OF THE 
 
 University of California. 
 
 OIRT OK 
 
 WctWaaX) it Cr-fVfV ^AAX) UvuVT'. 
 
 
niTE AS AN INDEX OF STYLE 
 
 IN THE ORATORS. 
 
 A DISSERTATION 
 
 PRESENTED TO THE BOARD OF UNIVERSITY STUDIES OF 
 
 THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY FOR THE 
 
 DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY, 
 
 JUNE, 1898, 
 
 BY 
 
 WILLIAM ALEXANDER ECKELS. 
 
 BALTIMORE: 
 
 JOHN MURPHY COMPANY. 
 
 X901. 
 

 /■< 
 
 CONTENTS, 
 
 Page. 
 
 Purpose and Scope 6 
 
 Comparative Value of Tests: 
 
 1. Average Occurrence. , 7 
 
 2. Moods 8 
 
 3. Correlation 9 
 
 "CiffT^ IN Isocrates: 
 
 Comparison of Usage 
 
 (1) with that of other orators 13 
 
 (2) indifferent classes of orations 18 
 
 (3) in different orations of same class 21 
 
 (4) in different parts of same oration 33 
 
 Subdivisions 
 
 (1) of Non-correlative type 86 
 
 (2) of Correlative type 39 
 
 Equivalents 44 
 
 Moods 55 
 
 "no-Tc IN Demosthenes ♦ 67 
 
PREFATORY NOTE. 
 
 The writer's obligations to Professor Gildersleeve in connection 
 with the present work appear on many pages of it. It only 
 remains here to acknowledge the far deeper debt for inspiration 
 and illumination along many lines of Greek studies incurred 
 during a rather unusually long period of intercourse as teacher 
 and student. He also takes this opportunity to express his thanks 
 to Professor Minton Warren, late head of the Latin department 
 at Johns Hopkins, for much patient and helpful guidance in the 
 methods of philological interpretation and research. 
 
 Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, 
 September 19, 1901. 
 
^nSTE AS AN INDEX OF STYLE IN THE 
 ORATORS. 
 
 General Purpose. 
 
 The purpose of the present work is to examine the use of 
 wo-re in the Attic orators with reference to stylistic effect. The 
 historical development of the construction and the syntactical 
 phenomena which it exhibits have been fully set forth in such 
 studies as Seume, De Sententiis Consecutivis GraeciSy and Gilder- 
 sleeve's article on the Consecutive Sentence in Greek, A. J. P. vii. 
 pp. 160-175. Without meaning to press unduly the distinction 
 between syntax and style, or to deny that all syntax may be 
 *^ made available for the appreciation of form " (cf. the article just 
 cited, A.J. P. VII. p. 162), T have confined my attention chiefly 
 to those features of the usage of wo-re which are most obviously of 
 stylistic import, endeavoring to ascertain what, if any, rhetorical 
 ends the varied handling of the consecutive sentence has been 
 made to subserve. 
 
 Choice of Orators as the Field. 
 
 The orators have been chosen as the field for this study, (1) 
 because they represent the most artistic development of Greek 
 prose, the most careful attention to the structure of sentences and 
 periods ; (2) because they show an especial fondness for the axrre 
 construction; (3) because this department has thus far received 
 least attention in this connection. Of studies dealing with the 
 use of wcrre in particular authors or departments, special mention 
 must be made of the work of Fellmann on the Tragic Poets, 
 of Wehmann on Herodotus, Thucydides, and Xeuophon, and of 
 Berdolt on Plato — the latest, and much the most comprehensive 
 and satisfactory presentation of the details of wo-re usage for a 
 
6 ''flo-re as an Index of Style in the Orators, 
 
 m 
 
 particular department. Berdolt, in his preface, notes the need 
 of a similar investigation in the domain of the orators. As to 
 the second point, the language of Sen me, in his introductory para- 
 graph {DeSent Cons. Graec, p. 3), is pertinent; "Exerapla autem 
 tantum ex antiquioribus scriptoribus aiferam, maxime ex oratoribuSy. 
 qui artissima sententiarum per particulam wo-re coniunctione, in 
 qua magna est vis oratoria, creberrime utuntur.'^ The special 
 adaptation of this construction to oratorical purposes it will be 
 one of the objects of this discussion to make clear. The actual 
 frequency of its use in this department will appear from the 
 following tables, in which the average occurrence of wo-re ta 
 the Teubner page in the several orators is set over against ita 
 use in the four most important classical prose writers. 
 
 Tables of Average Occurrence. 
 
 I. II. 
 
 Herodotus 17 Antiphon 28 
 
 Thucydides 25 Andocides 36 
 
 Plato 25 Lysias 95 
 
 Xenophon 50 Isocrates 1.00 
 
 Isaeus 69 
 
 Demosthenes 46 
 
 Aeschines 30 
 
 It will be noted that all the non-oratorical writers except Xeno- 
 phon fall below the average of the lowest of the orators. Further^ 
 reference to Berdolt's work, p. 39, shows that the group of 
 Platonic writings which stand highest in occurrence of coare — 
 doubling the average use for Plato — includes the Apology, a work 
 cast in oratorical form, and pieces like the Symposium and 
 Phaedrus which contain long monologues of a more or less 
 formal sort and so bear something of the rhetorical stamp. 
 
 Origin of the Study. 
 
 The impulse to this study was given by Gildersleeve's review 
 of Wehmann's dissertation, A. J. P. xiv. pp. 240-2. Beginning 
 with some comments on the varying use of the finite moods and 
 
''XlorTe as an Index of Style in the Orators. 7 
 
 infinitive in different authors, and passing on to the consideration 
 of the use or omission of a preceding correlative with wcrre, the 
 writer of the review reaches the conclusion that "it is safe to 
 speak of stylistic effect within the range of axTre" Aiming to 
 test the correctness of this general proposition by detailed investi- 
 gation, I naturally followed the lines suggested in the review, 
 and added to the study of the moods and of correlation some 
 inquiry into the value of the frequency of occurrence of axrre 
 in general as an index of style. The result has been to convince 
 me that this last, as well as the use of moods, is of minor 
 importance as a stylistic test, while the phenomena of correlation 
 are of marked significance. A few illustrations may suffice to 
 indicate the negative character of the results obtained from the 
 use of these minor tests, and to explain why they are here- 
 after treated only as incidental and subsidiary to the main 
 theme — the use of correlation with coare. 
 
 Test of Average Occurrence. 
 
 The table of average occurrence of wo-re in the orators presented 
 above is a good illustration of the comparative barrenness of mere 
 statistics, without close analysis and interpretation. The order 
 given is chronological; and the "returning curve" presented — the 
 regular increase and decline in the use of wcrre — is, at first glance, 
 sufficiently impressive. Yet it is hard to connect these variations 
 in frequency of use with characteristic differences of style. A 
 rough generalization might see in the large use of the construction 
 in Lysias and Isocrates, as compared with its rarity in Antiphon 
 and Andocides, the sign of an increase in artistic carefulness as 
 to sentence-structure ; but, from this point of view, how are 
 we to account for the marked falling-off in the case of a no less 
 careful artist, Demosthenes? And what shall we say of the 
 close approximation — almpst co-incidence — as to employment of 
 coare in Isocrates, the model of the " florid '' style, and Lysias, 
 the representative of the "genus tenue"? Another illustration 
 is to be found in a comparison of two speeches of Isocrates — the 
 Adv. Euthynum and the Helen. Both of these stand high 
 among the Isocratean works in use of wo-re, but they represent 
 
8 '^Ha-Te as an Index of Style in the Orators, 
 
 styles of composition the most diverse. Here, as in the com- 
 parison between Isocrates and Lysias, the difference of style 
 of which the *' occurrence " test gives almost no sign is most 
 accurately reflected in the use or omission of correlation. 
 
 If there is anything suggestive in these statistics of average 
 occurrence, it seems to me to be the marked avoidance of wcrre 
 in the orators following Lysias and Isocrates, as compared with 
 the usage of these two authors. We might conceive of a certain 
 re-action against a use of the particle which had come to be 
 noted as excessive and approaching a mannerism. Such a view 
 would receive some support from results noted in the latest 
 works of Isocrates himself. 
 
 Test of Moods. 
 
 In speaking of the unreliability of a simple mood-test, I do 
 not mean to deny the existence of a distinction between mcttc 
 with the infinitive and with the finite verb. Some measure of 
 difference doubtless exists, and the use of the moods probably 
 has still further secrets to yield to a subtle and painstaking 
 analysis.^ I only wish to record a conviction that the mere 
 statistics of the moods do not afford any such broad and readily 
 applicable test of style as do those of correlation. The two sets 
 of phenomena often show a close relation ; but the meaning which 
 they hold in common can generally be expressed much more 
 accurately in terms of correlative and non-correlative than in 
 those of finite verb and infinitive. An illustration may be had by 
 comparing the usage of Isocrates and Lysias as to moods. Lysias 
 shows finite verb to infinitive as 2.07 : 1 ; Isocrates, as 1.5 : 1. 
 
 This is not a very striking difference, to begin with. So far 
 as it has significance for our purpose, it speaks, I think, for the 
 freer, less closely-connected structure of Lysias as compared with 
 Isocrates; but this is more exactly measured by the ratio of 
 correlative to non-correlative forms. For reasons which will 
 be developed later on, the finite mood is the favorite form with 
 non-correlative wo-re; hence we might say that it is because of 
 
 * Cf. especially the observations on the moods in Gildersleeve's article, A J P 
 VII. pp. 170-3. 
 
" Clare as an Index of Style in the Orators. 9 
 
 his larger use of non-correlatives that Lysias shows a preference 
 for the finite verb. So, in an examination of the several orations 
 of Isocrates, I have found that the diiference in moods sometimes 
 tells a part of the same story of which the difference as to 
 correlation tells practically the whole. 
 
 Allowing that the use as to moods and that as to correlation 
 often run together, we seem to be justified in giving greater 
 prominence to the latter as a stylistic test. In such a study, 
 we are dealing with choice of forms ; and the question of use or 
 neglect of the correlative is a prior one to that of mood — i. 6., 
 when the mood comes to be chosen the correlative has already 
 been used or rejected, so that the mood is more likely to be 
 influenced by the usage as to correlation than the latter by the 
 mood. 
 
 Again, the value of the mood as a stylistic test is diminished 
 by the existence of certain considerations which, important as 
 they are from the strictly syntactical standpoint, may be fairly 
 called extra-stylistic. I refer especially to the rules, almost 
 inviolable for the orators, which require the infinitive in certain 
 connections — with preceding negatives, questions, conditions, and 
 the like.^ Choice of mood being here excluded, these cases of 
 cocTTe, which make up a considerable group, are in a measure 
 excluded from the scope of our inquiry. I hope to add, at the 
 end of the present work, some observations on the use of the 
 moods, and to point out some of the limitations under which 
 I conceive the study of their use can be more profitably pursued. 
 
 Test of Correlation. 
 
 (a) Its Value in General, 
 
 The general considerations which tend to make the use of coa-re 
 correlative a norm of style are sufficiently indicated in the review 
 of Wehmann (A. J. P. xiv. pp. 240-2) to which I have already 
 referred.^ The first lies in the responsive effect of correlation 
 
 1 Cf. Seume, p. 49, Gildersleeve, Cons. Sent., A. J. P. vii. p. 173. 
 
 *I subjoin some extracts from this review, which should be read entire, as 
 giving the actual starting-point of this investigation : " Sxttc occupies a peculiar 
 position among the correlative sentences — nay, among the dependent sentences. 
 
10 "Ho-Te as an Index of Style in the Orators. 
 
 generally. "A certain deliberateness, a certain irepL^oXrj, attaches 
 to any wedded pair of correlatives." But further, the author 
 points out the peculiar nature of the wcrre sentence in not allow- 
 ing interchange of position between the principal and subordinate 
 members.^ This absence of inversion excludes the element of 
 "surprise," of " interjectional effect," which is possible in other 
 correlative sentences, and makes the sentence with coo-re and a 
 correlative " necessarily reflective, necessarily sedate." The ele- 
 ment, then, of orderly progression of thought, added to that of 
 responsion and balance inherent in the use of a correlative, gives 
 that " consequentiality " which Gildersleeve attributes to the form 
 of sentence which we are considering. The contrast between this 
 and the form in which tendency — inherent or actualized — is added 
 as an afterthought, without the anticipating correlative, is that to 
 which I desire to direct attention in the following pages. The 
 questions of finite or infinitive with the latter type and of the 
 more or less close connection of the coo-re clause as indicated in 
 our texts by the arbitrary device of punctuation, I prefer to leave 
 out of sight for the present. The contrast between the C. and 
 N. C. types may be fairly illustrated by placing such a sentence 
 as Isoc. Hel. 37 : Ovrw yap vo/jbiiii(o<; /cal Ka\(b<; Bimkcl rrjv ttoXlv 
 uxTT en Kol vvv l')(yo(; 7979 eKeivov 7rpa6T7)To<; iv to2<^ rjOecriv '^/jlwv 
 
 The protasis of the conditional sentence may follow. There is nothing strange in 
 that. The final clause may precede. That liberty comes in with the dramatic 
 poets. We may say '6s — ovtos as well as ovtos — '6s, '6crov — tootovtov as well as 
 Toaovrov — '6(tov\ but a^trre must always follow, must always be what its name 
 implies — consecutive, and when the correlative is expressed there can be no 
 surprises, no bouleversements. It is, therefore, necessarily reflective, necessarily 
 sedate. It is perforce excluded from the sphere of liveliness, of yopy6T'i]s. Of 
 course, a certain deliberateness, a certain irepi^oK-i] attaches to any wedded pair 
 of correlatives, but if the relative precedes the demonstrative, there is room for 
 an interjectional effiect. Not so with o'vtoos — (loaTe, not so with toctovtov — So-re. 
 This effect of the correlative in general and of &(TTe in particular was distinctly 
 recognized by the ancient rhetoricians. ... At all events, the consequentiality, 
 as one might render the inpi^oX-l] of the consecutive sentence, is a point not to 
 be overlooked in future treatises on ibare, and the subject is one that deserves 
 to be pursued." 
 
 ' The very rare examples of a So-re clause preceding are interesting as showing 
 how completely the final conception had come to prevail in these cases. The 
 equation lixm = 'Iva can alone account for the inversion. Of course there is no 
 such instance of inversion where a correlative is used. 
 
"Xlo-re as an Index of Style in the 
 
 KaTaX€\€l4>6aL .... over against one like Ad Nic. 49 : Ot he 
 Tov<; fj,vOov(; eh dy(ova<i koX Trpd^ec^; KareaTrjaav coare /irj fxovov 
 aKovcTTov^ dWd kol 6eaTov<; yeveaOai or Adv. Euth. 5 : NtVta? 
 Toivvv lEivOvvov ifkelov /nev e^et, tjttov Be Bvvarac Xeyecv oxtt ovk 
 ecTi 8c ore av eTrrjpOr) dBiKco^ eV ^vdvvovv eXOelv. 
 
 (6) Its Value in the Orators. 
 
 The observations recorded above by no means exhaust the 
 stylistic effects of which the construction of wo-re with a correla- 
 tive is capable, but they are sufficient to show that it does have a 
 certain rhetorical coloring, and is especially adapted to the more 
 formal kinds of discourse.^ Hence we should expect to find it 
 flourish in that group of writers whom we call rhetorical in the 
 stricter sense — the orators. A glance at the statistics justifies this 
 expectation. The tables here presented show the ratio of C. to 
 N. C. coare in the principal classical writers preceding and con- 
 temporary with the orators, over against that in the first seven 
 orators of the canon. The figures for the non-oratorical writers 
 are taken from Berdolt, who is the first scholar, so far as I know, 
 to present any comprehensive statistics as to correlation. 
 
 Tables Showing Eatio of C. : N. C. 
 
 II. 
 
 C. N. C. C. N. C. 
 
 Aeschines 1 
 
 Sophocles 1 
 
 Euripides 1 
 
 Herodotus 1 
 
 Thucydides 1 
 
 Aristophanes 1 
 
 Plato 1 
 
 6 Antiphon 1:2.73 
 
 5 Andocides 1:1.4 
 
 4.5 Lysias 1:1.17 
 
 2.22 Isocrates 2.21 : 1 
 
 11 Isaeus 1:1.51 
 
 10 Demosthenes 1.89 : 1 
 
 3.9 Aeschines 1.48:1 
 
 Without stopping to comment on the interesting features presented 
 by the first table I note (1) that the variations shown are those of 
 
 ^ Of. the review just quoted on the character of the few passages which show 
 &<m correlative in Aristophanes. 
 
12 ''n<7Te as an Index of Style in the Orators. 
 
 the department and the individual rather than of chronological 
 order (except, perhaps, in the case of the tragic poets) ; (2) and 
 especially, that of the non -oratorical writers, Herodotus alone 
 shows a fondness for C. surpassing that of the lowest on the list of 
 the orators, Antiphon, and even here the gain in correlation is com- 
 paratively slight.^ No other writer of the first group approaches 
 Herodotus in inclination towards the C. ; and the correlative 
 use of wcrre is seen to be a pre-eminently oratorical construction.^ 
 
 Choice of Isocrates for Study. 
 
 Since it is impossible, in the compass of the present work, to 
 present a detailed study of Mare usage for all the orators, it 
 becomes necessary to select one or two for closer examination in 
 order to illustrate the general method. I have chosen Isocrates 
 as a centre. To this professional rhetorician, this painstaking 
 student of the technique of composition, we look especially for 
 the conscious employment of rhetorical effects. 
 
 Other considerations, of a practical sort, commend him for our 
 purpose. The volume of his work is sufficiently great — Demos- 
 thenes alone surpasses him in this — and the average length of the 
 several orations is greater than in most of the orators. His 
 work, too, represents a greater variety of departments of oratory 
 than that of any of the others. 
 
 After a somewhat minute study of the various phases of the 
 subject based on Isocrates, I hope to add some results gathered 
 from Demosthenes, whose importance in this connection readily 
 suggests itself. 
 
 ^ It should be noted that Berdolt excludes from consideration seven cases of 
 " coalesced " ovtus oJtrre with finite verb in Herodotus. On this phenomenon, 
 cf. Berdolt, pp. 22-3, 92, Seume, pp. 34-36, and Wehmann, p. 14. It forms an 
 intermediate stage between the C. and N. C. types ; but I incline, on the whole, 
 to class it as C. If we add these examples to the C. side in Herodotus, the ratio 
 stands 1 : 1.9 — i. e., his advance over Antiphon is increased, but he still keeps 
 his relative position, between Antiphon and Andocides. 
 
 * I have, unfortunately, no complete statistics for Xenophon. From Wehmann's 
 lists one can gather only that, in clauses with finite verb, he uses C. : N. C. : : 1 : 4.6&. 
 Of course, with the finite verb, a preponderance of N. C. is the rule. Still, I 
 see no reason to anticipate that Xenophon will be found to surpass Herodotus in 
 relative frequency of the C. type. 
 
''Qa-re as an Index of Style in the Ch'ators, 13 
 
 PLAN OF STUDY FOR ISOCRATES. 
 
 The plan proposed is to compare Isocrates's use of wo-re (1) 
 with that of the other orators; (2) in the different classes or 
 departments of his work ; (3) in different speeches of the same 
 class; (4) in different parts of the same speech. This division 
 aims to bring out the stylistic peculiarities both of the individual 
 and the department. 
 
 The usage as to correlation is, as has been said, the main matter 
 of consideration. In treating of it, in this part of the work, C. 
 and N. C. are treated as two simple opposed types. The finer 
 shades of stylistic difference involved in the handling of each of 
 these — the sub-divisions of C. and N. C. respectively which seem 
 significant for our purpose — will, for the sake of clearness, be 
 reserved for subsequent treatment. 
 
 (1) COMPAEISON OF IsOCRATES WITH OTHER OrATOES. 
 
 The data for a comparison of the use of wo-re in the several 
 orators, with reference to correlation, are to be found in the table 
 submitted above (p. 11). That the high-water mark of preference 
 for the C. type is reached in Isocrates will not surprise us. 
 Dignity of tone and impressiveness of manner, a love of respon- 
 sion and balance and of a certain deliberate, "processional" 
 movement, are qualities which have been noted in him by all 
 the critics from Dionysius down.^ To the production of these 
 effects the figure of vTroaraai^ in general — heightening the effect 
 of a statement by amplification and interpretation in the second 
 member — and particularly that form of it exhibited in the 
 correlative consecutive construction, is especially favorable. The 
 stately flow of the sentence in which the ouro)? sights its answer- 
 ing coare from afar, and the speaker is seen to have the whole 
 complex thought firmly in hand from the beginning, commends 
 itself to Isocrates, as against the form in which tendency or 
 consequence is loosely added as an afterthought — whether in the 
 pure "detached" form, with finite verb, or with the slight 
 
 ' Cf. D. of H., De Scriptt. Vett. Cens., V. 2, koX tto/xitikSs ^(tti, etc. 
 
 
14 ''X2o-T€ as an Index of Style in the Orators. 
 
 grammatical nexus involved in the use of the infinitive. It is 
 one of the chirf characteristics of the " smooth " or " florid " 
 harmony of which Isocrates is the chosen representative, that it 
 aims at having "clause closely knitted to clause, and every 
 sentence rounded to a period ; " ^ and the natural connection between 
 Isocrates's fondness for wcrre correlative and for periodic structure 
 has been pointed out.^ 
 
 Comparing now the usage of Isocrates with that of the other 
 orators, one is at first tempted to press the notion of a chronological 
 development in the direction of correlation. But we need to 
 note (1) that the whole period represented by the activity of 
 these seven orators is comparatively short — the long life-time 
 of Isocrates almost binds it into a unity ; (2) that the first four 
 on the list, who show the development in regular sequence, are 
 practically contemporaries, while in the case of those following 
 Isocrates — where the difference in time become more substantial — 
 the chronological order is decidedly interrupted. We are thrown 
 back for the significance of these figures on the question of 
 individual difference of style; and here, I think, the test is 
 amply approved. 
 
 Antiphon. 
 
 The most striking difference shown by the figures is that 
 between Isocrates and Antiphon. We need only to recall 
 Dionysius's statement that " the * smooth ' or * florid ' style is 
 essentially the opposite of the austere," and that Antiphon is 
 the pre-eminent representative of the latter among the orators. 
 The austere style " does not aim at composing periods, or round- 
 ing sentences." "Antiphon," says Jebb, "was more periodic 
 than any one who had preceded," but " still far from the ease 
 of Lysias or the smooth completeness of Isocrates." In fact, 
 while the contrast between Antiphon and Isocrates is the most 
 striking feature of the table, the interval between Antiphon and 
 his immediate successors in this regard is sufficient to place him, 
 
 1 Of. D. of H., De Comp. Verb., c. 22-24. 
 
 ' Gildersleeve, A. J. P. VII. 171 — "the two Ioutus — Sxrrel make famous points 
 d'appui for the construction of a long period, as every reader of Isocrates knows." 
 
'^ Clare as an Index of Style in the Orators. 15 
 
 as it were, in a class by himself. This falls in well with another 
 observation of Jebb's — that Antiphon's priority in the canon is 
 due not simply to his being born a few years earlier than any 
 of the rest, but that " a broad difference separates him from those 
 who were nearly his contemporaries .... from Andocides and 
 Lysias, as well as from Demosthenes and Hyperides.'' Not only 
 the ratio of C. and N. C, but the character of the examples under 
 each type, differentiates him from his successors.^ 
 
 Andocides. 
 
 Andocides, the "gentleman orator," the "amateur" among 
 these artists of rhetorical discourse, is perhaps less significant 
 for our purpose, in view of the lack of consciousness and of a 
 definite method generally attributed to him. He stands, as to 
 ratio of C. to N. C, between Antiphon and Lysias, but much 
 nearer the latter than the former. Jebb says that he composes 
 " in a far less periodic style than Thucydides, Antiphon, or 
 Lysias ; " but I question whether the comparison with Antiphon 
 will hold, so far, at least, as periodic writing in the modern 
 sense — suspension of sense and " rounding " within the single 
 sentence — is concerned. Further, it may be noted that with 
 respect to his handling of the coo-re sentence inside the two types 
 which we have been comparing, he seems fairly entitled to his 
 intermediate position. His use of C. Mo-re is not essentially 
 different from that of Lysias and the later forensic orators ; 
 while in the character of the sentences which make up the 
 
 ^ One curious fact in Antiphon's use of oScre seems to deserve notice. Of the 
 six examples of &(rre which he exhibits, three occur in the Tetralogies ; and all 
 these are of a type not elsewhere represented in his works — the formula els 
 Tovro ^Keiv &(rT€ with the indicative. Further, these three are the only in- 
 stances of the S!)<TT€ sentence in the Tetralogies. Schierlinger {Die Unterordnende 
 Satzverbindung bei dem Bedner Antiphon) notes this latter fact, but not the 
 former — the non-use of the formula in the orations proper. One may still, 
 perhaps, accept his judgment that the divergence in &(rre usage between the 
 Tetralogies and the orations is not a circumstance of sufficient weight to count 
 against the genuineness of the former ; but I should incline to give it a place if 
 any considerable number of other stylistic peculiarities could be brought to 
 accompany it. At least it is not amiss to note, from the standpoint of our 
 inquiry, that in the orations proper the ratio of C. to N. C. is less than 1 : 5. 
 
16 "flo-T6 as an Index of Style in the Orators. 
 
 N. C. type, he shows a much closer affinity with the "old- 
 fashioned '^ school of Antiphon and Thucydides.^ 
 
 Lysias. 
 
 Lysias, in respect to relative use of C. and N. C, stands almost 
 exactly half-way between Antiphon and Isocrates. His relation 
 to the former has already been pointed out. As to the line that 
 separates him from Isocrates little more is needed than to call 
 attention to the freer and more varied character of his composi- 
 tion. He did not lack the power to construct an effective period ; 
 but the whole aim of his art — especially his ethopoeia — forbade his 
 adherence to a constantly periodic style like that of Isocrates. 
 To quote Jebb again (ii. p. 62), he "knew how to brace or 
 relax his frame-work," while Isocrates "must always round his 
 sentence." The admixture of Xeft? elpofjuevr) with periodic struc- 
 ture, increasing as the speech approaches the purely private 
 character, would seem sufficient to explain the lower proportion 
 of C. to N. C, as compared with Isocrates. To appreciate his 
 varied employment of axrre a comparison of different orations 
 would be necessary.^ 
 
 Isaeus. 
 
 The reaction in the direction of the earlier N. C. tendency seen 
 in Isaeus, when compared with Lysias, is not very strongly 
 marked, but still perceptible. In explanation of it, we may 
 
 ^ I cannot forbear mentioning; the results gathered from the spurious oration 
 Against Alcibiades, associated with the name of Andocides, as illustrating the 
 difference between his style and that of Isocrates and, incidentally, the possible 
 value of Sjo-tc as a test of genuineness. It shows C. : N. C. : : 2.6 : 1, over against 
 1 : 1.4 in the genuine Andocides. This close approach to the Isocratean school, 
 both in ratio of C. and N. C. and in the character of the So-re sentences generally, 
 is a remarkable confirmation of Jebb's statement that this oration " is far more 
 artificial than anything by Andocides which we possess ; it approaches, indeed, 
 more nearly to the style of Isocrates." 
 
 *Here again, an oration generally regarded as spurious is suggestive. Or. 
 20 — Pro Polystrato — goes beyond even the wide range of Lysias in its remark- 
 able preponderance of N. C. (C. 1 : N. C. 11). Cf. Jebb's comments, i. p. 219, 
 on its " absence of art," " long strings of loosely-joined clauses," etc. 
 
X2(7T6 as an Index of Style in the Orators, 17 
 
 adduce the somewhat greater negligence as to form in this most 
 practical of the orators. More specifically, I would emphasize 
 the predominant place given to strict argument in the speeches 
 of Isaeus. Dionysius — de Isaeo^ c. 16 — notes how Isaeus usually 
 essays complete logical proof, while Lysias rarely goes beyond the 
 rhetorical syllogism. This large use of formal argumentation 
 accounts chiefly, I think, for the gain of the N. C. type in Isaeus ; 
 for his list of N. C. wcrre's is made up mainly of a particular 
 variety of the type which, as we shall see later, belongs to the 
 domain of strict argument.^ 
 
 Demosthenes and Aeschines, 
 
 Demosthenes, again, shows a reversion to something like the 
 usage of Isocrates in his marked preference for correlation. A 
 somewhat detailed discussion of his use of Mcrre in its bearings 
 upon style is given at the end of this work. 
 
 The importance of Aeschines for this study is diminished by the 
 considerations referred to in the case of Andocides — he, too, is a 
 manner of " amateur." It is at least not surprising to find that 
 the test places him in close proximity to his great rival, in connec- 
 tion with whose work the special features of his use of coare usage 
 could best be examined. 
 
 This comparison of the orators is necessarily sketchy and 
 incomplete. A presentation of the finer differences in use of 
 a)a-T6 exhibited under the C. and N. C. heads respectively is post- 
 poned until a general survey of the types in Isocrates has been 
 made. The general outline just given suffices, I think, to show 
 the value of the test; the pages that immediately follow may 
 suggest some methods by which it may be applied more closely to 
 the style of the several orators. 
 
 ^ Jebb's comment on the " running " style in Isaeus, and his archaic use of t€ 
 in particular, recalls, in view of his teijdency to &(rT€ N. C, Gildersleeve's 
 parallel between the "after-thought re" and the "after-thought &(rre" 
 (A. J. P. XIV, 241). 
 
18 ''il(TT6 as an Index of Style in the Orators. 
 
 (2) Comparison of Different Classes. 
 
 We are now prepared to consider especially the use of wo-re 
 in Isocrates ; and it is proposed first to compare the relative 
 frequency of the C. and N. C. types in the several classes, or 
 departments, into which his works may be divided. 
 
 There is an advantage, in an inquiry like the present, in em- 
 ploying the grouping of another ; it precludes the possibility of 
 the investigator's twisting the classification, with an eye to his 
 own results, in the interest of any particular theory. I have 
 chosen to follow that of Jebb. It is based, he says, not on the 
 accident of form, but on subject-matter. I have ventured to 
 substitute the more convenient term " Philosophical " in the case 
 of those professional pamphlets which Jebb classes as " Essays on 
 Education." His '^Political'' class does not correspond exactly 
 to the " Deliberative " of Demosthenes, but it approaches nearest it, 
 dealing chiefly with large public questions and aiming, ostensibly 
 at least, at persuasion to some course of action. His " Hortatory '' 
 class includes those didactic compositions which aim at giving 
 general advice concerning the conduct of life. The terms " Epi- 
 deictic" and ^'Forensic'' need no explanation. 
 
 Taken in the order of preference for the correlative, the classes 
 stand thus : 1 . Epideictic ; 2. Philosophical (Essays on Educa- 
 tion); 3. Political; 4. Forensic; 5. Hortatory. The Epideictic 
 is easily first — C. 3.68 : N. C. 1 ; the Philosophical and Political 
 stand close together — 2.35 : 1, 2.25 : 1, as do the Forensic and 
 Hortatory — 1.54:1, 1.10:1. It will be noted that there is no 
 class in which the N. C. predominates ; and in the first three 
 classes (see table of separate orations, given below) there is no 
 single work in which the C. type does not prevail. The last two 
 show almost an equal number of works in which C. and N. C. 
 respectively predominate. 
 
 Assuming that the correlative use of Mcrre goes with a dignified, 
 elaborate, and consciously rhetorical style, and especially with a 
 marked preference for periodic structure, and the N. C. with the 
 opposite of this, the order of classes here presented is much what 
 we should expect. The Epideictic is the natural home of the 
 
'flare as an Index of Style in the 
 
 first-mentioned kind of writing (on the "essentially epideictic 
 character" of uniformly periodic composition, cf. Cic. Or. ^07y 
 Volkmann, Rhetorik, p. 435), while the Political writings of 
 Isocrates — who took no actual part in the contests of the state — 
 have naturally much of the epideictic character ; so also the two 
 treatises on education, which serve not only as an " apologia pro 
 vita sua," but as specimens of that rhetorical art whose usefulness 
 they aim to vindicate. Especially is this true of the fragment 
 " Contra Sophistas," which the ancient rhetoriciaus classed with 
 the encomia. The Hortatory and Forensic classes represent a 
 tendency the opposite of epideictic. In addition to the defini- 
 tions of Dionysius, we have the testimony of Isocrates himself 
 (Panath. 1) to the nature of the 761/09 BiKavcKov — "speeches seem- 
 ing to have been spoken simply, and not partaking of fcojjL-ylroTrjfiJ* 
 Clearness and closeness of argument are sought at the expense 
 of ornament and the graces of rhetoric. So, too, the brevity and 
 sententiousness of hortatory discourse are unfriendly to elaborate 
 periods and correlative structure. 
 
 This "department" test, which represents the influence of the 
 sphere and eliminates the factors of time and individual usage — 
 the latter often involving an element of mere caprice — is especially 
 interesting in the case of a conscious artist like Isocrates, who 
 recognized clearly, as utterances here and there throughout his 
 works show, the propriety of different styles of writing for different 
 sorts of themes, and the existence of clearly- marked divisions of 
 oratory. The Epideictic — using the term here not in the narrower 
 sense of mere sophistic display, but in that of an attempt to dignify 
 and embellish a worthy theme by appropriate ornament — he him- 
 self recognizes as peculiarly his own province, and the great body 
 of his work is strongly tinged with it ; but he knew how to repress 
 the tendency in departments to which it was alien. A comparison 
 of the forensic work of Isocrates with that of Lysias affords an 
 excellent illustration of the combined influence of the department 
 and the individual. The former influence works to bring down 
 the ratio of correlation from that of Isocrates in general (1.54 : 1 
 against 2.21 :1); but the latter keeps it from descending to the 
 standard of Lysias, whose work may be treated as practically all 
 
20 '^flcTTe as an Index of Style in the Orators, 
 
 forensic (1.54 : 1 against 1 : 1.17). The resultant of the two forces 
 is something almost exactly intermediate. 
 
 At first glance, the influence of department in the results before 
 us might seem to be complicated with that of time, since the two 
 groups which show a marked falling-off in correlation are both 
 admittedly early. But an examination of the list of separate ora- 
 tions given below shows that particular works of the same period, 
 both within and without these classes, exhibit a decidedly high use 
 of the C. type ; and further, in the case of the exceptional works 
 within these classes the divergence in use is directly explicable by 
 a mingling of departments. In general, I cannot see that the 
 variation in the use of Sare has much to do with chronological 
 development — at least, so far as the relations of C. and N. C. 
 are concerned — although the unusually long literary career of 
 Isocrates would seem to give excellent opportunity for such a 
 development. I have recorded below one or two instances in 
 which the average ocGU7rence of the particle is noticeably lower in 
 very late work.^ 
 
 ^In associating a relatively large use of C. cio-re with Epideictic discourse, 
 we must, of course, bear in mind the latitude of the term. The oratory of 
 " display " shows very different stylistic tendencies in different quarters and at 
 different periods. The manner of ornament affected by one school is lightly 
 esteemed by another. The common end — to please and dazzle, rather than to 
 teach and persuade — alone unites them. It would be interesting to apply our 
 test to the work of the school of Gorgias with its tendency to short and simply- 
 constructed sentences. Unfortunately the materials at hand are too slight. 
 Taking the brief specimens mentioned by Belling (De Periodorum Antiphonte- 
 arum Symmetria, p. 19) — the fragment of an Epitaphios by Gorgias, the later 
 Palamedes and Helen attributed to him, the 'EpwriKSs of Socrates in Plato's 
 Phaedrus, and Agathon's oration in the Symposium, — I have noted that, in the 
 small group of Acre's presented, the N. C. type predominates. 
 
 It is the Epideictic that prevails from the time of Lysias and Isocrates on, 
 which delights in full, flowing sentences and to which Cicero assigns the periodic 
 structure as a peculiar possession, with which we are dealing here. I have not 
 as yet collected this material and tested it by use of SxTre. But one instance may 
 be noted : the Menexenus ascribed to Plato, an Epitaphios, shows a considerably 
 higher average occurrence than any genuine Platonic work, and a ratio of 
 C. : N. C. of 1 : 1.4, as against 1:4 for the genuine Platonic works as a whole. 
 One other specimen will be considered under the head of Demosthenes. 
 
'I1<7T6 as an Index of Style in the Orators, 21 
 
 (3) Comparison of Separate Orations. 
 
 The consistent variation in the use of wcrre in the several depart- 
 ments being fairly established, it is proposed to apply the test to 
 the individual speeches within each department. We cannot, of 
 course, expect the same degree of consistency in the case of every 
 single work ; but we are naturally led to inquire, when we find a 
 piece departing widely in its use of wcrre from the normal usage 
 of its class, whether it is abnormal in other respects — whether it 
 is, or is not, a first rate representative of that class. 
 
 The variation may be due to a general difference of style or 
 subject-matter, running all through the texture of the piece ; or it 
 may be due to composite structure — ^. e., a piece which is assigned 
 to one department of writing may contain considerable strata of 
 material belonging properly to another class. Aside from these, 
 there may be special circumstances which suggest a natural and 
 reasonable explanation. 
 
 Variation of the sort first described is, of course, a subtle and 
 somewhat elusive feature ; and I have, as a rule, adduced it in 
 explanation of the cocrre usage only in the case of works which 
 have been noted by other investigators as evident departures from 
 type. This general divergence in style, tone, or subject may, of 
 course, be combined with " composite structure," and I have not 
 undertaken to keep the two sharply apart. Where the latter 
 -exists in any marked degree, I shall call attention to it, assuming^ 
 for the present, in the light of our comparison of departments, 
 that the results as to axrre usage for the whole work are affected 
 by this introduction of alien elements. In the next section I hope 
 to show, by analysis of several orations, that the use of coo-re does 
 actually show material difference in these different portions of the 
 works in question. 
 
 This study of individual orations will naturally yield less 
 striking results than are obtained in the broader field of the 
 departments. U it can be shown, on a fair examination; that the 
 use of wcrre varies with a tolerable degree of uniformity according 
 to the character of the speech, enough will have been accomplished 
 for the purpose. 
 
 2 
 
22 ''fl(TT6 as an Index of Style in the Orators, 
 
 The reader need hardly be reminded that the statistics vary 
 in impressiveness with the length of the oration. Fortunately^ 
 Isocrates presents few examples of very short speeches, such a;^ 
 abound, e. g., in Lysias. That this matter of length may have 
 due weight, I have included in the table herewith submitted a 
 statement of the number of Teubner pages, actual text, in each 
 oration. This table shows the average occurrence of wa-re and 
 number of C. and N. C. examples respectively for each oration, 
 with the average occurrence and the ratio of C. and N. C. for 
 each class. The classes are arranged in order of their preference 
 for the C, and the orations in each class on the same principle. 
 
 Isoerates, 
 
 PAGES. OCCURRENCE. ^' ^' ^' 
 
 1. Epideidic. no. average 
 
 -*^ PAGES. OCCURRENC 
 
 Helena 16 .. 1.19 16: 2 
 
 Evagoras 19 . . 1.70 26 : 7 
 
 Busiris llj.. 1.13 10: 3 
 
 Panathenaicus 67i. . .59 . 29 : 10 
 
 
 Av. occ. 
 
 for class. 
 
 .89 
 
 2. 
 
 Philosophical. 
 
 
 
 
 De Permutatione. . . 
 
 751.. 
 
 .76 
 
 
 Cont. Sophistas 
 
 6 .. 
 
 1.50 
 
 
 Av. occ. 
 
 for class. 
 
 .81 
 
 3. 
 
 Political. 
 
 
 
 Ratio for class, 3.68 : 1 
 
 .76 41:17 
 
 6: 3 
 
 Ratio for class, 2.35 
 
 Areopagiticus ^ 9 J . 
 
 Panegyricus 46 . 
 
 De Pace 34 . 
 
 Plataicus 14 . 
 
 Philii)pus 37 . 
 
 Archidamus 26 J. 
 
 1.08 
 
 17 : 4 
 
 1.17 
 
 39 :13 
 
 1.09 
 
 27 : 10 
 
 1.07 
 
 10 : 5 
 
 1.03 
 
 24 : 14 
 
 1.09 . 
 
 16 : 13 
 
 
 
 Av. occ. for class, 1.08 Ratio for class, 2.25 : 1 
 
''Hcrre as an Index of Style in the Orators, 
 
 23 
 
 4. Forensic, 
 
 NO 
 PAGES. 
 
 AVERAGE 
 OCCURRENCE. 
 
 De Bigis 12 . 
 
 Trapeziticus 15 . 
 
 Aegineticus 12 J. 
 
 Adv. Callimachum . 15 J . 
 
 Cont. Lochitem. ... 5 . 
 
 Adv. Euthynum. . . 4J. 
 
 1.83. 
 .93 
 2.00, 
 1.16 
 1.00 
 3.33 
 
 Av. occ. for class, 1.52 
 
 6. Hortatory. 
 
 Nicocles 15J. . 
 
 Ad Demonicum. ... 12 . . 
 AdNicoclem 12J.. 
 
 .77, 
 .17 
 .56 
 
 18: 
 
 4 
 
 11: 
 
 3 
 
 J7: 
 
 8 
 
 9: 
 
 9 
 
 2: 
 
 3 
 
 3: 
 
 12 
 
 .54: 
 
 1 
 
 8: 
 
 4 
 
 1 : 
 
 1 
 
 2: 
 
 5 
 
 Av. occ. for class, .52 Ratio for class, 1.10 : 1 
 
 1. Epibeictic Orations. 
 
 Helena (C.IQ:^, a 2). 
 
 The Helen represents the extreme of preference for wo-re C. 
 Its ratio is not only far higher than that of any other representa- 
 tive of the Epideictic class, but almost double that of any other 
 Isocratean work. Of its examples, all but two are of the C. type ; 
 and of the two N. C, one is of the final type, in which correlation 
 is excluded, leaving but one in which the C. was at all possible 
 and was not employed. 
 
 That the Helen also represents the most perfect development 
 of Isocrates' elaborately "epideictic" manner will, I think, be 
 admitted. Blass calls it " a show-piece of rhetorical art — nothing 
 more." Jebb notes the fact that it is pure encomium, not mixed 
 with apology, like the Busiris, and that the congenial character of 
 the theme gives it more freedom and glow. Save for the polemic 
 introduction, it is almost pure narrative, and the panegyrist gives 
 his genius full swing, in a succession of long sentences and flowing 
 periods of the most ornate type. In a number of the examples 
 the correlative word stands at the head of the main clause, adding 
 to the ordinary responsive effect of correlation that of balance in 
 position. 
 
24 "Ha-re as an Index of Style in the Orators, 
 
 That the average occurrence of coa-re does not rise higher is 
 partly due to the separate character of the introduction which, in 
 three pages, furnishes but one example, making its average occur- 
 rence .33 as against 1.44 for the encomium proper. On the less 
 ornate style of the foi:mer, cf. Blass.^ 
 
 Evagoras (C. 26 : N. C. 7). 
 
 The Evagoras, an excellent specimen of eulogistic discourse, 
 need not detain us long. In rhetorical finish it compares favor- 
 ably with the Helen. As to ratio of C. to N. C, it represents the 
 norm of the epideictic class. The actual use of the C. type is 
 very high. In the body of the work, the encomium proper, the 
 author fairly revels in the construction. 
 
 That the ratio of C. to N. C. is not higher is due, I think, to 
 the difference of theme. Eulogizing a modern, a man of his own 
 time, the writer condescends to reason, to point out the bearing 
 of the facts narrated on his thesis — the greatness of Evagoras. 
 Hence a sprinkling of that form of N. C. ware which is used in 
 drawing inferences. In the Helen, moving in the region of the 
 myths, where the most exaggerated praise was already conceded, 
 there was the less occasion for this inferential use of the particle. 
 The difference, then, is rather one of the spirit and purpose of the 
 work than strictly stylistic. 
 
 Here, again, the average occurrence in the introduction and 
 conclusion is small — less than one to two pages; while in the 
 panegyric portion it is very large — over two to the page. 
 
 Budris (C. 10 : N. C. 3). ' 
 
 The Busiris is rather an essay in literary criticism than true 
 encomium, the eulogy on Busiris being introduced incidentally. 
 The greater part of the work is taken up with pointing out the 
 faults of method and errors of statement of a brother artist who 
 had handled the theme, I cite a few points from Blass' charac- 
 teristic.^ " In comparison with the Helen, it is less sophistic " — 
 
 ^Die Attische Beredsamkeit, ii, p. 247. 
 nbid., p. 250. 
 
''flcTTe as an Index of Style in the Orators, 25 
 
 " less brilliant, more composed and matured " — *' the form is, on the 
 whole, plainer/' 
 
 That it attains to the proportion of C. which it exhibits — a little 
 below the norm of the class — is due to the encomium proper. 
 The piece affords an excellent illustration of the method of an- 
 alysis, and I reserve it for further consideration under that head. 
 
 Panathenaicus (C. 29 : N. C. 10). 
 
 That the Panathenaicus should stand at the opposite extreme 
 of the Epideictic class from the Helen is fully in keeping with 
 the inherent difference in the style of the works. The strictures 
 of Blass — e. g., that the Panathenaicus is " less artistic than the 
 earlier works '^ — " lacks final polishing " — " is careless in sentence- 
 structure," etc. — have been, in substance, anticipated by the author 
 himself, who expresses a fear (§ 4) that the work may appear 
 fiaXaK(OTepo<; in comparison with its predecessors, and alleges the 
 plea of advanced age and physical infirmity. In view of these 
 differences, the surprise is rather that it shows a proportion of 
 C. cocrre so nearly approaching that of the Evagoras and Busiris. 
 The work falls naturally into three quite distinct blocks ; and an 
 analysis of it well supports the conception of the stylistic value 
 of Mare advanced in this work. 
 
 The introduction (1-38) is taken up with a vindication of the 
 author's pursuits and an exposition of his theory of culture; the 
 panegyric on Athens (39-198) forms not much over half of the 
 whole work; the supplement is personal narrative and explana- 
 tion. The introduction is much more formal, and shows fuller 
 working out, than the conclusion. The latter was written after 
 the three years' interruption caused by illness, and shows traces 
 of the circumstances attending its origin. It is rambling, almost 
 conversational, in its negligence, containing, in fact, a good deal 
 of reported conversation. 
 
 The introduction shows a ratio of C. to N. C. of 3 : 1 ; the 
 panegyric proper, of 3.8 : I ; the conclusion, of 1 : 1. 
 
 Upon the remarkably low avei^age occurrence of coare in the 
 Panathenaicus I am not prepared to generalize ; I only note the 
 fact that in this respect it stands among the lowest of all the 
 
26 "O^are as an Index of Style in the Orators. 
 
 Isocratean works — only two hortatory discourses falling below 
 it — and that its average use is only half that of the next higher 
 epideictic oration. The fact that it is the latest of all Isocrates' 
 writings — separated by intervals of from 25 to 50 years from 
 the other epideictic speeches — might lend some color to the theory 
 of a later conscious avoidance of the particle, such as suggests 
 itself in the case of the orators following Isocrates ; but I do not 
 find much to support this view. The phenomenon is chiefly 
 interesting in view of somewhat similar results noted in con- 
 nection with the oration next considered. 
 
 2. Philosophical. 
 
 De Permutatione (0. 41 : N. C. 18). 
 
 A parallel might easily be set up between the speech On the 
 Antidosis and the Panathenaicus. The former is the longest, as 
 the latter is next to the longest, of the works of Isocrates. Both 
 were written near the close of the author^s career; and in both 
 he apologizes, in almost the same words, for his lack of vigor and 
 deprecates comparison with his earlier works. Now the Antidosis 
 falls to one-half the average occurrence of the other member of its 
 class — the fragment Contra Sophistas — just as the Panathenaicus 
 does with respect to the epideictic oration standing next above it, 
 and in both instances the later work is separated from the earlier by 
 a long interval of time. Still there are orations of almost equally 
 late date in the other classes which show the normal occurrence ; 
 and it must be remembered that the Contra Sophistas^ with which 
 the Antidosis is here compared, is a mere fragment. On the 
 whole, I do not see that much can be made out of the coincidence 
 in this respect between the Antidosis and the Panathenaicus, 
 
 The Antidosis does not show any marked contrast in ratio of 
 C. and N. C. with the earlier work of its class. It takes the 
 form, says Blass, of an encomium on the author himself. He 
 speaks of it as "more polished than one would suppose" — in 
 view, presumably, of its length, shortness of time of composition, 
 and the author's own unfavorable estimate of it. 
 
"n<7T€ as an Index of Style in the Orators. 27 
 
 3. Political. 
 
 The comparative value of the tests of correlation and average 
 occurrence is well illustrated by the group of orations designated 
 as Political. In occurrence these show a remarkable uniformity. 
 In ratio of C. to N. C. they are differentiated, not in the highest 
 degree, but quite perceptibly, and in a way that accords well, on 
 the whole, with their characteristic differences of subject and 
 manner. The difference in ratio that separates each speech from 
 those nearest to it on the list is not very striking, but a com- 
 parison of those occupying either extreme yields results suggestive 
 enough. 
 
 Areopagiticus (C. 17 : N. C. 4). 
 
 At the head of the list stands the Areopagiticus, and next to it 
 the Panegyricus. Both are mainly occupied in setting forth the 
 virtues of the older Athenian democracy — the one (as Jebb points 
 out) from the standpoint of internal, the other, of external affairs. 
 Neither addresses itself to a very immediate or practical end. 
 In both cases, the presentation shows that epideictic coloring to 
 which the theme invites. The Areopagiticus, while cast m the 
 form of a plea before the assembly, is not so much an argument 
 as a statement of conditions — a series of contrasted pictures of 
 Athenian life under the old and new regimes. Hence the note of 
 characterization frequently recurs ; there is an abundance of nar- 
 rative and description, with a constant undercurrent of praise or 
 blame. It is in this sphere of elevated description, of narrative 
 touched with emotional warmth, that the stately effect of the 
 period based on the use of wo-re with a correlative is especially 
 cultivated by our author. 
 
 Panegyricus (C. 39 : N. C. 1 3). 
 
 Little need be added to what has already been said of the 
 Panegyricus. It is recognized by most modern, as it was by 
 many ancient critics, as the most perfect, the most consciously 
 artistic, of all Isocrates' works; and it is as an encomium on 
 Athens that it is especially praised. On the skill and care of 
 
 ^ or THE. 
 
 OF 1 ni^ \ 
 
 UNlVERStTV ] 
 
28 '^Q^are as an Index of Style in the Orator^s, 
 
 the composition, and the moderation, at the same time, in the use 
 of ornament as compared with earlier works like the Helen, cf, 
 Blass, II, p. 264; also Brougham, Edinb. Rev., xxxvi, p. 513. 
 If we were to extend the limits of the Epideictic class as given 
 in the table, the Areopagiticus and Panegyricus would probably 
 be the first additions to suggest themselves. In the case of the 
 Fanegyricus especially, certain passages, or " episodes," give par- 
 ticular occasion for brilliant narrative, and I have accordingly 
 marked it for more minute analysis. 
 
 Fhilippus (C. 24 : N. C. 14). 
 
 At the opposite end of the list stand the Fhilippus and Archi- 
 damns, in which the ratio of C. to N. C. falls below 2:1. The 
 Fhilippus presents an excellent opportunity for comparison with 
 the Fanegyricus, coming nearest to it in length of all the Political 
 orations, and, moreover, treating the same theme — the desirability 
 of a combined Hellenic expedition against Persia. But there are 
 significant differences in the mode of dealing with the subject ; the 
 treatment, if less brilliant, is here more practical. Being ad- 
 dressed to a definite individual — and one, too, whom Isocrates 
 had some reason to hope to influence in the direction of his 
 favorite project — the element of persuasion predominates over 
 that of display. There is a more steady vein of argument and 
 appeal — less of expanded narrative and brilliant episode. His- 
 torical parallels are often merely cited, instead of being dwelt on 
 in detail. As to the style, we may note the author's own remarks 
 (§ 25) on its lack of rhetorical ornament compared with his earlier 
 works (see also Blass, ii, p. 31 7, where it is compared with the 
 Fanegyricus), The sentences are, on the whole, less perfectly 
 rounded and polished ; there is an increased tendency to loose 
 instead of periodic structure. The composition seems less adapted 
 to oratorical delivery — more to that quiet perusal to which the 
 author commends it. 
 
 Archidamus (C. 16 : N. C. 13). 
 
 The significance of the wcrre usage in the Archidamus, in which 
 the N. C. type rises nearest to an equality with the C. for the 
 
"floT€ as an Index of Style in the Orator's, 2^, 
 
 Political group, is perhaps less clear, yet one or two points may- 
 be noted that suggest a partial explanation. One may not, per- 
 haps, venture to think of ethopoeia in this speech purporting to 
 be spoken by a young Spartan prince on a vital question of state 
 policy ; yet there is an aggressiveness, an earnestness of tone and 
 closeness of reasoning that adapts it to the serious purposes of 
 deliberative oratory and distinguishes it especially from the epi- 
 deictic manner. It is not without oratorical fullness and finish, 
 and there is considerable use of historical material, but Blass 
 notes (p. 292) that the sentences are not oratorically rounded. 
 
 Especially significant, I think, is the character of the sentences 
 of the N. C. type. They are chiefly of two kinds — (1) the form 
 of detached ware sentence which is the instrument of foritial logic 
 (in keeping with that marked argumentative character of which 
 I have just spoken) ; (2) an unusually large proportion of the 
 " rare types," such as final and the so-called " superfluous " Mo-re. 
 Out of twenty instances, at the most, of these " rare types " in all 
 Isocrates^ work, four occur in this oration. They constitute almost 
 a third of the N. C. group of the Archidamus, and help to explain 
 why it looms up so largely in comparison with the C.^ 
 
 4. Forensic. 
 
 The widest variations in style in any one class of Isocrates' 
 writings are to be found in the Forensic department; so, while 
 it is hardest here to fix the standard or norm of the department 
 and to speak of the chard-cteristics of the class as a whole, this 
 group lends itself especially well to a comparison of individual 
 orations. Some have all the distinguishing characteristics which 
 we associate peculiarly with Isocratean style; others show such 
 a marked divergence from these in style and treatment as to con- 
 stitute a new type— the true Forensic type — which is essentially 
 different, as the orator himself recognized, from the usual manner 
 of Isocrates. A glance at the table shows that this diversity in 
 
 ^One of the examples referred to cannot be paralleled in Isocrates — (§ 4, 
 6t fihp yap SeSciy/xcvov Sxrre tovs fxkv trpecrfivrepovs irepl airduTwv eiSet/ai rh ^eXriffTOVy 
 K. T. A.), where the &<Tr€ clause is not only used as subject of an impersonal verb, 
 but is a practical equivalent for indirect discourse. 
 
30 ''Slare as an Index of Style in the Orators. 
 
 style is fully reflected in the axrre usage. As extreme representa- 
 tives of two opposite tendencies, let us compare the De Bigis and 
 Adv, Euthynum, 
 
 De Bigis (C. 18 : N. C. 4). 
 
 The De Bigis is ostensibly a defence spoken by the younger 
 Alcibiades in a suit concerning a team of horses, of which, it is 
 alleged, the plaintiff had been defrauded by the father of the de- 
 fendant. As we have it, it is an incomplete work. The technical 
 part — statement of the case, presentation of witnesses, legal argu- 
 ment, etc. — is spoken of in the opening of our fragment as con- 
 cluded ; what remains is a glorification of the elder Alcibiades, 
 with a protest on the speaker's part against being punished on 
 his father's account, and an attack on the prosecutor. The eulogy 
 of Alcibiades is full and ornate, so that Jebb speaks with good 
 reason of the " thoroughly epideictic character of the whole." 
 
 Blass says (ri, p. 228) that, apart from the attack on Tisias — 
 a very brief section — it is to be classed, not with the forensic 
 works, but with the encomia ; that " the composition displays all 
 the brilliance and dignity of which Isocrates' manner is capable." 
 We need not be surprised, then, to find this speech not only easily 
 first in its class in the preference shown for C. Mare, but exceeded 
 by no Isocratean work except the Helen. As an instance of the 
 accumulation of the construction, and the effects to which it lends 
 itself, cf. § 26-27. 
 
 Adv. Euthynum (C. 3 : N. C. 12). 
 
 The Euthynus is easily distinguished from all the other writings 
 of Isocrates by its extreme brevity and simplicity ; indeed, these 
 qualities have caused it to be regarded with suspicion. Benseler, 
 for one, declines to give it to Isocrates, not only on the score of 
 hiatus, but on account of the brevity and compactness of the 
 periods. One of the latest writers, Drerup, Neu. Jahrh., Suppl. 
 Bd. 22, p. 369, acquiesces in this view. There is but the barest 
 word of introduction ; the narrative shrinks to less than a page, 
 and is confined to the merest outline of facts ; all the rest is an 
 argument from probabilities (the speech being afidpTvpo<;), a series 
 
"ria-re as an Index of Style in the Orators: 31 
 
 of syllogisms, of general principles and logical inferences drawn 
 therefrom as to the case in hand. Blass (ii, p. 222) mentions this 
 use of the developed syllogism as peculiar to this oration.^ We 
 might call the Euthynus the " ultra-forensic " specimen, in its 
 close attention to argument and avoidance of ornament. It is 
 such a piece as we could conceive Isocrates to have written for 
 the very purpose of illustrating for his pupils the difference 
 between the style appropriate to strictly forensic work and his 
 own proper province. 
 
 These few pages fairly bristle with wo-re's, but the C. stand 
 to the N. C. as 1 : 4, and the latter are almost entirely of the 
 logical inference type which belongs to formal argument. Thus 
 the speech stands as the antipode of the De Bigis for the Forensic 
 class ; and in a survey of the whole Isocratean corpus it stands 
 opposed most strikingly to the Helen, the two marking the ex- 
 treme of stylistic variation, and also the extreme in the use of 
 ware, with their ratios of 1 : 4 and 8:1, respectively. 
 
 I shall not undertake here to apply the wcrre test to the works 
 standing between these two extremes; the differences are less 
 striking, but still substantial. There is a gradation in stylistic 
 tendencies, to which the coo-re usage very fairly corresponds. 
 The Trapeziticus and AegineticuSy especially the former, incline 
 to the normal Isocratean manner and show epideictic tendencies ; 
 while the Callimachus and the Lochites, a fragment, occupy an 
 intermediate place between this elaborate style and the bald 
 exaggeration of forensic plainness exhibited by the Euthynus, 
 and are the best representatives of the true forensic type in 
 Isocrates. They show the closest approach to the standard of 
 Lysias and Isaeus in their general style, and no less in their use 
 of wcrre. 
 
 5. Hortatory. 
 
 The group of hortatory discourses also shows sufficient variety 
 to give fair room for the application of the test. The tendency 
 of the class would naturally be in favor of the N. C. type, and it 
 
 ^ For an example, see § 5. 
 
32 "fl(TT6 as an Index of Style in the Orators. 
 
 will be found, in comparing the Nicodes and the Ad Nicoclem, 
 that the ratio shifts according as the hortatory character is more 
 or less strictly adhered to. The Ad Nicoclem is the truer repre- 
 sentative of the type. Blass notes the absence of the ordinary 
 Isocratean features — its lack of " glitter " and " swing," and how 
 *' epideictic fullness dwindles to aphoristic brevity .'^ The Nicodes 
 he ranks much higher, because in it "the dry admonitions are 
 limited to an insignificant part of the whole." The varying pro- 
 portion of this " paraenetic " element, which in both works forms 
 an easily recognizable division, to the whole tells, indeed, a large 
 part of the story. In the Ad Nicoclem it forms one-half of 
 the speech — in the Nicodes, only about one-fourth ; and again, 
 outside of the exhortation proper the Nicodes shows the more 
 elaborate and polished style. Without presenting a full analysis 
 of it, a glance at the most clearly contrasted sections will be of 
 service. 
 
 In §§ 27-47 the speaker recounts, as a claim to obedience, the 
 achievements and virtues of his immediate ancestors and of him- 
 self. Here we have the joyous swing of epideictic narrative ; the 
 sentences are longer and more artistically constructed than in the 
 other sections, and the " grand roll " which is associated with 
 irepil^oXri is distinctly perceptible. This topic occupies five pages 
 and contains seven examples of wo-re, of which six are C. (one- 
 third of the speech thus furnishing three-fourths of the examples 
 of C. wo-re), while the strictly hortatory portion shows, in its four 
 pages, but one instance of the C. The ratio of 6 C. : 1 N. C. in 
 the highly epideictic section just referred to is set over against a 
 ratio of 2 : 3 for the rest of the discourse ; but even these latter 
 portions are surpassed in preference for the N. C. by the Ad 
 Nicoclem^ with its ratio, for the whole work, of 2:5. 
 
 The Ad Demonicum exhibits the most rigid type of a purely 
 hortatory discourse. It is chiefly interesting in connection with 
 our inquiry for its almost entire absence of oiare — averaging .17 
 to the page. There is nothing else approaching this in the whole 
 Isocratean corpus, and the fact perhaps deserves to be considered 
 in connection with the questions that have been raised as to the 
 genuineness of the work. 
 
'flare as an Index of Style in the Orators. 33 
 
 (4) Comparison of Parts of Same Oration. 
 
 The last use made of the general test of correlation has been 
 to apply it to different parts of the same oration, where there is 
 a change of subject sufficiently marked to carry with it a distinct 
 variation in style. Everything depends here, of course, on the 
 care and fidelity with which the work is done. One must guard 
 against making arbitrary divisions or magnifying minor differences. 
 The process of analysis is facilitated, for Isocrates, by his fondness 
 for inserting distinct " episodes," ^ and his tendency to introduce 
 these formally, in language which clearly indicates that a " show- 
 piece " is about to be presented. Some hints of the method have 
 been given in the preceding study of orations.^ A few additional 
 examples are here presented. 
 
 The De JBigis, though apparently a fragment, has sufficient 
 compass to admit of such an analysis. The principal divisions 
 may be characterized thus: (1) §§ 5-21 are narrative, but mixed 
 with argument, the tone partly apologetic ; (2) §§ 25-38 are pure 
 narrative, the tone that of bold and unqualified panegyric ; (3) §§ 39- 
 50 are argument and personal plea. The first division shows an 
 average occurrence of 2 to the page, and a ratio of C. : N. C. as 
 3:1; the second, average occurrence, 2.5, and of the ten examples 
 of Scrre every one is C. ; the third, average occurrence, .67, and all 
 examples N. C. 
 
 These results coincide closely with the observations of Drerup 
 (N. J., Suppl. Bd. 22, pp. 350-1), who, in his study of this oration, 
 makes the point that " the style is more ornate in praise than in 
 defence;^' classes the peroration (my third division) as forensic, 
 the rest as epideictic, and concludes that this oration shows the 
 sharp severance in Isocrates between the epideictic and the forensic 
 diction. 
 
 The Panegyrieus, in addition to its highly artistic character, 
 has the practical advantage, for our present purpose, of being one 
 of the longest of Isocrates' works. The parts into which it can 
 
 1 Cf. D. of H., De Oral. Antiq., Isoc, c. 4. 
 
 ^See, 6. g., the section on Hel., p. 24; Evag., p. 24; Panath., p. 25; Nic., 
 p. 32. 
 
34 ''Q><TT€ as an Index of Style in the Orators, 
 
 be divided are of sufficient length to give fair scope for the 
 statistical method. It contains two large sections/ aggregating 
 one-half of the whole speech, which are evidently of the epi- 
 deictic order — narrative colored by emotion, pieces of ^'fine 
 writing/' designed to call forth admiration or reprobation for 
 the parties described and incidentally to exhibit the rhetorical 
 powers of the author. The topics are, the glories of ancient 
 Athens, the joint achievements of Athens and Sparta at the 
 time of the Persian wars, and the disgraceful policy of Sparta 
 and her partisans in recent years. 
 
 In this half of the speech C. stand to N. C. as 4.5 : 1, as against 
 a ratio of 3 : 1 for the work as a whole, and .1.5 : 1 for those com- 
 bined portions which show least of the epideictic quality (i. e., the 
 remainder of the speech, except 133-159, a passage dealing with 
 the present condition of Persia and having something of the epi- 
 deictic character, but less clearly marked than in the two divisions 
 noted above, the narrative being more freely mingled with argu- 
 ment and appeal).^ 
 
 In the Areo'pagiticuSy the epideictic character is most marked 
 in three portions, which together constitute three-fifths of the 
 oration. Sees. 20-55 are a panegyric on the old democracy of 
 Athens, setting forth its political, social, and religious character, 
 and especially the beneficent workings of the court of Areopagus. 
 Sees. 64-70 are of a historical nature, a rhum^. of the achieve- 
 ments of democratic Athens, in contrast with the period of the 
 rule of the Thirty. In 79-83 we have a brief recapitulation of 
 the excellences of the earlier as compared with the later order 
 of things. In each of these divisions the language is elevated, 
 and the eulogistic character is emphasized by the formal way in 
 which these narratives are introduced.^ 
 
 In the other two-fifths of the speech the author points out 
 the present evils of the body politic, seeks to arouse and suggests 
 remedies. Here there is less freedom of movement ; he picks his 
 
 1 23-99; 115-128. 
 
 ^ Of the six N. C. examples in the strictly epideictic portion, four are final or 
 object clause, one is logical inference, leaving but one example of ordinary result 
 expressed without correlation. 
 
 ^ Cf, especially the closing words of 19 and 63 and the opening of 79. 
 
I UNIVERSITY I 
 
 "fl(TT€ as an Index of Style in the Orators, 35 
 
 way more carefully and adopts oftener the tone of argument and 
 self-justification. 
 
 In the former group of passages, which, taken together, make 
 up the epideictic division of the speech, the average occurrence 
 of S(TT6 is 1.57, and the ratio of C. to N. C, 8 : 1 ; in the latter, 
 the average occurrence is .37, and the ratio of C. to N. C, 1 : 2. 
 
 The Fhilippus does not admit of analysis so readily as the 
 Panegyricus, with which it is best compared. There is in it a 
 more constant blending of the different elements — argument, ex- 
 hortation, narrative, and personal explanation ; and so, as already 
 noted, there is less of extended and ornate narration. Three 
 rather short passages, however, may be taken as representing fairly 
 well the epideictic element— 47-55, 58-66, 106-112. These are 
 somewhat elaborate bits of narrative, designed to set forth character 
 in strong light and elicit praise or blame. The last two deal with 
 the exploits of great men and heroes ; the first is a brief summary 
 of the recent history of Sparta and other Greek states. The first 
 and second are formally introduced as expanded topics.^ 
 
 A study of these combined passages shows an average occurrence 
 of Mo-re of 1.38, and a ratio of 3.5 C. : 1 N. C. (the ratio for the 
 oration being 1.71 : 1). On the other hand, a group of passages^ 
 coming nearest to the pure argumentative type shows an average 
 occurrence of .73, and C. to N. C. as 1 : 2.67.^ 
 
 In the case of the Busirisy it is easy to distinguish a portion 
 which partakes strongly of the epideictic character. The panegyric 
 on Busiris (§§ 10-29) occupies a little less than half of the speech. 
 The remainder consists of an apology for Busiris^^ with literary 
 criticism of Polycrates and other artists, advice, and self-justification. 
 
 As to the use of wo-re, the encomium (10-29) has an average 
 occurrence of 1 .40 and a ratio of C. to N. C. of 7 : 0. The other 
 parts, with an average occurrence of .92, show C. to N. C. as 1 : 1. 
 
 'CtU 46 and 58. 
 
 2 The passages taken are 30-46, 68-80, 86-88, 113-123, 132-143, 149-155. 
 
 ^ A short passage of this oration (124-126), portraying the degeneracy of the 
 Greeks of the time by a comparison with the barbarians, illustrates excellently 
 the use of oJo-re in amplifying and subdividing a period. Here, in a single 
 sentence, something less than a page in length, we have three examples of 
 (hare, all correlative. 
 
 * Blass, II, pp. 247-8, carefully distinguishes between this and the panegyric. 
 
36 "flo-re as an Index of Style in the Orators. 
 
 The fact that in these and in other orations the average occur- 
 rence of axrre in the epideictic portions is generally higher than 
 in other parts, while the ratio of C. to N. C. is so much greater, 
 indicates clearly the large use of the correlative type in this kind 
 of writing. 
 
 SPECIAL TYPES OF C. AND N. C. 
 
 A few words should be added as to the further subdivisions 
 of coorre sentences which I have found it useful to make in 
 attempting to trace more exactly the stylistic effect of the con- 
 struction. The simple division into C. and N. C. tells a great 
 deal, but not all. These more minute divisions have occasionally 
 been referred to in the preceding treatment of Isocrates, to whose 
 works I have especially applied them. They are also assumed 
 in the study of Demosthenes that follows. 
 
 1. Of N. C. 
 Rare Types. 
 
 It is particularly in the N. C. type that more minute classifica- 
 tion seems to yield good results. I have first separated out of 
 the N. C. class what I have spoken of as " rare types " in the 
 orators. These include (1) the pure final, as Isoc. Panath, 
 184 ... . airoKTelvaL B'av roX/jb'^o-avTa^ tov<; aSeX^ou? tov<; 
 avT&v .... a>(TT€ Kal raiceivdov Xaj^elv ; 
 
 (2) The condition, or stipulation {oiare = icj) wre), as Phil. 133, 
 6crTC<; TTpoacpelTac KLv^vveveiv wcrr' -^7 ravra Xa^elv rj o-reprjdrjvac. 
 
 (3) The so-called ^'superfluous'^ wo-re, including the clauses 
 used as (a) subject or object of an impersonal verb, like ut c. subj. 
 in Latin, as Archid. 40, el Be TroXXa/ct? yeyovev ware Koi rov^ 
 
 * Cf. Gildersleeve, A. J. P., vii, 168-9, on relation of this to the pure final type. 
 
''flcrre as an Index of Style in the Orators. 37 
 
 /u-etfftj Svva/jucv €')(pvTa<i .... KparrjOr/vai; (6) complementary 
 to a verb, adjective, or noun which in itself implies tendency, 
 as Nie. 45, Xa/Scbv 3' ^^ovaiav Mcrre iroLelv otl av /SovXco/jLat; 
 (cf epexegetic, i. e,, in apposition with a substantive, or as ex- 
 planatory of a demonstrative adjective, as Aeg. 47, el ... , 
 Koi TovT avrf) Trpocr'yivotTO Mar iirihelv d/cvpov, k. t. \} 
 
 The line between the several varieties included in this group 
 is not always easy to draw. They are all rare in the best period 
 of oratory, having, perhaps, something of an old-fashioned or 
 conversational flavor. Antiphon and Andocides use them more 
 freely than the others, after the manner of Herodotus and Thucy- 
 dides. The list for Isocrates does not include more than twenty 
 at most, of which about half are final (with an occasional approach 
 to the 6(/)' cSre force). ^ 
 
 From the strictly grammatical point of view, they form an 
 interesting study. They are too few in number to have any 
 marked stylistic importance, unless their massing in a certain 
 oration could be thought of as indicating a deliberate lowering 
 of tone, an approach to conversational freedom ; and the fact that 
 they do not, from their nature, admit correlation excludes them 
 from the scope of our principal inquiry. 
 
 Logical Inference : Simple Result. 
 
 The great body of N. C. examples can be classified under the 
 two heads here given. 
 
 The first includes those in which the Mcrre sentence expresses 
 a logical inference (axTre = itaque). The result which it states 
 is an opinion of the speaker, logically deduced from what has 
 
 ^ On the origin and nature of these constructions with " superfluous " S^a-re, 
 cf. Seume, pp. 28-30 ; A. J. P., vii, 170-171. 
 
 'I subjoin the complete list of examples, with an approximate classification: 
 
 (1) Paneg, 83; Paneg. 96; Arch. 93; De Pace 111; Hel. 50; Panath. 184; 
 De Big. 12 ; Trap. 55. 
 
 (2) Paneg. Ill; Nic. 22; Phil. 133. 
 
 (3)— (a) Arch. 4; Arch. 40; Ad Nic. 4; Cont. Soph. 1. (6) Nic. 45(2); Arch. 
 51 ; Panath. 251. (c) Aeg, 47(2) . Paneg. 89(2). 
 
 The two examples under (3c) might, perhaps, be classed with (3a), since they 
 seem to constitute the real subject and object. 
 
 3 
 
38 "flare as an Index of Style in the Orators, 
 
 gone before. It is very commonly followed by such expressions 
 as %p^, TTpoarjKet, cl^lov iari, BUawv io-ri,, etc. 
 
 This type can usually be distinguished, although there is no 
 hard and fast line, from the second, in which the Mare clause or 
 sentence expresses result of a more objective sort — the thing which 
 happens, or tends to happen, as a consequence of what has just 
 been stated. 
 
 The first I have called " logical " coare; the second I have 
 referred to, for the sake of distinction, as " simple tendency or 
 result." As examples, compare two sentences already quoted 
 (p. il)_for (1), Adv. Euth. 5; for (2), Ad Nic. 49. Further 
 examples of the "logical" type are: Paneg. l^Z/'flar ovBeU 
 av rovr elirelv . . . . , Ad Nic. 11, o)ar ovhevl roiv daKrjrcjv 
 ovro) irpoarjKei ro aw/Jba yvfjuvd^ecv ox; rol<; ^aaiXevovat rrjv 
 yfrvxv^ Tr)v avrwv ; of the other, Paneg. 142, irevreKaiheKa Be 
 fjb7]voiv rov<; arparc(ora<; rov jxiadov aTreareprjaev, Mare ro fjuev 
 iiT eKeivM iroWaKL'; av Bi,eXvdr)aav, Call. 54, cba6^ .... 
 ovSe/jLLav yjrrj^ov /juereXa/Bov. 
 
 The logical type — the purest form of " detached " ware sentence 
 — is of secondary importance for individual style. It belongs 
 primarily to the sphere^ to the mode of treatment, being an 
 index of the degree of attention paid to formal argument. In 
 the leading orators it includes by far the greater part of N. C. 
 wo-re's. It plays a lesser r6le relatively to the '^ simple result " 
 type of N. C. in the earlier orators, in Aeschines, and in some 
 of the inferior writers whose works have found their way into 
 the corpus of Demosthenes, notably those of the Apollodorus 
 group. 
 
 My main purpose in grouping these "logical" examples apart 
 has been to determine the extent to which the " simple result " 
 class is used, for it is this variety, I take it, which forms the 
 most direct antithesis to the C. type. There is generally free 
 room for choice between the sentence in which the coare clause 
 is expressly employed as the measure of degree, manner, or quality, 
 and that in which the expression of tendency or result is merely 
 added, without emphasis on the adverbial relation ; and this 
 choice is altogether likely to be influenced by the rhetorical effect 
 inherent in the anticipating correlative. 
 
"Q^crre as an Index of Style in the Oratory 39 
 
 According to my classification of exam{)Ies, the ^Mogical '^ wo-re 
 type stands to the "simple result '' in Isocrates as 2.71 : 1. Some 
 examples, especially those which involve a statement as to the 
 future, stand on the border line and are difficult to classify ; but I 
 am satisfied that any count made on this basis will not show more 
 than half as many "simple result '' as "logical" for Isocrates. 
 Taking the number which I have allowed to the "simple result" 
 class (35), and comparing it with that of C. ware, the ratio stands 
 9.49 : 1 in favor of the latter, showing the great preference of this 
 author for the form with correlation in expressing the pure con- 
 secutive relation.^ 
 
 2. Of C. 
 
 Formulae. 
 
 The division of the C. examples into sub-types is a matter of 
 less importance for our purpose, yet some observations may be 
 made here which are not without their bearing on the question 
 of style. 
 
 The most readily distinguishable group is that of the " oratorical 
 formulae" (treated by Seurae, pp. 51-53, and Berdolt, pp. 93- 
 96), in which the ware clause regularly takes the indicative. 
 The expressions which present most distinctly the formulaic 
 character, and to which I have therefore devoted especial study, are : 
 
 (1) 6fc9 TovTo (rocrovTov) r/fceti/ ware (the demonstrative being 
 used substantively, with or without a limiting genitive, followed 
 by various verbs of " coming ") ; 
 
 (2) eU ro(TavTr)v .... TjKeLv Sare (the demonstrative here 
 being used adjectively with some substantive) : 
 
 (3) TocrovTov Secv (c. inf.) Scrre (in which a fact is brought out 
 more strongly by denial of the opposite) ; 
 
 ^ The "coalesced" o&tccs &<rT€ with finite verb, as used by Herodotus (vid. p. 
 12, n. 1), having a certain affinity with both the C. and N. C. types, does not 
 exist in Isocrates. One instance with the infinitive occurs — Panath. 38, €v\oy€7v 
 To\fx.(iOVTOi3V ovK apOpcoirivcos oAA' otjrcos Sscttc iroWoiis avTirdTTeaOai irphs avTovs — 
 where ovtws stands immediately before Sxrre; but it has its full adverbial force, 
 and its position is determined by requirements of emphasis and contrast. There 
 is a similar case of juxtaposition with roiovros — De Permut. 189 (noted by Seume, 
 p. 36), and one with r-nXiKovros — Bus. 22 (cf. Lys. 24, 4). 
 
40 "Q.(TT€ as an Index of Style in the Orators. 
 
 (4) Too-ovTov cLTrex^iv rod (c. inf.) cocrre (with same force as 
 the preceding) ; 
 
 (5) ToaovTov 8La(f)ep6Lv (tlie difference between two persons or 
 things being expressed in two contrasted members of the ware 
 clause). 
 
 These formulae, the free use of which is peculiar to oratory/ 
 reach their highest occurrence in Isocrates and Lysias, constituting 
 almost a third of the C. examples which the latter employs; while 
 Antiphon, Andocides, Isaeus, and Aeschines use them much 
 more sparingly, differing very slightly from each other as to 
 frequency of these expressions. Aeschines not only shows much 
 the smallest average occurrence, but, in the two examples which 
 he does employ,^ he departs from the conventional type by 
 employing unusual verbs to express the idea of "coming."^ 
 
 The laws as to mood in these formulaic wcrre sentences, and 
 the occasional peculiarities which they exhibit, have been ade- 
 quately presented, for the principal orators, by Seume, pp. 51-53. 
 Our interest in them here lies in their stylistic significance, and 
 from this point of view they fall to be considered as part of a 
 larger group in the section which follows. I add merely a state- 
 ment of the number of examples of each expression in the two 
 orators who use them most largely. 
 
 Isocrates has 29 examples of ek rovro. {toctovtov) tjkccv, 5 
 of eh ToaavT7]v .... ijKetv, 13 of too-ovtov Beiv^ 8 of toctovtov 
 a'Tre')(eiV, 5 of toctovtov Bca(f>ep6Lv. 
 
 The list for Lysias is made up of 23 ek tovto (too-ovtov) 
 TjKeLv and 4 ToaovTov Belv. Three of the expressions included 
 in my study are thus seen not to occur in Lysias, and his great 
 fondness for the formula eh tovto (too-ovtov) r/Kecv comes out 
 clearly. He uses it with the limiting genitive in all but two 
 cases. In one of these (30, 3) the verb used is the passive of 
 
 ^ Cf. Berdolt (p. 25) on ets tovto i^Keit/, "foreign to historical prose." 
 
 * els TOVTO, Adv. Ctes. 94 ; els too-ovtov, Adv. Ctes. 256. 
 
 ^ The average occurrence to the page of these formulae in six orators stands 
 thus : 
 
 Antiphon 04 Isocrates 13 
 
 Andocides 03 Isaeus., 04 
 
 Lysias 12 Aeschines 01 
 
"Oo-Te as an Index of Style in the Orators. 41 
 
 KaOiCTTTj/jLC, which I have treated as a verb of " coming " here and 
 in two cases in Isocrates (De Pace 84 ; Paneg. 60). 
 
 Under (3) I have included one case of outo) ttoWov Setv 
 (Lys. 30, 8) ; and under (4), one of ouro)? rjv iroppeo rov (Isoc. 
 Panath. 77). 
 
 In one of the examples under (5) there is but a single clause 
 with (oare, but the sense of " differ ^' is clearly present, and the 
 contrasted member is readily supplied in thought from the pre- 
 ceding sentence. I have not included under this head cases of 
 ToaovTov Sca^fepetv in which the meaning is rather '^ to excel '' 
 than 'Vto differ" {e.g., Paneg. 4; Evag. 24; Evag. 71). There 
 are a number of expressions which, like this, are frequently fol- 
 lowed by axrre in Isocrates, but they do not quite attain to that 
 regularity in phrasing and in mood which would entitle them to 
 rank with the formulae here treated. 
 
 General and Fartieular. 
 
 In studying these formulae, I was struck with an observation 
 of Seume's (p. 51) that, in these formulaic sentences, "the facts 
 stated in the ooare clause have more force than the causes from 
 which they spring;" and that, "while, formally, qualities or 
 conditions are illustrated by their effects, in actual use this form 
 serves to set forth particular facts." I was led to examine other 
 (hare sentences to which this description seemed equally applicable, 
 and, finally, to mark off a type of which the oratorical formulae 
 constitute only a group which has crystallized into a definite form 
 and has a fixed law of mood in the ware clause. This type I 
 have called " general -\- particular." It is that form of C. wa-re 
 sentence in which an act, quality, or condition is defined, not by 
 some fact or circumstance which flows from it, but by giving a 
 particular example of the act, quality, or condition. Compare, in 
 English, " I am so fortunate that I am envied by my friends " 
 with " I am so fortunate as to have many friends." In the latter 
 case there is no true external result, as in the former. The re- 
 lation is, to our feeling, more one of comparison than of consequence 
 proper.^ 
 
 ' Cf. Seume, p. 40. 
 
42 ''Hcrre as an Index of Style in the Orators. 
 
 So, in Paneg. 29, ovrco<; rj ttoXi^ rj/juMv ov /jlovov ^eoc^tXo)? aXka 
 Kal (j)i\av6p(t)'7T(o<; 6cr')(6v, ware .... ovk \<^d6vr)ae Tot9 aX\ot<;, 
 K. T. \., the (j)LXav6p(07ria does not so much result in not envying ; 
 it consists in it. Set this off against the sentence quoted on p. 10 
 (Hel. 37), or the one in Paneg. 70, ... . Toaovrov .... 
 SoeXiTTOv S(TT€ ev Tc5 fiera^v .... KaTotKcaOrjvac, and cf., for 
 further examples of the G. -f P. type, Paneg. 24, 79; Hel. 47, 62; 
 Antid. 16 ; Aeg. 31 ; Lys. I.IO^^) : 3.33.^ 
 
 In such sentences, as Seume points out in connection with the 
 formulae, the ware clause is likely to be more important than the 
 main clause which precedes it, and which serves as a so.rt of 
 generalizing introduction. Of course, the question of the relative 
 degree of stress falling on the main and coare clause is one that 
 may often suggest itself, and the decision of which, resting largely 
 on subjective considerations, must be essayed with caution. Where 
 there is a true cause and effect relation, the first member has a 
 prima facie claim to at least equal rights with the second ; but 
 here, where the consecutive relation is rather formal than inherent 
 in the thought, the main clause is more naturally felt as a mere 
 preface to the particular statement, which gains weight and emphasis 
 by the suspense. 
 
 Not infrequently the context is such as to strengthen greatly the 
 impression that the specific statement in the ware clause is that 
 on which attention is concentrated, and for the sake of which the 
 sentence was introduced. It may form one of a series of particular 
 statements in a narration, or be in marked antithesis to such a 
 statement in a preceding sentence or member, while the generaliza- 
 tion may be only a repetition of one previously made and be 
 quite unnecessary from the standpoint of thought.^ 
 
 The fact that the finite verb is the prevailing mood-form with 
 aKTT€ in this " G. + ?•'' type — as it is virtually the only one 
 employed in th^ special subdivision of " formulae " already con- 
 sidered — helps also to emphasize the importance of the oocrre 
 clause as an independent statement in these sentences. 
 
 ^As already intimated, almost the entire group of "oratorical formulae" 
 exemplify this relation — e. //., Bus. 14. In De Big. 16, Loch. 8, the eis tovto 
 idiom seeins to be followed by a clause of true result, but such instances are 
 sufficiently rare. 
 
 ^ For illustrations of this point, cf. Paneg. 24, 29, 79. 
 
"D^are as an Index of Style in the Orators. 43 
 
 The importance of this type rhetorically I conceive to lie in the 
 fact that it can be multiplied almost at will, for a great many 
 particular statements are susceptible of this sort of generalizing 
 or characterizing introduction. An author like Isocrates, who is 
 fond of responsive eifect and periodic structure, will, when the 
 relation of cause and effect, of fact and consequence, lies naturally 
 in the thought, choose the form of the ovt(o^-6o<tt€ sentence for its 
 expression. But he can do more ; he can cultivate the correlative 
 consecutive period by the free use of this " general -\- particular '^ 
 form of statement, and gain by the circumlocution not only 
 responsion, but emphasis and other desirable rhetorical effects. 
 
 That the type should flourish especially in the more ornate 
 kinds of writingjs, then, the thing to be expected, and it occasions 
 no surprise to find that, while Isocrates employs it largely every- 
 where, it is in the Political and Epideictic classes that he avails 
 himself of it most freely. In these two divisions, according to 
 my count, over 40 per cent, of the whole number of C. wcrre 
 sentences are to be assigned to the G. -J- P. type, while, in the 
 other three departments, it constitutes something less than 30 per 
 cent. It may be held, of course, that the use of this kind of 
 sentence is determined by considerations of thought rather than 
 style; that it merely offers a convenient form for stamping an 
 act, in the process of narrating it, with its appropriate character. 
 That this element enters largely into its use is not to be disputed, 
 and it may be noted here that there are certain private orations 
 of Isocrates and Demosthenes, and especially of Lysias, that show 
 a use of the type exceeding: that of the more elaborate compo- 
 sitions. Here the dominant motive would seem to be the desire 
 for characterization, the narrative being employed to " make 
 points" on the conduct of one of the parties in the suit. As 
 instances of this sort may be cited Lys. 1.10^^^; 3.33; 14, 42; 
 Isoc. Aeg. 31. A large use of the type may thus be a mark of 
 the manner of a "plain" speaker, especially one whose prevailing 
 tone is that of naive indignation ; ^ but in such cases the type 
 appears in a simple, colloquial form, the clauses are short, and 
 there is a tendency towards the infinitive in the coare clause. 
 A close study of the various instances, in their sentence-structure 
 
 ^Cf. Lys., Or. 1 and Or. 3. 
 
44 "Qare as an Index of Style in the Orators. 
 
 and context, must be our warrant for seeing in the use of this 
 form of duplicated statement in the more finished works of 
 Isocrates something more than the desire to characterize — the 
 influence of those distinctly rhetorical motives which count for 
 so Qiuch with this author. It must suffice here merely to call 
 attention to an apparent tendency which deserves more minute 
 study and fuller presentation, especially in connection with the 
 works of Isocrates and Demosthenes. 
 
 EQUIVALENTS. 
 
 A study of a construction from the standpoint of style should 
 make some account of those expressions which are logically equiva- 
 lent — especially if these have sufficient elements of similarity to 
 suggest a more or less conscious choice between them and the 
 expression under consideration. We cannot, of course, undertake 
 here a study of all the different forms in which the relations of 
 causation and consecution appear in the language, but we can 
 examine those which have enough in common with the con- 
 struction in hand to warrant us in thinking of them as substitutes 
 for it. These, again, may claim consideration from two different 
 points of view. Where the " equivalent ^' construction is one that 
 illustrates the same rhetorical tendency as the one under con- 
 sideration, it becomes necessary to note the extent of its use in 
 order that we may add the cases of the equivalent to those of 
 the dominant construction, and thus give a more exact statement 
 of the degree to which the tendency in question is cultivated. 
 If, on the other hand, we find similar elements combined in a 
 way which produces an opposite rhetorical effect, it becomes highly 
 important to measure the relative strength of these opposing 
 tendencies. 
 
 Of the additional forms for expressing the consecutive relation 
 which I have selected for study, the greater number come under 
 the first head — i. e., they are both logically and rhetorically 
 equivalent to the (correlative) consecutive sentence. The last to 
 be considered is an example of a close logical equivalent in which 
 some of the features of the ovTw^ScrTe sentence occur but an 
 opposite rhetorical tendency is illustrated. 
 
'^flcrre as an Index of Style in the Orators. 45 
 
 The expressions which are here examined for the orators have 
 been treated for the first time (in another domain) by Berdolt, 
 whose work appeared after I had gathered most of my material 
 under this head. 
 
 Of/TO)?— OcrTfc9. 
 
 The closest logical and rhetorical equivalent for the oiJto)?- 
 wcrre sentence is that in which a ovrco<; in the main clause finds 
 its complement in a relative clause following.^ Grammatically, 
 the relative goes back to its antecedent and adds a description ; 
 but in sense it joins on to ovrcof;, with the adverbial effect of a 
 clause of tendency, expressing the degree of a quality already 
 predicated of the antecedent. It would seem to be a mixture of 
 
 two constructions — Tt9 eo-rc, oari<i and rt? iaTi ovtco<; — 
 
 S<TT6 A large use of this form of sentence would require 
 
 us to attribute to a given author — e.g., Isocrates — an even greater 
 fondness for the correlative consecutive period than is indicated 
 by the statistics for the regular ovTco(;-a>(TT6 sentence alone ; but, 
 in point of fact, the construction plays an insignificant part in 
 the whole work of this orator. I have collected all the examples 
 of this type of equivalent which he employs, and find but nine 
 in all. 
 
 ovTco<i-6<TTi<; (a) c. fut. ind. : 
 
 Paneg. 185, rt? yap . . . ovtco<; padv/uLOf; iariv, 0(TrL<^ ov 
 fi€Tacr^elv PovXrjaeTaL . . , Panath. 66, rt? icmv ovt(o<; d<f)vrj<:;, 
 6<TTi,<; ovK evpr)(Tei ... 
 
 (6) c. opt. ~\- civ: 
 
 Paneg. 98, ouSet? . . . ovt(o<; e')(et 8vcr/bL6va)<;, ocrrif; ovk av 
 6/jLoXoy7](T6i€ . . . . , De Permut. 210, fMrjSev ovrcof; dv (f>rjaeLav 
 elvac (j)av\ov, ore . . . ovk av ecrj ^iXriov, 218, rt? ovrw^ iarlv 
 dvai(T6r]T0<;, 6(7Ti<; ovk av aXyijaete, 222, ovBecf; iarcv ovroxi aKparyti, 
 oartf; av Se^aoro . . . ,^ Evag. 35, ovBel<i yap icmv ovtco pa6vp,o<^, 
 6o-Tt,<i av Be^i 
 
 acTO . . .^ 
 
 ^ See examples below. 
 
 'This passage is bracketed by Blass (Teub. ed.) ; but he holds it to have been 
 originally composed for the place by Isocrates. 
 
 ' Cf. Panath. 172, ovSeva . . roffair/js a/xaOlas chat, txTris ovk &f ivaivtiTfie . . . 
 
46 "flcTTe as an Index of Style in the Orators. 
 
 (c) c. pres. ind. : 
 Hel. 2, TL<; iariv ovrco^; 6'\\nijLa6r)<;, ocrrt? ovk oZSe . . . 
 
 {d) c. past ind. : 
 
 Paneg. 113, rt? ovtco Troppco . . . rjv , . . , , ocrrt? ovk .... 
 T^vajKaaOr) . . . 
 
 Of these nine examples, the Panegyricus and De Permutatione 
 each furnish three. It will be noted that all these examples 
 adhere closely to a conventional type — that seen in Shakspere's 
 " Who so base who would not be a Roman ? " The main clause 
 always denies — either directly or by means of a rhetorical question — 
 the existence of a certain class of persons or things, and the 
 tendency referred to in the dependent clause is accordingly always 
 a theoretical one, never passing into actual result. This apparent 
 equivalent for the ovTcofi-ooare sentence is therefore employed only 
 within a certain restricted territory ; and within this territory it 
 reigns supreme. Isocrates never uses ourco^-coo-re in sentences of 
 this class, but always ovT(o<;-6aTc<;} 
 
 My collection for the 'other orators is not exhaustive; but they 
 seem to make even less use of it than Isoc, with the possible ex- 
 ception of Dem., who uses it rather freely in certain orations— e. g, 
 De Symm. He also allows, not infrequently, the ovraxf-coo-re con- 
 struction in sentences of this type. 
 
 T0A0{>T09— 09. 
 
 A less clearly defined type of relative consecutive sentence is 
 that in which the relative has a correlative roiovrof; or to(tovto<; in 
 the main clause — the type treated by Seume, pp. 14-18, where 
 numerous examples are presented. Of course, this combination 
 does not necessarily involve the consecutive relation ; but very fre- 
 quently the relative clause sets forth the generic character of its 
 antecedent in such a way as clearly to express tendency and suggest 
 the ftjcrre clause as a natural equivalent. Sometimes the notion of 
 result is brought out more clearly by the use of prepositions ex- 
 
 ^ For an example of the regular consecutive clause in such a connection, cf. 
 Isae. 3, 51 — ^ok^I 5' 6.v ns ifxiv ovtws dfatS^y . . . yevecrQai, wcm /xrjSh iiriSovvai 
 . . . ; cf. also Dem. 8, 44 (v. L Us) ; 10, 15 ; 10, 43 ; 19, 115. 
 
"Hare as an Index of Style in the Orators, 47 
 
 pressing cause or means, as in the phrase ef wv; sometimes it 
 resides partly in the modal form employed in the relative clause, 
 as in the use of the optative or indicative with dv, or the generic 
 future, which employs /jLy as its negative. 
 
 The following examples will serve to illustrate some of the 
 familiar forms of sentence in which we may infer the consecutive 
 relation more or less distinctly.. 
 
 Isoc. Soph. 21, ovhefiiau r)yov/JLai Tocavrrjv elvai Te')(y7}Vy 7]tl<: .... 
 av KoX BiKaooa-vvrjv ifiTTOCTJo-eiev. 
 
 Paneg. 109, roadvrrjv Se %tw/3ai/ TrapeXiTrofiev, rj iravra^i av 'qfia^ 
 ^viropcorepovf; iiroirjaev. 
 
 Paneg. 189, ov m-peireL . . . roiavra Xeyecv, ef a)v 6 ^lo(; /j,r)8ev 
 iTTtBdoo-et. 
 
 Paneg. 76, 6aTL<; roiavra Tvy')(avoL Trpdrrayv, ef a)v avT6<; re 
 IxeWot /xaXcara evSo/ci/jLyaecv, (cf. Evag. 80.) 
 
 Plat. 32, Tiva rrjXcKdvTTjv evepyeaiav 6')(^oc€v av elirelv, riTL<s 
 l/cavT) fyevrjaerat . . . ; 
 
 De Pace 107, roLavra Trpoypov/jLeOa irpdrTeiv, e'f o)v Aa/ceBat- 
 fjLOVtoi SecTTroTac rcov '^jWtjvcov KaTearijcrav. 
 
 De Permut. 56, on Tocovrov<; rypdcfxo X070U9, ot Kal rrjv iroXtv 
 ^XdiTTOva-i . . . 
 
 Nic. 5, roLOVTCp Trpdy/jbari, Bv(T/jL6v6o<i 'i'XpVTe<i, . . . irXeia-TCDV 
 dyadSiv alrtov io-rtv. 
 
 One or two of the examples in this list are of a sort in which 
 the equivalence to a coare construction is at least questionable. 
 There are others in which a relative clause complementary to 
 TOLovTo^ or TO(rovTo<; serves to describe an antecedent without any 
 suggestion of characteristic tendency. And again, care must be 
 taken to exclude from this consideration instances in which a rela- 
 tive clause after toiovto^ or roaovrof; is not complementary to it, 
 but additional and non-restrictive, the demonstrative pointing hack 
 to an idea previously expressed. An attempt to present a com- 
 plete list of true equivalents for wcrre under this head would in- 
 volve discussion in not a few instances, and I have not undertaken 
 to give such a collection here ; but the number of cases where such 
 force is sufficiently clear is considerable, and we are justified in 
 putting it down as a familiar form of expression in the orators, and 
 one which serves to accentuate their partiality for the expression 
 
48 ''Ho-re as an Index of Style in the Orators. 
 
 of the consecutive relation through the aid of correlation. It is 
 safe to add that the use of this form of equivalent in Lysias is by 
 no means so great as in Isocrates. 
 
 TocrovTov—oaov. 
 
 Another form of equivalent for the Sare clause is to be found 
 in the use of the correlation roaovrov-ocrov in certain sentences — 
 chiefly those which set forth the degree of diiFerence between two 
 persons or things. Phil. 51 may serve as an illustration : roaovrov 
 Se SiacfiepovaLV, oaov eKelvoi fiev 7rpb<; yittov^ avroiv \7r0\eiJL0vaC\, 
 ovTOL Be 7r/309 Kp6iTTov<;. Here we have a general statement of 
 difference, followed by two contrasted clauses setting forth opposite 
 courses of conduct, the juxtaposition of these two giving the effect 
 of a specific statement of difference. The connection between the 
 general and special statements is made, logically enough, by rocrov- 
 Tov-6<Tovy a formula of comparison.^ Yet it is not uncommon to 
 find sentences which involve exactly the same thought relation 
 employing the consecutive formula {e. g.^ Call. 34), so that we are 
 fully justified in regarding roaovrov-oaov and rocrovTov-axTTe, in 
 sentences of this type, as equivalents. The rhetorical effect of these 
 two pairs of correlatives is the same ; but the number of instances 
 of the TOG-ovTov-oaov formula is not sufficient to make a very sig- 
 nificant addition to our list of correlative periods based upon a real 
 or apparent consecutive relation. It becomes, however, a matter 
 of curious interest to observe the preference shown for one or other 
 of these virtually equivalent expressions by the orator who employs 
 them most largely. I have collected all the sentences in which 
 difference is thus expressed with roaovrov-coaTe or oaov in Isocra- 
 tes, classifying them under the following heads : 
 
 1. Statement of difference in character, condition, or conduct by 
 means of contrasted clauseSy (a) with hLa(f>epeLv — cf. Call. 34, Phil. 
 51 (quoted above); (6) with other expressions — cf De Pace 47, 
 ToaovTfp he ^etpof? eajjuev tmv irpor^ovwv .... oaov eKelvot fxev 
 
 . . . a)0VT0 Seiv KcvBvveveiv, r^fiel^ 8' /jLtaOoyTotf; ')(^pQ)fjLe0a 
 
 aTparo'jreSoi^. 
 
 ^ Such a comparative relation is seen, in its simplest form, in the English 
 sentence, " He lives as much as a mile away." 
 
''lio-re as an Index of Style in the Orators, 49 
 
 2. Expression of difference in terms of one member of the com- 
 parison — the contrast being impliedj not expressed, in the sub- 
 ordinate clause, (a) with Boacjiepecv — cf. Panath. 55, rocrovTov 
 ifcelvoc StrfveyKav dvofjbia koI irKeove^ia tmv 7rpoye<y€V7)fiivQ)Vj oktt 
 ov fjbovov avTov^i aTTcoXeaav . . . . , aXXa kol AdKeSac/JLOvtovf; . . . 
 ive^aXov ; (6) with other expressions — cf. De Permut. 235, too- 
 ovTcp fjboXXov Twv aXkcov 7rpoo-ecr%oi/ aurot? tov vovv, ware XoXcov 
 
 jjbev roiv eirra cro(f)LaT(ov iKXrjdr] riepLKXyj^; Be Svolv iyev- 
 
 ero /jLadr)Tr}<; .... 
 
 The type marked (1) (a) amounts to a fixed formula, being a 
 rhetorical circumlocution of the '' general + particular '' sort (a 
 single example, in Isocrates, seems to show true external result), 
 and always taking the indicative in the dependent clause. Here 
 Isocrates alternates between Sare and oarov, apparently influenced 
 only by desire for variety. He has 5 examples with ware — De 
 Pace 85, De Big. 35, Call. 34, Aeg. 17, De Pace 127— and 4 with 
 6Voi/— Paneg. 83, Phil. 51, Phil. 112, De Pace 54. 
 
 In the case of the type (1) (6) — contrasted clauses introduced 
 by expressions other than hiac^epeuv — Isocrates prefers the form 
 with oaov, employing it 9 times, as against the 4 instances of 
 oiare which have any claim to be classed under this head. It may 
 be noted, too, that the sentences with oaov have a decidedly uni- 
 form character, all but one being expressions of degree of difference 
 as to a particular quality and employing a comparative adjective 
 or adverb. They also incline to the " G. + P«" type, and all take 
 the indicative. Toaovrov and toctovtw are used indifferently. 
 
 The examples are— for ware, Phil. 125, Arch. 94, Hel. 16, 
 De Perm. 22; for oaov, Ad Dem. 33, Ad Dem. 38, De Pace 43, 
 De Pace 47, De Pace 143, Bus. 19, Bus. 32, Soph. 20, De Big. 36. 
 
 The examples collected under (2) {a) and (6) — in which a differ- 
 ence is expressed with a single subordinate clause instead of two 
 contrasted ones — are of a less uniform character than those treated 
 under the two preceding heads. Like those under (1) (6), they 
 are nearly all expressions of degree of difference as to a given 
 quality — superiority or inferiority. In several of them, the sub- 
 ordinate clause is so worded as to make a distinct comparison ; 
 in most, the specific character of one member only is set forth 
 and the contrast is implied. The " general + particular " type 
 
 
50 ''flare as an Index of Style in the Orators. 
 
 is less closely adhered to, a number of cases showing true external 
 result. 
 
 But, for the sake of completeness, it seemed best to include 
 here all those sentences which have the common element of 
 expressing a difference and in which it is at least conceivable that 
 6(7ov, as well as Mcrre, might have been used. In point of fact, 
 the former is all but non-existent, for Isocrates, in sentences of 
 this class. Under (2) (a) — with Scacf^epetv — we find 7 examples 
 with W0-T6— Paneg. 4, Paneg. 64, Paneg. 98, Evag. 14, Evag. 24, 
 Evag. 71, Panath. 55 — none with oaov. Under (2) (6) — with 
 other expressions — we have 8 cases of Sare — Bus. 29, De Big. 26, 
 Evag. 67, Hel. 60, Paneg. 50, Paneg. 147, De Permut. 235, Call. 
 48 — to one of ocrov — De Pace 96. 
 
 The proper sphere, then, of Toaovrov-oa-ov as an equivalent 
 for wcrre is in the expression of difference by means of two con- 
 trasted clauses; and here, outside of the fixed formula toctovtov 
 hia<t>6p€i,v, it is decidedly the dominant construction. 
 
 The use of these correlative forms for expressing difference 
 or comparison is a special characteristic of Isocrates, among the 
 orators, and we scarcely meet them again except in Demosthenes. 
 Lysias shows not a single example of the fuller form, with con- 
 trasted clauses, and only one of the incomplete type — 24. 13, 
 Toaovrov Be BL6vr}V0')(6v avaia')(yvTia rcbv aTrdvrwv avOpooTTcov oyorre 
 v/jLd<; ireipdrat ireideiv .... 
 
 That Isocrates should be partial to this form of sentence is 
 quite in keeping with the general tendencies of his style. The 
 balance afforded by the contrasted clauses — when the fuller form 
 is employed — and the responsive effect of the correlative period 
 would alike commend it to him. The influence of the latter 
 consideration comes out still more clearly when we take into 
 account another method of setting forth a difference, which may 
 be regarded as an equivalent for roaovTov-So-Te and toctovtov- 
 oaov. 
 
 ToaovTov Paratactic. 
 
 We occasionally find an expression of difference in which 
 roaovTov points forward to a pair of contrasted statements, the 
 latter being added paratactically, without the wa-re or oaov 
 
"flo-re as an Index of Style in the Orators, 51 
 
 which, in the type treated above, completes the syntactic con- 
 nection and marks the relation as comparative-consecutive. Two 
 instances of this I have noted in the corpus of Lysias — 2.16, 
 ToaovTov Se evTv^earepot vratSe? ovra iyevovro rov irarpo*; • 
 o iJi,ev yap .... ovk ol6<; re rjv rL/jL(op^(Taa6aL . . ol Be TratSe? 
 avTov .... elSov . . . ; 6. 17, toctovto 8' ovto<; /^ta^yopov rov 
 MtjXlov dae^ecTTepo^ yeyivrjrai,. iK6LV0<; /uuev yap . . . , ovTO<i 
 Se . . . . But Or. 6 — Against Andocides — is a work of very 
 doubtful authorship. 
 
 It may not be without significance that Lysias, in the only clear 
 case in which he thus uses roarovrov to anticipate and emphasize 
 a formal contrast, employs this non-correlative, paratactic form ; 
 while Isocrates, in the much greater extent of his work, and with 
 his fondness for using roa-ovrov in the way referred to, never 
 avails himself of it — that is, he never misses the opportunity to 
 round his period by means of correlation.^ 
 
 ^o(tovtov—6tl. 
 
 There is still another formula for expressing a specific difference 
 with 'roa-ovrov, of which Isocrates furnishes a single instance — 
 Call. 59, ruiv /uuev TrXeuarcov rpcr}pdp')(^ci)v roaovrov SctjveyKov, ore 
 fjber oXiycov eacoaa rr)v vavv , . . While the on clause is per- 
 haps best explained as causal, the thought-relation is practically 
 the same as in those sentences, of the single clause type, treated 
 above which show oliari or oaov. We have here neither para- 
 taxis nor^^lyet correlation, in the strict sense; but the rhetorical 
 effect is closely akin to that produced by the latter construction.^ 
 
 TotoOro?— 0609 c, inf. 
 
 The combination rotovro^-olo^ followed by the infinitive — a close 
 logical and rhetorical equivalent for roLovro^i-oiare — is almost 
 
 ^ Tlie nearest approach to this form of expression that I have noted in Isocrates 
 is in Areop. 69, where toiovtov points forward to a pair of contrasted clauses 
 introduced by ydp. 
 
 * I have"observed only one other instance in the orators in which roaovTov- 
 Uti might be ranked as an equivalent for Toa-ovTov-uxrre, though not, as above, in 
 an expression of difference — Ps. Lys. 8. 20, K^p^avw 5e rocovrov, Sn -n-puTov (xkv 
 vjxoiv airaXKay^Xs iKax'-O'Toi, kukus vcp' vjxoov Tretcro/iot. 
 
52 "£LaT€ as an Index of Style in the Orators. 
 
 entirely absent from the orators.^ I can produce but three ex- 
 amples — Isoc. 15, 99 ; Dem. 21, 202; Aesch. 3, 243. Its employ- 
 ment in these sentences hardly suggests rhetorical motives. In 
 only one example are the correlatives sufficiently separated to give 
 balance, and in all, the infinitive follows immediately the relative. 
 But the non-correlative form of the construction, with tolovto^ 
 omitted, is still rarer. I have noted only two examples — both in 
 Isocrates— 11, 16; 8, 21. 
 
 Of the corresponding use of TocrovTov-oaov c. inf. Isocrates 
 
 furnishes the solitary example — De Permut. 98, tovtoc^; 
 
 TOcrovTOv [xovov i')(^p(OfjL7jv, oorov o^Orjvai Bt,a\€y6/jb€V0<;.^ 
 
 Inverted Expression of Result. 
 
 Lastly, we come to consider a method of expressing the con- 
 secutive relation which has hitherto received little attention — the 
 type illustrated in Dem.- 18. 11, ov 8r) Trotijo-a) rovTo- ovx ovtco 
 T€TV(l)cofjLai, or 22. 68, dWa 8' 6V v^pcKev, ovS' av e%ot tl<; etTrelv. 
 Toaavra to irXrfOo^ iartv. Here we have the same paratactic 
 structure as in the form with tocfovtov examined above ; the con- 
 secutive relation is inferred rather than expressed, and the demon- 
 strative, with the aid of juxtaposition, is made to do the work of 
 full syntactical correlation. But there is here the further element 
 of inversion of the usual order. In the other form of equivalent, 
 ToaovTov pointed forward to a result to be stated immediately, 
 after ; in the examples just quoted, ouro)? and roa-avra point back 
 to one already expressed. 
 
 This latter arrangement is one of especial importance from the 
 standpoint of the present study. It gives the effect of liveliness 
 referred to by Gildersleeve ^ as belonging to marked instances of 
 inversion. The thought of the hearer is suddenly arrested by the 
 demonstrative and thrown back upon the preceding sentence, and 
 a rapid mental readjustment takes place as the relation of cause 
 and consequence becomes apparent in this unaccustomed sequence. 
 The element of "surprise,'^ of " interjectional effect," thus intro- 
 
 1 Cf. Berdolt, p. 99—" rare in Plato." 
 
 2 Cf. Harov, without correlative, followed by ptc. in Panath. 150. 
 ^ Vid. supra, p. 10, for quotation. 
 
"Ho-re as an Index of Style in the Orators. 53 
 
 duced puts this form of result in marked opposition rhetorically, 
 not only to the fully developed correlative period, but also to the 
 N. C. cocrre and to the paratactic equivalent treated above, in both 
 of which the adherence to the well-established order of cause and 
 effect makes it easier to supply the missing ovtco<; or wcrre, and 
 preserves the deliberate orderliness of the consecutive sentence. 
 In the earlier part of this work, the N. C. axrre has been spoken 
 of as an " afterthought," because the way is not prepared for it 
 by an anticipating correlative; but in this postponed, or retro- 
 spective, ovT(o<; we have an " afterthought " effect of a still more 
 striking character. 
 
 I have thought it worth while to endeavor to make a full col- 
 lection of the instances of this form of equivalent in the seven 
 orators studied. The consecutive relation being here a matter of 
 inference, there is room for some difference of opinion as to 
 whether certain cases are true equivalents for the ojo-re con- 
 struction, especially where the relation is rather of the " general 
 and particular" sort than result in the strict sense; but I have 
 aimed to include in this list only examples about which there 
 can be little question. In considering this phenomenon in Plato, 
 Berdolt, p. 98, treats separately sentences employing ovtco^; and 
 those showing tolovto<; or toctovto^ — a distinction which seems 
 to be unnecessary for our present purpose. The list of passages 
 follows : 
 
 Isaeus.~2, 21 ; 2, 37 ; 5, 10; 5, 11 ; 7, 21 ; 7, 23 ; 11, 6. 
 
 Lysias.— 1, 2 ; 1, 32 ; 2, 57 ; 3, 13 ; 10, 28 ; 12, 84 ; 13, 31. 
 
 Antiphon.— 6, 35 ; 6, 50. 
 
 Aeschines.— 1, 56; 1, 157; 2, 125; 2, 150. 
 
 Isocrates.— 4, 16; 4, 87; 4, 141; 4, 157; 7, 38; 12, 15; 
 15,107; 15, 134; 16,37. 
 
 Demosthenes.— 8, 25 ; 14, 24 ; 18, 11 ; 19, 267 ; 22, 68 ; 24, 3; 
 45, 2 ; 27, 25 ; 27, 31 ; 30, 6 ; 30, 8 ; 30, 14; 30, 38. 
 
 It will be seen that the construction is not a great favorite with 
 the orators in general. Andocides furnishes no example, unless 
 we include one which occurs in 4, 23 — an oration which is denied 
 to Andocides by the most careful critics. The average occurrences 
 to the page are so small, and the margins of difference between 
 them so slight, that a table made on this basis yields no striking 
 4 
 
54 ''flo-re as an Index of Style in the Orators, 
 
 results. It is sufficient to note that the orators stand, as to 
 average occurrence, in the order in which they are placed in the 
 list of examples given above. Isaeus makes the largest use of it 
 (average occurrence .05), Lysias comes next, with .03, while the 
 others differ by much smaller margins, Isocrates and Demosthenes 
 standing at the foot of the list, with practically the same average 
 occurrence — .02. 
 
 As this form of expression is most directly opposed to the 
 C. wcrre construction, a comparison of the relative frequency of 
 these two might seem to be the truer index of style, and such a 
 table is here submitted. 
 
 Katio of Inverted Result : C. wcrre. 
 
 Antiphon 1:3 Lysias 1:15 
 
 Isaeus 1:5.5 Demosthenes 1:16 
 
 Aeschines 1:8.5 Isocrates 1:37 
 
 The differences are more perceptible than in the former com- 
 parison, based on average occurrence. Antiphon heads the list in 
 relative employment of the equivalent form, but his use of both 
 forms is exceedingly small. Isaeus comes next, while Demosthenes 
 and Isocrates again stand lowest, although the latter shows a far 
 smaller relative use of the equivalent than the former. The 
 comparatively free use of this abrupt, vigorous form of expression 
 in the pleadings of Isaeus, and its rare occurrence in the rounded 
 smoothness of Isocrates, seems to be fairly characteristic of their 
 respective styles, and is the most significant feature exhibited by 
 the tables. 
 
 A glance at the examples cited above for Demosthenes will 
 show that nearly half of them come from the "guardianship 
 orations" — Orr. 27-31. Thus, while the works of Demosthenes, 
 as a whole, stand lowest in average occurrence of the " inverted 
 result'' form, and next to lowest in the proportion of it to C. warey 
 these speeches stand easily first in both respects — average occur- 
 rence .15 — ratio 1 : 2.33 ; that is, these early works show a marked 
 partiality for a usage which is characteristic of Isaeus as against the 
 later writings of Demosthenes himself. This is quite in keeping 
 with other indications of the influence of Isaeus on the style of this 
 
''D^are as an Index of Style in the Orators, 55 
 
 group of orations. The comparison has here been made between 
 the "guardianship orations" and the entire work of Demosthenes, 
 in which these speeches are included. If we were to compare this 
 group with the remaining works only, the contrast would, of course, 
 come out still more strongly. 
 
 MOODS. 
 
 With regard to the difficult question of the moods after Mare, 
 little more can be done here than to indicate and illustrate some of 
 the methods which promise the best results in such an investigation. 
 
 Two points have been touched on in the earlier portions of this 
 work — (1) that the use of finite and infinite has no such clear 
 significance for style as that of correlative and non-correlative; 
 (2) that, for the orators, the most obvious significance which the 
 mood test does possess is due to its coincidence, to a certain 
 extent, with the correlation test, since those authors and works 
 which show a marked preference for the N. C. wore also exhibit 
 a general tendency toward the finite verb, as compared with the 
 opposite class. To determine, then, the independent rhetorical 
 value of the moods, it would seem best to eliminate the factor of 
 correlation by studying their relative use within the C. and N. C. 
 types separately. 
 
 Before proceeding to do this for Isocrates, notice must be taken 
 of two elements of difficulty in presenting statistics for the use of 
 the moods with coo-re. The first lies in the occasional omission 
 of the verb in the wo-re clause, which would seem to remove the 
 examples in question entirely from the scope of the present inquiry ; 
 but an examination of the passages often reveals clear indications 
 as to the form of verb which the author had in mind. On such 
 grounds — usually the employment of ov as the negative— I have 
 ventured to restore the finite verb in all but 7 of the 20 cases 
 of ellipsis which occur in Isocrates. These 7 instances I have 
 excluded from the count as indeterminate.^ 
 
 * In these cases also there is a strong presumption in favor of the finite verb, 
 since they belong almost entirely to the category of " logical inference " — So-t* 
 
56 ''fl(TTe as an Index of Style in the Orators, 
 
 The other matter which demands a word of explanation is the 
 treatment of So-re clauses dependent on infinitives in indirect 
 discourse. That oratio obliqua influence is extended over the 
 cocrre clause equally with the principal in such cases, I hold to 
 be a fixed law, at least for the orators ; and where the infinitive 
 is obviously a mere accommodation to this necessity, it seems 
 fair to classify it according to the original conception, as finite. 
 The tests which I have accepted as establishing the influence of 
 indirect discourse on the verb following wcrre are (1) the future 
 infinitive ; (2) the negative ov} In all other cases I have given 
 the infinitive the benefit of the doubt, because the infinitive is 
 always possible after coare — even in the combination infinitive 
 -}- civ. The finite list includes Isocrates' two examples of opt. 
 without av — Trap. 11 (due to on in O. O.) and Arch. 84 (assimi- 
 lated to opt. in protasis). His solitary use of the participle — 
 Paneg. 64 — has been excluded from the count. 
 
 Pursuing the methods indicated with reference to cases of 
 ellipsis and oratio obliqua, we find that Isocrates uses, in C. 
 examples, 170 finite verbs to 148 infinitives, and in N. C. 112 
 finite to 38 infinitives ; that is, the finite verb is a little more 
 frequent than the infinitive in the former class of sentences 
 (1.15:1), while in the latter its use is almost three times as 
 great (2.95 : 1). But even these figures do not fairly represent 
 the relation existing between the two mood forms for our present 
 purpose. When we attach stylistic significance to the use of 
 finite or infinitive with wo-re, we assume a more or less free choice 
 between these forms. But in certain connections the language has 
 adopted a fixed, almost mechanical, rule in favor of the infinitive, 
 and so we find the finite verb excluded by considerations which 
 I have elsewhere (p. 9) ventured to call " extra-stylistic.^' 
 
 a^iov, &<TTe S^A.oj/, etc. But even the rule for logical inference has its exceptions ; 
 and in the face of sporadic instances like Panath. 94, Sot', et /xTjSev dxofi^v 
 
 IkWo etTretj' , e/c tovtwv pqSiov elvai KarafxaOeTv^ we are hardly 
 
 ju'^tified in assuming that De Permut. 40, e.g., &<tt '6| Siv avrhs ovtos elprjKev, 
 pad toy Kara/jiadelv, would, if the verb were expressed, certainly take the indicative. 
 ^ On the certainty of these as marks of O. O. influence, cf. Gildersleeve, A.J. P., 
 VI, 523, VII, 173; Seume, pp. 57-63. All my investigations confirm me in 
 accepting their position. 
 
'^D^oT€ as an Index of Style in the Orators. 57 
 
 These cases may be classed under two general heads, according 
 as the use of the infinitive is called for by the nature of the wcrre 
 clause itself, or of the main clause on which it depends. The 
 former class includes those uses of wo-re which I have elsewhere 
 grouped, for the sake of convenience, under the head of "rare 
 types ^' in the orators — final, conditional, and the so-called "super- 
 fluous^' wcrrc — subject or object clause, epexegetic, etc. In the 
 second group I place all those instances in which the wo-re clause 
 depends on a conception which is not itself stated as a fact and 
 hence does not carry its consequence as a fact. The effect of 
 certain kinds of sentences — negative, conditional, interrogative — 
 in limiting axrre to the infinitive has been generally admitted.^ 
 There has been less explicit recognition of other categories which, 
 in Isocrates at least, are regularly followed by wcrre c. inf. — 
 the imperative, the infinitive (other than O. O.), and the participle 
 (including O. O., as well as the attributive and circumstantial uses.) 
 
 Now, excluding from the list of examples of C. wcrre with 
 infinitive 52 in which the mood seems to be determined by the 
 character of the clause or expression on which the wcrre con- 
 struction depends, and from the N. C. infinitives 8 instances of 
 the same sort, with 15 of the "rare types," in which the infinitive 
 is clearly inevitable, we find Isocrates using, in C. sentences, 170 
 finite verbs to 96 infinitives, and in N. C, 112 finite to 15 in- 
 finitives. That is to say, where either mood is possible, he 
 employs almost twice as many finite verbs as infinitives (1.77 : 1) 
 when the correlative is used, and over seven times as many 
 (7.47 : 1) in sentences which lack correlation. 
 
 These figures amply confirm what has already been said as 
 to the close connection between the finite verb and the N. C. 
 form ; but they also show that Isocrates' large preponderance of 
 the finite rests not alone on its free employment in this type of 
 sentences, but on a clearly marked preference for it also in the 
 C. type. 
 
 An examination of the table given below will show that this 
 preference for the finite verb in C. examples is maintained quite 
 
 ^ Cf. Gildersleeve's apt statement of the principle as " failure to meet the 
 conditions antecedent," A. J. P., vn, p. 173. 
 
58 '^HcrT6 as an Index of Style in the Orators. 
 
 regularly throughout the separate orations. The finite predomi- 
 nates in every oration in the Political and Forensic classes (leaving 
 out of account the insignificant fragment Lochites), though the 
 ratios vary from a bare majority to 5:1. The Antidosis, the 
 longest of all Isocrates' works, shows exactly the average use 
 of 1.75 fin. : 1 inf. It may perhaps serve to emphasize the unre- 
 liable character of the moods as an indication of style to note 
 that the widest variation in their use in any single department 
 occurs in the Epideictic class — a department which we have seen 
 to be the most consistent in its general stylistic features. The 
 ratios here (in C. examples) range from 3 : 1 in favor of the finite 
 to 2.33 : 1 in favor of the infinitive. And a study of the consecutive 
 sentences in certain orations — the Evagoras, e. g. — will show how 
 apparently arbitrary is the choice of mood — finite and infinitive 
 interchanging constantly in sentences in which the result clause 
 sets forth actual facts of past or present time. 
 
 For all this, the general drift toward the finite form with ware 
 in Isocrates is a phenomenon of some interest. We see that, in 
 spite of the historical vantage-ground and ever present possibility 
 of the infinitive, the finite form, with its emphasis of fact, had 
 come to be preferred in the most formal of the orators, even in 
 that type of sentences in which the preceding correlative might 
 seem to keep alive most distinctly the notion of tendency and the 
 subordinate, adverbial relation. 
 
 In seeking to interpret a little more closely the significance 
 of Isocrates' use of the moods, it has seemed worth while to see 
 what help could be got from the subdivisions of the C. and JST. C. 
 types already referred to. For the C. side, the use of "fixed 
 formulae " at once suggests itself as a factor in his large use of 
 the finite verb — since here the indicative is regularly adhered to. 
 Isocrates shows but three instances of the infinitive following 
 these formulae (excluding three other cases in which the infinitive 
 is made necessary by the nature of the leading clause). Of the 
 170 examples of C. finite which he employs, 49 (or considerably 
 over one-fourth) are instances of these formulae. 
 
 If we choose to set these aside, on the ground that the mood, 
 in these stereotyped expressions, is used without consciousness, 
 
9.- A f- 
 
 ''D,aT6 as an Index of Style in the Orators. 59 
 
 we still have predominance of the finite verb, though compara- 
 tively slight— (1.26 :1). 
 
 I am not inclined, however, to exclude these formulae from 
 the comparison of moods. In the first place, the finite verb is not 
 absolutely necessary (see exceptions noted above). And further, 
 its almost exclusive employment in these expressions seems to 
 me to be due to the same considerations which have determined 
 its use in a large number of other sentences which are not formu- 
 laic — that is, to a tendency to use the indicative in sentences in 
 which the uxrre clause consists of a particular statement set forth 
 with especial emphasis by means of an introductory one expressing 
 the same fact in a more general way. The large use of this 
 '^general and particular" type in Isocrates would, then, to a 
 considerable extent, explain his preference for the finite verb. 
 And since these sentences partake largely of the character of cir- 
 cumlocution for rhetorical effect a connection between the finite 
 verb with coare and the formal and elaborate style of composition 
 becomes evident. 
 
 Again, outside of the strict G. + P. type — ^. 6., in cases where 
 the coo-re clause expresses a proper result of the fact stated in the 
 main clause — the context not infrequently shows the assignment 
 of cause to be rather incidental, while the stress of the sentence 
 falls on the fact set forth in the result clause, which thus naturally 
 takes the indicative. In such cases also the finite verb is seen to 
 be an accompaniment of a more or less rhetorical use of the con- 
 secutive sentence. Even beyond this, in sentences in which the 
 MO-T6 clause is truly subsidiary to the main thought, it may be 
 that the expression of the result as fact rather than tendency was 
 felt as giving something of weight and impressiveness in keeping 
 with the genius of Isocrates ; but we must beware of seeing too 
 much. The shift from one mood to the other is, in general, so 
 easy, so apparently arbitrary, that, if we are to suppose conscious- 
 ness at all, the determining considerations must have been of the 
 slightest and most subtle sort. I have tried to limit my view to 
 those which have to do most clearly with style in its broader 
 aspects. I would only add my conviction that it is in the C. 
 type that the essential distinction between ware with the finite 
 
60 '^ flare as an Index of Style in the Orators. 
 
 verb and the infinitive is especially to be looked for. The con- 
 ditions are here most uniform, and the problem is reduced to it& 
 simplest terms. 
 
 Turning now to the N. C. examples, and considering them also 
 in the light of the subdivisions previously employed, the par- 
 ticular source of the large use of the finite verb in this class of 
 ware sentences is readily apparent. Of the 112 examples of N. C» 
 with finite verb occurring in Isocrates, 93 (or 83 per cent, of the 
 whole number) have been set down as representing the " logical '^ 
 type,^ in which the result is of a subjective character, being an 
 expression of the opinion of the speaker. The great majority of 
 these Mcrre sentences are abstract judgments as to what is just, 
 necessary, fitting, possible, etc. I have included here also some 
 statements as to what must have happened in the past or is likely 
 to happen in the future which seem to be advanced as inferences 
 from what has gone before — especially when they are preceded 
 by a statement of a general principle or by a series of propo^ 
 sitions which, with the wo-re sentence as conclusion, form a sort 
 of syllogism.^ 
 
 When Sare is thus used as a particle of inference — a mere 
 "therefore" — the sentence which it introduces becomes a detached 
 proposition and naturally takes the finite verb.* It is, of course,, 
 not always easy to distinguish between this type and the ordinary 
 objective result expressed with finite verb ; but, allowing for all 
 possible differences of opinion, it is still clear that the great bulk 
 of N. C. ooares with finite verb come from this logical use of the 
 particle, which is so highly developed in Isocrates and several other 
 orators. Leaving it aside, the use of N. C. mo-tc in Isocrates is, as 
 we have seen, remarkably slight. Excluding cases of inevitable 
 infinitive, I have found but 29 examples which I should class as 
 "simple tendency or result^' — an average of less than 1.5 to an 
 oration. It is in this subdivision that the choice of the moods is 
 
 ^Vid. sup., p. 37. 
 
 'Cf., for the latter type, Euth. 5, quoted above, p. 11. 
 
 'I have noted some five instances in which the "logical" relation seems to 
 co-exist with the use of the infinitive— Areop. 5, Call. 10, Panath. 94, Euth. 4, 
 Arch. 28 ; but in some of these cases special grounds for the infinitive might be 
 made out. 
 
"flare as an Index of Style in the Orators, 61 
 
 most free, and their use accordingly of most interest; but the 
 whole number of examples is so small that generalization is of 
 diminished value. Still, it is worth while to observe that the 
 finite maintains its predominance, in a slightly greater ratio than 
 in the larger class of C. sentences. Of the 29 examples, 19 show 
 the finite verb and 10 the infinitive. This slight use of N. C. 
 wo-re with infinitive in expressing simple result — about one to 
 to two orations — is one of the most noteworthy features of the 
 usage of Isocrates.^ 
 
 As to any essential distinction between wo-re with finite verb 
 and with infinitive, the N. C. examples furnish little more help 
 than the C. The observations I have been able to make are 
 largely of a negative character. I note that the cases are very 
 rare in which wo-re with infinitive has any truly adverbial or 
 restrictive force such as might lead the reader to supply a " latent 
 correlative," expressing degree or manner. As a rule, the con- 
 secutive clause is added to a statement which is absolute and 
 complete in itself. The arbitrary punctuation of editors has, as 
 Berdolt observes, no significance for our purpose, and the length 
 of the co(TTe clause seems not to be a determining factor in the 
 use of the moods. Of course, there are different degrees of 
 "detachment." Some results are less obvious, less closely con- 
 nected with what precedes, than others, and in such cases the 
 finite verb seems more natural ; but a study of the actual usage 
 in Isocrates shows slight application of this principle, and it would 
 be rash to attempt to predict the mood which will be found in 
 any given case. Such a pair of examples as Aeg. 25 and 39 are 
 fairly typical of the apparent indifference as to mood. We must 
 needs be content with our theoretical distinction between conse- 
 quence conceived as " inherent tendency " and as " actual result," 
 
 ^ It may be of use to those who wish to pursue this study further to cite the 
 sections containing the examples which I have classed as "simple result" with 
 infinitive: Paneg. 5(2), 168(1), 111, Arch. 39, 66, Areop. 37(2), Ad Nic. 49, 
 Panath. 146, Aeg. 39, Euth. 13, Arch. 51 may be included if it is not taken as 
 epexegetic. 
 
 Even in this short list, several cases will be noted in which the infinitive 
 might be said to be required by the nature of the leading clause — influence of 
 participle, oratio obliqua, etc. 
 
62 "flcTTe as an Index of Style in the Orators, 
 
 and fall back, for illustration, on the corresponding indifference 
 in the use of "so that" and "so as to" in English (in cases 
 where no new subject is introduced) — "substituting y for x," as 
 Gildersleeve puts it (A. J. P., vii, p. 163).' 
 
 Apart from questions of thought-relation, there is one con- 
 sideration having to do more strictly with formal style which 
 I would venture to suggest as a possible factor in Isocrates' 
 apparent preference for the finite verb in the "simple result" 
 type. However little difference we may feel between a result 
 expressed with finite verb and with infinitive, the use of the 
 latter necessarily involves a certain grammatical nexus, and the 
 M(TT6 clause with the infinitive always remains, in form at least, 
 a part of the preceding sentence. A sentence thus extended by 
 the " tacking on " of a consequence exhibits a " loose " structure 
 as opposed to a " periodic," in the modern sense. The general 
 tendency of Isocrates is toward the latter type ; and the more 
 complete detachment of the result clause (N. C.) with finite verb, 
 by which it forms practically a new proposition, may have recom- 
 mended itself to our author on rhetorical grounds — two " periodic " 
 sentences being thus attainable in the place of a single " loose." 
 If we add, as previously suggested, the greater distinctness and 
 impressiveness of the fact set forth with finite verb, and take 
 into account the possible influence of the freely used " logical " 
 type in making the finite verb a familiar form with N. C. wo-re, the 
 leaning towards it exhibited by Isocrates is in part accounted for. 
 
 I insert here tables showing Isocrates' use of the moods in 
 the C. and N. C. types respectively, the statistics for each oration 
 being given as well as the aggregates. In the C. examples with 
 finite verb, the formulae have been separated from the non- 
 formulaic sentences, which are marked as "ordinary" examples; 
 while in the infinitive list, the designation " free " is used to mark 
 cases where a choice of mood lay open, as opposed to those in 
 which the infinitive was "necessary" on account of the nature 
 of the main clause. 
 
 ^ It may be noted that in most of the examples of N. C. &(rTe with infinitive 
 (see list of passages above) the consequence set forth is, in point of fact, an 
 actual result in present or past time. 
 
''flcrre as an Index of Style in the Orators, 
 
 63 
 
 In the N. C. table, distinction is made between the " logical " 
 and ** simple result" types in the case of both finite verbs and 
 infinitives; and in presenting the examples with infinitive, the 
 " necessary '' and " rare types " are classed separately, though in 
 both the mood obeys fixed laws, and they are equally in oppo- 
 sition to the " free " use exemplified by the examples under the 
 other two heads. 
 
 ISOCRATES. 
 
 C. 
 
 
 
 Finite. 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 
 Formulae. 
 
 Ordinary. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Necessary. 
 
 Free. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Demonicus 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 4 
 5 
 4 
 4 
 3 
 1 
 2 
 8 
 2 
 7 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 5 
 5 
 
 11 
 9 
 
 11 
 1 
 7 
 1 
 1 
 
 19 
 7 
 5 
 4 
 7 
 1 
 2 
 
 *1 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 21 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 "i 
 
 *5 
 6 
 
 4 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 "i 
 1 
 
 7 
 2 
 
 *8 
 1 
 4 
 1 
 2 
 
 "i 
 
 1 
 
 '4 
 
 14 
 6 
 2 
 6 
 4 
 
 14 
 4 
 7 
 5 
 1 
 2 
 
 12 
 6 
 1 
 1 
 5 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Ad Nicoclera 
 
 Nicocles 
 
 1 
 4 
 
 Panegyricus 
 
 Philippus 
 
 19 
 11 
 
 Archidamus 
 
 Areopagiticus 
 
 De Pace 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 Evagoras 
 
 14 
 
 Helen 
 
 5 
 
 Busiris 
 
 8 
 
 Panathenaicus 
 
 Cont. Sophistas.... 
 Plataicus 
 
 12 
 3 
 2 
 
 De Permutatione. 
 DeBigis 
 
 20 
 
 7 
 
 Trapeziticus....... 
 
 Callimachus 
 
 Aegineticus 
 
 Lochites 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 7 
 1 
 
 Euthynus 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 49 
 
 121 
 
 170 
 
 52 
 
 96 
 
 148 
 
64 "Hare as an Index of Style in the Orator's. 
 
 N. C. 
 
 
 Finite. 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 
 Logical. 
 
 Simple 
 Result. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Rare 
 Types. 
 
 Necessary. 
 
 Free. 
 
 
 
 Logical. 
 
 Simple 
 Result. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Demonicus 
 
 *2 
 
 1 
 4 
 
 10 
 6 
 2 
 7 
 7 
 1 
 3 
 5 
 1 
 4 
 
 14 
 3 
 2 
 7 
 5 
 2 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 ..' 
 
 ... 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 *1 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 
 *1 
 2 
 
 "2 
 
 1 
 2 
 1 
 
 6 
 12 
 6 
 2 
 10 
 8 
 1 
 3 
 6 
 2 
 5 
 16 
 3 
 2 
 8 
 7 
 2 
 9 
 
 i 
 
 "3 
 
 ] 
 4 
 
 *i 
 
 "i 
 
 "i 
 
 1 
 
 *i 
 
 1 
 
 *3 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 i 
 
 *i 
 
 ... 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 "i 
 
 "i 
 
 ... 
 
 1 
 
 *1 
 
 3 
 
 "2 
 1 
 
 "i 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 "i 
 "i 
 
 
 Ad Nicoclem 
 
 Nicocles 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 1 
 
 Panegyricus 
 
 Philippus 
 
 Archidamus 
 
 Areopagiticus 
 
 De Pace 
 
 7 
 2 
 1 
 
 Evagoras 
 
 
 Helen 
 
 1 
 
 Busiris 
 
 
 Panathenaicus 
 
 Cont. Sophistas 
 
 Plataicus... 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 De Permutatione.. 
 De Bigis 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 Trapezitlcus 
 
 Callimachus 
 
 Aegineticus 
 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 
 Lochites 
 
 
 Euthynus 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 93 
 
 19 
 
 112 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 Ci-xr) 
 
 38 
 
 A similar classification of the examples found in Lysias is given 
 herewith.^ In the C. list, the ratio of finite to "free" infinitive 
 is somewhat greater than in Isocrates (2.62 : 1) ; but it will be 
 noted that the C. finite list is more largely recruited from the 
 type of " fixed formulae " in the former author than in the latter. 
 In the N. C. examples the situation is reversed, finite standing to 
 free infinitive as 4.67 : 1 — a much smaller ratio than in Isocrates. 
 The larger average occurrence of the "logical" type in Lysias 
 might, taken alone, have suggested an opposite result ; but a 
 comparison of the moods in the " simple result " type will show 
 the main source of the difference. The larger average occurrence 
 
 ^ The collective statistics only, not those for the separate orations. 
 
"flare as an Index of Style in the Orators. 65 
 
 of this type in Lysias, and his far higher proportion of infinitives 
 within it, as compared with Isocrates, are the most striking 
 features of this table. The latter phenomenon seems to be a 
 characteristic of the less formal orators ; but here again the num- 
 ber of examples is too small to warrant broad generalizations. 
 
 I have not attempted to distinguish between the genuine and 
 spurious works of Lysias in presenting these statistics. The 
 number of suspected orations is small, most of them are quite 
 brief, and there is a lack of agreement as to their status among 
 the best critics ; but in one instance I have excluded an oration 
 from the table — Or. 20, (For Polystratus). This is a work of 
 more considerable compass, and a strong case has been made out 
 against it, to which the usage as to coo-re adds considerable con- 
 firmation. Its peculiarities are, (1) a remarkably large ratio of 
 N. C. to C. — 12 : 1 ; (2) in the N. C. examples, a very small pro- 
 portion of " logical inference " to " simple result " — 3 : 9 ; (3) in 
 the lastrmentioned type, a marked preponderance of the infinitive 
 over the finite verb — 6 : 3. In all these respects, it exemplifies 
 tendencies of Lysias as against Isocrates, but the degree of variation 
 from the normal use of Lysias is far greater than that between 
 Lysias and Isocrates. 
 
 Lysias. 
 
 0. 
 
 Finite. Infinite. 
 
 Formulae 23 Necessary 12 
 
 Ordinary 45 Free 26 
 
 Total. 68 . Total 38 
 
 N. C. 
 Finite. Infinitive. 
 
 Logical 64 Rare Types 5 
 
 Simple Result 10 Necessary 3 
 
 Total 64 "^"^^nsimple Result... 9i ~ 
 
 Total 22 
 
 The statistics of the moods for Isaeus show a close correspond- 
 ence, in most respects, to the usage of Lysias. The ratio of finite 
 
66 "Q^(TT6 as an Index of Style in the Orators. 
 
 to "free" infinitive in C. examples is practically the same — 
 2.57 : 1 ; but the part played by the " formulae " is smaller, these 
 expressions constituting little over one-fourth of the C. finite 
 examples, as against one-third in Lysias. 
 
 In the N. C. type, the preponderance of finite over free infinitive 
 is a little smaller than in Lysias — 4.3 : 1,; this, too, in the face of 
 a somewhat larger average occurrence of the " logical " variety, 
 which, in Isaeus, adheres strictly to the finite verb. Here, again, 
 the explanation lies in the greater relative use of the infinitive in 
 the " simple result " type. In this respect Isaeus shows an even 
 greater advance on Lysias than Lysias on Isocrates, and comes 
 much closer to the use in the oration For Polystratus (Ps.-Lys.), 
 just referred to, and, I think it will be found, to that of the minor 
 orators generally. His very slight use of the " rare types " — 
 final and substantive, — his entire lack of the elliptical use, and his 
 single case of the participle (9, 16) may be noted in passing. 
 
 Of course, in Isaeus we have a much smaller number of Scrre 
 sentences from which to draw conclusions than in Lysias ; but, for 
 the " simple result " type, to which attention has been especially 
 directed, the difference is not very great — (19 cases in Lysias, 14 
 in Isaeus). 
 
 Isaeus. 
 
 0. 
 
 Finite. Infinitive. 
 
 Formulae 5 Necessary 14 
 
 Ordinary 13 Free 7 
 
 Total 18 Total 21 
 
 N.C. 
 
 Finite. Infinitive. 
 
 Logical 39 Rare Types 2 
 
 Simple Result 4 Necessary 1 
 
 Free / logical 
 
 Total 43 \ Simple Result 10 
 
 Total 13 
 
''Hcrre as an Index of Style in the Orators. 67 
 
 ^aSTE IN DEMOSTHENES. 
 
 To treat exhaustively the wcrre usage in so large a body of 
 writings as the orations of Demosthenes is not practicable within 
 the limits assigned to the present work. Yet the very extent of 
 his writings, affording as they do a sufficiently broad basis for 
 generalization, as well as his importance as an orator, has made 
 it seem worth while to present the statistics of his usage, and to 
 emphasize a few of the more striking results. 
 
 Two ends are kept especially in view in this brief treatment — (1) 
 to see how far the connection between certain phases of axrre usage 
 and certain tendencies in style which has been made out from a 
 study of the other orators — especially Isocrates — is exemplified in 
 Demosthenes ; (2) to see how far the use of ware can be made 
 available as a test of genuineness, by a comparative study of it in 
 the genuine works of Demosthenes and those attributed to him but 
 generally admitted to be spurious. It will be more convenient to 
 consider this latter question first. 
 
 Comparison of Genuine and Spurious Works. 
 
 The large body of orations formerly attributed to Demosthenes 
 but now generally regarded as spurious demands separate treat- 
 ment from the genuine works. A comparison of the wcrre usage 
 of these two groups is interesting. I have distinguished genuine 
 and spurious according to the classification given by Butcher in 
 the appendix to his "Demosthenes,"^ which reflects closely the 
 judgment of Blass. 
 
 In frequency of occurrence they do not differ materially. The 
 genuine works contain 328 examples of axrre, an average to the 
 page of .47. The spurious show 218 cases, an average occur- 
 rence of .54. 
 
 But when we come to apply the test of correlation a marked 
 difference appears. The genuine works show a ratio of C. to N. C. 
 of 1.89 : 1 ; the spurious, of 1 : 1.06. Demosthenes's use of the 
 
 1 " Classical Writers' " Series, D. Appleton & Co. 
 
68 "flare as an Index of Style in the Orators, 
 
 C. type, relatively to the N. C, is thus seen to be about twice as 
 great as that shown in this collected body of writings by his imita- 
 tors or unknown contemporaries. The superiority of the correla- 
 tive test, as an index of style, over that of average occurrence is 
 again demonstrated ; and its possible value as a test of genuineness, 
 where sufficiently large masses of material can be brought into 
 comparison, is strongly suggested. 
 
 I. COMPARISON WITH OTHER ORATORS. 
 
 Confining our attention now to the genuine work of Demosthenes, 
 we may note that, in the matter of average occurrence, the reaction 
 from a large use of the particle first observed in Isaeus — when 
 compared with Lysias and Isocrates — is still more marked in 
 Demosthenes, who occupies in this respect an intermediate position 
 between Isaeus and Aeschines.^ 
 
 With regard to fondness for the correlative with Mare, to which 
 attention is mainly directed in this chapter, it will be observed ^ 
 that Demosthenes shows a marked reversion toward the usage of 
 Isocrates, to whom he holds second place (Isocrates 2.21 : 1 ; 
 Demosthenes 1.89 : 1), while the orator who comes next in this 
 respect is his rival and contemporary, Aeschines (1.48 : 1). We 
 can not here attempt an analysis of the various elements which 
 enter into the use of C. wo-re in Demosthenes; but if we may 
 assume a general connection between a large use of this type and 
 carefulness in the construction of the period, the position indicated 
 by these figures is certainly not far from that which we should 
 •expect to find him occupying. Especially interesting is his depart- 
 ure from the usage of his immediate predecessor and reputed master, 
 Isaeus. It is instructive to note Blass' statements in comparing 
 the two,^ that Demosthenes *' emphasizes and perfects the oratori- 
 cal '^ and "avoids the colloquial," especially Xeft? elpofxevT) such as 
 is common in Isaeus ; and that he makes a marked approach to 
 the grandeur and fulness of epideictic style, " so far as was possi- 
 ble for the practical orator." 
 
 ^Vid. Table of Average Occurrence, p. 6. 
 
 « Vid. Table, p. 11. 'in, p. 146. 
 
''Hare as an Index of Style in the Orators, 69 
 
 2. COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT CLASSES. 
 
 I have adopted Butcher's classification of the orations of Demos- 
 thenes under the three heads Deliberative, Public Forensic, and 
 Private Forensic. As to the characteristics which distinguish 
 these three groups we may again avail ourselves of the judgment 
 of Blass,^ who says, in substance, that the Deliberative class have 
 the strongest and most elevated style, in keeping with the dignity 
 of their subjects ; at the opposite pole stand the Private orations ; 
 while the Public Forensic show a mixture of these two stylistic 
 tendencies. But as these last deal largely with public matters of 
 grave import and were designed for wide audiences we may expect 
 to find them showing closer affinities with the former class than 
 with the latter. 
 
 The degree of preference for C. So-re shown by the several 
 classes corresponds to this estimate of their rhetorical character. 
 The Deliberative has C. to N. C. as 2.19 : 1 ; the Public Forensic 
 as 2.10 : 1 ; the Private Forensic as 1.37 : 1. 
 
 Comparison of Oeators Class by Class. 
 
 We have compared the general ratios of C. and N. C. in Demos- 
 thenes and other orators. An examination of the usage of these 
 writers in similar classes would seem to be a still more exact test ; but 
 data for such a comparison are only partially available. Blass^ 
 recommends as standards of comparison in studying the style of 
 Demosthenes, Isocrates and Thucydides for the Deliberative class, 
 Isocrates for the Public Forensic, Isaeus and Lysias for the 
 Private orations. If, as already suggested, we take the Political 
 oratory of Isocrates as the closest correspondent to the Public 
 Forensic in Demosthenes (on the score of theme and oratorical 
 handling rather than technical character), we can make a com- 
 plete comparison between these two orators ; and we find a re- 
 markably close correspondence, class for class, in the matter of 
 correlation : 
 
 1 pp. 80-81. » pp. 81-82. 
 
 5 
 
70 ''Xlcrre as an Index of Style in the Orators. 
 
 Isocrates Polit. 2.25 : 1 ; For. 1.54 : 1. 
 
 Demosthenes... { ^«fib. 2.19 : 1 | p^.^^ ^^^ j 37 . ^ 
 I Pub. For. 2.10:1 » 
 
 Again, the usage of the Private Forensic class in Demosthenes 
 may be compared with the general ratios of Isaeus and Lysias, since 
 practically all the work of these two belongs to this type of 
 oratory.^ The result shows how much more freely Demosthenes 
 employs the correlative even in this field — Deoiosthenes 1.37:1; 
 Lysias 1:1.17; Isaeus 1:1.51. As compared with Isaeus, his 
 use of it (relatively to N. C.) is twice as great; and we may 
 again refer to Blass, who says ^ that " Demosthenes departs much 
 further than Isaeus from the customary simplicity of the Private 
 speech.'^ Blass is speaking here especially of diction ; but the 
 observation will be found, I think, to hold fairly well with refer- 
 ence to the structure of the sentence. 
 
 Finally, a more exact measure of the difference between the 
 genuine and spurious works of the Demosthenean corpus may be 
 had by comparing them in that department to which the greater 
 part of the spurious orations belong — the Private Forensic. The 
 ratios of C. to N. C. for this class stand — Genuine 1.37 : 1 ; 
 Spurious 1 : 1.49. While the pseudo-Demosthenean private speeches 
 thus stand in marked contrast to the genuine, it will be noted that 
 the ratio of C. to N. C. which they collectively exhibit is almost 
 exactly that of Isaeus — Ps. Dem. 1 : 1.49 ; Isae. 1 : 1.51. 
 
 Influence of Time of Composition. 
 
 Demosthenes' activity extends over a sufficiently long period to 
 suggest a development of style and to permit us to raise the ques- 
 tion whether time of composition may not enter, as an additional 
 
 ^ It is true that, according to the technical division of Attic law, the greater 
 part of Lysias' orations were written for 'public suits — i. e. what we should call 
 criminal cases. But most of these were virtually 'private suits, as concerning only 
 the interests of individuals, and their composition shows the simple, business-like 
 style of the strictly private orations, rather than the elaboration and rhetorical 
 finish of the so-called "Public Forensics" of Demosthenes, which belong to 
 'political cases and were addressed, not merely to a jury, but to a large audience 
 of interested citizens. Cf. Jebb, i. p. 163 ; 209. 
 
 *m. p. 85. 
 
'^na-re as an Index of Style in the Orators* 71 
 
 factor, into his usage in any given respect. Blass seems to assume 
 that it does, and indicates the general direction of this development 
 when he says (p. 97), "in sentence-structure the approach to the 
 epideictic only followed gradually." Cf., for a similar statement, 
 p. 146. Again, p. 80, he says that not only the classes, but the 
 times, are to bo considered, " both in general and within the several 
 classes." Time, then, might be considered a factor in that lower 
 ratio of C. to N. C. ware which we have just noted in the case of 
 the Private orations; for this class, taken as a whole, is early, 
 relatively to the other departments. 
 
 Within the several classes, Blass notes this development espe- 
 cially in the case of the Deliberative and Private orations. The 
 perfected stage of Deliberative oratory is seen, he says, in the 
 Philippic speeches — the first of which was spoken in 351. The 
 peculiar excellence of the Private Forensic class is exhibited about 
 350 ; differences are shown according to earlier or later compo- 
 sition ; " later, the form approaches more nearly that of the Public 
 Forensics." ^ 
 
 I have, accordingly, taken the year 350 as a sort of central point 
 in Demosthenes' development and grouped together, for purposes 
 of comparison, the orations of ascertained date (following Blass' 
 chronology) which precede and those which follow that date. The 
 collective ratios of these two groups, in the Deliberative class, show 
 a striking difference in wcrre usage : for the earlier period, C. to 
 N. C. as 1 : 1.83 ; for the later, as 5.8 : 1. The Private Forensic 
 class shows an increase in correlation less marked, yet quite per- 
 ceptible : C. to N. C. as 1 : 1.3 for the earlier group, as 1.75 : 1 for 
 the later.^ The gain in the Public Forensic class is insignificant : 
 1.88 : 1 for orations before 350, 2.28 : 1 for those after. 
 
 1 pp. 80-81. 
 
 ^ Of the Private orations, the Conon has been excluded from this calculation 
 as being of uncertain date. If it should be placed after 350 (following Clinton — 
 vid. Blass, p. 457), the ratio of C. to N. C. for the later period in this class would 
 be considerably increased. 
 
 
72 "Xlo-T6 as an Index of Style in the Orators, 
 
 3. COMPARISON OF ORATIONS WITHIN THE CLASSES. 
 
 Tables are here presented showing the number of examples of 
 C. and N. C. Mare in all the orations of Demosthenes and those 
 attributed to him. The orations of each class are arranged in order 
 of preference for the C. type, the genuine and spurious works being 
 grouped separately in each of the three classes. The chronological 
 order of the genuine works may be made out from the dates in- 
 serted, which represent the judgment of Blass. The length of each 
 oration in Teubner pages is given, deduction being made for copies 
 of documents and other extraneous matter. The ratios of C. and 
 N. C. for the several classes are also appended. 
 
 Delibpjrative. 
 Genuine. 
 
 C. N.C. 
 
 3rd Phil 341 B.C 18 pp.... 13: 1 
 
 3rd 01 349 91 7: 
 
 De Reb. Cherson 341 17 5: 2 
 
 2nd 01 349... 8 2: 
 
 De Pace 346 6 1: 
 
 1st Phil 351 131 3: 3 
 
 2nd Phil. 344 8I 1: 1 
 
 DeSymmor 354 10} 2: 3 
 
 1st 01 349 7} 0: 1 
 
 Pro Ehod. Libert 351 9} 0: 2 
 
 ProMegalop 353 8 1: 3 
 
 Ratio for class, 2.19 : 1 
 
 Spurious'. 
 
 De Foed. cum Alex 8 4: 
 
 DeOrd. Rep 9} 4: 
 
 Epist. Phil 6 8: 2 
 
 4th Phil 18 5: 2 
 
 Adv. Epist. Phil 5J 3: 2 
 
 De Halon 10| 2: 4 
 
''£1(TT€ as an Index of Style in the Orators, 73 
 
 Public Forensic. 
 Genuine, 
 
 c. N.C. 
 
 Meidias 347 B, c 59|pp... 24: 4 
 
 Timocrates 353 55 15: 5 
 
 DeFals. Leg 344 96. 30:15 
 
 Aristocrates 352 63| 15: 8 
 
 Leptines 354 47 8: 6 
 
 De Corona 339 80 19:13 
 
 Androtion.. 355 22} 11: 8 
 
 Ratio for class, 2.10 : 1 
 
 Spurious. 
 
 Aristogeiton A'. 
 Aristogeiton B'. 
 
 Theocrines 
 
 Neaera 
 
 27 
 
 .. 10: 4 
 
 7 
 
 .. 2: 2 
 
 21 
 
 .. 4: 6 
 
 34} 
 
 .. 5:17 
 
 Private Forensic. 
 
 Genuine. 
 
 Conon 14pp.... 11: 
 
 StephanusA' , 349-8 B. c... 22} 6: 2 
 
 Callicles bef. 350 9 3: 1 
 
 Pantaenetus 346 16} 2: 
 
 Onetor B'. 362 4 1: 
 
 ProPhorm 350 17 3: 2 
 
 Boeotus A' 348 , 11 3: 2 
 
 Nausimachus 346 (?) 8 3: 2 
 
 De Cor. Trierarch 361-57 6 3: 2 
 
 Eubulides 345 20} 7: 6 
 
 AphobusB' 363 7 1: 1 
 
 AphobusF' 363 17 5: 6 
 
 AphobusA' 363 20 4: 7 
 
 OnetorA' 362 11 3: 6 
 
 Spudias bef. 350 8} 0: 3 
 
 Katio for class, 1 .37 : 1 
 
74 "D^crre as an Index of Style in the Orators, 
 
 Private Forensic. 
 Spurious. 
 
 Callippus 
 
 Zenothemis , . . . 
 
 9 pp.... 
 
 C. N.C. 
 
 7: 2 
 
 • i-r^.... 
 
 8 
 
 2: 
 
 Nicostratus 
 
 9 
 
 2: 1 
 
 Phaenippus 
 
 Boeot. B' 
 
 9i 
 
 1 : 
 
 16J 
 
 11 : 8 
 
 Diouysodorus 
 
 16 
 
 4: 3 
 
 Adv. Phorm 
 
 141 
 
 2: 2 
 
 Steph. B' 
 
 Lacritus 
 
 7 
 
 1 : 2 
 
 121 
 
 1 : 2 
 
 Apaturius 
 
 ' -^■"2 
 
 Ill 
 
 2: 4 
 
 Oly mpiodor us 
 
 15J 
 
 191 
 
 1 : 3 
 
 Polycles 
 
 Euerg. and Mnes 
 
 Timotheus 
 
 3: 9 
 
 231 
 
 4:13 
 
 18 
 
 1 : 4 
 
 Macartatus 
 
 20 
 
 1 : 5 
 
 Leochares 
 
 1« 
 
 2:10 
 
 Epideictic (Spurious). 
 Eroticus 141 
 
 11 : 2 
 
 Epitaphius 
 
 101 
 
 2: 3 
 
 In general, it may be noted that these tables do not present such 
 striking results as were afforded in Isocrates. Perhaps it is less 
 in keeping with the genius of Demosthenes than of Isocrates to 
 employ a comparatively formal rhetorical feature in such a way as 
 to reflect faithfully the difference in style between particular ora- 
 tions. However this may be, the brevity of so many of the ora- 
 tions, combined with the much smaller average occurrence, neces- 
 sarily operates to deprive these statistics of significance. It is only 
 in the Public Forensic class, as a rule, that the number of examples 
 is sufficient to make the ratios important ; and here, for the most 
 part, the variations are slight. However, it has seemed worth 
 while to call attention to a few works which, affording a respect- 
 able number of examples, show also a ratio of C. to N. C. depart- 
 ing widely from the norm of their class. 
 
''flo-re as an Index of Style in the Orators, 75 
 
 Genuine Orations. 
 1. Deliberative. 
 
 Zrd Philippic, 
 
 The 3rd Philippic is the longest and the latest in time of its 
 class and shows the highest average occurrence of mo-tc (.78). It 
 challenges attention by its remarkable proportion of C. to N. C. — 
 13:1. Blass (p. 381) calls it the most powerful and pathetic of 
 all the Deraosthenean orations. Both he and Lord Brougham call 
 attention to its lack of " close reasoning." This feature may help 
 to explain the entire absence of the " logical " type of wcrre sen- 
 tence. But the all but exclusive use of the correlative form in 
 expressing result of the stricter sort is, I think, to be connected 
 especially with the oratorical character of the composition. Blass, 
 after commenting on the "fully developed and flowing period^' 
 of the 1st Philippic as compared with the speech on the Sym- 
 mories, "which is neither epideictic nor oratorical," remarks on 
 the " still more powerful swing of the 3rd Philippic." 
 
 A number of the m(jt€ sentences give a decidedly rhetorical effect.^ 
 The greater part of the examples incline to the " G. + P." type, 
 and 9 of the 13 C. instances show the indicative in the ooare 
 clause. 
 
 Srd Olynthiac, 
 
 The 3rd Olynthiac is much shorter and has but seven examples 
 of ware ; but all these are of the C. type. Blass (p. 321) describes 
 it as " full of strong passion " ; Butcher speaks of its tone of 
 " indignant remonstrance." 
 
 The coare sentences serve effectively for emphatic characteriza- 
 tion, the G. + P. type being well represented, but they are, on 
 the whole, shorter and of a less rhetorical cast than in the 3rd 
 Philippic. 
 
 2. Public Forensic. 
 
 The same gradation and advance in the composition of the period 
 which Blass (p. 151) remarks, in the Deliberative class, in passing 
 
 iCf. 6.^. §g land 54. 
 
76 '^rio-re as an Index of Style in the Or^ators. 
 
 from the Symmories to the 1st Philippic, and from the latter to 
 the 3rd Philippic, he traces, for this class, in the series Leptines, 
 Aristocrates and Timocrates, Meidias and the False Embassy. 
 
 Meidias, 
 
 Of the Meidias, he says (p. 339) that it is "one of the first 
 monuments of dignified and powerful oratory"; that it "belongs 
 out and out to fhe genus grave, like the Philippic orations" ; it is 
 " thoroughly pathetic, hence quite the opposite of the Leptines." 
 Butcher refers to it as " an admirable example of ancient invediveJ^ 
 
 In preference for C. coare this oration far surpasses, not only all 
 others of its class, but all others of the longer orations, with its 
 ratio of 6 : 1. The G. + P. type prevails, and of the C. examples 
 — excluding "necessary" infins. — two-thirds take the indicative. 
 
 The work which Blass is especially fond of contrasting with the 
 Meidias is the Leptines} It shows a remarkably small average 
 occurrence of wcrre, and stands among the lowest of its class in 
 ratio of C. to N. C. For characterization, cf especially Blass, pp. 
 272-3, where he remarks its absence of passion and of bitter in- 
 vective. Elsewhere (p. 150) he observes that it lacks fulness and 
 grandeur, despite the fact that the passages in praise of benefactors 
 of the state afibrded rich opportunity for the epideictic style. These 
 two spheres — invective and highly polished encomium — are strong- 
 holds of the C. wcrre construction. The latter use can best be 
 studied in Isocrates ; the former in Demosthenes, and nowhere 
 better than in the Meidias and Timocrates. 
 
 Timocrates, 
 
 In respect to the artistic development of the period, Blass, as we 
 have seen, places this oration in an intermediate class between the 
 Leptines and Meidias. He attributes to it fulness of sentence- 
 structure (p. 287), and notes its bitterness and vehemence of tone. 
 
 In proportion of C. to N. C. cocrre it stands far below the Meidias^ 
 but appreciably above the average for its class. The G. + P. 
 type is especially common, being employed to set forth and char- 
 
 1 Cf. pp. 81, 151, 339. 
 
'^fla-Te as an Index of Style in the 
 
 acterize strongly the conduct of Timocrates and others^; and in 
 these examples, in accordance with the general rule, the finite verb 
 is used almost exclusively. 
 
 A large proportion of the were sentences in the Timocrates give 
 a decidedly rhetorical effect. In a majority of instances the respons- 
 ive effect is heightened by the initial position of the first correla- 
 tive ; and not infrequently an effective balance is exhibited, either 
 between the main and Mcrre clause, or between the consecutive 
 sentence taken as a whole and another member which unites with 
 it to form a period. For examples, cf. §§ 3 and 9. 
 
 3. Private Forensic. 
 Conon, 
 
 The remarkable preference for the C. type exhibited in the Conon 
 is a phenomenon which seems to demand explanation ; for we have 
 here an essay of Demosthenes in the " plain " style, and its Lysianic 
 characteristics have been noted by the critics, from Dionysius down.^ 
 The slight place given to formal argumentation may account for 
 the lack of the " logical " type of wo-re ; for here, as so often in 
 Lysias, the narrative is the argument.' But the entire absence as 
 well of the " simple result " type of N. C. is rather remarkable. 
 We may at least note the character of the ware sentences. They 
 are for the most part short and simply constructed ; the initial 
 position of the correlative word is hardly more common than the 
 final ; the infinitive predominates largely over the finite verb ; and 
 the G. -f- P. type is extremely rare. The ware clause, as a rule, 
 comes in quite naturally to measure the degree of an act or condi- 
 tion by its consequences — the true " substantiating " function of 
 the construction.* The use of the anticipating correlative serves 
 primarily, with this earnest and indignant speaker, to emphasize 
 and call attention to the connection between fact and consequence. 
 But it also contributes to the sentence-structure something of that 
 
 ^ Note the large use of the familiar formulae. 
 
 'Cf. Kirk, Demosthenic Style in the Private Orations (J. H. U. Diss.), p. 31. 
 
 »Cf. Blass, p. 461 ; Kirk, p. 21. 
 
 * Vid. mjyray p. 13, and cf. A. J. P., xiv. p. 242. 
 
78 ''flcrre as an Index of Style in the Orators. 
 
 "well-rounded" effect which Dionysius seems to claim for it;^ and 
 which modern critics, in laying stress, very properly, on the " ethical 
 simplicity " of the work in relation to the character portrayed, have 
 perhaps too much overlooked. 
 
 Guardianship Orations. 
 
 We have now examined those works which show a marked pref- 
 erence for C. wcrre, and found that, as a rule, they exhibit certain 
 common features — oratorical fulness and finish, impassioned nar- 
 rative, and abundant characterization. Of those in which the 
 N. C. prevails, no single oration shows a very striking ratio, espe- 
 cially in view of the small- number of examples. But the fact that 
 in the Private orations, where the ratios are most significant, all 
 the works showing a predominance of N. C, except the very brief 
 speech against Spudias (with only three examples), belong to the 
 group of " guardianship orations " — the speeches against Aphobus 
 and Onetor — suggests taking the collective statistics for this group. 
 We thus have a considerable body of material (59 pp.), belonging 
 to the same period, dealing with practically the same issue, and 
 exhibiting the same general style. In these " lawyer-like speeches " 
 of Demosthenes himself," ^ the logical faculty of the advocate is 
 given free scope and close legal argument is the dominant feature. 
 There is little of characterization of opponents,^ and comparatively 
 little attention to rhetorical effect.* 
 
 In this group C. stand to N. C. as 1 to 1.43 — almost exactly 
 reversing the general ratio for the Private orations (1.37 : 1).' 
 And it can hardly be without significance that the ratio which 
 they exhibit is practically that of Isaeus — the master under whose 
 influence, in the opinion of many, these earliest works were 
 produced. 
 
 1 (rrpoyyiXa, De Adm. Vi. c. 13. » Kirk, p. 21. ^ Cf. Blass, p. 231. 
 
 * In the Onetor A'' all three of the C. examples occur in the single page of the 
 prooemium, a rather rhetorical passage (conflatio invidiae, cf. Kirk, p. 22). 
 
 ^Note that comparison is here made with the whole class, in which the 
 " guardianship orations " are included. If we compare these with the remaining 
 Private orations, the contrast between the ratios will, of course, be more marked. 
 
"Il(7Te as an Index of Style in the Orators. 79 
 
 Spurious Orations. 
 
 The two spurious orations which show the most marked prefer- 
 ence for C. co<7T€ deserve special notice, inasnauch as they are 
 excellent representatives of a style which we have found elsewhere 
 associated with a large use of this type of sentence. 
 
 Letter of Philip, 
 
 The letter of Philip to the Athenian people — the composition, 
 doubtless, of some rhetorical secretary ^ — bears clearly the impress 
 of the Isocratic school.^ While quite short, the average occur- 
 rence of Scrre is remarkable (1.67) — double that of any genuine 
 work of Demosthenes. Of the 10 examples, 8 are C, 2 N. C. 
 The C. examples nearly all exhibit the G. + P. type; six of 
 them are instances of the formula eh tovto (too-qvtov) ; seven 
 take the indicative ; ^ and all of these belong to the language of 
 denunciation, being employed, in a general bill of complaints, to 
 stamp each act recited with the quality which condemns it. Blass * 
 notes these " frequent emphasizing expressions " (et? tovto, k. t, X.) 
 as among the markedly epideictic features of the work. 
 
 Eroticfus, 
 
 This is one of the two professedly epideictic works which have 
 in some way been thrust into the Demosthenean corpus. For 
 characterization, cf. Blass, pp. 406-408, 588. He finds the style 
 " thoroughly Isocratic ^' — marked by careful composition and 
 great periods. The average occurrence of wo-re (.90) is close up to 
 the general average of Isocrates. As to correlation, we have the 
 striking proportion of 11 C. : 2 N. C. The rhetorical handling of 
 the construction recalls strongly the encomia of Isocrates. Note 
 especially the free use of too-ovtov BcacjiepeLv and equivalent ex- 
 pressions in setting up a contrast. 
 
 1 Blass, p. 588. 'Cf. Blass, pp. 394, 396-7. 
 
 ' The &(rre in § 14, followed by the participle, is a disputed reading — " excidere 
 facile potuit," Dind.-Blass ed. ■* p. 397. 
 
80 '^D^are as an Index of Style in the Orators, 
 
 Neaera. 
 
 On the other hand, those spurious orations which show the 
 highest ratio of N. C. form a group whose stylistic tendencies are 
 directly opposite to those of the Isocratic school and of the more 
 finished work of Demosthenes. Of th^se the Neaera is most 
 deserving of study, as being the longest of the spurious orations 
 and containing the highest number of examples of wo-re. The 
 unfavorable characterization of its style which occurs in the 
 V7r60eo-L<; of Libanius is concurred in by modern critics.^ 
 
 Not only does the proportion of N. C. to C. exceed that of any 
 genuine work of Demosthenes, but the several sub-types figure in 
 the N. C. group in unusual proportions. The " logical '^ type is 
 fairly well represented ; but the preponderance of N. C. seems to 
 be due especially to a larger use of the "finaP' (including the 
 icf)' (pre equivalent) and " simple result '^ types than we have been 
 accustomed to find. The latter, as before pointed out, is the most 
 significant for style, being, in most cases, readily interchangeable 
 with the C. form. This oration shows, according to my classifica- 
 tion, a number of examples of this use of axrre equal to that of the 
 C. type — a phenomenon very uncommon in the standard orators. 
 All but one of these are followed by the infinitive. 
 
 With the Neaera may be grouped the other spurious works (all 
 Private orations) which show, like it, a more marked preference 
 for the N. C. than is found in any genuine work — viz. the Polycles, 
 Tiraotheus, Euergus and MnesihuluSy Macartatus, and Leochares. 
 The first two of these Blass (p. 589) assigns with certainty, the 
 third with strong probability, to the author of the Neaera and 
 several other speeches for Apollodorus — an unnamed logographer, 
 " whose efforts hardly ever attain medium rank.'' The Macar- 
 tatus^ along with the Lacritus and Olympiodorus, — all " of poor 
 quality " — he assigns to " a logographer of low rank " ; while the 
 Leochares stands "nearly on the same plane." For the looseness 
 and general '^ formlessness '' of their composition, and for their 
 
 ^ Cf. Blass, pp. 539-541, who finds in it the same faults of form as in the other 
 works of the " mediocre advocate " who wrote for Apollodorus. 
 
''flo-re as an Index of Style in the Orators. 81 
 
 correspondences with each other and with the Neaera, see Blass — 
 especially pp. 526, 530, 547-9, 556, 560, 571. 
 
 An analysis of the N. C. examples in these works shows a simi- 
 larity to the Neaera in that the number of examples of the "simple 
 result^' type in each instance equals or surpasses that of the C.^ 
 
 This tendency to tack on the consequence loosely instead of 
 gathering it up into a well-knit period by an anticipating correla- 
 tive gives a certain '^ trailing " effect to the style (especially when 
 the infinitive is used, as it is in most of these examples), and is in 
 keeping, I think, with the general laxity of sentence-structure and 
 absence of o'ratorical rounding in this group of speeches. It cer- 
 tainly helps to differentiate them from the greater orators of the 
 canon. 
 
 4. COMPARISON OF PARTS OF SAME ORATION. 
 
 The last test proposed has to do with variation in the use of 
 wa-re in different parts of the same oration, where there is a dis- 
 tinct change of topic, accompanied by difference of style. The 
 practical oratory of Demosthenes gives less scope for this kind of 
 analysis than the writings of Isocrates, with their sophistic lean- 
 ings, in which we seem to see the professional rhetorician delight- 
 ing to show his skill in different kinds of composition within the 
 compass of a single work. The slight use, too, of strictly epideictic 
 narrative — that absence of the " pleasing treatment of grand and 
 agreeable topics " which the writer of the Trepl "T'^ov^ observed in 
 Demosthenes — removes an element which often gives a good oppor- 
 tunity for the application of the analytical test in Isocrates. For 
 all this, there are not wanting orations of Demosthenes in which 
 the different divisions of the discourse are fairly well marked, not 
 only by formulae of transition, but by significant stylistic differ- 
 ences, so that they present reasonably distinct " blocks " from the 
 standpoint of composition. In two works especially a contrast in 
 style and subject-matter between different parts is strikingly re- 
 flected by the usage with regard to ware. 
 
 The bulk of the Timocrates is made up of two tolerably distinct 
 
 ^The Folycles has nine N. C. examples, all of the "S. R." type except two or 
 three, which are " final," and all taking the infinitive. 
 
82 '^ flare as an Index of Style in the Orators. 
 
 divisions. Sections 17-122 are devoted mainly to a close, detailed 
 argument, based on the provisions of existing laws — the case being 
 a ypa(j)7) irapavofzcov. This division occupies 27 pages, forming 
 about one-half of the whole speech. Sections 125-203 (20 pp.) 
 are a sort of digression, containing personal attacks on parties in 
 opposition. They consist largely of narrative and characterization, 
 and are marked by oratorical vigor and fulness. 
 
 The first of these divisions contains but 4 examples of Mare, all 
 of the N. C. type. The second exhibits 13 examples, and 12 of 
 these are C. 
 
 A similar well-marked division into legal argument and narra- 
 tive is seen in the speech Against Androtion. The plan laid down 
 in the irpoOeai^ (§ 3) is strictly adhered to. Sees. 5-46 (12 pp) 
 contain an anticipation and refutation of the pleas of the defence. 
 The remainder of the speech (9 pp.) is a scathing review of the 
 public career of Androtion. The greater fulness and dignity of 
 treatment in this second division, as compared with the technical 
 argument, is recognized by Blass (p. 262), and a corresponding 
 difference in style is clearly perceptible. 
 
 The first division has 7 examples of wcrre, of which 6 are N. C. 
 In the second the particle is employed 11 times, and 10 of these 
 instances are of the C. type. 
 
 Among other orations in which analysis brings out a suggestive 
 grouping of the two types of coare sentences, the Conon, Onetor A', 
 and Stephanus A' may be specially noted. 
 
 Concluding Kemarks, 
 
 In concluding this study, I would again call attention to the 
 elements of rhetorical effect which have combined to give the con- 
 struction of Mare with a correlative so large a place in the most 
 finished work of the 'greatest masters of the oratorical period. 
 Among the most significant of these are dignity and deliberateness 
 of movement, responsion, balance, fulness, and emphasis gained by 
 suspense. The last seems to me especially important ; and it was 
 seized upon as the salient feature of the construction by Dissen in 
 his essay, '^De Structura Periodorum Oratoria,"^ and set forth 
 
 * Prefixed to his edition of Demosthenes De Corona^ Gottingen, 1837. 
 
''Hcrre as an Index of Style in the Orators, 83 
 
 in these words : '^ Something of especial weight is announced and 
 expectation is excited as greatly as possible, but the sense of 
 the period is suspended until the thing itself emerges." This 
 description is especially applicable to the " general and par- 
 ticular " type of sentence ; but it holds good, in a measure, 
 wherever the antecedent clause is felt to be mainly incidental and 
 preparatory to the more important statement contained in the 
 CW0-T6 clause.^ Blass' dictum, ^^ the more preparation, the more the 
 concluding sentence stands out,"^ finds an appropriate applica- 
 tion here. 
 
 Two other passages in Blass may be referred to for their general 
 bearing on this subject — what he says ^ of the " separating " effect 
 of the correlative in general as an important factor in the division 
 of the oratorical period into suitable cola; and his observation, 
 from another point of view, that " if the sentences are long, the 
 period is the more oratorical the closer the connection and the 
 stronger the dependence.'^ ^ For a more particular interpretation, 
 on the part of the same critic, of the rhetorical effect of the axrre 
 correlative construction, cf. his analysis of the prooemmm of the 
 3rd Philippic.^ 
 
 ^The four passages from Demosthenes cited by Dissen in the section (pp. lv- 
 LVi. ) which he devotes to ofir6i)s-&aTe as a distinct form of period — De Cor, 204 ; 
 Androt. 74; Meid. 114 ; De Cor. 33 — are worthy of close study ; as are also three 
 others, cited in other connections, in which the effect of the correlative consecu- 
 tive sentence elicits special comment — Meid. 61 (p. 44), Meid. 215 (p. 64); De 
 Chers. 69 (p. 68). In all, I have counted no less than 23 instances of this con- 
 struction in the model periods from Demosthenes which Dissen introduces for 
 purposes of illustration. 
 
 »iii. p. 152. 'ill. p. 118. '•m, p. 146. ^iii. pp. 152-3. 
 
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