TX UC-NRLF SB 31 7Mb B3 Sixth Series. No. 1 1 January 30, 1915 3fc arfjprs (Enlteg? lulblttt AN OUTLINE ON THE HISTORY OF COOKERY BY ANNA BARROWS AND BERTHA E. SHAPLEIGH ASSISTED BY ANNE D. BLITZ School of Practical Arts, Teachers College, Columbia University Technical Education Bulletin, No. 28 PRICE, 28 CENTS Published by (EnlUg?, (Eulumbta Unittrrattjj 525 West 120th Street New York City QJrarljprB GlaUrn? Published fortnightly from September to May inclusive. Entered as second class matter January 15, 1910, at the New York, N. T., Post Office, under act of July 16, 1894. QJr central lEfiurattnn UnlUttna (Sent post free on receipt of price named. Address, Publication Bureau, (Teachers College.) No. 1. Economic Function of Woman. Edward T. Devine, Ph.D., Pro- sor of Social Economy, Columbia University. 16 pp., 10 c. No. 2. Annotated List of Books Relating; to Household Arts. 42 pp.. 15 c. (Out of print.) Reprinted as No. 24. No. 3. The Feeding; of Young Children. Mary Swartz Rose, Ph.D.. Assistant Professor of Nutrition. Teachers College. 10 pp.. 10 c. No. 4. Hints on Clothing. Professor Mary Schenck Woolman. 8 pp., 10 c. No. 5. Quantitative Aspects of Nutrition. Henry C. Sherman, Ph.D., Head of Department of Nutrition and Pood Emonomics, School of Practical Arts. 15 pp., 10 c. No. . Annotated List of Boolrs Relating to Industrial Arts and In- dustrial Education. 50 pp., 15 c. No. 7. Determination of Linen nnd Cotton. Dr. Herzog. Translated by Ellen A. Beers, B.S. 24 ill., 2 color prints. 25 c. No. S. Syllabus on Household Management. Mary Louise Furst, A. B., Lecturer in Household Management, Teachers College. 10 c. No. . The Girl of To-morrow What the School Will Do For Her- Benjamin R. Andrews, Ph.D. 8 pp., 10 c. No. 1O. Fundamental Values in Industrial Education. Frederick G. Bonser, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Industrial Education. Teachers College. Reprinted with Dean Russell's School and Industrial Life. 30 c. No. 11. Annotated List of Text and Reference Books for Training Schools for Nurses. 64 pp., 25 c. No. 12. Address List for Illustrative Materials and Laboratory Supplies for Instruction in Household Arts. Reprinted as No. 20. 10 c. No. 13. A Dietary Study in a Children's Hospital. Mary Swartz Rose. Ph.D., Assistant Professor, and Harriet C. Jacobson, Depart- ment of Nutrition, School of Practical Arts, Teachers College 16 pp., 10 c. No. 14. A Year's Work in the Industrial Arts in the Fifth Grade, Speyer School. Clara B. Stilmar. M.A. 36 pp., 15 c. !>io. 15. Industrial Education and the Labor Unions. Frank Duffy 14 pp., 10 c. No. 1. Schools of the Art Industries A New Type of School in the Public School System. Frederick H. Sykes, Ph.D., formerly Director of Practical Arts, Teachers College. 12 pp., 5 c. No. 17. Constructive Art-Teaching. Arthur W. Dow, Professor of Fine Arts, Teachers College. 12 pp., 5 c. No. IS. Canned Foods: Fruits and Vegetables. Florence R. Corbett, formerly Instructor in Household Arts Education, Teachers College. 16 pp., 10 c. No. 1. Physical and Chemical Tests for thfe Housewife. Sadie B. Van- derbilt, Instructor in Household Chemistry, Teachers Collee-e 16 pp., 10 c. \o. 20. Address List for Equipment and Supplies for Instruction in Household Arts. Reprint of No. 12. 16 pp., 10 c. No. 21. Outline of a Course in Elementary Clothing and Handwork Ruth Penfield Sill, Instructor in Household Arts, Teachers College. 16 pp., 10 c. No. 22. Some Attempts to Standardize Oven Temperatures for Cookery Processes. May B. Van Arsdale, Asst. Professor of House- hold Arts. Teachers College. 16 pp., 10 c. No. 23. Food for School Boys and (iirlw. Mary Swar.tz Rose, PhD Assr Professor of Nutrition, Teachers College. 16 pp., 10 c. '' No. 24. Reprint of No. 2, with revisions and additions. 15 c. No. 25. A Year's \Vork in Industrial Arts, Third Grade, Speyer School. 22 pp., 15 c. No. 26. A Survey of Your Household Finances. Benjamin R. Andrews. No. 27. Some Food Facts. Mary Swartz Rose. 8 pp., 5 c. Opportunities in Household and Institutional Administration. School nf Practical Arts, Teachers College. 16 pp., free. Floor Plans ol Household Arts Buildings, Teachers College, Columhi I ni versify. 4 pp., free. Sixth Scrie., No. 1 1 January 30, 1915 lulbttn AN OUTLINE ON THE HISTORY OF COOKERY BY ANNA BARROWS AND BERTHA E. SHAPLEIGH i ASSISTED BY ANNE D. BLITZ School of Practical Arts, Teachers College, Columbia University Technical Education Bulletin. F!o. 28 PRICE, 28 CNT& Published by Sfearlpra QJullrgr, (Uulitmbta Hnmrreity 525 West 120th Street New York City 4 TECHNICAL EOT/CATION BULLETIN II. All of these processes are dependent on stage of advance in civil- ization. III. All pass through successive stages, as do all other processes, from extremely simple to extremely complex. IV. There is no possibility of hard-and-fast chronology, as we find extremely complex stage of civilization existing side by side with, and exerting strong influence upon, extremely simple stage, e.g., Rome and Britain at time of Caesars; America and Philippines. V. Civilization proceeds in successive waves. The older cultures, each in turn, pass through all periods of development from savagery through barbarism to civilization ; from simplicity and frugality to luxury, extravagance, then to decay, and to a merging with a neighboring civilization in early stages of development, e.g., Egypt and Persia ; Greece and Rome ; Roman Empire and Franks. VI. Question of food is inextricably bound with four other factors in civilization : 1. Climate and geographic limitations. 2. Shelter. 3. Production and control of fire. 4. Utensils. FIRE I. DISCOVERY. 1. Legendary. India Vedas ; Phoenicia; Greece Prometheus, Hephaestus, Zeus; Persia; Rome Vulcan, Vesta; Scandi- navia; Aztecs; American Indians. 2. Natural sources. a. Lightning setting fire to vegetation. b. Sparks struck in working flints. II. CONTROL. Preservation of fire kindled naturally. Artificial kindling. Friction of two pieces of dry wood; fire-drill later develop- ment of this process. b. Striking of flints to produce spark; quartz and pyrites used in certain localities. c. Burning glass much later development. III. FIRE-PLACES. 1. Open fire on ground. 2. Rude fire-place of stones piled together. 3. Dug-out pit lined with stones. 4. Fire-places in caves; near opening, with outlet for smoke and draft. AN OUTLINE ON THE HISTORY OF COOKERY 5 5. Artificial containers, as early forms of braziers; examples in Egyptian paintings, in Persian reliefs, descriptions in Homeric poems ; used in China and Orient to-day. 6. Artificial structure, of stones fitted carefully together, with chim- ney for draft. All architecture begins with shelter of fire from wind and rain. TOOLS AND UTENSILS All tools imitations of forms found in nature as bowl, from hollow stone; knife from flint splinter; spoon from shell; forked instrument from forked stick, or human hand, or claw of bird ; hammer from human fist. I. CONTAINERS : Hollowed stone, natural or artificial ; hollowed wood, stumps, ends of logs ; gourds for dippers ; shells for ladles or spoons; skin bottles and jars; nets and baskets of fibre and reed; baskets daubed with clay for fire-proofing; clay pottery; metal bowls and vessels. II. BREAKERS : Rude natural core of stone, fitting hand, used as mallet ; grooved to fit handle of wood or stone; chipped on edge for cutting and scraping; knife with handle; spear; arrow-head. III. WEAPONS : Mallet ; knife ; adze ; spear and shield ; bow and arrow. IV. DOMESTIC TOOLS : Knife ; scraper ; hand-plow ; mortar and pestle ; rolling mill ; quern or rotary mill ; washboard and rubber ; spoons of shell; forks. Bone and ivory needles and pins, combs, hair- pins, files, small jars, ornaments of all kinds. PREHISTORIC TIMES I. PREHISTORIC MAN. 1. Remains of man found in "River-drift" period in England and on continent indicate no use of tools, nor knowledge of fire. Earlier stage of development than found in any known sav- ages in historic times. 2. EARLY STONE- AGE MAN (Paleolithic). To this age belong "kitchen-middens" of Denmark, Scandinavia, many cave- remains of France, Spain, and England. Name derived from rude stone implements. a. Fire known and under partial control could be preserved when naturally kindled. b. Food. Mainly vegetable; animals occasionally slain included shell-fish, insects, etc. Most food eaten raw. No domes- ticated animals save dog; no cultivated plants. Food supply wholly that of nature. O TECHNICAL EDUCATION BULLETIN c. Industries. Fishing, some hunting, making of utensils of stone and bone ; rude flaked flints chipped to shape, never ground or polished ; some spirited drawings as decorations on walls of cave-shelters and on implements. 3. LATE STONE- AGE MAN (Neolithic). To this period belong the numerous burial monuments, houses, barrows, graves, mono- liths, so common throughout the world. The remains of the pile-dwellings, or lake-dwellings, of Switzerland, Ireland, etc., probably belong to this period. a. Fire under pretty complete control. Can be artificially kindled as well as controlled. Used not only for warmth, but for cooking food. b. Food, both vegetable and animal, prepared by cooking; obtained by hunting, fishing, stock-breeding and tillage. Nearly all food-animals domesticated, many grains, vege- tables and fruits cultivated. c. Industries : Spinning, weaving, mining, agriculture, stock- raising, making of polished stone implements of many types, making of pottery, stone-cutting on large scale. 4. BRONZE OR METAL-AGE MAN. This period grows out of the pre- ceding so gradually that everywhere there is evidence of overlapping. With the Iron-Age, which is the outgrowth of the Bronze-Age, we come to historic times. This was the period of development of the Homeric heroes. II. STAGES OF CIVILIZATION. There are three recognized steps in development from rudest sav- agery to civilization ; these are : 1. SAVAGERY. a. Lowest stage : food consists of fruit, roots, nuts ; since there is no knowledge of fire or use of artificially produced tools, it is all eaten raw. b. Middle stage : in addition to above, food is shellfish, including crabs, molluscs; sea slugs; fish; wild animals caught in chase. Fire is known and used. Weapons are invented. c. Higher stage : invention of bow and arrow makes animal food staple ; hunting normal occupation. Control of food pro- duction, storage of surplus in settled places, make supply less uncertain. Industries are making of wooden and stone vessels, hand-weaving of rough fibres for fishing nets, reed baskets for cookery, but as yet no making of pottery. 2. BARBARISM. Marked from preceding by invention of pottery. Discovery at first probably accidental, through action of heat on mud or clay daubed on outside of basket in cooking, or through coating food with clay (as fish or bird) before baking in ashes. AN OUTLINE ON THE HISTORY OF COOKERY 7 a. Early stage: use of pottery, domestication of animals and first cultivation of cereals. b. Middle stage : cultivation and irrigation of plants and cereals, taming and breeding of animals for both flesh and milk; life of herdsman the common one. Use of bronze metal for tools and for ornament. c. Higher stage : begins with melting of iron-ore. Iron plow, drawn by animals, revolutionizes production of vegetable foods ; ship-building widens intercourse and equalizes dis- tribution of food. This is the stage reached by the Egyptians at the time of their earliest records, by the Greeks in the Homeric legends, by the Germans as recorded by Tacitus, and by the Incas at the time of the conquest of Peru. From this stage barbarism merges into civil- ization. III. FOOD. STAGF.S OF COOKERY. 1. Stages of preparation of cereals. a. Eaten raw and whole. b. Ground into meal, eaten raw or dried in sun. c. Parched before open blaze. d. Roasted or baked in pits with heated stones. e. As mush or gruel. f. As thin griddle cakes baked on hot surface. g. Boiled in a pot (after invention of pottery), at first by dropping red hot stones into the water, later by placing pot itself directly over flame. 2. Stages of preparation of meats. Little meat eaten until use of fire is well established. a. Carcass thrown directly on fire. b. Meat roasted on stick over flame of fire; from this spit was developed. c. Buried in leaves in embers. d. Daubed in mud or clay, buried in embers. e. Boiled in skin of animal made into rude vessel, or simply used to line cavity in rock or earth. Cooking by means of stones heated red-hot and dropped into water. f. Pot of soapstone or steatite, which could be propped on smaller stones and have fire directly beneath. From this, legs of pots were developed. g. Pottery vessels, set directly on fire. 3. Food supply of uncivilized man. a. Vegetable: corn, rice, cereals, maize, acorns, nuts, dates, figs, cocoanuts, lichens, wild celery, service berry, olive, grape, apple, cherry, squash and potato in America, sunflower seed, chili. 5 TECHNICAL EDUCATION BULLETIN b. Animal: fish, both fresh and salt; all shellfish, oysters and mussels especially; birds, both game and fowl; animals, domesticated and wild. From these, milk products, espec- ially cheese and butter. IV. FOLKLORE. 1. Legends of fire in every mythology: Persian, Hindoo, Chinese, Greek, Scandinavian, American Indian. 2. Taboos of foods and ways of preparation, usually embodied in religious practices, i.e., Mosaic code; Code of Manu; Greek rites. 3. Traditions of divine gifts of foods : Asia, rice ; Greece, olive ; America, maize; etc. REFERENCES : Aesop's Fables ; Apocrypha ; Arabian Nights Entertain- ment; Confucius; Herodotus; Koran; Mythology of Greeks, Romans, Scandinavians ; Talmud ; Vedas. BIBLIOGRAPHY ABBOTT, CHAS. C Primitive Industry, 1881 AVEBURY, LORD Prehistoric Times, 1913 (7th Ed.) BARCLAY, ISABELLA The Way the World Went Then, 1898 BOAS, FRANZ The Mind of Primitive Man DOPP, KATHERINE The Early Cave-Man, 1904 DOPP, KATHERINE Later Cave-Men, 1906 DOPP, KATHERINE The Tree-Dwellers, 1903 ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ARTICLES Archeology, Cookery, Fire, Food ENGELS, FREDERICK Origin of the Family, Chap I, 1902 JOLY, NICHOLAS Man Before Metals, 1883 KEANE, A. H Ethnology, 1896 KELLER, DR. FERDINAND. .The Lake Dwellers, 2 vols., plates in Vol. II, 1878 LINEHAN, RAY S Habitations of Man, 1894 MASON, O. T Origin of Inventions, 1895 MASON, O. T Woman's Share in Primitive Culture, 1894 MUNRO Ancient Scottish Lake-Dwellers MUNRO Lake-Dwellings of Europe REPORTS American Bureau of Ethnology, 1895 STARR, FREDERICK Some First Steps in Human Progress TAYLOR, ISAAC Origin of the Aryans, 1829 TYLER, E. B Anthropology, 1904 TYLER, E. B Primitive Culture, Vol. I, 1888 WOOD-MARTIN Lake-Dwellers of Ireland 1 J3 K T3 fi | a Ov O ^|||f%jo| . >3 1