BRICKLAYING." C \\ : ;-..\ L?, MAQINNIS. REESE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Deceived > 1 9 Accession No. 91.409 Clots A< i BY OWEN B. MAGINNIS. This book contains extensive detailed explanations of the most approved modern methods of "Bricklaying," as applied at the beginning of the 20th Century. The information has been obtained directly from the work, during Construction; and is the Current Practice and experience of the best authorities ; supple- mented by Chapters an "Shoring," " Needling" and "Underpinning." The whole making an invaluable book of reference for Architects, Engineers, Contractors, Builders and Mechanics. Illustrated by over 200 Engravings with full descriptive text. PUBLISHED BY OWEN B. MAGINNIS NEW YORK CITY. Copyrighted 1899 and 190O by OWEN B. flAGINNIS CONTENTS. PART I. CHAPTER I. BRICKLAYERS' TOOLS AND THEIR APPLICATION. CHAPTER II. LAYING OR SETTING OUT THE WORK, MEASURING AND LEVELING. CHAPTER III. MIXING CONCRETES AND MORTARS. CHAPTER IV. BRICKLAYING AND BONDING WALLS OF VARIOUS THICKNESSES. CHAPTER V. BUILDING BRICK ANGLES, CORNERS AND INTERSECTING WALLS. CHAPTER VI. LAYING BRICKS IN FLEMISH, RUNNING, AND HERRING-BONE BONDS. "FRONT WORK." CHAPTER VII. BRICK ARCHES, LINTELS, AND PIERS. PARAPET AND HOLLOW WALLS. CHAPTER VIII. BUILDING CHIMNEYS, FLUES AND CHIMNEY BREASTS. CHAPTER IX. ANCHORING, BRACING AND FURRING BRICK WALLS. CHAPTER X. GENERAL, IMPORTANT AND MISCELLANEOUS DETAILS OF BRICKWORK. PART II. CHAPTER I. SHORING AND NEEDLING. CHAPTER II. UNDERPINNING AND SHEET PILING. Q1J.OQ INTRODUCTION. IN placing this book before those engaged in the practice of Engineering, Architecture and Building Construction^ I do so with full confidence that they will appreciate my ^ork, as such a book is needed. The contents are made up of serial and .individual articles written for the most important magazines and journals devoted to the Profession and Trade, and are now collated, revised, edited and published together; with other valuable information, given me by those directing operations. Much, too, has been gathered in my own daily observation and experience in building construction during the past twenty years. I beg to acknowledge the kindness of the publishers of the Scientific American, Architects' and Builders' Magazine, The Carpenter, Carpentry and Building, and Science and Industry, who have given me permission to reproduce my articles originally published in the above magazines and journals, and which are, in this book, grouped together so as to be comprehensive and applicable. My best thanks are extended to those superintending and operative bricklayers whose suggestions have enabled me to make the book practical and thoroughly valuable. OWEN B. MAGINNIS. NEW YORK CITY, January 1st, 1901. FRONTISPIECE. (See Fig. 3 in Part II.) CHAPTER I. BRICKLAYERS' TOOLS AND THEIR APPLICATION. E building of walls of bricks or cubes of clay, united by lime or 1 cement mortar, constitutes "Bricklaying;" an ancient art, the origin of which dates back to the remote ages of antiquity, when bricks were at first laid, unburnt; and it is ture in the construction just described, is, that a layer of crushed reeds mixed with bitumen was laid over every sev- enth course. Similar bricks to these were employed by the Egyptians, but there are no remains of brickwork in Greece. Bricks were used largely in ancient Babylon, and in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar bricks have been found covered with enamels of the brightest and liveliest colors. In ancient Rome burnt bricks are con sidered to have been first used in the FIG. 1. supposed the ambitious "Tower of Babel" was constructed in this manner. In the ruins of the earlier constructions Pantheon of Agrippa, and both trian- gular and square bricks have been found there. In Roman ruins of antiquity, FIG. 2. of .man, the bricks were found to meas- ure abaut 12 inches square and 4 inches thick, united by mortar or cement com backings of small rubble masonry were used with brick facings, the bricks being right-angled triangles of which FIG. 3. posed of earth and bitumen. This sys- the greatest side was that next the face tern is said to still prevail in the neigh- of the wall, and the right angles bonded borhood of Bagdad, and a strange fea- into the rubble work by having the 8 BRICKLAYING. spaces filled in with stone. This method of bonding face brick somewhat resem- bles our modern method, which in- volves clipping the corners of the face bricks and laying the backing course diagonally. Before commencing to explain brick- work in its application to walls of vari- ous thicknesses, I will give some idea of the attitudes and actions of the brick- layer at work and explain the different tools and appliances used in brick- laying. The first and most essential tool the bricklayer uses, is, of course, the Trowel. This tool of ancient adoption is at this end of the 20th century, man- ufactured to the shapes shown in the engravings, Figs. 1, 2 and 3. Fig. I is the famous London pattern or Brades' trowel. These trowels weigh from IX to 1 Y* Ibs. , are of splendid steel, and well tempered and balanced, so as to be easily handled and used. Some American bricklayers prefer the Philadelphia pat- tern, Fig. 2, as the weight of the blade is carried well back to the handle, and being broader is better adapted for lift- ing or spreading mortar and cutting bricks. The round heel trowels, Fig. 3, are not very popular, but are excellent for cutting, and many good bricklayers prefer them. In order to use a trowel properly, it should be held firmly yet loosely, with the full grasp of the right hand and ap- plied with the play of the muscles of the arm, wrist and fingers. Only actual done with the muscles of the forearm, the trowel being held in the position represented at Fig. 5, which shows the FIG. 5. hand and arm of the bricklayer when about to push his trowel into the mortar tub. When depositing the mortar on FIG. 6. the wall, he turns his trowel upside down, and immediately after his arm assumes the position Fig. 6, in order to spread the mortar over the surface of FIG. 4. practice can give the various mechani- cal movements requisite, so that in de- scribing them I will illustrate some positions showing the practical applica- tion of this tool. Lifting a trowelful of mortar from the tub or mortar board, seen in Fig. 4, up to the courses of brick on the wall is FIG. 7. the bricks. When lifting a brick from the pile on the ground or scaffold in or- der to place it on its bed of mortar on the wall, he stoops and grasps it in his left hand in the way illustrated by engrav- BRICKLAYING. 9 FIG. ing Fig. 7, and lays it on the wall in the manner seen at Fig. 8. If the brick is laid in a centre or inside course or line, Continuing the description of brick mason's trowels which usually measure from 10 to 13 inches in length, the 10- inch being most generally used, I would now draw attention to the five various forms represented at Fig. 11. These trowels are used for pointing and strik- ing up joints and removing the mortar from the face of the brickwork to make a neat, clean job. They measure from 4 to 7 inches long, and are applied with FIG. 9. he pushes or shoves it down in its bed of mortar with his fingers, Fig. 9, tapping it down when necessary with the edge FIG 10. of the trowel, held in the right hand, in the position Fig. 10, which position is also assumed when he is clipping or cut- ting a brick with its edge. FIG. 11. the muscles of the fingers and play of the wrist as before described. As bricks are hard substances and can only be cut into lengths or parts by the action of percussive force, bricklayers follow two methods in cutting them. The first is by a series of rapid blows given with the edge of the steel trowel, as represented at Fig. 10, and the other is by applying a brick-cutting chisel, 10 BRICKLAYING. mer and chisel are employed on front bricks, which always require to be cut to neat sizes; being of a very hard com- position are brittle and liable to fracture at the wrong place and spoil the brick. Brick chisels are manufactured from 2j^ to 3^ inches in width and are ground to a wedge-shaped chisel point. They are held in the left hand when applying the hammer, which weighs from 1 pound 8 ounces to 2 pounds 8 ounces, being wielded with the right hand. For cut- ting through brick walls the cold chisel, Fig. 15, is used with the hammer, Fig. FIG. 12. 13, and for drilling holes in brick walls the diamond-pointed drill, Fig. 16, is best adapted, which, after each blow of Fig. 12, which, with the aid of a brick- layer's hammer, Fig. 13, applied to its FIG. 13. in a series of blows cuts each brick to an exict size indicated on the surface of the brick by a mark. Sometimes the Double Edge Brick Hammer. FIG. 14. chisel pene of the hammer or the double pened hammer, Fig. 14, is used for cut- ting rough bricks, though nowadays only on front bricks, as the trowel serves this purpose more readily and the ham- FIG. 16. the hammer is turned to the right to loosen the point in the materials of the brick where it has been driven fast by the impact of the hammer. As bricklaying is a skilled art, and as the Bricklayer must be in himself an educated artisan with his brain and body trained to the movements of his muscles, anil the application of instruments and tools to the erection of material, so it follows that he must have instruments of precision to ensure the mechanical and statical accuracy of his executed work. For this reason long usage and experience have given him a standard set of tools and implements which I am now describing as they occur in actual practice, so under the head of "Tools and Accuracy," I will now explain the value of the Straight-Edge Line, Level, Plumb Rule, Square, etc. The Straight-Edge. Figure 17 is a long piece of selected pine wood, 1^ to \y z inches thick, 6, 8 or 10 inches wide, and from 10 to 16 feet long, and made to the exact shape delineated in the sketch. Its use is to level between points, the ordinary spirit level being placed on the top edge and the ends of the straight-edge being set on the BRICKLAYING. 11 points to be leveled, as A and B, Fig. 17. By raising or lowering one LeVEL FIG. 17. BRICKLAYERS' STRAIGHT- EDGE AND LEVEL. end or the other till the drop or bubble in the glass tube of the level is exactly in the center, which will make the straight edge perfectly horizontal, then the two points will be level. FIG. 18. PLUMB BOB AND LINE. When the first courses of brick are laid on a leveled surface such as a water table, line of steel girders or any other horizontal surface, it is the practice to keep each course straight and continu- ously level by placin? a line on each corner and when it is stretched tight to carry up the wall to this line by keeping the upp3r outside arrises on the edge of each brick exactly to the line. This valuable instrument with a "Plumb Bob" attached to it is illustrated at Fig. 18. It is simply a stout white whipcord long enough to reach over the extreme length to be built, which can be pur- chased in hanks or lengths of 25, 50, 75 FIG. 19. PLUMB RULE. FIG. 21. THE STAN- LEY PLUMB RULE AND LEVEL. or 100 feet as needed, and the object of the conically-shaped solid of brass, termed a "Plumb Bob," shown in the engraving attached to the line, is to weight the line and keep it stretched tightly when dropped down from a height, when it is desired to determine if a wall or corner is "plumb." The indispensable tool, termed a " Plumb Rule," with its line and plumb bob, is shown in the sketch, Fig. 19, and, like the straight-edge, it is formed of apiece of 1^-inch white pine, 4 or 4j inches wide and from three feet six inches to four feet six inches long. With the aid of this tool the bricklayer lays his bricks to a plumb or perfectly perpendicular surface or angle, and in 12 BRICKLAYING. order to make clear the use of this tool. I will now explain what is meant by this term, which, though very com- mon in mechanical phraseology, is not properly understood by the majority of mechanics: FIG. 20. DIAGRAM SECTION OF THE EARTH'S PLUMB AND LEVEL LINES. As it is now almost an estab- lished fact that the outer surface of the earth on which we' live is curved or globular, it follows that all lines drawn perpendicular to a tangent to this surface, will, if continued down far enough, meet in a common point termed its centre, so that the lines of corners of walls if continued down would meet at the centre of the earth, see Fig. 20. Similarly if carried up to an extraordinary height they would gradually spread apart, or the space between the inside surf aces of the walls would widen as the height increased, and the walls would not be parallel to each other. It might be here stated that walls are not exactly parallel when carried up exactly plumb, but the earth's surface is so vast that the differ- ence is unappreciable. Again, the com- ponent parts of walls are kept together by the "Attraction of Gravitation," which is an unseen force contained in the earth which pulls all bodies greater small to its surface, directly at right angles, so that if a line be attached to any body with a swinging weight at- tached to one of its ends, as a plumb bob, that weight or plumb bob will slowly gravitate or swing until it stops and the line will hang plumb. This not only happens when a line and bob are attached to an object as a tree post, column, etc., but bodies such as wall & FIG. 22. STEEL JOINTER USED FOR POINTING JOINTS IN FACE BRICK WORK. can be, and are constructed plumb, with the bob and rule, Fig. 19. Here the same principle prevails, the rule being a piece of good clear wood about \y & to \Yz inches thick, 4 inches wide, and from three feet and six inches to five feet long, made perfectly parallel and out of wind or flat and is guaged with a scratch line in the centre. Near the bottom an oval hole is cut in which the lead bob gravitates or swings on a line fastened to the top in the saw cut or slot seen in the engraving. To build a wall plumb, it is only necessary to place the right or left edge of the rule, allow- ing the bob to swing against any of the vertical edges or faces: carefully watch- ing the bob when it swings backwards BRICKLAYING. 13 and forwards so that, the cord line ex- actly strikes the gauged line on the face of the rule; when it does this the f FIG. 23. HARDWOOD ROD FOR MAKING " RODDED JOINTS." edge or face of the wall is plumb as desired. Great care should be taken to fet the bob as steady as possible. Fig. L is an improved form of plumb rule and level, and contains a level and plumb in glass tubes placed in the open- ings, the glass tube being set perfectly at right angles to the edges. FIG. 24. KNIFE OR "FRENCHMAN" USED IN MAKING "RODDED JOINTS." The steel jointer, Fig. 22, is used for tucking or jointing the mortar joints in face brickwork by sliding it along the joint, and as its edge is of an oval or el- liptic section it makes a slightly sunken joint of this form. Sometimes the brick, layer uses this tool with the ' Rod, " Fig. 23, which, however, is generally applieJ when striking " Rodded Joints," which are mortar joints in face brickwork al- lowed to project slightly outside the face of the work, and are cut to a straight finish with the knife or "Frenchman " seen at Fig. 24, which is simply an old chisel bent to a right angled point and the sides filed to a knife edge. This tool is used like the Tuck Pointing Tools illustrated in Fig. 25, which are also used on top of the rod for Rodded Joints, and can be purchased to form either a square or oval bead. They are made in the following sizes: Square, X, 5-16, fa % inch; round, 3-16, 5-16, CHAPTER II. LAYING OR SETTING OUT THE WORK, MEASURING AND LEVELING. OBSERVATION of the construction of buildings has shown me that the use of cord lines in the differ- ent branches of building is not en- tirely appreciated nor understood. With a view, therefore, of impressing upon mechanics, especially bricklayers, the utility of this extremely handy tool or ap- pliance and its application in "laying out/' I have inserted this chapter. Geometrically defined, a straight line is simply a longitudinal extension, or the shortest distance between any two points. Mechanically or technically defined, it is a slender string stretched so tight as to be perfectly straight, and the shortest 'distance from one point or peg or to another point or peg placed at FIG. 25. FIG. 26 SAMPLES OF CORD LINES. a greater or lesser distance away from it. This quality gives the line its great value to mechanics, and they use it largely in laying out or setting out al- most all details of construction. Some of the most used I will now describe and show their practical application. 14 BRICKLAYING First, as to the line itself. It consists of a specially manufactured whip cord made in different thicknesses according to the length it must be stretched. At Fig. 26 I show samples of lines which can be purchased in any tool or hard- ware store in bundles or hanks, Fig. limits of the house measurement, which can be determined with the tape line or ten foot pole in the way illustrated in the sketch. Fig. 30, and across FIG. 27 A HANK LINE. 27, up to 200 feet in length, which is more than sufficient for ordinary work. It is usually kept on a spool or reel il- lustrated in Fig. 28, and thus conven- iently rolled or unrolled as required. As most mechanics are unfamiliar with its use, I will now proceed with its use as FIG. 28 CHALK LINE REEL. applied to the laying out of foundations of a building and some of its uses in construction . Concerning the setting out of the foundation of a prospective building, say, for example, that it is an oblong shape measuring about 25 ft. front by 75 ft. deep, I would say that this is a most important operation and demands the utmost care and accuracy on the part of him who undertakes it. In the cities and small towns or villages each lot is laid out on the city map, and a survey can be made by any city surveyor and a plan of same obtained by the builder, but in the country this is un- obtainable, and the builder or brick- layer is compelled to report to a mech- anical process to lay put his site. The plan followed is very simple. A number of stakes (about eight, if the plan be square or oblong, and more if there be angles or bays on the plan), are sawn out as represented at Fig. 29. These are driven in the ground about on an angle of 45 degrees on the outside FIG. 29 BATTER BOARD AND STAKES FOR SAME. these, boards termed " batter boards," are nailed for the purpose of holding the strings and leveling up the lines. The stakes should be of var- ious lengths so as to admit of their being either driven down or raised up when leveling. "When laying out, one front corner is first located, and then from this corner the front building line is stretched as A, B. If tfce lot have square angles ore side line as C, D is stretched keeping the angle about square by placing a true steel square in- side the lines at the corner, and one man moving the line in and out, while another holds the square till the lines touch the outside edges of the blade and tongue. Some mechanics prefer to use the old reliable method which I explain by Fig. 31 and which, to my mind, is certainly infallible if accurately done. This BRICKLAYING. method is to assume any three figures, as 6 feet, 8 feet and 10 feet, then to measure off on one side from the corner 8 feet, on the other side 6 feet, so that when the lines are brought together un- til the ends of 10 foot pole touch each point, the angle will be a right angle or square. This method is based on a geometrical rule which states that the square of the hypothenuse of any right angle triangle, is equal to the squares of the other two sides containing the right FIG. 30 BATTER BOARDS AND LINES STRETCHED FOR EXCAVATING. angle. This, in its practical application to the corner, as applied arithmetically, is worked out thus : 8 feet multiplied by 8 feet -64 feet ; 6 feet multiplied by 6 feet =36 feet ; 64 +36=100 feet ; 10 feet multiplied by 10 feet=100 feet ; so that 8 squared 4- 6 squared =10 squared. In formula, this reads : When the two lines are stretched and the square corner obtained, the opposite sides are measured parallel, and the exact sizes determined thus, giving the surface measurements of the ground plan 4 But the surface of the ground is un- even and out of level, and in order to carry up the different details of the building level we must make sure that the lines are also level. All bottoms or footings in cities or towns are supposed to be set so many feet below the curb line of the sidewalk. It is, therefore, a wise plan to set one corner level with the top of the curb. This can be done by carrying it over on a straight edge, and having made the corner level to sight along the line of one side, and the edge of the straight-edge till the line is I CO 6'- o it FIG. 31 CORNER SQUARED BY FIGURES 6X8X10. exactly level. Some prefer to place a straight edge blocked up level under the line and then to raise or lower the line till it touches the edge. This method is very applicable in any location, but re- quires great care, accuracy and certain- ty of measurements. Continuing the practical use of the lines, we will now suppose the excava- tion of the lot complete and the bottom properly leveled off, lines must be stretched to locate the trenches and the position of the piers and intermediate walls. Fig. 32 will convey a full idea of the application of the lines in obtain- ing the exact situation of the piers, and great care must be exercised in doing this for the reason that any mistake 16 BRICKLAYING. made in the footings or foundation walla in regard to their position, must change the layout of the whole plan ^.nd be carried up through all the stories. Every foundation must, of oourse, be laid out from the foundation plan or cellar plan, and the layout, that is to say, the location of each pier, wall, etc., must be absolutely correct, for, if it be not correct, then all the lengths of beam girders, etc., will be changed ac- cording to the error, and the result is termed iate walls, these should be located by centre lines, that is, by cord lines stretched from one side of the lot to the other side and a plumb bob hung on the line reaching down to the bottom of the excavation. The bob will give the exact centre point, and half the thickness of the wall is measured off on each side. The same operation is gone through on the opposite end of the wall and then a short section is built and the guide lines stretched to FIG. 32. SECTION THROUGH EXCAVATION SHOWING USE OF LINES. trouble to all concerned. However, the application of the lines makes the lay- ing out a comparatively easy task, pro- vided care and accuracy are exercised. For this reason this job should be done from the plan, as I find that masons are sometimes, a little careless in the measurements. In regard to the outer walls. These are best built from lines stretched on their outside finished faces, so that all the work will come in- side of them. If there be inside or in- guide the work straight. For piers the method used is to measure on opposite banks or sides of the excava- tion and cross or intersect two lines directly over the central point of the proposed pier, then, by hanging a plumb bob and a line from this inter- section, the central point at the bottom can be marked and the size of the pier laid out from it on each side half the thickness of the footing of the pier. By following this method, BRICKLAYING especially in the case of a very deep cehar, the bottom of the excavation inside the banks can be laid out with almost absolute accuracy. But, as I stated before, the measuring should be slowly and carefully done, by the brick- layer using a steel tape line, and pro- ving his marks by remeasuring before the work is commenced. Concerning the levels of the details inside the excavation, I would state, that the safest way to obtain these is ordinary spirit level placed on its top edge. But bricklayers should make absolutely sure that the straight edge is exactly parallel as. should it taper or diminish towards either end, it will, as a consequence, give incorrect levels. When level points or surfaces are found they should be made permanent by using a heavy stone or driving down a stout stake. When founda- tion walls and piers are built, and there is to be. a frame building or OF TRANSEPTS i g i, FIG. 33. GROUND OUTLINE PLAN OF A CHURCH, SHOWING CENTRE LINES. (if the excavation or area of the build- ing be large, say 75 x 100 feet or over) to use a revolving spirit level and rod with a telescope mounted on a tripod. This valuable instrument can be set with the plumb bob, indicating the centre of swing on the centre of a pier and by revolving it around with a rod man holding the rod where required, but if this instrument be not available, the levels may be found with a long straight-edge having the superstructure raised upon them, no one should ever rely on their tops or upper surfaces being exactly level, as experience will show that in many cases bricklayers or stone masons, ex- cept in the case of unusually good work, do not carry their courses up level. So that, before commencing the superstructure thetopof the wall should be gone over with the spirit level, and its possible inaccuracy discovered, and, should any angle or corner be low, BRICKLAYING. slate or stone blocking should be used to raise it up level. At Fig. 33, I give the ground layout or staking plan of a large church with nave aisles and transepts also with an "apse" or circular end. The points , a, a, represent wood stakes driven into the ground to which cord lines are attached and stretched from stake to stake 12", away from the outside basement wall line of the intended building. This will show how requisite lines are in laying out and how careful men should be in placing them. instruments most popular for leveling in laying out large works are the en- gineer's transit, theodolite or architect's Y level, all of which are of the utmost utility for mechanical operations. However, the form of improvised water level shown in our engraving is, perhaps, most adaptable, as it can be easily and cheaply made, is accurate in its action and simple in its application. As will be seen, it consists of a long piece of ribbed rubber hose or pipe, half an inch internal diameter, with pieces of transparent glass tubing, twelve or FIG. 33 X. A SIMPLE HYDROSTATIC LEVEL. THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THE HYDROSTATIC LEVEL IN BUILD- ING CONSTRUCTION. The science of modern building con- struction necessitates the introduction of such instruments, tools, and appli- ances as will expedite the work and lessen expense by economizing time. Such an implement is the hydrostatic or water level, shown in the accom- panying drawing, Fig. 33 X. The eighteen inches long, inserted in each end. These glaes tubes should, if ob- tainable, be graduated into inches and parts of inches down to sixteenths, but if graduated tubes are not to be had, smooth tubes of clear thick glass of chemical tubing will do, and a quarter or half -inch section can be cut off the end of the rubber pipe and set over the glass tubes, which will slide up or down so as to form a gage. Water is poured into the rubber hose pipe and glass tubes till the ends over- BRICKLAYING. 19 flow, when they are kept full by placing a small tip or faucet at the ends ofthe tubes, as shown. When in use, the faucets must be opened in order to allow the water to find its own level. One glass tube is placed against the wall which has been built to the re- quired height, being held firmly against the face of the wall with the gage set four, six or eight inches from the top as desired, the gage being kept at the edge of the brick or stone wall templets from which the required level is to be measured. Here it is held by one man, while another carries the other glass tube to the object to be measured. When the water is exactly on the line of the gage, the level point is deter- mined, and the distance of the detail above or below the gage will denote the discrepancy in the relative heights. This will be readily understood from the engraving, where this simple instru- ment is represented in use as setting the levels on top of a foundation wall for templets for iron beams, or in a position where the transit or Y level and staff would not be so convenient or so applicable. Many masons use this instrument with a rod for finding depth of trenches for walls, piers, etc., for leveling for templets, sills, water tables, or other details, especially in an excava- tion which is crowded with piers, shores, derricks or appliances, which, of course, render the use of the transit or Y level impossible. CHAPTER III. MIXING CONCRETES A^ND MORTARS. WE will now take up the subject of mortar, dealing with it entirely from a practical standpoint, avoiding all scientific detail, and com- mencing with Lime Mortar. This mortar is made by bricklayers' laborers, who, first, on a platform of planks form a shallow basin of screened sand taken from and close to the sand pile. Into this basin they dump one barrel of lump lime, and on this dumped lime they pour water until the lime is thoroughly slaked, or the action of the water expels the carbonic acid gas re- maining in it after " calcining" for lime is made from calcined limestone. In the sand ba^in it steams and boils, when being slaked, and it will require to absorb one quarter its own weight of water before it is thoroughly slaked, and will expand to two or three times its lump size. When the lime is properly slaked it is reduced to a slimy consistency by the laborers, who use the "hoe," Fig. 34, until the lime is entirely free from lumps. While in this state they add from two to five barrels of clean, sharp sand, screened by dashing up against the Sand Screen, Fig. 35, and continue mixing the lime and sand together with Fia. 34. the hoe, until each grain of sand is covered with the lime and the whole mass is pasty and workable, under the shovel and trowel. This thorough working and mixing are indispensable to good mortar. When ready, it is shoveled with the shovel, Fig. 36, into the hod, Fig. 37, and then conveyed by the hod carriers to the bricklayers' seaffold and there dumped into the mortar-box, Fig. 4. Lime mortar should never be mixed too thin, and care should be exercised not to use sand too sharp, or sand which has any percentage of loam in its composition. Cement. "Cement" is a species of lime, which has the quality of hardening or ' ' setting " when immersed in water. The principal cements used by bricklayers in building construction are Portland and Rosendale. The first is an artificial composition, made up of chalk and clay, moulded into cubes, burnt in a kiln to expel the carbonic acid gas, and afterwards ground into fine dust or powder. The second, Rosendale, is a natural cement, and is made from limestone, with about twenty per cent, of clay. Concrete. This invaluable composi- tion for footings and foundations is mixed by laborers, who form a tight platform of planks, and on this plat- form spread the ingredients in the fol- lowing proportions, namely : 4 barrows or barrels of clean, sharp sand, and two of cement, and then with the applica- tion of shovels, Fig. 36, work and turn over the two, dry, until they are thoroughly mixed. On this 8 barrels of broken stone are dumped and the com- bination is again turned over and 20 BRICKLAYING. mixed, while water from a sprinkler or hose is applied until each and every stone in the entire bed of concrete is covered with mortar. This mixture, being of the proportions of one part of cement to two of sand and three or five form, one barrel or measure of cement, one to three barrels or parts of clean, screened, sharp sand, and thoroughly mixes the two with the shovel until they only show one color, then he adda the exact amount of water required by FIG. 35-SAND SCREEN. GRAVEL SCREEN. Small size, 22 in. wide, 61 in. long. Large " 28 " " 67 " " of broken stone, is then shoveled into the wheelbarrows, wheeled to the trench and dumped from a height and rammed down by men with rammers. It is usually spread in layers running from 4 to 8 inches in thickness, and rammed till the water shows on top of each layer. FIG. 86. Cement Mortar. This is also prepared for the use of the bricklayer by his laborer, who spreads on a smooth plat- FIG. 37. sprinkling, and then mixes again until the mortar is brought to the consist- ency of a plastic mass. The amount of water required is regulated by the nature of the cement, which can only be determined by ex- perimenting with a small portion, and care should be taken not to use too much water, as this weakens the strength of the cement. The state of the atmosphere also will affect the plastic nature of the mass, also the dry- ness of the sand. To get great strength only enough water should be added to make the mortar resemble damp earth. It is always best to mix sand and cement DRY, in their specified proportions be- fore sprinkling. Cement mortar, whether of Portland or Rosendale, should be mixed in small quantities, and none that has laid or set over night be used. Grout is a mixture of cement and sand mixed and worked to a thick liquid, which is poured into the brick joints of piers or walls where extreme strength is required. Much difference of opinion prevails as to its true value- in giving extra strength, by creating a greater cohesive force, but it uridoubt- BRICKLAYING. 21 edly has the quality of keeping the wall well wet while setting, it enters every hole and crevice in the surfaces of each brick, and promotes a better bond by a fuller absorption of the carbonic acid gas into the cement, which was expelled when the gypsum or limestone, which composes it, was burnt. Lime and Cement Mortar. When brickwork is to be laid in this mortar, it should be composed of 3 parts of lime, a large proportion of sand and one part of fresh Rosendale or Portland cement. The lime and sand should be mixed and worked by the laborers at least two days before the cement is added for a final working, before using in the wall. Only small quantities of cement should be mixed at a time, as required, and none allowed to set over night. When it becomes necessary to use mortar in cold weather the following solution can be advantageously used : When using mortar in freezing weather insert and mix in it 1 pound of salt to 18 gallons of water to form a brine in order to prevent the water in the mortar from freezing, and g ve it time to form a bond with the bricks. It is, however, a detrimental practice to use salt in mortar, because it absorbs water and keeps the mortar in the wall con- stantly damp, so that it is best not to lay any brick in very cold or frosty weather. When mixing " Lafarge " cement, which is used for "setting or backing" up stonework or "face brickwork," the usual proportions are one part cement to two parts clean, sharp sand. For "pointing," one part this cement to one part white sand. This also ap- plies to " Puzzolon," another prepara- tion of cement used for the foregoing purposes. Sand being friable does not shrink, and is therefore adaptable to all mortars, if free from loam, dirt or other injurious materials. The following sections of the New Building Code of the City of New York, will be found of value, as they embody the results of the very best experience, and the Measures, Pronortions and Fig- ures which I have added on. will prove useful in writing specifications: PART IV. QUALITY OF MATERIALS. Sec. 13. Brick. The brick used in all buildings shall be good, hard, well burnt brick. Sec. 14. Sand. The sand used for niDrtar in all buildings shall be clean, sharp grit sand, free from loam or dirt, and shall not be finer than the standard samples kepc in the office of the De- partment of Buildings. Sec. 15. Li me Mortar. Lime mortar shall be made of one part of lime and not more than four parts of sand. All lime used for mortar shall be thorough, ly burnt, of good quality, and properly slaked before it is mixed with the sand. Sec. 16. Cement Mortar. Cement mortar shall be made of cement and sand in the proportion of one part of cement, and not more than three parts of sand, and shall be used immediately after being mixed. The cement and sand are to be measured and thoroughly mixed before adding water. Cements must be very finely ground and free from lumps. Cements classed as Portland cement shall be considered to mean such cement as will, when tested neat, after one day set in air be capable of sustaining with- out rupture a tensile strain of at least 120 pounds per square inch, and after one day in air and six days in water be capable of sustaining without rupture a tensile strain of at least 300 pounds per square inch. Cements other than Portland cement shall be considered to mean such cement as will, when tested neat, after 1 day set in air be capable of sustaining without rupture a tensile strain of at least 60 pounds per square inch, and after 1 day in air and H days in water be capable of sustaining without rupture a tensile strain of at least 120 pounds per square inch. Said tests are to be made under the supervision of the Commissioner of Buildings having juris- diction, at such times as he may deter- mine, and a record of all cements answering the above requirements shall be kept for public information. Sec. 17. Cement and Lime Mortar. Cement and lime mortar mixed shall be made of one part of lime, one part of cement and not more than three parts of sand to each. Sec. 18. Concrete. Concrete for foundation shall be made of at least one part of cement, two parts of sand and five parts of clean broken stone, of such size so as to pass in any way through a 2 inch ring, or good, clean gravel may be used in the same proportion as broken stone. The cement, sand and stone or gravel shall be measured and mixed as is prescribed for mortars. All concrete when in place shall be properly rammed and allowed to set without be- ing disturbed. BRICKLAYING. MEASURES, PROPORTIONS AND FIGURES. 1 barrel Portland cement =4 bushels (nominally) . 1 barrel Portland Cement weighs 880 Ibs., net. 1 barrel Portland Cement contains about 4 cubic feet. i Thickness. , 1 in. % in. j^> in. yards, yards, yards. 1 bushel Portland Cement will cover 11-7 1J^ 2^ 1 bushel Portland Cement and 1 of sand will cover. . .2J4 3 4^ 1 bushel Portland Cement and 2 of sand will cover . . .3% 4X 6% Concrete. 1 barrel Portland Cement. 2 barrels clean sharp sand. 6 barrels broken stone or hard-burnt brick or gravel will yield about 20 cubic feet. Foot Walks. For bottom coat a concrete of : 1 barrel Portland Cement. 2 barrels sand. 5 barrels broken stone. For surface: 1 part Portland Cement. 1 part sand. Artificial Stone and Blocks. 1 barrel Portland Cement. 6 barrels clean sharp sand. Use as little water as possible, and ram well in metal moulds, if possible to be obtained . Masonry. For average masonry of rough etone, contractors estimate about one barrel of ordinary hydraulic cement and two barrels sand to the yard; or of Portland cement about one barrel with two or three parts sand. For granite and cut- stone work the amount of cement is much less, depending on the character of the stone. CHAPTER IV. BRICKLAYING AND BONDING WALLS OF VARIOUS THICKNESSES. TO make a brick wall a strong co- hesive and uniform mass, it is necessary that some system be followed in placing its principal component parts, and this is done by following the system termed "Bond- ing. " The word ''bond" in its application to brickwork, signifies the positions in which bricks are placed in juxtaposition with intervening layers of mortar, to form, when the mortar has "set" or hardened a perfectly solid construction , and the manner and methods of doing this constitutes the "art of bricklay- ing." As there are essential detailed rules which must be observed to get a good job of brickwork, I will now touch on Some of them in the form of axioms. FIG. 38. These are standard, and the practical and positive results of the best experi- ence: "The object of bonding a brick wall is to distribute the weight which the wall carries, so that it may be borne by all the bricks and not by a few." To gain this end, bricks should always break joints like Fig. 38, which shows the first and second bottom courses or the commencement of an 8 inch or 4 inch brick wall, where it will be seen the ends of the bricks do not hang over each other, but "break joint," as it is technically termed by bricklayers. For this requirement, it is therefore neces- sary to use quarter bricks, half bricks or pieces termed "bats" to keep the joints well broken, which will be under- stood as the different bonds are explain- ed in succession, but no bond should ever be less than two inches. When bricks are laid parallel to the face of the wall or longitudinally, they are termed " stretchers," when laid at right angles or across the wall, they are called "headers." therefore, all brick walls should have two bonds, which are indispensable, namely, a "stretch- er" bond lengthwise with the wall and a transverse Header bond, extending across or through the wall. Every wall should invariably be built "plumb," like Fig. 39, on both the in- BRICKLAYING. side and outside faces, the plumb rule and line being applied both on the in- side and outside, and no wall should ever be laid up in the irregular unwork- B C FIG. 39. manlike manners represented in the three sections, B, C and D, shown at Fig. 39. All walls should be carried up by the bricklayers with the courses FIG. 40. level and straight from corner to corner by working to a line and occasionally leveling the courses, especially where window sills and other openings occur. All mortar joints should, as far as pos- sible, be kept the same thickness, and should never be allowed to become un- even or "Hogged," which happens when laying brick overhand, or without a line. Should the joints be laid too wide or vary in width, they are liable to compress or squeeze together under the weight placed upon them, and cause the wall to settle, buckle, or fracture, when it is settling to its natu- ral bearings. As bricks are held together by the co- hesive action of the mortar, which must cover all surfaces to obtain the most perfect bond, it follows that each brick should be well rubbed down into the mortar when it is laid. Bricks, if too dry, should be wet, as all bricks when III 1 1 1 1 1 1 | ! 1 .1.1.1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I FIG. 41, dry, even in cold weather, will suck the water out of the mortar and leava only the lime and sand, which will set or harden without absorption, and have no bond. When the atmosphere i humid or damp, wetting the bricks may 1 234567 2 9 1O 1 , 1 3 j 5 6 7 j; 8 9 10 2345 6 j 7 j 8 J 9 n >> 1 3456 2 ; l , : 8. 9 j ,0 ' 2 34 5 6789 r* . .^ , | a 3 i ! 6 7 8 9 10 FIG. 42. be dispensed with, but they should never be wet in freezing weather as the water forms an icy film on the surfaces of each brick. 24 BRICKLAYING. All joints around window or door frames and all interspaces in brick walls, should be thoroughly "slushed" up with mortar and filled in with pieces of brick to get a good, solid air tight construction ; and if a wall has been uncovered and not been built on for some time, it should be well scraped off and swept clean to remove all dirt or other foreign substances from the top surfaces of the bricks. To prevent rain, snow or any injury to a wall in course of construction, good bricklayers cover the top courses of their walls with boards or planks to preserve them over night, and if they are to remain unbuilt on for a long time, as in very cold winter weather, they carefully cover them with tarpaulins, canvas or tar paper, and weight these down with planks on top, thus protecting the wall from injury. All brickwork into which frost has entered should never be built upon, but be pulled down and rebuilt. Frozen walls are liable to slide or buckle. In order to get the best results when rough or common brick walls are being laid, the following simple details should also be observed and followed; Each brick should be laid with a shoved joint, in a full bed of mortar, all intersections being thoroughly filled and where the brijks come in connec- tion with anchors, each one shall be brought home and close to same, so as to do all the holding work possible. All mortar joints, where the wall is not to be plastered, should be neatly struck with the trowel, and all courses kept level and the bonds preserved . Where necessary to bring any course up to the required height " clip '' .1,1 II 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 J 1 1 1 III 1 1 N i i i i i i i r Fia. 43. courses should be formed, and in no case should any mortar joint finish more than half an inch thick. All bricks should be laid to lines, and all wall spaces, angles, chases and inter- sections, otc,, built plumb true and square; also all walls must be leveled to receive girders and floor beams, where they occur. The usual average size of common or rough brick is 8 inches long, 3j inches wide and 2 to 2^ inches thick. These should be of good porous clay and be perfectly true and out of wind, or free from twists on all surfaces, rectangular in shape and uniform in texture. They should also be free from holes or lumps 1 3 4 5 2 | 6 7 8 9 1O 11 1 = 3 4 5 6 7 8 2 9 10 11 FIG. 44. of stone, and be " well burnt" which means they should not be black or over- burnt, but solid and like a sponge, and contain sufficient capillary attraction to absorb, when immersed not over X their weight of water. A good brick dry weighs from 3^ to 3% pounds; wet BRICKLAYING. 25 for laying from 4 to 4j^. Four pounds is about the average weight in a pile sprinkled ready for laying. All "Lammies", bloated, misshaped, pale, soft and crumbled brick are unfit for use, and are only a detriment to a piece of brickwork. Bricks can be tested by striking two together face to face, or when being dumped from the truck. If good, they will give out a sharp, clear sound. 1 1 , III/ 1 . 1 I.I 1 . 1 I 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 : 1 1 I brick, breaking joint every 4 inches. This thickness of brickwork is rarely or ever used for bearing purposes, but is adapted for "lining" stone or brick walls, and as it is then liable to buckle, if built too high, it should be keyed or anchored to the solid wall, which oper- ation will be explained later. " Head- ing " courses are usually laid, every sixth course in walls of 8 inches in thickness or more, which are termed ORDINARY BOND 2O INCH BOND FIG. 45. BONDING BRICK WALLS. In bricklaying there are several f the wall every six courses will be clearly seen ; also how the T anchors, which should be inserted about every thirteen courses, are built in the joints and al- lowed to project to give not less than eight inches of "holding" on the wall to be tied to the eight-inch wall. These anchors are indispensable and should never be omitted when one wall is carried up before that to be built to it. Fig. 50 shows how they are made of y* or Yz x 2 wrought iron, and average I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5n ' 1 ' 1 ' 1 ' :H 1 I 1 i ! 1 1 i . 1 1 1 1 1 LJ__ 1 i 1 I 1 1 1 Mill 1 1 1 1. 1 Jfc I I.I 1 " - 1 F 5 i ] L FIG. 48B. 24-iN. WALL, A 2v BOND. from 16 to 36 inches in length. The reader will appreciate the application of this method of bonding and tying angles together with blocking and anchors by the perspective view of an eight-inch brick gable, Fig. 51, where a close straight vertical heading joint is necessary. Here the blocking of four inches occurs every alternate six courses, and the anchors are projected out to reach over eight inches in the front wall and give a strong holding. Fig. 52 will illustrate the end construe- BRICKLAYING. tion of a 12-in. brick wall built to sus- tain a front or rear wall, and Fig. 53 is an inside intermediate or party wall built for the same purpose. Similarly with Figs. 53 and 54 which are brick walls 16 inches thick. In connection with these methods it might be stated here that the gable end blockings are reversed on the right or left hand ends, as they occur, to leave a straight, smooth wall on the outside, which will be understood from the fore- going engravings, as they are all drawn FIG. 49. S-IN. INSIDE WALL, SHOWING HEADING FOR TYING INTO WALL AT RIGHT ANGLES. from work during actual construction and are therefore accurate. However, many of the best bricklayers vary their work to suit the details and obtain the best results, so it is wisest to observe all the brickwork one can during its erec- tion and note the different methods applied. Bonding Angles and Intersecting Walls. Fig. 55 shows six courses of bricks laid in the positions necessary to obtain the proper bonding and tying of a right angled corner or "lead" for an 8 inch wall. Here the bonds are given for a left hand corner, but the same construc- tion prevails for a right hand corner, and the reader will readily perceive its application by turning the book upside down. Because corners and angles constitute the main strength of every brick building they are invariably built with great care by the best brick- layers, who carry up six or more courses in height and " Rack out," like Fig. 56, for the straight wall. They also use great care in gauging the thickness of the mortar joints and keeping the apex FIG. 50. IRON TIE END. FIG. 52. FRONT END OF 1? IN. GABLE, OR SIDE WALL SHOWING HEADS FOR TYING IN FRONTS. of each of the angles on the faces of the walls exactly plumb by a frequent ap- plication of the "Plumb Rule," Fig. 19. In fact corners and angles are the most important parts of walls, as from them lines are stretched to guide the courses straight and level, and conse- quently ensure a plumb and level con- struction. The diagrams of six courses, each represented in Figs. 57, 58, 59 and 60, give the construction of brick walls, 12, 16, 20 and 24 inches in thickness, and being self explanatory require no further description. Concerning the methods of bonding; "Party" or intermediate walls occur- ring either transversely or longitudin- FIG. 51. 8 IN. GABLE OR SIDE WALL, SHOWING BLOCKING HEADS AND ANCHORS. BRICKLAYING. ally, and cutting into front, rear or aide walls the reader will see the bricklay- ing of these courses fully illustrated by the diagrams Figs. 61, 62, 63, 64 and 65, which show how the joints are scattered, and explain here the application of the " Story Rod." An important essential to every bricklaying foreman engaged in building construction. This "Rod" is simply a good stiff j i I i.i.i FIG. 55. 8-iN. CORNER. FIG. 56. or "staggered," and the two walls thoroughly tied together course by course. While commenting on the subject of corners and angles, from which the measurements of all walls are regulated and built, it is advisable to introduce strip of wood made of a spruce IX'' x 2" furring strip or 2" x 2' stud, spaced out by thicknesses of brick and mortar joints to the height of each story. For example, if the first story be 10'-6" in the clear, finished, that is with the floors laid, and the plaster on the ceil- BRICKLAYING, 31 ings, then the rod must be the full length in the clear of the floor beams, or fiom the top edges of the first story beams to the bottom edges of theseoond story beams above and be spaced out in the following manner: First, the rod is measured off and cut the exact height of the story, namely 10"-8", and then divided up for the courses, by finding the number required to be laid to reach this height. This can be done in several very simple ways: First, by taking 2^ inches for each course and dividing the height in inches by 2^ inches thus : 128 ill \ \f I . I. J L J L FIG. 57. 12-iN. R. A. CORNER. inches in thickness, but they are some- times built thicker in engineering and building constructions, increasing by 4 inch or 8 inch thicknesses to the great- est desired. In building these walls the usual practice is to reproduce and dupli- cate the bondings shown in the preced- ing engravings, to suit the increased thickness, and by grouting in the courses to fill all possible voids, thus making a solid mass, if the grouting hardens in the interior of the wall. This is doubtful, especially when the J [ n r FIG. 58. 16-iN. R. A. CORNER. inches divided by 2^=51 -No. of courses required: or, again assume 5 courses to build 12}4 inches in height. Then 10' 8" x 12" =128 inches. For 51 brick courses 2" thick allow 102 inches. For 51 y 2 mortar joints allow 25 X inches, which will make 127^ inches, and allow Yz inch for leveling up the beams. The foregoing diagrams and engrav- ings with their descriptions embrace brick walls increasing from 4 to 24 grout is made of Rosendale Cement, unless it is made up with a large pro- portion of cement thoroughly tempered and not too liquid, as borings and in- cisions made in very thick walls have revealed that in the interior the cement had not set after being built for months. The cement being inside is entirely pro- tected from the direct hardening action of the atmosphere and consequently it sets very slowly. BRICKLAYING. Acute Angle Corners and Intersecting Walls. We will now take up those walls, the plan of which is an acute or obtuse angle, and will commence with Fig. 66 which is the plan of one course of an acute angled corner. This sometimes occurs on the general house plan, on an inside lot, or Gore, as it is termed, by- real estate men in many localities. In this engraving the wall is represented work, but is not good bricklaying as the "pigeon holes" form receptacles for ac- cumulation of water, snow, ice and fre- quently nests of birds, and the result is that the brickwork rapidly deteriorates. When possible, therefore, it is better to obtain molded brick for these angles. It must be remembered, however, that the above description refers only to ordinary rough brickwork, and not to front work, where pigeon holes are rarely introduced, as their artistic J L r "i - i i> 1 i=rl J I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 -Be J [ J UJ FIG. 59. 20-iN. R. A. CORNER. J I 1 1 - , 1 1 I - FIG. 60. 24 -IN R. A. CORNER 6 COURSES. as built out almost to a point, or the ex- treme apex of the angle; and is "pigeon holed" or laid up with vacant spaces on the right and left faces of each eleva- tion. These "pigeon holes" are un- avoidably made necessary by laying the bricks with square ends, which is done to economize time and labor, instead of using bricks with ends molded to the angle, or cutting the bricks to the bevel necessary to fit. The foregoing method is often followed in the cheaper class of effect is very doubtful, and not popular with architects. Fig. 67 will illustrate the construction of this form of corner when built with an 8 or 12-inch flat end. It is just as strong, saves brick, and lessens the number of pigeon holes, so that it is a good form to follow on an inside angle. In this diagram the head- ing courses are shown in a 12-inch wall as in the one preceding. Fig. 68, X and Y, show the ordinary obtuse angled brick corner which is BRICKLAYING. 33 much used in the construction of modern city tenements, dwellings and other buildings where a legally fixed percentage of light and air is required to all the rooms, especially, on inside lots, where, in tenements, this plan has been found to give the best results in obtaining light and air and economizing space. The plans of the courses and elevation in these engravings show the usual obtuse angled corner of 22}4 de- grees, and give the bricklaying for same, which, with the bonds illustrated in Fig. 59, will give the entire construc- tion', as here the bricks are cut to a tain great strength and form the main- stay of the straight walls to be built to them, they should always be laid up and bonded, course by course, and pro- perly racked out for each straight wall. The practice of carrying up one straight wall before another which abuts against it at right angles is a deleterious one and should never be permitted, because two walls built separately are much weaker than when tied together at every course, ar d they will never settle equally as the one first built will come to its permanent bear- I .1 .1. .1. I. I. I. I, I. I. FIG. 61. BONDING OF Two S-IN. WALLS. close joint on the corner. A-B denotes the recurring and alternating on each course of the pigeon holes. Concerning the bricklaying usually followed when building intersecting walls of various thicknesses, very little written description is required, as the bonds resemble very much those of the right angled corners, described in the straight wall description and the work will be fully understood by close and careful study. Fig. 70, 71, 72, 73, 74 give the bonding of 8 inch, 12-inch, 16 inch, 20-inch and 24 inch walls, which cross and intersect each other, so as to form four right angles. As these important walls when built oon- FIG. 62. 12-iN. WALLS. ings before that built later; and the result is a permanent strain at the joint. To save time many good bricklayers re- sort to forming 4 or 8 inch pockets in the face of the straight wall and build in them heavy T-anchors thus giving an opportunity to lay up the straight wall more rapidly and economically from a line, than if carried up and bonded by courses. The question of economizing time and working to advantage is a serious matter with contracting bricklayers, as many details have to be considered ; notably, those of changing and moving scaffolding and preparing, conveying, and accumulating tools and material on BRICKLAYING. I . I I . I I I . t I I II I I, I. I I ' ' ' . 1 J II I FIG. 6316 IN. WALLS. FIG. 64. I I . rL. I I I I I 1111.1.1 ~ FIG. 65. BRICKLAYING. 35 FIG. 63. A12-IN. ACUTE ANGLED CORNER. FIG. 67. HEADING COURSE 12-iN. WALL, ACUTE ANGLED CORNER. FIG. 68- Y. OBTUSE OR OBLIQUE BRICK ANGLE, OUTSIDE CORNER WITH PIGEON-HOLE. BRICKLAYING. the scaffolds when ready to be worked on. For this reason foremen adopt and follow methods which will avoid as 1 1 1 R 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ^i i i 1 | 1.1 1 > 1 J 1 1 1 K g^ i i i i i i ' H r ! 1 \ \ 1 ^ i i i 1 S-A FIG. 68-X. much as possible shifting scaffolds, and construct their walls, so their men will be kept continuously at work, by sub- stituting for one method, another, which, though not as reliable, is still FIG. 70. 8-iN. INTERSECTING "VVAL.LS. sufficiently good to be safe building. The introduction of " Pockets," "Block- ing," and anchors in laying up cross- walls and intersecting walls instead of laying by courses may be cited as an example of varying construction which is of common occurrence in ordinary houses, and though not defective, it is nevertheless not good brickwork. The voids formed by pockets, which are usually left every alternate 6 courses in height, weaken a straight wall, and it LU 1 * FIG. 69. INSIDE AND OUTSIDE OBLIQUE OBTUSE BRICK CORNERS. remains weak until the projected block- ing on the one occurring at right angles is built to it. Many bricklayers project FIG. 71. a blocking 4 inches from the surfaces of the straight walls to fit into the ends of these abutting, in order to obviate this BRICKL VYING. 37 1,1,1 .1.1 J L J L .LJ J I - 1 .. 1 1 J i i 1 1 1, i i i h H II 1 1 1 ^ i i (5) ,j_ J L I I __L L_L FIG. 78. BRICKLAYING. T3 bn -1 ) I i i f i j LJ \ I i t 3 \ \ <=Sa ( 5) 1 1 FIG. 74. BRICKLAYING. 39 FIG. 72. (See FIG. 75. ! ---r-J- r, Sy/j/y. ^-*j | | |f4-" ; 1 1 1 1 JDe i , 1 1 1 1 1 "I 1 ! l 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 II 1 1 le /o _L_J L J L JLL FIG. 75 A. 40 BRICKLAYING. weakness, but it is never satisfactory in a constructive sense, so t-iat in good work every course for all four angles should be fully bonded and racked out for the straight walls as they occur on the plans. Fig. 75 represents an 8 by 12 inch recess pocket or chase, for obtaining a tie by blocking out from another wall which is to be built afterwards. These are formed of different regular sizes, according to the widths, lengths and thicknesses of the bricks, and according to the thickness of the wall, and have the anchors built in as represented in the engraving. They occur about every six courses in height, but are only an expedient to avoid laying course by course. Fig. 75 A. shows the application of the 'DEAD MAN" or temporary pier built by bricklayers for the purpose of carry- ing up the lines necessary when laying climates, because the sun's rays acting daily and continuously on one or two sides, keeping them warm, and the opposite sides being cold, the masonry will bend towards the heat, so that the mortar should have great cohesive power. CHAPTER VI. LAYING BRICK IN FLEMISH, " RUNNING," AND "HERRING BONE " BONDS. "FRONTWORK. " FLEMISH BOND. CONSIDERING now the laying of brick in Flemish bond, which dif- fersfrom English bond, previously described, in being less valuable in its constructive features and conse- quently much less applied and followed I ! 'I FIG. 77. up a brick gable or any wall which steps or reaches back; the object of the "DEAD MAN" being to regulate the proper heights and levels of the courses. The application of this expedient is fully illustrated in the engraving. Brick chimneys and parapet walls above the roof line should invariably be (aid up in cement, especially in extreme by architects and builders, we will com- mence by illustrating an 8-inch brick wall built in this bond. Fig. 76 B shows one course with two elevations, A and C. It will be seen here that the bricks are laid "headers " and "stretchers " one after the other for the full length of the course. The sec- ond course, as at A, is laid entirely a BRICKLAYING. 41 " stretcher " course so that the wall hav- ing too many longitudinal and trans- verse joints, is too expensive for a bear- ing wall. For ornamental purposes, as a fence wall, garden wall, or where ex- pense is not considered, this form might be followed. The elevation C makes a handsome wall, but for structural pur- poses it also is valueless and expensive a ad consequently seldom employed in building construction. FIG. 78. The 12-inch wall laid in this bond, which is explained by the two courses and the elevation and projection of cor- rect and incorrect bonds, Figs. 77 and 78, have the same fault namely, too many longitudinal joints or too few headers, in proportion to the material and labor expended. FIG. 79. Fig. 79 represents the construction of the corner of a 12-inch wall laid up in double Flemish bond, showing the head- ers and stretchers on both faces of the wall, which makes it adaptable for work which is to remain uncovered, for face work, ornamental work, or any descrip- tion of brick work where expense of time or workmanship are not consid- ered. It is usual in thick constructive work of this kind to back up with Eng- lish bond, in which case the headers should be broken every alternate course. Fig. 80 gives two more courses of this UL Hfi f, r Course. /- / / / / / / // z i i / / / / / 1 1 \ 1 1 r \ a Hh B I ri ri FIG. 80. bond and illustrates how half bricks are inserted for dummy headers, which necessarily involves an expenditure of much time and labor in getting Bats to FIG. 81. suit, compels more longitudinal joints and consequently makes a weaker wall. A. comparison of this engraving and Fig. 79 will show the superiority of the former, which is the best to follow should Flemish bond be specified or de- sired, as it gives a fuller bond, saves cutting, and makes a stronger wall. The application of Flemish bond to 16-inch walls will be comprehended by referring to Fig. 81, the plan of one course, as laid. This, too, is open to serious criticism on account of the lack of absolute bond and Ion gitudinal joints, so it is rarely specified by architects or carried out by mason builders. The writer has seen some samples of Flem- ish bond introduced in front work, where rock-faced bricks of standard FIG. 82. 42 BRICKLAYING. sizes were laid up in Flemish bond and backed up with rough bricks of the same size. This job was very effective in fronts of Colonial design, but the bricks laid diagonally back of the ch ; ped course are laid thus to obtain a diagonal or mitre bond, by the pressure downward of the next course which will be laid. This will be understood by referring to the dotted lines on the engraving, as they denote the joint lines of the next course recurring. The above method is applicable to both Ro- FIG. 83. walls were non-bearing and well an- chored back to the floor beams. All bonds in walls and piers laid up in Flemish bond should be thoroughly bonded in every course. RUNNING BOND. As we will presume the reader is now familiar with ^he construction of the bonds followed in rough work, we will now take up the subject of front brick work, where bricks of superior finish, quality and size are introduced for the purpose of producing an architectural or artistic effect. For example, in the ou-side surface or surfaces of walls forming the elevations or for inside and outside court, light shaft, kitchen, or other walls. In this work the bricks are laid entirely on stretcher courses, or what is termed "Running Bond,' to get the best surface. The construction of hisbond is com - paratively simple, as five of the stretcher courses are usually laid as in English bond, with the sixth course "clipped" or the corners of the bricks cut off with a trowel or hammer and chisel in the way seen at Fig. 82, which is the view of a course of "Clips," as they are called, laid in a 12-inch wall. The man brick of standard size or those of the same size as common brick, which space out to suit the clips. The difference is that the Roman brick must be spaced out to suit the rough brick backing. If the wall is a bearing wall greater care is required in its construction . Fig. 83 is the perspective of a brick corner with Terra Cotla Quoins laid with running bond. The use of clip courses has, however, now been ebviated and partially super- seded by the placing on the market of the square bricks suitable for bonding Flemish or running bond. Fig. 84, where this brick, popularly called Amer- ican, or Chicago bond, is shown, as laid in the course. These brick give a splen- did tie back into the rough brick back- ing, but they are unhandy to lay and as a result there are many cities where they are rarely used . Oftentimes architects, for the pur- pose of varying or suiting designs, specify front brickwork laid up in regu- lar English bond, in which case, if brick of Roman sizes are to be laid, it will be necessary to space up the front bricks to header bond every sixth course into the backing. This can always be most accurately done by building a small sample on a little platform, to de- termine just how many courses of front work it will be required to build to get the heading course to bond with the six courses of backing. Before Calabar, Gold, Mottled, Pcm- peiian, or other front bricks of the darker colors are laid, each brick should be carefully turned over and examined to determine first if it be dry, ard then, which is the fair, clean front edge, as the reverse edge is generally streaked with black marks from the kiln at right BRICKLAYING. 43 angles to the faces, and these make an unsightly job and mar the general ap- pearance of the front. If perchance any should get in, either wet or marred, they should, when discovered, be cut out and replaced. Each front brick being laid should first be dipped in water and then buttered on the bottom face at each edge and down the middle with mortar. "When they are laid on the wall each brick should be carefully shoved to its place, or up to the one preceding in the course, and then gently rubbed down and tapped till the joint is -the exact thickness required. Ex- treme care, time and skill is required to do this work correctly and thoroughly in order to keep all vertical joints on a plumb line, all horizontal joints gauged true and level and of the same thick- ness, and all the front edges of the bricks on the face of the wall fair, plumb and true. Returns of "face brickwork" must be always carefully bonded and tied into the backing by solid headers or iron anchors. FIG. 85 HBREING BONING. In front or face brickwork the joints should never exceed 8-16 of an inch, ex- cept where regular sizes in Flemish bond are used, in which case i of an inch would not be irregular. Front brick usually measure 25 inches to 10 courses, common brick 24 inches to 9 courses, So face bricks must be properly spaced out to thoroughly bond, and all iron anchors, which are frequently inserted with glazed, colored or enamel bricks with hollow faces, beds or sides, or sometimes with Roman bricks, will re- quire to be built in on each course. If the front work be backed up with Lafarge, PuzzaJona or lirre mortar to prevent the black liquid in the backing, when laid in Rosendale cement mortar from WOT king through to the face of tbe work, this will require to be done, as each series of front courses is laid, c&re being taken not to jar or disturb the front work The rough backing may then be laid, or the front "backed ip, ' as it is technically termed. Fig. 85 gives two designs of "herring bone" bond, or "herring boning," as many bricklayers term it This is not properly a bond and scarcely destrves the name, but it is often introduced in fronts and gives an excellent effect when artistically introduced in tre de- sign. It is most applicable in panels in interiors, wainscots, soffit of aiches, etc., or any place where the brick used are colored or glazed or enameled. The brickwork shown in projection at the top of Fig. 86 represents a good piece of modern front work when laid, show- ing inside and outside angles with dif- ferent bonds, and here the reader will recognize for the first time the import- ance of the workmanship required to make a first-class job. Laying front bricks as they are manufactured at the- beginning of the 20th century is an art, and requires a large expenditure of time and much manual skill on the part of bricklayers in order that the work may be laid up in its details, to be as near perfection as possible That the me- chanical skill of the bricklayer has ad- Tanced and kept pace with the improve- ment in bricks and terra cotta can be seen in the beautiful elevations of build- ings which have been erected in our cities within the last 25 years. Refer- ence to the engravings, Figs. 87. 88 and 89, will show the great care and calcu- lation which the bricklayer must exer- cise in working out the complex details of front brickwork, designed by modern architects, as they illustrate a few of the many different details of front brick which from their multifarious and ever- varying nature tax the ingenuity of the mechanic heavily in laying and obtain- ing a perfect job. An eminent archi- tect, at present practising in New York, once stated in the presence of the writer that " he who would be great in his pro- fession must have the greatest knowl- edge of its details;" so that these en- gravings are submitted with a view to show the reader how great an amount of detail there is in conetructive and architectural brickwork, and guide him in superintending. 44 BRICKLAYING. ROMAN BRICK.. 11 INCH BY 4 INCH. 12 - - e ... (On 4 : r : Six INCH er Tmi/t IMCH Ron A/I ON CORKERS AflDJAnSi) FOR SIX inCH BOMD WITH TnELVt mcH ROMANS. fIGHT IttCH ROMANS TWELVE- IHCH ROMAHS POP EIGHT INCH REVfAlS. in EIGHT INCH.pOUR INCH 0ri!>. ALSO FOR FOUR IflCH BOND. FOUR INCH BYTfh'lMCH ROnAM OM COSHERS AMD JAMBS FOR SIX IMCH BOMD WITH TYTELVF IICH MO. 156. 7i in. SQUARE, FOR THREE COl/RSFS OR STANDARD BRICK MQ 151. 150 PROJECTION, F-OVR INCHES" ortt mcH PROJECTION STANDARD THICKNESS. STANDARD TOKKfltiS. SiLOflG. THESE SHAPES MY BE MADE ROMAN THICKHMJ. 6 1 E f?ETUf?ff. FOR fto4 FIG. 86 FRONT WORK AND DETAILS. Large surfaces of front brickwork, if improperly or carelessly laid, show "hacks," or little shadows and com- paratively rugged surfaces when under the rays of strong sunlight, which ac- caatuate all the faults and defects de- veloped in the laying, and render them distinctly visible to the naked eye, but unfortunately the sun does not enter iatothematteruntilafterallthescaflold- ing is removed and the front "washed down," so that it is difficult to get an entire view. The work should bs done right at first, and be free from imper- fections which will surely render the building unsightly. Regarding the matter of ' ' pointing and washing down." This is usually done when the fronts are topped out and the cornices set and backed up. After pointing each and every vertical and horizontal mortar joint, the wash- ing down should begin at the top and be done with brushes dipped in a liquid solution composed of one part muriatic acid and four parts of water, thoroughly mixed till its taste resembles that of lemonade. As the front is washed down and all patching and regulating done, the scaffolding is taken down and the j ob is completed. Some owners, for the purpose of preserving the work from BRICKLAYING. HfADER. MCE KW/1, RIGHT OR LffT. SCCHOfl Of fl Ifll. STANDARD. nJ62. STAflDARQ OnE IflCH PROJECTION. n 163. STANDARD. fROflT VIEW OF n I&4 HEADER. USfD IM JAMBS, BONDING YYITM STANDARD BfllCK. Tl IS*. RETURN. HEADER. FACE RETURN PROJECTION 2 INCHES. HEIGHTH 4^- INCHES. FOR BELT COURSES, TO BOflO YYITH OfU COURSE OF STAHDARD BRICK Sff I2I rwo COURSE .. ., .. .. if 3. ftl85. RETURN SIAMOARO THICKHESS. 3 INCH PflfljECTIOM STRETCHER. n!86 STRETCHER. STANDARD THICKNESS. 0/i IMCH PROJECTJOtt 0|87. ROMAn CHECKfR. tl ififi ROHAN CttCKtl lilfjO) P(?OJ. n e lay AHD n*i68 / WED 11 IS9. STAHPARD DENTAL AflD CdECKtft. 2IMCHPRW FIG. 87 DETAILS OF FRONT WORK. weather stains and other possible in- juries, have their front brickwork rubbed down or coated with one or two coats of pure raw linseed oil, but this afterwards can be done from a swing- ing scaffold. As much of the artistic success of front bricklaying depends upon the proper selection and blending of the colors of bricks and front mortars, only great care, past experience, or the build- ing of a small sample of the proposed work should determine what is suitable. Small samples of a dozen brick or more may be built to select those most desir- able, the mortars being mixed accord- ing to the following rules: DIRECTIONS FOR MIXING MORTAR COLORS. First mix the color with the dry sand, then add the cold slacked lime, and again mix thoroughly. It is very im portant that the color be uniformly mixed. If it is not added at first, but left until the mortar is made, the labor of mixing is doubled. The more thor- ough the mixture, the less color is re- quired, and the cheaper it is for the consumer. 46 BRICKLAYING. SPlAY. 135! Ttn INCH 110* SPLAY. TO 132. STAflOARD 5PUY, IZOt MQISS 98* hO!55 " nags. HAir ROW no. Bonoa WITH W Jl i LttO'5. 30, 31 Si 52 TOR VfftriML 5. HORIZOHTAL CHECKER TTOHK. H0.33. PROJtCTIOrt i.| incHf e. i "HQ34-. "OCTA&OM BRICK, 8^.JMCHES LOflQ AUSO vscp roR pen Ma 3S. FIG. 88. FRONT BRICK DETAILS. ont Ei6Nw PLWI. MO 34 DIRECTIONS FOR USING MORTAL COLORS. Red, Brown and Buff. For laying 1,000 brick with spread joints, use about 50 pounds of color to two and one half bushels of lime and one-half yard of sand. For buttered joints use 45 pounds of color. Black. For laying 1,000 brick with spread joints, use from 40 to 45 pounds of black color to two and one half bushels of lime and one-half yard of sand. For buttered joints use from 25 to 35 pounds <;olor. For Mottled Work. Mix each color in a separate portion of the mortar or plaster, then produce the mottled effect by combining the dif- ferent colored mortars. The following is the approximate weight of mortar colors, Sterling brand, in each barrel : Red in bbls., 400 to 450 Ibs. (dry). Buff and brown, 400 to 450 Ibs. (dry). Black, 400 to 800 Ibs. (dry). ******* SIZES OF FRONT BRICKS. There is some difference in size be- tween bricks of the lighter and the BRICKLAYING. 47 f1l68 RtTVRn 4'X4"T04"X8' STRETCHER 4X8I HEADtR STANDARD THICKflCSS. PROJECTION l IMCHE5 n 170. STRETCHER FOR f|9l32. 5Et PAGE 13 STAHDARDTHlCKNfSJ. ROMAn THIMNfSS TO ORDER 4|incHf5 WOE. - MAD MM STANDARD* 'ITHOUT KVEl FACt RETURN fOR NI43 5CC PAGf VXD IHSfT50fFOVR Ih PAflaS THROUGH TOUR COUK5E5 Or STANDARD BRICK. ntoe WTHOUT BEVH, PROJKTIOH SlMfHCJ. 5TAHDARD THICKtttSS THICK riE5S TO ORDtR- fio 174. PROJtniOn 2 IMCHfS. STANDARD THICK/1ESS OrtlY MAY BE USED TYITH D n Mnl IffTSTARTtR. H? 179 STRtTCHfR. RIGHT STARTER. SECTION ('. OCCUPIES TXRIECOURStS OP 5TAHDARD BRiCK. NlTRfO QyfllMS AMOPACt RtTURMS MADE TO ORDER. PROJ. 2 incuts. STAT1DARD THICKNESS. RfcMAD THICK Mt5i TO ORKR. FOR AMY MOUL6EO BRICK MADf TOOROtR. FIG. 89. SOME MOLDED FRONT BRICKS. darker shades however, all bricks of any one shade are uniform in size. The following is approximate: Approximate size in inches. Standard size, Red Sy & x 2^ x 4 Standard size, other colors S% x 2% x 4*4 Roman size, Red 11^ x 1|^ x 4 Roman size,other colors.ll^ x 1^$ x4 Molded shapes are standard size, un- less otherwise specified. Molded shapes shown as standard size can usually be made to order of Roman thickness and standard length. Impervious "White or Grey Face. Approximate size in inches. Standard size 8% x 2% x 4 Roman size 11 x 1 x 4 American size stretcher. American size header. . . American size *quoin.. . . American size return.. . Enameled Bricks. Approximate size. . . . s s x 2 x 4 s x 2X x 4 x 2X x 4 Enameled surfaces. x 2X and 4 x 2% x 2X and 2^ x 4 and 48 BRICKLAYING. Approximate size. Roman size stretcher 11>6 x 1ft x 4 Roman size header lift x 1ft x 4 Roman size *quoin Roman size return Roman Tile Enameled on flat.. . . lift x 1'ft x 4 Roman Tile Enameled on flat quoin lift x ift x 4 English size stretcher 9 x3 x 4 English size header 9 x3 x4 English size *quoin 9 x3 x 4 ' English size return 9 x3 x 4^ English size Enameled on flat. . . 9 x 3 x 4} English size Enameled on flat *quoin 9 x3 x 4, _ Soap brick, American size 8^ x 2# x 2^ 8> * These quoins are made with either square -or round corners. Enameled sui faces. x ij x l] X 1; x 1 ; lift x 4 X x4 x3 x3 x3 x3 and 4x1^ and 4x1^ and 4 x and 4x1^ and y 2 x 3 and 4> x 3 x3 x 4^ and x 2}/ x 3 Enameled Bricks of superior quality are manufactured in the following sizes. They may be obtained enameled on three sides if desired : English size, sq. corners. 9 x3 x 4> English size, round corners. 9 x3 x4^ Roman size, round and square corners 11# x 1# x 4 Amer. size, round and square corners 8^ x 2# x 4 American soap, square corners 8^x2^x2^ Glazed Bricks. These bricks having a transparent glaze on the surface of a white pink, buff or grey color, produce beautiful effects, and the glazed surface being impervious to moisture give a brick of high value from the standpoint of cleanliness and hygiene. They may be obtained same shapes and sizes as enameled bricks. COLORS. Buff, grey, gold, mottled, and Pom- peiian bricks are not assorted to shade closely as is customary with red bricks. This variety, in harmonious shades, adds to the beauty of a building. CHAPTER VII. BRICK ARCHES, LINTELS AND PIERS. PARAPET AND HOLLOW WALLS. OPENINGS in brick walls are spanned in two ways; by solid stone, wood or iron lintels and girders, or by brick or stone arches of different forms. So the sub- ject of brick arches will now be taken up by first illustrating, at Fig. 90-A, a simple stone lintel 4 inches thick, 3 courses of brick high and having 4 or 5 inches of bearing. The forms of brick arches generally used in buildings are named the flat arch or the camber arch, the segment arch, the semicircular arch, the elliptic arch, and the Gothic arch. These may all be built of brick, so we will com- mence with simple segment arch over window frames, door frames, etc. FIG. 90 A-P. The construction of this arch is com- paratively simple, as the bricks are laid face to face with the bottom edge rest- ing on the -'centre," a wooden frame- work set temporarily below to carry it. The bricks are laid, from the skewbacks at the line of window or door jambs to the centre or crown of the arch, each brick being thoroughly beddea in mor- tar face to face and laid true on the face and edge. "When the centre or crown is reached the arch or "row- lock" of brick is there wedged tight, BRICKLAYING. 49 by fitting a tapered piece of brick to form a key. Should a second "I I iiijO! L nn^ Fuoi? 5^ FIG. 110. ELEVATION OF CHIMNEY BREAST AND FLUES. detail of the full brick construction of a modern chimney breast, built on the 5th floor of an apartment house The side or gable wall is 12 inches thick and BRICKLAYING. 59 the chimney, containing 5 flues, is pro- jected into the room 8 inches, which is done for the purpose of obtaining 8 inches of brickwork on the outside or face of the wall for necessary strength. This proj ection is termed the ' ' Chimney BreasV and is necessary to contain the flues. It will be observed that the flues are lined with fire clay or terra cotta " linings," which are short lengths of cylindrical shape, set end on end, from the mouth or intake of each flue at the bottom to the outlet at the chimney top, thus forming a clean, smooth conduit for the fire and smoke from stove or fire- place to the outer air. Each room or fireplace for gas or coal should have its Fia. 111. ROUND AND SQUARE FLUE LININGS. own flue, as it has been found they will not draw properly if carried into each other at any point. At Fig. 110, I illus- trate the elevation of the chimney breast and flues which is given to the bricklayer with the set of plans furnished by the architect, to enable the bricklayer to build the chimneys from story to story as the walls of the structure are laid up. The direction of the flues, their positions in the breasts, and offsets at each story, are here clearly defined, thus enabling the bricklayer to keep the several lines s de- signed. Fig. Ill shows the different forms of flue lining or pipes at present in use. They are from 20 to 30 inches long and of the following dimensions of sectional area, round, square or buckeye, with corners slightly rounded as desired: r. FIG. 112. FLUE LINING. Round (Without sockets) Inside measure. 6 ins. 9 ins. 15 ins. 21 ins. 7 " 10 " 18 " 24 " 8 " 12 " 20 " Openings 4 times price of 1 ft. straight pipe. 60 BRICKLAYING. Square Outside measure. 4ix8Hns. ?ix7* ins. 13x13 ins. 4^x13 * 8^x8* ' 13x18 " 4|xl8 " 8|xl3 " 18x18 " 6 x!2 i{ 8jxl8 " Openings 3 times price of 1 ft. of pipe. Smaller sizes for gas stove flues are now made and sold by all dealers in masons' materials. The square with rounded corners is the most desirable for square flues, as the soot does not accumulate in the cor- ners and clog the conduit. Parging or platering flues without linings should never be done, as it is liable to bake hard and drop off, thus forming crev- ices. All joints of the interiors of flue shafts should be struck smooth. Care also should be taken when gath- ering over or corbelling over for fire- places, as they diminish to the width of the flue. The curve should be easy and not have space enough left in the throat of the flue for air to lodge. Every flue to draw well should be built the same size from bottom to top, or a little smaller towards the top. have no sudden bends, and a smooth interior surface. All flue linings should invariably be carried at least a foot above the level of the top of the roof beams, and all chim- nevs carried above the highest of the roofs and buildings in close proximity, to avoid the possibility of down draft, which is caused by the wind ricochet- ting against th surface of the highest chimney; also all chimneys should be coped with stone, terra cotta or iron, as shown at Fig. 112. Furnace flues, or those designed to sustain great heats, are usually of larger sectional area, and should be lined up with firebrick 20 or 25 feet from the mouth or intake. Not less than eight inches of brick- work is necessary between smoke flues and wooden brains to obviate all possi- bility of the beams igniting and causing a fire between them. CHAPTER IX. ANCHORING, BRACING AND FURRING BRICK WALLS. Concerning the bracing of wall* after they are laid up to the required level of ,he tier of beams above, I would state hat the methods generally followed are For Side Walls or Ends of Beams. For Fronts or Rears. For Party or Intermediate Walls. For Anchoring Stone Ashlars into Brick Walls. FIG. 118. ANCHORS. SIZES OF WROUGHT IRON BUILDING ANCHORS. Side. 1 in. xiin. li ins x f in. li ins. x i " li ' x i " li " xf " 2 ' xi " H " xi " Watt or hook. 1 in. xiin. liins. xf in. liins. xi li " xi " H " xf " 2 ' xi " li " xi " Strap. liins. xiin. li ins. x i in. li " xf " 2 " xf li " xi " 2 " xi ' li " xf .' Length: 12 in., 14 in., 16 in., 18 in., 20 in,, 24 in., 30 in., and 36 in. either to build 2 foot strips of 2x4 slud- ding into the wall at about two-thirds of its height between stories and to these to nail scantling or planks, placed diagonally against the inside face of the wall, which are braced and nailed to the floor beams below. These should be spaced not over 10 feet apart and be made solid and stable to keep the green walls from being jarred while the beams are being set, or dangerously vibrated by the springing of the hod-hoisting machine. Twelve-inch walls, and some- times walls of greater thickness, should be braced while the mortar is soft, by placing plank against them every ten feet and shoring the plank from the floor beams. This bracing is particular- ly important where newly built walls without openings are exposed to the wind. BRICKLAYING. 61 For the same reasons, a centre line of temporary fore and aft partitions should be inserted before the hod hoist- ing machine starts running, or the laborers commence carrying stuff across the floor beams from the machine, as both are likely to spring the walls to a bulge, force them out of plumb, or start the joints. As to the methods of anchoring brick walls, or securing them to the beams and girders, there is no difference of opinion among experts about its im- portance in maintaining the stability and safety of brick walls, so on this account I here give the best modern practice now prevailing in this import- ant detail. y Fia. 114. WALL ANCHORS APPLIED. Fig. 113 of the engravings shows the anchors mostly employed with their va- rious applications and sizes, and Fig. 114 the practcal work which they do in holding the walls of a building to- gether. X, Fig. 114, represents part of the first floor tier of iron or steel beams of an apartment or dwelling house, set on cast iron templets on a cellar or basement wall, and two styles of anchors, oue being a pin anchor, and one a strap anchor, bolted to the web of the beam; the strap anchor is more expensive than the pin, but it has a better holding, and allows the beams to be moved at any time without injuring the wall. Y shows a form of anchor employed in the western States, but the use of the FIG. 115. SECTION OF WALL AND ANCHORED BEAMS. FIG. 116. 12 AND 8-iN. WALLS ANCHORED. BRICKLAYING. wooden strip built in the wall is obso- lete and not good practice, as it shrinks and rots. Z in the same engraving shows how strap anchors are nailed to abutting floor beams. In order to give the reader a fuller ex- planation of the necessity of thoroughly tying side walls as they are built. I would refer him to the section of a side wall, Fig. 1 15, where a wall steps off from 16 to ElO. 9.U-PLAN OF FLOORS SHOWIKO METHOD OF ANCHpRI^^ FRONT AND) REAH WALLS BO > BiA\r.d if possible on every 4th beam, and not over 6 feet apart and be well nailed to beams and brickwork FIG. 118 ANCHOR FOR STEEL BEAMS. made good against the cross bar, also T and strap anchors where they occur on side party and intermediate walls on abutting beams should be nailed on the 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 III 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ' s!S^haj!^BLs*sihsai L r =n= 6 3E? FIG. 119 HOLLOW BRICK OR POROUS TERRA COTTA FURRING. BRICKLAYING. Fia. 120 COMMON METHOD OF FIRE- PROOFING PARTITIONS. same line of beams. Fig. 116 is the sec- tion of a 12 and 8-inch wall similarly anchored. Coming now to the subject of securing front walls laid up with face brickwork I would draw attention to the way this is done by referring to Fig. 117 where the positions of the anchors are designated, as they hook over the fourth beam back from the front. These anchors are spe- cially made long to reach back over at least 4 or 5 beams and are of thicker and wider iron than those represented in Fig. 113. The beams are prevented from springing by inserting and nailing a hardwood strip placed diagonally and let flush into the top of the floor beams. Fig. 118 of the illustrations gives the form of hook anchor mostly used to an- chor walls to the beams and girders of steel frames used in construction of high buildings. They are made long or short as desired. For terra cotta, stone, ashlar columns or other special architectural details, special anchors are usually made to meet special requirements, but the inside end is generally wrought with a hook to hook over the top or bottom flange of the beams or girders as speci- fied. Fig 120 illustrates the simplest mod- ern method in use for preventing fire from traveling up from one line of lath and plaster partition to that directly o^er it, above the tier of beams The scheme is to fill in the spaces between the beams with brick and mortar, in the way rep- resented in the engraving, the brick being laid on the top plate of the parti- tion below. When it is necessary to make a partition entirely fireproof, hor- izontal pieces of bridging are inserted, about two or three rows in the entire height, and on these pieces the bricks are laid, breaking joint in the bond, so as to stiffen the whole partition, or the 3X6X12 3 x 8 x 12 4X8X 12 4x8x12 FIG. 121 HOLLOW BRICK FOR PARTITIONS. BRICKLAYING. spaces are filled up with mineral wool. When the partition is constructed of studding set on flat or only 2^ inches thick, the bricks are laid on the top of each other, edge to edge. CHAPTER X. GENERAL, IMPORTANT AND MISCELLANE- OUS DETAILS OF BRICKWORK. FlREPROOFINQ WOOD FLOORS, PARTI- TIONS AND DOORS. In connection with floors I would here draw attention to the method of fire- proofing, or deafening floors, which consists of a series of wood cleats or strips nailed about four inches down on each side of the floor beams. On these strips -g- inch or 1-inch boards are placed and nailed, so as to form a shell or pocket between the floor and ceiling below. These pockets are after- wards filled in with a concrete made of ashes and cement, thus rendering the floor both fire and sound proof. The writer believes, however, that the water in the concrete is absorbed by the pores of the wood, and after a time a dry-rot ensues which is su e to injure the wood, so as to impair its strength and render it unsafe. Care, then, should be taken not to put in the con- crete slimy or very wet. Hard and porous Furring Blocks are sold, as Fig 121, 1^x12x12 and 2x12x12. Haverstraw size Hollow Brick in stock for furring or lining outside walls, are obtainable likewise. In connection with the last I might quote from a paper presented before a recent meet- ing of the Iowa Tile and Brick Asso- ciation, by L. W. Denison, some very interesting points being made relative to the advantages of hollow brick. Among other things the author said : ' ' The airspace makes a dry frost proof wall. The plaster is applied direct to the brick, thus cutting off all expense of lathing. They take one-third less mortar than common brick. In a 12-inch wall we have three separate air spaces as a non conductor of heat and cold. The hollow brick at common brick measure are much lighter, weigh- ing only 2.6' pounds, while our com- mon brick weigh 4 pounds; thus they have advantages over common brick in freiarht, hauling, handling and hoisting to place in the building. Fifty per cent, more wall can be laid per day of hollow br''ck than of common brick!" See Fig 119. T HE following is a list of many of the tools and materials required by the mason and bricklayer: Hard Brick, Dirt removed, Front Brick, Asphalt, Tar, Glazed or Tile Scaffolding and Brick, Horses, Special Brick, Ladders, Lime, Cement, Hose, Portland Cement, Water Pails, White Sand, Hoes, Brown Sand, Shovels, Spades, Stone, Slates, Pickaxes, Gravel, Crowbars, Brick Mortar, Pulley Blocks, Scratch Mortar, Rope, Brown Mortar, Hod Hoister, White Mortar, Engineer, Plaster, Lath, Wheelbarrows, Hair, Nails, Hand-barrows, Wire Lath and Hods. Staples, Tampers or Ram Old materials, mers. Every foreman should make out this list, and cheek off and keep count as he needs and uses supplies, etc. FIG. 122. Storage warehouses and other fire- proof buildings have their windows equipped with outside folding iron shut- ters to prevent fire from spreading BRICKLAYING. 65 from buildings. These shutters are hung on cast iron eyes the size of a brick, which are builc into the reveals in the way represented in the engraving. Fig . 123 illustrates how a damp course is built on top of the foundation walls to prevent cold and damp air from going FIG. 123. up into the floor and rooms on the first story. Tnis method is valuable, and applicable to frame houses. CONSTRUCTION OF BAKE OVENS. Regarding this important part of a bricklayer's art, I would refer the reader to the illustration Fig. 124, which gives a cross section of a good oven which I have seen constructed, As will be seen it is made up of 3 main walls or sides, namely, thj front and two sides, the fourth side or back being the side wall of the building con- taining the flue. The side walls were very thick, that on the left 16 inches and on the right containing the flue 24 inches. The base or footing was of con- crete. The space inside the walls was first filled in with coarse sand or gravel, topped out with a layer of concrete, on winch the tire clay floor tile were bedded, as seen in the engraving. The tie rods and strengthening plates having been set, the oven chamber space was filled in with dry sand, which being thoroughly stamped down was shaped on top to the. curve of the firebrick arch or cro*rn, which was turned on this sand centre, Fig. 124. A wooden centre would also answer this purpose, and many oven crowns are done this way, as the centre is easily burnt out when the arch is set, whereas the sand centre will require to be dug out with a hoe. The arch is somewhat of an elliptic curve with the bricks set on end in a plaster of paris grout. When all laid, the whole top surface or extra- Fia. 124. 66 BRICKLAYING. dos is thickly coated over with a layer of cement. On top of this sand and gravel was filled in with a top dressing of soft clay and finished with a coat of cement and asphalt, the whole being topped out with fire brick on flat bedded in cement. The dotted lines from A to B show the direction of the heat, the fire box being set at A and so situated that the heat traveled from A to the back and filled the entire oven chamber, afterwards passing up into the intake of the flue B and thence up the flue of the smoke stack. When ovens are built in the ground, as under sidewalks or on the rears of houses, the tie rods and plates are omitted, as the side walls cannot spread under thrust of the crown arch. The oven section shown in Fig 124 was built on the floor, and having no side resistance, needed the plates and rods. LINING BOILERS. This is another matter which demands the skill of the bricklayer, but as there is no srecial detail requisite in addition to those already described, it needs no special description. BRICKLAYERS' SCAFFOLDS AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION. f'The great increase in the height of buildings, and the material methods of construction, have so changed the methods of scaffolding in modern build- ings that a short dissertation on the methods now employed may prove of service. Fig. 125 of the illustrations shows a very convenient form of scaffold which can be adopted when doing any kind of work on the outside walls of a brick or stone building, and it is so simple as to be rapidly and easily put together. Reference to Figs. 125 ar d 126 will show that it consists of an ordinal y 2x8, 2x10, or 2x12 sound spruce beam projected out through each window opening about half or one-third of its length, with its bottom edge resting on the sill of the window frame. The beam is kept from tipping by a wrought iron disconnecting double hook in two halves, the bottom hooking under a floor beam and the top over the inside end of the scaffold beam or plank. This disconnecting hook is made as represented in Fig. 126, of inch by 2 inch wrought iron and bolted together with one or two -f bolts, as seen in the engraving. A, Fig. 12- e >, is the end view of the floor beam, and C, one bolt. E is a bolt placed under the bottom edge of the plank to prevent its dropping out of the hook. F is the scaffolding planks placed on the top edge out side the wall and G is the cross section of a piece of 2x4 placed and nailed so as to wedge the cantilever beam against one side of the window frame. This scaffold may be constructed with- out the wrought iron hock in the mann er which is shown at the dotted line. B is a stout piece to fit over of 3x6 inch spruce timber notched out or nailed to FIG. 125. BRICKLAYING. 67 the bottom edges of two floor beams and on ea^h side of this two boards are nailed, being also nailed to the side of the plank above, thus holding it firmly in place. This is an exceedingly simple and strong form of cantilever scaffold, but not so strong or reliable as the hook. In closing this description I would state that this form of cantilevering out for scaffolds is in daily use in most of the Fig. 128 conveys, better than any written description, the method termed "CORBELLING OUT," or in other words the method employed by bricklayers in projecting or bracketing out brickwork beyond the face of the wall. The chim- ney here depicted is corbelled out 10 inches outside the face line of the gable by 1 inch projections on each course. qp FIG. 125. cities above the first, second and third stories, especially on the very high buildings, and as its safety and car- rying capacity depend entirely on the tensile strength of the bearing plank, the greatest of care should be taken to only place the soundest of tim- bers in this important position , lest one should happen to break and cause a fearful fall. Self-supporting stationary scaffolds should be formed of sound uprights and diagonal bracing for uprights 3x3, 3x4, 4x4, or 6x6 inch square spruce tim- bers, sizes according to the height, or the usual Pole and Putlog Scaffold may J LJ J_J Fia. 128. 127, be built When it is desired to raise higher, the mason's horse. Fig. 127, or a series of them, may be employed. Great care must be used to get the^bot- torn courses properly bonded into the wall proper. ~_ The weight of wall per [foot in height of wall is as follows: 8-in. brick wall, weight per ft. 77 Ibs. " 115 " " 153 " " 192 " " 230 ' 57 pounds 114 " 13 " 170 Granite " per foot, 166 " White marble, " " 168 " If this weight is not equally distrib- uted, double it. Should it sustain a chimney or other weight, add the additional weight in all. cases. Deduct for windows only half weight ; that is, take out of the weight imposed 12 16 20 " ' " 24 Brown stone, 4 inches " 8 ' 68 BRICKLAYING. on beam, lintel or girder, but half the actual space which the windows will occupy. NOTE. Should a pier rest on or about the middle of beam, lintel or girder, the weight must not be considered to be equally distributed. In computing the weight of a brick arch, estimate a 4-inch arch as equal in weight to an 8-inch thick wall, and an 8 inch thick arch as equal in weight to a 12-inch thick wall, on a straight line. This additional weight is to make allowance for the weight of material required to fill up on a level with the crown of the arch. Make allowance for any material placed above the crown of the arch. Bricks lying in uncovered piles on the street or lot in front of or adjacent to a building, which have been exposed to the heavy rains of one, two or more days' duration, should not be used or laid in walls until dried by exposure to the dry wind and sun. If laid too wet the wall is liable to slide in the joints. To CONSTRUCT AN ECONOMICAL FIRE- PROOF BRICK FLOOR ARCH WITH A SMOOTH SOFFIT. f^-This is done by covering the wood centre, which must have its battens set close together, with paper which is coated on its upper side with a good coat of oil. On this bricks, which can be of any size, are laid dry on edge, which being done the joints are filled in with a thin cement grout thoroughly run in the joints so that it will work under the bottom edges of the brick onto the paper. When the paper and centre are removed the soffits will be found smooth and clean, ready for paint or white- wash. ROPES. Table showing what weights hemp rope will bear with safety. 1 in U U If 2 i 2* a* ch. 200 3 im 312.5 3 450 3| 612.5 3f 890 4 1012.5 5 1250 6 1512.5 ;h: 18 2112.5 2450 2812.5 3200 5000 72CO rope is 6,400 pounds to the square inch. Its practical value not more than one- half this strain. Before breaking it stretches from one-fifth to one-seventh, and its diameter diminishes one fourth to one-seventh. The strength of ma- nila is about one half that of hemp. White ropes are one-third more dura- ble. To find the number of bricks in a wall, first ascertain the number of square feet of surface, and then multiply by 7 for a 4 inch wall, by 15 for an 8-inch wall, by 23 for a 12 -inch wall, and by 30 for a 16- inch wall. WOOD TACKLE BLOCKS. Inside iron strapped, iron hooks, lig- nurnvitse or iron sheaves. 4 inch shell, for % inch rope. 5 " " " i 6 " " ' f NOTE. A square inch of hemp fibers will support a weight of 9,200 pounds. The maximum strength of a good hemp FIG. 129. SWINGING SCAFFOLD AND TACKLE BLOCKS, BRICKLAYING. The following number of brick are allowed for each square foot of face of wall in measuring brickwork when laid by the thousand by the mason : Thickness of wall. 4 inches. . 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 No. brick. 42 15 22$ 30 60 67i 75 Cubic yard = 600 brick in wall. Perch (22 cubic feet) = 550 brick in wall. To pave one square yard on flat re- quires 48 brick. To pave one square yard on edge re- quires 68 brick. When washing down brickwork with cement the old joints should be cut out to give a keying for cement about i-inch deep. Hard bricks set in cement and 3 A box eight by eight inches square, and eight inches deep, will contain a peck. A box eight by 'eight inches square, and four and one eighth inches deep, will contain one gallon. A box four by eight inches square, and four and one eigth inches deep, will contain a half gallon. A box four by four inches square, and four and one fourth inches deep, will contain a quart, NOTE. A cubical box is one whose length, breadth and depth are equal. A cubic yard of mortar requires SOT en bushels of gray lime and twenty three bushels of sand. One-third bulk of water in each case. The following strengths of masonry material are given in the new Building Code of New York : Lbs. per ^ /r ^i ^\ sq ' C f 1; ^^Left 230 Co n t L^a^L^*? 208 " r squa^ equal cement a . gand) 3 . stone, 4 .................. 125 SUSTAINING POWER OF SOILS. Concrete Rosendale, or Rock, 200 to 205 tons per square foot. equal, cement, 1; sand, 2; Gravel, 8 " " " " stone, 5 .................. Sand, 4 " " * " Rubble stonework in Port- Clay,' 4 " " " " land cement mortar ...... 140 Soft Clay, 1 " " " " Rubble stonework in Rosen- __ dale cement mortar ....... Ill Rubble stonework in lime For mixing concretes or mortars the and cement mortar ....... 97 following will prove useful: Rubble stonework in lime CAPACITY OF BOXES, BINS, ETC. mortar .......... , ......... 70 Will contain Brickwork in Portland ce- Length. Breadth Depth. Bushels. ment mO rtar: cement, 1; san( j 3 .......... 250 Si* '?!} iJJ' Brickwork in'RosendaleV or n *i ' * *!' o iT o equal, cement mortar: ce- Qf""6f- If lm ment:i;sand,3 .......... 208 1 2 ft "If/ ' I ' Brickwork in lime and ce- ment mortar: cement, 1; - lime, 1; sand, 6 ......... A box four feet eight inches long, two Brickwork in lime mortar: feet four inches wide, and two feet four lime, 1 ; sand, 4 ........... inches in depth, will contain twenty Granites (according to test)! ,000 to 2, 40 bushels. Greenwich stone ........... 1,200 A box twenty-four inches by sixteen Gneiss (New York City) ---- 1,300 inches square, and twenty-eight inches Limestones (according to deep, will contain a barrel. test) ...................... 700 to 2.300 A box twenty-six by fifteen and a half Marbles (according to test). .600 to 1,200 inches square, and eight inches deep, Sandstones (according to will contain a bushel. test) ..................... 400 to 1,600 A box twelve inches by eleven and a Bluestone. North River.... 2,00 half inches square, and nine inches Brick (Haverstraw, flatwise) deep, will contain a half bushel. Slate ........................ 1,000 70 BRICKLAYING. As to the formation and the founda- tion footings, I would here state that there is never, to my mind, sufficient care devoted to this most important de- tail, and I would like the following sim- ple rules to be followed : For sand and gravel the best footing is good base stone, 6 or 8 inches thick, laid edge to edge. For the ordinary 18 or 20-inch walls of a frame house, these should be from 8 to 12 inches thick. For a soft clay mud or sand and mud bottom, Portland cement concrete. For very soft mud, piles should first be driven, spaced about 30 inches on cen- ters, and filled in on top with 12 inches of concrete, For rock the surface of the rock shouM first be leveled off, and then the holes filled in level with a thick con- crete. All footings under piers and posts should be similarly treated. All cellar walls should, if below the ground level, be laid in cement mortar. No- thing is so destructive to the frame of a building as a damp cellar, and, there- fore, the floors of all cellars of frame houses should be concreted. CEMENTS. All cements on the street in barrels should be kept well covered with planks to prevent its being injured by possible rains. The practical difference between a Rosendale and a Portland cement is this : Rosendale is a quick setting cement, and the Portland is a slow setting ce- ment, the usual proportion being two of sand and one of cement. Sand is disin- tegrated sandstone; gravel is disinte- grated rock; concrete ie a mixture of stone, sand and cement, the proportion being two of sand, one of cement and five of broken stone. In making con- nection with old concrete the old work should be broken, the dust removed and moistened with water. Directions for using Superfine Ce- mo.nt For ordinary hard finish, mix equal parts of best lime putty and Su- perfine Windsor cement . For polished surf ace,mix two thirds superfine cement and one-third best white lime putty and trowel to smooth surface. Apply pow- dered soapstone lightly and quickly one hour thereafter with smooth cotton cloth, waste, or old silk. Under no cir- cumstances should the walls be finished until the browning is thoroughly dry. This cement will cover from 150 to 170 square yards per barrel. Concrete, on top of Terra Cotta Arches One part Atlas cement, one part clean sharp sand, seven or eight parts ashes in bulk ; mixed dry, and then wet and turned over. Brickwork per cubic foot weighs 125 pounds; Indiana limestone masonry weighs 168 pounds; concrete weighs 485 pounds. Strength of Concrete and Stone Ma- sonry. Concrete will carry 5 to 15 tons per square foot; rubble will carry 10 to 15 tons per square foot: limestone ash- lar will carry 20 tons per square foot; granite ashlar will carry 30 tons per square foot. SAND. Clean Sand will not soil the hands when rubbed upon them, and the pres- ence of salt ean be detected by its taste. Sand is argillaceous, siliceous or cal- careous, according to its composition. Its use is to prevent excessive shrinking and to save cost of lime or cement. Or- dinarily it is not acted upon by lime, its presence in mortar being mechanical, and with hydraulic limes and cement it weakens the mortar. It is imperative that sand should be perfectly clean, free from all impurities, and of a sharp or angular structure. Within moderate limits, size of grain does not affect the strength of mortar; preference should be given to coarse calcareous sand, as it is preferable to siliceous. The best sharp sands have diamond shaped particles. Quick sands have round particles. In order to protect iron and steel from the injurious action of the atmosphere or in electric light stations, where the de- teriorating action of the electric fluid communicates to the iron and steel a disease called Electrolysis the metal is enclosed with a covering of brick, terra cotta or porous clay blocks which are out and set by bricklayers. Reference to the diagrams in manufacturers' cata- logues will clearly explain how they are placed. A good laborer will dump, wet and mix from 15 to 20 barrels of lump lime in eight hours. A brick on flat as laid in the wall has two thirds more strength than when laid on edge, hence the objection to "rowlocks," as they are termed, in walls and piers , but if a brick is sup- ported at both ends, then it has more bearing strength on edge than on flat. BRICKLAYING. 71 BRICK MANHOLES AND BRIOK SEWERS. These too are constructed of circular and egg-shaped sections by tbe brick- layer, who lays the brick in rings or continuous rowlocks of brick until the full thicSne?s is built, As this work involves no detail which is not con- tained in the methods already de- scribed, I will conclude by referring the reader to ihe details of this form of construction contained in my book, " PRACTICAL CENTRING," where this and other important subjects in con- nection with masonry construction are treated at length; also by recommend- ing all readers to study all details of brick, terra cotta and cement manu- facturers, as from them they will gain much valuable information regarding moiern masonry construction. MANILA-ROPE. All Manila-rope ought to be made out of pure Manila-hemp, and of the best quality. For information is subjoined the following estimate of weight: Size in diameter, inch T B ff f 1 Weight of 100 feet, pounds 3 4 5* 8 15 17 25 33 Strength of new rope, pounds 450 750 900 1700 3000 4000 5800 7000 Price, in full coils of 1000 feet, inch and smaller Per pound, $ Larger than | inch " " Price, cut, f incli and smaller " " Larger than f inch " " NUMBER BRICKS REQUIRED TO CONSTRUCT ANY BUILDING. (Reckoning 7 bricks to each superficial foot.) Superficial Number of Bricks to Thickness of ft. of wall. 4 in. 8 in. 12 in. 16 in. 20 in. 24 in. 1 7 15 23 30 38 45 2 15 30 45 60 75 90 3 23 45 68 90 113 135 4 30 60 90 120 150 180 5 38 75 113 150 188 225 6 45 90 135 180 225 270 7 53 105 158 210 263 315 8 60 120 180 240 300 360 9 68 135 203 270 338 405 10 75 150 225 300 375 450 20 150 300 450 600 750 9UO 80 225 450 675 900 1,125 1,350 40 300 600 900 1,300 1,500 1,800 50 375 750 1,125 1,500 1,875 2,250 60 450 900 1,350 1,800 2,250 2,7uO 70 525 1,050 1,575 2,100 2,625 3,150 80 600 1,200 1,800 2,400 3,000 3 600 90 675 1,350 2,025 2,700 3,375 4,050 100 750 1,500 2.250 3,000 3,750 4,500 200 1,500 3,000 4,500 6,000 7,500 9 000 300 2,250 4500 6,750 9,000 11,250 13,500 400 3,000 6,000 9,000 12,000 15,000 18000 500 3,750 7,500 11,250 15,000 18 750 22,500 600 4,500 9,000 13,500 18,000 22.500 27,000 700 5,250 10,500 15,750 21,000 26,250 31,500 800 6.000 12,000 18,000 24,000 30,000 36,000 900 6,750 13,500 20,250 27,000 33,750 40,500 1,000 7,500 15,000 23,500 30.000 37,500 45,000 72 BRICKLAYING. CUBIC YARDS OF EARTH IN DITCHES WITH, SIDE SLOPES OF ONE FOOT IN TEN. Tint torn ^A7ir1tVi Dept h in F eet. 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 2 feet 36 60 86 1 15 1 46 1 80 2 19 2 59 2 96 2* 44 71 1 01 1 33 1 68 2 06 2 48 2 92 3 33 8 51 82 1 16 1 51 1 90 2 32 2 80 3 25 3 70 3* 59 93 1 30 1 70 2 12 2 58 3 10 3 58 4 07 4 66 1 04 1 45 1 88 2 34 2 84 3 40 3 91 4 44 4* 74 1 15 1 60 2 07 2 57 3 10 3 70 4 24 4 81 6 81 1 26 1 75 2 25 2 80 3 36 4 00 4 57 5 18 CARRYING CAPACITY OF SEWER PIPES. Gallons per minute. Size of Pipe. 1 inch fall per 100 feet. 3 inch fall per 100 feet. 6 inch fall per 100 feet. 1 foot fall per 100 feet. 2 feet fall per 100 feet. 3 feet fall per 100 feet. 3 inch 13 23 32 46 64 79 4 ... 27 47 66 93 131 163 6 75 129 183 258 364 450 8 153 265 375 529 750 923 9 205 355 503 711 1006 1240 10 267 463 655 926 1310 1613 12 422 730 1033 1468 2076 2554 15 740 1282 1818 2464 3617 4467 18 1168 2022 2860 4045 5704 7047 24 2396 4152 5871 8303 11744 14466 80 4167 7252 10557 14504 20516 2527T Section on A J5. FIG. 130. CENTRE FOR HEAVY BRICK ARCH. PART 11. SHORING, NEEDLING AND UNDERPINNING. CHAPTER I. SHORING AND NEEDLING. IN town and city work, as well as very often in the country, the builder finds it necessary to "shore" or " needle" up the walls of an old or a new building, and he is, therefore, in- terested in knowing how such work is done and the best methods in vogue in this particular line. The information which follows has been gathered by the author during a period of several years and the methods described represent current practice for such work. With regard to the word "shore," we find by reference to Webster's Dic- tionary that the noun in its technical sense means " a prop or timber placed as a temporary brace or support on the side of a building." The verb is "to support by a post or buttress; to prop." We will, therefore, proceed to describe the best methods of shoring, or tempo- rarily propping up, walls. Different walls require different methods of shor- ing, according to the position and condition of the wall or walls and the manner in which they must be sus- tained. This must be the first consider- ation before commencing the actual work of placing the shores. This fact beine: determined, it follows that the builder must with the architect make a very careful examination of the work to be sustained in order to ascertain its condition and the amount of shoring required, so that the sizes and quanti- ties of timbers may be obtained In joint consultation they will also arrange for the placing of the timbers. All this can onlv be done by a close scrutiny of the wall and its requirements. When a wall is so much out of plumb that it is liable to topple over or out, it should be shored or tied in such a way as to prevent its falling. As we are dealing entirely with shoring, we will consider that it is necessary to do this from the outside of the wall. When a wall is as much as i inch in every foot of its height out of plumb it is in a dan* gerous condition and should be con- demned as such, for the reason that as it is gradually moving outward, it will eventually fracture at some point and collapse. To prevent this shores should be inserted, In the first example we will suppose a piece of wall to be perfectly sound, or a composite whole, with bonds adhering, which by reason of the slipping of the foundation or otherwise is gradually settling out of plumb and leaning over. It will then be necessary to truss or FIG. 1. support the wall about three-quarters of its height from the top, as illustrated in Fig. 1. The best method of closing. SHORING, NEEDLING AND UNDERPINNING. this would, of course, be to set the shore at right angles, or square to the face of the wall. This not being practicable on account of the absence of a solid body opposite, against which to rest the end of the Shore, or Spreading Brace, it be- comes necessary to employ a Raking or '* Spur " Shore as an extemporized but- tress, and this spur brace is generally a good sound spruce or yellow pine timber. In order to prevent its upper end ^rom slipping, a hole or notch is cut out, off the face of the wall, and the top is inserted in the breastwork. The bottom end is set on two reversed wedges, which rest on a good block of timber embedded solidly in the ground. By driving the wedges the top end of the brace is forced tightly into the notch in the wall, thus securing the wall firmly in position and preventing its overturning. Spur braoes of this description should be of sufficient thickness that they will not bend when wedged tightly , and if the wall be very thick or heavy, two or more may be inserted in order to secure it safely. At Fig. 2 several shores are shown applied in this manner, as the wall being dangerously bulged at the several floors FIG. 2. it is necessary to use three shores, and holes are cut in the face of the brick- work as before, to secure the upper ends, while the bottom ends rest on a sole plate, or plates, solidly embedded in the ground. Two or more shores may be tied together by pieces of tim- ber, bolted or spiked on their sides in the way indicated by the dotted lines in Fig. 2. The following table gives dimensions for Raking or Spur ,Shore timbers, of spruce or yellow pine: For walls from Inches. Inches 15 to 20 feet ia height, 4 x 4 to 6 x 6 20 " 30 " ' 4x 8 " 6x8 30 " 40 " 6x8" 8x10 40 " 50 " " 8x8 " 10x10 50 " 75 " " 10 x 12 " 12 x 14 Beyond this height combinations of shores must be used. "Fly Shores," or Spreading Braces, as they are frequent- ly termed, are those placed between two walls to prevent them from bulg- ing or falling towards each other. Fig. 3 represents a good example of this work, consisting of six spreaders, or Spread- ing Braces, inserted from the floors of the old building as it was demol- ished. The width between the walls was 33 feet, and the shores wedged themselves tightly from wall to wall, each abutting against a stout 3x8 tim- ber, and driven to a solid bearing with sledges. The timbers measured 8x8 inches, aud were prevented from sag- ging by diagonal braces, framed in under them and spiked. The left hand wall was also needled in order to rebuild its foundation, as will be de- scribed in " Underpinning." The right wall had one Raking shore, as indicated in engraving. Before commencing to shore up a solid front wall for the inser- tion of a breast-summer beam with its supporting columns, the whole front must be carefully looked over to see how it is built, and how the parts are to be supported. Figs. 4 and 5 represent the front of the Hotel Colonial, at cor- ner of 125th Street and Eighth Avenue, New York City. A consideration of this wall, as shown, revealed the fact that the piers would have to be separately supported; likewise the floor beams, which rested on the wall to be removed. To do this a sole piece, or bottom tim- ber, was placed inside on the floor, run- ning parallel to the wall about two feet from it; the floor being shored from the cellar floor below. A similar piece was set on the sidewalk outside about three feet from the wall. Directly under the centre of each pier, 12 inches above the top line where the breast-summer would rest, a hole SHORING, NEEDLING AND UNDERPINNING. 75 \ FIG. 3. 76 SHORING, NEEDLING AND UNDERPINNING. was cut through by means of a hammer and cold chisel. This was done in such a way as to leave the top side of each shores until they pressed solidly against the needles and entirely resisted or car- ried the weight of the wall piers above. A 3 x 10 foot spruce timber was placed under the floor beams, resting solidly on the needle, and supported them in an immovable manner. In Fig. 6 is illustrated an excellent job of shoring which was done at the corner of 125th Street and Fifth Ave- FIG. 4. hole with a smooth brick face. The hole was about 12 inches square. In it a stout 8x8 timber, or needle, was in FIG. sorted, and shores placed under it rest ing on screws or jacks. These being turned up with an iron lever, raised the FIG. 6. nue, New York, where two private houses were remodeled into stores, by doing away with the stoops and base- ments. Here the same system was fol- lowed, with the addition of the Raking corner shore. SHORING, NEEDLING AND UNDERPINNING. 77 This was placed in the angle of the wall, resting on a block and wedges set on the sidewalk. The shore was insert- ed for the purpose of preventing the corner from springing out while the breast- summers were being inserted and the pier rebuilt underneath them. The appliances necessary to do the work consist of the timbers to form the shores and needles, wedges and screw jacks. The timbers may be of spruce or yellow pine, but the wedges are best made of oak. In Fig. 7 is illus- FIG. 7. trated a screw jack employed for this kind of shoring. As will be seen, it con- sists of an iron shoe, or sole plate, which rests directly on the timber placed on the sidewalk and a revolving screw, which has its bottom end turning in a conical step in the shoe, and revolves in an upper plate on which the bottom end of the shore rests, the shore being bored out to admit the screw and allow the shore to slide up or down. The screw is turned by means of an iron bar, or lever, as shown. This Builders' screw, or pump screw, as it is sometimes termed, is the best and safest for placing under shores, being preferable to what is commonly known as a lifting jack for the reason that it cannot possibly fall or kick over sideways. The lifting jack is, however, extremely useful for the purposes where that shown in Fig. 7 would be unsuited. Both these appliances are easily ob- tained, and run in sizes as follows : REGULAR SIZES. Height when screwed down : 10, 12, 14 16 inches. Total rise of screw : 4K, K, 8^, UK inches. Diameter of screw : IK, IK, IK, IK inches. HEAVY. Height when screwed down : 10, 12, 14, 16 inches. Total rise of screw : 7, 8, 9, 11 inches. Diameter of screw: IK, !K- *K, IK inches. EXTRA HEAVY. Height when screwed down: 12, 14, 16 inches. Total rise of screw : 8. 9, 10^ inches. Diameter of screw : 1 #,!#,! finches. When it is desired to remove an in- side, or party , wall to obtain an enlarged floor, the floor timbers resting on it will require to be upheld by shoring before it is removed. FIG. 8. In Fig. 8 builders will recognize a job of this kind, where it is desired to re- move a 12-inch brick wall and substi- tute for same a steel girder supported by cast iron columns. Shores 8x8 inches in size are used, resting on 8 x 8 inch longitudinal timbers and driven tightly against the plate with oak wedges. If the walls are continuous from one floor to that above, the upper part of the wall will require needling as well as shoring. In raising roofs or floors the lifting jack screw is em- ployed, and blocks laid crosswise on top of each other are placed under the jacks before commencing operations. 78 SHORING, NEEDLING AND UNDERPINNING. Fig 9 shows how the centre pier of an old building was removed by first needling and shoring and the steel breast- summer girder shown in the en- graving inserted, with its ends resting on the two outside piers, which were provided with granite templets to prop- erly sustain the vertical pressure. than 6 feet apart at the most, and the spur shore should be a stout stick heavy enough to carry, when notched, the full weight to be borne. An unusual form of shoring and one which will be found very economical and applicable, is that illustrated at Fig. 11. Here a section of two (east Fig. 10 represents a simple way of needling up a wall for the purpose of holding it in a safe manner till it is altered or underpinned. The usual spur shore is placed against the outside face of the wall, to prevent its springing out with its footplate and oak wedges, and and west) 12-inch pa,. t> walls are s hown looking towards the front, the building between them having been pulled down. The footings of the two walls are carried on a stout 14 x 14 yellow pine cantilever needles resting on stringer and block- ings, this being done for the purpose of FIG. from this the outside end of the needle is held up to sustain the wall, the inside end resting on 12 x 12 blocks built up in the ordinary way. The iron suspen- sion rods are each 1 inch thick, and tapped top and bottom ends for plates and nuts. These spring needles must be kept very close together, not more underpinning the party foundation by building it down in sections between them. The party walls are prevented from spreading by spurs set on the can- tilevers at the first story, and above by Raking spreaders tightly wedged against face timbers, all being spaced about 8 feet apart. SHORING, NEEDLING AND UNDERPINNING. l.. . - 1 I i i : . I .80 SHORING, NEEDLING AND UNDERPINNING. CHAPTER II. UNDERPINNING AND SHEET PILING. IT often happens that the foundation of a new building is to be, con- structed close to an adjoining struc- ture, the footings of which have not been carried down to the depth that is required for the new building. If the soil or bottom upon which the existing building rests is soft clay and sand, gravel, loose sand, or in fact any soft soil that would be liable to compress, crush, or subside when the excavations for the new building are proceeding, then proper precautions must be taken to preserve the old or existing building from injury and prevent it from sud- denly settling and thus causing the walls to fracture or collapse. Such a condition of affairs is shown in Fig. 12. In this case the bottom of the excava- tion for the new building is 10 feet below the curb line, while the footing of the old building is only 4 feet from the curb line. From this figure it can readily be seen that the wall of the old building would crush the earth under, neath its footings after the excavation .for the new foundation had been made. To avoid such a disaster, builders and house snorers place temporary supports underneath the walls of the old build- ing, so that they will be safely carried until a new foundation can be built. The purpose of such shores is usually to support the old wall until the new foundation can be built from the bottom of the excavation up to the old foot- ings. This question of UNDERPINNING is one that is of great interest to architects and owners, for miny important legal cases have had their origin in a plea for damages instituted by owners whose buildings were ruined by carelessness in excavating for the foundations of adjacent buildings In large cities the importance of protecting existing struc- tures from damage caused by adjacent building operations became evident to the lawmakers, and laws and ordi- nances governing such cases were drawn up and adopted, and in most cases rigorously enforced; so that I here reproduce the following quotation from the complete laws of New York, which show conclusively the extent and purpose of such an ordinance, and show the reader how important it is to provide adequate methods of underpinning. EXCAVATIONS AND FOUNDATIONS. "Sec. 22. Excavations. All excava- tions for buildings shall be properly guarded and protected so as to prevent the same from becoming dangerous to life or limb and shall be sheath -piled where necessary to prevent the adjoin- ing earth from caving in, by the per- son or persons causing the excavations to be made. Plans filed in the Depart- ment of Buildings shall be accompanied by a statement of the character of the soil at the level of the footings. "Whenever an excavation of either earth or rock for building or other pur- poses shall be intended to be, or shall be carried to the depth of more than ten feet below the curb, the person or persons causing such excavation to be made shall at all times, from the com- mencement until the completion there- of, if afforded the necessary license to enter upon the adjoining land, and not otherwise, at his or their own expense preserve any adjoining or contiguous wall or walls, structure or structures from injury, and support the same by proper foundations, so that the said wall or walls, structure or structures, shall be and remain practically as safe as before such excavation was com- menced, whether the said adjoining or contiguous wall or walls, structure or structures, are down more or less than ten feet below the curb. If the neces- sary license is not accorded to the per- son or persons making such excavation, then it shall be the duty of the owner refusing to grant such license to make the adjoining or contiguous wall or walls, structure or structures, safe, and support the same by proper foundations so that adjoining excavations may be made, and shall be permitted to enter upon the premises where such excava- tion is being made for that purpose, when necessary. If such excavation shall not be intended to be, or shall not be, carried to a depth of more than ten feet below the curb, the owner or own- ers of such adjoining or contiguous wall or walls, structure or structures, shall preserve the same from injury, and so support the same by proper foundations that it or they shall be and remain prac- tically as safe as before such excavation was commenced, and shall be permitted to enter upon the premises where such excavation is being made for that pur- pose, when necessary. SHORING, NEEDLING AND UNDERPINNING. 81 " In case an adjoining party wall is intended to be used by the person or persons causing the excavation to be made, and suoh party wall is in good condition and sufficient for the uses of the adjoining building, then and in such case the person or persons causing the FIG. 12. excavations to be made shall, at his or their own expense, preserve such party- wall from injury and support the same by proper foundations, so that said party wall shall be and remain practically as safe 'as before the excavation was com- menced. " If the person or persons whose duty it shall be to preserve or protect any wall or walls, stru cture or structures, from injury shall neglect or fail so to do, after having had a notice of twenty- four hours from the Department of Buildings, then the Commissioner of Buildings may enter upon the premises and employ such labor, and furnish such materials, and take such steps as, in his judgment, may be necessary to make the same safe and secure, or to prevent the same from becoming unsafe or dangerous, at the expense of the per- son or persons whose duty it is to keep the same safe and secure. Any party doing the said work, or any part there- of, under and by direction of the said Department of Buildings, may bring and maintain an action against the per- son or persons last herein referred to, to recover the value of the work done and material furnished in and about the said premises in the same manner as if he had been employed to do the said work by the said person or persons. When an excavation is made on any lot, the person or persons causing such excavation to be made shall build, at his or their own cost and expense, a retaining wall to support the adjoining earth, and such retaining wall shall be carried to the height of the adjoining earth, and be properly protected by coping. The thickness of a retaining wall at its base shall be in no case less than one-fourth of its height." When the excavation for a new build- ing is being executed it is the duty of the contractor or his foreman to stop the excavation at the bottom of the stone or concrete footings of any or all contiguous buildings, and the excava- tions should not be allowed to proceed until the foundation walls and footings of buildings that are liable to damage have been properly and thoroughly pro- tected, either by temporary shoring, needling, or by thorough underpinning. The best way to protect the foundations of a building having solidly built walls and where the footings are some dis- tance above the bottom of the excava- tion, is to insert timber needles through the wall, either under the base store or the concrete footings. If the walls are FIG. 13. to be underpinned with a continuous stone or brick underpinning, they may be needled under the superimposed brickwork at the top of the stone foundation work, as shown in Fig. 13. SHORING, NEEDLING AND UNDERPINNING. In this figure the needle is re-enforced or stiffened by a second timber placed on iis upper side, to prevent sagging under the weight of the wall. The shores or uprights are likewise often doubled, in order to guard against any settlement at the sole pieces, or plates. In such a case two sets of uprights are used, one set having pump screws and the other being provided with wedges so that should settlement take place in the inner shores, or those marked a, a needles show any indications of buck- ling or bulging, raking or spur shores may be placed at the second or third- story tier of beams. These pi ops will steady the wall and present any danger of collapse. The illustration of Fig. 14 shows a good method of combining blocking, needling, and shoring for the purpose of underpinning the wall without en- croaching upon the built and occupied premises. In this figure the cantilever FIG. 14. in Fig. 13, the wedges under the outside ones can be driven up tight, thus re- lieving the inner shores of much of the weight. The needles and shores should be kept from 6 to 8 feet apart and set level and plumb, likewise solid. When sufficient needles are inserted in the manner described, the wall will corbel or arch itself between them, and the intervenin g stonework may be removed , the new foundation wall being built up from the bottom of the excavation, as shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 12. Should the wall that is supported upon FIG. 15. or needle is a strong 12" X 12" oak or yellow-pine timber, resting upon the blocking which is placed upon the firm bottom of a trench or hole dug to the same level as the new adjoining exca- vation. The blocking is located at about one-fourth the length of the cantilever or needle beam from its end, the beam being held in equilibrium by the spur or raking shore that has its upper end set in the wall at the second-story tier of fioorbeams. The spur or raking shore, besides holding the needle beam in equilibrium, also prevents the wall from bulging. The bottom end of the shore is prevented from slipping by the heavy oak blocks and wedges shown in Fig. 14. For further security against slipping, stout 2 inch braces or tiers are often nailed or spiked to each side of the brace or needle. Many contractors follow the method of underpinning illustrated in Fig. 15. and where this is employed no shoring or needling need be used, since the wall is supported directly from the bottom of the adjoining excavation on granite or iron posts. These posts or supports are inserted in recesses, or chases, cut out of the old wall to admit them. This can safely be done, as the brickwork corbels or arches itself between the in- SHORING, NEEDLING AND UNDERPINNING. serted supports. Where such methods of procedure are employed, the posts are set on stone bases of sufficient area and capped with two bluestone plates or station templets, the wall being brought to a bearing upon the posts by driving wrought-iron wedges cement mortar before being wedged up tightly. The writer has seen many gable walls safely underpinned by this method, and remembers that in one case the posts used were old front first-story columns that had only supported a granite lintel in the old fashioned way CICNCC AND FIG. 16. between the templets until the maul re- bounds and they cannot be driven any farther. The templets must in all cases be bedded in good strong Portland Pump ScrfHf 3X8" 0J00 in FIG. 17. still to be seen in many existing build- ings constructed previous to the exten- sive mtroductiou of cast-iron columns. When the excavation is carried down to a great depth, it is necessary to use brick piers with mortar instead of gran- ite or cast iron posts, and when such piers are used care must be taken to see that they have sufficient sectional area to fully support the loads coming upon them from the building. Fig. 16 shows the method of under- pinning by use of brick piers well bonded In this case the bottom of the excavation of the new building is so far below the old footings that the rough rubble wall forming the old foundation had better be removed and the sides between the piers filled in with a light retaining wall of stone or brick. Should the bottom of the excavation for the piers prove to be of soft earth, it may be necessary to distribute the weight of the building by footings con- sisting of grillage, ranging timbers, or inverted arches. Where such a condi- tion exists, the special foundation should be put in place before the piers are built in, and such shoring and needling as will be necessary should be provided. It can readily be seen that such founda- tions, and especially theinverted arches, could not be safely built without first supporting the old work above. The 84 SHORING, NEEDLING AND UNDERPINNING. dotted lines in Fig. 16 show the inverted arches and also the concrete footing. Before the wedges between the tern- Slets on the top of the brick piers are riven tight, the mortar in the piers must be given ample time to set, in order that full strength of the brickwork may be realized before they are subjected liable than vertical shores supporting horizontal needles, because, on account of the increased area of the base, there is less lateral movement. It is really the only method to employ where the entire story is to be removed in order to make alterations, but it has the disad- vantage of taking up space and requir- FIG. 18. to the weight from above. It is a good practice and a precaution that should never be neglected, to lower the shoring under needling very gradually, so that no sudden shock will come upon the new work. Fig. 17 illustrates clearly the method by which a girder may be supported upon a grillage of heavy timbers laid across each other at right angles. If the blocks are available and of regular sizes, this method is safer and more re- ing considerable material in the way of timber. In conclusion, the writer would im- press upon all those engaged in the practice of architecture or building operations the importance of observing every precaution for the preservation of foundations supporting the adjacent buildings. The careful consideration of this subject is of pre-eminent import- ance at the beginning of the twentieth century, when buildings of great height SHORING, NEEDLING AND UNDERPINNING. 85 and weight are often erected adjacent to or between low and light buildings, and should there be no precaution taken , it is not only possible but highly proba- ble that the result will be disastrous, for the heavy mass of the greater struc- ture will drag down and injure the smaller one. This is especially the case where the composition of the earth under the footing is of a compressible nature. The proper consideration of foundations and footings has never re- quired more skill and care in the his- tory of building construction than it does now, and should never for any reason be neglected. SHEET PJLING. By this is meant the method employed by engineers and constructors to prop- erly support sidewalk banks of streets, clay, sand or filled in, or any bank, while excavating for cellars, walls, trenches, caissons, or any purpose where it is necessary to keep the bank vertical after it is excavated, to prevent its cav- ing in on the men working, or the mate- rials placed below. Ihis is done by driving down 2 or 3-inch planks placed edged, in the manner seen in Fig. 19. Across the inside of these stout timbeis stringers are set, being held in place by upright battens, which receive the thrust of spreading shores, abutted and wedged tightly, to prevent the pressure of the earth from pushing the timbers out. The bottom end of the spreaders are either set against a stout sole ground piece of timber or against an opposite bank, as done in the excavating of deep trenches, etc., for footings of foundation walls, piers, etc. All mate- rials for sheet-piling, shores, breast- timbers, foot blocks, wedges, screws, etc , ought to be of good sound mate- rials of ample strength to safely sustain all the weight and use that they may be called upon to bear. The placing of sheet-piling, timbers, etc., should be in such position as not to interfere with the placing of walls and columns or footings of same. noon DBAPTTPAT nnnv liuull liAblluAL DIM -is- PRACTICAL CENTRING J TREATING OF THE PRACTICE OF Centring Arches in filling Construction, AS CARRIED ON IN THE UNITED STATES AT THE PRESENT TIME ; ALSO GIVING OTHER USEFUL INFORMATION OF VALUE TO THE TRADE. By OWEN B. MAGINNIS. 6 x 9% INCHES ; 65 ILLUSTRATIONS ; 80 PAGES, CLOTH. A valuable book for carpenters, embracing in d etail and in a practical manner the construction of centres. It is comprised in sixteen chapters, the first four of which cover arches of small span to those of sixteen feet span. Following these are centring of circular windows, suspended centre, oblique cr skew, flaring di- splayed, wide spans, sewer centres and plumb rule. The work concludes with a number of useful hints and suggestions, embracing each subject in detail, and in language that practical men can understand. RETURN TO the circulation desk of any University of California Library or to the NORTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY Bldg. 400, Richmond Field Station University of California Richmond, CA 94804-4698 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS 2-month loans may be renewed by calling (510)642-6753 1-year loans may be recharged by bringing books to NRLF Renewals and recharges may be made 4 days prior to due date. DUE AS STAMPED BELOW -i