UC-NRLF CO CN pv r*^ 10 EXCHANGE LIBRIS 30-1210-lm-438J BULLETIN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS FOUR TIMES A MONTH NO. 188 EXTENSION SERIES, NO 17 |UNF 22, 1911 NOTES ON SCHOOL OBSERVATION THE PHYSICAL NATURE OF THE CHILD BY BIRD T. BALDWIN, Associate Professor of Education, the University of Texas. PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AUSTIN. TEXAS Entered as second class mail matter at the postoffice at Austin, Texas AUSTIN PRINTING COMPANY AUSTIN. TEXAS 1911 EXCHANGE Cultivated mind is the guardian genius of democracy. . . . It ifi the only dictator that freemen ac- knowledge and the only security that freemen desire. President Mirabeau B. Lamar. NOTES ON SCHOOL OBSERVATION This Bulletin forms a part of the introduction to a course in School Observation which the author is giving in The University of Texas. The course may also be taken through the Extension Department of the University by principals, supervisors, and teach- ers who wish to carry out observations in connection with their school work. All reports and answers to the questions will be evaluated and checked by the instructor. Similar bulletins will be issued on Instinct and Play, Fatigue, Individual Differences, Dis- cipline, and the Recitation. A series of bulletins on Practice Teach- ing will be published later. All of these bulletins will aim to deal with fundamental problems in an elementary manner. Teachers who wish to take this work should register in the Department of Extension. BIRD T. BALDWIN. Austin, Texas, 1911. M523681 THE PHYSICAL NATURE OF THE CHILD IN HIS SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT. It is now conceded by all educators that it is very important for teachers to have a rather complete knowledge of the physical growth of school children, but the important practical problem is, "What shall the teacher observe and how shall he make the observations sufficiently definite and accurate to be of help to both teacher and pupils?" Let us first select the phases of the physical nature of the child which may be observed by any teacher who is willing to use a little perseverance and time. They are> growth in height and weight; chest girth; breathing capacity; head girth; cephalic index; symmetry of body; posture; the teeth; enlarged tonsils; adenoids; nasal obstructions; nutrition and sense defects. With a few ex- ceptions observations may be made in a general way without per- sonal inspection and examination, but there is no reason why a teacher should not make personal individual inspection of every child in his room and construct a record card for the sixteen head- ings outlined in this bulletin. The observational method of studying children which is here recom- mended is one that may be made just as scientific as the observer's training and opportunities permit. . It is a method which takes the physiology into the schoolroom and applies it to practical everyday problems; the directions offered are those which can be followed by the average trained teacher. The advantages of such a method are at once apparent because the material is always at hand, obser- vations of a very practical nature may be undertaken, and the teacher is led to adjust her instruction to the individual needs of pupils. The chief difficulty involved in the method is that teachers at first find it difficult to observe their children and teach them at the same time, but principals, teachers and student observers, who have care- fully undertaken the work with prepared outlines, claim they soon become very accurate observers and that there is no interference with their actual work of instruction. They learn to observe the chil- dren as they pass to and from classes, during the study period, during the intermission or rest pauses, or during special periods .in the day set aside for observing, measuring and testing. As a result teachers are soon led to see for themselves that children differ greatly from each other and from adults, and, therefore, different standards and methods are applicable. Attention is drawn to the physical and mental development and directly to the learning process. In short, the teacher is brought face to face with the problem of how children learn, which is the center of reference for all good teaching. Educational psychologists have necessarily been interested in the relationship of mind and body, but it is only recently that they have extended their study beyond the senses and noted how physical ab- normalities and defects condition mental development. One is also surprised to find how little the average teacher and student observe in regard to tho physical nature of the child. Principals and teachers 6 Bulletin of The University of Texas who are college graduates with experience are found to be unable to measure children correctly, note the common signs of abnormalities or test for the acuity of the senses. The observing teachers and students will wish to supplement this general outline with some further information on the work of the medical inspector or physical director and, also, to consult freely the classified list of appended references. The main purpose is to help teachers to detect gross deformities and pronounced physical de- fects, to appreciate the educational significance of the relation of the body to the mind and to develop the desire to appeal to expert authority when conditions seem to require it. In no case should the teacher assume the role of the physician or the expert. This syllabus, as outlined above, is designed for students attend- ing class exercises in training schools and universities or for teach- ers actively engaged in school work. The observations are divided into two groups : (A) those which are made by means of personal inspection, examination, and measurement, and (B) some general observations to be made in the school room or in the laboratory. Either group of observations may be pursued independently, but the one naturally supplements the other. No elaborate apparatus is nec- essary; the aim has been to keep the scope of the work within the experience of a trained teacher. The interrogative form of suggestion has been used in connection with each topic in order to arouse definite, specific questions in the mind of the observer. In nearly all cases a few answers to these questions have been given. It is not expected any student or teacher will be able to answer all the questions or to include all the observations after one or two visits. Some of the questions require consecutive observations from day to day, and a few refer to exceptional conditions. All are prac- tical and each has been based on active schoolroom conditions. Careful notes should be recorded in a permanent note book in such a manner that they will be self-explanatory and accessible for future reference. The following order is suggested: (a) the name of the observer; (b) the name of the school; (c) the grade; (d) the subject; (e) the size of the class; (f) the time of day; (g) the date ; (h) a brief statement of the purpose of the observations, and a careful written summary of the results. Record blanks or cards similar to the one given on the last page of this Bulletin should be made so that consecutive records can be kept for the entire school life of each individual; these should be kept within easy access of the teacher's desk for ready reference. I. HEIGHT. II. WEIGHT. Height and weight are among the best indices of growth and nutrition. Observations lead us to conclude children vary according to race, sex, heredity, and stae-e of development. The latter, which is of direct concern to the teacher, varies in accordance with facts which may be observed. The growth is most rapid during- the first year of childhood, there is a slight acceleration at seven and a Notes on School Observation 1 decided increase from twelve to eighteen, with marked sex differences at adolescence, the increase appearing with girls earlier than with boys, and the rapid growth and advent of maturity appearing first with tall boys and tall girls. (For details see table and charts on pages 8, 10, and 11. The averages here are a trifle above those found by nearly all other investigators. The children were niide in all cases.) The most rapid growth period for boys who are taller than the average is from 13 to 14 years of age, and for those below the average 14 to 15 years of age ; for girls above the average the most rapid growth is between 11% and 12% years of age ; for those below, between 12% and 13% years of age. These periods of adolescence are the periods of greatest range of differences in height for both boys and girls. The results of my investigations show marked indi- vidual differences, and prove that a composite curve of average measurements from different groups of individuals cannot give an accurate conception of growth, since the characteristics of different types of the same chronological age, but different physiological ages, tend to obliterate each other. (These conclusions, Chart I and Fig- ures II and III are from a preliminary report of an investigation which has been extended and will be published by the United States Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C.) It is more difficult for teachers to get the weight of- children than to get their height, since scales are not often available. The weights of children fluctuate a great deal more than the heights, but in general the curves of weight follow the curves of height. The lower forms of mentally deficient children, such as idiots, imbeciles and feeble-minded, are larger than normal children at birth, but usually fall below the normal children during the school period. 8 Bulletin of The- I'nh-f rsily of TABLE I. HEIGHT AND AGE DISTRIBUTION AND WEIGHT AND AGE DISTRI- BUTION, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO ELEMENTARY AND HIGH toCHOOL AND FRANCIS W. PARKER SCHOOL CHILDREN. Median height in Median weight in centimeters. pounds. Boys. Girls. Boys. Girls. 6 116 114 48 46 6% 119 118 52 47 7 : 121 121 52 48 7% 125 124 56 49 8 128 125 58 52 8% 131 127 61 54 9 132 130 59 59 9% 137 131 63 60 10 137 136 68 65 10y 2 139 138 69 66 11 138 141 72 67 11% 142 144 73 73 12 146 146 77 76 12% 146 149 78 84 13 150 153 87 96 13% 152 155 88 96 14 155 157 93 103 14V 2 159 158 103 104 15 . . 164 159 106 112 15% 165 159 109 112 16 -. 167 160 113 109 16% 167 161 115 113 17 170 160 125 114 17% 171 163 128 116 Total number of cases 1587 2372 1464 2101 Total number of individuals 813 903 580 843 Fig. I Stadiometer. Notes on School Observation 9 A. INDIVIDUAL OBSERVATION AND INSPECTION. In order to have a basis for intelligent comparison every teacher should accurately measure and weigh a few children. The height measurement may be taken with a measuring rod or tape tf no stadiometer is accessible, deductions being made for the heels of the shoes. The person measuring should be careful to see that the child is standing straight, with heels to- gether, and heels, upper part of the back and head against the measuring rod, and in a natural position. Measurements will vary a little at different times of day and with different measurers; try to keep a standard method of procedure as far as possible. The measurements may be taken either In the English or French system of units, but the latter is more easily used in making comparative studies. If no scales are available the teacher may as a last resource ask the child its weight; this, as a rule, is not a reliable source of information. Deductions should be made for clothing if the child is weighed. All records should be compared with those of the medical inspector or physical director and with the norms in the chart on page 8. 1. Give measurements for height. For weight. Compare in tabulated form with the norms on the preceding page and note whether the child's growth is arrested or above normal. In making such comparisons keep in mind such modifying factors as race, heredity, environmental conditions, etc. Make a careful table showing your results. CURVES OF INDIVIDUAL GROWTH IN HEIGHT AND WEIGHT. These charts represent graphically the growth in height and weight of 14 boys and 11 girls. The charts were plotted on large white sheets of linen paper, six feet by three feet, and were reduced, when photo- graphed, to the size printed in this monograph. Originally 10 centimeters in the vertical scale equalled 10 centimeters in height, and 10 centimeters horizontally equalled 12 months in time; 10 centimeters vertically also equaled 10 pounds in weight. The Roman numbers at the beginning and end of the curves refer to individuals. There are many characteristics to be noted in these charts that are common to the growth of children in general, i. e., the advent of pubescent acceleration is directly correlated with the initial height at this period. There is a parallelism in growth which is so uniform that if the relative position of a child is known in reference to a given median at a given age it is possible to prophesy quite accurately the height to which the child will grow at any age after this and before eighteen years. The majority of normal children grow in accordance with the general trend of these curves; there are some children whose growth is more irregular than these charts would seem to indicate; there are others whose growth rates are more uniform with no acceleration at adolescence. There is a moderate decrease in increments after six or seven years of age, until the pubescent stage which varies in advent in accordance with the height of the individual. Follow each curve for height and see how individuals differ. Compare the growth in height and weight for each individual. Compare boys and girls. Number 2 in Fig. II is a tall, heavy boy. Number 1 in Fig. Ill is a tall girl who weighed 150 pounds when 12 years three months old. 10 Jiullcfiii of The University of T<.r Notes on School Observation Growth Curves in Height and Weight for Girls. 11 Cws: ins W-70&G t 7 89 II 12 13 14 15 It 17 *rr. L.S3. K6S !60 72.CN 150 8.039 I40-C3L502, DO 38.3C7 120=54.431 IM win UAL . o . CJ p- JRV C5 " - (170 tco H UN :iGHh~Ar tR5fTYUGHIC Ar 1DW w El to LlGh T >> ^ / HlGf i iur DDL bl ^L5 / x^ - / - ^ -- $ ~~~^-^ --^-, 'I55-C/.02J 150 145 #063 40 0553150 130 125 -49.21: I2U 11545.2?* lie; IDS 41 "W5 / x J x / //> / / X /' / X X /" ^. 7 // x ^ ; I / X^ ' / '/' / i x 7 x , / / 1 / 7 l \ / / r - v | MO-45359 3045.823 80OS.2B7* 70=31.752 6027252 50=22.664 / ^ ^ // I c 7 / ^ f z 2 2 / x / m "/ ^ / / x X X {^ x ,/ >5 ^ a f*. ^ X XX ^ / X VLI "T--P 2 Fig. III. 12 nullclin of Th< (' itii'crsihj of Texas B. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 1. Observe for cases of normal development, over development, and arrested physical development. 2. What physical defects have interfered with normal development in height and weight lameness, blindness, lack of nutrition, etc.? 3. What are the noticeable effects of arrested physical development under size, not well proportioned, etc.? 4. What are the probable causes of arrested development accidents, impure air, etc.? 5. What possible helps lie within the power of the teacher syste- matic exercise, directions for right habits of living, etc.? 6. Describe in detail the characteristic changes observable at ado- lescence rapid growth, emotional stress, etc. 7. In what way does the development of girls differ at adolescence from boys rapid growth appears first, etc.? References: Hastings, W'm. W. A Manual of Physical Measurements, Boys and Girls, with Anthropometric Tables for each height of each age, from five to twenty years. Macmillan Co., N. Y. Searer, Jay W. Anthropometry. O. A. Dorman Co., New Haven. Baldwin, B. T. Individual Differences in the Correlation of Physical Growth of Elementary and High School Pupils. J. of Ed. Psychol., II: 150-151. Boas, F. W. Growth of Toronto Children. Rep. U. S. Com. Ed., 1896-7:1541. Boas, F. W. Growth of Children. Sci., N. S., V: 570. Burk, F. Growth of Children in Height and Weight. Am. Jour. Psy., IX:253-326. Bryan, E. B. Nascent Stages and Their Significance. Ped. Sem., VII: 357-398. Porter, W. S. Growth of St. Louis Children. Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, VI, No. 12. III. CHEST GIRTHS. IV. LUNG CAPACITY. It is highly important that teachers pay more attention to the development of the pupil's lung capacity, not only because there is a close correlation between physical growth and breathing capacity, but because the breathing capacity may be greatly in- creased through proper exercise. This may be accomplished through out-door gymnastics, -through systematic breathing exercises, and through correct posture. At adolescence, boys begin to have a strik- ingly greater capacity than girls, and the girls need special atten- tion at this period. A. INDIVIDUAL OBSERVATION AND INSPECTION. These measurements are so important that they are frequently referred to as indices of vital capacity. It is important the tape be kept uniformly taut around the chest just below the arms. The child should be asked to take a deep, full breath in order to get the measurement for forced inhalation and to exhale as completely as possible in order to get the measurement for forced exhalation. The lung capacity of girls falls below boys at twelve years of age; future development may be impaired by dress, posture, etc. Lung capacity is tested by means of a spirometer. If a spirometer is not at hand, a comparative method may be devised which may suggest, together with the measurements of chest expansion, unusual conditions of lung capacity. For example, try the blowing out of a wax taper or the blowing over of a light block at distances which have become standardized through ex- periments on normal children. These are crude and inaccurate tests, but they may help to suggest unusual cases. Notes on School Observation 13 Fig. IV. Spirometer. 1. Make a table of the measurements for each child measured. 2. Do these measurements indicate shallow respiration or lack of lung capacity? 3. Compare the measurements of different children at all ages and give your conclusions, taking into consideration the child's experience in taking deep breaths, the teacher's experience in measuring, and the deductions for clothing. 4. Does the ability to take a deep breath and hold it vary with dif- ferent children? Why lack of voluntary control, inexperience, etc.? 5. Is there any relation between extremes in chest girth and habits of exercise the athlete, "book worm," etc.? B. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 1. Enumerate the varieties of chests noted flat chest, pigeon breast, etc. 2. What natural positions of children in school tend to increase chest capacity sitting erect, correct standing, etc.? 3. How does sitting too close to a desk affect chest development? 4. What efforts are made in schools to develop the chest deep breathing, calisthenics, etc.? 5. Describe the ventilation in the room. References: (See Height and list of books on last page.) Gilbert, J. A. Researches upon School Children and College Students. University of Iowa Studies, 1:1-39. Smedley, F. Report of Child Study Development. Chicago Board of Education, XL VI: (No. 2), 1-72. Whipple, G. Vital Capacity Manual of Mental and Physical Tests. Warwick & York, Baltimore, 1910:70-74. V.. HEAD GIRTHS. VI. CEPHALIC INDEX. There is no direct evidence that the size and the shape of skull ar closely related to intelligence, but there are limitations byond which the relationship is quite apparent. Extremes are found among men- tally deficient children and are known as microcephalic, or very small Bkull, and macrocephalic, or very large skull, and hydrocephalic, or progressive development of the skull after normal growth. The circumference of the head is as a rule greater for boys than for girls. 14: Jinll