UC-NRLF >. ; > : , v ^JL JLJL ^1 IT;] I r 4 1 UM Jll feS. UELOIL STEAMSHIPS LOCOMOTIVES LAND BOILERS INDUSTRIAL FURNACES OTHER USES mill M* 91 MEXICAN FUEL OIL , . -,*** ' I . . ' MEXICAN FUEL OIL Price 3/6 nett. ANGLO-MEXICAN Petroleum Products Co., Ltd., FINSBURY COURT, FINSBURY PAVEMENT, LONDON, E.G. New York ? 32, 1 Broadway. ' ' {.Copyright.] - p* S 1st Edition. February, 1914. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. MEXICAN FUEL OIL. PAGE The Progress of Petroleum ... ... ... ... ... i Oil and Coal 2 Oil for Power Production ... ... ... ... ... ... 2 Fuel Oil Analysis ... ... ... ... ... 3 The Increasing Demand ... ... . . ... ... ... 5 Mexican Oil ... ... ... ... ... ... 5 Production ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 7 Refining ... ... ... ... ... ... 11 Transport . . ... ... ... ... ... ... 13 Distribution... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 13 Fuel Oil Bunkers ... ... 15 Inland Deliveries ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 16 Forward Contracts ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 17 Crude Oil ... 17 CHAPTER II. GENERAL ADVANTAGES OF FUEL OIL. Calorific Value ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 19 Higher Efficiency ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 19 Uniformity ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 20 Storage ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 20 Saving in Labour ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 20 Flexibility ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 20 Absence of Smoke and Ashes ... ... ... ... ... 20 Facility in Handling ... ... ... ... ... ... 21 For Naval Purposes ... ... ... ... ... ... 21 For Mercantile Marine ... ... ... ... ... ... 21 For Railways ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 21 For Land Steam Plants ... ... ... ... ... 2 2 For Industrial Furnaces 22 334537 vi CONTENTS. CHAPTER III. BURNERS AND SYSTEMS. PAGE Methods of using Oil for Power ... ... ... ... ... 23 Modern Burners and Systems ... ... ... ... ... 24 Steam 25 Compressed Air ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 25 Pressure System ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 26 Descriptions of Burners : Kermode Steam Burner ... ... ... ... ... 27 Kermode Air Jet Burner ... ... ... . . ... 28 Kermode Pressure Burner ... ... ... ... ... 28 Wallsend Howden ... ... ... ... ... ... 29 Holden ... 31 Babcock and Wilcox ... ... ... ... ...31 Merry weather ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 33 Carbogen ......... 34 Thornycroft ... ... ... . ... ... ... 35 Best ... ... ... 36 Baldwin ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 37 Meyer Smith ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 38 White ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 41 Von Boden Ingles ... ... ... ... ... ... 42 Lucal ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 42 Fuel Oil Equipment ... ... ... ... ... ... 43 CHAPTER IV. FUEL OIL AND THE NAVY. Fuel Oil and the Navy ... ... ... ... ... ... 46 Increased Radius of Action ... ... ... , ... ... 48 Increased Evaporative Efficiency ... ... ... ... ... 48 Increased Speed ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 48 Absence of Smoke ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 50 Improved Steaming Facilities ... ... ... ... ... 50 Saving in Labour ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 50 Constructional Advantages ... ... ... ... ... ... 50 Bunkering ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 51 CONTENTS. vii CHAPTER V. OIL AND THE MERCANTILE MARINE. PAGE Increased Cargo or Passenger Capacity ... 53 Increased Speed ...... ... 54 Coal v. Oil Fuel s.s. " Arizonan ' ; ... ... 56 Reduction in Costs ... ... 58 Coal v. Oil Fuel Cargo Steamer ... ... ... 59 s.s. "San Fraterno" ... 60 Fuel Oil for Liners ... ... ... 62 CHAPTER VI. FUEL OIL FOR RAILWAYS. Reduction in Cost and Weight of Fuel ... ... ... .. 68 Coal and Oil Fuel Results on Mexican Railway ... ... ... 69 Saving in Cost of Handling Fuel ... ... ... 70 Increased Mileage on One Load of Fuel ... . .. ... 73 Greater Power ... ... ... 7 3 Rapid Adjustment of Fuel to Suit Varying Loads ... ... 73 Rapidity in Getting up Steam ... ... 73 Elimination of Fires Caused by Coal-Fired Locomotives ... 75 Absence of Smoke ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 76 Comparative Results Coal v. Oil Fuel : Mexican Railways ... ... ... ... ... ... 76 American Railways ... ... ... ... ... 80 British Railways ... ... ... ... ... ... 83 CHAPTER VII. OIL FUEL FOR LAND STEAM PLANTS. General Advantages ... ... ... ... ... ... 86 Electric Plants ... ... 87 Oil lor Peak Loads ... ... ... 89 Oil v. Coal ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 90 Land Plant Tests ... . ... ... ... ... . . . 94 Heat Radiators ... ... ... ... ... 97 Oil-Fired Steam Cranes ... ... ... ... ... ... 98 Fuel Oil for Road Vehicles . 100 viii CONTENTS. CHAPTER VIII. OIL FURNACES. PAGE General Advantages ... ... ... ... ... ... 102 Typical Industrial Burner ... ... ... ... ... ... 103 Case Hardening ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 104 Rivet Heating ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 104 Bolt and Nut Making ... ... ... ... .. ... 105 Wire and Rolled Strip Annealing ... ... ... ... ... 1 06 Forging ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1 08 Drop Forging ... ... ... ... ... ... 109 Billet Heating ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 112 Rolling Furnace ... ... ... ... ... ...112 Tyre Heating ... ... ... ... ... ... ...113 Spring Fitter Furnace ... ... ... ... ... ...115 Cloth Singeing ... ... ... ... ... ... ...115 Metal Melting ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 118 Brass Melting Data ... ... ... ... ... ... ...119 Tilting Crucible Furnaces ... ... ... ... ... ...119 Buess Furnaces ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 124 Glassworks ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... r 27 Portable Burners ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 128 APPENDIX. I. List of Purposes for which Fuel Oil is Used ... ... 132 II. List of Manufacturers of Oil Burners ... ... ... 133 III. Definitions ... ... ... ... ... ... ...134 IV. Summary of Oil Fuel Results and Comparative Data ... 136 V. Beaume, Specific Gravity, and Weight Tables ... ... 138 VI. Heating Value of Various Coals and Oil Fuels ... ... 139 VII. Useful Data ... 140 VIII. British Thermal Units and Calories... ... ... ... 142 IX. B. T. U.'s in One Pound of Water at Different Temperatures ... ... ... ... ... ... 143 X. Properties of Saturated Steam English Basis ... ... 144 XL Properties of Saturated Steam Metric Basis ... ... 145 XII. Factors of Evaporation ... ... ... ... ... 146 XIII. Melting Points of Metals 14 7 XIV. Lloyd's Rules for the Burning and Carrying of Oil Fuel ... 148 XV. Diameter of Suction and Delivery Pipes ... ... ... 150 XVI. Viscosity Table ... ... 150 CHAPTER I. MEXICAN FUEL OIL. THE growth of petroleum production from its early The beginnings to its present world-wide development is one of the romances of commerce. From the drilling of the first well in 1859 to the present day has been a story of continuous expansion. In 1860 the pro- duction totalled 500,000 barrels ; to-day the world's total output has reached the remarkable figure of over 351 million barrels. The production of petroleum during the last decade is shown in graphic form in the chart below. 40O - 100 o 1902 1904 1910 I9O6 1900 YEAR. FIG. 1. THE WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM. 1912 2 MEXICAN FUEL O I L. Oil for This vast growth in output is beyond question due to rower ^Q use o f petroleum, especially within the last few years, Production . j \ in the production or power and heat. It is only within the last few years that the extensive geological distribution of oil has been proved, and there can be no doubt that, although the progress of the industry has been rapid during the last decade, it will be altogether eclipsed by the expansion and development of petroleum for power purposes in the near future. Oil and It is interesting to compare the latest available figures ^ oa * of the annual production of crude petroleum with that of coal. The former in 1912 amounted to 42 million tons, while the world's production of coal in 1911 amounted to 1,050 million tons. Less than one-third, however, of the coal annually consumed is used for power production, whereas three-lourths of the petroleum pro- duced is so employed. In fact, the comparison, weight for weight, between the quantity of oil used for power purposes and that of coal is as 32 million tons to 350 million tons, i.e. 9 per cent. When the respective heating values of the two fuels are considered the proportion is increased to 48 million as to 350 million tons, that is to say, the total power now pro- duced by means of petroleum already reachesthe significant proportion of over 13 per cent, of the total power pro- duced from coal. Petroleum provides a source of power in three of its principal products, namely : Motor Spirit or petrol as used for motor cars. Refined Oil, generally known as paraffin or kerosene and used largely for internal combustion engines, and as a source of heat in certain types of steam motors. MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 3 Fuel Oil, which has its principal use in steam raising and heating for various industrial purposes. It is this branch of the industry to which this book is confined. " Oil fuel," "liquid fuel,'' and "fuel oil" are inter- Fuel Oil changeable terms for the same product. The term "crude oil " in this connection is a misnomer, as crude oil contains certain fractions, such as petrol and kerosene, which are removed by distillation from the crude oil before it becomes fuel oil. Oil fuel is a heavy, dark-coloured product, and is usually more viscous than the crude oil from which it is produced. The analysis and specification of Mexican Fuel Oil is approximately as follows : Carbon 83*52% Hydrogen I r6S% Sulphur 3-27% Ash 0-16% Undetermined (presumably Oxygen and Nitrogen)... i'37% 10000 Specific Gravity at 60 Fah. about '950 Flash Point ... ... above 150 F. Viscosity at 100 Fah. (Redwood No. i) ... 1,500 seconds Calorific value Per pound ... ... 18,900 B.T.U.'s Per kilogram ... 10,500 calories In the past some prejudice has existed against an oil containing more than .75 per cent, of sulphur, although no scientific reason can be given for fixing this or any other arbitrary figure. No objection, however, is made 4 MEXICAN FUEL OIL. to the presence of sulphur in coal, nor any record of deterioration of boilers on this account. It is significant that the amount of coal of average quality required to give an equivalent heating value to a pound of oil would contain more sulphur than is contained in one pound of Mexican fuel oil. The extensive experience with oil burning which is now available shows that o boiler corrosion does not take place. The only point that need be mentioned in this connection is that it is advisable, when steel chimneys are used, that the temperature of the flue gases should not fall below 400 F., a contingency which rarely arises in actual practice. The only drawback attaching to the presence of sulphur in fuel oil is that its heat value is somewhat low, i.e., 4,500 B.T.U. per pound, and consequently the total B.T.U.'s per pound of oil are slightly lower on account of its presence. The fact that the British Admiralty have, after careful investigation, raised the percentage in their specifications from the conventional standard of .75 per cent, to 3.00 per cent, reflects the altered views on this question DRILLING A WELL ON MEXICAN OILFIELDS. MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 5 Within recent years a widespread and constantly The increasing demand has arisen for fuel oil, and there is no |" creas ] n i i i i r i- Demand doubt that but for the uncertainty respecting supplies which has existed in the past, the progress made would have been even greater. It is self-evident that however satisfactory any form of power production may be theoretically, its commercial success inevitably depends on a fuel supply being available in large quantities, with uniform supplies and at reasonable prices. Hitherto there has been uncertainty about supplies, coupled with fluctuations in prices, with the consequence that many engineers have looked upon oil fuel burning, however desirable in other respects, as an expensive luxury. Within the last year or two, however, a new factor Mexican Oil has appeared in the oil fuel question, namely, the develop- ment of Mexican oil supplies. A few years ago Mexico was scarcely entitled to a place in the list of the world's PUMP ON THE POTRERO TUXPAM PIPELINE. MEXICAN FUEL OIL. petroleum production. To-day she holds third place in the list of oil-producing countries in the world, ranking next to the output of the United States and Russia At the present rate of progress Mexico will in a few years become the second largest producing country. Fig. 2 gives graphically the annual Mexican produc- tion from the year 1907, and it may be mentioned, in passing, that while the production of crude oil in Russia 20 3.5 10 1907 ^ 1908 I9O9 1911 I9I 1910 YEAR FIG. 2. MEXICO'S PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM (191?, is estimated). 1913 and the United States during the last three years has shown little expansion, that of Mexico has shown rapid increase. So vigorous has been the growth of its petroleum industry that in three or four years it has shot ahead of the old-established oilfields of Burmah, the Dutch East Indies, Roumania and Galicia. This remarkable progress is due almost entirely to the advent of the Mexican Eagle Oil Co., Ltd., the history of whose growth and operations could worthily form a book in itself. MEXICAN FUEL OIL. THE GUSHER POTRERO 4, BEFORE BEING CAPPED. As is generally known, Production the Mexican Eagle Oil Co., Ltd., and its allied organisations have been o created through the commercial activities of S. Pearson & Son, Ltd., and the position held by the Mexican Republic in the petroleum world to-clay is mainly due to their initiative organisation and control. During the last decade the petroleum potentialities of Mexico were recognised by this engineering firm while they were engaged in the construction of railways and harbours in the Republic. Great areas of petroliferous territory, aggregating hundreds of square miles, were acquired. Numerous wells were sunk and several distinct oilfields SOME OF THE 55,000 BARREL STORAGE TANKS, MEXICAN EAGLETOIL CO. MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 9 were rapidly developed. Reservoirs, tank farms, pipe- lines, pumping stations, refineries and tank-steamer loading terminals were established. The territories developed have proved exceedingly prolific, and in 1911 the world's record gusher, Potrero well No. 4, was brought in with a natural capacity of STORAGE RESERVOIR AT POTRERO 2, 5CO.OOO BARRELS. over 100,000 barrels of oil per day, and the illustration of a vast lake of oil enclosed in an earthen reservoir represents a portion of its prodigious output. By means of pipelines, aggregating over 200 miles in length, the oil is transported to the sea-board tank and refinery depots. On the Gulf coast, just north of the Tuxpam River, the Mexican Eagle Oil Co. have built a deep sea loading terminal where vessels of the deepest draught, lying at ocean moorings at a distance of about a mile from the shore, are rapidly loaded by means of pipelines laid on the bed of the sea. At the shore end these pipelines connect to a pump station and a large storage depot, with a capacity in steel tankage of over 150,000 tons.^ Similar sea-board storage depots * For ratio of tons to barrels see Appendix, page 138. vr flu 1. STILLS AT MINATITLAN REFINERY. 2. CONDENSER TANKS AT REFINERY. 3. POWER PLANT, MINATITLAN. MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 1 1 are located at Tampico, Vera Cruz and at Puerto Mexico on the Coatzacoalcos River. The total storage capacity of the steel tankage is over two million barrels. At Minatitlan the Mexican Eagle Oil Company have a Refining refinery with a daily input capacity of 1,400 tons of crude petroleum, which is manufactured into a complete range of high-grade products, while another still larger refinery is now under construction at the port of Tampico, and when completed will treat some 4,000 tons of crude oil daily. The Mexican Eagle Oil Co. possesses a complete and efficient marketing organisation for the supply of its home market in Mexico, where it has established over 160 depots throughout the Republic, and supplies the railways and other industries of Mexico with fuel oil and lubricants. FRONTS OF CONTINUOUS STILLS, MINATITLAN. MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 13 In order to deal effectually with the transport side Transport of the business, the associated organization, the Eagle Oil Transport Co., is building a fleet of twenty large tank steamers. Ten of this number are giant vessels of over 15,500 tons dead weight capacity, larger than any other tank steamers in the world, the remainder of the fleet being of 9,000 tons capacity. Ten of these tank steamers are already in commission, and the sister ships are rapidly approaching completion in the yards of some of the premier shipbuilding companies of Great Britain. The whole of the fleet should be in active service by the end of 1914. It will give some idea of the capacity of this fleet to mention that placed end to end it would measure over if miles, the total carrying capacity being 250,000 tons per voyage. The San Fraterno, the first of the larger vessels to be launched, has attracted widespread attention, and a few details of this mammoth vessel will be of interest. Built of steel on the Isherwood system, her length over all is 548 feet, and her total dead weight capacity is 15,700 tons. The oil cargo is carried in 12 holds, divided into 24 compartments by a longitudinal bulk- head. She is fitted with quadruple expansion engines, and the boilers are oil-fired on the Wallsend-Howden system. The cargo tanks are fitted with steam heating coils to facilitate the discharge of her cargo, and specially powerful pumps are installed, capable of handling 1,200 tons of oil per hour. From the seaboard refineries of Mexico the oil fuel is Distribution brought by these steamers to ocean storage installations in the United Kingdom and abroad. During the first nine months of 1913 more oil fuel was imported into this country from Mexican Eagle sources than from all STORAGE TANKS AT BARTON, MANCHESTER. MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 15 other oil-producing countries combined, as is shown by the following figures, and during the same period the total United Kingdom imports of fuel oil exceeded those for the whole of the year 1912 by seven million gallons. These figures clearly indicate the progress fuel oil is making in this country. IMPORTS OF FUEL OIL INTO UNITED KINGDOM.* (Exclusive of Admiralty Imports.) January \st to October \ 3///, 1913. COUNTRY OF ORIGIN. GALLONS. Mexico ... ... ... ... 12830,670 Roumania... ... ... 9,027,540 U.S.A. ... 2,836,330 Dutch Indies ... ... ... 299,497 Germany ... ... ... ... 400 Belgium ... ... ... ... 120 Other Countries ... ... ... 3,620 Total 24,998,177 It is significant that large quantities of Mexican fuel oil are now being exported to the United States of America, to the South American railways, and the State railways of Russia. For bunkering purposes oil can be taken ex storage p ue j QJJ installations at the principal ports in the United Kingdom. Bunkers The storage at Manchester, which has a capacity of over 31,000 tons, is typical of these facilities, and is the largest fuel oil installation on the west coast of England. In order to meet the requirements of steamship lines engaged on transatlantic routes a number of oil bunkering stations at the usual ports of call in North and South Atlantic waters are in the course of active equipment. * Petroleum Review, October 18th, 1913. i6 MEXICAN FUEL OIL. Inland Deliveries Deliveries for inland requirements in the United Kingdom are made either by rail tank cars and road wagons, or by tank barges to consumers' works. The rail tank cars illustrated below have been built specially for the Anglo- Mexican Petroleum Products Co. for carrying Mexican fuel oil, and are provided with four inch outlets on both sides, while a steam coil is fitted FUEL OIL RAILWAY TANK CAR, FIFTEEN TOXS CAPACITY. inside, for permitting the fuel to be heated in frosty weather to facilitate discharge. Where the consumer has works adjacent to railway sidings, this method of delivery is usually employed Failing that, the oil is transferred to road wagons, and so delivered to con- sumers' storage tanks. Where works are situated on the water side, delivery is effected in tank barges with a MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 17 carrying capacity of from 30 to 100 tons, and in this way a saving in the cost of transit is effected. The organisation represented by the foregoing Forward companies for the production, refining, transport and Contracts distribution of Mexican oil fuel is of the most complete and comprehensive character, and the extent of its properties and its transport facilities are in themselves a guarantee of continuity of supplies, which has hitherto been lacking. Forward contracts have been entered into with big consumers both in this country arid abroad, and quotations for any quantities will be furnished on application. It is not generally known that large quantities of Crude Oil crude oil with a comparatively low flash-point are being used as a substitute for high-flash fuel oil. The difference between crude and fuel oil, as mentioned on page 3, is that with crude oil the preliminary distillation or topping process is omitted and the oil is used sub- stantially as it comes from the wells. The saving in distillation enables crude oil to be offered at a price which is lower than that of fuel oil. In Mexico large quantities of crude oil are used in sugar mills, electric light and power stations, breweries, steel works, cement works, brick factories, and railways. This oil, which has a flash point of 80 F., can be used with entire safety and appreciable reduction in cost in all land plants where oil is the motive power. While not specifically recommended for marine pur- poses, crude oil can be safely used for vessels, provided certain structural alterations are made. The Board ot Trade now recognises that there is a future for the use of crude oil, and has passed regulations subject to which it may be used. These regulations stipulate that i8 MEXICAN FUEL OIL. the oil pumps shall be isolated from the boiler room, and it may be mentioned that the San Fraterno is built on this principle, and runs on crude Mexican oil. There is no disadvantage in the use of crude oil as compared with fuel oil. The viscosity is lower, and it is theretore easier to handle, while the margin in price certainly makes it attractive from a commercial standpoint. It may be mentioned that no special structural precautions or increase in premiums are required by insurance com- panies in the United Kingdom when crude, oil is burned in connection with land plants. Quotations for supplies of fuel oil or crude oil will be furnished on application to Anglo -Mexican Petroleum Products Company, Ld., Finsbury Court, Finsbury Pavement, London, E.C. ONE OF THE MEXICAN EAGLE OIL COMPANY'S RAIL TANK CARS. CHAPTER II. GENERAL ADVANTAGES OF FUEL OIL. THE great advantages which fuel oil possesses over coal lie chiefly in its physical properties. These advantages, which are dealt with in detail in succeeding chapters, are briefly summarised below : Calorific Value. The calorific value of Mexican fuel oil is about 18,900 B.T.U. per Ib. as compared with coal, which usually varies between 11,500 and 14,500 B.T.U. per Ib., according to the nature and quality of the coal. There is, therefore, an increase of from 30 to 64 per cent, in the heating value of oil as compared with coal, weight for weight. Higher Efficiency. The thermal efficiency of an oil- fired furnace is much higher than that obtained with coal firing, as there is perfect smokeless combustion of the fuel. The efficiency of the great majority of coal-fired furnaces in this country, under average working conditions, does not exceed 65 per cent., whereas experience with oil firing shows that So per cent., and sometimes more, of the theoretical heat value of the fuel is recovered under normal conditions. The ratio of the heat units utilised per pound of oil fuel when compared with coal, taking into account the higher calorific value and better thermal efficiency, is as follows: COAL OIL. With coal of 14,500 B.T.U.'s ... ... i i l , II, 5 n I 2 20 MEXICAN FUEL OIL. The particulars of a number of oil fuel results are given in the subsequent chapters, and are summarised in tabular form on page 136 of the Appendix. Uniformity. The heating value of coal varies over a wide range, and is further often depreciated by the absorption of moisture. On the other hand, oil possesses a constant heating value which seldom varies from specification. In oil contracts a clause is often inserted basing price on actual calorific value, a form of contract which is rarely obtainable with coal supplies. Storage. It will be seen from the above that the quantity of fuel required to do the same work is much less with oil than with coal, consequently there is great saving of space in storage of fuel. There is a further advantage that, while oil maintains its calorific value indefinitely, coal steadily depreciates in thermal value in the course of time. Saving in Labour. With fuel oil furnaces the labour required for stoking, cleaning fires, and handling ashes is eliminated, effecting a great reduction in the cost of labour, which is one of the important factors to be noted in comparing the respective fuels. Flexibility. An oil-fired furnace rapidly attains its maximum heat from cold and is easily maintained at full capacity for prolonged periods. It can be instantly shut off when not required, and stand-by losses are accordingly avoided. Absence of Smoke and Ashes. The perfect com- bustion readily obtained with oil fuel means absence of smoke, soot, and clinker. MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 21 Facility in Handling. Oil can be pumped into storage with great rapidity and an absence of the dirt, trouble, and labour associated with handling coal. The above advantages have, of course, a different significance for each class of work in which oil fuel is used, as is shown briefly by the following summary : For Naval Purposes. 1. Increased radius of action. 2. Increased evaporation. 3 Increased speed. 4. Absence of smoke. 5. Improved steaming facilities. 6. Great reduction in stokehold staff, 7. Constructional advantages. 8. Facility in bunkering. For Mercantile Marine. 1. Increased cargo or passenger capacity. 2. Increased speed. 3. Reduction in running costs. 4. Saving in stokehold staff and improved conditions for men required. 5. Quick and easy bunkering. For Railways. 1. Reduction in the cost and weight of fuel. 2. Saving- in cost of handling fuel. 3. Increased mileage on one load of fuel. 4. Greater power. 5. Rapid adjustment of fuel to suit varying load. 6. Rapidity in getting up steam. 7. Elimination of fires caused by coal-fired locomotives. 8. Absence of smoke. MEXICAN FUEL OIL. For Land Steam Plants. 1. Higher boiler and furnace efficiency. 2. Increased capacity of boiler plant. 3. Rapidity in adjustment to varying loads. 4. Absence of smoke, ashes and dust. 5. Saving- in labour. 6. Minimum variation in furnace temperature. 7. General cleanliness and efficiency. For Industrial Furnaces. r. Increased output. 2. Decreased cost of fuel. 3. Saving in time and labour. 4. Less wastage, owing to more uniform results, 5. High temperatures obtainable. 6. Greater control of temperatures. 7. Less floor space and cleaner conditions. DISTILLATE RECEIVING TANKS, MINATITLAN . T CHAPTER III. BURNERS AND SYSTEMS. HERE are two methods of using fuel oil as a Methods of r Using Fuel source of power :- Oil f 1. By introducing the oil into a furnace in the form of a spray. This is accomplished by atomising the oil by means of a burner, of which there are many forms. 2. By introducing the oil fuel direct into the cylinder of internal combustion engines of the Diesel type. The oil is sprayed into the cylinder when the air contents are so highly compressed that the temperature is sufficiently high to ignite the fuel without the use of the ignition devices employed in engines using the lighter oils. The first attempt to utilise oil as fuel was made in 1 86 1 by a mechanic named Werner, engaged in a refinery in Russia, who burnt the oil residuum in an open furnace. Then came a number of patents, both in this country and abroad, for oil burners, some of them of a very elementary character. Certain definite types of burners have emerged from a wealth of inventive effort, and the processes of applying fuel oil have crystallised into practically standard and 23 24 MEXICAN FUEL OIL. highly efficient methods. In the year 1902 the United States Naval Board commenced a series of exhaustive experiments in the use of fuel oil, and collected much valuable data in the process of their enquiry. The results of this enquiry were on the whole very favourable, and gave a considerable stimulus to the practical application of oil fuel. Modern The remarkable progress made in the application of Burners fuel oil in recent years is due in no small measure to an ys ems ^ exce jj ence o f fa G burners supplied by those firms who have specialised in this work, and in some cases burners have been evolved by manufacturing firms in order to meet the requirements of their own industries. Oil fuel burners are made in various sizes, according to the class of work in which they are employed. Upwards of 1,000 Ibs. of oil per hour can be consumed by one burner, although the more usual capacity for steam raising is from 250 to 500 Ibs. of oil per burner per hour. The feature common to practically all burners and systems is the atomisation or pulverising of the oil fuel into a very fine spray, so that each particle of oil shall receive sufficient oxygen to burn completely. Theoretically it requires 13^ to 14^ Ibs. of air to effect the combustion of i Ib, of oil, and on the thorough atomisation of the fuel and its effective mixture with a sufficient supply of air depends the efficiency of the furnace. The power for thus breaking up the oil is furnished by one of three means, and each method has its advan- tages and limitations : MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 25 (a) Steam. (6) Compressed air. (c) Pressure applied direct to the oil supply. Steam is generally employed for stationary boilers and locomotives, and is the simplest of the three systems to manipulate. The advantage of steam is that no auxiliary apparatus in the shape of air compressors or oil pumps are required, and it is a simple matter to get an absolutely smokeless flame. With steam burners the chimney stack need not be more than 60 per cent, of the height usual for coal fired furnaces. Against this must be set the fact that from 3 per cent, to 10 per cent, of the steam generated is used for atomising the fuel, and the net evaporation per pound of oil is about 13 '6 to 14/8 Ibs. from and at 212 Fah., the lowest of the three systems. Compressed Air is valuable in the case of a battery of boilers where high efficiency is essential. On boilers so fitted the evaporative value rises to between 15*6 and 'SAN RICARDO," EAGLE OIL TRANSPORT CO., LTD. 26 MEXICAN FUEL OIL. i6'6 Ibs. per pound of oil. Comparing these two systems, Mr. W. N. Best says : " Numerous tests have proved that with steam at 80 Ibs. pressure and air at 80 Ibs. pressure, the latter shows a saving of 12 per cent, in fuel over steam, but of this 12 per cent, it costs 8 per cent, to compress the air (this includes interest on money invested in air compressors, etc.), so that there is a total net saving of 4 per cent, in favour of compressed air." It should be stated, however, that low pressure burners using only a tenth of the pressure mentioned are now used and give good service. Most industrial oil furnaces work on compressed air, and it is advantageous when working with air to preheat same as a higher efficiency is developed. The Pressure System usually involves the heating and filtration of the oil fuel, which is then supplied to the burners under pressure by means of special pumps. It is largely employed on marine boilers operating with forced or induced draught, and other plant where the fresh water consumed in steam burners cannot be spared. This system is also well adapted for use in large land plants as the evaporative efficiency is about the same as secured with compressed air, namely, between 15*6 and i 6'6 Ibs. Each of these three systems has its sphere of utility, and it should be remarked that the furnace arrange- ment in every case largely influences , the efficiency of any burner. It is essential to secure that the air supply shall mix with the oil spray, not merely envelop it, and that the flame should fill the furnace space as fully and evenly as possible. It is important to see that no undue excess of air is applied to a burner, for while a little smoke may indicate a loss of, say, i per MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 27 cent, of heat, an excess of air, which has to be heated to the temperature of flue gases, may mean a loss of many times that amount of heat. In the following pages short descriptions are Description given of several of the representative burner systems f Burners in use to-day ; these are necessarily brief, but fuller information can be obtained from the makers. Lack of space precludes reference to a number of excel- lent burners, a description of which would otherwise be found interesting. Attention is directed to the Appendix, page 133, in which a list of burner makers is given. Kermcde Steam Burner. In this burner the oil is pulverised by a jet of steam from the boiler. The oil enters centrally through the branch B, and has a whirling motion imparted to it by the stem of the oil valve marked G. The steam goes around the whole N FIG. 3. KERMODE'S STEAM BURNER. cone A, passing through slots in the cylindrical portion where this fits into the hollow of the air cone, the whole oil supply being thus steam-jacketed. The air cone is F, and this is also fitted with spiral guides, its amount being adjusted by opening or shutting the openings D by means of the movable perforated strap E. 28 MEXICAN FUEL OIL. Kermode Air Jet Burner In this burner the oil is partially vaporised and sprayed by means of hot air at a pressure of from half a pound to four pounds per square inch. The oil enters branch A, its further flow being regulated by a conical valve and seat. The air pre- viously heated enters the burner at the branches B and C ; the air passing through C meets the oil as it passes the oil control valve which is operated by the wheel E, and both travel on together, the oil being rapidly FlG. 4. KERMODE'S AIR JET BURNER. vaporised in its passage. There is a helix K in the centre tube which effects a complete commingling of the air and oil vapour, and ensures that none of the vapour will pass through the tube untreated. The supply of air can be regulated at two points by means of hand wheels, pinions, and racks ; one pinion L moves the internal tube for the oil-delivering nozzle F and releases the air which enters there. The second pinion M operates the outer tube and varies the amount of air escaping around the mixed jet at the end of the twisted spindle K. Kermode Pressure Burner. This burner, designed specially for marine purposes, is recommended for use with forced or induced draft. The oil enters the burner through the channel D and the inner cylinder B, which abuts against the cap nut E. The spindle C serves to MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 29 contract or enlarge the opening through the cap nut E. The movement of C is indicated on the graduated wheel marked F. The oil fuel is pulverised very completely by being forced through a restricted opening with a rotary FIG. 5. KERMODE'S PRESSURE BURNER. motion imparted to it by tangential grooves in the face of the plug end of B. In this system the oil fuel, which has been previously heated and carefully filtered, is supplied to the burner under pressure by means of a force pump. Wallsend - Howden System. This is a well-known pressure system employing oil heaters, filters and pumps. The improved construction of the furnace front constitutes the principal feature of the invention, each burner 3 o MEXICAN FUEL OIL. projecting through a baffleplate on the front plate of the casing into an air trunk having lateral openings at its outer end. This air trunk ~~\ projects concentrically with a =-=>}-.- .__rr! I ~=r- J -L/.- J jC^-J^nCi 21! FIG. 6. ARRANGEMENT OF HEATERS, FILTERS AND PUMPS FOR MARINE INSTALLATION OF WALLSEND-HOWDEN PRESSURE SYSTEM. second air trunk carried by the furnace front, and the annular space between the inner and outer air trunks is fitted with deflectors constructed so as to give the air passing through the annulus a spiral motion. An evaporative efficiency of 16*22 Ibs. has been attained with this system in conjunction with Howden's forced draught. FIG. 7. ARRANGEMENT OF WALLSEND BURNER FOR MARINE BOILER. MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 3 1 Holden Burner. The latest improved type of this burner is shown in Fig. 8. The injection of oil is effected by means of steam or air pressure of not less than 60 Ibs. per square inch. No pressure is required in the fuel tank, as the oil flows by gravity to the burners through the regulating valve A, and steam or compressed air is admitted at the connection B. The holes in the nozzle are so arranged that as the streams of oil and steam or compressed air issue from the nozzle they converge towards each other, effecting a thorough distribution and atomization of the oil. FIG. 8. HOLDEN BURNER. On the Holden system oil can be burnt alone, or in conjunction with coal ; in the latter case no alteration is required to an ordinary coal burning furnace beyond the addition of the oil burner and valves. Messrs. Babcock & Wilcox supply oil burning equipment under all three systems, namely, steam, air, and pressure jet. The diagram, Fig. 9, show's the steam burner, which is largely used on account of its simplicity ; MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 33 while the pressure system is recommended for marine work and wherever high evaporative duty is required. It is stated that the steam burner will deliver up to about 550 Ibs. of oil per burner per hour, and the pressure burner will deliver up to 700 Ibs. of oil per burner per hour. The average would be about 250 Ibs. per burner for the steam burner, and about 450 Ibs. per FIG. 10. SPRAYER USED FOR THE BABCOCK WILCOX PRESSURE SYSTEM. burner for the pressure burner, but the size of the burners can be varied to meet the conditions of the particular case under consideration. The Merryweather liquid fuel burner is entirely of gun- metal, and is of the spray type, using steam or compressed air for the atomization of the fuel. The atomizing agent is taken through a central passage, the orifice of which is controlled by a needle valve operated by a milled wheel. An annular space surrounds the centre passage, into which the fuel supply is taken. The orifice of this passage is annular and conical in shape, the oil fuel emerging in a direction across the passage of the atomizing agent. The oil orifice is fully adjustable according to the amount of fuel that it is necessary to burn for a stated duty. The central portion of the 34 MEXICAN FUEL OIL. FIG. 11. MERRYWEATHER BURNER. burner is mounted in a separate conical piece, through which air is induced to assist combustion : the supply of air is regulated by a per- forated disc. The whole burner is ar- ranged so that it can be instantly taken apart by the removal of a single nut, and has lugs for con- venient attachment to any form of boiler. The Merryweather oil fuel burner is fitted to the boiler of their well-known motor steam fire engines. Garbogen Burner. This burner may be used with either steam or compressed air, and is applied through a combustion chamber either built in the wall of the furnace or specially attached. As will be seen from the diagram, the burner has three orifices, the central one being for induced air, the second one for the fuel, and the outer one for the steam or compressed air used to atomise the fuel. Where an extremely high tem- perature is required, a stream of oxygen can be introduced FIG. 12.-CARBOGEN BURNER. thrOUgh tllC MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 35 tube. The burner is made in two sizes, ranging in consumption from 10 to 250 pounds of oil per hour. Messrs. Curie have recently introduced a modified type of the Carbogen burner, which is actuated by air at a pressure of about 12 to 15 inch water gauge. This low pressure type is adaptable for many processes, and the running cost is lower than with air-compressor plant. Mexican fuel oil is now being consumed on a large scale o o with the Carbogen low pressure burner. The Thornycroft System. The system adopted by Messrs. Thornycroft consists in spraying hot oil fuel under pressure into the boiler furnace, the admixture of air and fuel necessary for perfect combustion being obtained by means of special burners and air cones, no steam being required. FIG. 13. THORNYCROFT BURNER. A small steam-driven pump draws oil from the tanks and discharges it, at a suitable pressure, through filters to a heater. The oil is heated by passing through a number of steel tubes surrounded by a steam jacket. 3 6 MEXICAN FUEL OIL. The condensed steam from the jacket falls to a col- lector showing when sufficient water has accumulated to necessitate blowing out. In the case of a closed-drain system the condensed water from the heater is led to the reserve feed tank through a special grease extractor. From the heater the oil passes through another pair of filters, fitted with the requisite change-over valves, to a master valve on the boiler front. The sprayers are of the Thornycroft patent type, as illustrated, and are arranged to deliver the hot oil thoroughly pulverised to a specially constructed hollow steel mixing chamber, and from thence to the furnace. A forced draught fan is usually employed, working either on the closed-stokehold system, or through an air trunk connected with the front of the boiler casing as may suit the arrangement in vessel. This system of oil fuel burning is also suitable for working with natural draught and forced draught under the Howden system. Best Burner. This representative American burner is made for use with air or steam, and is very simple in construction. The method of working will be seen by reference to Fig. 14. As the oil fuel passes out per- pendicularly it is struck by MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 37 the jet of air or steam coming on horizontally, and converted into a mist of very fine particles. A hinged lip is provided, so that by slackening a set-screw and turning on the atomiser any temporary clogging is readily cleared. The opening of the burner can be shaped so as to throw either a long narrow flame or a fan-shaped blaze nine feet wide. FIG. 15. SECTION OF BEST BURNER. Baldwin Burner. The burner used by the Baldwin Locomotive Works is rectangular in cross section, with two separate ports or chambers (one above the other) running its entire length. Oil is admitted into the upper port, and steam into the lower. A free outlet is allowed for the oil at the nose of the burner ; the steam outlet, however, is contracted at this point by an adjust- able plate, thus giving a thin, wide aperture. This arrangement tends to wire-draw the steam and increase its velocity at the point of contact with the oil, giving a better atomizing effect. A permanent adjustment of the plate can be made for each burner, after the requirements of service are ascertained. The burner is made of brass, as an iron casting is found to be sufficiently porous to enable the steam to pene- 38 MEXICAN FUEL OIL. FIG. 16. THE BALDWI: BURNER. ^ _j \ j / i | . IP-, SH tni ^Q I----I -j H -* v--^/ il L_ -1 l[ trate through to the oil passage, thus causing irregularities in the action of the flame. The adjustable plate is of copper, and it is held in place by a set screw. The end of the burner is cut out to receive a second copper plate, having a suitable opening in it for the oil discharge. Meyer-Smith System. The Meyer-Smith Pressure System consists of a special type steam fuel pump, suction and delivery oil filters, oil delivery heater, special oil burning front, and a patent mechanical spray burner for atomising the oil. The pump draws the oil through the suction filter, which has a medium gauze wire strainer, and passes it into the delivery heater at from 50-70 Ibs. pressure, (n passing through this heater, the oil is raised to the required temperature according to the class of oil being dealt with, the temperatures ranging from 180 deg. Fah. to 240 deg. Fah. After leaving the heater, the oil is next passed through the delivery filter, which has a very fine mesh strainer, and here it is thoroughly filtered before passing to the burners. so ~ ~~ rt c ! 3 ;s;^o O -S a .c Q S c. W .2 o c^.5 O o ^ !r, > 5 "^ a a o 5 21 ^2,921 10 o Say six round voyages per year (combined saving and increased earning capacity) ,17,529 o 6o MEXICAN FUEL OIL. "San Fraterno " It will be of interest to recount here the very satis- factory performance of the San Fraterno (Eagle Oil Transport Co.) on its trial trips off the mouth of the Tyne in April last. This vessel is the largest oil-carrying steamer in the world, and it is of especial significance in the present connection, as the vessel is not only typical of the extensive arrangements which are being made for the marketing and distribution of abundant supplies of fuel oil, but the San Fraterno affords in itself a practical demonstration of the advantages of fuel oil burning. The vessel is fitted with the Wallsend-Howden pressure system under each of her four boilers. Although the specified speed was u^ knots, the average speed attained on the trials with the full load of 15,000 tons water ballast was 12 knots per hour. This was accom- plished while using only three of the four boilers. This "SAN FRATERNO" OIL-FIRED FURNACES. MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 61 photograph was taken when the boilers were being- forced, and a glance shows that the fireman's duties are very light indeed when oil is used. The impressions of the Standard engineering representative are worth quoting here : " On her trials she burned Mexican oil, such as she will transport from the refineries of the Mexican Eagle Oil Company. " The writer happened to be in the boiler and engine rooms during the earlier portions of the trial. The boiler- room was as unlike the boiler-room of old as it was possible to imagine. There seven ' firemen ' stood, arms folded and in spotless overalls, as though they were chefs in the kitchen of a big hotel. They were, indeed, more fortunate, for the air was free from fumes, fresh and cool. The only noise was the muffled roar of the oil flames within the furnaces. Occasionally one would examine the thermometer outside "SAN FRATERNO" PUMPS, HANDLING 1,200 TONS OF OIL PER HOUR. 62 MEXICAN FUEL OIL. the furnace to judge the temperature of the inrushing oil. A second, having adjusted his smoked-glass spectacles, would look through a peephole to see that the jets were working properly, whilst a third would read the pressure gauge on the oil pumps. " The steam during the compass trials had been standing at 200 Ib. to the square inch. Suddenly the indicator bell rang advising preparations for full speed. With a smile of satisfaction the firemen turned small valves and increased the blast of oil and air within a brief space of time the steam pressure stood at 220 Ibs., and the power trials were under way. The vessel had to show a trial of ii J knots. Her first run over the measured mile revealed 12.62. This was with the tide. The second against the tide, showed 11.57 knots. Her average in the end worked out at 12 knots. Throughout the trials there was a remarkable absence of smoke from her funnel, and a complete absence of smell." It should be mentioned that most of the "firemen " referred to were on this occasion representatives of the builders of the vessel, engines, and furnaces. The very favourable indications of satisfactory service which the trials gave have been amply fulfilled on the maiden voyage. The San Fraterno arrived in London with her first full cargo of about 15,000 tons of oil from Mexico, having exceeded all the expectations of her owners. She made the round trip on an average speed exceeding eleven knots with three boilers employed, her consumption of Mexican fuel oil being only thirty-eight tons of oil per day, which for a ship of this size is highly satisfactory. Fuel Oil Among well-known steamship companies employing for Liners f ue ] o }} j n run ning some of their vessels are the North German Lloyd, the Hamburg-American Line, Austrian- MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 63 Lloyd, American-Hawaiian, Roumanian State Maritime Service, Toyo Kisen Kaisha Steamship Co., Grand Trunk Railway, Canadian Pacific, the East Asiatic Co., and the Oceanic Union S.S. Co. Several of the great steamship companies in this country have of late given the question favourable consideration, and it may be mentioned that the White Star Line has arranged to experiment with liquid fuel on the Olympic. This vessel recently had an inner shell fitted, and the three feet space between the inner and outer shells at the forward and after bunkers has been adapted for the storage ot the oil. It is probable that the Britannic, which is now being constructed at Belfast for the same company, will also be fitted to burn oil fuel, and the same applies to the Cunard Company's new liner Aquitania. It is anticipated that the next few years will witness striking developments in this direction. It is important to remember that the furnaces of a vessel burning oil may be readily altered to burn coal or vice versa when required. If suitable arrangements are made the work can be done at the cost of a few pounds by the ship's own staff without any trouble or delay to the steamer. The advantage offered by this ready conversion is that with vessels which trade between countries where either coal is dear and oil cheap, or the reverse, the cheap fuel can be used on both journeys, resulting in remarkable economies. The Toyo Kisen Kaisha steamship line above mentioned is operated in this way. The calculations of Mr. J. J. Kermode, based on the voyages of such vessels as the Mauretania, are sufficiently interesting and suggestive to reproduce here. In a S.S. "PACHIHEA." Built for the Cia Peruana de Vapores y Dique del Callo, fitted with Wallsend-Howden Fuel Oil System. TRIPLE SCREW STEAMER " PRIXZ HOHENLOHE." Austrian Lloyds Triple Screw Passenger and Mail Steamer fitted with the Wallsend-Howden System. (Hovvden's Forced Draught.) Note the absence of Smoke. MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 'TWEEN DECKS OF THE "SAN FRATERNO." paper read at the Oil Congress in London, 1912, Mr. Kermode said : " On an average, to maintain a speed of twenty-five knots, 5,500 tons of coal are consumed upon the voyage between Liverpool and New York by one of these mammoth liners, or ii,coo tons for the round trip. Some 3,300 tons of oil fuel which would be stored, if necessary, in the double bottom of the vessel, thereby leaving the coal bunkers available for cargo would, by automatic stoking, do even more work than 5,500 tons of coal. "Calculating the daily consumption of 600 tons of coal now used for twenty-four hours, this represents about 2,000 tons less fuel on a five days' trip, land to land run, or 4,000 tons less, out and home. The utilising of the vacant space for merchandise at, say, i per ton would mean a very substantial increase of income. "Of the 31 2 firemen and trimmers now employed on each ship, 285 might be dispensed with, and occupation found for them under healthier conditions ashore, in handling the extra cargo which would be carried. " Twenty-seven greasers would be able to attend to the oil burners and regulate the feed water of the boilers. At 66 MEXICAN FUEL OIL. BUNKERING WITH OIL. least 200 extra third-class passengers at 5 per head, of which 50 per cent, would be profit, could be berthed by altering the accommodation reserved for the 280 firemen and trimmers. Even with coal at iSs. 6d. per ton as against oil at seven dollars per ton on the eastward voyage, and 455. per ton on the westward passage, the increased earning capacity of such vessels under oil fuel would be over ,10.000 for the round voyage out and home. A full supply of oil could be taken on board in three hours, com- pared with twenty hours for coaling. ''With regard to the factors which determine speed, it must be remembered that the Mauretania and the Lusitama are each fitted with 192 furnaces in order to produce 68,000 horse-power. On the assumption that thirty-two fires are cleaned every watch, 10,000 indicated horse- power is lost every four hours through burning down and cleaning, an unnecessary operation with oil fuel. Experi- MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 67 ence on other vessels justifies the belief that the use of oil fuel would reduce the voyage between Queenstown and New York by eight or ten hours. We might look, therefore, to another great era of Atlantic records." In summarising the advantages accruing from the use of fuel oil in place of coal on steamers, there are some which cannot be well expressed in figures. One point should be mentioned which will appeal to all shipowners, namely, the vastly superior conditions under which men work on oil-fired boilers. DECK PIPES OF 15,000 TON OIL TANKER. CHAPTER VI. FUEL OIL FOR RAILWAYS. THE locomotives of many European and American railways have for many years past been running on oil fuel. Tn 1889 Mr. Urquhart used a petroleum residue on 143 Russian locomotives fitted with his burner, and this was the first practical application of oil to railway work. In those countries which are not favourably situated in respect of coal supply, the question of fuel oil for rail- ways has very inviting aspects. Coal prices have gone up considerably in recent years and are unlikely to recede to any extent. Freights on coal are also higher ; consequently, with the abundant oil supplies now available, many foreign railways have already converted some or all of their locomotives to the use of oil fuel. Among such lines may be mentioned the Austrian State Railways, Western Railway of France, Paris, Lyons, and the Mediterranean, Paris and Orleans Railway, South Russian Railway, Roumanian State Railway, Los Angeles Railway, Taltal Railway, Mexican Railway, Chilian Railway, Tehuantepec National Railway, Mexican National and Interoceanic Lines, Southern Pacific, Central Pacific, and other lines in the United States, South America, and the far East. i . Reduction in the Cost and Weight of Fuel. Most of the above railways have realised large savings, to a greater or lesser degree depending on local conditions, as a 68 MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 69 result of the conversion to fuel oil. The following figures, from the returns of the Mexican Railway, are typical of the improved results obtained : COAL AND OIL FUEL RESULTS ON MEXICAN RAILWAY. YEAR. WEIGHT OF FUEL IN LBS. CONSUMED PER TRAIN KILOMETRE. PERCENTAGE OF FUEL. Oil. Coal. 1910 First half ... 91.03 nil. 100% Second half . 91.23 nil. 100% 1911 First half ... 86.41 22% 78% Second half... 66.09 80% 20% 1912 First half ... 63-37 92% 8% Second half... 6191 100% nil. UN 191 O DEC. JUN. |g|| DEC. JUN. |g| DEC YEAR. F"IG. 22. COAL AND OIL RESULTS ON MEXICAN RAILWAY. 70 MEXICAN FUEL OIL. These figures are given in diagram form (Fig. 22), and show that the weight of fuel consumed per train kilometre has been reduced by 32 per cent, by the change over to oil fuel. The reduction in the weight of fuel consumed has effected a saving of 40 per cent, in its cost. 2. Saving in Cost of handling Fuel. In addition to the saving on the fuel bill many other economies are realised, the effects of which are happily reflected 20,000-GALLON FUEL OIL TANK ON MEXICAN RAILWAY. MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 71 in the balance sheets. For instance, with fuel tank installations at suitable points on the line, it is probable that quite 35 to 50 per cent, is saved on fuel haulage. This is due to two factors the smaller weight of oil required in view of its superior calorific value, and the fact that the engines are able to carry a greater quantity of fuel. The cost of handling is also reduced. Mr. C. G. Hall, of the American International Railway Fuel Association, says : - " Oil can be handled from tanks cars to storage tanks and thence to locos, for about '005 cents per barrel, while the average for handling coal runs about 5 cents per ton." There is usually a wastage of coal in handling between shipment and consumption, estimated from experience at from 8 to 10 per cent, ; with oil fuel this loss is eliminated. No men are required to load up the engine, nor clean out ash-pans ; there are no ash-pits to empty or ashes to be loaded up and hauled away to be unloaded on to waste ground. Fuel oil practically handles itself, and the men attending to the water pumps can also supervise the supplies of fuel to the locomotives. TEN-WHEELED PASSENGER LOCOMOTIVE, SOUTHERN PACIFIC RAILWAY. MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 73 3. Increased Mileage on one Load of Fuel. Another favourable feature is that sufficient fuel can be carried in the tender for a journey nearly double the length of that which would be possible with a tender load of coal, and fresh supplies of liquid fuel can be taken on in a few minutes at the appointed stations. 4. Greater Power. The steaming capacity of the boiler is increased fully fifteen per cent., making it possible for a locomotive to do an amount of work on liquid fuel that would be quite beyond its powers if coal were used. The use of oil further secures freedom from physical failure of firemen in extremely hot weather, the firemen's work actually being lighter than that of the engineer when oil is used. On some railways with long and heavy gradients the speed is limited solely by the physical capacity of the fireman shovelling coal into the furnace. With oil no effort beyond the turning of a valve is required to produce maximum capacity. There is the additional important advantage that the fireman is available to assist in keeping a look-out ahead, and for signals, far more so than can ever be the case when firing coal. 5. Rapid Adjustment of Fuel to Suit Varying Load. With liquid fuel the fire can be instantaneously adjusted to suit the load, which varies almost from minute to minute with the speed and gradient. So perfect is the control that the steam pressure can be maintained within five pounds total variation, with changes in load of fifty per cent, and over. 6. Rapidity in Getting Up Steam. An important feature is the rapidity in getting up a head of steam, w "H c H W O 13 s MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 75 as an engine can be moved under her own steam within thirty-five minutes of the fuel oil burners being lighted up. The usual practice on railways using oil is to have a stationary boiler always in steam at each round house, from which connection is made to the dead engine through a 3-way cock in the steam-pipe leading from the steam stand on top of the fire box to the burner. By this means the burner can be started from cold until there is sufficient steam generated to keep the burner going from the engine itself. The cost of firewood for lighting up is entirely elimi- nated, a handful of oily waste being all that is required. The advantage of using oil on locomotives is specially noticeable in the round house or shed when squaring up an engine after a day's work. There are no fires to be raked out ; no flue or smoke boxes to be cleaned ; no coal to be stacked, weighed, and otherwise handled. A saving in cost of equipment is represented in the absence of fire rakes, flue brushes, shovels, all of which are unnecessary on an oil-burning locomotive. Furthermore, when engines are engaged in switching and shunting operations they frequently have to stand in steam idle for hours at a time. The burners in such cases can be cut down to the lowest minimum, or even extinguished -as an engine will always retain sufficient steam to start up the burners again when required. This, of course, represents a very considerable saving in fuel. 7. Elimination of Fires caused by Coal-fired Loco- motives. One valuable feature of the use of oil fuel on foreign railways is the immunity it affords from the number of compensation claims arising out of fires. 76 MEXICAN FUEL OIL. In semi-tropical countries the sparks from wood or coal fired engines frequently set fire to crops and forests, and the railway is liable to pay compen- sation. With oil there are no sparks and, conse- quently, this source of danger and expense is entirely eliminated. It is worthy of note, in connection with the proposed conversion to oil fuel of a prominent American railway, that a petition from the State Forester to the Public Service Commission of the United States strongly urged this step in view of the frequent devastation of the adjoining country by fires caused by sparks from coal- locomotives. 8. Absence of Smoke. The absence of smoke acids materially to the comfort of railway passengers when oil-fired locomotives are used, and increases the cleanliness of rolling stock when so hauled. The Southern Pacific railroad, which is worked on oil, also lays dust on the whole of its 2,600 miles of road between New Orleans and San Francisco by spraying- oil on the track. Comparative I n the following pages a selection of comparative results Results on on coa j an j o jj are given, showing the indisputable advan- Railways , . . , . , r i r i i r i Coal and Oil tages which are derived from the use 01 the latter iuel. Mexican Railways. Mexico, with its 5,000 miles of railroad, has now a daily consumption of over 10,000 barrels of fuel oil for railways alone, and the following data extracted from the records of the Tehuantepec National and Interoceanic railways show the decided advantage in running on oil obtained by some of these railways : MEXICAN FUEL OIL. COMPARATIVE TESTS WITH COAL AND OIL, TEHUANTEPEC NATIONAL RAILWAY. GROSS TEST No. TIME RUNNING. MILES RUN. SPEED. LBS. WATER EVAP. LBS. FUEL USED. WATER EVAP. PER LB. WEIGHT OF TRAIN IN 2,000 LB. I i i TONS. h. m. 1 I. 7.36 126.5 ; 1664 75,562 12, 188 6.20 461.43 2. 8.1 3 126.5 15-39 84,007,13,200 6.36 47608 3- 7.36 126.5 16.64 76,611 12,567 I 6.08 476.31 OIL. I. 6.31 12605 19.41 69,472 6,145 11.31 470.69 2 7.21 126.5 17.21 74,531 6,196 12 03 743-07 3- 6.21 126.5 19.92 71,577 5,896 12.14 410.71 SUMMARY. Time getting up 1 80 Ibs. steam from cold . . . Coal 152 minutes Time getting up 1 80 Ibs. steam from cold... Oil 70 minutes. Improved speed with oil over coal (average) 16.2 per cent. Improved evaporation per Ib. fuel (average) 5.62 Ibs. or 90 percent. Pounds of coal per 100 ton miles 20.8 Ibs. Pounds of oil per 100 ton miles 10.3 Ibs. The Tehuantepec Railway is a trans-continental line of standard gauge, 189 miles long, running across the Mexican Isthmus of Tehuantepec from Coatzacoalcos on the Atlantic to Salina Cruz on the Pacific. The grades vary from level to 2.15 per cent., with many curves up to n degrees 28 minutes where the speed of train is limited to 15 miles per hour. The Company reckon 3^ bis. (147 U.S. galls, or 1225 Ibs.) of oil equal one ton of coal. s % < c O c/3 X S W := S g g a a s MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 79 COMPARATIVE TESTS WITH COAL AND OIL INTEROCEANIC RAILWAY OF MEXICO. TEST No. TIME RUNNING. MILES RUN. SPEED. LBS. WATER EVAP. LBS. FUEL USED. WATER EVAP. PER LB. GROSS WEIGHT OF TRAIN IN TONS OF 2000 LBS. COAL. h. m. f. 3.18 35-4 10-73 43-277 8,580 5.04 I73-52 2. 3.28 35-4 IO.2O 4^575 8,140 5.11 I73-50 3- 329 35-4 lO.I/ 42,985 8,580 5.00 172.37 4- 3-34 35-4 9.92 46,106 10,340 4.46 I73-64 5- 3-38 35-4 9-75 43,586 11,220 3.88 184.83 OIL. !. 3-04 35-4 11-53 50,612 4,397 11.51 173-77 2. 3.16 35-4 10.81 46,699 4,39 10.64 176.11 3- 2-53 354 12.28 39P46 4,073 959 175.62 4- 2.33 35-4 13.88 41,591 3,833 10.85 J 63-74 5- 2-47 35-4 12.73 45,305 4J57 10.90 174.85 SUMMARY. Time getting up 180 Ibs. steam from cold ... ... ... ... Coal 08 mirmtes Time getting up 180 Ibs. steam from cold ... .. ... ... Oil 70 minutes Improved speed with oil over coal (average) ... ... ... 20.2 per cent. Improved evaporation per Ib. oil ... 6.05 Ibs. or 130 per cent. Pounds of coal per 100 ton miles ... 15.07 Ibs. Pounds of oil per 100 ton miles ... 6.85 Ibs. The Interoceanic Railway connects Vera Cruz on the Golf of Mexico with the port of Acapulco on the Pacific, and including leased lines has a total mileage of 1,035. 8o MEXICAN FUEL OIL. American Railways American railways did not * to burn oil largely until about 1906. The figures from that year until 1912 are given in the following table : - YEAR. LENGTH OF MILEAGE UNDER TOTAL MILEAGE MADE BY OIL TOTAL BARRELS FUEL OIL. LOCOMOTIVES. USED. 1906 I5>577^77 1907 13,573 74,079,726 [8,855,002 1908 15,474 64,279,509 16,889,070 1909 17,676 72,918,118 19,939,394 1910 22,709 , 89,107,883 23,217,346 191 I 30,039 109,680,976 29,748,845 1912 28,451 121,393,228 33,605,598 I It may be mentioned that all the passenger loco- motives on the Panama Railroad are equipped for burning oil fuel and a number of the dredgers used in the excavating work were similarly equipped. LOCOMOTIVE OF ATCHISON, TOPEKA AND SANTA FE RAILROAD. The following data have been furnished by Mr. John Purcell, Assistant to the Vice-President of the above railway. The figures are based on the results in operating two trains between Kansas City, Mo., and Newton, Kansas : MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 81 THE ATCHISON, TOPEKA AND SANTA FE RAILWAY SYSTEM. COAL. OIL. Average weight cf train 293 317 Cost per 100 ton miles in cents... 2.8 2-7 Cost per train mile in cents 8-3 86 Price per ton and per barrel 881.90 $0.55 Train miles 7-978 5,321 Ton miles ... 2,^30,800 1,687,000 Poundsof fuel consumed ' j jyi 698,000 258,517 Tons or barrels 349 832 Cost of fuel $663.10 $457.60 Average Ibs. per 100 ton miles 29.83 15.32 The following comparative data obtained on another of the United States railways are of considerable interest in view of the exhaustive character of the tests made.. The same engine was run by the same engineer and fireman, over the same route under like climatic con- ditions. After burning four different kinds of coal in- the several trials, the engine was converted to oil and tried out again with crude oil as a fuel. The results were as follows : MOGUL FREIGHT LOCOMOTIVE, OCEAN SHORE RAILWAY. 82 MEXICAN FUEL OIL First Test Lehigli Coal: Ton miles covered ... 98,420 Coal consumed ... ... ... 20,550 Ibs. Miles run per ton of coal ... ... 11.65 Pounds of coal per 100 ton miles 20.36 Cost in cents per 1,000 ton miles (Coal at $3.45 per 2,000 Ibs.) ... 35-c>5 Second Test Lehigh Coal Slacked : - Ton miles ... ... ... ... 95,439 Coal consumed ... ... ... 26,200 Ibs. Miles run per ton of coal ... ... 8.99 (Showing a loss of 25.78 per cent.) Pounds of coal per 100 ton miles ... 27.45 Cost in cents per 1,000 ton miles (Coal at $3.25 per 2,000 Ibs.) ... 44.61 Third Test Screened Lump Wilburton Coal: - Ton miles ... ... ... ... 99,647 Coal consumed ... ... ... 18,100 Ibs. Miles run per ton of coal ... ... 13.02 Pounds of coal per 100 ton miles 18.16 Cost in cents per 1,000 ton miles (Coal at $3.60 per 2,000 Ibs.) ... 32.60 Fourth Test McAllister Mine Run Coal : Ton miles ... ... ... ... 99,262 Coal consumed ... 17,700 Ibs. Miles run per ton of coal ... ... I3-3I Pounds of coal per 100 ton miles ... 17.83 Cost in cents per 1,000 ton miles (Coal at $3.50 per 2,000 Ibs.) ... 31.21 MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 83 Fifth Test Crude Oil Fuel: Ton miles ..: ... ... ... 99005 Oil consumed 26.67 barrels or 1120 gals. Miles run per brl. of oil ... ... 4-47 Ton miles per gallon of oil ... ... 88.38 Pounds of oil per 100 ton miles 9.92 Cost in cents per 1,000 ton miles (Oil at 58c. per brl. of 42 gals.) ... 15.62 These results showed that 3.2 brJs. of oil equalled on the average the heating value of one ton of coal, or, put another way, one ton of oil equals from 1.79 to 2.76 tons of coal, according to the quality of the coal. British Railways. It would not be fitting to close this section without reference to the pioneer work of Mr. Holden, late engineer to the Great Eastern Railway, who has successfully demonstrated that oil is a practical proposition for British railways Many of their big main line engines, fitted with the burner designed by Mr. Holden, have shown very good running, and only the abundant supply of coal in this country has precluded a more extensive use of liquid fuel. On the Great Eastern Railway express trains have been hauled on a consumption of i7.6lbs. of Fuel Oil per mile (7.82 Ibs, per 100 ton miles), the coal consumed for similar work being 34 Ibs. per mile (15.1 Ibs. per 100 ton miles), the weight of the train being 225 tons. These engines have made the run from London to Cromer - a distance of 138 miles in 2 hours 55 minutes, including one stop of 4 minutes, on oil fuel or oil fuel burnt in conjunction with coal. In the latter case a thin layer of slow-burning coal is spread over the fire bars with the damper of the ashpan sufficiently opened to give an easy draught and ensure a bright fire. FIG. 24. ARRANGEMENT OF FIREBOX, HOLDEN SYSTEM. FIG. 25. ARRANGEMENT OF FIREBOX, BALDWIN SYSTEM. MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 85 A difference will be noticed between the H olden system and that of most foreign railways, as, for example, the Baldwin system, in the position of the burner and the fire-box arrangement. As shown in Fig. 24 on the opposite page, the burner in the Holden system is fitted in the mud ring below the fire-box door, directing the flame towards the flue sheet under an arch of fire-brick. In the other it will be seen that the practice is to eliminate the arch entirely, the burner being placed at the flue sheet end of the fire-box as illustrated in Fig. 25. FUEL OIL SERVICE TANK ON MEXICAN RAILWAY CHAPTER VII. OIL FUEL FOR LAND STEAM PLANTS. General f*\ I L fuel has been successfully applied to all types of Advantages boilers for land plants using steam power, and has been widely adopted in those localities where the cost of oil fuel competes favourably with coal. The advantages which it offers are substantially the same as detailed in the references to marine and locomotive practice, and need only be briefly recapitulated. 1. The head of steam required can be rapidly obtained from cold, and maintained with the utmost regularity. 2. The absence of stresses on furnace plates con- sequent upon the frequent opening of furnace doors, necessary with coal stoking, prolongs the life of the boilers. 3. Considerable saving of labour in stoking, cleaning, and handling fuel and ashes, and cleaner conditions in boiler house. 4. Fires can be started and stopped instantly as required, avoiding standby losses. 5. The output of boilers can be augmented by 30 per cent, to 50 per cent, by substituting oil for coal. In some cases this conversion has rendered it unnecessary to put down additional plant when increased steam power is required due to the growth of the undertaking. 6. The perfect smokeless combustion of the fuel obviates the smoke nuisance in closely populated districts. The Public Health Act in 1871 made it an offence to 86 MEXICAN FUEL OIL. LANCASHIRE BOILERS FITTED WITH WALLSEND BURNERS AT MINATITLAN REFINERY. emit black smoke from factory chimneys, and in many instances the local authorities insist on its provisions being carried out, although much remains to be done, as is shown by the statement that in the Administrative County of London 76,000 tons of soot descend every year. A great deal of this smoke nuisance could be abated by the use of oil fuel. Special mention should be made of the value of fuel Electric oil installations- in the case of electric lighting and power "* anls plants. While oil fuel cannot, in this country, be expected to entirely replace coal in large electric generating stations on the present relative prices, yet its use as an auxiliary to meet the recurring peak loads can be shown to effect, substantial savings over the exclusive use of coal in such installations. This phase of the oil question is receiving increased attention from engineers. The sudden and heavy demands that are made upon a power station can readily be met by having the whole or a portion of the MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 89 boilers fitted with an auxiliary oil-burning equipment. They are enabled by this means to meet the peak load promptly, without interfering with their normal operation as coal-fired boilers. The use of a supplementary oil burner on a coal furnace is found to greatly improve the combustion of the latter fuel. It has been established by careful tests that when a constant rate of coal burned per square foot of grate area was maintained for many hours, the addition of 40 per cent, of oil increased the total evaporation by over TOO per cent, and at the same time increased the evaporation obtained per Ib. of fuel burned by 35 per cent. In some cases it is possible for the peak load to be Oil for Peak carried without increasing the number of boilers under Loads steam by utilising, during the peak load period, either a combination of coal and oil-firing, or oil-firing to the exclusion of coal. In America, where formerly a battery of boilers carried banked coal fires to meet sudden demands, " a number of plants have been changed to oil by placing the burner in the front end setting of the boiler, the grates being covered with a checker-work of fire-brick and the openings in the checker-work being of such proportion as to admit sufficient oxygen for the con- suming fuel. A gas pilot light is constantly kept burning, and when the boilers are suddenly called into service, the oil burner is started in five seconds by simply opening the operating valves and in 10 minutes I5olbs. of steam is on the boiler. Of course, when not under fire, hot water is constantly passing through these boilers this being the same practice as is used in fire-engine stations."^ *W. N. Best. MEXICAN FUEL OIL. Oil versus Coal BOILER PLANT OF LIVERPOOL GAS CO., FITTED WITH KERMODE BURNERS. That fuel oil will effect the economies claimed for it in land plants generally is evidenced by the data given in the following pages. For industries operated in countries not possessing an abundant coal supply the superiority of oil is indisputable, while there are frequently instances where the heavier first cost of fuel oil as compared with coal in this country is outweighed bv the advantages inherent in the O J O latter fuel. There have not been many tests carried out on the comparative merits of coal and oil fuel in stationary plants in this country, and the following tests made at the works of the Wallsend Slipway and Engineering Co,, Ltd., Wallsend-on-Tyne, with an ordinary factory boiler, are therefore of interest. MEXICAN FUEL OIL. COMPARATIVE TEST ON BOILER AT WALLSEND. COAL VERSUS OIL. Mexican Fuel Oil. Fuel Oil : Sp. Gr. at 60 F .953 Viscosity at 100 F. (Red No. i) 2,130 sees. Flash point (close) ... above 160 F. Calorific value ... ... 18,430 (Lbs. of water per Ib. of oil... 12.15 Water evaporated Lbs. of water per Ib. of oil (from and at 212 F.) ... Boiler efficiency 14.38 75-37% Goal. Coal : Calorific value in B. T. U. ... 14,432 Lbs. of water per Ib. of oil... 7.76 Lbs. of water per Ib. of oil k (from and at 212 F.) ... 9.31 Boiler efficiency 62.28% Water evaporated Both the above tests were made with natural draught the boiler had been in service for a number of years. COAL-FIRED BOILER. OIL-FIRED BOILER, WALLSEND SYSTEM. 92 MEXICAN FUEL OIL. Coal versus The following figures, extracted from report made on the proposed conversion from coal to oil of the boiler plant of a large steel works in Mexico, show the saving that can be obtained by the use of fuel oil. The prices quoted for both oil and coal in this report are both very low, and are not operative to-day. The plant consist of eleven 4OO-H.P. and two 3OO-H.P. Babcock and Wilcox boilers, having one smoke stack, 10 feet inside diameter by 175 feet high. The boilers are worked at their full capacity during the twelve hours' day shift, and at half power during the night shift, over the whole year. The coal in use is obtained from mines owned by the Steel Works Co., has an average calorific value of i 1,500 B.T.U., and the cost per metric ton, delivered at the plant ready for firing, 8.50 Mexican currency. 37,000 metric tons were used during 1911. Sixty men were employed on the boiler plant alone as firemen and coal-passers, and are paid at the rate of $1.50 Mexican per clay. Estimate of Economy in Fuel and Labour. Taking a working year of 350 days, and the boilers working at full capacity for twelve hours' day shift and half capacity for twelve hours' night shift, then the quantity of coal burned per hour averages 37,000 x 2,000 350x18 ="-74olbs.. With a calorific value of 1 1,500 B.T.U., and assum- ing a thermal efficiency of 72 per cent., then the water evaporated from and at 212 Fah. per pound of coal equals : HJgJLTi- = 3.5 i bs . 966 x MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 93 The average total water evaporated per hour with coal equals 11,740 x 8 -5 = 99,79 Ibs. To achieve the same average hourly evaporation with oil having a calorific value of 1*5,500 B.T.U., .953 specific gravity (333 Ibs. to the barrel), and a thermal efficiency of 80 per cent., then the oil burned per hour equals : 99.790 i,5co x 80 Then the total oil consumption per year of 350 days with boilers working the same as for coal would be : 6 '5'7 x l8 x 7- == 20 530 metric tons. 2,OOO or at 333 Ibs. to the barrel 123,302 barrels. Assuming the cost of oil delivered at the plant to be -$2.05 Mexican per barrel of 42 American gallons (333 Ibs.), then the total cost per year of fuel and labour in running the boiler plant under coal or oil is as follows: UNDER COAL. 37,000 metric tons at $8.50 ... ... $314.500 60 men for 350 days at $1.50 ... 31,500 Total ... $346,000 UNDER OIL FUEL. 123,302 barrels at $2.05 ... ... $249,070 8 men for 350 days at $1.50 ... ... 4,200 Total ... $253,270 Shewing an estimated saving in cost of fuel and labour of:- $92,730 or 9,273 per annum. 94 MEXICAN FUEL OIL. Land Plant SUMMARY OF TRIAL WITH MEXICAN Tests FUEL OIL MADE AT WALLSEND WITH WALLSEND PRESSURE SYSTEM, JULY 24-26, 1912. Type of Boiler Scotch Marine. Duration of trial ... ... ... ... 7 hours. Specific Gravity of fuel oil at 60 F. ... .953 Flash Point of fuel oil (open) ... . . 290 F. Viscosity at 100 F. (Red No. i) ... ... 2,000 sees. Calorific value of fuel oil in B.T.U. ... 18,902 Total quantity of fuel oil consumed in Ibs... 3,409 Total quantity of fuel oil consumed in Ibs. per hour ... ... ... ... ... 487 Lbs. of fuel oil consumed per sq. ft. of grate area per hour ... ... ... ... 12.17 Steam pressure in Ibs. per square inch ... 121 Temperature of Feed Water ... ... 74 F. Temperature of fuel oil in tanks ... ... 80 F. Temperature of Flue gases at bottom of uptake 425 F. Draft of water at bottom of uptake ... 3' 10" Steam used by pressure system in Ibs. per hour 162 Steam used by pressure system as percentage of total steam generated ... ... 2.63% Total quantity of water evaporated in Ibs. 43,000 Total quantity of water evaporated in Ibs. per hour) 6,143 Total quantity of water evaporated per Ib. of fuel oil (actual) ... ... ... ... 12.61 Total quantity of water evaporated per Ib. of fuel oil (from and at 212 F.) 14.97 Lbs. of water evaporated per sq. ft. of heating surface ... ... ... 3.63 System of Draft ... ... ... ... Natural Thermal Efficiency ... ... ... ... 76.5% Oil pressure in Ibs. per sq. in. ... ... 150 Oil Temperature in degrees F. ... ... 260 MEXICAN FUEL OIL 95 SUMMARY OF TRIALS WITH OIL FUEL. KERMODE'S PRESSURE JET SYSTEM, ON WATER TUBE BOILERS, ARRANGED IN CLOSED STOKEHOLD. No. 1. No. 2. Duration of trial (in hours) 2 2 Specific gravity of Oil 955 955 Average feed temperature P F. ... 44 44 Steam Pressure, Ibs. per square inch 250 250 Air Pressure, inches of water .61 2.25 Description of Smoke Trace Trace Weight of Oil burned per hour in Ibs. ... 1195 3720 Weightof water evaporated per hour in Ibs. 15,530 41,540 Equivalent Evaporation. From and at 212 F. per Ib. Fuel 16.00 13,8 Land Plant Tests We give on next page summary of tests made with the Wallsend System, carried out under the direction of Professor Barr, of Glasgow University, at the works of Messrs. James Howden and Co., in October, 1910. The boiler on which the tests were made is of the Marine Return Tube Type, n' o" diameter by n 7 6" long, with two furnaces, each 3' 3" inside diameter. No firebrick lining- was used, other than a wall built against the furnace front to protect it from the flames. The total heating- sur- o face was stated to be 1,358 square feet. The boiler was fitted with Howden's Hot Air System of Forced Draught. BOILER ON WHICH THE TEST GIVEN ON PAGE 96 WAS MADE. 9 6 MEXICAN FUEL OIL. Land Plant Tests SUMMARY OF RESULTS OF TRIALS. WALLSEND-HOWDP:N FUEL OIL SYSTEM, WORKING WITH HOWDEN'S FORCED DRAUGHT. Duration of trial in hours 3* 2 Number of burners per furnace. . . One No. 18 One No. 16 Calorific value (netO of the oil B.T.U. 18,770 18,770 Specific value of the oil at 60 F. 0.868 0.868 Steam pressure ... Ibs. per sq. in. 155 155 Average temperature of feed water ... ... deg. F. H5 120 Pressure of air entering furnaces ins. of water 2\ in. i in. Temperature of air entering fur- naces ... ... deg. F. 190 185 Description of smoke at chimney top . ... ... ... Very light Very light to none to none Temperature of gases at the foot of chimney ... ...deg. F. 488 420 Weight of oil burned per hr Ibs 932 633 Weight of oil burned per hour per burner ... ... Ibs. 466 3i 6 5 Weight of water evaporated per hour ... ... ... Ibs. 13P50 9,000 Total moisture in steam (by surface condensing calori- meter) jo/ None /o Weight of water evaporated per Ib. of oil burnt... ... Ibs. 14.00 14.22 Equivalent evaporation from and at 212 F Ibs. 15.91 16.22 Equivalent evaporation irom and at 2 1 2 F. per sq. ft. of heating surface per hour ... Ibs. 10.92 7-55 Thermal efficiency of boiler ... 82.3% 83.9% MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 97 Another purpose for which liquid fuel will undoubtedly Heat be extensively used in the near future is that of hot Radiators water and steam installations for heating large buildings, schools, theatres, churches, institutes, etc. One of the disadvantages of modern coal or coke fired systems is that it takes some considerable time to raise the temperature of the building, and when once the temperature is raised it is difficult to regulate it to any fine degree. With liquid fuel the necessary temperature can be reached in less than half the time required with coal or coke, and the required FIG. 26. BOILER FITTED WITH CRUDALL BURNER FOR HEATING BUILDING. 9 8 MEXICAN FUEL OIL. degree of heat can also be maintained regularly through- out the day or night quite irrespective of external influences, such as sunshine, frost, etc. No stoking is required, the only condition being the adjustment of the burner from time to time as more or less heat is required. The illustration (Fig. 26) shows a small hot water apparatus in use in London where the fuel used is Mexican Fuel Oil. With this appa- ratus, it has been found that the required temperature can be reached in forty-five minutes, whereas when coke was employed two to three hours was necessary. During the day time, should heat not be required, the burners can be immediately extinguished, and if in the cool of the evening the apparatus should be required again, it can be started without any of the labour involved in making up coal or coke fires, while there is also, of course, the great advantage that the furnace does not require cleaning out after use. Heating a building with liquid fuel will usually effect a reduction in the cost, the quantity of oil required being so much less than coal or coke, and the results being so much more satisfactory, that the slightly increased cost of the installation is soon justified. Oil is a very suitable fuel for steam cranes, as the intermittent character of their work is readily STEAM CRANE FITTED WITH HOLDEN'S BURNER. IOO MEXICAN FUEL OIL Fuel Oil for Road Vehicles met by the flexibility of an oil burner, which is instantly adjusted to the requirements. The illustration shows a crane boiler fitted with Holden's burner. The application of fuel oil burners to road vehicles has so far made comparatively small progress. It is probably because the value of the economies effected by fuel oil are not so obvious in small portable boilers as for large installations, and the tendency seems to be to use a different type of burner which consumes kerosene to generate steam in a small water tube boiler. Steam motor- cars are run on this prin- ciple, which, however, is outside the scope of the present book. Yet oil fuel offers decided advantages for motor buses, steam lorries, and such vehicles in the rapidity with which steam can be generated, the absolute control pos- sible, and steadiness with which fullest steaming power can be maintained. The Holden burner has been supplied for a number of vehicles of this class, one installation of which is illustrated on page 99, while the Kermode steam burner has been applied to fire engines for the London, Liverpool, and other fire brigades with satisfactory results. The engine illustrated herewith belongs to the Liverpool Fire Brigade, and the steam generated by oil furnace propels the vehicle, and in FIRE ENGINE FITTED FOR OIL BURNING. MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 101 pumping gives a constant delivery of 1,400 gallons per minute. In connection with fire engines it may be mentioned that the fire floats of the London Fire Brigade, like their land engines, are equipped to burn fuel oil. A CHAPTER VIII. OIL FURNACES. PART from the use of fuel oil for steam raising there are a vast number of industries using direct heat in which oil is rapidly displacing coal, coke and expensive gas firing. We refer to metallurgical and industrial processes such as brass melting, case hardening, annealing, tempering, glass making, rivet and bolt making, rivet heating, lead refining, crucible furnace work, tyre heating, etc. The use of fuel oil for some of the above purposes was one of its earliest applications ; to-day oil furnaces have been brought to a very high point of efficiency and are being extensively and increasingly employed, both in this country and abroad. General Briefly stated, the advantages realised in the use of Advantages o jl f or t h e above purposes are : 1. Increased output of plant. 2. Reduction in cost of fuel required for a given amount of work. 3. Saving in time taken by the operation resulting in reduced labour cost, and increased output of plant. 4. More uniform results owing to perfect control of furnace temperature. 5. Less waste owing to imperfect work, breakage, loss of metal, etc., according to the class of work for which the furnace is employed. 102 MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 103 6. Individual heats can be run and furnace shut down without waste of fuel. 7. No cleaning* out of furnaces is necessary after a day's run, there are no ashes to dispose of, and the whole manipulation of the furnaces is less irksome to the operator. 8. Prolonged life of crucibles. 9. Less floor space required and cleaner conditions in factories. Some of the leading applications of oil firing to industrial processes are illustrated in the following pages, and representative furnaces are show 7 n in connection with the processes described. The limits of space preclude a full reference, but the examples given may be taken as typical, and a list of most of the industries in which oil fuel has been successfully used will be found in the appendix. It should be further mentioned that most burners can be used for any of the purposes enumerated in the list above mentioned. Fig. 28 illustrates a typical burner as fitted industrial furnaces. This burner works with an air jet, the air being previously heated. The oil flow is regulated by a needle valve and the air by a cone valve, the air pressure employed varying from 5 inches water gauge to 2 or 3 Ibs. per square inch, according to the class of work and size of burner. Dry steam may be used instead as the atomising agent, but this will not give to A Typical Industrial Burner FIG. 28. ALLDAYS BURNER, FITTED WITH CONTROL GEAR. IO4 MEXICAN FUEL OIL. Case Hardening Rivet Heating such a hot fire as when air is employed. These burners are adapted for hardening, annealing, melting, and smelting, rivet heating, forging, tyre heating, glass melting furnaces, etc. A temperature of over 3,000 F. (1,700 C.) is obtainable by their use. Fig. 29 illustrates FIG. 29. ALLDAYS CASE-HARDENING AND ANNEALING FURNACE. this burner applied to a case-hardening and annealing- furnace, with which a temperature of over 1,100 C. can be obtained in one hour. A similar furnace with a totally enclosed muffle is also made, suitable for enamel- ling hollow- ware, etc., and with this latter type a muffle 7 ft. 6 in. by 2 ft. 6 in. can be fired on four gallons of oil per hour. The illustration (Fig. 30) shows an oil-fired rivet heating furnace. It is fitted with an injector to work off compressed air, and would use about 20 cubic ft. of free air per minute. The air is partially heated by MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 105 passing through the top chamber. This furnace is particularly adapted for pneumatic tool riveting, and the rivets can be left in the top for any length of time without fear of overheating. By using an oil furnace there is little or no scale on the rivet, and much less waste of rivets due to scale and burning. 8,000 rivets in a ten- hour day can be heated by means of one oil- fired rivet heater. The burner shown in Fig. 31 is the outcome of Bolt and practical experience on the part of Messrs. Richard Nut Making Davies, Victoria Bolt and Nut Works, Manchester, and FIG. 30. CHURCHILL RIVET HEATING FURNACE. FlG. 31. DAVIES BURNER. io6 MEXICAN FUEL OIL. has been used for years past in conjunction with their furnace for nut and bolt making and other purposes. As a result of the use of oil they find that the output of work is from 50 per cent, to 100 per cent, greater than with coal or coke. There is a greater radiation, and a softer, cleaner heat, which saves the tools on the machines. In a ten-hour working day an output of from 50 to 70 gross of bolts is obtained on an oil consumption of between 35 to 40 gallons of fuel oil. As a matter of fact, the capacity of the furnaces is in advance of the speed of the operators. The furnace will bring to a welding heat a i inch round bar of iron 2 ft. 6 in. long in three minutes, and as the furnace takes a number of these bars there is a continuous supply of hot metal for working. Wire and The illustration (Fig. 32) shows an oil-fired furnace Rolled atrip designed and used for annealing wire and cold rolled Annealing . . ....... , .... strip iron, which is being used extensively in the wire industry in Belgium. The steel pan holding the wire is heated uniformly from top to bottom, and there is no loss from under or overheated material. The furnace can be built at about two-thirds of the cost of an ordinary coal furnace ; no chimney is required when oil is used. A recent test gave the following results : MATERIAL ANNEALED COLD DRAWN STRIP IRON. Weight of crucible ... ... 39i cxvts. Weight of material annealed 33 J cwts. Time taken to anneal 1} hours. Oil consumption i if gallons. Cost of operation at 3d. per gall. Approx. 33. Relative cost per ton of material annealed is. i id. MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 107 The furnace is ready for use in twenty minutes to half an hour's time from starting up, and once the burner is set no further attention is required ; very FlG. 32. CHURCHILL WIRE ANNEALING FURNACE. accurate and steady heats are obtained, and there is a large saving of space as compared with coal or coke furnaces. The furnaces for wire annealing illustrated above are manufactured by Messrs. Charles Churchill & Co , Ltd.. of Salford, Manchester, who also supply their burners separately from their furnaces when required. Some of the furnaces above illustrated may be seen at Messrs. Churchill's works running on Mexican Fuel Oil. io8 MEXICAN FUEL OIL. Forging Furnaces This furnace, Fig. 33, is used in connection with bolt heading and forging machines, small power hammers, eye bending machines, etc., and is adapted for rods and bars up to ij inch. It will heat | inch bolts for heading at the rate of 4,000 per day. When used instead of a coal or coke furnace it will more than double the output of the machine. The furnace shown in operation on the next page (Fig. 34) is used in con- nection with Messrs. Churchill's Ajax forging machine, and a few examples of the work per- formed are shown. This particular furnace is at work at Messrs. P. and W. MacLellan's, Wagon and Bridge Builders, Glas- gow. High and steady heats are a special feature. It is also used in connection with drop hammers from 800 to 1,500 Ibs. weight and heats bars from three to four inches diameter. It works on an air blast at 8 oz. pressure. The illustrated items can be made by this method at one-quarter the cost incurred formerly when made under steam hammer and drop stamp. For instance, the second item on the right is made from a fairly high carbon steel, and to get the material to flow and so form the lug is no easy matter. When previously forged from a billet under steam hammer and drop stamp the labour cost was QC!., whereas it can now be made for 2d. FIG. 33. CHURCHILL FORGING FURNACE. MEXICAN FUEL OI L. 109 FIG. 34. OIL-FIRED FORGING FURNACE (CHURCHILL). Another type of burner designed for use in Drop connection with furnaces is illustrated on the next Forging page (Fig. 35), and shows the general outline of the blast connection, oil feed and combustion chamber. There is only one connection to the main blast pipe, and before passing through the oil feed pipe the blast circulates round an air jacket and is thus heated before being used. The supply of oil is regulated by turning a hand- wheel which allows the fuel to spurt out through a round knife-edge valve immediately in front of the small blade ; the blast drives round this blade at a very high speed, and also impels forward the oil, which is thus perfectly atomised and mixed with air. 1 10 MEXICAN FUEL OIL. FIG. 35. -THE BRETT BURNER. Drop Fig. 36 on the next page illustrates the above burner Forging attached to a furnace supplied for heating bars for drop forging purposes. It can also be used for a variety of processes, including smithy work. A very intense MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 1 1 1 FIG. 36. DROP FORGING FURNACE (BRETT). heat is obtained, and bars can be got ready in a much quicker time than by any other fuel, while the heat of an oil furnace, unlike coal or coke, has no deteriorating effect upon the metal. One great value of oil in drop forging is the remark- able softness of the heat obtained as compared with coal or coke. This heat is of a penetrative quality, heating and softening the metal equally throughout instead of mainly on the surface. Consequently the drop forging is accomplished quicker and with less power, and with an appreciable saving of wear on the dies. I 12 MEXICAN FUEL OIL. Billet Heating Rolling Furnaces With an oil-fired billet heating furnace, a 1 2-inch billet charged into the furnace after it has been closed down over night, can be brought to a forging heat in 45 minutes, and a TO-inch ingot or billet can then be brought to forging heat in 32 minutes. These figures, quoted by Mr. W. N. Best, illustrate the rapidity of work possible when oil is used. FIG, 37. ALLDAYS-CHARLIER ROLLING FURNACE. An interesting application of the Alldays burner is its use with the Alldays-Charlier patent rolling furnace, which will be seen from Fig. 37 to be of cylindrical form, and can be used for melting any class of metal. An advantage claimed for this furnace is that it allows of heats of different mixtures being taken succes- sively without contamination. The following results are of interest in showing the capacity of this oil furnace : 600 Ibs. gunmetal melted in I hour. 600 Ibs. yellow brass melted in 40 minutes. 500 Ibs. steel scrap melted in 3 hours. 500 Ibs. cast iron scrap melted in I hour 40 minutes. MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 1 1 The Allclays- Moody oil-fired tyre heating furnace Tyre shown in Fig. 38 is a great improvement on similar " eatln S furnaces fired with coal. It is automatic in action, FIG. 38. TYRE HEATING FURNACE. and the requisite heat is promptly attained, doubling the output of work and producing uniform expan- sion of the tyres. It is so constructed that the flame plays all round the tyre, consequently a uniform heat is obtained. The work that can be done with this furnace is enormous, ranging from 8 tyres of 4 inch by f inch up to 30 tyres of lighter iron per hour, and the heating power MEXICAN FUEL OIL. can be instantly increased or diminished, according to the class of tyres to be heated. The above figures are by no means exceptional. The consumption of crude oil used being four to six gallons per hour, according to class of work and size of furnace, at a cost of 26. to 2^d. per gallon, is a great saving over either coal or wood, when it is taken into consideration that four times the work can be accom- plished in the same time. The furnace works on forced draught, being fitted with fans giving 600 cubic feet of air per minute at a pressure of not less than 5- Ib. The air is preheated to ensure more complete vaporisation of the oil. Messrs. Alldays and Onions have carried out a series of tests with Mexican oil for their furnaces with entire success. A small furnace fitted by them with * patent air heater and jacketed ._JL__ . ^ ue ^ tan k i s shown on this page (Fig. 39). In this arrangement both the air blast and the fuel supply are heated to a high temperature by the waste gases of the furnace. Using Mexican fuel oil a temperature of 1,400 C. is readily attained on furnaces fitted as shown. These oven furnaces are used principally for hardening tools, and they may be seen in operation at the works of the makers at FlG. 39. OVEN FURNACE WITH PATENT AIR-HEATER AND JACKETED TANK. Birmingham. MEXICAN FUEL OIL FIG. 43. CHURCHILL'S OIL-FIRED SPRING FITTER FURNACE. The illustration shows an oil-fired Spring Fitter Oil Fired Furnace arranged for Mexican fuel oil. On the side jJP nn fitter of the building is shown a small rotary belt-driven oil pump, which is in continual operation and arranged to pump the oil from an underground supply tank and deliver it to a small subsidiary overhead tank. This subsidiary oil tank is fitted with an overflow to the underground storage tank, and a sufficient supply of oil is thus ensured to the furnace, without any trouble on the part of the operator. Fig. 41 shows an oil-fired cloth singeing machine Cloth which is used by Bleachers, Dyers, and Calico Printers Singeing for the process of singeing, and is manufactured by Messrs. Mather and Platt, Ltd., Manchester, to whom we .are indebted for the information given. This machine has now been working very successfully for the past ten years. i6 MEXICAN FUEL OIL. FIG. 41. OIL-FIRED CLOTH SINGEING MACHINE. For this class of machine oil firing possesses many advantages over coal. The saving in labour is very con- siderable, as, when once the oil has been pumped into the storage tank, no further labour is necessary except to turn on the oil and steam valves to each furnace and to apply a light to the burner. Copper plates 2 inches in thickness and 72 inches wide can be heated up ready for working in twenty minutes. After the plates are once heated they can be kept at an even heat for any length of time without the cloth having to be run out of the machine. In the case of coal firing, anything between one and two hours may be taken to heat up the plates, and periodically the cloth has to be run out and the machine stopped, as the plates cannot be kept at the heat required by coal firing except for a limited time. w - 2 JG 1 1 8 MEXICAN FUEL OIL. Metal The value of oil for melting metal has in the last few Melting years been brought prominently to the front, and its advantages strikingly demonstrated. Owing to the superior calorific value of the oil the metal is melted in much less time than with coal and coke, and the fluidity requisite for the smallest castings is readily attained. In addition to this the quality of the metal is undoubtedly improved, as numerous tests and chemical analyses have shown that the castings contain no more sulphur than before the metal entered the furnaces, consequently the tensile strength is greater than when the furnaces are coal fired. As the oil fires are under perfect control heats can be taken off quicker, and the temperature maintained within about 25 F. until all the metal is run off. With most metal melting furnaces the chimney stacks which are necessary with coal can be dispensed with, thus obviating the variations in temperature which outside atmospheric conditions would otherwise entail. As a consequence the time when the charges will be ready for tapping can be easily estimated. Furthermore, skimming the metal is materially decreased. It is possible with an oil furnace to attain in a few minutes an intense heat, which, with coal, would take some hours to secure. In addition to the saving in time taken in getting the charge ready for tapping there is a saving in floor space ; the fire-brick lining of the furnaces lasts 20 per cent, longer, and the same figure is applicable to the increased service of the crucibles, while imperfect castings, owing to cooled metal, are eliminated. The valuing of a perfectly controlled fire is nowhere more clearly exemplified than in this class of work. In steel treatment every variation in temperature is reflected in differences in the grain of the metal. In copper refining MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 119 a reducing tiame is at times necessary, and at other times an oxydising flame is required. These exacting require- ments are fully met by modern oil-fired furnaces, as described in these pages. The following figures from results obtained at the Brass works of Messrs. Holman Bros., Camborne, are illustra- | e " ln & tive of the difference between using oil and coke for melting metal. In this instance 40 Ibs. of machine brass were melted with a Bickford crucible furnace. COMPARATIVE COST OF FUSION OF 40 LBS. BRASS COKE. J cwt. of oven coke at is. 3d. ... ... ... 3 75d. 3| % waste of brass ... ... ... ... 8.4 Crucibles (20 charges at 5s. per crucible) ... 3 15.15 OIL. f gall, oil at 2 Jd., say ... ... ... ... 2.od. i ^ % waste of brass ... ... ... ... 3.6 Crucibles (30 charges at 53. per cruciblej ... 2.0 7.6 The above figures show a saving of over 50 percent., to which should be added something for saving in labour. The accompanying illustration shows Morgan's Patent Tiltin? Tilting Furnaces, which are fitted with Salamander Crucible Crucibles, and are adapted for use with liquid fuel. This * urnaces is one of the many types of oil furnaces manufactured by the Morgan Crucible Company, Ltd., for melting metals for alloys required in Mints, Rolling Mills, Railway Shops, Dockyards, Brass Foundries, etc. The furnace shown is of the tilting description, from which the crucible is not withdrawn to be poured, but by means of hand gear 120 MEXICAN FUEL OIL. FI.G. 43. MORGAN TILTING CRUCIBLE FURNACE. the body of the furnace is tilted, and the charge emptied either direct into sand or ingot moulds, or into a ladle. When metal is to be poured direct from the furnaces, either the portable or the stationary design can be used ; the former permits of the removal of the furnace body by an overhead crane, the furnace being operated in the same manner as a foundry ladle ; the latter or stationary type is so arranged to tilt that a constant pouring point is maintained, and metal can be poured direct into moulds brought up to the furnace. As distinct from tilting furnaces, "lift out" furnaces are also made for use with liquid fuel ; from these the crucibles are removed in the usual way for pouring the metal. MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 121 The following fio-ures show the economical results o o obtainable with this system of melting : WORKING RESULTS OBTAINED WITH MORGAN'S PATENT TILTING AND "LIFT-OUT" FURNACES. WEIGHT No. OF ^Fir TIN? GALS. OF OIL USED CLASS OF METAL. OF HTS. PER METAL j DAY IICT HFAT LBS. 1(9 HOURS).! nEAT i 100LBS.OF C *f P - METAL MELTED. MORGAN'S PATENT TILTING FURNACE, 400 LBS. SIZE. White Cast Iron 350 4 2.05 2.5 to 3. 2 5 to 30% Grey 350 4 i-45 2.50 25% Copper ... 450 5 or 6 MS 1.75 17.5% Gunmetal or Red Brass 450 6 or 7 1. 00 1.50 15% Yellow Brass ... 450 8 or 9 0.50 1.25 12.5% Yellow Brass (Scrap or Ingot) 450 8 or 10 0.40 i.o to i.i 10 tO I 1% MORGAN'S "LIFT OUT" FURNACES. (a) Steel 132 3 2.15 14.00 I 30% (b) Nickel 114 4 1.50 13.25 120% (c) Malleable Iron I/O 4 or 5 i-45 5.00 46/ (a) According to proportion of scrap used. (6) Two Crucible Furnace. (c) Single Crucible Furnace. The following data has been furnished by the Crudall Liquid Fuel Burner and Furnace Co., Ltd., from heats run with Mexican fuel oil. Furnaces for melting aluminium, holding three 500 Ibs. crucibles, burning not more than 4 gallons of oil per MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 123 hour. Melted in 20 days 33 tons, 3 cwts., 2 qrs., 201 Ibs. of metal, using approximately ij gallons of oil per cwt, and the oil furnace doing the work of 9 coke furnaces, the crucibles lasted 16 days, in comparison with coke or gas furnaces lasting 12 to 15 days. Furnaces for melting gold, silver, etc., erected in Sheffield and London, using the Crudall Burner and Mexican Oil. A furnace burning under 4 gallons of crude oil per hour is capable of melting 1,000 ozs. of silver in 45 minutes starting cold, and a similar weight every 30 minutes in one crucible. This furnace is built to hold three 100 Ibs. crucibles, and so would give an output of about 30,000 ozs. of silver or gold in one working day. Furnaces corresponding to the above have been erected in Huddersfield for melting copper and brass, and are giving every satisfaction. As showing the saving which oil effects over gas, the following figures obtained on Mexican Fuel Oil by the Sterling Metals Co., Coventry, are of interest : Cost of Fuel Oil per ib. of Aluminium melted "03 pence. Cost of Town Gas per Ib. of '09 In addition to the foregoing there is a great range of smelting, roasting, and melting furnaces used success- fully in the numerous ramifications of the metallurgical industry, illustration of which is precluded by lack of space. The progress being made in all countries in the application of oil to these processes points to its exclusive use in a few years, for the necessity of keeping abreast of rivals will induce the most conservative to avail themselves of the superior efficiency of oil-fired furnaces. I2 4 MEXICAN FUEL OIL. The figures relative to the Buess Furnace given on the next page are supplied by the London Emery Works Company. The design of this furnace is arranged so that cold compressed air is led into the base of the furnace, and by keeping it cool, prevents the formation of slag It is then led through a small reservoir under the bottom of the furnace in which the oil is circulating, and the air warms this before it reaches the burner. The burner is so arranged that a reducing atmosphere can be obtained at any time, so that when metals of low melting point, such as aluminium, zinc and lead, are in the furnace the quantity of air can be regulated by a scale fixed behind the burner head, in order to change the heating power and time of melting. INSTALLATION OF OIL-FIRED BUESS FURNACES. MEXICAN FUEL OIL. TABLE SHOWING THE COMPARISON BETWEEN THREE POT FIRES EACH OF 1J CWTS. CAPACITY, AND ONE "BUESS" FURNACE OF 3 CWTS. CAPACITY, FOR A DAILY OUTPUT OF ABOUT 1 TONS (1 TON GUNMETAL & TON BRASS). POT FURNACES. Cost for 1 ton gunmetal s. d. Time ot melting 13 charges at 1 1 hrs. each = 16 hrs. at 6d. 080 Coke consumption at about 40 per cent. = 8 cwts. at 253. per ton ... ... ... ... ... ... oio o Charge on crucible 20 charges = 2os., therefore 13 charges = ... ... ... ... ... ... 013 o Loss in melting at 3 per cent. = 6 7 Ibs. at Qd. per Ib. ... 2 10 3 4 i 3 Cost for 9 avts. brass Time of melting 6 charges at i hr. each = 6 hrs. at 6d. 030 Coke consumption at about 30 per cent. = 2^ cwts. at 255. per ton ... ... ... ... ... o 3 r Charge on crucible 20 charges = 205., therefore 7 charges = ... ... ... ... ... ... o 7 o Loss in melting at 4 per cent. = 40 Ibs. at 7^d. per Ib. i 5 o 5 19 4 " BUESS" FURNACE. Cost for 1 ton gunmetal Time of melting 7 charges at i hr. each = 7 hrs. at 6d. 036 Oil consumption 10 per cent. = 2 cwts. at 6os. per ton 060 Charge on crucible 50 charges = 405., therefore 7 charges = ... ... ... ...057 Loss in melting about 2 per cent. =45 Ibs. at Qd. per Ib. i 13 9 2 8 10 Cost for 9 cwts. brass Time of melting 3 charges at f hr. each = 2j hrs. at 6d. 012 Oil consumption 9 per cent. =91 Ibs. at 6os. per ton ... o 3 5 Charge on crucible 50 charges = 40$., therefore 3 charges = ... ... ... ... ... ... o 2 5 Loss in melting about 3 per cent. = 30 Ibs. at 7^d. Ib. ... i 18 9 ~3 J 4 7 Power 3| B.H.P. for 9! hrs. ... ...028 Saving with "Buess" per day 2 2s. hi. Less ^3 jy 3 interest and depreciation on plant, 220, at 15 per cent. 2s. 2d.pcrday = 1 19s 11d. net saving. A net profit of 33^ per cent by installing" Buess" furnace. GLASS TANK HOLDING 6| TONS OF METAL FIRED WITH CARBOGEN BURNERS. MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 12 When oil was first mooted for use in glass making Glass Works some considerable doubt was expressed as to its suitability for this purpose as compared with coke. The experience of many years, however, has proved its entirely satisfactory service, and the accompanying illustration shows the Carbogen burner firing a glass tank holding 6| tons of glass. The Carbogen burner was designed by Mr. F. S. Stackard in the first place for the glass works of his firm of Messrs. J. A. Curie, Ltd., of South Hackney. These furnaces were first worked with an air com- pressing plant, but Messrs. Curie have now installed fan blowers, which work the burners equally well without in- creased consumption of oil and with about one-fourth of the cost for producing the compression previously employed. GLASS TANK AT PENDLETON, FITTED WITH KERMODE BURNERS. 28 MEXICAN FUEL OIL Portable Burners Messrs. Curie have installed Carboo-en burners at o various other glass works in London and the Provinces, and the common experience is a much speedier melting, more uniform heating of the metal, cleaner work, absence of smoke, dust and ashes, and saving of labour handling o o fuel ash and clinker. In annealing the bottles oil fuel has been found, by reason of its complete uniformity and ease of control, to reduce the breakages to a minimum. Not the least of the many advantages of oil fuel for industrial purposes is the facility it affords for bringing intense heat under perfect control to any part of the factory or works by means of portable burners. The examples given are illustrative of a class of furnace which is finding increasing use, especially in America. The oil and compressed air can be piped through the factory to any point required by means of flexible tubing, the air blast being usually taken from the supply for pneumatic tools, suitably reduced to required pressure. Among other purposes these portable burners are used for mould drying, cupola lighting, firing boilers in boiler shops for testing purposes, welding, brazing, filling castings, plate heating, pipe bending, and for a great variety of other pur- poses in boiler shops and shipyards FIG. 44. BEST PORTABLE BURNER. MEXICAN FUEL OIL 1 29 and locomotive works. In Eig. 45 the Best portable burner is shown brazing the exhaust pipe of an automobile engine. The Best portable burner is lined with refactory materialwhich becomes incandescent, which aids combustion and ensures a steady flame even when oil supply is cut very low, It is largely used in erect- ing shops of locomotive works, being used for setting up corners of fire-box sheets to mud rings, flanging, laying on patches, heating crown sheets, heating and welding locomotive frames, and firing locomotive boilers for testing. The use of portable J^^ oil-fired burners is being rapidly extended ^J^IPP in this country. FIG. 45. BRAZING THE EXHAUST PIPE OF AN AUTOMOBILE ENGINE WITH THE BEST PORTABLE BURNER. DRYING A MOULD. ALLDAYS PORTABLE BURNER. APPENDIX. I. List of Purposes for which Fuel Oil is Used II. List of Manufacturers of Oil Burners III. Definitions IV. Summary of Oil Fuel Results and Comparative Data V. Beaume, Specific Gravity, and Weight Tables VI. Heating Value of Various Coals and Oil Fuels VII Useful Data VIII. British Thermal Units and Calories IX. B. T. U.'s in One Pound of Water at Different Temperatures X Properties of Saturated Steam English Basis XI. Properties of Saturated Steam Metric Basis XII. Factors of Evaporation XIII. Melting Points of Metals XIV. Lloyd's Rules for the Burning and Carrying of Oil Fuel XV. Diameter of Suction and Delivery Pipes XVI. Viscosity Table 132 MEXICAN FUEL OIL. APPENDIX I. LIST OF PURPOSES FOR WHICH FUEL OIL IS USED. Annealing Furnaces Asphalt Mixers Assay and Fusion Furnaces Billet Heating Biscuit Baking Boiler Making Bolt Furnaces Brazing and Dip Brazing Breweries Bullion Melting Case Hardening Cement Works Ceramics Cloth Singeing Continuous Heating Copper Melting Core Drying Crucible Furnaces Cupellation Furnaces Cycle Making Drop Forging Electric Power Works Enamelling Fire Engines Foundries Galvanising Glass Making Glass Melting Glass Bending Gold Cyanide Smelting Japanning Ladle Heating Lead Baths Lead Melting Locomotives Nut Making Ore Smelting Petroleum Distillation Pipe Bending Plate Heating Pottery Baking Pumping Works Rivet Heating Rivet Making Rolling Furnaces Rotary Kilns Sand Drying Screwmaking Shaft Heating Shipbuilding Shovel Making Silver Refining Smithy Work Spring Tempering Steam Boilers Steel Melting Sugar Refining Tea Drying Tempering Tilting Furnaces Tinplate Making Tin Smelting Tractors Tool Making Tube Making Tyre Heating Welding Wire Annealing Wire Making Zinc Distillation MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 133 APPENDIX II. LIST OF MANUFACTURERS OF OIL BURNERS, SYSTEMS AND FURNACES. ALLDAVS. -Alldays and Onions, Great Western Works, Birmingham. BAKCOCK. Babcock and Wilcox, Ltd., Oriel House, Farringdon Street, London, E.C. BALDWIN. The Baldwin Locomotive Works, Philadelphia, U.S.A. BARRON. Thos. Barren, Ltd., Phoenix and Don Glass Works, Mexborough, nr. Rotherham. BEST. W. N. Best, n, Broadway, New York, U.S.A. BICKFORD. W. J. Tyack and Co., Ltd., Cambourne, Cornwall. BRETT'S. Brett's Patent Lifter Co., Ltd., Coventry. BUESS. The London Emery Works Co., Park, Tottenham, N. CARBOGEN. J. A. Curie, Ltd., Homer Road, South Hackney, N E. CHURCHILL. Chas. Churchill and Co., Ltd., St. Simon Street, Salford, Manchester. CROSBIE. Crosbie Bros, and Co., Ltd., Bounds Green Road, New Southgate, London, N. CRUDALL. The Crudall Liquid Fuel Burner and Furnace Co., Ltd., 13, Great Queen Street, Kingsway, London, W.C. DAHL. Union Ironworks Co., San Francisco, Cal., U.S.A. DAVIES. Richard Davies and Sons, Bilberry Street, Manchester. EVANS. 34, Gresley Road, London, N. HAMMEL.- -Hammel Oil Burner Co., 640, North Main Street, Los Angeles, Cal., U.S.A. HOLDEN. Tait and Carlton, Ltd., 63, Queen Victoria St., London, E.C. HOVELER. Hovelers Liquid Fuel Appliances, Ltd., Merton Abbey, London, S.W. KERMODE. Kermodes, Ltd., 35, The Temple, Dale Street, Liverpool. KOERTING. Gebr. Koerting, A. G., Kortingsdorf, bei Hannover. LUCAL. Lucal Liquid Fuel Co., 203, Hope Street, Glasgow. MASSEY. B. and A. Massey, Ltd., Steam Hammer Works, Openshaw. MERRYWEATHER. Merry weather and Sons, Greenwich, S.E. MEYERS-SMITH. Smith's Dock Co., Ltd., Bull Ring Docks, N. Shields. MORGAN. The Morgan Crucible Co., Ltd., Battersea, London, S.W. OSBORN. John Wilson and Co., 39, Lime Street, London, E.C. ROCKWELL. W. S. Rockwell and Co., 50, Church St., New York, U.S.A. SAVERY. T. A. Savery and Co., Ltd., Newcomen Works, Bracebridge Street, Birmingham. SMOKELESS ECONOMISER. 28, Victoria Street, London, W. STOCK-CONVERTER. Thwaites Bros., Ltd., Bradford. TATE-JONES. Tate-Jones & Co. (Inc.), Pittsburgh, Pa. THORNYCROFT. John I. Thornycroft and Co., Ltd. WALLSEND-HOWDEN. Wallsend Slipway and Engineering Co., Ltd., Wallsend-on-Tyne. WHITE. Messrs. Brigham and Cowan, South Shields. 1 34 MEXICAN FUEL OIL. APPENDIX III. DEFINITIONS. The Calorific Value of fuel oil is that number of units of water by weight which would be raised one degree in temperature by the complete combustion of one unit by weight of liquid fuel, and is expressed in either Calories or British Thermal Units. A British Thermal Unit (B.Th.U.) is that quantity of heat required to raise one pound of water through one degree Fah. at or near 39.1 Fah. A Calorie is that quantity of heat required to raise one kilogram of water through one degree Centigrade at or near 40 Cent. The calorific value of Mexican fuel oil as derived from the heat values of its principal constituents, obtained by chemical analysis, is as follows : 83.52 /' of Carbon x 14,647 = - 12,240 B.Th.U. u.68 % of Hydrogen x 62,100 7,260 ,, 3.27 % of Sulphur X 4,500 = 147 ,, 1.37 % Undetermined 100 % Total ... ... 19,647 B.Th.U. No allowance is made in the above figures for the heat lost in the formation of the compound, but the result compares fairly closely with 18.900 B.Th.U., the figure obtained by actual calorific test. The Specific Gravity of an oil is the ratio of the weight of a given volume of the oil to the weight of the same volume of water at the same temperature. The specific gravity of water at 39 Fah. is unity, while that of fuel oil varies between 0.85 and i.co, depending on its composition and source of origin. An oil of low specific gravity usually has a low 7 flash point. The specific gravity of fuel oil is frequently given in terms of Beaume degrees, obtained by means of the Beaume Hydrometer, 10 degrees Beaume being equal to the unit of Specific Gravity of Unity. MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 135 The Viscosity of an oil is a measure of its fluidity, and is usually determined in this country by Redwood's Viscometer, and is expressed in seconds. The viscosity of an oil is ascertained by comparing with the rate of flow of rape oil through a Viscometer under identical conditions. The fluidity of oil fuel increases very much with an increase of temperature ; that is to say, the viscosity decreases. See table xvi, page 150. The Viscosity figures vary, depending on the Viscometer that is used; for instance, a reading from Redwood No. i of 1,400 seconds compares with Redwood No. 2 reading 145 seconds. The Flash Point of an oil is the temperature at which the oil commences to give off inflammable vapour. There are two ways of determining this temperature, namely, by the " open" and the "closed" test ; the latter is the more reliable, and an instrument devised by Sir Frederick Abel is generally used for the purpose. In the British Navy the flash point is 175 Fah., while the usual flash point in the mercantile marine is 150 Fah. Fuel oil for land purposes is used with a flash point ranging from 80 Fah. upwards. Go-efficient of Expansion of Fuel Oils, etc. The co-efficient of expansion of Mexican fuel oil is. 00036 per unit of volume per degree Fah. or .00065 P er degree Centigrade. The co-efficient of expansion of most fuel oils varies very little from these figures. The co-efficient of expansion for water is .04775, while that of the majority of metals is between .001 and .002 per degree Fah. The Thermal Efficiency of a steam boiler is the ratio of the heat units usefully absorbed in generating steam, compared to the theoretical total of heat units contained in the fuel supplied to the boiler furnaces. Factor of Evaporation. In order to conveniently compare the performance of different types of boiler or of different classes of fuel it is usual to reduce the evaporation figures obtained to a common basis, namely, the number of pounds of water which would be evaporated under the same conditions into steam at atmospheric pressure at 212 Fah. from water at 212 Fah., that is, 966 B.Th.U. per pound. Table xii, giving the factors of evaporation for various steam pressures, will be found useful in this connection. i 3 6 MEXICAN FUEL. OIL. APPENDIX IV. SUMMARY OF OIL FUEL RESULTS AND COMPARATIVE DATA WITH COAL AND OIL FUEL MENTIONED IN THIS BOOK. RATIO OF ,.,__. COAL AND On. J 'UEL RESULTS. RESULTS r OK OBTAINED. REMARKS. FURTHER DETAILS Coal. Oil. Coal. Oil. REFER TO Chap. Paje General Section. Theoretical Value of Fuel. 11,500 B.T.U. 18,900 B.T U i : 1.6 Theoretical values based on TI. 19 to Calorific and Thermal effi- 14,500 ,, 18,900 i : 2. ciencies. Burner Section. founds of Wafer Evapora'ed from and at 212 F. perlb. of Fuel. 13. 6 Ibs. to i Average Results. Steam HI. 25 14.8 Ibs. ; ~~ System. 15. 6 Ibs. to Average Results. Compressed III. 25 16,6 Ibs. ' Air. 15. 6 Ibs. to } Average Results. Pressure III. 26 i6.61bs. 1 System. 16.22 Ibs. Wallsend-Howden Test. III. 30 Naval Section. 10 Ibs. | J6lbs. i : 1.6 Average Result. IV. 48 Marine Section. i : 1.5 Results obtained on San V. 55 Dunstano and San Eduai do burning Coal and Oil res- pectively : plus 18% increase in I. H. P. of San Eduai do. Tons of Fuel fie Dav or Voyage 220 tons 144 tons I : 1.5 Cargo Steamer. V. 59 5-500 3.300 ,, i : 1.6 Maurelania (Estimated). V. 65 MEXICAN FUEL OIL. APPENDIX IM continued. COAL AND OIL FUEL RESULTS. RATIO OF RESULTS OBTAINED. REMARKS. FOR FURTHER DETAILS REFER TO Coal. Oil. Coal. Oil. Railway Section. Chap. Page Pounds of Fiiel per Train Kilometre. 91.03 Ibs. 61.91 Ibs. I : 1-47 Mexican Railway. VI. 69 Pounds of Fne I per 100 Ton Miles. 20.8 Ibs. 10.3 Ibs i : 2. Fehuantepec Railway. VI. 77 15-07 .- 6.83 i : 2.2 Interoceanic Railway of VI. 79 Mexico. 29-83 ,, I5-32 ,, i : 1.9 Atchison Topeka and Santa VI. 81 Fe. 20 36 ,, ^ (i : 2.05 } 27-45 ,- i : 2.7 [ Comparative Tests Coal \ VI. 82 18.16 ,, | 9-92 ,, i : 1.8 (and Oil on a U.S. Railway ) 17-83 - i : 1.7 J 15-1 .. 7.82 i : 1.9 Great Eastern Railway. VI. 83 Land Section. Pounds of Water Evaporated /row and at 212 F.perlb. of Fuel 9.31 Ibs. 14.38 Ibs. i ; 1.5 Wallsend Test. VII. 91 8.5 15-3 i : 1.8 Mexican Steel Works VII. 92-3 (Estimated). 1497 ,. - Wallsend Pressure Test. VII. 94 16 o ,. _ Kermode VII. 95 13-8 _ Kermode ,, ,, (Boiler VII. 95 overloaded). - I5-9I I 16.22 ,, j Wallsend Howden Test. VII. 96 Furnace Section. Weight oj Fuel in Pounds per Ch irge. 28 Ibs. (Coke) 7.4 Ibs. i : 3-9 Brass Melting Furnace. VIII. 119 895 ,, 224. ,, i : 4. Gunmetal ,, Buess Furnace. VIII. 125 280 ,, ., 91- 1 : 3- Brass VIII. 125 MEXICAN FUEL OIL. APPENDIX V. BEAUME, SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WEIGHT TABLES FOR FUEL OIL. BEAUME. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. POUNDS IN 1 AMERICAN- GALLON. POUNDS IN I IMPERIAL GALLON. POUNDS IN 1 BARREL* (41 IMP. GALS.) BARRELS TO THE TON (2,240 LBS.) 10 I.OOO 8-33 IO.OO 4IO.OO 546 I I .9929 8.27 9.929 407.08 5.50 12 .9859 8.21 9.859 404.22 5-54 13 .9790 8.16 9.790 401.39 5-57 H .9722 8.10 9.722 398.60 5.62 15 .9655 8.04 9.655 395-85 5.65 16 .9589 7-99 9.589 393-15 5.69 17 9523 7-93 9-523 390.44 5.73 18 9459 7.88 9-459 387.82 5-77 19 9395 7.83 9-395 385.19 5.81 20 9333 7-78 9-333 382.65 5-8S 21 .9271 7.72 9.271 380.II 5.80 22 .9210 7.67 9.210 377-6i 5-93 23 .9150 7.62 9.150 375-15 5.96 2 4 .9090 7-57 9.090 372.69 6.01 25 .9032 7-53 9.032 370.31 6.04 26 .8974 7.48 8.974 367.93 6.09 27 .8917 7-43 8.917 365.57 6.12 28 .8860 7-38 8.860 36326 6.16 29 .8805 7-34 8.805 361.00 6.2O 30 .8750 7.29 8.750 358-75 6.24 31 .8695 7.24 8.695 356.49 6.28 32 .8641 7.20 8.641 354-28 6.32 33 .8588 7-15 8.588 352.li 6.36 34 .8536 7.11 8.536 349-97 6.40 35 .8484 7.07 8.484 347.84 6-43 36 8433 7-03 8-433 345-75 6.48 37 8383 6.98 8-383 343-70 6.50 38 8333 6.94 8-333 341.66 6.55 39 .8284 6.90 8.284 339-64 6.59 40 8235 6.86 8.235 337.63 6.63 4i .8187 6.82 8.187 335.67 6.67 42 8i39 6.78 8.139 333-69 6.71 43 .8092 6.74 8.092 331-77 6.75 44 .8045 6.70 8.045 329.84 6-79 45 .8000 6.66 8.000 328.00 6.82 * One barrel contains approximately 41 Imperial gallons or 50 American gallons, and the two last columns are based on this figure. For statistical purposes it is usual to calculate on a barrel capacity of 35 Imperial gallons or 42 American gallons. MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 139 APPENDIX VI. TABLE GIVING AVERAGE HEATING VALUES OF VARIOUS COALS AND OIL FUELS. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. HEATING VALUE IN Cals. per B.T.U.'s kilogram. per Ib, COAL. i South Wales Anthracite 8,300 1 5,OOO Best Yorkshire, Eng. ... 8,OOO 14,500 Midlands, Eng. (6,400 f I 1. 500 (7,200 \ I 3,000 Canada = j 6,100 \ 1 1,000 ^7,800 '(14,000 United States 1 6. 100 |ii,ooo (8,500 (15,000 R ussia ... ... (6,100 fi i. ooo (7.500 ; \ 13,500 OIL. Russian Fuel ... 0.956 10,800 1 9,400 Oklahoma Crude 0.863 10,800 19,400 Texas Sour Lake 0-933 10,500 1 8,900 Mexican Fuel Oil 0.950 10,500 18,900 Roumanian Residuum ... 0.946 10,500 18,900 Borneo Fuel 0.963 10,400 18,800 California 0.962 10,400 18,800 Texas Residuum -945 10,200 1 8,400 Trinidad Crude ... ... 0.945 10,200 1 8,400 Shale Oil 0.875 10,100 18,200 Blast Furnace Oil 0.979 8,900 16,100 Heavy Tar Oil or Creosote ... 1.084 8,900 16,100 140 MEXICAN FUEL OIL APPENDIX VII. Length i inch ... i foot ... T yard i mile ... i millimetre i centimetre i metre i kilometre Area i square inch ... i square foot i square yard ... i square centimetre i square metre ... Cubic Contents i cubic inch i cubic foot i cubic yard T cubic centimetre i cubic metre ... Weight i pound... i cwt. (112 Ibs.) i ton (2240 Ibs.) i kilogram i pood (Russian) Pressure and Area i pound per square inch i pound per square foot i kilogram per square cm. i kilogram per sq. metre USEFUL DATA. MEASUREMENT. 25.4 millimetres. .305 metre. .914 metre. 1609.31 metres. .039 inches. .3937 inches. 39.37 inches. 3280.9 feet. 6.451 square cms. .093 square metre. .836 square metre. .155 square inch. 10.76 square feet. 16.386 c. cms. .028 c. metre. .764 c. metre. .061 c. inch. 35.32 c. feet. 454 kilograms. 50.80 kilograms. 1016 kilograms. 2.204 pounds. 40 pounds (Russian) or 36.11 pounds (British). .0703 kilogr. per sq. cm. 4.88 kilogr. per sq. metre. 14.2 Ibs. per sq. inch. 0.2 Ib. per sq. foot. MEXICAN FUEL OIL. 141 APPENDIX continued. Temperature and Heat Units i degree Fahrenheit i degree Centigrade i British Thermal Unit i calorie i B. Th. Unit per pound i calorie per kilogram ... i B. Th. U. per square foot i calorie per square metre Water and Quantity Measurements i gallon (Imperial) i gallon (American) i Imperial gallon r cubic foot i cubic foot i cubic metre ... i cubic metre ... i litre equals i gallon of water i litre of water i litre of water ... i ton of water ... i ton of water ... i ton of water ... General i atmosphere ... T atmosphere i atmosphere ... i grain per gallon i gramme per litre i B. Th. Unit i calorie i foot pound i metre kilogram 5/9 degree Cent. 95 degree Fah. 0.252 calories. 3.968 B. Th. Units. .554 calories per kilogr. 1.8 B. Th. per pound. 2.713 calories per sq. metre. 0.369 B. Th. U. per sq. foot. o.i 6 cubic feet, or 4.54 litres. 0.13 cubic feet, or 3.6 litres. 0.8332 American gallon. 6.24 Imperial gallons. 28.32 litres. 1000 litres. 220 gallons. .22 gallons. 10 Ibs. i.o kilograms. 61.0 cubic feet. 1000 litres (approx.). 35.97 cubic feet. 224 gallons. 14.7 Ibs. per square inch. 29.92 in. of mercury at 32Fahr. 1.0335 kilograms per sq. cm. 0.014 grammes per litre. 70.02 grains per gallon. 778 foot pounds. 426.84 metre kilos. 0.1382 metre kilo. 7.231 foot pounds. 142 MEXICAN FUEL OIL. APPENDIX VIII. TABLE OF BRITISH THERMAL UNITS AND CALORIES. B.T. UNITS PER LB. OF FUEL. CALORIES PER LB. OF FUEL. CALORIES PER KILOGRAM OF FUEL. 9,OOO 2,270 5,000 9,500 2,495 5,275 IO,OOO 2,520 5,560 IO,5OO 2,645 5,830 I I ,OOO 2,775 6,1 10 I I,5OO 2,900 6,380 I 2,000 3*025 6,660 12,500 3,150 6,950 13,000 3,275 7,220 13.500 3,400 7,500 14,000 3,530 7,780 14,500 3,650 8,050 15,000 3,78o 8,330 15,500 3,910 8,620 1 6,000 4,030 8,880 16,500 4,160 9, 1 60 1 7,000 4,280 9,450 i7>5oo 4,410 9,720 1 8,000 4,530 10,000 18,500 4,660 10,280 1 9,000 4,790 10,560 19,500 4,9i5 10,820 20,000 5P45 1 1,1 10 20,500 5,i7o 1 1 ,400 2 1 ,000 5,295 i r, 680 21,500 5,420 n,93o 22,OOO 5,550 12,220 22,500 5,670 12,500 1 B. Th. Unit = '252 Calories 1 B.Th.U. per Ib. = '554 Calories per kilogram. 1 Calorie - 3'968 B.Th.U. 1 Calorie per kilogram - 1'8 B.Th.U. per Ib. MEXICAN FUEL OIL. APPENDIX IX. TABLE SHOWING NUMBER OF BRITISH THERMAL UNITS CONTAINED IN ONE POUND OF WATER AT VARYING TEMPERATURES AND POUNDS PER IMPERIAL GALLON. 1 POUND. POUNDS PER GALLON. POUNDS. PER CUBIC FOOT TEM- PERA- TURE. DEG. FAHR. THERMAL UNITS PER POUND. POUNDS PER GALLON POUNDS PER CUBIC FOOT 35 35-00 10.0102 62.422 130 130.192 9.873 6^-563 40 4O.OOI 10.01 12 62.425 135 135.217 9.859 61.472 45 45- 002 10.0103 62.422 140 140.245 9.844 61.381 5 50-003 10.0087 62.409 145 '45- 2 75 9.829 61.291 55 55.006 10.0063 62.394 150 150.305 9.815 61.201 60 60.009 10.0053 62.372 155 155-339 9-799 61.096 65 65.014 9.9982 62.344 160 160.374 9.781 60.991 70 70.020 9-9933 62.313 165 165.413 9-757 60.843 75 75.027 9.9871 62.275 170 170.453 9.748 60.783 So 80.036 9.980 62.232 175 175-497 9-7^8 60.665 85 85.045 9.972 62.182 180 180.542 9.7.1 60.548 9 90-055 9.964 62.133 185 185.591 9.691 60.430 95 95-o67 9-955 62.074 190 190.643 9.672 60.314 100 100.080 9-947 62.022 195 195.697 9.654 60.198 105 105.095 9-937 61.960 200 200.753 9635 60.081 I 1 O 1 IO. I IO 9.922 61.868 205 205.813 9.611 59-93 115 115.129 9-9 r 3 61.807 2 IO 210.874 9.594 59.82 120 120.149 9.897 61.715 212 212.882 9.565 59-76 125 125.169 9.887 61.654 144 MEXICAN FUEL OIL APPENDIX X. PROPERTIES OF SATURATED STEAM. (English basis.) PRESSURE ix POUNDS PER SQUARI INCH ABOVE VACUUM. TEMPERATURE ix DEGREES FAHR. TOTAL HEAT ix B.T.U. FROM WATER AT 32 FAHR. VOLUME OF 1 POUXDOF 1 STEAM ix CUBIC FEET. WEIGHT OF 1 CUBIC FOOT OF STEAM IN POUNDS. PRESSURE ix ATMO- SPHERES ABOVE VACUUM I 101.99 I I 13.1 334-6 0.0039 .068 3 141.62 I I25.I 1184 c.0057 204 5 162.34 II3I.5 73 22 00136 340 7 176.50 II35-9 53-37 0.0187 476 10 I93-25 II40.9 38.16 o 0262 .680 il.l 212.00 1156.6 26.37 0.0379 1.000 15 213.03 1 146.9 26.15 0.039 6 50 F. 2,227 60 F. 1,285 70 F. 539 n 80 F. 335 90 F. 210 ,, 100 F. 145 ' uo F. 95 v The readings on Redwood's No. 2 Viscometer compare with the readings on No. i Viscometer for the same sample of Mexican oil as follows : TEMPERATURE. VISCOSITY. REDWOOD No. 1. REDWOOD No. 2. 70 Fahr. 100 Fahr. 7>5 1,460 695 155 Telephone : 2704 GUY (2 Lines). FINSBURY COURT, LONDON, E.G. Telegrams : " Mexprodux, Ave, London. MARKETING AND DISTRIBUTING THE PRODUCTS OF THE MEXICAN . EAGLE OIL COMPANY, LTD. GAS OIL. ASPHALT. GREASE OILS. MOTOR SPIRIT. KEROSENE. ROAD DRESSINGS. FUEL OILS for LOCOMOTIVES, LAND PLANTS STEAMSHIPS. MEX MOTOR SPIRIT A clean, powerful motor fuel of uniform high quality. Packed in cans fitted with the patent "open easy" faucet. "ALL'S WELL 55 LUBRICATING OILS AND GREASES For Locomotive, Marine, Motor and general Industrial purposes. The Bowring Petroleum Co., Ltd., Finsbury Court, London, E.G. MEXPHALTE FOR ROAD- MAKING jyjEXPHALTE is a solid pure bitumen of highest quality specially refined in Mexico for grouting and other road-making purposes. Numerous roads in this Country and on the Continent have been laid with Mexphalte, and have given excellent service under severe traffic conditions. Quotations and samples on request. ANGLO-MEXICAN Petroleum Products Co., Ltd., Finsbury Court, London, E.G. FLUXPHALTE \/orDu$tiess,Durabk Rood?. FOR ROAD-SPRAYING 3 Fluxphalte is superior to tar, as it contains no poisonous matter likely to wash off into fish-inhabited streams, which has been one of the many drawbacks in the use of tar. 3 While Fluxphalte costs no more than tar, the service it gives is several times longer, so that it proves considerably cheaper. 3 Fluxphalte contains 60 per cent, of pure, solid bitumen. It is not merely a dust- dressing, but forms a durable, resilient, asphaltic coat on the road. ANGLO-MEXICAN Petroleum Products Co., Ltd., Finsbury Court, London, E.G. Voidless Asphalt Macadam Improved Methods, High-grade Mexican Bitumen and Exclusive Machinery, solve the problem of Economical and Efficient Con- struction of Roads at a Low Cost. Single Coat Asphalt Macadam. Double Coat Asphalt Macadam. Asphalt Carpet on Macadam Roads. Asphalt Paving on Concrete Foundation. Write for this Rook. = Void/ess Asphalt Macadam construction is explained and ~ E: illustrated in an interesting book issued by Highways Construction Limited. Jt will = be sent on request addressed to = | HIGHWAYS CONSTRUCTION LTD., | = Finsbury Court, Finsbury Pavement, LONDON, E.G. = Printed by Herbert Fitch & Co., Ltd., 31-35. Mansell Street, London. E. Published by George Philip & Son, Ltd. 32, Fleet Street, London, B.C. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY, BERKELEY THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW Books not returned on time are subject to a fine of 50c per volume after the third day overdue, increasing to $1.00 per volume after the sixth day. Books not in demand may be renewed if application is made before expiration of loan period. NOV 9 1965 REC'D NOW2V65-6PM LOAN DEPT. 50m-8,'26 LOCO UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY LAND BOILERS INDUSTRIAL FURNACES & OTHER USES