THE THE FIELD ARTILLERY FORT SILL, OKLAHO ACCESSION NUMBER PROPERTY OF U. S. TR PAS, Port Sill, Okla., (5-15-44 5,000) 29343 9a VALAMBROSA Made in Florence, Italy, by Wm. H. Phillips. (See Page 369) Complete &eif'5n$tnictfttg of practical VOLUME I Elementary Photography J. B. SCHRIEVER Editor-in- Chief PUBLISHED BY American cf)ool of &rt anD SCR ANTON, PA., U. S. A. 1909 COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ART AND PHOTOGRAPHY, SCRANTON, PA., U. S. A. ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL, LONDON, ENGLAND All rights and translations reserved J. B. SCHRIEVER President American School of Art and Photography, Editor-in-Chief of the Complete Self-Instructing Library of Iractical Photography. SRLF .URl 5140617 PREFACE BACK in the 70's of the last century not so many years ago, after all photography was in its infancy and but little practiced by the general public. The few professionals who made it their regular business prepared most of their own materials, plates, papers, etc., and the results were frequently very un- certain, as they depended largely upon local con- ditions, and on the skill and knowledge of the oper- ator. Photography as applied today to the arts and sciences was unheard of. Now, there is hardly a science, industry, or enterprise of any account undertaken that photography, in some form or other, does not enter into. It is invaluable as an aid to research, study, and to the diffusion of knowledge. It has extended its influence far beyond the limits of a popular science, into a world-embrac- ing industry. It is an Art; it is a part of every science. It has revolutionized the art of printing. The magazine and book illustrations, the depicting of current events in the newspapers, the beautiful half-tones, photogravures and three color reproductions that have brought the world's master pieces of Art into our homes, are all the result of photographic process as applied to printing. Its products are the only universal language, understood by all the people of the earth. It has preserved, in facsimile, the world's most valuable manuscripts. In Medicine and Surgery, a 8 Library of Practical Photography. greater knowledge of the human body and its component parts has been made possible by X-ray Photography and Photo-Micrography. With the modern dry plates, sensitive to all or any desired colors, photography has become an invaluable ally to the microscope. In Chemistry, Sir Wil- liam Crookes, by the aid of photospectroscopy and the ortho- chromatic plate, has added a new metal, monium, to the list of elements. In Botany, the kinetoscope has recorded the varying phases of growing plants. The science of Geol- ogy has been enriched by photography in many ways, while Meteorology has been advanced by the study of lightning discharges, and the clouds, in photographs. In Astronomy, photographic plates of eclipses of the sun and moon have given us information heretofore unattainable by telescope alone. Nebulae, asteroids, comets and meteors have been studied; their form, detail and conditions have been re- vealed ; and the astronomer, who could not catch the satel- lite of Neptune with his telescope, has seen it, with the rings of Saturn, fixed upon his plate. With the spectroscope, photography has helped in the discovery of variable stars, and binaries of the shortest periods have been detected and classified by it. In Schools and Colleges it is a valuable educational appliance. In the Industries, the application of photography is almost unlimited. Its application to the manufacture of tapestries, by furnishing cards for the Jacquard loom, thus putting them within reach of the ordin- ary man, is well known. As evidence in detecting forgeries, duplicated documents, identifying criminals, and in various other ways, the Courts of all countries accept the photo- graph. In the late Russo-Japanese war, the camera fur- nished valuable records. In fact, the application of pho- tography extends to almost every branch of human endeavor. Preface. 9 Its greatest improvements are yet to come. No man or woman, competing seriously for the prizes of life, can afford to be without some knowledge, at least, of the Art-science. Competition, never so sharp as now, demands that all avail themselves of the advantages gained by a scientific and technical training, such as the making of photographs will give. Apart from its value as an aid to success, socially and financially, there is no more delightful and refined pursuit than the making of pictures by photography. The aesthetic element in it lightens the burdens of life and sweetens existence here below for those who appreciate it rightly; and it is for this purpose, and to help others study and master this science, that the "Complete Self-Instructing Library of Practical Photography" is published. ORIGIN OF THE LIBRARY THE publication of these volumes is our response to a universal request probably never exceeded in the annals of technical education. Down through the past successful years of the Ameri- can School of Art and Photography, the daily intercourse with its thousands of students in all parts of the world has been incessantly punctuated with earnest requests for a standard library of photography. It was generally recognized that from no other source could there emanate such a comprehensive contribution to photographic advancement. This library is the result of the concentrated exper- ience of every department of the American School of Art and Photography in the instruction of its vast number of students residing in every section of the civilized earth an experience which enables the treatment of every feature of camera craft with a knowledge of world-wide conditions. Of course, in the preparation of such a voluminous work of education and reference, constant recourse has been had to the knowledge of the highly trained specialists who assist in the operation of the far-reaching educational sys- tem of the American School of Art and Photography. The illustrations supplied for this library have been furnished by the leading professional and amateur pho- tographers of the country. They present an admirable object lesson and a good history of the art of photography as it is practiced today in the United States. Interesting data regarding the method of their pro- duction and how to understand and enjoy them will be found at the end of each volume. INTRODUCTION THE "Complete Self-Instructing Library of Practical Photography" is a series of ten volumes devoted to the study of photography in all its branches. As the title indicates, it is a complete up-to-date working library on the practice of photography both as a science and an art. These volumes are the outcome of years of experience in teaching thousands of ambitious workers in photography by the American School of Art and Photography, of Scran- ton, Pa. Volume 1, "A Complete Handbook on Elementary Pho- tography," was written specially for the beginner, who is presumably ignorant of photography and the laws by which it is governed. He is taken, by easy stages, through all its branches from the first principles of the art to its higher laws and methods. The volume contains all that the begin- ner would most naturally need to know at the start of his experience as an amateur photographer. In a series of prac- tical lessons, it treats of the various types of cameras, the action of light, negatives from plates and films, exposure, development, printing, toning, trimming and mounting pho- tographs. The treatment is not by any means exhaustive, but is planned only to enable the beginner to get a good general idea of the subject. Those who want a greater knowledge and a more scientific grasp of the subject, will find the theoretical side exhaustively treated in the subse- 1 4 Library of Practical Photography. quent volumes of the library. Above all else the instruction imparted is absolutely practical. A special feature of this volume, and one worthy of close attention, is the data covering difficulties and failures in pho- tography of the thousands of students and correspondents of the school. These difficulties have been condensed and re- vised by the instruction department under the direction of President Schriever. Not without cause, then, it is claimed and expected, that the reader, after completing the lessons of this volume, will have a good fundamental training in photography and will be able to make and finish salable pictures. To the practical worker in photography the immense value of these difficulties, in convenient ready reference form, will be at once apparent. They cover the troubles of thousands of workers, instead of the experience of only a few photographers, as is usually the case in most handbooks. TABLE OF CONTENTS. VOLUME I PAGE PREFACE ORIGIN OF LIBRARY INTRODUCTION CHAPTER I THE MEANING OF PHOTOGRAPHY ITS HISTORY 27 CHAPTER II THE CAMERA How TO OPERATE IT 41 CHAPTER III How TO PROCEED 81 CHAPTER IV BEGINNERS' DIFFICULTIES 97 CHAPTER V KODAKS AND FILMS 109 CHAPTER VI KODAKS AND FILMS DIFFICULTIES 139 CHAPTER VII TANK DEVELOPMENT FOR FILMS. No DARK-ROOM NEC- ESSARY 145 CHAPTER VIII PREPARING CHEMICALS : DEVELOPING WITH PYRO 155 CHAPTER IX GENERAL HINTS ON DEVELOPMENT 165 CHAPTER X INTENSIFYING AND REDUCING 175 XT rvi CONTENTS. CAPTER XI APPEARANCE OF NEGATIVES WITH DIFFERENT EXPOSURES. . 181 CHAPTER XII ELEMENTARY TANK DEVELOPMENT 187 CHAPTER XIII PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING 201 CHAPTER XIV BLUE PRINT (FERRO-PRUSSIATE) SENSITIZING PAPER, CLOTH, SILK, ETC 209 CHAPTER XV GELATIN PRINTING-OUT PAPER 215 CHAPTER XVI PRINTING AND TONING DIFFICULTIES 229 CHAPTER XVII DEVELOPING OR "GASLIGHT" PAPERS REGULAR GRADES. . .233 CHAPTER XVIII DEVELOPING PAPERS DIFFICULTIES 253 CHAPTER XIX WATER TONE PLATINUM PAPER 255 CHAPTER XX ARISTO GOLD PAPER 259 CHAPTER XXI ARISTO CARBON SEPIA 263 CHAPTER XXII ARISTO SELF-TONING PAPER 265 CHAPTER XXIII KALLITYPE PROCESS 271 CHAPTER XXIV ELEMENTARY BROMIDE ENLARGING 279 CHAPTER XXV TRIMMING AND MOUNTING 293 CHAPTER XXVI SUPPLEMENTARY LENSES FOR HAND CAMERAS 301 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXVII SYNOPSIS OF HAND CAMERA WORK 309 CHAFER XXVIII PRACTICAL USE OF THE CAMERA 321 Architectural and Landscape Photography for Beginners. CHAPTER XXIX ELEMENTARY SNOW PHOTOGRAPHY 337 CHAPTER XXX ELEMENTARY FLASHLIGHT PHOTOGRAPHY 345 CHAPTER XXXI THE EVOLUTION OF THE DARK-ROOM FROM A BATH- ROOM, by Richard Hines, Jr 355 CHAPTER XXXII MY DARK-ROOM, by Ulysses G. Orr , 363 CHAPTER XXXIII How THE STUDIES ILLUSTRATING THIS VOLUME WERE MADE 369 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. VOLUME I. ILLUS. PAR. NUMBER TITLK PACK KBF. A MODERN CAMERA BELLOWS EXTENSION 45 A MODERN CAMERA BED DROPPED AND WIDE- ANGLE ATTACHMENT IN USE 45 PANORAMIC CAMERA 45 1 Box CAMERA 46 42 2 FOLDING CAMERA 46 44 3 POCKET FILM KODAK 46 45 4 FILM PLATE CAMERA 46 46 5 ROTARY SHUTTER 53 53 6 SINGLE VALVE SHUTTER 53 54 7 DOUBLE VALVE SHUTTER 53 55 8 AUTOMATIC SHUTTER 53 56 9 RESULT OF TIPPING CAMERA WITHOUT PROPER ADJUSTMENT OF SWING-BACK 71 85 10 ADJUSTABLE TRIPOD 71 90 11 INSERTING SLIDE THE RIGHT WAY 71 93 12 INSERTING SLIDE THE WRONG WAY 71 93 13 DARK-ROOM LAMP 72 99 14 ROLL OF FILM 72 15 A TEMPORARY DARK-ROOM 72 98 16 AN INEXPENSIVE DARK-ROOM SINK 75 98 17 LOADING THE PLATE HOLDER 75 103 18 LIGHT BUILDING PROPERLY PHOTOGRAPHED 83 109 19 DARK BUILDING IMPROPERLY PHOTOGRAPHED ... 83 109 xix xx ILLUSTRATIONS. ILLUS. PA *' NUMBER TITLB tAGE RBF. 20 EFFECT OF PROPER ANGLE OF LIGHT 84 1 1 1 21 ILLUSTRATING THE EFFECT OF BLISTERING 84 129 23 SHOWING THE RESULT OF UNEVEN DEVELOPMENT 93 131 22 SHOWING THE RESULT OF UNEVEN DEVELOPMENT 93 131 24 DEVELOPING ROLL FILM IN TRAY 121 199 25 INGENTO FILM TROUGH 122 200 26 FILM PACK ADAPTER 131 215 26a .EXAMPLE OF FOGGING FAILURE TO WIND FILM TIGHTLY 131 229 27 EASTMAN FILM TANK 147 2 4 8 28 WINDING Box 147 254 29 PREMO FILM TANK 147 259 30 HYDROMETER 156 268 31 ADVANTAGE OF REDUCING THICK NEGATIVES HALF A PLATE REDUCED 179 304 32 RESULT OF INTENSIFYING THIN, FLAT NEGATIVES 179 306 33 PRINT FROM A CORRECTLY EXPOSED AND DEVEL- OPED NEGATIVE , 180 315 34 NEGATIVE FROM WHICH ILLUSTRATION No. 33 WAS PRINTED 180 315 35 PRINT FROM OVER-EXPOSED, THOUGH CORRECTLY DEVELOPED NEGATIVE 183 319 36 A CORRECTLY DEVELOPED, OVER-EXPOSED NEGA- TIVE 183 320 37 PRINT FROM UNDER-EXPOSED AND CORRECTLY DE- VELOPED NEGATIVE 184 323 38 AN UNDER-EXPOSED, CORRECTLY DEVELOPED NEG- ATIVE 184 324 39 EASTMAN PLATE TANK LOADING BLOCK 189 331 40 EASTMAN PLATE TANK LOADING 189 331 41 EASTMAN PLATE TANK LOWERING RACK INTO SOLUTION CUP 190 331 42 EASTMAN PLATE TANK FASTENING COVER 190 332 ILLUSTRATIONS. i ILLUS. PAR. NUMBER TITLK PAGB REF. 43 EASTMAN PLATE TANK REMOVING PLATES FROM RACK 192 335 44 EASTMAN PLATE TANK SEPARATING PLATES AFTER REMOVAL FROM RACK 192 335 45 INGENTO AUTOMATIC DEVELOPING TANK, STYLE A 193 336 46 INGENTO AUTOMATIC DEVELOPING TANK, STYLE B 193 336 47 INGENTO CHANGING BAG 193 339 48 PRINTING FRAME 203 352 49 DUSTING PLATE IN PRINTING FRAME. . . . , 203 353 50 LOADING PRINTING FRAME 203 354 51 PRINTING FRAME IN POSITION 204 354 52 SENSITIZING THE PAPER LOWERING ONTO THE BATH 211 370 53 SENSITIZING THE PAPER REMOVING AIR-BELLS. 211 370 54 SLIDING PRINTS FROM Box COVER INTO TONING BATH 204 391 55 PRINTING AT END OF TABLE 243 449 56 DEVELOPING AT TABLE 243 449 57 APPLYING PASTE To BACK OF PRINT. . . , 244 468 58 METHOD OF PICKING UP PRINTS AFTER APPLY- ING PASTE 244 468 59 BRINGING PASTE SIDE OF PRINT INTO CONTACT WITH MOUNT 244 468 60 BROWNIE ENLARGING CAMERA 281 561 61 BROWNIE ENLARGING CAMERA SECTIONAL VIEW 281 561 62 INGENTO DAYLIGHT ENLARGER No. i 281 562 63 INGENTO FOLDING DAYLIGHT ENLARGER No. 2. . .281 563 64 No. i KODAK ENLARGING CAMERA 281 564 65 ILLUMINATING THE NEGATIVE 285 568 66 PRINTS OF ONE SIZE ON MOUNTS OF VARYING SIZES 295 599 67 IDEAL PHOTO OPTICAL OUTFIT 303 606 ILLUSTRATIONS. ILLUS. PAR. NUMBER TITLE FAGS REF. 68 KODAK PORTRAIT LENS 303 618 69 CHURCH 323 649 70 Low HORIZON LINE EMPHASIZING SIZE OF BUILD- ING (SCHOOL HOUSE) 323 649 71 STREET SCENE 324 651 72 AN ORDINARY LANDSCAPE 324 654 73 LANDSCAPE SETTING FOR PORTRAIT STUDY 327 655 74 A PHOTOGRAPH WHICH LACKS THE EXPRESSION OF AN IDEA 327 656 75 A MARINE SNAP-SHOT 328 657 76 IMPORTANCE OF POSITION IN SNAP SHOTS 331 658 77 EXAMPLE OF FAULTY COMPOSITION 331 659 78 A PLEASING LANDSCAPE STUDY 332 662 79 FLOOR PLAN DARK-ROOM 364 STUDIES AND HOW THEY WEBE PRODUCED. VOLUME I. STUDY NUMBER TITLK VALAMBROSA 1 STREET PERFORMANCE 2 EVENTIDE 3 AT THE SEA SHORE 4 HOME SWEET HOME 5 THE AFTER GLOW 6 WINTER AFTERNOON 7 THE EFFORT 8 IN THE GLOAMING 9 WADING THE STREAM 10 A WINTER STREAM 11 JANUARY FROST 12 SNOW SCENE HOW STUDY MADB AUTHOR PACK PACK WM. H PHILLIPS Frontispiece GRACE E. MOUNTS 25 369 G. A. BRANDT 57 J. S. NEARY in 369 GRACE E. MOUNTS 125 370 H. H. BOYCE 135 370 K. T. KRANTZ 171 C. F. CLARK 219 370 GEO. H. SCHBER, M.D. 235 370 JOHN CHISLETT 249 371 R. E. WEEKS 297 371 SWEET BROS. 339 372 S. I. CARPENTER 357 xxHI tt *< o 59 O H H CHAPTER I. The Meaning of Photography Its History. 1. Photography is the art of producing images of objects by the agency of light. Such images may be made on many different materials by direct contact of the object to be imaged with a sensitive surface ; or the image may be projected on the sensitive surface, by the aid of a lens. The underlying principle is the same in both cases, though the manipulations are different. The first mentioned method is that characteristically used in photographic printing processes; the second in the making of photo- graphic negatives. 2. The effect of light on certain substances is to induce chemical changes in them which alter their properties. Many hundred such substances have been noted, and others are being added to the list continually. Those which are useful in photography may be roughly grouped under the general heads of first, gums and resins; second, the salts of various metals, chiefly those of the silver-platinum group. 3. A familiar example of the chemical action of light is the fading of colored paper in parts exposed to sunlight, while protected parts are unchanged from the original hue. Instead of fading, or becoming lighter, the reverse effect may take place, the exposed parts becoming darker. These results are due to some chemical employed in making or in 27 28 Library of Practical Photography. tinting the paper. The "Indelible Ink" used in marking white cloth is colorless when fresh, and turns black by exposure to light. This is chiefly due to the fact that the "ink" really consists of a solution of silver nitrate, a salt very readily darkened by light. 4. If a freshly made solution of gum arabic in water is made and enough to form a thin film is poured into a flat-bottomed saucer, it may be allowed to dry in the dark. Place a coin in the center of the dried film, and set the dish where it will receive the overhead rays of the sun for an hour at mid-day. If then the coin be removed, and the film be held under a gentle flow of luke-warm water, the circular patch of gum that was underneath the coin, and thus protected from the light, will readily dissolve and be washed away. The remainder which received the full rays of the sun no longer dissolves readily, but requires warmer water or a longer washing to remove it. In this case the action of light has altered the property of solubility, al- though this alteration was not outwardly apparent, but "developed" only when the luke-warm water was applied. 5. If lampblack had been mixed with the gum arabic solution, and the washing arrested when the soluble part was gone, the image would be white (the color of the saucer), with a black border formed by the remaining gum with the lampblack mixed. If chalk had been used instead of lampblack and a black saucer instead of a white one, under the same conditions a black image surrounded by white would result. These experimental results are of importance as giving the key to many modern methods of photographic printing and other processes. 6. If a piece of sensitized Ferro-Prussiate paper The Meaning of Photography 7/s History. 29 ("blue-print" paper) is exposed to daylight for a short time, and then developed by immersion in water, the sensitized side will turn blue all over. If another piece is similarly exposed under a drawing made with black ink on tracing- cloth (which is almost transparent), the inked side next the sensitized paper surface, and immersed in water, only those parts of the surface that were not under the black lines turn blue; the parts that were protected by the black ink are unchanged and wash away, leaving the image of the lines showing white on a blue ground. In this experiment the tracing cloth, with inked lines, was used as a "negative" for producing the print or "positive." 7. "Negatives" made by photography involve exactly similar principles. As a matter of convenience, photo- graphic negatives are usually made from an image of the object which is greatly reduced in size, by the intervention of a lens in a miniature "camera obscura." Some light- sensitive material is spread upon a support, preferably transparent, for greater facility in subsequent "printing" operations, and the light is allowed to act under suitable conditions. The results of this action are "developed" to a certain point, the development arrested and the unacted on material removed or rendered inactive ; this latter oper- ation constituting the "fixing" of the negative. From the negative thus produced, positive images or prints may then be reproduced in any required quantity, by the same or other processes. 8. Negative making or printing involves the princi- ples of photography; whatever special applications may be made of these principles. 30 Library of Practical Photography. HISTORICAL. 9. The story of photography is that of a dream come true a fancy transmitted into fact. Whoever was the first to wonder why the image of the summer clouds in a woodland pool, or his own face reflected in his shield of burnished copper, might not be fixed there such a one was, in spirit, the first photographer. Around some such fancy, legends grew; of magic mirrors that would show scenes at a distance; of charmed basins that held, in the water that filled them, grewsome pictures. 10. Then came the practical people still under the inspiration of the dream, working it out toward realization, in separate ways, until another, assembling the scattered materials combined them into a step, leading up to the door which at last was reached and opened on the wide and ever widening field. 11. Combining as it does the practical application of optics the science of the nature, properties and transmis- sion of light and chemistry, which treats of the changes in material bodies arising from alterations in their composi- tion, it must be the case that the early events in the chain leading up to final achievement have occurred at irregular intervals, and often without their influence or possible bearing being realized or even suspected. Many books like this would fail to cover all the details of the com- plete story ; only the briefest summary of the salient points of interest connected with the origins of photographic nega- tive and positive processes will be admissible here. 12. The first definite stage that we note in the un- folding and completion of present-day photography was The Meaning of Photography 7/s History. 3 1 the invention attributed to the Neapolitan philosopher, Giambattista della Porta, of the "Camera Obscura," This he described in his book on "Natural Magic," published in 1569. He admitted a ray of light through a small aperture in the side of an otherwise darkened room, and found that the image of objects on the outside was thrown on the side of the room opposite the aperture, but reversed top for bottom and left for right. He also found that a double- convex lens, placed in the aperture, would make the shapes and colors more distinct. This apparatus is the basis of all modern photographic cameras. Instead of the photographer being within the camera, as Porta was, he views the image through a sheet of ground-glass forming one side of it unless he chooses to dispense with the actual inspection of the image, as he is compelled to by the construction of the majority of hand cameras. With these, a miniature camera, a focusing scale or similar device is employed to secure the focusing and arrangement of the view. 13. Fabricius, in 1556, found that silver chloride, which occurs as an ore, called "Horn Silver," in certain silver mines, turned dark by exposure to light. He prepared the silver chloride artificially, and noted that this compound, white when freshly prepared, likewise turned black by ex- posure. But he was interested in other matters and made no use of this discovery. 14. Not until 1727 was any application made of this property of darkening in the light which belongs to silver salts in general. In that year Schulze, a German chemist, mixed powdered chalk with silver-nitrate, filled a clear glass bottle with the mixture, and placed on the outside of the bottle a paper label, lettered in black ink. When, after 32 Library of Practical Photography. exposure to light, the label was removed, it was found that the parts underneath the ink had been unacted on by light, remaining white, while the translucent paper had allowed the light to pass, and blacken the other parts. Thus the letters appeared in white, on a dark ground ; until they too, after the removal of the label, turned dark, like the back- ground. This experiment is the basis of most printing pro- cesses involving the use of a negative. 15. Thomas Wedgewood and Humphry Davy, in Eng- land, worked along the same lines three-quarters of a cen- tury later, the results of their experiments having been pub- lished in 1802. They coated white paper or white leather with silver nitrate, and printed thereon, using various opaque objects, also paintings on glass, as negatives. They also experimented with the camera obscura and with the solar microscope an adaptation of Porta's idea. They were foiled, however, by the low sensitiveness of the silver salt and the impossibility of "preventing the unshaded parts of the delineations from being colored by exposure to the day." In other words they were unable to make their prints per- manent to "fix" them. 16. In experimenting with the then new art of Litho- graphy, Joseph Nicephore Niepce about 1813, tried the sub- stitution of metal plates for lithographic stone and the use of a kind of asphalt as a coating. With the idea of saving labor in drawing, he put the asphaltum-coated plate in the camera-obscura and made a long exposure to a sunlit object. The high-lights acted on the asphaltum, making it insoluble; the shadows had no effect, and permitted the coating to be removed by a solvent. The metal plate, treated with acid, was etched away around the parts that had been protected I he Meaning of Photography 7/s History. 33 by the insoluble portions of the coating, and a relief-plate was produced, which could be printed from. Niepce's pro- cess, besides giving the suggestion of development of a "latent image," is exactly the same in principle as that now employed in making "half-tone" engraving plates, such as are used in printing the studies and similar illustrations of this book. 17. A prominent scene-painter in Paris, L. J. M. Da- guerre, heard of Niepce's experiments, made his acquaint- ance, and in 1829 formed a partnership with him for working out the idea into practical form. No particular progress had beeen made when Niepce died, in 1833, and Daguerre continued experimenting along his own lines, finally achiev- ing success in 1838. He announced the full details of this, the first successful photographic process, publicly, on Aug- ust 19, 1839, and was pensioned by the French government for so doing. Daguerre used a polished plate of silver cop- per, on which a film or iodide of silver was allowed to form, by exposing the silver surface to the vapor of iodine. This coated plate was then exposed in the camera, and developed by the action of metallic mercury vapor. Fixing was ac- complished in a solution of common salt. 18. The pictures produced by this process, called, in honor of the inventor, "Daguerreotype," have never been surpassed in delicacy and beauty. They are not really posi- tives, but negatives of exceeding thinness, "backed" by the mirror-like surface of the silver. This is the reason why the earliest daguerreotype pictures are reversed. Thus, in a portrait, if the right hand rested on a table, the daguerreo- type would show it as the left. This drawback was over- come by interposing a mirror or a reflecting prism. But the 34 Library of Practical Photography. greatest inconvenience, and one impossible to overcome, was this, that only one plate could be made for each operation ; every duplicate required a separate operation. 19. While Daguerre was experimenting in France, an- other investigator was at work in England, along quite different lines those of Schulze and Wedgewood and Davy. William Henry Fox-Talbot announced his process in Janu- ary, 1839, subsequent to the announcements of Daguerre's discovery, though previous to his public divulging of its details. 20. Talbot in his original process used paper coated with silver nitrate and chloride in combination, making prints of opaque objects, as Wedgewood and Davy had done, but fixing them with a solution of common salt. He also discovered that this paper, exposed in the camera for a much shorter time than was needed to produce a visible image, received an impression, a latent image, which could be developed by a solution of nut-galls ; and that this image, which was reversed, not only in regard to position, but also to lights and darks, could be used as a negative, from which to produce, by contact, positives, to any required extent. To this process he gave the name "Calotype," and is entitled to the credit of originating, in principle, the method now universal. 21. To John Herschell is due the use of the compound usually termed "Hypo" really Sodium Thiosulphate as a fixing agent. This was adopted in practice and its introduc- tion marks an important epoch. Although glass plates had been used incidentally by Wedgewood and others in pho- tographic experiments, the suggestion of their use, instead of paper, in producing negatives, seems to have been Her- The Meaning of Photography 7/s History. 35 schell's also. The very important "Blueprint" or Ferro- prussiate process, so extensively utilized in modern indus- trial and engineering work is another of his contributions to photographic progress. 22. The discovery of gun-cotton, in 1846, by Schonbein, was destined to have an important effect on photographic methods, a few years later. Ordinary cotton fibre, treated with "Aqua Regia," a combination of nitric and hydrochloric acids, is so altered in composition as to become soluble. It is interesting to note, in passing, that gun-cotton enters also into the composition of celluloid, the basis of "films." 23. Niepce de St. Victor, a nephew of the original Niepce, using glass plates for the negative support, made them practicable by employing starch and albumen as a medium which adhered closely to the glass surface, while carrying an iodide in combination. This coating was sen- sitized by application of silver nitrate; development with gallic acid and fixing with potassium bromide completed the process. 24. Blanquart-Everard, in 1848, applied the albumen coating to paper for printing. The albumen acts as a "size" and results in keeping the chemicals and consequently the image, on the surface of the paper, instead of sinking into its substance. The usefulness of "Albumenized paper" for print making secured the wide adoption of this process, the earliest of the "glossy" as distinguished from the "matt" class of printing papers. In 1850 Gustav Le Gray, although not the originator of collodion, used it to replace albumen as a coating and medium. Collodion, the solution of gun- cotton in mixed ethyl-ether and alcohol, leaves a fine trans- 36 Library of Practical Photography. parent coating of film on a glass plate on which it has been poured, the ether-alcohol solvent quickly evaporating. 25. These experimental suggestions and partial suc- cesses were combined, in 1851, by Frederick Scott Archer, into practical working shape, as the "Wet Collodion" pro- cess. So effective and satisfactory was it that it was every- where adopted, supplanting Calotype, Daguerreotype and all other "types" for practical purposes and keeping the field almost entirely to itself until about 1880. Its drawback was the condition that the plates must be sensitized by im- mersion in a nitrate of silver bath and used almost immedi- ately. Whenever exposures were to be made at any distance from studio or work-room, this imposed the necessity of transporting a cumbrous outfit for sensitizing and develop- ment in a portable dark-room of some sort. The results, under proper conditions, have, however, never been sur- passed by any other process in the prompt and sure produc- tion of negatives having perfect transparency in the darks and opacity in the high-lights, together with satisfactory gradation in the intervening "half-tones." The "contrasty" properties of such negatives render them still the mainstay of the photo-engraver today. 26. In 1855 Taupenot suggested the "dry-plate bath" process. He employed "preservatives" gallic acid, honey and albumen to prevent the crystallization of the silver nitrate which occurs when a sensitized wet-collodion plate is allowed to dry. This crystallization renders the action of exposure and development uneven, spoiling the result. Other experimenters, at about the same time, employed tannin, sugar, beer, gum, resin, tea, coffee and tobacco and many other substances, as preservatives; but none of the The Meaning of Photography 7/5 History. 37 methods became widely popular, although special workers produced notably successful results in numerous instances. 27. In 1864, Sayce and Bolton published the details of a collodion-emulsion. The principle of this process was the use of the sensitizing agent, the nitrate or other salt of silver, in practically the precise quantity required for the chemical combination that occurred, through the action of light, on exposure. Up to this time it had been the practice to have the silver nitrate in excess. The collodion emulsion could be prepared in bulk and used at convenience for coating glass plates, which were dried and could then be used as required. Many workers contributed to the per- fecting of the details of this process, but all their results were superseded by the next advance, the Gelatin-Bromide process. 28. In 1871, Dr. Maddox suggested and worked out the idea of substituting a solution of gelatin in water for the solution of collodion in spirits, combining it with bro- mide of silver. This suggestion was eagerly taken up by the experimenters and within the next decade the commer- cial production of gelatin dry-plates on a large scale had become a reality, and the actual popularization of pho- tography, rendering it available to all, had begun. 29. From 1880 to the present time, modifications and improvements, optical, mechanical and chemical, have fol- lowed in such bewildering profusion that it is impossible to summarize them, even briefly. They have resulted, on the negative-making side, in wonderfully increased sensi- tiveness, reducing the necessary time for exposures so that thousandths of a second have become among the common- place. Where time is not the chief object, then other results, 38 Library of Practical Photography. such as color sensitiveness, are attained. Most recent are the wondrous results obtained by the Lumiere color pro- cess, attained along new lines of application, and promising far greater advances for the future. 30. Mechanically, the invention of an American, Dr. Goodwin, which substituted for fragile, heavy, rigid glass a support of celluloid, a substance at once flexible, light and tough and practically of equal transparency, has really rev- olutionized photography on its practical side and rendered it popular to an extent difficult to realize. 31. The practical introduction of this improvement and the countless accessory apparatus, cameras and the like, is to be credited to another American, George Eastman, who has made "Kodak" a household word throughout the world. Indeed, to many thousands of people it involves and comprehends the entire meaning of "Photography." The nature of the material permits of its manufacture in rolls of any desired length, available for one, a half-dozen, or a thousand exposures. By the ingenious application of well known principles, these rolls in the shape of "cart- ridges" may be put into and removed from suitable cameras in full daylight, without injury to the result. 32. A still more striking instance of the adaptability of such rolls is their use, in quantities measurable only by thousands of miles, for making the negatives and positives employed in one of the latest applications of photography, the Cinematographs or "moving pictures." This use bids fair to overshadow, by comparison, the quantities, already so large, of material required in other photographic fields. And now that cinematographic pictures, closely approxi- mating "natural colors," have been announced as an accom- The Meaning of Photography Its History. 39 plished fact, the mind can scarcely comprehend what fur- ther increase this will involve. 33. It cannot be amiss to call the attention of those who may read the foregoing brief survey of the origins and progress of photography to the importance of an acquaint- ance with its historical side. Not a week passes that does not see some new use or application made of methods that are, by comparison, old; and to those who are am- bitious of advancing, as students and practitioners, nothing can be more useful than an acquaintance with what has been done by their predecessors in the field, to whose devoted labors the present day owes its debt for the knowledge it has received from them. CHAPTER II. The Camera How to Operate It. 34. While the above title might indicate that this vol- ume is intended only for the beginner, yet we would advise those who have had some experience, but have possibly begun wrong, to carefully read these instructions. The house that is built on a poor foundation will never with- stand the force of the elements, and so it is in photography. Start right. Be sure of your foundation. Then the diffi- culties which you will assuredly meet as you advance in this most interesting and profitable profession will be readily overcome. 35. In this instruction we will avoid, as much as pos- sible, technicalities and theories. Be honest with yourself in this study of photography, and your own energies, taste and ambition will lead you to success. 36. The camera has now become almost a household necessity. Nearly every home has one or more, yet only about one-third are actually in use. Hardly one-half of the users do their own finishing but depend upon the profes- sional or wide-awake amateur to do finishing for them. The reason for this is plain. When the camera was first purchased they were led to believe that all that was neces- sary was to point the instrument at the object they wished to photograph, press the bulb or push button and "presto 42 Library of Practical Photography. change" the picture was finished. In nearly every instance, they have met with failures. Most of those meeting with success do not readily understand how they attained their success, and when they meet with failure blame the photo- grapher who developed their plates or films, or come to the conclusion that their camera is a poor one. If they have not lost their enthusiasm and are well supplied with worldly goods, they buy a more expensive instrument; perhaps keep on producing indifferent results until they finally become disgusted, place the camera on the shelf, and lose thereby a most interesting source of education, pleasure and profit. 37. This is the reason why, in so many homes there is more than one camera. It also partly accounts for the fact that the out-put of the different manufacturers is growing larger every year and the number of new cameras is steadily increasing. 38. While it is advisable for beginners to have as good an outfit as possible, it is better, however, for them to have a cheap one and to know how to use it intelligently. Many a cheap instrument is condemned because the user is ignorant of its limitations and tries to put it to uses for which it was never intended. The gun that is guaranteed to shoot true at one hundred yards is not expected to do so at three hundred. The same applies to a camera. 39. In this instruction you will be taught what to ex- pect from your camera. You will become thoroughly familiar with its every feature and attachment, to learn how to produce the best possible results. The rudiments of proper lighting, exposure and developing of plates or films, with prepared powders principally, will be thoroughly treated. The Camera How to Operate It 43 40. The knowledge and experience thus gained will be the foundation of your future photographic studies. You will meet with failures and successes. They should teach you to study the reasons for both. Learn to think photo- graphically for yourself. Do not go ahead blindly, but when in doubt, stop and think. Reason out for yourself the why and wherefore of things and you are bound to suc- ceed, overcoming, with ease, difficulties that otherwise seem to be unsurmountable. The frequent difficulties that you will experience in your first efforts will be fully explained at the end of each chapter, under the heading, "Difficulties," and remedies for the same will be suggested. Above everything else study all instruction carefully, and intelligently follow it. As each failure occurs, turn to the "Difficulty" chapter, where you will find your trouble clear- ly explained and the proper remedy given. 41. While cameras sent out by most manufacturers are furnished with a descriptive booklet, giving general instructions, there may be some points not perfectly clear to the beginner. Since the different types of cameras are so numerous that it is almost impossible to cover them all in detail, we will only describe here the more important parts of the modern instrument. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF CAMERAS. 42. Box Cameras. The Box Camera is the cheapest and simplest of all types of cameras. Some are made for use with films, others for plates, but they are seldom ob- tainable in sizes larger than 4x5. Box cameras are fitted with single lenses, and the shutters supplied usually allow 44 The Library of Practical Photography. of both instantaneous and time exposures, although there are more elaborate types of box cameras provided with more perfect shutters, giving greater range of exposure. All box cameras are arranged to take pictures both vertically and horizontally, being fitted with finders on both the vertical and horizontal sides. The majority of such cameras have an arrangement for changing the size of diaphragm or lens opening. To effect the movement of the shutter most of these cameras are provided with a lever or button, which, for a time exposure, in the first case must be pushed over in one direction to open the shutter, and back to the original position to close the shutter ; or, in the latter case, where a button is provided, it requires one pressure to open the shutter and another pressure to close the shutter. When set for instantaneous exposure one movement of the lever, or one pressure of the button, will cause the shutter to open and close. Any length of time can, of course, be given for a time exposure, while the instantaneous exposure will gen- erally average about 1-33 of a second. Box cameras are not provided with rising front or swing-back attachments. (See Illustration No. 1 of Box Cameras.) 43. Magazine Cameras. The Magazine Camera is a form of box camera, but is loaded with a given number of plates that can be dropped into position, one at a time, ready for exposure, by the mere pressing of a button or the pushing over of a lever. 44. Folding Cameras. A folding camera is, in effect, a box camera, but with this difference, that the lens support is attached to a collapsible bellows. This bellows, folding into small compass, enables the camera to be made more compact. The front of the camera, on being released by a A Modern Camera Bellows Extended A Modern Camera. Bed dropped and wide angle attachment in use Panoramic Camera Illustration No. i Box Camera See Paragraph No. 42 Illustration No. 3 Pocket Film Camera feee Paragraph No. 45 Illustration No. 2 Folding Camera See Paragraph No. 44 Illustration No. 4 Inserting Film Pack See Paragraph No. 46 The Camera How to Operate It 47 button, drops on its hinges and is held rigidly in position at right-angles to the body of the camera, disclosing a track attached thereto, on which the lens support can be moved in or out, extending or collapsing the bellows accord- ing to requirements. The better types of folding cameras are fitted with a rack and pinion on the front of the camera, which enables a very careful adjustment of the lens support. A finder is usually placed on the front board, or attached to the lens support. The lens board in the support is also frequently made to raise or lower, for reasons which are shown in future paragraphs. There are, of course, many othef attachments and adjustments on folding cameras, the more expensive types affording greater possibility of move- ment. (See Illustration No. 2.) 45. Film Cameras. Film cameras are practically the same as plate cameras, but are arranged with a particular reference to the use of daylight loading roll films instead of glass plates. They are made in both box and folding types, with all the various adjustments and movements already given in previous paragraphs. As each manufac- turer provides a descriptive booklet with each camera he puts out, it will be unnecessary to describe more closely the various workings of the different cameras. The film camera is more generally known as a kodak, in distinction to the plate camera. The operation of the kodak, aside from the manipulation of the film, is practically the same as the plate camera, and the rules regarding focusing and the securing of the proper register of the image are exactly alike. Illus- tration No. 3 shows a pocket film kodak. 46. Film-Plate Cameras. The Film-Plate combination camera is one in which either plates or cut films may be 48 Library of Practical Photography. used. The cut film is put up in the shape of a pack and arranged so that the pack may be slipped into what is known as a film pack adapter, a substitute for a plate holder, being the same shape and size. A pack of films may be slipped into, or removed from, the adapter in daylight. Adapters are inserted in the camera in exactly the same manner as the plate holder. Film-plate cameras are provided with adjustments and attachments similar to plate or film cam- eras, and are operated in the manner previously described. (See Illustrate No. 4 of Film-Plate Camera.) 47. View Cameras. The view camera is an instru- ment not unsimilar to the Folding Camera previously de- scribed, but is not made in the enclosed box form of the latter, and its particular purpose is to be used on some form of a support or tripod, as against the folding camera, which is more essentially a "hand camera." In its attachments and method of setting up for use it is almost identical with the folding hand camera, although, generally speaking, the view camera may be considered to have a greater range of use. View cameras are made in all sizes from 4x5 up to 11x14, and larger, whilst folding hand cameras are rarely made in sizes over 6 l / 2 y& l /2. 48. Reflex Type of Cameras. Another form of camera more recently introduced, yet finding great favor with ama- teur photographers, is the Reflex type of camera. This is a box form of camera, which is provided with a mirror ar- rangement in its interior, enabling the worker to see his picture the full size of the plate, the right way up (all ground-glass images obtained in folding and other types of cameras show the image upside down), and visible to the moment of exposure. Such cameras are provided with a The Camera How to Operate It 49 special type of shutter, called the Focal Plane Shutter, which works at very high speeds. The Reflex camera, of which the Graflex and its various prototypes are its best examples, is especially adapted for the photographing of moving objects, children and scenes of everyday life. 49. , Lenses. The camera, whatever its type, is not complete without a lens. The similar types of cameras are provided with the simpler forms of lenses, the simplest of all being the single, or Meniscus lens, which is generally fitted to box cameras and the cheapest folding cameras of the fixed focus type. The single, achromatic, or view lens, as it is sometimes styled, is limited in its scope. For in- stance, it is not capable of accurately reproducing lines such as the corners of buildings. It is not a fast lens, and its angle of vision is a narrow one. 50. Of greater general use is the Rapid Rectilinear lens which being made up of two or more lenses attached to each end of the lens barrel belongs to the doublet type of lenses. Most hand and film cameras are supplied with such lenses, which are capable of accurately rendering straight lines and give a more or less even definition over the plate for which they are adapted. The single set of lenses of a doublet can be used by* itself as a view lens, and then gives an image of twice the dimensions of the doublet lens. 51. For a still further type of lens, which has all the advantages of the rectilinear just mentioned, and adds to these the further advantages of great speed, great brilliancy and fine definition, is the modern or anastigmat doublet. Such lenses are of various types, and when fitted to hand, view or reflex cameras enable the worker to do the very highest type of work. For certain forms of work, such as 50 Library of Practical Photography. the photographing of buildings and interior views, where the worker is not able to recede far enough from the object to be photographed, a fourth type of lens is necessary. Such a lens is called the wide-angle lens, which is so constructed as to enable the worker to get near to his object and still get it all 'within the dimensions of his plate. 52. Shutters. To enable a picture to be made, some sort of a contrivance is necessary, by which the light can be admitted through the lens for a stated period of time. Such contrivances are called, in general, shutters, and are of varying types being placed in front of the lens, or be- tween the lens, or behind the lens and in front of the plate, according to their type and the results they are called upon to produce. In box type cameras and the cheaper folding cameras which are fitted with single lenses only, a shutter that works in front of the lens is used, either the simple rotary shutter, such as we find on the box type of kodaks and cheap plate box cameras, or the single valve shutters, such as are usually fitted to cheaper folding cameras film or plate. Doublet lenses have the shutter fitted into the barrel mid- way between the two lens cells. These shutters, being either of the single valve, double valve, or automatic type, work either by pressure on a small external lever or by the pneumatic pressure of a rubber bulb or tube attached to an air valve on the shutter. The remaining type of shutter is that which is commonly fitted to reflex cameras, and con- sists of an opaque curtain which passes rapidly in front of, and very close to, the sensitive plate, admitting the light through an adjustable longitudinal slot in the curtain. In- finitesimal exposures can be obtained with this shutter, known as the focal plane shutter, the theory and operation of which are fully explained in Volume VI. The Camera How to Ue It. 5 1 53. Operating the Shutter. The Rotary Shutter shown in Illustration No. 5 is automatic in action and al- ways set. It is operated by pressure on a lever, which pro- trudes from the side of the box. To obtain an instantaneous exposure one pressure of the lever will open and close the shutter simultaneously. By pulling out a small bar or lever projecting from the side of the camera the shutter can be used for time exposure. To obtain a time exposure two pressures of the lever are required one to open the shut- ter, admitting the light through the lens, and another to close the shutter, cutting off the light. The diaphragm openings are conrolled by a lever in a similar manner to the time exposure. 54. The Single Valve Shutters (See Illustration No. 6) are provided with a dial and a pointer, the dial being marked T, B, I. When the pointer is turned to the letter T the shutter is then set for what is termed a bulb exposure; the lever or one squeeze of the pneumatic bulb will open the shutter, and a similar movement on the lever or bulb will close the shutter. If the pointer be turned to the letter B, the shutter is then set for what is termed a bulb exposure; that is, the shutter will remain open just so long as the lever is held down, or a pressure is exerted on the bulb. Releas- ing either will instantly close the shutter. The use of the bulb exposure is more particularly for photographing objects which are liable to move, and with which more than an instantaneous exposure is permissible. The I on the dial signifies instantaneous, and when the pointer is adjusted to this letter the shutter will work instantaneously when the lever or bulb operates it. The duration of the instantaneous exposure with these shutters is about equivalent to 1-33 of a second. 52 Library of Practical Photography. 55. The Double Valve Shutters are similar in their work to the single valve shutter, but are more accurately adjusted and supplied with a greater range of movement. Usually the dial is provided with T and B markings, and from i second to i-ioo of a second. To obtain the various exposures the pointer is set to the letter or fraction of a second required. In Illustration No. 7 is shown a standard type of double valve shutter. This shutter is fitted with two levers, lever C on the right used for setting the shutter, while the lever D on the left is used to release it to make the exposure. The shutter is fitted for a bulb and tube with which the expos- ure can be made instead of with the finger release. The tubing should be attached to the valve on the left side. On the top of the shutter there is a small dial, containing the letters B and T; the dial is also marked in figures from 1 to YIOQ, representing seconds and fractions of a second. When the dial, A, is turned so that the indicator, E, is placed at T it means time exposure. To set the shutter pull down lever, C. After setting the shutter, one pressure of the bulb or pressing down on the lever or finger release, D, opens the shutter and it remains open until the bulb or finger release is again pressed, when the shutter is closed. Timing ex- posures. When the dial is placed at B the shutter will remain open as long as the hand presses the bulb or the finger holds down the finger release. It is advisable to use B, or the bulb, for all exposures ranging from one-half to two seconds, as it is more simple to operate. For all expos- ures requiring longer time, the T or time exposure should be used. By pressing the bulb once, the shutter is opened and remains open until you again press the bulb when it closes, thus allowing for any length of exposure. When instantaneous or quick exposures are required, then the dial Illustration No. 5. Rotary Shutter. See Paragraph No. 53. Illustration No. 6. Single Valve Shutter. See Paragraph No. 54. Illustration No. 7. Double Valve Shutter. See Paragraph No. 55. Illustration No. 8. Automatic Shutter. See Paragraph No. 56. The Camera How to Operate It. 55 should be set at 1-100, 1-50, or 1-25, which indicate fractions of a second. The proper one to use depends on the strength of light. In real bright light 1-100 is best, and in medium light 1-50 or 1-25. When set at 1-100, which is the quickest exposure that can be made with such a shutter, one pressure of the bulb or pressing down of the finger release will make an exposure 1-100 part of a second. When the dial is placed at 1-50, 1-25, 1-5, or 1-2, one pressure of the bulb or pressing down the finger release will give the indicated fraction of a second exposure. To focus the camera turn the dial at T, set your shutter by pressing down the finger release, C, opposite the side from which your tube is attached; then, one pressure of the bulb will open the shutter and permit you to see the image on the focusing screen (ground-glass). 56. Automatic Shutters are made of the single valve and double valve type, and also without any visible valve, and are termed automatic for the reason that they are always ready for exposure without having to be "set," as the older forms of single and double valve shutters have to be. The automatic shutter can be seen to have its advantages over the older forms, but at the same time greater care is neces- sary in seeing that the shutter is not opened inadvertently through a pressure of the bulb, which could not take place with the older shutter before it was set. In Illustration No. 8 is shown a common form of double valve automatic shut- ter which automatically sets itself after each exposure. The setting of the speed in this class of shutter is practically the same as for the one shown in Illustration No. 7. An indis- pensible part of all between-the-lens shutters is the dia- phragm or stop, which regulates the quantity of light pass- ing through the shutter to the plate or film. 56 Library of Practical Photography. 57. Diaphragms or Stops. The diaphragm or stop in a shutter is usually an opening which can be regulated from outside the lens barrel, making it larger or smaller in pro- portion to the amount of light it is desired to admit to the plate, and also in proportion to the sharpness of definition that is required on the plate. 58. Waterhouse Stops Iris Diaphragm. Originally diaphragms were metal plates, each having an opening in the center, of different diameters, ranging in geometrical proportion to the focal length of the lenses to which they belong. They are known as Waterhouse stops, and are inserted in an opening in the lens barrel. The majority of lenses and shutters fitted to the common hand cameras now contain a device known as the Iris Diaphragm, whereby the opening may be decreased or increased in size by the sinble movement of the indicator, B. See Illustrations Nos. 7 and 8. When this lever is turned to any of the figures on the plate at the bottom of the shutter it indicates the pro- portionate amount of light admitted. The smaller the aper- ture the greater will be the depth of focus of the lens. 59. Depth of Focus. By depth of focus is meant the power which a Ions has of rendering a sharp image upon the ground-glass, of objects situated at varying distances. When using the lens at full opening, it is difficult to obtain at one and the same time a clear and sharp image on the ground-glass of both near and distant objects. To obtain this increased sharpness you must make use of the stops or diaphragms. This gives increased depth of focus. 60. Use of Diaphragms. The diaphragm markings are usually arranged at the lower part of the front of the shutter. (See Illustrations Nos. 6, 7 and 8.) By using the smaller The Camera How to Operate It 59 opening, diaphragming down, or "stopping down," as it is commonly termed, a portion of the rays are cut off and a much greater depth of focus secured; but in employing a smaller opening, cutting out the rays of light, the exposure necessary is greatly increased. 61. There are many defects in some of the cheaper grades of lenses, and, aside from giving a greater depth of focus, the use of a smaller stop corrects different aberrations or defects. The more important points to be remembered in using a diaphragm are these : First, the larger the aperture the more roundness, at- mosphere or effect of distance is obtained, the picture pre- senting a bolder appearance; but a more rapid exposure is required. Second, the smaller the aperture the longer the exposure, the greater the depth of focus and the sharper the image, accompanied by a corresponding loss in relief. When focus- ing always have your lens wide open (full diaphragm). After obtaining the focus, stop down only enough to give clear detail in the picture. 62. To Focus the Camera. Whatever the type of shutter used, set it at the time exposure and open, using the largest stop or diaphragm. The light will then pass through the lens, permitting you to see the image on the focusing screen or ground-glass. By moving the lens sup- port i. e., on folding cameras to and fro on the track, the image on the ground-glass can be brought to a focus, which means clear, sharp definition. With kodaks which are not provided with a ground-glass or focusing screen the focus is obtained by gauging the distance from the camera to the object being photographed, and setting the pointer on 60 Library of Practical Photography. the lens support opposite that distance indicated on the focusing scale. 63. Regulating Different Openings According to Ex- posure. For snap-shot or instantaneous exposures employ the largest diaphragm or opening. In average view work that is, open landscapes it is seldom necessary to stop down, *. e., reduce the aperture, smaller than the f/8, or its equivalent U. S. 4. (See following paragraph.} The small- est opening should be used only when extreme sharpness of the whole field is required. For example, when photo- graphing an interior it will be necessary, in order to secure detail, to have objects close to the camera, in the middle distance, and those more remote, equally sharp. 64. The Size of the Stops are numbered in different ways, according to various systems. The two in most use are the "P and the "U. S." (Uniform System.) The f system refers to the relation of aperature to focal length ; while the U. S. is a uniform series of markings based on the same principles. More detailed information regarding these sys- tems is given in the advanced instruction in Volume VI. It may be as well to state here, that on shutters of American manufacture the Uniform System of numbering the stops is universally used, while the diaphragms on anastigmat lenses of foreign manufacture are marked according to the f system. 65. The corresponding values are given in the follow- ing series : U. S 1 2 4 8 16 32 64128256 f 4 5.6 8 11.316 22.632 45 64 66. The exposure with a certain stop is one-half of the next smaller and double that of the one next larger; i. e. t The Camera How to Operate It 61 if stop f/8 requires an exposure of one second, the next smaller, f/11.3, will need two seconds; while f/5.6, the next larger, will need but one-half second's exposure, and f/4 one-fourth of a second. Or, in the U. S. numbers stop No. 4 requires one second, No. 8 will need two seconds, No. 2 one-half second, and No. 1 one-fourth of a second. The largest opening or the largest working aperture of the lens on the average hand camera is f/8 or U. S. 4. For the be- ginner, who is apt to become confused by the diaphragm numbers, it is well to remember that the large numbers indicate small openings, and that the smaller the opening the longer the exposure required. 67. Reversible Back. All modern high grade folding plate cameras are supplied with a reversible back. This is to enable the user to make either horizontal or vertical views by merely reversing the back attachment without changing the position of the camera. The back is held in place by means of firm clamps, which are easily released when de- sired. The ground-glass is attached to the frame of the reversible back, so it is always in correct position. 68. Focusing. Focusing a camera means the act of bringing the image into focus ; i. e., the securing of a clear, sharp outline of the image upon the sensitized plate or film. The focus is secured by moving the lens a certain distance from the ground-glass or focusing screen. This distance depends upon the focal length of the lens employed. 69. Fixed Focus. This term applies chiefly to small box cameras or to those fitted with short focus single lenses. It does not mean any distinct kind of a lens with extraor- dinary power of covering objects near or far in one plane. The lens is only a fixed focus when it is immovable. While 62 Library of Practical Photography. any lens can, practically speaking, be made a fixed focus, yet its length of focus determines the extent it will focus sharp all objects on one plane. Therefore, those only of very short focus can be used for this purpose, and only small pictures are satisfactorily made with fixed focus cameras. With them, the difference in focus of any object, far or near, is so little that it is not noticeable in the picture. On the larger sizes, however, it would be quite visible. There is no altering of the focus in a fixed focus box camera ; the lens in the camera is stationary. 70. Fixed Focus Folding Camera. In the case of the fixed focus bellows camera, the bellows extends to its full length and locks. It is then, practically speaking, a fixed focus camera, the same as a box camera, for there is no adjusting of the bellows. Hence the term, fixed focus fold- ing camera. 71. Universal Focus. The term Universal Focus is quite frequently applied to adjustable focusing cameras. We speak of the Universal Focus when the pointer is set at 100 feet on the focusing scale. All objects beyond this distance are in focus. When, therefore, the bellows of the camera is extended and the indicator points at 100, we speak of setting it at Universal Focus, or point of infinity. 72. Extending the Bellows for Focusing. By turning the lever or pressing the clamp directly beneath the lens at the base of the camera front, you release the lock, and the bellows can be drawn forward on the track or slide provided for this purpose. It is by sliding the bellows backward and forward, bringing the lens closer to or extending farther away from the ground-glass, that the focus is produced. The Camera How to Operate It 63 73. Scale Focusing. Observe on the left side of the camera a scale usually marked No. 6-10-15-25-50-100. These figures indicate the distance the camera should be placed from the object to be photographed. No. 6 would indicate that the camera must be six feet away from the object in order to have it in focus. The pointer being placed at No. 25 would indicate that when the camera is twenty-five feet from the object it would be in focus. It is safe when dis- tances are over 50 feet to set the point of the indicator at 100, as this then becomes, practically, Universal Focus. 74. Ground-Glass Focusing. By focusing is meant, as stated above, the obtaining of good, clear outlines of the image, on the ground-glass, of any object being photo- graphed. This focus is obtained by the racking, or draw- ing out of the bellows until the image appears perfectly sharp on all parts of the ground-glass. When the camera is used without a tripod, the focusing scale on the side of the camera bed is employed and the pointer is set on the line opposite the figures, indicating the distance between the camera and object, which should give a perfect focus. It is not advisable to alter the camera in any particular until thoroughly familiar with all its parts. To detect any error in the focusing scale, should your pictures be out of focus (i. e., not sharp), study the following instructions and learn how to correct the fault. Again, the proving of the focus is also a very good practice, for one cannot become too well acquainted with his instrument. 75. Testing the Focus. In order to test the focus select a building or object in strong sunlight. Determine the distance this object or building is from the camera, which distance, in order to obtain good drawing, should be suf- 64 Library of Practical Photography. ficient to allow the image not to appear crowded on the finder. Then, set the pointer on the camera to the corres- ponding number of feet on the scale attached to the camera bed, which should give a sharp focus. 76. After pressing the bulb the first time and opening the shutter, point the camera at the object upon which the sun is shining. Look on the ground-glass and carefully examine the image. If this image appears clear, sharp and distinct, the scale on the side of the camera is correct. If it is indistinct, and the distance from the object has not been misjudged, the scale is incorrect and cannot be relied upon. These scales, however, are usually correct, but in order to test them properly the camera must be placed upon some- thing rigid, a tripod preferred. 77. Cover the head and camera with the focusing cloth. With the left hand gather the focusing cloth up under the chin. This will then exclude all light except that which comes through the lens and produces the image on the ground-glass. Look on the ground-glass. Do not try to look through it. It will take a little practice to enable the beginner to see the image clearly on the ground-glass. The image, of course, will be reversed (upside down). With the right hand reach to the front of the camera and extend the bellows by moving the front section containing the lens. Slide it backward and forward until the image appears per- fectly distinct and sharp on the ground-glass. 78. Correcting the Focusing Scale. After securing proper focus, measure the distance from camera to object, and if this distance agrees with the figure indicated on the focusing scale, then the scale is correct. If they do not corres- pond, the scale can be corrected by focusing on some object The Camera How to Operate It. 65 100 feet away. When a correct focus is secured at this given distance, and the actual distance does not register correctly with the pointer on the focusing scale, then remove the plate containing the scale and replace it so that the figure 100 is opposite the pointer. The rest of the scale will then be found to be all right. However, when possible, in order to insure perfect focus, it is advisable to focus on the ground- glass, paying no attention' to the scale. When using the camera without a tripod for snap-shot work, it is convenient, of course, to have the scale, and, therefore, it should be correct. As all reputable manufacturers test their instru- ments very carefully for this particular feature, it will be found that they are, in almost every instance, correct. 79. Finders. Most hand cameras and kodaks are fitted with a little box covered with a metal hood, a lens in the front of it and a small piece of glass on the top. This is called a finder, and is, in effect, a miniature camera. Every- thing visible on this finder will be visible on the ground- glass, and everything visible on the ground-glass should be visible on the plate when developed. Finders are fitted with fixed focus lenses, and, therefore, the object at any distance will naturally appear sharp on the finder. 80. If it is desired to secure the focus by the scale on the side of the camera, as, for instance, in kodaks, judge carefully the distance to the object to be photographed. With a little practice this can be accomplished successfully. A good plan is to measure by strides, and by pacing off the distance it will then be possible to judge more accurately the right number of feet. The better way, as said before, is to focus on the ground-glass. The finder should only be used when the instrument is employed as a hand camera ; i. 66 Library of Practical Photography. e., without the tripod. Thus, the object to be photographed will be located in the finder instead of on the ground-glass. Remember, the finder is only used for locating the object, but not for focusing. The focusing must be done either on the ground-glass or with the scale. 81. Fixed Focus Box Cameras Require No Focusing. The fixed focus or box cameras contain no scale. As they are all a fixed general focus, such cameras need no focusing, and whatever is visible in the finder will appear in focus on the plate or film. But with all other folding cameras containing focusing scale or ground-glass, the focus must be obtained by the above method and not in the finder. Use the finder only for locating the view on the plate. Al- ways remember, first, to locate the view in the finder, for whatever is visible in the finder will be registered on the plate. If the camera is pointed at a building and it looks crowded in the finder, then step back farther from the building until good proportions of margin all around are secured. Judge the distance from the object or building and draw out the bellows until the pointer registers oppo- site the number of feet which is the distance between the camera and the object. The exposure can now be made. 82. Rising, Falling and Sliding Front. Practically all folding cameras have a rising and falling front, i. e., it is possible to raise and lower the front-board to which the lens is attached. To a certain extent, this feature takes the place of a swing-back or swing-bed. When photographing a building that is not too high and your camera has only the rising and falling front but no swing-back or swing-bed attachment, the camera should remain perfectly level so that the ground-glass will be parallel to the building. To provide more space or sky above the building, or should the building The Camera How to Operate It. 67 be so high as to make it difficult to get the top of the building on the plate, raise the front-board, to which the lens is at- tached. Where the camera is fitted with a swing-bed, as well as with a rising front, both should be employed when photographing extremely high buildings. 83. Many folding cameras have, in addition to the ris- ing and falling front, a sliding front, which is of great advan- tage when working in confined places. It is possible, by moving the sliding front one way or the other, to secure more or less of either side of a view without altering the position or moving the camera whatsoever; but it is very seldom necessary, in -fact it is not so convenient in most cases, to use the sliding front as it is to slightly turn the camera on the tripod head. 84. Swing-back and Swing-bed. While all folding cameras are not supplied with swing-backs nor even swing- beds, many have one or the other of these attachments. The following is a brief description of their use : The swing-back is at the rear of the camera and is so adjusted that it permits the ground-glass to swing perpen- dicular regardless of the angle at which the camera is tilted. The swing-bed is simply the front or bed of the folding camera containing the track on which the sliding front moves, and the supporting arms or braces which hold this bed in position are so arranged as to make it possible to adjust the bed to any desired angle, thereby enabling you to admit as much sky or exclude as much foreground as desired. In this way the body of the camera can remain in any position at all times, and the ground-glass will always be perpendicular. 68 Library of Practical Photography. 85. The swing-back or the swing-bed should be used when photographing extremely high buildings in order to obtain rectilinear lines. When photographing a high build- ing it is necessary to point the lens upward, and if your in- strument is fitted with the swing-back this back must be so adjusted as to keep it in a perpendicular position at all times. On the other hand, if your camera has a swing-bed, the camera itself should at all times remain in the same position (i. e., the ground-glass must always be perpendicular), but the swing-bed can be raised and fastened in position, which will give you exactly the same effect as to operate the swing- back (when the whole camera is pointed upward). When- ever the camera is tipped without any change being made in the position of the ground-glass the lower portion of the building will be nearer to the camera than the top, and the nearer an object is to the camera the larger it will appear on the ground-glass and it is, therefore, quite obvious that the lower portion of the building will appear larger and broader than the top. (See Illustration No. 9.) When pointing the camera upward it is necessary to pull the swing-back out at the bottom, which tips the top of the swing-back toward the building, making the ground-glass parallel to the building, or the object being photographed. Of course, when using an instrument equipped with the swing-bed the ground-glass always remains parallel with the building and this difficulty will not be encountered. 86. Horizontal Swing. Most view cameras, and many of the better class hand cameras, are provided, in addition to the perpendicular swing, with a horizontal one, the object of this being to bring into focus those objects which are nearer to the camera at one side than those on the other, The Camera How to Operate It 69 as, for instance, a street scene showing the line of buildings on one side of the street which is being photographed at an angle. The buildings nearer to the camera may be brought into sharp focus, in which case those in. the distance will be indistinct, and by the horizontal swing these latter can be brought into approximate focus with those nearer to the camera. 87. Double Swing is the combination of the horizontal and vertical swings, by which any of the corrections of the image previously mentioned can be made. 88. Rack and Pinion. Most of the higher class folding cameras are supplied with rack and pinion movement, es- pecially those which have a double extension or those with an extremely long bellows. On the side of the bed of the camera is a milled head. By pulling this out and turning it the bellows will.be extended. This rack and pinion is, of course, used for accurate focusing. 89. Tripod. The tripod is an accessory employed as a stand or 'support on which to place the camera while focusing, or making time exposures. The objection to its use, in instantaneous work, is the time it takes to place the camera upon this stand. The tripod, as its name implies, consists of three legs, each of which can be lengthened or shortened as desired; thus, it is possible to get it into a very compact form. These legs are attached to a head, upon which the camera is fast- ened by means of a thumb screw. As previously stated, in instantaneous work you can make the exposure by holding the camera in your hand; but for making time exposures you should use the tripod. One of sufficient rigidity should be employed so that when making the exposure the camera 70 Library of Practical Photography. will remain absolutely steady, for the least movement during exposure will cause a blurred image. When the camera is attached to the tripod, one leg should be under the bed of the camera, pointing toward the object to be photographed. This will leave one leg at each side of the rear of the camera, thus permitting easy focus- ing, and observation on the ground-glass of exactly what is to be produced by the plate. By this arrangement all of the legs of the tripod will be out of the way. 90. Another advantage in this arrangement is : Should it be desired, while focusing, to raise or lower the front of the camera, this can be easily accomplished by simply bring- ing the front leg closer or extending it farther from the camera. (See Illustration No. 10, of an adjustable tripod set up for use.) 91. Plate Holders. The plate holder is essentially a part of the plate camera. It is a case or holder, as its name implies, in which the sensitive plate can be carried both before and after the exposure, being fully protected from the light. 92. The plate holders furnished with all modern makes of hand or view cameras have two compartments. In each side it is possible to place one sensitive plate; hence they are termed double plate holders. A slide, fitting in at one end, protects the sensitive surface of the plate from being exposed to the light. The plate holders should be loaded with the sensitive plates, and the slides placed in position, in the dark-room. You should have at least three plate holders with a camera. Load as many holders as desired. To make the exposure the holder is inserted in front of the Inserting the Slide Illustration No. 1 1 The right way See Paragraph No. 93 Illustration No. 1 2 The wrong way See Paragraph No. 93 Illustration No. 9 Result of tipping camera without proper adjustment of swing back. See Paragrapli No. 85 Illustration No. 10 Adjustable Tripod See Paragraph No. 90 Illustration 13 Dark Room Lamp See Paragraph No. 99 Illustration No. 14 Roll of Film Illustration No. 1 5 A Temporary Dark Room See Paragraph No. 98 The, Camera How to Operate It. 73 ground-glass (an aperture for the plate holder being found at the side of the camera). In most cases there are heavy springs which keep the ground-glass in place. When the plate holder is inserted the ground-glass is forced back, and the' spring serves to hold the plate holder flush to the camera. 93. Inserting Slide in Plate Holder. You will notice that the handle or top part of the slide, which covers the plate in the holder, is painted a light color on one side, while the other side is black. When you load your holder, have the light side of the slide facing out. After you have made the exposure return the slide to its proper position, with the black side out; in other words, the black side should face the front of the camera after the exposure is made, indicating that the plate on that side of the holder is ex- posed. (See Illustrations No. 11 and No. 12 for the right and wrong way of inserting the slide in the slot of the holder.) Always push the slide in straight, and never one corner first, as that is apt to fog the plate. 94. By carefully following these directions no trouble will be experienced in keeping track of the exposure i. e., knowing exactly which plates have been exposed and which have not. 95. Dark-Room. A room of some kind, in which to undertake all the operations of loading the plate holders, removing the exposed plates from the holders, developing the plates, etc., is necessary, except where. the daylight load- ing films are used and the development is done in the now universally used film tank. This room is commonly termed a dark-room, and must be absolutely free from all white light or light of any kind that may act on the dry plate. To insure the room being perfectly dark, it is always a wise 74 Library of Practical Photography. plan to wait two or three minutes in the room, after the door has beeen closed, until the eye has become accustomed to the darkness. Rays of light which were not then per- ceptible will make themselves apparent, and these should be carefully blocked out with cloth, felt or heavy black paper. The only light that can be used in the dark-room during the handling of the sensitive plate, from the loading of the holder until after the fixing of the plate, is the ruby light, which is non-actinic i. e., has no chemical action on the sensitive plate. 96. A closet or the bath-room, or any other room, can, of course, be used for a dark-room, providing every possible avenue where light may enter can be closed. If it is not convenient to have a dark-room of this kind, load the holders and develop the plates at night, in a room from which every ray of white or actinic light has been excluded. 97. In the dark-room, aside from the ruby lamp, there should be a perfectly dry shelf, on which to load and unload the plate holders and keep the plates. There should be another shelf or small table, on which to develop, where the developing solutions, trays, etc., should be kept. If possible, a sink and running water should also be in the dark-room. If, however, these are wanting, a large basin or tray can be employed and provision made for one or two pails of water. Procure a large wooden pail and place a small faucet near the bottom. In this pail place clear water to use in mixing the chemicals and in rinsing the plates. Have another pail in which to pour the waste water, old developer, etc. 98. Shelves on the wall, on which to place various stock solutions, trays, graduates, etc., will be found very convenient. (See Illustration No. 15 of a temporarily ar- Illustration No. 16 An Inexpensive Dark Room Sink See Paragraph No. 08 Illustration No. 17 Loading, Plate Holder See Paragraph No. 103 The Camera How to Operate It. 77 ranged Dark-Room, being a corner of a bath-room. Also No. 16, a cheaply constructed Dark-room, Sink, Shelves, etc.) Note Detailed descriptions of conveniently constructed dark- rooms are given in Chapter XXXI. 99. Ruby Light. As the dry plate on which the image is to be photographed is extremely sensitive to all white light, only non-actinic light i. e., light that has no appre- ciable effect on the plate can be employed in handling it. Such light should be of a ruby color, or reddish yellow, and is usually obtained from what is called a dark-room lamp. There are many kinds of good dark-room lamps, arranged to burn oil, candles, gas, incandescent light, etc., and these are fitted with glass specially colored to give the correct kind of light for handling the plate. A lamp burning kero- sene, or fitted with a bulb for an incandescent lamp, is the most satisfactory to use, candle lamps not being so satis- factory. (See Illustration No. 13, of an inexpensive dark- room lamp.) 100. Developing Outfits. A few essential pieces of paraphernalia which every amateur should possess for the development of the exposed plate, are a good ruby lamp, four or five trays, to fit the size of plates or films used one tray to be used only for developing, another for fixing only, the other two or three trays for washing and after manipula- tion ; one graduate, about 8 ounces in size, one stirring rod, and a camel's hair brush. 101. The essential chemicals for the beginner are the developing powders and hyposulphite of soda for fixing. Later when preparing the solutions from the separate in- gredients, it will be necessary to have the required chemicals. 78 Library of Practical Photography. 102. Opening of Box of Plates. Plates of American manufacture are packed back to back in boxes of one dozen each, the faces being slightly separated by a small piece of cardboard, and are protected from the light by a double cover. To open the box, run a knife blade along the under edge and cut between the two layers of cardboard which form the two covers. This operation can be done in the white light, but neither cover should be removed outside of the dark-room. Before removing the covers of the box of plates the ruby lamp should be lighted, as it is necessary to have illumination of some kind by which to work. Previous to closing the door, remove the slides from the plate holders and carefully dust both the slides and the in- terior of the holders. 103. Loading the Holders. When ready to load the holders, having entered the dark-room and closed the door, remove the covers from the box of plates and turn back the black paper in which they are wrapped. The top plate will be face or film side down. Pick this plate up by the edge, being extremely careful not to touch either surface. At the lower end of the holder is a spring. Place the edge of the sensitive plate, with the film side out, against the spring, and press down on the spring until the plate drops into place. In some plate holders the spring holding the plate in place is controlled by a little metal lever on the out- side or edge of the holder. By pulling down on the lever on the right hand side, it presses down the spring and the plate falls into place. After the plate is in place, press the lever back into position, when the plate is secured. (See Illus- tration No. 17 loading the ordinary holder.) 104. After loading one side of a plate holder, carefully The Camera How to Operate It. 79 draw the camel's hair brush over the surface of the plate, to remove any dust which may have accumulated on its sur- face. With the light colored side facing out, insert the slide in the slot at the end of the holder, thus covering the sen- sitive plate. Proceed in like manner to load the other side of the holder, as well as the remaining holders. The sec- ond plate in the box will be face or film side up, the third plate film down, etc. Carefully replace the covers in proper order on the box of plates, after all holders are loaded. Then the door of the dark-room may be opened and the ruby light extinguished. CHAPTER III. How to Proceed. 105. The first and most important consideration in all good picture making is the angle of light. By compar- ing the lens and camera with the human eye, one can have a fair idea of the effect of light upon the sensitized plate. For instance, when viewing a building with the sun in front of you, shining toward you, the effect of light is very blinding to the eye, and the object or building appears dim and hazy in its shadows. This same effect is produced on the sensitized plate in the camera, by the light entering through the lens. In other words, in order to obtain clear results the camera should never be pointed toward the sun. Therefore, the beginner should exercise care that the sun is to one side, or even behind the camera. 106. The beginner can produce good, clear pictures by having the sun fall full on the side and the front of a building, for then the shadows are so small and few that he is sure of securing a strong picture ; yet this is not always necessary. Lights and shadows that are clearly visible to the eye, and do not affect or weaken it, will have the same action on the sensitized plate through the lens, and the different degrees of light and shadow on the object or building will be reproduced on the plate. 107. Dark buildings, such as those of red brick or very dark painted houses, should be photographed with the 81 82 Library of Practical Photography. sun shining on the side and front of the building. Were such a building photographed on the shadow side, the dark color, with little or no high-lights would produce a very dull, flat picture, while with a very light color building it is entirely permissible to photograph from the shadow side, for the entire building being light in color the shadows will be sufficiently illuminated. The sun shining on the front, throwing shadows from projections, cornices, etc., would give the required snap and contrast to the entire picture. 108. On the other hand, if this light colored building were photographed with the sun falling on both side and front, there would be little contrast and the artistic effect would be lost, yet from a commercial standpoint it would still be a good picture. If the building were a factory, or a large store, then full sunlight on the front of the building might be necessary ; but when photographing residences, the prettiest effects are produced when more shadows are vis- ible, producing greater effects of contrast. 109. A thorough understanding of the two preceding paragraphs will show the beginner that the effects of light and shadow, as shown on the ground-glass, should be care- fully studied, as the results shown on this ground-glass will be reproduced upon the sensitive plate when a proper expos- ure is made. Careful observation should be made of the appearance of different objects and buildings, trees, shrub- bery, fences, etc., with the sun shining upon them at differ- ent hours of the day. Frequently, in walking along a street the beautiful appearance of a residence may be observed when the sun falls upon it, with little shadows thrown from the cornices and trimmings, giving them a boldness and an effectiveness which are entirely lacking when the same Illustration No. 18 Light liuilding Properly Photographed See Paragraph No. 109 Illustration No. 19 Dark Building Improperly Photographed See Paragraph No. 109 Illustration No. 20 Effect of Proper Angle of Light See Paragraph No. 1 1 1 Illustration No. 21 Illustrating the Effect of Blistering See Paragraph No. 129 How to Proceed. 85 building is viewed from a different point, or at another hour of the day, when it may appear very dull and flat. It follows from this that photographs should be made at that time of the day when the sun supplies the most shadows to the object or residence you are photographing. See Illus- trations Nos. 18 and 19 of a building photographed under both conditions. 110. To demonstrate more clearly the effect produced by light and shadow take your camera, attach it to your tripod, and view on the ground-glass the object or building from the side upon which the sun is shining; then transfer the camera to the opposite or shadow side and note the dif- ference in illumination. If your camera is not fitted with a ground-glass these same effects may be observed in the view finder. 111. You should now be prepared to make an expos- ure. Select any building or object you may desire. As said previously never point the lens of the camera toward the sun, but have the sun falling from the rear or on one side of the camera. (See Illustration No. 20.) Should the rays of sunlight strike into the lens they throw a reflection from the sides of the lens barrel, causing a fog or blurred appear- ance upon the ground-glass and plate, and the resulting image will be anything but satisfactory. 112. Carefully focus on the ground-glass of the cam- era, using full aperture. See that all perpendicular lines of the building are parallel to the sides of the ground-glass. The raising or lowering of the lens will assist you in getting the building properly located on the ground-glass. Note The beginner who is working with a box or similar form of folding camera, provided only with a single lens, should 86 Library of Practical Photography. understand that it is practically impossible to photograph build- ings and obtain the straight lines of the building, or other objects, accurately produced on his plate or film. As mentioned under the heading of lenses, in the preceding chapter, to obtain straight lines at the edges of your plate it is necessary to work with a doublet instead of a single lens. 113. After securing a sharp focus, stop the lens down to about U. S. 4, or to its equivalent, f/8. Now close the shutter and insert the plate holder in the opening at the side of the camera just in front of the ground-glass. Be sure that the projection or groove near the end of the holder fits snugly into the groove or projection on the back of the camera. The plate holder should fit perfectly flush, so that no light can enter between plate holder and camera to fog the plate. 114. Being absolutely sure that the shutter is closed and set (in this case at 1-25 of a second, or if your shutter is not fitted with the various degrees of speed, make an instantaneous exposure, the lever being placed on I), then withdraw the slide nearest the lens and press the finger release or bulb once, thus making the exposure. After the ex- posure is made, replace the slide in the holder, being sure that the black side of the handle is facing outward or towards the lens. This signifies that the plate in this side of the holder has been exposed. 115. For the value of the experience and the practice derived it is advisable to make two exposures; therefore, withdraw the plate holder and, reversing it, insert again in the camera, and after setting the shutter withdraw the slide of the unexposed plate. Make another exposure of identi- cally the same subject, giving the same time (1-25 of a sec- ond). If the beginner is working with a film camera he will, of course, have observed his picture on the view finder Hffo> to Proceed. 87 and focused by means of the focusing scale, having paced off the distance from the camera to the object, if uncertain as to his ability to correctly gauge the distance. When the first exposure has been made wind up the spool of film to the next exposure, and make a second exposure as just described. Then proceed to some other object and make two more pictures of that, using the same length of expos- ure. If a double two film is used this will use up the entire roll, so that it can then be developed. Then return to the dark-room and proceed to develop one of the nega- tives. After developing, fixing, washing and drying this plate or film make a proof print from the negative, using a printing-out paper. Note the results. Is it clean, clear, sharp, brilliant, and above all has it pluck and roundness? If not, study your instruction for developing, and observe wherein you failed to produce these results and apply the experience gained on the development of the first plate to the second one and proceed to develop it and endeavor to overcome your first errors. Make a memorandum on the back of each proof print of your methods of procedure, and file this proof in your letter file (proof book) for further reference. For development of the films singly, see Chapter V. 116. Developing Solutions. The use of prepared de- veloping powders is recommended to the beginner for his experiments in developing plates or films. These powders can be procured from any dealer in photographic supplies. If a regulation finishing outfit has been purchased the chem- icals included therein can be used. Prepared developing chemicals only require dissolving in a certain quantity of water, the directions for which are always given on the package. 88 Library of Practical Photography. 117. In the graduate, which has been thoroughly cleansed, place the amount of water specified in the direc- tions. The developing powders come, generally, in two small packages, these again being put up in one larger pack- age, or, the powders are inserted in both ends of a glass vial, separated by a cork or wad. Carefully open the larger of the two packages, or remove the cork from that end of the vial containing the larger quantity of chemical, and slowly shake the contents into the water in the graduate, stirring rapidly until all is thoroughly dissolved. This chemical, which is generally the sulphite and carbonate of soda, if not made to dissolve immediately by rapid stirring will cake and cause considerable trouble, being left in the solution in the form of a precipitate. When thoroughly dissolved add the contents of the smaller package, or the smaller quantity of chemical in the vial, which is the devel- oping agent. The developer is now ready for use. 118. Fixing Solution. After mixing your developer, next prepare the fixing solution. Take a handful of hypo and place in the 4x5 tray which you intend to use for hypo only, and fill this tray about two-thirds full of water. This should give a proportion, approximately, of one ounce of hypo to four ounces of water. Stir this with a small wooden paddle, or glass stirring-rod, until all of the hypo has been dissolved. Under no conditions use this tray for any other purpose than for fixing. Always wash the hands thoroughly after handling any chemical. Hypo, especially, will give no end of trouble if the least trace of it is carried to any other bath. 119. Development. Everything is now in readiness so that development of the exposed plate may be proceeded How to Proceed. 89 with. With the developing tray carefully rinsed and the ruby lamp lighted, now close the door of the dark-room, so that there is absolutely no other light in the room except that which comes from the ruby lamp. Draw the slide from the plate holder and remove one plate. Sometimes the plates are liable to stick in the plate holder. By pushing down with the thumb on the small spring at the end of the holder, gently tapping the holder on the other end, and slightly tipping forward, the plate will fall into your hand. 120. As soon as the plate has been exposed an image has been formed, although invisible until acted upon by the developer. 121. After removing the plate from the holder, place it in the tray for developing, being sure that you have the face or film side up. Pour sufficient developer over the plate to cover it, and in doing so, care should be taken that the developer is flowed evenly over the entire surface of the plate, to drive off all the air and not allow any air-bells to form. If the developer is carelessly thrown onto the plate, or if the plate is dropped into the developer, small air-bells are liable to form on the surface of the film, which will pre- vent the action of the developer on the portion of the film which they cover and thus cause undeveloped spots. The plate should never be placed in water before development. In the case of films, however, it is preferable to wet them in water before placing them in the developer. 122. Always use enough developer to fully cover the plate. Four ounces of solution are sufficient for a 4x5 tray. After flowing the developer over the plate, the tray must be rocked gently, and the development carefully watched. In from 20 to 30 seconds the image will begin to appear. If 90 Library of Practical Photography. the developer is cold, the image will be much slower in making its appearance ; yet it is advisable that the temper- ature should not be over 65 deg. Fahr. The image will gradually grow denser, as development proceeds, until fin- ally the plate is nearly black. At this stage it should be carefully examined, to observe the strength of the devel- opment. 123. Definition of a Negative. The action that is tak- ing place on the plate during development is as follows: The light that passes through the lens affects the plate in proportion to the strength of the rays from the object; con- sequently, the rays of light from the shadow parts of the object will have less action on the plate than the rays of light from the lighter parts. During development, the parts of the plate most affected by the light appear first, and will grow darker as development proceeds, while the parts affected by the shadow rays will show but slight discolor- ation on the plate. This is why the plate is called a nega- tive, because it gives the lights and shadows in reverse order to what is actually seen in the object. 124. Judging Development. Carefully remove the plate handling it by the edges only from the tray and hold it up to the ruby light, looking through it. If the highest points of light, or more clearly speaking, the blackest parts of the image, are extremely dense, so that you can scarcely see through them, then the development has been carried far enough. When those parts of the sensitive film on the plate emulsion which have been affected most by the light have been reduced completely to metallic silver, through the process of development, it is impossible to carry them any further. Continued development will How to Proceed 91 simply reduce the more delicate tones, making them as dense as the highest points of light, thus causing what is usually termed a spreading of light, and when a print is made from such a negative the high-lights are hard and chalky, instead of being soft and mellow. 125. Fixing. After development, the plate should be thoroughly rinsed in clear water; then place it in the hypo fixing bath, film side up, where it should remain until the unexposed and undeveloped silver salts have been removed. In other words, all the white that appears on the plate, as seen when looking at the back of it, must be cleared away. A negative should not be examined, except by ruby light, until it is thoroughly fixed. This may require ten minutes, or longer, and in order to assure thorough fixing the nega- tive should remain in this bath double the length of time necessary to remove the white effect, or unexposed silver salts. After the plate is fixed, place it in another tray for washing (if you have no washing box) and allow the water from the faucet to run into the tray gently, so as not to strike the face of the negative. An ordinary pail or basin may be used, if a tray or washing-box is not available. Washing should be continued for at least twenty minutes, and then the negative should be placed on a rack or stood up against the wall to dry. 126. Drying. Negatives should be dried in a well ven- tilated room. If the room is too warm, the film is apt to become soft and the negative will be ruined. Never dry the negative in the sun or near the stove. 127. This instruction is only a primary one, dealing with prepared chemicals, and has been made as simple as 92 Library of Practical Photography. possible, giving no reasons, as these features will be fully explained in succeeding instruction. 128. Proof prints should be made of your experiments of this instruction, and all data pertaining to the results secured or failures met with noted on the back of each indi- vidual proof. Each of these should then be numbered and dated in the order made, and filed for future reference in your letter file or proof book. Defective Negatives and Their Cause. 129. Illustration No. 21 shows a case of blistering, caused by a difference in the temperature between the de- veloper and the wash water. Blistering is also caused by the wash water, as it comes from the faucet, containing a considerable amount of air, which being forced under the film, raised it on the spots shown. The solutions and wash waters must always be kept at a uniform temperature, and the water coming from a faucet must not be allowed to drive on the plate. Should the water contain a considerable amount of air, as is the case where water is pumped into the mains, or sometimes when breaks in the water mains have been repaired and the water again turned on, forcing air into the pipes, this air or gas may affect the film. Under such conditions it would be far better to wash the plates in a tray, changing the water at least ten times during a period of one hour. The water used should have been drawn from the faucet and allowed to stand for five minutes before placing it in contact with the plate. Illustration No. 22 Showing the Result of Fogging the Plate See Paragraph No. 130 Illustration No. 23 Showing the Results of Uneven Development See Paragraph No. 131 How to Proceed. 95 130. Illustration 22 shows the result of fog when the plate holder is not properly inserted in the camera. It is absolutely essential that the holder be pushed in far enough so that the rib or groove on the camera fits snugly into the groove or rib of the plate holder. If they do not fit properly, fog will invariably be the result. This fog occurs in differ- ent forms, but the one illustrated herewith is quite common. Frequently when the plate holder is not properly inserted in the back of the camera the top and bottom of the plate will also be fogged. Improperly inserting the slide in the holder will cause a similar fog. The slide must never be inserted one corner first; always push it in straight, i. e., the end of the slide must enter the slot evenly. (See Illustration No. 11). 131. Illustration 23 contains numerous defects, but the one which comes to our attention most strongly is the un- even development shown by the large, light streaks, which were caused by flowing the developer over only a portion of the plate in place of covering it entirely. It is absolutely necessary that the developer be flowed evenly and uniformally over the whole surface of the plate at once, for if this is not done, streaks and spots will result. CHAPTER IV. BEGINNERS' DIFFICULTIES. 132. Unable to See Image in the Finder. You have probably looked into the finder at the wrong angle; the camera was pointed toward the sun; or direct sunlight fell on the top of the finder. Almost all finders have a little hood that must be raised to shield it from the strong sunlight. You will be able to see in the finder a clear image of the object in front of the camera by shading the top of the finder with your hand (care must be taken that your hand does not cover the little lens in the front of the finder) and looking straight down on the finder. If you are pointing your camera away from the sun there is very little danger of the sun striking the finder, and you will have no trouble in seeing the image. 133. Unable to See Image on the Ground-Glass. You have not excluded enough white light with the focusing cloth; the focusing cloth may be too thin; perhaps you have not opened the shutter so that the light can enter the camera; the diaphragm in the shutter may be at the smallest opening, thus not admitting very much light. Do not look through the ground-glass. To view the image on the ground-glass be sure that the lens is wide open (using the largest "stop" or diaphragm) and allow no light to strike the ground-glass with the exception of that which comes through the lens. If you use a small stop the image will be much more indistinct on the ground-glass. Do not try to look through the ground-glass, but look on it, as though you were looking at a mounted picture. A little practice will readily overcome any difficulty you may experi- ence at first in locating the image on the ground-glass. 134. Cannot Secure a Sharp Image. If the image is not sharp, the difficulty lies in not having the lens at the correct distance from the ground-glass (dry plate or film). If your camera has a (97; 98 Library of Practical Photography. ground-glass, proceed to focus as previously instructed, and rack the bellows backward and forward until the image is sharp, then lock the lens support in position. 135. Image Not Sharp When the Camera Is Used as a Hand Camera and Set at the Correct Distance Indicated by the Scale. If the pointer registers at the proper figure on the scale indicator, and the image secured on the developed negative is indistinct blurred the trouble lies in the scale of distance not being in proper loca- tion. For method of corrections see paragraphs Nos. 75 to 78 of this instruction, which fully explain how to proceed to correct the position of the scale. 136. Distortion of Perpendicular Lines of the Picture. In taking a picture of a building, and especially when the sides of the structure come near the edges of the negative, a distortion often occurs the outside walls of the building being in the shape of a pyramid. This is caused from tilting the camera upward, which brings the lower part of the ground-glass or plate nearer to the building than the top of the ground-glass or plate. To avoid dis- tortion of perpendicular lines of a building, the ground-glass or sen- sitive plate must always be absolutely parallel with the building or perpendicular to the ground. If possible, and especially where the building photographed is very tall, it is advisable to both raise the lens and use the swing-back or swing-bed. This same difficulty will appear should you point the camera down, although the pyra- mid effect will be reversed and the method of handling and correct- ing the distortion correspondingly regulated. 137. Image Very Dim and Hazy on Ground-Glass. (a) Caused by pointing the camera toward the sun and allowing the sunlight to either come into the lens direct or to fall on the edge of the lens tube and reflect into the lens. The lens is the eye of the camera, and is affected in a similar manner to the human eye in this respect everything appears hazy and dim when looking toward the sun. (b) In midwinter, taking the lens from a warm room into the cold causes moisture to gather on the lens and also on the ground-glass, thus hindering the rays of light from producing a Beginners' Difficulties. 99 clear image. All doublet lenses, and especially those which are mounted very close together (the rectilinear and anastigmat types) are extremely sensitive to temperature. When the moisture gathers and dries it leaves a slight scum, which is very much similar to that formed on windows which have been steamed. This scum will, in time, affect the working of the lens, producing hazy effects. A very SOFT cloth should be used to wipe off the lens, but the greatest of care must be exercised not to scratch it. The fingers should never be placed in contact with the lens. Only in extreme cases of neces- sity should the lens combination be taken apart. This can be done when you consider it advisable, but be sure to return each individual lens to its proper cell. If after breathing on the lens and wiping it with the soft cloth, you are unable to remove the scummy appear- ance, moisten the cloth with alcohol and apply it lightly, then wipe dry with another portion of the same cloth. 138. Extreme Distance Not Sharp. The hazy appearance of the extreme distance on the ground-glass is caused by the lens not having been set at the point of universal focus, or point of infinity as it is sometimes called. (See Paragraph 71.) The remedy is either to set the lens on the 100 foot mark on the scale, or to rack the bellows in until the image appears sharp. Greater depth, i. e., greater clearness or sharpness of the image, between a certain near and distant point, can be obtained by stopping down the lens, remembering always that the more you stop down the sharper will be the picture, the greater the depth, but also the longer the exposure that will be required. 139. Foreground Not Sharp. If you are photographing a view or scene that has objects in it situated at varying distances say from 10 to over 100 ft., and having first secured a sharp focus of the object at 50 ft., thus dividing the focus of the two extremes, you will still find that the objects nearer to you than 50 ft. and 100 ft. away are not sharp enough, these can be made sharper by stop- ping down the lens. If you do not care anything about the objects in the distance, and the objects in the foreground are the important ones, you should focus on the most important object or objects and then stop down the lens only enough to give you as much sharpness 1 00 Library of Practical Photography. as you desire in the distance. A strong effect of atmosphere or dis- tance, which is very artistic, is secured by allowing the distance to remain slightly diffused, or out of focus. 140. Obtaining Sufficient Angle of View in Narrow Streets. If the street is a narrow one and you are using a rectilinear lens the majority of view outfits are fitted with these lenses it will be impossible to overcome this difficulty. You can, however, procure a lens attachment for shortening the focus of the lens and give a wider angle, or you can purchase a regular wide-angle lens. By placing the attachment on your regular lens the size of the image will be reduced and the view can be obtained on the plate without any crowding. 141. Too Much Foreground. This is usually caused by the camera being tilted downward in place of being level. If the camera is level, and yet too much foreground is seen, this difficulty can be readily overcome by the use of the rising front to which the lens is attached. By raising it you will obtain more sky. If the camera does not possess the rising front, extend the whole tripod and draw the legs closer together thus raising the camera. 142. Too Much Sky. Camera pointed up too much. By drop- ping the rising front more foreground can be secured, hence less sky; or the whole tripod can be lowered if the camera does not pos- sess the rising and falling front. 143. Plates Sticking in the Holder. This will happen some- times when using new plate holders, or if the plate is a little large or made of thick glass. The latter trouble will not be experienced if high grade plates are used, as reliable plates are coated on spe- cially prepared glass which is very thin. By pushing down the spring on which the plate rests and tapping the plate holder gently on the back, the plate will generally fall out. Tapping the end of the holder, containing the spring, on your hand or the edge of the table at the same time tilting the open side of the holder for- ward will cause the plate to drop out into your hand. Practice this latter method outside of the dark-room with an old plate, until you understand and can accomplish the removal of the plate with ease. Beginners ' Difficulties. 1 1 144. Unable to Tell Which Is the Film Side of the Plate. Plates of American manufacture are always packed face to face, the top one being face down. The face or film side has a dull appear- ance when viewed by reflected light, while the back or glass side is glossy. Dampen your finger and place it on the extreme corner of the plate the sticky side is the film side. CAUTION Never touch either side of the plate; always handle it by the edges. 145. Distinguishing Exposed and Unexposed Plates When Mixed. There might be a time when you happen to place exposed and unexposed plates together, or you might fail to turn the slides properly after making the exposure, and thus be in doubt as to which of the plates have been used. Exposed and unexposed plates have the same appearance to the eye before development. In order to avoid spoiling all plates by developing them in trying to ascertain which have been exposed, dip your finger in the pre- pared developing solution and apply it to the corner of the plate. If within a minute's time there should be no darkening of this por- tion, try another plate in the same way. The plates affected by the developer are, of course, the ones exposed, and you can pro- ceed to develop them as usual, replacing, for further use, those not affected. Judicious application of the developer to the corner of the plate will not spoil the plate at least, this method is a much better one to follow than to develop all plates in order to find the right one and lose the unexposed plates altogether. 146. Weak Ruby Light. Even with the ruby lamp lighted, when you first enter the dark-room difficulty will be experienced in seeing, and you might think that you have not enough light. It requires very little light to work by, but your eyes must first become accustomed to it. Before you start to develop, close your dark-room door and remain for a few minutes until you become accustomed to the semi-darkness. When you are ready to examine your plate, hold it up close to your ruby light and look through it. After a little experience you can work intelligently with the dim light. Care should be taken in using an oil lamp, that the flame is not too high, as it will smoke, causing unnecessary heat and odor. Remember, the strongest attribute of the dry plate is that it is 1 02 Library of Practical Photography. affected by light; therefore, it MUST be handled in the least amount of light possible. 147. Chemicals Will Not Dissolve. The powders, perhaps, have not been mixed with the water in proper order, or the water is too cold. Always dissolve the sodas first the largest package, or the larger of the two amounts of chemicals in the tubes. The de- veloping agent dissolves very readily, but you should stir the water rapidly while adding it. In adding the soda, do not pour in too much at one time, as it will cake and become hard, when it is almost impossible to dissolve it. Warm water will break up the crystalline formation much more readily than cold water, and will also hold in solution a greater quantity of the chemical. 148. No Image Appears Upon Continued Development. The plate is badly under-exposed or not exposed at all. In the latter case you may have forgotten to draw the slide, or your shutter did not work. Possibly the shutter was not set, if it is one that needs setting at each exposure. While making the exposure the focusing cloth may have hung over the lens. 149. Image Flashes Up and Quickly Darkens When Flowed With Developer. If the plate becomes black when covered with the developer it has been extremely over-exposed, either by the shutter not closing properly, or white light, other than that which came through the lens at the time of exposure, has affected it. In other words the plate has been fogged. If the edges of the plate protected from the light by the edges of the plate holder do not be- come dark, the trouble is over-exposure. If the plate holder was not placed in the back of the camera properly, the plate could have fogged and the edges of it still remain clear upon development. Or, if the shutter on your lens is loose, especially on box or film cameras, and you happen to hold the camera (even if you are not making an exposure) so that the sun strikes the lens, the light is admitted and causes a fog. To avoid any possibility of fog, the greatest care should be exercised at every stage in the handling of the plate. Be sure that your ruby lamp is perfectly safe. See that no white light enters into the dark-room from any source whatso- ever. In placing the plate holder in the camera, see that it is per- Beginners ' Difficulties. 1 03 fectly flush with the back of the camera. (See paragraph No. 92.) Make a record of every exposure, and if the plate develops up quickly and becomes very dark almost immediately the edges of the plate remaining clear the exposure for that particular plate was too much. 150. When to Stop Development. It requires considerable practice to become expert in judging when a negative is correctly developed. Negatives of various kinds of lightings require differ- ent treatment, yet, there is one principle that holds good in all cases. The development must be carried until the highest point of light (the darkest point in the negative) is perfectly opaque (black in the negative). It must not be carried further, as the delicate half-tones, almost as strong as the highest point of light, will then develop down and become just as dense as the high-light causing a flat, chalky effect in the finished print. The highest point of light must be developed until every particle of silver has been reduced using a photographic term "Develop until the highest point of light is through to the glass, but stop there, as you cannot drive it into the glass." 151. Judging Density. Fixing the plate reduces its density to quite an extent the amount depending on the thickness of the emulsion, which varies in different makes and brands of plates. There are numerous methods employed by photographers to judge density. We recommend the beginner to hold the plate before the ruby light and place one finger close to the film near the strongest high-light. When this highest light in the negative is as dense as the shadow cast by the finger, you can consider the plate developed to the proper strength. When you think development has been carried far enough try to fix in your mind how the plate appears; notice especially the density and its comparison with the deepest shadows. After "fixing," examine the negative in daylight, by look- ing through it. If the highest point of light is practically opaque, the development has been correct. If the high-light is thin, the negative is under-developed, while if the high-light is dense and covers quite a little space, it is over-developed. Make a close study of each negative and govern yourself accordingly in developing the 1 04 Library of Practical Photography. next plate. By this practice you will soon learn to secure proper density in your negatives under all conditions. 152. Pin-Holes and Spots. There are endless ways in which pin-holes and spots are produced on the negative. The best way to avoid trouble from this source is to be clean in all operations. Your dark-room, graduates and trays should be kept clean. Your camera and plate holders should be dusted occasionally. The fixing solution should be filtered, after considerable use, to free it from any sediment. Each plate must be carefully dusted before placing it in the holder and before development. The small round spots which are nearly transparent and have dark, defined edges are caused by air-bells adhering to the surface of the plate when the developing solution is first applied, the air-bells preventing the developing solution from acting upon the emulsion. Having the developer in the tray and dropping the exposed plate into the de- veloper, without sufficiently agitating the solution, will almost al- ways cause air-bells and leave the small transparent spots. Have the developing solution in a graduate and place the exposed plate in a dry tray, then flow the plate with an even sweep of developer from the graduate. This method of application will drive off all air from the plate and allow of an even and uniform action of the developer. Air-bells can also be removed by gently passing a tuft of absorbent cotton, thoroughly saturated with developer, over the surface of the plate immediately after the plate is flowed with the developer. 153- Judging When a Plate Is Fixed. A plate is not "fixed" until the white, milky appearance disappears from the back and the plate has remained in the hypo bath as long again as it has taken to remove the white effect. Under proper condition, a plate should remain in a correctly prepared bath for at least fifteen minutes, or even an hour will do no harm. But if left in an old bath, at a moderately high temperature, too long, the image on the negative will be reduced. 154. Edges of Negative Fogged. If, after development, the extreme edges of the negative are dark and fogged, the plates are old. Buy only plates that are guaranteed to be fresh, and use the Beginners' Difficulties. 1 05 best brands only. The slight additional cost is made up in the saving of wasted material and in securing satisfactory results. 155. End or Corner of Negative Fogged. If dark, angular streaks cross the negative from the end, the slide of the holder was not removed or not inserted properly. (See paragraph No. 93, also, Illustrations No. II and No. 12.) Should fog appear at the corners of the negative the trouble is with the box containing the plates. If carelessly handled the corners of the box will break open enough to admit a little white light, resulting in fog and light streaks across the corner of the developed negative. 156. Shadows Fogged. The negative has been over-exposed. Use less exposure in making future negatives under same condi- tions. 157. Large Light Spots and Streaks on Negative. These are caused by one of two things: either the plate was not evenly cov- ered with the developer when it was first poured on, or the plate was placed in the tray face (film side) down. The parts of the plate that do not come in contact with the developer when first poured on will not develop up as strong as the balance of the nega- tive, no matter how long you leave the plate in the solution un- even development is sure to show. Insufficient amount of solution will also cause uneven development. (See paragraph 131, and Illus- tration No. 23.) 158. Large Black Spot in Center of Plate. Pointing the lens of the camera toward the sun will, in most cases, cause reflection, resulting in a bright spot in the center of the ground-glass and producing a black spot on the center of the negative. The higher types of lenses will not produce this spot to any great extent. When it does occur it is due to a defect in the lens, termed "flare." For beginners it is always best to follow the rule, "Never point the camera toward the sun," no matter what kind of a lens you are using. 159. Back of Negative White When Removed from Fixing Bath. Plate was removed from the fixing bath too soon, not being allowed enough time for the removal of the unacted-upon silver salts. The milky appearance must be entirely removed. For proper 1 06 Library of Practical Photography. fixing, however, the negative should remain in the hypo bath just twice as long as is necessary for the white appearance to disappear. Thus, if the white effect is entirely removed in ten minutes the negative should remain in the fixing bath for twenty minutes. 160. Negative Will Not Fix. Caused by a hypo bath being extremely weak or too cold. A weak hypo bath, of course, is not strong enough to act upon the unused silver salts in the negative; while too cold a bath not being able to hold a great quantity of chemicals in solution, will not fix the negative, because in fixing it is necessary to dissolve the unused silver out of the emulsion and it is obviously necessary that there should be room in the hypo bath to hold this silver. One ounce of crystal hypo to four ounces of water is the correct proportion for the PLAIN hypo bath. The hydrometer test for making a PLAIN hypo bath is 70 degrees. Follow the formula in making the ACID hypo bath. 161. Fixing Bath Discolors After Slight Use. This is due to your failure to rinse the negative carefully after removing it from the developing solution, as the developer that is carried into the "fixing" bath soon oxidizes and turns the whole bath dark. Ordinarily, with a fresh bath this will not harm, but if it is allowed to become old the negatives will be apt to stain when fixed in such a bath. A PLAIN hypo bath discolors more readily than an ACID bath. The hypo is good as long as it will fix and leave no scum or stain on the plate. If you have no regular fixing box keep your hypo solution in a bottle and in a dark, cool place, and pour it in the tray only when you are ready to use it. Never keep your hypo or developer in a metal pail or can, as the metal would pro- duce a chemical action which would result in the spoiling of your bath. If a scum forms on the surface of the bath, remove it before placing a negative in to fix. If allowed to remain on the bath the scum will adhere to the back of the negative, and when dry is very difficult to remove. 162. Softening of Film in Wash Water. This will occur if your developer, hypo or wash water is too warm. Prepare a weak solution of powdered alum, say one-half ounce of alum in 10 ounces of water, and place your plate in this alum solution imme- Beginners' Difficulties. 1 07 diately after fixing, previously rinsing for a few moments. This alum will harden the film. 163. Negatives Dry Slowly. The room is either too cold or poorly ventilated. Ordinarily it takes a negative from four to six hours to dry. With good ventilation and a temperature of 70 deg. to (not over) 85 deg. Fahr., the ordinary coated plate will dry easily in three hours' time. Do not dry by excessive heat; if the temperature is much over 90 deg. Fahr., the emulsion will become soft and run off the glass or celluloid film, ruining the negative. 164. Negatives Appear Greasy When Dry. Lack of washing after fixing. This difficulty will not occur if fresh hypo solution is used and the negative is washed for the proper length of time (one hour in running water or in ten changes of water for the same length of time). The scum mentioned under the former DIFFI- CULTY, "Fixing Bath Discolors After Slight Use," is the cause of the greasy appearance on the dried negative. 165. Negatives Appear Gritty When Dry (Dirty). Caused by sediment in the wash water. Before placing the negative in the drying rack, wipe both sides of the negative carefully with a tuft of absorbent cotton thoroughly saturated with water. If you are using a washing box, clean it just before you are ready to wash the negatives. Sometimes negatives will collect dust and dirt while drying. This is caused by using dusty drying racks, or, if no racks are used, by placing the negatives on a dusty table or other support. Always lay a clean sheet of paper, or blotter, under the negatives while drying. CHAPTER V. Kodaks and Films. 166. This section is devoted to Kodak and Film Photography, including the manipulation of kodak or other film cameras and the handling and developing of the dif- ferent classes of films, *. e., Eastman N.-C., Ansco, Lumiere, Ensign, etc., Kodoid Plates and the Film Pack. 167. The chemical manipulation of all transparent films is the same ; but as they are put up in different ways, the preparation and method of handling in development differs to a certain extent. Instruction for loading the kodak or camera always accompanies the instrument ; there- fore, we will not dwell at length upon the preliminary operations. At the present time the old "Regular" Roll Film is a thing of the past, and the general instruction given here will apply directly to the various "non-curling" films which are in general use. 168. With the exception of loading, the general prin- ciples of the film kodak or camera are identical with the glass plate instruments, and, therefore, the previous chap- ters are applicable, and should be read by the student who enters his photographic career with a kodak or other film camera. Also read the booklet which comes with the kodak or film camera. Make yourself perfectly familiar with the instrument, taking special care to learn how the shutter works, and if it is a folding kodak apply the rack and pinion 109 1 1 Library of Practical Photography. for focusing. Note the use of the focusing scale, the rising front, etc. Before threading up the film, work the shutter for both time and instantaneous exposures. The first thing for the beginner to bear in mind is that the light which serves to impress the photographic image upon the sensi- tive film in a fraction of a second, as it comes through the lens, can also spoil the film as quickly as it takes the picture. The film must not be exposed to white light of any kind gas, oil, candle, electric, etc., until it has been developed and washed, or it will be ruined. Therefore, care must be exercised throughout all operations of loading and unload- ing, to keep the black paper wound tightly around the film to prevent admission of light. 169. Non-Curling Film. In the non-curling film the tendency to curl is overcome by a process explained below hence the name non-curling. This film is usually also ortho- chromatic, reproducing practically perfect color-values. It is free from electrical markings, possesses great latitude in exposure, and is not subject to halation, due to the thinness of the support and the close proximity of the protective black backing. A marked advantage of the non-curling film is its great speed, which means much to the worker on dull, smoky days. 170. The curling of the film is overcome by coating both sides of the celluloid with gelatin; therefore greater care must be exercised in the handling, and neither side must come in contact with anything while drying. (See Paragraph 209 regarding drying.) 171. As these films are very rapid and orthochromatic they should be handled carefully in the dark-room by the Kodaks and Films. \ 1 3 ruby light. The light should not be too strong film being susceptible to color rays. If the ruby light is too strong, even though of the correct color, it will fog thd film. We advise developing as far away from the ruby light as pos- sible. A safe precaution would be to place an extra piece of yellow post office paper over the ruby light. This paper can be obtained from any photographic supply dealer. 172. Non-curling films, being gelatin coated on both sides, must be fixed in an acid fixing bath, or else be im- mersed in an alum bath after fixing. (See Paragraph 205.) 173. Daylight Loading Films. Daylight loading spool films, as the name implies, can be loaded into the camera in daylight. The operation should be carried on in subdued light, and not in bright sunlight, however. Spool films are made in all sizes to fit all sizes of cameras, and are of vary- ing lengths, providing sufficient film for four exposures (called double two exposures), six exposures and twelve exposures, except with certain kinds of cameras, such as the Panoram, with which the number of exposures to the spool is not so great. At the back or side of your film camera are receptacles for the spool of film, and an empty spool on which to wind the film. The blank spool should be set in the space or receptacle that is regulated by the winding key on the outside of the kodak. Now, break the gummed slip that holds down the end of the black paper on the spool containing the unexposed film, and insert this spool in the other receptacle. 174. In most of the box type of kodaks, the end of the black paper is next passed across the opening in the back of the roll holder and under the pasteboard flap, and threaded 1 14 Library of Practical Photography. through the slit in the empty reel. Be careful to have the paper draw straight and true, then give the spool two or three forward turns (to the left from the key end). With the fold- ing types of kodaks simply draw the end of the black paper across the back of the camera and insert it in the blank spool. 175. Important. Be sure that the paper rolls from the outer side of the spool. Since each spool is marked "top" on one end, when inserting look for the mark and be guided accordingly. Should you insert the film spool wrong, the black paper backing would come between the film and the lens, thereby making the exposure upon the paper in place of the film, and when removing from the camera the film not being protected by the paper, the result will be a com- plete loss of the roll of film. The winding spool has a slot in one end, into which fits the flange of the winding key. 176. CAUTION. If you reel off too much of the black paper, before the camera is closed, the film will be un- covered and, of course, ruined. Be sure your camera is closed perfectly before unwinding the film. 177. After the kodak is closed, turn the key to the left, until the number 1 appears before the little red window in the back of the camera. The film is now in position for taking the first picture. 178. Double-two Film. We recommend what is known as the "double-two" films, as they are more conven- ient for your experiments. If you were to employ the six or twelve exposure films, there would be a loss of film as well as of time. This double-two film is for four exposures, and is so arranged that, after two exposures have been made, you can cut off the exposed film without any danger of Kodaks and Films. \ 1 5 fogging the two remaining ones. This is done by turning the black paper, which separates exposures 1 and 2 from 3 and 4, until the letter S (indicating Stop) appears at the little red window, which indicates the number of the ex- posure. 179. Now open your camera and cut the black paper where it is marked "cut here." Then insert the empty spool, saved from former exposed rolls, in place of the spool just removed. Attach the end of the black paper to this spool and proceed to load your kodak in the same manner as at first. Attach the end of the paper to the spool, close the camera and wind the film, until No. 3 shows, when you are ready for the third exposure. After you have made exposure No. 4, and previous to opening the camera to remove the film, be sure to wind the strip of black paper around the film. Wind until you hear the click of the paper being re- leased from the other spool. If you cannot secure the "double-two" films, get the six exposure films. They can be obtained from any dealer in photographic supplies. 180. Instantaneous Exposures. (Snap-shots.) Most of the box types of kodaks have shutters which are always set and are operated by pushing the lever alternately to right or left with the thumb. If the spring is pushed the wrong way, the shutter remains unmoved, and no "click" is heard. This, of course, means that the lever should be pushed in the opposite direction. The manipulation of other shutters is clearly defined in paragraphs 53 to 56 of Chapter II. 181. To take instantaneous pictures with box kodaks and the cheaper forms of folding kodaks, the object you are photographing should be in strong sunlight, but the camera 1 1 6 Library of Practical Photography. should never be pointed toward the sun, which should fall from the back or over the shoulder of the operator. 182. "Snap-shots" are made with the largest stop. If a smaller stop or opening is used, the volume of light is so much reduced that it will not sufficiently impress the image on the sensitive emulsion of the film, and failure results. For the use of stops see paragraph 60 of Chapter II. 183. Time exposures should not be made unless you place the kodak on something solid, as the slightest jar will cause a blur, or at least, an indistinct image. Therefore, it must rest on some firm support during the exposure. A regular tripod is the best, as you can adjust it to any height. Whether making instantaneous or time exposures, have the instrument perfectly level. In making interior pictures, give time exposures and never point the lens toward a window. If all of the windows cannot be excluded, pull down the shades of such as come into view of the camera. 184. Interior Exposures. The exposure necessary for interiors varies according to the light conditions and sur- roundings. By consulting the table below, you will be able to judge very closely the exposure necessary. This table is for the largest stop. If the kodak is of the box type, with three different openings, use the middle sized stop to obtain more sharpness, and double the time. When the smallest stop is used, give four times the exposure you would give with the largest opening. EXPOSURE TABLE. 185. White walls and more than one window: Bright sunlight outside, 2 seconds; hazy sun, 5 sec- onds; cloudy bright, 10 seconds; cloudy dull, 20 sec- onds. Kodaks and Films. 1 1 7 186. White walls and only one window: Bright sun outside, 3 seconds; hazy sun, 8 seconds; cloudy bright, 15 seconds; cloudy dull, 30 seconds. 187. Medium colored walls and hangings, and more than one window: Bright sun outside, 4 seconds; hazy sun, 10 seconds; cloudy bright, 20 seconds; cloudy dull, 40 seconds. 188. Medium colored walls and hangings and only one window : Bright sun outside, 6 seconds; hazy sun, 15 seconds; cloudy bright, 30 seconds; cloudy dull, 60 seconds. 189. Dark colored walls and hangings and more than one window : Bright sun outside, 10 seconds; hazy sun, 20 seconds; cloudy bright, 40 seconds; cloudy dull, i minute and 20 seconds. 190. Dark colored walls and hangings and only one window : Bright sun outside, 20 seconds; hazy sun, 40 seconds; cloudy bright, i minute, 20 seconds; cloudy dull, 2 minutes, 40 seconds. 191. This table is intended for rooms with windows receiving the direct light from the sky, and for the hours from three hours after sunrise until three hours before sunset. If earlier or later the time required will be longer. 192. Exterior Exposures. When the size of the dia- phragm of the lens is reduced to, say, about half, the light admitted through a lens is so much reduced that even out of doors a time exposure may be made just the same as for interior pictures ; but as the light out doors is much stronger the time exposure must be correspondingly shorter. With sunshine the shutter can hardly be opened and closed quick- ly enough to avoid over-exposure. With light clouds, from 1 18 Library of Practical Photography. one-half to one second will be enough. With heavy clouds, from two to five seconds exposure will be required. This is calculated for the time from three hours after sunrise until three hours before sunset, and for objects in the open light. For other times, or for objects in shadow, under porches or trees, no accurate directions can be given; in fact, experience only can teach you to give the proper ex- posure. Remember, that time exposures cannot be made while the camera is held in the hand. Always place it on some firm support tripod preferred. / Practice Work. 193. In order to become familiar with the proper tim- ing under all strengths of light, take your camera and load it with a double-two film. Select a sunshiny day, and a street that has bright sunlight on one side and shade on the other. Step into the middle of the street and photograph the view which is in bright sunlight, setting the speed of the shutter at % 5 , or if your camera is not equipped with a shutter of different speeds, use the instantaneous attach- ment, adjusting the view on the finder so that the far end of the street will show in the picture. Then make the ex- posure, after which turn off the exposed film until number 2 appears. Make another exposure identical with the first. Then wind off this exposure until number 3 appears, which means quite a number of turns (if a double-two film has been used), as a long strip of black paper separates number 2 from number 3. 194. If you have not used a tripod or some solid sup- port for the kodak in making the first two exposures, do so Kodaks and Films. 1 1 9 for the remaining two exposures, as one of these is to be a time exposure, and it is impossible to hold the camera steady even for one second. Now, without changing your original location, point the camera toward the shady side of the street and make another exposure, giving the same "snap-shot" time as you did on 1 and 2, after which wind up the exposed film until number 4 appears. Then set your shutter so as to make an exposure of one-half second, or if your camera is not equipped with a shutter that can be set at the different speeds, set it for time exposure, indicated on the dial by T. 195. When the shutter is set for a time exposure, you will have to press the bulb or button, or push the lever twice (depending on the kind of shutter you have). The first pressure opens the shutter and exposes the film ; the second pressure closes the shutter. If you open and close the shut- ter as quickly as possible (without jarring the camera), you will secure an exposure of about one-half second. In mak- ing time exposures, do not move the camera in the least, for in so doing you blur the image on the film. After making the fourth exposure, remove the film as previously directed. Three of these exposures are properly timed ; numbers 1 and 2 in strong sunlight and number 4 of the shady side of the street, to which you gave one-half second exposure. This one-half second exposure, made of the shady side of the street, will not affect the sensitive film any more than the snap-shot on the sunny side of the street did. Number 3, which is a snap-shot of the shady side of the street, will be under-timed and yield a very poor picture. Our object in having this under-timed exposure is to show that snap-shot exposures cannot be made of any subject in the shade. 1 20 Library of Practical Photography. 196. It is not necessary to use a street scene for these experiments. Any view will do which shows strong sun- light and shadow. You can apply the same method to a house first making an exposure from a point with the sun shining on the house, then making another exposure on the side in shadow. Both exposures will illustrate the same effect. With a 6-exposure film, expose numbers 5 and 6 on some public building or residence, making instantaneous ex- posures of both under different circumstances. 197. Removing Film from Kodak. No dark-room is required for changing the spools. The operation can be per- formed in the open air, but to avoid all liability of fogging the edges it is advisable to remove the film in a subdued light. When the last film has been exposed in the kodak give the key about a dozen turns, thus covering the film with black paper again. Remove the spool from the kodak in exactly the reverse manner in which you loaded it. Be sure that the black paper is wrapped tightly around the spool of film ; then fasten down the end of the black paper with the piece of gummed paper usually attached to the end of roll, or with a rubber band or piece of twine. It is further advisable to wrap this exposed film in black paper until you are ready to develop it. After removing an ex- posed film from the camera, take the empty spool from its recess and transfer to the winding side, bringing the slotted end of the spool, into which the key is to fit, opposite the keyhole and proceed to load the kodak with a new film, as at first directed. 198. Film Development. Read carefully the descrip- tion of a dark-room which is given in Chapter II, in para- graphs 95 to 98. With very few exceptions the development Kodaks and Films. 121 of a film is the same as of plates, and you will need pre- cisely the same outfit; viz., a good ruby lamp, four trays, a measuring glass, stirring rod, developer, and fixing chemicals. 199. Fill one of the trays nearly full of clear water and place this tray at your extreme left, on the developing table. Open one of the developing powders and dissolve according to the directions given in Chapter III, paragraph No. 117; then pour this solution into a second tray placing the tray Illustration No. 24. next to the water. Now close the dark-room door. To de- velop the film, unroll it and detach the entire strip from the black paper. Pass the film through the tray of clear water several times (see Illustration 24,) holding one end in each hand. This wets the surface of the film and enables the de- veloper to come in perfect contact with the emulsion, when the film is placed in the developer. Now pass the film through the developer in exactly the same manner as you did while wetting it, but face down. Keep the film contin- 1 22 Library of Practical Photography. ually in motion, and in about one minute the high-lights (the strongest lights) will begin to show up darker. The unexposed portions will be distinguishable from the exposed, and in about two minutes you will be able to make out various objects in the picture. 200. An improvement on the ordinary tray for de- veloping films will be found in the Ingento Film Trough. This trough is specially adapted for the developing of roll films by hand, as will be seen by Illustration No. 25. It is fitted with a rod adjusted near the bottom of the trough. The Illustration No. 25. film is slipped underneath this rod and drawn up and down during the development, the rod holding the film under the solution all the while. This trough is seven inches long, and will accommodate all sizes of films from 5x7 down to the smallest. The trough is supplied with wood or metal base; the latter is preferable, as its weight prevents the trough from tipping over, while the wood base would need to be fastened to the table. When this trough is employed, it may be filled with water and used for wetting the film, after which the water is poured off and developer poured into the trough and the film developed. Kodaks and Films. 1 23 201. If the film develops evenly it shows that all ex- posures were uniform, considering the amount of illumina- tion development may be completed without cutting them apart. The progress of development may be watched by holding the film up to the ruby light, from time to time. Read paragraph 124, of Chapter III, to judge when develop- ment is complete. If some exposures on the film flash up more quickly than the others, cut the film apart with a pair of shears and place the film in a tray of clear water. The cut films may be immersed in the developer and developed in the usual manner, carrying the over-exposures farther than the others, in order to secure the proper amount of contrast. When each film is completely developed, transfer to the third tray and rinse two or three times with clear, cold water. Then place in the "fixing bath." (See paragraph 125.) 202. Cutting Films. It is sometimes found preferable to cut the film up into the individual exposures before de- velopment. In this case you must exercise care in unroll- ing the film, so that the film does not roll up over the paper. The exposures should be cut apart with the paper on top. Cut by the marks appearing midway between the figures in the center of the black paper. In cutting Panoram films, follow the special instructions given in the manual accom- panying the Panoram camera. Proceed to develop the in- dividual films, according to the directions for developing the roll of film, keeping the face side of the film down, in order to prevent curling. 203. Rinsing Films. When the films are devel- oped rinse them in three changes of water, and then pass them into the acid fixing bath. This can be made up from the perpared fixing powders, which only call for the addi- 1 24 Library of Practical Photography. tion of water; or by the student himself, according to the following formula : 204. Formula for Acid Fixing Bath. Water 16 ounces Hyposulphite of Soda 4 ounces Sulphite of Soda 80 grains When this is fully dissolved add : Powdered Alum % ounce Citric Acid % ounce In place of the Citric Acid you may use 24 ounce Acetic Acid, but you must be sure that it contains 25 per cent, pure acid. 205. This bath can be used repeatedly so long as it re- tains its strength and remains sufficiently clear not to stain the film. The regular acid hypo fixing bath can be pur- chased in powdered form, ready for use, from any photo- graphic stock house. There should be sufficient fixing solu- tion in your tray to completely cover the films when im- mersed during the entire process of fixing, as otherwise the films will fix unevenly and stains will be produced if they are left partly exposed to the air. Non-curling films can be fixed in the plain hypo bath recommended for plates but when using this bath the films must be rinsed in three changes of clear water after fixing, and then placed into an alum bath prepared as follows: Water 16 ounces Alum (crystals) I ounce Of this solution decant into a tray enough of the clear liquid to cover the films, and allow them to remain in this bath O Kodaks and Films. 1 27 for five minutes; then wash in the ordinary manner. The alum hypo bath can be used continually until it becomes discolored or so exhausted that it will not harden the film. 206. Washing Films. The hypo must be thoroughly removed from the film. There are several ways of doing this. Place the film in a wash-bowl of cold water and allow it to soak, for five minutes each, in five changes of cold water, moving it about occasionally to insure the water acting uniformly upon it. Or, give it a couple of changes as above, and then leave the film for an hour in a bowl set under a tap of running water. 207. With a bath tub and a piece of pine board avail- able, the following is a very convenient way to wash film negatives : The board must be a little longer and a trifle wider than your strip of negatives. Pin the strip, back down (the back is the shiny side), upon the board, being careful not to touch the faces of the negatives with your fingers. Run cold water to a depth of six inches into the bath tub, and then float your board in the tub, film side down. The hypo, being heavier than the water, will go to the bottom of the tub, and in half an hour your films will be completely washed. The hypo cannot be removed from films by simply leaving these in a basin or tray of water. Hypo is heavier than water and sinks to the bottom, and the films, also, are heav- ier than water. Consequently, unless the water is contin- ually changing, or is changed every few moments, the films are never actually out of the hypo solution, and cannot thus be expected to become free of the hypo. Only by generous washing in fresh water can the hypo be properly removed from films or plates. 1 28 Library of Practical Photography. 208. Care of Wet Films. Owing to their flexibility, films stand greater chances of becoming injured and the emulsion separated from the celluloid support than do glass plates. Therefore, it is necessary to handle the film, in all of the various solutions, with exceptional care and the tem- perature of all the baths should never be over 65 Fahr. Especially is this true in summer or in hot climates, when you should have your developing tray placed in another tray of water containing a small piece of ice, or running water. 209. Drying Films, When thoroughly washed, re- move the surplus water from the film with a flat, soft rubber squeegee, a soft, damp cloth, or a damp ball of cotton, treat- ing both sides of the film alike. To do this lay the film on a piece of glass or on oilcloth, and pass the squeegee or damp cloth over it, being careful that there is no grit on the squee- gee or the cloth to scratch the film. Remove all the surplus moisture before hanging up to dry. If the moisture and tear drops are not removed they will cause transparent spots and streaks, which will show black in the print. Stretch a string across the corner of the room. Bend two pins like fish hooks. Push these through the corners of one end of the film to the heads, and hook one end of the film over the string ; or, use the metal or wooden photo clips which can be bought at any dealer's. After the films are dry, keep them flat by placing them in a book. 210. This instruction is intended to train the beginner in the use of the proper light, to make a snap-shot or time exposure, and also to serve as a primary lesson in devel- oping films. Kodaks and Films. 1 29 211. Kodoid Plates or Cut Films. Kodoid plates or cut films are used in the regular plate holders in the same manner as glass plates. They are, practically speaking, cut non-curling films, fastened on a card mount or support by retaining clips. As Kodoid plates are very rapid, and orthochromatic, they must be handled only in a safe ruby light to avoid fogging. To load your plate holders with the Kodoid plates proceed according to the directions given in Chapter II, paragraphs 92 and 93, for loading glass plates. After the exposure, and when you are ready to develop the negatives, remove the film from the mount by pulling off the retaining clips with a knife blade. Slip the film into the developer, with the face side down (the face is the dull side), keeping it moving to avoid air-bells. As soon as it is thor- oughly wet with developer it may be turned face up. The general manipulation during the development is the same as for the handling of roll film. 212. As with roll films, there is danger of the emulsion on Kodoid plates becoming soft, unless all solutions are maintained at a low temperature. After the Kodoid plate is developed, rinse it two or three times and transfer to a saturated solution of common alum for a couple of minutes. Then it can be placed in a plain hypo bath, made up of one ounce of hyposulphite of soda dissolved in four ounces of water, but if possible, employ an acid hypo bath ; then it is not necessary to place the film in the alum hardening solu- tion. The process of fixing, washing and drying must be carried on exactly as prescribed in paragraphs 202 to 209 for the fixing, washing and drying of roll and cut films. 213. Film Pack. The pleasure of making pictures, to those who desire to use a regular plate camera, is often 1 30 Library of Practical Photography. marred by the burden of glass plates which have to be car- ried. The student may not wish to buy a roll holder attach- ment which will accommodate roll films, and yet the weight and bulk of plates may deter him from much of the instruc- tion and pleasure he can gain with his camera. Also, there is a distinct advantage in being able to focus on the ground- glass and see each picture before the exposure, which is not practical with the folding film cameras. This problem has been worked out in a very simple and effective manner. The film pack is the solution, and the value of what, to many, has always been the most desirable of photographic instruments, namely, the plate camera, is thereby enor- mously increased. 214. The film pack consists of twelve flat cut films packed together in a light-proof paper case the size of an ordinary plate holder, with an opening on one side the exact size and shape of the film to be exposed. From the top of this case thirteen black paper tabs protrude, twelve of which are the ends of the black paper lying between each film, and the remaining one, marked "safety cover," being the end of the black paper which protects the entire pack from light. Each of the twelve tabs is numbered, the numbers referring to the different sheets of film to which the tabs are at- tached. 215. The complete pack weighs less than an ordinary plate holder, although containing material for twelve ex- posures instead of two. The operation of the film pack is to the last degree simple. There is an inexpensive adapter (see Illustration No. 26 of a Film Pack Adapter) to take the place of the plate holder and a film pack to take the place of the plates. The film pack can be loaded into the adapter Illustration No. 26 Film Pack See Paragraph No. 215 Illustration No. 260 Example of Fogging Caused by Failing to Wind Film Tightly on Spoo See Paragraph No. 229 Kodaks and Films. 1 33 in daylight, which is more simple and more convenient than loading the plate holder with dry plates. 216. After the picture is focused on the ground-glass, the adapter containing the film pack is inserted in the same manner as the regular plate holder. The label on the face of the pack should be broken previous to inserting it in the adapter. Having placed the adapter in position in the cam- era, remove the slide and pull out the tab on the film pack marked "safety cover," and film No. 1 is presented for expo- sure. When the exposure has been made, pull out from the pack the tab marked No. 1, which operation rolls film No. 1 around to the back of the pack, leaving No. 2 presented for exposure. This exposure being made, tab No. 2 is pulled out and film No. 3 is ready. Repeat the operation, removing the exposed films one at a time, as additional exposures are to be made. 217. As each tab is drawn out it must not be left at- tached to the pack, as it is of no further use. It should be torn off across the metal edge and thrown away. When all the tabs are pulled out and torn off, the pack is exhausted and has been automatically made light-tight by the pulling out of the last tab. The pack may then be taken from the camera in daylight and replaced by a fresh one. With the film pack one can make the whole twelve exposures in as many seconds. If one desires to focus on the ground-glass be- tween each exposure, replace the dark slide and, like a plate holder, the adapter containing the film pack may be safely removed. 218. If you desire to substitute plates for films, you can readily do so, as the adapter and pack may be removed at any time. Plate holder and plate can be substituted for 1 34 Library of Practical Photography. any desired exposure, the film operation being afterward resumed by the insertion of the adapter containing the pack. 219. CAUTION. When pulling out any black tab with one hand press the remaining tabs under your finger or thumb of the other hand. This will prevent the possibility of pulling out of more than one tab at a time. 220. The films used in the film pack do not curl upon development. Like roll films, they are non-halation, and also orthochromatic to a marked degree, being very sensitive to yellow, which makes them very rapid and of special value on dull or "yellow" days. The films are, of course, un- breakable and can be sent through the mail. 221. Another feature of the film pack is, that any num- ber of films can be removed and developed without touching the unexposed films remaining in the pack. To remove one or more films for development, before the entire pack is ex- posed, proceed as follows: 222. Removing Films from Film Pack. Take the camera or adapter to the dark-room, remove the pack and break the red seal at the sides, near the bottom, which will open the pack, thus giving access to the exposed films. Af- ter removing the exposed films, the pack can be replaced, without sealing, in the camera or adapter before leaving the dark-room, when everything is ready for additional expos- ures. The films are attached to black paper supports at one end and they may be readily separated, but care should be exercised when separating the paper, for tearing them apart quickly will, by the friction, cause electric sparks which will generally fog the film. One may develop the films singly if desired. The paper supports are numbered to correspond Kodaks and Films. 1 37 with the tabs, so that by noting a given exposure, at the time of making it, proper treatment may be given this par- ticular film. 223. Developing Film Pack Negatives. Throughout the process of development, etc., care should be taken not to touch the face of the film. After the film is placed in the developer, the tray should be kept constantly in motion until the desired density is obtained. This film should be placed in all the solutions face downward. 224. The development of the films used in the film pack is identical with that of the cut films, or of the dry plate, with the exception that the latter is developed face up. For developing we recommend the prepared powders referred to in the Film Instruction. 225. If a number of films are to be fixed together in one tray, they should be put in one at a time, face down, to avoid scratching, and they should be handled over occasion- ally to avoid matting together and insure thorough fixing. After fixing, wash thoroughly before drying. Use the regu- lar Hypo Acid Fixing Bath. 226. To dry, pin the film up by one corner to the edge of a shelf or similar projection, being sure that it swings clear of the wall in order that nothing may come in contact with either side until thoroughly dry. CHAPTER VI. KODAKS AND FILMSDIFFICULTIES. 227. Loading Roll Film in Kodak. No difficulty will be ex- perienced if, in loading the roll into the kodak, you follow the instructions which accompany each roll of film. If the spool does not slip into place easily you no doubt are handling it so that the ends of the spool are not parallel with the sides of the camera. It is necessary, in some of the types of kodaks, to pull out or turn to the left the little pins which hold the film in place. These pins extend through each side of the camera and must be withdrawn previous to the insertion of the spool. The spool will then drop into its proper position; after which the pins are turned or pushed in so as to. fit snugly into the center of the spool. After tearing loose the paper band that keeps the black paper from unwinding, unroll enough of the black paper to reach the winding spool, and as soon as you have fastened it into this spool, give it a couple of turns. 228. The back is now replaced so as to exclude all light from the interior. Keep on turning the spool until you see in the little red window the hand or the number 1; if instead of a number a white surface suddenly comes before the red window, you may know immediately that you have placed the roll of film in the holder wrong. The film, in place of drawing from over the top of the roll, is very likely drawing from underneath; consequently the film side of the roll is facing out instead of in toward the lens; in other words, the black paper is between the film and the lens. Before winding any further from the spool, take the camera to your dark-room and remove both spools; wind the black paper and film back to the original spool and then reinsert the spools in posi- tion properly. (139; 140 Library of Practical Photography. 229. Winding Film in Kodak. Illustration 26 a shows a sec- tion of film which was not wound tightly on the spool, the portion of it buckling outward, thus admitting a streak of light which caused the fog across the middle of the film negative and also the fog at the sides. Care must always be exercised to keep the spool tightly wound in the camera and also tightly wound when removing it from the holder. Immediately after removing the exposed roll from the camera fasten the end of the black paper with the strip of gummed paper which accompanies the spool; or you can use a rubber band. Previous to inserting the roll of film in the camera, be sure that the shutter is closed; for, after you have placed the film into position for the first exposure, should the lens be opened you will immediately fog the film. Having once unrolled the film the shutter must be always kept closed, except when making exposures. 230. Double Exposure on a Film. After you have made the first exposure, turn the winding key until the figure 2 appears at the little red window, at the rear of the camera, indicating that the film is ready for the next picture. Should you neglect to turn the film immediately after making exposure, you are very apt to make a double exposure on the section which has already been exposed. 231. Double and Blurred Images. Double and blurred images will occur, when making time exposures, if the object moves; or the camera itself may have been moved or shaken during the exposure. For all time exposures the instrument must remain perfectly rigid (unmoved) during the exposure. It is very essential to have a tripod, although for interior work it is feasible to set the camera on a small table or stand and secure satisfactory results, but the tripod is more convenient. 232. Development Difficulties. The difficulties which occur in development will be practically the same as those described under the difficulties given for developing the dry plate. 233. Streaks and Light Spots Caused During Development. Difficulties will occur when the film has not been properly i. e. completely immersed in the developer at the very start. Soak the film, for half a minute or so, in clear water, before placing it in Kodaks and Films Difficulties. 141 the developer, thus softening the emulsion to a certain extent and wetting its surface so that the developer may immediately begin its action on all portions at identically the same time. Place the film in the developer with the emulsion (dull) side down and keep it moving in the developer. 234. White Spots on Film After Fixing. This would indicate that the film was not entirely immersed in the hypo, or that parts of the film had become stuck together, thus preventing these white portions from becoming fixed. Always handle and separate the film a few times during fixing. 235. Pencil Lines on Film. These are caused in two distinctly different ways: First, if there is any dust in the camera or if the rollers over which the film runs are not absolutely smooth, the film will be scratched or the dust in the camera, collecting on these rollers, will cause black scratches and streaks longitudinally across the developed film. Second, should you draw the film with the emulsion side down through the developer, so that the film strikes the bottom of the tray, it is likely to be scratched. Abrasion marks will immediately appear, which reproduce in the finished print as white lines. 236. Since there is no way of remedying these lines and streaks upon the film, exercise the greatest of care, when developing the film, not to allow its surface to come in contact with anything excepting the solution. In fact, this caution must be observed during every stage of the handling of the film, from the removal from the camera to the placing in the printing frame. Do not allow your fingers to come in contact with either side of the film, even when it is dry. When it is necessary to handle the film, take hold of the extreme edges only. All films on the market at the present time are non-curling, and during the process of manufac- ture, in order to make them non-curling, both sides of the celluloid support are coated with gelatin. The gelatin on the back of the film, however, is not sensitized, but is merely a coating to keep the film from curling. 237. Blank Spaces in the Developed Roll Film. Should you observe spaces in the film that are entirely blank, you have either 142 Library of Practical Photography. very much undertimed that particular exposure or else your shutter did not work and no exposure was given. Upon developing further, should an exposure, which at the beginning appeared perfectly blank, commence to build up a trifle, cut out this film and place it in a tray of clear water. Let it remain there until you have com- pleted the development of the film; then, take this under-exposed section of the film and place it in fresh developer. It should im- mediately commence to build up in density and in detail, although, in the majority of cases of under-exposure, the film will gain but little strength and it will be necessary to again place the film back into clear water, where it should remain undisturbed for five min- utes or so. Repeat this operation from the clear water to the developer a number of times, allowing the film to remain in each for a period of four or five minutes. By this means you will obtain all the strength and detail possible in an under-exposed film. While in the developer remember the film should be kept in con- tinual motion. This will assist the development and also prevent spots; but, while in the water the film should not be disturbed. 238. Black Sections in the Roll Film. After placing the roll film in the developer, should certain exposures flash up black all over, it is a sign of fog or extreme over-exposure. In that case, nothing can be done to save it and all attention should be given to the remaining exposures. 239. Securing Uniform Exposures on Roll Film. Those using roll film should make an effort to secure exposures as uniform as possible, as that will greatly facilitate work in the dark-room, and will also produce superior results. Time exposures and snapshots, to be successful, should not be made on the same roll of film. If they are, carefully judge the time necessary, so that long exposures in subdued or weak light will not have a greater effect on the film than the snap-shot in bright sunlight. Judge your light before making the exposure. If extremely strong, or should you be mak- ing snow pictures, with bright sunlight shining upon the snow, stop your lens down to f/i6 or f/32 and use the instantaneous shut- ter or the 1-50 of a second. Then, when you come to make an exposure, on the same roll of film, of a dark object in the shade, use the lens practically wide open and give what you think the Kodaks and Films Difficulties. 143 proper exposure; i. e., a corresponding exposure according to the light, which would be about one-half second. If you wish to make an interior of a room, not very well lighted, stop down to secure the desired depth of sharp focus. If you stop down to f/64 it may be necessary to give a minute's exposure to get a fully timed negative. 240. It is difficult to give absolutely correct directions for the making of the exposure, as light conditions are so different in almost every case, that it is necessary to experiment and to exer- cise considerable judgment. 241. Difficulties with Cut Films, Film Pack, Etc. The difficul- ties we have mentioned in the development of a roll film will apply equally to all cut films. Cut films should be developed face side down, and care must be exercised not to rub the edges of the film, which will loosen the emulsion from the celluloid support; nor must the edges of the film be allowed to come in contact with the emulsion side of any other film, as the result would be scratches and torn sections upon that film. 242. Softening of the Film. In warm weather there is always a tendency for the emulsion to become soft, which will result in blisters and excessive frilling around the edges. The temperature of the developer should never be over 65 Fahr. in summer, and it is very advisable to use an acid fixing bath, which will harden the emulsion on the film and do away with any possibility of its soften- ing when placed in the final wash water. 243. Drying. Films must be hung up to dry and never allowed to come in contact with any material whatever, for that material will stick to the film and ruin it. CHAPTER VII. Tank Developing for Films. No Dark-Room Necessary. 244. Of all methods of developing films the develop- ing machine or tank is the simplest, and with this sim- plicity is included the possibility of the very finest results. 245. By the tank method, of course, the action of the developer upon the film is all concealed you see nothing until the negatives are completely developed, and, therefore, were you to begin your instruction with tank development you would not have a real knowledge of negative develop- ing. For this reason it is essential that anyone intending to become thoroughly proficient in negative making first learn to develop in an open tray, where they can watch the operation and see what they are doing, and observe the progress of development of the latent image. In this way alone will you learn to understand and know what is to be expected from films exposed under various conditions. With a knowledge of the process of development based upon this practical experience, simplified methods may be employed and the developing tank brought into practical use. 246. From the foregoing it must not be inferred that the developing tank cannot be used from the very begin- ning. It can be employed successfully before the student has any experience with tray development whatever, but it is not possible for that student to have the practical knowl- (i4S) 1 46 Library of Practical Photography. edge of negative making that is so essential if his individu- ality is to count for anything in his work. 247. For the amateur who cares nothing about the whys and wherefores whose only desire is to secure rec- ords of vacation scenes, home surroundings, etc., for the pleasure of having such records, doing away with all bother then the tank may be employed from the start. On the other hand, however, if negative making is to be thoroughly understood, then tray development, where one can watch the image grow, must be employed. Only with a knowledge of what is to be accomplished thoroughly impressed upon the mind can one appreciate the advantage of tank develop- ment and employ it intelligently. 248. The best known