 189 213. macrorhyncha, Stolickza 189 214. insignis, Blyth 190 215. maura, Pall 191 216. leucura, Blyth 192 217. caprata, Linn 193 82. Poliomylas, Sharpe. 194 218. hodgsoni, Verr 194 83. Muscicapula, Blyth 195 219. superciliaris, Jerd 195 22o- astigma, Hodgs 196 221. maculata, Tickell 196 222. sapphira, Tickell 197 84. Tarsiger, Hodgs 198 223. rufilatus, Hodgs 198 224. hyperythrus, Blyth 199 225. hodgsoni, Moore 199 226. indicus, Vieill 20O 227. chrysoeus, Hodgs 201 85. Hypothymis, Boie 201 228. azurea, Bodd 201 229. occipitalis, Vig 2O2 86. Xanthopygia, Sharpe 203 230. fuliginosa, Vig 204 87. Oreicola, Bonap 205 231. jerdoni, Blyth 205 232. ferrea, Hodgs 205 88. Ciielidorynx, Hodgs 206 233. hypoxantha, Blyth 206 89. Rhipictura, Vig. and Horsf. 207 234. albicollis, Vieill 207 2 35- javanica, Sparrm 208 236. pectoralis, Jerd 209 237. albifrontata, Sharpe 210 90. Terpsiphone, Gloger 210 233. paradisi, Linn 210 239. affinis, A- Hay 212 91. Philentoma, Eyton 213 240. velatum, Tern 213 241. pyrrhopterum, Tern 214 92. Culicicapa, Swinhoe 214 242. ce) lonensis, Swainson 214 93- Cryptolopha, Swainson 215 243. burkii, Sharpe ... 215 244 cantatrix, Sharpe 216 245. affinis, Hodgs 217 246. xanthoschista, Hodgs 217 247. schisticeps, Hodgs 218 248. superciliaris, Tickell 219 249. poliogenys, Blyth 220 CONTENTS. PAGE 250. castaneoceps, Bp 220 251. albigularis, Hodgs 221 252. hodgsoni, Moore 221 253. flavigularis, Godw.-Austen. ... 222 94. Stoparola, Blyth 222 254. albicaudata 222 255. melanops, Vig 223 95. Siphia, Hodgs 223 256. pallidipes, Sharpe 223 257. unicolor, Blyth 224 258. rubeculoides, Vig, 225 259. tickelliae, Blyth 225 260. magnirostris, Blyth 226 261. nigrorufa, Jerd 227 262. strophiata, Hodgs 227 263. ruficauda, Swainson 228 264- mandelli, Hume 228 265. olivacea, Hume 229 96. Digenea, Hodgs 229 266. leucomelanura, Blyth 229 267. cerviniventris, Sharpe 230 268. moniliger, Hodgs 230 269. submoniliger, Hume 231 97- Niltava, Hodgs 231 270. sundara, Hodgs 231 271. vivida, Swinh 232 272. grandis, Blyth 233 273. leucoprocta, Tweed 233 274. macgrigoriae, Burton 234 Family TURDID.E. Sub-family-SYLVIIN^:. 98. Sylvia, Scop 235 275. cinerea, Bechst 235 276. jerdoni, Blyth 236 277. affinis, Blyth 236 278. althea, Hume 237 279. minuscula, Hume 237 280. nana, Hempr. et Ehr. ... 237 281. familiaris, Menetries 238 99. Phylloscopus, Boie 239 282. borealis, Bias 239 283. nitidus, Blyth 240 284. viridanus, Blyth 241 285. plumbeitarsus, Swinh- 241 286. tenellipes, S-winh 242 287. magnirostris, Blyth 242 288. lugubris, Blyth 243 289. occipitalis, Blyth 244 290. coronatus, Tern 244 PAGE 291. reguloides, Blyth. 245 292. viridipennis, Blyth 246 293. tristis, Blyth 246 294. affinis, Tickell 247 295. tytleri, Brooks 248 296. humii, Brooks 248 297. superciliosus, Gmel 249 298. maculipennis, Blyth 250 299. proregulus, Pall 250 300. pulcher, Hodgs 251 301. subviridis, Brooks 252 302. sindianus, Brooks 252 100. Hypolais, Brehm 252 303. pallida, Hempr. et Ehr 253 304. rama, Sykes .. 254 305. caligata, Licht 255 306. obsoleta, Severtz 255 101. Acrocephalus, Naum 256 307. bistrigiceps, Swinh 256 308. orientalis, Tern et Schleg 257 309. stentoreus, Hempr. et Ehr. ... 257 310. dumetorum, Blyth 258 311. agricola, Jerd 258 102. Locustella, Kaup 258 312. certhiola, Pall 259 313. straminea, Severtz 260 314. lanceolata, Tern 260 103. Lusciniola, Gray 261 315. aedon, Pall 261 316. thoracica, Blyth 261 317. luteiventris, Hodgs 262 318. indica, Jerd 262 319. fuscata, Blyth 263 320. schwarzi, Radde 263 321. fuliginiventris, Hodgs 264 322. neglecta, Hume 264 323. melanopogon, Tern 265 104. Cettia, Bonap 266 324. cetti, Marm 266 325. fortipes, Hodgs 267 326. flavolivacea, Hodgs 268 327. pallidipes, Blanf. 268 328. brunneifrons, Hodgs 269 329. major, Moore 269 Group. BRADYPTERI. 105. Schcenicola, Blyth 270 330. platyura, Jerd 270 106. Laticilla, Blyth 271 331. burnesi, Blyth 271 332. cinerascens, Wald 271 VI CONTENTS. PAGE 107. Megalurus, Horsf. 272 333. palustris, Horsf. 2 7 2 108. Chsetornis, Gray 273 334. locustelloides, Blyth 274 Group.-CISTlCOL^:. 109. Suya, Hodgs 274 335. crinigera, Hodgs 2 74 336. atrigularis, Hodgs 2 17 337. khasiana, God-w .-Austen 277 338. albigularis, Hume 278 339. superciliaris, Anderson 279 no. Prinia, Horsf. 279 340. inornata, Sykes 279 341. sylvatica, Jerd 280 in. Burnesia, Jerd 281 342. flaviventris, Deless 282 343. social! s, Sykes. 282 344. lepida, Blyth. 283 112. SCOtOCerca Sundev 284 345. inquieta, Sund 284 113. Sutoria, Nicholson 285 346. sutoria, Forst 285 347. atrigularis, Tern 286 348. ruficeps 287 114. Phyllergates, Sharpe 28? 349. coronatus, Jerd. and Blyth. ... 287 115. Graminicola, Jerd 288 350. bengalensis, Jerd 288 116. Cisticola, Kaup 289 351. buchanani, Blyth 289 352. gracilis, Franklin 290 353. beavani, Wald 291 354. cinereicapilla, Moore 291 355- poliocephala, Anderson 292 356. cisticola, Tern 292 357. exilis, Vig. and Horsf. 293 Sub -Family.-TU RDI NM. 117. Geocichla, Kuhl 293 358. dauma, Lath 294 359. nilgiriensis, Blyth 295 360. molhssima, Blyth 295 361. dixoni, Seebohm 296 Group. ZO OTHERS. 362. monticola, Vigors 296 363. marginata, Blyth 297 PAGE 364. cyanonotus, Jard and Selby. ... 297 365. citrina, Lath 298 366. wardi, Jerd 300 367. sibirica, Pall 300 118. Turdus, Linn 301 368. iliacus, Linn 302 369. viscivorus, Linn 302 370. pilaris, Linn 303 119. Merula, Leach 34 371. albocincta. Royle 34 372. boulboul, Lath 304 373. nigropileus, Lafresnaye 305 374. simillima, Jerd 305 375. bourdilloni, Seebohm 306 376. castanea, Gould 306 377. fuscata, Pall 306 378. protomomelsena, Seebohm. ... 307 379. atrigularis, Tern 308 380. ruficollis, Pall 38 381. unicolor, Tick 309 382. obscura, Gmel 309 383. pallida, Gmel 310 120. Monticola, Boie 311 384. saxatilis, Linn 311 385. cyanus, Linn 312 386. cinclorhynchus, Vig , 312 387. erythrogaster, Vig 313 121. Erithacus, Cuv 314 388. brunpeus, Hodgs 314 389. cyaneus, Pall 315 390. calliope, Pall 315 391. pectoralis, Gould 316 392. tschebaiewi, Prejv 317 393. cseruleculus, Pall 317 122. Sialia, Swainson 318 394. caelicolor, Hodgs 319 123. RTlticilla, C. L. Erehm 319 395. phoenicurus, Linn 319 396. mesoleuca, Hempr. et Ehr. ... 320 397. rufiventris, Jerdon 320 398. hodgsom, Muore , 321 399. aurorea, Gmel 322 400. erythrogastra, Gould 322 401. erythronota, Eversm 323 402. frontalis, Vigors 3 2 3 403. schisticeps, Hodgs 324 404. cceruleocephala, Vigors 325 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE Plate ... Introductory Woodcut. Woodcut. Vultur monachus 3 Gyps fulvescens 4 ,, Gyps indicus... ... ... ... ... ... ... 6 ,, Otogyps calvus 9 Circus cyaneus (Bill) 10 Circus pygargus ... 13 ,, Circus macruius ... ... ... ... ... ... 14 Plate. Astur palumbarius ... ... ... ... ... ... 16 ,, Astur soloensis 20 Woodcut. Accipiter nisus ... ... ... ... ... ... 21 Plate. Buteo plumipes 25 ,, Archibuteo strophiatus 26 Woodcut. Gypaetus barbatus ... ... ... ... ... ... 27 Aquila chryssetos (Head) 29 Lophotriorchis kieneri (Head) 38 Circaetus gallicus (Head) 43 Plate. Haliaetus albicilla 51 Woodcut. Haliaetus albicillus (Head) 51 ,, Haliastur indus (Bill) 56 ,, Machaeramphus alcinus (Bill) ... ... .. ... 60 Woodcut. Baza lophotes (Head) 62 Baza sumatrensis (Head) .. ... ... ... ... 63 Plate, Asio accipitrinus 106 Ninox affinis... ... ... ... ... ... ... 107 ,, Ninox obscura 109 Woodcut. Strix flammea... ... ... ... ... ... ... 122 Asio otus ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 124 Plate. Trypanocorax frugilegus 126 Colceus monedula ... ... ... ... ... ... 128 ,, Corone cornix ... ... ... ... ... ... 129 ,, Corone corone 130 Pica rustica 132 Dendrocitta occipitalis 135 Dendrocitta bayleyi 137 Garrulus leucotis ... ... ... ... ... ... 143 Fregilus graculus 144 VI 11 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE Woodcut. Oriolus galbula 145 Chibia hottentottus (Head} 152 ,, Chaptia aenea (Head} 153 Bhringa remifer (Head and leg) ... ... ... ... 158 ,, Dissemurus paradiseus (Head and leg) 159 Irena puella (Head and leg) 161 ,, Hemichelidon ferruginea (Head) ... ... ... ... 183 Tarsiger rufilatus (Head) ... ... ... ... ... 198 Plate. Digenea leucomelanura, Fig. I 229 Digenea moniliger, Fig. 2 ... ... ... ... ... 230 ,, Sylvia minuscula ... ... ... ... ... ... 237 Phylloscopus subviridis ... ... ... ... ... 252 Woodcut. Megalurus palustris (Head, leg and bill) ... ... ... 272 Chaetornis locustelloides (Head and leg) ... ... ... 273 Plate. Scotocerca inquieta 284 Woodcut. Turdus iliacus 302 Sialia caelicolor (Head and leg) ... ... ... ... 318 THE AVIFAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA AND ITS DEPENDENCIES. ORDER ACCIPITRES. Bill short, strong, stout, covered at the base with a cere or naked skin and strongly curved ; the tip perpendicular ; nostrils open. Legs and feet muscular and strong, the latter armed with powerful curved, sharp, elongated talons capable of being bent under the feet. Toes four, three in front and one behind. The Accipitres or Raptores vary greatly in size. The Vultures and Eagles comprise some of the largest of the feathered tribes, while the Falcons are small. The order comprising these is analogous to the feline quadrupeds, and forms a distinct and primary one in the class of birds. They are readily recognized by their strong hooked bill, the upper mandible of which is longer than the lower. The edges in some are festooned or toothed to assist in the operation of tearing their prey. They are notoriously the most muscular and powerful. The muscles of their legs and feet are of great strength to enable them to strike down or hold their prey. The greater number are suited for rapid flight and live on prey got by their own courage and exertions. The Vultures however are slothful, large bodied, and, not unlike the Hyaena, feed upon carrion and act the part of scavengers. The males are always smaller than the females, and owing to this difference in size of the sexes, and the almost totally different plumage of the various stages of growth of the members, from the young to the adult, they are difficult to determine, even with large series of specimens. In number and species they are not many taking them world wide compared with the Insessores or perching birds. For special reasons in the economy of nature they are not prolific, but propagate slowly. Many lay but one egg, others two, and none of the order are known to lay more than four, nor to breed more than once a year. 1 VULTURID/E. . Falrones, Pandiones, and Striges; four families, viz. :- SSL and Strigid*, and these again into nine sub-famiUes . The of 7 (seven) only occur in India, the exceptions being the Polybormae and Sarcoramphinse. The following is the division of the Accipitres : * SUB-ORDER Falcones. Family Vulturidae. Sub-Family Vulturinae. Family Falconidae. Sub-Family Accipitrinae, Buteoninae. Aquilinse. Falconinae. SUB-ORDER Pandiones. SUB-ORDER. Striges. Family Bubonidae. Sub-Family Buboninae. Syrniinae. Family Strigidae. These comprise the Vultures, the Falcons, and the Owls, the two former are diurnal, and the latter nocturnal birds of prey. SUB-ORDER FALCONES. Toes without feathers ; outer toe not reversible ; eyes lateral ; cere soft and fleshy, generally not hidden by bristles. Facial disk none. Plumage compact. Family VULTURED^E VULTURES. Upper mandible not toothed, sometimes sinuate. Head and neck more or less bare or clothed only with short down. No true feathers on crown of head. Sub- Family VULTURINvE, VULTURES PROPER. Nostrils not perforated. 1st quill short, $rd and 4th subequal, 4th longest ; tarsi reticulate. These are the scavengers of nature wherever they occur, especially in hot countries where putrefaction is rapid. Their food imparts to them a foetid odour, which, according to some writers, is a means of defence, for, if seized during the torpid inactivity which succeeds their meals, they disgorge the nau- seous contents of their craw over the luckless captor in order that he may quickly and loathingly relinquish his hold. VULTUR. 3 Gen. Vultur. Linn. Bill higher than broad. Cere large. Nostrils rounded, naked. A neck ruff present. 1. VultTir monachUS, Linn. S. N. i., p. 122 ; Jerd. B. of Ind. vol. i. p. 6; Hume, Sir. F., vol. vii., p. 321; Murray, Hdbk. Zool., fyc., Sind ; id. Vert. Zool. Sind, p. 61 ; Sharpe, Cat. Ace. Br. Mus. p. 3. The CRESTED or GREAT BROWN VULTURE. Adult. Colour rich dark chocolate brown throughout, including the crop patch, darker on the wings, tail, and under parts. Feathers of the nape length- ened, lanceolate, and forming a ruff. Lores, cheeks, and throat downy, also a patch on the occiput ; rest of head and neck both behind and laterally bare, and of a livid flesh colour in life. Bill black ; feet yellowish ; iris dark brown, 4 VULTURID/E. Length. 42 to 45 inches ; expanse 96 to 1 18 ; wing 29-5 to 32 ; culmen 3*3 ; tarsus 4-25. Hab. A native of Europe. Found on the lofty mountains of Italy, the Tyrol, and also in Africa. In India it affects the hilly ranges of Central India, Guzerat, Sind, Beloochistan, Persia, Afghanistan, Punjab, N.-W. Provinces, Oudh, Bengal, Rajpootana, Central India, Kutch, Tennaserim, and the Nepal Valley. In the Himalayas it is fairly abundant ; also in Assam and Bhootan. There is no positive information as to the breeding of this Vulture in India, but from facts collected by Mr. A. O. Hume and recorded in his " Rough Notes on Indian Ornithology and Oology," it is probable that it breeds in the Hima- layas from January to March. The Rev. H. B. Tristram, "Ibis," 1865, and Mr. C. Farman give interesting particulars of its nidification in Central Bulgaria and Palestine. In the Pyrenees it is said to lay two eggs, varying from a more or less pure white with scarcely any trace of markings, to a reddish or fulvous white, richly marked with reddish brown ; in shape a very blunt slightly pyriform oval ; texture coarse and rough ; size 3-48 x 275 inches. Gen. GypS- Savigny. Tarsus shorter than middle toe ; 14 tail feathers ; nostrils perpendicular, rather oval. 2. GypS fulvescens, Hume, Rough Notes, p. 19; Str. F., vol. vii. p. 322 ; i., p. 149; Ibis 1869; Sharpe, Cat. Ace. Br. Mus. (Sub-Sp. B.), p. 7; GYPS. 5 Murray, EJbk. Zool, fyc., Sind, p. 102 ; id. Vert. Zoo?. Sind, p. 63. The BAY VULTURE. Adult. Top of head, cheeks, chin, and throat covered with dingy, yellowish- white hair-like feathers. Nape and whole of neck (except the back and basal one-fifth or less) also covered, but with dense, fur-like yellowish-white down. Crop patch pale wood brown, or dark brown ; rest of under surface rufous or fulvous brown, with conspicuous whitish central stripes, the under wing coverts darker. Upper back, whole of upper wing coverts, and all but the longest scapulars, rufous ashy, or brownish rufous fawn. Secondaries, tertials, and longer scapulars umber brown. Lower back and rump brown, with distinct central streaks of fulvous white, the upper tail coverts more rufescent. Quills, brownish black, the primaries shaded with ashy grey, the secondaries externally washed and tipped with rufous ashy. Tail black, the feathers somewhat shaded with brown on their margins. Feathers of the ruff lanceolate, brown or rufous fawn, mesially streaked with whitish. Length. 41 to 47 inches ; expanse 94 to 106 ; wing 27 to 30; tail 12-5 to 13-5 ; culmen 3-7 ; tarsus 3*88 to 4. Hab. Sind, Beloochistan, Persia, Afghanistan, Punjab, N.-W. Provinces, Oudh, Rajpootana, Central India, Kutch, and Guzerat. Breeds during January and February on lofty trees, laying a single white egg usually soiled and discoloured by the droppings of the parent bird. Size 3-5 x 2-8 inches. 3- Gyps himalayensis, Hume, Rough Notes, i. p. 14 (1869); Jerdon, Ibis, 1871, p. 235 ; Sharpe, Cat. Ace. Br. Mus. p. 8. Otogyps fulvus, Tytler, Ibis, 1 868, p. 194. The HIMALAYAN GRIFFON. Adult. Head, cheeks, chin, and throat closely covered with yellowish white filamentous feathers ; nape, upper two-thirds of back, and sides of the neck covered with a similar coloured down ; basal third of back and sides of neck bare, the front sparsely studded with star-like tufts of down. Crop patch whitish fawn. Ruff round the neck whitish, the feathers linear, lanceolate, about 3 inches long with filamentous webs. Upper back, shorter scapulars, and wing coverts (except the larger row) a nearly unichromous pale brown, or whitey brown, many of the feathers inconspicuously paler centred. Lower back pure white, shading into pale creamy fawn colour on the rump and upper tail coverts. Longer scapulars and largest wing coverts deep umber brown, tipped broadly on the scapulars with fulvous fawn, and externally washed with ashy. Quills black, the secondaries brownish, the innermost inclining to fulvous towards the tip. Tail black, or a deep chocolate brown. Under surface, includ- ing wing lining and lower tail coverts white, or fulvous white, some of the feathers on the flanks with ill-defined paler centres. Bill very pale horny green, dusky at tip ; cere pale brown ; legs and feet dingy greenish grey or greyish white ; claws pale brown. Length. 46 to 49 inches (Hume), 42 inches (Sharpe) ; expanse 106 to I lo ; wing 28 to 31 ; tail 15 to 17, tarsus 4-25 to 4-8. G VULTURID/E. Young. Entire plumage dark chocolate brown, with central streaks of paler brown, those on the ruff and under surface being lighter and more fulvescent, and consequently more distinct. Hab. Himalayas, Bhootan, Afghanistan, Nepal. Breeds in January, February, and March. Mr. Hume says, the nest is a huge platform of sticks placed on a rocky ledge of some bold precipice in the Himalayas at least 3,000 feet above the sea. It lays a single egg, larger than that of any of the other Indian Vultures, oval, or a broad oval, the ground colour being of the usual greenish or greyish white of all the true- Vultures, unspotted or richly blotched and mottled chiefly towards the small end with brownish red. Size 378 x 2'8 inches to 3-98 x 2 ' 8 5 inches. 4. Gyps indicUS, Blyth, Cat. B. Mus. As. Soc. Seng. p. 33 1^49; Jerd. B. Ind. i. p. 9, No. 4; Gray, Cat. Mam. and B. Hodgson, p. 16 ; Sharpe, Cat. Ace. Br. M. p. IO; Hume, Stray F. vii. 165. Gyps tenuirostris, Hodgs.; Scully, Stray F. viii. 219. The LONG-BILLED VULTURE. Adult. Head bare, also the nape, neck, cheeks, and throat, but very thinly sprinkled with brownish white hair-like feathers ; ruff and upper surface of body dark brown, the feathers mesially streaked with fulvous ; the wing coverts slightly paler with the streaks more distinct. Lower back and GYPS. 7 rump creamy white, the feathers washed with brown on their edges. Quills and tail black or deep chocolate brown. Crop patch brown. Under surface of body light brown, the feathers broadly streaked with creamy white ; abdomen and under tail coverts slightly paler. Under wing coverts whitish, the marginal ones dark brown with pale shaft stripes. Bill dark horn brown, yellowish on culmen and towards tip. Irides brown. Length. 36 to 40 inches ; wing 24 ; tail 1 1 ; tarsus 4*5 ; bill from gape 2-85. Hab. The Indian Peninsula, Burmah, Nepal, Siam and the Malayan Peninsula. Ajmere and Mount Aboo are places where this species has been known to breed from December to March on inaccessible and precipitous -cliffs. Eggs vary in length from 3-48 to 3*9 inches in length and from 2-62 to 2-85 in breadth, larger than those of G. Bengalensis ; texture finer, as a rule unspotted pale greyish or greenish white, thinly spotted or blotched with pale reddish brown and purplish brown. 5. Gyps pallescens, Hume, Stray F. i. p. 150; id. vol. iii. p. 442 ; id. vol. ii. p. 325, vol. ix. p, 369 ; Swinhoe and Barnes -, B. of Central India, Ibis, vol. 1885, p. 54 ; Barnes, Birds of Bombay* p. 5. Gyps indicus, Hume, Rough Notes, i. p. 21. The LONG-BILLED PALE BROWN VULTURE. Adult. Head, nape, cheeks, and throat bare, but sprinkled with brownish white hair-like feathers ; lower half of the back and sides of the neck bare. Crop patch covered with silky dark brown feathers ; ruff composed of soft, white, much disintegrated feathers. Mantle pale earthy brown, the centres of the lesser and all but the tips and margins of the larger scapulars dark hair brown. The whole of the lower surface of the body pale whitey brown, vent and lower tail coverts nearly pure white. Lower back, rump, and upper tail coverts Avhite, tinged with pale earthy brown. Some of the longer tail coverts brown at the base. Primaries and tail feathers deep chocolate brown ; secondaries and tertiaries hair brown, more or less suffused on their outer webs with pale dingy earthy or fulvous brown. A quite young bird, has the top and back of the head and upper part of the back of the neck thickly covered with white down, rest of the head and neck as in the adult ; crop patch covered with pale dove-coloured brown feathers, lower surface pale brown, albescent towards the vent, each feather broadly centred with dingy white, sides and breast the same ; ruff feathers long, lanceolate, pale fulvous white, faintly margined with brown ; mantle pale hair brown, the feathers with fulvous white centres mesially. Primaries chocolate brown ; tail feathers the same ; rump and upper tail coverts white, in some specimens very slightly tinged with brown. Rectrices of 14 feathers. Adult. Length 36 to 39 inches ; expanse 85 to 90 ; wing 23 to 25*5 ; tail from vent 10 to 1 1 ; tarsus 3-5 to 4 ; bill from gape 2-65 to 2*95. Bill and cere pale greenish yellow, horny on culmen ; irides brown ; legs and feet dusky plumbeous. (Hume, Rough Notes.} Hab. Sind, Kutch, Jodhpur, Kattiawar, Northern Guzerat, I^^ the Concan, Deccan, the Southern Mahratla country, and Central Pndia. " s VULTURID^E. Gen. PseudogypS. Sharpe. Tarsus shorter than middle toe. Tail of 12 feathers. 6. PseudOgypS bengalensiS, Sharpe, Ann. Nat. Hist. (4) xi,, p. ! 33 5 C a i* A CC > B r * Mus. p. ii. Gyps bengalensis, G. R. Gray, Gen. of B. i- P- 6; Jerd. B. of Ind. vol. i. p. 90; Hume, Sir. F. vol. v. p. 245 ; Murray, Hdbk.,Zool.fyc>, Sind, p. 104; Gidh.\ Hind and Sind. THE BENGAL OR COMMON BROWN VULTURE. Adult* Cinerous black above, beneath dark brown, the shafts narrowly streaked with fulvous. Lower back and rump white. Ruff scanty, whitish. Head and neck bare with a few dull brown bristles on the crown and nape. Quills, tail, and crop patch black. Under wing coverts white. Cere horny black ; legs dusky black ; iris red brown. Length. 30 to 35 inches ; wing 23 to 23-5 ; tail 10 to 1 1 j tarsus 4-2 ; culmen 3'i. Hab. Throughout India. It is a permanent resident in Sind, and breeds from November to February or later, laying ordinarily one or two glossless white eggs, at times with rusty markings at the larger end. Gen. OtOgypS. Gray. Tarsus longer than middle toe ; head and neck bare, with ieshy folds and a neck lappet or wattle of skin. NEOPHRON.