IRAINAC.R Fr\ iWELLIN H I NTS ON THE Drainage and Sewerage of Dwellings. WM. PAUL GERHARD, CIVIL ENGINEER. NEW YORK : WILLIAM T. COMSTOCK, 6 ASTOR PLACE. 1884. Copyright by rrrm.- m l~V-vwonn"i WM. T. COMSTOCK, 1884. PREFACE. This little work has grown out of a series of articles, con- tributed by the author, under the pseudonym "Hippocrates," to the columns of " BUILDING." It has been the author's aim to give an account of the usual condition in which plumbing work, done years ago and some done quite recently may be found, and also to give suggestions ERRATA. Page 6 line 6 from the top, read " preventable" instead of " preventive." " 17 line 9 " " " "filth." " 19 bottom line " use of the closet" instead of " use of closet." " 134 line 22 from the top read "from the outlet" instead of "from the soil pipe." " 156 line 9 from the top read " known" instead of "knows." " 179 ; < 19 " " "free from" " " "freeof." 194" 12 " " bottom read "by heating and then dipping them." " 246 " 8 " " top read "my" instead of "any." 248" 2 " " " " 4i movable" instead of " marble." New York, January M, 1884. 411517 PREFACE. This little work has grown out of a series of articles, con- tributed by the author, under the pseudonym "Hippocrates," to the columns of " BUILDING." It has been the author's aim to give an account of the usual condition in which plumbing work, done years ago and some done quite recently may be found, and also to give suggestions on the proper manner of doing the work. The title "Hints" has been chosen purposely, for this little volume cannot, and does not pretend to be, an exhaustive treatise on the subject. Frequent reference has been made to the Report on " Filth- Diseases and their Prevention," by John Simon, Chief Medical Officer of the Privy Council and of the Local Government Board of Great Britain. Several quotations from this Important essay have been taken as standard truths, upon which much of the subject matter has been founded. Otber writers on Dwelling-house Sanitation have been quoted. The author's object in doing so was to strengthen his own asser- tions by the conclusions, reached by other workers in the same field. Doubtless there will be those, who, on perusal of the book, will find " nothing new in it." To these, the author would reply that, in his judgment, the subject of * Healthy Homes " cannot be too often brought to the attention of the public, who, as a rule, are yet Indifferent to the importance of having in their houses good drainage and sewerage WM. PAUL GERHARD. New Forfc, January 1st, 1884. - ' 411517 CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. Fresh Air versus Sewer Gas. PAGE. House sanitation Hippocrates' formula Sani- tary considerations in planning healthy homes Purity of soil, air and water Sew- age and sewerage Modern conveniences Dr. Simon on filth Sewer gas and germs of disease Pure air 1-8 CHAPTER II. Necessity of Ventilation in Rooms containing Modem Conveniences ; Defective Arrangement of Plumb- ing Fixtures. Bathrooms and water-closets, dark and unven- tilated Ill-smelling slop sinks Filthy ser- vants' water-closets Pan closet Tight wood- work D-traps Safe wastes Kitchen sink Bell traps Wooden laundry tubs, rot- ten and leaky Butler's pantry sink Choked bottle traps Valve closets Plunger closets- Wash-bowls and bath-tubs, untrapped or im- properly trapped Overflow pipes Urinals Plumbing regulations 9-25 CHAPTER III. Soil and Waste Pipe Systems as usually found in Dwellings. Defective soil and waste pipes Lead soil pipes Cast-iron plumbers' pipe Light pipe a worth- less article Extra heavy cast-iron soil pipe criticised Sand-holes, flaws, thickness not VI uniform, hubs weak Defective joints Water pressure test Unventilated soil pipes Worthlessness of cowls for soil pipes Return bends objectionable Top of soil pipes not to be near chimneys or attic windows Size of soil and waste pipes 26-45 CHAPTER IV. Traps and Systems of Trapping. Trapping of fixtures Traps are necessary evils Trap on the main drain Fresh air inlet Disconnection Various systems of trapping explained 46-56 CHAPTER V. Details of Traps. Shape of traps Flushing of traps Traps should be self -cleansing Siphon traps superior to others Drain traps Flap valves Cesspool traps S-traps Disconnecting traps Gully traps Tidal Valves Water-closet traps D- traps Anti-D-traps S-traps Traps for sinks, bowls and tubs Water seal and mechanical traps Bell traps Dip traps S-traps Bottle traps Floating ball traps Gravity valve traps Flap valve traps Mercury-seal traps Non-Siphoning traps 57-120 CHAPTER VI. Insecurity of the Common Water Seal Traps. Defects of water seal traps Back pressure Loss of seal through momentum Siphonage Evaporation Absorption of gases Preven- tion of Siphonage Vent pipes for traps Ad- vantages and disadvantages Experiments on trap siphonage Non-siphoning traps Scien- tific researches by Dr. Fergus and Dr. Car- michael . 121-130' Vll CHAPTER VIL Defects in the Plumbing Work of Dwelling*. Lead waste pipes under floors Carelessness of carpenters Sagging of pipes Defective joints in lead pipe Waste pipes of too large calibre clog up sooner than small pipes Traps choke, if too large, sooner than if too small List of common faults in plumbing Super- intendence of plumbing by experts Necessity of periodical inspections 131-187 CHAPTER VIII. Cellar Drains and Drainage of Cellars. Air of cellars Impervious cellar floors Cess- pools under houses Made ground Drainage of cellars Disconnection between cellar drain and sewer Cesspool or stench trap in cellar floor objectionable Main house drain Earth- en and cement pipes objectionable Brick drains an abomination Heavy iron pipes must be used under a dwelling 138-143 CHAPTER IX. Usual Defects of House Drains; Sewer Connections* Privy Vaults and Cesspools. Faults of the external sewerage Pollution of air Poisoning of wells and springs Leaky joints in earthen drains Deposits of sewage in pipes Insufficient inclination of pipes Drains of too large diameters Faulty junc- tions Imperfect sewer connections Leaching cesspools Cones of filtration and of pollu- tion Tight receptacles for sewage Slop- water nuisance Privies Privy vaults Ad- vantages of water-closets Dr. Simon on dan- gers from filth . 144-165 Vlll CHAPTEE X. System of Internal Sewerage as it should be in a Dwelling. Drainage or removal of sub-soil water Tight cellar floors Dampness of foundation walls Sewerage of dwellings General rules on house drainage Material for soil, waste and air pipes Heavy cast-iron pipes for sewerage purposes Manufacture of cast-iron pipes Casting pipes Testing pipes at the foundry by pressure Protection against rust Manner of laying iron pipes Leading and caulking joints Flange joints Rust joints Wrought iron pipes for soil, waste, air pipes and lead- ers Durham system of house drainage Manufacture of lap- welded standard steam pipes Hydraulic pressure test Screw joints Pipe cutting machines Tapping machines Construction of soil pipe stacks Method of supporting water-closets Special fittings of the Durham system Lead waste pipes Wiped joints Connection between lead and iron pipes Fixtures to be trapped by separate traps Overflow pipes Drip pipes Refriger- ator wastes Set fixtures Definition of sani- tary plumbing 166-203 CHAPTER XI. Plumbing Fixtures. Description of plumbing fixtures Kitchen sinks Grease traps Laundry tubs Pantry sinks Refrigerators Stationary wash-stands Flushing rim bowls Chain and plug or waste valves Tip-up lavatories Bath tubs Waste valves Standing waste Housemaids' sinks Slop sinks Flushing rim slop hopper Urinals Automatic flush tanks Water closets Pan closets Valve closets and plun- ger closets Hopper closets and washout IX closets Report of the General Board of Health of England on Water-closets, made in 1852 204-234 General arrangement and care of fixtures Plumbing fixtures should be left without cas- ing " Everything in plain sight "Open ar- rangement of fixtures Kitchen sinks Pan- try sinks Housemaids' sinks Slop hoppers Laundry tubs Stationary wash-basins Bath tubs Water-closets Design for a bath- room Ventilation of bath-rooms Arrange- ment of bath room and water-closet A sep- arate apartment for the water-closet is prefer- ableVentilation of the "houseside" of traps- Vent-pipe to be run to a constantly heated flue Ventilation of water-closet bowls Rooms containing plumbing fixtures must have proper ventilation Plumbing fixtures placed in an annex Washbowls in sleeping rooms are objectionable Drip pipes Lead safes are unsightly If the floor under fixtures is made impervious, safes may be dispensed with Suggestion for a bath room with tiling or terrazzo floor Care of plumbing work Fix- tures need constant attention and frequent scrubbing Cleansing of bath rooms Periodical inspections of the plumbing work Disinfectants Care of plumbing work in houses closed during the summer months Evaporation of the water in traps Apparatus for maintaining the water seal of traps Care of plumbing work in houses closed during the winter Freezing of pipes and traps 234-269 CHAPTER XII. Removal and Disposal of Household Wastes. External sewerage of dwellings Vitrified or ce- ment pipe drains Sizes of house sewers Ta- bles and diagrams Inclination required for drains Depth of sewer Alignment Branch drains Lamp holes, access pipes and man holes Ventilating openings Manufacture of vitrified pipes Cement pipe Manner of lay- ing vitrified pipe drains Cement joints Testing drains by hydraulic pressure Patent joints 270-278 Disposal of household wastes Sewers in cities City sewerage Disposal of sewage for closely built-up villages Sewage disposal in suburban and rural districts Leaching cesspools Sew- age must be returned to the soil Surface irri- gation Sub-surface irrigation Advantages of each method Details of sub-surface irriga- tion Sewage or slop- water tank Absorption field Absorption drains Manner of laying them Slop- water disposal Earth closet Au- tomatic sewage tanks with intermittent dis- charge Grease trap and catct basin for solids Siphon and tumbler tanks 279-302, HINTS ON THE DRAINAGE AND SEWERAGE OF DWELLINGS. CHAPTER I. FRESH AIR VERSUS SEWER GAS. subject of this little volume is one to -L which, at some time or other, every one en- gaged in building must necessarily devote some attention. Architects, engineers, builders, mechan- ics, physicians and sanitarians, house-owners and house-holders, are all interested in it. While it is only one branch of the problem of house sanita- tion, the sewerage of the dwelling is of more than ordinary importance, as from it largely depends the attainment of the conditions described in the old Greek sanitarian's formula : "Pure air, pure water and a pure soil." In planning a new house, its site and location,, the character of the subsoil of the building lot,, the aspect of the house, the construction of proper foundations and dry, well-lighted cellars, the means for preventing dampness of walls, the proper materials for building, the arrangement of rooms, halls, closets and staircases most consistent with health, comfort and convenience, the lighting, warming and ventilation of the house, its drain- age, water supply, sewerage, the arrangement of plumbing fixtures and plumbing work, the re- moval and proper disposal of kitchen garbage, slops, ashes, of excreta and liquid wastes of the household, and many other details, must be care- fully considered. The soil on which the house will be erected should be free from impurities, and must be con- stantly kept unpolluted ; an abundance of fresh air of proper temperature and a continuous re- moval of vitiated air are necessary for the health of the inmates ; a never-ceasing and bountiful supply of pure and wholesome water is required for drinking and cooking purposes, for daily ablu- tions of the body, for cleaning utensils, wash- ing linen, scrubbing floors, windows, flushing plumbing fixtures, etc. The water brought into the dwelling under pressure must be removed from it after use, being then more or less foul and mixed with the dis- charges of the human body, from soiled linen, from personal ablutions, with greasy matters of the pan- try and kitchen, etc. Such fouled water from the household (to which may be added the foul liquids from stables and manufacturing establishments of all descriptions) is called sewage, and the object of a sewerage system is the immediate removal by means of water of all sewage from habitations, and its disposal in a manner so as to render it not only innocuous, but, if possible, useful. For convenience in performing the various duties of domestic cleanliness, and further for health and comfort's sake, our modern houses are furnished with set fixtures, basins, tubs, sinks and water closets, supplied with hot or cold water, and each connected by wastepipes to the drainage system. The planning of a proper and efficient system of water supply and sewerage for a dwelling requires a thorough knowledge of the subject, which is of such a vast extent that it seeins impossible to offer here more than a few hints and suggestions. These will relate not so much to proper mechanical exe- cution of the details of plumbing work as they will to sound sanitary arrangement of the drainage system. Upon the latter will largely depend the future immunity of the building from sewer gas, and consequently the freedom of its inmates from certain preventible diseases, generally attributed to the entrance of gases from the sewer or drain through defective plumbing work. It is not my purpose to discuss at length the much vexed ques- tion of the influence of sewer air in developing or spreading certain epidemic diseases. I believe that this question can only be satisfactorily solved by physiologists, and that neither architects, nor en- gineers nor physicians should pronounce an opin- ion of their own, unless they should have devoted years of actual study and experimenting to organic chemistry and to that branch of physiology which relates to the germ theory of disease. Dr. John Simon, Chief Medical Officer of the Privy Council and of the Local Government Board of Great Britain, and a high sanitary authority, says in his able report on " Filth Diseases n : " An important suggestion of modern science with regard to the nature of the operations by which Filth, attacking the human body, is able to dis- order or destroy it, is : that the chief morbific agencies in Filth are other than those chemically- identified stinking gaseous products of organic de- composition which force themselves on popular attention. Exposure to the sufficiently concen- trated fumes of organic decomposition (as, for instance, in an unventilated old cesspool or long- blocked sewer) may, no doubt, prove immediately fatal by reason of some large quantity of sulphide of ammonium, or other like poisonous and fetid gas, which the sufferer suddenly inhales, and far smaller doses of these fetid gases, as breathed with extreme dilution in ordinary stinking atmos- pheres, both give immediate headache and general discomfort to sensitive persons temporarily ex- posed to them, and also appear to keep in a some- what vaguely depressed state of health many who habitually breathe them ; but here, so far as we yet know, is the end of the potency of those stink- ing gases. While, however, thus far there is only the familiar case of the so-called common chemi-> cal poison, which hurts by instant action, and in direct proportion to its palpable and ponderable dose, the other and far wider possibilities of mis- chief which we recognize in Filth are such as ap- parently must be attributed to morbific ferments or contagia ; matters which not only are not gas- eous, but, on the contrary, so far as we know them, seem to have their essence, or an insepara- ble part of it, in certain solid elements which the microscope discovers in them : in living organisms, namely, which in their largest sizes are but very minute microscopical objects, and at their least sizes are probably unseen even with the micro- scope ; organisms which, in virtue of their vitality, are indefinitely self-multiplying within their re- spective spheres of operation, and which therefore, as in contrast with common poisons, can develop indefinitely large ulterior effects from first doses which are indefinitely small. Of ferments thus characterized, the apparently essential factors of specific chemical processes, at least one sort the ordinary septic (putrefactive) ferment seems always to be present where putrefactive changes are in progress, as, of course, in all decaying ani- mal refuse ; while others, though certainly not essential to all such putridity, are in different degrees apt, and some of them little less than cer tain, to be frequent incidents of our ordinary refuse. As, apparently, it is by these various agencies (essential and incidental) that Filth pro- duces " zymotic " (fermentative) disease, it is imr portant not to confound them with the fetid gases of organic decomposition ; and the question, what infecting powers are prevalent in given atmos- phere, should never be regarded as a mere question of stink. It is of the utmost practical importance to recognize in regard of Filth, that agents which destroy its stink may yet leave all its main powers of disease-production undiminished. Whether the ferments of disease, if they could be isolated in sufficient quantity, would prove themselves in any point odorous, is a point on which no guess need be hazarded ; but it is certain that in doses in which they can fatally infect the human body they are infinitely out of reach of even the most culti- vated sense of smell, and that this sense (though 6 its positive warnings are of indispensable sanitary service) is not able, except by indirect and quite insufficient perceptions, to warn us against risks of morbid infection." Abundant evidence has been given by Dr. Parkes in his " Manual of Practical Hygiene " to establish with almost absolute certainty the fact that there is a connection between sewer air and certain preventive diseases, notably bowel diseases. Notwithstanding this, Dr. Soyka and Dr. Renk, both of Munich, have denied the existence of any positive proof of the influence of sewer gas upon the spread of zymotic diseases.* Their views are in direct conflict with the above quoted theories of Dr. Simon, with the over- whelming evidence given by Dr. Parkes and other writers, and the facts and statements contained in many Health Reports of this and of the old country. While this scientific question is pending, it seems best to continue to assume that gases originating from the decomposition of animal or vegetable matter, especially if the decomposition goes on in the absence of oxygen, are capable of doing harm, when entering a dwelling. Just how much harm they may do will largely depend upon the consti- tution of the individual exposed to the influence of such germ-containing atmosphere. A healthy per- son, having much out-of-door exercise, may breathe sewer air with impunity ; on the other hand, people in delicate health, women and chil- dren, may suffer severely from breathing impure * See Deutsche Viertel jahrschrift fur oeffentliche Gesundheitspflege, Vol. XIII. and XIV., 1881-1882. air, the consequences being slight headache, nausea, vomiting, or diarrhoea, dysentery, enteric fever, oholera, diphtheria, etc. Workingmen engaged for a whole day in cleaning sewers may feel less influence of the deadly poison than a person sleep- ing in an unventilated room containing an un- trapped washbowl or other plumbing fixture. It has been said that " pure air and plenty of it is the best cure for sewer gas." This is undoubt- edly true, but how little is it yet understood ! Pure air is just what is needed in our homes, and I shall repeatedly refer in the following pages to the necessity of ari abundant supply of this life- giving element in order to effect the proper venti- lation of all living and sleeping rooms, in particu- lar of all closets and bathrooms of a dwelling, of all plumbing fixtures, soil and waste pipes, of the house drain, the sewer or cesspool. Says Dr. George Wilson -in his book, "Healthy Life and Healthy Homes " : " In order to keep the air of the house pure and healthy, there must be no damp foundations, no damp walls, no dark and dingy cupboards or corners to confine the air and devitalize it, no filth in or around the dwelling to pollute it, and no overcrowding. There should be cleanliness everywhere, adequate means of ven- tilation, plenty of window space to let sufficient light into every room and proper appliances for warming during cold weather." And Dr. John Simon speaks about domestic cleanliness as fol- lows : " The perfection of cleanliness would be that all refuse matters should from their very be- ginning pass away inoffensively and continuously ; and the principles of approximation to that ideal must evidently be, first to provide to the largest practicable extent for the continuous outflow of refuse as fast as produced, and secondly (so far as continuous outflow cannot be got) to provide for the closest possible limitation and the completest possible innocuousness of such refuse as is una- voidably detained." This last quotation embodies in the fewest words the vital principles of household sanitation. Let us now inquire what the actual condition of city houses is, with reference to those rooms con- taining plumbing fixtures. CHAPTER II. NECESSITY OF VENTILATION IN ROOMS CONTAINING MODERN CONVENIENCES ; DEFECTIVE ARRANGE- MENT OF PLUMBING FIXTURES. TJ ATHROOMS and water closet apartments are Ls frequently located in the center of the house, with no other light but that from a window opening into the staircase hall. One looks in vain for any means of renewing the air of the apartment. In placing the bathroom in this part of the house, it Pro. 1. Common arrangement of bath rooms in City Houses? 10 certainly did not occur to either architect, house owner or plumber that, just in cases where a room containing plumbing work cannot have a window to an outside wall, ventilation is most essential, more so than any costly furniture, decorated ceil- ings or artistic wall paper. It is not unusual to find water closets and urinals placed in dark closets, lighted by a gas flame (Fig. 1), with no other outlet for the products of combustion, and any possible foul gases, than into the hall of the house, or, what would be infinitely worse, into an adjoining bedroom. Is it surprising, then, that complaints of sewer gas are frequent and loud ? On the bedroom floors we find a dark, damp, unventilated and ill smelling closet, which contains a slop-sink or a slop-hopper, into which the house- maid pours the slops from bed-chambers. Such a oloset is certainly as much in need of ventilation as the water closet apartment is, for slop-sinks have large surfaces exposed to spatterings, and, as usually constructed, receive no flush of clean water follow- ing a discharge from a slop pail ; they remain fouled with dirty matter, which soon gives off offensive odors. But, in ninety-nine out of every hundred houses, the air of such a closet is never changed, except when its door is opened, and then only to bring its fouled atmosphere in connection with the air of the very centre of the house. Descending into the basement, we find in many cases a nuisance created by the servants' water closet. The most remote, ill-lighted and closely confined corner of the basement or cellar is gener- ally selected for it. Is there anything astonishing 11 about the usual condition in which we find such apparatus? The closet being located in a dark, out-of-the-way place, no trouble is taken in keeping the bowl free from filth. I have seen, in the houses of wealthy, refined and intelligent people, such places in the very worst state of neglect and untidiness, being seldom, if ever, looked after by heads of families. Such condition of things war- rants the general conclusion that the occupants of FIG. 2. Sectional view of Pan Closet, such houses do not at all consider that filthiness of the servants' water closet apparatus is not confined to its apartment, but may create gases of decom- position that will spread out and fill the whole dwelling, to say nothing of unclean habits to which it must lead servants. I fear that many readers will call my description 12 exaggerated others may think the account rather discouraging but my picture is by no means over- drawn. I know from long actual experience that the facts disclosed are the rule, not the exception, in most of our houses. To arouse public interest in this question, and to enlighten those in search of a healthy home, such facts and statements should have the widest publicity given them. PIG. 3. Water-closet fitted up with tight wood-work. A somewhat closer examination of the fixtures connected with the drainage system and located in the apartments described, usually reveals the fol- lowing facts. The servants' water closet is most always of the cheapest and worst kind, a pan closet (Fig. 2), encased in tight nailed woodwork (Fig. 3), with no ventilation under the seat nor to 13 the apartment. If we succeed after considerable trouble and delay in removing the riser, seat and cover, we will find the floor stained from leakage of the closet valve, and ill-smelling from the absorption into the wood of spilled urine. Dust and dirt and perhaps vermin will have accumulated in the hidden corners. The closet bowl is generally flushed by a valve, supplied directly from the rising water main of the house. The flushing water enters the bowl at one point of its circumference (Fig. 2) arid whirls around, unable to flush the bowl, which accounts for its generally filthy appearance. The operation of pulling the handle starts the flush, at the same time it causes the pan which closes the outlet of the bowl to tilt, thus dumping its con- tents into the container. Each time this is done, a puff of sewer gas from the container enters the apartment. This container or receiver has been called a " hidden chamber of horrors." As usually constructed it is of plain iron, with rough interior surface, of large size to allow the movement of the pan, and receives no flush whatever. Its sides soon get coated with excrements, putrefaction begins, and sewer gas is thus generated in the heart of the house. The plumber may have assured the house owner that he has put a trap under the closet to ut off the gases from the soil pipe, he may have told him that there is an additional seal against gases afforded by the water in the pan, and seeing all the complicated machinery about the apparatus, (see Fig. 4,) the householder generally a layman in such matters will be led to believe that he has in his house the most modern and perfect appliance. 14 And a most perfect and ingenious apparatus it is to fill the house with noxious, nasty and health- menacing smells ! For there are ways in which the sewer gas will enter the room, even if the pan should be closed and the closet outlet sealed. The hole in the container for the spindle which works the pan is never made tight, thus establishing a di- rect connection between the container and the room. PIG. 4. Outside view of Pan Closet, bowl removed. The bowl is fastened to the container only by a putty joint, which crumbles away in time, or is eaten by rats, thus opening another road for the gases of the container. The trap of the water closet is another source of annoyance ; it must necessarily accumulate excremental matter (Fig. 2.),. as the valve flush is not sufficiently strong to drive such matter through the dip of the trap. In old houses this trap is often of the worst kind, a D-trap (Fig. 5), which in a short time becomes a filthy cess- 15 pool in the room. The pan is quickly corroded by the action of sewer gas from the container, and thus the secur- ity of the double waterseal is lost, and the bowl loses its water and becomes more read- ily fouled on this account. FIG. 5. D-Trap. The floor under the pan closet may be provided with a safe to catch drippings, and its waste pipe is in many cases run into this trap, below its water line (Fig. 6). Thus the foul water from the trap standing back in the drip pipe will evap- orate into the apart- ment. In some instances cheap kind of hopper, generally of iron, is used for FIG. 6. Drain pipe from safe under aoi-vanta' r1rkcot the water in the latter may be removed by siphonage, or it may evaporate, should the bowl not be used for some time (Fig. 18).. Where the soil and * waste pipes, into which the bowl or bath tub FIG. i4.-w.te and overflow wastes deliver, have DO- pipes from wash bowl in direct ventilation by being communication with soil pipes. extended through the roof, it may happen that the S-trap is forced by back-pressure, and also that the water in the trap absorbs gases and possibly germs of disease, which may be given off on the house side of the trap, that is into the room, when the water in the trap is agitated. Stationary wash stands have either common bowls with outlet at the bottom, closed by a 22 liung to a brass or plated safety chain, or else they are of the " tip-up " type, in which case the bowl is emptied by tilting its contents into a larger concentric bowl underneath. Both arrangements are apt to become filthy ; soapsuds remain sticking to the many links of the chain, which is difficult to clean, and the lower bowl of a tip-up basin presents generally, upon investigation, a far from satis- factory appear- ance. Being covered and not easily accessi- FIG. 15.-Waste and overflow pipes from , , . . bath trapped by running into water closet uie > L trap below its water line. cleaned, and filth gradually accumulates in it, and its putrefaction may soon cause great annoyance. The chain and plug arrangement for bath tub is in no respect better than that for wash bowls. Bad smells from wash bowls or bath tubs are occasionally traced to the overflow pipe of either kind of fixture. The walls of such pipes remain coated, should an occasional over- flow occur, with slime, and receive no flushing what- ever. Generally a very long length of these pipes re- FiG. 16. Waste from wash bowl trapped mains in COmmU- froin overflow pipe joining waste beyond trap . mcation with the 23 room, continually to foul its air. For these reasons overflow pipes should be dispensed with wherever possible ; and that such arrangement can often, though not always, be had, will be shown later. Stationary bowls and tubs, when lined with a safe to prevent damage to ceilings, have drip pipes to carry off overflowing water in case of accidents. The arrangement of such drip pipes is frequently deficient. They are sometimes in direct connection with soil or waste pipes ; in other cases they are trapped, and the traps become ineffective by evap- oration of the water. In houses of a more recent construction a weeping pipe is arranged to supply water to such trap at frequent inter- vals, but even such a device is unsatis- factory and dangerous. A fixture common to office rooms and to lavatories or toilet rooms ad- joining billiard rooms in private FIG. 17. Com- houses is the urinal. It is usually mon s-trap. j n an extremely nasty condition, and its appearance most unsightly, owing to the feeble flush from a stop-cock, which is unable to cleanse the urinal. Urine remains spattered on the bowl and is sometimes spilled on the floor, and its rapid decomposi- tion creates most pungent and dis- gusting odors. Unless of an ap- proved pattern, with plenty of water in the bowl, and with a strong FIG 18 -Water ^ us ^ ^ water driven through a flush- seal of s-trap i no . r i m and derived from a cistern, lost by syphon- age or evapora- j should hesitate to recommend a tion. 24 urinal for a private house. The improved water closets, of which I shall speak hereafter, can generally be so constructed and put up as to be used in place of a urinal. Our remarks have thus far been confined to the usual arrangement of rooms containing plumbing fixtures, and to the condition in which such appar- atus is frequently discovered to be upon examina- tion of houses built some years ago. Just here the fact should be mentioned that in cities where plumb- ing work is now regulated by law and controlled by plumbing inspectors of the Board of Health, a marked influence upon the quality and general character of the plumber's work may easily be recognized. It is somewhat sad to think that, to secure a good, safe job from the average plumber, regulations as to the details of his work had to be drawn up by the city health authorities, and that con- stant vigilance is necessary to secure the proper car- rying out of these regulations. The general public, in particular the vast number of families in cities who are dependent for shelter on tenement houses, apartments, or small houses built for speculation and for rent, should be thankful for the many ben- efits derived from the enforcement of such plumb- ing regulations. Briefly stated, bath rooms in the center of the house are now always located near light and air shafts. Less wood wt>rk is used in fitting up sinks and tubs ; water closets and wash bowls have hinged doors to render possible frequent inspections of hidden parts of fixtures. The pan closet, although still extensively used, is supplied from special flushing cisterns, and has a properly 25 vented S-trap. In addition to this, every tub, bowl, sink, etc., is provided with a separate vented trap. The next chapter will treat of soil and waste pipes and their usual defects. CHAPTER III. SOIL AND WASTE PIPE SYSTEMS AS USUALLY FOUND IN DWELLINGS. TJ^AULTY arrangement of soil and waste pipes JL in dwellings aggravates the danger arising from defective plumbing fixtures. The principal defects to be considered are : improper material for pipes, bad manner of making pipe joints, insuf- ficient or defective ventilation of the soil and waste pipe system, and use of pipes of too large calibre. I shall not dwell upon the well-known defects of lead soil pipes ; although still the rule in England, they have, fortunately, in this country; become a thing of the past, and when found upon examina- tion of houses built years ago are invariably con- demned and removed. As the origin of lead soil pipes dates back from the time when ventilation of waste pipes was not yet practised, they are found corroded and honey-combed by the action of sewer gas (See Fig. 19). Cast iron pipes with socket joints have since then taken their place. They are sold in lengths of five feet, with a single or double hub, and innumerable fittings are manufactured to provide for changes of direction, for branch wastes, etc. In Fig. 20, a. represents the single and double hub pipe, b. is a Y branch, c. is a double half-Y branch, d. is a quarter bend with double hubs, e. an eighth bend, f. a sixth bend, g. an increaser, fi. a T-branch, t. an offset, and k. a long quarter bend. In ordinary contract work, the plumber always uses what is called " light soil pipe," often not even protected against rust by a coating of coal tar pitch, and therefore a very flimsy article of manufacture, which should not be tolerated wherever sound work is expected. This pipe is condemned by Mr. James C. Bayles in his book " House Drainage and Water Service" in the following words: "An iron soil pipe should not be too light. In much of the cheap work of the time the pipe used is lighter than it should be. I have seen pipe set up in houses which, tested with callipers, I have found to be not more than one-eighth of an inch thick. The FIG. l9.^Lead soil objections to this kind of pipe ?id ei co^od n ed lat b?are numerous and important. It does not possess the requisite strength, it is too quickly eaten through by rust, and it is very apt to have sand holes and other im- perfections, which, for a time, may afford an easy outlet for the gases of the sewer. The difference in cost between light pipe and that of suitable thick- ness (a quarter of an inch for private houses and three-eighths and upward where there is a long line of large size to accommodate a continuous outflow 28 of considerable volume) is not great enough to make the economy profitable." "In architects' specifications we seldom find a suitable weight of iron pipe called for. Conse- quently the principal demand is for very cheap and light pipes. As made, they are as hard as chilled iron owing to the fact that they are cast so thin and about as brittle and difficult to cut as glass. If dropped they crack or break, and are utterly untrustworthy at all times" (The italics are mine). The Sanitary Engineer ', in commenting upon the lately passed Boston plumbing ordinance, says : "We regret, however, that all lines of soil pipe, and the fittings on it, over fifty feet in length, were not required to be the standard extra heavy pipe, which is one-fourth inch thick ; the pipe specified in the law is too thin for the high build- ings now being erected. The additional cost of the extra heavy pipe is only for the value of the iron, the labor being the same, and for reasons often stated in these columns, and which every plumber knows, it should not be for a moment considered when the risks to be avoided are taken into account." The better grades of soil pipe, the heavy and extra heavy soil pipe and fittings in the market, the price of which is about double that of light pipe, are usually specified only for public or other large expensive buildings. My experience with extra heavy cast iron soil pipe warrants me in saying that even the latter is very often decidedly bad, having an uneven thick- ness of metal, and consequently being in its, 1. k. FIG. 20. Cast Iron Plumbers' Pipe and Fittings. 30 weakest part no thicker than " light " pipe. As in all other engineering structures, the strength and durability of a system of drainage should be de- termined by the strength of its weakest point, and thus it will be readily understood that extra heavy soil pipe is no better, although more costly, than light pipe, as long as the manufacturer takes no pains to secure a uniform thickness of the metal. Plumbers' soil pipe is never tested at the works, and sand holes or flaws are a common occurrence, and are not readily detected by subsequent inspection, especially if the pipe is coated with tar or asphalt, or enamelled. An equally weak point with plumb- ers' pipe is the shape and strength of the hub, as from it depends the tightness of the joints. One of the worst defects in plumbing work of cheaply built houses is the manner of tightening the joints in cast-iron soil pipe. No other part of a common plumbing job shows so many defects as a stack of iron soil or waste pipe ; there is scarcely another detail in a system of drain pipes for a dwelling in which so much rascality or criminal stupidity is shown than in the manner of making joints in iron pipe, and this is especially the case wherever architects or builders tolerate such pipes to be built into walls, inasmuch as under such circumstances defective joints are readily covered up and brought out of sight. Such pipes are often jointed with paper, covered with sand, or else some cheap mortar is thrown into the space between spigot and socket ; in other cases putty is used, or red lead. Wherever joints are in sight some lead is perhaps poured on top 31 of the sand to give the joint the appearance of having been done with the proper material. Other workmen are content with filling the joint with lead poured in hot, omitting the most important operation, that of caulking the joints after the lead has cooled off. But even where a gasket of hemp or oakum, a ladle full of hot lead and caulking tools are used, carelessness or ignorance of the me- chanic have much to do with improper and leaky joints. The man- ner of applying the gaskets of oakum, the quality of the melted lead, its purity, the FIG. 21. sketch showing com- temperature to which parative strength of hubs of , i , . . ., plumbers' pipe and gas pipe. I* IS Kept in the pot A-Piumbers' pipe. B.-Gas pipe. on t h e fi re> fa e manner of pouring the lead, and finally the operation of caulking it after shrinking, these are all details worthy of careful consideration, but unluckily, sel- dom looked after in plumbing a dwelling. It would not require much reflection on the part of the mechanic to know that the safety of the occupants of a house must depend to a great extent upon the perfect tightness of all joints in waste 32 pipes. Unfortunately, however, the health of th& inmates is not a matter usually considered by the speculative builder or the average plumber. Joints in cast-iron soil pipe could be made tight, if the thickness of the pipe hubs would be in- creased, if the pipe would be carefully se- lected, inspect- ed, and tested with hydraulic pressure be- fore leaving the foundry, or at any rate before coating the pipes with a rust prevent- -~~ ing solution, but even then it would re- good deal of attention Unless the Board of FIG. 23. Sketch showing method of apply- ing the water pressure test. quire proper care and in making the joints. Health regulations require the testing of all soil pipes in new buildings under the supervision of inspectors appointed by the Board, or unless an expert engineer superintends the drainage work in a dwelling, care is seldom, if ever, taken to at- tain such results. If the subsequent testing of soil and waste pipes shows a leakage, the plumber is very apt to excuse himself by throwing all blame 33 upon the manufacturer. He will claim, and I have frequently heard the statement made, that the lat- ter does not manu- facture pipes with hubs of sufficient strength to with- stand the severe knocking occas ioned by the caulk- ing tool. This, I admit, is true, but it cannot be con- sidered a valid reas- on for not making tight joints. I be- lieve that if plumb- ers would join in the earnest protest of the best archi- FIG. 23. Soil pipe from water closet .. ... trap to the sewer without extension tects and Civil en- through the roof. No fresh air pipe and no trap on main drain. gineers against such " light soil pipe," or against extra heavy pipe with uneven thickness of metal or hubs of insuffi- cient strength, they would be able to secure a better article of manufacture. It has been my personal observation that honest and conscientious plumbers with best possible intentions to do only first-class work were fre- quently unable to caulk the lead of joints sufficiently tight without splitting the hub of the pipe. In other cases the joint could not be made tight owing to 34 the impossibility of reaching all parts of the lead in a joint with the usual caulk- ing tools, the soil pipe being located in a re- cess or a par- tition. That cast- iron socket pipes can be tightly jointed will be at once apparent by re- ferring to gas and water mains. In the one case leak- age of illu- FiG. 24. Soil pipes and waste pipes with- minating gas, and inthe other waste of water, can be effectually prevented by properly made joints. A comparison with water pipes would, perhaps, be considered unfair, as these are expected to stand much heavier inside pressures than a soil pipe of most houses, when tested by water pressure. The pressure in gas mains is, however, very slight, seldom exceeding one or two pounds per square inch. Let us then compare the common plumbers' pipe with the pipe used for conveying illuminating gas. Fig. 21 shows a cross section through the bells of heavy plumbers' pipe and of gas pipe. It will be readily 35 admitted that the hub B is designed to resist strong knocking by the mechanic's tool, while the hub A is apparently weak and therefore frequently broken. Tightness of joints may easily be tested and de- fects in the piping detected by the " water pres- sure test." Before setting and joining any fixtures to the soil and waste pipes, all its outlets are closed by india rubber plugs, squeezed with iron discs by means of a bolt and nut, and the pipes filled with water, Fig. 22. Should there be a leak it is readily detected and should be immediately remedied. The test is then repeated until there are no more signs of a leak. For very high buildings, for instance the flats now being erected in many parts of New York city, the head of water would become too great, and in such case the pipes are tested in sections. FIG. 25. Soil pipe ventilated by a pipe rro,' of insufficient size, extended up to the IhlS test IB Un- doubtedly more useful than the peppermint or smoke test ; it is easily applied, and is one of the most important 36 things in connection with the plumbing of dwell- ings. It is very desirable that it should be more frequently applied by the Plumbing Inspector of the Health Board in cities where plumbing is re- gulated by law than is done now; for a house with a network of waste pipes, that have successfully stood this test, is a much safer place for human beings than most houses of the present day. Under the heading, " Testing Soil and Waste Pipes by Pressure," the editor of the "Metalworker" has recently given his opinion as follows: "We suppose that no one who has had oc- casion to inspect plumbing work in houses already com- pleted, has not many a time felt a strong desire for some means which should enable him to determine whether a given line of pipe was sound or leaky. In our own experience recently, we met a case of this FIG. 26. Soil pipe extended full size kind, in which it was through the roof for ventilation, but a lmnf imTwacjiKlA Ivu- aimost imossibli b of improper material and with def ec- tive joints above the water closet trap, ordinary methods to make ourselves cer- tain in regard to the condition of several lines of soil and waste pipe. The houses were so arranged 37 that the soil pipes cannot be opened for inspection through their whole lengths, and even the most careful peppermint test will not give all the information that is desirable. A pipe may be tight and apparently sound, yet of so thin a substance that the least pressure will destroy it or break it through. Joints may be tight at the moment, though barely filled with a thin coating of putty, blown out almost at a single breath. Such pipes, though tight for the moment, are not safe against the slightest pressure, and at any time may be liable to have their continuity broken by a slight jar." " The longer we study this subject the more completely do we become convinced that the true remedy for this state of things is a test of the soil pipes by pressure. Scamping is so easily done and so difficult of detection that it seems impossible to avoid it, even in the best jobs which may be constructed. A large proportion of the work is done in difficult situations, where the workman has every temptation to save himself labor and discom- fort, and in such situations poor work is the rule rather than the exception." (The italics are mine). * * * * * r^ real objection to such a test is to be found in the fact that it calls for perfect workman- ship throughout. It demands just what every house builder and house owner wishes to have, but just what it is very difficult to obtain from even the best plumbing establishments in the city. In gas fitting, which is much less difficult than plumb- ing work, no sane man would dare to trust a large job with- out carefully testing it under pressure. We do not think that it will be many years before the method of FIG. 27. Top of soil pipe covered A with return bend or ventilating cap. testing by pressure 38 will be made a requirement in the best jobs of plumbing work." In a previous chapter, lack of ventilation was recognized as a serious defect of plumbing fixtures and their apartments. Not less serious is the insufficient ventilation of soil and waste pipes. There are still thousands of houses in every large city where soil pipes have no air circulation what- ever, but stop at the trap of the highest water closet, and where waste pipes are run only from the drain in the cellar to the fixtures, such as sinks, tubs, bowls, etc., without upward ex- tension (See Figs. 23 and 24). In many cases the plumber thinks that he has provided a sufficient ventilation by running a small (1-J or 2 inch) vent pipe through the roof (See Fig. 25). In a few cases only is the extension of t h e soil pipe of the full size of the pipe. That this ventilat- ing extension should be of the same ma- of FIG. 38. Proper method of ventila- ting a soil pipe. pipes are made is a by skin plumbers. rule which is often violated Galvanized iron or tin pipes 39 are frequently run from the highest water closet upward through the roof, the joints being im- perfectly closed or not made at all, the pipes being simply slipped one into another (See Fig. 26). To illustrate, I quote from a late issue of the "Metalworker:" "A few days ago a friend in the trade called my at- tention to one of the most startling instances of rascally plumbing of which I have ever heard. A friend of his, living in Brooklyn, was troubled with bad odors in his house and sickness in his family. He was advised to determine whether his soil pipe was tight, and the use of peppermint was suggested. Some was procured, and the householder went to the roof for the purpose of pouring it down the soil pipe through the projecting ex- tension. His wife and others were stationed at different points in the house to see if they could detect the smell of peppermint at any of the fixtures. As they were- unable to do so, it seemed as if the test had failed to show any defects in the pipe system, but in a few minutes all the oil of peppermint which had been poured down the pipe came through the ceiling of one of the bedrooms on the highest floor, and dripped down upon the carpet. Examination revealed the fact that the supposed ventilating extension of the soil pipe above the roof was a mere sham. The plumber had put on a length of pipe and secured it in an upright posi- tion, but it had no connection whatever with the soil pipe of the house. In the four houses immediately adjoining, all of which were built under the same con- tract, the same condition of affairs was found." Even where the extension of the soil pipe is of proper size and material, its object is often de- feated by a ventilating cover or hood or return bend placed on top of mouth of pipe, which greatly impedes ventilation (Fig. 27). 40 All these attempts at establishing an air current are futile, unless a second opening for fresh air is provided at the foot of the iron soil pipe. With two openings of the full size of soil pipe a con- stant current and dilution of the air in the pipe, and a destruction of organic matter coating the inner walls of pipes is effected (See Fig. 28). It is a mistake to place any ventilator over the mouth of soil or waste pipes. While some cowls may act very efficiently with certain directions of the wind, it is now believed that for the usual direction of the wind a plain open-mouthed tube affords greatest upward movement in vertical pipes. Great carelessness is often shown in the location of the fresh air pipe as well as of the soil pipe mouth. The former should be remote from windows, and the latter not too near any skylight, air shaft or chimney top. Fig. 29 illustrates how sewer gas may be carried down a chim- ney flue and enter the dwelling through fire places, if propor care is not taken to locate the soil pipe mouth remote from and at least a few feet below chimney tops ; down drafts in chimney flues or ventilating shafts are known to occur at times, and may thus be the cause of annoy- ing gases in rooms. Fig. 30 shows a soil pipe term- mating above the roof close to a mansard roof window, perhaps of a chimney top. 41 an attic dormitory. The injudiciousness of such location is quite apparent. Fia. 30. A soil pipe terminating near attic window. Experience has also clearly demonstrated the need of enlarging the extension of smaller waite pipes to four inches diameter (Fig. 31), for smaller openings above the roof become frequently obstructed in FIG. 31. Waste pipe enlarged at roof. cold climates by hoar frost, and thus the purpose of the pipe extension is practically annihilated. 42 It is a common mistake with plumbers and builders to make the soil and waste pipes unneces- sarily large. Soil pipes of 5 or even 6 inches diameter are used where a 4-inch pipe would be ample to carry off all the waste water that could be discharged into it. Such a pipe is sufficient for dozens of water closets on the same or on different floors. In my own practice I never use a soil pipe larger than 4 inches diameter, and where only one water closet has to be served I should not hesitate to use a 3-inch pipe, provided I could rely upon a judicious use of the closet and upon constant use of the now universal toilet paper, and provided also the traps on waste pipes connected to the 3 -inch soil pipe are efficiently protected against siphonage. Where, on the other hand, water closets are subjected to rough treatment and are made the receptacles of all sorts of rubbish, not properly belonging thereto, I fail to see the wis- dom of using a larger pipe, say of 5 or 6 inches bore, as under such conditions obstructions are just as likely to happen with large as with small pipes. The right remedy would seem to me to be to teach people the proper and judicious use of such fixtures. Where vertical waste pipes are required to receive the water from sinks, bowls and tubs, located at a distance from the soil pipe, expe- rience has proven a 2 -inch pipe sufficiently large ; pipes of larger sizes will always remain imperfectly flushed, and therefore become, in time, extremely foul. Mr. Hellyer discusses this question in his " Lec- tures on the Science and Art of Sanitary Plumbing,'* 43 ^under the heading of " Size of Soil pipes," as fol- lows : "About fifteen or twenty years ago it was common for plumbers to fix (under the direction of a specifica- tion) a 6 inch soil pipe when it had to take the branches of four or five water closets, and with many architects and builders, as well as the plumbers, of to-day, 5 inch and 4i inch are the general sizes, and that too for only one water closet. Now, as it is of the utmost importance that a soil pipe should be efficiently flushed out with water every time a water closet upon it is used, it is evident that the smaller the size of the pipe the more efficiently will it be flushed, and as it is not wanted for a coal-shoot or a dust-shaft, I cannot see why it should be so much larger than the outlet-way of the water closet into it. In pri- vate houses, where the water closets would be used with greater care than in public buildings, I consider 3 inch lead soil pipe* quite large enough to take a tier of three or four water closets. I am supposing the soil pipe to be ventilated at top and bottom, and each trap or branch ventilated as well. I consider 4 inch soil pipe, when of lead, and made by hydraulic pressure, large enough to take the branches from several more water closets, and 4 inch soil pipe is ample to take a tier of six or seven dou- ble closets, fixed over each other in a seven-storied build- ing, for though many of them might be used together they would not be discharged precisely at the same moment of time, and one or two seconds would suffice, in a ver- tical soil pipe, for the discharges to keep clear of each other, and if they did mingle it would not so much mat- ter, so long as the traps, by efficient ventilation, were made proof against any disturbance that could take place by the simultaneous use of all the closets upon the piping. I have had 3 inch lead soil pipes fixed to the * Mr. Hellyer, following the usual English custom, .prefers lead as material for soil pipes. 44 tiers of three and four water closets, but have never known the smallest inconvenience from such an ar- rangement, while the pipes, as far as I have been able to see, have kept cleaner than 4| inch soil pipes near them i. e., under the same conditions. In public buildings as warehouses, hotels, banking houses, stations, club-houses, etc. the soil pipe ought, perhaps, to be larger say 4 inch, but I consider 4 inch (or 4 inch) large enough for any place and for any number of closets. In many places, with efficient water service, 3 inch soil pipes might be fixed for single water closets without any risk of stoppage." Mr. Hellyer also mentions that he fixed in his factory for the use of the workmen a 3 inch soil pipe, with branches for three water closets, a Hellyer Valve Closet, a Hellyer Vortex and a Hellyer Artisan Hopper Closet, and the size is found to be quite large enough, though the closets are rarely ever idle during the working hours. The effect of the official supervision of plumb- ing regarding soil and waste pipes shows itself more in the improved ventilation than in the material and jointing of such pipes. Frequent inspections of the work, especially if it is done by- contract, will render impossible cases of scamping, such as the following, related by the editor of the- "Metalworker" : "When work has to be given to the lowest bidder,, without regard to his honesty or responsibility, care- lessness in the drawing of specifications is attended with very serious danger. In a house which I know of, the fact that the soil pipe was merely carried about a foot under the cellar floor and left open, with absolutely no connection with the sewer, was not discovered until the 45 insufferable smell in the cellar revealed the fact that all the foulness which had been discharged from the house since it was first occupied had accumulated in the pipe, and soaked into the earth of the cellar bottom. The plumber claimed that the specification on which he made his bid did not call for a sewer connection. Of course he knew that it ought to have been made, but when required to bid below the cost of honest work, he considered himself perfectly at liberty to take advan- tage of any omission in the specifications." CHAPTER IV. TRAPS AND SYSTEMS OF TBAPPING. BY extending all soil and waste pipes at least full size through the roof, and providing an inlet for fresh air on the line of the house drain, we have established a circulation of air through the waste pipe system. (Fig. 32). The system shown in the sketch is, however, still imperfect. Although it is a common occurrence to find waste pipes of dwelling houses thus arranged, some further provi- sions are required to render the system complete. No amount of ventilation would suffice to keep the air pure in houses having a drainage system ar- ranged on the plan shown in Fig. 32. Sewer air would penetrate them from cellar to attic, satu- rating bedding, upholstery, carpets, furniture, wall papers, causing loss of strength and health of the occupants, and frequently breeding disease, or even causing the death of some beloved member of the household. The reason why such an arrangement of the pipes is defective is quite obvious. Should the house drain deliver into a cesspool or connect to a sewer in the street, it affords, in both cases, a chance for escape of generally very foul gases into the house pipes. But in addition to such gases from the sewer or cesspool, the soil and waste pipes of every house contain more or less foul air 47 (improperly called "sewer" gas), derived from decomposing waste matters adhering to and coating the inside of the waste pipes. With the arrange- Fio 32 Soil pipe extended full size through roof; fresh air inlet at foot, but no traps under fixtures or on the main drain. ment shown, soil pipe air, as well as cesspool or sewer gases, would find a ready outlet through the branch waste pipes and fixtures into the room. To prevent this some barrier ought to be placed on waste pipes and drains, which allows the foul water to run off, at the same time making it impossible for gases to return through such channels. This is what is commonly called " trapping " a drain or 48 waste pipe, and the following remarks will be chiefly devoted to traps. The simplest trap is a bend in the pipe (Fig. 33), retaining sufficient water to "form a seal." It must be admitted that every trap is, to a certain extent, an obstruction to the free flow of water, and brings with it the danger of occurrence of FIG. 33. Siphon, or run- .. . _ ningtrap. deposits and consequent de- composition of organic waste matter, but in a system of house drainage traps are necessary evils. First in importance is the proper trapping of all fixtures of a dwelling. Each water closet, urinal, slop sink, wash bowl, bath tub, sink and set of laundry tubs should be separately trapped as near to the fixture as possible by a reliable trap. Im- properly trapped or untrapped fixtures are fully as much, if not more BO, the cause of bad and un- healthy odors in dwellings as improper and defective joints in soil pipes. If, then, we put a trap under each and every plumbing appliance (Fig. 34), it still remains our duty to prevent any escape of foul gases of the sewer or cesspool, into the soil and waste pipes, or at the opening A, which is intended to act as an inlet for fresh air. Waste pipes, as we have seen above, always contain more or less foul air, which should be diluted and rendered harmless as much as possible by introducing into the pipes a constant current of pure air. A trap should, therefore, be placed on the line of the house drain, between the fresh air pipe A and the sewer or cesspool. (See 49 Fig. 35). The opening at A will now almost con- tinually act as an inlet, except when a discharge through a soil pipe occurs, at which time the cur- rent may, for a short time, be reversed. As long FIG. 84. Soil pipe extended full size, and provided with foot yentilation ; each fixture In the house trapped by a trap, > ut no trap on the main drain. as such inlet is judiciously located, remote from windows or piazzas, or the cold air box of the heat- ing apparatus, a downward current through the soil pipe is unobjectionable. Much diversity of opinion exists in regard to the necessity of trapping the main drain and the fixtures.. 50 There are experienced men who claim that the fresh air pipe A and the trap on the main drain should be FIG. 35. House drain trapped by a running trap ; fresh air pipe on house side of trap ; trap under each fixture ; soil pipe ex- tended full size above the roof. omitted, leaving the soil pipe to draw its supply of air for circulation from the sewer, (Fig. 36). While this would undoubtedly help to ventilate the sewer, I have sincere doubts as to the wisdom of a more general application of such a system. I should certainly condemn it severely wherever a house drain discharges into a cesspool, which is .always more or less foul. It would also be wrong, 51 in my opinion, wherever the street sewer is known to be so foul as to constitute an "elongated cesspool." With well jointed pipes and well-trapped fixtures it may be possible to allow well constructed and FIG. 36. Fixtures trapped and soil pipe extended full size above the roof, but house drain left in direct connection with sewer or cesspool. copiously flushed sewers to breathe through the house pipes, but up to the present day such work, as regards both the drainage arrangements of dwellings and the construction of sewers, has been the exception rather than the rule. Where a house drain of a single house empties into a river or lake or into the sea, and the distance from the house to the outlet is moderate, the trap on the main drain may be omitted, always suppos- 55 ing the work in the house to be done in the most approved and perfect manner, to be thoroughly 53 inspected from time to time, and the drain to be of proper material, laid with ample fall, and securely and tightly jointed. Should the outlet be located so as to be closed at times, by high tide or other- wise, it is necessary to construct a fresh air inlet A, entering the drain just above the highest possible water level. (Fig. 37). In the majority of cases however, my decided preference is for "disconnection" or complete isolation of each dwelling from the cesspool or the common sewer. Mr. Mansergh, a civil engineer of large experience, ably discusses this question as follows : " I would detach as far as is practicable every house from the main sewer. As a part of a whole sewerage system, every single house is brought more or less closely in connection with every other house, and by this means evils existing in some houses may become common to all. The more perfectly this connection can be severed the better. The aim in all cases should be to isolate as far as possible, but at all events to cut off the direct commu- nication to the interior." The "Model Bye-Laws of the Local Govern- ment Board of England" require a suitable trap to be placed in every main drain of a building, and add the following explanatory note : "The object of this clause is to prevent foul air, as from public sewers, from making its way into house drains. Public sewers ought to be ventilated otherwise than through house drains, the more so as it is in the power of householders to ensure the efficiency of their own drains, but they are unable to control faulty con- struction leading to deposit, etc., in public sewers. It is also only by the adoption of such a clause that houses can be protected against the influence of infectiouF 54 matters received into the common sewers. In a similar way buildings should be protected against foul air from cesspools when such means of drainage outfall have to be adopted." It has also repeatedly been proposed to leave out the traps under fixtures, sometimes substituting for the traps a downward draft through the fixtures by connecting them with a heated flue. The advo- cates of this system (Fig. 38) require, of course, 7- fixtures ze above FIG. 38. House drain trapped by a disconnecting trap ; in the house left untrapped ; soil pipe extended full si: roof. the trap on the main drain and a fresh air pipe, or,. 55 as it is sometimes called, a " disconnecting trap." The objection to this plan lies in the fact that soil and waste pipes of every house contain more or less foul air, which is not always expelled at the top of the soil pipe, but will enter the interior of the dwelling through untrapped fixtures. Even the short branches from fixtures become, in time, coated with a peculiar slime, emitting unhealthy gases ; this is true in particular of the overflow pipes, which are insufficiently flushed and readily become the seat of fungoid growth. Noxious gases may, it is true, be withdrawn by connecting branch waste pipes to a hot flue. But the danger always remains that, at times, such flue ceases to draw; for instance, if the kitchen fire goes out over night, or, in the case of a steam coil placed in a flue to increase the draft, the steam may be shut off from Saturday afternoon to Monday morning. In such instance, what is to prevent the foul gases from entering through the fixtures into the house ? Moreover, the practical difficulty is great of estab- lishing a strong, uniform and constant downward draft through a multitude of untrapped plumbing fixtures. Of the three methods of arranging the waste pipes of a dwelling, shown in Figs. 35, 36 and 38, the system illustrated in Fig. 35, showing a trap and fresh air inlet on the main drain, and a trap under every fixture in the house, is undoubtedly the safest, and therefore the best. In the next chapter we will explain how accu- mulation of filth in traps, and therefore one of the chief objections against traps, may best be obvia- 56 ted by a judicious selection of a properly shaped trap. We shall also discuss under what conditions traps may fail, and how they can be made safe against back pressure, siphonage, evaporation of water, and absorption of gases by the water in, the trap. CHAPTER V. DETAILS OF TRAPS. IN a system of house drainage traps are neces- sary evils. I have explained in the last chapter why they must be used. They are evils because they tend to retard the flow of water through waste pipes, and, unless properly shaped, are apt to catch hair, lint, chips of straw or wood, and other articles, and retain more or less decomposing mat- ter ; for this reason, and where the water in the trap is not changed sufficiently often, they are the cause of annoying odors. Let us, therefore, inquire into the shape and character of traps used for house drainage purposes. To all traps the following cardinal principle, so well expressed by Mr. Hellyer, should apply : " No sanitary fitting, waste pipe, soil pipe or drain should be trapped in a way that will not admit of the whole of the water in such traps being entirely changed every time a good flush of water is sent into them." Although this rule applies to all kinds of traps, it is true above all of traps under urinals, slop-sinks and water-closets. These fixtures, therefore, should receive a liberal flush of pure water from a special cistern after each use. With kitchen and pantry sinks, laundry tubs, bath tubs and wash basins, the case is dif- erent. The usual custom is to empty these fixtures after use, without giving the waste pipe a subse- 58 quent flushing with clean water. The last water flowing from the fixture will remain, therefore, in the trap. Be this waste water from a bowl, a laundry tub, a bath or a sink, it is in any case fouled water which may emit noxious gases into the room, this depending, to a certain extent, upon the length of time during which the fixture remains unused. From this it is quite apparent that a ju- dicious use of plumbing fixtures is all important in order to prevent traps becoming a serious evil. When all washing is done, let the house-maid apply a thorough cleaning to all the tubs, and let her follow this with a few quarts of dean water from the faucet into each tub, and through the waste pipe into the trap. The same advice may be given with reference to the use of wash basins, bath tubs, etc. It is quite evident that domestic cleanliness, especially a proper care of fixtures, have much to do with the prevention of bad air in dwellings, but it would lead us too far to offer here more than these few pertinent remarks. In considering the various traps in use it will be well to group them into the following classes : 1. Traps for house drains. 2. Water closet traps. 3. Traps for sinks, bowls and tubs. Traps for fixtures as well as for drain pipes ought to foe so shaped as to be self cleansing. A common pipe foent in the shape of an S, and therefore called S trap, of the same bore as the waste pipe, meets this requirement more thoroughly than any other 3dnd. In the Minutes of Information on the " Drainage and Cleansing of Houses and Public and Private Edifices, etc.," published by the Gen- 59 i eral Board of Health of England, in 1852, we find the following on traps for drain pipes : " The best form of trap, the most simple, the least liable to derangement, and the most economical, and therefore the one to be recom- mended for house drains and for general adoption, is the Siphon water trap. For the ends of drains the siphon trap will be formed thus : (Fig. 39). FIG. 39-Si j^on water trap T* 1686 tra P s should, when prac- recommended by the General ticable, be placed a little Board of Health, of England. , , ' below the openings, so that the force of the fall of water may effectually discharge the previous contents." Traps for House Drains. The earliest traps placed on house drains to separate the house from cesspools or sewers were probably flap valves, such as shown in Fig. 40, but Fig. 40 Flap Valve for House Drainage. it was soon recognized that even light flaps would tend to detain coarse waste matters and cause obstructions in the house drain as shown in the sketch. (Fig. 41.) Moreover, none of the flap 60 FIG. 41. Flap Valve for house drain (taken from General Board of Health Report, 1852). valves on drains would form an air-tight seal against gases of decomposition. An equally objectionable form of trap is the "cesspool trap," or " mason's trap " (Fig. 42), so FIG. 42 Cesspool or Mason's Trap. commonly found in old city residences and country mansions, and invariably filled often choked with the worst kind of putrescent matter. Most traps now used for house drains have the siphon- shape (Fig. 39) and are generally provided with an inlet for fresh air on the house side of the water seal. Such traps are made in cast-iron and in earthenware, and are Aiced near the front wall in the cellar, or outside of the house, in which case 61 proper precautions should be taken to protect the trap from freezing and to make it accessible for in- spection and for cleaning purposes. Earthen traps should be highly glazed to present a smooth sur- face, while the iron traps may be coated with the black or the white porcelain enamel. In most traps for house drains the fresh air inlet on the house side of the water seal is com- bined with the trap in one piece. Sometimes this inlet is enlarged to an air-chamber, and the trap is then generally called a " disconnecting trap." Most of these, as we shall see, are of English make, and used there extensively, while none but the simpler traps are used in the United States. There is a radical difference between the English house drainage system and the system used with us, which may be readily explained by the differ- ence of climate. It is a cardinal principle with English sanitary engineers to locate soil pipes out- side of the house, and further, to separate water closet wastes from most other wastes of the house- hold. Waste-pipes from lavatories, bath tubs, sinks, etc., are required to have no direct connection with a foul water drain ; they must discharge over open gullies, which are trapped and connect to the house drain. The severity of our climate would pro- hibit such an arrangement in all but the Southern States. We must keep soil and waste pipes inside of a dwelling, and, on the other hand, do not for a moment hesitate to connect bath or bowl wastes to a soil pipe, provided the latter is efficiently venti- lated and the fixtures safely trapped. I have made mention of the English practice because \ 62 many of the drain traps illustrated are of English make, and thus their arrangement will be more readily understood. I will now briefly describe and illustrate some of the numerous drain traps used in modern works of house drainage : Fig. 43 and Fig. 44 are running traps of cast' iron, manufactured for use with plumber's soil FIG. 43 Mott's Running Trap, with cleaning hole and cover. pipe by the J. L. Mott Iron Works, and others. Fig. 43 illustrates a trap with a hand-hole for cleaning purposes, closed air-tight by an iron FIG. 44 Mott's Running Trap, with opening for fresh air. cover, set in Portland cement. Fig. 44 shows a trap with opening for a fresh air pipe on the house side of trap. 63 FIG. 45 Durham Trap, with cleaning holes and opening for fresh air. Fig. 45 illustrates a running trap for house drains, manufactured by the Durham House Drain- age Company. It is provided with two large hand-holes for cleaning purposes, closed by iron plates bolted to the flange, the joint being made tight with red lead and putty. These plates are supposed to be removed in the illustration. The trap has also a large opening on the house side for FIG. 46-Durham Trap, with fresh air inlet onlj. a fresh air pipe. Fig. 46 shows the same kind of trap with fresh air inlet, but without cleaning hand-holes. 64 Pig. 47 is a representation of the Stewart trap, made in earthen- ware. In addition to the opening B, intended for clean- ing purposes, or else to introduce fresh air into the house drain, it has a sec- ond opening, D, to which a vent pipe earthenware may be attached, leading to the open air, remote from windows, or else extended up to the roof. In case of pressure from the sewer, which may occur at times of sudden rain-falls, or with sewers, exposed to the influence of the tide, and for other reasons, the first seal, which is not quite accurately shown in the cut, may be forced, and sewer air would then escape through the open- ing D instead of into the house pipes. Fig. 48 shows a double trap on the line of the FIG. 47. Stewart's House Drain Trap. FIG. 48. Double trapped House Drain, with vent pipe between first and second trap, main drain, which, however, should not be used except where there is apt to be excessive pressure from the sewer. If it is used, a vent pipe should 65 be placed between the first and second trap, lead- ing up to the roof. Fig. 49 illustrates a drain trap, located outside FIG. 49. Trap and opening for fresh air located In a manhole. of the house in a man-hole, and having an opening serving as a fresh air inlet. The top of man-hole should, then, be covered with a perforated cover or grating. Fig. 50 illustrates in section an unsatisfactory FIG. 50. Bad form of running trap. shape of trap, commonly made in earthenware, and indicates the manner in which tkis traD so*n .accumulates filth. 66 Fig. 51 is a sketch of a suitable stoneware trap for house drains, recommended in the Model By-Laws of the Local Government FIG. 51.-Suitable Stone- Board, ware Trap for house drains. The same by-laws recom- mend the disconnecting trap, Fig. 52, for house 3 FIG. 53. Disconnecting Trap. drains, which may be understood without further explanation. FIG. 53. Man-hole and Disconnecting Chamber for house drains; traps placed on each end of man-hole. A house drain may be disconnected from the sewer or cesspool in the manner indicated in Fig. 53. Should gases force their way through the first trap, they would escape at the man-hole, and the second trap effectively prevents entrance of sewer air. Such an arrangement is feasible only for suburban or country dwellings ; it is not much in use. A trap, with large-sized fresh air inlet, and called a disconnecting trap, is shown in Fig. 54. This FIG. 64 Disconnecting Trap. arrangement was first recommended by Dr. Bu- chanan, of England, and afterwards by the Massa chusetts State Board of Health. Fig. 55 illustrates a re- cently designed trap, manu- factured in cast-iron, with FIG. 55 Bolting's Trap, with fresh air inlet. oval f resh air opening, known as Betting's trap. Figs. 56 and 57 are representations of the Bavin and the Redhill Traps ; both are made in stone- 68 ware. The shape of the Redhill Trap is appar- ently a very good one. FIG. 56. Bavin Trap. FIG. 57. Redhill Trap. Fig. 58 is the "Cascade" Action Trap, patented to Mr. Buchan, of Glasgow. It is made in stone- ware, and provided with a cleaning hole, and with an inlet for fresh air. There is a vertical drop of about two inches from the house drain side and FIG. 58. Buchan's Trap. into the water of this trap, and such a drop is generally regarded as an advantage, as it tends to "break up and carry away the faeces " more readily. In a recent letter to the author, Robert Rawlinson, Esq., wrote : "With respect to traps there are various forms de- pendent on water. The inverted siphon is one of the most common. In this form of trap it is an advantage to have the outlet lower than the inlet, and not on a level. Where the difference in level will allow, a vertical fall from a house drain is useful into the small hand- chambers over the head of the inverted siphon, and in America this should be placed well down so as to be out of the reach of frost." Molesworth's Trap, Fig. 59, is one of the earlier 69 I immnj FlG. 59 Molesworth's Trap. forms of disconnecting traps, which need little explanation. The water level is not correctly shown in the drawing of this trap. FIG. 62 Doulton's Intercepting Traps. Figs. 60, 61 and 62 are illustrations of three different intercepting traps, manufactured in stone- ware by Doulton, of Lambeth, England. 70 Figs. 63 and 64 show two forms of the "Eureka" Sewer Air Trap, the suggestion of the well-known FiGS. 63 and 64 Eureka Traps. sanitarian, Dr. P. Hinckes Bird, manufactured in stoneware by James Stiff & Sons, Lambeth. The curve of the siphon is an easy one, and the curved dip will facilitate the scouring and flushing of this trap. The opening beyond the dip may be used as a cleaning hole, or else it may be connected with a vent pipe carried up to the roof, and intended to remove gases from the public sewer or cesspool. FIG. 65 Weaver's Trap. Fig. 65 shows " Weaver's Ventilating Sewer Air 71 Trap, manufactured by James Stiff & Sons, of Lambeth, England. This is a most convenient W&8* FIG. 65a. Ventilation of the house drain and the effected by Weaver's Trap. form of a disconnecting trap. It has a fresh air inlet covered with a perforated grating, and on the sewer side of the dip, a junction, which should be connected to a pipe leading up to the roof on the outside of the house, to ventilate the sewer. Where this trap is placed much below the surface, to bring it out of reach of the frost, the fresh air inlet should be brought up to the surface by pipes, such as shown at C in Fig. 65a. 72 Fig. 66 is another trap made by Stiff & Sons, of Lambeth, and called the registered " Inter- cepter " Sewer Air Trap. This trap is made in stoneware, and has at its upper part FIG. 66.-stiff-s """ intercepter " three openings. The trap has a double water-seal, the nearest to the sewer being only 2 in- ches deep, while the second one is 7 inches in depth. The first dip effectually disconnects the house drain from the air of the sewer or cesspool. Should there be an excess of pressure from either, the first water seal may be forced, but the foul gases will then find an exit at the middle or foul air outlet, which should be carried up to the roof of the building by a pipe on the outside of the house. No foul gases from the sewer will, under such con- ditions, pass through the second stronger water seal. Fresh air will continually enter at the inlet nearest to the house, thus establishing the desired constant change of air in the soil and waste pipes. The opening nearest to the sewer is intended for inspection and cleansing purposes. "Where the trap is located much below the surface, an earthern pipe should be carried from the open- ings to the surface, the first one being covered by an open grating, the second one by a tight cover. Jennings' ventilating cesspool or drain trap, Fig. 67, is very similar in shape and identical in design to Buchan's trap. This trap has the above- mentioned drop of several inches from the house 73 drain to the level of the water in the trap. It is designed by the well-known manufacturer of sanitary fittings, George Jennings, of London, and is made in strong, highly-glazed, vitri- fied stoneware. As the patentee says, "it is de- signed for introduction, not FIG. 67-.Tennings' Venti- <*t ttie foot of a Soil pipe, latlng Drain Trap. ^ ^ fl ^ o f drain, but at the point of junction with the cesspool or sewer, the proper ventilation of which can be pro- vided in connection with the smaller socket. At the large socket a grating may be used, or a ven- tilating pipe inserted, and carried to a convenient height to allow the escape of air driven down by descending waters, and to admit fresh air at the lowest point in the line of drain. The trap being formed in two pieces, the socket may be turned round in any required angle to the line of drain, and several pipes may be connected to one outfall by the substitution of a junction piece having two or three inlets." FIG. 68- Potts' Air-chambered Disconnecting Trap. Fig. 68 gives a sectional view of Potts' Edin- burgh air-chamber sewer trap, manufactured by Potts & Co., of Hands worth, near Birmingham, England. It is an efficient disconnecting trap, well adapted for mild climates, and takes its denomina- tion from the large air-chamber, which is covered by a double grating. On the lower grating may be placed charcoal or other disinfectants, which, however, tends to interfere with a proper air- current. The air-chamber has a dividing dia- phragm, intended to assist in creating a current of air through the trap. The house drain discharges at the head of the chamber, at B. Leader, sink and gully wastes discharge into side openings in the air-chamber, or else over the grating at C D. Be- yond the water seal siphon-trap is an opening, A, which, can be used for cleaning purposes, or else may connect to a pipe leading to the roof, and helping to ventilate the public sewer. Where this trap is placed much below the surface, the air- chamber may be extended upwards to the surface. AIR-CHAMBER C- * (S^lLJ J INSPECTION CHAMBER WL=*J? 2^ r .1 / 1 rv^ es?7- > ! FIG. 69 Bnchan's Disconnecting Trap and Chamber. Fig. 69 shows a vertical section of Buchan's 75 disconnecting trap, consisting of two man-holes, with a Buchan " Cascade action " trap between both on the line of the drain. The man-hole next to the sewer serves for cleaning and inspection purposes ; the man-hole next to the house serves as an air-chamber, and the drain pipe has a large opening through which fresh air enters the house drain. Buchan has also constructed a disconnect- ing trap placed in a single man-hole. Fig. 70 illustrates the Croydon Siphon Trap, which is also a disconnecting trap, but its shape is such as to make it hold a large quantity of foul water, which IB not readily expelled. It is conse- FIQ. TO Croydon Si- quently not a self -cleansing ph< drain trap. Fig. 71 shows the ventilating drain siphon and sewer intercepter, patented by Mr. Hellyer, and manufac- tured in stoneware. "These traps," Mr. Hellyer says, "are specially constructed for in- tercepting, or rather discon- necting sewers and sewage tanks from the house drain. FIG. Ti-Heiiyer's Sewer The trap consists of a round Intercepter Trap. of the letter V, giving it a water seal or dip of about 3 inches, and the body of the trap is comparatively of smaller diameter, to prevent any filth collecting in the trap, and also to allow the water in the trap to be more easily driven out by the flushes from 76 the drain." There is also a fall of about 6 inches from the drain to the level of the water in the trap. The upper part of the trap is enlarged for the admission of fresh air, and carried up to the surface, where it should be covered with an open grating. Mr. Hellyer has devised another trap, which he calls the " Soil pipe Disconnector," shown in Fig. 72, and also a trap which he calls the " Combina- FIG. 73. Hellyer's FIG. 72. Hellyer's Soil-pipe Disconnector. Drain Interceptor. tion Soil Pipe Trap." Fig. 73 shows Mr. Hellyer'o Drain Intercepter Trap. Illl I! II II II 111 FIG. 74. J. Tyler & Sons' glazed stoneware disconnecting chamber Sewer Trap. 77 PIG. 75. J. Tylor & Sons' disconnecting chamber Sewer Trap. Two disconnecting chamber sewer traps, made in glazed stoneware by J. Tylor & Sons, are illus- trated in Fig. 74 and Fig. 75, which hardly need any detailed description. Fio. 76. Cottam's Trap. PIG. 77. McLandsborough' Trap. FIG. 78. Dodd's Patent Stench Trap. 78 Cottam's trap, Fig. 76, McLandsborough's trap, Fig. 77, and Dodd's Patent Duplex Stench trap, Fig. 78, have each a double dip or water seal, but I should hardly call such traps self -cleansing, as grease and solids will, after some use, accumulate on the surface in the central chamber between the two diaphragms, especially in the two first-named traps. I can see no advantage of any of these traps over some simpler traps, described above. Fig. 79 is a vertical section of Stidder's inter- Fio. 79 Stidder's Disconnecting Trap. cepting and disconnecting trap. It has a double water seal, an air-chamber, and a surface grating between both. It may answer for surface water and wastes from hydrants in yards, but I do not think it would be self-cleansing, when used for household waste water, even excluding, as the patentee does, water-closet wastes. The same objection may be made against Hellyer's " triple dip trap or drain intercepted " (Fig. 80), 79 made in stoneware. There are three water-dips in this trap, and thus the security from gases from Fio. 80. Hellyer's Triple Dip Trap. the sewer or cesspool is largely increased, but, it must be conceded at the expense of simplicity in construction. The firm of J. G. Stidder & Co. (London Sani- tary Engineering Works) manufacture a large variety of intercepting traps for house drains, but it would lead us much beyond the scope of this little volume to illustrate all of them. We refer to the handsome illustrated catalogue, issued by the firm. Fig. 81 represents Copley Woodhead's double FIG. 81. Copley Woodhead's Double Siphon Ventilating Sewer Trap. siphon ventilating sewer trap. Should the trap nearest to the sewer be forced, the gases find a 80 ready exit at the first air shaft, the second siphon effectually excluding them from the house. The second air shaft serves to admit air to \ the house drainage system. Fig. 82 illustrates two forms of soil pipe traps, FIG. 82. Two forms of Banner's Soil Pipe Traps. used by Mr. Banner in his patented system of soil pipe ventilation. The practice of trapping soil pipes at their foot, and introducing at the same point fresh air from the outside, is restricted to a few systems of soil pipe ventilation, which have, thus far, found no favor in the United States. A few illustrations of gully traps and sink traps may close our list of traps for house drains. Fig. 83 shows the "Weatherly discon- nector" was' e water trap, used for rain leaders, surface water, and for waste pipes of sinks, bath, lavatories, but not for soil pipes. It may be of ser- vice in England, where water- FiG.8^-Weatheri^ink closet wastes are ke P t separate Trap. from wastes of sinks, bath and lavatories, and where the latter are required to discharge over an open grating. Such traps are 81 not adapted to American methods of house sewer- age. A well-known trap of this kind is Mansergh'e trap. Figs. 84 and 85 illustrate Lovegroove's patent FIGS. 84 and 85. Lovegroove's Patent Drain Traj g. drain traps, the former to be used for stable or yard) drainage, the latter for areas. Of these traps, which are really mechanical traps, having a flap valve, the manufacturer says: "These traps are, under all circumstances, equally efficient with or without water, the absorption of sewer gases being prevented by the valve, which also effectually pre- vents the escape of impure air from the drains, in the event of the loss of water seal by evaporation or other cause." Bellmann's patent gully is shown in Fig. 86, its chief advantage being the P or S trap in place of the bell trap ordinarily used. The top piece can be turned any way to suit all localities. It has side openings to receive sink or bath wastes as shown. Lastly, we mention Jen- nings' improved tidal valve FIG. Gully. .Bellmann's Patent for the outfalls of drains or sewers, subjected to the influence of high tides, heavy rains, etc. It is a mechanical valve, and Fig. 87 "is a sectional FIG. 87. Jennings' Improved Tidal Valve. view of it, showing its position when the stream or tide rises up to or above the point of discharge, the buoyancy of the ball causing it to be carried into the orifice of the discharging pipe, and against an india-rubber valve seat, forming a perfectly tight joint, greater pressure from below tending only to increase its security. A grating, secured and hinged, admits of easy access to the valve or chamber at any time when required. Under ordinary conditions, the ball, which is of copper, floating or resting in a chamber formed in cement or masonry of larger dimensions than the discharg- ing pipe, offers no obstruction to the free escape of waste or storm waters, while the ' drop ' from the 83 pipe effectually prevents the lodgment of anything to obstruct the proper closing of the valve." Such tidal valve is useful for the protection of property below the level of high tides, and also where there is, at times, a back pressure from the sewer, in case of heavy rain-falls. It must not be forgotten, though, that in using such valve, the lower or outlet part of the house drain must be increased to a capacity equal to the amount of sewage discharged from the house during such period of high tide, otherwise a backing up of sewage into the cellar and through basement fix- tures may occur. Traps for Water Closets. The trap most commonly used for water closets until a few years ago was the well-known D trap. It presents inviting recesses for the accumulation of grease and filth (see Fig. 88), and should not be tolerated under any circumstances whatever in a house which makes any pretense to be in a sanitary condition. The fact of its having a large cleaning screw (Fig. 89) does not make it any more acceptable, for such a screw is inconveniently located, below the floor and out of sight, and is con- sequently never thought of. Fig. 90a illustrates a vertical section, and Fig. 90b a plan of Tylor's gal- vanized iron closet D-trap, in which the cleaning screw is located on top, so as to be readily removed. TIG. 88. D-Trap, with fllth accumulation. 84 ' Even this trap is objectionable, as it is not self- cleansing. 7 FIG. 89. D-Trap, with brass cleaning screw on the side. The " Helmet " trap, Smeaton's " Eclipse " trap (Fig. 91), and the Adee Patent Stench Trap (Fig. 95), are not much better designed with respect to FIG. 90a. J. Tylor's 4 in. galvanized Iron Boll pipe and closet trap. FIG. 90b. Plan of same. cleanliness, for they are all more or less reservoirs for filth. FIG. 91. Smeaton'i Eclipse Trap. 85 Fig. 92 illustrates, in view and in section, Hell- yer's Mansion Trap for water closets, and Fig. 93 a, b, c, Hellyer's Anti-D-Trap, for which latter trap the in- ventor claims that it is not easily siphoned. There are two sizes of the Anti-D-Trap, both of them, but especially the smaller one (Fig. 93b), designed to hold the least quantity of water consistent with a sufficient water-seal. Mr. Buchan of Glasgow pro- Fio. 95. Adec's Patent , . -~ , /T ,. jnch Trap. poses the Anti-D- 1 rap (t ig. 94), which he believes is safer from siphonage than the Anti-D-Trap of Mr. S. Hellyer, as it has a large air chamber on the sewer side of the trap. FIG. 92. Hellyer's Mansion Trap. Water closet traps should not have too large a dip or seal, for otherwise it is difficult to drive pa- per and solids out into the soil pipe. The less quan- tity of water such a trap holds, with the same depth of water seal, the better will it be, for it will then be possible to change its contents entirely at each flush. 86 No mechanical trap has as yet been devised which answers for use under water-closets; the FIG. 93 a, b, c. Hellyer's Antl-D-Trap. water-seal traps are the only ones to be relied upon; flap- valves or ball- valves, in connection with water- closet traps, are sure to get out of order after some use. The best traps for use under water closets are the S, | S and P traps, made either of lead, iron or earth- enware. The last named kind are preferable to any other on account of their cleanliness, but an iron trap may have its inside surface smoothed by enametting the trap. Th& FIG. 94. Buchan's Anti-D-Trap. 87 drawn lead traps, known as " Du Bois " traps (Figs. 96, 97 and 98), are equally smooth on their inside. They are decidedly superior to hand-made lead traps, which, after years, are liable to show defects FIG. 96.-Lead P or ^ S-Trap, with vent attached. Fi6. 98. Lead 8-Trap. at the seams, and to cast lead traps, which often have sandholes and other defects. Earthen or porcelain traps for water closets are always set above the floor, iron traps are. placed above as well as below the floor, while lead traps are mostly set below the floor, between joists. Since as little plumbing as possible should be hid- den from view, it is in most cases preferable to have the trap in plain sight and easy of access. Should the water closet apparatus selected require a trap below the floor, it is much better to use an iron enamelled trap, for a lead trap may have nails driven in at the top by careless carpenters, or may get displaced. 88 Speaking of water closet traps, I must not forget to call attention to an unsatisfactory manner of trapping water closets, by omitting the water seal trap and relying for a barrier against gases solely upon the water in the closet bowl, held in place by a tight-fitting plunger or plug, or else a flap-valve, or slide-valve. Any of these arrangements may get out of order, and the water will then run out of the closet bowl. This shut-off being open, drain air may easily find its way into the house, for a constant downdraft from the closet into the soil pipe cannot be depended upon. i Traps for Sinks, Bowls, Tubs, etc. To choose a proper trap for use under a tub, sink or bowl, is often a rather difficult problem, requir- ing sound judgment, skill and large experience, since each of the numerous patented devices in the market is, in the opinion of its inventor, the only safe and reliable one to use, or, as it is commonly expressed, " the only positive cure against sewer gas." Each of these patented devices will, upon examination, be found to possess certain merits, which, however, are generally counterbalanced by one or more drawbacks. For instance, one trap may be self-cleansing, but extremely liable to lose its water seal, while another trap may be safe against siphonage or back-pressure, but liable to ac- cumulate grease and filth. One trap may answer under certain conditions and in a certain locality, while in another position another trap might be preferable. There are bell traps of various descriptions, D 89 traps, Dip traps, Bottle traps, and various kinds of S traps. All of these have as a barrier against gases a water seal of more or less depth. There are other traps, which have not only such a seal by water, but also a mechanical appliance to shut off gases, such as floating balls of rubber or metal ; heavy self-seating valves, either rubber or metal balls, or else a conical shaped valve to exclude sewer air. There are also traps provided with flap valves, opening with the current of water and shut- ting against back-pressure from the soil pipe. Other traps have, in addition to the water seal, a seal of mercury. Finally, a large number of traps and trap attachments have been invented, the construction of which is such as to render siphonage impossible, or at least very difficult. Many traps of each of the above groups, though sold under different names, are identical in princi- ple and practically the same in construction, so that it often has been a matter of wonder to the author to understand how they all could have been patented as a " new and original invention." We will now proceed to describe the more com- mon forms of traps of this class. For sinks, no trap has been used as extensively as the bell-trap (Fig. 99), although probably no other trap offers as little security as this one against sewer gas. It is not self-cleansing, has far too little water seal to resist siphonage, back FIG. 99.-Common Bell-Trap, pressure, and evapora- 90 tion, it gets readily choked, and is generally ren~ dered worthless if servants should remove the top strainer, thus doing away with what little seal the trap possessed. It will suffice simply to mention the Antill Trap (Fig. 100), which is little better than the bell-trap, FIG. 100. Antill's Trap. FIG. 101. Jennings' Improved Bell-Trap. although it is an improvement upon the latter, in as much as its strainer and dip is not so readily removed. Fig. 101 shows a vertical section of Jennings' improved bell-trap. It is certainly vastly superior to the common bell-trap ; its water seal is not broken by removing the strainer. The stream of water from the sink is concentrated in the inlet pipe, and the inverted bell is consequently better scoured and cleaned ; there is also less chance for stoppages, but the upper corners form recesses for the collection of grease, which will decompose. This, however, could easily be remedied by a proper rounding off of the upper corners. This trap is constructed and made by Geo. Jennings, of London, either in lead, with brass grates and bells, or else in galvanized iron. A good sink trap, made by Messrs. Tye and Andrews, of England, is shown in Fig. lOla. It 91 is a siphon trap, provided with a trap screw at the side of the trap for cleaning purposes, and with a strainer on top, screwed into the body of the trap, in order to prevent its ready removal by servants, who other- wise would brush all kind of FIG. loia. Tye & An- rubbish into the trap, thus caus- drews' Sink Trap. . ing frequent obstructions. A small D-trap, such as shown in Fig. 102, is Q often used under wash-bowls or I I tubs, but we must earnestly ^- * protest against the use of a contrivance so easily fouled. Not even the fact that it is not readily siphoned, can make this trap more acceptable for use in the sewerage of dwellings. There are other traps which have a vertical dip dividing the water chamber in two parts, and thus -establishing a water seal. Of these I mention Adee's O. FIG. 102. Small D- Trap. PIG. 103. Adee's Traps. P and S stench traps, Fig. 103, Brandeis' paragon trap, Fig. 104, Tylor's trap, Fig. 105, and others. 92 FIG. 104. Brandeis' Paragon Trap. FIG. 105. J. Tylor's Trap. Some of these may be more difficult to siphon than the round siphon trap, but they are not self -cleans- ing traps, and for this reason cannot be recom- meTBded for general use. PIG. 106 J. Tylor's S-Trap. FIG. 107. Hellyer's Sink S-Trap. Fig. 106 represents an S-trap for sinks, tubs,, urinals or bowls, made in brass by J. Tylor, in 93 London. Such a trap of brass is preferable to lead or iron traps where fixtures are left entirely ex. posed to view. Mr. Hellyer proposes the S-trap, shown in Fig. 107, for use under sinks or other shallow vessels. By enlarging the mouth of the trap at the sink opening, a larger quantity of water drops on to the water level in the trap, which is thus more readily and more effectively flushed. Of lead siphon traps, the " Du Bois " drawn traps, made by hydraulic pressure in the same manner as lead pipe, possess great advantages over those cast in moulds, or those made with seams by hand. Fig. 108 represents the " Du Bois" S-trap, Fig. 109 his | S-trap, Fig. 110 his P-trap, Fig. Ill FIG. 106. Du Bois' S- Trap. FIG. lOG.-Du Bois' & S-Trap. the running trap, and Fig. 112 the "bag" trap, shaped so as to bring the trap outlet vertically be- low the inlet. 94 FIG. 111. Du Bois' Running Trap. FIG. 112. Du Bois Bag Trap. PiG. 110. Du Bois' P-Trap. Such lead traps are made of various weights; none but the extra heavy trap, equiva- lent in weight to the heaviest lead waste pipe, should be used in good plumbing. Such S-traps are, as a rule, preferable to most other traps on account of their cleanliness. Further reference to S-traps, their advantages and disad- vantages, will be made in the following chapter. Another group of traps for sinks, bowls or tubs, may be called bottle traps, the general shape of the trap being somewhat like a bottle, with an inlet pipe in the centre and an outlet pipe on the circumference of the bottle. Figs. 118 and 114 represent Adee's bottle traps, in half-S and S-shape. Fig. 115 shows a trap used extensively in Bos- FIG. 113. Adee's Bottle Trap, half 8-shape. FIG. 1U. Adee's Bottle Trap, S-shape. ton plumbing work, and called the round trap. With a flat bottom it soon accumulates deposits, as FIG. 115. Boston Round Trap. FIG. 116. Boston Round Trap, with filth accumulation. shown in Fig. 116. It may be somewhat improved by rounding off the bottom, as shown in Fig. 117. Bottle traps are of ten safe against siphonage , 96 where an S-trap would lose its water seal, but they are not self- cleansing ; an or- dinary discharge from a sink or bowl will not en- tirely change its FIG. 117. Improved Bottle Trap. contents, and after collecting filth, the bottle trap may not be much safer against siphonage than the S-trap. Fig. 118 shows another reservoir, or bottle trap, FIG. 118. Holding's Patent Bottle Trap. FIG. 119. Brandeis' "Cli- max" Trap. made for sinks, by John Bolding, in London, which needs no further explanation. Fig. 119 illustrates Brandeis' "Climax" trap, which is a bottle trap with quite a large dip, and has a cup at the bottom, which can be unscrewed for cleaning purposes. Fig. 120 represents Stidder's patent soap trap, which also belongs to the group of bottle traps, as well as Buchan's round bottle trap, Fig. 121. 97 FIG. 120. Stidder's Patent Soap Trap. Fig. 122 shows a trap made by Claughton, in England, of a round or oval section, as shown, with a cleaning screw placed at one side, and hav- ing two inlets, one for the waste, the other for the over- flow of a basin, or sink. The outlet is brought directly under the inlet, which is of advantage, as far as appear- ance is concerned. Fig. 123 is another style of trap, made by the same manu- facturer, and Fig. 124 shows his sink trap, which is very similar in appearance to the "Climax" trap, described FiO. 121. Buohan'& Round Bottle Trap. 98 above. Instead of a removable cup, the trap is provided with a brass cleaning screw. ROUND IN SECTION A AND B FIG. 123. Claughton's Trap, for sinks. OVAL SECTION FIG. 124. Claughton's Trap, for sinks. Another recent trap is Connolly's " Globe " trap, which is made in various styles and of various materials, either of copper, with brass connections, or of sheet lead, or of glass, with brass connec- tion. The traps are made either in S or P-shape, or as running traps. Fig. 125 illustrates the P- shaped globe trap, of sheet lead ; Fig. 126 the running globe trap, of copper ; Fig. 127 the glass ;globe trap, with brass connection. 99 FIG. 125. Connolly's Patent Globe Trap, of sheet lead, P- sbaped. FIG. 127. Connol- ly's Glass Globe Trap, with brass connec- tions. FIG. 126. Connolly's Patent Globe Trap, of copper, running trap. The application of the glass globe trap to wash- bowl waste and overflow is shown in the sketch, Fig. 128. There is, undoubtedly, a certain advan- tage in having a globe made of glass, which enables any one to see at a glance whether the seal in the trap is destroyed or not. I am unable, with- out repeated actual experiments, to verify the claim of the manufacturer, that the globe trap can- not be rendered inefficient by siphonage. The con- 100 struction of the trap is such as to allow the un- screwing of the overflow pipe, in case this pipe .should need cleaning. FIG. 128. Washbowl, with Connolly's Glass Trap. Another late invention is Pietsch's stench trap, Fig. 129. It is a bottle trap, with deep seal, which is not easily siphoned. The inlet pipe from sink, or bowl, is provided above the water seal with a flap- valve, which, under ordinary circumstances, is sup- posed to shut tightly, and to be still more firmly pressed against its seat by back-pressure. Its object is the prevention of siphonage by admitting air from the fixture to the waste pipe, in case a strong 101 suction should be applied to the water in the trap. The danger with this trap lies in the flap-valve, which may get out of order and will not tightly shut, in which case gases could freely pass from the soil or waste pipe up the fixtures into the rooms, in j, A spito of the deep water seal. We must now consider a few of the more important mechanical traps used in plumbing work. The addi- tional mechanical seal by a valve, ball or flap, is intended to give increased security in case of back-pressure, and in case of evaporation of the water in the trap, or in case of the water being removed by siphonage, they form a seal, which, with the gravity valves, will depend upon the accuracy with which the seat is turned. In the case of traps with a floating ball, the seal is preserved only as long as the water is not lowered so much as to drop the ball from the mouth of the inlet pipe. Among mechanical traps which have been used very extensively of late, I mention the Bower trap, shown in sec- tion, in Fig. 130 ; in Fig. 131, Fl0 * FIG. 129. Pietflch's Stench Trap. Trap 102 FIG. 131. Bower's Running Trap, in section. which represents a running trap, and in Fig. 132 r which shows a wash-bowl trapped by this trap, and Fig. 132a, showing, on a large scale, a view of the trap. Its construction and action has been thus described by the Committee on Science and Arts of the Franklin Institute : " The invention consists in providing a sewer gas trap with a floating valve which will permit the flow of water and gases carried with the water in one direction, and prevent their regurgitation. The inlet pipe of the trap extends downward into a chamber, which is of somewhat larger dimensions than the inlet pipe. The outlet pipe is arranged so that its discharge opening is relatively such to the lower end of the inlet pipe that the level of the water in the trap is always a considera- ble distance above the opening of the inlet pipe, and the trap is ordinarily sealed by water. A float ball or valve (preferably a hollow ball of rubber) is placed in the trap beneath the end of the inlet pipe, and this valve is constantly immersed in the liquid the dimen- sions of the trap being such that the ball cannot escape upwards alongside of the inlet pipe. 103 FIG. 132. Washbowl, trapped by Bower's Trap. When "water is poured into the inlet of the trap, the ball is forced away and permits a free passage to the outlet. Should anything occur to bring a pressure upwards from the outlet of the trap, the ball (already held in its place by floatation) is more firmly pressed into the seat, and prevents the passage of liquids or gases through the trap from its outlet to its inlet. The advantages pos- sessed by this device above others with check valves consist in the constant approximation of the valve to- its seat, and the ease and little force with which it is- displaced and replaced when water has passed the trap. 104 Fro. 132a View of Bower's Trap. As an essential to the pro- per working of the device, care must be taken to select material for the valve that shall secure floatation ; if a hollow rubber ball be used, it must be perfectly air- tight " Amongst the advan- tages of this trap I men- tion the following : its seal is not broken by evaporation, nor by back- pressure; it affords a seal against absorbed gases and against back water ; the cup is removable, giving access to all parts of the trap ; it may be fitted with glass cup, exposing the rubber ball and the water seal ; freezing will rarely, if ever, injure the trap, as the hollow rub- ber ball may be sufficiently compressed to allow for expansion ; the screw-joint between cup and body of the trap is below the water-line, conse- quently there can be no leakage of sewer gas at this point. This is all-important, and we shall see later that most of the gravity valves do not pos- sess this advantage. Another merit of the floating valve consists in its lesser resistance to the flow of water from the fixture than that of gravity or flap valves. Finally, I mention the fact that the seal of the Bower trap is not easily lost by siphonage, provided the main soil and waste pipe system has 105 ample ventilation. This fact the author has as- certained while making numerous experiments on the siphonage of traps for the National Board of Health, under direction of Col. Geo. E. War- ing, Jr. With a soil pipe, closed at the top, the author succeeded in removing, by suction, sufficient water from the trap to cause the ball to drop from the inlet pipe, but under all ordinary combination of discharges from fixtures, the writer found it impossible to do so, with a soil pipe open at the top and having a fresh air pipe at the foot. I am aware that other writers claim that even then the seal of the Bower trap may be lost by siphonage. The chief objection to the Bower trap, which I know, is its liability to become filthy in the upper corners. It is quite true that the ball-valve is cleaned at each discharge by being made to revolve in the chamber. ' It must also be admitted that the ball-valve produces an eddy which assists in scour- ing the bottom of the trap. But the upper corners do not get any benefit from this scour, while, espe- cially, if used under sinks, grease will collect and remain there. The author offers, in Figs. 133, 134 and 135, some suggestions for improving the shape of this' trap so as to render it more self-cleansing while retaining the advantages of the original trap. A floating ball -valve, somewhat different and less useful that the Bower trap, is Putzrath's back- 106 FiGS. 133, 134, 135. The author's suggestion for improved shape of Bower's Trap. FIG. 136. Putzrath's Back-Pressure Valve. 107 pressure valve, Figs. 136 and 137. It is made in Germany for use under I I sinks, tubs, bowls and water-closets, but it ap- pears to me that for the latter purpose, the trap is wholly unfit. It would soon choke and FiG.l^utzrath'sBack-Pres- beCOme obstructed, and sure Valve. the rubber ball would soon be destroyed. As a back-pressure valve, the trap may be quite efficient. Fig. 138 shows a rather complicated form of FIG. 138. Knight's Trap. stench trap, the invention of Thos. G. Knight, of Brooklyn. It is a trap with a floating ball, which is expected to answer the double purpose of sealing against the inlet pipe in case of back-pressure, and 108 against the seat at the outlet, in the case of siphonage, thus preventing the escape of water and leaving the seal in the trap unbroken. The idea of the trap is a good one, but its shape is rather clumsy and much too large, while the trap itself is a reservoir for filth. We will now briefly consider some gravity valve traps. One of the earlier traps of this group m Waring's sewer gas check valve, Fig. 139. The objection to this, as well as to other gravity valves, is, that they catch hair, lint, etc.,, especially at the valve seat. The valve will then shut im- perfectly and render the me- chanical seal useless. For this reason the inventor him- self has abandoned the use of this trap, except for waste pipes through which clean water only flows, for instance,, FIG. l39.-Waring Trap, overflows from tanks. A round ball of heavy rubber, or metal, is more apt to keep itself and the valve seat clean by re- volving. Such a valve is used in the well-known Cudeli sewer gas trap, illustrated in Fig. 140. It is made in the S, half S, and running-trap shape, with an enlarged chamber containing the ball valve. In case of siphonage or evaporation, it is claimed that the sinking ball will efficiently keep out by its downward pressure on its seat any sewer gas. The trap is provided on top of the chamber with a removable cover, for cleaning purposes.. 109 The danger with a cover arranged in this manner consists in its being on the sewer side of both the water and mechanical seal. Any imperfection in the joint would render the double seal perfectly useless. I also object to the shape of the Cud ell trap, which forms FIG. 140. Cudeii Trap. corners and recesses be- tween the inner chamber and the outer walls of the trap, where grease and filth may lodge. This objec- tion could easily be overcome by giving the Cudell trap the shape shown in Fig. 144 or Fig. 145, both of FIG. 141. Garland Trap. which sketches represent the author's suggestions for a gravity ball trap. 110 Almost identical with the Cudell trap are three other traps, namely, the Garland trap, Fig. 141, Buchan's trap, Fig. 142, and Turner's trap, Fig. 143. Fig. 14 la illustrates a washbowl trapped by a Garland trap. PiO. 141a. Washbowl trapped by a Garland Trap. The well-known English manufacturer, George Jennings, has devised a mechanical trap, with a heavy ball valve, and shaped rather similar to Claughton's stench trap (Figs. 122 and 123). Jen- nings' trap, Fig. 146, was at first made with a me- tallic seat, but the patentee himself fearing uncer- tainty of action, never offered it to the public. Now the trap is provided with an india-rubber seating, and the heavy ball shuts off tightly. Should the water in the trap be lost by evaporation or Ill siphonage, the mechanical seal will still, it is claimed, keep out any gases from the waste pipes. FIGS. 144 and 145. The author's suggestion for improved shape of Cudell's Trap. The Bennor siphon trap, Fig. 147, is very similar to the Garland trap, and needs no further descrip- tion. Another group of mechanical traps are those with flap valves. Fig. 148 shows Clement's patent trap, made entirely of brass, with a vent pipe 112 attachment, wherever an air pipe is required, and with a cleaning hole, closed tightly by a cover, and FIG. 147 Bennor's Siphon Trap. FiQ. 146. Jen- nings' Trap. Fio. 148 Clement's Trap. being below the water line, which is important, as the fact of the cover not shutting tightly is shown by leakage of water. 113 Stidder's flap valve trap is shown in Fig. 149. It. PIG. 149. Stidder's Patent Flap Valve Trap. is a bottle trap, provided for additional security against gases, with a flap valve at the outlet. Fia. 150. Barrett's Trap. 114 Barrett's trap is illustrated in Fig. 150. Here -the flap hangs beyond the water seal, and the trap itself is shaped much like an S-trap. A further group of traps are the mercury -sealed traps, some of these having, in addition to a water seal, a seal formed by a cup resting with its edges in mercury. The cup is lifted at each discharge, and allows the water to pass to the outlet, and when the flow ceases, the cup drops back and forms a seal. Should the water seal be lost in these traps, there is still the mercury-seal remaining. Of such traps, I mention Nicholson's mercury seal trap, Fig. 151, and Spratt's mercury seal trap, Fig. 152. Cohen's trap, Fig. 153, is a mercury seal trap, pat- FiG. 151. Nicholson's Mercury Seal Trap. FIG. 153. Spratt's Mercury seal Trap. FIG. 153. Cohen's Mercury Trap. 115 ented in Germany. It holds in its lowest part just sufficient mercury to form a seal, and if waste water is discharged, the head of water forces the mercury into an enlargement of the outer leg of the trap, until equilibrium is restored. This trap is made in glass or in earthenware, and has a brass cleaning stopper. Another mercury seal trap, introduced quite recently, is Edward's " metallic bar " trap. A large number of traps and trap attachments have been devised, with the special object of pre- venting the siphoning out of the water in the trap. I will mention a few of these. Ran- dolph's trap, Fig. 154, has a double gravity valve, its shape being otherwise very much like the Paragon trap (Fig. 104). A glass in the upper side of the trap enables one to inspect the working of the ball valves, which is as follows: When in rest there is, in addition to the water seal, a mechanical seal by the ball, which is half im- mersed in water. The second ball valve at the outlet also shuts off by its weight, but in case of undue pres- sure, this would tend to lift the ball. If a dis- charge occurs, it lifts the first ball, leaving around it a water way through which the water flows out. In rising, the first ball torches the second ball, which is also lifted, to allow the water to pass freely. As soon as the discharge ceases, both. FIG. 154. Randolph's Trap. 116 valves drop back into their seat. If a suction should occur, the valve nearest the outlet will efficiently prevent any loss of water by siphonage. The trap is safe against back-pressure, and absorption of gases is rendered almost, if not entirely, impossible. Whether this trap is self-cleansing or not, I am unable to say, without having watched it under continuous use. Fig. 155 illustrates a vertical section of Morey's trap attachment. " It is soldered on traps already in use at the highest part of the bend. Any ten- dency of the water passing through the discharge pipe to create a vacuum causes FIG. 155. Morey's Trap At- the valve to lift, and the fcachment. . air rushes into the pipe, destroying the vacuum and preventing the trap being drawn dry. The suction ceasing, the valve drops by its gravity into its seat, forming an air- tight joint, preventing the escape of noxious vapors." Fig. 156 shows Scarborough's trap, which is said I to be non-siphoning. It is an S-trap, on which is placed an air chamber between its upper and lower bends. Should a dis- charge occur filling the full bore of the waste pipe, there is a tendency of the water to drop FIG 15. W. Scar- J borough's Trap. from the crown of the trap both ways, that is, into the outlet and back into the body of the trap. There is, consequently, a ten- 117 dency to a vacuum at the crown of the trap. As this is connected to the air chamber, water is sucked up into it. When the suction ceases, this water drops back into the body of the trap to form a seal. The air chamber should be so proportioned as to hold at least a quantity of water equal to that in the trap. Such a device may work well for clean water, but with soapy or greasy discharges, it will soon get clogged. Fig. 157 illustrates the author's suggestion for PIG. 157. The author's suggestion for a Non-Siphoning, Self- Cleansing Trap. a non-siphoning trap. It is a water seal trap, pro- 118 vided with a double-acting ball valve. It may be made of brass or copper, and consists of an S-trap, having at the house-side of the dip a globular en- largement. There is a removable section of glass to inspect the working of the trap, and to remove the ball in case it should get dirty or water-soaked. The floating ball may be made of india-rubber. As it appears under a fixture not just used, it is really nothing but a Bower's trap, of improved shape. In case of a discharge, every part of the enlarged chamber receives a washing and scouring ; and moreover, that part of the trap having an S-shape, will certainly always keep clean; The ball is re- volved by the eddies when water flows through the trap and increases the scouring action of the flow. Now, suppose a siphonage should occur, either from a discharge of the fitting itself, or from a discharge through the main soil pipe. The suction will re- move some water from this trap until the light ball drops into the position shown by dotted lines. There should be a neatly-turned seat to receive the ball in order to have it shut tightly. Then no more water can be sucked out, and the ascending leg of the S-trap will remain full of water. When the suction ceases, the water column drops back and forms a suflicient water seal, the rubber ball floats on the water, and as soon as the next discharge from the fitting occurs, is brought up to its seat. Until then the trap is simply a water-sealed trap ; but no matter how often a suction may occur, it will not remove the quantity of water left in the trap, equivalent in capacity to the contents of the ascending leg. 119 Two more non-siphoning traps close the list, which makes no pretension at all to be complete. Fig. 158 is a common S-trap, furnished at its Fio. 158. Pettenkofer's Trap Attachment. crown with Pettenkofer's trap attachment, which prevents the siphoning of the S-trap, but is soon ~7 r I s N l ^ -?: ^ ^ 1" fT \ ^ A s ^- 1 FIG 150. Renk's Trap. 120 rendered ineffective through evaporation of the the water. It is in use under sinks and urinals at the Hygienic Laboratory of the University of Munich, and was devised by its founder, the well- known Prof. Max von Pettenkofer, and in this place care is always taken to refill the trap attach- ment with water. For general use it cannot be recommended. Dr. Renk, a pupil of Pettenkofer, has suggested the trap, Fig. 159, designed with the special object to be non-siphoning. I do not think this reservoir trap is self -cleansing, nor adapted to bowls or bath tubs. CHAPTER VI INSECURITY OF THE COMMON WATER SEAL TRAPS. OF all traps illustrated in the foregoing chapter, none is superior in point of cleanliness to the common S-trap. Experiments with such traps, however, have proven that they may become, in certain cases, most dangerous devices in a house, for the following reasons : 1. Traps may be forced by back-pressure. 2. They may lose all their water, when their fit- ting is emptied, by the momentum of the water, rushing suddenly through the trap. 3. Traps may be completely siphoned, or at least their water level lowered below the dip in the trap, by a flow from another fitting on the same branch pipe. 4. Traps under fixtures may be siphoned by a sudden flow through the main soil pipe, to which these fixtures are connected by branch wastes. 5. If fixtures remain unused for any length of time, the water of the trap may evaporate so much as to destroy the seal. 6. With traps on dead ends of pipes, or with unventilated soil and waste pipes, there is danger that the water of the trap absorbs soil-pipe gases, giving them off on the house side of the trap. Even germs of disease, although not transmitted through Water without motion, are said by scientific inves- tigators to be liberated from the water if such is 122 violently agitated, as, for instance, with traps under fittings, when a discharge through such fittings occurs. These statements are also more or less true of other traps, such as bell-traps, bottle-traps, D-traps, etc. It was on account of these objections, chiefly, that the more complicated mechanical traps were invented. On the other hand, the discovery was soon made that the danger from siphonage might be greatly lessened, under certain conditions, by emptying each branch waste pipe independently into the main soil or waste pipe. This, however, cannot always be done in buildings, nor is it, where it can be done, a protection against loss of water seal in all cases. The formation of a partial vacuum, and therefore siphonage, can, in most cases, be pre- vented by attaching a vent pipe of suitable diam- eter to the crown of the traps, leading its open end to the outer air (see Fig. 160). In the first place, such a vent pipe renders traps of any kind practically safe against siphonage, pro- vided its size is such as not to offer too much frictional resistance to the air passing through it to break the suc- pwithent tion - Tt is branch waste pipes connecting fixtures with the main soil pipe system. Lead pipe of small di- ameter is more easily run than an iron pipe, and although it is quite feasible to run asphalted wrought-iron waste pipes of small size to wash- basins, tubs, or sinks, it must be conceded that lead offers certain advantages, especially in crooked runs, in corners, and under floors. Foremost among the advantages should be mentioned the fact that the least number of joints are required with lead pipe. For more than one reason, however, it is very desirable to avoid supply and waste pipes in concealed places : it is a matter of common oc- currence with lead waste pipes located under the floor, to have nails driven by a carpenter's careless hand, into the upper part of the waste. Unfortu- nately, such a fact is not generally discovered at once; the hole being on the top, it may not leak water, but it will certainly leak sewer-gas. Where lead waste pipes escape such a treatment from carpenters, they are subject to the danger of being gnawed by rats. If concealed under floors, waste pipes are often run at a dead level, or where proper fall has been given to them at the time the work was done, a subsequent sagging may occur,. 132 owing to insufficient support, and the pipe, conse- quently, becomes double trapped or air bound. Here, as in regard to plumbing fixtures, the rule should be observed, to leave as much as possible in plain sight and open to inspection. Defective joints in lead pipe are due to ignorance and inability of mechanics. Lead pipe should al*- ways be connected with "wiped joints," which tech- nical expression means that the joint should be made with solder wiped in a shapely oval lump around it. Very often the back part of such joints is found defective, the solder having dropped off. Where joints are out of sight, the wiped joint is usually carelessly made and unevenly shaped; but of tener still the plumber rests satisfied with making a " cup joint," which is not as strong nor workman- like in appearance as the wiped joint. Where lead pipes are joined to hubs of cast-iron pipe a careless workman often inserts the lead pipe into the iron hub, filling the space with cement or putty. Such joints are not to be trusted, as putty and cement crumble away in a short time, thus al- lowing the escape of noxious gases. The proper way to make such joints is to use a tinned brass ferrule, which is inserted into the cast- iron hub, the joint being thoroughly caulked as in iron pipes; the lead pipe is connected to the brass ferrule by a wiped joint. Where lead pipe joins a wrought-iron or brass pipe, the connection is made with a brass screw nipple, soldered to the lead and tightly screwed with red lead into the iron or brass fitting, which is tapped to the standard thread. A radical defect exhibited in the common sys- 133 terns of plumbing is the use of waste pipes much too large for the office they have to perform. Think of a 2 in. lead waste pipe for a single wash- bowl having only a 1 J in. coupling and strainer, or a 3 in. waste for laundry tubs ! Such pipes cannot possibly remain well flushed, but must soon become coated with filth, or even clog up entirely. For ordinary pressure of water in the supply mains a 1J in. waste for a bowl is ample; a l in. pipe empties a bath-tub or a laundry tray as quick- ly as any one may desire; even for a pantry or a kitchen sink anything beyond H in. is a positive injury, and larger wastes are sure to choke up with grease in a short time. Not only is the first cost of the lead piping greater, but such extravagant sizes lead to stoppages and consequent bills for re- pairs, which can be avoided by doing the work right in the first place. But even in these enlight- ened days it is rare to find house-owners who will listen to disinterested advice on such subjects. Most of them still prefer to pay the price of the larger pipe in order to be sure that their waste pipe is " big enough to pass anything coming into it." Another mistake frequently made is to use for such waste pipes traps of a larger diameter than the pipe. A short time ago I had occasion to ex- amine the plumbing in a country residence that had just been completed for a wealthy New York merchant. The lead waste pipe from the kitchen sink was 2 in. in diameter, with a 3 in. trap; the bowls had 1J in. wastes and 2 in. Du Bois traps; the bath-tub had 2 in. wastes and a 6 inch bottle trap; the waste from the laundry tubs was 3 in. 134 in size with a 4 in. trap. Under no circumstance whatever should any trap be of larger calibre than the waste pipe ; in my own practice I prefer to re- duce the size of the trap \ or -J in., in order to in- crease the scouring effect of the waste water. It would be impossible completely to enumerate all defects found in the plumbing of city and coun- try dwellings. Some of the graver and more com- mon faults have been explained in the foregoing chapters. Of others I merely mention: the connec- tion of drip pipes to the soil pipe system or to traps; the connection of the overflow from drinking water tanks or water-closet cisterns to soil or waste pipes; the direct connection of refrigerator wastes to any part of the drainage system; the running of vent pipes from closet bowls into soil pipes; the running of soil or waste pipes into chimney-flues; the use of rain leaders as soil and waste pipes; the use of soil pipes as rain leaders ; the use of rain leaders as only ventilators of house drains; un- trapped leaders opening near dormer windows; the trapping of fixtures at a distance from the soil pipe ; the use of one trap for a number of fixtures; the double trapping of fixtures; the running of air pipes for traps into ventilation flues; the connection between air pipes from traps and vent pipes from closet bowls; the junction between air pipes and traps made on the wrong side of the trap, etc. With such a large and by no means exhausted list of possible defects in the plumbing of a house, the importance of a general house ventilation can- not be too often stated. The occupants of a house may sometimes continue to enjoy good health in 135 the face of such dangerous defects as long as ample provision is made for ventilation, and so long as a current of pure air daily sweeps through all rooms and closets of a dwelling. With no exit for foul air, let the poison once accumulate in a house and the consequences may be serious. The conclusions which may be drawn from what has been said above are two-fold, namely first, that by providing a dwelling with modern con- veniences, having for their object comfort, cleanli- ness and promotion of health at home, we also create the danger of air pollution in dwellings, and that although it is quite possible to have such fix- tures well and safely arranged, such a result can hardly be expected from the average mechanic, and that the best course for a house-owner is to pro- cure professional advice at an early stage of house building. Second, that no matter how well the system may have been planned, conceived and con- structed, it needs looking after from time to time, same as any other engineering structure, and just here let me remind the reader of the importance of having on permanent record the location of all pipes, fixtures, traps, etc., inside a dwelling, in order to facilitate inspection and repairs. It may not be inappropriate to close this chapter with the following excellent remarks from Dr. Simon : "A very large danger to the public health, and par- ticularly to the better off classes of society, has of late years consisted in the recklessness with which house drains, receiving pipes from water closets, sinks, cis- terns, baths, etc., in the interior of houses, and often. 136 actually within bed-rooms or the adjoining dressing- rooms, have been brought into communication with sewers. Among architects and builders there seems to have been very imperfect recognition of the danger which this arrangement must involve, in event either of unskillful first construction or of subsequent misman- agement or want of repairs. Then, in regard to construction, an almost unlimited trust has been placed in artisans who not only could hardly be expected to understand certain of the finer conditions (as to atmospheric pressure) which they had to meet, but who also, in not a few instances, have evi- dently failed to apprehend that even their mechanical work required conscientious execution. (The italics are mine). Under influence of the latter deficiency, there have been left in innumerable cases all sorts of escape holes for sewer effluvia into houses, and disjointed drains effusing their filth into basements: while, under the other deficiency, house drainage, though done with good workmanlike intention, has often, for want of skilled guidance, been left entirely without exterior ventilation, and sometimes has, in addition, had the over- flow pipes of baths or cisterns acting as sewer ventila- tors into the house ; and all this not infrequently in places where the sewer itself, from which so much air has been invited, has been an ill-conditioned and un ven- tilated sort of cesspool. It is almost superfluous to say that under circum- stances of this sort, a large quantity of enteric fever has been insured, and I should suppose that also a very large quantity of other filth diseases must have sprung from the same cause. Then there has been the vast quantity of interior air fouling which arises from mis- management of drain inlets, or from non repair of worn out apparatus ; as when sink traps, injudiciously made movable, have been set aside ; or when pipes under temporary disuse, having evaporated all water from their traps or leaden closet pipes, with holes corroded in them, have been left fouling the house with a continu- 137 ous eructation of sewer air. Again, in poor neighbor- hoods, water-closets have, in many cases, been con- structed with scanty and ill-arranged water service to flush them or have even been left to only such flushing as the slop water of the house or the other water thrown in by hand might give ; and again and again these ill-watered and often obstructed closets have been found acting, on a large scale, as causes of disease. Again, a different sort of danger, and one which seems capable of wide operation, has been seen to arise where water-closets received their water service from the mains of a so-called * constant ' supply, for supplies called constant must not only sometimes intermit for purposes of necessary repair, but also in some cases are habitually cut off during the hours of night, and the danger is that during times of intermission, if there be not service boxes or cisterns between the privy taps and the main privy, effluvia, and even in some cases fluid filth, will be (so to speak) sucked from closet pans into water pipes." CHAPTER VIII. CELLAR DRAINS AND DRAINAGE OF CELLARS. proceeding to examine the external sewerage of houses, let us descend into the cellar, for, although commonly it is the most neg- lected and least thought of part of a dwelling, its sanitary condition has a direct bearing upon the well-being of the occupants of the house. I think I am not mistaken in saying that from the condi- tion of a cellar one may, with tolerable accuracy, draw conclusions in regard to the healthiness of the whole house. In the first place a cellar should be thoroughly ventilated, for much of the air of a cellar is drawn into the upper rooms of a house, particularly in winter time, when stoves and fire- places create a constant suction toward the rooms. Moreover, where hot-air furnaces are placed in the cellar, these generally draw their air supply directly from the cellar, or, where a cold air box has been provided, it is constructed of wood, in a wretched manner, being full of cracks and open seams, through which the tainted atmosphere of the cellar enters, to be carried in a heated state to the upper floors of the dwelling. It is all-important that the cellar floor should be thoroughly dry and tight ; nothing is more injuri- ous to health than ground-air, which is often tainted with sewer gases from leakage of drains, or from 139 cesspools, located under the cellar of a house, or from heaps of garbage and refuse, constituting the soil upon which many of our habitations are being constantly erected, notwithstanding all earnest protests from the most prominent sanitarians. A cellar should be well-lighted, for this will aid in keeping it in good order and will promote cleanli- ness. Cellars should never be used for the storage of vegetables, nor should any kind of rubbish be left there to decompose. They should not be made hiding places for old rags, worn-out clothing, tin- cans; and, above all, the darkest corner, or the place under the cellar stairway, should never be chosen for a servants' water closet. If the cellar is low, and apt to be damp or even wet at times, proper drainage must not be neglected. But under no circumstances whatever establish a direct connection between the cellar, or the sub- soil under the cellar, and the sewer. You invite sewer gas into your house by doing so. Do not place any reliance upon the common S-trap, with shallow water seal, on the line of the cellar drain ; it is too often rendered useless by the evaporation of the water forming the seal. Still worse is the common so called "cesspool or stench trap" FIGS. 165 and 166. Cesspool or Stench Trap. for cellar floors, provided with a bell-trap 140 of improper shape and much too insufficient water seal, which is often rendered ineffective when the loose strainer gets lost. If there must be an opening in the cellar floor to remove water after scrubbing floors, or in case of an unexpected leakage of water into the cellar, this opening should be of moderate size and covered with a strainer, and the branch drain leading from it to the main house drain should be trapped by a trap with very deep seal, not liable to be easily lost through evap- oration. The author uses in his own practice an S-trap for cellar floor drains, which has a depth of water seal of six inches, and presents a small surface, so that it is not easily affected by evapora- tion. Should, however, the sewer in the street be CELLAR FIG. 167. S-trap for cellar floor drains. subject to back-flooding from the tide or an unusual rise of a river, or should its size be insufficient to* carry off heavy rainstorms, the cellar would be in constant danger of being flooded by backwater and. 141 sewage, in which case upon the water receding deposits of foul matters are left on the cellar floor. In such cases I strongly advise doing away with the opening in the cellar floor, or else I should insist on the use of some back pressure or tidal valve on the drain outlet. The cellar is usually the place where the various soil and waste pipes of a dwelling are connected or combined into one main drain, the cellar or house drain. Mr. Dempsey, an English civil engineer, speaks about the arrangement of house drains as follows, in his book, " Drainage of Towns and Buildings : " "The first step in the arrangement is to collect the whole of the drainage to one point, the head of the in- tended draining apparatus, and the determination of this point requires a due consideration of its relation to the other extremity of the drain at which the discharge into the sewer is to take place. In buildings of great extent this will sometimes involve a good deal of ar- rangement, and it will, perhaps, become desirable to divide the entire drainage into two or more points of delivery, and conduct it in so many separate drains to the receiving sewer. The length of each drain being thus, reduced to a manageable extent, the necessary fall will be more readily commanded, and the efficiency of the system secured. * * If the rain water falling on the roof of the building, and on the yard or space attached to the house, is not applied to any other purpose, it will have to be conducted into the drain to be discharged with the sewage. These waters, being purest of the contents, should be received as near as possible to the head of the drain, and made to traverse its entire length, and thus exert all the cleansing action of which they are capable." In most houses built more than five years ago- 142 you will find the main drain buried below the floor, in inaccessible locations, its position being often quite unknown. In such houses glazed ^earthen or cement pipes are used for house drains, out the drain of old buildings was usually built of brick, often square in shape (see Fig. 168), much too large in size, and with insufficient or no fall. Sometimes troughs of wood were used to carry off waste waters. All such drains are sure to FIG. 168. Brick accumulate deposits and to gen- erate disease-breeding gases of de- cay. Brick drains under houses are generally harboring places for rats, the cement of the joints crumbles away, bricks loosen and fall out, and the drains become leaky, or partly choked. Sometimes, in examining old houses, I have ob- served that vitrified pipes had been laid under the floor to take the place of the brick drain, the latter being simply cut off, but left, full of decomposing fllth, under the building. Even vitrified pipes of proper shape should never be used for drains under a dwelling house ; they often crack through set- tlement, and have leaky joints, and the floor under cellars becomes saturated with sewage. It is im- possible properly to connect an upright soil or waste pipe to an earthen drain, for no matter how well the iron pipe may be cemented into the hub of the terra cotta drain, a settlement of the soil pipe will break off the hub ; in other cases the earthen drain settles away from the soil pipe, leav- ing an opening between both, through which all sewage matter is discharged onto the ground under IS I I 143 the cellar. The author lately had occasion to see such a defective connection in a fine residence on Madison avenue (see Fig. 169). If the house drain must be laid under the cellar floor it should consist of heavy iron FIG. 169. Earthen . . , . . , . . Drain. pipes with well-tightened joints and should be made accessible in a few proper places to provide means for removing accidental or malicious obstructions or stoppages, which are liable to occur even in the best devised and best constructed system of house drainage. The necessity of running the house drain below the cellar floor exists only in rare cases. In most cases it is possible to banish plumbing fixtures from cellars, to find a better lighted place for the laundry and washing tubs, and a place for the servants' closet free from the objections heretofore made. In such case it is best to run the house drain of iron pipe across the cellar, either along a founda- tion wall, or suspended from the ceiling. This brings the drain in sight for inspections, and it is a recognized principle of modern house drainage that as little as possible of waste pipes and of the plumbing work in general should be hidden from view. CHAPTER IX. USUAL DEFECTS OF HOUSE DRAINS; SEWER CONNEC- TIONS; PRIVY VAULTS AND CESSPOOLS. IT behooves us now to inquire into the external sewerage of the dwelling. Faults of the interior drainage work contribute, as we have seen, a large share to the pollution of the atmosphere which we- breathe; faulty external sewerage, besides being: the cause of a vitiation of the air, creates a most dangerous pollution of the soil around and under habitations, and likewise frequently poisons the water from wells and springs. Hence it is a mistake, which, however, is fre- quently made, especially in rural districts, to neglect the outside drainage of a dwelling. The water which we drink must be as pure and whole- some as the air we breathe ; and since country houses depend most always upon a well or cistern situated near the house for the supply of this indis- pensable element, the external sewerage of such houses is of greater importance even than that of city houses. But in both cases the teachings of san- itary science require a proper care in laying such external drains which should remove at once from habitations all sewage matters. The defects usually found in external drain pipes are numerous. They relate to the construction of the drain, to the manner of jointing pipes and lay- ing drains, to the materials used for such drains, to 145 their size and shape, and to junctions with branch drains and with the street sewer. Foremost among them I mention leaky joints, for these work multifold harm. Not only does the liquid soak away into the soil to find its way to the nearest well or spring, but a constant accumulation and gradual saturation of the soil with filth is inevitable. Again, deposits will occur in the pipes, as the force of the flush is to a great extent lost, if the waste water soaks away at the joints, and the solid part of the remaining sewage in the pipes must soon decompose and fill the pipes with gases of decay. A second cause of deposits in house drains is an irregular or insufficient inclination of the pipe. How seldom it is that the simple precaution is observed of taking levels to ascertain the available fall from the point where the drain leaves the house to the junction with the sewer. Hence we often find house drains sloping the wrong way, being in reality nothing but " elongated cesspools." How easy would it be to avoid such mistakes by the use of even a common spirit level ! A further grave defect is the almost universal preference of drain-layers and ignorant builders for large pipes. Not many years ago nine and even twelve-inch pipes were used for the drainage of an ordinary city house and lot ; only lately six- inch house drains have been used for the average sized city dwelling, and a four- inch pipe, which answers for most city or country houses, except for unusually large residences, is still the exception. The larger the pipe for a given amount of water 146 the more sluggish will the velocity of the stream be, and thus we find in the large size of drains another cause of accumulation of deposits. Mr. Dempsey, C. E., in his " Drainage of Towns and Buildings," says : " Sewers and drains were formerly devised with the single object of making them large enough, by which it was supposed that their full efficiency was secured. But sluggishness of action is now recognized as the certain consequence of excess of surface, equally as of deficiency of declination. A small stream of liquid matter, ex- tended over a wide surface, and reduced in depth in proportion to the width, suffers retardation from this circumstance, as well as from want of declivity in the current. Hence a drain which is disproportionally large in comparison to the amount of drainage, becomes an inoperative apparatus, by reason of its undue dimen- sions, while, if the same amount of drainage is concen- trated within a more limited channel, a greater rapidity is produced, and every addition to the contents of the drain aids, by the full force of its gravity, in propelling the entire quantity forward to the point of discharge." (This latter point is especially little understood). The English architect Ernest Turner, well known as a prominent sanitarian, speaks about size of drain pipes as follows in his book, " Hints to House- hunters and Householders " : "It is extraordinary that the practice of making drains as large as possible instead of as small as may be necessary for efficient working should have continued so long as it has. The only possible reason must be, ' every drain is bound to choke sooner or later, and the larger the pipe the longer it will take before it requires cleaning.' "The smaller the pipe the less the friction the greater the hydraulic pressure the greater the velocity, and con- 147 sequently the less chance there is of any obstruction^ taking place. "It is a common notion that an ordinary medium- sized dwelling-house requires a nine-inch drain ; but the idea is altogether erroneous. "To carry off a small quantity of water quickly, a small pipe must be used. The greater the proportion of the wetted perimeter to the volume of water to be dis- charged, the greater, obviously, the resistance. " If a pipe becomes choked, it is generally owing to its being too large not too small or to faulty laying or construction." Mr. Eassie, in his chapter on House Drainage, written for the recently published book, "Our Homes, and How to Make them. Healthy," has the following : " Drains are very frequently laid down of far too large a sectional area : six inches in diameter where four inches would have sufficed, nine inches where six inches would have been sufficient, and twelve inches where nine would have been ample. This laying down of too large pipes is one of the most besetting sins in house drainage, when that has been left entirely in the hands of the builder. I have taken up twelve-inch pipes in a house, and replaced them with six-inch pipes. The sizes of the pipes to be used should not be decided hap- hazard, but advice taken upon this subject from a com- petent person. As a general rule, a four-inch pipe is sufficient for a cottage, and a six-inch pipe for an exten- sive dwelling. In deciding the diameter of the drain pipes, due provision must be made for the rainfall, or serious floodings may be the result after every storm of unusual severity." Other defects of house drains relate to the shape and material of the pipes. Brick drains with flat bottoms are an abomination, but some of the finest 148 residences of Fifth avenue remove (or rather re- tain !) the household wastes through such square channels, 12*xl2* in cross section. Wooden drains are not any better. Being alternately wet and dry they quickly rot ; the roughness of the inner surfaces of such conduits tends to create deposits. Vitrified pipes, properly shaped, smoothly glazed and well-burnt, are preferable to all other kinds, even to cement pipes. They should, however, be laid with care, on proper foundations, properly supported, well aligned, properly jointed and laid with a regular fall. Often no attempt is made in tightening the joints of vitrified pipe, and the mis- taken notion largely prevails that through such open joints subsoil water may be removed, the house drain thus performing a double service, for which it should never have been intended. Conduits for the removal of the foul liquid wastes from houses should be tight beyond doubt. In made ground, where drains are liable to settle and break, earthen pipes should not be tolerated, but must be replaced by iron pipes, and this is true as well for drains ^passing near a well or cistern. And here the same remarks heretofore made as regards the quality of iron pipes might, with advantage, be repeated. Radical and thorough improvements in the make of iron drain pipes are much to be desired. Another serious and frequent defect relates to the junction of branches to the main drain, T branches, i. e., right-angled connection pieces being used, which cause eddies and accumulations of deposit. The same error of construction is often made at the point where a house drain connects to 149 a street sewer. In order to join the flow from both with the least possible retardation of the cur- rent, the branch should enter the drain under an angle of 45 or 60. (See Fig. 170.) I must not forget to mention an additional defect, namely, that of delivering a large drain pipe into one of smaller diameter, a mistake too often l - made by ignorant or skin builders. It is interesting, though somewhat sad to learn that the defects in house drainage just described have not by any means been recognized only lately; for as early as 1 852 the General Board of Health of England discussed the question of house drainage in an able and thorough report, arriving at exactly the same conclusions and principles which the best modern talent advises, I give below a few extracts from the Report : " The materials of which house drains are commonly constructed are burnt clay bricks, and of these bricks for the great majority of houses, any inferior rubbish that can be put away, is used. The common ' place brick ' is so absorbent and permeable that each brick will usually absorb about a pint of water. It is rough and ill- formed on the surface, so as to impede the flow of the sewage. The bottoms of the drains of houses occupied by the poorer classes are not always formed of whole bricks, brick-bats being often used for the purpose, 150 which are frequently put together dry, or the mortar used for their connection is inferior, soluble and perme- able to water as well as to gases. The following (Fig. 171) are common forms of permeable brick drains, which let out offensive liquid to spread beneath the premises, but detain, like sieves, the solids or less soluble matter : FIG. 171. House drain of brick, square in shape. In many of the large provincial towns visited, still inferior drains are constructed. The following (Figs. 172 and 173) are two specimens : The former will often be choked up in a few months, especially if some other owner, as is FIG. 172. House drain of brick, with- _ * + _ _ +1,,, ~ Q a ~ out proper invert. case, drains into it. The latter, it must be obvious, will ulti- mately have the same fate, notwith- standing the sup- posed advantage of its large size should it not sooner FIG. 173. House drain of rough stone- work. collapse and become a confused mass of rubble stone, and black, stinking filth." In regard to extravagant sizes for sewers and drains, the report says : 151 " It is important that the result of inquiry on this point should be understood, namely, why a small channel or drain, properly adjusted to the run of water to be dis- charged, will be kept clear, while a large channel, with the same quantity of water to be discharged, and with the same fall or inclination, will accumulate deposit. In large drains a given run of water is spread in a thin sheet, which is shallow in proportion as the bottom of the drain is wide, hence friction is increased, the rate of flow retarded, and according to a natural law, matters at first held in suspension, and which a quicker stream would have carried forward, are deposited. If there be any elevated substance, the shallow and slow stream, having less velocity and power of floating or propelling a solid body, passes by it. Thus, if by any neglect sub- stances not intended to be received by a drain enter it, for instance, if a scrubbing-brush or hearth-stone has been allowed to get into, say a 15-inch drain, the height of water in regard to such substance may be as in the following sketch, fig. 174 : Fio. 174 A 15-inch house drain, with a shallow stream of water. But if it were a 4-inch drain, the same quantity of water would assume a very different relative position, as 152 in this smaller sketch, Fig. 175, and it will be readily FIG. 175. A 4-inch house drain, with same amount of water running through it as passes through the 15-inch pipe. understood that the deeper stream of the contracted channel would be more powerful to remove any obstruct- ing body. Instead of concentrating the flow of small streams, and economizing their force, the common practice is to spread them over uneven surfaces, which ' ' deadens " and "kills" them. In a small drain an obstruction raises an accumula- tion of water immediately, which increases, according to the size of the obstruction, until four, five or six times more hydraulic pressure is brought to bear for its re- moval than could by any possibility be the case in a large drain ; for in a large drain of three or four times the FIG. 176. Accumulation of deposit in a house drain, .same internal capacity, the water can only be dammed up to the same relative height by an accumulation of matter three or four times higher, and therefore 27 or 64 times greater, which will gradually lengthen out, as shown in sketch, Fig. 176, and then be beyond the power of removal by the water." From personal notes of a recent inspection of the drainage of a large sea-side hotel on the Atlantic ipe against corrosion. As mechanical science advances, better means will undoubtedly be available to protect soil pipes from corrosion. Amongst rust-preventing processes of recent origin I mention the Bower Barff Rustless Pro- cess, which consists in subjecting iron or steel to the action of superheated steam in a furnace, until 199 the surface of the iron is covered with a more or less thick coating of magnetic oxide, which, as is well-known, is unaffected by exposure to air or moisture. The advantages of such a process are obvious : above all, every part of the article is reached and treated, while with painting, oiling, enameling, or asphalting, corner nooks and flaws in the iron may not be reached, thus not insuring such a thorough protection against rust. The thoroughly jointed and ventilated soil and FIG. 183. Soil, Waste and Air Pipe System in a Country Dwelling. waste pipe system, receives, as shown in Fig. 1 83, the waste water from plumbing fixtures through. 200 short branch waste pipes of drawn lead pipe. The latter is made of all sizes in coils of any desired length, by pressing molten lead by means of a hy- draulic press through dies, through which a core is inserted. Waste pipes of lead should be of the following sizes : For one wash-bowl 1J inches diameter. For a row of basins 1^- " " For a bath-tub l " " For a row of bath-tubs, likely to be used at once 2 " " For a pantry sink 1 \ " " For a kitchen sink 1| " " For a set of laundry trays 1 J " " For a slop sink l|-2 " " The weight should be about 2 Ibs. for 1 J inch pipe, 2J Ibs. for 1J inch pipe, and 3 Ibs. for 2 inch pipe. All joints in lead pipe should be wiped solder joints, and no cup joints should be tolerated, except where local circumstances render the wiping of a joint impossible. The following brief des- cription of the manner of making a wiped joint is taken from the " Metalworker : " " The first thing to do in setting about making a joint is to straighten the two pieces of pipe, to get out all buckles or sags. It is essential that the two pieces of pipe to be joined shall be so placed or fastened as to be quite firm during the operation, so that they shall re- tain their position while the joint is being wiped. It is also necessary that the ends of each of the pieces of the pipe shall be clean and free from oxide for a short dis- tance back from the edges which are to be joined. In order to prevent the solder from adhering to other parts than those desired, both pieces of pipe are to be smeared with what is called plumbers' soil (composed of glue and 201 lamp-black dissolved in water), as far from the joint as there is any liability of the solder touching. The soil is applied to the pipes with a small brush. The opera- tion of making the ends of the pipe which are to be joined clean and free from oxide is to scrape them with a shave hook as far back as it is desired the solder should take effect. After the surfaces of the two pipes have thus been made bright, they are to be lightly rub- bed over with tallow, in order to prevent oxidation by the air. Prior to the operation of scraping the ends of the pipe just mentioned, one of the two pieces is to be opened somewhat in order to let the end of the other FIG. 206. Wiped Joint In Lead Pipe. piece fit into it. The opening of the pipe is accomp- lished by means of a turn-pin. After the pipes have been properly prepared as described, the two ends are placed together, and the joint is closed up by tapping it lightly with the hammer. At this stage the operator is ready for the solder, and to use the plumbers' cloth or soldering cloth. Solder is now poured on to the two ends of the pipe by means of the ladle. Pouring the solder against the joint, the plumber works it back- ward and forward, and around the joint, his fingers being protected all the time by the cloth until the pipe has become heated, and sufficient solder has adhered to it to make the joint. Having shaped it into a bulbous 202 form, he completes the work by wiping it to shape after the manner indicated in Fig. 206." Where lead pipe joins iron pipe the following mode of connection is recommended : If the soil or air pipes are of cast iron, brass caulking ferrules must be used, soldered to the lead pipe, and caulked with oakum and lead into the hub of the iron pipe. Where the soil pipe system is of wrought iron, lead waste pipes and lead branch air pipes from traps are connected to it by brass screw nipples, wiped to the lead pipe with solder, and screwed tightly with red lead and a wrench into the threaded open- ing of the fitting. Each fixture, connected to- the soil or waste pipe system, must be provided as near as possible to its outlet with a suitable trap, secure against siphonage, back pressure, evaporation, etc. If lead traps are used, the weight of the lead should be equivalent to the weight of the lead pipe. Each fixture should, wherever possible, discharge into the main soil or waste pipe independently. The branch wastes should in all cases be as short and direct as possible, and this will largely depend on a judicious planning and locating of fixtures by the architect. Overflow pipes, if such are used for fixtures, must connect to the waste pipe on the inlet side of the trap or below its water level, or else they must discharge over a "safe." Drip pipes for safes under fixtures should not have any connection whatever with any soil or waste pipe or drain. They should be collected in the basement or cellar and discharge over an open 203 sink, so that any leakage may be at once apparent. Refrigerator wastes must never be directly con- nected to any soil, waste or drain pipe. These wastes are very apt to become coated with slime and dirt in a short time ; they frequently stop up, and are generally liable to become offensive, especially if the ice used is very impure. The outlets of all "set" fixtures except water closets should be protected against obstruction or chokage by a fixed strainer. I close this chapter with the following brief de- scription by Mr. E. C. Gardner, architect, of what a well devised soil pipe system should be: "Theoretically, this is the whole machinery of safe, 'sanitary' plumbing: A large open pipe kept as clean and free as possible, into which the smaller drains empty, these smaller drains or waste-pipes having their mouths always full, and being able, so to speak, to swallow in but one direction. Everything can go down; nothing can come up. That all these pipes shall be of sound material, not liable to corrosion; that the different pieces of which they are composed shall be tightly joined; that they shall be so firmly supported that they will not bend or break by their own weight, or through the changes of temperature to which they are subject, and that they shall be, if not always in plain sight, at most only hidden by some covering easily removed, are points which the commonest kind of common sense would not fail to ob- CHAPTER XI. PLUMBING FIXTUEES. Description of Plumbing Fixtures. selection of proper plumbing fixtures will next require our attention. To use cheaper and inferior articles would be, in all cases, a mistaken economy. Such cheap fixtures not only- wear out much sooner than a good, although more costly, article of manufacture, but they will often require repairing, patching up, and the bills for the latter work will, in many cases, exceed the amount of the first expenditure. A wise house- holder will reduce the number of his plumbing fixtures to a minimum, but will choose none but first-class appliances. How to arrange such fixtures properly, where to place them, and how to keep them sweet and clean after use, will be discussed further on. We will first briefly review the kind of fixtures to be used, without, however, giving a detailed description of all appliances at present in the market. The kitchen sink may be of cast-iron, and can be painted, galvanized or enamelled, or it may be of soapstone. Galvanized or enamelled sinks will last only a few years, after which the galvanizing wears out, while the enamel scales off. Plain painted sinks require frequent renewal of the 205 paint, and cannot be recommended. Soapstone sinks are better, but they soon assume a dark color and a greasy appearance. Sinks of wrought-steel have lately been introduced into the market, and may prove to be economical and not easily worn out if protected against corrosion by the Bower- Barff rustless process. The neatest, most cleanly and best sinks for use are those in earthenware, which are imported from England, and are made in all required sizes. Their external beauty espe- cially if put up in a light open frame, with a marble back, and set on a tiled floor and the fact that they are non-absorbent, will soon make earthen or porcelain sinks the general favorites amongst house-wives. Kitchen sinks, of whatever description, should have the outlet protected by a fixed strainer to- prevent obstructions of the waste pipe. The waste pipe, generally a l inch pipe, which size is ample in all cases, should be trapped directly underneath the sink by an efficient trap. As the kitchen sink is in constant use, there is no danger in using an S-trap, protected by a vent pipe against siphonage. The connection of the vent pipe should be at the crown of the trap, and to prevent stoppage of the vent pipe at the crown by soap- suds or grease, it should preferably be made as shown in sketch, Fig. 207. Lead or brass traps- might, with advantage, be cast with a funnel- shaped vent pipe attachment, such as shown in the sketch. As kitchen sinks are generally located on the basement floor, an overflow pipe is unnecessary. For sinks in small households, 206 I should advise against the use of any grease trap, as the grease may, with advantage, be saved and not poured out into the sink. For large man- sions, restaurant kitchens, boarding houses, the SINK, THAI* FIG. 307. Kitchen Sink trapped by a vented S-trap. use of a grease trap, preferably one located out- side of the house, is recommended. Grease traps inside a dwelling, under or near a pantry or kitchen ink, will, in most cases, become a cesspool, and prove a serious nuisance, unless carefully and often cleaned. The neatest material for laundry tubs and, in fact, for nearly every fixture in the house is porcelain, as it is non-absorbent and most cleanly. Such tubs are, of course, more expensive, and for this reason are not generally used. Soapstone tubs, as well as cement stone tubs, answer very well, the latter being made in one piece without eams. 207 The waste pipe for a set of three or four tubs should be 1 inches diameter ; an overflow pipe is not necessary, except where the laundry is located on the top floor of the house. Theoretically, each tub should have a separate trap, but in practice, one trap is almost always used for the whole set, placed either at one end of the set or under the middle tub. If the laundry tubs are in constant use, a properly vented S-trap or a running siphon trap of the Du Bois pattern should be used ; if not in constant use, it may be advisable to use one of the mechanical traps. Pantry sinks are generally made of copper, either with oval-shaped bottom or with a flat bot- tom. Small earthenware sinks, for the butler's pantry, are very clean and attractive in appear- ance, but with them glass and crockery ware are more exposed to frequent breakage. Copper sinks should be tinned and planished, and the copper must have a weight of not less than 18 oz., better 24 oz. per sq. foot. They are frequently closed by a plated plug or stopper, but sometimes the waste pipe is closed by a waste cock. In both cases an overflow pipe is used, connected to the waste pipe below the water seal of the trap. Better than either arrangement would be a short standing overflow, inserted into the socket of the waste pipe (see Fig. 208), thus doing away with a possi- ble nuisance, the separate overflow pipe. In order to prevent the standing waste from being in the way while washing dishes, we would suggest to have the pantry sink flat-bottomed, with a slight slope towards the outlet, and made with a recess 208 for the standing waste, as shown in the drawing. The waste pipe for the sink should be not larger than H inches ; 1 \ inch is preferable, and the trap. I STA(Y0IW& 4 V FIG. 208. Pantry Sink with standing overflow. should be of this same size. Pantry sinks for hotels or large establishments, should have a grease trap to intercept the fat removed by washing dishes and plates. Refrigerators should not have waste pipes con- nected directly with any drain or sewer. Those of . 209 smaller size may waste into pails, removable by hand. Larger sizes should waste into an open cup or tray, connected to a drain or soil pipe by a trapped waste pipe, provided with a tight-shutting stop- cock on the line of the waste pipe, which should be shut each time the refrigerator is put out of use. Stationary wash-stands have been extensively used, not only in bath-rooms or lavatories, but in sleeping-rooms, in nurseries, in hospital wards, and in offices. Being in almost every instance defec- tive in construction and general arrangement, they have, in innumerous instances, been the cause of sufferings, headache, general debility, sickness or fatal illness. Since the public has become aware of the dangers and risks connected with cheap or dis- honest plumbing work, a great cry has been raised against stationary wash-bowls, and most of the sick- ness due to imperfect drainage in general has been attributed to this one fixture. This view, however, is erroneous, for any kind of plumbing appliance not properly trapped and ventilated is a danger and risk to health, if placed in a living or sleeping- room or office, and, on the other hand, there is no good reason why a wash-bowl might not be fitted up in as perfect a manner as a water-closet, a sink or a bath-tub, if placed in a well-ventilated bath or dressing-room. Wash-basins should be of porcelain, and are made either round or oval in shape. (See Fig. 209a and 209b). Oval wash-bowls have been intro- duced only recently, and are appreciated by many as being of a more convenient shape. As com- monly fitted up, wash-bowls have on their bottom 210 -a socket and coupling, to which the waste pipe is attached. The bowl is closed so as to hold water FIG. 209a. Round Wash-bowl. FIG. 209b. Oval Wash-bowl. "by means of a plug, to be inserted into the socket. The bowl requires in this case an overflow pipe, which, as I have repeatedly stated, remains imper- fectly flushed, and is often ill-smelling. To insure cleanliness of the bowl, it should be possible to empty it quickly. A novel bowl, which is said to be quick-emptying, has lately been manu- factured in England, and is shown in vertical sec- tion in Fig. 210. The outlet is supposed to be closed by a waste-valve at some distance from the bowl. 211 FIG. 210. Tyler's Quick-emptying Bowl. This bowl, as well as others of the common round shape, are now made with a flushing rim on top, the hot and cold water being introduced by a nozzle and entering the bowl simultaneously at all sides, giving it a thorough cleansing. This is cer- tainly a great improvement, which recommends itself at once for lavatories in hotels, hospitals, barracks and club-houses. (Fig. 211). FIG. 211. Flushing Rim Wash-bowl. If not closed at the bottom by a plug, wash- bowls are fitted up with waste- valves, which in most 212 229 sight, which is a great advantage ; finally the level: of the water (in the trap) is nearer to the seat The ideal water-closet, however, has yet to be invented, and as in so many other matters we must content ourselves with the best approxima- tion to the perfect apparatus. Unless fitted up with skillful judgment, hopper- closets, both short and long, are apt to cause dis- satisfaction through an occasional fouling of the bowl. Without a properly arranged system of flushing, they are apt to become extremely nasty and foul, especially so in water-closet apartments of public buildings of any kind. To prevent this, the water supply should be ample, the amount for each flush should be discharged rapidly through a large supply pipe into the flushing rim, and the pre- caution must be observed to give the closet at each use a preliminary wash, to moisten the sides of the bowl and an after-wash, to thoroughly rinse the closet and expel the soil from the trap. To secure to such plain closets without mechani- cal apparatus, the advantages which the valve and plunger-closets have of holding a large surface of water in the bowl, a modified form was adopted, which the writer has called a washout-closet, while other writers call it an improved hopper-closet. Washout-closets may be subdivided into : 1, those having a bowl shaped so as to hold water (generally not more than 1 J inches in depth) " and having under the bowl, generally in one piece with it, a siphon trap (Fig. 233). 2, those in which the basin itself is shaped so as to make a water-seal trap, and holds water to a 230 FIG. 233. Washout-Closet, with water in basin and trap below basin. Pro. 234. Washout-Closet, with basin holding water, and shaped so as to form a seal. Fro. 235. Author's Suggestion for Improved Short Hopper- Cloaot. 231 greater depth than those first mentioned (Figs. 234 and 235). Against the first-mentioned closet the criticism may be raised that the force of the flush is largely exhausted in cleansing the basin, after which the water, soil and paper, drop into the trap, which is not exposed to view as with other closets. FIGS. 236a and b. Author's Suggestion for Improving Washout Closet. There is, consequently, chance of foul matter lodging in the trap, to give off offensive gases. There is also some danger of foul matter accumulat- ing in the vertical shaft between the bowl and the trap. The evil may, perhaps, be remedied by shaping the top of the bowl and its flushing rim as indicated in Figs. 236a and b. 232 The other closets, in which the basin itself forms a trap against gases, are preferable. They much resemble in principle the short hopper, having the advantage of being made in one piece of earthen- ware, of holding more depth of water in the bowl, and of having a larger surface of water. These closets, in the writer's opinion, approach the ideal closet more closely than any other kind. One difficulty has yet been but partially overcome with most of them, namely, the proper flushing and cleansing of the basin, especially the proper dis- charge of soil and paper. Ingenious siphon ar- rangements and water jets have been invented to effect this purpose. It is quite possible, however, that a simple discharge of water from a cistern through a good flushing rim or a series of fan- washers, arranged on the top of the bowl, will suflice to expel all matters from the basin, if the latter is of proper size and shape. (See Fig. 235.) The illustrations (Figs. 2, 12, 13, 231, 232, 233 and 234) show all the types of water-closets now in the market. There is a striking contrast, as regards simplicity of construction, between the pan, valve and .plunger-closets on the one side, and the hopper and washout-closets on the other. Any of the closets of the latter class, if bought from a re- sponsible, first-class manufacturing firm, is likely to give satisfaction, provided the closet is well taken care of, for even the best kind will need re- peated cleaning, washing and scrubbing. The latter operations will be much facilitated by a proper arrangement of the closet, and here again 233 the plain earthen hoppers, and washout-closets, are vastly superior to mechanical closets. It is interesting to notice what the Report of the General Board of Health of England, made in 1852, says about the principles of the construction of the water-closets. " It is now necessary to revert to the construction of the chief apparatus for the decent and efficient sanitary arrangement of every household, an apparatus to which but little attention is usually paid, but which requires the most serious consideration, as one of the primary works for the sanitary improvement of houses and towns, namely, the water-closet. The particular points to be sought for in the construc- tion of the apparatus in question, appear to be : 1. A scour for the complete removal of the soil. 2. The best trap against the ingress or regurgitation of effluvia from the general system of drainage and sewerage with which each soil-pan or house- sink must communicate. 3. The consumption of the least quantity of water for a complete scour and perfect trap. 4. Durability, or freedom from the liability of a. Breakage in consequence of frost. 6. Derangement of the machinery. c. Breakage by careless usage. d. Stoppages. 5. Easy repair. 6. Cheapness when manufactured on a large scale." The report, further on, condemns the pan- closet, and recommends simple hopper-closets, pre- ferably short hoppers, and a modified form of hop- per, such as shown in Figs. 237 and 238. It is a somewhat remarkable fact, that notwithstanding such a severe but just condemnation of the pan- 234 closet more than thirty years ago, it should still be found in most dwelling-houses of to-day. FIGS. 237 and 238. Closet Forma recommended in 1852 by the General Board of Health of England. General Arrangement and Care of Fixtures. Having described the quality and character of fixtures to be used, we must next speak about their general arrangement. We have repeatedly stated that it is highly desirable to have everything rela- ting to plumbing in plain sight. Traps concealed under floors should be abolished ; soil and vent pipes buried in walls or partitions, fixtures encased in tight carpentry, and supply pipes with stop- cocks that cannot be immediately reached when necessary, are highly objectionable. 235 There is a certain prejudice against having plumbing appliances left without any casing or covering, especially on the part of women, but we must gradually educate our good house-wives in these matters, and we venture to say that if the objections against the old methods would be prop- erly explained to them, very few only would object to the advice of sanitarians, to have every fixture open and accessible. If all women would be as practical and exhibit as much good sense as Jill in Mr. E. C. Gardner's charming book, "The House that Jill Built", sanitary inspections would soon be rendered unnecessary, and the annual plumbers' bills for repairs would become a thing of the past. " I wish it were possible," said she, " to build a house with everything in plain sight, the chimneys, the hot- air pipes from the furnace, if there are any, the steam pipes, the ventilators, the gas pipes, the water pipes, the speaking tubes, the cranks and wires for the bells whatever really belongs to the building. They might all be decorated if that would make them more inter- esting, but even if they were quite unadorned they ought not to be ugly. If we could see them we shouldn't feel that we are surrounded by hidden mysteries liable at any time to explode or break loose upon us unawares. Those things that get out of order easily ought surely to be accessible. I don't believe there would have been half the trouble with plumbing, either in the way of danger to health or from dishonest and ignorant work, if it had not been the custom to keep it as much as pos- sible out of sight. There is a great satisfaction, too, in knowing that everything is genuine." The following advice of a physician in " The House and its Surroundings," is equally well to the point : 236 "As to the pipes above the basement, you should in- sist upon having them all, within as well as without the house, as accessible as possible. Plumbers, as the late Dr. Parkes remarks, * try to conceal everything,' and, in consequence of this principle, when any accident oc- curs, the house is pulled about and the walls and wood- work damaged to a great extent, because no one knows or can get at the exact direction of the offending pipe. Therefore, all these pipes, including their inlets and outlets, should be visible, or, if enclosed at all, should be cased in with wooden coverings, lightly screwed to- gether, and not, as is usually the case, imbedded in plaster or cement, or otherwise fixed securely into the main or other walls of the building." The following quotation from the well-known English architect, Ernest Turner, referring to ser- vice pipes, might be applied in general to plumb- ing-work. He says: "Service pipes are commonly kept carefully out of sight. This is an excellent arrangement for the plum- ber who is thus enabled to conceal any amount of scamped work. For the owner, its drawbacks are three, at least. 1. It makes defects or accidents more difficult of de- tection. 2. It makes them more mischievous in action. 3. It makes them more costly in correction. No pipes above ground, as was said in the preceding chapter, should be hidden behind anything but a hinged casing." There should be as little as possible wood-work around plumbing fixtures, and this will not at all detract from the appearance of such work, pro- vided the work itself is properly done and well finished. If the space under and around bowls, sinks, tubs and water-closets is kept entirely open,. 237 cleaning operations are much facilitated, and every- thing is readily inspected at any time, without the necessity of using tools to remove boards or casings. An open arrangement of fixtures is equally well adapted to offices, small dwellings, or the most luxurious residences. Fancy and orna- Fio. 239. Iron Kitchen Sink, supported on brackets. mental casings of woodwork have hitherto been considered indispensable for finishing bath-rooms. The mistaken notion of judging the quality of a job of plumbing by the costliness of the marble slabs, the silver-plating of the faucets, the decora- ting and gilding of basin and water-closet bowls, the expensive hard wood finish, has gradually and 238 slowly given way to a better appreciation for fix- tures properly trapped, amply ventilated, and well flushed. The following remarks and sketches are chiefly intended to explain a proper and sanitary method of fitting up modern conveniences : FIG. 240. Earthenware Kitchen Sink, supported in a frame, resting on decorated legs. Kitchen sinks may be supported on brackets, securely fastened into the walls, or else they may rest on legs on the floor. Fig. 239 shows the former arrangement for an iron sink, with iron back, while Fig. 240 shows the latter, for an earthenware or " Imperial " sink, the illustration 239 Toeing taken from the circular of the J. L. Mott Iron Works, of New York. If not objectionable on account of expense, the supply and waste pipes, and the trap, may be of brass, finished or nickel- plated, but a plain, neat job of lead piping will answer very well. The illustration (Fig. 240) shows a sink, import- ed by the above firm from England, supported on graceful galvanized or bronzed legs, with a hand- some frame on top of the sink, and a marble back. FIG. 341. Open Arrangement of Pantry Sink, with Draining Shelf. The neatest arrangement is to have the floor Under the sink or else the entire kitchen floor laid with tiles, which may also be carried up along the wall behind the sink. The sink should always 240 be fitted with a high back of iron, glass or marble,, to prevent defacing the rear wall by splashing. A pantry sink may be fitted up in a similar manner, with draining shelf and drawers at one side, but all open directly under the sink, as shown in Fig. 241. FiG. 242a. Slop Sink, with Flushing Cistern. House-maid's sinks should be treated in the same way, but still more important is such a plain ar- rangement for slop sinks, which otherwise are 241 liable to get very foul and offensive. Fig. 242a- shows a slop hopper fitted up with frame and mar- ble back, and a flushing cistern overhead, as sold by the J. L. Mott Iron Works. It would be pre- ferable to have no wood work at all around a slop hopper, everything being in plain sight, open to FIG. 243. Slop Hopper, set on a tiled floor. inspection, accessible for cleaning and scrubbing. (See Fig, 242b.) Fig. 243 shows such a slop hop- per, as sold by The Meyer. Sniffen Co., of New- York. Slop sinks and hoppers should stand in a well- lighted and ventilated closet, or else, where the bath-room is of ample dimensions, in the bath- 242 room. Never should they be placed in a dark closet. FIG. S42b. Slop Hopper Sink, without wood-work. Laundry tubs should also be set on legs and be left open under the tubs, leaving the waste pipe and trap in full sight. Fig. 244 shows the beauti- FiG. 244,-Laundry Tubs, set on legs. f ul porcelain washtubs, sold by the J. L. Mott Iron Works, set on ornamental legs, with a top frame of 243 hard wood and a back, which may be of marble, through which the faucets for hot and cold water pass. Tiling for the floor of the laundry adds to its beauty and cleanly appearance. FIG. 345. Open Arrangement for Wash-basins ; slab supported on brackets. The same principles should be applied to sta- tionary wash basins. In place of the usual cabinet work, let the marble slab be supported on orna- mental iron or brass brackets, fastened to the walls (see Fig 245), or else use a pair of marble sup- 244 ports, or a handsome frame, on which the slab rests, supported by bronzed or otherwise decorated iron or wooden turned legs. (See Fig. 246.) If de- FIG. 246. Open Arrangement for Wash-basins ; slab supported on a frame resting on turned legs. sired, the trap may be of brass, finished or nickel- plated, and the supply and waste pipes may be similar. Even where householders would object to keeping the pipes and traps in sight, it is possi- ble to arrange a lavatory without the usual tight -cabinet-work, as shown in sketch. Fig. 247. The 245 space under the slab and bowl, which latter is of the tip-up type, is left entirely open, and the pipes are concealed behind a movable panel near the rear wall. With a hardwood floor, such lavatory is certainly more cleanly and inviting in appearance than the usual apparatus. Where it is desired to i FIG. 247. Open Cabinet-work for a Lavatory, leave all plumbing in sight, and where means are moderate, a handsome job of lead piping, well- shaped wiped joints, etc., are not at all objectiona- ble. Says Mr. Jas. C. Bayles, in describing his ideal house, No. 26 Daydream avenue : " None of my fixtures are boxed in. I prefer to have everything open and not to make little closets under the fixtures. To my mind there is nothing unsightly about 246 neat pipes with cleanly wiped joints. I like to look cot them when everything is as it should be. Besides, I know that these little closets are nothing but poke-holes for old shoes, dirty cloths, musty wooden pails, and other bric-a-brac which properly belong in the ash- barrel. The only way to prevent such accumulations is to have no place where they can accumulate. I let the plumbers who did any work know that nothing was to be covered, and that all the woodwork I should have about the basins and closets was just what was needed to hold up the slabs and seats. They could not understand why I fancied such an arrangement, but finding that I had made up my mind to do as I said, they did their work with extra neatness, and when they had it finished I believe it gave them a positive pleasure to look at it. I forgot to mention that some of my pipes are run in- side the walls or partitions. ... I like to take a look at my pipes occasionally." FIG. 248. Hip-bath standing on the floor. 247 To set bathtubs of all kinds in an open manner, is quite customary in Europe, with the heavy copper tubs usually adopted. Fig. 248 illustrates a handsome but expensive hip-bath, imported by The Meyer, Sniff en Co., and fitted without any woodwork whatever, all valves and pipes being in plain sight. The American copper-lined tubs require, of course, some exterior finish in woodwork. But enamelled iron bathtubs, and those of earthenware (" Imperial " and " Royal " porcelain tubs) can dispense with woodwork. Fig. 249 shows Mott's iron enamelled tub set FIG. 249.-Bathtub standing on legs, free on floor, with pipes exposed to view. free on legs, and Fig. 255 shows an earthen tub- without woodwork. For no other fixture, however, is such an open arrangement as important as for water closets. These should have no other woodwork but the seat ; a riser can always be dispensed with. Even closets with machinery, consisting of an iron body and earthen bowl, have nothing objectionable in appearance if fitted up in this manner (see Fio- 250). 248 The best closets all earthenware bowls with- out any marble parts look most handsome if set on a floor of white tiles, the back and sides of the closet being similarly tiled, and of ten having a dado of ornamental or colored tiles. In this case, the FIG. 250. Arrangement of cabinet work for a closet with movable parts (Hygieia closet). seat should only be a board of ash, oak or mahog- any, well finished and polished, hinged at one end or at the back, and turned up when not in use (see Fig. 251 and Fig. 255). There is no necessity for any further cover, and arranged in this way, hop- per or washout water closets may well take the place of slopsinks and urinals. 249 PIG. 251. Brighton water closet seat. In regard to this, we find in a recent volume, " Our Homes, and How to Make Them Healthy," the following advice : " Another point deserving of consideration by every one about to fix a new water closet apparatus, is the ar- rangement of the seat and the enclosure of the appara- tus. The apparatus is usually fixed and enclosed, so that in course of time a vast amount of dust and dirt accumulates beneath the seat, or, indeed, may have been left there by the workmen when the closet was built; 250 and where the closet is used for emptying slops of any- kind, it commonly happens that small quantities of liquid are allowed to splash on the top of the basin not sufficient, perhaps, to run away, but to keep a certain amount of permanent dampness on the floor of the space beneath the seat, and to give to the entire closet a con- stant smell. It would go far to promote cleanliness and prevent this smell if the seat enclosure were wholly dis- pensed with, and the floor, with its carpet, * or oilcloth, were continued entirely under the seat. In the case of all the best kinds of closet apparatus, comprising merely a basin with siphon trap beneath all in one piece of glazed stoneware there would be no eyesore in such an arrangement, while every nook and corner would be visible, and subject to the frequent application of the broom and duster." FIG. 352. Earthen Hopper, with wooden rim. Fig. 252 shows the simplest possible method of fitting up a closet with seat. A well-finished hard- wood rim is placed and fastened on top of the hopper, and the latter may be set on a tiled floor * A carpet should not be recommended. W. P. G. 251 or on a slab of best quality slate. This arrange- ment is especially adapted to work-shops, factories, railroad stations, hospitals, etc. Fig. 253 illustrates a well-known hopper closet (Rhoad's) made of earthen- ware, the top being shaped so as to serve as a seat, thereby dispensing entirely with any wood-work, which is always more or less ab- sorbent and becomes in time saturated with urine and perspiration from the body. If this hopper stands in a well-heated apartment, it has much to recommend it, FIG. 253. Porcelain Seated especially for hospitals. If Hopper. placed in a room not well warmed in winter time, the closet is liable to be- come filthy through improper use. In contrast with the two closet seats just de- scribed, Fig. 254 (taken from the J. L. Mott Iron Works' Catalogue of Improved Water-Closets) illustrates an elegant and ornamental seat, sup- ported on bronzed, galvanized or gilt iron legs. The seat is further fitted with a porcelain drip tray placed just on top of the bowl, which allows the closet to be used as a urinal or slop sink. The hard-wood seat fits closely over the porcelain safe. As the appearance of the hole in the seat is to many still objectionable, there is a handsome cover, but riser and side pieces are dispensed with, ex- hibiting freely the cleanly tiled floor and walls. 252 Fig. 255 is a sketch, illustrating the general ap- pearance of a bath-room, arranged according to the principles given. As shown in the illustration, the entire floor is made water-tight, and finished with tiling laid in concrete. The floor directly under all fixtures is somewhat lower than the floor in the centre of the bathroom, and both are joined FIG. 264. Mott's Earthen Hopper, with cabinet-work, leaving all parts of closet exposed. by an easy slope, which is shown in the sketch. Any drippings or spatterings on the main floor will run down the slope to the lower floor. This latter takes the place of the usual safes under fixtures, and has a pitch from all sides to one point (at the left of the bath), at which is arranged a drip pipe,, covered with a plated strainer, running vertically 253 down to a sink in the basement, over which it discharges. The fixtures shown have little or no woodwork about them, the lavatory being supported on ar- tistic brass or bronzed brackets ; the closet, a FlG. 255. Sketch of a Bath-room, fitted up in an open manner. With tiled floor. porcelain basin or hopper standing free on the floor, has only a hardwood seat, turned up against the wall, if the closet is not in use ; the seat rests, if turned down, on two cleats, supported by 254 bronzed or brass legs. The bath-tub of earthen- ware stands on short legs, the whole space under the tub being free of access. All supply and waste pipes are in plain sight. The bath-room has a large window, opening to the outer air, and proper provision is made for ventilation in winter time by means of a foul air exit flue. To secure comfort in winter time, the bath-room is heated by indirect radiation (by means of steam or hot water coils -in the basement), and a plentiful supply of pure air, moderately heated, introduced through a register in one of the walls (not shown in the drawing). ^^^Z?^ FIG. 256. Arrangement of Bath-room and Water-closet for City House. It is only necessary to compare this bath-room with the one shown in Fig. 1, which represents the usual manner of arranging the lavatory, closet and bath-tub in city houses, to understand at once the great advantages of such open arrangement. Bath-rooms should, wherever possible, be located near an outside wall, with windows affording ample light and ventilation. If they must be lo- 255 O TlJ O O TH .a .a .a .a .a CO ^ CO O 1 1 272 The inclination of the house sewer should be, wherever possible, not less than \ inch per foot, but even a fall of -J inch to the foot will cause a sufficient velocity in the drain to remove silt and water-closet matter. If the locality does not afford a chance for such an inclination, a proper flushing apparatus for the house sewer must be provided. To bring the sewer out of reach of frost, it should be laid at least three feet deep. It must be laid in perfectly straight lines. Wherever changes of direction occur, these should be effected by easy curves, made of bent pipes. Branch drains should enter the main house sewer by Y-branches so as to- join the flow of both pipes without causing eddies. Should the house sewer be very long, it is well to provide means for occasional inspections, access pipes or lampholes, at distances of about 100 feet, and manholes at distances of 300 to 400 feet. These will, at the same time, if provided with open gratings, perform the important task of ventilating the house sewer throughout its entire length. Vitrified pipes are manufactured of some kinds of clay, ground in a mill and homogeneously mixed. The mixture is brought to a press and passed through dies, from whence the pipes issue. Smaller sizes are made in horizontal presses, while the larger sizes should preferably be made in up- right presses. The pipes are now ready for the glazing, and here two processes may be distin- guished, the salt-glazing and the slip-glazing. In the former process the pipes are subjected to a very high temperature in a kiln, into which some salt is thrown, which creates a flux on the pipe 273 surface. To this latter is largely due the glossy- appearance of the pipe ; it also renders the pipe more impervious and not so easily affected by acids, alkalines, or sewage gases. Slip-glazed pipes, on the other hand, are made by dipping the pipes into a peculiar glaze called slip, and then drying them in a kiln. Good vitrified pipes must be circular, and true in section, of a uniform thickness, perfectly straight (this is very important to insure a good line of pipe), free from any cracks or other defects ; they should be hard, tough, not porous, and of a highly smooth surface. The thickness of good earthen pipe should average as follows : DIAMETER OF PIPE IN INCHES. 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 1 15 n 18 THICKNESS OF PIPE IN INCHES. t 4 B 8 i 7 5 H Vitrified pipes are made in lengths of two or three feet, either plain (Fig. 263, 5), or elie they are made with a socket end. (Fig. 263, a). Many engineers prefer the plain or ring pipe, which is laid with sleeves, as this allows of an easy ex- change of a single length of pipe from a pipe line already laid, while, with the socket pipe, it becomes necessary to disturb several lengths. To overcome this difficulty, pipes are also manufactured with half-sockets (Fig. 264a), or else they are made plain at both ends, and are bedded with cement in earthen chairs (Fig. 264b). 274 263. Vitrified Plp and Fittings. FIG. 384a. Opercular, or half-socket pipe. All pipe works manufacture a large number of fittings for earthen pipes, such as traps, Y-branches, T-branches, junction pieces, bends, offsets, etc. (See Fig. 263,c to 263,5.) FIG. 364b. Saddle Chair or Access Pipe. Cement pipes, though not as universally used a& vitrified pipe, have been manufactured for years for drainage purposes. If care is observed in their manufacture from best Portland cement, such pipes can be made very strong and durable, and of a very uniform cross-section. They have also the advantage of not warping, as the earthen pipes do in the kiln. The interior, however, is not as smooth, and unless well flushed they are more apt to become covered with a dangerous slime, danger- ous because it will putrefy and thereby fill the pipes with gases of decomposition. If vitrified pipes are used for sewerage pur- poses, the pipes must be continuously supported to prevent breakage, and grooves should be cut so as to make the pipe rest on its full length. (See Fig. 265.) 276 There are but a few so-called " drain layers " thoroughly understand the laying of pipe sewers. To insure tightness of joints it is well, in using socket pipes, to ram first a small gasket of FIG. 265. Proper method of laying earthen drains. oakum between spigot and hub, which will prevent the cement from entering at the joints to create in hardening an obstruction. To do so it is quite necessary that the socket should be very deep. The remainder of the space should be filled with a mortar consisting of an even mixture of best FIG. 366a. Cement Joint in Vitrified Socket Pipe. Portland cement and clean sharp sand. The cement and sand should be thoroughly mixed dry, and then wetted up only as needed. No lime should ever be used in this mixture, nor should any cement be used that has begun to set. Cement is also wiped 277 in front of the joint, as shown in Fig. 266a. Fig. 266b illustrates a joint in plain pipe made with a collar or sleeve. FIG. 266b. Cement Joint in Vitrified Plain Pipe. Before refilling the trench it is to be recom- mended to test the pipes and joints by hydraulic pressure, by closing the main outlet of the house sewer and filling the pipes with water. Consider- ing the usual wretched manner of laying house drains, such tests seem to be extremely necessary. Vitrified pipes with well cemented joints are per- fectly able to stand some internal pressure. I recently learned of a pipe-line in Wurtemberg, Oermany, 4,020 metres (2 miles) long, and 10 centimetres (4 inches) in diameter, supplying a rail- road tank with 60 cubic metres of water daily, which line was subject, in several places, to a head of water of 8 metres (26.25 feet), equivalent to 11.4 Ibs. pressure per square inch. In laying this line of vitrified pipe, each pipe was carefully inspected and tested under 75 Ibs. pressure before use. After laying the pipe and after the cement in the joints had hardened, the line was tested in sections, each section being subjected for 15 minutes to a pres- sure of 60 Ibs. 278 Such severe tests of the external sewerage cor- responding to the testing of the internal pipe system by water, will secure work of a quality and char- acter such as is desired for sanitary reasons, namely, a perfectly water-tight conduit, without any joints through which sewage may leak out or sub-soil water enter. To secure a water-tight joint under specially difficult conditions, such as water in sewer trenches, tides, etc., various pipes have been made with patent joints; for instance, the " Stanford Patent Joint Pipe," which has rings of some bituminous compound cast on the spigot end, and in the socket of each pipe. Just before using them the parts to be jointed are greased, and then the spigot end carefully and truly entered into the socket. (See Fig. 267). PIG. 267. Stanford Patent Joint Pipe. To facilitate future inspections and to remove occasional obstructions, it is to be recommended to keep a correct and detailed record of all drains, their sizes, depths and rate of fall, the location of all traps, Y-branches, man-holes, lamp-holes, vent- openings, junctions, bends, etc. 279 Disposal of Household Wastes. By means of the house sewer we effect an in- stant removal of all liquid and semi-liquid wastes from the dwelling. The next, and in some sense most important question, is how to dispose of these foul wastes? In the case of city dwellings we generally find provision made by sewers in the principal thor- oughfares. Nevertheless it is only in few cities- that sewers have been built as they should be, ac- cording to a regular " system ", designed and laid out by an engineer of large experience in this special branch of the profession. Much remains to be done in this direction, but the subject of " city sewerage " does not properly belong to our volume and cannot be discussed here. Faulty connections between street sewers and house sewers have been mentioned on page 155. Such junctions should be made by competent workmen only, ac- cording to rules and under the supervision of an inspector, employed by the city. Wherever a new system of sewers is being built, it is a good prac- tice to provide special house connection pieces for every lot and dwelling on both sides along the line of the main sewer. Sometimes the branches for each house are at once run up to the curb line, thus doing away with the usual annoying and detrimental breaking up of the street pavement. In all such cases where sewers are built by the city, the final disposal of the sewage is a matter in which the city authorities are more directly con- cerned than the individual householder. The 280 latter's work stops at the junction between house and street sewer. The case is different in cities, towns, villages or hamlets without sewers. The serious question of how to dispose of the liquid wastes of the house- hold without creating a nuisance presents itself in such cases to every house-owner or tenant. In towns or villages with houses built closely to- gether, there is scarcely a remedy for the evil, other than to abolish the disgusting and health- endangering cesspools in the rear of the houses, and to build, by united action of the citizens, a complete and well-planned system of sewers. In suburban or rural districts, and in the case of isolated buildings with ample and suitable grounds about them, the question can, fortunately, be easily solved in most cases, without incurring the expense of building sewers, the proportionate cost of which for each house would be unusually large in the case of scattered dwellings. A leaching cesspool in a free and porous soil could, often, be used without immediate danger to the house or the occupants for whom it is intended, or to its surroundings, provided it could be located very far from it and on a much lower level. But such an arrangement is nevertheless attended with the risk that the liquid sewage, seeping into the subsoil, may reach some subterranean fissure or stratum, along which it would move, to empty finally into a spring or well, often miles away. Outbreaks of typhoid fever, caused by drinking water contaminated in this manner, have often been traced to such a leaching cesspool. The la; - 281 ter should, therefore, be considered as always objectionable in the interest of the public health. The only proper and rational method of sewage disposal in such case is to return to the soil as fer- tilizers the wastes from the household. This can be done in a variety of ways, but whatever method may be adopted, it should be borne in mind that the sewage must be applied to the soil before putre- faction begins, that it should be applied on or near the surface of the soil, within easy reach of the oxidizing influence of the atmosphere, and that it should not be applied in such quantities as to satu- rate the soil; in other words, the sewage must not be too much diluted, and the application of the sewage to the land must be intermittent. Both surface irrigation and sub-surface irri- gation have been successfully employed in dis- posing of household wastes. Fig. 268 illustrates the disposal by surface irrigation adopted by PlG. 268. Disposal of Household Wastes by Surface Irrigation Mr. Edward S. Philbrick, C.E., at his country seat at Newport, R. I.* For cottages having little ground about them, this method of disposal *The illustration is taken from Mr. Philbrick's book, " Ameri- can Sanitary Engineering." 282 may become offensive to sight and smell during the hot summer months. The disposal by sub- surface irrigation (see Figs. 269 and 270) is free from these objections, but requires, on .the other hand, more work in planning and laying out the system, and it also requires the laying of a net- work of distributing drains laid under and near the surface, which drains occasionally clog up and require taking up, washing out and relaying. Surface irrigation may be adopted in connection with a small, well-ventilated and perfectly tight cesspool or sewage tank, on the top of which is set a small pump, with hose attached, by means of which the liquid may be sprinkled over the lawn or in the kitchen garden. If preferred, a stop-gate may be placed beyond the cesspool, and a drain run from the cesspool to an irrigation field on a lower level, if such can be had. As often as the cesspool is filled, the contents should be discharged -by opening the stop-valve. The cesspool should not holdj, more than a few days' waste water, and should, preferably, contain an intercepting chamber for grease and solids. As we believe the second method of sewage dis- posal to be the one preferable for isolated dwell, ings in most cases, a few words regarding the de- tails of the system may not seem out of place. This system was first brought into use in England by the Rev. Henry Moule, Yicar of Fordington, the well-known inventor of the earth closet. Sewage disposal by sub- surf ace irrigation has since been extensively practiced by Mr. Rogers Field and Mr. J. Bayley Denton, both prominent sani- 283 284 tary engineers in England. To Col. Geo. E. Waring, Jr., of Newport, R. I., is due the credit of having introduced this system in the United States, about twelve ago ; first, for his own house in Newport ; subsequently for a large number of country houses in the Eastern States ; finally, on a large scale, for the disposal of the sewage of the woman's prison, at Sherburn, Mass., and at the Keystone hotel, Bryn Mawr, Pa. It has been adopted since by many civil engineers and archi- tects for the drainage of suburban and country homes, and has received the endorsement of physi- cians, sanitarians, and Boards of Health. The principle of the sub-surface irrigation system is briefly this : The porous soil next to the surface has the power of destroying organic substances and rendering them innocuous, partly with the aid of the oxygen contained in the pores of the sub- surface, partly by means of the vegetation, since the rootlets of grass and shrubs take up nourish- ment from these organic matters. The sewage water, from which all impurities have thus been removed, settles away, and becomes still more clarified by filtration, in most cases to such a de- gree that, if removed by under-drains (land drains), it is found to be quite clear, colorless, free of taste or smell. All impurities are oxidized and destroyed during the interval between consecutive discharges. The importance of an intermittent action becomes, therefore, at once apparent. If this is secured, the upper layers of earth are enabled to take up at each interval between discharges, oxygen from the- 285 atmosphere and prepare for the next discharge. Another reason for making the discharge intermit- tent is to prevent the ground from becoming satu- rated, wet and swampy. The cardinal difference between a sub-surface irrigation system and a leaching cesspool is this : In the latter case the amount of soil used for the purification of the sewage is quite small as compared with the former, where the surface can be chosen according to the amount of sewage to be disposed of. The leaching cesspool, too, when newly built, effects some purification and filtration of the household wastes. Soon, however, the pores of the soil clog up, as the organic matter is not completely oxidized at greater depth and as the aid of the vegetation is lost. The soil gradually becomes saturated with sewage matter, which undergoes a slow process of decomposition, during which many unwholesome gases are generated. These gases are given off at the surface and are sucked up into our dwellings, especially in winter time. The other not less serious evil is caused by the sewage soaking unpurified into the ground, thereby threatening to pollute our water supplies. The sub-surface irrigation system consists essen- tially of two parts : , First, a tight receptacle for liquid and semi- liquid house refuse, from which the water is discharged at intervals into a system of under- ground tiles. Second, a system of common two-inch drain- tiles, laid with open joints, a few inches below the surface of the ground, permitting the 286 liquid sewage to escape at each joint, to be partly purified by the action of roots of grass or shrubbery, partly oxidized by the oxygen attaching to the particles of the soil near the surface. The construction of the tank depends upon local conditions, such as size of the house, number of inhabitants, character of the foul wastes (slop water only or slop water plus excreta), amount of water used, etc. Several examples will be given later. The size should be regulated so as to have, if pos- sible, one daily discharge, for otherwise the sewage in the tank might commence to decompose, making the tank practically a cesspool. Of course, the tank should, in any case, be located as far away as possible from the dwelling, but the best place for it will depend largely upon the contour of the surface. The sub-irrigation field should also be remote from the house, if possible in a direction from which the wind would but seldom blow. It should not be located near a well or a spring. It may, in the case of small cottages, consist only of one line of tiles, or it may contain a large number of these, this depending also upon the character of the soil. The system works best in a sandy or gravelly loam, but even in heavy clay soil it has been used with tolerable success. If the land is apt co be wet it must be thoroughly underdrained by a system of deep land drains, otherwise the sewage will soon come out at the surface and convert this into a swamp. Doubt has often been expressed as to the working of the system in winter time. Experi- 287 1 288 ence has taught that the distributing tiles laid close to the surface will not freeze, as might be ex- pected, the temperature of the sewage being sufficiently high to keep the sewage in the pipes in motion. Fig. 270 shows a plan of a sub-surface irrigation system, D being the house sewer, A the in- tercepting tank, B the flush tank, C the main drain to the sub-irrigation field, and a, b, c, d, e, f the lines of absorption-drains. The dotted lines indicate the contours of the land, and it will be seen that the drains closely follow these lines, thus becoming almost parallel to each other. The tiles used are shown in Fig. 271, and are Fro. 271. Absorption Tiles, with gutters and caps. common two-inch porous land-tiles, one foot long. They are laid about 8 or 10 inches below the sur- face on continuous boards, or better in gutters of earthenware, as shown, which gutters must be ac- curately laid in the trenches at the required grade. If the tiles should clog up, they can be taken up and cleaned, and the relaying into the gutters is then a rather easy matter, which can be accom- 289 plished by almost any common laborer. There must be a space left at each joint of about J inch, in order to facilitate the escape of the sewage. To protect the joint from earth or dirt falling from above, small caps are placed at each joint, as shown, over the tiles. The main line may be 4 inches in diameter, and from it the 2-inch lines branch out by means of Tees or Y-branches, as the case may be, with side openings branching out from the bottom, as shown in Fig. 272. The main line is cemented tightly, FIG. 272. Y-branch and Tee-branch for absorption drains. and so is each branch in the curved part, until it strikes the depth of 8 or 10 inches from the sur- face (the main 4-inch drain being laid two feet deep or more). The manner of laying the absorp- 290 tion tiles is further illustrated in Fig. 273, and in Fig. 274, showing a cross section through tiles and trench. FIG. 373. Manner of laying absorption drains. FIG. 374. Cross section through a trench, with absorption drains. The fall to be given to the absorption tiles should be just sufficient to keep the sewage in motion ; from 2 to 3 inches per 100 feet is con- sidered ample ; the main drain from the flush tank to the irrigation field may have as much fall as circumstances will permit, but near the absorption drain branches the fall should be limited to 4 or 6 inches per 100 feet, otherwise the sewage would tend to run to the lower part of the field, over- oharging the lower lines of drains, and oozing out 291 at the surface. The main 4-inch drain, as well as- the 2-inch absorption drains, must be laid with a perfectly uniform descent, and much of the success of the system will depend upon the accuracy with which this part of the work is laid out and con- structed. In the case of very small houses, the sewage consisting of slop-water only may be distributed by carrying it from the house by hand and pour- ing it out of a pail into an open hopper or receiver of wood or earthenware with a strainer, from the bottom of which hopper a line of pipe leads to the absorption drains. (See Fig. 275). *7 T r ,- / Pio. 275. Plain hopper for slop-water disposal. For small cottages having only a kitchen sink, a receiving tank may be built of wood and located at a depth beyond the reach of frost, as shown in Fig. 276, to which runs a waste pipe from the sink. If filled, the tank may be emptied by hand, and thus an intermittent discharge established. The illustration shows a ball float, which is merely intended to open the outlet automatically in case of forgetfulness of the occupant of the cottage. That part of the tank, which is divided from the main tank by a partition, serves as a grease-trap to prevent grease from the kitchen sinks clogging the absorption tiles. In both cases illustrated it i& 292 293 supposed that no water-closet exists in the house. In place of the objectionable privy, there should be some kind of earth-closet, the contents of which should be frequently removed and dug into the ground. The limits of this book do not permit us to dis- cuss in detail all dry-methods of excrement re- moval. We have condemned the usual filth-reek- ing privy as entirely unfit and highly dangerous to health, and offer in the earth-closet a substitute, simple and cleanly in operation, entirely inoffen- sive in use, and well adapted to prevent the un- healthiness of cottage occupants caused so fre- quently by emanations from accumulations of pu- trefying excreta. As we limit our remarks to the disposal of excrements of single cottages only, we cannot discuss the extent of the applicability of the dry-earth system to villages or large commun- ities. " The Dry-Earth System," to quote from Dr. Buchanan's official report made in 1869, "consists in the application, with the greatest procurable detail, of dry earth to fresh human excrement, and in the subsequent removal and use of the mixture for agricultural purposes." The uae of dry earth for disposal of excreta, although known in a general way since centuries, originated practically with the Rev. Henry Moule, Yicar of Fordington, the same who devised the sub-surface irrigation system for the disposal of slop- water. Dry earth possesses, in a high degree, the power of deodorizing and dis- infecting human excreta. A pound and a half of -dried and finely-sifted earth is considered sufficient 294 for the average dejection. The quality of the earth used is of great importance. Gravel and sand are useless in this respect, chalk is not adapted to this purpose, while clay is quite a fit material. But the best earth is that of a loamy character, 'Such as garden earth or vegetable humus, which already contain some organic matter. The same quantity of earth can be used over again several times, provided it is thoroughly dried. Numerous mechanical arrangements have been devised to throw earth in proper quantity and in the right manner upon the excreta deposited in a reservoir under the closet seat. We believe the simplest arrangement for the use of small cot- tages to be the one shown in the sketch, Fig. 277, of having in the closet a box containing dried and well-sifted earth, which is thrown upon the excreta by means of a hand-scoop after each use. The excreta should fall into a plain box or pail, or else into a tank on wheels under the seat. The sketch, however, shows a tightly-cemented vault, entirely above ground, open and accessible for cleaning out at the rear, from where the fertilizing mixture should be removed at frequent intervals to be dug under the ground. It is decidedly preferable not to locate an earth- closet inside of a dwelling. Unless very strict attention is paid to the apparatus, it is apt to be- come offensive to the smell. A plain shed may be erected, quite close to the rear of the house, if de- sired, and accessible by means of a covered walk, to prevent exposure in cold weather. Particular care should be taken that no rain-water drips into- 295 Of ay* FIG. 277. Plain Earth Clot. 296 the cemented vault, for this would be sure to create a nuisance. We have shown under and in front of the seat in Fig. 277, a funnel, intended to catch and remove the urine by means of a small pipe leading to the slop- water tank (shown in Fig. 276). Although we are aware that it is impossible to separate all urine from the excreta, we are strongly inclined to believe that such a separation will tend to lessen the possibility of an earth-closet becoming offen- sive. We must now resume the description of various constructions of the sewage tank. For larger buildings, a tight cesspool of dimensions sufficient to hold one or two days' sewage, must be built. Its outlet may be closed by a gate, operated by hand labor. As this may not always be done with regularity, an automatic arrangement for the dis- charge is preferable. The capacity of the tank should be larger than the capacity of all absorption tiles. Its whole contents should be suddenly delivered into the pipes, whereby all the rows of tiles are uniformly charged. Thus, the whole of the absorption field is brought into use each time the tank is emptied. The purification begins immediately, the clarified liquid soaks away into the ground, the impurities being retained by the earth filter, where they are destroyed by oxidation, air enters the pores of the soil and prepares it for future use, while the tank is gradually filling for the next discharge. An important caution for all cases where the contents of water-closets are to be disposed of combined with slop water, is to intercept all solids and fatty waste matters, which should not be dis- charged with the liquid sewage into the absorption drains, as they would, in a short time, clog these, and also interfere with the action of the flush tank. An intercepting chamber must be built between the house and the flush tank, such as shown in Fig. 281. Fro. 378. Field's Flush-tank. This will, in a certain sense and to a certain de- gree, be a cesspool ; its contents, however, are frequently changed, it can be kept of small dimen- sions, and its emptying and cleaning (a matter which must by no means be neglected) is much more easily effected. It should be built of best liard burnt brick, set in pure Portland cement, and the tank rendered perfectly tight. 298 The automatic discharge of the sewage tank can be effected either by means of a siphon or else by a tumbler tank. Rogers Field's small siphon tank is shown in Fig. 278. It is made both in earthenware and in cast-iron, and holds about 40 gallons. This tank is intended for the disposal of slop- water, but may also be used for flushing house drains. A tumbler tank for slop-water is shown in Fig. 279, and a combination of a siphon and a tumbler box (Isaac Shone's house sewage ejector) in Fig. 280. Any of these tanks may be used for houses hav- ing water closets, if an intercepting chamber is placed between the house and the tank. 299 A larger tank, built of brick, is shown in Fig. 269, and on a large scale in Fig. 281. A represents the house drain, B the intercepting chamber, C the flush tank, DD are tight iron covers, E is a deposit of sludge in the intercepting chamber, F is the overflow pipe from it to the flush tank which dips at least 12 inches into the liquid, to prevent any solid matter or greasy scum from being carried over into the flush tank. H is the annular siphon which =^ FIG. 280. Shone Siphon Tank. discharges the contents of the tank at regular intervals automatically. Its details are shown in Fig. 282. K is a screen of iron wire, M is the weir which starts the siphon, L is an inspection pipe over the wier, closed at the surface by a trap screw P, N is the drain leading to the irrigation field. The operation of this tank may be described briefly as follows : 300 As soon as the tank is filled up to the level XX, the water begins to overflow through the inner limb of the siphon. With the sudden discharge of a bath or wash-tub, enough water generally overflows to seal the siphon at its bottom, as the water cannot pass out through the weir M as quickly as it rushes down the siphon. The descending column of water carries air with it and thus estab- lishes a partial vacuum in the siphon, whereupon the air pressure in the tank forces enough water into the siphon entirely to fill it. Thus the siphon is started and continues to discharge the contents FIG. 281. Field's Flush Tank with Settling Chamber for Sew- age Disposal. of the tank down to the level ZZ, when air enters the outer limb of siphon, whereupon the column of water in the outer limb of siphon drops back into the tank, while that in the inner limb runs off through the weir. Air enters here and completely breaks the siphon, while the tank is gradually fill- ing up. To protect the siphon from obstructions through paper or grease carried over from the catchment apparatus, it is advisable to place around it a net 301 of galvanized iron wire of about inch mesh. Even with this protection the siphon needs frequent cleaning off by means of a hose, otherwise serious stoppages, especially in the notch of the weir, will occur. To remove these obstructions, an inspec- tion or lamphole is placed, as shown, directly over the weir. It should be mentioned that the annular siphon, Rogers Field's invention, is patented in England, and its application to tanks for flushing sewers as well as to sub-surface irrigation, is controlled in FIG. 282. Field's Annular Siphon. this country by the Drainage Construction Com- pany, of which Col. Geo. E. Waring, Jr., is con- sulting engineer. Fig. 281 shows only one method of construction of a flush tank with Field's siphon for sewage dis- posal. It may easily be modified and possibly improved. The disposal of household wastes is a subject which might well demand a treatment in a special volume, and since it was not our intention to de- scribe with great minuteness all details of the sy- 302 terns of sewage disposal for country houses, we have omitted to speak of the proportion between size of house and capacity of tank, between the latter and the size of the irrigation field, between the size of tank and number of feet of distribu- ting drain tiles, between the character of soil and the distance between the rows of tiles, etc., all of which are details requiring judgment, skill and experience on the part of the designer of such a system. Local conditions will largely determine the design and arrangement of the tank and the laying out of the irrigation field. Suffice it to say that there exists in no case a. sound excuse for storing the human filth in the usual leaching, unventilated cesspool placed in close proximity to the household, the best means for breeding or multiplying disease germs and spread- ing disease in case the seed should reach it. A mass of putrescent human filth stored beneath or near a dwelling has well been compared to a powder magazine, for one single little spark a germ in the stool of a typhoid fever patient may suffice to create vast harm and destruction. To contribute his share in the prevention of "preventable " disease has been the author's aim in writing these hints. His hope is that in a near future we may find in and around every human habitation, in the city and in the country, "pure air, pure water, and a pure soil. 19 THE END. ADVERTISEMENTS. The Tucker Grease Trap. 1 his represents a form to set on floor, intended for sinks not specially con- structed for this trap, and may be applied to any sink now In use. *"pHE necessity for the use of a grease trap under kitchen and I- butler's pantry sinks, is too well recognized by sanitary engineers and plumbers to require any argument. The frequent stoppage of drain pipes which receive the waste water from kitchens of hotels, restaurants and private houses where much dish washing is done, is well known to those who have suffered the annoyance, and been obliged to pay for the frequent removal of the clogging grease. Believing that the TUCKER GREASE TRAP is the bet device yet designed for that purpose, we have arranged with its inventor to manufacture and supply the trada with this useful appliance. Mr. Tucker informs us that he has, among others, thus far fitted them up in the following buildings: Residence of Cornelius Vanderbilt, Esq., Residence of the late Robe. L. Stuart, Esq., Residence cf Theo. Havemeyer, Esq., and Restaurant in the Mills Building. MANUFACTURED BT THE MEYER SNIFFEN CO., Limited, B8STON, 1 PeiDerton Spare. KEW YORK, 48 Cliff street. SPECIALTIES CONTROLLED BY us. T Hellyer Closets and Hop- yal Por Model Slop Hopper; The Fuller Faucet; Do Cocks; The Murdock Hydrant and Street Washer. pe M he rs ; The Brighton Closet ; The Royal Fu celain Baths; The oherty Self-Closimr ADVERTISEMENTS. The Bower Sewer Gas Trap. A PERFECT BABBLER AGAINST SEWER GAS, It it Simple in its Constriiction! It is Sure in its Action! As a Water Seal it is the Best! As a Valve Seal it is the Best! NOTICE THE FOLLOWING POINTS OF ADVANTAGE ! 1. SEAL against Sewer Gas under pressure. 2. SEAL against Absorbed Gases. 3. SEAL against Back Water. 4. SEAL not broken by Siphonage. 5. SEAL not broken by Evaporation. 6. SELF-SCOURING. 7. REMOVABLE S E C - TION, giving access to all portions of Trap. 8. GLASS SECTION, expos- ing Valve and Water Seal. 9. CUP PART interchange- ablemay be either Glass, Lead, or Brass. 10. SCREW JOINT between Cup and Body being below water-line, cannot be left loose for Gas to escape. 11. THE HOLLOW RUB- BER VALVE and Brass Valve Seat insures a perfect joint. This Valve will not pound to injure itself or seating. 13. FREEZING will not injure the Trap, the compression of the Hollow Rubber Valve allowing for expansion. 13. THE FLOATING VALVE, as compared with Gravity Valves or Gates, is little or no resistance. 14. NEATNESS of form and adaptability to positions. 15. SIMPLE in construction. 16. SURE in its action. 17. THE surest Water Seal with or without the Valve. 18. THE surest Valve Seal. 19. IF desired, may be ventilated as readily as any other Trap. THESE POINTS are fully explained in our Illustrated and Descriptive 48 page Pamphlet, which will be SENT FREE TO ANY ADDRESS. B. P. BOWER & CO., Manufacturers, 1O4 & 1O6 St. Clair Street, Cleveland, O. REGULAR" FORM. ADVERTISEMENTS. The Bower Sewer Gas Trap, ''PHIS "Cutaway" form is much stronger against Biphonage than ordinary traps, and has some special advantages. We have been slow in putting it on the market, be- cause it is not quite so strong against siphonageasour regular form (see opposite page). Under ordinary construction, and es- pecially where traps are "back vented," this form has advan- tages, in that all of the upper portion is brought below the water line, and all of its inner surface is subjected to the scouring current. The sloping top will guide everything to the outlet, and there is no place for accumulation of matter. When the cup is taken off there is but little of the trap left, and "CUTAWAY" FORM there is no other trap made ORM - where the whole of its inner surface is so accessible. HTHIS cut shows one of several forms made by inventor of the Bower Trap before pat- ent was issued, covering loating Valve in trap, the normal position of which is against the inlet pipe. We do not make this form, because it is but littl e stronger against siphonage than the com- mon S, and it does not possess the advantage of removable sections, tc. Our Mr. Bower is a practical plumber, and solicits correspondence from interested parties. B. P. BOWER & CO., 104 & 106 St. Clair St., CLEVELAND, O. ADVERTISEMENTS. a Boyle's Patent Tidal Wave Water Closet. .3 HENRY HUBER & CO. SOLE MANUFACTUKEKS No. 8^ Beekman Street, NEW YORK. A g|% * ^.= 9 SKri [5^-'^50WOO- ) * glPlil Illl^^ ;iit! ^1^8 O V fl ^^35 : : 5 * V 53 C" Pg^W ADVERTISEMENTS. THE UNDERSIGNED MANUFACTURE AND CONTROL THE FOLLOWING SANITARY SPECIALTIES UNDER BOYLE'S PATENTS: \ u Tidal Wave" Closet, " Croton-Washout," "Gotham" Long Flushing Rim Hopper, "Gotham" and "Standard" Short Flushing Rim Hoppers, with Trap, ALL OUR HOPPERS ARE FLUSHED BY THE "Universal" Waste-Preventing Cistern, WHICH HAS NO EQUAL IN SIMPLICITY OF CONSTRUCTION AND PERFECTION OF OPERATION, BEING IN FACT SUITABLE FOR ANY KIND OF CLOSET OR HOPPER MADE. FURTHER, CALL ATTENTION TO THE All Earthenware "New Departure" Valve Basin, UNDOUBTEDLY THE CLEANEST WASH-BASIN MADE. Carr's Bath and Basin Supplies, Carr's Brass Pumps for House Use, All our Goods are made of the Best Materials and Warranted. Catalogue Sent on Application. HENRY HUBER & CO. No. 85 BEEKMAN STREET, NEW YOKE. ADVERTISEMENTS. HENRY STEEGER & CO. MANUFACTURERS OF COPPER BOILERS, Showers, Baft Tubs, Closet Pans, Pantry Sinks, Foot ani Seat Tubs, Dealers in all Jeindg of TINNED AND PLANISHED COPPER, 143 & 145 East 31st Street, New York, We make our BATH TUBS all weights, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18 and 20 ounce and upwards, guaranteed. Each Tub stamped thus. ADVERTISEMENTS. Myers Sanitary Depot, (INCORPORATED; 94 BEEKMAN STEEET, NEW YOEK. A.G. Myers All China Wash-Out Water Closet REFERENCES. The dotted lines represent the height of water when closet la at rest. A indicates the 1 1-4 Inch supply, which has a brass coupling. B A 2 Inch vent to ventilate the bowl. C A FLUSHING BIM IN THK TRAP WHICH HAS THE EFFFCT TO POSI- TIVELY DRIVE ALL PAPER AND FAECAL MATTER OUT OF THE TRAP. D A 2 Inch vent on sewer side of the trap ; this has also brass coupling. By admitting water Into this closet from our eannot-fll-to-supply- clstern, paper and soil will disappear like dirt before a broom. This closet has been put In the new METROPOLITAN OPERA HOUSE, New York, where It gives the best of satisfaction. SEND FOR CIRCULARS OF OUR NIAGABA IMPROVED FLUSHING UK HOPPEBS WITH " BEFORE AND AFTER-WASH " CISTERN. Also, FIELD'S FLUSH TANK, And WILSON'S FLUSH TANK, showing the operation of dispensing with Cesspools and the Utilization of House Drainage, and the Flushing of Sewers. Also, MOULE EARTH CLOSET. ADVERTISEMENTS. The Best American Publication Devoted to Hygiene, New York Herald. THE SANITARIAN THE SANITARIAN from the first has been devoted to sanitary science in its most comprehensive aspect, has sought and pre- sented contributions from the most distinguished sanitarians at home and abroad, on the basis of substantial knowledge with a careful avoidance of premature conclusions. It is the constant effort of THE SANITARIAN to sustain the reputation it has earned as "the foremost publication devoted to sanitary science in this country; to seek out and discuss in the same independent and earnest manner as hitherto, all causes in conflict with health, public and private; and so far as possibly to render sanitation a popular theme of study, and practical in its application to all the avenues of life. A. N. BELL,, A.M., M.D., , Editor. T. P. COHBALL-Y, A.M., M.D., . Associate Editor. COLLABORATORS. PHILIP S. WALKS, M.D., Surgeon-General, U. S. N. JULIUS W. ADAMS, C.E., New York. PROF. C. K. AGNEW, A.M., M.D., New York, NATHAN ALLEN, A.M., M.D., LL.D., Massachusetts. H. B. BAKER, M.D., Sec'y St. Bd. of H., Michigan. HENRY I. BOWDITCH, A.M., M.D., Massachusetts. PROF. J. L. CABELL, A.M., M.U.. LL.D., Pres. Nat. Bd. of Health. PROF. S. E. CHAILLE, A.M., M.D.. Louisiana. 8. H. DURGIN, M.l'., Massachusetts. J. EATON, A.M., LL.D., U. S. Com of Education. A. L. GIHON, A.M., M.D., Med. Pir. U. S. N., Pres. Am. P. H. A.. E. HARRIS, A.M., M.D., Sec. St. Bd. of H., New York. E. M. HUNT, M.D., Sec. St. Bd. of H., New Jersey. PROF. R. McSHERRY, M.D., Mar j land, MOREAU MORRIS. M.D., New York. J. C. PETERS, M.D., New York. J. RAUCH, M.D., Sec. St. Bd. of H., Illinois. J. E. REEVES, M.D., Sec. Ft. Bd. of H., West Virginia. PROF. J. G. RICHARDSON, M.D., Pennsylvania. STEPHEN SMITH, M.D., New York. H. R. STORER, A.M., M.D., Rhode Island. J. M. TONER, M.D , Washington, D. C. J. G. THOMAS, M.D., Georgia. T J. TURNER, A.M., M.D., Ph.D.. Med. Director U. S. N. O. W. WIGHT, A.M., M.D., Att'y and Couns. at Law, Michigan. A. N. BELL, P. O. Box 2156. 113 Fulton Street, New York. ADVERTISEMENTS. THE SANITARY ENGINEER, conducted by HENRY C. MEYER, is published every Thursday, at 140 William Street, New York, and 92 and 93 Fleet Street, London. Its opinions upon all technical sub- jects are either prepared or revised by specialists. THE SANITARY ENGINEER publishes more illustrated descriptions of the work of plumbing, heating, lighting, and ventilation of buildings, than any other journal printed in the English language. "A large and flourishing weekly journal, covering the whole field of Sanitary Science, and recognized as a leading authority upon the subject." The Nation. " It Is gratifying to see that the public, ai well as specialists, are enough Interested in Sanitary matters to give substantial support to a periodical ably endeavoring to Impart much-needed and vital instruction."^. Y. Times. "THE SANITANY ENGINEER shows an excellent appreciation of what may be done in the Held of Sanitary Engineering, and a practical ability for doing It." N. Y. Tribune. "The recognized American authority on all departments of Sanitary Engineering/' Cincinnati Gazette. "It has done an excellent work In disseminating the most intelligent opinions on Sanitation." Springfield Republican. "THE SANITARY ENGINEER haa done a noble work in the field it has chosen." Boxton Herald. " THE SANITARY ENGINEER is, beyond question, the ablest publication or its class in this country. The papers prepared for it are from the pens of the ablest experts, and treat of specialties, the discussion of which is essential to an intelligent comprehension of sanitary growth and progress." Afemphix Appeal. "Standard authority on matters pertaining to its specialty ."-American Machinist. " It is & Journal with a mission that of raising the low standard of Sani- tary Engineering which exists In the United States. Its large editorial staff Includes the names of some of the best known and most practical writers In America on health subjects, and no pains or expense are spared In mak- ing the paper useful to the fullest extent." Engineering, London. "It would bo impossible to point out a publication in which the depart- ment of public panltation receives greater or more careful attention than in the journal of which we havt received the fifth and sixth volumes. Whatever fault may be found on this side of the Atlantic with the news- paper press of America, It is an undoubted fact that that portion of the periodical literature of the United States which is devoted to science occupies a most distinguished place amongst the scientific press of the globe. THE SANITARY ENGINEER stands high in this respect. In its pages the various subjects relating to public health drainage, water-supply, ventilation, heating and lighting are most conscientiously attended to, shortcomings and abuses being fearlessly exposed, and care being taken to have all expressed opinions upon technical matters prepared or revised by specialists. What, Increases its value to the public is this, that since the Congress of the United States refused to grant the appropriation needed to defray the expenses of continuing the publication of trie Bulletin of the National Board of Health, the conductors of THE SANITARY ENGINEER have performed that work, a display of public spirit which deserves due recognition." Iron, London, Jan. 12. Subscription, $4 per Year, post-paid, in the United States and Canada. $5 Foreign. Single copies ten cents, from all newsdealers. Specimen Copies Free, if this advertisement is mentioned. ADVERTISEMENTS. The Sanitary News. ; , HEALTHY HOMES AND HEALTHY LIVING, A Semi-Monthly Journal of Sanitary Science, pub- lished at Chicago, on the ist and I5th of each month. G. P. BROWN, . . . Editor and Proprietor. JNO. K. ALLEN, .... Associate Editor. ANEW impetus has been given to the growth of sanitary science by the recent interest manifested in it by the gen- eral public. Architects, Plumbers, Builders, Civil Engineers, reputable Physicians, and other trades and professions have caught the infection and the result is a marked improvement in the healthy construction of dwellings, and in the manner of living. THE SANITARY NEWS aims to be a leading factor in the growth of this new science, and has already succeeded in plac- ing itself at the head of sanitary journalism, not only in this country, but in the world. It is the recognized authority in all matters relating to sanitation, its editorial and general articles being subject to the approval of experts before being printed. The best writers, both in technical subjects and for corres- pondence, are secured, and special articles are presented from time to time, which have great practical value. THE SANITARY NEWS is superior in mechanical appearance to any other journal, of whatever kind, published, and not a line of useless or extraneous matter is ever allowed in its pages. The greatest care is taken to have everything in and about the paper as near perfection as is possible to make it. This journal repre- sents the best in its wide field, and is thus a practical guide to architects, plumbers, builders, municipal and health officers, civil engineers (so far as their profession has to do with sewer construction and other sanitary works), physicians, and, as well, to every man who builds or lives in a house. A feature of THE SANITARY NEWS is the profuse illustration of every subject discussed, which can be better elucidated there- by; the fine quality of the paper and the careful printing, bring out these illustrations in a manner superior to that of any other paper. The subscription price of THE SANITARY NEWS is $2.00 a year in the United States and Canada; $3.00 in any other country in the Universal Postal Union ; subscriptions are strictly in advance. The London Office of THE SANITARY NEWS is at 50 Finsbury Square, E. C., in charge of Henry R. Allen. For Sample Copies, as in all other correspondence, address, G. P. BROWN, Proprietor, 144 Monroe Street, CHICAGO. ADVERTISEMENTS. Engineering News AND American Contract Journal A Weekly Journal Devoted to the Interests of Engineers, Surveyors, Architects and Contractors. Established 1874, and published at Rooms 12 and 13, Tribune Build- ing, New York City, by the ENGINEERING NEWS PUBLISHING CO. Conducted by GEORGB H. FROST and D. McN. STAUFFER. Published every Friday Night, and mailed in time for the early Saturday Morning Trains leaving New York. ENGINEERING NEWS AND AMERICAN CONTRACT JOURNAL pub- lishes a WEEKLY RECORD of all important engineering enter- prises, projected or in proprress, as RAILROADS, their incorpora- tion, survey and construction : Canals, Bridges, Tunnels, Harbors, Docks, Street Pavement*, Sewers, Drainage, Water-Works, River Improvements, Roofs, Chimneys, Dams, Electric- Lighting, also of the Iron and Metal Market ; Abstracts of Bids for Work; Prices of Labor; Prices of Contractors' Supplies; Occasional Notes on Mining of Iron and Coal, and on Shipbuilding. A prominent feature of ENGINEERING NEWS Is the publication of the Proceedings of all known Engineering Societies, Personal Mention of the Elections, Appointments, Business Changes, Marriages, Deaths, etc., of Engineers and Members of kindred professions, Meetings of Societies, Abstracts of full text of important papers read, Notices of Engineering Publications, Specifications, New and Important Inventions or Processes relating to Engineering, and Selections from contemporaneous publications, domestic or foreign. The advertising columns of this .journal are now a well recognized medium in the United States, for quickly, cheaply and most effectively reaching the notice of ENGINEERS, SURVEYORS, and CONTRACTORS. American water works construction Is an especial and established feature, and parties supplying ma- chinery and materials will do well by advertising in its columns ; Contractors and Engineers now seek there for information In this especial trade. The ENGINEERING NEWS AND AMERICAN CONTRACT JOURNAL is on the official l(st of 1 he U. S. Treasury, and War Department. There is no better advertising medium open to Chief Engineers of Railroads, Town and City Officials, to Manufacturers of Contracting Materials, and to contractor* themselves, for personal advertising. The uniform Improvement in every department of the paper during the past years ; its recognized position in the first rank of class journals; its increasing circulation and advertising pat- ronage ; its prosperous condition, are the best guarantees that can be given for its future improvement and Its increased value to its patrons. SUBSCRIPTION RATES (IN ADVANCB.) One Year, $4.OO. Six Months, $2.00. Single Copies, I O Cents. ADVERTISEMENTS. " BUILDING." MONTHLY. Subscription, &1.OO per Year, in advance. '-TREATING on all matters of interest to the building trades. EACH NUMBER CONTAINS 4 fall-page lithographic plates. Competitions will be offered from time to time on subjects of interest, and the best designs published. The reading articles will be from the pens of men well versed in their subjects, and will treat on all matters of importance to the building trades. Editorial comments and the current news regarding building matters will appear in each issue. Sample sent on application. Special inducements will be offered those wishing to get up clubs ; SEND TOR CLUB RATES. PRESS NOTICES. For an architect or builder, this publication cannot fail to be of great and continual interest. The N. Y. World. We are in receipt of BUILDING. It bears eloquent testimony to eminent literary, as well as artistic talent, connected with its publication. Chemical Review. The first number of the second volume of BUILDING, an ex- cellent architectural monthly, has just made its appearance. It is full of instructive matter, and the illustrations are numerous, well executed and interesting. The Evening Telegram. In its specialty this journal cannot fail to be of the greatest service, and all persons interested in building should avail them- selves of its store of valuable information. Bookseller and Stationer. One of the handsomest and best architectural papers among our exchanges is BUILDING. "Well illustrated, printed and edited, treating on all matters of interest to the building trade. Wood and Iron. BUILDING, an architectural monthly ..... This new claimant for public favor well deserves it ..... Every number is worth the subscription price to any who have interest in building, old or new. Living Church, Chicago. BUILDING is printed on fine paper and in very good style, and promises to become a valuable addition to the list of American class papers. We wish its enterprising publisher much success. Manufacturer and Builder. BUILDING is the name of a new and copiously illustrated archi- tectural monthly, published by W. T. Comstock, of this city. It has the appearance of an old and prosperous trade journal. The Critic. No field has presented a more favorable opening for an enter- prising journal than that of popular architecture. BUILDING is designed to meet a want that is specially noticeable in suburban towns. Each magazine contains a complete plan with elevations of a country residence. These designs are tasteful and easily understood. Attention is also paid to carefully drawn specifica- tions. Very complete and elegant designs for city residences have also appeared from time to time. The questions of sewer- age, sanitation, etc., are freely discussed Industrial News. IV. T. Comstock, Publisher, 6 As^or Place, New York. FOR SALE BY ALL NEWS DEALERS. ADVERTISEMENTS. of DEVOTED TO Architecture, Furniture, Decoration and Ornament, PUBLISHED MONTHLY, Subscriptions, $5 a year in advance. Single. Copies, SOe. THIS is a most elaborate and complete architectural journal. Is issued in a handsome cover, and con- tains in addition to the contents of the regular issue of " BUILDING," a large number of Lithographic Plates, a special feature of which will be the republication of the best designs selected from the leading foreign journals, so that subscribers for this monthly will obtain the cream of all the foreign publications on these subjects. Each number contains IS full-page lithographic plates. PRESS NOTICES. Mr. Comstock is to be congratulated upon the contents and general appearance of his Special Illustrated Edition of BUILD- ING. We have no doubt this new venture will be appreciated by the architectural and building public. Engineering News. BUILDING begins its second volume with a special number filled with a rich array of illustrations Persons who desire A monthly magazine, devoted to the circle of arts, included under the title of building, will do well to examine this work, Home Journal. We most heartily congratulate Mr. Comstock on the fine ap- pearance of BUILDING, and feel confident he will meet with the success his energy and enterprise deserves. American Real Estate Guide. Nothing finer in its way has been offered to the public. The Mechanical News. The illustrations are very artistic. The Sanitary News. In the richness of contents, beauty of illustrations, the current numbers of BUILDING is a decided credit to American journal- ism. Trade Review and Western Machinist. The value to the architect and builder cannot be overestimated, and the price, five dollars a year, is a merely nominal considera- tion for the subjects of interest and instruction it possesses. Lumber Trade Journal. It is not often that so much and so valuable material is found at one time in a trade journal, The Publishers' Weekly. The number before us Is in itself a complete book on building and kindred subjects. Chattanooga Daily Times. We commend the BUILDING to our students, amateurs, and professors in architecture and building. If haca Daily Journal. It is without doubt the most valuable publication of the kind published in the country. Southern Lumberman. One of the best architectural periodicals of the day is BUILD- ING. The Christian Union. Very attractive in appearance, and is well worthy of liberal patronage. American Engineer. W. T. Comstock, Publisher, 6 Astor Place, New York. FOR SALE BY ALL NEWS DEALERS. ADVERTISEMENTS. WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR. DIAGRAM FOR SEWER CALCULATIONS. Constructed from Tables in Baldwin Latham's " Sanitary Engineering," and calculated from Weis- bach's Formulae. Price, '.:-, . . 75 cents. " A useful little diagram, exhibiting at a glance the relations between discharge, velocity, rate of inclination, and diameter of circular sewers from 3 to 36 inches diameter. Any two of these quantities being given, the lines on the diagram enable the others to be obtained by simple inspection." The Sanitary Engineer. ANLAGEN VON HAUS-ENTWASSERUNGEN NACH STUDIEN AMERIKANISCHER VER- HALTNISSE. Price, . . . . 80 cents. "The young engineer or architect, or the intelligent house- holder, can get from these thirty-six pages all that he would probably be able to glean from the ponderous volumes of Latham and Denton, with a considerable amount of desultory reading and practical experience in addition. . . We can assure . . . our readers . . . that this little pamphlet will help them more to sound and practical knowledge than any work with which we are acquainted, even of many times its bulk." The American Architect and Building News. HOUSE DRAINAGE AND SANITARY PLUMB- ING. 2d Edition, 1884. Price, ... 50 cents. 41 It is* excellently adapted to give the general public an idea of what the details of a good system of plumbing are." The Sanitary Engineer. "Mr. Gerhard's little manual, enlarged from papers printed in Van Nostrand's Magazine, gives an admirable synopsis of the state of sanitary knowledge at the present time. It is a book that ought to be in every house and thoroughly understood by every householder." Philadelphia Press. " If all who wish to know as much as possible of what is at present practically worth knowing about sanitary plumbing, would study Mr. W. P. Gerhard's latest contribution to Van Nostrand's Science Series, there would be little use for the innumerable pages of instruction, advice, information and misinformation that are being constantly brought forth by incompetent writers on the subject." The Builder. "This is a sound little book, in which all the essential ele- ments of plumbing, and all the many articles connected with it, are given in the clearest and most satisfactory manner."- - London Sanitary Record. ADVERTISEMENTS. HLIST OFK- Books Sent Free by Mail or Express, on Receipt of Price. American Cottages $5 00 Album of Mantels 8 00 Ames' Alphabets 1 50 Bicknell's Village Builder and Supplement 10 00 Bicknell's Detail Cottage and Constructive Arch.. 6 00 Bicknell's Cottage and V ilia Architecture 4 00 Bicknell's Street, Store and Bank Fronts 2 50 Bicknell's Public Buildings 2 50 Bicknell's School House and Church Architecture. 2 50 Bicknell's Stables, Out-Buildings, Fences, etc 2 50 Brown's Building Tables 1 50 Oameron's Plasterer's Manual 75 Cummings' Architectural Details 6 00 Gardner's Common Sense in Church Building. ... 1 00 Gould's Carpenter's & Builder's Assistant, New Ed. 2 50 Gould's American Stair Builder's Guide, 2 50 Gould's Steel Square Problems 1 00 Hallett's Specifications 50 Hulme's Treatise on Drawing Instruments 1 50 Hussey's Home Building 2 50 Interiors and Interior Details 7 50 Mitchell's Stepping Stone to Architecture 60 Modern Architectural Designs and Details 10 00 Modern House Painting 5 00 Monckton's Practical Geometry 1 00 Powell's Foundations, etc., New Ed. in Press Reed's House Plans for Everybody 1 50 Sewerage of Dwellings 2 50 Tuthill's Practical Lessons in Arch. Drawing 2 50 Wither's Church Architecture 10 00 Catalogue of all Publications on Application. T, T. Coistock, Publisher, 6 Astor Place, New Tort ADVERTISEMENTS. MILLER & COAXES, 279 PEARL STREET, New York. IMPORTERS OF AND DEALERS IN Plumbers' Materials. GSRNKIRK CHIMNEY TOPS. GLAZED TILDS FOR LINING Bath Rooms, Water Closets, THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. LD 21-100m-7,'33 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY