OF THE
University of California.
OIRT OK
WctWaaX) it Cr-fVfV ^AAX) UvuVT'.
niTE AS AN INDEX OF STYLE
IN THE ORATORS.
A DISSERTATION
PRESENTED TO THE BOARD OF UNIVERSITY STUDIES OF
THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY FOR THE
DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY,
JUNE, 1898,
BY
WILLIAM ALEXANDER ECKELS.
BALTIMORE:
JOHN MURPHY COMPANY.
X901.
/■<
CONTENTS,
Page.
Purpose and Scope 6
Comparative Value of Tests:
1. Average Occurrence. , 7
2. Moods 8
3. Correlation 9
"CiffT^ IN Isocrates:
Comparison of Usage
(1) with that of other orators 13
(2) indifferent classes of orations 18
(3) in different orations of same class 21
(4) in different parts of same oration 33
Subdivisions
(1) of Non-correlative type 86
(2) of Correlative type 39
Equivalents 44
Moods 55
"no-Tc IN Demosthenes ♦ 67
PREFATORY NOTE.
The writer's obligations to Professor Gildersleeve in connection
with the present work appear on many pages of it. It only
remains here to acknowledge the far deeper debt for inspiration
and illumination along many lines of Greek studies incurred
during a rather unusually long period of intercourse as teacher
and student. He also takes this opportunity to express his thanks
to Professor Minton Warren, late head of the Latin department
at Johns Hopkins, for much patient and helpful guidance in the
methods of philological interpretation and research.
Miami University, Oxford, Ohio,
September 19, 1901.
^nSTE AS AN INDEX OF STYLE IN THE
ORATORS.
General Purpose.
The purpose of the present work is to examine the use of
wo-re in the Attic orators with reference to stylistic effect. The
historical development of the construction and the syntactical
phenomena which it exhibits have been fully set forth in such
studies as Seume, De Sententiis Consecutivis GraeciSy and Gilder-
sleeve's article on the Consecutive Sentence in Greek, A. J. P. vii.
pp. 160-175. Without meaning to press unduly the distinction
between syntax and style, or to deny that all syntax may be
*^ made available for the appreciation of form " (cf. the article just
cited, A.J. P. VII. p. 162), T have confined my attention chiefly
to those features of the usage of wo-re which are most obviously of
stylistic import, endeavoring to ascertain what, if any, rhetorical
ends the varied handling of the consecutive sentence has been
made to subserve.
Choice of Orators as the Field.
The orators have been chosen as the field for this study, (1)
because they represent the most artistic development of Greek
prose, the most careful attention to the structure of sentences and
periods ; (2) because they show an especial fondness for the axrre
construction; (3) because this department has thus far received
least attention in this connection. Of studies dealing with the
use of wcrre in particular authors or departments, special mention
must be made of the work of Fellmann on the Tragic Poets,
of Wehmann on Herodotus, Thucydides, and Xeuophon, and of
Berdolt on Plato — the latest, and much the most comprehensive
and satisfactory presentation of the details of wo-re usage for a
6 ''flo-re as an Index of Style in the Orators,
m
particular department. Berdolt, in his preface, notes the need
of a similar investigation in the domain of the orators. As to
the second point, the language of Sen me, in his introductory para-
graph {DeSent Cons. Graec, p. 3), is pertinent; "Exerapla autem
tantum ex antiquioribus scriptoribus aiferam, maxime ex oratoribuSy.
qui artissima sententiarum per particulam wo-re coniunctione, in
qua magna est vis oratoria, creberrime utuntur.'^ The special
adaptation of this construction to oratorical purposes it will be
one of the objects of this discussion to make clear. The actual
frequency of its use in this department will appear from the
following tables, in which the average occurrence of wo-re ta
the Teubner page in the several orators is set over against ita
use in the four most important classical prose writers.
Tables of Average Occurrence.
I. II.
Herodotus 17 Antiphon 28
Thucydides 25 Andocides 36
Plato 25 Lysias 95
Xenophon 50 Isocrates 1.00
Isaeus 69
Demosthenes 46
Aeschines 30
It will be noted that all the non-oratorical writers except Xeno-
phon fall below the average of the lowest of the orators. Further^
reference to Berdolt's work, p. 39, shows that the group of
Platonic writings which stand highest in occurrence of coare —
doubling the average use for Plato — includes the Apology, a work
cast in oratorical form, and pieces like the Symposium and
Phaedrus which contain long monologues of a more or less
formal sort and so bear something of the rhetorical stamp.
Origin of the Study.
The impulse to this study was given by Gildersleeve's review
of Wehmann's dissertation, A. J. P. xiv. pp. 240-2. Beginning
with some comments on the varying use of the finite moods and
''XlorTe as an Index of Style in the Orators. 7
infinitive in different authors, and passing on to the consideration
of the use or omission of a preceding correlative with wcrre, the
writer of the review reaches the conclusion that "it is safe to
speak of stylistic effect within the range of axTre" Aiming to
test the correctness of this general proposition by detailed investi-
gation, I naturally followed the lines suggested in the review,
and added to the study of the moods and of correlation some
inquiry into the value of the frequency of occurrence of axrre
in general as an index of style. The result has been to convince
me that this last, as well as the use of moods, is of minor
importance as a stylistic test, while the phenomena of correlation
are of marked significance. A few illustrations may suffice to
indicate the negative character of the results obtained from the
use of these minor tests, and to explain why they are here-
after treated only as incidental and subsidiary to the main
theme — the use of correlation with coare.
Test of Average Occurrence.
The table of average occurrence of wo-re in the orators presented
above is a good illustration of the comparative barrenness of mere
statistics, without close analysis and interpretation. The order
given is chronological; and the "returning curve" presented — the
regular increase and decline in the use of wcrre — is, at first glance,
sufficiently impressive. Yet it is hard to connect these variations
in frequency of use with characteristic differences of style. A
rough generalization might see in the large use of the construction
in Lysias and Isocrates, as compared with its rarity in Antiphon
and Andocides, the sign of an increase in artistic carefulness as
to sentence-structure ; but, from this point of view, how are
we to account for the marked falling-off in the case of a no less
careful artist, Demosthenes? And what shall we say of the
close approximation — almpst co-incidence — as to employment of
coare in Isocrates, the model of the " florid '' style, and Lysias,
the representative of the "genus tenue"? Another illustration
is to be found in a comparison of two speeches of Isocrates — the
Adv. Euthynum and the Helen. Both of these stand high
among the Isocratean works in use of wo-re, but they represent
8 '^Ha-Te as an Index of Style in the Orators,
styles of composition the most diverse. Here, as in the com-
parison between Isocrates and Lysias, the difference of style
of which the *' occurrence " test gives almost no sign is most
accurately reflected in the use or omission of correlation.
If there is anything suggestive in these statistics of average
occurrence, it seems to me to be the marked avoidance of wcrre
in the orators following Lysias and Isocrates, as compared with
the usage of these two authors. We might conceive of a certain
re-action against a use of the particle which had come to be
noted as excessive and approaching a mannerism. Such a view
would receive some support from results noted in the latest
works of Isocrates himself.
Test of Moods.
In speaking of the unreliability of a simple mood-test, I do
not mean to deny the existence of a distinction between mcttc
with the infinitive and with the finite verb. Some measure of
difference doubtless exists, and the use of the moods probably
has still further secrets to yield to a subtle and painstaking
analysis.^ I only wish to record a conviction that the mere
statistics of the moods do not afford any such broad and readily
applicable test of style as do those of correlation. The two sets
of phenomena often show a close relation ; but the meaning which
they hold in common can generally be expressed much more
accurately in terms of correlative and non-correlative than in
those of finite verb and infinitive. An illustration may be had by
comparing the usage of Isocrates and Lysias as to moods. Lysias
shows finite verb to infinitive as 2.07 : 1 ; Isocrates, as 1.5 : 1.
This is not a very striking difference, to begin with. So far
as it has significance for our purpose, it speaks, I think, for the
freer, less closely-connected structure of Lysias as compared with
Isocrates; but this is more exactly measured by the ratio of
correlative to non-correlative forms. For reasons which will
be developed later on, the finite mood is the favorite form with
non-correlative wo-re; hence we might say that it is because of
* Cf. especially the observations on the moods in Gildersleeve's article, A J P
VII. pp. 170-3.
" Clare as an Index of Style in the Orators. 9
his larger use of non-correlatives that Lysias shows a preference
for the finite verb. So, in an examination of the several orations
of Isocrates, I have found that the diiference in moods sometimes
tells a part of the same story of which the difference as to
correlation tells practically the whole.
Allowing that the use as to moods and that as to correlation
often run together, we seem to be justified in giving greater
prominence to the latter as a stylistic test. In such a study,
we are dealing with choice of forms ; and the question of use or
neglect of the correlative is a prior one to that of mood — i. 6.,
when the mood comes to be chosen the correlative has already
been used or rejected, so that the mood is more likely to be
influenced by the usage as to correlation than the latter by the
mood.
Again, the value of the mood as a stylistic test is diminished
by the existence of certain considerations which, important as
they are from the strictly syntactical standpoint, may be fairly
called extra-stylistic. I refer especially to the rules, almost
inviolable for the orators, which require the infinitive in certain
connections — with preceding negatives, questions, conditions, and
the like.^ Choice of mood being here excluded, these cases of
cocTTe, which make up a considerable group, are in a measure
excluded from the scope of our inquiry. I hope to add, at the
end of the present work, some observations on the use of the
moods, and to point out some of the limitations under which
I conceive the study of their use can be more profitably pursued.
Test of Correlation.
(a) Its Value in General,
The general considerations which tend to make the use of coa-re
correlative a norm of style are sufficiently indicated in the review
of Wehmann (A. J. P. xiv. pp. 240-2) to which I have already
referred.^ The first lies in the responsive effect of correlation
1 Cf. Seume, p. 49, Gildersleeve, Cons. Sent., A. J. P. vii. p. 173.
*I subjoin some extracts from this review, which should be read entire, as
giving the actual starting-point of this investigation : " Sxttc occupies a peculiar
position among the correlative sentences — nay, among the dependent sentences.
10 "Ho-Te as an Index of Style in the Orators.
generally. "A certain deliberateness, a certain irepL^oXrj, attaches
to any wedded pair of correlatives." But further, the author
points out the peculiar nature of the wcrre sentence in not allow-
ing interchange of position between the principal and subordinate
members.^ This absence of inversion excludes the element of
"surprise," of " interjectional effect," which is possible in other
correlative sentences, and makes the sentence with coo-re and a
correlative " necessarily reflective, necessarily sedate." The ele-
ment, then, of orderly progression of thought, added to that of
responsion and balance inherent in the use of a correlative, gives
that " consequentiality " which Gildersleeve attributes to the form
of sentence which we are considering. The contrast between this
and the form in which tendency — inherent or actualized — is added
as an afterthought, without the anticipating correlative, is that to
which I desire to direct attention in the following pages. The
questions of finite or infinitive with the latter type and of the
more or less close connection of the coo-re clause as indicated in
our texts by the arbitrary device of punctuation, I prefer to leave
out of sight for the present. The contrast between the C. and
N. C. types may be fairly illustrated by placing such a sentence
as Isoc. Hel. 37 : Ovrw yap vo/jbiiii(o<; /cal Ka\(b<; Bimkcl rrjv ttoXlv
uxTT en Kol vvv l')(yo(; 7979 eKeivov 7rpa6T7)To<; iv to2<^ rjOecriv '^/jlwv
The protasis of the conditional sentence may follow. There is nothing strange in
that. The final clause may precede. That liberty comes in with the dramatic
poets. We may say '6s — ovtos as well as ovtos — '6s, '6crov — tootovtov as well as
Toaovrov — '6(tov\ but a^trre must always follow, must always be what its name
implies — consecutive, and when the correlative is expressed there can be no
surprises, no bouleversements. It is, therefore, necessarily reflective, necessarily
sedate. It is perforce excluded from the sphere of liveliness, of yopy6T'i]s. Of
course, a certain deliberateness, a certain irepi^oK-i] attaches to any wedded pair
of correlatives, but if the relative precedes the demonstrative, there is room for
an interjectional effiect. Not so with o'vtoos — (loaTe, not so with toctovtov — So-re.
This effect of the correlative in general and of &(TTe in particular was distinctly
recognized by the ancient rhetoricians. ... At all events, the consequentiality,
as one might render the inpi^oX-l] of the consecutive sentence, is a point not to
be overlooked in future treatises on ibare, and the subject is one that deserves
to be pursued."
' The very rare examples of a So-re clause preceding are interesting as showing
how completely the final conception had come to prevail in these cases. The
equation lixm = 'Iva can alone account for the inversion. Of course there is no
such instance of inversion where a correlative is used.
"Xlo-re as an Index of Style in the
KaTaX€\€l4>6aL .... over against one like Ad Nic. 49 : Ot he
Tov<; fj,vOov(; eh dy(ova<i koX Trpd^ec^; KareaTrjaav coare /irj fxovov
aKovcTTov^ dWd kol 6eaTov<; yeveaOai or Adv. Euth. 5 : NtVta?
Toivvv lEivOvvov ifkelov /nev e^et, tjttov Be Bvvarac Xeyecv oxtt ovk
ecTi 8c ore av eTrrjpOr) dBiKco^ eV ^vdvvovv eXOelv.
(6) Its Value in the Orators.
The observations recorded above by no means exhaust the
stylistic effects of which the construction of wo-re with a correla-
tive is capable, but they are sufficient to show that it does have a
certain rhetorical coloring, and is especially adapted to the more
formal kinds of discourse.^ Hence we should expect to find it
flourish in that group of writers whom we call rhetorical in the
stricter sense — the orators. A glance at the statistics justifies this
expectation. The tables here presented show the ratio of C. to
N. C. coare in the principal classical writers preceding and con-
temporary with the orators, over against that in the first seven
orators of the canon. The figures for the non-oratorical writers
are taken from Berdolt, who is the first scholar, so far as I know,
to present any comprehensive statistics as to correlation.
Tables Showing Eatio of C. : N. C.
II.
C. N. C. C. N. C.
Aeschines 1
Sophocles 1
Euripides 1
Herodotus 1
Thucydides 1
Aristophanes 1
Plato 1
6 Antiphon 1:2.73
5 Andocides 1:1.4
4.5 Lysias 1:1.17
2.22 Isocrates 2.21 : 1
11 Isaeus 1:1.51
10 Demosthenes 1.89 : 1
3.9 Aeschines 1.48:1
Without stopping to comment on the interesting features presented
by the first table I note (1) that the variations shown are those of
^ Of. the review just quoted on the character of the few passages which show
&<m correlative in Aristophanes.
12 ''n<7Te as an Index of Style in the Orators.
the department and the individual rather than of chronological
order (except, perhaps, in the case of the tragic poets) ; (2) and
especially, that of the non -oratorical writers, Herodotus alone
shows a fondness for C. surpassing that of the lowest on the list of
the orators, Antiphon, and even here the gain in correlation is com-
paratively slight.^ No other writer of the first group approaches
Herodotus in inclination towards the C. ; and the correlative
use of wcrre is seen to be a pre-eminently oratorical construction.^
Choice of Isocrates for Study.
Since it is impossible, in the compass of the present work, to
present a detailed study of Mare usage for all the orators, it
becomes necessary to select one or two for closer examination in
order to illustrate the general method. I have chosen Isocrates
as a centre. To this professional rhetorician, this painstaking
student of the technique of composition, we look especially for
the conscious employment of rhetorical effects.
Other considerations, of a practical sort, commend him for our
purpose. The volume of his work is sufficiently great — Demos-
thenes alone surpasses him in this — and the average length of the
several orations is greater than in most of the orators. His
work, too, represents a greater variety of departments of oratory
than that of any of the others.
After a somewhat minute study of the various phases of the
subject based on Isocrates, I hope to add some results gathered
from Demosthenes, whose importance in this connection readily
suggests itself.
^ It should be noted that Berdolt excludes from consideration seven cases of
" coalesced " ovtus oJtrre with finite verb in Herodotus. On this phenomenon,
cf. Berdolt, pp. 22-3, 92, Seume, pp. 34-36, and Wehmann, p. 14. It forms an
intermediate stage between the C. and N. C. types ; but I incline, on the whole,
to class it as C. If we add these examples to the C. side in Herodotus, the ratio
stands 1 : 1.9 — i. e., his advance over Antiphon is increased, but he still keeps
his relative position, between Antiphon and Andocides.
* I have, unfortunately, no complete statistics for Xenophon. From Wehmann's
lists one can gather only that, in clauses with finite verb, he uses C. : N. C. : : 1 : 4.6&.
Of course, with the finite verb, a preponderance of N. C. is the rule. Still, I
see no reason to anticipate that Xenophon will be found to surpass Herodotus in
relative frequency of the C. type.
''Qa-re as an Index of Style in the Ch'ators, 13
PLAN OF STUDY FOR ISOCRATES.
The plan proposed is to compare Isocrates's use of wo-re (1)
with that of the other orators; (2) in the different classes or
departments of his work ; (3) in different speeches of the same
class; (4) in different parts of the same speech. This division
aims to bring out the stylistic peculiarities both of the individual
and the department.
The usage as to correlation is, as has been said, the main matter
of consideration. In treating of it, in this part of the work, C.
and N. C. are treated as two simple opposed types. The finer
shades of stylistic difference involved in the handling of each of
these — the sub-divisions of C. and N. C. respectively which seem
significant for our purpose — will, for the sake of clearness, be
reserved for subsequent treatment.
(1) COMPAEISON OF IsOCRATES WITH OTHER OrATOES.
The data for a comparison of the use of wo-re in the several
orators, with reference to correlation, are to be found in the table
submitted above (p. 11). That the high-water mark of preference
for the C. type is reached in Isocrates will not surprise us.
Dignity of tone and impressiveness of manner, a love of respon-
sion and balance and of a certain deliberate, "processional"
movement, are qualities which have been noted in him by all
the critics from Dionysius down.^ To the production of these
effects the figure of vTroaraai^ in general — heightening the effect
of a statement by amplification and interpretation in the second
member — and particularly that form of it exhibited in the
correlative consecutive construction, is especially favorable. The
stately flow of the sentence in which the ouro)? sights its answer-
ing coare from afar, and the speaker is seen to have the whole
complex thought firmly in hand from the beginning, commends
itself to Isocrates, as against the form in which tendency or
consequence is loosely added as an afterthought — whether in the
pure "detached" form, with finite verb, or with the slight
' Cf. D. of H., De Scriptt. Vett. Cens., V. 2, koX tto/xitikSs ^(tti, etc.
14 ''X2o-T€ as an Index of Style in the Orators.
grammatical nexus involved in the use of the infinitive. It is
one of the chirf characteristics of the " smooth " or " florid "
harmony of which Isocrates is the chosen representative, that it
aims at having "clause closely knitted to clause, and every
sentence rounded to a period ; " ^ and the natural connection between
Isocrates's fondness for wcrre correlative and for periodic structure
has been pointed out.^
Comparing now the usage of Isocrates with that of the other
orators, one is at first tempted to press the notion of a chronological
development in the direction of correlation. But we need to
note (1) that the whole period represented by the activity of
these seven orators is comparatively short — the long life-time
of Isocrates almost binds it into a unity ; (2) that the first four
on the list, who show the development in regular sequence, are
practically contemporaries, while in the case of those following
Isocrates — where the difference in time become more substantial —
the chronological order is decidedly interrupted. We are thrown
back for the significance of these figures on the question of
individual difference of style; and here, I think, the test is
amply approved.
Antiphon.
The most striking difference shown by the figures is that
between Isocrates and Antiphon. We need only to recall
Dionysius's statement that " the * smooth ' or * florid ' style is
essentially the opposite of the austere," and that Antiphon is
the pre-eminent representative of the latter among the orators.
The austere style " does not aim at composing periods, or round-
ing sentences." "Antiphon," says Jebb, "was more periodic
than any one who had preceded," but " still far from the ease
of Lysias or the smooth completeness of Isocrates." In fact,
while the contrast between Antiphon and Isocrates is the most
striking feature of the table, the interval between Antiphon and
his immediate successors in this regard is sufficient to place him,
1 Of. D. of H., De Comp. Verb., c. 22-24.
' Gildersleeve, A. J. P. VII. 171 — "the two Ioutus — Sxrrel make famous points
d'appui for the construction of a long period, as every reader of Isocrates knows."
'^ Clare as an Index of Style in the Orators. 15
as it were, in a class by himself. This falls in well with another
observation of Jebb's — that Antiphon's priority in the canon is
due not simply to his being born a few years earlier than any
of the rest, but that " a broad difference separates him from those
who were nearly his contemporaries .... from Andocides and
Lysias, as well as from Demosthenes and Hyperides.'' Not only
the ratio of C. and N. C, but the character of the examples under
each type, differentiates him from his successors.^
Andocides.
Andocides, the "gentleman orator," the "amateur" among
these artists of rhetorical discourse, is perhaps less significant
for our purpose, in view of the lack of consciousness and of a
definite method generally attributed to him. He stands, as to
ratio of C. to N. C, between Antiphon and Lysias, but much
nearer the latter than the former. Jebb says that he composes
" in a far less periodic style than Thucydides, Antiphon, or
Lysias ; " but I question whether the comparison with Antiphon
will hold, so far, at least, as periodic writing in the modern
sense — suspension of sense and " rounding " within the single
sentence — is concerned. Further, it may be noted that with
respect to his handling of the coo-re sentence inside the two types
which we have been comparing, he seems fairly entitled to his
intermediate position. His use of C. Mo-re is not essentially
different from that of Lysias and the later forensic orators ;
while in the character of the sentences which make up the
^ One curious fact in Antiphon's use of oScre seems to deserve notice. Of the
six examples of &(rre which he exhibits, three occur in the Tetralogies ; and all
these are of a type not elsewhere represented in his works — the formula els
Tovro ^Keiv &(rT€ with the indicative. Further, these three are the only in-
stances of the S!)<TT€ sentence in the Tetralogies. Schierlinger {Die Unterordnende
Satzverbindung bei dem Bedner Antiphon) notes this latter fact, but not the
former — the non-use of the formula in the orations proper. One may still,
perhaps, accept his judgment that the divergence in &(rre usage between the
Tetralogies and the orations is not a circumstance of sufficient weight to count
against the genuineness of the former ; but I should incline to give it a place if
any considerable number of other stylistic peculiarities could be brought to
accompany it. At least it is not amiss to note, from the standpoint of our
inquiry, that in the orations proper the ratio of C. to N. C. is less than 1 : 5.
16 "flo-T6 as an Index of Style in the Orators.
N. C. type, he shows a much closer affinity with the "old-
fashioned '^ school of Antiphon and Thucydides.^
Lysias.
Lysias, in respect to relative use of C. and N. C, stands almost
exactly half-way between Antiphon and Isocrates. His relation
to the former has already been pointed out. As to the line that
separates him from Isocrates little more is needed than to call
attention to the freer and more varied character of his composi-
tion. He did not lack the power to construct an effective period ;
but the whole aim of his art — especially his ethopoeia — forbade his
adherence to a constantly periodic style like that of Isocrates.
To quote Jebb again (ii. p. 62), he "knew how to brace or
relax his frame-work," while Isocrates "must always round his
sentence." The admixture of Xeft? elpofjuevr) with periodic struc-
ture, increasing as the speech approaches the purely private
character, would seem sufficient to explain the lower proportion
of C. to N. C, as compared with Isocrates. To appreciate his
varied employment of axrre a comparison of different orations
would be necessary.^
Isaeus.
The reaction in the direction of the earlier N. C. tendency seen
in Isaeus, when compared with Lysias, is not very strongly
marked, but still perceptible. In explanation of it, we may
^ I cannot forbear mentioning; the results gathered from the spurious oration
Against Alcibiades, associated with the name of Andocides, as illustrating the
difference between his style and that of Isocrates and, incidentally, the possible
value of Sjo-tc as a test of genuineness. It shows C. : N. C. : : 2.6 : 1, over against
1 : 1.4 in the genuine Andocides. This close approach to the Isocratean school,
both in ratio of C. and N. C. and in the character of the So-re sentences generally,
is a remarkable confirmation of Jebb's statement that this oration " is far more
artificial than anything by Andocides which we possess ; it approaches, indeed,
more nearly to the style of Isocrates."
*Here again, an oration generally regarded as spurious is suggestive. Or.
20 — Pro Polystrato — goes beyond even the wide range of Lysias in its remark-
able preponderance of N. C. (C. 1 : N. C. 11). Cf. Jebb's comments, i. p. 219,
on its " absence of art," " long strings of loosely-joined clauses," etc.
X2(7T6 as an Index of Style in the Orators, 17
adduce the somewhat greater negligence as to form in this most
practical of the orators. More specifically, I would emphasize
the predominant place given to strict argument in the speeches
of Isaeus. Dionysius — de Isaeo^ c. 16 — notes how Isaeus usually
essays complete logical proof, while Lysias rarely goes beyond the
rhetorical syllogism. This large use of formal argumentation
accounts chiefly, I think, for the gain of the N. C. type in Isaeus ;
for his list of N. C. wcrre's is made up mainly of a particular
variety of the type which, as we shall see later, belongs to the
domain of strict argument.^
Demosthenes and Aeschines,
Demosthenes, again, shows a reversion to something like the
usage of Isocrates in his marked preference for correlation. A
somewhat detailed discussion of his use of Mcrre in its bearings
upon style is given at the end of this work.
The importance of Aeschines for this study is diminished by the
considerations referred to in the case of Andocides — he, too, is a
manner of " amateur." It is at least not surprising to find that
the test places him in close proximity to his great rival, in connec-
tion with whose work the special features of his use of coare usage
could best be examined.
This comparison of the orators is necessarily sketchy and
incomplete. A presentation of the finer differences in use of
a)a-T6 exhibited under the C. and N. C. heads respectively is post-
poned until a general survey of the types in Isocrates has been
made. The general outline just given suffices, I think, to show
the value of the test; the pages that immediately follow may
suggest some methods by which it may be applied more closely to
the style of the several orators.
^ Jebb's comment on the " running " style in Isaeus, and his archaic use of t€
in particular, recalls, in view of his teijdency to &(rT€ N. C, Gildersleeve's
parallel between the "after-thought re" and the "after-thought &(rre"
(A. J. P. XIV, 241).
18 ''il(TT6 as an Index of Style in the Orators.
(2) Comparison of Different Classes.
We are now prepared to consider especially the use of wo-re
in Isocrates ; and it is proposed first to compare the relative
frequency of the C. and N. C. types in the several classes, or
departments, into which his works may be divided.
There is an advantage, in an inquiry like the present, in em-
ploying the grouping of another ; it precludes the possibility of
the investigator's twisting the classification, with an eye to his
own results, in the interest of any particular theory. I have
chosen to follow that of Jebb. It is based, he says, not on the
accident of form, but on subject-matter. I have ventured to
substitute the more convenient term " Philosophical " in the case
of those professional pamphlets which Jebb classes as " Essays on
Education." His '^Political'' class does not correspond exactly
to the " Deliberative " of Demosthenes, but it approaches nearest it,
dealing chiefly with large public questions and aiming, ostensibly
at least, at persuasion to some course of action. His " Hortatory ''
class includes those didactic compositions which aim at giving
general advice concerning the conduct of life. The terms " Epi-
deictic" and ^'Forensic'' need no explanation.
Taken in the order of preference for the correlative, the classes
stand thus : 1 . Epideictic ; 2. Philosophical (Essays on Educa-
tion); 3. Political; 4. Forensic; 5. Hortatory. The Epideictic
is easily first — C. 3.68 : N. C. 1 ; the Philosophical and Political
stand close together — 2.35 : 1, 2.25 : 1, as do the Forensic and
Hortatory — 1.54:1, 1.10:1. It will be noted that there is no
class in which the N. C. predominates ; and in the first three
classes (see table of separate orations, given below) there is no
single work in which the C. type does not prevail. The last two
show almost an equal number of works in which C. and N. C.
respectively predominate.
Assuming that the correlative use of Mcrre goes with a dignified,
elaborate, and consciously rhetorical style, and especially with a
marked preference for periodic structure, and the N. C. with the
opposite of this, the order of classes here presented is much what
we should expect. The Epideictic is the natural home of the
'flare as an Index of Style in the
first-mentioned kind of writing (on the "essentially epideictic
character" of uniformly periodic composition, cf. Cic. Or. ^07y
Volkmann, Rhetorik, p. 435), while the Political writings of
Isocrates — who took no actual part in the contests of the state —
have naturally much of the epideictic character ; so also the two
treatises on education, which serve not only as an " apologia pro
vita sua," but as specimens of that rhetorical art whose usefulness
they aim to vindicate. Especially is this true of the fragment
" Contra Sophistas," which the ancient rhetoriciaus classed with
the encomia. The Hortatory and Forensic classes represent a
tendency the opposite of epideictic. In addition to the defini-
tions of Dionysius, we have the testimony of Isocrates himself
(Panath. 1) to the nature of the 761/09 BiKavcKov — "speeches seem-
ing to have been spoken simply, and not partaking of fcojjL-ylroTrjfiJ*
Clearness and closeness of argument are sought at the expense
of ornament and the graces of rhetoric. So, too, the brevity and
sententiousness of hortatory discourse are unfriendly to elaborate
periods and correlative structure.
This "department" test, which represents the influence of the
sphere and eliminates the factors of time and individual usage —
the latter often involving an element of mere caprice — is especially
interesting in the case of a conscious artist like Isocrates, who
recognized clearly, as utterances here and there throughout his
works show, the propriety of different styles of writing for different
sorts of themes, and the existence of clearly- marked divisions of
oratory. The Epideictic — using the term here not in the narrower
sense of mere sophistic display, but in that of an attempt to dignify
and embellish a worthy theme by appropriate ornament — he him-
self recognizes as peculiarly his own province, and the great body
of his work is strongly tinged with it ; but he knew how to repress
the tendency in departments to which it was alien. A comparison
of the forensic work of Isocrates with that of Lysias affords an
excellent illustration of the combined influence of the department
and the individual. The former influence works to bring down
the ratio of correlation from that of Isocrates in general (1.54 : 1
against 2.21 :1); but the latter keeps it from descending to the
standard of Lysias, whose work may be treated as practically all
20 '^flcTTe as an Index of Style in the Orators,
forensic (1.54 : 1 against 1 : 1.17). The resultant of the two forces
is something almost exactly intermediate.
At first glance, the influence of department in the results before
us might seem to be complicated with that of time, since the two
groups which show a marked falling-off in correlation are both
admittedly early. But an examination of the list of separate ora-
tions given below shows that particular works of the same period,
both within and without these classes, exhibit a decidedly high use
of the C. type ; and further, in the case of the exceptional works
within these classes the divergence in use is directly explicable by
a mingling of departments. In general, I cannot see that the
variation in the use of Sare has much to do with chronological
development — at least, so far as the relations of C. and N. C.
are concerned — although the unusually long literary career of
Isocrates would seem to give excellent opportunity for such a
development. I have recorded below one or two instances in
which the average ocGU7rence of the particle is noticeably lower in
very late work.^
^In associating a relatively large use of C. cio-re with Epideictic discourse,
we must, of course, bear in mind the latitude of the term. The oratory of
" display " shows very different stylistic tendencies in different quarters and at
different periods. The manner of ornament affected by one school is lightly
esteemed by another. The common end — to please and dazzle, rather than to
teach and persuade — alone unites them. It would be interesting to apply our
test to the work of the school of Gorgias with its tendency to short and simply-
constructed sentences. Unfortunately the materials at hand are too slight.
Taking the brief specimens mentioned by Belling (De Periodorum Antiphonte-
arum Symmetria, p. 19) — the fragment of an Epitaphios by Gorgias, the later
Palamedes and Helen attributed to him, the 'EpwriKSs of Socrates in Plato's
Phaedrus, and Agathon's oration in the Symposium, — I have noted that, in the
small group of Acre's presented, the N. C. type predominates.
It is the Epideictic that prevails from the time of Lysias and Isocrates on,
which delights in full, flowing sentences and to which Cicero assigns the periodic
structure as a peculiar possession, with which we are dealing here. I have not
as yet collected this material and tested it by use of SxTre. But one instance may
be noted : the Menexenus ascribed to Plato, an Epitaphios, shows a considerably
higher average occurrence than any genuine Platonic work, and a ratio of
C. : N. C. of 1 : 1.4, as against 1:4 for the genuine Platonic works as a whole.
One other specimen will be considered under the head of Demosthenes.
'I1<7T6 as an Index of Style in the Orators, 21
(3) Comparison of Separate Orations.
The consistent variation in the use of wcrre in the several depart-
ments being fairly established, it is proposed to apply the test to
the individual speeches within each department. We cannot, of
course, expect the same degree of consistency in the case of every
single work ; but we are naturally led to inquire, when we find a
piece departing widely in its use of wcrre from the normal usage
of its class, whether it is abnormal in other respects — whether it
is, or is not, a first rate representative of that class.
The variation may be due to a general difference of style or
subject-matter, running all through the texture of the piece ; or it
may be due to composite structure — ^. e., a piece which is assigned
to one department of writing may contain considerable strata of
material belonging properly to another class. Aside from these,
there may be special circumstances which suggest a natural and
reasonable explanation.
Variation of the sort first described is, of course, a subtle and
somewhat elusive feature ; and I have, as a rule, adduced it in
explanation of the cocrre usage only in the case of works which
have been noted by other investigators as evident departures from
type. This general divergence in style, tone, or subject may, of
course, be combined with " composite structure," and I have not
undertaken to keep the two sharply apart. Where the latter
-exists in any marked degree, I shall call attention to it, assuming^
for the present, in the light of our comparison of departments,
that the results as to axrre usage for the whole work are affected
by this introduction of alien elements. In the next section I hope
to show, by analysis of several orations, that the use of coo-re does
actually show material difference in these different portions of the
works in question.
This study of individual orations will naturally yield less
striking results than are obtained in the broader field of the
departments. U it can be shown, on a fair examination; that the
use of wcrre varies with a tolerable degree of uniformity according
to the character of the speech, enough will have been accomplished
for the purpose.
2
22 ''fl(TT6 as an Index of Style in the Orators,
The reader need hardly be reminded that the statistics vary
in impressiveness with the length of the oration. Fortunately^
Isocrates presents few examples of very short speeches, such a;^
abound, e. g., in Lysias. That this matter of length may have
due weight, I have included in the table herewith submitted a
statement of the number of Teubner pages, actual text, in each
oration. This table shows the average occurrence of wa-re and
number of C. and N. C. examples respectively for each oration,
with the average occurrence and the ratio of C. and N. C. for
each class. The classes are arranged in order of their preference
for the C, and the orations in each class on the same principle.
Isoerates,
PAGES. OCCURRENCE. ^' ^' ^'
1. Epideidic. no. average
-*^ PAGES. OCCURRENC
Helena 16 .. 1.19 16: 2
Evagoras 19 . . 1.70 26 : 7
Busiris llj.. 1.13 10: 3
Panathenaicus 67i. . .59 . 29 : 10
Av. occ.
for class.
.89
2.
Philosophical.
De Permutatione. . .
751..
.76
Cont. Sophistas
6 ..
1.50
Av. occ.
for class.
.81
3.
Political.
Ratio for class, 3.68 : 1
.76 41:17
6: 3
Ratio for class, 2.35
Areopagiticus ^ 9 J .
Panegyricus 46 .
De Pace 34 .
Plataicus 14 .
Philii)pus 37 .
Archidamus 26 J.
1.08
17 : 4
1.17
39 :13
1.09
27 : 10
1.07
10 : 5
1.03
24 : 14
1.09 .
16 : 13
Av. occ. for class, 1.08 Ratio for class, 2.25 : 1
''Hcrre as an Index of Style in the Orators,
23
4. Forensic,
NO
PAGES.
AVERAGE
OCCURRENCE.
De Bigis 12 .
Trapeziticus 15 .
Aegineticus 12 J.
Adv. Callimachum . 15 J .
Cont. Lochitem. ... 5 .
Adv. Euthynum. . . 4J.
1.83.
.93
2.00,
1.16
1.00
3.33
Av. occ. for class, 1.52
6. Hortatory.
Nicocles 15J. .
Ad Demonicum. ... 12 . .
AdNicoclem 12J..
.77,
.17
.56
18:
4
11:
3
J7:
8
9:
9
2:
3
3:
12
.54:
1
8:
4
1 :
1
2:
5
Av. occ. for class, .52 Ratio for class, 1.10 : 1
1. Epibeictic Orations.
Helena (C.IQ:^, a 2).
The Helen represents the extreme of preference for wo-re C.
Its ratio is not only far higher than that of any other representa-
tive of the Epideictic class, but almost double that of any other
Isocratean work. Of its examples, all but two are of the C. type ;
and of the two N. C, one is of the final type, in which correlation
is excluded, leaving but one in which the C. was at all possible
and was not employed.
That the Helen also represents the most perfect development
of Isocrates' elaborately "epideictic" manner will, I think, be
admitted. Blass calls it " a show-piece of rhetorical art — nothing
more." Jebb notes the fact that it is pure encomium, not mixed
with apology, like the Busiris, and that the congenial character of
the theme gives it more freedom and glow. Save for the polemic
introduction, it is almost pure narrative, and the panegyrist gives
his genius full swing, in a succession of long sentences and flowing
periods of the most ornate type. In a number of the examples
the correlative word stands at the head of the main clause, adding
to the ordinary responsive effect of correlation that of balance in
position.
24 "Ha-re as an Index of Style in the Orators,
That the average occurrence of coa-re does not rise higher is
partly due to the separate character of the introduction which, in
three pages, furnishes but one example, making its average occur-
rence .33 as against 1.44 for the encomium proper. On the less
ornate style of the foi:mer, cf. Blass.^
Evagoras (C. 26 : N. C. 7).
The Evagoras, an excellent specimen of eulogistic discourse,
need not detain us long. In rhetorical finish it compares favor-
ably with the Helen. As to ratio of C. to N. C, it represents the
norm of the epideictic class. The actual use of the C. type is
very high. In the body of the work, the encomium proper, the
author fairly revels in the construction.
That the ratio of C. to N. C. is not higher is due, I think, to
the difference of theme. Eulogizing a modern, a man of his own
time, the writer condescends to reason, to point out the bearing
of the facts narrated on his thesis — the greatness of Evagoras.
Hence a sprinkling of that form of N. C. ware which is used in
drawing inferences. In the Helen, moving in the region of the
myths, where the most exaggerated praise was already conceded,
there was the less occasion for this inferential use of the particle.
The difference, then, is rather one of the spirit and purpose of the
work than strictly stylistic.
Here, again, the average occurrence in the introduction and
conclusion is small — less than one to two pages; while in the
panegyric portion it is very large — over two to the page.
Budris (C. 10 : N. C. 3). '
The Busiris is rather an essay in literary criticism than true
encomium, the eulogy on Busiris being introduced incidentally.
The greater part of the work is taken up with pointing out the
faults of method and errors of statement of a brother artist who
had handled the theme, I cite a few points from Blass' charac-
teristic.^ " In comparison with the Helen, it is less sophistic " —
^Die Attische Beredsamkeit, ii, p. 247.
nbid., p. 250.
''flcTTe as an Index of Style in the Orators, 25
" less brilliant, more composed and matured " — *' the form is, on the
whole, plainer/'
That it attains to the proportion of C. which it exhibits — a little
below the norm of the class — is due to the encomium proper.
The piece affords an excellent illustration of the method of an-
alysis, and I reserve it for further consideration under that head.
Panathenaicus (C. 29 : N. C. 10).
That the Panathenaicus should stand at the opposite extreme
of the Epideictic class from the Helen is fully in keeping with
the inherent difference in the style of the works. The strictures
of Blass — e. g., that the Panathenaicus is " less artistic than the
earlier works '^ — " lacks final polishing " — " is careless in sentence-
structure," etc. — have been, in substance, anticipated by the author
himself, who expresses a fear (§ 4) that the work may appear
fiaXaK(OTepo<; in comparison with its predecessors, and alleges the
plea of advanced age and physical infirmity. In view of these
differences, the surprise is rather that it shows a proportion of
C. cocrre so nearly approaching that of the Evagoras and Busiris.
The work falls naturally into three quite distinct blocks ; and an
analysis of it well supports the conception of the stylistic value
of Mare advanced in this work.
The introduction (1-38) is taken up with a vindication of the
author's pursuits and an exposition of his theory of culture; the
panegyric on Athens (39-198) forms not much over half of the
whole work; the supplement is personal narrative and explana-
tion. The introduction is much more formal, and shows fuller
working out, than the conclusion. The latter was written after
the three years' interruption caused by illness, and shows traces
of the circumstances attending its origin. It is rambling, almost
conversational, in its negligence, containing, in fact, a good deal
of reported conversation.
The introduction shows a ratio of C. to N. C. of 3 : 1 ; the
panegyric proper, of 3.8 : I ; the conclusion, of 1 : 1.
Upon the remarkably low avei^age occurrence of coare in the
Panathenaicus I am not prepared to generalize ; I only note the
fact that in this respect it stands among the lowest of all the
26 "O^are as an Index of Style in the Orators.
Isocratean works — only two hortatory discourses falling below
it — and that its average use is only half that of the next higher
epideictic oration. The fact that it is the latest of all Isocrates'
writings — separated by intervals of from 25 to 50 years from
the other epideictic speeches — might lend some color to the theory
of a later conscious avoidance of the particle, such as suggests
itself in the case of the orators following Isocrates ; but I do not
find much to support this view. The phenomenon is chiefly
interesting in view of somewhat similar results noted in con-
nection with the oration next considered.
2. Philosophical.
De Permutatione (0. 41 : N. C. 18).
A parallel might easily be set up between the speech On the
Antidosis and the Panathenaicus. The former is the longest, as
the latter is next to the longest, of the works of Isocrates. Both
were written near the close of the author^s career; and in both
he apologizes, in almost the same words, for his lack of vigor and
deprecates comparison with his earlier works. Now the Antidosis
falls to one-half the average occurrence of the other member of its
class — the fragment Contra Sophistas — just as the Panathenaicus
does with respect to the epideictic oration standing next above it,
and in both instances the later work is separated from the earlier by
a long interval of time. Still there are orations of almost equally
late date in the other classes which show the normal occurrence ;
and it must be remembered that the Contra Sophistas^ with which
the Antidosis is here compared, is a mere fragment. On the
whole, I do not see that much can be made out of the coincidence
in this respect between the Antidosis and the Panathenaicus,
The Antidosis does not show any marked contrast in ratio of
C. and N. C. with the earlier work of its class. It takes the
form, says Blass, of an encomium on the author himself. He
speaks of it as "more polished than one would suppose" — in
view, presumably, of its length, shortness of time of composition,
and the author's own unfavorable estimate of it.
"n<7T€ as an Index of Style in the Orators. 27
3. Political.
The comparative value of the tests of correlation and average
occurrence is well illustrated by the group of orations designated
as Political. In occurrence these show a remarkable uniformity.
In ratio of C. to N. C. they are differentiated, not in the highest
degree, but quite perceptibly, and in a way that accords well, on
the whole, with their characteristic differences of subject and
manner. The difference in ratio that separates each speech from
those nearest to it on the list is not very striking, but a com-
parison of those occupying either extreme yields results suggestive
enough.
Areopagiticus (C. 17 : N. C. 4).
At the head of the list stands the Areopagiticus, and next to it
the Panegyricus. Both are mainly occupied in setting forth the
virtues of the older Athenian democracy — the one (as Jebb points
out) from the standpoint of internal, the other, of external affairs.
Neither addresses itself to a very immediate or practical end.
In both cases, the presentation shows that epideictic coloring to
which the theme invites. The Areopagiticus, while cast m the
form of a plea before the assembly, is not so much an argument
as a statement of conditions — a series of contrasted pictures of
Athenian life under the old and new regimes. Hence the note of
characterization frequently recurs ; there is an abundance of nar-
rative and description, with a constant undercurrent of praise or
blame. It is in this sphere of elevated description, of narrative
touched with emotional warmth, that the stately effect of the
period based on the use of wo-re with a correlative is especially
cultivated by our author.
Panegyricus (C. 39 : N. C. 1 3).
Little need be added to what has already been said of the
Panegyricus. It is recognized by most modern, as it was by
many ancient critics, as the most perfect, the most consciously
artistic, of all Isocrates' works; and it is as an encomium on
Athens that it is especially praised. On the skill and care of
^ or THE.
OF 1 ni^ \
UNlVERStTV ]
28 '^Q^are as an Index of Style in the Orator^s,
the composition, and the moderation, at the same time, in the use
of ornament as compared with earlier works like the Helen, cf,
Blass, II, p. 264; also Brougham, Edinb. Rev., xxxvi, p. 513.
If we were to extend the limits of the Epideictic class as given
in the table, the Areopagiticus and Panegyricus would probably
be the first additions to suggest themselves. In the case of the
Fanegyricus especially, certain passages, or " episodes," give par-
ticular occasion for brilliant narrative, and I have accordingly
marked it for more minute analysis.
Fhilippus (C. 24 : N. C. 14).
At the opposite end of the list stand the Fhilippus and Archi-
damns, in which the ratio of C. to N. C. falls below 2:1. The
Fhilippus presents an excellent opportunity for comparison with
the Fanegyricus, coming nearest to it in length of all the Political
orations, and, moreover, treating the same theme — the desirability
of a combined Hellenic expedition against Persia. But there are
significant differences in the mode of dealing with the subject ; the
treatment, if less brilliant, is here more practical. Being ad-
dressed to a definite individual — and one, too, whom Isocrates
had some reason to hope to influence in the direction of his
favorite project — the element of persuasion predominates over
that of display. There is a more steady vein of argument and
appeal — less of expanded narrative and brilliant episode. His-
torical parallels are often merely cited, instead of being dwelt on
in detail. As to the style, we may note the author's own remarks
(§ 25) on its lack of rhetorical ornament compared with his earlier
works (see also Blass, ii, p. 31 7, where it is compared with the
Fanegyricus), The sentences are, on the whole, less perfectly
rounded and polished ; there is an increased tendency to loose
instead of periodic structure. The composition seems less adapted
to oratorical delivery — more to that quiet perusal to which the
author commends it.
Archidamus (C. 16 : N. C. 13).
The significance of the wcrre usage in the Archidamus, in which
the N. C. type rises nearest to an equality with the C. for the
"floT€ as an Index of Style in the Orator's, 2^,
Political group, is perhaps less clear, yet one or two points may-
be noted that suggest a partial explanation. One may not, per-
haps, venture to think of ethopoeia in this speech purporting to
be spoken by a young Spartan prince on a vital question of state
policy ; yet there is an aggressiveness, an earnestness of tone and
closeness of reasoning that adapts it to the serious purposes of
deliberative oratory and distinguishes it especially from the epi-
deictic manner. It is not without oratorical fullness and finish,
and there is considerable use of historical material, but Blass
notes (p. 292) that the sentences are not oratorically rounded.
Especially significant, I think, is the character of the sentences
of the N. C. type. They are chiefly of two kinds — (1) the form
of detached ware sentence which is the instrument of foritial logic
(in keeping with that marked argumentative character of which
I have just spoken) ; (2) an unusually large proportion of the
" rare types," such as final and the so-called " superfluous " Mo-re.
Out of twenty instances, at the most, of these " rare types " in all
Isocrates^ work, four occur in this oration. They constitute almost
a third of the N. C. group of the Archidamus, and help to explain
why it looms up so largely in comparison with the C.^
4. Forensic.
The widest variations in style in any one class of Isocrates'
writings are to be found in the Forensic department; so, while
it is hardest here to fix the standard or norm of the department
and to speak of the chard-cteristics of the class as a whole, this
group lends itself especially well to a comparison of individual
orations. Some have all the distinguishing characteristics which
we associate peculiarly with Isocratean style; others show such
a marked divergence from these in style and treatment as to con-
stitute a new type— the true Forensic type — which is essentially
different, as the orator himself recognized, from the usual manner
of Isocrates. A glance at the table shows that this diversity in
^One of the examples referred to cannot be paralleled in Isocrates — (§ 4,
6t fihp yap SeSciy/xcvov Sxrre tovs fxkv trpecrfivrepovs irepl airduTwv eiSet/ai rh ^eXriffTOVy
K. T. A.), where the &<Tr€ clause is not only used as subject of an impersonal verb,
but is a practical equivalent for indirect discourse.
30 ''Slare as an Index of Style in the Orators.
style is fully reflected in the axrre usage. As extreme representa-
tives of two opposite tendencies, let us compare the De Bigis and
Adv, Euthynum,
De Bigis (C. 18 : N. C. 4).
The De Bigis is ostensibly a defence spoken by the younger
Alcibiades in a suit concerning a team of horses, of which, it is
alleged, the plaintiff had been defrauded by the father of the de-
fendant. As we have it, it is an incomplete work. The technical
part — statement of the case, presentation of witnesses, legal argu-
ment, etc. — is spoken of in the opening of our fragment as con-
cluded ; what remains is a glorification of the elder Alcibiades,
with a protest on the speaker's part against being punished on
his father's account, and an attack on the prosecutor. The eulogy
of Alcibiades is full and ornate, so that Jebb speaks with good
reason of the " thoroughly epideictic character of the whole."
Blass says (ri, p. 228) that, apart from the attack on Tisias —
a very brief section — it is to be classed, not with the forensic
works, but with the encomia ; that " the composition displays all
the brilliance and dignity of which Isocrates' manner is capable."
We need not be surprised, then, to find this speech not only easily
first in its class in the preference shown for C. Mare, but exceeded
by no Isocratean work except the Helen. As an instance of the
accumulation of the construction, and the effects to which it lends
itself, cf. § 26-27.
Adv. Euthynum (C. 3 : N. C. 12).
The Euthynus is easily distinguished from all the other writings
of Isocrates by its extreme brevity and simplicity ; indeed, these
qualities have caused it to be regarded with suspicion. Benseler,
for one, declines to give it to Isocrates, not only on the score of
hiatus, but on account of the brevity and compactness of the
periods. One of the latest writers, Drerup, Neu. Jahrh., Suppl.
Bd. 22, p. 369, acquiesces in this view. There is but the barest
word of introduction ; the narrative shrinks to less than a page,
and is confined to the merest outline of facts ; all the rest is an
argument from probabilities (the speech being afidpTvpo<;), a series
"ria-re as an Index of Style in the Orators: 31
of syllogisms, of general principles and logical inferences drawn
therefrom as to the case in hand. Blass (ii, p. 222) mentions this
use of the developed syllogism as peculiar to this oration.^ We
might call the Euthynus the " ultra-forensic " specimen, in its
close attention to argument and avoidance of ornament. It is
such a piece as we could conceive Isocrates to have written for
the very purpose of illustrating for his pupils the difference
between the style appropriate to strictly forensic work and his
own proper province.
These few pages fairly bristle with wo-re's, but the C. stand
to the N. C. as 1 : 4, and the latter are almost entirely of the
logical inference type which belongs to formal argument. Thus
the speech stands as the antipode of the De Bigis for the Forensic
class ; and in a survey of the whole Isocratean corpus it stands
opposed most strikingly to the Helen, the two marking the ex-
treme of stylistic variation, and also the extreme in the use of
ware, with their ratios of 1 : 4 and 8:1, respectively.
I shall not undertake here to apply the wcrre test to the works
standing between these two extremes; the differences are less
striking, but still substantial. There is a gradation in stylistic
tendencies, to which the coo-re usage very fairly corresponds.
The Trapeziticus and AegineticuSy especially the former, incline
to the normal Isocratean manner and show epideictic tendencies ;
while the Callimachus and the Lochites, a fragment, occupy an
intermediate place between this elaborate style and the bald
exaggeration of forensic plainness exhibited by the Euthynus,
and are the best representatives of the true forensic type in
Isocrates. They show the closest approach to the standard of
Lysias and Isaeus in their general style, and no less in their use
of wcrre.
5. Hortatory.
The group of hortatory discourses also shows sufficient variety
to give fair room for the application of the test. The tendency
of the class would naturally be in favor of the N. C. type, and it
^ For an example, see § 5.
32 "fl(TT6 as an Index of Style in the Orators.
will be found, in comparing the Nicodes and the Ad Nicoclem,
that the ratio shifts according as the hortatory character is more
or less strictly adhered to. The Ad Nicoclem is the truer repre-
sentative of the type. Blass notes the absence of the ordinary
Isocratean features — its lack of " glitter " and " swing," and how
*' epideictic fullness dwindles to aphoristic brevity .'^ The Nicodes
he ranks much higher, because in it "the dry admonitions are
limited to an insignificant part of the whole." The varying pro-
portion of this " paraenetic " element, which in both works forms
an easily recognizable division, to the whole tells, indeed, a large
part of the story. In the Ad Nicoclem it forms one-half of
the speech — in the Nicodes, only about one-fourth ; and again,
outside of the exhortation proper the Nicodes shows the more
elaborate and polished style. Without presenting a full analysis
of it, a glance at the most clearly contrasted sections will be of
service.
In §§ 27-47 the speaker recounts, as a claim to obedience, the
achievements and virtues of his immediate ancestors and of him-
self. Here we have the joyous swing of epideictic narrative ; the
sentences are longer and more artistically constructed than in the
other sections, and the " grand roll " which is associated with
irepil^oXri is distinctly perceptible. This topic occupies five pages
and contains seven examples of wo-re, of which six are C. (one-
third of the speech thus furnishing three-fourths of the examples
of C. wo-re), while the strictly hortatory portion shows, in its four
pages, but one instance of the C. The ratio of 6 C. : 1 N. C. in
the highly epideictic section just referred to is set over against a
ratio of 2 : 3 for the rest of the discourse ; but even these latter
portions are surpassed in preference for the N. C. by the Ad
Nicoclem^ with its ratio, for the whole work, of 2:5.
The Ad Demonicum exhibits the most rigid type of a purely
hortatory discourse. It is chiefly interesting in connection with
our inquiry for its almost entire absence of oiare — averaging .17
to the page. There is nothing else approaching this in the whole
Isocratean corpus, and the fact perhaps deserves to be considered
in connection with the questions that have been raised as to the
genuineness of the work.
'flare as an Index of Style in the Orators. 33
(4) Comparison of Parts of Same Oration.
The last use made of the general test of correlation has been
to apply it to different parts of the same oration, where there is
a change of subject sufficiently marked to carry with it a distinct
variation in style. Everything depends here, of course, on the
care and fidelity with which the work is done. One must guard
against making arbitrary divisions or magnifying minor differences.
The process of analysis is facilitated, for Isocrates, by his fondness
for inserting distinct " episodes," ^ and his tendency to introduce
these formally, in language which clearly indicates that a " show-
piece " is about to be presented. Some hints of the method have
been given in the preceding study of orations.^ A few additional
examples are here presented.
The De JBigis, though apparently a fragment, has sufficient
compass to admit of such an analysis. The principal divisions
may be characterized thus: (1) §§ 5-21 are narrative, but mixed
with argument, the tone partly apologetic ; (2) §§ 25-38 are pure
narrative, the tone that of bold and unqualified panegyric ; (3) §§ 39-
50 are argument and personal plea. The first division shows an
average occurrence of 2 to the page, and a ratio of C. : N. C. as
3:1; the second, average occurrence, 2.5, and of the ten examples
of Scrre every one is C. ; the third, average occurrence, .67, and all
examples N. C.
These results coincide closely with the observations of Drerup
(N. J., Suppl. Bd. 22, pp. 350-1), who, in his study of this oration,
makes the point that " the style is more ornate in praise than in
defence;^' classes the peroration (my third division) as forensic,
the rest as epideictic, and concludes that this oration shows the
sharp severance in Isocrates between the epideictic and the forensic
diction.
The Panegyrieus, in addition to its highly artistic character,
has the practical advantage, for our present purpose, of being one
of the longest of Isocrates' works. The parts into which it can
1 Cf. D. of H., De Oral. Antiq., Isoc, c. 4.
^See, 6. g., the section on Hel., p. 24; Evag., p. 24; Panath., p. 25; Nic.,
p. 32.
34 ''Q><TT€ as an Index of Style in the Orators,
be divided are of sufficient length to give fair scope for the
statistical method. It contains two large sections/ aggregating
one-half of the whole speech, which are evidently of the epi-
deictic order — narrative colored by emotion, pieces of ^'fine
writing/' designed to call forth admiration or reprobation for
the parties described and incidentally to exhibit the rhetorical
powers of the author. The topics are, the glories of ancient
Athens, the joint achievements of Athens and Sparta at the
time of the Persian wars, and the disgraceful policy of Sparta
and her partisans in recent years.
In this half of the speech C. stand to N. C. as 4.5 : 1, as against
a ratio of 3 : 1 for the work as a whole, and .1.5 : 1 for those com-
bined portions which show least of the epideictic quality (i. e., the
remainder of the speech, except 133-159, a passage dealing with
the present condition of Persia and having something of the epi-
deictic character, but less clearly marked than in the two divisions
noted above, the narrative being more freely mingled with argu-
ment and appeal).^
In the Areo'pagiticuSy the epideictic character is most marked
in three portions, which together constitute three-fifths of the
oration. Sees. 20-55 are a panegyric on the old democracy of
Athens, setting forth its political, social, and religious character,
and especially the beneficent workings of the court of Areopagus.
Sees. 64-70 are of a historical nature, a rhum^. of the achieve-
ments of democratic Athens, in contrast with the period of the
rule of the Thirty. In 79-83 we have a brief recapitulation of
the excellences of the earlier as compared with the later order
of things. In each of these divisions the language is elevated,
and the eulogistic character is emphasized by the formal way in
which these narratives are introduced.^
In the other two-fifths of the speech the author points out
the present evils of the body politic, seeks to arouse and suggests
remedies. Here there is less freedom of movement ; he picks his
1 23-99; 115-128.
^ Of the six N. C. examples in the strictly epideictic portion, four are final or
object clause, one is logical inference, leaving but one example of ordinary result
expressed without correlation.
^ Cf, especially the closing words of 19 and 63 and the opening of 79.
I UNIVERSITY I
"fl(TT€ as an Index of Style in the Orators, 35
way more carefully and adopts oftener the tone of argument and
self-justification.
In the former group of passages, which, taken together, make
up the epideictic division of the speech, the average occurrence
of S(TT6 is 1.57, and the ratio of C. to N. C, 8 : 1 ; in the latter,
the average occurrence is .37, and the ratio of C. to N. C, 1 : 2.
The Fhilippus does not admit of analysis so readily as the
Panegyricus, with which it is best compared. There is in it a
more constant blending of the different elements — argument, ex-
hortation, narrative, and personal explanation ; and so, as already
noted, there is less of extended and ornate narration. Three
rather short passages, however, may be taken as representing fairly
well the epideictic element— 47-55, 58-66, 106-112. These are
somewhat elaborate bits of narrative, designed to set forth character
in strong light and elicit praise or blame. The last two deal with
the exploits of great men and heroes ; the first is a brief summary
of the recent history of Sparta and other Greek states. The first
and second are formally introduced as expanded topics.^
A study of these combined passages shows an average occurrence
of Mo-re of 1.38, and a ratio of 3.5 C. : 1 N. C. (the ratio for the
oration being 1.71 : 1). On the other hand, a group of passages^
coming nearest to the pure argumentative type shows an average
occurrence of .73, and C. to N. C. as 1 : 2.67.^
In the case of the Busirisy it is easy to distinguish a portion
which partakes strongly of the epideictic character. The panegyric
on Busiris (§§ 10-29) occupies a little less than half of the speech.
The remainder consists of an apology for Busiris^^ with literary
criticism of Polycrates and other artists, advice, and self-justification.
As to the use of wo-re, the encomium (10-29) has an average
occurrence of 1 .40 and a ratio of C. to N. C. of 7 : 0. The other
parts, with an average occurrence of .92, show C. to N. C. as 1 : 1.
'CtU 46 and 58.
2 The passages taken are 30-46, 68-80, 86-88, 113-123, 132-143, 149-155.
^ A short passage of this oration (124-126), portraying the degeneracy of the
Greeks of the time by a comparison with the barbarians, illustrates excellently
the use of oJo-re in amplifying and subdividing a period. Here, in a single
sentence, something less than a page in length, we have three examples of
(hare, all correlative.
* Blass, II, pp. 247-8, carefully distinguishes between this and the panegyric.
36 "flo-re as an Index of Style in the Orators.
The fact that in these and in other orations the average occur-
rence of axrre in the epideictic portions is generally higher than
in other parts, while the ratio of C. to N. C. is so much greater,
indicates clearly the large use of the correlative type in this kind
of writing.
SPECIAL TYPES OF C. AND N. C.
A few words should be added as to the further subdivisions
of coorre sentences which I have found it useful to make in
attempting to trace more exactly the stylistic effect of the con-
struction. The simple division into C. and N. C. tells a great
deal, but not all. These more minute divisions have occasionally
been referred to in the preceding treatment of Isocrates, to whose
works I have especially applied them. They are also assumed
in the study of Demosthenes that follows.
1. Of N. C.
Rare Types.
It is particularly in the N. C. type that more minute classifica-
tion seems to yield good results. I have first separated out of
the N. C. class what I have spoken of as " rare types " in the
orators. These include (1) the pure final, as Isoc. Panath,
184 ... . airoKTelvaL B'av roX/jb'^o-avTa^ tov<; aSeX^ou? tov<;
avT&v .... a>(TT€ Kal raiceivdov Xaj^elv ;
(2) The condition, or stipulation {oiare = icj) wre), as Phil. 133,
6crTC<; TTpoacpelTac KLv^vveveiv wcrr' -^7 ravra Xa^elv rj o-reprjdrjvac.
(3) The so-called ^'superfluous'^ wo-re, including the clauses
used as (a) subject or object of an impersonal verb, like ut c. subj.
in Latin, as Archid. 40, el Be TroXXa/ct? yeyovev ware Koi rov^
* Cf. Gildersleeve, A. J. P., vii, 168-9, on relation of this to the pure final type.
''flcrre as an Index of Style in the Orators. 37
/u-etfftj Svva/jucv €')(pvTa<i .... KparrjOr/vai; (6) complementary
to a verb, adjective, or noun which in itself implies tendency,
as Nie. 45, Xa/Scbv 3' ^^ovaiav Mcrre iroLelv otl av /SovXco/jLat;
(cf epexegetic, i. e,, in apposition with a substantive, or as ex-
planatory of a demonstrative adjective, as Aeg. 47, el ... ,
Koi TovT avrf) Trpocr'yivotTO Mar iirihelv d/cvpov, k. t. \}
The line between the several varieties included in this group
is not always easy to draw. They are all rare in the best period
of oratory, having, perhaps, something of an old-fashioned or
conversational flavor. Antiphon and Andocides use them more
freely than the others, after the manner of Herodotus and Thucy-
dides. The list for Isocrates does not include more than twenty
at most, of which about half are final (with an occasional approach
to the 6(/)' cSre force). ^
From the strictly grammatical point of view, they form an
interesting study. They are too few in number to have any
marked stylistic importance, unless their massing in a certain
oration could be thought of as indicating a deliberate lowering
of tone, an approach to conversational freedom ; and the fact that
they do not, from their nature, admit correlation excludes them
from the scope of our principal inquiry.
Logical Inference : Simple Result.
The great body of N. C. examples can be classified under the
two heads here given.
The first includes those in which the Mcrre sentence expresses
a logical inference (axTre = itaque). The result which it states
is an opinion of the speaker, logically deduced from what has
^ On the origin and nature of these constructions with " superfluous " S^a-re,
cf. Seume, pp. 28-30 ; A. J. P., vii, 170-171.
'I subjoin the complete list of examples, with an approximate classification:
(1) Paneg, 83; Paneg. 96; Arch. 93; De Pace 111; Hel. 50; Panath. 184;
De Big. 12 ; Trap. 55.
(2) Paneg. Ill; Nic. 22; Phil. 133.
(3)— (a) Arch. 4; Arch. 40; Ad Nic. 4; Cont. Soph. 1. (6) Nic. 45(2); Arch.
51 ; Panath. 251. (c) Aeg, 47(2) . Paneg. 89(2).
The two examples under (3c) might, perhaps, be classed with (3a), since they
seem to constitute the real subject and object.
3
38 "flare as an Index of Style in the Orators,
gone before. It is very commonly followed by such expressions
as %p^, TTpoarjKet, cl^lov iari, BUawv io-ri,, etc.
This type can usually be distinguished, although there is no
hard and fast line, from the second, in which the Mare clause or
sentence expresses result of a more objective sort — the thing which
happens, or tends to happen, as a consequence of what has just
been stated.
The first I have called " logical " coare; the second I have
referred to, for the sake of distinction, as " simple tendency or
result." As examples, compare two sentences already quoted
(p. il)_for (1), Adv. Euth. 5; for (2), Ad Nic. 49. Further
examples of the "logical" type are: Paneg. l^Z/'flar ovBeU
av rovr elirelv . . . . , Ad Nic. 11, o)ar ovhevl roiv daKrjrcjv
ovro) irpoarjKei ro aw/Jba yvfjuvd^ecv ox; rol<; ^aaiXevovat rrjv
yfrvxv^ Tr)v avrwv ; of the other, Paneg. 142, irevreKaiheKa Be
fjb7]voiv rov<; arparc(ora<; rov jxiadov aTreareprjaev, Mare ro fjuev
iiT eKeivM iroWaKL'; av Bi,eXvdr)aav, Call. 54, cba6^ ....
ovSe/jLLav yjrrj^ov /juereXa/Bov.
The logical type — the purest form of " detached " ware sentence
— is of secondary importance for individual style. It belongs
primarily to the sphere^ to the mode of treatment, being an
index of the degree of attention paid to formal argument. In
the leading orators it includes by far the greater part of N. C.
wo-re's. It plays a lesser r6le relatively to the '^ simple result "
type of N. C. in the earlier orators, in Aeschines, and in some
of the inferior writers whose works have found their way into
the corpus of Demosthenes, notably those of the Apollodorus
group.
My main purpose in grouping these "logical" examples apart
has been to determine the extent to which the " simple result "
class is used, for it is this variety, I take it, which forms the
most direct antithesis to the C. type. There is generally free
room for choice between the sentence in which the coare clause
is expressly employed as the measure of degree, manner, or quality,
and that in which the expression of tendency or result is merely
added, without emphasis on the adverbial relation ; and this
choice is altogether likely to be influenced by the rhetorical effect
inherent in the anticipating correlative.
"Q^crre as an Index of Style in the Oratory 39
According to my classification of exam{)Ies, the ^Mogical '^ wo-re
type stands to the "simple result '' in Isocrates as 2.71 : 1. Some
examples, especially those which involve a statement as to the
future, stand on the border line and are difficult to classify ; but I
am satisfied that any count made on this basis will not show more
than half as many "simple result '' as "logical" for Isocrates.
Taking the number which I have allowed to the "simple result"
class (35), and comparing it with that of C. ware, the ratio stands
9.49 : 1 in favor of the latter, showing the great preference of this
author for the form with correlation in expressing the pure con-
secutive relation.^
2. Of C.
Formulae.
The division of the C. examples into sub-types is a matter of
less importance for our purpose, yet some observations may be
made here which are not without their bearing on the question
of style.
The most readily distinguishable group is that of the " oratorical
formulae" (treated by Seurae, pp. 51-53, and Berdolt, pp. 93-
96), in which the ware clause regularly takes the indicative.
The expressions which present most distinctly the formulaic
character, and to which I have therefore devoted especial study, are :
(1) 6fc9 TovTo (rocrovTov) r/fceti/ ware (the demonstrative being
used substantively, with or without a limiting genitive, followed
by various verbs of " coming ") ;
(2) eU ro(TavTr)v .... TjKeLv Sare (the demonstrative here
being used adjectively with some substantive) :
(3) TocrovTov Secv (c. inf.) Scrre (in which a fact is brought out
more strongly by denial of the opposite) ;
^ The "coalesced" o&tccs &<rT€ with finite verb, as used by Herodotus (vid. p.
12, n. 1), having a certain affinity with both the C. and N. C. types, does not
exist in Isocrates. One instance with the infinitive occurs — Panath. 38, €v\oy€7v
To\fx.(iOVTOi3V ovK apOpcoirivcos oAA' otjrcos Sscttc iroWoiis avTirdTTeaOai irphs avTovs —
where ovtws stands immediately before Sxrre; but it has its full adverbial force,
and its position is determined by requirements of emphasis and contrast. There
is a similar case of juxtaposition with roiovros — De Permut. 189 (noted by Seume,
p. 36), and one with r-nXiKovros — Bus. 22 (cf. Lys. 24, 4).
40 "Q.(TT€ as an Index of Style in the Orators.
(4) Too-ovTov cLTrex^iv rod (c. inf.) cocrre (with same force as
the preceding) ;
(5) ToaovTov 8La(f)ep6Lv (tlie difference between two persons or
things being expressed in two contrasted members of the ware
clause).
These formulae, the free use of which is peculiar to oratory/
reach their highest occurrence in Isocrates and Lysias, constituting
almost a third of the C. examples which the latter employs; while
Antiphon, Andocides, Isaeus, and Aeschines use them much
more sparingly, differing very slightly from each other as to
frequency of these expressions. Aeschines not only shows much
the smallest average occurrence, but, in the two examples which
he does employ,^ he departs from the conventional type by
employing unusual verbs to express the idea of "coming."^
The laws as to mood in these formulaic wcrre sentences, and
the occasional peculiarities which they exhibit, have been ade-
quately presented, for the principal orators, by Seume, pp. 51-53.
Our interest in them here lies in their stylistic significance, and
from this point of view they fall to be considered as part of a
larger group in the section which follows. I add merely a state-
ment of the number of examples of each expression in the two
orators who use them most largely.
Isocrates has 29 examples of ek rovro. {toctovtov) tjkccv, 5
of eh ToaavT7]v .... ijKetv, 13 of too-ovtov Beiv^ 8 of toctovtov
a'Tre')(eiV, 5 of toctovtov Bca(f>ep6Lv.
The list for Lysias is made up of 23 ek tovto (too-ovtov)
TjKeLv and 4 ToaovTov Belv. Three of the expressions included
in my study are thus seen not to occur in Lysias, and his great
fondness for the formula eh tovto (too-ovtov) r/Kecv comes out
clearly. He uses it with the limiting genitive in all but two
cases. In one of these (30, 3) the verb used is the passive of
^ Cf. Berdolt (p. 25) on ets tovto i^Keit/, "foreign to historical prose."
* els TOVTO, Adv. Ctes. 94 ; els too-ovtov, Adv. Ctes. 256.
^ The average occurrence to the page of these formulae in six orators stands
thus :
Antiphon 04 Isocrates 13
Andocides 03 Isaeus., 04
Lysias 12 Aeschines 01
"Oo-Te as an Index of Style in the Orators. 41
KaOiCTTTj/jLC, which I have treated as a verb of " coming " here and
in two cases in Isocrates (De Pace 84 ; Paneg. 60).
Under (3) I have included one case of outo) ttoWov Setv
(Lys. 30, 8) ; and under (4), one of ouro)? rjv iroppeo rov (Isoc.
Panath. 77).
In one of the examples under (5) there is but a single clause
with (oare, but the sense of " differ ^' is clearly present, and the
contrasted member is readily supplied in thought from the pre-
ceding sentence. I have not included under this head cases of
ToaovTov Sca^fepetv in which the meaning is rather '^ to excel ''
than 'Vto differ" {e.g., Paneg. 4; Evag. 24; Evag. 71). There
are a number of expressions which, like this, are frequently fol-
lowed by axrre in Isocrates, but they do not quite attain to that
regularity in phrasing and in mood which would entitle them to
rank with the formulae here treated.
General and Fartieular.
In studying these formulae, I was struck with an observation
of Seume's (p. 51) that, in these formulaic sentences, "the facts
stated in the ooare clause have more force than the causes from
which they spring;" and that, "while, formally, qualities or
conditions are illustrated by their effects, in actual use this form
serves to set forth particular facts." I was led to examine other
(hare sentences to which this description seemed equally applicable,
and, finally, to mark off a type of which the oratorical formulae
constitute only a group which has crystallized into a definite form
and has a fixed law of mood in the ware clause. This type I
have called " general -\- particular." It is that form of C. wa-re
sentence in which an act, quality, or condition is defined, not by
some fact or circumstance which flows from it, but by giving a
particular example of the act, quality, or condition. Compare, in
English, " I am so fortunate that I am envied by my friends "
with " I am so fortunate as to have many friends." In the latter
case there is no true external result, as in the former. The re-
lation is, to our feeling, more one of comparison than of consequence
proper.^
' Cf. Seume, p. 40.
42 ''Hcrre as an Index of Style in the Orators.
So, in Paneg. 29, ovrco<; rj ttoXi^ rj/juMv ov /jlovov ^eoc^tXo)? aXka
Kal (j)i\av6p(t)'7T(o<; 6cr')(6v, ware .... ovk \<^d6vr)ae Tot9 aX\ot<;,
K. T. \., the (j)LXav6p(07ria does not so much result in not envying ;
it consists in it. Set this off against the sentence quoted on p. 10
(Hel. 37), or the one in Paneg. 70, ... . Toaovrov ....
SoeXiTTOv S(TT€ ev Tc5 fiera^v .... KaTotKcaOrjvac, and cf., for
further examples of the G. -f P. type, Paneg. 24, 79; Hel. 47, 62;
Antid. 16 ; Aeg. 31 ; Lys. I.IO^^) : 3.33.^
In such sentences, as Seume points out in connection with the
formulae, the ware clause is likely to be more important than the
main clause which precedes it, and which serves as a so.rt of
generalizing introduction. Of course, the question of the relative
degree of stress falling on the main and coare clause is one that
may often suggest itself, and the decision of which, resting largely
on subjective considerations, must be essayed with caution. Where
there is a true cause and effect relation, the first member has a
prima facie claim to at least equal rights with the second ; but
here, where the consecutive relation is rather formal than inherent
in the thought, the main clause is more naturally felt as a mere
preface to the particular statement, which gains weight and emphasis
by the suspense.
Not infrequently the context is such as to strengthen greatly the
impression that the specific statement in the ware clause is that
on which attention is concentrated, and for the sake of which the
sentence was introduced. It may form one of a series of particular
statements in a narration, or be in marked antithesis to such a
statement in a preceding sentence or member, while the generaliza-
tion may be only a repetition of one previously made and be
quite unnecessary from the standpoint of thought.^
The fact that the finite verb is the prevailing mood-form with
aKTT€ in this " G. + ?•'' type — as it is virtually the only one
employed in th^ special subdivision of " formulae " already con-
sidered — helps also to emphasize the importance of the oocrre
clause as an independent statement in these sentences.
^As already intimated, almost the entire group of "oratorical formulae"
exemplify this relation — e. //., Bus. 14. In De Big. 16, Loch. 8, the eis tovto
idiom seeins to be followed by a clause of true result, but such instances are
sufficiently rare.
^ For illustrations of this point, cf. Paneg. 24, 29, 79.
"D^are as an Index of Style in the Orators. 43
The importance of this type rhetorically I conceive to lie in the
fact that it can be multiplied almost at will, for a great many
particular statements are susceptible of this sort of generalizing
or characterizing introduction. An author like Isocrates, who is
fond of responsive eifect and periodic structure, will, when the
relation of cause and effect, of fact and consequence, lies naturally
in the thought, choose the form of the ovt(o^-6o<tt€ sentence for its
expression. But he can do more ; he can cultivate the correlative
consecutive period by the free use of this " general -\- particular '^
form of statement, and gain by the circumlocution not only
responsion, but emphasis and other desirable rhetorical effects.
That the type should flourish especially in the more ornate
kinds of writingjs, then, the thing to be expected, and it occasions
no surprise to find that, while Isocrates employs it largely every-
where, it is in the Political and Epideictic classes that he avails
himself of it most freely. In these two divisions, according to
my count, over 40 per cent, of the whole number of C. wcrre
sentences are to be assigned to the G. -J- P. type, while, in the
other three departments, it constitutes something less than 30 per
cent. It may be held, of course, that the use of this kind of
sentence is determined by considerations of thought rather than
style; that it merely offers a convenient form for stamping an
act, in the process of narrating it, with its appropriate character.
That this element enters largely into its use is not to be disputed,
and it may be noted here that there are certain private orations
of Isocrates and Demosthenes, and especially of Lysias, that show
a use of the type exceeding: that of the more elaborate compo-
sitions. Here the dominant motive would seem to be the desire
for characterization, the narrative being employed to " make
points" on the conduct of one of the parties in the suit. As
instances of this sort may be cited Lys. 1.10^^^; 3.33; 14, 42;
Isoc. Aeg. 31. A large use of the type may thus be a mark of
the manner of a "plain" speaker, especially one whose prevailing
tone is that of naive indignation ; ^ but in such cases the type
appears in a simple, colloquial form, the clauses are short, and
there is a tendency towards the infinitive in the coare clause.
A close study of the various instances, in their sentence-structure
^Cf. Lys., Or. 1 and Or. 3.
44 "Qare as an Index of Style in the Orators.
and context, must be our warrant for seeing in the use of this
form of duplicated statement in the more finished works of
Isocrates something more than the desire to characterize — the
influence of those distinctly rhetorical motives which count for
so Qiuch with this author. It must suffice here merely to call
attention to an apparent tendency which deserves more minute
study and fuller presentation, especially in connection with the
works of Isocrates and Demosthenes.
EQUIVALENTS.
A study of a construction from the standpoint of style should
make some account of those expressions which are logically equiva-
lent — especially if these have sufficient elements of similarity to
suggest a more or less conscious choice between them and the
expression under consideration. We cannot, of course, undertake
here a study of all the different forms in which the relations of
causation and consecution appear in the language, but we can
examine those which have enough in common with the con-
struction in hand to warrant us in thinking of them as substitutes
for it. These, again, may claim consideration from two different
points of view. Where the " equivalent ^' construction is one that
illustrates the same rhetorical tendency as the one under con-
sideration, it becomes necessary to note the extent of its use in
order that we may add the cases of the equivalent to those of
the dominant construction, and thus give a more exact statement
of the degree to which the tendency in question is cultivated.
If, on the other hand, we find similar elements combined in a
way which produces an opposite rhetorical effect, it becomes highly
important to measure the relative strength of these opposing
tendencies.
Of the additional forms for expressing the consecutive relation
which I have selected for study, the greater number come under
the first head — i. e., they are both logically and rhetorically
equivalent to the (correlative) consecutive sentence. The last to
be considered is an example of a close logical equivalent in which
some of the features of the ovTw^ScrTe sentence occur but an
opposite rhetorical tendency is illustrated.
'^flcrre as an Index of Style in the Orators. 45
The expressions which are here examined for the orators have
been treated for the first time (in another domain) by Berdolt,
whose work appeared after I had gathered most of my material
under this head.
Of/TO)?— OcrTfc9.
The closest logical and rhetorical equivalent for the oiJto)?-
wcrre sentence is that in which a ovrco<; in the main clause finds
its complement in a relative clause following.^ Grammatically,
the relative goes back to its antecedent and adds a description ;
but in sense it joins on to ovrcof;, with the adverbial effect of a
clause of tendency, expressing the degree of a quality already
predicated of the antecedent. It would seem to be a mixture of
two constructions — Tt9 eo-rc, oari<i and rt? iaTi ovtco<; —
S<TT6 A large use of this form of sentence would require
us to attribute to a given author — e.g., Isocrates — an even greater
fondness for the correlative consecutive period than is indicated
by the statistics for the regular ovTco(;-a>(TT6 sentence alone ; but,
in point of fact, the construction plays an insignificant part in
the whole work of this orator. I have collected all the examples
of this type of equivalent which he employs, and find but nine
in all.
ovTco<i-6<TTi<; (a) c. fut. ind. :
Paneg. 185, rt? yap . . . ovtco<; padv/uLOf; iariv, 0(TrL<^ ov
fi€Tacr^elv PovXrjaeTaL . . , Panath. 66, rt? icmv ovt(o<; d<f)vrj<:;,
6<TTi,<; ovK evpr)(Tei ...
(6) c. opt. ~\- civ:
Paneg. 98, ouSet? . . . ovt(o<; e')(et 8vcr/bL6va)<;, ocrrif; ovk av
6/jLoXoy7](T6i€ . . . . , De Permut. 210, fMrjSev ovrcof; dv (f>rjaeLav
elvac (j)av\ov, ore . . . ovk av ecrj ^iXriov, 218, rt? ovrw^ iarlv
dvai(T6r]T0<;, 6(7Ti<; ovk av aXyijaete, 222, ovBecf; iarcv ovroxi aKparyti,
oartf; av Se^aoro . . . ,^ Evag. 35, ovBel<i yap icmv ovtco pa6vp,o<^,
6o-Tt,<i av Be^i
acTO . . .^
^ See examples below.
'This passage is bracketed by Blass (Teub. ed.) ; but he holds it to have been
originally composed for the place by Isocrates.
' Cf. Panath. 172, ovSeva . . roffair/js a/xaOlas chat, txTris ovk &f ivaivtiTfie . . .
46 "flcTTe as an Index of Style in the Orators.
(c) c. pres. ind. :
Hel. 2, TL<; iariv ovrco^; 6'\\nijLa6r)<;, ocrrt? ovk oZSe . . .
{d) c. past ind. :
Paneg. 113, rt? ovtco Troppco . . . rjv , . . , , ocrrt? ovk ....
T^vajKaaOr) . . .
Of these nine examples, the Panegyricus and De Permutatione
each furnish three. It will be noted that all these examples
adhere closely to a conventional type — that seen in Shakspere's
" Who so base who would not be a Roman ? " The main clause
always denies — either directly or by means of a rhetorical question —
the existence of a certain class of persons or things, and the
tendency referred to in the dependent clause is accordingly always
a theoretical one, never passing into actual result. This apparent
equivalent for the ovTcofi-ooare sentence is therefore employed only
within a certain restricted territory ; and within this territory it
reigns supreme. Isocrates never uses ourco^-coo-re in sentences of
this class, but always ovT(o<;-6aTc<;}
My collection for the 'other orators is not exhaustive; but they
seem to make even less use of it than Isoc, with the possible ex-
ception of Dem., who uses it rather freely in certain orations— e. g,
De Symm. He also allows, not infrequently, the ovraxf-coo-re con-
struction in sentences of this type.
T0A0{>T09— 09.
A less clearly defined type of relative consecutive sentence is
that in which the relative has a correlative roiovrof; or to(tovto<; in
the main clause — the type treated by Seume, pp. 14-18, where
numerous examples are presented. Of course, this combination
does not necessarily involve the consecutive relation ; but very fre-
quently the relative clause sets forth the generic character of its
antecedent in such a way as clearly to express tendency and suggest
the ftjcrre clause as a natural equivalent. Sometimes the notion of
result is brought out more clearly by the use of prepositions ex-
^ For an example of the regular consecutive clause in such a connection, cf.
Isae. 3, 51 — ^ok^I 5' 6.v ns ifxiv ovtws dfatS^y . . . yevecrQai, wcm /xrjSh iiriSovvai
. . . ; cf. also Dem. 8, 44 (v. L Us) ; 10, 15 ; 10, 43 ; 19, 115.
"Hare as an Index of Style in the Orators, 47
pressing cause or means, as in the phrase ef wv; sometimes it
resides partly in the modal form employed in the relative clause,
as in the use of the optative or indicative with dv, or the generic
future, which employs /jLy as its negative.
The following examples will serve to illustrate some of the
familiar forms of sentence in which we may infer the consecutive
relation more or less distinctly..
Isoc. Soph. 21, ovhefiiau r)yov/JLai Tocavrrjv elvai Te')(y7}Vy 7]tl<: ....
av KoX BiKaooa-vvrjv ifiTTOCTJo-eiev.
Paneg. 109, roadvrrjv Se %tw/3ai/ TrapeXiTrofiev, rj iravra^i av 'qfia^
^viropcorepovf; iiroirjaev.
Paneg. 189, ov m-peireL . . . roiavra Xeyecv, ef a)v 6 ^lo(; /j,r)8ev
iTTtBdoo-et.
Paneg. 76, 6aTL<; roiavra Tvy')(avoL Trpdrrayv, ef a)v avT6<; re
IxeWot /xaXcara evSo/ci/jLyaecv, (cf. Evag. 80.)
Plat. 32, Tiva rrjXcKdvTTjv evepyeaiav 6')(^oc€v av elirelv, riTL<s
l/cavT) fyevrjaerat . . . ;
De Pace 107, roLavra Trpoypov/jLeOa irpdrTeiv, e'f o)v Aa/ceBat-
fjLOVtoi SecTTroTac rcov '^jWtjvcov KaTearijcrav.
De Permut. 56, on Tocovrov<; rypdcfxo X070U9, ot Kal rrjv iroXtv
^XdiTTOva-i . . .
Nic. 5, roLOVTCp Trpdy/jbari, Bv(T/jL6v6o<i 'i'XpVTe<i, . . . irXeia-TCDV
dyadSiv alrtov io-rtv.
One or two of the examples in this list are of a sort in which
the equivalence to a coare construction is at least questionable.
There are others in which a relative clause complementary to
TOLovTo^ or TO(rovTo<; serves to describe an antecedent without any
suggestion of characteristic tendency. And again, care must be
taken to exclude from this consideration instances in which a rela-
tive clause after toiovto^ or roaovrof; is not complementary to it,
but additional and non-restrictive, the demonstrative pointing hack
to an idea previously expressed. An attempt to present a com-
plete list of true equivalents for wcrre under this head would in-
volve discussion in not a few instances, and I have not undertaken
to give such a collection here ; but the number of cases where such
force is sufficiently clear is considerable, and we are justified in
putting it down as a familiar form of expression in the orators, and
one which serves to accentuate their partiality for the expression
48 ''Ho-re as an Index of Style in the Orators.
of the consecutive relation through the aid of correlation. It is
safe to add that the use of this form of equivalent in Lysias is by
no means so great as in Isocrates.
TocrovTov—oaov.
Another form of equivalent for the Sare clause is to be found
in the use of the correlation roaovrov-ocrov in certain sentences —
chiefly those which set forth the degree of diiFerence between two
persons or things. Phil. 51 may serve as an illustration : roaovrov
Se SiacfiepovaLV, oaov eKelvoi fiev 7rpb<; yittov^ avroiv \7r0\eiJL0vaC\,
ovTOL Be 7r/309 Kp6iTTov<;. Here we have a general statement of
difference, followed by two contrasted clauses setting forth opposite
courses of conduct, the juxtaposition of these two giving the effect
of a specific statement of difference. The connection between the
general and special statements is made, logically enough, by rocrov-
Tov-6<Tovy a formula of comparison.^ Yet it is not uncommon to
find sentences which involve exactly the same thought relation
employing the consecutive formula {e. g.^ Call. 34), so that we are
fully justified in regarding roaovrov-oaov and rocrovTov-axTTe, in
sentences of this type, as equivalents. The rhetorical effect of these
two pairs of correlatives is the same ; but the number of instances
of the TOG-ovTov-oaov formula is not sufficient to make a very sig-
nificant addition to our list of correlative periods based upon a real
or apparent consecutive relation. It becomes, however, a matter
of curious interest to observe the preference shown for one or other
of these virtually equivalent expressions by the orator who employs
them most largely. I have collected all the sentences in which
difference is thus expressed with roaovrov-coaTe or oaov in Isocra-
tes, classifying them under the following heads :
1. Statement of difference in character, condition, or conduct by
means of contrasted clauseSy (a) with hLa(f>epeLv — cf. Call. 34, Phil.
51 (quoted above); (6) with other expressions — cf De Pace 47,
ToaovTfp he ^etpof? eajjuev tmv irpor^ovwv .... oaov eKelvot fxev
. . . a)0VT0 Seiv KcvBvveveiv, r^fiel^ 8' /jLtaOoyTotf; ')(^pQ)fjLe0a
aTparo'jreSoi^.
^ Such a comparative relation is seen, in its simplest form, in the English
sentence, " He lives as much as a mile away."
''lio-re as an Index of Style in the Orators, 49
2. Expression of difference in terms of one member of the com-
parison — the contrast being impliedj not expressed, in the sub-
ordinate clause, (a) with Boacjiepecv — cf. Panath. 55, rocrovTov
ifcelvoc StrfveyKav dvofjbia koI irKeove^ia tmv 7rpoye<y€V7)fiivQ)Vj oktt
ov fjbovov avTov^i aTTcoXeaav . . . . , aXXa kol AdKeSac/JLOvtovf; . . .
ive^aXov ; (6) with other expressions — cf. De Permut. 235, too-
ovTcp fjboXXov Twv aXkcov 7rpoo-ecr%oi/ aurot? tov vovv, ware XoXcov
jjbev roiv eirra cro(f)LaT(ov iKXrjdr] riepLKXyj^; Be Svolv iyev-
ero /jLadr)Tr}<; ....
The type marked (1) (a) amounts to a fixed formula, being a
rhetorical circumlocution of the '' general + particular '' sort (a
single example, in Isocrates, seems to show true external result),
and always taking the indicative in the dependent clause. Here
Isocrates alternates between Sare and oarov, apparently influenced
only by desire for variety. He has 5 examples with ware — De
Pace 85, De Big. 35, Call. 34, Aeg. 17, De Pace 127— and 4 with
6Voi/— Paneg. 83, Phil. 51, Phil. 112, De Pace 54.
In the case of the type (1) (6) — contrasted clauses introduced
by expressions other than hiac^epeuv — Isocrates prefers the form
with oaov, employing it 9 times, as against the 4 instances of
oiare which have any claim to be classed under this head. It may
be noted, too, that the sentences with oaov have a decidedly uni-
form character, all but one being expressions of degree of difference
as to a particular quality and employing a comparative adjective
or adverb. They also incline to the " G. + P«" type, and all take
the indicative. Toaovrov and toctovtw are used indifferently.
The examples are— for ware, Phil. 125, Arch. 94, Hel. 16,
De Perm. 22; for oaov, Ad Dem. 33, Ad Dem. 38, De Pace 43,
De Pace 47, De Pace 143, Bus. 19, Bus. 32, Soph. 20, De Big. 36.
The examples collected under (2) {a) and (6) — in which a differ-
ence is expressed with a single subordinate clause instead of two
contrasted ones — are of a less uniform character than those treated
under the two preceding heads. Like those under (1) (6), they
are nearly all expressions of degree of difference as to a given
quality — superiority or inferiority. In several of them, the sub-
ordinate clause is so worded as to make a distinct comparison ;
in most, the specific character of one member only is set forth
and the contrast is implied. The " general + particular " type
50 ''flare as an Index of Style in the Orators.
is less closely adhered to, a number of cases showing true external
result.
But, for the sake of completeness, it seemed best to include
here all those sentences which have the common element of
expressing a difference and in which it is at least conceivable that
6(7ov, as well as Mcrre, might have been used. In point of fact,
the former is all but non-existent, for Isocrates, in sentences of
this class. Under (2) (a) — with Scacf^epetv — we find 7 examples
with W0-T6— Paneg. 4, Paneg. 64, Paneg. 98, Evag. 14, Evag. 24,
Evag. 71, Panath. 55 — none with oaov. Under (2) (6) — with
other expressions — we have 8 cases of Sare — Bus. 29, De Big. 26,
Evag. 67, Hel. 60, Paneg. 50, Paneg. 147, De Permut. 235, Call.
48 — to one of ocrov — De Pace 96.
The proper sphere, then, of Toaovrov-oa-ov as an equivalent
for wcrre is in the expression of difference by means of two con-
trasted clauses; and here, outside of the fixed formula toctovtov
hia<t>6p€i,v, it is decidedly the dominant construction.
The use of these correlative forms for expressing difference
or comparison is a special characteristic of Isocrates, among the
orators, and we scarcely meet them again except in Demosthenes.
Lysias shows not a single example of the fuller form, with con-
trasted clauses, and only one of the incomplete type — 24. 13,
Toaovrov Be BL6vr}V0')(6v avaia')(yvTia rcbv aTrdvrwv avOpooTTcov oyorre
v/jLd<; ireipdrat ireideiv ....
That Isocrates should be partial to this form of sentence is
quite in keeping with the general tendencies of his style. The
balance afforded by the contrasted clauses — when the fuller form
is employed — and the responsive effect of the correlative period
would alike commend it to him. The influence of the latter
consideration comes out still more clearly when we take into
account another method of setting forth a difference, which may
be regarded as an equivalent for roaovTov-So-Te and toctovtov-
oaov.
ToaovTov Paratactic.
We occasionally find an expression of difference in which
roaovTov points forward to a pair of contrasted statements, the
latter being added paratactically, without the wa-re or oaov
"flo-re as an Index of Style in the Orators, 51
which, in the type treated above, completes the syntactic con-
nection and marks the relation as comparative-consecutive. Two
instances of this I have noted in the corpus of Lysias — 2.16,
ToaovTov Se evTv^earepot vratSe? ovra iyevovro rov irarpo*; •
o iJi,ev yap .... ovk ol6<; re rjv rL/jL(op^(Taa6aL . . ol Be TratSe?
avTov .... elSov . . . ; 6. 17, toctovto 8' ovto<; /^ta^yopov rov
MtjXlov dae^ecTTepo^ yeyivrjrai,. iK6LV0<; /uuev yap . . . , ovTO<i
Se . . . . But Or. 6 — Against Andocides — is a work of very
doubtful authorship.
It may not be without significance that Lysias, in the only clear
case in which he thus uses roarovrov to anticipate and emphasize
a formal contrast, employs this non-correlative, paratactic form ;
while Isocrates, in the much greater extent of his work, and with
his fondness for using roa-ovrov in the way referred to, never
avails himself of it — that is, he never misses the opportunity to
round his period by means of correlation.^
^o(tovtov—6tl.
There is still another formula for expressing a specific difference
with 'roa-ovrov, of which Isocrates furnishes a single instance —
Call. 59, ruiv /uuev TrXeuarcov rpcr}pdp')(^ci)v roaovrov SctjveyKov, ore
fjber oXiycov eacoaa rr)v vavv , . . While the on clause is per-
haps best explained as causal, the thought-relation is practically
the same as in those sentences, of the single clause type, treated
above which show oliari or oaov. We have here neither para-
taxis nor^^lyet correlation, in the strict sense; but the rhetorical
effect is closely akin to that produced by the latter construction.^
TotoOro?— 0609 c, inf.
The combination rotovro^-olo^ followed by the infinitive — a close
logical and rhetorical equivalent for roLovro^i-oiare — is almost
^ Tlie nearest approach to this form of expression that I have noted in Isocrates
is in Areop. 69, where toiovtov points forward to a pair of contrasted clauses
introduced by ydp.
* I have"observed only one other instance in the orators in which roaovTov-
Uti might be ranked as an equivalent for Toa-ovTov-uxrre, though not, as above, in
an expression of difference — Ps. Lys. 8. 20, K^p^avw 5e rocovrov, Sn -n-puTov (xkv
vjxoiv airaXKay^Xs iKax'-O'Toi, kukus vcp' vjxoov Tretcro/iot.
52 "£LaT€ as an Index of Style in the Orators.
entirely absent from the orators.^ I can produce but three ex-
amples — Isoc. 15, 99 ; Dem. 21, 202; Aesch. 3, 243. Its employ-
ment in these sentences hardly suggests rhetorical motives. In
only one example are the correlatives sufficiently separated to give
balance, and in all, the infinitive follows immediately the relative.
But the non-correlative form of the construction, with tolovto^
omitted, is still rarer. I have noted only two examples — both in
Isocrates— 11, 16; 8, 21.
Of the corresponding use of TocrovTov-oaov c. inf. Isocrates
furnishes the solitary example — De Permut. 98, tovtoc^;
TOcrovTOv [xovov i')(^p(OfjL7jv, oorov o^Orjvai Bt,a\€y6/jb€V0<;.^
Inverted Expression of Result.
Lastly, we come to consider a method of expressing the con-
secutive relation which has hitherto received little attention — the
type illustrated in Dem.- 18. 11, ov 8r) Trotijo-a) rovTo- ovx ovtco
T€TV(l)cofjLai, or 22. 68, dWa 8' 6V v^pcKev, ovS' av e%ot tl<; etTrelv.
Toaavra to irXrfOo^ iartv. Here we have the same paratactic
structure as in the form with tocfovtov examined above ; the con-
secutive relation is inferred rather than expressed, and the demon-
strative, with the aid of juxtaposition, is made to do the work of
full syntactical correlation. But there is here the further element
of inversion of the usual order. In the other form of equivalent,
ToaovTov pointed forward to a result to be stated immediately,
after ; in the examples just quoted, ouro)? and roa-avra point back
to one already expressed.
This latter arrangement is one of especial importance from the
standpoint of the present study. It gives the effect of liveliness
referred to by Gildersleeve ^ as belonging to marked instances of
inversion. The thought of the hearer is suddenly arrested by the
demonstrative and thrown back upon the preceding sentence, and
a rapid mental readjustment takes place as the relation of cause
and consequence becomes apparent in this unaccustomed sequence.
The element of "surprise,'^ of " interjectional effect," thus intro-
1 Cf. Berdolt, p. 99—" rare in Plato."
2 Cf. Harov, without correlative, followed by ptc. in Panath. 150.
^ Vid. supra, p. 10, for quotation.
"Ho-re as an Index of Style in the Orators. 53
duced puts this form of result in marked opposition rhetorically,
not only to the fully developed correlative period, but also to the
N. C. cocrre and to the paratactic equivalent treated above, in both
of which the adherence to the well-established order of cause and
effect makes it easier to supply the missing ovtco<; or wcrre, and
preserves the deliberate orderliness of the consecutive sentence.
In the earlier part of this work, the N. C. axrre has been spoken
of as an " afterthought," because the way is not prepared for it
by an anticipating correlative; but in this postponed, or retro-
spective, ovT(o<; we have an " afterthought " effect of a still more
striking character.
I have thought it worth while to endeavor to make a full col-
lection of the instances of this form of equivalent in the seven
orators studied. The consecutive relation being here a matter of
inference, there is room for some difference of opinion as to
whether certain cases are true equivalents for the ojo-re con-
struction, especially where the relation is rather of the " general
and particular" sort than result in the strict sense; but I have
aimed to include in this list only examples about which there
can be little question. In considering this phenomenon in Plato,
Berdolt, p. 98, treats separately sentences employing ovtco^; and
those showing tolovto<; or toctovto^ — a distinction which seems
to be unnecessary for our present purpose. The list of passages
follows :
Isaeus.~2, 21 ; 2, 37 ; 5, 10; 5, 11 ; 7, 21 ; 7, 23 ; 11, 6.
Lysias.— 1, 2 ; 1, 32 ; 2, 57 ; 3, 13 ; 10, 28 ; 12, 84 ; 13, 31.
Antiphon.— 6, 35 ; 6, 50.
Aeschines.— 1, 56; 1, 157; 2, 125; 2, 150.
Isocrates.— 4, 16; 4, 87; 4, 141; 4, 157; 7, 38; 12, 15;
15,107; 15, 134; 16,37.
Demosthenes.— 8, 25 ; 14, 24 ; 18, 11 ; 19, 267 ; 22, 68 ; 24, 3;
45, 2 ; 27, 25 ; 27, 31 ; 30, 6 ; 30, 8 ; 30, 14; 30, 38.
It will be seen that the construction is not a great favorite with
the orators in general. Andocides furnishes no example, unless
we include one which occurs in 4, 23 — an oration which is denied
to Andocides by the most careful critics. The average occurrences
to the page are so small, and the margins of difference between
them so slight, that a table made on this basis yields no striking
4
54 ''flo-re as an Index of Style in the Orators,
results. It is sufficient to note that the orators stand, as to
average occurrence, in the order in which they are placed in the
list of examples given above. Isaeus makes the largest use of it
(average occurrence .05), Lysias comes next, with .03, while the
others differ by much smaller margins, Isocrates and Demosthenes
standing at the foot of the list, with practically the same average
occurrence — .02.
As this form of expression is most directly opposed to the
C. wcrre construction, a comparison of the relative frequency of
these two might seem to be the truer index of style, and such a
table is here submitted.
Katio of Inverted Result : C. wcrre.
Antiphon 1:3 Lysias 1:15
Isaeus 1:5.5 Demosthenes 1:16
Aeschines 1:8.5 Isocrates 1:37
The differences are more perceptible than in the former com-
parison, based on average occurrence. Antiphon heads the list in
relative employment of the equivalent form, but his use of both
forms is exceedingly small. Isaeus comes next, while Demosthenes
and Isocrates again stand lowest, although the latter shows a far
smaller relative use of the equivalent than the former. The
comparatively free use of this abrupt, vigorous form of expression
in the pleadings of Isaeus, and its rare occurrence in the rounded
smoothness of Isocrates, seems to be fairly characteristic of their
respective styles, and is the most significant feature exhibited by
the tables.
A glance at the examples cited above for Demosthenes will
show that nearly half of them come from the "guardianship
orations" — Orr. 27-31. Thus, while the works of Demosthenes,
as a whole, stand lowest in average occurrence of the " inverted
result'' form, and next to lowest in the proportion of it to C. warey
these speeches stand easily first in both respects — average occur-
rence .15 — ratio 1 : 2.33 ; that is, these early works show a marked
partiality for a usage which is characteristic of Isaeus as against the
later writings of Demosthenes himself. This is quite in keeping
with other indications of the influence of Isaeus on the style of this
''D^are as an Index of Style in the Orators, 55
group of orations. The comparison has here been made between
the "guardianship orations" and the entire work of Demosthenes,
in which these speeches are included. If we were to compare this
group with the remaining works only, the contrast would, of course,
come out still more strongly.
MOODS.
With regard to the difficult question of the moods after Mare,
little more can be done here than to indicate and illustrate some of
the methods which promise the best results in such an investigation.
Two points have been touched on in the earlier portions of this
work — (1) that the use of finite and infinite has no such clear
significance for style as that of correlative and non-correlative;
(2) that, for the orators, the most obvious significance which the
mood test does possess is due to its coincidence, to a certain
extent, with the correlation test, since those authors and works
which show a marked preference for the N. C. wore also exhibit
a general tendency toward the finite verb, as compared with the
opposite class. To determine, then, the independent rhetorical
value of the moods, it would seem best to eliminate the factor of
correlation by studying their relative use within the C. and N. C.
types separately.
Before proceeding to do this for Isocrates, notice must be taken
of two elements of difficulty in presenting statistics for the use of
the moods with coo-re. The first lies in the occasional omission
of the verb in the wo-re clause, which would seem to remove the
examples in question entirely from the scope of the present inquiry ;
but an examination of the passages often reveals clear indications
as to the form of verb which the author had in mind. On such
grounds — usually the employment of ov as the negative— I have
ventured to restore the finite verb in all but 7 of the 20 cases
of ellipsis which occur in Isocrates. These 7 instances I have
excluded from the count as indeterminate.^
* In these cases also there is a strong presumption in favor of the finite verb,
since they belong almost entirely to the category of " logical inference " — So-t*
56 ''fl(TTe as an Index of Style in the Orators,
The other matter which demands a word of explanation is the
treatment of So-re clauses dependent on infinitives in indirect
discourse. That oratio obliqua influence is extended over the
cocrre clause equally with the principal in such cases, I hold to
be a fixed law, at least for the orators ; and where the infinitive
is obviously a mere accommodation to this necessity, it seems
fair to classify it according to the original conception, as finite.
The tests which I have accepted as establishing the influence of
indirect discourse on the verb following wcrre are (1) the future
infinitive ; (2) the negative ov} In all other cases I have given
the infinitive the benefit of the doubt, because the infinitive is
always possible after coare — even in the combination infinitive
-}- civ. The finite list includes Isocrates' two examples of opt.
without av — Trap. 11 (due to on in O. O.) and Arch. 84 (assimi-
lated to opt. in protasis). His solitary use of the participle —
Paneg. 64 — has been excluded from the count.
Pursuing the methods indicated with reference to cases of
ellipsis and oratio obliqua, we find that Isocrates uses, in C.
examples, 170 finite verbs to 148 infinitives, and in N. C. 112
finite to 38 infinitives ; that is, the finite verb is a little more
frequent than the infinitive in the former class of sentences
(1.15:1), while in the latter its use is almost three times as
great (2.95 : 1). But even these figures do not fairly represent
the relation existing between the two mood forms for our present
purpose. When we attach stylistic significance to the use of
finite or infinitive with wo-re, we assume a more or less free choice
between these forms. But in certain connections the language has
adopted a fixed, almost mechanical, rule in favor of the infinitive,
and so we find the finite verb excluded by considerations which
I have elsewhere (p. 9) ventured to call " extra-stylistic.^'
a^iov, &<TTe S^A.oj/, etc. But even the rule for logical inference has its exceptions ;
and in the face of sporadic instances like Panath. 94, Sot', et /xTjSev dxofi^v
IkWo etTretj' , e/c tovtwv pqSiov elvai KarafxaOeTv^ we are hardly
ju'^tified in assuming that De Permut. 40, e.g., &<tt '6| Siv avrhs ovtos elprjKev,
pad toy Kara/jiadelv, would, if the verb were expressed, certainly take the indicative.
^ On the certainty of these as marks of O. O. influence, cf. Gildersleeve, A.J. P.,
VI, 523, VII, 173; Seume, pp. 57-63. All my investigations confirm me in
accepting their position.
'^D^oT€ as an Index of Style in the Orators. 57
These cases may be classed under two general heads, according
as the use of the infinitive is called for by the nature of the wcrre
clause itself, or of the main clause on which it depends. The
former class includes those uses of wo-re which I have elsewhere
grouped, for the sake of convenience, under the head of "rare
types ^' in the orators — final, conditional, and the so-called "super-
fluous^' wcrrc — subject or object clause, epexegetic, etc. In the
second group I place all those instances in which the wo-re clause
depends on a conception which is not itself stated as a fact and
hence does not carry its consequence as a fact. The effect of
certain kinds of sentences — negative, conditional, interrogative —
in limiting axrre to the infinitive has been generally admitted.^
There has been less explicit recognition of other categories which,
in Isocrates at least, are regularly followed by wcrre c. inf. —
the imperative, the infinitive (other than O. O.), and the participle
(including O. O., as well as the attributive and circumstantial uses.)
Now, excluding from the list of examples of C. wcrre with
infinitive 52 in which the mood seems to be determined by the
character of the clause or expression on which the wcrre con-
struction depends, and from the N. C. infinitives 8 instances of
the same sort, with 15 of the "rare types," in which the infinitive
is clearly inevitable, we find Isocrates using, in C. sentences, 170
finite verbs to 96 infinitives, and in N. C, 112 finite to 15 in-
finitives. That is to say, where either mood is possible, he
employs almost twice as many finite verbs as infinitives (1.77 : 1)
when the correlative is used, and over seven times as many
(7.47 : 1) in sentences which lack correlation.
These figures amply confirm what has already been said as
to the close connection between the finite verb and the N. C.
form ; but they also show that Isocrates' large preponderance of
the finite rests not alone on its free employment in this type of
sentences, but on a clearly marked preference for it also in the
C. type.
An examination of the table given below will show that this
preference for the finite verb in C. examples is maintained quite
^ Cf. Gildersleeve's apt statement of the principle as " failure to meet the
conditions antecedent," A. J. P., vn, p. 173.
58 '^HcrT6 as an Index of Style in the Orators.
regularly throughout the separate orations. The finite predomi-
nates in every oration in the Political and Forensic classes (leaving
out of account the insignificant fragment Lochites), though the
ratios vary from a bare majority to 5:1. The Antidosis, the
longest of all Isocrates' works, shows exactly the average use
of 1.75 fin. : 1 inf. It may perhaps serve to emphasize the unre-
liable character of the moods as an indication of style to note
that the widest variation in their use in any single department
occurs in the Epideictic class — a department which we have seen
to be the most consistent in its general stylistic features. The
ratios here (in C. examples) range from 3 : 1 in favor of the finite
to 2.33 : 1 in favor of the infinitive. And a study of the consecutive
sentences in certain orations — the Evagoras, e. g. — will show how
apparently arbitrary is the choice of mood — finite and infinitive
interchanging constantly in sentences in which the result clause
sets forth actual facts of past or present time.
For all this, the general drift toward the finite form with ware
in Isocrates is a phenomenon of some interest. We see that, in
spite of the historical vantage-ground and ever present possibility
of the infinitive, the finite form, with its emphasis of fact, had
come to be preferred in the most formal of the orators, even in
that type of sentences in which the preceding correlative might
seem to keep alive most distinctly the notion of tendency and the
subordinate, adverbial relation.
In seeking to interpret a little more closely the significance
of Isocrates' use of the moods, it has seemed worth while to see
what help could be got from the subdivisions of the C. and JST. C.
types already referred to. For the C. side, the use of "fixed
formulae " at once suggests itself as a factor in his large use of
the finite verb — since here the indicative is regularly adhered to.
Isocrates shows but three instances of the infinitive following
these formulae (excluding three other cases in which the infinitive
is made necessary by the nature of the leading clause). Of the
170 examples of C. finite which he employs, 49 (or considerably
over one-fourth) are instances of these formulae.
If we choose to set these aside, on the ground that the mood,
in these stereotyped expressions, is used without consciousness,
9.- A f-
''D,aT6 as an Index of Style in the Orators. 59
we still have predominance of the finite verb, though compara-
tively slight— (1.26 :1).
I am not inclined, however, to exclude these formulae from
the comparison of moods. In the first place, the finite verb is not
absolutely necessary (see exceptions noted above). And further,
its almost exclusive employment in these expressions seems to
me to be due to the same considerations which have determined
its use in a large number of other sentences which are not formu-
laic — that is, to a tendency to use the indicative in sentences in
which the uxrre clause consists of a particular statement set forth
with especial emphasis by means of an introductory one expressing
the same fact in a more general way. The large use of this
'^general and particular" type in Isocrates would, then, to a
considerable extent, explain his preference for the finite verb.
And since these sentences partake largely of the character of cir-
cumlocution for rhetorical effect a connection between the finite
verb with coare and the formal and elaborate style of composition
becomes evident.
Again, outside of the strict G. + P. type — ^. 6., in cases where
the coo-re clause expresses a proper result of the fact stated in the
main clause — the context not infrequently shows the assignment
of cause to be rather incidental, while the stress of the sentence
falls on the fact set forth in the result clause, which thus naturally
takes the indicative. In such cases also the finite verb is seen to
be an accompaniment of a more or less rhetorical use of the con-
secutive sentence. Even beyond this, in sentences in which the
MO-T6 clause is truly subsidiary to the main thought, it may be
that the expression of the result as fact rather than tendency was
felt as giving something of weight and impressiveness in keeping
with the genius of Isocrates ; but we must beware of seeing too
much. The shift from one mood to the other is, in general, so
easy, so apparently arbitrary, that, if we are to suppose conscious-
ness at all, the determining considerations must have been of the
slightest and most subtle sort. I have tried to limit my view to
those which have to do most clearly with style in its broader
aspects. I would only add my conviction that it is in the C.
type that the essential distinction between ware with the finite
60 '^ flare as an Index of Style in the Orators.
verb and the infinitive is especially to be looked for. The con-
ditions are here most uniform, and the problem is reduced to it&
simplest terms.
Turning now to the N. C. examples, and considering them also
in the light of the subdivisions previously employed, the par-
ticular source of the large use of the finite verb in this class of
ware sentences is readily apparent. Of the 112 examples of N. C»
with finite verb occurring in Isocrates, 93 (or 83 per cent, of the
whole number) have been set down as representing the " logical '^
type,^ in which the result is of a subjective character, being an
expression of the opinion of the speaker. The great majority of
these Mcrre sentences are abstract judgments as to what is just,
necessary, fitting, possible, etc. I have included here also some
statements as to what must have happened in the past or is likely
to happen in the future which seem to be advanced as inferences
from what has gone before — especially when they are preceded
by a statement of a general principle or by a series of propo^
sitions which, with the wo-re sentence as conclusion, form a sort
of syllogism.^
When Sare is thus used as a particle of inference — a mere
"therefore" — the sentence which it introduces becomes a detached
proposition and naturally takes the finite verb.* It is, of course,,
not always easy to distinguish between this type and the ordinary
objective result expressed with finite verb ; but, allowing for all
possible differences of opinion, it is still clear that the great bulk
of N. C. ooares with finite verb come from this logical use of the
particle, which is so highly developed in Isocrates and several other
orators. Leaving it aside, the use of N. C. mo-tc in Isocrates is, as
we have seen, remarkably slight. Excluding cases of inevitable
infinitive, I have found but 29 examples which I should class as
"simple tendency or result^' — an average of less than 1.5 to an
oration. It is in this subdivision that the choice of the moods is
^Vid. sup., p. 37.
'Cf., for the latter type, Euth. 5, quoted above, p. 11.
'I have noted some five instances in which the "logical" relation seems to
co-exist with the use of the infinitive— Areop. 5, Call. 10, Panath. 94, Euth. 4,
Arch. 28 ; but in some of these cases special grounds for the infinitive might be
made out.
"flare as an Index of Style in the Orators, 61
most free, and their use accordingly of most interest; but the
whole number of examples is so small that generalization is of
diminished value. Still, it is worth while to observe that the
finite maintains its predominance, in a slightly greater ratio than
in the larger class of C. sentences. Of the 29 examples, 19 show
the finite verb and 10 the infinitive. This slight use of N. C.
wo-re with infinitive in expressing simple result — about one to
to two orations — is one of the most noteworthy features of the
usage of Isocrates.^
As to any essential distinction between wo-re with finite verb
and with infinitive, the N. C. examples furnish little more help
than the C. The observations I have been able to make are
largely of a negative character. I note that the cases are very
rare in which wo-re with infinitive has any truly adverbial or
restrictive force such as might lead the reader to supply a " latent
correlative," expressing degree or manner. As a rule, the con-
secutive clause is added to a statement which is absolute and
complete in itself. The arbitrary punctuation of editors has, as
Berdolt observes, no significance for our purpose, and the length
of the co(TTe clause seems not to be a determining factor in the
use of the moods. Of course, there are different degrees of
"detachment." Some results are less obvious, less closely con-
nected with what precedes, than others, and in such cases the
finite verb seems more natural ; but a study of the actual usage
in Isocrates shows slight application of this principle, and it would
be rash to attempt to predict the mood which will be found in
any given case. Such a pair of examples as Aeg. 25 and 39 are
fairly typical of the apparent indifference as to mood. We must
needs be content with our theoretical distinction between conse-
quence conceived as " inherent tendency " and as " actual result,"
^ It may be of use to those who wish to pursue this study further to cite the
sections containing the examples which I have classed as "simple result" with
infinitive: Paneg. 5(2), 168(1), 111, Arch. 39, 66, Areop. 37(2), Ad Nic. 49,
Panath. 146, Aeg. 39, Euth. 13, Arch. 51 may be included if it is not taken as
epexegetic.
Even in this short list, several cases will be noted in which the infinitive
might be said to be required by the nature of the leading clause — influence of
participle, oratio obliqua, etc.
62 "flcTTe as an Index of Style in the Orators,
and fall back, for illustration, on the corresponding indifference
in the use of "so that" and "so as to" in English (in cases
where no new subject is introduced) — "substituting y for x," as
Gildersleeve puts it (A. J. P., vii, p. 163).'
Apart from questions of thought-relation, there is one con-
sideration having to do more strictly with formal style which
I would venture to suggest as a possible factor in Isocrates'
apparent preference for the finite verb in the "simple result"
type. However little difference we may feel between a result
expressed with finite verb and with infinitive, the use of the
latter necessarily involves a certain grammatical nexus, and the
M(TT6 clause with the infinitive always remains, in form at least,
a part of the preceding sentence. A sentence thus extended by
the " tacking on " of a consequence exhibits a " loose " structure
as opposed to a " periodic," in the modern sense. The general
tendency of Isocrates is toward the latter type ; and the more
complete detachment of the result clause (N. C.) with finite verb,
by which it forms practically a new proposition, may have recom-
mended itself to our author on rhetorical grounds — two " periodic "
sentences being thus attainable in the place of a single " loose."
If we add, as previously suggested, the greater distinctness and
impressiveness of the fact set forth with finite verb, and take
into account the possible influence of the freely used " logical "
type in making the finite verb a familiar form with N. C. wo-re, the
leaning towards it exhibited by Isocrates is in part accounted for.
I insert here tables showing Isocrates' use of the moods in
the C. and N. C. types respectively, the statistics for each oration
being given as well as the aggregates. In the C. examples with
finite verb, the formulae have been separated from the non-
formulaic sentences, which are marked as "ordinary" examples;
while in the infinitive list, the designation " free " is used to mark
cases where a choice of mood lay open, as opposed to those in
which the infinitive was "necessary" on account of the nature
of the main clause.
^ It may be noted that in most of the examples of N. C. &(rTe with infinitive
(see list of passages above) the consequence set forth is, in point of fact, an
actual result in present or past time.
''flcrre as an Index of Style in the Orators,
63
In the N. C. table, distinction is made between the " logical "
and ** simple result" types in the case of both finite verbs and
infinitives; and in presenting the examples with infinitive, the
" necessary '' and " rare types " are classed separately, though in
both the mood obeys fixed laws, and they are equally in oppo-
sition to the " free " use exemplified by the examples under the
other two heads.
ISOCRATES.
C.
Finite.
Infinitive.
Formulae.
Ordinary.
Total.
Necessary.
Free.
Total.
Demonicus
1
2
4
5
4
4
3
1
2
8
2
7
2
1
1
1
1
1
2
14
8
5
5
11
9
11
1
7
1
1
19
7
5
4
7
1
2
*1
3
16
12
10
9
15
12
12
3
15
3
8
21
8
6
5
8
1
2
"i
*5
6
4
2
7
"i
1
7
2
*8
1
4
1
2
"i
1
'4
14
6
2
6
4
14
4
7
5
1
2
12
6
1
1
5
1
1
Ad Nicoclera
Nicocles
1
4
Panegyricus
Philippus
19
11
Archidamus
Areopagiticus
De Pace
6
8
11
Evagoras
14
Helen
5
Busiris
8
Panathenaicus
Cont. Sophistas....
Plataicus
12
3
2
De Permutatione.
DeBigis
20
7
Trapeziticus.......
Callimachus
Aegineticus
Lochites
5
2
7
1
Euthynus
1
49
121
170
52
96
148
64 "Hare as an Index of Style in the Orator's.
N. C.
Finite.
Infinitive.
Logical.
Simple
Result.
Total.
Rare
Types.
Necessary.
Free.
Logical.
Simple
Result.
Total.
Demonicus
*2
1
4
10
6
2
7
7
1
3
5
1
4
14
3
2
7
5
2
7
1
2
..'
...
3
1
*1
1
1
2
*1
2
"2
1
2
1
6
12
6
2
10
8
1
3
6
2
5
16
3
2
8
7
2
9
i
"3
]
4
*i
"i
"i
1
*i
1
*3
1
...
...
i
*i
...
1
1
"i
"i
...
1
*1
3
"2
1
"i
...
...
"i
"i
Ad Nicoclem
Nicocles
2
3
7
1
Panegyricus
Philippus
Archidamus
Areopagiticus
De Pace
7
2
1
Evagoras
Helen
1
Busiris
Panathenaicus
Cont. Sophistas
Plataicus...
5
1
De Permutatione..
De Bigis
1
1
Trapezitlcus
Callimachus
Aegineticus
1
1
2
Lochites
Euthynus
2
93
19
112
15
8
Ci-xr)
38
A similar classification of the examples found in Lysias is given
herewith.^ In the C. list, the ratio of finite to "free" infinitive
is somewhat greater than in Isocrates (2.62 : 1) ; but it will be
noted that the C. finite list is more largely recruited from the
type of " fixed formulae " in the former author than in the latter.
In the N. C. examples the situation is reversed, finite standing to
free infinitive as 4.67 : 1 — a much smaller ratio than in Isocrates.
The larger average occurrence of the "logical" type in Lysias
might, taken alone, have suggested an opposite result ; but a
comparison of the moods in the " simple result " type will show
the main source of the difference. The larger average occurrence
^ The collective statistics only, not those for the separate orations.
"flare as an Index of Style in the Orators. 65
of this type in Lysias, and his far higher proportion of infinitives
within it, as compared with Isocrates, are the most striking
features of this table. The latter phenomenon seems to be a
characteristic of the less formal orators ; but here again the num-
ber of examples is too small to warrant broad generalizations.
I have not attempted to distinguish between the genuine and
spurious works of Lysias in presenting these statistics. The
number of suspected orations is small, most of them are quite
brief, and there is a lack of agreement as to their status among
the best critics ; but in one instance I have excluded an oration
from the table — Or. 20, (For Polystratus). This is a work of
more considerable compass, and a strong case has been made out
against it, to which the usage as to coo-re adds considerable con-
firmation. Its peculiarities are, (1) a remarkably large ratio of
N. C. to C. — 12 : 1 ; (2) in the N. C. examples, a very small pro-
portion of " logical inference " to " simple result " — 3 : 9 ; (3) in
the lastrmentioned type, a marked preponderance of the infinitive
over the finite verb — 6 : 3. In all these respects, it exemplifies
tendencies of Lysias as against Isocrates, but the degree of variation
from the normal use of Lysias is far greater than that between
Lysias and Isocrates.
Lysias.
0.
Finite. Infinite.
Formulae 23 Necessary 12
Ordinary 45 Free 26
Total. 68 . Total 38
N. C.
Finite. Infinitive.
Logical 64 Rare Types 5
Simple Result 10 Necessary 3
Total 64 "^"^^nsimple Result... 9i ~
Total 22
The statistics of the moods for Isaeus show a close correspond-
ence, in most respects, to the usage of Lysias. The ratio of finite
66 "Q^(TT6 as an Index of Style in the Orators.
to "free" infinitive in C. examples is practically the same —
2.57 : 1 ; but the part played by the " formulae " is smaller, these
expressions constituting little over one-fourth of the C. finite
examples, as against one-third in Lysias.
In the N. C. type, the preponderance of finite over free infinitive
is a little smaller than in Lysias — 4.3 : 1,; this, too, in the face of
a somewhat larger average occurrence of the " logical " variety,
which, in Isaeus, adheres strictly to the finite verb. Here, again,
the explanation lies in the greater relative use of the infinitive in
the " simple result " type. In this respect Isaeus shows an even
greater advance on Lysias than Lysias on Isocrates, and comes
much closer to the use in the oration For Polystratus (Ps.-Lys.),
just referred to, and, I think it will be found, to that of the minor
orators generally. His very slight use of the " rare types " —
final and substantive, — his entire lack of the elliptical use, and his
single case of the participle (9, 16) may be noted in passing.
Of course, in Isaeus we have a much smaller number of Scrre
sentences from which to draw conclusions than in Lysias ; but, for
the " simple result " type, to which attention has been especially
directed, the difference is not very great — (19 cases in Lysias, 14
in Isaeus).
Isaeus.
0.
Finite. Infinitive.
Formulae 5 Necessary 14
Ordinary 13 Free 7
Total 18 Total 21
N.C.
Finite. Infinitive.
Logical 39 Rare Types 2
Simple Result 4 Necessary 1
Free / logical
Total 43 \ Simple Result 10
Total 13
''Hcrre as an Index of Style in the Orators. 67
^aSTE IN DEMOSTHENES.
To treat exhaustively the wcrre usage in so large a body of
writings as the orations of Demosthenes is not practicable within
the limits assigned to the present work. Yet the very extent of
his writings, affording as they do a sufficiently broad basis for
generalization, as well as his importance as an orator, has made
it seem worth while to present the statistics of his usage, and to
emphasize a few of the more striking results.
Two ends are kept especially in view in this brief treatment — (1)
to see how far the connection between certain phases of axrre usage
and certain tendencies in style which has been made out from a
study of the other orators — especially Isocrates — is exemplified in
Demosthenes ; (2) to see how far the use of ware can be made
available as a test of genuineness, by a comparative study of it in
the genuine works of Demosthenes and those attributed to him but
generally admitted to be spurious. It will be more convenient to
consider this latter question first.
Comparison of Genuine and Spurious Works.
The large body of orations formerly attributed to Demosthenes
but now generally regarded as spurious demands separate treat-
ment from the genuine works. A comparison of the wcrre usage
of these two groups is interesting. I have distinguished genuine
and spurious according to the classification given by Butcher in
the appendix to his "Demosthenes,"^ which reflects closely the
judgment of Blass.
In frequency of occurrence they do not differ materially. The
genuine works contain 328 examples of axrre, an average to the
page of .47. The spurious show 218 cases, an average occur-
rence of .54.
But when we come to apply the test of correlation a marked
difference appears. The genuine works show a ratio of C. to N. C.
of 1.89 : 1 ; the spurious, of 1 : 1.06. Demosthenes's use of the
1 " Classical Writers' " Series, D. Appleton & Co.
68 "flare as an Index of Style in the Orators,
C. type, relatively to the N. C, is thus seen to be about twice as
great as that shown in this collected body of writings by his imita-
tors or unknown contemporaries. The superiority of the correla-
tive test, as an index of style, over that of average occurrence is
again demonstrated ; and its possible value as a test of genuineness,
where sufficiently large masses of material can be brought into
comparison, is strongly suggested.
I. COMPARISON WITH OTHER ORATORS.
Confining our attention now to the genuine work of Demosthenes,
we may note that, in the matter of average occurrence, the reaction
from a large use of the particle first observed in Isaeus — when
compared with Lysias and Isocrates — is still more marked in
Demosthenes, who occupies in this respect an intermediate position
between Isaeus and Aeschines.^
With regard to fondness for the correlative with Mare, to which
attention is mainly directed in this chapter, it will be observed ^
that Demosthenes shows a marked reversion toward the usage of
Isocrates, to whom he holds second place (Isocrates 2.21 : 1 ;
Demosthenes 1.89 : 1), while the orator who comes next in this
respect is his rival and contemporary, Aeschines (1.48 : 1). We
can not here attempt an analysis of the various elements which
enter into the use of C. wo-re in Demosthenes; but if we may
assume a general connection between a large use of this type and
carefulness in the construction of the period, the position indicated
by these figures is certainly not far from that which we should
•expect to find him occupying. Especially interesting is his depart-
ure from the usage of his immediate predecessor and reputed master,
Isaeus. It is instructive to note Blass' statements in comparing
the two,^ that Demosthenes *' emphasizes and perfects the oratori-
cal '^ and "avoids the colloquial," especially Xeft? elpofxevT) such as
is common in Isaeus ; and that he makes a marked approach to
the grandeur and fulness of epideictic style, " so far as was possi-
ble for the practical orator."
^Vid. Table of Average Occurrence, p. 6.
« Vid. Table, p. 11. 'in, p. 146.
''Hare as an Index of Style in the Orators, 69
2. COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT CLASSES.
I have adopted Butcher's classification of the orations of Demos-
thenes under the three heads Deliberative, Public Forensic, and
Private Forensic. As to the characteristics which distinguish
these three groups we may again avail ourselves of the judgment
of Blass,^ who says, in substance, that the Deliberative class have
the strongest and most elevated style, in keeping with the dignity
of their subjects ; at the opposite pole stand the Private orations ;
while the Public Forensic show a mixture of these two stylistic
tendencies. But as these last deal largely with public matters of
grave import and were designed for wide audiences we may expect
to find them showing closer affinities with the former class than
with the latter.
The degree of preference for C. So-re shown by the several
classes corresponds to this estimate of their rhetorical character.
The Deliberative has C. to N. C. as 2.19 : 1 ; the Public Forensic
as 2.10 : 1 ; the Private Forensic as 1.37 : 1.
Comparison of Oeators Class by Class.
We have compared the general ratios of C. and N. C. in Demos-
thenes and other orators. An examination of the usage of these
writers in similar classes would seem to be a still more exact test ; but
data for such a comparison are only partially available. Blass^
recommends as standards of comparison in studying the style of
Demosthenes, Isocrates and Thucydides for the Deliberative class,
Isocrates for the Public Forensic, Isaeus and Lysias for the
Private orations. If, as already suggested, we take the Political
oratory of Isocrates as the closest correspondent to the Public
Forensic in Demosthenes (on the score of theme and oratorical
handling rather than technical character), we can make a com-
plete comparison between these two orators ; and we find a re-
markably close correspondence, class for class, in the matter of
correlation :
1 pp. 80-81. » pp. 81-82.
5
70 ''Xlcrre as an Index of Style in the Orators.
Isocrates Polit. 2.25 : 1 ; For. 1.54 : 1.
Demosthenes... { ^«fib. 2.19 : 1 | p^.^^ ^^^ j 37 . ^
I Pub. For. 2.10:1 »
Again, the usage of the Private Forensic class in Demosthenes
may be compared with the general ratios of Isaeus and Lysias, since
practically all the work of these two belongs to this type of
oratory.^ The result shows how much more freely Demosthenes
employs the correlative even in this field — Deoiosthenes 1.37:1;
Lysias 1:1.17; Isaeus 1:1.51. As compared with Isaeus, his
use of it (relatively to N. C.) is twice as great; and we may
again refer to Blass, who says ^ that " Demosthenes departs much
further than Isaeus from the customary simplicity of the Private
speech.'^ Blass is speaking here especially of diction ; but the
observation will be found, I think, to hold fairly well with refer-
ence to the structure of the sentence.
Finally, a more exact measure of the difference between the
genuine and spurious works of the Demosthenean corpus may be
had by comparing them in that department to which the greater
part of the spurious orations belong — the Private Forensic. The
ratios of C. to N. C. for this class stand — Genuine 1.37 : 1 ;
Spurious 1 : 1.49. While the pseudo-Demosthenean private speeches
thus stand in marked contrast to the genuine, it will be noted that
the ratio of C. to N. C. which they collectively exhibit is almost
exactly that of Isaeus — Ps. Dem. 1 : 1.49 ; Isae. 1 : 1.51.
Influence of Time of Composition.
Demosthenes' activity extends over a sufficiently long period to
suggest a development of style and to permit us to raise the ques-
tion whether time of composition may not enter, as an additional
^ It is true that, according to the technical division of Attic law, the greater
part of Lysias' orations were written for 'public suits — i. e. what we should call
criminal cases. But most of these were virtually 'private suits, as concerning only
the interests of individuals, and their composition shows the simple, business-like
style of the strictly private orations, rather than the elaboration and rhetorical
finish of the so-called "Public Forensics" of Demosthenes, which belong to
'political cases and were addressed, not merely to a jury, but to a large audience
of interested citizens. Cf. Jebb, i. p. 163 ; 209.
*m. p. 85.
'^na-re as an Index of Style in the Orators* 71
factor, into his usage in any given respect. Blass seems to assume
that it does, and indicates the general direction of this development
when he says (p. 97), "in sentence-structure the approach to the
epideictic only followed gradually." Cf., for a similar statement,
p. 146. Again, p. 80, he says that not only the classes, but the
times, are to bo considered, " both in general and within the several
classes." Time, then, might be considered a factor in that lower
ratio of C. to N. C. ware which we have just noted in the case of
the Private orations; for this class, taken as a whole, is early,
relatively to the other departments.
Within the several classes, Blass notes this development espe-
cially in the case of the Deliberative and Private orations. The
perfected stage of Deliberative oratory is seen, he says, in the
Philippic speeches — the first of which was spoken in 351. The
peculiar excellence of the Private Forensic class is exhibited about
350 ; differences are shown according to earlier or later compo-
sition ; " later, the form approaches more nearly that of the Public
Forensics." ^
I have, accordingly, taken the year 350 as a sort of central point
in Demosthenes' development and grouped together, for purposes
of comparison, the orations of ascertained date (following Blass'
chronology) which precede and those which follow that date. The
collective ratios of these two groups, in the Deliberative class, show
a striking difference in wcrre usage : for the earlier period, C. to
N. C. as 1 : 1.83 ; for the later, as 5.8 : 1. The Private Forensic
class shows an increase in correlation less marked, yet quite per-
ceptible : C. to N. C. as 1 : 1.3 for the earlier group, as 1.75 : 1 for
the later.^ The gain in the Public Forensic class is insignificant :
1.88 : 1 for orations before 350, 2.28 : 1 for those after.
1 pp. 80-81.
^ Of the Private orations, the Conon has been excluded from this calculation
as being of uncertain date. If it should be placed after 350 (following Clinton —
vid. Blass, p. 457), the ratio of C. to N. C. for the later period in this class would
be considerably increased.
72 "Xlo-T6 as an Index of Style in the Orators,
3. COMPARISON OF ORATIONS WITHIN THE CLASSES.
Tables are here presented showing the number of examples of
C. and N. C. Mare in all the orations of Demosthenes and those
attributed to him. The orations of each class are arranged in order
of preference for the C. type, the genuine and spurious works being
grouped separately in each of the three classes. The chronological
order of the genuine works may be made out from the dates in-
serted, which represent the judgment of Blass. The length of each
oration in Teubner pages is given, deduction being made for copies
of documents and other extraneous matter. The ratios of C. and
N. C. for the several classes are also appended.
Delibpjrative.
Genuine.
C. N.C.
3rd Phil 341 B.C 18 pp.... 13: 1
3rd 01 349 91 7:
De Reb. Cherson 341 17 5: 2
2nd 01 349... 8 2:
De Pace 346 6 1:
1st Phil 351 131 3: 3
2nd Phil. 344 8I 1: 1
DeSymmor 354 10} 2: 3
1st 01 349 7} 0: 1
Pro Ehod. Libert 351 9} 0: 2
ProMegalop 353 8 1: 3
Ratio for class, 2.19 : 1
Spurious'.
De Foed. cum Alex 8 4:
DeOrd. Rep 9} 4:
Epist. Phil 6 8: 2
4th Phil 18 5: 2
Adv. Epist. Phil 5J 3: 2
De Halon 10| 2: 4
''£1(TT€ as an Index of Style in the Orators, 73
Public Forensic.
Genuine,
c. N.C.
Meidias 347 B, c 59|pp... 24: 4
Timocrates 353 55 15: 5
DeFals. Leg 344 96. 30:15
Aristocrates 352 63| 15: 8
Leptines 354 47 8: 6
De Corona 339 80 19:13
Androtion.. 355 22} 11: 8
Ratio for class, 2.10 : 1
Spurious.
Aristogeiton A'.
Aristogeiton B'.
Theocrines
Neaera
27
.. 10: 4
7
.. 2: 2
21
.. 4: 6
34}
.. 5:17
Private Forensic.
Genuine.
Conon 14pp.... 11:
StephanusA' , 349-8 B. c... 22} 6: 2
Callicles bef. 350 9 3: 1
Pantaenetus 346 16} 2:
Onetor B'. 362 4 1:
ProPhorm 350 17 3: 2
Boeotus A' 348 , 11 3: 2
Nausimachus 346 (?) 8 3: 2
De Cor. Trierarch 361-57 6 3: 2
Eubulides 345 20} 7: 6
AphobusB' 363 7 1: 1
AphobusF' 363 17 5: 6
AphobusA' 363 20 4: 7
OnetorA' 362 11 3: 6
Spudias bef. 350 8} 0: 3
Katio for class, 1 .37 : 1
74 "D^crre as an Index of Style in the Orators,
Private Forensic.
Spurious.
Callippus
Zenothemis , . . .
9 pp....
C. N.C.
7: 2
• i-r^....
8
2:
Nicostratus
9
2: 1
Phaenippus
Boeot. B'
9i
1 :
16J
11 : 8
Diouysodorus
16
4: 3
Adv. Phorm
141
2: 2
Steph. B'
Lacritus
7
1 : 2
121
1 : 2
Apaturius
' -^■"2
Ill
2: 4
Oly mpiodor us
15J
191
1 : 3
Polycles
Euerg. and Mnes
Timotheus
3: 9
231
4:13
18
1 : 4
Macartatus
20
1 : 5
Leochares
1«
2:10
Epideictic (Spurious).
Eroticus 141
11 : 2
Epitaphius
101
2: 3
In general, it may be noted that these tables do not present such
striking results as were afforded in Isocrates. Perhaps it is less
in keeping with the genius of Demosthenes than of Isocrates to
employ a comparatively formal rhetorical feature in such a way as
to reflect faithfully the difference in style between particular ora-
tions. However this may be, the brevity of so many of the ora-
tions, combined with the much smaller average occurrence, neces-
sarily operates to deprive these statistics of significance. It is only
in the Public Forensic class, as a rule, that the number of examples
is sufficient to make the ratios important ; and here, for the most
part, the variations are slight. However, it has seemed worth
while to call attention to a few works which, affording a respect-
able number of examples, show also a ratio of C. to N. C. depart-
ing widely from the norm of their class.
''flo-re as an Index of Style in the Orators, 75
Genuine Orations.
1. Deliberative.
Zrd Philippic,
The 3rd Philippic is the longest and the latest in time of its
class and shows the highest average occurrence of mo-tc (.78). It
challenges attention by its remarkable proportion of C. to N. C. —
13:1. Blass (p. 381) calls it the most powerful and pathetic of
all the Deraosthenean orations. Both he and Lord Brougham call
attention to its lack of " close reasoning." This feature may help
to explain the entire absence of the " logical " type of wcrre sen-
tence. But the all but exclusive use of the correlative form in
expressing result of the stricter sort is, I think, to be connected
especially with the oratorical character of the composition. Blass,
after commenting on the "fully developed and flowing period^'
of the 1st Philippic as compared with the speech on the Sym-
mories, "which is neither epideictic nor oratorical," remarks on
the " still more powerful swing of the 3rd Philippic."
A number of the m(jt€ sentences give a decidedly rhetorical effect.^
The greater part of the examples incline to the " G. + P." type,
and 9 of the 13 C. instances show the indicative in the ooare
clause.
Srd Olynthiac,
The 3rd Olynthiac is much shorter and has but seven examples
of ware ; but all these are of the C. type. Blass (p. 321) describes
it as " full of strong passion " ; Butcher speaks of its tone of
" indignant remonstrance."
The coare sentences serve effectively for emphatic characteriza-
tion, the G. + P. type being well represented, but they are, on
the whole, shorter and of a less rhetorical cast than in the 3rd
Philippic.
2. Public Forensic.
The same gradation and advance in the composition of the period
which Blass (p. 151) remarks, in the Deliberative class, in passing
iCf. 6.^. §g land 54.
76 '^rio-re as an Index of Style in the Or^ators.
from the Symmories to the 1st Philippic, and from the latter to
the 3rd Philippic, he traces, for this class, in the series Leptines,
Aristocrates and Timocrates, Meidias and the False Embassy.
Meidias,
Of the Meidias, he says (p. 339) that it is "one of the first
monuments of dignified and powerful oratory"; that it "belongs
out and out to fhe genus grave, like the Philippic orations" ; it is
" thoroughly pathetic, hence quite the opposite of the Leptines."
Butcher refers to it as " an admirable example of ancient invediveJ^
In preference for C. coare this oration far surpasses, not only all
others of its class, but all others of the longer orations, with its
ratio of 6 : 1. The G. + P. type prevails, and of the C. examples
— excluding "necessary" infins. — two-thirds take the indicative.
The work which Blass is especially fond of contrasting with the
Meidias is the Leptines} It shows a remarkably small average
occurrence of wcrre, and stands among the lowest of its class in
ratio of C. to N. C. For characterization, cf especially Blass, pp.
272-3, where he remarks its absence of passion and of bitter in-
vective. Elsewhere (p. 150) he observes that it lacks fulness and
grandeur, despite the fact that the passages in praise of benefactors
of the state afibrded rich opportunity for the epideictic style. These
two spheres — invective and highly polished encomium — are strong-
holds of the C. wcrre construction. The latter use can best be
studied in Isocrates ; the former in Demosthenes, and nowhere
better than in the Meidias and Timocrates.
Timocrates,
In respect to the artistic development of the period, Blass, as we
have seen, places this oration in an intermediate class between the
Leptines and Meidias. He attributes to it fulness of sentence-
structure (p. 287), and notes its bitterness and vehemence of tone.
In proportion of C. to N. C. cocrre it stands far below the Meidias^
but appreciably above the average for its class. The G. + P.
type is especially common, being employed to set forth and char-
1 Cf. pp. 81, 151, 339.
'^fla-Te as an Index of Style in the
acterize strongly the conduct of Timocrates and others^; and in
these examples, in accordance with the general rule, the finite verb
is used almost exclusively.
A large proportion of the were sentences in the Timocrates give
a decidedly rhetorical effect. In a majority of instances the respons-
ive effect is heightened by the initial position of the first correla-
tive ; and not infrequently an effective balance is exhibited, either
between the main and Mcrre clause, or between the consecutive
sentence taken as a whole and another member which unites with
it to form a period. For examples, cf. §§ 3 and 9.
3. Private Forensic.
Conon,
The remarkable preference for the C. type exhibited in the Conon
is a phenomenon which seems to demand explanation ; for we have
here an essay of Demosthenes in the " plain " style, and its Lysianic
characteristics have been noted by the critics, from Dionysius down.^
The slight place given to formal argumentation may account for
the lack of the " logical " type of wo-re ; for here, as so often in
Lysias, the narrative is the argument.' But the entire absence as
well of the " simple result " type of N. C. is rather remarkable.
We may at least note the character of the ware sentences. They
are for the most part short and simply constructed ; the initial
position of the correlative word is hardly more common than the
final ; the infinitive predominates largely over the finite verb ; and
the G. -f- P. type is extremely rare. The ware clause, as a rule,
comes in quite naturally to measure the degree of an act or condi-
tion by its consequences — the true " substantiating " function of
the construction.* The use of the anticipating correlative serves
primarily, with this earnest and indignant speaker, to emphasize
and call attention to the connection between fact and consequence.
But it also contributes to the sentence-structure something of that
^ Note the large use of the familiar formulae.
'Cf. Kirk, Demosthenic Style in the Private Orations (J. H. U. Diss.), p. 31.
»Cf. Blass, p. 461 ; Kirk, p. 21.
* Vid. mjyray p. 13, and cf. A. J. P., xiv. p. 242.
78 ''flcrre as an Index of Style in the Orators.
"well-rounded" effect which Dionysius seems to claim for it;^ and
which modern critics, in laying stress, very properly, on the " ethical
simplicity " of the work in relation to the character portrayed, have
perhaps too much overlooked.
Guardianship Orations.
We have now examined those works which show a marked pref-
erence for C. wcrre, and found that, as a rule, they exhibit certain
common features — oratorical fulness and finish, impassioned nar-
rative, and abundant characterization. Of those in which the
N. C. prevails, no single oration shows a very striking ratio, espe-
cially in view of the small- number of examples. But the fact that
in the Private orations, where the ratios are most significant, all
the works showing a predominance of N. C, except the very brief
speech against Spudias (with only three examples), belong to the
group of " guardianship orations " — the speeches against Aphobus
and Onetor — suggests taking the collective statistics for this group.
We thus have a considerable body of material (59 pp.), belonging
to the same period, dealing with practically the same issue, and
exhibiting the same general style. In these " lawyer-like speeches "
of Demosthenes himself," ^ the logical faculty of the advocate is
given free scope and close legal argument is the dominant feature.
There is little of characterization of opponents,^ and comparatively
little attention to rhetorical effect.*
In this group C. stand to N. C. as 1 to 1.43 — almost exactly
reversing the general ratio for the Private orations (1.37 : 1).'
And it can hardly be without significance that the ratio which
they exhibit is practically that of Isaeus — the master under whose
influence, in the opinion of many, these earliest works were
produced.
1 (rrpoyyiXa, De Adm. Vi. c. 13. » Kirk, p. 21. ^ Cf. Blass, p. 231.
* In the Onetor A'' all three of the C. examples occur in the single page of the
prooemium, a rather rhetorical passage (conflatio invidiae, cf. Kirk, p. 22).
^Note that comparison is here made with the whole class, in which the
" guardianship orations " are included. If we compare these with the remaining
Private orations, the contrast between the ratios will, of course, be more marked.
"Il(7Te as an Index of Style in the Orators. 79
Spurious Orations.
The two spurious orations which show the most marked prefer-
ence for C. co<7T€ deserve special notice, inasnauch as they are
excellent representatives of a style which we have found elsewhere
associated with a large use of this type of sentence.
Letter of Philip,
The letter of Philip to the Athenian people — the composition,
doubtless, of some rhetorical secretary ^ — bears clearly the impress
of the Isocratic school.^ While quite short, the average occur-
rence of Scrre is remarkable (1.67) — double that of any genuine
work of Demosthenes. Of the 10 examples, 8 are C, 2 N. C.
The C. examples nearly all exhibit the G. + P. type; six of
them are instances of the formula eh tovto (too-qvtov) ; seven
take the indicative ; ^ and all of these belong to the language of
denunciation, being employed, in a general bill of complaints, to
stamp each act recited with the quality which condemns it. Blass *
notes these " frequent emphasizing expressions " (et? tovto, k. t, X.)
as among the markedly epideictic features of the work.
Eroticfus,
This is one of the two professedly epideictic works which have
in some way been thrust into the Demosthenean corpus. For
characterization, cf. Blass, pp. 406-408, 588. He finds the style
" thoroughly Isocratic ^' — marked by careful composition and
great periods. The average occurrence of wo-re (.90) is close up to
the general average of Isocrates. As to correlation, we have the
striking proportion of 11 C. : 2 N. C. The rhetorical handling of
the construction recalls strongly the encomia of Isocrates. Note
especially the free use of too-ovtov BcacjiepeLv and equivalent ex-
pressions in setting up a contrast.
1 Blass, p. 588. 'Cf. Blass, pp. 394, 396-7.
' The &(rre in § 14, followed by the participle, is a disputed reading — " excidere
facile potuit," Dind.-Blass ed. ■* p. 397.
80 '^D^are as an Index of Style in the Orators,
Neaera.
On the other hand, those spurious orations which show the
highest ratio of N. C. form a group whose stylistic tendencies are
directly opposite to those of the Isocratic school and of the more
finished work of Demosthenes. Of th^se the Neaera is most
deserving of study, as being the longest of the spurious orations
and containing the highest number of examples of wo-re. The
unfavorable characterization of its style which occurs in the
V7r60eo-L<; of Libanius is concurred in by modern critics.^
Not only does the proportion of N. C. to C. exceed that of any
genuine work of Demosthenes, but the several sub-types figure in
the N. C. group in unusual proportions. The " logical '^ type is
fairly well represented ; but the preponderance of N. C. seems to
be due especially to a larger use of the "finaP' (including the
icf)' (pre equivalent) and " simple result '^ types than we have been
accustomed to find. The latter, as before pointed out, is the most
significant for style, being, in most cases, readily interchangeable
with the C. form. This oration shows, according to my classifica-
tion, a number of examples of this use of axrre equal to that of the
C. type — a phenomenon very uncommon in the standard orators.
All but one of these are followed by the infinitive.
With the Neaera may be grouped the other spurious works (all
Private orations) which show, like it, a more marked preference
for the N. C. than is found in any genuine work — viz. the Polycles,
Tiraotheus, Euergus and MnesihuluSy Macartatus, and Leochares.
The first two of these Blass (p. 589) assigns with certainty, the
third with strong probability, to the author of the Neaera and
several other speeches for Apollodorus — an unnamed logographer,
" whose efforts hardly ever attain medium rank.'' The Macar-
tatus^ along with the Lacritus and Olympiodorus, — all " of poor
quality " — he assigns to " a logographer of low rank " ; while the
Leochares stands "nearly on the same plane." For the looseness
and general '^ formlessness '' of their composition, and for their
^ Cf. Blass, pp. 539-541, who finds in it the same faults of form as in the other
works of the " mediocre advocate " who wrote for Apollodorus.
''flo-re as an Index of Style in the Orators. 81
correspondences with each other and with the Neaera, see Blass —
especially pp. 526, 530, 547-9, 556, 560, 571.
An analysis of the N. C. examples in these works shows a simi-
larity to the Neaera in that the number of examples of the "simple
result^' type in each instance equals or surpasses that of the C.^
This tendency to tack on the consequence loosely instead of
gathering it up into a well-knit period by an anticipating correla-
tive gives a certain '^ trailing " effect to the style (especially when
the infinitive is used, as it is in most of these examples), and is in
keeping, I think, with the general laxity of sentence-structure and
absence of o'ratorical rounding in this group of speeches. It cer-
tainly helps to differentiate them from the greater orators of the
canon.
4. COMPARISON OF PARTS OF SAME ORATION.
The last test proposed has to do with variation in the use of
wa-re in different parts of the same oration, where there is a dis-
tinct change of topic, accompanied by difference of style. The
practical oratory of Demosthenes gives less scope for this kind of
analysis than the writings of Isocrates, with their sophistic lean-
ings, in which we seem to see the professional rhetorician delight-
ing to show his skill in different kinds of composition within the
compass of a single work. The slight use, too, of strictly epideictic
narrative — that absence of the " pleasing treatment of grand and
agreeable topics " which the writer of the Trepl "T'^ov^ observed in
Demosthenes — removes an element which often gives a good oppor-
tunity for the application of the analytical test in Isocrates. For
all this, there are not wanting orations of Demosthenes in which
the different divisions of the discourse are fairly well marked, not
only by formulae of transition, but by significant stylistic differ-
ences, so that they present reasonably distinct " blocks " from the
standpoint of composition. In two works especially a contrast in
style and subject-matter between different parts is strikingly re-
flected by the usage with regard to ware.
The bulk of the Timocrates is made up of two tolerably distinct
^The Folycles has nine N. C. examples, all of the "S. R." type except two or
three, which are " final," and all taking the infinitive.
82 '^ flare as an Index of Style in the Orators.
divisions. Sections 17-122 are devoted mainly to a close, detailed
argument, based on the provisions of existing laws — the case being
a ypa(j)7) irapavofzcov. This division occupies 27 pages, forming
about one-half of the whole speech. Sections 125-203 (20 pp.)
are a sort of digression, containing personal attacks on parties in
opposition. They consist largely of narrative and characterization,
and are marked by oratorical vigor and fulness.
The first of these divisions contains but 4 examples of Mare, all
of the N. C. type. The second exhibits 13 examples, and 12 of
these are C.
A similar well-marked division into legal argument and narra-
tive is seen in the speech Against Androtion. The plan laid down
in the irpoOeai^ (§ 3) is strictly adhered to. Sees. 5-46 (12 pp)
contain an anticipation and refutation of the pleas of the defence.
The remainder of the speech (9 pp.) is a scathing review of the
public career of Androtion. The greater fulness and dignity of
treatment in this second division, as compared with the technical
argument, is recognized by Blass (p. 262), and a corresponding
difference in style is clearly perceptible.
The first division has 7 examples of wcrre, of which 6 are N. C.
In the second the particle is employed 11 times, and 10 of these
instances are of the C. type.
Among other orations in which analysis brings out a suggestive
grouping of the two types of coare sentences, the Conon, Onetor A',
and Stephanus A' may be specially noted.
Concluding Kemarks,
In concluding this study, I would again call attention to the
elements of rhetorical effect which have combined to give the con-
struction of Mare with a correlative so large a place in the most
finished work of the 'greatest masters of the oratorical period.
Among the most significant of these are dignity and deliberateness
of movement, responsion, balance, fulness, and emphasis gained by
suspense. The last seems to me especially important ; and it was
seized upon as the salient feature of the construction by Dissen in
his essay, '^De Structura Periodorum Oratoria,"^ and set forth
* Prefixed to his edition of Demosthenes De Corona^ Gottingen, 1837.
''Hcrre as an Index of Style in the Orators, 83
in these words : '^ Something of especial weight is announced and
expectation is excited as greatly as possible, but the sense of
the period is suspended until the thing itself emerges." This
description is especially applicable to the " general and par-
ticular " type of sentence ; but it holds good, in a measure,
wherever the antecedent clause is felt to be mainly incidental and
preparatory to the more important statement contained in the
CW0-T6 clause.^ Blass' dictum, ^^ the more preparation, the more the
concluding sentence stands out,"^ finds an appropriate applica-
tion here.
Two other passages in Blass may be referred to for their general
bearing on this subject — what he says ^ of the " separating " effect
of the correlative in general as an important factor in the division
of the oratorical period into suitable cola; and his observation,
from another point of view, that " if the sentences are long, the
period is the more oratorical the closer the connection and the
stronger the dependence.'^ ^ For a more particular interpretation,
on the part of the same critic, of the rhetorical effect of the axrre
correlative construction, cf. his analysis of the prooemmm of the
3rd Philippic.^
^The four passages from Demosthenes cited by Dissen in the section (pp. lv-
LVi. ) which he devotes to ofir6i)s-&aTe as a distinct form of period — De Cor, 204 ;
Androt. 74; Meid. 114 ; De Cor. 33 — are worthy of close study ; as are also three
others, cited in other connections, in which the effect of the correlative consecu-
tive sentence elicits special comment — Meid. 61 (p. 44), Meid. 215 (p. 64); De
Chers. 69 (p. 68). In all, I have counted no less than 23 instances of this con-
struction in the model periods from Demosthenes which Dissen introduces for
purposes of illustration.
»iii. p. 152. 'ill. p. 118. '•m, p. 146. ^iii. pp. 152-3.
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