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Sixth Series. No. 1 1 
 
 January 30, 1915 
 
 3fc arfjprs (Enlteg? lulblttt 
 
 AN OUTLINE 
 
 ON 
 THE HISTORY OF COOKERY 
 
 BY 
 
 ANNA BARROWS AND BERTHA E. SHAPLEIGH 
 
 ASSISTED BY 
 
 ANNE D. BLITZ 
 School of Practical Arts, Teachers College, Columbia University 
 
 Technical Education Bulletin, No. 28 
 PRICE, 28 CENTS 
 
 Published by 
 
 (EnlUg?, (Eulumbta Unittrrattjj 
 
 525 West 120th Street 
 New York City 
 
QJrarljprB GlaUrn? 
 
 Published fortnightly from September to May inclusive. Entered as 
 second class matter January 15, 1910, at the New York, N. T., Post Office, 
 under act of July 16, 1894. 
 
 QJr central lEfiurattnn UnlUttna 
 
 (Sent post free on receipt of price named. Address, Publication Bureau, 
 
 (Teachers College.) 
 
 No. 1. Economic Function of Woman. Edward T. Devine, Ph.D., Pro- 
 
 sor of Social Economy, Columbia University. 16 pp., 10 c. 
 
 No. 2. Annotated List of Books Relating; to Household Arts. 42 pp.. 
 
 15 c. (Out of print.) Reprinted as No. 24. 
 
 No. 3. The Feeding; of Young Children. Mary Swartz Rose, Ph.D.. 
 
 Assistant Professor of Nutrition. Teachers College. 10 pp.. 
 
 10 c. 
 No. 4. Hints on Clothing. Professor Mary Schenck Woolman. 8 pp., 
 
 10 c. 
 No. 5. Quantitative Aspects of Nutrition. Henry C. Sherman, Ph.D., 
 
 Head of Department of Nutrition and Pood Emonomics, 
 
 School of Practical Arts. 15 pp., 10 c. 
 
 No. . Annotated List of Boolrs Relating to Industrial Arts and In- 
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 No. 7. Determination of Linen nnd Cotton. Dr. Herzog. Translated by 
 
 Ellen A. Beers, B.S. 24 ill., 2 color prints. 25 c. 
 No. S. Syllabus on Household Management. Mary Louise Furst, A. B., 
 
 Lecturer in Household Management, Teachers College. 10 c. 
 No. . The Girl of To-morrow What the School Will Do For Her- 
 
 Benjamin R. Andrews, Ph.D. 8 pp., 10 c. 
 No. 1O. Fundamental Values in Industrial Education. Frederick G. 
 
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 Industrial Life. 30 c. 
 No. 11. Annotated List of Text and Reference Books for Training 
 
 Schools for Nurses. 64 pp., 25 c. 
 No. 12. Address List for Illustrative Materials and Laboratory Supplies 
 
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 No. 13. A Dietary Study in a Children's Hospital. Mary Swartz Rose. 
 
 Ph.D., Assistant Professor, and Harriet C. Jacobson, Depart- 
 ment of Nutrition, School of Practical Arts, Teachers College 
 
 16 pp., 10 c. 
 
 No. 14. A Year's Work in the Industrial Arts in the Fifth Grade, Speyer 
 
 School. Clara B. Stilmar. M.A. 36 pp., 15 c. 
 !>io. 15. Industrial Education and the Labor Unions. Frank Duffy 
 
 14 pp., 10 c. 
 No. 1. Schools of the Art Industries A New Type of School in the 
 
 Public School System. Frederick H. Sykes, Ph.D., formerly 
 
 Director of Practical Arts, Teachers College. 12 pp., 5 c. 
 No. 17. Constructive Art-Teaching. Arthur W. Dow, Professor of Fine 
 
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 No. IS. Canned Foods: Fruits and Vegetables. Florence R. Corbett, 
 
 formerly Instructor in Household Arts Education, Teachers 
 
 College. 16 pp., 10 c. 
 No. 1. Physical and Chemical Tests for thfe Housewife. Sadie B. Van- 
 
 derbilt, Instructor in Household Chemistry, Teachers Collee-e 
 
 16 pp., 10 c. 
 \o. 20. Address List for Equipment and Supplies for Instruction in 
 
 Household Arts. Reprint of No. 12. 16 pp., 10 c. 
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 Ruth Penfield Sill, Instructor in Household Arts, Teachers 
 
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 No. 22. Some Attempts to Standardize Oven Temperatures for Cookery 
 
 Processes. May B. Van Arsdale, Asst. Professor of House- 
 hold Arts. Teachers College. 16 pp., 10 c. 
 No. 23. Food for School Boys and (iirlw. Mary Swar.tz Rose, PhD Assr 
 
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 No. 25. A Year's \Vork in Industrial Arts, Third Grade, Speyer School. 
 
 22 pp., 15 c. 
 No. 26. A Survey of Your Household Finances. Benjamin R. Andrews. 
 
 No. 27. Some Food Facts. Mary Swartz Rose. 8 pp., 5 c. 
 Opportunities in Household and Institutional Administration. School nf 
 
 Practical Arts, Teachers College. 16 pp., free. 
 Floor Plans ol Household Arts Buildings, Teachers College, Columhi 
 
 I ni versify. 4 pp., free. 
 
Sixth Scrie., No. 1 1 January 30, 1915 
 
 lulbttn 
 
 AN OUTLINE 
 
 ON 
 THE HISTORY OF COOKERY 
 
 BY 
 
 ANNA BARROWS AND BERTHA E. SHAPLEIGH 
 
 i 
 
 ASSISTED BY 
 
 ANNE D. BLITZ 
 School of Practical Arts, Teachers College, Columbia University 
 
 Technical Education Bulletin. F!o. 28 
 PRICE, 28 CNT& 
 
 Published by 
 
 Sfearlpra QJullrgr, (Uulitmbta Hnmrreity 
 
 525 West 120th Street 
 New York City 
 
4 TECHNICAL EOT/CATION BULLETIN 
 
 II. All of these processes are dependent on stage of advance in civil- 
 ization. 
 
 III. All pass through successive stages, as do all other processes, from 
 
 extremely simple to extremely complex. 
 
 IV. There is no possibility of hard-and-fast chronology, as we find 
 
 extremely complex stage of civilization existing side by side with, 
 and exerting strong influence upon, extremely simple stage, e.g., 
 Rome and Britain at time of Caesars; America and Philippines. 
 
 V. Civilization proceeds in successive waves. The older cultures, each 
 in turn, pass through all periods of development from savagery 
 through barbarism to civilization ; from simplicity and frugality 
 to luxury, extravagance, then to decay, and to a merging with a 
 neighboring civilization in early stages of development, e.g., 
 Egypt and Persia ; Greece and Rome ; Roman Empire and Franks. 
 
 VI. Question of food is inextricably bound with four other factors in 
 civilization : 
 
 1. Climate and geographic limitations. 
 
 2. Shelter. 
 
 3. Production and control of fire. 
 
 4. Utensils. 
 
 FIRE 
 
 I. DISCOVERY. 
 
 1. Legendary. India Vedas ; Phoenicia; Greece Prometheus, 
 
 Hephaestus, Zeus; Persia; Rome Vulcan, Vesta; Scandi- 
 navia; Aztecs; American Indians. 
 
 2. Natural sources. 
 
 a. Lightning setting fire to vegetation. 
 
 b. Sparks struck in working flints. 
 
 II. CONTROL. 
 
 Preservation of fire kindled naturally. 
 Artificial kindling. 
 
 Friction of two pieces of dry wood; fire-drill later develop- 
 ment of this process. 
 
 b. Striking of flints to produce spark; quartz and pyrites used 
 
 in certain localities. 
 
 c. Burning glass much later development. 
 
 III. FIRE-PLACES. 
 
 1. Open fire on ground. 
 
 2. Rude fire-place of stones piled together. 
 
 3. Dug-out pit lined with stones. 
 
 4. Fire-places in caves; near opening, with outlet for smoke and 
 
 draft. 
 
AN OUTLINE ON THE HISTORY OF COOKERY 5 
 
 5. Artificial containers, as early forms of braziers; examples in 
 
 Egyptian paintings, in Persian reliefs, descriptions in Homeric 
 poems ; used in China and Orient to-day. 
 
 6. Artificial structure, of stones fitted carefully together, with chim- 
 
 ney for draft. All architecture begins with shelter of fire 
 from wind and rain. 
 
 TOOLS AND UTENSILS 
 
 All tools imitations of forms found in nature as bowl, from hollow 
 stone; knife from flint splinter; spoon from shell; forked instrument 
 from forked stick, or human hand, or claw of bird ; hammer from human 
 fist. 
 
 I. CONTAINERS : Hollowed stone, natural or artificial ; hollowed wood, 
 stumps, ends of logs ; gourds for dippers ; shells for ladles or 
 spoons; skin bottles and jars; nets and baskets of fibre and reed; 
 baskets daubed with clay for fire-proofing; clay pottery; metal 
 bowls and vessels. 
 
 II. BREAKERS : Rude natural core of stone, fitting hand, used as mallet ; 
 grooved to fit handle of wood or stone; chipped on edge for 
 cutting and scraping; knife with handle; spear; arrow-head. 
 
 III. WEAPONS : Mallet ; knife ; adze ; spear and shield ; bow and arrow. 
 
 IV. DOMESTIC TOOLS : Knife ; scraper ; hand-plow ; mortar and pestle ; 
 
 rolling mill ; quern or rotary mill ; washboard and rubber ; spoons 
 of shell; forks. Bone and ivory needles and pins, combs, hair- 
 pins, files, small jars, ornaments of all kinds. 
 
 PREHISTORIC TIMES 
 
 I. PREHISTORIC MAN. 
 
 1. Remains of man found in "River-drift" period in England and on 
 
 continent indicate no use of tools, nor knowledge of fire. 
 Earlier stage of development than found in any known sav- 
 ages in historic times. 
 
 2. EARLY STONE- AGE MAN (Paleolithic). To this age belong 
 
 "kitchen-middens" of Denmark, Scandinavia, many cave- 
 remains of France, Spain, and England. Name derived from 
 rude stone implements. 
 
 a. Fire known and under partial control could be preserved 
 
 when naturally kindled. 
 
 b. Food. Mainly vegetable; animals occasionally slain included 
 
 shell-fish, insects, etc. Most food eaten raw. No domes- 
 ticated animals save dog; no cultivated plants. Food 
 supply wholly that of nature. 
 
O TECHNICAL EDUCATION BULLETIN 
 
 c. Industries. Fishing, some hunting, making of utensils of stone 
 and bone ; rude flaked flints chipped to shape, never ground 
 or polished ; some spirited drawings as decorations on 
 walls of cave-shelters and on implements. 
 
 3. LATE STONE- AGE MAN (Neolithic). To this period belong the 
 
 numerous burial monuments, houses, barrows, graves, mono- 
 liths, so common throughout the world. The remains of the 
 pile-dwellings, or lake-dwellings, of Switzerland, Ireland, etc., 
 probably belong to this period. 
 
 a. Fire under pretty complete control. Can be artificially 
 
 kindled as well as controlled. Used not only for warmth, 
 but for cooking food. 
 
 b. Food, both vegetable and animal, prepared by cooking; 
 
 obtained by hunting, fishing, stock-breeding and tillage. 
 Nearly all food-animals domesticated, many grains, vege- 
 tables and fruits cultivated. 
 
 c. Industries : Spinning, weaving, mining, agriculture, stock- 
 
 raising, making of polished stone implements of many 
 types, making of pottery, stone-cutting on large scale. 
 
 4. BRONZE OR METAL-AGE MAN. This period grows out of the pre- 
 
 ceding so gradually that everywhere there is evidence of 
 overlapping. With the Iron-Age, which is the outgrowth of 
 the Bronze-Age, we come to historic times. This was the 
 period of development of the Homeric heroes. 
 
 II. STAGES OF CIVILIZATION. 
 
 There are three recognized steps in development from rudest sav- 
 agery to civilization ; these are : 
 
 1. SAVAGERY. 
 
 a. Lowest stage : food consists of fruit, roots, nuts ; since there 
 
 is no knowledge of fire or use of artificially produced 
 tools, it is all eaten raw. 
 
 b. Middle stage : in addition to above, food is shellfish, including 
 
 crabs, molluscs; sea slugs; fish; wild animals caught in 
 chase. Fire is known and used. Weapons are invented. 
 
 c. Higher stage : invention of bow and arrow makes animal food 
 
 staple ; hunting normal occupation. Control of food pro- 
 duction, storage of surplus in settled places, make supply 
 less uncertain. Industries are making of wooden and 
 stone vessels, hand-weaving of rough fibres for fishing 
 nets, reed baskets for cookery, but as yet no making of 
 pottery. 
 
 2. BARBARISM. Marked from preceding by invention of pottery. 
 
 Discovery at first probably accidental, through action of heat 
 on mud or clay daubed on outside of basket in cooking, or 
 through coating food with clay (as fish or bird) before 
 baking in ashes. 
 
AN OUTLINE ON THE HISTORY OF COOKERY 7 
 
 a. Early stage: use of pottery, domestication of animals and 
 
 first cultivation of cereals. 
 
 b. Middle stage : cultivation and irrigation of plants and cereals, 
 
 taming and breeding of animals for both flesh and milk; 
 life of herdsman the common one. Use of bronze metal 
 for tools and for ornament. 
 
 c. Higher stage : begins with melting of iron-ore. Iron plow, 
 
 drawn by animals, revolutionizes production of vegetable 
 foods ; ship-building widens intercourse and equalizes dis- 
 tribution of food. This is the stage reached by the 
 Egyptians at the time of their earliest records, by the 
 Greeks in the Homeric legends, by the Germans as recorded 
 by Tacitus, and by the Incas at the time of the conquest 
 of Peru. From this stage barbarism merges into civil- 
 ization. 
 
 III. FOOD. STAGF.S OF COOKERY. 
 
 1. Stages of preparation of cereals. 
 
 a. Eaten raw and whole. 
 
 b. Ground into meal, eaten raw or dried in sun. 
 
 c. Parched before open blaze. 
 
 d. Roasted or baked in pits with heated stones. 
 
 e. As mush or gruel. 
 
 f. As thin griddle cakes baked on hot surface. 
 
 g. Boiled in a pot (after invention of pottery), at first by 
 
 dropping red hot stones into the water, later by placing 
 pot itself directly over flame. 
 
 2. Stages of preparation of meats. Little meat eaten until use of 
 
 fire is well established. 
 
 a. Carcass thrown directly on fire. 
 
 b. Meat roasted on stick over flame of fire; from this spit was 
 
 developed. 
 
 c. Buried in leaves in embers. 
 
 d. Daubed in mud or clay, buried in embers. 
 
 e. Boiled in skin of animal made into rude vessel, or simply 
 
 used to line cavity in rock or earth. Cooking by means 
 of stones heated red-hot and dropped into water. 
 
 f. Pot of soapstone or steatite, which could be propped on 
 
 smaller stones and have fire directly beneath. From this, 
 legs of pots were developed. 
 
 g. Pottery vessels, set directly on fire. 
 
 3. Food supply of uncivilized man. 
 
 a. Vegetable: corn, rice, cereals, maize, acorns, nuts, dates, figs, 
 cocoanuts, lichens, wild celery, service berry, olive, grape, 
 apple, cherry, squash and potato in America, sunflower 
 seed, chili. 
 
5 TECHNICAL EDUCATION BULLETIN 
 
 b. Animal: fish, both fresh and salt; all shellfish, oysters and 
 mussels especially; birds, both game and fowl; animals, 
 domesticated and wild. From these, milk products, espec- 
 ially cheese and butter. 
 
 IV. FOLKLORE. 
 
 1. Legends of fire in every mythology: Persian, Hindoo, Chinese, 
 
 Greek, Scandinavian, American Indian. 
 
 2. Taboos of foods and ways of preparation, usually embodied in 
 
 religious practices, i.e., Mosaic code; Code of Manu; Greek 
 rites. 
 
 3. Traditions of divine gifts of foods : Asia, rice ; Greece, olive ; 
 
 America, maize; etc. 
 
 REFERENCES : Aesop's Fables ; Apocrypha ; Arabian Nights Entertain- 
 ment; Confucius; Herodotus; Koran; Mythology of Greeks, Romans, 
 Scandinavians ; Talmud ; Vedas. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 ABBOTT, CHAS. C Primitive Industry, 1881 
 
 AVEBURY, LORD Prehistoric Times, 1913 (7th Ed.) 
 
 BARCLAY, ISABELLA The Way the World Went Then, 1898 
 
 BOAS, FRANZ The Mind of Primitive Man 
 
 DOPP, KATHERINE The Early Cave-Man, 1904 
 
 DOPP, KATHERINE Later Cave-Men, 1906 
 
 DOPP, KATHERINE The Tree-Dwellers, 1903 
 
 ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ARTICLES Archeology, Cookery, Fire, Food 
 
 ENGELS, FREDERICK Origin of the Family, Chap I, 1902 
 
 JOLY, NICHOLAS Man Before Metals, 1883 
 
 KEANE, A. H Ethnology, 1896 
 
 KELLER, DR. FERDINAND. .The Lake Dwellers, 2 vols., plates in Vol. II, 1878 
 
 LINEHAN, RAY S Habitations of Man, 1894 
 
 MASON, O. T Origin of Inventions, 1895 
 
 MASON, O. T Woman's Share in Primitive Culture, 1894 
 
 MUNRO Ancient Scottish Lake-Dwellers 
 
 MUNRO Lake-Dwellings of Europe 
 
 REPORTS American Bureau of Ethnology, 1895 
 
 STARR, FREDERICK Some First Steps in Human Progress 
 
 TAYLOR, ISAAC Origin of the Aryans, 1829 
 
 TYLER, E. B Anthropology, 1904 
 
 TYLER, E. B Primitive Culture, Vol. I, 1888 
 
 WOOD-MARTIN Lake-Dwellers of Ireland 
 
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IO TECHNICAL EDUCATION BULLETIN 
 
 ANCIENT TIMES 
 
 5000 B.C. tO 476 A.D. 
 
 I. Knowledge of food sources and processes gained through : 
 
 1. Contemporary records, in literature, sculpture, and pictures. 
 
 2. Information as to climate, soil, and geographical conditions. 
 
 3. Observation of conditions in those localities to-day, especially in 
 
 oriental countries, where life has changed but little with the 
 passing centuries. 
 
 II. Part food plays in literature of past. 
 
 1. Casual references in poems, plays, histories. 
 
 2. Religious and legal restrictions and prescriptions of usages ; as in 
 
 Mosaic law. 
 
 3. Literature of food itself, as in Greek and Roman times, poems 
 
 celebrating rare foods or great feasts. 
 
 III. Records preserved in history almost wholly those of ruling or noble 
 class. 
 
 1. In pictorial representation, monuments, etc., because only the 
 
 wealthy could afford these. 
 
 2. In literature, because only the great were thought worthy of cele- 
 
 bration and representation. 
 
 3. Foods of common people known only by contemptuous reference, 
 
 or mentioned for sake of contrast, i.e., account of swine-herd's 
 fare in Odyssey. 
 
 EGYPT 
 
 I. NATURAL RESOURCES. 
 
 1. Vegetable. 
 
 a. Grain, especially wheat, barley, etc. 
 
 b. Lentils, onions, melons, hops, cabbage, leeks, cucumbers, garlic. 
 
 c. Fruits, especially grapes monkeys used to gather them ; date 
 
 palm, cocoanut palm. 
 
 2. Animal. 
 
 a. Fish of all kinds cats trained to catch and retrieve them. 
 
 b. Wild animals, antelope, deer, boar, crocodile. 
 
 c. Domesticated and milk-giving animals, beeves, goats, sheep, 
 
 pigs. 
 
 d. Birds and fowl; Egyptians were the first people to hatch 
 
 eggs artificially ; cats used to retrieve game birds. 
 
 II. IMPORTATION BY TRADE. 
 
 a. Fruits. 
 
 b. Gums and spices. 
 
 III. COOKERY. 
 
 T. Methods shown by wall paintings in tombs. 
 
AN OUTLINE ON THE HISTORY OF COOKERY II 
 
 a. Process of bread making grinding grain, kneading dough in 
 
 trough with feet, forming into cakes or loaves, baking 
 before brazier, storing of finished product. Public 
 bakeries. 
 
 b. Brewing. 
 
 c. Plowing. 
 
 d. Harvesting. 
 
 e. Milking. 
 
 f. Salting and preserving game. 
 
 g. Preparing entire meal plucking geese, cutting and preparing 
 
 joints of veal and mutton, roasting goose on spit over 
 
 flame in fire-pot, stewing meat, carving, 
 h. Preparing banquet hall, 
 i. Serving banquet, while wrestlers, tumblers, fencers and 
 
 musicians entertain guests. 
 
 2. Utensils for preparation and cookery of food preserved to-day. 
 
 3. Elaborate accounts of Egyptian fare in Bible and in Greek writ- 
 
 ings Herodotus. * 
 
 a. Method of preparing veal. 
 
 b. Richness of country's food supply "flesh pots of Egypt." 
 
 c. Contrast with poor fare in desert. 
 
 4. Egyptian cookery to-day. 
 
 a. Food supply much the same. 
 
 b. Methods of preparation traditional. 
 
 JUDEA. 
 
 COOKERY OF BIBLK. 
 
 1. In the beginning, largely vegetable. 
 
 2. Abel's offering of lamb. Gen. IV : 4. 
 
 3. Leviticus clean and unclean foods laws. 
 
 4. Foods mentioned in Bible. 
 
 a. Abraham offers unleavened bread to the angel. 
 
 b. Esau mess of pottage lentils, very savory lentils partaken 
 
 of in time of mourning. 
 
 c. Isaac gives blessing to Jacob for kid dressed as venison 
 
 indicating that venison was highly regarded. 
 
 d. Milk and honey Land of Canaan delicacies "seethed milk," 
 
 butter song of Deborah, "butter in a lordly dish." 
 
 e. Bread leavened and unleavened; leaven dates from earliest 
 
 use of meal, back to times of savagery found among 
 most primitive peoples. 
 
 f. Locusts. 
 
 g. Food of captivity in Egypt 
 
 (1) Corn (6) Garlic 
 
 (2) Melons (7) Fish 
 
12 TECHNICAL EDUCATION BULLETIN 
 
 (3) Cucumbers (8) Pork 
 
 (4) Leeks (9) Veal (calf, tender and good) 
 
 (5) Onions (10) Cabbage 
 h. Wine grapes. 
 
 i. Olives fruit of trees, 
 
 j. Quail Exodus. 
 
 k. Pulse. 
 
 1. Manna lichen, still known as food in that locality. 
 5. Feasts of Bible: 
 
 a. Nebuchadnezzar. 
 
 b. Belshazzar. 
 
 c. Esther. 
 
 d. Solomon. 
 
 ASSYRIA AND BABYLONIA. 
 
 I. CHARACTER OF COUNTRVT. 
 
 1. Like Egypt, rich river valley, fertile soil, warm climate, great 
 
 natural resources. 
 
 2. Favored for commerce and intercourse with other nations, con- 
 
 stant exchange of commodities, including foodstuffs; con- 
 stant cultivation of new ways of using native materials. 
 
 II. NATURAL RESOURCES, and those gained by exchange. 
 
 1. Vegetable. Much the same as Egypt; grains staple product; 
 
 many fruits and vegetables. 
 
 2. Animal. 
 
 a. Fish and shell-fish. 
 
 b. Wild game. 
 
 c. Domesticated animals. 
 
 III. PREPARATION. 
 
 1. Very elaborate mention of great feasts of Ahasuerus, of Nebu- 
 
 chadnezzar, Daniel at Belshazzar's feast. 
 
 2. Great diversity of service, shown by utensils of gold and silver, 
 
 richly wrought and skillfully shaped spoons and forks found 
 in ruins. 
 
 3. Legal enactments no cooking on Sabbath, illegal to take medi- 
 
 cine on that day; renting of land for market gardening, rent 
 to be one-third of produce ; slave labor on farms, in vineyards. 
 
 4. Pictures of hunting of deer, goat, lion, boar, many wild birds; 
 
 of plowing and cultivating land; of care of vineyards and 
 making of wine; of kitchen processes; of banqueting; pre- 
 served in clay bricks and cylinders of Ninevah and Babylon. 
 
 PERSIA. 
 
 Rise of Persia contemporary with Greece. Conquered Babylonia, 
 reigned as mistress of East till conquered in 5th century B. c. by Greece. 
 
AN OUTLINE ON THE HISTORY OF COOKERY 13 
 
 I.\ Wonderfully fruitful country reputed seat of Garden of Eden. 
 N Climate semi-tropical, many fruit-trees native to soil. 
 
 II. Early history shows greatest moderation and simplicity of living. 
 
 1. Food largely vegetable, fruits abounding, rice a staple. 
 
 2. Flesh food of secondary importance in diet to milk and cheese, 
 
 which form a large part of food of people. 
 
 3. Preparation marked by simplicity, as shown both by records and 
 
 by simplicity of utensils. Little variety in kinds of dishes 
 and utensils, though there is elaborate ornamentation. 
 
 4. Contrast with food-habits of Egypt and Babylonia, and their 
 
 luxuries, shown in story of Ochus (Table Traits, p. 306). 
 
 III. Later, Persian living gradually becomes more luxurious, as shown by 
 
 1. Records of great feasts as feast of Ahasuerus in Book of Esther. 
 
 2. Remains of great banquet halls, as that of Darius at Persepolis, 
 
 Cyrus at Susa. 
 
 3. Sculptured records of table-scenes. 
 
 IV. Influence of foreign trade upon food of Persia, 
 r. Introduction of new foods. 
 
 a. Melon from India. 
 
 b. Plums and cherries from Africa. 
 
 c. Spices and condiments from Arabia. 
 
 2. More elaborate methods of cookery, by contact with highly 
 developed Egyptian and Babylonian cookery. 
 
 V. Persian luxury, unlike that of Greece, Rome, and barbarian Europe, 
 consisted in skill of preparation and delicacy of flavor rather 
 than in profusion of viands and magnificence of mere bulk. 
 
 VI. With conquest by Greece, Persian wealth declines, civilization decays. 
 Country to-day differs little in food-stuffs and food-preparation 
 from Persia of 600 B. c. 
 
 GREECE. 
 
 I. HOMERIC TIMES. Stage of civilization, higher barbarism life of 
 men, husbandry, cattle-raising, fighting; life of women, care of 
 household, spinning and weaving, care, storage and preparation of 
 food. 
 i. Flesh food. 
 
 a. Cattle, sheep, goats, swine. 
 
 b. Roasted on spits over flame of fire mention of spits large 
 
 enough to support carcass of an ox, turned by hand. 
 
 c. Fat of animals and marrow of bones esteemed delicacies. 
 
 d. Fish held in contempt, eaten only when nothing else was 
 
 obtainable ; fishing by nets, harpoons, hooks mentioned. 
 
14 TECHNICAL EDUCATION BULLETIN 
 
 e. Homeric heroes did their own cooking skill of several in 
 special fields mentioned. 
 
 2. Vegetables and grains. 
 
 a. Bread stuffs barley, meal, and wheaten flour, baked into 
 
 loaves, without leaven. 
 
 b. Fruits grapes, figs. 
 
 3. Beverages. 
 
 a. Wine only drink, mixed with water. 
 
 b. Milk not esteemed Polyphemus, type of savage, only user. 
 
 c. Honey sometimes mixed with wine for sweetening. 
 
 4. Butter unknown, cheese used freely, esteemed highly. 
 
 5. Three meals in Homer : 
 
 a. Breakfast. 
 
 b. Dinner hot meal, served in middle of day. 
 
 c. Supper light, simple repast. 
 
 6. Feasts described at great length, with well-defined ceremonial 
 
 observances : 
 
 a. Feast at funeral of Patroclus. 
 
 b. Provisioning of boat for Telemachus. 
 
 c. Provisioning of raft by Calypso. 
 
 d. Feast at home of Nestor. 
 
 e. Feast at home of Menelaus. 
 
 f. Feast at home of Alcinous. 
 
 g. Feast at home of Odysseus, 
 h. Meal at swineherd's hut. 
 
 II. POST-HOMERIC PERIOD, three main centres: 
 
 1. Sparta, noted for frugality. 
 
 a. Public table for men ; common contributions to general 
 
 stock; levy of certain amount per diem. 
 
 b. Light meat diet ; staples, barley meal, cheese, black broth, 
 
 dried figs, and dates; moderate use of wine. 
 
 2. Athens, frugal also allowance of about fifty cents a day for 
 
 four adults considered extravagant. 
 
 a. Meat, usually obtained from sacrifices or public festivities. 
 
 Whole meat diet regarded as a hardship. Sausage and 
 fish esteemed. 
 
 b. Vegetables, cereals, fruits cultivated extensively beans and 
 
 peas, spinach, cabbage, lettuce, radishes, onions, leeks, 
 turnips ; pease porridge staple in diet. Figs, olives, raisin 
 and wine grapes, apples, pears, quinces, pomegranates; 
 nuts walnuts, chestnuts, almonds; grain wheat, millet, 
 barley, spelt; leavened bread used freely. Athenians 
 prided themselves on fancy baking, sesame and poppy 
 seeds used as flavor. Standard weights of loaves. Little 
 cake used. Eggs sparingly used. Honey for sweetening 
 entirely. 
 
AN OUTLINE ON THE HISTORY OF COOKERY 15 
 
 c. Wine only beverage, many varieties. Always mixed with 
 
 water, usually "half and half." Over-indulgence con- 
 demned. 
 
 d. Cheese and oil substitutes for butter in cooking; smoked and 
 
 dried fish used as relish; oysters considered delicacy. 
 
 Word "ostracise" derived from this. 
 
 3. Ionia, home of luxurious livers. Sybaris noted for its refine- 
 ments and love of dainty cookery. Sumptuary laws enacted 
 to check these extravagances. Indulgence in wine freer than 
 in Sparta and Athens. 
 
 III. LATER PERIOD height of Athenian supremacy. Marked by great 
 
 luxury and profusion of food. 
 
 1. Seven sages of kitchen, each famed for production of some one 
 
 dish or sauce. 
 
 2. 470 B.C. Cooking society awarded prize to one who produced 
 
 most excellent dish. 
 
 3. Serious study of dietetics as well as art of cookery. 
 
 4. Rarity of food and difficulty of securing it more considered than 
 
 flavor of article itself; period of importation from other and 
 distant countries. 
 
 5. Influence of Egypt and Babylonia. Song-birds, game-birds, 
 
 domestic fowl highly esteemed, also fish, especially deep-sea 
 fish. 
 
 6. Cultivation of fruit-trees study of horticulture, specialization in 
 
 grafting fruits. Many kinds of wine made; delicate flavor 
 and heady quality appreciated. 
 
 IV. GREEK SERVICE AT TABLE. 
 
 1. Homeric times. 
 
 a. Rude board on trestles. 
 
 b. Thronos, or chair with back and arms, for important persons, 
 
 stools for common people. 
 
 c. Many vessels, especially for drink, but no knives or forks at 
 
 table. Meat cooked so that it fell to pieces, or else cut 
 by steward as it was passed. 
 
 d. Ceremonial observances, as libation, honoring of guest, show- 
 
 ing appreciation of song or story by gift of choice morsels, 
 etc. 
 
 2. Later times. 
 
 a. Elaborate tables, marble, wood, bronze, inlay, etc. 
 
 b. Guests reclined on couches, piled with cushions; used right 
 
 hand only in eating. 
 
 c. No forks, fingers used entirely. Forks used only for kitchen 
 
 serving. 
 
 d. Cup-bearer and attendants kept wine cups filled. Tables 
 
 changed at end of courses. 
 
l6 TECHNICAL EDUCATION BULLETIN 
 
 e. Women of family not present at feasts; music, juggling, 
 
 dancing by hired female entertainers. 
 
 f. Symposia at end of meal, learned or polite discussions calling 
 
 out wit and thought of company. 
 
 ROME. 
 
 I. EARLY HISTORY. Living frugal, like that of early Greeks ; food pro- 
 ducts and methods of preparation very similar. Imitated Greeks 
 in all culinary matters. National dish, porridge. 
 
 II. LATER TIMES Republic. 
 
 1. Fish, red mullet favorite; shellfish, oysters especially. Game of 
 
 all kinds, birds especially. Domesticated animals, pork highly 
 prized ; beef and mutton used ; fowl bred extensively. Romans 
 first to caponize cocks. Geese fattened and stuffed, livers 
 considered great delicacy. 
 
 2. Vegetables cabbage, lentils, beans, peas, carrots, sorrel, pars- 
 
 ley, truffles, mushrooms, asparagus; fruits apples favorite, 
 plums, cherries, pears, nuts of many kinds, olives, grapes 
 for raisins and for wine. 
 
 3. Beverages beer and malt liquors used among common people, 
 
 wine also common beverage ; honey used in certain fermented 
 drinks. 
 
 III. EMPIRE luxury and degeneracy. Feasts of this time marked by : 
 
 1. A profusion of viands, number of articles served rather than 
 
 excellence the criterion as Feasts of Heliogabalus, Nero, 
 Claudius, Vitellius. 
 
 2. Articles brought from great distances and noted for their rarity 
 
 and costliness. See Good Cheer, p. 57. 
 
 3. Gluttony rather than epicureanism the custom of the time. 
 
 IV. TABLE SERVICE like that of the Greeks reclined on couches around 
 
 table. Much the same manner of serving and eating as in later 
 Athenian days. Roman culture borrowed bodily from Greek. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 BIBLE. 
 TRANSLATIONS from Iliad, Odyssey, Vergil, Horace, Herodotus, Livy, 
 
 Tacitus, Plutarch, Plato, Apicius, Athenaeus, Martial, Petronius 
 
 Arbiter, Ovid. 
 
 BLUMNER, H Home Life of Ancient Greeks, 1893 
 
 BOTSFORD, G. W History of Ancient World, 1911 
 
 EBERS, GEORGE Egyptian Princess, 1883 
 
 ERMAN Life in Ancient Egypt, p. 188-193, 1894 
 
 FERRERO, G Women of the Caesars, 1911 
 
 GULICK, C. B Life of the Ancient Greeks, Ch. X-XI, 1902 
 
AN OUTLINE ON THE HISTORY OF COOKERY 
 
 KA 
 
 
 HACKWOOD, F. W ...................................... Good Cheer, 1911 
 
 KUHL-ROMER ..................... Home Life of the Greeks and Romans 
 
 LINEHAN, RAY ................................ Habitations of Man, 1894 
 
 MAHAFFY, J. P ........................... .... Social Life of Greece, 1890 
 
 MASPERO, G. C, 
 
 Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria, Ch. II, VI, XII, XIV, 1892 
 REICH, EMIL ......................... Woman Throughout the Ages, 1908 
 
 ST. JOHN, M. J. H ......... Manners and Customs of Ancient Greece, 1842 
 
 SEYMOUR, T. D.... Homeric Viands (In Proceedings of American Philo- 
 
 logical Ass'n, Vol. XXX, 1899). 
 WILKINSON, SIR JOHN G., 
 
 Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, 1878 
 
 DATES IN MEDIEVAL HISTORY 
 
 EASTERN EMPIRE 
 
 A.D. 
 324 
 
 375 
 
 Constantino the 
 Great 
 
 Seat of empire re- 
 moved from .Rome 
 to Constantinople 
 
 Invasion of 
 Visigoths 
 
 Birth of Moham- 
 med 
 
 WESTERN EMPIRF 
 A.D. 
 
 410 
 
 47 6 
 
 Sack of Rome 
 Alaric 
 
 by 
 
 Fall of Rome be- i 
 fore Germanic in- I 
 vaders 
 
 622 Hejira 
 
 632 
 
 732 
 
 1050 Jerusalem in hands 
 of Mohammedans 
 
 Spread of Moham- 
 medan power 
 
 480-752 Merovingian 
 Kingdom of 
 Franks, begun 
 under Clovis, pre- 
 vails in west 
 
 Battle of Tours 
 Mohammedans 
 driven south of 
 Pyrenees 
 
 732 
 768 
 
 Son 
 
 Charles Martel de- 
 feats Mohamme- 
 dans 
 
 Charlemagne 
 Charlemagne 
 
 1096 
 1244 
 
 founds Holy 
 Roman Empire 
 
 First Crusade 
 End of Crusades 
 
 1453 
 
 Fall of Constanti- 
 nople 
 
 1347 The Black Death 
 1300-1400 Renaissance 
 
 M29-3 1 Joan of Arc 
 
 1461-1483 Louis XI 
 
 and unification of 
 France 
 
 1492 Voyage of 
 Columbus 
 
 B.C. 
 
 55 
 
 A.D. 
 500 
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 Caesar's conquest 
 of Brittain 
 
 England under 
 Saxon rule 
 
 871-901 Alfred the 
 
 Great 
 1066 Norman Conquest 
 
 1215 Magna Charta 
 
 I338-I4S3 Hundred 
 Years' War 
 
 1340-1400 Chaucer 
 1455-85 War of Roses 
 
2O TECHNICAL EDUCATION BULLETIN 
 
 2. Elaborated dishes and utensils; in Italy, table-fork invented. 
 
 3. Elaborated cookery itself, and rarity and costliness of viands 
 
 sought for. 
 
 ENGLAND TO 1500 
 
 I. SAXON ENGLAND. 
 
 1. Foods. 
 
 a. Meats and fish staple in diet, huge quantities being consumed. 
 
 Customary to roast beeves whole. 
 
 b. Fowl esteemed and raised for table; wild fowl considered 
 
 delicacies. 
 
 c. Few vegetables known; cereals (barley, corn, rarely wheat) 
 
 ground for bread ; acorns commonly used as meal by poor. 
 
 d. Liquor distilled from grain the common drink, even among 
 
 rulers. Mead, made from honey, favorite drink. 
 
 2. Table customs. 
 
 a. Huge feasts, to celebrate battles or as signs of good will, 
 
 frequent occurrences. 
 
 b. Men and women sat at table together, ranged according to 
 
 rank, all sitting at same board. 
 
 c. Dishes and utensils rude cups of horn, dishes of wood, meat 
 
 served on spits on which it was roasted; no forks, but 
 each guest brought his own knife. Table cloths used, but 
 not napkins. 
 
 d. Heavy drinking the rule. Singing and professional jesting 
 
 the entertainment. The bard improvised verses in honor 
 of giver of feast. 
 
 3. Architecture. 
 
 a. Dining hall largest room in the one-story structure. Table 
 
 simply boards laid on trestles, removable when not in use. 
 Guests sat on benches without backs. 
 
 b. Kitchen early separated from dining hall, built around chim- 
 
 ney, where all cooking was done before open fire. 
 
 ^*- " * 
 
 II. NORMAN ENGLAND. 
 
 i. Foods. 
 
 a. Greater refinement at once came in with the more cultured 
 
 Normans. Cookery for first time in England regarded as 
 an art. Flavor and delicacy more esteemed than mere 
 quantity, as among Saxons. With this period comes 
 influence of Crusades, with its importation of Eastern 
 fruits, as citron, cloves, lemons, oranges, figs, and dates, 
 and its spices for preserving meats through winter. 
 Norman nobles brought their own stewards and cooks, 
 and these positions became posts of honor in household. 
 
 b. Drinks. Upper classes used wines almost entirely; despised 
 
 beer, ale and mead, which continued to be beverages of 
 
f 
 
 AN OUTLINE ON THE HISTORY OF COOKERY 21 
 
 common people. Heavy drinking still customary with) 
 both classes. Cider popular beverage. 
 
 c. Vegetable foods much more common than in Saxon period. 
 See Good Cheer, p. 8sc. 
 
 2. Architecture. 
 
 a. Dining hall. Gothic architecture, with high arched roof and 
 
 gallery at one end. Long ceremonial table, with raised 
 table on dais across end where master and distinguished 
 guests sat. Elaborate ceremony of service. 
 
 b. Divisions of kitchen, with pantry, buttery, etc. 
 
 3. Derivation of our words to-day from 
 
 a. Anglo-Saxon terms, i.e., Lord, Lady. 
 
 b. Norman terms for foods, i.e., beef, veal. 
 
 c. Monastic divisions of labor, i.e., butler, steward. 
 
 4. Sports and occupations. 
 
 a. Hunting. Wild deer, boar, hare, etc., hunted and kept in 
 
 preserves. 
 
 b. Hawking. Sport of nobility in Norman England. Hawks 
 
 used to bring down small birds, used as food and es- 
 teemed as delicacies. 
 
 c. Fishing. Occupation rather than sport; nobility seldom en- 
 
 gaged in it, though sea-food was staple of diet. 
 
 III. PICTURE OF ENGLISH IN CHAUCER'S DAY. 
 
 1. Monastic fare, Prologue to Canterbury Tales. 
 
 2. Traveller's fare, at inns. 
 
 3. Fare of gentlefolk, description of Merchant and of Cook. 
 
 4. Table manners, description of Prioress. l 
 
 IV. APPEARANCE OF BOOKS OF COOKERY. 
 
 1. Treatise on Cookery, 1375, by Guillerant, cook to Charles V. 
 
 2. Forme of Cury, 1390, in England, by cook to Richard II. 
 
 3. De Honesta Voluptate et Valitudine, 1474, in Venice. 
 
 4. De Re Culinaria, Collius Apicius, 1498. 
 
 5. The Noble Boke of Cookery, 1500, in England. 
 
 6. Boke of Kervynge, Wynkyn de Word, 1513, in England. 
 
 7. Kuchenmeistery, Strassburg, 1516. 
 
 8. Manual by Scappi, privy cook to Piux V, 1622. 
 
 9. Proper Newe Boke of Cookery, England, 1570. 
 10. The Good Housewife's Treasury, England, 1588. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 ABRAMS, ANNIE English Life and Manners in Later Middle Ages, 1913 
 
 ABRAMS, ANNIE Social England in the 15th Century, 1909 
 
 ARABIAN NIGHTS' ENTERTAINMENT 
 
 BABEE'S BOKE (Training at Table) 1868 (Reprint) 
 
 BAEDE Eccleciastical History, 600 
 
 BALCH, ELIZABETH Glimpses of Old English Homes, 1890 
 
22 TECHNICAL EDUCATION BULLETIN 
 
 BEOWULF (J. H. Cox, editor) 1910. Time of poem, about 500 A. D. 
 
 BRAND, JOHN Antiquities, 10.05 
 
 CHAMBERS, R Book of Days, 1888 
 
 CHAUCER, GEOFFREY Canterbury Tales, Prologue, 1386-90 
 
 CoMPTON-RiCKETT, ARTHUR London Life of Yesterday, 1909 
 
 COULTON, G. G A Medieval Garner. 1910 
 
 CUTTS, E. L Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages, 1872 
 
 CUTTS, E. L Domestic Life in England, 1835 
 
 EVANS, H-. E High History of the Holy Grail, 1908 
 
 FREYTAG, G Pictures of German Life, 1862 
 
 FRERE, FANNY A Proper Newe Booke of Cookery (reprint), 1913 
 
 GODFREY, ELIZABETH English Children in the Olden Time, 1907 
 
 GOSSON, STEPHEN Schoole of Abuse, 1579 
 
 GREEN, MRS. A. STOPPFORD Town Life in the isth Century, 1894 
 
 GUEST, GEORGE Mabinogion (Time of story, about 800), 1907 
 
 GUEST, GEORGE Social History of England, 1913 
 
 GUMMERE, F. B Old English Ballads, 1903 
 
 GUMMERE, F. B Germanic Origins, 1892 
 
 HACKWOOD, FRED., Inns, Ales, and Drinking Customs of Old England 
 
 (no date) 
 
 HAKLUYT Voyages, 1598-1600 
 
 HARRISON, WM England, 1577 
 
 HEATH, SIDNEY Pilgrim Life in the Middle Ages, 1912 
 
 Author unknown Land of Cockayne (Satire on Clergy), dr. noo 
 
 MALORY, THOMAS Morte d' Arthur, 1485 
 
 MARKHAM, GERVASE English Housewife, 1617 
 
 MARCO POLO Travels, 1116 
 
 MASKELL, H. P Old Country Inns of England (no date) 
 
 MORTON, J Ancren Riwle, 1225 (modernized) 
 
 McGovERN, J., Hospitality, Mine Host from the Time of Babylon to the 
 
 Age of the Aeroplane 
 
 NEEDHAM, MARY Folk Festivals, 1912 
 
 PLUMMER, C Life and Times of Alfred the Great 
 
 PRIVY PURSE ACCOUNTS of Elizabeth of York, 1502-3 
 PRIVY PURSE ACCOUNTS of Princess Mary, 1536-1544 
 
 SALZMAN, L. F Medieval Byways, 1913 
 
 SCOTT, WALTER Ivanhoe, 1825 ; Quentin Durward, 1823 
 
 SKEAT, WM. M The Past at Our Doors, 1911 
 
 STUBBES, PHILLIPE Anatomic of Abuse, 1583 
 
 SYNGE, M. B Short History of Social Life in England, 1906 
 
 TACITUS Germania, A. D. 99 
 
 THRUPP, JOHN Anglo-Saxon Homes, from 5th to nth Centuries, 1862 
 
 TRAILL, H. D Social England, 1901-4 
 
 WALMESLEY, J., Expenses of Judge of Assizes, 1596-1601. (Cooper Ed., 
 
 1858) 
 
 WALSH, WM. S Curiosities of Popular Customs, 1897 
 
 WARNER, C. D The People for whom Shakespeare Wrote, 1897 
 
 WESTON, J. L Sir Gawain (modernized) 
 
 WRIGHT, J. C In the Good Old Times, 1905 
 
AN OUTLINE ON THE HISTORY OF COOKERY 
 
 DATES IN MODERN HISTORY 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 1559 Katharine de 
 
 Medici in France 
 
 1588 Defeat of Armada 
 Break of Spain's 
 dominion 
 
 1572-1609 Rise of 
 
 Dutch Republic 
 
 1618-1648 Thirty Years' 
 War 
 
 1661-1715 Louis XIV of 
 France 
 
 1682-1725 Peter the 
 Great of Russia 
 
 1740-1786 Frederick the 
 Great of Prussia 
 
 1 789 French Revolution 
 1794 Reign of Terror 
 
 1795-1815 Napoleon I 
 
 1848 Napoleon III 
 1853-56 Crimean War 
 
 1870-71 Franco-Prussian 
 War 
 
 1870 Unification of Italy 
 
 1871 Unification of 
 Germany 
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 1536-39 Henry VIII 
 confiscated 
 monastic lands 
 
 1558-1603 Reign of 
 Elizabeth 
 
 1564-1616 Shakespeare 
 
 1649 Beheading of 
 Charles I 
 
 1649-1660 Common- 
 wealth and Crom- 
 well 
 
 1660-85 Charles II 
 1702-14 Queen Anne 
 
 1714 House of Hanover 
 on English throne 
 
 1757 English in India 
 
 1837-1901 Reign of 
 Victoria 
 
 1 839-42 English in 
 China 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 1519-36 Conquests of 
 
 Mexico and Peru 
 
 1607 Jamestown Colony 
 1619 Plymouth Colony 
 
 1755 French and Indian 
 War 
 
 1776-83 American 
 Revolution 
 
 1789 Adoption of 
 American 
 Constitution 
 
 1845-48 Mexican War 
 
 1860-65 Civil War 
 
 1898 Spanish- American 
 War 
 
24 TECHNICAL EDUCATION BULLETIN 
 
 MODERN TIMES: 1500 to Present Day 
 
 I. Period opens with strong interest in 
 
 1. VOYAGES AND DISCOVERIES. 
 
 a. To New World, bringing back maize, squash, tobacco, potato, 
 
 chocolate (from Mexico), turkey. 
 
 b. To Indies and Eastern lands, bringing back coffee, tea, cucum- 
 
 ber. 
 
 c. Popularizing rarer vegetables, cabbage from Holland, etc. 
 
 2. COLONIZATION. 
 
 a. England in America, Indies, India, China, Africa. 
 
 b. France in America. 
 
 c. Spain in North America and South America. 
 
 d. Holland in America and Africa. 
 
 3. SCIENCE. 
 
 a. Gardening and horticulture; grafting, propagating, experi- 
 
 menting, carried to high stage of perfection. Hop-grow- 
 ing introduced into England. 
 
 b. Cattle raising and breeding; cattle successfully fattened for 
 
 market as had never before been done; scientific interest 
 in improving breeds. 
 
 c. Interest in preserving food. Sir Francis Bacon's experiment 
 
 with cold storage for fowl. 
 
 4. CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS. 
 
 a. Rise of merchant class to position of social importance; 
 
 demands on their part for best in market; rival nobility 
 in display and luxury. 
 
 b. Revolt of poor people against coarse fare, demand for more 
 
 adequate wages, more liberal food-supply. 
 
 c. Great wealth pouring into Europe changes conditions of 
 
 living of all classes. 
 
 II. CONTAST BETWEEN FARE OF UPPER AND LOWER CLASSES great cause of 
 discontent. 
 
 1. Magnificence of courts of 
 
 a. Catherine de Medici. 
 
 b. Louis XIV. 
 
 c. Elizabeth. 
 
 d. Peter the Great and Katherine of Russia. 
 
 e. Frederick the Great of Prussia. 
 
 2. Culmination in 
 
 a. French Revolution. 
 
 b. English Reforms of 1832. 
 
AN OUTLINE ON THE HISTORY OF COOKERY 25 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 I. FAMOUS MONARCHS WHO INFLUENCED FRENCH COOKERY. 
 T. Catherine de Medici. 
 
 a. Brought Italian elegance of food-preparation. 
 
 b. Set standard of magnificence. 
 
 2. Louis XIV. 
 
 a. Chefs. 
 
 b. Favorites. 
 
 c. Taste in dishes. 
 
 3. Marie Antoinette and French Revolution. 
 
 4. Napoleon, contrast between 
 
 a. Soldierly fare. 
 
 b. Imperial court. 
 
 II. NATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 1. Love of excellence in quality. 
 
 2. Sauces. 
 
 3. Delicacy of flavor. 
 
 4. Right proportioning of foods served together. 
 
 III. FAMOUS CHEFS. 
 
 Bechamel, Vatel, Vincent dela Chapelle, Robert, Mest, Very, Riche, 
 Hardy, Careme, Ude, Francatelli, Soyer. 
 
 IV. DEVELOPMENT OF RESTAURANTS 
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 I. ELIZABETHAN TIMES. 
 
 a. Passion for new things, aping of foreigners. 
 
 b. Prosperity made for magnificence among nobles, plenty 
 
 among commons. 
 
 c. Scientific interest in food products and in distilling, horti- 
 
 culture, etc. 
 
 II. COMMONWEALTH. 
 
 a. Time of repression ; excess of every kind forbidden. 
 
 b. Political turmoil, civil war, turned men's minds from all soft 
 
 living and luxury. 
 
 c. Religious severity did away with observance of feast days. 
 
 III. RESTORATION AND AGE OF QUEEN ANNE. 
 
 a. French influence felt strongly at court. 
 
 b. Steady commerce with colonies made new products staple in 
 
 diet. 
 
 c. Scientific agriculture increased production of food stuffs enor- 
 
 mously. 
 
 IV. PRESENT TIME. 
 
 a. Reform bills of 1832 lowered food prices. 
 
 b. Tendencies noted in III continue to operate more strongly, 
 
 especially importation and productivity. 
 
26 TECHNICAL EDUCATION BULLETIN 
 
 AMERICA 
 
 I. COLONIAL COOKERY. 
 
 a. Marked by frugality and simplicity. 
 
 b. New food products, maize especially, staple. 
 
 c. Little imported save wine and condiments. 
 
 d. Effect of mingling of various national stocks seen in cookery, 
 
 i.e., New England and Dutch of New York. 
 
 II. REVOLUTIONARY COOKERY. 
 
 a. Provision liberal, but without European refinement. 
 
 b. Vigorous outdoor life of times called for heavy diet; meat 
 
 large part. 
 
 c. Contrast : 
 
 1. New England 
 
 2. Virginia and Maryland 
 
 3. Frontier, Kentucky, e{c. 
 
 III. PRESENT DAY INFLUENCES. 
 
 1. Wars and conquests. 
 
 2. Commerce and intercourse. 
 
 3. Developing of vast natural resources. 
 
 4. Immigration. 
 
 5. Scientific advances. 
 
 a. Cooking schools. 
 
 b. Literature of cookery. 
 
 c. Production of better varieties of foods. 
 
 d. Preservation of foods, cold storage, transportation, etc. 
 
 6. Famous hotels and restaurants. 
 
 CHINA 
 
 A vast country, shut off from rest of civilization both by natural 
 barriers and by temper of people themselves. Its civilization goes back to 
 3000 B. c. In itself and apparently independent of any surrounding civil- 
 ization, China passes through all the stages outlined from simple brute 
 existence to the most complex social organization and development. It 
 had, however, almost no influence on other peoples, because of its isolation. 
 Therefore its food customs are considered with those of modern times, 
 for it is only in our own day that they have become familiar. 
 
 FOOD PRODUCTS. 
 
 1. Animal. Fish of all kinds, shellfish, sea-snails, eels, shark-fins, 
 
 sea slugs. Beef not used as food, mutton esteemed, pork 
 used freely, deer and antelope used. Fowl or game birds 
 regarded as delicacy. Dogs, rats, moles, used for food. 
 Eggs staple of diet. 
 
 2. Vegetables. Many varieties of grain, rice staple article of diet, 
 
 celery, bamboo shoots; nuts, fruits, oranges, etc., fir cones. 
 
AN OUTLINE ON THE HISTORY OF COOKERY 2/ 
 
 3. Beverages. Wine, distilled liquor from rice, tea ; Chinese an 
 
 abstemious race, drunkenness a disgrace. 
 
 4. Two meals per day, luncheon and dinner. Women never present 
 
 at formal dinner. Service always of four (or multiple of 
 four) covers. No knives, forks, or spoons used. Chop-sticks 
 of ebony or ivory instead. All food served in small portions 
 so that cutting is unnecessary. Ceremonial elaborate. 
 
 INDIA 
 
 Food habits comparatively unknown till modern times, though civil- 
 ization as ancient as Persia. Climate ranges from tropical to temperate. 
 No distinct botanical features. Much game of all kinds. Agriculture sole 
 industry of the people. Largely vegetarians, cookery very simple. Had 
 little influence on ancient world, more on England in igth century. 
 
 CHARACTERISTIC DISHES 
 
 I. GERMANY noted for 
 
 1. Sausage. 
 
 2. Sauerkraut- 
 
 3. Breads and cakes of all kinds. 
 
 4. Wines and beer. 
 
 II. NORWAY AND SWEDEN. 
 
 1. Plain, simple foods. 
 
 2. Fish, especially preserved by smoking. 
 
 3. Great variety of fancy breads. 
 
 III. SPAIN. 
 
 1. Olla podrida. 
 
 2. Peppers in cookery. 
 
 3. Wines. 
 
 4. Choice fruits. 
 
 IV. ITALY. 
 
 1. Oil in cookery. 
 
 2. Cheese. 
 
 3. Wines. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 GENERAL REFERENCES 
 
 ADDISON Sir Roger de Coverly, in Spectator, 1714 
 
 ANDREWS, WM Bygone England, 1892 
 
 ASHTON, JOHN Dawn of igth century in England, 1886 
 
 ASHTON, JOHN .Social Life in the Reign of Queen Anne, 1897 
 
 BESANT, WALTER London, 1903-1909 
 
 BLACKMORE, R. S Lorna Doone, 1869 
 
28 TECHNICAL EDUCATION BULLETIN 
 
 BOAS, MRS. FREDERICK In Shakespeare's England, 1904 
 
 BOSWELL, JAMES Life of Samuel Johnson, 1791 
 
 BRADLEY, ROSA M., 
 
 The English Housewife in I7th and i8th centuries, 1912 
 
 CARLYLE, THOMAS The French Revolution, 1837 
 
 CERVANTES Don Quixote, 1605-1615 
 
 CHENEY, E. P., 
 
 Introduction to Industrial and Social History of England, 1901 
 CHRONICLES OF AN OLD CAMPAIGNER 
 COURT OF THE TUILLERIES 
 
 DEFOE. DANIEL Journal of the Plague Year, 1719 
 
 DICKENS, CHAS David Copperfield, 1850 
 
 DICKENS, CHAS Our Mutual Friend, 1865 
 
 DICKENS, CHAS Martin Chuzzlewit, 1844 
 
 DICKENS, CHAS., 
 
 Christmas Carol, 1843; Cricket on the Hearth, The Chimes, 1844 
 
 DICKENS, CHAS Tale of Two Cities, 1859 
 
 DEAKE Shakespeare and His Times 
 
 DUMAS, A Culinary Dictionary 
 
 EARLE, ALICE MORSE Customs and Fashions in Old New England, 1894 
 
 EVELYN, JOHN Diary, 1641-1697 
 
 FISKE, JOHN Dutch and Quaker Colonies of America, 1899 
 
 GAY, JOHN Trivia, 1716 
 
 HALL, HUBERT Society in the Elizabethan Age, 1886 
 
 IRVING, WASHINGTON Knickerbocker History of New York, 1809 
 
 IRVING, WASHINGTON Sketch Book, 1818 
 
 LAMB, CHARLES Essay on Roast Pig, 1822 
 
 LANG, ANDREW Social England 
 
 NEWNHAM-DAVIS A Gourmet's Guide to Paris 
 
 PAYNE Voyages of English Seamen 
 
 PEPYS, SAMUEL Diary, 1660-1669 
 
 PRIOR Poems, 1687 
 
 POPE, ALEXANDER Poems, 1709-1737 
 
 ROBINSON, H. P Twentieth Century America 
 
 RYE. .England as Seen by Foreigners in the Days of Elizabeth and James I 
 
 SCOTT, WALTER , Waverly, 1814 
 
 SHELLEY Inns and Taverns of Old London, 1909 
 
 SIDNEY, W. C, 
 
 Social Life in England from the Restoration to the Revolution 
 
 SMOLLETT, TOBIAS Peregrine Pickle, 1751 
 
 STEPHENSON, H. J The Elizabethan People, 1910 
 
 THACKERAY, W. M Some Dinners in Paris, 1860 
 
 THACKERAY,W. M Poems 
 
 WALTON, ISAAC Compleat Angler, 1653 
 
 AUSTIN, THOMAS Two I5th Century Cookery Books, 1888 
 
 HAZLITT, W. CAREW Old Cookery Books, 1902 
 
AN OUTLINE ON THE HISTORY OF COOKERY 2Q 
 
 HOOKER, MARGARET H., 
 
 Ye Gentlewoman's Housewifery, compiled from Old Sources, 1912 
 OXFORD, A. W., 
 
 Notes from a Collector's Catalog, with a Bibliography of English 
 
 Cookery Books, 1909 
 SENN, H. C Ye Art of Cookery in Ye Olden Time (no date) 
 
 OLD COOKERY BOOKS 
 
 ACCUM, FRED Culinary Chemistry, 1821 
 
 ACTON, ELIZABETH English Bread Book, 1857 
 
 ADAM'S LUXURY AND EVE'S COOKERY, 1774 
 ARTACHTHOS OR THE ASSIZE OR WEIGHT OF BREAD, 1638 
 
 AUSTIN, THOMAS Two I5th Century Cookery Books, 1888 
 
 Book of Cookrye by J. W., 1591 
 
 Book of Receipts for Pastry Cookery and Pickling, 1680 
 
 BRIGGS, RICHARD English Art of Cookery, 1794 
 
 BRIGGS, RICHARD New Art of Cookery, 1798 
 
 BUTLER, CAROLINE London and Country Cook, cir. 1800 
 
 CARTER, CHARLES Compleat City and Country Cook, 1730 
 
 CARTER, CHARLES London and Country Cook, 1739 
 
 CARTER, CHARLES Noble Art and Mystery of Cookery, 1729 
 
 CARTER, SUSANNAH The Frugal Housewife, 1796 
 
 CLERMONT, B The Professed Cook, 1776 
 
 COLLINGWOOD and WOOLAMS Universal Cook, 1792 
 
 Compleat Cook, 1655 
 
 Complete Family Piece, 1737 
 
 Complete British Housewife, 1730 
 
 Cookery Reformed or the Lady's Assistant, 1755 
 
 COOK, ANN The Professed Cook, 1750 
 
 Cook's Vade Mecum, 1705 
 
 DIGBY, SIR KENELM Cookery, 1669 
 
 EVELYN, JOHN Discourse on Thirty-Five Sallets, 1699 
 
 FARLEY, JOHN London Art of Cookery, 1789 
 
 FRAZER, MRS Practice of Cookery, Pastry and Confectionery, 1804 
 
 Gastronomy, 1822 
 
 GLASSE, MRS. HANNAH Art of Cookery, 1746 
 
 GLASSE, MRS. HANNAH Complete Confectioner, 1800 
 
 GRAHAME, W The Art of Making Wines, 1783 
 
 HALL, T The Queen's Royal Cookery, 1713 
 
 HAZLEMORE, M Domestic Economy, 1794 
 
 HENDERSON, W. A Housekeeper's Instructor, 1809 
 
 HUNTER, A Culina Famulatrix Medicinae, 1806 
 
 KETTILBY, MARY Receipts in Cookery, 1724 
 
 KING, W The Art of Cookery, 1709 
 
 KITCHENER, W The Cook's Oracle, 1821 
 
 KITCHENER, W The Housekeepers' Oracle, 1829 
 
 Liber Cure Cocarum 
 
32 TECHNICAL EDUCATION BULLETIN 
 
 EARLE, ALICE MORSE Stage Coach and Tavern Days, 1901 
 
 ESCOFFIER, A Guide to Modern Cookery, 1007 
 
 Experienced American Housekeeper, 1823 
 
 FELLOWES Culinary Handbook, 1904 
 
 FIELD, EDWARD The Colonial Tavern, 1897 
 
 GARRETT Encyclopedia of Cookery 
 
 GOUFFE, J Book of Preserves, 1871 
 
 GouFfE, j Royal Cookery Book, 1888 
 
 GRAHAM, S On Bread, 1837 
 
 HARLAND, MARION Some Colonial Homesteads, 1897 
 
 LESLIE, ELIZA Complete Cookery, 1841 
 
 LESLIE, ELIZA More Receipts, 1852 
 
 Pocumtuc Housewife Reprint Deerfield, Mass., 1907 
 
 RANDOLPH, MARY Virginia Housewife, 1838 
 
 RUNDELL, M. E American Domestic Cookery, 1823 
 
 SALA, G. A The Thorough Good Cook, 1896 
 
 SINGLETON, ESTHER Social New York Under the Georges, 1002 
 
 SMITH, J. H Famous Old Recipes, 1908 
 
 SMITH, PRUDENCE Modern American Cookery, 1831 
 
 SOYER, A Culinary Campaign, 1857 
 
 SOYER, A Gastronomic Regeneration, 1846 
 
 Statesmen's Dishes, 1887 
 
 WATERS, T. F. .Ipswich in the Massachusetts Bay Colony (1633-1700), 1905 
 
 WEBSTER, A. L The Improved Housewife, 1856 
 
AN OUTLINE ON THE HISTORY OF COOKERY 33 
 
 CHRISTMAS 
 
 In the celebration of the Christmas festival on the 25th of December, 
 Christian nations are in reality perpetuating the older pagan feasts which 
 marked the period of the winter solstice, the time when the sun begins his 
 upward climb in the heavens, the return to light and warmth. From 
 earliest times this has been the occasion of revelry, feasting and rejoicing 
 among all peoples. Among the Phoenicians it was the feast of Baal, or 
 Bel, the Sun God ; among the Romans, the feast of Saturn, or Saturnalia, 
 and it is from the customs of this celebration that the masking, mumming, 
 or pantomime, so characteristic a part of the Christmas festivities in the 
 Old World, is derived. Among our Teutonic ancestors, it was the Feast 
 of Odin, and our name of Yule-tide, and the ceremonial of the Yule-log, 
 are reminders of these older forms of Druid worship, to mark the turn 
 of the year, or the "wheeling" of the sun in the heavens. The canny fathers 
 of the church endeavored, in so far as was possible, to make the high-days 
 and holy-days of the Christian calendar coincide with the periods of 
 traditional celebration among the people, thus making a painless transition. 
 And in their successful carrying out of this policy, hosts of customs in no 
 way connected with the Christian character of the celebration were trans- 
 ferred bodily. Thus mince-pie, a characteristic Christmas dish, is the 
 lineal descendant of the old Teutonic "blood-pudding" or sausage, which 
 differed from common sausage by being sweetened and having plums 
 mixed with it. Not until a comparatively late date was it baked in a 
 crust; and indeed plum-pudding and mince pie are first cousins, both 
 springing from this famous dish. We may include here, too, the old 
 plum-porridge, or pottage, with which the Christmas feast always opened, 
 for it belongs with the other two in point of derivation. 
 
 In England, the main dish of the Christmas feast was the boar's head. 
 It was prepared by pickling, then roasted, and served on a platter of gold 
 or silver, its tusks gilded, a roast apple in its mouth, sprigs of rosemary 
 and bay to deck it, and the inevitable mustard to season it. So important 
 was its place in the feast that its entrance was preceded by heralds or 
 trumpeters, and it was borne in, held aloft by the chief steward himself. 
 None meaner in degree than a knight might carve it. The old Oxford 
 carol, 
 
 "Caput apri defero," 
 was sung as it was borne around the board. 
 
 Another dish in high favor for this feast was the peacock. One can 
 only account for the esteem in which this bird was held by the fact of its 
 rarity and beauty, for even after all the elaborate preparation and the 
 lavish use of good materials to make it palatable (one old recipe calls for 
 the flesh of three wethers, tender and good, to make the gravy for a 
 single bird), the meat was dry, stringy, and tasteless. The bird was first 
 carefully skinned, then stuffed with minced flesh, savory herbs, and a 
 dressing of yolks of eggs, then roasted and dressed with the before- 
 mentioned gravy. The skin with the plumage was then sewn in place, 
 the tail spread to display its full beauty, the beak gilded, and a bit of 
 
34 TECHNICAL EDUCATION BULLETIN 
 
 cotton soaked in brandy inserted therein. It was borne to the table with 
 this ablaze, and only the ladies might bring it in, or carve it and serve it. 
 Sometimes it was baked in a pie, and then in serving, the head protruded 
 from one end, the full-spread tail from the other. An oath taken upon this 
 pie was peculiarly sacred, and knights swore upon it their devotion to the 
 lady of their choice. Hence comes the old expression "by cock and pie." 
 Swans were sometimes given the place of honor when peacock could not 
 be obtained, and brawn and sirloin of beef were other Christmas favorites. 
 In France and Spain as well as in England, the oyster occupies a promi- 
 nent place at the feast, and a gift of a barrel of oysters is a delicate 
 attention from one friend to another. While we find frequent mention 
 of venison-pasties, this is not a distinctively Christmas dish in any 
 country. 
 
 The Christmas cake is an institution in every land. It is of the 
 richest composition the means of the household can afford ; old tradition 
 says it should be baked a month before it is to be eaten, and dipped in 
 spiced ale or brandy every day for a fortnight. It usually contains fruits 
 and nuts, and in the old days was sometimes so huge as to be baked in 
 sections, as a single oven could not accommodate it. It was iced and 
 built up with sugar devices, much as bride-cakes sometimes are. Some- 
 times it was called Twelfth-cake, and then in the baking, a bean, a pea, 
 and a clove were put in it. When it was cut, the person to whose portion 
 the bean fell was king, she who had the pea was queen, and the clove 
 designated the knave. These dignitaries were installed with revelry, and 
 ruled till Twelfth Night, being absolute in all commands for their little 
 reigns. 
 
 The wassail-bowl was another famous Christmas institution. The 
 derivation of the word signifies a health, and in the older days ; before 
 wines were common and easily obtainable, it was composed of spiced ale, 
 with roasted apples bobbing in it. In later days, mulled wine was its basis. 
 It was passed round the board, hot and spicy, and each took a deep draft 
 from the common cup. It is not until the sixteenth century that we find 
 individual cups used for this drink, for the ceremony of partaking of it 
 was in itself of a certain democratic significance. 
 
 Frumenty, a dish of wheat cakes seethed in milk, with pounded 
 almonds, was a great standby, served sometimes with venison, sometimes 
 as a dish by itself. Geese, capon, pheasant, and carp-tongue pie are all 
 mentioned as Christmas dishes. Hares, venison, a fine piece of brawn, 
 were all customary Christmas gifts from one householder to another. 
 Originally such gifts were made on New Year's Day, and this is still the 
 custom in some continental countries. New Year's day marked the 
 height of the Roman Saturnalia, and this is but another relic from that 
 time. 
 
 Certain games and folk-customs, which with us are associated with 
 Hallowe'en, really belong to the Yule celebration. Among these are 
 bobbing for apples, and jumping for the cake. This last was a rude sport, 
 where a cake, daubed with treacle, was suspended by a string from a 
 
AN OUTLINE ON THE HISTORY OF COOKERY 35 
 
 beam in the ceiling, and the contestants, with arms bound behind them, 
 jumped and tried to bite the cake. Then there was the Christmas Eve 
 blessing of the orchards, where the whole company, after partaking of 
 offered the remnants of the cake to the largest apple tree, and sprinkled the 
 ground with the wine, thus assuring abundance for the coming year. 
 
 On Christmas morning all the children of the community could go 
 from house to house, asking for simnel cakes, and no one would refuse 
 them. Their elders made similar calls, but instead of the simnel cakes, 
 they were served with "egg-hot," a forerunner of our own "egg-nogg," 
 made with cider, and with cakes of pounded almonds, our marzipan. 
 Everywhere extravagance of provision, hearty eating and deeper drinking 
 were the rule of the day. 
 
 With the Period of the Reformation, and especially with the rise of 
 the Puritans in England, all observation of Christmas and of Twelfth- 
 night as times of feast and revel was not only frowned on, but forbidden 
 both by law and by church authority. But the love of the festival was 
 too deeply implanted to be thus uprooted, and with the passing of Crom- 
 well, we see the old spirit breaking out again in even wilder rejoicing. 
 Our own Puritan ancestors came to America while Christmas was in 
 eclipse, and consequently New Englanders kept the day as a fast, till their 
 Knickerbocker neighbors had corrupted them. Much of the character of 
 the celebration in America to-day is borrowed from our German settlers, 
 and dates back only to the middle of the last century. 
 
 For excellent descriptions of Christmas celebrations, see 
 
 SCOTT Marmion, 1808 
 
 CHAMBERS Book of Days, 1888 
 
 HACKWOOD Good Cheer, 1911 
 
 IRVING Bracebridge Hall, 1818 
 
 DICKENS Pickwick Papers, 1837 
 
 DICKENS Christmas Carol, 1843 
 
 DICKENS Cricket on the Hearth, 1844 
 
 ASHTON, JOHN A Righte Merrie Christmasse, 1894 
 
 HERVEY, T. K Book of Christmas, 1888 
 
 SANDYS, WM Christmas Tide, 1852 
 
 SCH AUFFLER, R. H Christmas, 1907 
 
 SUGGESTED TOPICS FOR CLASS DEVELOPMENT 
 
 Food Taboos in Primitive Society. 
 
 Wars and Food. 
 
 The Effect of Climate upon Diet. 
 
 Religion and Food. 
 
 Dinner Throughout the Ages. 
 
 Development of Utensils. 
 
 Methods of Applying Heat to Food. 
 
 The Crusades. 
 
 Royal Tastes. 
 
36 TECHNICAL EDUCATION BULLETIN 
 
 Feasts in History. 
 
 Feasts in Fiction. 
 
 The Literature of Cookery. 
 
 Folklore and Food. 
 
 Table Customs. 
 
 National Dishes. 
 
 Famous Chefs. 
 
 The Bread of All Nations. 
 
 Cooking Schools and Their Influence. 
 
 Commerce and Food Habits. 
 
 American Holidays. 
 
 GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 ANDREWS, JULIA C Breakfast, Dinner and Tea, 1860, 
 
 BRILLAT-SAVARIN, J. A Gastronomy as a Fine Art. 1813 (pub. 1854) 
 
 BRILLAT-SAVARIN, J. A Physiology of Taste, 1825 (pub. 1854) 
 
 BUCKLAND, ANNE Our Viands, 1893 
 
 CHILD, THEODORE Delicate Feasting (no date) 
 
 DORAN, J Table Traits, 1859 
 
 ELLWANGER, G. H Pleasures of the Table, 1902 
 
 Encyclopedia Britannica 
 
 FILIPPINI, A \ . . . .The Table, 1889 
 
 FINK, HENRY T Food and Flavor, 1013 
 
 GONLEY, J. W. S Dining and Its Amenities, 1907 
 
 HACKWOOD, FREDERICK Good Cheer, 1911 
 
 HAYWOOD, A The Art of Dining 
 
 HUMELBERGIUS, SECUNous DICK Apician Morsels, 1829 
 
 JEFFERSON, CORDY Book About the Table 
 
 KETTNER Book of the Table 
 
 KIRWAN, A. V Host and Guest, 1864 
 
 REYNIERE, GRIMRODE DE Almanach des Gourmands, 1808 
 
 SHERWOOD, M. E. W The Art of Entertaining 
 
 SOYER, A. B Pantropheon (no date) 
 
 SOYER, A. B Spirit of Cookery, 1895 
 
 WALKER, T Aristology, or the Art of Dining 
 
 BARTLETT, JOHN Familiar Quotations, 1875-97 
 
 COREY, E. L Books and My Food, 1904 
 
 HONE Everyday Book, 1853 (pub. 1889) 
 
 SMITH, J. C Synonyms and Antonyms, 1867 
 
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