n 
 
 aP 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .it.ll&DADV/>.
 
 =o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 ENGLISH COMPOSITION 
 
 BY 
 
 CHARLES LANE HANSON 
 
 Mechanic Arts High School, Bosk in 
 
 Editor of Carlyle's "Essay on Burns," "Representative 
 
 Poems of Robert Burns," and Macaulay's 
 
 "Life of Samuel Johnson 1 ' 
 
 2. 3 2. 2-6 
 
 GINN & COMPANY 
 
 BOSTON • NEW YORK • CHICAGO • LONDON
 
 Copyright, 1908 
 By CHARLES LANE HANSON 
 
 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 
 611.6 
 
 3E fte gtftenceum ^restg 
 
 CINN & COMPANY • PRO- 
 PRIETORS • BOSTON • U.S.A.
 
 
 TO 
 MY MOTHER 
 
 ANNIE LANE HANSON 
 
 IN RECOGNITION OF 
 
 APPRECIATIVE AND INSPIRING 
 
 CRITICISMS
 
 PREFACE 
 
 The purpose of this book is to present the main princi- 
 ples of English composition in so simple and practical a 
 form that the pupil will grasp them easily and will apply 
 them naturally in his daily work. Models that have stood 
 the test of the class room — some of them written by 
 pupils — -are furnished to stimulate him to do his best. He 
 is encouraged to make good use of the equipment he brings 
 from the lower schools, and, in a careful review, to appre- 
 ciate the practical value of the essentials of grammar. 
 Special stress is laid on the fact that the pupil who wishes 
 to acquire skill in the use of the mother tongue must not 
 rest satisfied with doing assigned tasks, — that in school 
 and out of school he must strive constantly to improve his 
 speech and his writing. 
 
 The plan of the book is determined by the purpose. The 
 first three chapters are introductory. They show that com- 
 position is inevitable, yet attractive ; that the pupil's world 
 is so full of interesting subjects that he should have little 
 difficulty in finding something to say — his concern should 
 be rather to choose a limited subject ; that the writer 
 should constantly keep in mind the needs and the pleasure 
 of the reader. 
 
 The next four chapters deal in a preliminary way with 
 the whole composition, the paragraph, and the sentence, 
 and call attention to the importance of spelling and letter 
 writing. Some of the work in this last chapter may be
 
 vi PREFACE 
 
 postponed until the pupil has studied with more care the 
 paragraph and the sentence. 
 
 The pupil is now ready for a more careful study of the 
 whole composition and the paragraph ; and in the chapters 
 on sentences and words he not only learns much that is new 
 to him, but also reviews grammar from a new point of view. 
 Finally he is encouraged to follow carefully arranged plans 
 in the construction of more ambitious compositions. From 
 the outset he writes narratives, descriptions, and exposi- 
 tions, but it does not seem wise to classify these papers un- 
 til the comprehensive treatment of the subject in Part Two 
 is reached. Here the three principal forms of prose compo- 
 sition are studied in detail, and sufficient attention is paid to 
 the preparation of an argument to meet the needs of debat- 
 ing societies or of those schools in which debating is taught. 
 
 For the convenience of those teachers who wish to give 
 their pupils the training which comes from correcting as 
 well as from writing themes, the author has included some 
 practical suggestions on the revision of written work. 
 Since, like the rest of us, the pupil is a better judge of 
 another's work than of his own, he may be taught to exam- 
 ine with fairness and discrimination the themes of his class- 
 mates. He may also learn, to revise his own careless writing 
 so that the result is satisfactory to the critic. The exercises 
 for this purpose are based on the fact that it is better to 
 fix the attention on a few matters rather than to divide it 
 among many. The pupil is asked, therefore, to apply one 
 new principle at a time, but he is also asked to apply the 
 old principles again and again, and through the combination 
 of old and new he accumulates, by the end of a year's work, 
 sufficient critical ability to enable him to make a reasonably
 
 PRE* vii 
 
 thorough examination of a composition. In the course of 
 the first nine chapters the pupil is asked to enter in a note- 
 book twelve themes which have been criticised by other 
 pupils. The author's conviction is that it is not necessary 
 for the teacher to criticise all of these themes, but that it is 
 desirable to have the pupils use them as the basis of study. 
 If the pupil continues to add to his collection throughout 
 the course, he will have a considerable amount of written 
 work to which he and his classmates can turn from time to 
 time as they learn new principles and need to test them or 
 to apply them. Nothing stimulates the pupils more than 
 the certainty that they are making progress, and as they 
 scrutinize this store of material — on a spelling crusade, 
 on a search for sentences that are grammatically incom- 
 plete, on a hunt for paragraphs that need improving — there 
 comes, with their increased ability to recognize faults and to 
 correct them, a realization of their own growth. 
 
 The exercises are intended to relieve the busy teacher 
 at just those points where relief is most needed. Perhaps 
 in no one way will they be more serviceable than in secur- 
 ing the frank expression of the pupil's own thoughts and 
 feelings. 
 
 It is a pleasure to add that the author appreciates his 
 indebtedness to experienced teachers from all parts of the 
 country for valuable suggestions. The courtesy of pub- 
 lishers in giving him permission to reprint copyrighted 
 material is acknowledged in footnotes. In particular, he 
 is sincerely grateful to Dr. D. O. S. Lowell of the Roxbury 
 Latin School for reading the proof, and to Mr. Frank W. C. 
 11-rsey, instructor in English in Harvard University, for 
 his untiring assistance in various ways. C T H
 
 PRE
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 PART ONE 
 
 Chapter Page 
 
 I. Introduction to Composition i 
 
 II. The Choice of a Subject 8 
 
 III. The Manuscript ig 
 
 IV. The Paragraph as a Unit 27 
 
 V. The Sentence and its Punctuation .... 36 
 
 VI. Spelling 55 
 
 VII. Letter Writing 64 
 
 VIII. The Coherent Paragraph 87 
 
 IX. The Emphatic Paragraph 91 
 
 X. The Correct Sentence 98 
 
 XI. The Effective Sentence 131 
 
 XII. The Exact Word 142 
 
 XIII. The Forcible Word 152 
 
 XIV. Longer Compositions 167 
 
 PART TWO 
 
 XV. Narration 177 
 
 XVI. Description 192 
 
 XVII. Exposition 206 
 
 XVIII. Argument 217 
 
 Appendix: The Musical Reading ok Verse 231 
 
 Index 237 
 
 IX
 
 ENGLISH COMPOSITION 
 
 PART ONE 
 
 <JnAPTLR I 
 
 23 2.2-6 
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITION 
 
 1. The Meaning of Composition. If a friend says to you, 
 " I have enjoyed the vacation," he composes a sentence. He 
 puts words together in such a way that they express one 
 thought. If he spends ten minutes in telling you how he 
 has enjoyed the vacation, his talk, like his sentence, is a 
 composition; for he has put sentences together in such away 
 that they express one thought, — that is, how he has enjoyed 
 the vacation. Composition, then, as we have used the word, 
 means "putting things together so as to make one thing out 
 of them, the nature and goodness of which they all have a 
 share in producing. Thus a musician composes an air by 
 putting notes together in certain relations ; a poet composes 
 a poem by putting words and thoughts in pleasant order; 
 and a painter, a picture, by putting thoughts, forms, and 
 colors in pleasant order." 1 
 
 2. Oral Composition. On the street, in our homes, in the 
 history recitation, from morning till night, we are compos- 
 ing sentences. Each of these sentences may be called an 
 
 1 Ruskin, " The Elements of Drawing," letter iii. 
 I
 
 2 INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITION 
 
 oral composition. So any talk on one subject with the pur- 
 pose of calling attention to one thought — whether the talk 
 consists of a single sentence or of a thousand sentences — is 
 an oral composition. Every part of it contributes its share 
 toward making one thing, whether that one thing be sen- 
 tence or oration ; and it is of great importance that we 
 should so put our words together that our hearers shall get 
 the one thought or the one feeling which we try to give them. 
 3. Written Composition. At the same time we must be 
 able to compose in writing. As by talking a man learns to 
 talk readily, so by writing he learns to express himself with 
 accuracy. For all of us, moreover, some form of writing is a 
 part of the day's work, and it is for the sake of gaining the 
 ability to write well such notes and letters and reports and 
 other papers as we shall be called on to compose from time 
 to time, as well as for the sake of improving our speech, 
 that we study written composition. 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 Answer the following questions orally : 
 
 i. For what reasons should the study of both oral and written 
 composition be interesting as well as valuable ? 
 
 2. Which of these two kinds of composition offers the better 
 opportunities for your teacher to help you ? 
 
 3. Which offers the better opportunities for you pupils to 
 help one another ? 
 
 4. Which are you likely to remember better, criticisms of your 
 speech or criticisms of your writing ? 
 
 If you would learn to write, there are just three steps to 
 take, — the ABC of writing: Open your eyes and your ears; 
 Think for yourself; Write.
 
 ( 
 
 WRITTEN COMPOSITION 3 
 
 I. Open your Eyes and your Ears 
 
 See and hear what is going on about you. How are you 
 to have something to say? You cannot possibly help it. 
 Tiny children use their eyes and their ears and then tell us 
 what they see and hear. If you cannot make a long story 
 out of a short one, tell the short one. If you have no im- 
 agination, or think you have none, do not for the present 
 undertake imaginative writing, but confine yourself to what 
 you see and hear. Open your eyes and your ears and then 
 share your experiences with others. 
 
 Read with open eyes. When we are very young, we 
 read merely for the sake of the story, or plot ; as we grow 
 more mature, we crave something more than excitement, — 
 we begin to appreciate little touches that make the differ- 
 ence between the commonplace and the beautiful. This 
 development of taste means everything to one who would 
 write well. 
 
 Read with open ears. One good test of a book is to 
 see whether it will bear reading aloud. The same test is 
 a capital one to apply to our own work. It is likely to call 
 attention to tiresome repetition of words or sounds, to 
 unnecessary words, and to awkward constructions. If we 
 would learn to write in a pleasing style, we should form 
 the habit of reading aloud and reciting prose which satisfies 
 the ear. 
 
 Your reading should be smooth. Much reading is jerky 
 and uncertain because we do not take pains to send the eye 
 ahead of the voice. If you will increase day by day the 
 number of words that you can retain with one glance, you 
 will make steady progress. Get a whole sentence if you can.
 
 4 INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITION 
 
 At any rate look through the sentence so carefully that you 
 can discriminate in your reading between the main thought 
 and the subordinate thought. If the sentence has a main 
 thought, it is your business to bring out that main thought 
 in your reading. 
 
 Your reading should be sympathetic. No matter how well 
 the author of your selection has clone his part of the work, 
 you still have an important part to do. You may have the 
 knowledge of an encyclopedia, but without the power to feel 
 you may not hope to interest your listeners. You must see 
 what the author saw, feel what he felt, and then get your 
 hearers to feel as you feel. ' 
 
 Your reading should be musical. In order to please sen- 
 sitive ears the voice must adapt itself to the thought and 
 its expression. Like the perfect adjustment of words to 
 thoughts, the harmonious rendering of prose or verse is 
 something to strive for — an object all the more interest- 
 ing and fascinating because it is difficult to attain. We 
 are not so likely to connect musical reading with prose as 
 with verse,- — poetical composition, — but there is no reason 
 why we should not do so. In reading verse we must note 
 the regularity of the accent. In prose the ebb and flow is 
 neither so regular nor so noticeable. 1 
 
 To recite good English is no less important than to read 
 aloud. When you commit passages to memory, learn only 
 such selections as you are willing to live with for weeks, 
 to say over scores of times, to make your own. They will 
 become a part of you — therefore they should be valuable 
 in themselves ; they will help form your style of speaking, 
 and so of writing — therefore they should be illustrations of 
 
 1 For suggestions on the musical reading of verse see Appendix.
 
 WRITTEN COMPOSITION 5 
 
 English that is clear, direct, simple; you are to make them 
 interesting — therefore you should make them your own 
 sentiments as really as if you had written them. 
 
 Having made such a choice, you will be almost sure to 
 make your delivery clear, interesting, and pleasing. First 
 of all you must have a thorough understanding of your 
 selection. Then you should read it aloud so many times 
 that you find yourself entering heartily into the spirit of it 
 
 — until it almost seems as if you had written it. Finally 
 you should rehearse it to some critic till he is satisfied that 
 the delivery is reasonably smooth and finished. 
 
 II. TJiink for Yourself 
 
 Whatever your subject, think for yourself. Then, and 
 then only, will your writing be your own ; it will have indi- 
 viduality ; it will be different from the work of anybody 
 else. Honest attempts to give the best expression to your 
 own thoughts will call out the most helpful criticisms from 
 your teacher. It is always a pleasure and often an inspira- 
 tion to work with a young writer who is eager to be himself 
 
 — not an echo of another person. Know a few things and 
 learn how to write about them so clearly that it will be 
 evident that you know them. Do a deal of vigorous think- 
 ing about other things, and if you write frankly, your work 
 will be likely to show that you have been thinking. 
 
 III. Write 
 
 A friend of yours can tell stories by the hour, but it 
 may be that he cannot easily write them. You gladly 
 tell your experiences to your brother, but you would be
 
 6 INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITION 
 
 slow about putting" on paper the material that you use so 
 freely in talking with him. Writing is largely a matter of 
 habit. Some of you who talk readily have not been accus- 
 tomed to writing. The words that come so eagerly when 
 you let the story tell itself halt on their way down the pen- 
 holder, lag behind, and fail to put in an appearance. This 
 you must not allow. Forget that you ever saw a grammar, 
 a rhetoric, or any other book about English, good or bad. 
 Write. Write for the sake of forming the habit of writing, 
 and don't let your pencil interfere with the torrent of words. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Prepare to read to the class the selection from "The 
 Voyage," page 28. First read it aloud to yourself. Send 
 the eye ahead of the voice. If you stumble over a word, or 
 pause in the wrong place, read the sentence till you can read 
 it smoothly. 
 
 2. After preparing in a similar way the selection entitled 
 f Thackeray and the Oyster," page 180, read it to some 
 member of your family, or some friend who is likely to be 
 interested, and see whether you read it so as to please the 
 listener. Give the class an oral account of your experiment. 
 
 3. Read to the class the following selections : 
 
 1. "Baby's First Shoes," page 30. 
 
 2. Selection from " The Jungle Book," page 139. 
 
 3. " Nehushta," page 199. 
 
 4. "A Football Player," page 15. 
 
 5. Selection from "Enoch Arden," page 197. 
 
 6. "Incident of the French Camp," page 184. 
 
 4. Commit to memory that one of the selections men- 
 tioned in the preceding exercise which you consider best
 
 ORAL AND WRITTEN 7 
 
 worth remembering. Recite it to the class as you would 
 if you had written it yourself. 
 
 5. Give the substance of what this chapter contains 
 under the three directions for learning to write. Make 
 careful preparation, so that you can speak without hesita- 
 tion. Feel free to express yourself in your own way. Do 
 not think that you must reproduce the language of the book. 
 
 Keep in mind the following plan : 
 
 I. Open your eyes and your ears. 
 
 i. See and hear what is going on about you. 
 
 2. Read 
 
 a. with open eyes. 
 
 b. to open ears, 
 (i) smoothly. 
 
 (2) sympathetically. 
 
 (3) musically. 
 
 3. Recite good English. 
 II. Think for yourself. 
 
 III. Write. 
 
 In preparing a composition, whether oral or written, it is 
 wise (1) to plan your work, and (2) to talk the subject over 
 with other persons. The more you talk about it, the more 
 likely you are to know just what you wish to say, and to 
 compose in a style that is smooth and agreeable.
 
 CHAPTER II 
 THE CHOICE OF A SUBJECT 
 
 The question is not " What shall I say?" but "What do I know? 
 What am I thinking about?" 
 
 4. Subjects based on Experience. In the course of time 
 you will have opportunities for investigating unfamiliar sub- 
 jects, but at first you will do well to tell what you have 
 seen and heard and done and been thinking about. Gradu- 
 ally you will learn how to make the most of good material. 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 Discuss the possibilities of the following subjects. Make 
 a list of ten so revised that you can talk or write on them 
 to advantage. Keep the list, and add to it others suggested 
 by them. 
 
 i. A Walk. 
 
 2. The Cooking of Starchy Foods. 
 
 3. A Fallen Live Wire. 
 
 4. The Soldier in the Spanish War. 
 
 5. A Practical Joke. 
 
 6. An Accident. 
 
 7. The X Ray. 
 
 8. Things seen from the Train. 
 
 9. Daily Work at Home. 
 
 10. Work in School. 
 
 11. My Favorite Game. 
 
 12. A Runaway Steam Car. 
 
 13. Strange Things heard on a Fishing Trip. 
 
 s
 
 BOOKS THAT SUGGEST GOOD SUBJECTS n 
 
 Pilgrim's Progress, The John Bunyan 
 
 Plutarch's Lives 
 
 Poor Richard's Almanac Benjamin Franklin 
 
 Prince and the Pauper, The .... Mark Twain 
 
 Quentin Durward Walter Scott 
 
 Ramona Helen Hunt Jackson 
 
 Rob Roy Walter Scott 
 
 Scott, Life of John G. Lockhart 
 
 Scottish Chiefs Jane Porter 
 
 Sharp Eyes W. H. Gibson 
 
 Standish of Standish Jane G. Austin 
 
 Tales from Shakespeare Charles Lamb 
 
 Tales of a Grandfather Walter Scott 
 
 Tales of a Traveler Washington Irving 
 
 Talisman, The Walter Scott 
 
 Tom Brown's School Days .... Thomas Hughes 
 
 Treasure Island Robert Louis Stevenson 
 
 Wake Robin John Burroughs 
 
 Wilderness Ways W. J. Long 
 
 Woodstock ' Walter Scott 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. As you read the foregoing titles of books and the 
 names of the authors, you will think of subjects — books, 
 incidents, or characters — on which you have something to 
 say. For example, you may not have read "The Abbot," 
 but the sight of Scott's name may remind you that you 
 have read "Quentin Durward" or " Ivanhoe " or "Kenil- 
 worth," and you may have some opinion not only of one of 
 these books as a whole, but of several incidents or char- 
 acters in it. Make a list of all such subjects. 
 
 2. Write the titles of all the books in the list that 
 you remember reading. Underscore once those which you
 
 12 THE CHOICE OF A SUBJECT 
 
 disliked, twice those which you liked fairly well, and three 
 times those which you are very glad you read. 1 
 
 6. Limited Subjects. After we have chosen a subject 
 which seems suitable, we may find that we lack both time 
 and space for a treatment of it which shall be satisfac- 
 tory either to ourselves or to our readers. Then it is that 
 we should consider whether we can make the whole sub- 
 ject as interesting as we can make a portion of it. We may 
 adopt either of two plans : we may discuss the^whole sub- 
 ject brietlv, or we may discuss a small part of the subject 
 fully. Let us examine both methods. 
 
 i. We may discuss the whole subject briefly. A pupil 
 who read "The President's Message" gave in his notebook 
 a summary of the whole message. 
 
 The President's Message 
 (December 7, 1S98) 
 
 The annual report of President McKinley was made public 
 last Monday. It is very long and every point is enlarged upon 
 too much. Still it is interesting reading. 
 
 He occupies half the report in telling about the late war, from 
 the time of the Cuban insurrection in 1895 to the signing of the 
 peace treaty in Paris. 
 
 He writes about the blowing up of the Maine, Dewey's victory, 
 Hobson's bravery, and the Sampson-Schley affair. 
 
 He then considers other subjects, such as our relations with 
 other countries, especially the South American republics. 
 
 The annexation of Hawaii is a subject to which he devotes 
 considerable space. The seizing of the Samoan group of islands, 
 on the death of the Samoan king, by the U.S.S. Adams, — which 
 
 1 If time serves, it will be interesting and suggestive to have some of these lists 
 read to the class.
 
 LIMITED SUBJECTS 1 3 
 
 was only a wooden gunboat, — and the holding of it against a fleet 
 of German armorclads, is a feat worthy of notice. 
 
 He writes about our trade with China and India, and the want 
 of a large squadron of powerful war ships on the Pacific. 
 
 2. We may discuss a small part of the subject fully. In 
 the same notebook the writer, instead of reporting a lecture 
 on Japan as a whole, limited himself to a small part of the 
 subject, as follows : 
 
 Last evening I attended a lecture on Japan given by Miss 
 Mary A. Robinson, a missionary. She told some very entertain- 
 ing stories about the Japanese and their customs. I was par- 
 ticularly interested in her account of New Year's week. It is 
 proper to go visiting and to enjoy life at that time, but no work 
 should be done. In entertaining the visitors the host brings out 
 ten trays, each divided into partitions and each partition full of 
 food. It is customary merely to taste the food, but Miss Robin- 
 son, not knowing this, once ate until she could eat no more. 
 Still there were three full trays left. She thanked her host and 
 returned home, but judge of her astonishment on being told that 
 she had eaten the food which the servant had expected to last for 
 a whole week. 
 
 The Time Limit. In choosing a small part of the sub- 
 ject we can sometimes tell about something that happened 
 in a brief interval of time — perhaps something that hap- 
 pened in less time than it takes to tell it. 
 
 An Exciting Moment 
 
 Tust before the war of 1861 1 came as cabin boy from Liver- 
 pool to New York. One day as I stood on deck, looking in the 
 direction of my far-off home, I saw a speck in the distance, right 
 in our path. I watched it intently ; it grew larger and larger as 
 we neared it, and I soon saw that it was a man-of-war. At the 
 same time my curiosity was aroused by the general confusion on
 
 14 THE CHOICE OF A SUBJECT 
 
 our boat, so different from the quiet of a moment before. When 
 1 asked my friend, the second mate, what it all meant, he said, 
 " We are pursued by a hostile cruiser, and if you care for your life 
 you had better go to the cabin." Several women on deck heard 
 this remark, which was evidently meant for them as well as for 
 me, and hastened downstairs. I followed them. If* it was confu- 
 sion on deck, it was panic in the cabin. Every face was pale with 
 fear ; some talked, others wept. 
 
 Suddenly the cabin door opened and the burly captain walked 
 slowly in. He uttered the word "silence" so harshly that no one 
 dared do otherwise than obey. Then he called the men and 
 began to give orders. Every one was willing to do his part. Some 
 covered the name of the ship at the stern with canvas ; others 
 took the names off the bow. Each man seized the first thing he 
 saw which resembled a gun. Three men emptied a hogshead, 
 pulled it on deck, and beat it loudly. Across the water this 
 sounded much like a drum. All was bustle and hurry ; every one 
 was eagerly fulfilling the orders of the captain. 
 
 My curiosity got the better of my fear and I crept up on deck 
 again. The vessel was very near now, and the soldiers, standing 
 with guns pointed at me, sent a shiver through my whole body. 
 
 The vessel passed us several times, but as we kept some 
 distance from them, they could find no clew to our identity, 
 and finally, deciding that we were a man-of-war, left us un- 
 harmed. 
 
 The cabin boy's daughter wrote the incident as- her father 
 told it to her. The paper has been rewritten. The first 
 copy, entitled " From Liverpool to New York," tried to 
 tell of the entire trip on four pages of composition paper. 
 The recasting shows the value of a subject so limited that 
 the treatment may be full. Another pupil, who told in six 
 pages of her aunt's journey through Europe, vastly improved 
 her work by writing of the visit to a corner of Westminster 
 Abbey.
 
 LIMITED SUBJECTS 15 
 
 In "An Exciting Moment " the title, as well as the sub- 
 ject, shows that the time is limited. In the following verses 
 note how limited the subject is — not the title. The author 
 does not attempt to describe the game ; he singles out one 
 man and admires him as he stands ready for the opponent 
 and then rushes to the attack. If you are interested in 
 football and will read the lines aloud with the vigor they 
 demand, you can hardly fail to enjoy them. 
 
 A Football Player 
 
 If I could paint you, friend, as you stand there, 
 Guard of the goal, defensive, open-eyed, 
 Watching the tortured bladder slide and glide 
 Under the twinkling feet ; arms bare, head bare, 
 The breeze a-tremble through crow-tufts of hair ; 
 Red-brown in face, and ruddier having spied 
 A wily foeman breaking from the side ; 
 Aware of him, — of all else unaware : 
 If I could limn you, as you leap and fling 
 Your weight against his passage, like a wall ; 
 Clutch him, and collar him, and rudely cling 
 For one brief moment till he falls — you fall : 
 My sketch would have what Art can never give — 
 Sinew and breath and body ; it would live. 
 
 E. C. Lefroy 
 
 If you were to make a piece of sculpture, how much of 
 this material could you use ? How much, if you were to 
 paint the picture ? Does the writer have any advantages 
 over the painter and the sculptor ? 
 
 It is probably evident that, as a rule, a composition is 
 more likely to be interesting if the subject is so limited 
 that the treatment may be full. Now and then a brief
 
 1 6 THE CHOICE OF A SUBJECT 
 
 outline of a large subject may be valuable, but usually the 
 narrower the subject the more likely are we to make our 
 account of it readable. The following list, which is taken 
 from a pupil's notebook, shows how easy it is to find such 
 subjects : The Race Riot in Wilmington, N.C., The Use of 
 the T Square, On the Way to School, Signing the Peace 
 Treaty, The Six Days' Race, The Fire Department on 
 the Way to the Fire, The Eclipse of the Moon, A Steam 
 Shovel, A Free Ride, The Police Ambulance, Senator 
 Hoar's Speech, Three Chapters of "Ivanhoe," In a Grocery 
 Store, Another Chapter of "Ivanhoe," Down Broadway 
 Hill, Three Chapters of " Ivanhoe," In the Carpenter Shop, 
 A Newsboy, A Horseless Carriage, Absent from School, 
 Shoveling Snow, Delay on the Bridge, A Glimpse of Presi- 
 dent McKinley, A Minstrel Show, The Store in which 
 I work on Saturdays, Our Hut, Chickens, A Horse, A 
 Hard Task, Two Happy Boys. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Limit five of the subjects under section 4, page 8, so 
 that a small part of the subject may be discussed fully. 
 
 2. Apply the time limit to five of the subjects. 
 
 3. Make a list of prominent buildings, and in discussing 
 them show how subjects multiply if you take pains to make 
 the most of your material. If, for example, you consider 
 the possibilities of the public library, you may describe the 
 entrance, a room, a picture, a bookcase, or the librarian. 
 
 4. Make a list of all the indoor and outdoor games you 
 enjoy playing. 1 
 
 1 Most of the class will be able to add to their lists, if some of the longest lists are 
 written on the blackboard.
 
 LIMITED SUBJECTS 1 7 
 
 5. Make a list of all the indoor and outdoor games you 
 enjoy watching. 
 
 6. Keeping in mind the suggestion about limited subjects, 
 cull from the foregoing lists those on which you have some- 
 thing to say. Arrange them so that they will be convenient 
 for reference. 
 
 7. Be prepared to write a secretary's report of the next 
 recitation in English. It is the duty of such a reporter to 
 pick out the important points and to give information about 
 them in a clear, concise way. Some matters he may pass 
 over, some he should merely mention, and others he should 
 treat fully. The following record, by the class secretary 
 for the day, explains itself. 
 
 Report of the English Class 
 
 (February 2S, 1905) 
 
 After Miss had read the secretary's report, Mr.   
 
 showed us a picture, " The Angelus," about which we had a little 
 talk the other day. Then he distributed some papers to be cor- 
 rected by the class. 
 
 Master read his account of Macaulay's early life and sev- 
 eral pupils criticised it. 
 
 To-day the following are to speak : Misses , , , 
 
 , , and ; and Masters , , , , 
 
 and . For to-day's lesson we are to write in our notebooks 
 
 what we know of the early life of Macaulay. 
 
 After giving out the lesson, the teacher asked how many of us 
 were familiar with several of Longfellow's poems, especially 
 " Evangeline " and "Hiawatha." He suggested that it would be 
 well for us to read some of the earlier poems, and asked us to 
 write in our notebooks what we could find about the poet's early 
 life. We are to look up the connection between "The Skeleton 
 in Armor " and the city of Fall River, and the difference between
 
 1 8 THE CHOICE OF A SUBJECT 
 
 a ballad and a song. If we like, we may try our hand at a little 
 verse, just to see what we can do. 
 
 Respectfully submitted, 
 
 Annie M. Williams. 1 
 
 i Some teachers of English find it convenient to have such a report written in 
 connection with each recitation. An arrangement which has proved very satisfactory 
 is to set apart a notebook for such reports. In this notebook A writes his report of 
 to-day's recitation, reads it at the next recitation, and passes the book to B, who in 
 turn is secretary for the day and hands the book to C. Not only is the exercise a 
 good one, but the secretary's book is convenient both for calling attention to the 
 business of the day and for enabling a pupil who has been absent to find out just 
 what work he must make up.
 
 CHAPTER III 
 THE MANUSCRIPT 
 
 "Manuscript, we believe, takes precedence of print. Most of us will 
 read a letter before we will read a book." — N. P. Willis. 
 
 7. Neatness. What cleanliness is to the man, neatness 
 is to the manuscript. Whether a paper has ten words or 
 ten thousand, whether it be a note to a friend or a petition 
 to the President of the United States, it should be neat and 
 attractive. 
 
 8. The Margin. There should be a margin about three 
 fourths of an inch wide on the left-hand side of every page. 
 Of course the width of the margin varies with the width of 
 the paper. 
 
 9. The Heading. Whatever the teacher wishes the head- 
 ing to include, — say the date, the pupil's name and class, 
 and the title, — should be separated from what follows 
 by a blank line. An important part of the heading is the 
 title. Three suggestions should be kept in mind in choos- 
 ing a title : 
 
 i. It should be brief. As a substitute for the long and 
 cumbrous statement of the subject, "A Picture that I saw at 
 the Art Museum," one writer chose the brief title, ''Friends." 
 Better than "How we spent a Pleasant Evening" is "A 
 Pleasant Evening." 
 
 2. It should be to the point. Instead of using 'such a 
 general title as "An Incident,", it is always well to pick 
 out something that applies to the particular incident in 
 
 tg
 
 20 THE MANUSCRIPT 
 
 question. You might label each one of a hundred papers 
 "An Incident," but you should try to find for each of them 
 a title so decidedly to the point that it would not fit any 
 of the others. 
 
 3. It should be an attractive announcement of the sub- 
 ject. "On the River" is neater and more attractive than 
 " A Three Hours' Row on the River." The subject treated 
 in scores of books is " English Grammar "; the title of one 
 such book is "The Mother Tongue." "English Grammar" 
 may suggest various difficulties and numerous dry chapters. 
 'The Mother Tongue " sounds as if the book would appeal 
 to all who speak the English language. Your title, like a 
 nutshell, should give a correct impression of the kind of 
 meat it offers you, and it should be so attractive that the 
 wayfaring man will be eager to devour what it has in store. 
 
 Note. A composition should be complete without a title. If you 
 are writing about Fred Brown, do not try to avoid repetition by be- 
 ginning " He is a boy of my age," but use your title — or as much as 
 you need of it — in your opening sentence. You could, for example, 
 say, "Fred Brown is a boy of my age." 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 l. The following incident appeared in a magazine under 
 the title "What it was They Heard." Tell why or why 
 not that is a better title for it than "The Indian and the 
 Phonograph." Can you think of one that you like better 
 than either ? 
 
 On a recent visit to Baltimore, Bishop Rowe of Alaska told 
 the following good story : " I had recently to make a visit to a 
 tribe of Indians far from the places where the white men go. 
 Only a very few of the tribe had ever seen white men. One of 
 the members of our party had a phonograph. He thought it
 
 THE TITLE 21 
 
 would amuse the Indians, and so brought it out. They gathered 
 round it in wonder, and spent some time looking at it from every 
 direction. At last the old chief got down on his knees and 
 peered into it. He raised himself, threw his arm out with a 
 sweeping gesture, and said, ' Ugh ! canned white man.' " 
 
 2. Discuss the titles of six books, magazines, or news- 
 papers. Are they effective? misleading? attractive? neat? 
 easy to remember ? 
 
 10. The Sentence and its Punctuation. Ancient manu- 
 scripts were written continuously, thus : 
 
 ONEWORDFOLLOWEDANOTHERCLOSELY 
 
 Afterwards the words were separated by spaces, and some- 
 times by dots and other marks. The marks now employed 
 have come to be used with so much definiteness that they 
 are a great help in enabling the writer to express his mean- 
 ing exactly. The way to accomplish this result is (i) to 
 express one thought at a time ; (2) to keep by themselves 
 words which express that thought ; and (3) to let the marks 
 help indicate the relation of the words. 
 
 11. Spelling. Five hundred years ago readers and writers 
 were not particular about spelling. Chaucer spelled the 
 same word in several ways ; but in our time it is very im- 
 portant to spell with accuracy. If you have any doubt what- 
 ever about the spelling of a word, consult a dictionary. 
 
 Syllabication. Never divide a word at the end of a line 
 unless you can divide it by syllables. Use a hyphen to mark 
 the division, and put the hyphen at the end of the line. 
 
 12. The Paragraph. We can often help the reader catch 
 our meaning quickly by arranging our sentences in groups. 
 A group of sentences which relate to a single division of the
 
 2 2 THE MANUSCRIPT 
 
 subject is called a paragraph. Every paragraph should be 
 indented ; that is, the first word should be written about an 
 inch farther to the right than the first word of any other 
 line in the paragraph. 
 
 Neatness should be conspicuous in all our work. The 
 margin is a matter of form, and the heading is largely so. 
 It is obvious, however, that the paragraph and the sentence 
 are much more than matters of form relating to the appear- 
 ance of the manuscript. If one is to know how much to 
 include in a paragraph and in a sentence, he must be famil- 
 iar with the construction of paragraphs and sentences. This 
 familiarity we shall at once begin to acquire. 
 
 13. The Two Copies of the Manuscript. Although it is 
 important to acquire facility in writing good papers without 
 copying them, for some time you will do well to make two 
 copies of the papers you write outside the class room. 
 
 In preparing the first copy there are two steps : 
 
 i. Write rapidly. 
 
 2. Revise slowly. 
 
 a. See that every paragraph is indented. 
 
 b. See that every sentence hasasubject and a predicate. 
 
 c. See that every sentence is punctuated (i) at the 
 
 end ; (2) throughout. 
 
 d. See that every word is correctly spelled. 
 
 In making the second copy there are three things to 
 remember: (1) neatness; (2) margin ; (3) heading. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 l. Write a brief account of something that you saw 
 happen. Follow closely the above directions in preparing 
 the two copies of the manuscript.
 
 CRITICISM 23 
 
 2. (For the class room.) Exchange papers 1 and, as ex- 
 aminer of the paper of one of your classmates, criticise the 
 work under the following heads: (1) neatness, (2) margin, 
 (3) heading (including title), (4) indenting of paragraphs, (5) 
 sentence structure, (6) punctuation, (7) spelling. Write your 
 report and see that each of your sentences has a subject 
 and a predicate. For example : 
 
 Criticism of " A Runaway," by A. F. Brown 
 
 1 . The page is neat and attractive. 
 
 2. The margin is straight and of the right width. 
 
 3. The heading is complete and the title appropriate. No space is 
 left between the title and the opening sentence. 
 
 4. Three paragraphs are indented, but I see no reason why there 
 should be more than one paragraph. 
 
 5. The fourth sentence has no predicate. 
 
 6. There is no punctuation mark at the end of the first sentence. 
 
 7. The words "Tuesday" and "village" are misspelled. 
 
 Mary A. Taft, Examiner. 
 
 3. Taking advantage of all the suggestions given by your 
 classmate, revise your paper. If you think best, rewrite it. 
 
 4. Write about another incident which you have seen. Fol- 
 low the directions given for preparing the preceding paper. 
 
 5. (For the class room.) Exchange papers and act as 
 examiner as before. 
 
 6. Revise your paper, and if there is sufficient reason, 
 rewrite it ; that is to say, if, in the judgment of either 
 teacher or pupil, interlinear corrections of the original paper 
 are not sufficient. 
 
 1 By examining each other's papers — one day passing them forward, another 
 day passing them backward, then to the left, to the right, to the second pupil in 
 front, etc. — the members of the class can be of great service in pointing out certain 
 improvements to each other.
 
 24 THE MANUSCRIPT 
 
 7. Write a short paper on any subject based on expe- 
 rience. Follow the directions given above, and in revising 
 take special pains to see that each sentence has a subject 
 ami a predicate. 
 
 8. (For the class room.) Exchange papers and, as exam- 
 ine]', write your criticisms in the margin and at the end of 
 the paper. For example, against poor penmanship write 
 "Pen."; against an incomplete sentence, "S"; against a 
 line containing a misspelled word, " Sp." Note the list of 
 abbreviations given below, and in particular, the suggestion 
 about using section numbers. 
 
 When you find a "^|"in one of your margins, do not 
 pass it by until you understand why it is there ; if a "G ' 
 confronts you, be sure that you see just what is wrong 
 before you try to right it ; and should a " K " appear, work 
 away until the phrase is natural and smooth. It is most 
 encouraging to know that great writers have had to do 
 their work over and over again before it was satisfactory. 
 We find Stevenson saying, " Yesterday I was a living half 
 hour upon a single clause and have a gallery of variants 
 that would surprise you "; and in March, 1891, he wrote: 
 " I had breakfasted and read (with indescribable sinkings) 
 the whole of yesterday's work before the sun had risen. 
 Then I sat and thought, and sat and better thought. It was 
 not good enough, nor good ; it was as slack as journalism, 
 but not so inspired ; it was excellent stuff misused, and the 
 defects stood gross on it like humps upon a camel." Happy 
 is he who can see his defects ; happier he who, with stout 
 heart and infinite patience, toils incessantly to overcome 
 them.
 
 KEY TO CRITICISMS 25 
 
 Key to Examiner's Criticisms 
 
 A. Ambiguous. 
 
 C. Wants connection with subject or context (coherence). 
 
 Cap. Use a capital. 
 
 I.e. Use a small letter (lower case). 
 
 8 Omit. 
 
 F. Force. Make the sentence more forcible. 
 
 G. Grammar faulty. 
 
 K. Awkward, clumsy, stiff. 
 
 M. Margin. 
 
 P. Punctuation. 
 
 Pen. Penmanship. 
 
 Poss. Possessive case. 
 
 IF Paragraph. 
 
 " " Quotation marks. 
 
 R. Repetition of word or thought. 
 
 Sp. Spelling. 
 
 S. Sentence. 
 
 T. Tense. 
 
 U. Wants unity. 
 
 V. Vague. 
 
 W. Word. 
 
 X. Fault obvious. 
 
 ? Error? Meaning? 
 
 A Something should be inserted. 
 
 1, 2, 3, etc. Rearrange words, clauses, or sentences in the 
 order indicated by the numbers. 
 
 ] Omit the passage within brackets. 
 Means that the criticism refers to as many lines of the 
 writing as this mark stands against. 
 
 One of the foregoing signs placed at the beginning of a com- 
 position indicates that the fault is a prevailing one. 
 
 The heavy-faced section numbers in this book may be used to 
 call the pupil's attention to the discussion of a particular fault. 
 Thus, 9 would refer him to The Heading, page 19.
 
 26 THE MANUSCRIPT 
 
 Directions for Revising and Rewriting 
 
 Every composition is to be revised carefully and returned to 
 the teacher. If there is need of rewriting, return the revised 
 copy with a rewritten copy ; but always show by corrections made 
 on the original paper that you understand the criticisms. Never 
 erase any of these criticisms. 
 
 There may not be room to recast whole sentences on the origi- 
 nal copy, but it is important to make such corrections there as 
 space allows. In a matter like spelling, for example, if the right 
 form is written above the wrong form, the teacher can see at a 
 glance that the correction has been made ; whereas it would take 
 much longer to find the corrected word in the rewritten copy.
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 THE PARAGRAPH AS A UNIT 
 
 14. Independent Paragraphs. We have thought of the 
 paragraph as a group of sentences that refer to one topic, 
 or to one division of the subject. It often happens that a 
 short composition on a limited subject forms a single para- 
 graph, and it will be well to write several independent para- 
 graphs. Practice with them will aid us in managing the 
 paragraphs in longer papers, and it should correct once for 
 all the prevailing tendency among young writers to indent 
 every second or third sentence. 
 
 15. Length of the Paragraph. A paragraph of a hundred 
 words is short ; one of two hundred ' and fifty is not very 
 long. If you discover more than two paragraphs on a page 
 of your manuscript, ask yourself whether you can give a 
 good reason for the division. 
 
 16. Unity. It is not enough that all the sentences in 
 the paragraph shall refer to a single topic ; these sentences 
 must present a central thought. For example, the topic 
 of the following paragraph is the voyage from America to 
 Europe. The sentences composing the paragraph might all 
 have a bearing on that topic and yet the paragraph might 
 by no means be a unit. One sentence might speak of the 
 storms, another of the boat, another of the passengers, 
 another of the crew, etc., with a most confusing result. 
 But Irving's paragraph presents one view of the subject. 
 We are told that the inactivity of the voyage is an excellent 
 
 27
 
 28 THE PARAGRAPH AS A UNIT 
 
 preparation for the bustle of another world, and each sen- 
 tence contributes something toward this main thought. 
 
 To an American visiting Europe, the long voyage he has to 
 make is an excellent preparative. The temporary absence of 
 worldly scenes and employments produces a state of mind pecul- 
 iarly fitted to receive new and vivid impressions. The vast space 
 of waters that separates the hemispheres is like a blank page in 
 existence. There is no gradual transition, by which, as in Europe, 
 the features and population of one country blend almost imper- 
 ceptibly with those of another. From the moment you lose sight 
 of the land you have left, all is vacancy until you step on the oppo- 
 site shore, and are launched at once into the bustle and novelties 
 of another world. — "The Voyage," in "The Sketch-Book." 
 
 17. The Plan of the Paragraph. In order that we may 
 include everything that belongs in a paragraph — and nothing 
 else — it is wise to have in mind, if not on paper, the plan 
 of the details. In a straightforward account of a single 
 happening this is usually a simple matter. When, however, 
 we have a considerable choice of details, the making of the 
 plan needs more attention. 
 
 The plan of "A Short Cut," which follows, is : 
 
 i . The leader's proposal. 
 
 2. The start. 
 
 3. The leader's landing. 
 
 4. The landing of the others. 
 
 A Short Cut 
 
 One day while I was watching a fire from the top of a high 
 bank, a little fellow near me proposed to several of his com- 
 panions that they take a short cut to the fire by running down 
 the bank. They all seemed willing and they started with a long 
 jump. The moment the leader landed in the soft sand he tripped
 
 THE PLAN OF THE PARAGRAPH 29 
 
 and fell headlong. The others, who were close behind him, re- 
 peated the performance with the same result. It was amusing to 
 see them roll over one another in the dirt and stones all the 
 way down, but somehow they landed on their feet and ran to 
 the fire. 
 
 The plan of "A Young Protector," which follows, is : 
 
 1. The father and the child. 
 
 2. The separation. 
 
 3. The child's concern. 
 
 4. The reunion. 
 
 A Young Protector 
 
 f 
 
 One day while I was riding in an electric car a man got in 
 with a little child. He placed him on the seat opposite me and 
 went out on the platform. The child sat there a few minutes 
 with a'troubled look on his face, and then called out, "Papa !" 
 Looking out of the window, he noticed the father standing there 
 and seemed satisfied for a while. Soon, however, a new thought 
 came into his mind, and, looking anxiously toward his father, he 
 said, "Papa, i^'ou falling?" The father shook his head. Put 
 the little one was not quite contented and called out again, 
 "Ain't 'ou, ain't 'ou falling, papa? " Again the father shook his 
 head. By this time everybody in the car was interested. Soon 
 reaching his destination, the father lifted the child out, and the 
 little fellow, happy now, trudged down the street grasping his 
 father's hand. 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 1. In studying the two following paragraphs, answer 
 these questions : 
 
 1. What is the writer's one purpose? 
 
 2. Show whether the choice of details serves the purpose. 
 
 3. What is his plan ? 
 
 4. Which paragraph is the better example of unity?
 
 30 THE PARAGRAPH AS A UNIT 
 
 An Old Friend 
 
 I saw an old friend this morning — that is, if a locomotive may 
 be called an old friend. 1 first saw the locomotive last spring at 
 the Braintree freight yards. There were two of these engines, 
 Nos. 431 and 432, belonging to a class called Moguls. They 
 had just been completed at Schenectady, New York, and at that 
 time one of them brought a long string of freight cars from 
 Taunton to South Braintree every day. As the largest engines 
 on the division, they attracted considerable attention. They 
 were very high and had to have short headlights and smoke- 
 stacks, which gave them a squatty, unnatural appearance. Each 
 had six-foot driving wheels, three on a side. These, together 
 with their enormous boilers, enabled them to draw a large num- 
 ber of cars. When necessary they could go about sixty miles an 
 hour". I was much interested in them, but they were taken off the 
 division after a few weeks' service. To-day as I saw this large 
 engine approaching I was quite sure I had seen it before, and as 
 it drew nearer my conviction proved correct, for I soon made out 
 the number, 431, on the front of the boiler. 
 
 Baby's First Shoes 
 
 They x were lovely, bright, red shoes, — just the kind to please 
 a baby. They stood there on the floor quietly waiting to be 
 claimed. Baby spied the two bits of red and at once decided to 
 go and feel. He edged quickly along the floor and fearlessly 
 grasped one bit of red. It didn't scratch like " Kitty." He 
 pinched it; it didn't squeal like his rubber doll. He shook it; 
 it didn't jingle like his bells. Evidently there must be some 
 further mystery about this last prize. He stuck one red tip into 
 his mouth, but took it out very quickly, making a wry face. He 
 stuck in the other, too, but it tasted just exactly as bad. He 
 threw them down in disgust, and babbled some earnest babyland 
 prattle to them. Then mamma came to the assistance of the 
 
 1 Note that " they " does not refer to the title, although it may seem to.
 
 THE PLAN OF THE PARAGRAPH 3 1 
 
 tiny puzzler. She drew baby's two mysteries on over his ten little 
 toes./ Baby sat very quiet and looked very thoughtfully at his 
 newly shod feet. They had never been housed before. Baby 
 rather doubtfully wriggled his toes in their pens. But, oh, how 
 bewitching that red was ! He leaned over, caught hold of one 
 little foot with each little hand, rolled over on his back, and 
 kicked those red shoes back and forth, up and down, " every- 
 which-wav," watching the flashes of red come and go, and cooing 
 in a baby's own happy way. When mamma came later to find 
 him, baby was cuddled down in a little heap fast asleep, with one 
 little red shoe clasped tightly in each chubby hand. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. (1) Make 'a list of the reasons why you like your 
 school life. (2) Write a paragraph based on this list of 
 reasons. 
 
 2. Exchange papers and, as examiner, answer these ques- 
 tions in writing : 
 
 1. Is the form satisfactory ? (Consider neatness, margin, head- 
 ing, indentation.) 
 
 2. Is the paragraph interesting? 
 
 3. Is it adequate? 
 
 4. What is the plan of it? 
 
 3. In a similar way write another paragraph, say on one 
 of the subjects chosen in Exercise 1, page 16. 
 
 4. Exchange papers and examine as in Exercise 2. 
 
 5. Write another paragraph, say on one of the subjects 
 chosen in Exercise 2, page 16. 
 
 6. Write a paragraph on one of these subjects : 
 
 1. The reasons why I came to this school. 
 
 2. The reasons why a boy likes to smoke. 
 
 3. The reasons why a boy's father does not like to have him 
 smoke.
 
 32 THE PARAGRAPH AS A UNIT 
 
 4. The reasons why some parents are particular to have their 
 sons and daughters keep early hours. 
 
 5. The reasons why I dislike my school life. 
 
 18. Connected Paragraphs. We write a good man)- themes 
 and letters in which we must make several paragraphs. In 
 the following selection the first paragraph describes a forest 
 which was reached after an hour's climbing, and the second 
 a pond, so far beyond that it was not discovered till "about 
 noon." These two topics are separated both by space and 
 
 by time. 
 
 In the Mountains 
 
 Our journey commenced in a steep and rugged ascent, which 
 brought us, after an hour's heavy climbing, to an elevated region 
 of pine forest, years before ravished by lumbermen, and pre- 
 senting all manner of obstacles to our awkward and encumbered 
 pedestrian ism. The woods were largely pine, though yellow 
 birch, beech, and maple were common. The satisfaction of hav- 
 ing a gun, should any game show itself, was the chief compensa- 
 tion to those of us who were thus burdened. A partridge would 
 occasionally whir up before us, or a red squirrel snicker and 
 hasten to his den ; else, the woods appeared quite tenantless. 
 The most noted object was a mammoth pine, apparently the last 
 of a great race, which presided over a cluster of yellow birches, 
 on the side of the mountain. 
 
 About noon we came out upon a long, shallow sheet of water 
 which the guide called Bloody-Moose Pond, from the tradition 
 that a moose had been slaughtered there many years before. 
 Looking out over the silent and lonely scene, his eye was the 
 first to detect an object apparently feeding upon lily pads, which 
 our willing fancies readily shaped into a deer. As we were eagerly 
 waiting some movement to confirm this impression, it lifted up 
 its head, and lo ! a great blue heron. Seeing us approach, it 
 spread its long wings and flew solemnly across to a dead tree on 
 the other side of the lake, enhancing, rather than relieving, the
 
 CONNECTED PARAGRAPHS 33 
 
 loneliness and desolation that brooded over the scene. — John 
 Burroughs, "Adirondac" in "Wake Robin." 
 
 If you are asked to give a brief account of the first 
 appearance of Gurth and Wamba in " Ivanhoe," you will 
 probably find these three topics useful : 
 
 1. The setting. 
 
 2. The dress. 
 
 3. The conversation. 
 
 If familiar with the subject, you will not wish to crowd all 
 you have to say into a single paragraph, but will prefer to 
 give a separate paragraph to each topic. In this case each 
 of the three groups of details will mark one stage of the 
 narrative. This is true of "In the Mountains"; and in 
 both these instances, as in others we have seen, — "A Short 
 Cut," "A Young Protector," "An Old Friend," "Baby's 
 First Shoes," — each paragraph contains the details which 
 illustrate one point. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. After using your " Ivanhoe " 1 in making the prepara- 
 tions just indicated, write in class, without reference to book 
 or papers, on The First Appearance of Gurth and Wamba. 
 
 2. Write paragraph topics for themes on the following 
 subjects : The Tournament, Locksley's Shooting before 
 Prince John, The Knight and the Friar, Cedric and Athel- 
 stane at John's Banquet, The Storming of the Castle, The 
 Trial of Rebecca at Templestowe. 
 
 3. Write in class, without reference to book or paper, 
 on one of the preceding subjects. 
 
 1 If the class dues not happen to be reading this lx>ok, the teacher will probably 
 prefer to substitute other subjects in this exercise and in some of the exercises that 
 follow.
 
 34 THE PARAGRAPH AS A UNIT 
 
 4. Explain the construction of something you have made, 
 — of paper, cloth, pasteboard, wood, iron, or steel, — or the 
 preparation of some dish from such materials as sugar, milk, 
 and eggs. Before beginning to write, consider the steps in- 
 volved in the process, and in writing give each step the 
 consideration it deserves. 
 
 19. The Topic Sentence. In the illustration under sec- 
 tion 1 6, the words in italics practically give in a sentence 
 the main thought of the paragraph. Such a sentence .is 
 often called a topic sentence. It always helps a writer to 
 secure unity if he has a topic sentence before him as he 
 writes the paragraph. The topic sentence frequently ap- 
 pears in the paragraph — sometimes at the beginning, some- 
 times near the middle, sometimes at the end. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Can you find topic sentences in the following para- 
 graphs ? If not, make lists of the subjects discussed, and 
 in a carefully worded sentence write the main thought 
 of each paragraph. 
 
 You are, I think, too fond of reading as it is. As one means 
 of avoiding excess in this way, I would wish you to make it a 
 rule never to read at meal-times, nor in company when there is 
 any (even the most trivial) conversation going on, nor even to let 
 your eagerness to learn encroach upon your play-hours. Books 
 are but one inlet of knowledge ; and the pores of the mind, like 
 those of the body, should be left open to all impressions. I 
 applied too close to my studies, soon after I was of your age, 
 and hurt myself irreparably by it. ^'hatever may be the value 
 of learning, health and good spirits are of more. 
 
 3fc * ^F
 
 THE TOPIC SENTENCE 35 
 
 As to the books you will have to read by choice or for amuse- 
 ment, the best are the commonest. The names of many of them 
 are already familiar to you. Read them as you grow up with all 
 the satisfaction in your power, and make much of them. It is 
 perhaps the greatest pleasure you will have in life, the one you 
 will think of longest, and repent of least. If my life had been 
 more full of calamity than it has been (much more than I hope 
 yours will be) I would live it over again, my poor little boy, to 
 have read the books I did in my youth. — Hazlitt, "On the 
 Conduct of Life." 
 
 2. Write a paragraph explaining why is your favor- 
 ite outdoor game. First prepare a topic sentence and keep 
 it before you as- you write. 
 
 3. With the aid of a topic sentence write a paragraph on 
 a subject of your own choosing. If you wish, turn to the 
 list prepared in Exercise 4, page 16. 
 
 4. Exchange papers and write in a single sentence what 
 you consider the main thought of your classmate's paragraph. 
 
 5. Write a paragraph beginning with a sentence in which 
 you name several traits that you like in one of your friends. 
 Use as many paragraphs as the subject demands.
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 THE SENTENCE AND ITS PUNCTUATION 
 
 Punctuation is a matter of courtesy; if we arc polite, 
 we shall take care that the reader has all the aid that 
 the most careful punctuation can give. It is also a matter 
 of great practical value ; failure to insert a comma or a 
 semicolon in a will may make a difference of thousands of 
 dollars to an heir. Defective punctuation may make a law 
 of no effect. 
 
 THE SENTENCE 
 
 The first two facts to fix in mind about the sentence 
 are these : 
 
 i. A sentence is the expression in words of a complete 
 thought — whether a statement, command, question, or 
 exclamation. 
 
 2. Every sentence should have a subject and a predicate. 
 
 20. Three Forms of Sentences. We should also keep in 
 mind what we learned from the grammars about the three 
 forms of sentences : 
 
 i. A simple sentence contains but one subject and one 
 
 predicate. 
 
 The boy caught the ball. 
 
 A distinguished visitor is in our country. 
 
 2. A compound sentence consists of two or more main 
 clauses. (It will be remembered that a clause is a group of 
 
 36
 
 THREE FORMS OF SENTENCES 37 
 
 words which contains a subject and a predicate. A main, 
 or independent, clause is defined on pages 126-127.) 
 
 Mary came early, but she did not stay long. 
 A wise son maketh a glad father, but a foolish son is the heavi- 
 ness of his mother. 
 
 Note i. The subject of a sentence may be compound. 
 John and Mary came early. 
 
 Note 2. The predicate may be compound. 
 
 The boy has caught the, ball and is throwing it. 
 
 Note 3. Both subject and predicate may be compound. 
 
 Harvard and Yale are rivals, but have a wholesome respect 
 for each other. 
 
 3. A complex sentence consists of a main clause and one 
 or more subordinate clauses. 1 
 
 If you go, I shall go. 
 
 Since he is here, you may ask him. 
 
 He came because he wished to see you. 
 
 Note i. Parts of a compound sentence may be complex. 
 
 He is here, but he is so busy that he cannot see you. (One 
 part simple.) 
 
 You cannot have what you like, but you can like what you 
 have. (Both parts complex.) 
 
 NOTE 2. The subordinate clause of a complex sentence may be 
 compound. 
 
 His employers recommend him because they know his worth 
 and because they will be glad to see him promoted. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Find in this book three complex sentences. 
 
 2. Write three complex sentences. 2 
 
 1 For a more detailed study of the parts of sentences see Chapter X. 
 
 2 Exercise 2 and many that follow are good blackboard exercises.
 
 38 THE SENTENCE AND ITS PUNCTUATION 
 
 3. Write (i) a compound sentence in which one part 
 is complex ; (2) a compound sentence in which two parts are 
 complex; (3) a complex sentence in which the subordinate 
 clause is compound. 
 
 MARKS AT THE END OF THE SENTENCE 
 
 As soon as we express a complete thought, we are to let 
 the reader know that he has reached the end of the sen- 
 tence. In talking we show by a pause when we come to 
 the end of a thought, but in writing we are liable to leave 
 one thought unfinished in our haste to say something else. 
 In our writing, then, we must take pains to set off by them- 
 selves the words which compose each sentence. The first 
 \v< >rd of every sentence should begin with a capital, and the 
 sentence should end with the proper punctuation mark. 
 Every complete sentence should end with a period, an inter- 
 rogation point, or an exclamation point. 
 
 21. The Period. A period should stand at the end of 
 every declarative or imperative sentence. If, however, a 
 declarative or imperative sentence is exclamatory, an excla- 
 mation point may be used instead of a period. 
 
 Note. A period should follow every abbreviation ; as, Cal., Me., 
 Mr., Rev., Oct. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. In copying the following selections, complete the punc- 
 tuation by inserting periods wherever they belong. 
 
 1 . To-day I went to the circus the tents were all up, and in one 
 of them I saw some elephants the cooks were getting supper ready. 
 
 2. My cousin sent me a letter from the Philippines, where he 
 is with his company he told me that on his way to the islands
 
 THE PERIOD 39 
 
 they encountered a heavy storm which carried them nearly to 
 Japan the ship was wrecked, and they lost all their food, clothing, 
 and personal property. 
 
 3. Years afterwards, the knowledge gained stood me in good 
 stead in clearing up another mystery it was in a lumber camp — 
 always a superstitious place — in the heart of a Canada forest I 
 had followed a wandering herd of caribou too far one day, and late 
 in the afternoon found myself alone at a river, some twenty miles 
 from my camp, on the edge of the barren grounds somewhere 
 above me I knew that a crew of lumbermen were at work ; so I 
 headed up river to find their camp, if possible, and avoid sleep- 
 ing out in the snow and bitter cold it was long after dark, and 
 the moon was flooding forest and river with a wonderful light, 
 when I at last caught sight of the camp the click of my snow- 
 shoes brought a dozen big men to the door at that moment I felt, 
 rather than saw, that they seemed troubled and alarmed at seeing 
 me alone ; but I was too tired to notice, and no words save those 
 of welcome were spoken until I had eaten heartily then, as I 
 started out for another look at the wild beauty of the place under 
 the moonlight, a lumberman followed and touched me on the 
 shoulder. 
 
 2. (1) Write about something you saw happen. Do your 
 writing as rapidly as you please. (2) Before copying your 
 work, revise it to see that (a) every sentence has a subject 
 and a predicate, and that (b) every sentence begins with a 
 capital, and, if declarative, ends with a period. 
 
 Note. Since some young writers run on breathlessly from one sen- 
 tence to another without thought of periods, every pupil should be 
 sure that he does not crowd too much into one sentence. It is well 
 at first to have one's sentences short rather than long. 
 
 *&• 
 
 3. In a paragraph of a hundred words tell why you 
 like or do not like the literature that the class is now 
 reading.
 
 40 THE SENTENCE AND ITS PUNCTUATION 
 
 22. The Interrogation Point. An interrogation point 
 
 should follow every direct question. 
 
 Did you recognize me ? 
 You could not see ? 
 
 Note. An interrogation point should not follow an indirect ques- 
 tion ; for example, He asked who was ready to go. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Ask a favor of your teacher in a declarative sentence. 
 
 2. Ask the same favor in an interrogative sentence. 
 
 3. Turn your interrogative sentence into an indirect 
 question. 
 
 23. The Exclamation Point, i. The exclamation point 
 stands at the end of a sentence to strengthen the expres- 
 sion of strong feeling. 
 
 Let not a traitor live ! 
 God pity her ! 
 Begone ! 
 
 2. It is also used within the sentence. It follows words, 
 phrases, and clauses. 
 
 What nonsense ! 
 
 " The fool ! " he muttered. 
 
 " That bullet was better aimed than common ! " exclaimed 
 Duncan, involuntarily shrinking from a shot which struck the 
 rock at his side with a smart rebound. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 l. (i) Write a paragraph about some exciting experience 
 of yours. (2) Before copying your work, see that every 
 sentence (a) has a subject and a predicate, and (b) begins 
 with a capital and ends with the proper punctuation mark.
 
 THE INTERROGATION POINT 4 1 
 
 (Remember the caution not to crowd too much into one 
 sentence.) 
 
 2. Exchange papers and, as critics, consider the following 
 questions : 
 
 1. Does every sentence end where it should? If not, put a 
 neat S in the margin. 
 
 2. Is every declarative sentence followed by a period? If not, 
 put a Pin the margin unless the sentence is exclamatory. 
 
 3. Are interrogative or exclamatory sentences followed by the 
 proper marks? 
 
 If you question the use of any mark of punctuation, put a " ? " 
 in the margin. 
 
 3. Revise your paper, and if there is sufficient reason, 
 rewrite it. 
 
 MARKS WITHIN THE SENTENCE 
 
 We are not only to keep our sentences apart, but we are 
 also to make use of whatever marks will help us group the 
 words within a sentence so that they will be most readily 
 understood. 1 Of such marks the most important are the 
 colon, the semicolon, and the comma. 
 
 We shall consider first the colon and the semicolon be- 
 cause they separate complete clauses which are too closely 
 connected to be separated by a period. In other words, the 
 colon and the semicolon mark main divisions of a sentence ; 
 the comma marks lesser divisions. At the same time it 
 will be convenient to study all three side by side, and refer- 
 ences from one to the other may be more readily under- 
 stood if we remember two facts : 
 
 1 The plan of marking the end of the sentence first is only a temporary device. 
 As soon as we can trust ourselves to mark the end of the sentence, we should form 
 the habit of inserting these other marks while writing the sentence.
 
 42 THE SENTENCE AND ITS PUNCTUATION 
 
 i. The colon sometimes separates clauses which are 
 subdivided by semicolons. 
 
 A clause is either independent or dependent : independent, if 
 it forms an assertion by itself; dependent, if it enters into some 
 other clause with the value of a part of speech. 
 
 2. The semicolon sometimes separates clauses which are 
 subdivided by commas. 
 
 So if a man's wit be wandering, let him study the mathe- 
 matics; for in demonstrations, if his wit be called away never so 
 little, he must begin again. 
 
 24. The Colon. The colon not only separates clauses 
 which are subdivided by semicolons but also introduces 
 explanation or specification. 
 
 i . It introduces a second clause which explains the first 
 
 clause. 
 
 One thing I know : she is a lady. 
 
 Frequently the second clause is a direct quotation, intro- 
 duced formally. 
 
 These were his words : " Say what you may, I care not for 
 the consequences." 
 
 2. It introduces a series of clauses to explain the first 
 clause. 
 
 The battle of Actium was one of the most important in ancient 
 history : it saved European civilization from undue Oriental influ- 
 ence ; it ended the long anarchy which followed the murder of 
 Caesar; and it placed the destiny of the empire in the hands of 
 an able statesman. 
 
 The lesson for to-day is as follows : ( i ) we are to know the 
 uses of the colon ; (2) we are to write an incident ; (3) we are to 
 pick out and copy in the notebooks twenty-four of the best lines 
 from "The Vision of Sir Launfal." 
 
 Note. If the matter that follows the colon opens a new paragraph, 
 or begins on a new line, a dash is often used after the colon.
 
 THE COLON 43 
 
 3. It introduces a series of words to explain the first clause. 
 
 Four boys deserve particular attention : John, James, Charles, 
 and Henry. 
 
 Note. In this instance the writer specifics the boys he has in mind. 
 
 4. It is used in addressing a person in a letter. 
 
 a. In a formal way, as in a business letter. 
 
 Mr. J. W. Brown, 
 
 Boston, Mass. 
 Dear Sir: 
 
 b. In a less formal way, as in a letter to some one with 
 whom you are well acquainted. 
 
 Dear Mr. Brown : 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Complete the punctuation of the following sentences 
 and show why the marks you use are better than others 
 which might be used. 
 
 1. The contrast between the Greeks and the Orientals was at 
 its height at Thermopylae on the one side the Persian officers 
 scourged their men to battle on the other the Spartans voluntarily 
 faced certain death in obedience to law. 
 
 2. On the base of his statue his countrymen placed this epi- 
 taph " Had your strength equaled your will Demosthenes the 
 Macedonian War God would never have conquered Greece." 
 
 3. They had one virtue under the whip they could whirl a 
 sledge over the snow farther and faster than a horse could trot 
 in a day. 
 
 4. There are fines imposed for tardiness at rehearsals five 
 dollars for a period not exceeding fifteen minutes ten dollars for 
 a longer one and ten dollars for absence unless there is sufficient 
 excuse. 
 
 2. Call your teacher's attention to one of the best sen- 
 tences in the first chapter <>f whatever book you happen to
 
 44 THE SENTENCE AND ITS PUNCTUATION 
 
 be reading. Write the sentence in full, and introduce it 
 with a brief statement of what you think of it. 
 
 3. Give in a single sentence the reason or reasons why 
 you came to this school. (In this exercise and the next the 
 colon may be convenient.) 
 
 4. Write in a single sentence the reasons why a boy should 
 (or should not) smoke before he is twenty-one years of age. 
 
 5. Using any one of the sentences written under the last 
 three exercises as the first sentence of a paragraph, write 
 all you have to say about the subject. Copy this paper in 
 your notebook as Theme I. Date the work and make the 
 penmanship as attractive as possible. 1 
 
 6. Write in a paragraph of not more than a hundred 
 words your opinion of Walter Scott as a story-teller. 
 
 Copy this paragraph in your notebook as Theme II. 
 
 7. Exchange notebooks in order to examine Themes I 
 and II. Criticise (i) form, (2) sentence structure, (3) punc- 
 tuation at the end of the sentence, (4) the use of the colon. 
 Keep in mind this question : Has the colon been used cor- 
 rectly, or might it be used to advantage ? 
 
 8. Revise Themes I and II as neatly as possible. 2 
 
 25. The Semicolon. 1. The semicolon separates short 
 clauses which, though grammatically independent, are so 
 closely connected in meaning that they naturally form a 
 single sentence. 
 
 1 By keeping much of the written work in a notebook, the pupil can attend to 
 certain matters at once and. as he continues his study of composition, can come 
 back to his early work again and again for the sake of making one improvement 
 after another. The word " composition " is rather long to apply to these bits of 
 writing. It will be easier to use the shorter word " theme," which includes all kinds 
 of composition, long or short. 
 
 2 Hereafter let it be understood that every composition is to be revised after it 
 has been criticised. No rewriting is to be done unless either the teacher or the pupil 
 thinks best.
 
 THE SEMICOLON 45 
 
 Those whose backs were turned wheeled round ; all the others 
 raised their heads ; three waiters whirled about on their heels like 
 tops ; the two women at the desk gave a jump, then turned com- 
 pletely round, like automata obedient to the same crank. 
 
 2. The semicolon separates two or more phrases or 
 clauses which depend upon another clause. 
 
 For illustrations see section 24, 2. 
 
 3. The semicolon is frequently used to separate the 
 clauses of a compound sentence, when such clauses con- 
 tain commas. 
 
 At high tide, and at high tide only, the sailing is delightful, 
 as there are a great many square miles of sheltered water to 
 cruise upon ; but at low tide, except in three small channels, 
 there is no sailing. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 l. In copying the following sentences insert semicolons 
 wherever they are useful, and point out their value. 
 
 1. He was courteous, not cringing, to superiors affable, not 
 familiar, to equals and kind, but not condescending or supercilious, 
 to inferiors. 
 
 2. In taking revenge, a man is but even with his enemy but in 
 passing it over, he is superior. 
 
 3. Some said that Dolph Heyliger watched in the haunted 
 house with pistols loaded with silver bullets others, that he had a 
 long talk with a specter without a head others, that Doctor Kip- 
 perhausen and the sexton had been hunted down the Bowery lane, 
 and quite into town, by a legion of ghosts of their customers. 
 
 2. Write in a single sentence the reasons why some man 
 or woman whom you know is justl) admired. 
 
 3. Using the sentence as the first sentence of a paragraph, 
 write all you have to say about the subject.
 
 40 THE SENTENCE AND ITS PUNCTUATION 
 
 4. Copy this paper in your notebook as Theme III. 
 
 5. Exchange notebooks and examine as in the case of 
 Themes I and II. Consider too the use of the semicolon. 
 
 26. The Comma. The comma is the slightest mark of 
 separation that may be put between words. Its common 
 uses are as follows : 
 
 i. The comma sets off expressions obviously parenthet- 
 ical, including words, phrases, or clauses used in apposition. 
 
 i. You can see, I think, and we can hear perfectly. 
 2. I caught a glimpse of Edith, his sister. 
 
 NOTE. The appositive words, "his sister," have no close gram- 
 matical connection with the rest of the sentence. If, however, we say, 
 " His sister Edith came yesterday," the connection between the noun 
 ami its appositive is too close for a comma to come between them. 
 
 2. The comma sets off a dependent clause, unless the clause 
 is short and closely connected with the rest of the sentence. 
 
 1. If you knew him, you would like him. 
 
 2. The pupil who studies faithfully, even if he is not brilliant, 
 is likely to succeed. 
 
 3. I will come when you say. 
 
 This rule includes a relative clause which is explanatory, 
 or which gives an additional thought. 
 
 The older brother, whom you have met, was here. 
 
 But a relative clause which is restrictive, which limits the 
 meaning of the antecedent, is too closely connected with it 
 to be thus separated. 
 
 The brother whom you have met was here yesterday. 
 
 3. The comma sets apart words used in direct address. 
 
 lohn, your mother is calling you. 
 
 Hearken, Phreacian captains and councilors, and let me tell 
 you what the heart within me bids.
 
 THE COMMA 47 
 
 4. The comma sets apart introductory expressions which 
 are not closely related to the rest of the sentence. 
 
 1 . Well, you may be right. 
 
 2. In the first place, a student is not necessarily a scholar 
 
 3. By the way, I hear that William has been promoted. 
 
 4. On the one hand, . . . ; on the other, . . . 
 
 5. The comma sets apart the case absolute. 
 
 The time having come, he called the meeting to order. 
 
 6. The comma sets apart words, phrases, or clauses in 
 the same construction in a series. 
 
 He sells dry goods, groceries, hardware, and drugs. 
 
 In a sentence 'like this last example it is sometimes safe 
 to omit the comma before the and, but such an omission 
 might cause an awkward sentence if not a misunderstanding. 
 
 Her dresses were black, white, red, and blue. 
 
 Note. An omission of the last comma would mean that the same 
 dress was partly red and partly blue. 
 
 7. The comma sets apart words or phrases in pairs. 
 
 Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my hand and 
 my heart to this vote. 
 
 8. The comma takes the place of omitted words. 
 
 (1) It frequently takes the place of an omitted verb. 
 
 1. The first train was an hour late ; the second, thirty minutes ; 
 and the third, ten minutes. 
 
 2. John is the elder son ; Charles, the younger. 
 
 (2) The comma sets apart the items in the date and the 
 
 address of a letter. 
 
 Exeter, N.H., 
 
 April 5, 1905. 
 Mr. J. A. Walker, 
 
 Mel ruse, Mass.
 
 48 THE SENTENCE AND ITS PUNCTUATION 
 
 Note. The commas take the place of in the state of in the month 
 of in the year, in the city of in the state of. 
 
 9. The comma sets apart (1) a short quotation or (2) an 
 expression similar to a quotation. 
 
 1. I heard him say, "A soft answer turneth away wrath." 
 
 2. " I hope you will come soon," was his reply. 
 
 3. What I wish to know is, When did you see him ? 
 
 Note i. Of course the comma is not used with an exclamation 
 point or an interrogation point. 
 
 " Follow me ! " he shouted. 
 
 " Are you coming ? " was all he said. 
 
 Note 2. Commas set apart words that come between the parts of 
 
 a quotation. 
 
 " Come early," he said, " or not at all." 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Account for every punctuation mark in the follow- 
 ing passage. 
 
 A college stands for learning, for culture, and for power ; in 
 particular, it stands for the recognition of an aim higher than 
 money getting. It is a place where our young men shall see 
 visions ; where even the idlest and lowest man of all must catch 
 glimpses of ideals which, if he could see them steadily, would 
 transfigure life. The Bachelor of Arts is seldom, on his Com- 
 mencement Day, a scholar either polished or profound ; but he 
 may be in the full sense of the word a man. 
 
 2. In copying the following sentences, insert commas 
 wherever they are useful. 
 
 1. Wild sorrel has an agreeable sour shivery flavor. 
 
 2. Do you remember in "The Compleat Angler" a remark 
 which Isaak Walton quotes from a certain "Doctor Boteler " 
 about strawberries? "Doubtless" said that wise old man " God 
 could have made a better berry but doubtless God never did."
 
 THE DASH 49 
 
 3. I made a little journey into the Doone Country once just to 
 see that brook and to fish in it. The stream looked smaller and 
 the water-slide less terrible than they seemed in the book. 
 
 4. "Our first essay" says he "was along a mountain brook 
 among the highlands of the Hudson. . . . Sometimes it would 
 brawl and fret along a ravine in the matted shade of a forest fill- 
 ing it with murmurs ; and after this termagant career would steal 
 forth into open day with the most placid demure face imaginable ; 
 as I have seen some pestilent shrew of a housewife after filling 
 her home with uproar and ill-humour." 
 
 3. Write Theme IV on any subject you please. If you 
 like, you may tell what happened while you were waiting 
 for something to' begin — say a game, concert, or lecture. 
 
 Revise and copy as before. Pay special attention to the 
 uses of the comma. 
 
 4. Exchange notebooks, examine as before, and consider 
 in addition the use of the comma. 
 
 27. The Dash. 1. The dash is an interruption — some- 
 times sudden and abrupt. It suspends the construction in 
 order to change it, or to give an unexpected turn to the end 
 of the sentence. 
 
 But there was no unusual sound — nothing but the low wash of 
 the ripple and the croaking of the crows in the wood. 
 
 Here are these beautiful fields — I will show you the way 
 through them. 
 
 2. A dash, usually following a comma, often introduces 
 an explanation. 
 
 Uncas enjoyed his victory, but was content with merely exhibit- 
 ing his triumph by ;i quiet smile, — an emblem of scorn which 
 belongs to all time and to every nation. 
 
 3. We use dashes to set off a parenthetical expression 
 which is too closely connected with the rest of the sentence
 
 5<D THE SENTENCE AND ITS PUNCTUATION 
 
 to be inclosed in marks of parenthesis, and yet needs to be 
 distinctly separated from the rest of the sentence. Commas 
 should precede the clashes, if commas would be necessary 
 provided the words between the dashes were omitted. 
 
 Thomas Hughes, too, is gone, — Tom Hughes would still seem 
 the more accustomed name, — one of the many men who illustrate 
 the somewhat painful truth that the heights of philanthropy and 
 self-devotion do not yield so sure a fame as a spark of genius. 
 
 Note i. Marks of parenthesis are used to inclose expressions that 
 do not form an essential part of the sentence. 
 
 Know then this truth (enough for man to know), 
 '' Virtue alone is happiness below." 
 
 Note 2. Brackets inclose insertions whose connection with the 
 text is even slighter. Often the words included have been added to 
 what the original author wrote. 
 
 It [a great university] is resorted to in most countries, notably 
 in our own country, alike by rich and poor, by the children of the 
 educated and the uneducated — in short, by the children of fam- 
 ilies of all sorts and conditions. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Write Theme V on any subject you please. If you 
 like, you may choose a subject from the list made under 
 Exercise 2, page 33. 
 
 Revise and copy as before. See whether the clash is of 
 service to you in any of your sentences. 
 
 2. Exchange notebooks, examine as before, and consider 
 in addition whether the dash has been used correctly, or 
 might be used to advantage. 
 
 28. The Apostrophe. 1. The apostrophe marks the omis- 
 sion of a letter or letters : as, 'tis, I'm, don't, man's. (For 
 the possessive case see section 61.)
 
 QUOTATION MARKS 5 I 
 
 2. The apostrophe marks the omission of figures in dates. 
 
 • The boys of '61. 
 The class of '09. 
 
 3. The apostrophe sometimes marks the plural of figures 
 
 and letters. 
 
 Cross your / s and dot your rs. 
 
 His 7's look like his 9's. 
 
 29. Quotation Marks. 1. Double quotation marks (" ") 
 inclose a direct quotation. 
 
 We heard him say, "All is well." 
 
 2. Single quotation marks ( ') inclose a quotation 
 within a quotation. 
 
 This was his answer: " I agree with Falstaff that ' the better 
 part of valor is discretion.' " 
 
 " Being asked by a young nobleman what was become of 
 the gallantry and military spirit of the old English nobility, he 
 [Samuel Johnson] replied, 'Why, my Lord, I'll tell you what has 
 become of it : it is gone into the city to look for a fortune.' ' 
 
 " One of the first aims of college life is increase of power : 
 be he scholar or athlete, the sound undergraduate learns to meet 
 difficulties; 'stumbling blocks,' in the words of an admirable 
 preacher, 'become stepping stones.'" 
 
 3. When paragraphs are quoted, the quotation marks are 
 placed at the beginning of each paragraph and at the end 
 of the last paragraph. 
 
 4. The title of a book or paper ma)- be quoted or italicized, 
 as the writer prefers. Some prefer "The House of the Seven 
 Gables"; others, The House of the Seven Gables. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 l. Copy from dictation the three sentences quoted above 
 under 2. Explain the brackets in the second sentence.
 
 52 THE SENTENCE AND ITS PUNCTUATION 
 
 2. Write (i) a portion of a conversation at breakfast or 
 dinner, or (2) a short conversation between two girls about 
 a skating party, or (3) a short conversation between two 
 boys about a game of football. Put what each person says, 
 together with whatever you say in connection with each 
 speech, in a paragraph by itself. 
 
 3. Write Theme VI. Give your opinion of some book or 
 of a portion of it. Introduce an interesting quotation from 
 the book. Revise and copy as before. 
 
 4. Exchange notebooks, examine as before, and consider 
 in addition the use of quotation marks. 
 
 30. The Hyphen. 1. The hyphen (-) is used to divide a 
 word at the end of a line. It separates syllables. A word 
 of one syllable is never split. We may write com-mittee or 
 commit-tee, but not comm-ittee or committ-ee. The hyphen 
 comes at the end of the line, never at the beginning of a line. 
 
 2. The hyphen separates compound words (a) which have 
 not yet become single words : as, grcat-grandfatlicr, twenty- 
 five, tzvo-foot rule ; (a) in which it is convenient to keep the 
 prefix distinct from the rest of the word ; as, re-creation, pre- 
 Shakspcrean. 
 
 31. Asterisks and Leaders. Asterisks (* * *) or leaders 
 (. . .) denote omissions. 
 
 1. She . . . began a song. . . . The hand failed on the strings, 
 the tune halted, checked, and at a low note turned off to the poor 
 little nursery rhyme about the wicked crow — 
 
 " And the wild plums grow in the jungle, only a penny a pound, 
 Only a penny a pound, baba — only . . ." 
 
 2. Then came the tears . . . till she slept. 
 
 Note. Leaders are used for omissions in the middle or at the end 
 of a paragraph. Asterisks are convenient for separating complete 
 paragraphs. .See page 34.
 
 THE HYPHEN 53 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Exchange notebooks and examine Themes I-VI to 
 see whether the hyphen has been used correctly. 
 
 2. Take from your own writing or from your reading as 
 many illustrations of the uses of the comma as you can 
 find before the next recitation. 
 
 3. (1) Write briefly but comprehensively what you think 
 you need to keep in mind with reference to each of the 
 marks of punctuation. (2) As you examine the punctu- 
 ation of your own written work, what are your most serious 
 faults ? 
 
 4. Copy and punctuate the following passages : 
 
 1. Cultivate decision of character in everything the ability to 
 say yes or to say no and to do it on the spot the man who takes 
 too much time in deciding things fearing that he may decide 
 wrong will get ahead slowly if at all. 
 
 2. What you been shootin Corlick asked his wife as she placed 
 the roast pork and potatoes on the table 
 
 Oh nothin of any account he replied with affected indifference 
 only Laban Wing's bull 
 
 Why Corlick Evans she cried 
 
 3. I asked him what he thought would become of them there 
 and if they had formed no design of making any escape he said 
 they had many consultations about it but that having neither vessel 
 nor tools to build one nor provisions of any kind their councils 
 always ended in tears and despair I asked him how he thought 
 they would receive a proposal from me which might tend towards 
 an escape and whether if they were all here it might not be done. 
 
 4. In despair I went to a great merchant on the island and asked 
 him to employ me my dear young friend said he I understand 
 that you have some singular secret some charm or spell or amulet 
 
 omething I don't know what of which people are afraid now 
 you know my dear said the merchant swelling up and apparently
 
 54 THE SENTENCE AND ITS PUNCTUATION 
 
 prouder of his great stomach than of his large fortune I am not 
 of that kind 1 am not easily frightened you may spare yourself the 
 pain of trying to impose upon me people who propose to come 
 to time before I arrive are accustomed to arise very early in the 
 morning said he thrusting his thumbs in the armholes of his waist- 
 coat and spreading the fingers like two fans upon his bosom I 
 think I have heard something of your secret you have a pair of 
 spectacles I believe that you value very much because your grand- 
 mother brought them as a marriage portion to your grandfather 
 now if you think fit to sell me those spectacles I will pay you the 
 largest market price for them what do you say I told him I had 
 not the slightest idea of selling my spectacles my young friend 
 means to eat them I suppose said he with a contemptuous smile I 
 made no reply but was turning to leave the office when the mer- 
 chant called after me my young friend poor people should never 
 suffer themselves to get into pets anger is an expensive luxury in 
 which only men of a certain income can indulge a pair of spec- 
 tacles and a hot temper are not the most promising capital for 
 success in life Master Titbottom [six paragraphs]. 
 
 5. Exchange notebooks and examine Themes I -VI. Criti- 
 cise the use of the following marks: (i) colon; (2) semi- 
 colon ; (3) comma ; (4) clash ; (5) apostrophe ; (6) quotation 
 marks ; (7) hyphen.
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 SPELLING 
 
 32. Ways of Learning to Spell. It is probably true that 
 many persons remember a word as they remember a face. 
 For them the ideal way to learn to spell would seem to be 
 to take a good look at the words as they read. But some 
 of us do not master spelling in that way. There are scores 
 of words that we see day after day and yet misspell. In 
 many instances we must make a special effort in order to 
 spell accurately. 
 
 If one who has unusual difficulty with spelling will keep 
 a list of the words that puzzle him, and review this list 
 from day to day, he will find himself making steady improve- 
 ment. One who masters five words a day for a year will 
 be able to spell a snug little vocabulary at the end of that 
 time. Fifteen hundred everyday words make a tolerably 
 comfortable outfit for a poor speller. 
 
 Sometimes the mere writing of a word will determine the 
 spelling. The moment we write receive we know that it is 
 correct. But if we are likely to have further trouble with 
 that word, suppose we write it thus, to call extra attention 
 to the letters that puzzle : 
 
 recEIve. 
 
 This method may help us remember such words as beliEve, 
 decEive, siEge, seizc, villAin, and many another word ; 
 for example, \ill.\ge, grammAr, superintendEnt. Or, if we 
 
 55
 
 56 SPELLING 
 
 prefer, we may underscore such letters, thus : receive, 
 believe, siege, grammar, villain; or receive, believe, siege, 
 etc. With or without increasing the size of the doubtful 
 letters, it will be an aid in fixing the spelling of any word 
 to write it out plainly several times. 
 
 33. Rules for Spelling. Many persons, on the other hand, 
 .find rules convenient. For them the following are included : 
 
 i . Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, end- 
 ing in a single consonant following a single vowel, double the final 
 consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel : as, beg, beggar; 
 regret, regretted. 
 
 Note. If the accent falls on a different syllable in the derivative, 
 the rule does not apply : as, refer, reference. 
 
 2. Final r following a consonant changes to i before a suffix : as, 
 busy, business ; library, libraries ; spy, spies. 
 
 Exceptions: i. Before ing and ish the y is kept to avoid 
 doubling the i: as, carry, carrying; baby, babyish. 
 
 2. y is not changed in derivatives of wry, sky, sky, sly, 
 spry. 
 
 Note. Words ending \n y following a vowel are regular, except 
 lay, laid j pay, paid; say, said; stay, stayed or staid. 
 
 3. Words ending in an unaccented e drop the e before a 
 suffix beginning with a vowel : as, force, forcible ; invite, invited ; 
 desire, desirable. 
 
 Exceptions: 1. Hoeing, mileage, skoeing, toeing. 
 
 2. Dyeing, singeing, and tingeing keep the e to distinguish 
 these words from dying, singing, and tinging. 
 
 3. Words ending in ce and ge keep the e before able and 01/s 
 in order to retain the soft sound of c and g: as, courage, 
 courageous j peace, peaceable. 
 
 4. Words ending in ie drop the e and change the i to y before 
 adding ing (to avoid doubling the i) : as, die, dying j lie, lying; 
 tie, tying.
 
 RULES FOR SPELLING 57 
 
 4. In words in which the diphthongs ei and ie are pronounced 
 e, as in he, c is followed by ei, all other letters by ie : as, ceiling, 
 receive, piece, siege, niece. Seize and weird are exceptions. 
 
 34. The Formation of Plurals. The plural of most nouns 
 
 is formed by adding s to the singular. When, however, the 
 
 sound of s makes an extra syllable, es is added : as, lunch, 
 
 lunches. 
 
 Exceptions : 1. Nouns ending in y following a consonant 
 change y to i and add es : as, ally, allies ; cry, cries. 
 
 2. Nouns ending in o following a consonant generally add 
 es : as, potato, pototoes ; but the s alone is added to piano, 
 solo, halo, and some others. 
 
 Note. These rules apply to the formation of the third person 
 singular of the present indicative active of the verb : as, read, reads j 
 hush, hushes j carry, carries ; veto, vetoes. 
 
 3. There is no rule for the formation of such irregular 
 plurals as teeth, mice, oxen, men, women, children, deer. 
 
 4. Certain nouns ending in f or fe — beef, calf, elf, half, 
 knife, leaf, life, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf, wife, wolf — form the 
 plural by changing forfe into ves: &s,calves, knives, loaves, etc. 
 
 35. Syllabication. It is difficult to give definite rules for 
 syllabication, but it seems wise to offer certain suggestions 
 and to point out a few possible errors. 
 
 1 . The division of a word into syllables may be determined to 
 some extent by its etymology ; for example, prefixes and suffixes 
 form natural separate syllables : as, ex-tol, lov-ing. The root itself 
 of the word should be divided into such combinations of con- 
 sonants and vowels as are easily and naturally pronounced 
 together : as, gon-do-la, not go-ndol-a. 
 
 2. When there is a doubled consonant, the division usually 
 comes between the two letters : as, drop-ping, rub-bing. 
 
 3. A word of one syllable should never be divided.
 
 58 SPELLING 
 
 4. A syllable of one letter should never be separated from 
 the rest of the word : as, a-way. If there is not room for the 
 whole word at the end of a line, the word should be written on 
 the next line. 
 
 5. Final h in words like sample, little, and trifle should be 
 joined with the preceding consonant to form the last syllable : as, 
 fid-die, mid-die, etc. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Make a list of all the words you have misspelled 
 in the writing you have done during the last month. In 
 preparing the list, look in the dictionary for every word 
 about the spelling of which you have any doubt whatever. 
 Each pupil should add to this list the correct form of every 
 zvord he misspells during the year. 
 
 2. Write out carefully ten times every one of these words 
 which you have misspelled ; write twenty times every word 
 you have misspelled more than once. 
 
 3. (1) Look over all the writing you do before the next 
 recitation, — whether it be a letter written at home or a 
 school exercise in history, — to see whether your work 
 includes any words which you do not know how to spell. 
 Look up all such words and bring a list of them to the 
 English recitation. (2) Make a list of several common 
 words used in connection with each of your studies. 
 
 4. During the coming month bring to every recitation a 
 threefold list of words, collected as follows. (1) Make a list 
 as in Exercise 3 (1). (2) Choose two or three words each 
 clay from each of your other studies. Include all words 
 which you have misspelled in connection with these studies. 
 (3) Select from four pages of the reading lesson all words 
 which you are most likely to misspell.
 
 SPELLING 
 
 59 
 
 5. Be prepared to spell, orally or in writing", any word in 
 the first chapter of this book. 
 
 6. Write sentences containing the following words. If 
 you wish to exercise your ingenuity, perhaps you can com- 
 bine the sentences of either I or II in a connected paragraph. 
 
 yield 
 
 siege 
 
 besiege 
 
 believe 
 
 relieve 
 
 till 
 
 until 
 
 view 
 
 grieve 
 
 friend 
 
 fiend 
 
 precede 
 
 proceed 
 
 II 
 
 deceive 
 
 receive 
 
 perceive 
 
 respectively 
 
 respectfully 
 
 describe 
 
 seize 
 
 beginning 
 
 planning 
 
 descent 
 
 referred 
 
 occurred 
 
 accommodate 
 
 7. Be sure that you can spell all the words in the follow- 
 ing list, and use as many of them as is feasible in writing 
 a paper on a subject suggested by one or more of them. 
 
 II 
 
 III 
 
 benefit 
 
 finally 
 
 knight 
 
 chief 
 
 forfeit 
 
 night 
 
 custom 
 
 goddess 
 
 led 
 
 decision 
 
 grammar 
 
 literary 
 
 different 
 
 independent 
 
 loose 
 
 disappear 
 
 infinite 
 
 lose 
 
 disappoint 
 
 intellectual 
 
 noticeable 
 
 exaggerate 
 
 judgment 
 
 possess
 
 6o 
 
 ) 
 
 SPELLING 
 
 
 prejudice 
 
 prophesy 
 
 there 
 
 principal 
 
 rhythm 
 
 to 
 
 principle 
 
 sentence 
 
 too 
 
 privilege 
 
 separate 
 
 village 
 
 profession 
 
 shepherd 
 
 villain 
 
 promise 
 
 surprise 
 
 writer 
 
 prophecy 
 
 their 
 
 writing 
 
 8. Bo prepared to spoil the names of the following 
 authors : 
 
 Holmes 
 
 Coleridge 
 
 George Eliot 
 
 Irving 
 
 Goldsmith 
 
 Shakspere 
 
 Addison 
 
 Steele 
 
 Tennyson 
 
 Lowell 
 
 Burke 
 
 Jane Austen 
 
 Macaulay 
 
 Samuel Johnson 
 
 Hawthorne 
 
 Burns 
 
 Carlyle 
 
 Wordsworth 
 
 De Quincey 
 
 Cooper 
 
 Spenser 
 
 Chaucer 
 
 Shelley 
 
 Thackeray 
 
 9. Write the names of all the characters in the book 
 you are now reading in class. 
 
 10. Be prepared to spell any word in this chapter up to 
 this point. Include the list prepared under the preceding 
 exercise. 1 
 
 36. The Use of Capitals. In studying spelling we must 
 give careful attention to the use of capitals. Capitalization 
 is a great help to us in indicating important words and in 
 making our meaning clear. 
 
 i. The pronoun /and the interjection O should always 
 be written as capitals. 
 
 2. Every independent sentence, every line of poetry, and 
 every direct quotation formally introduced, should begin 
 with a capital. 
 
 1 Perhaps your teacher will allow you to have a spelling match.
 
 THE USE OF CAPITALS 6 1 
 
 3. In general, a capital calls attention to a word of special 
 importance. The following are examples : 
 
 a. Proper names, and words which are used as proper 
 names. 
 
 (1) Names of Deity, such as God, the Father, the 
 Almighty. 
 
 (2) The names of the months, the days of the week, and 
 any word which is used to designate a special thing. 
 
 Denver, the Missouri River, Mount Washington, the Melrose 
 High School, the National Biscuit Company, Patriots' Day, the 
 Declaration of Independence, the Reformation, the Renaissance, 
 the American Revolution, the Ware Grammar School. 
 
 Note. We must include adjectives formed from proper names, 
 such as Englisli and German, unless the adjectives are used merely 
 to express a quality, as in the case of stoical and quixotic. 
 
 b. In titles of newspapers, essays, and books, all impor- 
 tant words — including the first. 
 
 " The Rime of the Ancient Mariner," " Young People and Old 
 Pictures." 
 
 c. Titles of honor or office, wheji applied to a particu- 
 lar person. 
 
 The President of the United States, the Governor of California, 
 Mayor Brown, Captain lames, his Honor, her Majesty. 
 
 d. Personification. 
 
 Haste thee, Nymph, and bring with thee 
 Jest, and youthful Jollity, 
 Quips and Cranks and wanton Wiles, 
 Nods and Becks and wreathed Smiles, 
 Such as hang on Hebe's cheek, 
 And love to live in dimple sleek; 
 Sport that wrinkled Care derides, 
 And Laughter holding both his sides.
 
 62 SPELLING 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Write a sentence in which you name every month 
 in the year, all the clays of the week, and the seasons. 
 (Remember that the names of the seasons do not begin 
 with capitals.) 
 
 2. Write a sentence in which you mention all the schools 
 which you have ever attended. 
 
 3. Write a complex sentence in which you mention a 
 higher institution of learning that you think you may like 
 to enter in the future, and a firm for whom you may wish 
 to work. 
 
 4. Explain the use of the capitals in these sentences : 
 
 The North and the South are trying to understand each other. 
 When I lived in the West, I had a study that faced the west. 
 
 5. Copy from this book (i) four lines of poetry, and (2) 
 four direct quotations, at least two of which are introduced 
 formally. 
 
 6. Write a sentence in which you mention all of your 
 studies. Why should algebra begin with a small letter 
 and English with a capital ? 
 
 7. Make a list of five proper adjectives. 
 
 8. Write the titles "mayor," "king," "president," and 
 "governor," in connection with names of persons. 
 
 9. Write the titles of three books and two newspapers 
 or essays. 
 
 10. In a paragraph give your opinion of a newspaper with 
 which you are familiar. Capitalize every important word in 
 the title of your composition. 
 
 11. In a paragraph give your opinion of the magazine 
 which you know best.
 
 SPELLING 6 
 
 o 
 
 12. Copy the better of these last two papers in your 
 notebook as Theme VII. 
 
 13. Exchange notebooks and examine the capitalization 
 of the titles of Themes I-VII. 
 
 14. Exchange notebooks and call attention to all mis- 
 spelled words in Themes I-VII. 
 
 15. Copy twenty -five times all the words you misspelled 
 in Themes I— VII. 
 
 Note. If you ever forget how to spell a word you have copied 
 twenty-five times, it certainly seems as if the appearance of the word 
 would suggest the use of a dictionary. 
 
 16. Spelling match. Be prepared to spell by syllables 
 any word in this chapter.
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 LETTER WRITING 
 
 37. Value of Letter Writing. We naturally wish to prac- 
 tise writing which has a practical value. A matter of such 
 general interest and such great importance that every one 
 should be impatient to master it, is letter writing. 
 
 It is a favorite form of recreation for some persons, after 
 a hard day's work, to write a letter to a friend. They like 
 to focus their attention on this friend for an hour, to get 
 his point of view, to tell him what he would like to know. It 
 appeals to them as an investment, for it promises an enter- 
 taining reply. Soon the friend will give them a glimpse of 
 his little world. Now this corresponding is a recreation in 
 so far as we write without restraint. If a friend is inter- 
 ested in whatever interests us, we let our pen run pretty 
 freely ; we give expression to what is uppermost in our 
 minds. If some of the attempts to make our meaning clear 
 are bungling, we know he will try to understand us. At 
 the same time, the finer the friendship the more it prizes 
 courtesy, and we must not expect any one else to solve puz- 
 zles that are due to our indifference or laziness. From our 
 own point of view, too, we cannot afford, even in the most 
 familiar letters, to lapse into uncouth, slovenly ways, any 
 more than in conversation we can afford to descend to 
 vulgar expressions. 
 
 It is only to the two or three friends with whom we 
 " think aloud," that we write with perfect freedom. Most 
 
 6 4
 
 VALUE OF LETTER WRITING 65 
 
 of our correspondence must be limited ; and the limitations 
 make it, as a form of training, most valuable. We gener- 
 ally have a definite object in writing — a particular errand 
 to put on paper. There is one thing which a business 
 man wishes us to tell him ; he cannot stop to read any- 
 thing else. Our writing must have unity and brevity. Our 
 success, therefore, often depends largely on our ability 
 to understand the wishes of the person whom we are 
 addressing. 
 
 At another time we have a favor to ask. Again we 
 study our man. He may be easy to antagonize. We must 
 at any rate expect him to be busy; we have no right to 
 waste his time. Hence the need of making him understand 
 us readily and fully — of expressing ourselves so clearly 
 that he may not misunderstand us. 
 
 There is an advantage in having to interest only one 
 man. Our problem seems much more specific when we 
 have a definite explanation to make to a definite reader. 
 We can easily see, however, on further reflection, that when 
 we have learned to satisfy one man we have learned to 
 satisfy many others. Whereas a talk to nobody in particu- 
 lar may interest nobody, a speaker who talks to one man 
 in his audience may give most of his audience the impres- 
 sion that he is talking to each one of them. It was said 
 of the late Dr. Babcock, pastor of the famous old Brick 
 Church in New York, that " there is the feeling during his 
 preaching that Dr. Babcock has you individually by the arm 
 and is talking to you earnestly, quietly, and impressively." 
 
 38. The Paper. With the numerous kinds and sizes of 
 paper at our disposal in these days, we have no excuse 
 for not choosing paper suited to our various needs. White
 
 66 LETTER WRITING 
 
 unruled paper is always in good taste for all forms of cor- 
 respondence. Four-page paper looks better for letters of 
 friendship than the two-page form used in business. Natu- 
 rally we should try to adapt the size of the paper to the 
 length of the communication, with a view to making the 
 letter pleasing in appearance, and easy to read. Little 
 thought is necessary to decide whether to use ordinary 
 business paper, some eight inches by ten in size, or note 
 paper, for inviting a friend to lunch. 
 
 39. The Beginning of a Letter. In beginning a letter we 
 should consider (i) the heading, (2) the address, (3) the 
 salutation. Study the following illustrations : 
 
 1. 36 Allen Street, 
 
 Cambridge, Mass., 
 
 May 1, 1905. 
 Messrs. Horn & Company, 
 
 52 Bond Street, Portland, Me. 
 Dear Sirs : 
 
 2. 10 Bond Street, 
 
 Nashua, N.H., 
 
 February 5, 1906. 
 Miss Olivia E. Long, 
 
 Stratham, N.H. 
 Dear Madam : 
 
 3. Center Lovell, 
 
 Oxford Co., Me., 
 
 March 6, 1906. 
 Mrs. James E. Williams, 
 
 Pinehurst, N.C. 
 Dear Madam : 
 
 TJie Heading. As the foregoing illustrations show, the 
 heading includes (1) the writer's address, and (2) the date. 
 None of the details given above should ever be omitted 
 unless the writer is sure they are so well known as to be
 
 THE BEGINNING OF A LETTER 67 
 
 unnecessary. In illustration (3), in the case of the village 
 of Center Lovell, the name of the county is useful. 
 
 The heading is usually placed an inch or more from 
 the top of the page and near the right-hand corner. The 
 first line should begin far enough toward the left to 
 allow each succeeding line to begin a little farther toward 
 the right. 
 
 Such words as street and a venu e and the names of the 
 months may be abbreviated, but the year should always be 
 written in full, as 1906, not '06. 
 
 The Address. In business letters the address of the per- 
 son to whom the correspondence is sent should begin on 
 the line below the date, and well to the left. As in the 
 heading, the second line should begin a little to the right 
 of the first line. Sometimes the address is placed at the 
 close of the letter, but it is more convenient to have it pre- 
 cede the letter. Naturally, many informal letters do not 
 require the address. 
 
 The Salutation. Just below the address, when there is 
 one, comes the salutation. If there is no address, the salu- 
 tation takes its place. In choosing a form of salutation the 
 writer has an opportunity to show the relations that exist 
 between him and his correspondent. He should make his 
 choice with care. The following salutations are used in 
 formal business letters : 
 
 Dear Sir: or. My dear Sir: 
 
 Dear Madam: or My dear Madam (applies to a married or 
 to an unmarried woman) : 
 Dear Sirs : or Gentlemen : 
 
 Note. Too formal for common use, but suitable for persons of 
 note, — for example, officials in high position, — are Sir: and Madam : 
 
 °J-
 
 68 LETTER WRITING 
 
 In informal letters we write : 
 
 Dear Mr. Browne : or My dear Mr. Browne: 
 Dear Miss Davis: or My dear Miss Davis: 
 
 or, with more informality, we use the comma instead of 
 
 the colon : 
 
 Dear Mr. Browne, or My dear Mr. Browne, 
 Dear Miss Davis, or My dear Miss Davis, 
 
 or, most informally, 
 
 Dear Father, My dear Cousin, 
 
 Dear Fred, My dear Brother, 
 
 Dear Alice, My dear Annie. 
 
 Although the punctuation of the salutation varies a good 
 deal, it is a safe rule to use the comma as the informal, and 
 the colon as the formal, mark of punctuation. 
 
 40. The Body of the Letter. The main part of the letter, 
 or the body, should begin on the line below the salutation. 
 The following arrangement is a good one : 
 
 Bucksport, Maine, 
 
 July 15, 1904. 
 Messrs. Thomas Y. Crowell & Co., 
 46 East 14th St., 
 
 New York City. 
 Dear Sirs : 
 
 Kindly mail me a copy of " Self-Cultivation in Eng- 
 lish," by Professor George H. Palmer. I inclose thirty-five cents 
 
 in stam P s - Very truly yours, 
 
 Wendell R. Barrow. 
 
 If it is true that " there is nothing in which the character 
 of the superior man or woman expresses itself more than 
 in letter writing," we should be at our best when we write 
 letters. We should remember that we can never tell who
 
 THE BODY OF THE LETTER 69 
 
 may read our letters, or how long they may be preserved. 
 Apologies in letters are tedious if not exasperating. These 
 we may avoid in two ways : by replying to letters promptly, 
 and by making our reply as good as we possibly can. A 
 business letter should be answered at once. If we feel hur- 
 ried, let us save time by using few words, not by writing 
 rapidly. A letter should be easily legible. An attractive 
 manuscript is a good beginning of the courtesy that is 
 indispensable in correspondence. 
 
 A letter, like a talk, may be one composition or it may 
 consist of several compositions. If it deals with one sub- 
 ject only, it should, like any other composition, have an 
 orderly arrangement of thought and grow in interest to the 
 end. If, like most conversations, it consists of several com- 
 positions, the writer should attend to each of them in turn ; 
 it is also desirable that such a letter should grow in interest. 
 In all letters there is need of careful paragraphing. 
 
 Every letter, too, should have an appropriate beginning 
 and an appropriate ending. The writer who thinks for him- 
 self does not need to. begin a letter exactly as some one else 
 has begun one ; and the writer who wishes to do finished 
 work will not stop awkwardly or abruptly with the announce- 
 ment that "the dinner bell has rung." Such writers will 
 avoid these expressions : 
 
 1. I take my pen in hand to inform you. 
 
 2. I thought I would drop you a line. 
 
 3. It is late, so I must close. 
 
 4. Yours received and in reply will say. 
 
 41. The Conclusion of a Letter. In the conclusion of a 
 letter there are (1) the complimentary close, and (2) the 
 signature.
 
 70 LETTER WRITING 
 
 The complimentary close, like the salutation, should show 
 the relation that exists between the writer and his corre- 
 spondent. 
 
 The most common business forms are : 
 
 Yours truly, or Truly yours, 
 
 Yours very truly, or Very truly yours. 
 
 A form especially appropriate in addressing an honorable 
 body, or a person older than the writer, though used also 
 as a regular business form, is : 
 
 Yours respectfully, or Respectfully yours. 
 
 Specimens of forms which serve as appropriate endings 
 for letters of friendship, and sometimes for letters of busi- 
 ness, are : 
 
 Sincerely yours, Faithfully yours, Cordially yours, Fraternally 
 yours, or Yours sincerely, Yours faithfully, etc. 
 
 s 
 
 As the letter in section 40 shows, the place for the com- 
 plimentary close is on the line below the last words of the 
 body of the letter. It should be noted, too, that in the 
 forms given above, the first word begins with a capital, and 
 the last word is followed by a comma. 
 
 The signature goes on the line below the complimentary 
 close, and a little to the right. It should give the reader all 
 the information he needs fot-making a suitable reply. As a 
 rule it is well to write the first name in full. A stranger 
 may be puzzled to know whether J. D. Brown is a man or a 
 woman ; whereas he could tell at a glance, if it were Jennie
 
 THE CONCLUSION OF A LETTER 71 
 
 D. Brown ox John D. Brown. In writing to a stranger a lady 
 should sign her name thus : 
 
 (1) Emma L. Brown (Mrs. James A. Brown) 
 
 or (2) (Miss) Sarah E. Lathrop 
 
 or (3) S. E. Lathrop 
 
 Miss Sarah E. Lathrop, 
 Macon, Ga. 
 
 or (4) (Mrs.) Mary W. Bliss 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Write a subscription for The Youth's Companion. 
 
 2. As examiner give especial attention to the arrange- 
 ment of the letter. 
 
 3. Give headings, salutations, and conclusions that you 
 might use in writing to (1) a teacher;- (2) a physician; 
 (3) an intimate friend ; (4) the city council ; (5) the chair- 
 man of the board of selectmen ; (6) the mayor ; l (7) the 
 superintendent of schools ; (8) a member of your family ; 
 (9) an unmarried woman whom you have not met ; (10) an 
 unmarried woman whom you know slightly; (11) a man 
 much older than yourself. 
 
 42. The Folding of a Letter. A letter should be folded 
 with the first page inside. 
 
 If the paper is of the ordinary business letter size, fold 
 it first from the bottom toward the top. Then make a fold 
 from right to left a little narrower than the width of the en- 
 velope, and finally make a third told from left to right. The 
 letter is now ready to go into the envelope right side up. 
 
 l For example, Hon. James T. Clark, Mayor of Wilmington, Delaware. Sir: 
 [or Your Honor :].
 
 72 LETTER WRITING 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Answer for Messrs. T. Y. Crowd] & Co. the letter 
 from Mr. Barrow (page 68). Fold your letter. 
 
 2. Exchange the letters just written. Criticise in writing: 
 (i) the appearance of the letter, including the kind of paper 
 used and the size ; (2) the beginning, including the heading, 
 the address, and the salutation; (3) the body — whether 
 it is a complete answer to the request ; (4) the conclu- 
 sion, including the complimentary close and the signature; 
 (5) the folding. 
 
 43. The Direction of the Envelope. It is customary to 
 arrange the name and the address of the recipient of the 
 letter in three or four lines. The name is written across 
 the middle of the envelope, and so placed as to leave about 
 the same amount of space on each side. If the envelope is 
 long, there should be more space on the left of the name 
 than on the right. As in the case of the heading, each 
 succeeding line begins a little to the right. 
 
 Note carefully the content, the arrangement, and the 
 punctuation of the following envelope addresses : 
 
 1. Mr. William H. Roberts 
 
 10 Perry Street 
 Toledo 
 Ohio 
 
 2. Dr. Samuel West 
 
 Farmville 
 
 North Carolina 
 Care of Mr. T. H. Taft 
 
 3. Messrs. R. H. Brown & Co. 
 
 512 Bonding St. 
 
 New York City
 
 THE DIRECTION OF THE ENVELOPE 73 
 
 The punctuation marks are of no value unless they mark 
 abbreviations. Does not their omission add to the attract- 
 iveness of the envelope ? 
 
 Either Mr. or Esq. — but not both — is used in address- 
 ing men. Some reserve Esq. for lawyers, for whom it is 
 always appropriate ; some, for men who have achieved dis- 
 tinction. Others use it freely instead of Mr. 
 
 It is not in good taste to use the husband's title in ad- 
 dressing the wife, as Mrs. Dr. Davis. 
 
 Address the principal of a school as Walter A. Davis, Esq., 
 Principal of the Central High School. In addressing a pro- 
 fessor, write Professor William H. White. Prin. and Prof. 
 are unattractive abbreviations. 
 
 Instead of Rev. Dr. John B. Luce, write The Rev. John 
 B. Luce, D.D. 
 
 Hon. is a title given to persons " who hold or have held 
 any considerable office under the national or State govern- 
 ment, particularly to members and ex-members of Congress 
 and of State legislatures, to judges, justices, and some other 
 judicial officers, as well as to certain executive officers," : as 
 
 mayors. 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 On slips of paper cut three and one-half inches by six, 
 four by nine, or four by five, write suitable envelope ad- 
 dresses to the following persons and firms. Choose in each 
 instance the size which you consider the most appropriate. 
 
 1 . One of your teachers. 
 
 2. A well-known business house in your town. 
 
 3. The wife of a physician, in care of a doctor of divinity. 
 
 4. A lawyer (the inclosure to be a legal document). 
 
 1 The Century Dictionary.
 
 74 LETTER WRITING 
 
 5. A member of Congress in care of a man whose post-office 
 box is 25. 
 
 6. A prominent firm in a neighboring city. 
 
 44. Suggestions. 1. A good letter shows clearly where, 
 when, to whom, and by whom it was written. 
 
 2. A careful letter writer keeps in mind his relations 
 with the person to whom he writes. 
 
 3. Abbreviations are in general to be avoided. The men 
 who do the most business usually find time to spell the full 
 word. ' Y'rs ree'd " and " Resp'y " are unnecessary. 
 
 4. The order of the pages should be perfectly clear to 
 the reader. 
 
 5. When sent by a friend, a note should not be sealed 
 unless the bearer chooses to seal it. On the envelope in- 
 closing such a note we write : 
 
 Mr. James A. Wilbur 
 Kindness of Mr. Howard 
 
 6. It is a good rule to inclose a stamp whenever we ask 
 a favor which calls for the use of a stamp. 
 
 7. It is wise to write your name and address in the upper 
 left-hand corner of an envelope which incloses a letter of 
 special importance. 
 
 8. Such a little thing as placing the stamp in the upper 
 right-hand corner, right side up, adds to the attractiveness of 
 the envelope. 
 
 SPECIMENS OF LETTERS 
 
 45. Business Letters. Having mastered the forms, the 
 writer of a business letter should take pains to be ( 1 ) clear, and 
 (2) concise. He should tell the busy man whom he is address- 
 ing precisely what that man needs to know and nothing more.
 
 BUSINESS LETTERS 75 
 
 The reply to a business letter should be prompt and 
 definite. 
 
 Examine carefully the following letter to The Outlook 
 Company, to see whether it contains all needful information 
 and no more. 
 
 190 Bowdoin Street, 
 
 Worcester, Mass., 
 
 August 16, 1905. 
 The Outlook Company, 
 
 287 Fourth Avenue, 
 
 New York City. 
 Gentlemen : 
 
 Inclosed you will find a money order for three 
 
 dollars, for which please send "The Outlook" to my address 
 
 during the coming year. 
 
 Yours truly, 
 
 Walter H. Bigelow. 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Write one of your teachers a letter requesting him to 
 recommend you for a position you would like to fill. Tell 
 him as definitely as possible what your work will be, give 
 him the name and address of the firm or man to whom he 
 is to write, and show that you will appreciate any favor he 
 can see his way clear to do for you. 
 
 As a way of closing such a letter, which of the two forms 
 that follow do you prefer ? Which is the more modest and 
 
 unassuming 
 
 r ? 
 
 Thanking yon in advance for your favor, I am 
 
 Yours respectfully, 
 
 A. B. Brown. 
 
 Hoping that I am not asking too much of you, I am 
 
 Yours respectfully, 
 
 A. B. Brown.
 
 76 LETTER WRITING 
 
 Insert your letter right side up in a properly addressed 
 envelope. 
 
 2. (i) Apply for a situation. First get the correct name 
 and address of the person or persons to whom you write. 
 Then tell why you are applying, mention any experience or 
 training which would tend to make your Services of value, 
 and give the name and address of some one who may be 
 asked about your character and ability. Read your letter 
 aloud slowly and cut out all unnecessary words. 
 
 (2) Answer your letter. You will now have a good 
 opportunity to test the clearness and completeness of the 
 application. 
 
 3. Write an order for six kinds of groceries. Give a line 
 
 to each kind, thus : 
 
 1 lb. Mocha Coffee 
 1 gal. Molasses 
 
 4. Write a business letter from dictation. This letter is 
 to be dictated by one of the pupils. The teacher will fur- 
 nish the subject at the time. The pupil is to have no oppor- 
 tunity for preparation. For example, the teacher might say, 
 
 r You may order one hundred copies of the algebra you are 
 studying," and the pupil would be expected to dictate to the 
 class a letter with all the necessary information about title, 
 edition, etc. 
 
 5. Goods ordered ten days ago have not come. In a tele- 
 gram of ten words ask why, and when you can have them. 
 
 6. Write (1) a receipt for money paid you on account; 
 (2) a receipt in full ; (3) a promissory note. (For a defini- 
 tion see a large dictionary.) 
 
 7. Does the writer of the following give the real estate 
 firm enough information ? If not, supply whatever is needed.
 
 BUSINESS LETTERS J J 
 
 Then answer the letter for Messrs. Brown & Thompson. 
 Thank Mr. Rand for the favor and write briefly about two 
 houses which you think will suit him. Assure him that you 
 will be glad to show him these houses, and others that may 
 interest him, at his convenience. Call attention to the fact 
 that there is considerable demand for such houses. 
 
 2 Ward St., 
 
 Chicago, Illinois, 
 
 July 2, 1905. 
 Messrs. Brown & Thompson, 
 
 9 Main St., 
 
 Cambridge, Mass. 
 Dear Sirs : 
 
 During the next four years, while my daughter is to 
 study at Radcliffe, I shall wish to live in Cambridge. My family 
 will need a house with five chambers, — four of which must be 
 roomy, — a good bathroom, and convenient kitchen and pantry 
 arrangements. I prefer a location within half a mile of the college 
 and shall insist on settling in a quiet community. The house 
 must be ready for us by September 1. If you know of any 
 houses that would be likely to suit us, please send me word at 
 your earliest convenience, giving the lowest prices for which they 
 may be rented by the year or leased for four years. 
 
 Yours truly, 
 
 A. K. Rand. 
 
 46. Letters of Friendship. We have access to a good 
 many friendly letters that are interesting and inspiring. 
 Some of the best have been written by Eugene Field, Scott, 
 Lowell, Cowper, Thackeray, Thomas Jefferson, Washington 
 Irving, Longfellow, Thoreau, Cromwell, and Cray. Let us 
 study a few of them in order that we may, if possible, dis- 
 cover in each case the writer's secret, — find out how he 
 succeeded in making his letter attractive.
 
 78 LETTER WRITING 
 
 The first letter that we shall examine was written by 
 Stevenson, in reply to a boy who had asked him for his 
 autograph. Point out whatever pleases you in the answer. 1 
 
 Vailima, Upolu, Samoa, 
 
 November 28, 1891. 
 
 Dear Sir, — Your obliging communication is to hand. I am glad 
 to find that you have read some of my books, and to see that you 
 spell my name right. This is a point (for some reason) of great 
 difficulty ; and I believe that a gentleman who can spell Stevenson 
 with a 7' at sixteen should have a show for the Presidency before 
 fifty. By that time 
 
 " I, nearer to the wayside inn," 
 
 predict that you will have outgrown your taste for autographs, 
 hut perhaps your son may have inherited the collection, and on 
 the morning of the great day will recall my prophecy to your 
 mind. And in the papers of 192 1 (say) this letter may arouse 
 a smile. 
 
 Whatever you do, read something else besides novels and 
 newspapers ; the first are good enough when they are good ; the 
 second, at their best, are worth nothing. Read great books of 
 literature and history ; try to understand the Roman Empire and 
 the Middle Ages ; be sure you do not understand when you dislike 
 them ; condemnation is non-comprehension. And if you know 
 something of these two periods, you will know a little more about 
 to-day, and may be a good President. 
 
 I send you my best wishes, and am yours, 
 
 Robert Louis Stevenson. 
 Author of a vast quantity of little books. 
 
 Our friends prize highly the letters into which we put 
 much of ourselves. In each of the two following letters 
 what does the writer tell of his character ? 
 
 1 From " The Letters of Robert Louis Stevenson," Vol. II, by permission of 
 Charles Scribner's Sons.
 
 LETTERS OF FRIENDSHIP 79 
 
 Phillips Brooks to his Niece * 
 
 Munich, September 2, 1883. 
 
 Dear Gertie, —   When I came away, the first man that wrote me 
 a letter only two days after the Servia had steamed out of New 
 York bay was you. And now that I am coming home, the last 
 letter which I write from the Old World to any man in America 
 shall be to you. For I want to tell you myself that I shall see you 
 on September 22. I suppose you will not be quite able to run 
 over to the wharf at East Boston when the Cephalonia gets in, 
 but I shall come up to see you just as soon as the customhouse 
 people let me out of prison, after I have paid the duties upon all 
 the heaps of presents I have got for you ! 
 
 Wasn't it good that the baths at Sharon helped you so much? 
 I was at a place the other day where the people take baths for 
 rheumatism. It is called Bad Gastein, but it isn't bad at all ; it is 
 very good. It is away back in the hills, and there is a tremendous 
 waterfall which runs right through the house, and keeps up such a 
 racket you can't get any sleep. But that does no great harm, be- 
 cause you have to take your bath so early that, if it were not for 
 the waterfall in the next room, you would sleep over and never get 
 any bath at all, and so some time you might have the rheumatism 
 all your life. I didn't have any rheumatism, so I went and took 
 a bath for yours, and I rather think that is what made you feel so 
 much better. You thought it was the baths you were taking at 
 Sharon, but it was really the bath I was taking at Bad Gastein ! 
 
 I wonder how soon you will come and see me when I get back. 
 Everybody here eats his breakfast, and luncheon, and dinner out- 
 doors. I like it, and think I shall do so myself when I get home ; 
 so when you come to breakfast, we will have our table out on the 
 grass plot in Newbury Street, and Katie shall bring us our beef- 
 steak there. Will it not make the children stare as they go by to 
 school? We'll toss the crumbs to them and the robins. But you 
 must hurry and get well, or we cannot do all this. My love to 
 Agnes and Tood. Your affectionate uncle, P. 
 
 1 Phillips Brooks: "Letters "l Travel."
 
 8o LETTER WRITING 
 
 From Edward Fitzgerald 
 
 Geldestone Hall, 
 
 September 9 [1834]. 
 
 Dear Allen, 
 
 . . . [Your letter] has indeed been a long time 
 
 coming, but it is all the more delicious. Perhaps you can't imagine 
 how wistfully I have looked for it; how, after a walk, my eyes 
 have turned to the table, on coming into the room, to see it. 
 Sometimes I have been tempted to be angry with you ; but then 
 I have thought that I was sure you would come a hundred miles 
 to serve me, though you were too lazy to sit down to a letter. 
 I suppose that people who are engaged in serious ways of life, 
 and are of well-filled minds, don't think much about the inter- 
 change of letters with any anxiety ; but I am an idle fellow, of a 
 very ladylike turn of sentiment, and my friendships are more like 
 loves, I think. . . . 
 
 Farewell, my dearest fellow ; you have made me very happy to 
 hear from you, and to know that all is so well with you. Believe 
 me to be your ever affectionate friend, 
 
 E. Fitzgerald. 
 
 There are times when a few words of sympathy are 
 more welcome than anything else we can send a friend. 
 If we are to help a friend bear grief*, we must first under- 
 stand his suffering partly, if not wholly. Then, in our ex- 
 pression of sympathy, instead of making him feel worse, we 
 should try to call his attention to some one thing which 
 will give him real comfort. 
 
 What can we learn from the following letter of Abraham 
 Lincoln's : ? To what extent did he seem to understand the 
 mother's grief ? To what extent did he probably comfort her? 
 
 What words seem to you particularly well chosen ? 
 
 1 From " The Complete Works of Abraham Lincoln," Vol. II, by permission of 
 The Century Co.
 
 LETTERS OF FRIENDSHIP 8 1 
 
 Executive Mansion, 
 
 Washington, November 21,1 864. 
 Mrs. Bixby, 
 
 Boston, Massachusetts. 
 Dear Madam : 
 
 I have been shown in the files of the War Depart- 
 ment a statement of the Adjutant-General of Massachusetts that 
 you are the mother of five sons who have died gloriously on the 
 field of battle. 1 feel how weak and fruitless must be any words of 
 mine which should attempt to beguile you from the grief of a loss 
 so overwhelming. But I cannot refrain from tendering to you 
 the consolation that may be found in the thanks of the Republic 
 they died to save. I pray that our heavenly Father may assuage 
 the anguish of your bereavement, and leave you only the cherished 
 memory of the loved and lost, and the solemn pride that must be 
 yours to have laid so costly a sacrifice upon the altar of freedom. 
 
 Yours very sincerely and respectfully, 
 
 Abraham Lincoln. 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Write the opening paragraph of a letter to a friend in 
 as sprightly a style as that used by Madame de Sevigne in 
 beginning a letter to Madame de Grignan : 
 
 Tin: Rocks, Monday, February 3, 1676. 
 Guess, my dear child, what it is that comes the quickest, and 
 goes off the slowest ; that brings you nearest to health, and 
 removes you the furthest from it ; that throws you into the most 
 agreeable situation imaginable, and, at the same time, hinders you 
 from enjoying it ; that flatters you with the most pleasing hopes, 
 and keeps you the longest from the accomplishment of them. 
 Can not you guess? Do you give it up? Why. it is the rheu- 
 matism. I have had it these three and twenty days; since the 
 fourteenth day I have been free from fever and pain, and in this 
 delightful situation, thinking myself strong enough to walk, which 
 is the summit of my wishes, I find myself swelled all over — feet, 
 legs, hands, arms ; and this swelling, which they call my cure, and
 
 82 LETTER WRITING 
 
 in'reality is so, is the sole occasion of my present vexation ; were 
 I good for anything, I might gain myself some credit by it. How- 
 ever, I believe the enemy is conquered, and that in two days I 
 shall be able to walk. 
 
 2. Write a letter to a friend whom you are not likely to 
 see for a long time. Try to be as entertaining as "Gail Ham- 
 ilton " was in this portion of a letter of hers to Whittier : 
 
 You don't want me to write you a letter, I know, but I will, 
 and you cannot help yourself. . . . 
 
 Why don't you come and help me kill caterpillars? There are 
 eighty-five thousand millions on our trees. I burn them up first, 
 then I bathe them in kerosene oil, and then I wash it off in soap- 
 suds. I think they rather like it. How they cuddle up together, 
 don't they ? But they are nasty little beasts — that's all you can 
 say about it ; and there's a man and a boy coming, who are going 
 to exterminate them, horse, foot, and dragoons. We have four- 
 teen chickens that we have taken " to halves." I don't mean that 
 we split them open every morning, but we are going to nurse and 
 nourish them all summer and own one-half of the whole number 
 in fee simple. Behold, says the Shepherd of Salisbury Plain, the 
 shifts which honest poverty will make rather than beg or steal ! 
 Besides, we have eight little chickens of our own — all born, and 
 ever so many more that are going to be, if Fate and the other 
 hens do not nip them in the shell. Hitherto Destiny has set her 
 face against them. Their mother has been in a state of constant 
 trepidation. I put fifteen eggs under her, and the number has 
 gradually risen to twenty-three ! I should not care if they would 
 all turn into chickens, but that nest has been the scene of so many 
 sharp conflicts that I fear the poor little yolks have not had peace 
 enough to enable them to shape themselves into fuss and feathers. 
 But I am going to keep Mother Hen on it until all hope is aban- 
 doned, and we shall see what we shall see. . . . 
 
 I suspect by this time you are pretty tired, but I am not half 
 done yet. Anybody that is as wise as I am knows what a relief it 
 is to sit down sometimes and be silly.
 
 LETTERS OF FRIENDSHIP 83 
 
 3. Write (1) a letter of congratulation; (2) a letter of 
 condolence. 
 
 4. [Take either a or /;]. 
 
 a. Write a friend about an interesting book you are read- 
 ing. Tell him enough to excite his interest without satisfy- 
 ing his curiosity. 
 
 /;. In a letter to a friend write all you have learned from 
 this chapter about letters of friendship. 
 
 5. In a letter to the principal of the school, tell what you 
 have accomplished so far this year in each of your studies. 
 Pay attention to {a) paragraphing, (b) sentence structure, 
 (r) punctuation. 
 
 Use correspondence paper and inclose your letter in a 
 properly directed envelope. 
 
 6. [Take either a or /;]. 
 
 a. (1) Write for a letter of introduction to a man whom 
 you wish to meet on business. (2) Answer your letter. 
 
 b. (1) Write a letter of introduction. Your friend - 
 
 is to be in , a distant city, for a fortnight, and you wish 
 
 her to meet a friend of yours in that city. (2) Answer your 
 letter. 
 
 7. [Take either a or b\ 
 
 a. To a cousin whom you have never seen, write a faith- 
 ful account of the town or city in which you live. Give a 
 paragraph to each of the following subjects : location, indus- 
 tries, educational opportunities, character of the inhabitants. 
 
 /;. Write a friend who runs a bookstore whether you 
 think there is a good opening for him in your town or city, 
 or in some town near by. He will be interested in much of 
 the matter in the letter you have just written, and in addi- 
 tion will wish to know about the healthfulness of the city,
 
 84 LETTER WRITING 
 
 the value of property, rents, taxes, the cost of living, rail- 
 road facilities, the growth of the city, and the opportunity 
 to build up the book trade. 
 
 47. Formal Notes. A note that is written in the third 
 person is called a formal note. An invitation sent out by a 
 school, a class in the school, a club, or any group of per- 
 sons is likely to be in the third person ; and we must re- 
 member to answer it in the third person. 
 
 Consider every detail of the forms given below; for ex- 
 ample, the writing of the full word instead of using a figure. 
 
 i. Mr. and Mrs. William Walker request the pleasure of Mr. 
 Henry Green's company at dinner on Thursday evening, May the 
 third, at seven o'clock. 
 1017 Avon Street, 
 
 April twenty-seventh. 
 
 2. Mr. Green accepts with pleasure Mr. and Mrs. William 
 Walker's kind invitation to dinner on Thursday evening, May the 
 third, at seven o'clock. 
 
 5 Williams Street, 
 
 April twenty-eighth. 
 
 3. Mr. Green regrets that he cannot accept Mr. and Mrs. 
 William Walker's kind invitation to dinner on Thursday evening, 
 May the third. 
 
 5 Williams Street, 
 
 April twenty-eighth. 
 
 4. The Class of Nineteen Hundred and Six 
 
 Bristol Conservatory of Music 
 
 requests the honor of your presence at the 
 
 Commencement Exercises 
 
 Wednesday, June the twentieth 
 
 at two o'clock 
 
 Tremont Temple 
 
 Bristol
 
 FORMAL NOTES 85 
 
 5. Mr. William H. Brown accepts with pleasure the kind invita- 
 tion of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Six, Bristol Conserva- 
 tory of Music, to attend the Commencement Exercises, Wednesday, 
 June the twentieth, at two o'clock, in Tremont Temple. 
 
 You will find there is a reason for every bit of informa- 
 tion given in both invitations and replies. Why is it desir- 
 able in 3 to repeat the words dinner, Thursday evening, May 
 the third, and seven o'clock? In answering this question, 
 take the point of view of the hostess. 
 
 Do not say, " A previous engagement will prevent." One 
 accepts or sends regrets at the time of writing. 
 
 Your is used in 4 for the reason that it would cost 
 
 too much to engrave the name of each person on his 
 
 invitation. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Write a formal invitation to an entertainment. 
 
 2. Accept the invitation orally. 
 
 3. Decline it in writing. 
 
 48. Informal Notes. Most of us seldom have occasion to 
 write a note in the third person. We prefer to write in- 
 formal notes — those in which we use the first person. Then 
 instead of sending the message in a ready-made form, each 
 one' can express himself in his own way ; he can be him- 
 self. For example : 
 
 Dear Miss Hall, 
 
 Mother and I are hoping that you can spend 
 Thursday evening with us. Of course we shall expect you to dinner. 
 You have not forgotten that our dinner hour is half past six ? 
 
 Cordially yours, 
 
 Ella W. Parker. 
 25 Gray Street, Dorchester, 
 
 Tuesday, November fifth.
 
 86 LETTER WRITING 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Accept the invitation and decline it in writing. 
 
 2. What characteristics of the writer come out in the 
 following" invitation ? How many indications are there that 
 she wished her guests to come and to come with the ut- 
 most ease ? Consider the note addressed to you, and write 
 a reply. 
 
 My dear Mr. Brown, 
 
 We should be happy to have you and your 
 brother come down next Wednesday and stay with us over Sunday. 
 A train that leaves Boston at three o'clock in the afternoon reaches 
 Providence about four and gives ample time to take the train for 
 Woodville in the same station at twenty minutes past four. Wood- 
 ville is the terminus of the road, and our cottage is close to the 
 station. 
 
 The best way is to buy a five-trip ticket to Providence,   — we 
 can easily take the extra ticket, — then a round-trip ticket from 
 Providence to Woodville. You will need your tennis racquets, 
 and the bicycles will not come amiss. We have at least one extra 
 bathing suit. . . . You may be sure of a hearty welcome. 
 
 Very sincerely yours, 
 
 Mary Davis Leighton. 
 Woodville, Rhode Island, 
 July fifteenth. 
 
 3. Invite your English teacher to dine with you and 
 spend the evening at your home. Make it clear in your 
 note that you have consulted your mother in regard to the 
 invitation. 
 
 4. Write a friend in order to show him that you appre- 
 ciate the good time he gave you during your visit at his 
 home.
 
 % 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 THE COHERENT PARAGRAPH 
 
 49. Coherence. When a paragraph has a single main 
 thought, we say that the paragraph has unity, or that it is 
 a unit. When thoughts take their places in a natural order, 
 so that the sentences fit together closely, we say that the 
 paragraph has coherence. A step toward unity is to include 
 no details except those which have a bearing on the para- 
 graph topic. A step toward coherence is to arrange the 
 details in a natural or logical order. Sometimes a carefully 
 worded topic sentence is the best guide through a para- 
 graph. Sometimes connectives help us show the relation 
 of one sentence to another. 
 
 50. Connectives. Whether a writer uses topic sentences 
 or not, he will often need conjunctions and conjunctive 
 phrases, such as : however, yet, then, too, hence, moreover, 
 accordingly, in short, also, further, nor, but, and, on the con- 
 trary, while, on the other hand, still, indeed, therefore, first, 
 secondly, and finally. 
 
 A connective liable to be overworked is and. It is often 
 used to fill gaps, as and-cr is used by hesitant pupils in 
 reciting. We should think twice before allowing it to stand 
 at the beginning of a sentence or a paragraph, and in revis- 
 ing a manuscript we should cut out every and we do not 
 absolutely need. 
 
 A demonstrative adjective, used with a noun, frequently 
 makes a good connecting link. It enables the writer to 
 
 87
 
 88 THE COHERENT PARAGRAPH 
 
 repeat a word or an idea that he wishes to keep before 
 the reader. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 l. In the following selections, does each sentence lead up 
 to the next ? Make a list of the connectives. Underscore 
 all demonstrative adjectives used with nouns. 
 
 In Franklin Park 
 
 I was in Franklin Park this morning [February 25] about ten 
 minutes before sunrise. The somewhat pale moon was still shin- 
 ing in the west, while the eastern horizon and the clouds above it 
 were suffused with pink. This pink grew brighter and brighter 
 until it became golden. Just then I heard a single half-suppressed 
 caw, and turning toward the westward beheld a long dark line of 
 crows, at least fifty, pursuing a northerly course. The loud cries 
 of a pair of blue jays resounded from a group of cedar trees a few 
 minutes after the sun rose. The chickadees, too, were early risers 
 and three hairy woodpeckers put in an appearance in good season. 
 Squirrels, both red and gray, were numerous and at one time I 
 noticed five gray fellows in a single pine tree. In passing a low 
 hedge of evergreens, I heard a chirp, and looking carefully, I saw 
 a song sparrow perched in the hedge. I tried by various whistles 
 and bird notes to get him to sing his spring song to me, but the 
 only response he would give was a melancholy chirp which seemed 
 to mean the spring had not yet come. 
 
 Our Language 
 
 At court, and in the castles of the great nobles, where the 
 pomp and state of a court was emulated, Norman-French was 
 the only language employed ; in courts of law, the pleadings and 
 judgments were delivered in the same tongue. In short, French 
 was the language of honor, of chivalry, and even of justice ; 
 while the far more manly and expressive Anglo-Saxon was aban- 
 doned to the use of rustics and hinds, who knew no other. Still,
 
 CONNECTIVES 89 
 
 however, the necessary intercourse between the lords of the 
 soil, and those oppressed inferior beings by whom that soil was 
 cultivated, occasioned the gradual formation of a dialect, com- 
 pounded betwixt the French and the Anglo-Saxon, in which they 
 could render themselves mutually intelligible to each other ; and 
 from this necessity arose by degrees the structure of our present 
 English language, in which the speech of the victors and x the 
 vanquished have been so happily blended together ; and which 
 has since been so richly improved by importations from the 
 classical languages, and from those spoken by the southern 
 nations of Europe. — Scott, " Ivanhoe." 
 
 The Lingering Daylight 
 
 By this time the sun had gone down, and was tinting the 
 clouds towards the zenith with those bright hues which are not 
 seen there until some time after sunset, and when the horizon 
 has quite lost its richer brilliancy. The moon, too, . . . These 
 silvery beams . . . They softened . . . With the lapse of every 
 moment, the garden grew more picturesque . . . The common- 
 place characteristics . . . were now transfigured by a charm of 
 romance. A hundred mysterious years were whispering among 
 the leaves. . . . Through the foliage that roofed the little sum- 
 mer-house the moonlight flickered to and fro, and fell silvery 
 white on the dark floor, the table, and the circular bench, with 
 a continual shift and play, according as the chinks and wayward 
 crevices among the twigs admitted or shut out the glimmer. — 
 Hawthorne, "The House of the Seven Gables." 
 
 2. Insert these connectives in their proper places in the 
 following paragraph : in short, and lastly, for one thing, 
 for another. 
 
 People had no fancy for amateur explosions . it did 
 
 not clearly appear that it was legal. it seemed a somewhat 
 
 1 The sentence would be improved by the insertion of "that of."
 
 90 THE COHERENT PARAGRAPH 
 
 advanced example of civilization to set before barbarians. The 
 matter became a storm. 
 
 3. Write a paragraph in which you use one of the follow- 
 ing sentences as an opening sentence : 
 
 i. He had plenty to do through the next hour. 
 
 2. I sauntered to the window and stood gazing at the people 
 picking their way to church. 
 
 3. All was now bustle and hubbub in the late quiet schoolroom. 
 
 4. Dinner time came. 
 
 5. His heart opened wide to real distress. 
 
 4. Exchange papers and test their coherence. Mark 
 O opposite any sentence which should be omitted, and C 
 against any lack of connection. 
 
 5. Explain the working of some machine or instrument, 
 or the process of doing something. First prepare a list of 
 topics. As you revise, test the coherence of your paragraph, 
 or paragraphs. 
 
 6. Give an account of some recent experience. Write 
 rapidly. Think of your subject, not of how you are writing. 
 Revise in order to secure coherence. 
 
 7. Exchange papers and criticise as before.
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 THE EMPHATIC PARAGRAPH 
 
 51. Emphasis through Position. When a man makes a 
 speech, he naturally begins in a way that will attract and 
 hold the attention of his audience. If in the course of his 
 talk he at times grows less interesting, when he comes to 
 the conclusion he rouses himself to leave a lasting impres- 
 sion. As the closing words naturally linger longest in the 
 ears of the listeners, we may say that the most important 
 part of the speech is the end. The part of next importance 
 is the beginning. So it is with a book, a chapter, a para- 
 graph, and a sentence. What first strikes the eye of the 
 reader will repel or attract ; the image that is last to leave 
 his eye he will be most likely to remember. We may say, 
 therefore, that the last sentence in a paragraph is in the 
 most conspicuous position, and that the first sentence is in 
 the position of second importance ; that the last words in a 
 sentence are by position the most emphatic, and that the 
 opening words are only less emphatic. 
 
 Let us, then, look to the beginning and the ending of 
 our paragraphs. In self-defense we need to attend to this 
 matter of emphasis ; otherwise the reader will lay stress on 
 what we consider of slight importance. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 l. Point out the importance of the opening and the closing 
 sentence of the following paragraph. What is the purpose 
 of each ? 
 
 QI
 
 92 THE EMPHATIC PARAGRAPH 
 
 Our Most Precious Resources 
 
 If I were to name the three most precious resources of life, 1 
 should say books, friends, and nature ; and the greatest of these, 
 at least the most constant and always at hand, is nature. Nature 
 we have always with us, an inexhaustible storehouse of that which 
 moves the heart, appeals to the mind, and fires the imagination 
 — health to the body and joy to the soul. To the scientist nature 
 is a storehouse of facts, laws, processes ; to the artist she is a 
 storehouse of pictures ; to the poet she is a storehouse of images, 
 fancies, a source of inspiration ; to the moralist she is a store- 
 house of precepts and parables ; to all she may be a source of 
 knowledge and joy. — Burroughs, "The Art of Seeing Things." 
 
 2. Construct a paragraph of your own in a similar way. 
 You may write on the three most desirable traits in a boy 
 or a girl, on the three most attractive ways of spending 
 leisure time, or on any other subject. 
 
 3. Arrange the following sentences so that they shall 
 make a paragraph which has unity, coherence, and em- 
 phasis. 
 
 But there was both luster and depth in her eyes. 
 
 Neither did her face — with the brown ringlets on either side, 
 and the slightly piquant nose, and the wholesome bloom, and the 
 clear shade of tan, and the half a dozen freckles, friendly remem- 
 brances of the April sun and breeze   — precisely give us a right to 
 call her beautiful. 
 
 She shocked no canon of taste ; she was admirably in keeping 
 with herself, and never jarred against surrounding circumstances. 
 
 She was very pretty ; as graceful as a bird, and graceful much 
 in the same way ; as pleasant about the house as a gleam of sun- 
 shine falling on the floor through a shadow of twinkling leaves, 
 or as a ray of firelight that dances on the wall while evening is 
 drawing nigh.
 
 POSITION AND PROPORTION 93 
 
 Her figure, to be sure, — so small as to be almost childlike, 
 and so elastic that motion seemed as easy or easier to it than 
 rest, — would hardly have suited one's idea of a countess. 
 
 52. Emphasis through Proportion. If you were to talk 
 for ten minutes to thirty younger boys and girls, you would 
 probably spend most of your time on what you considered 
 the most important or most interesting topic. In the same 
 way, to give proper emphasis to the more important details 
 of a paragraph, you give them sufficient space. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. In the following extract from a journal, what detail 
 did the writer wish to emphasize most ? Did he secure the 
 emphasis by giving this suggestion the most space, or the 
 best position, or both ? 
 
 Timely Suggestions on Bird Study 
 
 If one is going to study birds this year, he should begin at 
 once [February 23], so as to know all the species that are now 
 here, for within two weeks new birds will begin to arrive and in 
 six weeks we shall have thirty more species. There are many 
 important things which are much easier to learn now than later 
 in the season. Get between the sun and your bird; otherwise 
 you will not be able to tell a scarlet tanagcr from a robin. Do 
 not puzzle over shy, small, sober-colored birds at first; confine 
 yourself to those having marked characteristics. Learn the songs 
 of as many birds as you can. Make notes on everything you 
 observe; you cannot make too many, provided they are accurate. 
 Above all things never hurry. Identify your birds with caution; 
 be sure you are right. Never raise even your glasses hurriedly, 
 for many shy birds will be frightened away by the flash of the 
 sun upon the lens. When in search of birds pause frequently
 
 94 THE EMPHATIC PARAGRAPH 
 
 and yon will see and hear much that would otherwise escape you. 
 Therefore the motto of the successful ornithologist should be, 
 " Slow and sure." 
 
 2. Write a paragraph in which you try to secure empha- 
 sis both by proportion and by position. First make a list 
 of topics. You may give suggestions in regard to doing 
 something which you know very well how to do. 
 
 3. Prepare lists of topics on the following subjects from 
 " The Last of the Mohicans " : 
 
 i. The Night in the Cave. 2. A Character Sketch of 
 Hawkeye. 3. The Basest Character. 4. The Weakest 
 Character. (Compare at least two characters.) 5. David 
 Gamut's Good Qualities. 
 
 4. Write on one of these five subjects. 
 
 5. Exchange papers, and write in a single sentence the 
 thought which you consider the most important in each 
 paragraph you examine. 
 
 6. Write Theme VIII (in the notebook) on one of the 
 following subjects : Caring for Plants ; Setting the Table 
 for Dinner ; Managing a Canoe ; Enjoying a Boat ; Learn- 
 ing to Swim. 
 
 7. Exchange themes and write on paper what you 
 consider the main thought of each paragraph and of the 
 theme as a whole. Point out any good connectives, and 
 any lack of connection. How, if at all, is emphasis 
 secured ? 
 
 8. Give an account of one of your recent experiences. 
 Write in a simple, straightforward way as rapidly as you 
 can. In revising, test the unity, coherence, and emphasis 
 of the paragraph or paragraphs. Copy in the notebook as 
 Theme IX.
 
 POSITION AND PROPORTION 95 
 
 9. Exchange themes and criticise (1) form, (2) sentence 
 structure, (3) punctuation, (4) spelling, (5) emphasis (as in 
 Exercise 7). 
 
 10. Write Theme X on any subject you please. 
 
 11. Exchange notebooks and, as examiner of Theme X, 
 answer these questions : 
 
 1 . Is the theme interesting ? adequate ? to the point ? 
 
 2. Is the subject sufficiently limited ? 
 
 3. Can you suggest a more suitable title ? 
 
 4. Criticise as in Exercise 7. 
 
 12. Write as Theme XI an account of to-day's recitation in 
 English. See that your report is (1) adequate and (2) to the 
 point. Make it a valuable record to any pupil who is absent 
 to-day, or to a pupil who may enter the school after to-day. 
 
 13. Exchange notebooks and, as examiner of Theme XI, 
 answer the following questions : 
 
 1. Is it interesting? Point out what you like best in 
 the work. 
 
 2. Is it adequate? Make a note of any topics which in 
 your opinion should be included. 
 
 3. Is it to the point ? Make an O in the margin against 
 any sentence which had better be omitted. 
 
 4. Can you suggest any improvements in (1) form, (2) 
 sentence structure, (3) punctuation, (4) spelling, (5) unity, 
 (6) coherence, or (7) emphasis ? 
 
 14. Write as Theme XII the substance of what you 
 have learned about writing themes. 
 
 15. Write in your notebook at least twice a week for a 
 fortnight. Bring your notebook to every English recitation, 
 so that you can get and give help in finding subjects and in 
 writing about them.
 
 96 THE EMPHATIC PARAGRAPH 
 
 16. Discuss the emphasis of the following paragraph : 
 
 The mammy was the zealous, faithful, and efficient assistant 
 of the mistress in all that pertained to the training of the chil- 
 dren. Her authority was recognized in all that related to them 
 directly or indirectly, second only to that of the mistress and 
 master. She regulated them, disciplined them, having authority 
 indeed in cases to administer correction. Her regime extended 
 frequently through two generations, occasionally through three. 
 From their infancy she was the careful and faithful nurse, the 
 affection between her and the children she nursed being often 
 more marked than that between her and her own children. She 
 may have been harsh to the latter ; she was never anything but 
 tender with the others. Her authority was, in a measure, recog- 
 nized through life, for her devotion was unquestionable. The 
 young masters and mistresses were her " children " long after 
 they had children of their own. They embraced her, when they 
 parted from her or met with her again after separation, with the 
 same affection as when in childhood she " led them smiling into 
 sleep." She was worthy of the affection. At all times she was 
 their faithful ally, shielding them, excusing them, petting them, 
 aiding them, yet holding them up to a certain high accountability. 
 Her influence was always for good. She received, as she gave, 
 an unqualified affection ; if she was a slave, she at least was not 
 a servant, but was an honored member of the family, universally 
 beloved, universally cared for — "the Mammy." — Thomas Nel- 
 son Page, "The Old South." 
 
 17. Test the unity, coherence, and emphasis of the two 
 paragraphs quoted in the following note ; and if they are 
 imperfect, rewrite them. 
 
 Note. If the class makes such good progress that the teacher 
 thinks best to call for more than two themes a week, you will have so 
 much more material to which to apply the principles of composition 
 as you criticise your own work and that of others. The criticisms you 
 get from your classmates, supplemented by whatever suggestions the
 
 POSITION AND PROPORTION 97 
 
 teacher has time to give, should be very valuable. Whether your 
 critics read your work, or you read it to them, they will look for the 
 good features as well as for the faults ; but by pointing out your most 
 conspicuous faults they will do you a great service. 
 
 Remember that your world is full of subjects. Two boys have given 
 the following suggestions about finding something on which to write : 
 
 1. In going to and from school I try to notice every little 
 thing I see. When I get home at night I sum up what I have 
 seen through the day and write it. If I am reading some book, 
 I express my opinion on it. I think boys living in the country 
 have an equal chance with the boys who live in the city, as they 
 see more things which God created ; for instance, the woods, 
 birds, and animals. 
 
 2. I think that if a person keeps his eyes wide open and 
 listens to all he hears, he is very sure of finding at least one 
 subject to write about each day. For instance, Monday I saw 
 a cab in a predicament ; Tuesday I saw a train blocked by 
 snow ; Wednesday I wrote about my reading ; Thursday I saw 
 a freight car put on the track ; Friday I saw a boy fall and 
 hurt himself; Saturday I saw a woman have a narrow escape 
 from being run over. It is like that. I come to school on a train 
 and watch all around for incidents. Sometimes I ride home on 
 the electric cars and have a good opportunity to see things. 
 Everybody has time and must use it in some way. 
 
 If nothing of interest happens on your way to or from school, 
 remember that you are always at liberty to write a secretary's re- 
 port of a recitation. Remember, too, that the number of enjoyable 
 books is legion — books on which you may write freely and fully, 
 noting details that you like, judging the work as a whole, and mak- 
 ing such comparisons and contrasts as naturally occur to you. In 
 handling such materials be sure that you give your honest opinions 
 with absolute frankness. Think for yourself; don't be a prig. 
 
 As for what goes on about you, whether the thoughts suggested by 
 the call of a street hawker, or by the sound of a hurdy-gurdy under 
 the window, are interesting or not, nobody else will have the same 
 thoughts. Your notebook is to be a record of your experiences, your 
 impressions, your opinions.
 
 CHAPTER X 
 THE CORRECT SENTENCE 
 
 " It is not so much a merit to know English as it is a shame not to 
 know it." 
 
 Why is it that a boy enjoys taking a bicycle apart ? 
 Possibly one reason is that some day it may be convenient 
 to know how the parts go together. Now a boy's sen- 
 tences, like his bicycle, sometimes need repairs ; and if he 
 is to do his own repairing, he must know how the parts 
 of the sentence go together. Should he have occasion to 
 make bicycles, he would need to study with the utmost 
 patience the construction of such machines. He is bound 
 to make sentences, and the sensible way to learn how to 
 make them is to see how the best writers have made them. 
 The parts of which sentences are composed are words, — 
 called the parts of speech, — phrases, and clauses. 
 
 53. The Parts of Speech. The parts of speech, eight in 
 number, are the following : 
 
 Noun. A noun is a word used as a name of a person, 
 
 place, or thing. 
 Pronoun. A pro-noun is a word which stands for a noun. 1 
 Adjective. An ad-jective is a word used to describe or 
 limit a noun or pronoun --a description added to a 
 noun or pronoun. 
 Verb. A verb is a word used to assert something of a 
 person, place, or thing. 
 
 1 Your teacher will explain how the etymology reveals the meaning of these words. 
 
 98
 
 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 99 
 
 Adverb. An ad-verb is a word used to modify the mean- 
 ing of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. 
 Preposition. A pre-position is a word placed before a 
 noun or pronoun to show the relation between it 
 and some other word or words in the sentence. 
 Conjunction. A con-junction is a word used to join sen- 
 tences or parts of sentences. 
 Interjection. An inter-jection is a word used to express 
 surprise, anger, pleasure, or some other feeling or 
 emotion. It is thrown into the midst of other words, 
 but has little connection with them. 
 54. The Flexibility of Parts of Speech. In our study of 
 the relation between words we must not forget that a word 
 is sometimes one part of speech, sometimes another. For 
 example, in the sentences that follow notice the part of 
 speech of each word in italics. 
 
 1. We heard the dinner bell. (Noun used as adjective.) 
 
 2. The race is not always to the swift. (Adjective used as noun.) 
 
 3. In the expression "between you and me," me is the object 
 of the preposition. (Pronoun used as noun.) 
 
 4. Was is not is. (Verbs used as nouns.) 
 
 5. Less usually refers to quantity in general; fewer to number. 
 
 6. Walking is good exercise. (Noun formed from verb.) 
 
 7. It is difficult to understand him. (Infinitive used as noun.) 
 
 8. He knows all the ins and outs of the business. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Use the following words as (1) nouns and '(2) verbs : 
 breakfast, work, hope, fear. . 
 
 2. Use the words run, pull, flock, in, up, down, and any 
 others you please, to illustrate the principle that, in order 
 to determine what part of speech a word is, we must know 
 its relation to other words in the sentence.
 
 ioo THE CORRECT SENTENCE 
 
 NOUNS 
 
 55. Kinds of Nouns. A noun is either proper (one's own 
 name, Fred) or common (a name common to a class of 
 objects, tabh-). Three varieties of common nouns deserve 
 special mention : 
 
 collective nouns, — names of groups (school, class, family, 
 group, company) ; 
 
 abstract nouns, — names of qualities, or attributes, sepa- 
 rated from the objects that possess them (kindness, 
 honesty, distance, truth) ; and 
 
 verbal nouns, — names of actions. They are formed from 
 verbs (walking, seeing, to walk, to see). 
 
 56. Declension of Nouns. A word that undergoes a 
 slight change of form in order to show a change in its 
 meaning, or to enable it to be used with other words, is 
 said to be inflected. Nouns are inflected to show differ- 
 ences in number and case. Such an inflection of a noun is 
 called a declension. 
 
 57. Number. Nouns change their form in order to show 
 whether they indicate one person or thing (singular num- 
 ber), or more than one (plural number). To this rule a 
 few nouns are exceptions. In deciding whether to use one 
 of these nouns as singular or as plural, we must go by the 
 meaning. 
 
 Athletics, used to include several sports or exercises, is 
 frequently plural. Polities, as the name of a profession, is 
 singular. Mathematics, as the name of a science, is singular. 
 
 Some nouns, however, are always plural ; for example, 
 assets, bellows, dregs, eaves, pincers, scissors, tidings. 
 (News is singular.)
 
 NOUNS 
 
 IOI 
 
 In forming the plurals of proper names, we say the 
 Messrs. Johnson, the Misses Walker. 
 
 The fundamental part of a compound word takes the 
 plural ending ; for example, mothers-in-law ', men-of-war. 
 Two spoons full calls attention to the spoons ; two spoon- 
 fuls, to the measure. 
 
 Plurals of Foreign Nouns. There is a tendency to form 
 the plurals of foreign nouns as if they were English. 
 Most nouns that retain foreign plurals are from the Greek 
 or the Latin. The following, which are confusing to per- 
 sons who have not studied these languages, are worth 
 remembering. Some of them have two plurals. 
 
 Singular 
 
 Plural 
 
 I. 
 
 nouns in a 
 
 alumna 
 
 alumnae (feminine) 
 
 
 
 nebula 
 
 nebulae 
 
 2, 
 
 nouns in us 
 
 alumnus 
 
 alumni (masculine) 
 
 
 
 fungus 
 focus 
 
 fungi or funguses 
 foci 
 
 
 
 radius 
 
 radii 
 
 
 
 genius 
 
 f geniuses (talented persons) 
 
 \ genii (spirits) 
 
 3- 
 
 nouns in um 
 
 datum 
 
 data 
 
 
 
 stratum 
 
 strata 
 
 
 
 curriculum 
 
 curricula 
 
 
 • 
 
 bacterium 
 
 bacteria 
 
 4- 
 
 nouns in is 
 
 analysis 
 basis 
 
 analyses 
 bases 
 
 
 
 crisis 
 
 crises 
 
 
 
 oasis 
 
 oases 
 
 
 
 parenthesis 
 
 parentheses 
 
 5- 
 
 nouns in ex or ix 
 
 appendix 
 
 index 
 
 pendices or appendixes 
 ( indexes (in books) 
 j indices (in algebra) 
 
 

 
 102 THE CORRECT SENTENCE 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Compose sentences in which these words are used 
 with verbs in the singular number : athletics, politics, 
 mathematics, news. 
 
 2. Compose sentences in which these words are used 
 with verbs in the plural number : assets, bellows, dregs, 
 eaves, pincers, scissors, tidings. 
 
 58. Case. Case is the form of a noun (or pronoun) which 
 shows its relation to other words in the sentence, — its con- 
 struction. Nouns have the same-form in the nominative and 
 the objective case, but a different form for the possessive. 
 
 59. The Nominative Case. Nouns in the nominative case 
 have several constructions : 
 
 i. The subject of a verb. (The boat moves.) 
 
 2. Predicate nominative. (It is a box.) 
 
 3. In apposition with another noun in the nominative 
 case. (Bob, my dog, is coming.) 
 
 4. In direct address. (Mary, where are you?) 
 
 5. Nominative absolute. (Dinner being ready, we sat 
 down.) 
 
 60. The Objective Case. Nouns in the objective case 
 have several constructions : 
 
 1. The object of a verb. (He broke the cJiimiiey.) 
 
 2. The indirect object of a verb. (He gave the dog a 
 lesson.) 
 
 3. The objective complement. (They chose him president.) 
 
 4. In apposition with another noun in the objective case. 
 (He saw Edward, the king of England.) 
 
 5. The object of a preposition. (We go to school) 
 
 6. The adverbial noun. (He walked a long distance.)
 
 NOUNS 103 
 
 7. The subject of an infinitive. (He got the boy to go.) 
 61. The Possessive Case. The Anglo-Saxons had inflec- 
 tions which we lack. For example, the noun man, which 
 they spelled maun, had the following case endings in the 
 
 ingular number : 
 
 
 
 
 Xo»ii>tative, 
 
 mann. 
 
 
 Genitive, 
 
 marines. 
 
 
 Dative, 
 
 menn. 
 
 L 
 
 Instead of writing the genitive, or possessive, mannes, 
 we have long been in the habit of dropping the e and sub- 
 stituting an apostrophe. The point is that we are to think 
 of the ' s as a case ending that belongs to the nouns in the 
 possessive case. Hence our best way is to write the entire 
 word and then add the 's ; for example, John 's, Charles's, 
 Dickens 's, Burns 's. 
 
 If, however, it pleases the ear to drop the second s, we 
 may do so. Many, although perhaps not the most careful 
 writers, prefer James', Dickens', Bums' . All would agree, 
 probably, in saying for old acquaintance sake, for con- 
 science' sake. 
 
 So much for the possessive singular. To form the pos- 
 sessive plural we add merely the apostrophe to the regular 
 plural in s ; for example, the boys' hats, the girls' drawings. 
 When, however, the plural does not end in s, we add 's : 
 as, sheep's, oxen's. 
 
 We form the possessive case of a compound noun by 
 adding the 's or the apostrophe at the end ; for example, 
 mother-in-law's. 
 
 The same principle applies to groups of nouns ; for 
 example, Lincoln and Davis's goods, the New Hampshire 
 Fire Insurance Company's record, Weeks and Potter's store.
 
 104 THE CORRECT SENTENCE 
 
 But it is often smoother to use of; for example, the state- 
 ment of the governor of Massachusetts, rather than the gov- 
 ernor of Massachusetts' statement. 
 
 This case denotes ownership, or possession, and is al- 
 most always used with reference to persons or animals. 
 We say the President's message, but the President of the 
 United States, not the United States' President. In connec- 
 tion with nouns that denote inanimate things, we use of. 
 
 Note. Anybody else's vote seems to have better authority than 
 anybody's else vote. We often think of the adjective else as a part of 
 the noun anybody. If, however, our ear prompts us to say anybody's 
 else at the end of a clause or sentence, we should feel free to do so. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Write the possessive case, singular and plural, of : 
 man, sheep, deer, ox ; the possessive case of : Holmes, 
 Jones, man-of-war, James the First. 
 
 2. In the following instances tell whether you prefer 
 the possessive case or the possessive phrase, and why : 
 
 The ocean's roar, the whistle of the engine, the woman's 
 shriek, the bicycle's gear, Roosevelt's administration, the admin- 
 istration of the war department. 
 
 3. Point out the difference in meaning between the fol- 
 lowing. May any of them be interpreted in two ways ? 
 
 i. Taylor and Reed's goods. Taylor's and Reed's goods. 
 
 2. Washington's memory. The memory of Washington. 
 
 3. The governor's welcome. The welcome of the governor. 
 
 4. My friend's entertaining is The entertaining of my friend 
 
 always successful. is a pleasure to me. 
 
 62. Gender. Gender is distinction of sex. The gender 
 of a noun or pronoun denoting a male being is masculine ;
 
 PRONOUNS 105 
 
 that of a noun or pronoun denoting a female being, fem- 
 inine ; and that of a noun or pronoun denoting an inani- 
 mate object, neuter ("neither"). 
 
 Some nouns, as god, goddess, hero, heroine, host, hostess, 
 master, mistress, priest, priestess, prince, princess, change 
 their form to show gender ; but such nouns as author, 'poet, 
 doctor, editor, and instructor answer for women as well as 
 
 for men. 
 
 PRONOUNS 
 
 63. Antecedent. A pronoun must agree with its ante- 
 cedent, the noun or pronoun that goes before it and for 
 which it stands, in person, number, and gender. Its case 
 depends upon the clause in which it stands. 
 
 Jo/i/i, whom you know well, is coming to-day. 
 Mary, who has such a fine voice, is due to-morrow. 
 
 We sometimes need to consider carefully which word is 
 antecedent. For example, in the sentence, "This is one 
 of the things that feed the night fears of the natives," 
 there may be several things that feed the fears. Things is 
 the antecedent. From the group of things that feed we con- 
 sider one. Compare " He is one of the men who admire 
 you." Change the order and you will see more clearly : 
 r ' Of the men who admire you, he is one." 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Discuss the pronouns in the following sentences : 
 
 1. If one should make a col- If one should put in a book 
 
 lection of all the stories that he all the stories that they hear in 
 
 hears in the cars, he would the cars, they would soon have 
 
 soon have an entertaining book an entertaining book when they 
 
 when he has the blues. have the blues.
 
 106 THE CORRECT SENTENCE 
 
 2. If any one wishes to go with me, let him [them] say so 
 at once. 
 
 3. I wish everybody would attend to own affairs. 
 
 4. Neither of them knows [know] what he is talking about. 
 
 5. Every member of the (lass gives [give] his [their] opinion 
 
 without hesitation. 
 t 
 
 2. Find or write sentences in which every one, everybody, 
 
 and man after man (all singular, grammatically) are used 
 as antecedents. 
 
 3. Discuss the following sentences : 
 
 1. A plant stood on the table which looked as if it needed water. 
 
 2. A plant which looked as if it needed water stood on the table. 
 
 3. A plant which stood on the table looked as if it needed water. 
 
 4. A tin can was tied to the dog's tail, which made a racket 
 every time it struck the ground. 
 
 5. It is one of those fanciful tales that have their [has its] 
 own little world. 
 
 6. Jessica is one of the few characters in literature who forsake 
 their [forsakes her] Jewish faith. 
 
 7. He married one of those women who [always says] always 
 say the right thing at the right time. 
 
 64. Ambiguity. Sometimes a careless use of pronouns 
 
 leads to ambiguity or absurdity ; for example, fr He told 
 
 us he would see him in the afternoon if he thought best." 
 
 We must make it absolutely clear to whom the pronoun 
 
 refers. 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 1 
 
 Discuss the pronouns in the following sentences : 
 
 1. Michael Banim survived his brother many years, but wrote 
 nothing of value after his death. 
 
 2. They murder Cnesar and the people remain on their side 
 until Antony wins them over by a wonderful speech at his funeral.
 
 PRONOUNS 107 
 
 3. Brutus kills himself and Antony shows his generous nature 
 by bringing out his good qualities as he lies dead. 
 
 4. His brother asked him to bring him his racket. 
 
 65. The Case of a Pronoun. It is sometimes difficult to 
 determine the case of a pronoun, especially when a paren- 
 thetical expression follows a relative pronoun. A pupil 
 wrote, " We should vote for the person whom we think is 
 best fitted for the position," but clearly he should have 
 said, (1) "who we think is best fitted" or (2) "whom we 
 think best fitted." In (1) "who" is the subject of "is 
 fitted." '(2) is equivalent to "whom we think to be best 
 fitted"; therefore "whom" is in the objective case, the 
 subject of the infinitive "to be fitted." (So, "We think 
 him to be fitted"; "I asked him to speak to me.") The 
 pupil would have avoided the error had he put the par- 
 enthetical expression elsewhere in the sentence. 
 
 66. Possessives. It is to be noted that the possessive 
 endings of pronouns are complete without the apostrophe ; 
 for example, my, mine, our, ours, her, hers, its, their, theirs, 
 whose. We must not confuse it's (it is) with the pronoun its. 
 
 67. Pronouns in -self. Pronouns in -self are emphatic or 
 reflexive. We say, " I prefer to attend to that myself," "Let 
 him fight it out for himself," " Know thyself"; but we ought 
 not to say, "Another girl and myself took a walk this after- 
 
 •noon." We never think of saying, " Myself took a walk." 
 
 VERBS 
 
 68. Conjugation of Verbs. No part of speech is more 
 important than the verb. Like nouns and pronouns, verbs 
 change their form in order to express different meanings, 
 and in addition have the help of auxiliaries, such as shall.
 
 IOS THE CORRECT SENTENCE 
 
 may, can, etc. This inflection of a verb is called its conju- 
 gation. The declension of nouns includes changes in num- 
 ber and case ; the conjugation of verbs includes changes in 
 voice, mood, tense, person, and number. 
 
 69. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs. According to their 
 use in a sentence, verbs are either transitive or intransitive. 
 Transitive means going over. If the verb is transitive, the 
 action goes over from the subject to a noun or pronoun called 
 the object ; for example, in "John hit the ball," the action 
 goes over to the ball. If the verb is intransitive, there is 
 nothing X.ogo over; for example, "We started early," " Every- 
 body laughed." Most verbs are sometimes transitive, some- 
 times intransitive ; for example, " We began our journey 
 early," "The day began pleasantly." 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Compose sentences in which each of the following 
 verbs takes an object : write, run, strike, sing, blow, ring, 
 break. 
 
 2. Compose sentences in which each of the foregoing 
 verbs is used without an object. 
 
 70. Principal Parts. The principal parts of a verb are 
 the present (first person, singular), the past (first person, 
 singular), and the past participle, — the three parts of 
 most importance. They may be remembered as the three 
 which take the places of the blanks in the following 
 sentences : 
 
 Present Past Past Participle 
 
 I now I yesterday I have 
 
 I write now I if rote yesterday I have written
 
 VERBS 109 
 
 71. Voice. In the sentence " James kicked the football," 
 the subject, "James," is acting, and the verb "kicked" is 
 said to be in the active voice. James does the kicking. In 
 the sentence " James was kicked by the horse," the subject, 
 "James," is acted upon, and the verb "was kicked" is said 
 to be in the passive voice. James receives the kicking. 
 An intransitive verb (sit, lie), since its subject cannot be 
 acted upon, has no passive voice. If the subject of a transi- 
 tive verb is acting, the verb is said to be in the active voice ; 
 if the subject is acted upon, the verb is said to be in the 
 passive voice. The passive voice of a verb is formed by 
 adding the past participle to some form^of the verb be. 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 Show whether the verbs in the following sentences are 
 active or passive : 
 
 1. She has assigned the lesson. 
 
 2. The lesson was assigned by her. 
 
 3. The secretary read the report. 
 
 4. The report was read by the secretary. 
 
 72. Mood. The different manners of expressing the 
 thought of the verb are called modes, or moods. 
 
 1. John works. (A fact, — indicative mood.) 
 
 2. I wish John were working. (A wish, an unreality, 
 not a fact, — subjunctive mood.) 
 
 3. Work. (A command, -— imperative mood.) 
 
 The indicative mood asserts a fact, or something assumed 
 to be a fact, or asks questions of fact. 
 
 We saw him. 
 
 I >oubtless he is here. 
 
 Does he study hard ?
 
 IIO THE CORRECT SENTENCE 
 
 The subjunctive mood presents doubtful or conditional 
 assertions, or unrealities. 
 
 If you were to ask him, he would grant the request. 
 If he were here, we could see him. 
 
 The imperative mood expresses a command, an entreaty, 
 
 or a wish. 
 
 Go ! Let us try. 
 
 73. Infinitives. Side by side with the moods there are 
 three other verb forms to consider : infinitives, participles, 
 and gerunds. A finite verb is "limited"; an infinitive is 
 " unlimited." In Jo/in walks the action is limited to John, 
 and to the present time; in To walk is easy the action is not 
 limited to any subject or to any time. From this example 
 it is clear that an infinitive is a form of a verb which is used 
 partly like a verb, partly like a noun. The to which usually 
 precedes it is not an essential part of it, but is its sign. 
 
 He wishes to go. (With sign.) 
 He will go. (Without sign.) 
 
 The infinitive has two tenses, the present and the perfect. 
 The present tense shows that the action is incomplete at the 
 time of the principal verb : as, "He wishes to eat " ; "He 
 wished to eat." The perfect tense shows that the action 
 was complete at the time of the principal verb : as, " It is a 
 pleasure to have finished it." On "tense" see section j6. 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 Justify or correct the tenses of the following infinitives : 
 
 i. He was eager to have met Edith. 
 
 2. I am glad to have seen you. 
 
 3. He hoped to come early.
 
 PARTICIPLES 1 1 1 
 
 74. Participles. The participle is a form of a verb which 
 is used partly like a verb, partly like an adjective,- — a verbal 
 adjective. In the sentence "The boy standing in the corner 
 is Fred," standing is partly verb, partly adjective. 
 
 The present participle always ends in -ing\ the past par- 
 ticiple is one of the principal parts of a verb ; the perfect 
 participle is having joined with a past participle, as having 
 studied, having eaten. 
 
 The wise writer is exceedingly careful about his parti- 
 ciples. Confusion, and sometimes absurdity, results from 
 failure to construct the sentence so that it shows clearly 
 just what word the participle modifies. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Discuss the following sentences : 
 
 While I was coming to school While coming to school this 
 
 this morning, a woman entered morning, a woman entered the 
 the car at K Street. car at K Street. 
 
 Note. The writer does not mean that the woman was on her way 
 to school. 
 
 2. Discuss the following sentences : 
 
 i. Last Sunday, while walking down Bates Street, a large crowd 
 had gathered on the bridge. 
 
 2. While crossing a street the other day, a car stopped in 
 front of me. 
 
 3. While standing in my yard, a strange dog strolled in. 
 
 4. After taking our seats, the secretary read the report. 
 
 3. See whether you can find in your writing any parti- 
 ciples which do not clearly modify some noun or pronoun. 
 If you cannot, read to the class five of your sentences 
 which contain participles.
 
 112 THE CORRECT SENTENCE 
 
 75. Gerunds. Ending ' in -ing like the present parti- 
 ciple, — but not to be confused with it, — is the gerund, 
 which is partly verb, partly noun. It is sometimes called 
 the verbal noun in -ing. 
 
 Seeing us, the dog ran away. (Participle.) 
 Seeing is believing. (Gerunds.) 
 
 The noun or pronoun which precedes the gerund must 
 be in the possessive case. 
 
 Joint's jumping was heartily applauded. 
 Your playing is good. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. In each of the following sentences what part of speech 
 is the word ending in -ing} What is the meaning of each 
 sentence ? 
 
 i. I wish to see them painting. 
 
 2. I wish to see their painting. 
 
 3. I heard them singing. 
 
 4. I know about their singing. 
 
 5. The recitation opened by his reading from Webster. 
 
 2. Write five sentences containing" verbal nouns. 
 
 3. Point out the verbal nouns and the verbal adjectives 
 in the following sentences : 
 
 1. The brook running through the meadow is clear. 
 
 2. Which do you prefer, running or playing tennis? 
 
 3. He is a rolling stone. 
 
 76. Tense. A verb has different forms to point out the 
 time of action. These forms are called tenses ("times "). 
 
 I see you. (Present tense, marking present action.) 
 
 I saw you. (Past tense, or preterit, marking past action.) 
 
 I shall see you. (Future tense, marking future action.)
 
 SHALL AND WILL 113 
 
 In order to show the completeness of an action at the time 
 of speaking, we use perfect tenses. 
 
 Now I have caught you. (Present perfect, or perfect, marking 
 action completed at the present time.) 
 
 We spoke to him after he had spoken to us. (Past perfect, or 
 pluperfect, marking action completed in past time.) 
 
 We shall have climbed the mountain before you reach the 
 spring. (Future perfect, marking action that will be completed 
 in future time.) 
 
 Of the six tense forms only two are simple, the present 
 and the past. The others are combinations of the auxiliary- 
 verbs (will, shall, have, be, or do) with parts of the verb 
 called infinitives and participles. 
 
 77. The Future Tense — Shall and Will. The future 
 tense is a combination of the auxiliary verb shall or will 
 with the infinitive without to. It is worth while to note 
 carefully the exact meanings of shall and will. 
 
 1 . In Independent Statements. Shall, which comes from 
 the old infinitive sen/an, meaning to owe, now denotes what 
 is to happen. Hence the meaning of / shall is / am destined 
 to, I am going to. 
 
 If, without expressing his own determination, a person 
 tells what you are going to do, or what some one else is 
 going to do, the speaker uses will. He does not profess to 
 control any one's future but his own. 
 
 These forms, then, express the simple future: 
 
 I shall. We shall. 
 
 You will. You will. 
 
 He will. They will. 
 
 Will has different shades of meaning. / will means (1 ) / 
 am willing, (2) / wish, (3) / am determined, so strong is
 
 114 THE CORRECT SENTENCE 
 
 my wish. Again, I may declare my will or determination 
 in a promise or a threat. If in a position to control your 
 will, to determine your conduct, I may say what you shall 
 do, are destined to do. If I can control the will or conduct 
 of my neighbor, I may tell him what he shall do, is destined 
 to do. A general term which includes all these shades of 
 meaning is volition. 
 
 These forms express volition : 
 
 I will. We will. 
 
 You shall. You shall. 
 
 He shall. They shall. 
 
 Examples for discussion : 
 
 i. I shall go to school to-morrow if I am able. (It is not a 
 question of will, but of what is to happen' — of simple futurity.) 
 So, " I shall study till nine o'clock." 
 
 2. You will doubtless meet my father. 
 
 3. He will return to-night. 
 
 4. We shall leave in the morning. 
 
 5. They will be at the station. 
 
 C. I will see him to-morrow if I can. (" It is my wish," or the 
 sentence may imply promise.) 
 
 7. I will second any motion you choose to make. (It may 
 mean merely " I am willing to," or it may imply promise.) 
 
 8 . I will not stay another minute. (Determination.) 
 
 9. You shall start at once ; I am bound you shall. ( rr I have 
 both the determination and the authority necessary to start you," 
 is the implication.) Compare the meaning of " You will start at 
 once." 
 
 10. He shall go with you. (Just like "You shall start at 
 once.") 
 
 11. We will join your party if you have room for us. ("We 
 are willing.") 
 
 12. We will go, room or no room. ("We are determined.") 
 
 13. We will meet you at one o'clock. (Promise.) 
 
 14. You shall all go. (Promise or determination or threat.)
 
 SHALL AND WILL 115 
 
 15. You shall go this minute. (Determination or promise.) 
 
 16. My boys shall be prompt. (Determination or promise.) 
 
 2. /// Questions. In asking a question we should use 
 the same auxiliary that is expected in the answer. Shall is 
 naturally the word in the first person. We should not ask, 
 "Will I run ? " Will is correct, however, when the verb is, 
 as it were, quoted from a preceding statement ; for example, 
 " Will you meet me ? " " Why, what a question ! Will I ? 
 Of course I will." 
 
 In the second person shall is the proper auxiliary to 
 express futurity: as, "Shall you vote for Henry?" Will 
 denotes volition. 
 
 Examples for discussion : 
 
 1. Shall I speak? I shall (not). 
 
 2. Shall you read? I shall (not). (Simple future.) 
 
 3. Shall he obey? He shall (not). 
 
 4. Will you listen? I will (not). 
 
 5. Will he obey? He will (not). 
 
 6. Shall I help you ? 
 
 7. Will he go to-day ? 
 
 8. Shall we read " The Merchant of Venice " aloud ? 
 
 9. Will they care to listen ? 
 
 3. Should and Would. In general, we use should and 
 would as we use their present tenses, shall and will. For 
 example, James says, "Will John come?" So we say, 
 "James asked if John ivould come." 
 
 Study the following : 
 
 1. Will he care to see me if he Do you think he would care to 
 
 comes ? -see me if he came ? 
 
 2. He sees that I shall go. (I am He saw that I should go. 
 
 going.) 
 
 3. He sees that I will go. (I wish lie saw that I would go. 
 
 or am determined to go.)
 
 Il6 THE CORRECT SENTENCE 
 
 We should take pains not to use will for shall or would 
 for should, as they are used in the following sentences : 
 
 i. I will be drowned : nobody shall help me. 
 2. I was obliged to stop playing baseball or I would have 
 ruined myself, as I played so much. 
 
 Note i. Should sometimes keeps its original meaning, "ought": 
 as, "We should do right." 
 
 Note 2. Would sometimes expresses habitual action : as, " We 
 would talk by the hour." 
 
 4. In Indirect Discourse. In a dependent clause of indi- 
 rect discourse, when the subject is the same as that of the 
 principal clause, we use the auxiliary which we should use 
 in direct discourse. 
 
 Direct Indirect 
 
 1. I will read "Ivanhoe." (I am He says he will read " Ivanhoe." 
 
 willing, or I promise.) 
 
 2. I shall read "Ivanhoe." (I am He says he shall read " Ivanhoe." 
 
 going to.) 
 
 3. I shall be beaten. You fear that you shall be beaten. 
 
 In all other cases of indirect discourse we use the same 
 auxiliary in dependent clauses that we use in independent 
 sentences. 
 
 Direct Indirect 
 
 1. John will come. Henry savs that John will come. 
 
 2. We shall be happy. They say we shall be happy. 
 
 5 . In Conditional Clauses. In conditional clauses we use 
 shall or should in all persons to express simple futurity ; 
 will or would in all persons to express volition. In the
 
 SHALL AND WILL 117 
 
 conclusions to the conditions we use the same auxiliary 
 that we use in independent sentences. 
 
 1. If I should do it, he would not thank me. 
 
 2. If you should ask him, you would get his honest opinion. 
 
 3. If he should come, we should be glad to see him. 
 
 4. If you will joui us, we will give you a cordial welcome. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 I. Explain shall or will in the following sentences : 
 
 1 . Thou shalt not steal. 
 
 2. It shall rain. 
 
 3. He fears he shall not meet yon in London. 
 
 4. They know they shall win the prize. 
 
 5. Will I eat my dinner? 
 
 6. Into what room should I go ? 
 
 7. Should you help him if you were in my place? 
 
 8. Would you help him if you could ? 
 
 9. Should he be elected? 
 
 10. Would John come if I should invite him? 
 
 II. He said he should be here by noon. 
 
 12. He said he would be here. 
 
 13. He said his parents would be here by noon. 
 
 14. He said his parents should be here. 
 
 15. There is a rumor about that a strong force will come down 
 from Crown Point and we shall be attacked. 
 
 16. You shall hear from point to point how we are faring. 
 
 17. Rise and go forth, for the law of the Lord is upon thee, 
 and no man can hinder that thou doest. Thou shalt look upon 
 the sun and shalt delight in him ; and again thou shalt look and 
 the light of the air shall be as darkness. Thou shalt boast in thy 
 strength and in thine armor that there is none like thee, and 
 again thou shalt cast thy glory from thee and say, "This also is 
 vanity." The king delighteth in thee, and thou shalt stand before 
 the queen in armor of gold and in fine raiment ; and the end is
 
 n8 THE CORRECT SENTENCE 
 
 near, for the hand of the Lord is upon thee. If the Lord will 
 work great things by thee, what is that to me? . . . 
 
 Go forth and do thy part, for thou art in the hand of the Lord, 
 and some things thou wilt do shall be good, and some things evil. 
 . . . But because there is some good in thee, it shall endure, 
 and thy name also, for generations ; and though the evil that 
 besetteth thee shall undo thee, yet at last thy soul shall live. 
 
 F. Marion Crawford, "Zoroaster." 
 
 2. Write a theme on the subject My Ambitions. 
 
 78. Person and Number. In highly inflected languages 
 
 like Latin and Greek the verb changes its form to agree 
 
 with its subject in person and number, as the verb be 
 
 does : 
 
 I am. I iv as. 
 
 You ar-e (thou art). You were. 
 
 He is. He was. 
 
 But in English, with two or three exceptions, the only change 
 in form for person and number in common use is -s in the 
 third person singular. 
 
 We should always be especially careful to have the verb 
 agree with the subject when other words come between 
 them ; for example, 
 
 Every one of us knows this to be true. 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 Point out the subject and the proper form of the predi- 
 cate in the following sentences : 
 
 i. Since his death the popularity of his books [have? has?] 
 greatly decreased. 
 
 2. The way of transgressors [is? are?] hard. 
 
 3. His collection of words [are? is?] very good.
 
 CONJUGATION 119 
 
 4. Each of the boys [are? is?] ready. 
 
 5. A superior tone of education, manners, and habits [prevails? 
 prevail?] 
 
 6. One of the most important of this sort of colonies [is ? are?] 
 our own. 
 
 7. The principle of free governments [adheres? adhere?] to 
 the American soil. 
 
 8. The temporary absence of worldly scenes and employments 
 [produce? produces?] a state of mind peculiarly fitted to receive 
 new and vivid impressions. 
 
 9. The vast space of waters that [separates? separate?] the 
 hemispheres [is? are?] like a blank page in existence. 
 
 79. Conjugation. The changes in voice, mood, tense, 
 person, and number which constitute the conjugation of 
 verbs we should remember from our previous study of 
 grammar. To those who do not remember clearly the 
 usual arrangement of the forms the following partial con- 
 jugation may be useful : 
 
 THE VERB "GIVE" 
 
 Active Voice, Indicative Mood 
 
 Present Tense 
 I give (do give, am giving). We give (do give, are giving). 
 
 You give. You give. 
 
 He gives. They give. 
 
 Past Tense 
 
 I gave (did give, was giving). We gave. 
 
 You gave. You gave. 
 
 He gave. They gave. 
 
 Future Tense 
 
 I shall give (he giving). We shall give. 
 
 You will <<ive. You will give. 
 
 He will give. They will give.
 
 120 
 
 I Hi: CORRECT SENTENCE 
 
 Perfect Tense 
 I have given (been giving). 
 
 You have given. 
 
 He has given. 
 
 Pluperfect Tc use 
 I had given (been giving). 
 
 You had given. 
 He had given. 
 
 We have given. 
 You have given. 
 They have given. 
 
 We had given. 
 You had given. 
 They had given. 
 
 Future Per fed Tense 
 I shall have given (been giving). We shall have given. 
 
 You will have given. You will have given. 
 
 He will have given. They will have given. 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 Recite synopses of give in both the active and the pas- 
 sive voice, taking each person in turn and each number. 
 
 80. Strong Verbs. The so-called strong verbs, which form 
 the past tense by changing the vowel of the present, need 
 special attention. Weak verbs, which form the past tense 
 by adding -ed, -d, or -t to the present, give us little trouble. 
 The following list contains several strong verbs that are 
 often ill treated. 
 
 Present 
 
 
 Past 
 
 
 
 Past Participle 
 
 awake 
 
 
 awoke, 
 
 awaked 
 
 awaked 
 
 bear 
 
 
 bore 
 
 
 
 borne (carried) 
 born (brought into 
 the world) 
 
 beat 
 
 
 beat 
 
 
 
 beaten 
 
 begin 
 
 
 began 
 
 
 
 begun 
 
 beseech 
 
 
 besoug 
 
 ht 
 
 
 besought 
 
 bid (command, or 
 
 
 bade (< 
 
 i as 
 
 in at) 
 
 bidden 
 
 " bid good-by," 
 
 etc.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 bid (at auction) 
 
 
 bid 
 
 
 
 bid 
 
 break 
 
 
 broke 
 
 
 
 broken
 
 STRONG VERBS 
 
 121 
 
 bring 
 
 brought 
 
 brought 
 
 burst 
 
 burst 
 
 burst 
 
 choose 
 
 chose 
 
 chosen 
 
 come 
 
 came 
 
 come 
 
 dive 
 
 dived, dove 
 
 dived 
 
 do 
 
 did 
 
 done 
 
 draw 
 
 drew 
 
 drawn 
 
 drink 
 
 drank 
 
 drunk 
 
 drive 
 
 drove 
 
 driven 
 
 eat 
 
 ate 
 
 eaten 
 
 fly 
 
 flew 
 
 flown 
 
 forbid 
 
 forbade 
 
 forbidden 
 
 forget 
 
 forgot 
 
 forgotten 
 
 freeze 
 
 froze 
 
 frozen 
 
 get 
 
 got 
 
 got 
 
 g° 
 
 went 
 
 gone 
 
 lay 
 
 laid 
 
 laid 
 
 lead 
 
 led 
 
 led 
 
 lie (to recline) 
 
 lay 
 
 lain 
 
 ride 
 
 rode 
 
 ridden 
 
 ring 
 
 rang 
 
 rung 
 
 rise 
 
 rose 
 
 risen 
 
 run 
 
 ran 
 
 run 
 
 see 
 
 saw 
 
 seen 
 
 shake 
 
 shook 
 
 shaken 
 
 shoe 
 
 shod 
 
 shod 
 
 show- 
 
 showed 
 
 shown 
 
 shrink 
 
 shrank 
 
 shrunk 
 
 sing 
 
 sang 
 
 sung 
 
 sit 
 
 sat 
 
 sat 
 
 slay 
 
 slew- 
 
 slain 
 
 speak 
 
 spoke 
 
 spoken 
 
 spring 
 
 sprang 
 
 sprung 
 
 steal 
 
 stole 
 
 stolen 
 
 strive 
 
 strove 
 
 striven 
 
 take 
 
 took 
 
 taken 
 
 tear 
 
 tore 
 
 torn 
 
 throw- 
 
 threw 
 
 thrown 
 
 write 
 
 wrote 
 
 written
 
 122 THE CORRECT SENTENCE 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 Stud)' the principal parts of every one of these verbs 
 until you know them thoroughly and can use them me- 
 chanically. Be prepared to write as well as to recite them. 
 
 ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 
 
 81. Adjectives. This and That. Although most adjec- 
 tives change their form only in comparison, this (plural, 
 these) and that (plural, those) are inflected for number. We 
 must therefore take pains to use the singular forms with 
 the collective nouns kind, class, and sort, which are gram- 
 matically singular. For example, 
 
 i. Do you like this kind of apples? 
 
 2. I prefer that kind of pens. 
 
 3. We all enjoy that sort of man. 
 
 82. Articles. Articles limit nouns as really as do other 
 adjectives, and it is important to remember that the omis- 
 sion or addition of one of these little words will change the 
 meaning. 
 
 '' I know a poet and novelist " means that the same man 
 is both poet and novelist. "I know a poet and a novelist " 
 means that I know two men, the one a poet and the other 
 a novelist. 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 Explain the following : 
 
 1. The red and white flag. 
 
 2. The red and white flags. 
 
 3. The red and the white flags. 
 
 4. The red, white, and blue flags. 
 
 5. The red, the white, and the blue flags.
 
 ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 123 
 
 6. The red and white, and the blue flags. 
 
 7. The red, and the white and blue flags. 
 
 8. I saw a black and a white boy. 
 
 9. I saw a black and white boy. 
 
 83. Adjective or Adverb. Sometimes you may be uncer- 
 tain whether you need an adjective or an adverb. If you are 
 describing the subject, use an adjective ; if you are modifying 
 the verb, use an adverb. In "He looks happy" and "He is 
 happy" the adjective goes with the subject. In "He speaks 
 happily" we learn about his manner of speaking. In gen- 
 eral, use an adjective whenever you can substitute some 
 form of be for the verb ; in other cases use an adverb. 
 
 First is both adjective and adverb. Avoid firstly. 
 Most is sometimes carelessly used for almost, which is 
 an adverb. 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 Discuss these examples : 
 
 1. The sun shines hot. 2. She flushed hotly. 3. The moon 
 shines bright. 4. The flowers smell sweet. 5. She smiled so 
 sweetly that Mary soon forgave her. 6. We reached home safe 
 (safely). 7. He fell unconscious (unconsciously). 8. I found my 
 opponent quick (quickly). 9. My pictures came out fine and the 
 first sunny day I shall print some. 10. The father looked gravely 
 at the son. 11. The boy looked grave. 12. Our fathers came 
 here to enjoy their religion free and unmolested. 13. He is 
 almost ready. 14. Most children are happy. 15. Almost all 
 children are happy. 
 
 PREPOSITIONS 
 
 84. The Proper Preposition. Although prepositions do 
 not change their form, it is important to choose the preposi- 
 tion required in any given instance.
 
 124 THE CORRECT SENTENCE 
 
 There are special prepositions that go with certain words. 
 For example, we should say different from (not different tJian). 
 rt His hat is better than mine and different from yours." 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Compose sentences to illustrate the meaning of the 
 following prepositions : 
 
 beside (by the side of), besides (in addition to). 
 
 between (when the reference is to two objects), among (when 
 the reference is to more than two objects). 
 
 in, into. {Into implies motion or direction inward. Compare 
 "He is walking in the room " and "He is walking into the room.") 
 
 2. Compose sentences for the sake of using correctly 
 each of the following expressions : 
 
 agree with (a person) 
 agree to (a proposal) 
 confide in (= trust in) 
 confide to (= intrust to) 
 conform to 
 
 correspond to or with (a thing) 
 correspond with (a person) 
 differ from (a person or thing) 
 differ from or with (in opinion) 
 
 different from- 
 
 need of 
 
 part from or with 
 taste of (food) 
 taste for (art) 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS 
 
 Like prepositions, conjunctions do not change their form, 
 but they are sometimes used incorrectly. They are either 
 
 coordinate or subordinate.
 
 CONJUNCTIONS 1 25 
 
 85. Coordinate Conjunctions. Coordinate conjunctions 
 connect parts of a sentence that have the same "order," 
 or rank: as, "He is bright and he knows it." They take the 
 same construction after them as before them. The simple 
 coordinate conjunctions are and, but, and or. 
 
 1. This is the man who came yesterday and who says he knows 
 you. (A nd connects dependent clauses.) 
 
 2. He read some rules concerning pronouns and which were 
 to be looked over carefully for the next lesson. (An incorrect 
 sentence : an attempt to make and connect a phrase with a 
 dependent clause.) 
 
 Certain coordinate conjunctions go in pairs : not only — 
 but also (but); not merely — but ; both — and ; as well 
 — as; either — or; neither — nor. 
 
 Their position should show at once what words they com- 
 pare or contrast. 
 
 1. Not only is he trying, but he is succeeding. 
 
 2. I am eager to own not only " The Pathfinder " and " The 
 Spy " but also " Rob Roy " and " Quentin Durward." 
 
 3. I am eager not only to own those books but also to read 
 them. 
 
 4. They recognized neither the horse nor the carriage. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Write sentences in which you let each of the simple 
 coordinate conjunctions connect (1) independent clauses, 
 (2) dependent clauses, (3) phrases. 
 
 2. Write sentences in which you use each of the fore- 
 going pairs of conjunctions. 
 
 86. Subordinate Conjunctions. Subordinate conjunctions 
 introduce subordinate clauses : as, " We knew that he was 
 a sailor" ; " If you prefer, I will remain."
 
 126 THE CORRECT SENTENCE 
 
 Like must not be used as an equivalent for the subor- 
 dinate conjunction as. Say "He walks as Fred does," not 
 " He walks like Fred does." When the verb is not ex- 
 pressed, as in "He walks like Fred," like is correct ; in 
 this case it has the force of a preposition. 
 
 Nor should like be used for as if in such a sentence 
 as "He looked as if he were angry." Never say, "He 
 looked like he was angry." 
 
 PHRASES AND CLAUSES 
 
 87. Phrases. A group of connected words is often used 
 as a single part of speech. If such a group is without a 
 subject and a predicate, it is called a phrase. Phrases are 
 used as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. 
 
 Noun phrases are frequently infinitive phrases. 
 
 To err is human. (Subject.) 
 
 He likes to read Scott. (Object.) 
 
 They urged us to join the party. 
 
 Adjective phrases may be prepositional, participial, or 
 
 infinitive phrases. 
 
 I know the captain of the eleven. (Prepositional.) 
 We saw John resting in the shade. (Participial.) 
 Have you patience to wait? (Infinitive.) 
 
 Adverbial phrases are frequently prepositional. 
 
 He is in the ho" use. 
 They went at once. 
 
 88. Clauses. A clause is a group of words which con- 
 tains a subject and a predicate. If a clause cannot stand 
 by itself as a complete sentence, — in other words, if it is
 
 PHRASES AND CLAUSES 
 
 127 
 
 used as a single part of speech, — it is said to be depend- 
 ent; other clauses are independent. 
 
 that yon are honest. 
 
 (Dependent or subordi- 
 nate clause, used as a 
 noun ; equivalent to 
 your honesty.} 
 
 they took our seats. 
 (Independent clause.) 
 
 is well known. 
 
 / do not doubt 
 (Independent 
 or principal clause.) 
 
 Noun 
 clauses 
 
 We stood up and 
 
 (Independent clause.) 
 
 That he is able 
 (Subject, equiva- 
 lent to his ability .) 
 
 Do you know 
 
 This 
 
 is 
 
 The report that he is coming 
 (In apposition with the 
 subject.) 
 
 I do not believe the report 
 
 who he is ? 
 
 (Object, equivalent to 
 
 him.) 
 where I live. 
 
 (Predicate nominative, 
 
 equivalent to my home.) 
 surprises me. 
 
 Adjective J 
 clauses 
 
 Adverbial 
 clauses 
 
 that he is coming. 
 
 (In apposition with the 
 object.) 
 
 There is a horse that is kind. (Equivalent to kind.) 
 My brother, who is older than I, knows him better. (Equiv- 
 alent to older.) 
 
 I shall study when you study. (Time.) 
 
 where you study. (Place.) 
 
 if you study. (Condition.) 
 
 because you study. (Cause.) 
 
 as you study. (Manner.) 
 I shall go in order that you may study. (Purpose.) 
 I shall study as hard as you do. (Degree.) 
 I shall study although you do not. (Concession.) 
 He lias studied birds so much that he knows something 
 about them. (Result.)
 
 128 THE CORRECT SENTENCE 
 
 89. Analysis. In analyzing a simple sentence we sepa- 
 rate it in this way : 
 
 Subject and Predicate and Object and 
 
 modifiers modifiers modifiers 
 
 Modifiers of the subject are adjectives, adjective phrases, 
 or adjective clauses. Modifiers of the predicate are adverbs, 
 adverb phrases, or adverb clauses. Modifiers of the object 
 are adjectives, adjective phrases, or adjective clauses. 
 
 If the sentence is complex, separate the main from the 
 subordinate clause and analyze each in turn. Be ready 
 to tell the relation between the main and the subordinate 
 clause. 
 
 Separate a compound sentence into its clauses, and ana- 
 lyze each as you would a simple sentence. 
 
 Let us arrange the following sentences so that the eye 
 can see instantly the relation of the parts. 
 
 On a soft sunny morning in the genial month of May I made 
 an excursion to Windsor Castle. It is a place full of storied and 
 poetical associations. 
 
 Subject Predicate 
 
 Object 
 
 Predicate 
 
 and and 
 
 and 
 
 nominative or 
 
 modifiers modifiers 
 
 modifiers 
 
 predicate 
 adjective 
 
 I made 
 
 an excursion 
 
 
 on a soft summer morning 
 
 
 
 in the genial month of May 
 
 
 
 to Windsor Castle 
 
 
 - 
 
 It is 
 
 
 a 
 
 place (predicate 
 nominative) full 
 of storied and 
 poetical associa- 
 tions
 
 ANALYSIS 129 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 l. Analyze the following sentences : 
 
 1. The black cow is in the pasture near the road. 
 
 2. We will all go with you if you are willing. 
 
 3. We know whom you mean. 
 
 4. I said, "Dick, you are right." 
 
 5. When they learned that it was I, they were very happy. 
 
 6. They were surprised to find it was I. 
 
 7. Man can neither drink steam nor eat stone. 
 
 2. Analyze the following sentences : 
 
 1. John Gilpin was a citizen 
 Of credit and renown. 
 
 2. Tell me not in mournful numbers 
 Life is but an empty dream. 
 
 3. The very external aspect of the proud old pile is enough to 
 inspire high thought. 
 
 4. It rears its irregular walls and massive towers, like a mural 
 crown, round the brow of a lofty ridge, waves its royal banner in 
 the clouds, and looks down, with a lordly air, upon the surround- 
 ing world. 
 
 5. It was upon a delicious summer morning, before the sun 
 had assumed its scorching power, and while the dews yet cooled 
 and perfumed the air, that a youth, coming from the northeast- 
 ward, approached the ford of a small river, or rather a large 
 brook, tributary to the Cher, near to the royal Castle of Plessis- 
 les-Tours, whose dark and multiplied battlements rose in the 
 background over the extensive forest with which they were 
 surrounded. 
 
 6. On the bank of the above-mentioned brook, opposite to 
 that which the traveler was approaching, two men, who appeared 
 in deep conversation, seemed, from time to time, to watch his 
 motions ; for, as their station was much more elevated, they could 
 remark him at considerable distance.
 
 130 THE CORRECT SENTENCE 
 
 We should practise analyzing sentences until we can do it 
 easily. In reading, ability to analyze will help us understand 
 a puzzling sentence ; in revising our writing, this ability 
 will help us manage a sentence that seems awkward or un- 
 tractable. A thorough knowledge of sentence structure will 
 mean that as we talk and write, words will slip into their 
 proper places.
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 THE EFFECTIVE SENTENCE 
 
 90. Unity in the Sentence. We have seen that the ideal 
 paragraph is a unit, and the very definition of a sentence 
 shows that the sentence, too, should be a unit. One of the 
 hardest things for many young writers to learn is to stop 
 when they have finished this sentence unit. Like fluent 
 but careless letter writers, they ramble on from one sub- 
 ject to another without a period. Sometimes this dividing 
 paragraphs into sentences is a very simple matter; at other 
 times it is somewhat puzzling. 
 
 91. Value of Simple and Complex Sentences. You re- 
 member from your study of grammar that a simple sentence 
 consists of a single statement, command, question, or ex- 
 clamation. Such a sentence seldom lacks unity. If your 
 sentence is complex, — that is to say, if it consists of one 
 main clause and one or more subordinate clauses, — you 
 have a good chance to put the important statement in a 
 prominent position ; but if your sentence is compound, — 
 if it consists of two or more clauses of equal rank,   — you 
 will need to give especial attention to unity. A sentence 
 may include two or more separate thoughts provided they 
 merge in one greater thought. Several such thoughts may 
 form a scries or may constitute a group of details in a 
 single picture. For example : 
 
 i. The smith, with the horse's heel in his lap, pauses as the 
 vehicle whirls by ; the cyclops round the anvil suspend their
 
 132 THE EFFECTIVE SENTENCE 
 
 ringing hammers, and suffer the iron to grow cool; and the sooty 
 specter in brown paper cap, laboring at the bellows, leans on the 
 handle for a moment and permits the asthmatic engine to heave 
 a long-drawn sigh, while he glares through the mirky smoke and 
 sulphurous gleams of the smithy. 
 
 2. At this point I cannot keep out of mind the story of the 
 preacher who divided his discourse into three heads. He declared 
 it to be his intention, under his first head, to speak of some 
 things that he knew all about, and of which his congregation knew 
 nothing ; under his second head, he proposed to deal with mat- 
 ters that both he and his hearers fully understood ; and under 
 the third head, he promised to discuss topics concerning which 
 neither he nor they had any knowledge. 
 
 It is a good habit, however, in revising your work to see 
 whether you cannot improve sentences by making com- 
 pound sentences either simple or complex. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Make each of the following sentences either simple or 
 complex. Emphasize the main thought. When it seems 
 best, substitute a phrase for a clause. 
 
 i. I called this morning before school and he was still asleep. 
 
 2. He rounded the corner and recognized his old master. 
 
 3. The bell rang and the room became quiet. 
 
 4. We went into the kitchen and found Fred putting up the 
 luncheon. 
 
 5. Night came on and we hurried out of the wood. 
 
 6. We reached the mooring about five o'clock and we took the 
 party ashore in the tender. 
 
 7. We returned to the boat and cleaned her deck and sides 
 and then went ashore. 
 
 8. 1 was skating on Jamaica Pond a few nights ago and saw 
 a novel way of gliding over the ice.
 
 UNIFORM CONSTRUCTION 133 
 
 2. Find in your writing three compound sentences. Turn 
 them into complex sentences by using subordinate clauses, 
 and point out any improvement or lack of improvement. 
 
 92. Uniform Construction. If possible, keep the con- 
 struction of a sentence uniform. One way to do this is to 
 keep the same subject and the same voice throughout the 
 sentence. For example : 
 
 CJiange of Construction I 'ni/'onu Construction 
 
 1. I looked down on the river 2. I looked down on the river 
 and twenty small boys could be and could sec twenty small boys 
 seen swimming merrily about. swimming merrily about. 
 
 As we read 1, we may naturally inquire, "By whom 
 could the boys be seen?" 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Improve these sentences : 
 
 1. As we looked eagerly toward the opening in the wood, the 
 familiar face of our favorite horse was seen. 
 
 2. Many people take great pleasure in photography and in 
 taking long drives, and even reading is often enjoyed by people. 
 
 2. Examine ten pages of your own work to see whether 
 you have any similar changes in the construction. Write 
 your report. 
 
 3. (1) In sentences to send to pupils in another high 
 school, write what you consider the most important thing 
 to say about each of five of the following subjects : " The 
 Vision of Sir Launfal," 'The Rime of the Ancient Mari- 
 ner," Rebecca (in "Ivanhoe"), Locksley, "Treasure Island,"
 
 134 T HE EFFECTIVE SENTENCE 
 
 'The Pilgrim's Progress," Abraham Lincoln's Boyhood, 
 Napoleon, England and America, International Peace, 
 Our School Paper, The Good Effects of War, Our Liter- 
 ary Society, Extempore Speaking. (2) Examine each sen- 
 tence carefully to see whether it is a unit. If there is any 
 doubt about the unity of a sentence, rewrite. See that the 
 construction is uniform. 
 
 93. Long or Short Sentences. If you indulge in a long 
 sentence, be sure that you keep it well in hand. The longer 
 you allow a sentence to run, the greater is the danger that 
 it will run away with you. A short sentence is easier to 
 manage, and is more likely to be a unit. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Turn this runaway compound sentence into two com- 
 plex sentences : 
 
 When school began we made new acquaintances, but "our 
 friend in need " became a chum to me, but he was rather old 
 for my brother who made friends for himself among the mem- 
 bers of his class. 
 
 2. Copy from your writing five of the longest sentences 
 you can find, and rewrite any into which you have crowded 
 ideas which have no close connection. 
 
 Occasionally short sentences need to be combined. A 
 glance shows that for the following material one sentence 
 is better than three : 
 
 On my way home I saw two On my way home I saw two 
 
 wagons broken down : one had wagons broken down. One 
 
 the rear axle broken ; the other had the rear axle broken. The 
 
 had the shafts broken. other had the shafts broken.
 
 UNITY 135 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 See whether, in the last piece of writing you have 
 clone, there are any such scrappy sentences as these. 
 What suggestions might help the pupil who wrote them ? 
 
 The lady Rowena was tall and had a fair complexion. Her 
 eyes were blue. She loved to wear rich clothes. She was well 
 built and of a noble family. She had a fine set of teeth. She 
 had no parents and was under the care of Cedric. 
 
 94. Ways of Securing Unity. It will be helpful to keep 
 in mind these ways of securing unity : 
 
 1. A sentence is likely to be a unit if it is simple or 
 complex rather than compound. 
 
 2. We need to give special attention to a compound 
 sentence in order to keep out ideas which are not closely 
 connected. 
 
 3. We should keep the construction of the sentence 
 uniform. 
 
 4. A short sentence is more likely to be a unit than a 
 long sentence. 
 
 95. Coherence in the Sentence. Clear thinking leads to 
 clear writing. If we think of one thing at a time, we shall 
 naturally write of one thing at a time ; but even then it is 
 not always easy to express the thought so that it plainly 
 forms a whole. This means that the exact relation which 
 any part of the sentence bears to any other part must be 
 evident. As all the sentences in a paragraph should cling 
 together, so should all the words in a sentence cling to- 
 gether ; words closely connected in meaning should be 
 closely connected in position, and there should be no doubt 
 about the relation of the words to one another.
 
 136 THE EFFECTIVE SENTENCE 
 
 96. Ways of securing Coherence. We should keep in 
 mind these ways of securing coherence : 
 
 1. In general, put together words that belong together. 
 Try to place every word, phrase, or clause close to the word 
 or words it modifies. 
 
 1. I asked before breakfast where you were. (Before breakfast 
 modifies asked.) 
 
 2. I asked where you were before breakfast. (Before breakfast 
 modifies were.) 
 
 3. School began only yesterday. ( Only modifies yesterday?) 
 
 4. Only one of us can go. (Only modifies one.) 
 
 Note. A good rule is to place only just before or just after the 
 word or words it limits. Words that need similar attention are 
 also and even. 
 
 For the position of not only — but also and other pairs of 
 coordinate conjunctions, see section 85. 
 
 2. In particular, see that the relation of the participle to 
 the noun or pronoun it modifies is unmistakable. See sec- 
 tion 74, and note the following examples : 
 
 1. Looking backward, the mistake seems inexcusable. (Obvi- 
 ously the mistake cannot look backward. We may say, " As we 
 look backward," or " As one looks backward," etc.) 
 
 2. While coming home from school the other day, the sidewalks 
 were very slippery. (The sidewalks, while coming?) 
 
 3. Be equally careful to see that the relation between a 
 pronoun and its antecedent is clear. See sections 64-65. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Explain the meaning of each of the following sentences: 
 
 1 . He came only yesterday. 
 
 2. Only you need study to-day. 
 
 3. You only need study to-day.
 
 COHERENCE 137 
 
 4. You need study only to-day. 
 
 5. You need study to-day only. 
 
 6. You need only study to-day. 
 
 2. Compose four sentences to show the proper use of 
 only, also, and even. 
 
 3. Subject the following sentences to your keenest criti- 
 cism. Remembering that to criticise means ' r to judge," 
 be just as eager to see the good as to find fault. Discuss 
 thoroughly the meaning of each sentence as it stands. 
 Whenever you think the meaning should be clearer, or 
 the expression different, suggest changes. 
 
 1. The value of the property has been reduced to a vast 
 extent. 
 
 2. Do you receive The Outlook 1 send you regularly? 
 
 3. So he had to leave the hills among which he grew up 
 for a time. 
 
 4. I shall keep the last horse I bought for my own use. 
 
 5. He was elected by a majority of only one. 
 
 6. He does not live ; he only exists. 
 
 7. I shall speak only a few minutes. 
 
 8. There are prizes for the three first pupils in the class. 
 
 9. Others appreciate the book as well as the author. 
 
 10. Others, as well as the author, appreciate the book. 
 
 11. He not only saw you and me but all the others in the 
 party. 
 
 12. I can only come during my vacation. 
 
 13. He not only brought bread but berries. 
 
 14. He not only read the book but learned much of it by 
 heart. 
 
 15. Not to overrate him 1 only mentioned a few of his 
 characteristics. 
 
 16. His efforts at all events were praiseworthy. 
 
 17. If Eliot is not the best captain, he is the best pitcher at 
 least that ever played on our campus.
 
 138 THE EFFECTIVE SENTENCE 
 
 18. The charge he brings against me I shall neither try to 
 answer nor deny. 
 
 19. Most of my friends like athletics like myself , and we spend 
 most of our time playing baseball, football, hockey, or other games. 
 
 20. Either you must work hard or fall behind. 
 
 21. He was also fond of Jim Hawkins, which always shows 
 there is some good in a person if he is fond of children. 
 
 22. Jim Hawkins, also a leading character in "Treasure Island," 
 was unlike the other person whom we have written of in many 
 respects. 
 
 23. We are to make a list of words from the rest of Act I of 
 the play which need explaining. 
 
 24. It not only educates the mind but the hand also. 
 
 25. I either go to see a professional game or play in a game 
 myself on the common. 
 
 26. A few boys and I, every Saturday, would go out early in 
 the morning and stay out all day. 
 
 97. Life in the Sentence. Unity and coherence are 
 matters for us to consider carefully as we revise our work. 
 While writing we should not think of them, but should try 
 to express ourselves simply and clearly. If we are energetic 
 ourselves, we shall probably put life into our sentences. 
 
 The active voice makes our sentences move easily and 
 rapidly. The passive voice, although indispensable, is some- 
 times clumsy and sluggish. These two versions show the 
 value of the active voice : 
 
 1. Engines were arriving 2. Engines were arriving 
 
 every minute ; firemen were every minute, lines of hose were 
 laying hose, putting up ladders, being laid, ladders were being 
 and pouring water into the fire. put up, and water was being 
 
 poured into the fire. 
 
 One who reads only the second version is tempted to ask 
 who did all the work.
 
 LIFE 139 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Find in your own work clumsy examples of the pas- 
 sive voice, and note the improvement made by changing 
 them to the active voice. 
 
 2. In the following extract point out all expressions that 
 
 have life : 
 
 The sun had risen higher while they talked, and his rays were 
 growing hot in the clear air. The mist had lifted from the city 
 below, and all the streets and open places were alive with noisy 
 buvers and sellers, whose loud talking and disputing came up in a 
 continuous hum to the palace on the hill, like the drone of a 
 swarm of bees. 
 
 3. Make a careful study of the sentences in the follow- 
 ing paragraph. Read them aloud. Point out all expressions 
 that have life. 
 
 Rikki-tikki 
 
 Rikki-tikki was bounding all around Nagaina, keeping just out 
 of reach of her stroke, his little eyes like hot coals. Nagaina 
 gathered herself together, and flung out at him. Rikki-tikki 
 jumped up and backward. Again and again she struck, and each 
 time her head came with a whack on the matting of the veranda 
 and she gathered herself together like a watch-spring. Then 
 Rikki-tikki danced in a circle to get behind her, and Nagaina spun 
 round to keep her head to his head, so that the rustle of her tail 
 on the matting sounded like dry leaves blown along by the wind. 
 
 He had forgotten the egg. It still lay on the veranda, and 
 Nagaina came nearer and nearer to it, till at last, while Rikki-tikki 
 was drawing breath, she caught it in her mouth, turned to the 
 veranda steps, and flew like an arrow down the path, with 
 Rikki-tikki behind her. When the cobra runs for her life, she 
 goes like a whiplash flicked across a horse's neck. — Kipling, 
 " Rikki-Tikki-Tavi " in "The Jungle Book."
 
 140 THE EFFECTIVE SENTENCE 
 
 4. Write a paragraph in order to give a picture of the 
 grace and agility of a squirrel, or, if you prefer, of some 
 other animal. 
 
 5. After reading carefully a full account of the appear- 
 ance of some person, describe the person in your own 
 words. You may use as many of the words of the book as 
 you remember, but you are not to refer to it while writing. 
 
 6. In a similar way write an account of the appearance 
 of some character in a story. Make your picture as lifelike 
 as possible. 
 
 By this time every one must see that it is important in 
 the treatment of any subject (i) to limit the subject ; (2) to 
 deal separately with each division of the subject, — each 
 topic ; and (3) in developing a topic to say only one thing 
 at a time. 
 
 In saying this one thing we should try to think so clearly 
 that the words will fit together properly. If we fail to 
 secure the best order, however, we should recast the sen- 
 tence until we are confident that the relations of the words 
 to one another will be readily understood. At the same 
 time let us make it easy for the reader to distinguish the 
 main thought from subordinate thoughts. 
 
 Sentences must not seem studied. Just because you do 
 not always know precisely how you are to express what 
 you wish to say, it is not wise to stop and wonder whether 
 you can express it at all. As soon as your thought comes, 
 begin to write. Begin as naturally as you can — with the 
 subject of the sentence, with the expression that will 
 emphasize the main thought, or with whatever will best 
 connect the sentence with what goes before. Do not worry
 
 LIFE 141 
 
 about the middle or the end. With your goal clearly in 
 mind, press steadily toward it. A good beginning and per- 
 severance ought to bring a good ending. Above all, think 
 vigorously and write rapidly, so that your sentences may 
 have smoothness and life.
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 THE EXACT WORD 
 
 " The learner does not want to be made a receptacle of other men's words 
 and thoughts, but to be made a thinker of thoughts and awielderof words 
 himself." 
 
 98. A Ready Vocabulary. Some of us little realize how 
 rapidly we think. With the swiftness of lightning; our 
 minds turn from man to man, from America to China, 
 from our own planet to the most distant star and the in- 
 finite space beyond. Thoughts we need not lack, if we are 
 awake. The difficulty is to put the thoughts on paper 
 before they fly away from us. It takes time to do the 
 manual part of the work. Or, it may be that some of us, 
 even with good minds, do little thinking. We may not 
 have a large number of words at our disposal. If we have 
 an abundant vocabulary, let us draw from it freely and 
 continually. If we are without this means of expression, 
 let us make haste to acquire it. 
 
 If life is merely eating and drinking and sleeping, to be 
 sure we need but few words, and no matter what our native 
 tongue, we can soon make our wants felt in any country ; 
 but if we care to be mentally alive, --to take an intelligent 
 interest in this kaleidoscopic world of ours, — we must 
 have at our command a large vocabulary. Our reading will 
 introduce us to every form of life ; our conversation will 
 bring us in touch with many types of men ; and when it 
 comes to writing, we need words without stint, not only 
 
 14-
 
 A READY VOCABULARY I 43 
 
 that we may be able to express clearly any experience 
 whatever, but also that we may write easily and rapidly. 
 When our thoughts begin to come, they come with a rush, 
 and then is the time for the words to fix them. 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 A careful examination of the following extract will show 
 the value of a copious and ready vocabulary. Make (i) a 
 list of the words which seem to you particularly appropri- 
 ate; (2) a list of the words for which it is difficult to find an 
 
 equivalent. 
 
 Sunset Colors 
 
 Nature has a thousand ways and means of rising above herself, 
 but incomparably the noblest manifestations of her capability of 
 color are in the sunsets among the high clouds. I speak especially 
 of the moment before the sun sinks, when his light turns pure 
 rose color, and when this light falls upon a zenith covered with 
 countless cloud forms of inconceivable delicacy, threads and flakes 
 of vapor, which would in common daylight be pure snow-white, 
 and which give, therefore, fair field to the tone of light. There is 
 then no limit to the multitude, and no check to the intensity, of 
 the hues assumed. The whole sky, from the zenith to the horizon, 
 becomes one molten, mantling sea of color and fire; every black 
 bar turns into massy gold, every ripple and wave into unsullied, 
 shadowless crimson, and purple, and scarlet, and colors for which 
 there are no words in language and no ideas in the mind, — things 
 which can only be conceived while they are visible, — the intense 
 hollow blue of the upper sky melting through it all, showing 
 here deep and pure and lightless, there modulated by the filmy, 
 formless body of the transparent vapor, till it is lost imperceptibly 
 in its crimson and gold. — Ri skin. 
 
 99. Exact Meanings of Words. If we would be under- 
 stood, we must decide as definitely as we can what the
 
 144 THE EXACT WORD 
 
 words we are using name and suggest to us ; then we must 
 know whether the same naming and the same suggestions 
 will go through the words to those who read. At this point 
 an exercise may serve two purposes : first, to determine 
 how clear are our own ideas ; second, to show how difficult 
 it is to be certain of transferring them and the accompany- 
 ing suggestions to others. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. What picture do you see the instant you read the 
 word dog} Tell just how the dog looks; whether he is 
 standing or lying down ; what color he is, etc. 
 
 In the same way describe the picture that is painted by 
 each of the following words : horse, man, cow, meadow, 
 alley, river, mountain. In these cases point out the differ- 
 ence between naming and suggesting. 
 
 2. Write carefully and fully (i) what the following words 
 name, and (2) what they suggest : vacation, work, play, 
 recreation. 
 
 3. Exchange the papers you have just written, and under- 
 score every word which apparently does not mean to you 
 what it meant to the writer. 
 
 100. Words in Good Use. If we wish to choose the most 
 useful words, we shall select those which are in good use. 
 We shall use (1) words as they are understood throughout 
 the nation, (2) words as they are understood at the present 
 time, (3) words as they are understood by the best writers 
 and speakers. 
 
 1. Words as they are understood throughout the nation. 
 We must use words which are understood in the same sense 
 in all sections of the country. In some parts of the country
 
 GOOD USE 145 
 
 a man "reckons " that his friend will have a "right " good 
 time, and the friend "allows" that he "reckons" so too. 
 But reckon in the sense of "think," right in the sense of 
 "very," and allow in the sense of "admit," are not in 
 national use. 
 
 Ask persons who have come from a section of the coun- 
 try with which you are not familiar, if they recall words 
 whose local meaning is not national. Your father and 
 mother may think of some. Make a list of all such words 
 and any other " local " words of which you know. 
 
 2. Words as they are understood at the present time. 
 In North Carolina a young man from a neighboring state 
 was enjoying the hospitality of three attractive young 
 women. Imagine the indignation with which they turned 
 from him as he innocently burst out with the remark, 
 r You are the homeliest girls I ever met." The poor fel- 
 low meant well. To him the word still retained its original 
 meaning, "homelike." He was behind the times. Now the 
 old meaning of this word is finer than the new — there 
 is no doubt about that ; but it will not be wise for us to 
 try to apply it to young women as long as the majority 
 of those who use good English at once think of the 
 derived meaning. 
 
 If we call a pudding "nice," or speak of a "nice" day, 
 one can hardly call us nice about our English. We should 
 not use the word in the original sense of " foolish," although 
 five hundred years ago it repeatedly had that meaning ; 
 but we are supposed to know that the later meaning, "dis- 
 criminating," or "particular," is the one current among the 
 best speakers and writers ; and further, it is our business 
 to know that the loose meaning first referred to is not in
 
 146 THE EXACT WORD 
 
 vogue among those who use the host English. Examples 
 oi the proper use of this much-abused word are: 
 
 The lawyer made a nice point, — that is, he showed delicate 
 discrimination. 
 
 The carving on that chair is unusually nice, — in other words, 
 it is wrought with skill. 
 
 3. Words as they are understood by the best writers and 
 speakers. Sometimes I am tempted to tell a friend that 
 he is a "brick." Perhaps my meaning is that his friends 
 may always depend upon him to do his part. Many New 
 Englanders would understand the expression, even if they 
 frowned on it. But if I were to apply this word to an 
 Ohio acquaintance, he might be as much disturbed as the 
 "homely " young women ; he certainly would not feel com- 
 plimented. Rough and ready and expressive as it is, at 
 times, it has not yet gained the recognition of those who 
 use good English. It is slang. 
 
 There is the verb "jolly," an uncouth bit of slang. One 
 who is really fond of "jollying " others is tempted to think 
 he can find no English equivalent. The lazier he is, the 
 more indifferent he is about his reputation as a linguist, the 
 less he will try. If he is with careless speakers, he does not 
 mind ; but when the word slips out in the presence of per- 
 sons of culture, he takes himself to task for such laziness. 
 
 No matter how eager we may be to increase our vocabu- 
 lary, we must always look well to the quality of our acqui- 
 sitions. Innumerable words we may well crave for our own 
 variety of experience and thought, but we should choose 
 those that are current among persons who use words as 
 they are understood and approved by the body of repu- 
 table speakers and writers in our nation at the present
 
 HELPS IN CHOOSING WORDS 147 
 
 time. Briefly, we should choose words that are in reputable, 
 national, and present use. 
 
 101. Helps in choosing Our Words. Here are several 
 suggestions which should be helpful in choosing words. 
 
 1. Use the dictionaries. Dictionaries help us to determine 
 whether a word is in good use. They are misleading unless 
 we use them carefully ; for if unabridged, they give the 
 various meanings of a word, some so old that they are no 
 longer in good use, some so new that they are not yet in 
 good use, and may never be. We must notice whether 
 the dictionary labels certain words as obsolete (' r gone out 
 of use"), obsolescent ("going out of use "), local, colloquial 
 ("used in conversation"), or slang. We go to a dictionary 
 for definite information about words, just as we go to a 
 directory to get definite information about people. We are 
 no more justified in using a word because it is in the dic- 
 tionary than we should be in calling upon a person because 
 his name is in the directory. 
 
 One of the best habits young writers can form is to use 
 the dictionary continually. An abridged dictionary, good 
 as far as it goes, is by no means sufficient for a pupil of 
 high-school attainments and ambitions. In some way secure 
 Webster's International, or one equally good, and keep it 
 on your table or within arm's reach. 
 
 2. Read reputable writers. A man is known by the com- 
 pany he keeps. Good communications inspire good man- 
 ners. Aside from the value of the thoughts of our best 
 writers, there is a charm due to their language. Through 
 the works that we read again and again, long after the 
 subject-matter is familiar, we unconsciously come to appre- 
 ciate and to use choice English. These writers achieved
 
 148 THE EXACT WORD 
 
 distinction. Let us try to do likewise; happy at least in 
 this, that we may use their tools. 
 
 3. Hear reputable speakers. We may learn much from 
 . men and women who use words that no educated person 
 
 need misunderstand or be ashamed of. Now and then we 
 hear some one whose very speech is charming, no matter 
 what he says, just as we occasionally meet a person whose 
 every movement is graceful, or another whose every act is 
 tactful. Whenever we meet such a speaker, we should seize 
 the opportunity to listen. 
 
 4. Be thoroughly alive. By this time it must be clear 
 that one who is to become a good writer must be thor- 
 oughly alive. He must con his dictionary and absorb his 
 grammar, but he should also enter with his whole soul into 
 life. He should love life; he should steadily enrich his life; 
 and as he records his own experiences and thoughts, he will 
 always be eager to learn by eye and ear from others who 
 are giving expression to their best thoughts. 
 
 5 . Fix tJie exact meanings of ivords. An exact vocabu- 
 lary is just as necessary as a large one. Dictionaries and 
 other books give lists of synonyms not because one of 
 these words is as good as another, but because each, though 
 somewhat like the rest, is in some respect different ; and 
 this very difference serves to point out a delicate distinc- 
 tion which none of the other words would suggest. Many 
 of us use lie or lay, teach or learn, may or can, bring or 
 carry, without discrimination. Sometimes we come pretty 
 near saying what we mean ; at other times we entirely miss 
 the mark. It should be our habit, upon meeting a new 
 word, to discover its proper meaning and to limit ourselves 
 to that meaning.
 
 WORDS WORTH STUDYING 149 
 
 102. Words Worth Studying. In order to gain practice 
 in determining the precise meanings, let us study certain 
 words that are used carelessly, or with hesitation, and others 
 that offer opportunity for nice distinction. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 l. Write sentences to illustrate the correct use of each 
 
 noun in the following list 1 : 
 
 Adherence, adhesion {adherence to a party, or to rules ; the 
 adhesion of mortar to brick). 
 
 Character ("what a man is "), reputation ("what others think 
 of him "). 
 
 Council {a. family council, the common council), counsel ("It 
 was ill counsel had misled the girl"). 
 
 Custom, habit. ("Custom is a frequent repetition of the same 
 act; habit, the effect of such repetition." The custom of early 
 rising may become a good habit. "A custom is followed ; a habit 
 is acquired.") 
 
 Discovery (an "uncovering" of something already in existence, 
 as a star). 
 
 Invention ("the contrivance and production of something that 
 did not before exist," as the telephone). 
 
 Emigration (e, "out," + migrare, "to move"), immigration 
 (in, "in," + migrare). 
 
 Majority ("more than half the whole number"), plurality. 
 ("When there are more than two candidates, the one who re- 
 ceives the plu rah 7v of votes may have less than a majority.' 1 '') 
 If A receives 50 votes, B 40, and C 30, A has a plurality of 10 
 over B. Does A have a majority? 
 
 Middle, center. (Center is often more precise than middle; 
 compare the center and the middle of a room.) 
 
 1 For further information consult dictionaries and books of synonyms. In this 
 list, and in others that follow, th is to point out the fundamental meaning 
 
 of a word.
 
 150 THE EXACT WORD 
 
 Person, party. (A party is a company of persons, unless a per- 
 son be a party to a contract.) 
 
 Plenty ("a full supply "), abundance ("a great plenty, as much 
 as can be wanted, or more"). 
 
 Vocation, avocation. {Avocation is "that which calls one away 
 from one's proper business — from one's vocation.'' 1 ) 
 
 2. In order to fix the meanings of the verbs in the follow- 
 ing list, use each of them in a sentence of your own : 
 
 Begin (enter upon something new), start (as an intransitive 
 verb, suggests motion). (As he began to write, the train started.) 
 
 Bring (take along in coming), fetch (go and bring), carry (take 
 along with one). 
 
 Can (ability), may (liberty, probability). 
 
 Effect (accomplish), affect (act upon, or influence). (Some 
 persons are affected by the weather. He effected his purpose.) 
 
 Happen (come to pass), transpire (come to light). 
 
 Lay (transitive), lie (intransitive). 
 
 Learn (intransitive), teach (transitive). 
 
 Raise' (transitive), rise (intransitive). 
 
 Set (transitive), sit (intransitive). 
 
 Stop (cease to move), stay (remain). 
 
 3. Illustrate in sentences of your own the meaning of 
 each word in this Diiscellaneoas group: 
 
 Apparently (seemingly), evidently (clearly), manifestly (in a 
 manner very distinctly evident). 
 
 Apt, likely, liable. {Apt indicates physical or natural inclination : 
 as, apt to work faithfully ; apt to mold. "Likely may suggest the 
 same idea, or it may express mere external probability or chance : 
 as, he is likely to come at any moment. Liable in this connection 
 is properly used only of exposure to evil : as, liable to accident ; 
 liable to be hurt, that is, exposed to the danger of being hurt.") 
 
 Awful (awe-inspiring). 
 
 Each ("all of any number, considered one by one"), every 
 ("differs from each in giving less prominence to the selection of
 
 WORDS WORTH STUDYING I 5 I 
 
 the individual "). " Father gave each of the children something" 
 calls attention to every child separately. 'There was a gift for 
 every child" means that all the children were remembered with 
 a gift, — no child was forgotten. 
 
 Grand (used in connection with something which really has 
 grandeur). 
 
 Splendid (used in connection with something which has splendor). 
 
 Healthy (in good health, as a healthy child), healthful 
 (health giving, as healthful exercise, healthful climate), whole- 
 some (tending to promote health of body or mind, as whole- 
 some food, wholesome truths). 
 
 Oral (spoken), verbal (in words, whether spoken or written). 
 
 New, novel {novel means "strange" as well as "new"). 
 
 Real (as adjective, "She is real"); really (as adverb, "It is 
 really good "). 
 
 Quite (wholly). 
 
 Some (as an adjective), something (as a noun), somewhat (as 
 an adverb). 
 
 We have considered the value of an unstinted supply of 
 words. We can see that it is of prime importance to have 
 such command of them that they will come to the front 
 spontaneously ; and we know it will encourage us if we can 
 see that we are adding to our vocabulary day by day. We 
 realize, however, the value of making these additions care- 
 fully, for the words that will prove helpful are those that 
 are in good use. It should be our habit, therefore, to find 
 out just what words mean to reputable speakers and writers 
 in our nation at the present time. While adding to our 
 store we must remember that the way to make our new 
 possessions permanent is to use them. It goes without 
 saying that we can use them best as we talk and write 
 about some subject that interests us ; but use them we 
 must, and use them accurately.
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 THE FORCIBLE WORD 
 
 Just the right way of saying the thing that is to be said is an art more 
 to be desired than much knowledge, and one that goes farther in making 
 life agreeable." — The Century. 
 
 103. The Choice of Forcible Words. A correct speaker 
 makes himself understood. A forcible speaker not only 
 makes himself understood, but expresses himself in such a 
 way that his hearers are interested and are likely to remem- 
 ber what he says. A correct speaker may put his audience 
 to sleep ; a forcible speaker keeps them wide-awake. It is 
 worth our while, then, to try to use language which is both 
 clear and forcible. Hence we should choose (i) simple 
 words and (2) specific words. 
 
 104. Simple Words. The Reverend Robert Collyer has 
 told us how he grew fond of simple words. He says : 
 
 " Do you want to know how I manage to talk to you in 
 this simple Saxon ? I will tell you. I read Bunyan, Crusoe, 
 and Goldsmith when I was a boy, morning, noon, and night. 
 All the rest was task work. These were my delight, with 
 the stories in the Bible and in Shakespeare, when at last the 
 mighty master came within our doors. ... I took to these 
 as I took to milk, and, without the least idea what I was 
 doing, got the taste for simple words into the very fiber of 
 my nature. . . . I could not' go home for Christmas, 1839, 
 and was feeling sad about it all, for I was only a boy ; . . . 
 an old farmer came in and said, 'I notice thou'rt fond of 
 
 152
 
 SIMPLE WORDS 153 
 
 reading, so I brought thee summat to read.' It was Irving's 
 ' Sketch-Book.' I had never heard of it. I went at it and 
 was as ' them that dream.' No such delight had touched 
 me since the old days of Crusoe. I saw the Hudson and 
 the Catskills, took poor Rip at once into my heart, as every- 
 body does, pitied Ichabod while I laughed at him, thought 
 the old Dutch feast a most admirable thing, and long be- 
 fore I was through, all regret at my lost Christmas had gone 
 down the wind, and I had found out there are books and 
 books. That vast hunger never left me." 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Let us see what we can learn from Bunyan. As you 
 read aloud the following selection, dwell on those simple, 
 telling words and phrases which please you most. 
 
 From "The Pilgrim's Progress" 
 
 Neither could they, with all the skill they had, get again to the 
 stile that night. Wherefore, at last, lighting under a little shelter, 
 they sat down there until the day brake ; but, being weary, they 
 fell asleep. Now there was not far from the place where they 
 lay, a castle called Doubting Castle, the owner whereof was 
 Giant Despair ; and it was in his grounds they now were sleep- 
 ing. Wherefore he, getting up in the morning early, and walking 
 up and down in his fields, caught Christian and Hopeful asleep 
 in his grounds. Then, with a grim and surly voice, he bid them 
 awake ; and asked them whence they were, and what they did in 
 his grounds. They told him they were pilgrims, and that they 
 had lost their way. Then said the Giant, You have this night 
 trespassed on me, by trampling in and lying on my grounds, and 
 therefore you must go along with me. So they were forced to 
 go, because he was stronger than they. They also had but little 
 to say, for they knew themselves in a fault. The Giant, therefore,
 
 i 54 THE FORCIBLE WORD 
 
 drove them before him, and put them into his castle, into a very 
 dark, dungeon, nasty and stinking to the spirits of these two men. 
 Here, then, they lay from Wednesday morning till Saturday night, 
 without one bit of bread, or drop of drink, or light, or any to ask 
 how they did. They were, therefore, here in evil case, and were 
 far from friends and acquaintance. Now in this place Christian 
 had double sorrow, because it was through his unadvised counsel 
 they were brought into this distress. 
 
 Now Giant Despair had a wife, and her name was Diffidence. 
 So when he was gone to bed, he told his wife what he had done ; 
 to wk, that he had taken a couple of prisoners and cast them into 
 his dungeon, for trespassing on his grounds. Then he asked her 
 also what he had best to do further to them. _ So she asked him 
 what they were, whence they came, and whither they were bound ; 
 and he told her. Then she counseled him that when he arose in 
 the morning he should beat them without any mercy. So, when 
 he arose, he getteth him a grievous crab-tree cudgel, and goes 
 down into the dungeon to them, and there first falls to rating of 
 them as if they were dogs, although they never gave him a word 
 of distaste. Then he falls upon them, and beats them fearfully, 
 in such sort that they were not able to help themselves, or to 
 turn them upon the floor. This done, he withdraws and leaves 
 them there to condole their misery, and to mourn under their 
 distress. So all that day they spent the time in nothing but sighs 
 and bitter lamentations. The next night, she, talking with her 
 husband about them further, and understanding they were yet 
 alive, did advise him to counsel them to make away with them- 
 selves. So when morning was come, he goes to them in a surly 
 manner as before, and perceiving them to be very sore with the 
 stripes that he had given them the day before, he told them that, 
 since they were never like to come out of that place, their only 
 way would be forthwith to make an end of themselves, either 
 with knife, halter, or poison ; for why, said he, should you choose 
 life, seeing it is attended with so much bitterness ? But they 
 desired him to let them go. With that he looked ugly upon 
 them, and, rushing to them, had doubtless made an end of them
 
 SPECIFIC WORDS 155 
 
 himself, but that he fell into one of his fits (for he sometimes, in 
 sunshiny weather, fell into fits), and lost for a time the use of his 
 hand ; wherefore he withdrew, and left them as before, to con- 
 sider what to do. Then did the prisoners consult between them- 
 selves, whether it was best to take his counsel or no ; and thus 
 they began to discourse. 
 
 2. Make a list of the words and expressions that seem to 
 you simple and forcible, and discuss them. Probably you 
 will include some of the following : grim, surly, whence 
 they were, in evil case, what they were, whither they were 
 bound, beat, grievous crab-tree cudgel, falls to rating, a 
 word of distaste, to turn them upon the floor, never like to 
 come out of that place, make an end of themselves, they 
 desired him to let them go. 
 
 Note. If you really like this simple Saxon, — whether you care 
 for the story is another matter, — you will find it worth while to read 
 several pages of "The Pilgrim's Progress" merely for the style. 
 
 3. Take from one of the six sources mentioned by 
 Mr. Collyer an interesting page, and study the choice of 
 words. Write your report. 
 
 105. Specific Words. We have words that are general and 
 words that are specific. A general word includes a large 
 number of ideas ; a specific word names one idea. A gen- 
 eral word names a class of objects ; a specific word singles- 
 out from the class an individual. It is interesting, as far as 
 it goes, to know that you have heard a bird singing, but 
 one who cares for birds would know more definitely what 
 you had in mind if you used the word thrush, -- still more 
 definitely if you spoke of the robin or of the wood thrush. 
 
 On many occasions it serves our purpose to use the 
 words man, woman, child, look, paper, but we oftener wish
 
 156 THE FORCIBLE WORD 
 
 to know the particular name that distinguishes an individual 
 from the rest of his class. If I say, "I met an animal this 
 morning," the word "animal " names something, — although 
 with considerable vagueness. The substitution of "dog" 
 would give my hearers information more definite. If I say, 
 -r I met a collie," I share with them much more of my ex- 
 perience. And if I say, "I met Jack," provided they know 
 Jack, they appreciate to some extent the feelings of delight 
 with which I saw my pet bounding toward me. Now " dog " 
 names the idea I have to communicate ; but I have an an- 
 nouncement less tame and prosaic than the meeting of a 
 dog. I wish them to share with me the emotions that were 
 mine as I met my dog. Therefore I use a word that arouses 
 in them some such feelings. This word "Jack" not only 
 points out the idea, but in addition it gives the suggestions 
 I wish to put into the picture. 
 
 In calling a piece of writing "good," we may cover a 
 multitude of excellent qualities. If we choose to be more 
 definite, we may use some such words as the following : 
 clear, suggestive, vigorous, careful, earnest, humorous, to 
 the point, specific, smooth, comprehensive, easy, compact, 
 coherent, straightforward, simple, direct, timely. Instead of 
 the general terms "bad" or "poor" or "uninteresting," we 
 can use such words as these: abrupt, dry, general, careless, 
 confusing, vague, incoherent, wordy, tame, weak, bookish. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 l. Study the choice of words in the following extracts. 
 Are the most suggestive words general or specific ? Com- 
 ment on the following : picturesque, morning, strolled, 
 venders, trinkets, tackeys ("bony nags"), steeds.
 
 SPECIFIC WORDS 157 
 
 1. The old city of St. Augustine had never been more pic- 
 turesque and full of color than it was that morning. Its narrow 
 thoroughfares, with the wide, overhanging upper balconies that 
 shaded them, were busy and gay. Strangers strolled along, stop- 
 ping in groups before the open fronts of the fruit shops, or were 
 detained by eager venders of flowers and orange-wood walking 
 sticks. There were shining shop windows full of photographs and 
 trinkets of pink shell-work and palmetto. There were pink feather 
 fans, and birds in cages, and strange shapes and colors of flowers 
 and fruits, and stuffed alligators. The narrow street was full of 
 laughter and the sound of voices. Lumbering carriages clattered 
 along the palmetto pavement, and boys and men rode by on 
 quick, wild little horses as if for dear life, and to the frequent 
 peril of persons on foot. Sometimes these small dun cream- 
 colored marsh tackeys needed only a cropped mane to prove 
 their suspected descent from the little steeds of the Northmen, 
 or their cousinship to those of the Greek friezes ; they were, in- 
 deed, a part of the picturesqueness of the city. 
 
 2. The ship was talking, as the sailors say, loudly, treading the 
 innumerable ripples with an incessant weltering splash. 
 
 3. Down I sat to wait for darkness, and made a hearty meal 
 of biscuit. It was a night out of ten thousand for my purpose. 
 The fog had now buried all heaven. As the last rays of day- 
 light dwindled and disappeared, absolute blackness settled down 
 on Treasure Island. And when, at last, I shouldered the coracle 
 and groped my way stumblingly out of the hollow where I had 
 supped, there were but two points visible on the whole anchorage. 
 
 2. Find less specific words for these : buried, dwindled, 
 blackness, shouldered, coracle, groped, stumblingly, hollow, 
 anchorage. 
 
 3. In the first extract substitute general words for spe- 
 cific and rewrite the paragraph. 
 
 Your study of these few passages leads you to con- 
 clude, does it not, that the specific word has great power of
 
 158 THE FORCIBLE WORD 
 
 suggestion ? Since it is often your purpose to suggest 
 more than you say, you will frequently feel the need of 
 specific words. General words will come to you; for spe- 
 cific words you should always be on the hunt. 
 
 106. Figurative Words. In talking to a companion, you 
 would be more likely to speak of "the red sun " and "the 
 hot sky," than to use such language as Coleridge's : 
 
 All in a hot and copper sky 
 The bloody sun at noon 
 Right up above the mast did stand 
 No bigger than the moon. 
 
 Again, we oftener say, " The sun was shining bright upon 
 the mountain tops," than "The early sunshine was already 
 pouring its gold upon the mountain tops." Yet Hawthorne's 
 expression is beautiful. 
 
 Now what have these words done ? "Hot" is literal ; we 
 all understand it. " Copper " tells us what the sky looked like. 
 Everybody has seen the sun look red, but -it is striking to 
 call it as red as blood. Again, we generally think of the 
 sun as yellow, but to say it is so much gold is to remind 
 us sharply of the metal it resembles. These writers have 
 not used "copper," "blood," and "gold" to say precisely 
 what they meant, but to suggest resemblances. Words 
 used for what they suggest, in a sense not exactly literal, 
 we call figurative. 
 
 107. Similes and Metaphors. We are continually mak- 
 ing comparisons between objects of the same kind ; for 
 example, "The library is more beautiful than the church," 
 
 'This stone is like granite," 'Lincoln may have been as 
 great a man as Washington "; but these are mere com- 
 parisons. Perhaps nearly as often we allude to similarities
 
 FIGURATIVE WORDS 1 59 
 
 between objects of different kinds. We do this in two 
 ways. Sometimes we say that one tiling is like another ; 
 for example, "The army stood like a wall," " For he that 
 wavereth is like a wave of the sea driven with the wind 
 and tossed." Holmes has been likened to a fountain, con- 
 stantly bubbling over with sweet feeling and bright thought. 
 Such figures of speech are called similes. 
 
 Sometimes we do not express resemblance ; we imply it. 
 We call one thing by the name of another ; for example, 
 "Bread is the staff of life," 'The general was a tower of 
 strength," "He is a dynamo in breeches," "Adversity is 
 the grindstone of life." These figures are called metaphors, 
 a Greek word which means carrying over. A metaphor car- 
 ries over the name of one thing to another. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Study carefully the following examples of simile : 
 
 i. How far that little candle throws his beams ! 
 So shines a good deed in a naughty world. 
 
 2. Good nature is the most precious gift of Heaven, spread- 
 ing itself like oil over the troubled sea of thought, and keeping 
 the mind smooth and equable in the roughest weather. 
 
 3. Men whose lives glided on, like rivers that water the wood- 
 
 lands, 
 Darkened by shadows of earth, but reflecting an image of 
 heaven. 
 
 2. Make a careful study of the following examples of 
 metaphor : 
 
 1. Antony is but a limb of Caesar. 
 
 2. And the tongue is a fire.
 
 160 THE FORCIBLE WORD 
 
 3. Sometimes it was simply smooth and clear 
 For the gladness of heaven to shine 
 
 through, and here 
 He had caught the nodding bulrush-tops 
 And hung them thickly with diamond-drops, 
 That crystalled the beams of moon and sun, 
 And made a star of every one. 
 
 4. Sir Launfal's raiment thin and spare 
 Was idle mail 'gainst the barbed air. 
 
 5. Nor would 1 fight with iron laws, in the end 
 Found golden. 
 
 6. When clocks 
 Throbb'd thunder thro' the palace floors, or call'd 
 On flying Time from all their silver tongues. 
 
 7. Tubal. Your daughter spent in Genoa, as I heard, in one 
 
 night fourscore ducats. 
 Shylock. Thou stickest a dagger in me. 
 
 The Point of Resemblance. When we say a man is a fox, 
 we have in mind the characteristic common to both, — cun- 
 ning. It is by fixing the attention on the point of resem- 
 blance that a figure makes an idea specific. 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 In the following metaphors and similes, what is the point 
 of resemblance that suggests the comparison ? 
 
 1 . A fiery temper ; a rippling laugh ; glassy eyes ; golden hair ; 
 silvery waves ; red-hot " liner " ; iron muscle ; catlike step ; a ray 
 of hope; growling thunder; mackerel sky; a sea of upturned 
 faces ; the snakelike caravan ; crawling centuries ; a striking 
 thought ; life's fitful fever ; Stonewall Jackson ; a hard heart ; the 
 silver moon. 
 
 2. The tongue of the just is as choice silver. 
 
 3. Boston is sometimes called the hub of Massachusetts, and 
 Worcester the heart of the commonwealth.
 
 SIMILES AND METAPHORS 161 
 
 Mixed Metaphors. In using figurative language we must 
 be careful not to allow any confusion or mixing of meta- 
 phors. For example : 
 
 i. This world with all its trials is the furnace through which 
 the soul must pass and be developed before it is ripe for the 
 next world. 
 
 2. He was unable to steer his ship over the rough road of 
 public sentiment. 
 
 3. Every one thought the rebellion had been rooted out ; but it 
 was soon rekindled with renewed vigor. 
 
 4. The chariot of Revolution is rolling, and gnashing its teeth 
 as it rolls. 
 
 It is also quite as important not to use metaphorical and 
 literal language in the same sentence ; for example, " Is 
 it the voice of thunder or of my father ? " 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 l. Discuss the following : 
 
 1. Boyle was the father of chemistry and brother to the Earl 
 of Cork. 
 
 2. An orator at one of the university unions bore off the palm 
 of merit when he declared that " the British lion, whether it is 
 roaming in the deserts of India or climbing the forests of Canada, 
 will not draw in its horns or retire into its shell." 
 
 3. "Brethren," said an earnest exhorter to a body of religious 
 workers, "brethren, remember that there is nothing which will 
 kindle the fires of religion in the human heart like water from the 
 fountains of life." 
 
 2. Discuss these two versions : 
 
 1. The cares and responsibilities of a sovereign often dis- 
 turb sleep. 
 
 2. Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown.
 
 162 THE FORCIBLE WORD 
 
 3. Change the following figurative expressions to literal 
 and discuss the difference in effect : 
 
 i. She speaks poniards, and every word stabs. 
 
 2. At one stride comes the dark. 
 
 3. He has spent all his life in letting down empty buckets into 
 empty wells ; and he is frittering away his age in trying to draw 
 them up again. 
 
 4. Figures that come to us without seeking are likely to 
 be the most simple and natural. Do any of these we hav^ 
 been examining lack naturalness and spontaneity ? 
 
 5. A figure often surprises us. Sometimes its purpose 
 is not to add beauty, but merely to afford amusement. 
 Are there any examples of amusing figurative language in 
 this chapter ? 
 
 108. Metonymy. In choosing the specific rather than 
 the general, we sometimes put one thing for another that is 
 frequently associated with it. This figure is metonymy. 
 For example : 
 
 1. The ballot is more powerful than the bullet. 
 
 2. Who steals my purse steals trash. 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 Turn the following figurative language into literal state- 
 ments. In each instance which version do you prefer, and 
 why ? 
 
 1 . Bring down my gray hairs with sorrow to the grave. 
 
 2. In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread. 
 
 3. They always set a good table. 
 
 4. Three cheers for the red, white, and blue ! 
 
 5. The lamp is burning. 
 
 6. The chair called the house to order. 
 
 7. Is the kettle boiling?
 
 OTHER FIGURES OF SPEECH 163 
 
 109. Personification. When metaphor and metonymy 
 ascribe personality to things inanimate, they become per- 
 sonification ; for example, "The storm rages," ' The ship 
 has found herself," " Must I thus leave thee, Paradise ? " 
 
 110. Apostrophe. Furthermore, addressing inanimate 
 things, or persons not present, as if they could answer, is 
 sometimes called apostrophe. The word suggests the turn- 
 ing from the natural course of the thought in order to do 
 this. For example : 
 
 1. Ye principalities and powers, 
 
 That never tasted death ! 
 Witness from off your heavenly towers 
 Our act of Christian faith. 
 
 2. Milton ! thou should'st be living at this hour: 
 
 England hath need of thee. 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 Are the following examples of personification or of 
 apostrophe ? 
 
 1. Farewell, happy fields, 
 
 Where joy forever dwells ! Hail, horrors, hail ! 
 And thou, profoundest hell ! 
 
 2. Fair Science frowned not on his humble birth 
 And Melancholy marked him for her own. 
 
 3. Advance, then, ye future generations ! We would hail you, 
 as you rise in your long succession, to fill the places which we 
 now fill, and to taste the blessings of existence where we are 
 passing, and soon shall have passed, our own human duration. 
 We bid you welcome to this pleasant land of the fathers. 
 
 111. The Transferred Epithet. We have an effective 
 way of transferring epithets, of extending the attributes 
 of one subject to another with which it is connected.
 
 164 THE FORCIBLE WORD 
 
 r The expression of such a thought," says one writer, 
 " must be considered as a figure, because the attribute is 
 not applicable to the subject in any proper sense." He 
 gives as examples : 
 
 Casting a dim, religious light. 
 He drew his coward sword. 
 The high-climbing hill. 
 He steers the fearless ship. 
 And the merry bells ring round. 
 And the jot it ml rebecks sound. 
 
 In all our study of figures we shall find that the most 
 simple and natural are the most telling. Unconsciously we 
 shall cull from common experiences figures that will illus- 
 trate and give point to our thoughts. A reasonable amount 
 of care should keep us from mixing metaphors and from 
 using figures as mere ornament. If it is not perfectly clear 
 to you that we use figures as naturally as we breathe, notice 
 the language of the people whom you hear talk from day 
 to day. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 l. In the two following extracts, how is force secured ? 
 In the second, note the use of the following words : clump- 
 ing, twittering, commanding, casting, nick, bleak, closure, 
 burn, torn, tinged, swim, massacre. 
 
 1. The schoolboy whips his taxed top; the beardless youth 
 manages his taxed horse with a taxed bridle on a taxed road ; 
 and the dying Englishman, pouring his medicine, which has paid 
 seven per cent, into a spoon that has paid fifteen per cent, flings 
 himself back upon his chintz bed which has paid twenty-two per 
 cent, and expires in the arms of an apothecary who has paid a 
 license of a hundred pounds for the privilege of putting him to 
 death. — Sydney Smith.
 
 THE FORCIBLE WORD 165 
 
 2. Now I write you from my mosquito curtain, to the song of 
 saws and planes and hammers, and wood clumping on the floor 
 above ; in a day of heavenly brightness ; a bird twittering near 
 by ; my eye, through the open door, commanding green meads, 
 two or three forest trees casting their boughs against the sky, a 
 forest-clad mountain-side beyond, and close in by the door-jamb 
 a nick of the blue Pacific. It is March in England, bleak March, 
 and I lie here with the great sliding doors open in an undershirt 
 and p'jama trousers, and melt in the closure of mosquito bars, 
 and burn to be out in the breeze. A few torn clouds — not white, 
 the sun has tinged them a warm pink — swim in heaven. In 
 which blessed and fair day, I have to make faces and speak bitter 
 words to a man — who has deceived me, it is true — but who is 
 poor, and older than I, and a kind of a gentleman too. On the 
 whole, I prefer the massacre of weeds. — Stevenson, " Vailima 
 Letters," Vol. I. 
 
 2. Read the following passage carefully and make a list 
 of the words that seem particularly well chosen : 
 
 The prospectus of the Dictionary he [Samuel Johnson] ad- 
 dressed to the Earl of Chesterfield. Chesterfield had long been 
 celebrated for the politeness of his manners, the brilliancy of his 
 wit, and the delicacy of his taste. He was acknowledged to be 
 the finest speaker in the House of Lords. He had recently g( >\ - 
 erned Ireland, at a momentous conjuncture, with eminent firm- 
 ness, wisdom, and humanity; and he had since become Secretary 
 of State. He received Johnson's homage with the most winning 
 affability, and requited it with a few guineas, bestowed doubtless 
 in a very graceful manner, but was by no means desirous to see 
 all his carpets blackened with the London mud, and his soups and 
 wines thrown to right and left over the gowns of fine ladies and 
 the waistcoats of fine gentlemen, by an absent, awkward scholar, 
 who gave strange starts and uttered strange growls, who dressed like 
 a scarecrow and ate like a cormorant. During some time Johnson 
 continued to call on his patron, but, after being repeatedly told
 
 [66 THE FORCIBLE WORD 
 
 by the porter that his lordship was not at home, took the hint, 
 and (-cased to present himself at die inhospitable door. — 
 Macaulay, " Life of Samuel Johnson." 
 
 3. With this list before you, see how closely you can 
 reproduce the paragraph orally. 
 
 4. In a similar way reproduce the passage from Bunyan 
 
 (PP- 153-155)-
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 LONGER COMPOSITIONS 
 
 " A skeleton is not a thing of beauty : but it is the thing which, more than 
 any other, makes the body erect and strong and swift." — Austin Phelps. 
 
 112. Larger Units. In our short compositions we have 
 given considerable attention to unity — whether in a sen- 
 tence, a paragraph, or a group of paragraphs. Hereafter 
 many of our papers will be longer, but whether paragraph, 
 chapter, or book, every composition should be a unit. 
 
 Individuals constitute the family, families make the town, 
 towns the state, and states the nation ; and each — whether 
 family, town, state, or nation — is a whole, composed of 
 smaller parts. In a similar way sentences, in themselves 
 units, form a larger unit, the paragraph ; paragraphs, the 
 chapter ; and chapters, the book. 
 
 113. Means of securing Unity. As you know, in order 
 to secure unity you should choose your subject carefully. 
 You must decide upon your point of view, you must have 
 in mind a definite goal, and you must advance with your 
 eyes on that goal. Suppose, for example, that you are in- 
 vited to speak ten minutes to a group of grammar-school 
 pupils on the merits of your high school. Their object in 
 giving you the invitation is to get information which shall 
 help them to decide whether to attend the high school. 
 That object gives you a limited subject. You will try to 
 interest them so much in the doings of your school that 
 they will be eager to enter it, and you will select from the 
 
 167
 
 1 68 LONGER COMPOSITIONS 
 
 topics which occur to you only those that serve your pur- 
 pose. In brief, to secure unity you must (i) keep in mind 
 one main thought, and (2) present that thought from a care- 
 fully fixed point of view. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. State in a single sentence the main thought that you 
 would naturally bring out in writing on one of the subjects 
 mentioned in Exercise 10, page 173. 
 
 2. State in another sentence the point of view you would 
 take in presenting that thought. 
 
 114. Means of securing Coherence. Every talk, or paper, 
 should be coherent. It may be easy to frame a coherent 
 sentence or a coherent paragraph, but to hold the attention 
 of an audience for ten minutes, or for three minutes, makes 
 a more serious demand of a speaker. He must arrange 
 whole groups of thoughts so that the transition from one 
 group to another shall be easy and natural. 
 
 Let us suppose that in your ten minutes' talk you wish 
 to emphasize four matters : the caliber of the pupils they 
 will find in the school ; the good condition of athletics; the 
 large number of available studies ; and the unusually strong 
 body of teachers. In whatever way you arrange these 
 divisions of your subject, you must make it plain that one 
 leads up to another, and that each contributes its part to 
 the main thought. As you pass from topic to topic, and 
 from paragraph to paragraph, you should show in some way 
 that you are moving toward your destination. 
 
 To secure coherence, then, you must see that each division 
 of the subject leads up to the next, and that each contributes 
 its part to the main thought.
 
 COHERENCE 169 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Outline the life of an author whose work the class is 
 now reading. Get any help you can from the arrangement 
 that follows : 
 
 1. Parents. 4. College life. 
 
 a. Father. a. Faithful student. 
 
 b. Mother. (1) Favorite studies. 
 
 2. Childhood. (2) Debating club. 
 
 a. Nurse. b. Athlete. 
 
 (1) Stories. (1) Football. 
 
 (2) Affection. (2) Rowing. 
 
 b. Playmates. c. Ambitions. 
 
 3. Boyhood. 5. Career as a business man. 
 
 a. School. a. Industry. 
 
 b. Recreations. b. Promotion. 
 
 (1) Reading. c. Independence. 
 
 (2) Sailing. 6. Position in the community. 
 
 2. Make a detailed outline of one period of the life of 
 the author. 
 
 3. Make a detailed outline of one period of the life of a 
 favorite character. 
 
 4. Give the class a talk based on one of your outlines. 
 Use no notes while speaking. 
 
 115. Means of securing Emphasis. Everything in your 
 paper may have a bearing on the subject, your para- 
 graphs may all fit together, but there is still an impor- 
 tant question to answer: Will your hearer sift from all 
 the details you give him the one or two points you wish 
 him to note with especial care ? In other words, how 
 can you secure emphasis? We shall proceed to examine 
 two ways.
 
 170 LONGER COMPOSITIONS 
 
 116. Emphasis through Position. We have already seen 
 in our study of paragraphs that what we put first attracts 
 attention, and that we may expect people to remember 
 longest what comes last. In other words, emphasis may 
 be secured by position. 
 
 Fixing the Order of the Topics. Let us return to the 
 ten minutes' talk you began to prepare. The topics may 
 be arranged in many ways. 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 Pupils. 
 
 Teachers. 
 
 Athletics. 
 
 Pupils. 
 
 Athletics. 
 
 Pupils. 
 
 Studies. 
 
 Teachers 
 
 Studies. 
 
 Athletics. 
 
 Teachers. 
 
 Studies. 
 
 Teachers. 
 
 Studies. 
 
 Pupils. 
 
 Athletics. 
 
 If you wish to call more attention to teachers than to 
 pupils, athletics, or studies, you would prefer i to 2, 3, 
 or 4. Having decided which topic shall have the place of 
 honor, the end, you must then see that the remaining topics 
 are so arranged as to lead up naturally to that topic. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. If you were to use the following topics in writing an 
 autobiography, in what order would you arrange them, 
 and why ? 
 
 Birth. Plans for the future. 
 
 Early boyhood. Tastes. 
 
 2. If you were to write a paper on your interest in the 
 following games, in what order would you arrange them, 
 and why ? 
 
 Football. Tennis. 
 
 Baseball. Golf.
 
 EMPHASIS 171 
 
 117. Emphasis through Proportion. If in the talk on 
 your school you give half of your space to athletics, one 
 naturally infers that you consider athletics of most impor- 
 tance. If you dismiss studies with two or three sentences, 
 it is an equally natural inference that you consider that 
 part of the school life of little interest — at least to your 
 audience. /;/ the long composition, then, as we// as in the 
 paragraph, emphasis is a matter of proportion. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Choose a limited subject with which you are familiar, 
 and- which you consider suitable for a three minutes' talk. 
 By way of preparing the talk, 
 
 1. Fix the point of view. 
 
 2. Fix the order of the topics. 
 
 3. Allot to each topic the proportion of time it deserves. 
 
 2. After all the help you can get at home or from your 
 friends, give the talk to the class. 
 
 3. Bring to class a plan and use it in writing the story 
 of some novel you have recently read. 
 
 4. A pupil just back from a two weeks' vacation in 
 Marblehead wrote an account which was planned as follows : 
 
 1. My visit to Marblehead. 
 
 2. The historic Marblehead. 
 a. The war of 1812. 
 
 (1) Marblehead's defensive work. 
 
 (2) Marblehead's offensive work. 
 
 3. The present Marblehead. 
 a. Population. 
 
 (i ) Number, compared with early times. 
 (2) Kind.
 
 172 LONGER COMPOSITIONS 
 
 In this theme, 2 received emphasis by proportion and 3 
 emphasis by position. If the pupil were asked to write a 
 letter about Marblehead to a man who is thinking of mak- 
 ing his home there, how much of the above plan would he 
 probably use ? How much of it would he find useful in 
 talking to an historical society ? 
 
 5. Keeping in mind the suggestions derived from this 
 study of the above plan, make a similar plan, for a theme 
 addressed to your mates. 
 
 6. Revise your plan so that it will be adapted to an 
 entirely different audience. 
 
 7. The following outline was written in preparing a theme 
 to show what a pupil had accomplished during his first 
 year in the high school. You may be able to suggest im- 
 provements in it — perhaps in the order of topics. 
 
 The First Year in the High School 
 
 1. English. 4. Drawing. 
 
 a. Reading. a. Free-hand. 
 
 b. Writing. b. Mechanical. 
 
 2. Shop work. 5. Algebra. 
 
 a. Carving. a. Factoring. 
 
 b. Carpentry. b. Equations. 
 
 3. History. 
 
 a. Roman. 
 
 b. Greek. 
 
 c. English. 
 
 8. Make an outline of the school work you have done 
 this year. Tell what each study has meant to you. Arrange 
 your work so as to end with what has interested you most. 
 Indicate carefully the main and the subordinate divisions 
 of the subject.
 
 THE- INTRODUCTION 173 
 
 9. (1) Make an outline of an account of your own life. 
 (2) Test your outline thoroughly. (3) Write the account. 
 
 10. Prepare an outline of a subject on which you would 
 like to write, and for which you need several paragraphs. 
 These subjects may be suggestive : Lincoln's Boyhood, 
 Scott's Boyhood, The Preservation of the Forests, The 
 Italians of To-day, Ought Football to be played in Schools 
 and Colleges ? The Autobiography of a Public Carriage, 
 Rome at Her Greatest, The Persecution of the Jews, 
 A Letter to an Editor on a Matter of General Interest. 
 
 11. After testing the outline as thoroughly as you know 
 how, write the composition. Then apply the same tests to 
 the composition. 
 
 118. The Introduction. Just because a boy wishes to 
 tell us about a day's tramping, it does not follow that 
 he is compelled to mention the precise moment of his 
 waking or the difficulties and the rapidity of his dressing. 
 If he is to interest us in his trip, the sooner he gets under 
 way the better. It is safe to make introductions brief 
 and informal. 
 
 Irving begins his " Oliver Goldsmith " in this way : 
 
 There are few writers for whom the reader feels such personal 
 kindness as for Oliver Goldsmith, for few have so eminently 
 possessed the magic gift of identifying themselves with their 
 writings. 
 
 Hawthorne opens ,f The House of the Seven Gables" 
 with these words : 
 
 Half-way down a by-street of one of our New England towns 
 stands a rusty wooden house, with seven acutely peaked gables, 
 facing towards various points of the compass, and a huge, clustered 
 chimney in the midst.
 
 174 LONGER COMPOSITIONS 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Examine the introductions of five chapters and five 
 books and stories. You may include " Ivanhoe," r The Last 
 of the Mohicans,"" The Vicar of Wakefield," " Silas Marner," 
 and "The Alhambra." Take notes and give an oral report 
 based on them. 
 
 2. Write an introductory paragraph of an account of a 
 visit you once made. 
 
 3. Write introductory paragraphs of papers on two of 
 the following subjects : 
 
 i. A Long Day. 
 
 2. A Delightful Ride. 
 
 3. A Morning's Drive. 
 
 4. An Old Friend (a person). 
 
 • 5. An Old Friend (an animal). 
 
 6. In the Train. 
 
 7. An Excursion. 
 
 4. Exchange papers. Condense and simplify the intro- 
 ductions as much as possible. 
 
 119. The Conclusion. You should think twice about your 
 concluding paragraph. At times it should include a careful 
 summary of your whole composition. Now and then you 
 may think of an anecdote that will give point to all you 
 have said. If one topic has led up to another naturally, 
 you may need no other conclusion than a forcible ending of 
 your last topic. A good story-teller, with his fondness for 
 dwelling on the parts that please him most, is apt to be a 
 long time reaching the end of his journey, but once there 
 he knows enough to stop. As you hear lectures and ser- 
 mons, you will probably make up your mind that both 
 introductions and conclusions are better for beine: brief.
 
 THE CONCLUSION 1 75 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Examine ten endings of chapters, magazine articles, 
 books, and stories. Take notes, and give an oral report 
 based on them. 
 
 2. Write the concluding paragraph of each of the papers 
 for which you wrote introductory paragraphs. 
 
 3. Exchange the conclusions and do all you can to 
 make those you examine as brief and as comprehensive 
 as possible. 
 
 120. The Value of a Plan. In short, then, the composi- 
 tion — whatever its length — should have unity, coherence, 
 and emphasis. If you would secure these characteristics, 
 do all you can to form the ha,bit of simple, straightforward, 
 vigorous thinking. You will find a plan helpful in deter- 
 mining the goal you are to reach, in keeping your path, 
 and in spending your time along the way to best advan- 
 tage. In making your plan, consider carefully (1) your 
 point of view, and (2) the choice and order of the topics. 
 Finally, remember that a careful revision of the plan may 
 save hours of rewriting. 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 Give the class a three minutes' talk. Whatever your 
 subject, show the audience that you are prepared to speak 
 on it. If you wish, you may choose some subject on which 
 you have already written with great care. At any rate know 
 just what you wish to say, so that you can speak fluently. 
 Give your best attention to the preparation of your plan. 
 Consider carefully the introduction and the conclusion ; 
 and if you wish, write them. Choose an appropriate title.
 
 PART TWO 
 
 CHAPTER XV 
 NARRATION 
 
 Hear as many good stories as yon can. and tell one whenever yon find 
 a listener. 
 
 121. The Study of Common Forms of Prose. In study- 
 ing literature with a view to learning how to write, it has 
 proved convenient to examine each of the four common 
 forms of prose by itself. Now as a matter of fact we do 
 not find a great many pure narratives, or pure descriptions, 
 or pure expositions, or pure arguments ; almost every com- 
 position is a combination of two or more of these forms. 
 It is important, however, to acquire some skill in the use of 
 each kind, for all are practical ways of using our mother 
 tongue. If we tell a story, we wish to tell it so that it will 
 make a definite impression ; if we paint a word picture, we 
 wish the picture to affect the reader as it affects us ; if we 
 give an explanation, we wish it to be so clear and orderly 
 that every listener will follow step by step ; if we cham- 
 pion one side of a question, we wish to present that side 
 in such a straightforward, logical way that we shall be 
 convincing. 
 
 122. The Incident. First we shall study narration. 
 Whether we are trying to tell something that has hap- 
 pened to us, something we have heard, or something we 
 
 '77
 
 iy8 NARRATION 
 
 have read, we are continually thinking, " I wish I knew 
 how to tell a story." Probably the easiest way to become 
 a good story-teller is to begin with incidents. We all note 
 many occurrences which are worth recording, and in order 
 to write them in good form we should study the way in 
 which others have done the same kind of writing. We 
 should remember, too, that practice in telling incidents 
 from the lives of others will help us in telling those that 
 come within our own experience. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. In criticising the following incidents, answer these 
 questions : 
 
 i. Is the introduction sufficiently brief? 
 
 2. Are the events told in a natural order? 
 
 3. Does the narrative end in a way that brings out clearly the 
 main point? 
 
 Franklin's Famous Toast 
 
 Franklin was dining with a small party of distinguished gentle- 
 men, when one of them said : " Here are three nationalities 
 represented. I am French, and my friend here is English, and 
 Mr. Franklin is an American. Let each one propose a toast." 
 
 It was agreed to, and the Englishman's turn came first. He 
 arose, and, in the tone of a Briton bold, said, " Here's to Great 
 Britain, the sun that gives light to all nations of the earth." 
 
 The Frenchman was rather taken aback at this ; but he pro- 
 posed, " Here's to France, the moon whose magic rays move the 
 tides of the world." 
 
 Franklin then arose, with an air of quaint modesty, and said, 
 " Here's to our beloved George Washington, the Joshua of Amer- 
 ica, who commanded the sun and moon to stand still — and they 
 obeyed."
 
 THE INCIDENT 179 
 
 Lamb's Salt Dips 
 
 Lamb had been medically advised to take a course of sea-- 
 bathing; and accordingly, at the door of his bathing machine, 
 whilst he stood shivering with the cold, two stout fellows laid 
 hold of him, one at each shoulder, like heraldic supporters ; they 
 waited for the word of command from their principal, who began 
 the following oration to them : 
 
 "Hear me, men ! Take notice of this — I am to be dipped." 
 What more he would have said is unknown, for having reached 
 the word "dipped," he commenced such a rolling fire of di-di- 
 di-di, that when at length he descended a plomb upon the full 
 word dipped, the two men, rather tired of the long suspense, be- 
 came satisfied that they had reached what lawyers call the "oper 1 
 ative clause " of the sentence, and both exclaiming, "Oh yes, sir, 
 we are quite aware of that," down they plunged him into the sea. 
 
 On emerging, Lamb sobbed so much from the cold that he 
 found no voice suitable to his indignation ; from necessity he 
 seemed tranquil; and again addressing the men, who stood re- 
 spectfully listening, he began thus : 
 
 " Men ! is it possible to obtain your attention? " 
 
 "Oh, surely, sir, by all means." 
 
 ' Then listen ; once more I tell you I am to be di-di-di-di-," 
 and then, with a burst of indignation, "dipped, I tell you." 
 
 " Oh, decidedly, sir," rejoined the men, "decidedly," and down 
 the stammerer went for a second time. 
 
 Petrified with cold and wrath, once more Lamb made a feeble 
 attempt at explanation : 
 
 "Grant me pa-pa-patience! Is it mum-um-murder you me- 
 me-ean? Again, and again I tell you I'm to be di-di-di-dipped," 
 now speaking furiously, with the tone of an injured man. 
 
 "Oh yes, sir," the men replied, "we know that ; we fully under- 
 T it" ; and, for the third time, down went Lamb into the sea. 
 
 " O limbs of Satan ! " he said, on coming up for the third time, 
 " it's now too late; I tell you that 1 am — no, that I was — by 
 medical direction to be di-di-di-dipped only once."
 
 ISO NARRATION 
 
 Thackeray and the Oyster 1 
 
 . Thackeray announced to me by letter . . . that he . . . would 
 sail for Boston by the Canada on the 30th of October. All the 
 necessary arrangements for his lecturing tour had been made 
 without troubling him with any of the details. He arrived on 
 a frosty November evening, and went directly to the Tremont 
 House, where rooms had been engaged for him. I remember 
 his delight in getting off the sea, and the enthusiasm with which 
 he hailed the announcement that dinner would be ready shortly. 
 A few friends were ready to sit down with him, and he seemed 
 greatly to enjoy the novelty of an American repast. In London 
 he had been very curious in his inquiries about American oysters, 
 as marvellous stories, which he did not believe, had been told 
 him of their great size, We apologized — although we had taken 
 care that the largest specimens to be procured should startle his 
 unwonted vision when he came to the table — for what we called 
 the extreme smallness of the oysters, promising that we would do 
 better next time. Six bloated Falstaffian bivalves lay before him 
 in their shells. I noticed that he gazed at them anxiously with 
 fork upraised ; then he whispered to me, with a look of anguish, 
 "How shall I do it?" I described to him the simple process 
 by which the free-born citizens of America were accustomed to 
 accomplish such a task. He seemed satisfied that the thing was 
 feasible, selected the smallest one in the half-dozen (rejecting a 
 large one, "because," he said, "it resembled the High Priest's 
 servant's ear that Peter cut off "), and then bowed his head as if 
 he were saying grace. All eyes were upon him to watch the effect 
 of a new sensation in the person of a great British author. Open- 
 ing his mouth very wide, he struggled for a moment, and then all 
 was over. I shall never forget the comic look of despair he cast 
 upon the other five over-occupied shells. I broke the perfect 
 stillness by asking him how he felt. " Profoundly grateful," he 
 gasped, "and as if I had swallowed a little baby." 
 
 J. T. Fields, "Yesterdays with Authors." 
 
 1 Reprinted by permission of Messrs. Houghton, Mifflin and Company.
 
 THE INCIDENT l8l 
 
 My Father's Friend 
 
 While my father was an officer of the English army in South 
 Africa, we occupied a large cabin, which, unlike the other bun- 
 galows, had two stories. One evening when my father and sister 
 and I were sitting together, I noticed that father, who was sitting 
 facing the window, turned very pale. Being a soldier's daughter 
 and fearing to alarm my invalid sister, I sat quiet waiting for my 
 father's orders. Soon he said in a steady voice : " Edith and 
 Florence, a friend of mine is coming here to see me this evening, 
 and I wish to be alone with him. Therefore I wish you to go up 
 to your own room." We obeyed immediately; and going to our 
 room, closed the door. 
 
 Soon I heard a sound like that of a door bursting in, and then 
 a scramble of feet. They were hurrying up the narrow stairs. 
 Fearing that there was some danger near, I seized the pistol which 
 my father always obliged me to keep loaded in my room. Then I 
 heard my father cry out, " For mercy's sake, child, open the door." 
 I did so ; and to my horror I saw, not a friend of his, but the 
 worst enemy of the soldier in Africa, the gorilla. He was over- 
 taking my father ; and recovering my sense just in time, I raised 
 the pistol and fired. For once I had aimed well, and the animal 
 fell backward with an angry scream. Father quickly took the still 
 smoking pistol from my hand, and fired another shot, which dis- 
 patched the brute. 
 
 Father then told us that when he saw the dreaded animal 
 at the window, he had sent us upstairs ; and he hoped to be 
 able to shut and bar the door — which always stood open — 
 before the creature noticed it. The gorilla had, however, been 
 too quick for him ; and this was the cause of the hurried flight 
 up the stairs. 
 
 2. Tell the foregoing incident. Re sure to keep your 
 audience in suspense as well as the writer docs. 
 
 3. Tell the first anecdote without allowing any of the 
 gentlemen to speak for themselves and state whether it
 
 [82 NARRATION 
 
 seems wise to allow the persons, or characters, to speak 
 for themselves as much as possible. 
 
 4. Tell an incident from " Ivanhoe " that is suggested 
 by one of the following topics. See that you have a good 
 beginning, an orderly sequence of events, and a dignified 
 conclusion. 
 
 i. An Evening at Cedric's Home. 
 
 2. The Persecution of Isaac. 
 
 3. A Test of Skill in Archery. 
 
 5. Tell an incident based on your own experience. 
 
 6. Write one incident a week during the coming month. 
 
 7. Does the following narrative begin promptly ? Is the 
 order of events a natural one ? Does the story end well ? 
 
 A Sad Story 
 
 My next-door neighbor has a rooster which set up to be the 
 rival of mine. It is a strange thing that creatures living side by 
 side, instead of cultivating friendship and good feelings, should 
 become envious, jealous, and quarrelsome. 
 
 Well, at first the rival roosters were satisfied with trying to see 
 which could crow the louder, and it really seemed as if they would 
 split their throats in the contest. Then they began to try which 
 should wake up and crow first in the morning, and in this strife they 
 would often begin at two o'clock at night ; and lest one should 
 get advantage over the other, they kept crowing away till sunrise. 
 
 So long as things were confined to crowing, no serious evil fol- 
 lowed, but from crows the rivals at last came to blows. One day, 
 as they chanced to be pretty near together, they began crowing at 
 each other. By and by my rooster got angry ; so he mounted the 
 fence which divides my yard from my neighbor's, flapped his 
 wings, and crowed a most tremendous crow. Upon this the other 
 gave him a regular challenge to fight. There was no police to 
 stop them, and they went at it. It was no boy's play ; wings,
 
 THE INCIDENT 1 83 
 
 spurs, and beaks, all were put in action. They fought like tigers, 
 and when neither could stand, they held on to each other's combs 
 and lay panting on the ground. At last they got up. One marched 
 one way and the other another. 
 
 My rooster was so nearly blind that he could not find the way 
 to the henhouse. The best he could do was to get under a small 
 cedar tree, and there he took lodgings for the night. But, alas ! 
 the weather was bitter cold, and the poor thing was found stiff 
 as an icicle, his feathers torn, his comb destroyed, and the air 
 of pride and triumph which once distinguished him, departed 
 forever. My neighbor's rooster saw the poor fellow lying in the 
 snow, so over the fence he flew and began a most furious assault 
 upon the lifeless body. After beating it soundly for about five 
 minutes the creature paused, looked contemptuously at the object 
 of his wrath, drew himself up to his full height, and crowed. Then, 
 with proud strides, he marched off to his flock of hens, who received 
 him with three cheers, as the hero of all outdoors. 
 
 8. Read aloud the following bit of narrative until you 
 can read it well. Then tell just why you like or dislike it. 
 
 The bear was coming on ; he had, in fact, come on. I judged 
 that he could see the whites of my eyes. All my subsequent 
 reflections were confused. I raised the gun, covered the bear's 
 breast with the sight, and let drive. Then I turned, and ran like 
 a deer. I did not hear the bear pursuing. I looked back. The 
 bear had stopped. He was lying down. I then remembered that 
 the best thing to do after having fired your gun is to reload it. 
 I slipped in a charge, keeping my eyes on the bear. He never 
 stirred. I walked back suspiciously. There was a quiver in the 
 hind-legs, but no other motion. Still he might be shamming: 
 bears often sham. To make sure, I approached, and put a ball 
 into his head. He didn't mind it now : he minded nothing. 1 )eath 
 had come to him with a merciful suddenness. He was calm in 
 death. In order that he might remain so, I blew his brains out, 
 and then started for home. 1 had killed a bear ! — C. D. Warner.
 
 1 84 NARRATION 
 
 9. Read the following narratives aloud and criticise 
 (i) the introduction, (2) the order of events, (3) the ending. 
 
 Incident of the French Camp 
 
 You know, we French stormed Ratisbon : 
 
 A mile or so away, 
 On a little mound, Napoleon 
 
 Stood on our storm ing-day ; 
 With neck out-thrust, you fancy how, 
 
 Legs wide, arms locked behind, 
 As if to balance the prone brow 
 
 Oppressive with its mind. 
 
 Just as perhaps he mused, " My plans 
 
 That soar, to earth may fall, 
 Let once my army-leader Lannes 
 
 Waver at yonder wall," — 
 Out 'twixt the battery-smokes there flew 
 
 A rider, bound on bound 
 Full-galloping ; nor bridle drew 
 
 Until he reached the mound. 
 
 Then off there flung in smiling joy, 
 
 And held himself erect 
 By just his horse's mane, a boy : 
 
 You hardly could suspect — 
 (So tight he kept his lips compressed, 
 
 Scarce any blood came through) 
 You looked twice ere you saw his breast 
 
 Was all but shot in two. 
 
 " Well," cried he, " Emperor, by God's grace 
 
 We've got you Ratisbon ! 
 The Marshal's in the market-place, 
 
 And you'll be there anon
 
 THE INCIDENT • 185 
 
 To see your flag-bird flap his vans 
 
 Where [, to heart's desire, 
 Perched him ! " The chief's eye flashed ; his plans 
 
 Soared up again like fire. 
 
 The chief's eve flashed ; but presently 
 
 Softened itself, as sheathes 
 A film the mother-eagle's eve 
 
 When her bruised eaglet breathes; 
 ' You're wounded ! " " Nay," the soldier's pride 
 
 Touched to the quick, he said : 
 " I'm killed, Sire ! " And his chief beside, 
 Smiling the boy fell dead. 
 
 Browning. 
 
 Quite So 
 
 " 1 say there, drop that ! " cried Strong. "All right, sir, didn't 
 know it was you," he added hastily, seeing it was Lieutenant 
 Haines who had thrown back the flap of the tent, and let in a 
 gust of wind and rain that threatened the most serious bronchial 
 consequences to our discontented tallow dip. 
 
 " You're to bunk in here," said the lieutenant, speaking to 
 some one outside. The some one stepped in, and Haines van- 
 ished in the darkness. 
 
 When Strong had succeeded in restoring the candle to con- 
 sciousness, the light fell upon a tall, shy-looking man of about 
 thirty-five, with long, hay-colored beard and mustache, upon 
 which the rain-drops stood in clusters, like the night-dew on 
 ] latches of cobweb in a meadow. It was an honest face, with 
 unworldly blue eyes, that looked out from under the broad visor 
 of the infantry cap. With a deferential glance towards us, the 
 new-comer unstrapped his knapsack, spread his blanket over it, 
 and sat down unobtrusively. 
 
 rt Rather damp night out," remarked lllakely, whose strong 
 hand was suppo ed to be conversation.
 
 1 86 NARRATION 
 
 "Quite so," replied the stranger, not curtly, but pleasantly, and 
 with an air as if he had said all there was to be said about it. 
 
 "Come from the Nortli recently?" inquired Blakely, after a 
 pause. 
 
 '•Yes." 
 
 " From any place in particular? " 
 
 " Maine." 
 
 ''People considerably stirred up down there?" continued 
 Blakely, determined not to give up. 
 
 " Quite so." 
 
 Blakely threw a puzzled look over the tent, and seeing Ned 
 Strong on the broad grin, frowned severely. Strong instantly 
 assumed an abstracted air, and began humming softly, 
 
 " I wish I was in Dixie." 
 
 'The State of Maine," observed Blakely, with a certain defi- 
 ance of manner not at all necessary in discussing a geographical 
 question, " is a pleasant State." 
 
 " In summer," suggested the stranger. 
 
 "In summer, 1 mean," returned Blakely with animation, 
 thinking he had broken the ice. " Cold as blazes in winter, 
 though — isn't it? " 
 
 The new recruit merely nodded. 
 
 Blakely eyed the man homicidally for a moment, and then, 
 smiling one of those smiles of simulated gayety which the novel- 
 ists inform us are more tragic than tears, turned upon him with 
 withering irony. 
 
 "Trust you left the old folks pretty comfortable? " 
 
 " Dead." 
 
 "The old folks dead!" 
 
 " Quite so." 
 
 T. B. Aldrich, " Quite So " in " Marjorie Daw." 
 
 Note. In this combination of narrative and description notice 
 what an important part the conversation plays. Does the natural way 
 in which the writer approaches the climax remind you of the telling 
 of one of the anecdotes in this chapter ?
 
 LONGER NARRATIVES 187 
 
 123. Longer Narratives. Whatever skill we acquire in the 
 telling of incidents we can turn to good account when we 
 tell stories which include several events. Of these longer 
 narratives there are two common forms, the short story 
 and the novel. 
 
 The short story, like the incident, is constructed to bring 
 out clearly a single point, or to produce a single effect. 
 The plot — or action of the story — should be original and 
 striking. Whereas in the incident the characters may be 
 mere names, in the good short story they not only talk but 
 they live. 
 
 Compared with the short story, — which generally deals 
 with one chief character, or one situation, — the novel is 
 intricate. It gives a picture of the real life of the char- 
 acters it presents. Sometimes interest centers in the in- 
 cidents, sometimes in the characters. Among novels of 
 incident are "Treasure Island," "The Last of the Mo- 
 hicans," and "Ivanhoe"; among novels of character are 
 "Vanity Fair" and " Silas Marner." Pupils who wish to ex- 
 amine a novel as a work of art will find in the introduc- 
 tions and notes of editions prepared for schools such aids 
 as an analysis of the author's plot and a study of his 
 method and of his characters. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Make a list of your favorite novels under two heads : 
 first, those that were evidently written for the sake of tell- 
 ing the story ; second, those that tell a story for the sake 
 of developing characters. 
 
 2. Write a theme telling which of these two kinds you 
 prefer, and why. Give illustrations.
 
 lS8 NARRATION 
 
 Although the stud)' of both forms of fiction is valuable, 
 in learning how to write such stories as most of us are 
 likely to produce, we naturally turn to the short story. The 
 following volumes contain many interesting short stories : 
 
 Gallegher and Other Stories " Richard Harding Uavis. 
 
 " Old Chester Tales " Margaret Deland. 
 
 'Tales of a Traveller" Washington Irving. 
 
 'The Other Fellow" F. Hopkinson Smith. 
 
 ' The jungle Books" ) r , ■, , T ^- ,. 
 
 J 6 , TT - Rudyard Kiphng. 
 
 ' Plain Tales from the Hills " j y F 5 
 
 'A Humble Romance" Mary Wilkins Freeman. 
 
 ' In the Wilderness " Charles Dudley Warner. 
 
 ' In Ole Virginia" Thomas Nelson Page. 
 
 ' Marjorie Daw " Thomas Bailey Aldrich. 
 
 'Wanted : A Match-Maker " Paul Leicester Ford. 
 
 Other good stories are mentioned in Exercise i, below, 
 and others in the book review under Exercise 9, page 215. 
 
 124. Directions for telling a Story. As we read, as well 
 as when we write, we may profitably keep in mind the fol- 
 lowing directions for telling a story : 
 
 1. Secure unity of effect. Choose material that will bring 
 out the poi7it you wish to emphasize. Reject whatever does 
 not make some contribution to the end in view. 
 
 2. Secure coherence. Be sure that one part leads up to 
 another ; that the various parts are as closely connected as 
 so many links in a chain. 
 
 3. Secure emphasis and force, a. The beginning should 
 arouse an intelligent interest in what is to come. Such 
 interest may be gained in two ways : (1) by giving an ex- 
 planation that will prepare the reader for subsequent narra- 
 tion ; or (2) by fixing his attention on something decidedly 
 suggestive of what is in store.
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR TELLING A STORY 189 
 
 b. See that your narrative has proportion. Condense the 
 unimportant in order that you may have sufficient space for 
 whatever you wish to emphasize. 
 
 c. The good story-teller knows how to keep his listeners in 
 suspense. A study of " Ivanhoe " and other novels of Scott's, 
 and careful listening to men whose audiences seldom weary, 
 will help us to a wise use of this means of emphasis. 
 
 J. The skillful introduction of conversation often in- 
 creases the interest. 
 
 e. The ending must count. A story should not only 
 make continual progress ; it should grow in interest up to 
 the very end. We should tell it so that when we have 
 reached the "climax" — -when the interest is at its height 
 — there will be little or nothing more to say. Sometimes 
 the climax comes after a gradual preparation ; sometimes 
 it is all the more effective because it comes unexpectedly. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Tell the story of . one of the following narratives: 
 f The Vision of Sir Launfal," a canto of "The Lady of the 
 Lake," " The Man Without a Country," " Rip Van Winkle," 
 "The Fall of the House of Usher," "The King of the 
 Golden River," or one of these stories in "The Sketch- 
 Book": (1) the Captain's story in "The Voyage "; (2) "Rip 
 Van Winkle"; (3) the adventures of Ichabod Crane in "The 
 Legend of Sleepy Hollow." First write a brief plan. 
 
 2. Write (1) the opening paragraph of the story you 
 have just told ; (2) the closing paragraph. 
 
 3. Write the story. Consider the value of conversation, 
 and if you use any, see that it is to the point and neatly 
 introduced.
 
 190 NARRATION 
 
 4. Make a plan of one of the four stories suggested by 
 these words : 
 
 i. "One or two strokes of a spade upturned the blade of a 
 large Spanish knife, and, as we dug farther, three or four loose 
 pieces of gold and silver coin came to light. . . . 
 
 " We now worked in earnest, and never did I pass ten minutes 
 of more intense excitement." 
 
 2. "It was done. Whether right or wrong, it was done." 
 
 3. " I want my happiness ! " at last he murmured, hoarsely and' 
 indistinctly, hardly shaping out the words. " Many, many years 
 have I waited for it ! It is late ! It is late ! I want my happiness ! " 
 
 4. " What was I to do to pass away the long-lived day? " 
 
 5. Write the story in full. 
 
 6. Write whatever any one of the following extracts 
 suggests : 
 
 .1 . "Do you," she said, " believe in dreams? " " That is a ques- 
 tion I can't answer truthfully," I replied, laughing. " I don't really 
 know whether I believe in dreams or not." 
 
 2. The voice of Mrs. Peters, her next-door neighbor, came back 
 in response : "It's me. What's the matter, Marthy? " 
 
 "I'm kinder used up; don't know how you'll git in ; I can't 
 git to the door to unlock it to save my life." 
 
 3. On drawing it to the surface, we were much surprised to find 
 it a long pistol of very curious and outlandish fashion, which, from 
 its rusted condition, and its stock being worm-eaten and covered 
 with barnacles, appeared to have lain a long time under water. 
 
 4. " Nephew," said he, after several efforts, and in a low, gasp- 
 ing voice, "I am glad you are come. I shall now die with satis- 
 faction. Look," said he, raising his withered hand, and pointing 
 
 " look in that box on the table : you will find that I have not 
 forgotten you." 
 
 5. To make assurance surer, I got upon my hands and knees, 
 and crawled, without a sound, towards the corner of the house. 
 As I drew nearer, my heart was suddenly and greatly lightened.
 
 EXERCISES 191 
 
 6. He had plenty to do the next hour. [Rapid movement.] 
 
 7. "I love anything that's old: old friends, old times, old 
 manners, old books, old wine ; and, I believe, Dorothy (taking 
 her hand), you'll own 1 have been pretty fond of an old wife." 
 [Slow movement.] 
 
 7. Get one of the best story-tellers you know to tell 
 you a story. Write as well as you can what you learned 
 from the way in which it was told. Keep in mind such 
 questions as these : Was the narrator hurried? deliberate? 
 Did he make the most of his material ? Did he omit un- 
 important details ? Did he keep you guessing about the 
 outcome of the story ? If so, how ? Was the ending one 
 that is easy to remember ? 
 
 8. Write an original story (five hundred to one thousand 
 words). It may be based on fact, but you are to furnish 
 the plot and the details. See that it is true to life.
 
 CHAPTER XVI 
 DESCRIPTION 
 
 " Description was the principal field of my exercise ; for to any one with 
 senses there is always something worth describing, and town and country 
 are but one continuous subject." — Stevenson. 
 
 125. Material for Pictures. The story-teller frequently 
 pauses in his narrative of events to give his hearers bits of 
 description, and all of us have occasion again and again to 
 describe as accurately as possible something we wish to 
 bring before a listener. If we could only open our eyes and 
 see the wealth of material all about us, we should find 
 ourselves continually enriching our conversation through 
 descriptions. " The fact is," says Ruskin, "that there is 
 hardly a roadside pond or pool which has not as much land- 
 scape in it as above it. It is not the brown, muddy, dull 
 thing we suppose it to be ; it has a heart like ourselves, 
 and in the bottom of that there are the boughs of the tall 
 trees, and the blades of the shaking grass, and all manner 
 of hues, of variable, pleasant light out of the sky ; nay, the 
 ugly gutter, that stagnates over the drain bars, in the heart 
 of the foul city, is not altogether base ; down in that, if 
 you will look deep enough, you may see the dark, serious 
 blue of far-off sky, and the passing of pure clouds. It is at 
 your own will that you see in that despised stream, either 
 the refuse of the street, or the image of the sky — so it 
 is with almost all other things that we unkindly despise." x 
 
 1 " Modern Painters," Vol. I, Part II, sec. v, chap. i. 
 192
 
 A LIMITED SUBJECT 1 93 
 
 It is not enough to tellwhat we have seen. Our object 
 should be to paint a picture that shall affect our listener as 
 the original observation affected us. To do this skillfully 
 requires study and practice. 
 
 126. A Limited Subject. If we are wise, we shall choose 
 a subject so limited that our description will naturally have 
 unity. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. In studying Burroughs' s description of the walk of a 
 crow, answer these questions : Has everything a bearing 
 on the subject? Is the opening sentence a good introduc- 
 tion ? Is the closing sentence an emphatic ending ? Read 
 these two sentences together, and then write what you con- 
 sider the main thought of the paragraph. 
 
 I have seen no bird walk the ground with just the same air the 
 crow does. It is not exactly pride ; there is no strut or swagger in 
 it, though perhaps just a little condescension ; it is the contented, 
 complacent, and self-possessed gait of a lord over his domains. 
 All these acres are mine, he says, and all these crops ; men plow 
 and sow for me, and I stay here or go there, and find life sweet 
 and good wherever I am. The hawk looks awkward and out of 
 place on the ground ; the game birds hurry and skulk, but the 
 crow is at home and treads the earth as if there were none to 
 molest or make him afraid. — "An Idyl of the Honey- Bee." 
 
 2. (1) Make a list of five subjects suitable for description 
 and so limited that it will be easy to secure unity. (2) Write 
 on one of the subjects that you like best. 
 
 3. As you read Hawthorne's description of a room, put 
 yourself in the writer's place. Think of the numerous de- 
 tails he might have included in his picture. From them all 
 he selected a few. Presenting these in an order in which
 
 194 DESCRIPTION 
 
 a visitor would naturally sec them, he took pains to point 
 out a chair that he wished us to notice particularly. 
 
 It was a low-studded room, with a beam across the ceiling, 
 panelled with dark wood, and having a large chimney-piece, set 
 round with pictured tiles, but now closed by an iron fire-board, 
 through which ran the funnel of a modern stove. There was a 
 carpet on the floor, originally of rich texture, but so worn and 
 faded in these latter years that its once brilliant figure had quite 
 vanished into one indistinguishable hue. In the way of furni- 
 ture, there were two tables : one, constructed with perplexing 
 intricacy and exhibiting as many feet as a centipede ; the other, 
 most delicately wrought, with four long and slender legs, so 
 apparently frail that it was almost incredible what a length of 
 time the ancient tea-table had stood upon them. Half a dozen 
 chairs stood about the room, straight and stiff, and so ingen- 
 iously contrived for the discomfort of the human person that 
 they were irksome even to sight, and conveyed the ugliest pos- 
 sible idea of the state of society to which they could have been 
 adapted. One exception there was, however, in a very antique 
 elbow-chair, with a high back, carved elaborately in oak, and a 
 roomy depth within its arms, that made up, by its spacious 
 comprehensiveness, for the lack of any of those artistic curves 
 which abound in a modern chair. — :< The House of the Seven 
 Gables," chap. ii. 
 
 4. With the above description in mind, describe the in- 
 terior of a room which interests you. 
 
 5. Note the simplicity of Scott's plan in this description 
 from " Rob Roy," and with this example in mind describe 
 orally some bit of scenery that has pleased you. 
 
 The glorious beams of the rising sun, which poured from a 
 tabernacle of purple and golden clouds, were darted full on such 
 a scene of natural romance and beauty as had never before greeted 
 my eyes. To the left lay the valley, down which the Forth wan- 
 dered on its easterly course, surrounding the beautiful detached
 
 THE POINT OF VIEW 195 
 
 hill, with all its garland of woods. On the right, amid a profusion 
 of thickets, knolls, and crags, lay the head of a broad mountain 
 lake, lightly curled into tiny waves by the breath of the morn- 
 ing breeze, each glittering into its course under the influence of 
 the sunbeams. High hills, rocks, and banks waving with natural 
 forests of birch and oak formed the borders of this enchant- 
 ing sheet of water ; and, as their leaves rustled to the wind and 
 twinkled in the sun, gave to the depth of solitude a sort of life 
 and vivacity. 
 
 127. The Point of View. After choosing the subject, the 
 first step is to decide upon the point of view. Having once 
 fixed this, the writer should not change it without giving 
 the reader notice. If he moves forward or backward, to 
 the right or to the left, he must inform the reader. After 
 describing the view . from an east window, he must not 
 call attention to something on the west side of the house 
 without showing how he is enabled to command a view in 
 that direction. 
 
 In a single paragraph of " The Legend of Sleepy Hollow ' : 
 Irving describes the outside of a house, the piazza, the hall, 
 the parlor, and even gives us a peep into a china closet. 
 Yet he is so careful to inform us of every movement of the 
 wondering Ichabod that we follow with the utmost ease. 
 It is to be noted that Ichabod went no farther than the 
 hall ; then he stood and looked around. 
 
 It was one of those spacious farmhouses, with high-ridged, but 
 lowly-sloping roofs, built in the style handed down from the first 
 Dutch settlers; the low projecting eaves forming a piazza along 
 the front, capable of being closed up in bad weather. Under this 
 were hung Hails, harness, various utensils of husbandry, and nets 
 for fishing in the neighboring river. Benches were built along 
 the sides for summer use ; and a great spinning-wheel at one
 
 196 DESCRIPTION 
 
 end, and a churn at the other, showed the various uses to which 
 this important porch might be devoted. From this piazza the won- 
 dering Ichabod entered the hall, which formed the centre of the 
 mansion and the place of usual residence. Here, rows of resplen- 
 dent pewter, ranged on a long dresser, dazzled his eyes. In one 
 corner stood a huge bag of wool ready to be spun ; in another a 
 quantity of linsey-woolsey just from the loom ; ears of Indian 
 corn, and strings of dried apples and peaches, hung in gay fes- 
 toons along the walls, mingled with the gaud of red peppers ; and 
 a door left ajar gave him a peep into the best parlor, where 
 the claw-footed chairs, and dark mahogany tables, shone like 
 mirrors ; and irons, with their accompanying shovel and tongs, 
 glistened from their covert of asparagus tops ; mock-oranges and 
 conch-shells decorated the mantelpiece ; strings of various colored 
 birds' eggs were suspended above it : a great ostrich egg was 
 hung from the centre of the room, and a corner cupboard, know- 
 ingly left open, displayed immense treasures of old silver and 
 well-mended china. — Irving, "The Sketch- Book." 
 
 These words show how the point of view changes : From 
 this piazza 'ichabod entered the hall . . . a door left ajar gave 
 him a peep into the best parlor . . . a cupboard, left open. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Criticise, with reference to the point of view, the 
 selections under section 126. (1) Does the writer change 
 his point of view ? (2) If so, does he inform the reader of 
 every such change ? 
 
 2. Describe (1) the outside of a building from one posi- 
 tion, and (2) the inside from at least two positions. 
 
 128. Choice of Details and Plan. Nothing is of greater 
 
 importance than the choosing of significant details. That 
 choice made, your problem is one of arrangement.
 
 CHOICE OF DETAILS AND PLAN 1 97 
 
 In the following lines note the choice of significant details 
 and the skillful management of them : 
 
 For cups and silver on the burnish'd board 
 Sparkled and shone ; so genial was the hearth : 
 And on the right hand of the hearth he saw- 
 Philip, the slighted suitor of old times, 
 Stout, rosy, with his babe across his knees ; 
 And o'er her second father stoopt a girl, 
 A later but a loftier Annie Lee, 
 Fair-hair'd and tall, and from her lifted hand 
 Dangled a length of ribbon and a ring 
 To tempt the babe, who rear'd his creasy arms, 
 Caught at and ever miss'd it, and they laugh 'd : 
 And on the left hand of the hearth he saw 
 The mother glancing often toward her babe, 
 But turning now and then to speak with him, 
 Her son, who stood beside her tall and strong, 
 And saying that which pleased' him, for he smiled. 
 
 Tennyson, " Enoch Arden." 
 
 Sometimes a writer brings his plan to the front. Victor 
 Hugo, in describing the field of Waterloo, says : 
 
 Those who would get a clear idea of the battle of Waterloo 
 have only to lay down upon the ground in their mind a capital A. 
 The left stroke of the A is the road from Nivelles, the right stroke 
 is the road from Genappe, the cross of the A is the sunken road 
 from Ohain to Braine l'Alleud. 
 
 Newman's description of Attica begins : 
 
 A confined triangle, perhaps fifty miles its greatest length, and 
 thirty its .greatest breadth. 
 
 It is a help to clearness to say that a church takes the 
 form of a cross or of an amphitheater. You may know of 
 a peninsula that might be likened to a finger, of a road
 
 19S DESCRIPTION 
 
 that resembles an S, of a river that may be compared to 
 a horseshoe or an oxbow. Do you ? 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 After making a plan which will be sure to come to the 
 front, describe some view that has made a great impression 
 on you. Choose important details. 
 
 DESCRIPTION BY SUGGESTION 
 
 We frecpuently try to write so that another person shall 
 see just what we see, but in many instances the wiser 
 course is to make the reader feel as we feel. Thomas 
 Bailey Aldrich says, " I like to have a thing suggested 
 rather than told in full. When every detail is .given, the 
 mind rests satisfied, and the imagination loses all desire 
 to use its own wings." .Sometimes a word or a phrase is 
 more suggestive than a page of details. You will find the 
 following worth study: 
 
 1. The smiler, with the knife under the cloak. 
 
 'This verse," says Lowell, "makes us glance over our shoulders, 
 as if we heard a stealthy tread behind us." 
 
 2. Next stood Hypocrisy with holy leer, 
 Soft smiling and demurely looking down, 
 But hid the dagger underneath the gown. 
 
 3. Look like the innocent flower, 
 But be the serpent under't. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 l. See in how many effective ways you can bring out 
 the thought of the following : 
 
 1. Mutiny, it was plain, hung over us like a thundercloud. 
 
 2. In came Mrs. Fezziwig, one vast substantial smile.
 
 DESCRIPTION BY SUGGESTION 199 
 
 Suggesting how things influence the spectator or the 
 actor is called description by effect. 
 
 2. Read the following paragraph aloud until you can 
 read it well. Is it an example of description by effect ? 
 How did Nehushtafeel in the atmosphere described ? How 
 does the description make you feel ? 
 
 The peace of the evening descended upon her [Nehushta] ; 
 the birds of the day ceased singing with the growing darkness; 
 and slowly, out of the plain, the yellow moon soared up and 
 touched the river and the meadows with mystic light ; while far 
 off, in the rose-thickets of the gardens, the first notes of a single 
 nightingale floated upon the scented breeze, swelling and trilling, 
 quivering and falling again, in a glory of angelic song. The faint 
 air fanned her cheek, the odours of the box and the myrtle and 
 the roses intoxicated her senses, and as the splendid shield of the 
 rising moon cast its broad light into her dreaming eyes, her heart 
 overflowed, and Nehushta the princess lifted up her voice and 
 sang an ancient song of love, in the tongue of her people, to a 
 soft minor melody, that sounded like a sigh from the southern 
 desert. — F. Marion Crawford, "Zoroaster," chap. ii. 
 
 3. Describe some peaceful scene in such a way that the 
 reader will feel calm. 
 
 4. Describe some exciting scene in such a way that you 
 will excite your reader. 
 
 5. Describe a happy scene in such a way that the reader 
 cannot help feeling happy. 
 
 129. Reproduction of Sensations. We are so dependent 
 on our eyesight that it is well to remind ourselves occasion- 
 ally that we have other senses. Obviously one will not 
 often sit down and say, " In writing to-day I will use words 
 that describe taste, touch, smell, and sound." We use the 
 words that the subject demands. On the other hand, if we
 
 200 DESCRIPTION 
 
 are well developed, if we are in the habit of using the five 
 senses, we are much more likely to recognize and respond 
 to the demands of the subject. 
 
 The man of rich and varied experience is the man whom 
 we expect to be most interesting as a talker or as a writer. 
 The man whose senses are constantly contributing to his 
 appreciation and enjoyment of life naturally speaks and 
 writes in a vigorous, hearty style. If we study men like 
 Stevenson and Kipling, we shall find that they make fre- 
 quent use of the five senses. They could not have written 
 with such accuracy, completeness, and point unless they 
 had acquired the habit of being alert. Like them we must 
 learn our trade. Not satisfied with hazy notions about 
 things, we must take pains repeatedly to put into words 
 just what we see or hear or taste or smell or touch. By 
 using our senses in this way we shall gain real enjoyment, 
 and we shall become much more interesting to those with 
 whom we associate ; for whether we write or talk, we shall 
 have an inexhaustible fund to draw from in making our 
 meaning clear both in statement and in illustrations. Rich 
 indeed is the writer who has at his command illustrative 
 material that he has gathered from a vigorous use of keen ' 
 senses, in doors and out. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 l. How many of the five senses did the writer use in 
 connection with the following paragraphs ? Note all indica- 
 tions of activity. Read the selections aloud until you can 
 enter into the spirit of each of them. 
 
 It was one January morning, very early — a pinching, frosty 
 morning — the cove all grey with hoar-frost, the ripple lapping
 
 DESCRIPTION BY SUGGESTION 201 
 
 softly on the stones, the sun still low and only touching the hill- 
 tops and shining far to seaward. The captain had risen earlier 
 than usual, and set out down the beach, his cutlass swinging under 
 the broad skirts of the old blue coat, his brass telescope under 
 his arm, his hat tilted back upon his head. *\. remember his breath 
 hanging like smoke in his wake as he strode off, and the last sound 
 I heard of him, as he turned the big rock, was a loud snort of 
 indignation, as though his mind was still running upon Dr.Livesey. 
 — Stevenson, "Treasure Island," chap. ii. 
 
 There is one day when all things are tired, and the very smells, 
 as they drift on the heavy air, are old and used. One cannot 
 explain this, but it feels so. Then there is another day — to the 
 eye nothing whatever has changed — when all the smells are 
 new and delightful, and the whiskers of the Jungle People quiver 
 to their roots and the winter hair comes away from their sides in 
 long, draggled locks. Then, perhaps, a little rain falls, and all the 
 trees and the bushes and the bamboos and the mosses and the 
 juicy-leaved plants wake with a noise of growing that you can 
 almost hear, and under this noise runs, day and night, a deep 
 hum. That is the noise of the spring — a vibrating boom which 
 is neither bees, nor falling water, nor the wind in the tree-tops, 
 but the purring of the warm, happy world. — Rudyard Kipling, 
 'The Spring Running" in "The Second Jungle Book." 
 
 2. Make a list of a few instances in which an appeal to 
 the sense of smell might add to your description. Discuss 
 the following expressions and put any of them on your list : 
 fresh lumber, fresh-cut hay, burning leaves, lilacs, mignon- 
 ette, summer dust in the country, the earth in spring, a 
 rank low-tide odor, pine trees, moist meadow, musty meadow, 
 porgy factory, barn. 
 
 3. Make a similar list of sounds. In the city we have a 
 continual roar, made up of the rattle of carts, the banging 
 of cars, the calling of children, etc.; in the country we
 
 202 DESCRIPTION 
 
 hear the meadow lark, the song sparrow, the frog, the flut- 
 hi of the wings of a bird, etc.; in a factory town at noon, 
 the whistles, bells, talking and laughing; at the seaside, the 
 roar of the sea, etc.; on the Fourth of July, the boom of 
 cannon, etc. 
 
 4. Describe in a single word the atmosphere of (i) a 
 room, (2) a home, (3) a school building, (4) a town or vil- 
 lage, (5) a city. 
 
 130. Directions for Writing Descriptions. We shall find 
 it helpful in writing descriptions to keep in mind the follow- 
 ing directions, based on what we have seen to be desirable 
 in a good description. 
 
 1. We must indicate clearly our point of view. If it 
 changes, we must notify the reader. 
 
 2. We should choose significant details and have a defi- 
 nite plan in presenting these details. 
 
 3. We should try to make the reader see what we see or 
 feel as we feel. 
 
 4. We should be fully alive as we write --ready to use 
 any of the senses, and even more alert to secure the closest 
 attention than we should be in telling a story. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Choose one of the following subjects : 
 
 t. Indicate what a man who has no sense of smell cannot 
 appreciate as he walks through the woods in spring. 
 
 2. (1) Write out fully what a man with only one sense — hear- 
 ing — might easily get from a five minutes' walk in the woods. 
 Choose whichever season you prefer. (2) Point out what, in 
 addition, a watchful eve may discover under these circumstances.
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR WRITING DESCRIPTIONS 203 
 
 3. Imagining that you have only two senses,- — hearing and 
 touch, — describe (1) a walk in the woods or in a village or city, 
 or (2) a meeting with a pet animal, say a dog. 
 
 4. In writing a brief account of the catching of a fish, take ad- 
 vantage of all the opportunities you may have to make use of 
 sound, smell, and touch. See that your description is lively. 
 
 5. In describing the broiling and serving of a fish, give especial 
 attention to smell and taste. 
 
 2. Write on a subject in connection with which you can 
 advantageously use the five senses. Consider from this 
 point of view the following: My Pet Dog; Climbing Mount 
 
 ; An Hour's Swimming ; Coasting (whether on a sled 
 
 or on a bicycle. Describe the taste and touch of the 
 air) ; A Clam Bake ; In a Gymnasium ; Playing the Piano ; 
 A Rain Storm ; A Football Game ; Making Candy ; A Fire 
 in the Woods ; A Day's Sailing ; A Snowball Fight ; Skat- 
 ing in the Morning. 
 
 3. Describe the appearance of some character in a story. 
 Make your picture as lifelike as possible. 
 
 4. Describe one of the following : (1) a typical farmyard 
 scene; (2) a rare coin; (3) an artistic postage stamp; (4) a 
 typical evening in your home, or an ideal evening; (5) an 
 entertainment you have attended recently. 
 
 5. (1) Describe some small boys at play. (2) Criticise 
 in writing under the heads of (1) point of view, (2) life, the 
 description written by one of your classmates. 
 
 6. Write the description suggested by any one of the 
 following : 
 
 t. lie was a comely, handsome fellow, perfectly well made, 
 with straight strong limbs, not too large ; tall and well-shaped, 
 and, as I reckon, about twenty-six years of age . . . countenance 
 . . . smile . . . hair . . . forehead . . . eyes.
 
 204 DESCRIPTION 
 
 2. By this time the sun had gone down, and was tinting the 
 clouds towards the zenith with those bright hues which are not 
 seen there until some time after sunset, when the horizon has 
 (|uite lost its richer brilliancy. The moon . . . the old house . . . 
 the garden. . . . 
 
 3. About a quarter of an hour before the second ringing of 
 the bell, members of the congregation begin to appear. 
 
 4. I built a cottage for Susan and myself, and made a gate- 
 way in the form of a Gothic arch, by setting up a whale's jaw- 
 bones . . . heifer . . . garden . . . parlor. 
 
 5. The fog had now lifted, so that I could form a better idea 
 of the lay of the land. 
 
 6. After nightfall we went out and walked up and down the 
 grass-grown streets. 
 
 7. The Baltimore oriole loves to attach its nest to the sway- 
 ing branches of the tallest elms. 
 
 8. At length the shadows began to lengthen, the wind . . . 
 calm . . . the sun . . . Sabbath stillness . . . valley . . . the 
 farmer . . . the ox . . . the school urchin. . . . 
 
 9. He was meanly dressed. 
 
 10. The town appeared to be waking up. A baker's cart had 
 already rattled through the street, chasing away the latest vestige 
 of night's sanctity with the jingle-jangle of its dissonant bells. 
 A milkman. . . . 
 
 7. Choose one of the following subjects for a short 
 theme : 
 
 1. Describe the view from a window. If you like, you may 
 read Irving's account of a view from a window in " Christmas 
 Day" (in "The Sketch-Book"). Seethe third paragraph, begin- 
 ning, "Everything conspired," etc. Is the plan clear? Note the 
 force of the active verbs. 
 
 2. Describe the house in which you live so that a stranger will 
 get a clear picture. Be careful about your point of view. 
 
 3. Describe a cottage sheltered by a large elm.
 
 EXERCISES 205 
 
 8. In writing a criticism of a description written by one 
 of your classmates, answer these questions : 
 
 1. Does the writer indicate clearly his point of view? 
 
 2 . Has he chosen significant details ? 
 
 3. Has he a definite plan in presenting the details? 
 
 4. ^Yhat words are particularly well chosen ? Why ?
 
 CHAPTER XVII 
 EXPOSITION 
 
 " Learn to see and to hear. Seeing and hearing are more matters of the 
 brain than of eye and ear. . . . Exposition demands . . . the exercise of 
 reason as well as of observation, but the two are closely bound together; 
 and the mind which is trained to see is as sure to reason about what it 
 sees as the plant which thrusts its rootlets into the rich soil is to grow." 
 
 Arlo Bates. 
 
 131. The Meaning of Exposition. Every boy who knows 
 how to sail a boat enjoys telling how he does it. A good 
 swimmer likes to let a beginner into the secret of his skill. 
 The tennis player sometimes tries to give his friends some 
 notion of what he means by " thirty-love." In each of these 
 cases there is a demand for explanation, or, as we some- 
 times call it, exposition. 
 
 You may know how the town in which you live came to 
 have a high-school building. If you were to give this his- 
 tory, you would call your work narration. Should you by 
 the use of words make a picture of the schoolhouse, you 
 would produce a description. But if you explain the uses 
 of the building, the result is an exposition. 
 
 In describing a thing we tell of its appearance ; in ex- 
 plaining it we expose, or " set forth," its meaning. One who 
 has attended a typical " town meeting " can give an enter- 
 taining account of what he saw there, but it is another 
 matter to make a foreigner comprehend what " town meet- 
 ing " really means. It is one thing to describe a friend so 
 that a stranger can pick him out in a crowd ; it is a very 
 
 206
 
 THE MEANING OF EXPOSITION 207 
 
 different undertaking to explain the secret of your friend's 
 
 cheerful countenance. 
 
 In reading a biography we are not satisfied with a 
 
 description of a man's appearance ; we wish to know what 
 
 sort of man he was. We turn year after year to Lockhart's 
 
 "Life of Scott," Southey's "Life of Nelson," and Plutarch's 
 
 "Lives," because these authors enable us to understand how 
 
 their heroes accomplished what they accomplished. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Give directions for playing quoits, duck on a rock, or 
 hop-scotch. If your subject is quoits, you may use this plan : 
 
 1. The outfit. 
 
 a. Horseshoes. 
 
 b. The "hub" (stake). 
 
 2. Position of the players. 
 
 3. Object of the players. 
 
 4. Keeping the score. 
 
 2. Give directions for making soup, bread, or cake ; or 
 for freezing ice cream ; or for building a coal fire, cleaning 
 a bicycle, or harnessing a horse. 
 
 3. Show to what extent an account of the battle of 
 Thermopylae might be an exposition ; or, show to what 
 extent the account in the history you study is an exposition. 
 
 4. Write a theme "setting forth " the main character- 
 istics of the hero of a story, or of one of the principal per- 
 sons in the story. 
 
 132. Unity. Having chosen a limited subject, think it 
 through and write the substance of what you wish to say 
 in a single sentence. If you keep this sentence summary 
 constantly in mind, your work will probably be a unit. If,
 
 20S EXPOSITION 
 
 for example, you are explaining baseball, your sentence 
 summary might be : " Baseball is a field game, played with 
 bat and ball, by eighteen men, nine on a side." In explain- 
 ing a steam engine, you might say that " a steam engine 
 may be defined as an apparatus for doing work by means 
 of heat applied to water." 1 Does that seem to you a good 
 sentence summary ? 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Explain in a single sentence the main difference be- 
 tween an adjective and an adverb, or between work and play. 
 
 2. Sum up in a written sentence the main features, as 
 you understand them, of one of the following games : foot- 
 ball, tennis, golf, cricket, checkers, chess. 
 
 3. (i) Select a subject on which you can write an exposi- 
 tion. After thinking of practically everything you are to 
 include in your theme, and before beginning the theme, 
 write in one sentence the main thought you are to bring 
 out. (2) Write your paper. (3) If you have not succeeded 
 in "setting forth " the thought of your summary sentence, 
 revise either the sentence or the theme. 
 
 133. Arrangement of Material. In connection with unity 
 we must have coherence, — an orderly arrangement of our 
 material,   —   and in order to secure it we can well afford to 
 take great pains in making a definite plan. 
 
 Suppose our subject is baseball. The first question is, 
 What do we need in order to play the game ? And in the 
 first division of our paper we naturally tell about (1) the 
 field, (2) the bat, and (3) the ball. Then we explain the 
 positions of the players and point out how the game is 
 played. 
 
 l Hammond Lamont, " Specimens of Exposition,'" p. xi.
 
 ARRANGEMENT OF MATERIAL 209 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Make a plan for the above subject. Use the vertical 
 arrangement (see Chapter XIV). 
 
 2. Make a plan of the following paragraph : 
 
 When we ask for more time for schools, we are always met by 
 this objection : The children can hardly stand the stress to which 
 they are now subjected. Are we to overtax them still more? I 
 believe there are three good answers to this objection. The first 
 is ventilation. If you will take the excess of carbonic acid out of 
 the schoolroom, you can keep the children in it longer, without 
 hurting them as much as you do now. The same may be said 
 of the teachers. The strain upon teachers is greatly increased by 
 the badness of the air in which they habitually work. Secondly, 
 the stress upon the children can be greatly diminished by the 
 systematic use of gymnastic movements during school hours and 
 in the schoolrooms. I submit that the American people ought to 
 learn from the experience of European nations in this respect. It 
 has been conclusively demonstrated that brief intervals for gym- 
 nastic exercises throughout the public schools of Scandinavia and 
 Germany do keep the children in good condition, and do enable 
 them to sustain without injury a greater amount of mental work 
 than I have just suggested for American children. Thirdly, the 
 stress or strain upon children can be much diminished by making 
 the work interesting to them, instead of dull, as much of it now 
 is. It is extraordinary how fatigue is prevented or diminished by 
 mental interest. As I have lately read the readers used in my 
 sample grammar school, worked its sums, and read its geography 
 and its book on manners, it has seemed to me that the main 
 characteristic of the instruction, as developed through those 
 books, — unless lightened by the personality of the teacher, — is 
 dullness, a complete lack of human interest, and a consequent 
 lack in the child of the sense of increasing power. Nothing is so 
 fatiguing as dull, hopeless effort, with the feeling that, do one's 
 best, one cannot succeed. That is the condition of too many
 
 2IO IMPOSITION 
 
 children in American schools — not the condition for half an 
 hour, but the chronic condition day after day and month after 
 month. Make the work interesting, and give the children the 
 sense of success, and the stress which is now felt by them will 
 be greatly diminished. - Charles William Eliot, "An Aver- 
 age Massachusetts Grammar School" in "Educational Reform," 
 pp. i S 3 - i 85. 
 
 3. (1) Profiting by whatever suggestions you can get 
 from paragraph and plan, write in a similar way about 
 some one whom you know well, say an aunt. (2) After 
 your writing is done, put at the end of it what you con- 
 sider the main thought. 
 
 4. Make an outline of the character (1) of a book hero 
 of yours ; (2) of an acquaintance. 
 
 Sometimes the subject determines the order of the main 
 divisions of an outline. When you are free to choose the 
 order, do not try to give the most difficult part of your ex- 
 planation at once, but begin with something which is com- 
 paratively easy, — if possible, with something about which 
 the reader is not entirely ignorant, — and lead from that 
 to the parts which are harder to understand. In other 
 words, begin with the simple and work toward the complex. 
 If, for instance, you were to explain the game of tennis, 
 you surely would not call attention at once to the meaning 
 of deuce set. What method did you adopt in the case of 
 your baseball outline ? 
 
 If you can be clear and at the same time secure climax, 
 by all means do so ; but remember that no matter how in- 
 teresting you make your explanation, it is a failure if it is 
 not clear.
 
 ILLUSTRATION BY EXAMPLES 21 1 
 
 5. (i) Write out the main divisions of a plan of one of 
 the following subjects : croquet, diabolo, tennis, checkers, 
 hockey, basket-ball, chess, or some other game. (2) Insert 
 subdivisions in your plan. (3) Write the theme. (4) See 
 that theme and plan agree. 
 
 134. Illustration by Examples. Let us suppose a younger 
 brother of yours discovers that you are puzzling your brains 
 over exposition, and that he asks you to tell him what that 
 big word means. It is not a difficult task. Suppose you 
 should tell him that in explaining the use of a tool in his 
 carpenter's chest, the working of some machinery he has 
 constructed, and in dozens of similar ways every clay of 
 his life he is making use of exposition. See if he does not 
 catch your meaning quickly if you give him several illus- 
 trations. People crave the example just as they jump at 
 the specific word. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Add to your outlines of characters (Exercise 4) illus- 
 trations by examples. 
 
 2. Mention five subjects in the explanation of which you 
 would naturally give examples. Use some of the following, 
 or others of your own selection : 
 
 1. "The way of transgressors is hard." 2. "Forbearance 
 ceases to be a virtue." 3. " 111 blows the wind that profits 
 nobody." 4. "A little learning is a dangerous thing." 5. "All 
 that glisters is not gold." 6. " 'Tis distance lends enchantment 
 to the view." 
 
 135. Illustration by Comparison. One of the simplest 
 frays to explain a tiling is to begin by telling what it is 
 not, or to compare and contrast it with something else.
 
 212 EXPOSITION 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. In this connection discuss the following subjects : 
 (i) A Home (compare a house)) (2) A Village (compare 
 a city). 
 
 2. Make a plan of the following selection : 
 
 Once in the span of a generation of men comes a chess genius, 
 who, submitting to be blindfolded, carries on successfully against 
 twenty antagonists twenty simultaneous games of chess ... he 
 works only at certain hours and under conditions of his own 
 choosing. . . . 
 
 Yet the work of this marvel ... is only the work of the train- 
 despatcher, who, blindfolded by four white walls, his right hand 
 on the key and his eye fastened on the figures of a train-sheet, 
 forces his mind, when other men are asleep, to visualize the long, 
 winding miles of his division- — its trains, its passing tracks and 
 curves, its towers and stations, its semaphores and switches. At 
 twenty points in the darkness of his night . . . are swiftly mov- 
 ing trains of Pullman cars. . . . This man is no genius ; he is 
 the plain, every-day American ... he plays every day. . . . He 
 cannot play twenty games and rest ; he must for eight hours be 
 ready steadily for every game that comes over the wires against 
 him, whether of storms, blockades, breakdowns, or wrecks. — 
 Frank Spearman, "The Nerves of the Road," The Outlook. 
 
 3. With the preceding selection and plan in mind, write 
 a comparison of two persons whom you know well, or of 
 whom you have read widely. 
 
 4. What characters seem as real to you as persons with 
 whom you are acquainted ? Tell briefly but definitely of 
 two. Show how well you know them ; and if you can, tell 
 why it almost seems as if you had met them. 
 
 5. Arrange your time so that you can have at least three 
 hours during the coming week to spend on a book approved 
 by the teacher. At the end of the week write briefly what
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR WRITING EXPOSITION 213 
 
 you think of the book as far as you have read. At the end 
 of the second week write another report of your reading, 
 
 * 
 
 and so on until you finish the book. 
 
 136. Directions for Writing Exposition. In general, the 
 most important aids in securing clear and forcible expo- 
 sition are : 
 
 1 . Unity. 
 
 2. Logical arrangement. 
 
 3. Illustration 'by examples or by comparison. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Explain briefly, with as many illustrations as you 
 choose to add, the correct use of the following words : 
 awful, funny, cunning, lovely. 
 
 2. Explain one : (1) how to broil steak ; (2) some system 
 of ventilation ; (3) a method of sharpening a lead pencil ; 
 (4) some patent ; (5) bread making; (6) how to make a 
 Welsh rarebit ; (7) the block system (in connection with 
 a railway) ; (8) some system of heating. 
 
 3. Explain one : some technical term taken from (1) music ; 
 (2) the carpenter shop ; (3) mechanical drawing ; (4) free- 
 hand drawing; or (5) mathematics. 
 
 4. Write on one of the following subjects : 
 
 1. Honesty is the best policy. (Illustration by examples.) 
 
 2. It was clearly a time for discretion. 
 
 3. Explain how you made some such article as these : pencil 
 tray, book rack, picture frame, stamp box, jewel case, flower trellis, 
 napkin ring, goblet, wallet, rolling pin, gavel, dumb-bells. 
 
 5. Write on one of the following subjects : 
 
 i. A Ballad. 2. A Touchdown. 3. A Hazard (golf). 4. Uses 
 of Public Libraries. 5. Reforms suggested in "Oliver Twist." 6. A
 
 214 EXPOSITION 
 
 Summer Sport in the Country. 7. A Winter Amusement in Cities. 
 8. The Industry of Walter Scott. 9. The Humble Origin of Great 
 Men. 10. Nelsoifs Courage. 11. The Care of Potted Plants 
 in Winter. 12. How to raise Celery. 13. Setting the Table for 
 Dinner. 14. How to tell a Fir Tree from a Spruce. 15. How to 
 make a Kite. 16. The Making of Turpentine. 17. The Making of 
 Cider. 18. Handball. 19. A Sun Dial. 20. A Simple Steam En- 
 gine. 21. Ice Cutting. 22. The Force Pump. 23. How to row a 
 Boat. 24. How to keep a Lawn. 25. The Air Brake. 26. How 
 to make a Pair of Skees. 
 
 6. (1) Choose from the subjects just given that one which 
 appeals to you as the best for an essay of some six hundred 
 words. (2) In preparing a plan, consider (a) unity, (b) ar- 
 rangement, {c) the advantage of illustration by examples or 
 by comparison. (3) Write the essay. 
 
 7. Explain your methods of writing. In doing so, answer 
 the following questions : 
 
 1. Do you write rapidly? 
 
 2. Do you alter the first draft much? 
 
 3. Do you find composition hard ? Under what conditions is 
 it most difficult? least difficult? 
 
 4. To what extent have you found outlines, or plans, useful? 
 
 5. Do you keep an audience or a reader in mind as you write? 
 
 6. Do you read your work aloud slowly, sentence by sentence? 
 If so, has this method helped you in revising the sentences, the 
 spelling, or the punctuation? 
 
 8. In a similar way tell the class about your reading 
 habits. First prepare a plan. In addition to the topics 
 that will be suggested by the above questions, consider 
 the use of the dictionary and other helps. 
 
 9. Bearing in mind that a book review should give us a 
 brief account of the subject-matter and its treatment, tell
 
 EXERCISES 215 
 
 whether the following review of " Specimens of the Short 
 Story," by George Henry Nettleton, Ph.D., is satisfactory. 
 Does the book seem worth your reading ? 
 
 Dr. Nettleton's selections are interesting. For what may be 
 termed a sketch — the study of narrative in its lowest terms — he 
 chooses Lamb's "Superannuated Man"; for the tele, pure and 
 simple, Irving's " Rip Van Winkle,"- — that first great creation of 
 American fiction ; for an allegory, Hawthorne's " Great Stone 
 Face"; for a detective story, Poe's "Purloined Letter"; for a 
 burlesque, Thackeray's " Phil Fogarty "; for a story of incident, 
 Dickens's "Doctor Manette's Manuscript"; for a psychological 
 story, Stevenson's "Markheim"; and for a local-color story, 
 Mr. Bret Harte's "Outcasts of Poker Flat." These are not only 
 good specimens of the best narration ; they also present pecul- 
 iarly profitable material for the study of the art of narrative 
 composition. The introductions prefixed to the separate stories 
 include a short biography of the particular story-teller, a bibliog- 
 raphy of his representative works, a review of his special literary 
 qualities, and a discussion of the circumstances attending the 
 composition selected, together with the points which aid in its 
 interpretation. Sundry notes at the end of the volume helpfully 
 explain certain difficulties of the text ; these notes would have 
 been more directly helpful, however, had they been printed at the 
 bottom of the pages. — The Outlook. 
 
 10. Criticise fully the following account of " float in 
 
 One of the most picturesque methods of hunting the poor deer 
 is called " floating." The person, with murder in his heart, chooses 
 a cloudy night, seats himself, rifle in hand, in a canoe, which is 
 noiselessly paddled by the guide, and explores the shore of the 
 lake or the dark inlet. In the bow of the boat is a light in a 
 " jack," the rays of which are shielded from the boat and its occu- 
 pants. A deer comes down to feed upon the lily-pads. The boat 
 approaches him. He looks up, and stands a moment, terrified or
 
 216 EXPOSITION 
 
 fascinated by the bright flames. In that moment the sportsman 
 is supposed to shoot the deer. As an historical fact, his hand usu- 
 ally shakes, so that he misses the animal, or only wounds him ; and 
 the stag limps away to die after days of suffering. Usually, how- 
 ever, the hunters remain out all night, get stiff from cold and the 
 cramped position in the boat, and, when they return in the morn- 
 ing to camp, cloud their future existence by the assertion that 
 they "heard a big buck " moving along the shore, but the people 
 in camp made so much noise that he was frightened off. — C. I). 
 Warner, "A-Hunting of the Deer " in " In the Wilderness." 
 
 At times we are content merely to explain, but frequently, 
 like Mr. Warner in the extract given above, we color the 
 explanation in order to make the reader think as we do. 
 In this way we fall into a persuasive or argumentative style 
 of writing, which we shall study in the next chapter. g
 
 • CHAPTER XVIII 
 ARGUMENT 
 
 " Truth is worth more than victory." 
 
 137. The Difference between Exposition and Argument. 
 
 Some people like to argue for the sake of arguing, — there 
 is no doubt of it, — and which one of us does not enjoy 
 a lively discussion ? From morning till night, at the break- 
 fast table, on the way to school, in recitations, at recess, on 
 the athletic field, over our indoor work and play, — on all 
 occasions we are trying to make somebody else see as we 
 see and think as we think. In many cases argument is 
 simple exposition ; as soon as we can explain our meaning 
 to a friend, he agrees with us. Suppose you say, "A college 
 graduate is not an educated person." Your friend naturally 
 replies that boys and girls go to college to get an education. 
 But when you explain that it takes a lifetime to get what 
 you consider an education, that a college course merely goes 
 a step beyond the grammar school and the high school in 
 showing one how to become educated, how to grow, your 
 friend will probably agree to your first statement. Even if 
 he thinks you give a broad meaning to the word "educa- 
 tion," clearly the first thing for you and him to do is to 
 agree upon a definition of that word. To be sure, this agree- 
 ment may leave nothing to discuss, but in the course of 
 coming to the agreement you may find a fair field for 
 argument. 
 
 217
 
 2i8 ARGUMENT 
 
 In writing expositions we try to secure : 
 i. Unity. 
 
 2. Logical arrangement. 
 
 3. Illustration by example or by comparison. 
 In argumentative writing, 
 
 1. The necessity of stating just what we are to prove 
 will aid us in securing unity. 
 
 2. The logical arrangement is of great importance. 
 
 3. The value of our work frequently depends on the skill 
 with which we use illustrations by example, but we must not 
 attach undue importance to a single illustration by example. 
 
 In exposition we set forth one view of a subject. In 
 argument our purpose is to show that one view is better 
 than another. Hence 
 
 4. We need to be particularly careful about the choice of 
 evidence. In selecting evidence which is really nothing but 
 opinion we must remember, for example, that one man's 
 opinion is of no great value unless that man is an expert ; 
 and that the substantial agreement of several experts is 
 naturally considered to be more valuable than the opinion 
 of any one of them. 
 
 138. Debates. The form of argumentation which is of 
 most practical value to young persons is debating. As an 
 exercise in self-control it is as good as football. The neces- 
 sity of getting our opponent's point of view is the best 
 possible preparation for dealing with men and women; and 
 if this last advantage were the only one to gain from debat- 
 ing, it alone would be worth all the cost. The acquirement 
 of this ability is itself an education. 
 
 139. The Statement of the Question. In a debate much 
 depends on the wording of the question. In every case the
 
 THE STATEMENT OF THE QUESTION 219 
 
 statement should be perfectly clear, and so framed that 
 no advantage shall be given to either side. Suppose, for 
 example, we are to try to determine whether freshmen 
 should be excluded from high-school teams. We may state 
 the proposition formally in this way : 
 
 Resolved, That freshmen should not be excluded from all high- 
 school teams. 
 
 To prevent confusion, however, it will be better to avoid 
 the negative form, and say : 
 
 Resolved, That freshmen should be excluded from all high- 
 school teams. 
 
 Then the affirmative side will have something to build up, 
 and the work of the negative side will be to tear down this 
 structure, whatever it may be. The affirmative undertakes 
 to prove something. All the negative needs to do is to 
 show that the affirmative has failed to prove what it has 
 undertaken. If the affirmative presents a chain of argu- 
 ments, the negative has merely to show that one link in 
 the chain will not hold. If, at the close of the debate, the 
 judges feel that the affirmative has said nothing, and that 
 the negative has said nothing, they award the debate 
 to the negative. 
 
 In order that the time set for debate may not be spent 
 in deciding what the debate is to be about, any doubtful 
 term — that is, any ambiguous word or expression — should 
 be carefully defined. If possible, the speakers should meet 
 and agree on the meaning of terms beforehand; but if that 
 is impossible, they must fight it out in the debate. When- 
 ever a speaker uses an ambiguous term, he should state 
 what he understands it to mean.
 
 220 ARGUMENT 
 
 140. The Finding of Material. As soon as we know just 
 what we are to prove, we shall be ready to look for mate- 
 rial. Aside from all the aid we may be fortunate enough to 
 get from friends, we shall need practice in handling library 
 catalogues and tables of contents. We should know where 
 to find and how to use records of public debates. We 
 should have access to The Congressional Record, standard 
 histories, periodicals, and some of the best daily papers. 
 Poole's Index to Periodical Literature is invaluable in con- 
 sulting magazines. If we are to have weight as speakers, 
 we must not only quote recognized authorities but we must 
 be careful to take references and quotations at first hand, 
 if possible, and to quote them accurately. Our audience 
 has a right to expect us to tell definitely the origin of our 
 citation. It is not enough, for example, to attribute some- 
 thing to Webster; we should add the name of the speech. 
 In general, we are to give information enough to enable 
 any one to verify our quotations with ease. If, as we take 
 notes, we jot down the references to our sources, we shall 
 not be embarrassed afterward by wondering who our au- 
 thority was. 
 
 141. The Brief. In preparing an argument, you need 
 something more than a plan, or topical outline; you need 
 complete statements of all the thoughts that are essential 
 to the argument. These statements compose the brief. 
 The brief has three important parts : (i) the introduction, 
 (2) the brief proper, and (3) the conclusion. 
 
 In the introduction state clearly : 
 
 1. How the question arose. 
 
 2. What facts both sides admit. 
 
 3. What is the exact point at issue.
 
 THE BRIEF 22 1 
 
 In the brief proper show the growth of the argument : 
 
 1. Separate the main arguments from the subordinate. 
 
 2. Arrange the main arguments in logical order. 
 
 3. Group under them the subordinate arguments, and 
 see that each subdivision is a reason for the truth of the 
 division under which it comes. 
 
 In the conclusion give a concise summing up of the 
 argument. 
 
 Refutation. Under the heading refutation we are to 
 point out just what arguments are to be answered. When 
 to bring in the refutation depends upon the question. On 
 one occasion it will seem best to make it very conspicuous 
 — perhaps to put it first, so as to remove opposition or 
 prejudice. On another occasion it may be introduced inci- 
 dentally from time to time as a matter of little conse- 
 quence. Another time we may not dare mention it till we 
 have advanced most of our arguments ; then we shall seek 
 with one strong sweep to remove all obstacles. 
 
 Assertion and Proof. We must be particularly careful 
 to draw a sharp line between assertion and proof. Asser- 
 tion is an expression of opinion ; proof must be supported 
 by facts. Assertions amount to nothing ; every bit of evi- 
 dence, on the other hand, is one round in the ladder that 
 leads to the conclusion. 
 
 Not only do we need a brief for each side of the debate, 
 
 but we should be as familiar with the opponent's ground 
 
 as we are with our own territory, for we are to give and 
 
 take, to be answered and to answer ; and after the contest 
 
 ins, we have no time for hunting up information. 
 
 The following brief for the negative shows the proper 
 arrangement of material :
 
 222 ARGUMENT 
 
 BRIEF 
 The Housing of the Boor 
 
 Question : Resolved, That the housing of the poor should be 
 improved by municipalities. 
 
 Introduction 
 
 I. In many of the larger cities the poorest inhabitants live in 
 such wretched quarters that public benefactors have raised 
 the question whether these conditions of life cannot be 
 improved by the cities. 
 IE Definitions. 
 
 A. The " housing " of the poor refers to tenements. 
 
 B. Improved "by municipalities" means at the expense of 
 
 the city. 
 
 III. Both sides admit that 
 
 A. The present tenement-house system is disgraceful. 
 
 B. The necessity for improvement is urgent. 
 
 IV. The question, then, is whether improvements should be made 
 
 by municipalities. There are three issues. 
 
 A. Is the plan wise in theory? 
 
 B. Does it work? 
 
 C. Is there no better plan? 
 
 Brief Proper 
 
 I. Municipal housing is not wise in theory. 
 
 A. It is charity of a wrong kind. 
 
 i. It weakens self-dependence. 
 
 B. It is unjust to the taxpayer. 
 
 i. The thrifty furnish homes for the improvident. 
 IE Municipal housing does not work in practice. 
 
 A. The Glasgow experiments helped only a few families. 
 
 B. Experiments in Naples were unsatisfactory. 1 
 
 C. Experiments in Eondon failed. 2 
 
 l Nation. LII, 134. 2 Fortnightly Review, XXXVIII, 425 (October, 1882).
 
 SPECIMEN BRIEF 223 
 
 III. There are better ways of solving the problem. 
 
 A. Private citizens are keeping old buildings in good repair. 
 
 1. In London. 1 
 
 2. In Boston. 
 
 3. In New York. 
 
 B. Private citizens are building model tenements. 
 
 1. In London. 
 
 2. In Brooklyn. 
 
 C. Cooperative associations are building cottages in suburbs. 
 1. In Philadelphia. 
 
 Conclusion 
 
 Because municipal housing is not wise in theory, because it 
 does not work in practice, and because there are better ways of 
 solving the proble'm, the housing of the poor should not be im- 
 proved by municipalities. 
 
 142. The Speaking. After securing an orderly arrange- 
 ment of his material, the debater should talk over the whole 
 subject by himself or to a friend so many times that there 
 shall be no hesitation for words when he appears in public. 
 He is not to commit a speech to memory, but rather to 
 deliver so many speeches before the debate that he can 
 speak readily on any phase of the question. As soon as 
 his turn comes he will begin, eager to make the most of the 
 time allowed him, as his object is to speak so earnestly 
 and in such a straightforward way that he shall at once 
 win the attention of his hearers and hold it steadily till at 
 the end he has accomplished his purpose — till he has 
 compelled them to agree with him. 
 
 If we would carry our point, it may be a good plan to 
 appear not to argue. As long as the listener takes our con- 
 versation to be merely explanation, he will follow. If we 
 
 1 Definiti Id accompany each of these subdivisions.
 
 224 ARGUMENT 
 
 can make the hearer think he is drawing his own conclu- 
 sions, or if we can join him in working out the solution of 
 the problem, we are much more likely to convince him than 
 wc should be by giving him the impression that we are 
 doing all his thinking for him. 
 
 In Webster's closing paragraph of his "Defense of the 
 Kennistons " he does not tell the jury what they ought to 
 do, what he expects them to do, or what all right-thinking 
 men would do ; he appeals to them as men who are to de- 
 cide for themselves : 
 
 If the jury are satisfied that there is the highest improbability 
 that these persons could have had any previous knowledge of 
 Goodridge, or been concerned in any previous concert to rob 
 him ; if their conduct that evening and the next day was marked 
 hy no circumstances of suspicion ; if from that moment until 
 their arrest nothing appeared against them ; if they neither passed 
 money, nor are found to have had money ; if the manner of the 
 search of their house, and the circumstances attending it, excite 
 strong suspicions of unfair and fraudulent practices ; if, in the hour 
 of their utmost peril, no promises of safety could draw from the 
 defendants any confession affecting themselves or others, it will 
 be for the jury to say whether they can pronounce them guilty. 
 
 Probably the wisest of us can learn something from 
 Franklin's method of expressing himself : 
 
 I . . . [retained] the habit of expressing myself in terms of 
 modest diffidence ; never using, when I advanced anything that 
 may possibly be disputed, the words certainly, undoubtedly, or any 
 others that give the air of positiveness to an opinion ; but rather 
 say, I conceive or apprehend a thing to be so and so ; it appears 
 to me, or / should think it so and so, for such and such reasons ; 
 or I imagine it to be so ; or it is so, if I am not mistaken. This 
 habit, I believe, has been of great advantage to me when I have 
 had occasion to inculcate my opinions, and persuade men into
 
 THE SPEAKING 225 
 
 measures that I have been from time to time engaged in promot- 
 ing; and, as the chief ends of conversation are to inform or to be 
 informed, to please or to persuade, 1 wish well-meaning, sensible 
 men would not lessen their power of doing good by a positive, as- 
 suming manner, that seldom fails to disgust, tends to create oppo- 
 sition, and to defeat every one of those purposes for which speech 
 was given us, to wit, giving or receiving information or pleasure. 
 For, if you would inform, a positive and dogmatical manner in 
 advancing your sentiments may provoke contradiction and pre- 
 vent a candid attention. If you wish information and improve- 
 ment from the knowledge of others, and yet at the same time 
 express yourself as firmly fixed in your present opinions, modest, 
 sensible men, who do not love disputation, will probably leave 
 you undisturbed in the possession of your error. And by such a 
 manner, you can seldom hope to recommend yourself in pleas- 
 ing your hearers, or to persuade those whose concurrence you 
 desire. — "Autobiography." 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. The list of propositions given below may help you 
 choose a subject for an argument. Pick out one on which 
 you can be prepared to speak with authority, and make 
 a brief. 
 
 2. After profiting by whatever suggestions come from 
 the teacher and the class about the statement of the propo- 
 sition, the order of the divisions of the brief, etc., write 
 your argument. 
 
 3. After careful preparation, with the brief well fixed in 
 your mind, give your argument to the class orally. 
 
 You should now be in a position to prepare for a debate. 
 At first you should choose a subject on which you can argue 
 largely from observation and experience ; afterward you may 
 rely more on material that you get from books and magazines.
 
 226 ARGUMENT 
 
 143. Subjects for Debates. The following subjects may 
 suggest others that will prove more satisfactory than many 
 on this list : 
 
 1. A four years' high-school course is better than a three 
 years' course. 
 
 2. Canada should he annexed to the United States. 
 
 3. The is a better bicycle than the . 
 
 4. Interscholastic football promotes the best interests of 
 schools. 
 
 5. The United States should build a larger navy. 
 
 6. The standing army of the United States should be 
 increased. 
 
 7. The coast defenses of the United States should be 
 strengthened. 
 
 8. Private citizens should feed tramps. 
 
 9. Asphalt is the best kind of paving for Street. 
 
 10. Strikes help the cause of labor. 
 
 11. A trust is necessarily a benefit. 
 
 12. The treatment of Shy lock was unjust. 
 
 13. High-school pupils should read the newspapers. 
 
 14. The is a better automobile than the . 
 
 1 5 . Pupils of high-school age should receive training in debating. 
 1 6. The public library should be open on Sunday. 
 
 17. Manual training should be taught in all high schools. 
 
 18. Freshmen should be excluded from all high-school teams. 
 
 1 9. Every high school should give instruction in military tactics. 
 
 20. Monday is a more suitable day than Saturday for the weekly 
 school holiday. 
 
 144. The Management of a Debate. 1 In undertaking a 
 debate the members of the class or club should under- 
 stand that one of the first objects is to encourage a large 
 number of speakers to say something to the point. There 
 
 1 See also "Rules of Proceeding and Debate in Deliberative Assemblies," by 
 Luther S. Cushing. New edition. Philadelphia, Porter & Coates.
 
 SUBJECTS FOR DEBATES 227 
 
 is always danger that three or four of the best speakers 
 will get the lion's share of the advantages. To prevent this 
 result every encouragement should be given to the beginner 
 who finds it almost impossible to say anything. It may be 
 that the fluent speaker, who astonishes his timid hearers 
 into silence, decorates himself with borrowed finery ; and 
 it must always be borne in mind that one good argument, 
 the result of an honest piece of thinking, is worth dozens 
 of other people's thoughts. 
 
 An exercise of this sort should be democratic. If the 
 making of arrangements is left to a committee of three, 
 appointed by the teacher or chosen by the class, all should 
 recognize the importance of doing cheerfully whatever this 
 committee recommends. Even if one has to take the side 
 he dislikes, he must do his best with it in order (1) to sup- 
 port the committee in its attempt to have the machinery 
 of the debate run smoothly, and (2) to call attention to all 
 the good points on that side so that the judges may be 
 enabled to get at the facts. 
 
 Preparation. Ample time must be given for preparation. 
 There should be at least two weeks' notice; and during 
 the fortnight every one should spend as much as possible 
 of his spare time in thinking and reading about the sub- 
 ject. This subject should be one of general interest. It 
 is wise at first to avoid questions that are too intricate for 
 most of our statesmen, and, if practicable, to choose one 
 that gives the pupil a chance to supplement his reading by 
 drawing from his own experience. If, for example, he is to 
 argue on the advisability of feeding tramps, in addition 
 to the indefinite amount of reading he will find available, 
 he may be able to give point and interest to his speaking
 
 228 ARGUMENT 
 
 by telling of what he has seen in his father's dooryard. He 
 who would bring others to his way of thinking must show 
 them that he has been working out the subject for himself 
 and knows what he is talking about. 
 
 Principal Speakers and Substitutes. The committee of 
 arrangements will probably find that as a rule it is a good 
 plan to appoint two or three principal speakers on each 
 side of the question, and one substitute on each side. If 
 the substitutes are not called upon, their careful prepara- 
 tion will qualify them to strengthen the debate from the 
 floor. The principal speakers must not be given too much 
 time, nor arc they to be allowed any extension of the time 
 allotted. As soon as they have prepared the way for a 
 general discussion, the chairman should throw the debate 
 open to all. Then the friends of the principal speakers 
 may fill in the outlines presented by their leaders. 
 
 Division of Work among Speakers. Considerable care 
 should be exercised in the division of the work among the 
 leaders, and each of them should attend to the portion as- 
 signed him. Every one should sum up his own speech, and 
 the closing speakers need to be especially clever in singling 
 out the main points that have been proved and in sending 
 them home to the audience in a clear, concise, emphatic 
 summary. 
 
 If, as frequently happens, there are four leaders, the 
 work may be divided in this way : 
 
 i . The first speaker on the affirmative gives the outline of 
 the entire affirmative case, shows what he and his associates 
 are to prove, and presents his own arguments. Incidentally 
 he may do something to destroy the force of arguments 
 which may be brought forward by the other side.
 
 THE MANAGEMENT OF A DEBATE 229 
 
 2. The first speaker on the negative comes next. He 
 shows what he and his colleague are to prove, and pre- 
 sents his part of the proof. He has the advantage of know- 
 ing what has been said by the opening speaker, and does 
 what he can to weaken those arguments. He may, if he 
 sees fit, anticipate some of the points likely to be made by 
 the second speaker on the affirmative. 
 
 3. The second affirmative speaker does the work out- 
 lined by his colleague and answers the first negative 
 speaker. He then attacks arguments that may be made 
 by the second speaker on the negative and sums up the 
 case for the affirmative. 
 
 4. The second negative speaker finishes the defensive 
 work begun by his colleague and does his best to refute 
 the arguments of the affirmative. He then sums up the 
 case for the negative. 
 
 Then comes the debating from the floor. In order to 
 give every one an opportunity to say something, these 
 speeches must be very brief. If the volunteers do not 
 use all the time set apart for them, the leaders may be 
 allowed to speak again. 
 
 After the closing of the general debate one representa- 
 tive from each side is entitled to make a rebuttal speech. 
 In the rebuttal speeches no new arguments or evidence 
 can be introduced except for the purpose of answering an 
 opponent or of making clearer or more emphatic some 
 argument already advanced by the speaker's side. The 
 representative of the affirmative comes last. As the burden 
 of proof rests upon his side, he should have the last word. 
 
 Note. In many debating clubs the camp system works well. The 
 members elect by ballot from their number a president and two leaders.
 
 230 ARGUMENT 
 
 These leaders go ahead just as persons do who are selected to choose 
 sides for a spelling match. Having drawn lots for the first choice, they 
 pick out the debaters alternately till every member is in one camp or 
 the other. Then each leader does all he can to enable his camp to 
 win. He sees that the work is carefully planned, and frequently makes 
 the opening or the closing speech. One way of bringing good de- 
 baters into a club is to allow each leader to place in his camp any 
 new member he can secure. 
 
 Judges. Three judges may be appointed to determine 
 which side has been the more successful in convincing im- 
 partial listeners. A teacher, or some other competent person 
 whose suggestions will be carefully followed, should serve as 
 critic of the substance and the style of presentation, includ- 
 ing, of co.urse, matters of grammar and pronunciation.
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 THE MUSICAL READING OF VERSE 
 
 1. Common Feet. In the following stanza ("The Lady 
 of the Lake," I) the syllables that we naturally accent hi 
 reading have been printed in italics: 
 
 The stag at eve had drunk his _/?//, 
 Where danced the moon on J/eman's rill, 
 And deep his midnight lair had made 
 In lone Glentf/'/ney's /^?zel shade. 
 
 Now a single attempt will show the absurdity of empha- 
 sizing the unaccented syllables. That would give us 
 
 The stag at eve had drunk his fill, 
 Where danced the moon on Monan's rill. 
 
 Nobody would read in this way. Why, then, should any- 
 body make a helter-skelter combination of the right and 
 the wrong way ? A good ear and a little common sense will 
 prevent such a blunder. 
 
 Letting w stand for an unaccented syllable and — for 
 an accented syllable, we may indicate the accent of these 
 lines thus : 
 
 KJ | W I W | \y 
 
 \y | w I w | \j 
 
 In this stanza the poet accents every second syllable. We 
 say that such verse consists of four feet, and that the regu- 
 lar foot is composed of a short and a long syllable, w _. 
 
 231
 
 232 THE MUSICAL READING OF VERSE 
 
 In "Julius Caesar" we have 
 
 Good gen 
 
 tlemen, 
 
 look 
 
 fresh 
 
 and mer 
 
 rily 
 
 w 
 
 w 
 
 w 
 
 — 
 
 w 
 
 w 
 
 Let not 
 
 our looks 
 
 put 
 
 on 
 
 our pur 
 
 poses ; 
 
 w . 
 
 W 
 
 w 
 
 — 
 
 w 
 
 w 
 
 But bear 
 
 it as 
 
 our Ro 
 
 man ac 
 
 tors do. 
 
 w . 
 
 
 w 
 
 w 
 
 — 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 — 
 
 
 Each verse consists of five feet, and the regular foot has 
 two syllable's, a short and a long. 
 
 In 
 
 numbers 
 
 Tell me 
 
 not in 
 
 mourn 
 
 ful 
 
 w 
 
 u w 
 
 Life is 
 
 but an 
 
 empty 
 
 dre 
 
 w 
 
 
 — w 
 
 w 
 
 
 the accented syllable comes before the unaccented sylla- 
 ble, _w. 
 
 In 
 
 From the spijrits on earth 
 
 w w 
 
 that adore, 
 
 From the souls ! that entreat 
 
 w w 
 
 In the fer 
 
 w w 
 
 and implore 
 w w 
 
 vor and pas 
 
 sion of prayer, 
 w w 
 
 two unaccented syllables come before the syllable that 
 takes the accent, ww 
 
 And in 
 This is the 
 
 WW 
 
 forest pri 
 
 w w 
 
 meval. The I murmuring 
 
 w w w w 
 
 pines and the 
 
 hemlocks, 
 
 w 
 
 we recognize the ww_ inverted, _ww.
 
 COMMON FEET 
 
 233 
 
 2. Names of Feet. The following names have been 
 given these feet : w_ iambus ; _w trochee ; \j\j—anapest ; 
 —\j\jdactyl. But for our purposes the names are of little 
 importance. What we need to do is to strike the accented 
 syllables hard, and to pass lightly over syllables that are un- 
 accented. This will not be difficult if we remember that the 
 poet is expected to retain the accent that belongs to a word. 
 In the case of old writers, such as Shakspere and Milton, 
 we sometimes find words with an accent long since changed. 
 
 3. Variations. Although most poems have one prevail- 
 ing meter, the poet finds it desirable to change his meter 
 from time to time as the thought changes. This substitu- 
 tion of feet, made of course in accordance with certain rules, 
 frequently gives the verse an added charm. 
 
 In " The Lady of the Lake," II, 41, we find, _^ for ^— : 
 
 The antlered monarch of the waste 
 Sprung from the heathery couch in haste ; 
 kj 
 
 in lines 55 and 73, for ^_ : 
 
 Rock, glen, and cavern paid them back 
 
 On the lone wood and mighty hill. 
 
 We welcome an extra syllable at the end of a line, as in 
 the third line below : 
 
 This was the no blest Ro 1 man of 
 
 *^ I ^ . 1^ 1 ^ 
 
 All the 
 
 conspirlators, 
 
 save on 
 
 ly he, 
 
 ^ 
 
 <y \\y . 
 
 \y 
 
 w 
 
 them all. 
 
 Did that they did 
 
 in en w of great C?e 
 
 sar ;
 
 234 THE MUSICAL READING OF VERSE 
 and the substitution of for ^_ : 
 
 Blow, blow, 
 
 thou win 
 
 ter wind, 
 
 w 
 
 Thou art not so unkind 
 As man's ingratitude. 
 
 We frequently find a line like this 
 
 Harp of the North ! that moul 
 
 dering long hast hung, 
 
 in which the fourth foot has three syllables. The two very 
 short syllables have the time that would naturally be given 
 to one unaccented or short syllable: ^_ = kj — 
 
 As you read aloud, notice the effect of the different 
 kinds of meter, — one may be restful, another stirring, 
 another stately, — and the variations. 
 
 4. Rests. There are rests in verse just as there are in 
 music. In the following line one must stop after "primeval " : 
 
 In 
 
 This is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the 
 hemlocks. 
 
 On to their morning's rural work they haste, 
 Among sweet dews and flowers, A where any row 
 Of fruit-trees, over-woody, reached too far, 
 
 the caret indicates the natural place for pausing. If, as in 
 music, the rest takes the place of a syllable, it may be 
 marked thus : 
 
 A Break, 
 
 A break, 
 
 A break, 
 
 On thy cold 
 
 gray stones, I O sea ! 
 
 And I would that my tongue could utter 
 The thoughts that arise in me.
 
 KINDS OF VERSE 235 
 
 5. Kinds of Verse. If a verse has two feet, it is called 
 dimeter; if three, trimeter; if four, tetrameter; if five, 
 pentameter ; if six, hexameter. 
 
 Shakspere's line is iambic pentameter {iambic is the 
 adjective from iambus), and if you are interested you will 
 have no difficulty in finding many other poems written in 
 this meter. Nor will you need look far for examples of 
 trochaic tetrameter and dactylic hexameter. But you must 
 expect great variety, — even in a single poem, — and you 
 must learn to adapt yourself to the changes. 
 
 6. Scansion. Whether you do it orally or on paper, this 
 
 measuring of the lines is called scansion. You should do 
 
 enough scanning to become thoroughly familiar with the 
 
 method. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Read metrically all the poetry in this book. 
 
 2. Separate into feet two lines of every kind of meter 
 you find. 
 
 3. Copy two verses of each of the following kinds : 
 (1) iambic pentameter; (2) trochaic tetrameter; (3) dac- 
 tylic hexameter. 
 
 4. Write two verses of each of the kinds mentioned in 
 Exercise 3. 
 
 5. Write a few verses on some subject with which you 
 are thoroughly familiar. Before choosing your subject, look 
 over the table of contents of one of your favorite volumes 
 of poems. 
 
 7. Rhythm. In all your reading of poetry you should 
 pay attention to time, as you do in music and dancing. 
 The voice should show that your ear detects the regular 
 recurrence of accented syllables that gives the musical
 
 236 THE MUSICAL READING OF VERSE 
 
 effect we call rhythm. This measured motion of the verse 
 is as natural as the ebb and flow of the sea. One may go 
 so far as to say that a poem is not really a poem until it 
 is completed by the sympathetic rendering of the human 
 voice. 
 
 EXERCISE 
 
 Write out the difference between prose and poetry as 
 clearly as you can. Use as illustrations a few lines that 
 are really poetic.
 
 INDEX 
 
 The references are to pages. 
 
 Abbreviations, in letter writing, 74 ; 
 punctuation of, 38. 
 
 Abstract neuns, 100. 
 
 Accent, in reading, 4, 231; in spell- 
 ing, 56. 
 
 Action, 187. 
 
 Active voice of a verb, 109; use of, 
 to give life, 138. 
 
 Address of a letter, 66, 67. 
 
 Adjective, 98; or adverb, 123; modi- 
 fiers, 126-128; this and that, 122. 
 
 Adverb, 99. See Adjective. 
 
 Aldrich, T. B., "Quite So," 185. 
 
 Almost, most, 123. 
 
 Analysis, 128. 
 
 Antecedent of pronouns, 105. 
 
 Apostrophe, mark of punctuation, 
 50, 103,107; figure of speech, 163. 
 
 Appositives, 46, 102. 
 
 Argument, 2 1 7-230; exposition and, 
 217 ; evidence, 218. See Debates. 
 
 Articles, 122. 
 
 As, as if, like, 126. 
 
 "Autobiography," Franklin, 224. 
 
 "Average Massachusetts Crammar 
 School, An," Charles W. Eliot, 
 209. 
 
 Baby's First Shoes, pupil's theme, 
 
 30. 
 Bird Study, Timely Suggestions on, 
 pupil's theme, 93. 
 
 Book review, specimen, 215. 
 Books that suggest subjects for 
 
 writing, 9. 
 Briefs. See Debates. 
 Brooks, Phillips, letter to his 
 
 niece, 79. 
 Browning, "Incident of the 
 
 French Camp," 184. 
 Bunyan, "The Pilgrim's Progress," 
 
 I.Vv 
 
 Burroughs, John, description of 
 the walk of a crow, 193; In the 
 Mountains, 32; Our Most Pre- 
 cious Resources, 92. 
 
 Capitals, 38, 60, 70. 
 
 Case, 102; nominative, 102; ob- 
 jective, 102; possessive, 102; of 
 pronoun, 102, 107. 
 
 Clause, 126; adjective, adverbial, 
 and noun, 127; conditional, [16; 
 dependent and independent, 127; 
 subordinate (same as dependent). 
 
 Climax, 189, 210. 
 
 Coherence, in the paragraph, 87; 
 in the sentence, 135; in the whole 
 composition, idS, iSS, 208. 
 
 Collective nouns, 100, 122. 
 
 Collyer, Robert, on simple 
 words, 152. 
 
 ( lolon, 1 1 . 42, 68. 
 
 ( 'omnia, 46 18, 68, 70. 
 
 "■11
 
 ^ 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Compositions: conclusion, 174; 
 introduction, 20 (Note), 173 ; oral 
 and written, 7; whole, 27-35. 
 
 Conjugation of verbs, 107-119. 
 
 Conjunctions, 99, 124; coordinate 
 and subordinate, 125. 
 
 ( nnnectives, 87. 
 
 Crawford, F. Mark in, "Zoroas- 
 ter," 1 17, 199. 
 
 Criticism, 4, 5 ; 96 (Note), 137 ; ex- 
 aminer's, 23; key to examiner's, 25. 
 
 Figurative words, 158-163. 
 Figures of speech. See Figurative 
 
 Words. 
 Fitzgerald, Edward, letter, 80. 
 Floating, ('. I). Warner, 215. 
 Force, 152-166; in story-telling, 
 
 188. 
 Franklin, " Autobiography," 224 ; 
 
 Franklin's Famous Toast, 178. 
 Franklin Park, In, pupil's theme, 
 
 88. 
 
 Dash, 42, 49. 
 
 Daylight, The Lingering, Haw- 
 thorne, 89. 
 
 Debates, 218-230; briefs for, 220- 
 223; subjects for, 226. 
 
 Declension of nouns, 100. 
 
 " Defense of the Kennistons," Web- 
 ster, 224. 
 
 Description, 192-205; by effect, 
 199; by suggestion, 198; details 
 and plan, 196, 202; directions 
 for Writing, 202; reproduction of 
 sensations, 199. 
 
 Dictionaries, 147, 148. 
 
 Eliot, Charles William, "An 
 
 Average Massachusetts Grammar 
 
 School," 209. 
 Emphasis, in the paragraph, 9 1 , 93 ; 
 
 in the whole composition, 169. 
 "Enoch Arden," Tennyson, 197. 
 Exposition, 206-216; directions for 
 
 writing, 213. 
 
 Father's Friend, My, an incident, 
 
 181. 
 Fields, J. T., Thackeray and the 
 
 Oyster, 180. 
 
 Gender, 104. 
 
 Genitive. See Possessive Case. 
 Gerund, 1 12. 
 
 Grammar. See chapter on The 
 Correct Sentence, 98. 
 
 Hamilton, Gail, letter, 82. 
 
 Hawthorne, description of a 
 room, 194; The Lingering Day- 
 light, 89. 
 
 IIazlitt, "On the Conduct of 
 Life," 35. 
 
 Heading. See Letter writing. 
 
 How I killed a Bear, C. D. Warner, 
 183. 
 
 Hyphen, 21, 52. 
 
 "Idyl of the Honey-Bee, An," 
 
 Burroughs, 193. 
 Imperative mood, 109, no. 
 In the Mountains, Burroughs, 32. 
 Incident, the, 177-1S6; and short 
 
 story contrasted, 187; "Incident 
 
 of the French Camp," Browning, 
 
 184. 
 Indented paragraphs, 22, 23. 
 Indicative mood, 109. 
 Infinitive, subject of an, 103.
 
 INDEX 
 
 239 
 
 Infinitives, no. 
 Interjection, 99. 
 Interrogation point, 40. 
 Intransitive verbs, 108, 109. 
 Irving, "The Legend of Sleepy 
 Hollow," 195; "The Voyage," 28. 
 
 Key to examiner's criticisms, 25. 
 Kipling, RuDYARD,"Rikki-Tikki," 
 139 ; " The Spring Running," 201. 
 
 Narration, 177-191. 
 
 Nominative case, 102. 
 
 Notebook work, 44 (footnote 1); 
 
 96-97 (Note). 
 Nouns, 98-105; kinds of, 100, 112, 
 
 122. 
 Novel and short story compared, 
 
 187. 
 Number of nouns, 100; of verbs, 
 
 108, 118. 
 
 Lamb's Salt Dips, an incident, 179. 
 
 "Legend of Sleepy Hollow, The," 
 Irving, 195. 
 
 Letter writing, 64-86 ; address, 67 ; 
 body of the letter, 68; business 
 letters, 74-77; complimentary 
 close, 69, 70; conclusion, 69; 
 date and address, 47, 48; direc- 
 tion of envelope, 72; folding of 
 letter, 71; formak_62_^ letters of 
 friendship, 77-82; heading, 66; 
 informal, 68; invitations, 84; 
 notes, formal and informal, 84, 
 85; paper, 65,71; salutation, 67 ; 
 signature, 70; success in, 65 ; sug- 
 gestions, 74; value of, 64. 
 
 "Life of Samuel Johnson," Ma- 
 caulay, 165. 
 
 Lincoln, letter from, 81 ; para- 
 graph on, 212. 
 
 MACAULAY, " Life of Samuel John- 
 son," 165. 
 
 Manuscript, heading and margin, 
 19, 20, 22, 23. 
 
 Metaphors, 158. 
 
 Meter, 233. 
 
 Metonomy, 162. 
 
 Mood or mode, 108, 109. 
 
 Object and modifiers, 128. 
 
 Objective case, 102. 
 
 Old Friend, An, pupil's theme, 30. 
 
 " On the Conduct of Life," 35. 
 
 Only, 136. 
 
 Oral composition, 1, 2, 7. 
 
 Our Language, Scott, 88. 
 
 Paragraph, the, 21, 22; coherence 
 of, 87-90; connected paragraphs, 
 32; details grouped in, 33, 87; 
 emphasis in, 9 1-97; indenting of, 
 22, 23; independent, 27; length 
 of, 27; in letter writing, 69; plan 
 of, 2S; unity of, 27, 87. 
 
 Participles, no, in; past, 108, 
 109, iii; perfect, in; present, 
 in; relation to modifiers, 136. 
 
 Parts of speech, 98-128; flexibility 
 of, 99. 
 
 Passive voice, 109, 138. 
 
 Period, 38, 39. 
 
 Person of verbs, 108, 118. 
 
 Personification, capitals in, 61. 
 
 Phrase, conjunctive, 87; kinds and 
 uses, 126; modifying, 136; noun, 
 adjective, adverbial, 128. 
 
 " Pilgrim's Progress, The," Bun- 
 yan, 153.
 
 240 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Plan, of the paragraph, 28; of the 
 short composition, 32, 33; of 
 longer compositions, 171, 196, 
 207, 20S. 
 Plot of a story, 187. 
 Plural, formation of, 57; of com- 
 pound words, 101 ; of foreign 
 nouns, 101; of figures and let- 
 ins, 51; of groups of nouns, 
 103; of exceptional nouns, 100; 
 of proper names, 101 ; posses- 
 sive, 103. 
 Point of view, 168, 171, 19.5. 
 Possessive case, 103; with gerund, 
 
 1 12. 
 Predicate. See Subject. 
 Predicate adjective, 128. 
 Predicate nominative, 102. 
 Prepositions, 99, 123-124. 
 Principal parts, 108. 
 Pronoun, ambiguity, 106; anteced- 
 ent, 105, 136; case, 102, 107, 
 112; demonstrative, as a link, 87, 
 88; emphatic, reflexive, 107; 
 modified by participle, 136; pre- 
 ceding gerunds, 112; possessive, 
 endings of, 107; relative, 107; in 
 -self, 107. 
 Punctuation, 36-52 ; in letter writ- 
 ing, 68, 70, 72. 
 
 " Quite So," T. B. Aldrich, 185. 
 
 Quotation, direct, 42, 51. 
 
 Quotation marks,5 1 ; of paragraphs, 
 51; within a quotation, 51; of 
 titles of books or papers, 51. 
 
 Reading, aloud, 3, 4; as introduc- 
 tion to life, 142; of reputable 
 writers, 147; of verse, 231-236. 
 
 Reflexive pronoun, 107. 
 Relative pronoun, 107. 
 Resources, Our Most Precious, 
 
 burroughs, 92. 
 Rests in reading verse, 23 \. 
 Rhythm, 235. 
 
 "Rikki-Tikki," Kipling, 139. 
 " Rob Roy," Scott, 194. 
 Ri skin, Sunset Colors, 143. 
 
 Scott, "Rob Roy," 194; "Ivan- 
 hoe," 88 
 
 Secretary's report, 17. 
 
 Semicolon, 41, 42, 44, 45. 
 
 Sentence, the, 36; coherence in, 
 135; complex, 37, 128, 131, 135; 
 compound, 36, 45, 128, 131, 135; 
 construction uniform in, 133; cor- 
 rect, 98-130; three forms of, 36; 
 life in, 138; long or short, 134; 
 short preferred, 39; simple, 36, 
 I 3 I ) l 3S> smoothness in, 141; 
 unity in, 131, 135. 
 
 Shall and will, 113-117; condi- 
 tional clauses, 116; indirect dis- 
 course, 1 16. 
 
 Should, 115, 1 16. 
 
 Similes, 158. 
 
 Spelling, rules for, 56-57. 
 
 "Spring Running, The," Kipling, 
 200. 
 
 Stevenson, Robert Louis, 
 "Treasure Island," 200; "Vai- 
 lima Letters," 78, 165. 
 
 Story, the short, 187, 188. 
 
 Style, 3, 7. 
 
 Subject and predicate, 23, 24, 36, 
 27; agreement with verb, 118; 
 and modifiers, 128; of an infini- 
 tive, 103.
 
 INDEX 
 
 241 
 
 Subjects, based on experience, S. 24 ; 
 
 the choice of, 8, 96 (Note), 167; 
 
 distinguished from titles, 20; 
 
 divisions of, 21, 140; limited, 
 
 12-16, 140, 193, 207; treatment 
 
 of any, 140. 
 Subjunctive mood, 109, no. 
 Subordinate conjunctions and 
 
 clauses, 125. 
 Sunset Colors, Ruskin, 143. 
 Syllabication, 21, 52; in spelling, 
 
 56-58. 
 
 Tennyson, "Enoch Arden," 197. 
 
 Tense, 112, 113, 1 19, 120. 
 
 Thackeray and the Oyster, J. T. 
 Fields, 180. 
 
 Theme, 44 (footnote 1). 
 
 Title, 19; capitals in. 61. 
 
 Toast, Franklin's Famous, 17S. 
 
 Topic sentence, 34; in exposition, 
 207. 
 
 Topics, 27; choice of, 17;; in de- 
 veloping a subject. 140; in sepa- 
 rate paragraphs. 27, 140; order 
 for emphasis, 170, 175; separated 
 by space and time, 32. 
 
 Transition, 168. 
 
 " Treasure Island," Stevenson, 200. 
 
 Unity, in the composition, 167, 188, 
 193, 207; in letters, 65; in tin: 
 paragraph, 27, 34, 87 ; in the sen- 
 tence, 131, 135. 
 
 "Vailima Letter-." Stevenson, 78, 
 
 165. 
 Verbal nouns, 100. 
 
 Verbs, 98, 107-121; auxiliary, 113; 
 strong, 120; transitive and intran- 
 sitive, 108. 
 
 Verse, the musical reading of, 
 231-236; kinds, 235; rests, 234; 
 scan-ion, 235; variations in 
 meter, 233. 
 
 Vocabulary, 142; growing, 151; 
 large and exact, 14S; ready, 142. 
 
 Voice, 108, 109, 138. 
 
 Volition, 1 14-116. 
 
 *• Voyage, The," Irving, 28. 
 
 Warner, C. D., How I killed a 
 Bear, 183; Floating, 215. 
 
 Webster, "Defense of the Ken- 
 nistons," 224. 
 
 Will and shall, 113-117. 
 
 Words, exact meanings of, 143, 
 148; figurative, 158-163; forcible, 
 152-156; helps in choosing, 147; 
 in good use, 144; lists of words 
 to be used with care: coordinate 
 conjunctions, 125; miscellaneous 
 group, 150-151; nouns. 149-150; 
 prepositions, 124; verbs, 150; 
 new, 148; simple, 152; specific, 
 
 155- 
 
 Would, 1 15-117. 
 
 Writing, an aid to accurate expres- 
 sion of thought, 2; a matter of 
 habit, 6; three directions for, 2. 
 
 Young Protector, A, pupil's theme, 
 29. 
 
 " Zoroaster," F. Marion Crawford, 
 1 I7> 199-
 
 ANNOUNCEMENTS
 
 ENGLISH COMPOSITION AND 
 RHETORIC 
 
 Textbooks and works of reference for high schools, 
 academies, and colleges 
 
 Baker and Huntington: Principles of Argumentation (Revised 
 
 and Enlarged Edition) >i .2 5 
 
 Cairns: Forms of Discourse (Revised Edition) 1.15 
 
 With an Introductory Chapter on Style. 
 
 Cairns : Introduction to Rhetoric 90 
 
 Gardiner, Kittredge, and Arnold: Manual of Composition i 
 
 Rhetoric 100 
 
 Gardiner, Kittredge, and Arnold: Elements of English Com- 
 position 1. 00 
 
 (The Mother Tongue, Book III.) 
 Genung: Handbook of Rhetorical Analysis 1.12 
 
 Studies in Style and Invention, designed to Accompany the 
 
 Author's Practical Elements of Rhetoric. 
 
 Genung: Outlines of Rhetoric 1.00 
 
 Genung: Practical Elements of Rhetoric 1.25 
 
 Genung: The Working Principles of Rhetoric 140 
 
 Greenough, Nutter, and Ilersey : English Composition Notebook .50 
 
 In Biflex Binder 75 
 
 Hanson: English Composition 80 
 
 Lockwood : Lessons in English 1.12 
 
 Lockwood and Emerson : Composition and Rhetoric .... 1. 00 
 
 Newcomer : Practical Course in English Composition So 
 
 Nutter, Ilersey, and Greetiotigh : Specimens of Prose Com- 
 position 1 --S 
 
 Scott and Denny : The Rhetoric Tablet 15 
 
 No, 1. White paper (ruled). No. 2. Tinted paper (ruled). 
 
 Sixty sheets in each. 
 
 Smith: Studies in English Syntax 5° 
 
 Tompkins: Science of Discourse 1.00 
 
 GINN AM) COMPANY Publishers
 
 SPECIMENS OF PROSE 
 COMPOSITION 
 
 By C. R. NUTTER, F. W. C. HERSEY, and C. N. GREENOUGH 
 
 The Most Practical Collection of Models for School 
 Use yet put Together 
 
 List price, $1.25 
 
 SPECIMENS OF PROSE COMPOSITION" offers the 
 illustrative examples of which every teacher must feel 
 the need in teaching exposition, description, narration, and 
 the other forms of writing that go to make up the study of 
 rhetoric. These examples are arranged in groups under the 
 different subjects, in the natural order of their treatment. 
 
 Such illustrative material has usually been supplied only 
 at a great expense of time and labor by searching among 
 the essayists, novelists, and even magazine writers. This 
 manual makes it possible to place in the hands of every 
 pupil the desired examples, selected after careful search by 
 teachers of experience and knowledge, and arranged in just 
 the order for use. 
 
 The "selections" cover a wide field of literature and are 
 peculiarly free from dull or hackneyed material. They are 
 not only numerous, choice, varied, and interesting but they 
 show that their excellence is attainable by the pupil. With 
 this idea particularly in view, themes by students them- 
 selves — no less good English, but plainly possible to other 
 students — have been included. 
 
 46/2 
 
 GINN AND COMPANY Publishers 

 
 EUNIVER ^lOS-ANCEl?j> 
 
 ,4.0FCAIIFOM( 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 H i 
 
 
 V AvJ vucin 3' 
 
 ^OF-CA1IFO%. %» Wa vvlOSANGEL% 
 
 ^WEUNIVERy/A i-UBRARV 'flr
 
 ^clO$ANCEl£ <$UIE 
 
 " fl so 
 
 3 1158 01314 5189 
 
 
 
 t ^"V 
 
 I U 4 ii 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 
 
 
 
 AA 000 352 200 o