U. S. DEPARTMENT (>1 : AGRICULTURE,
BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. Bulletin No. 77.
0. E. SALMON, D. V. M., Chief of Bureau.
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING
IN EUROPE.
BY
WILLARD JOHN KENNEDY, B. S. A.,
Professor of minimal Husbandry, h<:ca State College of Agriculture,
and \'~icc- Director loica J'J.vperinicnt Station.
WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1905.
ORGANIZATION OF THE BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
Chief: D. E. SALMON, D. V. M.
Axxixtaiit Chief: A. D. MELVIN, D. V. S.
Chn-f Clerk: E. B. JOXES, LL. M., M. D.
Dairy Division: ED. H. WEBSTER, M. S., chief; CLARENCE B. LANE, B. S., assistant
chief.
Inspection Division: A. M. FARRINGTON, B. S., D. V. M., chief.
Qnaraiitini' Dirixion: RICHARD W. HICKMAN, Ph. G., V. M. D., chief.
Eililor: GEORGE FAYETTE THOMPSON, M. S.
Artist: W. S. D. HAINES.
Animal Husbandman: GEORGE M. ROMMEL, B. S. A.
Librarian: BEATRICE C. OBERLY.
LABORATORIES.
Biochemic Division: MARION DORSET, M. D., chief.
Pathological Division: JOHN R MOHLER. A. M., V. M. D., chief.
Zoological Division: BRAYTON H. RANSOM, B. Sc., A. M., acting zoologist.
EXPERIMENT STATION.
Superintendent, E. C. SCHROEDER, M. D. V.; expert assistant, W. E. COTTON.
INSPECTORS IN CHARGE.
Dr. F. W. Ainsworth, Union Stock Yards, Pitts-
burg, Pa.
Dr. M. O. Anderson, care Geo. A. Hormel & Co.,
Austin, ^linn.
Dr. Don C. Ayer, Post-Office Building, South
Omaha, Nebr.
Dr. G. S. Baker, 6th and Townsend sts., San Fran-
cisco, Cal.
Dr. L. R. Baker, South St. Joseph, Mo.
Dr. A. E. Behnke, room 432, Federal Building,
Mihvavikee. Wis.
Dr. John A. Bell, Watertown. N. Y.
Dr. S. E. Bennett, room 338, Live Stock Exchange
Building. Kansas City, Kans.
Dr. E. L. Bertram, care Tri-City Packing Co.,
Davenport, Iowa.
Dr. FredBraginton, care Continental Packing Co.,
Bloomington, 111.
Dr. J. J. Brougham, care Missouri Stock Yards,
St. Louis, Mo.
Dr. G. W. Butler, care Drummond Bros., Eau
Claire, Wis.
Dr. J. B. Clancy, National Stock Yards, 111.
Dr. L. Clarke, "room 320 Quincy Building, Den-
ver, Colo.
Dr. Charles Cowie, Ogdensburg, N. Y.
Dr. David Gumming, 912 Lapeerave., Port Huron,
Mich.
Dr. Robert Darling, care Chas. S. Hardy, San
Diego, Cal.
Dr. J. F. Deadman, Sault Ste. Marie, Mich.
Mr. Albert Dean, room 328, Stock Yard Station,
Kansas City, Kans.
Dr. F. L. De Wolf, care Chas. Wolff Packing Co.,
Topeka, Kans.
Dr. Geo. Ditewig, care Union Stock Yards, Cin-
cinnati, Ohio.
Dr. E. P. Dowd, care White, Pevey & Dexter Co.,
Worcester, Mass.
Dr. Geo. C. Faville, P. 0. box 796, Norfolk, Va.
Dr. J. Wm. Fink, care Swift & Co., Harrison Sta-
tion, Newark, N. J.
Dr. W. J. Fretz, Rushville, Nebr.
Dr. T. A. Geddes, care U. S. consul, London, Eng-
land.
Dr. H. H. George, 507 Johnson st. Louisville, Ky.
Dr. W. H. Gibbs, care Morton-Gregson Co.. Ne-
braska City, Nebr.
Dr. L. K. Green, care Hammond, Standish & Co.,
Detroit, Mich.
Dr. H. A. Hedrick, 215 St. Paul St., Baltimore. M<1.
Dr. O. B. Hess, care Frye-Bruhn Co., Seattle,
Wash.
Mr. G. S. Hickox, P. O. box 1145, Salt Lake City,
Utah.
Dr. A. A. Holcoinbe, Aurora, 111.
Dr. U. G. Houck. care Swift & Co., Fort Worth,
Tex.
Dr. W. E. Howe, care Western Packing Co., Den-
ver, Colo.
Dr. Julius Hudson, care Jersey City Stock Yards
Co., Jersey City, N. J.
Dr. F. W. Huntingtoni U. S. customs office wharf,
G. T. R. R., Portland, Me.
Dr. R. Jay, care Jacob E. Decker & Son, Ma-
son City, Iowa.
Dr. G. A. Johnson, Exchange Building, Sioux
City, Iowa.
Dr. James Johnston, care U.S. consul, Liverpool,
England.
Dr. E. C. Joss, care Carsten's Packing Co., Ta-
coma, Wash.
Dr. J. S. Kelly, care Blomer & Michael, Co.,
Quincy, 111.
(Concluded on page 3 of cover.)
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. Bulletin No. 77.
0. E. SALMON, D. V. M., Chief of Bureau.
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING
IN EUROPE.
WILLARD JOHN KENNEDY, B. S. A.,
Professor of Animal Husbandry, Iowa State College of Agriculture,
and Vice- Director Iowa Experiment Station.
WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1905.
LKTTHR OF TRAKSMITTAL
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
BIKF.AI or ANIMAL Ixw STRV,
Wiixhitxjtoii. I). ('..July H). IM't.
SIR: I have the honor to transmit herewith a manuscript on the
subject of cattle, sheep, and hog feeding in Euro])e. by Willard
flohn Kennedy, B. S. A., of the Iowa College of Agriculture and
Experiment Station. This work represents the major portion of
Professor Kennedy's labors as special agent for this Bureau in
Europe during portions of the years 1904 and 1 !>().">.
The investigations into European methods of feeding and man-
agement reported in the accompanying pages are particularly
exhaustive in respect to cattle, and both the beef and dairy types
.receive an equal amount of attention.
The admittedly high quality of English. Irish, and Danish bacon
renders the chapters dealing with the feeding of the bacon hog in
the countries named of much interest to those of our farmers who
are engaged in this industry.
In order that our live-stock men may be enabled to profit by these
data. I recommend the publication of the work as Bulletin No. 77
of the Bureau series.
Respectfully, D. E. SALMON.
Chief of Bureau.
Hon. JAMES WILSON.
Secretary of Agriculture.
CONTENTS.
Page.
Introduction. .. 7
Part I. Cattle:
General aspect of the cattle industry in Europe. .
Conditions in the British Isles 10
England.. 10
Scotland. 12
Ireland 13
Conditions in continental countries 14
France . . 14
Aiistria-Hungary 15
Germany.. 15
Switzerland 1 ft
Denmark, Holland, and the Channel Islands .. 16
Beef and dual-purpose cattle
Methods of feeding in England. . IT
Feeding in Scotland . .
Irish methods of feeding 20
Feeding in France 32
Feeding methods in Austria-Hungary . . 35
German feeding methods - . 3T
Dairy cattle
Dairy methods in Great Britain and Ireland
England. . 40
Scotland.. 4:3
Ireland . . 4?
Dairy farming in Denmark. . 4*
Feeding methods in Holland 55
Conditions in the Channel Islands
Jersey . . 5T
Guernsey . . 01
Dairy feeding in France _ . 0:5
Dairy methods in Austria-Hungary . . . (55
Dairying in Germany _. 0?
Swiss dairy methods 01)
Part II. Sheep:
Sheep feeding and management in England 71
Sheep raising in Scotland _ . TO
Sheep production in Ireland . _ S5
The sheep industry of France .SO
Part III. Hogs:
Hog raising in England
Hog feeding in Ireland . . 91
Hog feeding in Denmark ... 92
Methods of feeding in Austria-Hungary 95
The hog industry of Germany ... 00
Hog raising in France 97
5
CATTLE, SHEEP, AM) HOG FEEDING
IX EUROPE.
Ry \VILLARD JOHN KENNEDY, K S. A..
I'rofexsor of Animal Huxhandri/, loira State College of Afiriciiltitre ami the
Mechanic Arts, and Vice-Director loica Kj-iicriment Station.
INTRODUCTION.
Many good authorities hold the opinion that any superiority of
European breeding stock which may exist is due not so much to
climatic conditions as to feed. With this surest ion in mind the
writer devoted considerable time to the study of methods of feeding
breeding animals, and found the task a difficult one because breeder-
often do not weigh their feed and are not always exact in the com-
pounding of rations. However, he received many courtesies, and in
cases where the daily feed had never before been weighed the man-
agers gladly had this done and records kept for several days. For
the many favors shown by the stockmen whom he visited and for the
courtesies of the officials of departments of agriculture and Ameri-
can consuls the writer is under great obligations.
This report is not published with the expectation that the methods
described can be adopted without change by American farmers, but
it is probable that many of their features may be applicable to our
conditions.
TART I CATTLE.
GENERAL ASPECT OF THE CATTLE INDUSTRY IN EUROPE.
In most European countries the cattle interests form one of the
most important branches of the live-stock industry. A very wide
range of feeding stuffs is used, and diversity of methods prevails
both as regards the compounding of rations and the preparation of
feed. However, satisfactory results are usually obtained, and the
methods employed exemplify in no unmistakable manner that no
one combination of feeding stuffs is superior to all others to produce
work, meat, milk, or uniform growth and development. For reasons
of economy the feeders of each country must use, as far as possible,
the feeds whose production is best adapted to the soil and climatic
conditions of that country, and which can be grown at home.
To an American the striking features of European methods are
the large use made of roots, linseed and cotton cake, the large, propor-
tion of roughage to concentrates fed, the dependence placed on pas-
ture and other green feed, the attention paid, to the preparation of the
feed, and the effort to use everything grown on the farm. Further-
more, although the most intensive methods are used to fatten cattle
for market, the general tendency among breeders is to maintain
breeding stock in good condition, but to avoid the extremely fleshy
condition which often leads to barrenness and impotencv.
Hoots are most extensively used in cattle production in England
and Scotland, and these crops are very highly valued. They are fed
to dairy cattle as well as to beef animals, but when feeding them to
milch cows the best dairymen take pains to avoid tainting the milk'
by their use. Mangcl-wur/.els (commonly called mangels or man-
golds), turnips, and rutabagas (commonly called swedes) are usually
grown in (ireat Britain. Tn the continental countries, especially in
France and Germany, the sugar beet and sugar-beet pulp are used.
In some cases carrots are fed. especially to calves, and in the island of
Guernsey parsnips are used.
9
10 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
CONDITIONS IX THE BRITISH ISLES.
ENGLAND.
The classes of English cattlemen are divided very much as in
America. That is to say, there are the feeders, who buy all the stock
they fatten; the dairymen; those who combine beef production and
dairying; those who breed feeders only, and the breeders of pure-
bred stock. Roots, cake, hay, and straw constitute the basis of winter
rations, and a mixture of linseed cake and cotton cake, with grass or
soiling crops, is the principal part of the ration during the summer.
These rations are supplemented by a great variety of grain, commer-
cial by-products, and proprietary feeds. Corn meal, bean meal, and
pea meal are all used to some extent in fattening cattle or feeding
dairy cows, but they are not fed in any quantity to young and grow-
ing stock intended for breeding purposes. For these animals crushed
oats, wheat bran, and cake are the usual grain ration. In the central
and northern districts turnips and swedes are also important crops.
Mangels are better keepers than turnips and swedes and require a
ripening process before they can be fed to best advantage; for this
reason they are usually retained for late winter and spring feeding;
yellow and white turnips are used during the early fall months, and
swedes are available for the late fall and early winter. Roots are fed
in varying amounts: some farmers use about 30 pounds, while others
feed as high as 125 pounds per animal per day; the majority feed
from 50 to 80 pounds of roots per head daily. They are usually fed
between 8 and 10 a. m. and 4 and p. m.
The amount of cake that is fed is astonishing. By this term is
meant what we know as '* cotton-seed meal " and " linseed-oil meal."
They are usually combined with other feeds, but may be fed alone,
especially during summer. Either or both are used. For conven-
ience these feeds are generally referred to as " cake " in the following
pages. This term is strictly applicable only to the product in the form
in which it comes from the presses. When sold on our markets the
cake has usually been ground into meal, but for convenience in export-
ing this is not usually done until the cake reaches its destination, and
in many cases it is merely broken into small pieces and not ground.
This makes it more convenient to feed, especially when it is thrown
on the grass. British farmers use large quantities of undecorticated
cotton cake, especially in summer feeding. This is the cake obtained
in the process of oil milling where the hulls are not removed from the
seeds. The hulls have an astringent property which is found valu-
able in counteracting the laxative effect of grass. Undecorticated
cotton-seed meal is practically unavailable for American feeders.
The only seed which can be economically milled without first having
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING IN EUROPE. 11
the hulls removed is that to which no lint adheres in ginning.
Egyptian and Sea Island seed have this characteristic. There is no
Egyptian seed milled in America, and Sea Island seed is a very small
factor. So far as is known to the writer all American mills remove
the hulls as the first step in the milling process.
A great deal of attention is given to the preparation of feed in
England, especially for dairy cows and fattening cattle. Grain is
usually crushed or ground: chafling. or cutting, straw and hay is a
very general practice. Roots are usually pulped or sliced. In some
parts of England farmers save all of the chaff at thrashing time and
put it in a separate bin or stall from the straw, so that it may he
mixed with the grain and cake at feeding time. This prevents the
animals from bolting the grain and makes more complete mastication
possible. Many good feeders mix cut straw or hay. pulped roots, and
the grain and cake together before feeding. Some feeders moisten all
such feed with boiling water. While these people have not given
much attention to the study of the " balanced ration." 1 they all feed
special rations for special purposes.
Breeders strive to follow natural methods of feeding as nearly as
possible. The use of highly concentrated feeds is limited and the
use of forcing rations is deplored as being very injurious to future
usefulness. In the opinion of the most successful breeders, forcing
rations, while they may make the animal attractive to the eye. are
very likely to weaken the constitution, reduce vigor, and exert an
unfavorable influence on fertility. The general custom is to utilize
grass, roots, and other natural feeds and to keep the animals out of
doors or in open sheds the greater portion of the time. In discussing
his methods of feeding, one of England's most noted present-day
Shorthorn breeders, a man who stables only his herd bulls and young
calves, everything else being fed in open yards or open sheds, said:
The only cattle to which I feed artificial foods and forcing rations are those
intended for salo. because many buyers will not buy an animal in the rough.
It is much easier to sell an inferior fat animal than a good ono in a rough coat
and thin flesh. By adopting this method of feeding, my best animals remain on
the farm whore I want them. Young heifers fed in this manner develop into
useful breeding cows, and mature cows fed on natural feeds and kept out of
doors invariably rear a good strong calf each year. Furthermore, since adopt-
ing this method of feeding and management I have never had any occasion to
dread the visit of the United States Government veterinary inspector, as he
seldom finds an animal which reacts.
The methods of feeding and management practiced on the farm of
tins breeder prevail on nearly all the best breeding farms in the
southern and central parts of England. In the north of England
breeders, as a rule, keep their animals in warmer buildings, but even
there the cattle remain out of doors several hours each fine day during
the winter months.
12 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
SCOTLAND.
The farmers in all parts of Scotland are dependent in a large
measure upon some phase of the cattle industry. This is true of those
districts where the land is rough and not suited to cultivation, but it
applies even more forcibly to the highly arable sections, where the
annual land rents in some instances reach $15 per acre. In the pro-
duction of cattle the Scottish live-stock men under which term we
must include every Scottish fanner, because the Scot, to all appear-
ances, is born with a love for and a knowledge of live stock have
devoted their attentions to the development of the special beef and
dairy breeds rather than the combination beef and milk animals.
Turnips and swedes are the principal roots fed, and they constitute
a large part of the fall and winter rations for beef cattle. The
amount fed varies a great deal, being greatest in the north of Scot-
land, where some feeders who are feeding 3-year-old steers giv*j
as much as 150 to 200 pounds per head per day. In the south of
Scotland more grain and cake and smaller quantities of roots are fed.
Yellow turnips are grown very extensively for breeding cattle, but
swedes are preferred for fattening purposes. Roots grown in the
north of Scotland are thought to have greater feeding value than
those produced in the south.
The root crop is to the Scotch farmer what the corn crop is to the
feeder in the American corn belt. The Scotch feeders are so accus-
tomed to the use of swedes that they can hardly believe that cattle
can be made fat during the winter season on a ration which does not
contain at least a half hundredweight of them. While they some-
times change the roughage and concentrated feed in the rations, they
never leave out the roots.
The " natural " methods used in England prevail in Scotland, par-
ticularly in the management of mature cows. They are fed simply
and, therefore, economically. A fair amount of flesh adds to a cow's
appearance and has a commercial importance when her calves are
offered for sale, but the best breeders endeavor to avoid excessive fat,
especially after a cow has had several calves, when she may become a
" shy " breeder if allowed to become fat. Scotch breeders of beef
cattle encourage young stock to develop early maturing qualities, par-
ticularly in Aberdeen-Angus and Shorthorn districts, and Galloway
breeders are now using more liberal methods of feeding. As these
breeds are bred almost entirely for beef production, the tendency to
take on flesh rapidly and mature at an early age is regarded as the
most important point to be considered.
In fattening cattle and feeding dairy cows a great deal of attention
is given to the preparation of the feed. All grain is finely ground,
much of the straw and hav cut, and on many farms the roots are
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING IN EUROPE. 13
sliced. It is a very common practice to mix all of the grain and cake
with cut roughage and pulped roots, and allow the mixture to stand
several hours before feeding. On many farms this feed is either
cooked or scalded with boiling water. From what could l>e learned
from the feeders, cooking and steaming is not so generally practiced
as in former years: the work involves a great deal of labor, and the
results from uncooked feed are said to be quite as satisfactory. The
prevailing custom appears to be to feed rather small allowances at
frequent intervals.
Scotch farmers are not only good live-stock feeders, but they are
also good feeders of the soil, and they l>elieve that the most effective
and economical method of feeding the soil is through the medium of
live stock. In all cattle-feeding operations, especially on the arable
j'arms, the feeder considers both the direct profits of feeding and the
value of the manure, which is all saved and applied to the soil.
IRELAND.
According to the most recent census reports, there are 4,077,182
head of cattle in Ireland, or one animal for every 4.3C> acres of land
in the entire country, which is a much larger number of cattle per
j,000 acres of land than is to be found in any other part of the United
Kingdom or in continental Europe. Though the country is small the
cattle interests are not by any means restricted to one special line,
but cover a wide field, including special dairy farming, beef fanning,
cattle feeding, and the production of store cattle for feeding. The
most extensive branches of the industry are the production of store,
cattle and dairy farming. The breeding of purebred cattle, espe-
cially of the beef breeds, is now becoming important. Although the
winter feeding of cattle for beef production is carried on in some dis-
tricts, it has not as yet received very much attention. Few countries
afford so many natural advantages as Ireland from the standpoint
of growing breeding cattle and those intended for store purposes.
More than SO per cent of the entire country is under grass for either
grazing or hay purposes. In addition, there is an abundance of rain
at all seasons of the year, which in connection with the mild climate,
especially in the central and southern districts, renders it possible for
animals to obtain the greater portion of their feed from pasture
during the winter season.
The. quality of the grass is usually good, containing as it does a
high percentage of those nutrients which are so necessary to the
proper development of the young and growing animal. This is
especially true of the ash constituents, and more particularly in
regard to the lime content; a limestone soil prevails in practically
every part of the country. The Irish farmers are firm believers in
14 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
allowing nature to have her way, as rather than to cultivate the soil
they choose to have their animals gather their feed in the form of
grass. Ireland is a veritable grass country. The principal grain
crop is oats, but barley, rye, peas, wheat, and beans are all grown in
51 more or less limited way. A rather large percentage of the culti-
vated land is utilized in the growing of potatoes and root crops, both
of which, especially the root crops, are used for cattle feeding.
Clover also grows well, but the greater portion of the hay crop is
composed of mixed grasses.
CONDITIONS IN CONTINENTAL COUNTRIES.
FRANCE.
The soil and climate of France are favorable for crop growing, and
farmers have a wide range of feeding stuffs at their command. Cat-
tle raising is carried on in all parts of the country. The greatest
number of cattle are to be found in the northern departments and
the methods of feeding and management which prevail there are
very much in advance of those which obtain in other parts of France.
Although France can lay claim to having more than thirty breeds of
cattle, there is not much diversity of type among them. To all ap-
pearances the characteristics which differentiate the various breeds
are based more on color, marking, and locality than on type. The
typical beef animal as seen in Great Britain or America is rarely
found within the borders of France. The chief exception to this is
to be found in a few of the British breeds which have been imported
into France, but even these soon lose their original type. This is no
doubt due to the fact that all animals are bred and maintained for at
least two purposes beef and milk and in many instances for labor
as well.
Unlike some continental countries. France is not confined to one
general method of feeding her cattle. In the various parts of the
country, and to a certain extent Avithin the same districts, tAvo, three,
or even more rather distinct means of accomplishing the same end
are pursued. This is especially true of the summer methods. In
some districts, in fact more or less all over the country, the animals
are grazed, Avhile the use of soiling crops in connection Avith yard or
stable feeding is very common and the system of tethering COAA-S is
A*ery much in evidence. In all parts of the country a great deal of
alfalfa and clover are groAvn. Corn is groAvn in the southern section
and the common grains, grasses, and root crops are to be seen on
eA'ery hand. Silage, especially that made from alfalfa and clover.
is used on some farms and stands in A*ery high favor. The growing
of beets for sugar production furnishes a large amount of beet pulp
for feeding. The practice of frequent feeding prevails in all parts
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING IN EUROPE. 15
of the country. All kinds of grain are ground or crushed, and in
some instances steamed or cooked before being given to the animals.
Some farmers cut and chat!' roughage and even soak or steam it. but
the more general custom is to feed it in its natural form.
AUSTBIA-IIUNGABY.
Austria-Hungary is a very productive country and on account of
its varied soil and climatic conditions practically all kinds of forage
crops are grown in large quantities. In few. if any. of the other
continental countries is more attention given to the feeding of cattle.
The greater portion of the cattle belong to the silver-gray and other
native breeds, but the Simmenthal breed of Switzerland is also I wed
in many sections. All of these breeds are claimed to be dual-purpose
animals, but the Simmenthal cattle show a strong inclination to the
beef type, while the silver-gray and many other native breeds show
unmistakable evidence of being high-class dairy animals. In some
parts of the country cattle are used for labor, but the greater portion
are bred and reared for beef or dairying, especially for the latter pur-
pose. More or less attention is given to the growing of beef and the
fattening of cattle in all parts of the country, but the mountains and
grazing districts are especially used for this purpose.
GERM AX v.
Although grain farming and sugar-beet production occupy the
foremost place in German agriculture, the production of live stock
is practiced to a certain extent throughout the entire country. Cattle
are bred and maintained for meat and milk purposes and the dual-
purpose type is used almost entirely. It is the general practice
throughout all parts of Germany, except the northern, to stable or
yard feed the cattle during the greater portion, if not all. of the year.
In the northern part, where the land is not so valuable, they are
pastured during the grass season. With these conditions prevailing
the summer visitor to Germany is very likely to obtain a wrong
impression of the live-stock interests unless he makes special vi>it-
to the farm buildings. Otherwise he might travel for miles and
never see cattle of ary kind. The German farmer considers it a
wasteful practice to use land for grazing. By a well-planned s\>-
tem of soiling he is able t^ carry a large number of cattle on a verv
small area of ground, and the remainder of his small farm is avail-
able for the production of grain and root crops.
A variety of feeding stuffs is used. Leguminous crops are very
commonly grown, clover being grown in all parts of Germany, while
alfalfa is confined more to the southern and central districts. Corn
5154 No. 77 05 M 2
16 BUREAU OP ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
is grown for fodder only. Grain is always fed in moderate allow-
ances. Considerable attention is given to the preparation of rations,
and the practice of frequent feeding is quite prevalent, especially
on the dairy farms.
SWITZERLAND.
Swiss cattle are kept for milk, beef, and labor. Practically all of
them belong to the two native breeds the Brown Swiss and the
Simmenthal both of which are to be found in America. Dairy
farming is conducted to a certain extent in all parts of the country,
but beef is not produced in large quantities, the demand being largely
supplied by beef imported from Italy and other countries. Cows,
bulls, and oxen are used for labor.
The cattle are fed on very simple rations, running on pasture or
being soiled in summer, and subsisting mainly on roughage during
the winter. Owing to the limited amount of grain grown, concen-
trated feed is not used to any extent. In the more fertile valleys
cows are stabled during the entire year. Calves usually run with the
dams until weaned, but in some cases they are raised on skim milk
or sweet whey with grain and green feed, or are sold as veal without
other feed than the danrs milk or milk from the pail. In the latter
case Avhole milk is fed for about two weeks, after which skim milk
gradually replaces it.
Bulls which have outlived their usefulness, cows which are unprof-
itable in the dairy or too old too breed, and worn-out oxen are
usually used for beef. If fed during the summer, they have nothing
but grass; in the winter they have roughage as the principal feed,
with a small grain allowance.
In some parts of the country it is customary for all the cows in a
valley to be taken to the mountains for the summer, often to an
altitude of 6,000 or 7,000 feet. The men in charge remain with
them, milk them, and make cheese from the milk.
Although high-pressure feeding is entirely unknown in Switzer-
land, and the methods used tend to develop coarseness, the cattle are
usually healthy and vigorous.
DENMARK. HOLLAND, AND THE CHANNEL ISLANDS (JERSEY AND GUERNSEY).
Practically all the cattle in these countries are strictly dairy bred,
dairying being the principal live-stock industry. The discussion of
the conditions in these places will be found under the head of Dairy
Cattle.
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING IN EUROPE. 17
BEEF AND DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE.
METHODS OF FEEDING IN ENGLAND.
FEEDING YOUNG STOCK.
The methods of English breeders have many points of similarity
with those in America. Young hulls are allowed to suckle the dams
and are taught to eat as soon as possible. The rations are naturally
composed of grain, hay, and roots. Young bulls are fed to somewhat
higher condition than heifers, the latter having little if any grain
or cake before weaning and the suckling period for them usually
being shorter. Heifers are usually given plenty of fresh air and
exercise.
Breeders of dual-purpose cattle very rarely allow their young
stock to suckle. Bull calves are fed on whole milk or on a gruel of
whole milk or skim milk with flaxseed meal, corn meal, or oatmeal.
As they grow older barley meal, cotton cake, roots, and hay are added
to the ration and the milk decreased. A rather fleshy condition is
usually sought for.
Dual-purpose heifer calves are fed on skim milk and grain rations,
and large amounts of proprietary calf foods are used. Skim-milk
rations are usually prepared by boiling the grain in water and adding
to the milk while still hot.
FEEDING BEEF BREEDING COWS.
Cows, especially when they are not in milk, are fed on very light
rations. Dry cows are maintained on grass alone during the summer
and on grass, hay, straw, and roots during the winter. The amount
of roots fed is limited, as some cows are inclined to take on too much
flesh when fed large quantities of them.
Good breeders do not feed grain or cake to dry cows except in the
case of a cow badly out of condition or very old, when a small amount
may be given. On some farms dry cows are not fed roots, being
maintained solely on hay and the run of a grass lot for several hours
each day. While cows managed in this way are rather thin in flesh
and very rough in their coats, they are regular breeders and their
calves command high prices. As calving time approaches better
rations are fed, crushed oats, linseed, and wheat bran being generally
used. The amount of roots fed is small until about ten days after
the calf is dropped.
At calving time many breeders feed warm bran mashes, and some
give tepid water for drinking purposes until the cow has regained
her normal condition.
18 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
FEEDING l!KEKI)I.\(i lil'LLS.
The breeders of both beef and dual-purpose cattle maintain breed-
ing bulls in fairly high condition. The commercial end of the busi-
ness renders it almost necessary for the breeder to practice methods
of feeding which he well knows are not good for the sire, but sales
of young stock are more readily made if there is a well-conditioned
bull at the head of the herd. However, there are some exceptions to
this, and on some of the best farms the most valuable sires are main-
tained in rather low condition. In these cases only the usefulness of
the bulls is considered, and in the majority of such instances these
sires are animals of established reputation and their offspring are
eagerly sought for.
The rations used for young bulls are composed of some kind of
hay (clover preferred), roots, and a mixture of crushed oats, wheat
bran, and linseed cake, equal parts by weight ; crushed oats, ground
barley, and wheat bran, equal parts by weight, or ground barley,
wheat bran, and linseed cake, equal parts by weight. The amounts
range during the winter from 30 to GO pounds of roots and from 6 to
12 pounds of grain, with what hay the animal will eat up clean.
The summer rations include about the same grain rations, with hay
and grass or other forage crops. In some instances breeders feed
corn meal and cotton cake, but in the opinion of many both of these
feeds should be omitted from the ration of the young breeding bull.
The rations for mature bulls are much the same as those .for young
bulls. The amount of roots fed varies from 40 to 80 pounds per day.
The amount of grain fed varies with the condition of the bull and the
amount of service required. In some instances as high as 15 pounds
per day are given during the breeding season. Bulls which are re-
quired to do regular service throughout the year are fed from G to 9
pounds of grain per day. Those which are used heavily for a short
time and then not used at all for several months receive little or no
grain during the months they are not used.
FATTENING CATTLE FOR MARKET.
Cattle feeding is practiced to a certain extent in all parts of Eng-
land. In addition to home-grown animals, store cattle of both Irish
and Scotch breeding are fed in considerable numbers. Grass is used
very largely in fattening, especially in those districts where rents are
not too high.
The bulk of hay and straw is fed long, but a considerable amount
is cut and mixed with cake and grain. Some feeders. pulp all roots
fed, but the more general practice is to feed them whole. Cattle
which are teething are sometimes given pulped or sliced roots, but
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING IN EUROPE. 19
on many farms no change is made. Frequent feeding prevails. The
general tendency in all parts of the country is to market cattle at a
much earlier age than in former years, hut the production of baby
beef is very limited in extent, and confined almost solely to Hereford-
shire or other localities where Hereford cattle are bred.
FATTKXINC CATTI.K DCKINC K.U.I. AM) \VINTKR.
Although the feeding of beef cattle is not always profitable from
the standpoint of the gains produced, the manure obtained is a valu-
able asset to the English farmer, especially where large quantities of
cake are fed. In general there is not a very marked difference in
methods. Cattle are fed in stalls or in yards. The amount of roots
fed per day varies from HO to 100 pounds per head, according to the
amount of grain and cake used. The amount of concentrates varies
from ( to 1") pounds per animal per day. but the majority of feeders
use from 10 to 1*2 pounds for animals on full feed. As a rule, the
most successful feeders take four months or more to get their ani-
mals on full feed. The cattle are put in the feed yards or stalls any
time from the first of October until the middle of November, and
they are marketed from the first of March until the middle of June:
after that time grass-fed cattle are very much in evidence. The
feeding period varies, therefore, from one hundred and twenty to
about two hundred days.
To a person who has been accustomed to the methods of cattle
feeding which prevail in the American corn belt the grain rations
fed by the English feeders look very small, but the gains made by
the cattle are fully as great as those obtained by the most successful
American feeders, a fact which demonstrates that the English
method of feeding must insure more thorough digestion of the grain
and cake, or the roots must furnish more nourishment than the
chemical analyses would seem to indicate. The following rations
are representative of those in use:
Farm \<>. 1. This farm is located in the south of England, in
Sussex, and the manager is said to be one of the nut successful
feeders in his district. This ration was being fed in Januarv to
cattle which had been on feed since the first of October: Mixed hay.
1") pounds: oat chart'. 4 pounds: mangels. :>() pounds: linseed cake.
'\ pounds: cotton-seed cake. '.\ pounds: ground barlev, ' pounds:
crushed oats. -2 pounds: and corn meal. H pounds. The cake and meal
were fed morning and evening with the oat chaff. The mixed hay
was fed in the early morning, in the afternoon, and the last thing
at night, while the roots were fed about 1) o'clock in the forenoon.
20
BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
Ration for steers fed in Sussex, England.
Feeding stuff.
Quan-
tity.
Dry
matter.
Digesti-
ble pro-
tein.
Digesti-
ble car-
bohy-
drates.
Digesti- ! N " tri -
blf . : ratio.
Miir fid hay
Pounds.
15
Pounds.
13.065
Pound*.
0.885
Pounds.
6.135
Pounds.
0.180
Oat chaff
4
3.428
.060
1.320
.028
Mangels
30
2.730
.330
1.620
.030
Linseed cake
3
2.724
.879
.981
.210
Cotton-seedcake
3
2.754
1.116
.507
.366
Ground barley
3
2.673
.261
1.968
.048
Crushed oats
2
1.780
.184
.946
.084
Corn meal
3
2.673
.237
2.001
.129
31.827
3.952
15. 478
1.075 1:4. oO
Farm No. 2. This farm is located in Norfolk, one of the leading
beef-producing districts of England. The manager always feeds a
large number of cattle during the fall and winter months. They are
purchased in September or early in October and are given the run of
a grass lot for six weeks, during which time they are taught to eat
white turnips and cake. The amount of cake is gradually increased
so that at the end of the six weeks they are eating from 6 to 8 pounds
of grain per head daily. Cattle on full feed receive 12 pounds of
mixed hay, 5 pounds of oat straw, TO pounds of swedes, 3 pounds of
cotton-seed cake, 3 pounds of linseed cake, and 3 pounds of ground
barley.
Ration for steers fed in Norfolk. England.
Feeding stuff. Q^ n ~
Dry
matter.
Digesti-
ble pro-
tein.
Digesti-
ble car-
bohy-
drates.
ir
Pott/ids.
Mixedhay 12
Pounds.
10. 452
Pounds.
708
Poiuicls.
4.903
Pounds.
0.1-14
Oat straw 5
4 540
.060
1.930
.040
Swedes 70
7 000
.700
5.600
.140
Cotton-seed cake 3
2.754
1.116
.5! 17
.366 i
Linseed cake ' 3
2.724
.879
.981
.210
Ground barle v 3
2.673
.2fil
1.968
.048
30. 143
3.724
15.894
.948 : 1:4. f4
1
Farm No. 3. This farm is located in the north of England, in
Northumberland. Swedes are used in large quantities from 00 to
100 pounds per animal being fed daily. For roughage mixed hay and
oat straw are used; as a rule about half and half of each are fed. but
the proportions are varied according to the supply available. Except
cotton-seed cake and linseed cake, both of which are always fed. the
concentrated part of the ration varies with the prices of feed, and is
composed of one or more of the following: Crushed oats, ground bar-
ley, corn meal, rice meal, bean meal, and pea meal. In February,
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING IN EUROPE.
21
cattle on full feed were receiving the following ration: Cotton-seed
cake, 4 pounds; linseed cake, 2 pounds; crushed oats, 4 pounds; mixed
hay, 8 pounds; oat straw, (> pounds; and swedes, 80 pounds.
Ration fur atcc-rn fed in "Northumberland, f'tiyland.
FH>dint? stuff.
Quan-
tity.
Dry
mat tor.
DigeHti-
11 j>n>-
tem.
DiKCHti
hie car-
Ixihy-
drat.
DiKeati- N t ? tri -
""" ;;,
Mix>d hay
Pound*.
8
Pound*.
(S.itttK
Pounds.
0.472
Pi Hindu.
3.272
Pound*.
O.OB6
Cat straw
6
5.448
.072
2.316
.048
Swedes
80
8.000
.800
6.400
.100
4
3.672
1.488
.676
.488
Linseed cake
2
1.816
.586
.654
.140
Crushed oats
4
3. 560
.i8
1.892
.Iti8
9.464
3.786
15.210
1.100 1:4.67
Faiin No. 4- This farm is located in Gloucester. Cattle on full
feed are fed daily per head 15 pounds of mixed hay, 3 pounds of oat
chaff, 50 pounds of swedes, 3 pounds of cotton-seed cake, 2 pounds of
linseed cake, 4 pounds of ground barley, and 3 pounds of corn meal.
The hay is fed in three feeds morning, noon, and night; the grain
and cake are mixed with the oat chaff and fed in two feeds morning
and evening; the swedes are fed about 9 a. in. and 4 p. m.
Ration for steers fed in Gloucester. Eiif/land.
Feeding stuff. ^in""
Dry
matter.
Digesti-
ble pro-
tein.
Digesti- v,,tri
hie car- Digesti- % u ' n
hohy- i ble fat.
drates.
Pound*.
Mixed hay 15
Pounds.
13. Otw
Pound*.
0. 885
Pounds. Pounds.
6. i: 0. ISO '
Oat chaff .. 3
2.571
. 045
.990 .021 '
Swedes 50
5.0110
.500
4.000 .100
Cotton-seed cake . 3
2.754
1.116
.51)7 .3tM)
Liinseod cake 2
1 816
.586
1)54 140
Ground barley 4
3 V.I
.348
2 t>24 <U
Corn meal . 3
2 <::{
.257
2 <X>1 12!)
:u.44:i
3.717
Iti. 911 1.000 1:5.15
FATTENING CATTI.K ON GRASS.
Cattle are fattened on grass in all parts of England, but this is
not extensively done except where rents are low or where land is sub-
ject to overflow and is kept in permanent pasture.
Many fall and winter feeders feed cake on grass for several months
until the cattle are half fat before putting them in the yards or
stables. The allowance at first is very small perhaps 1 pound per
clay the amount being gradually increased until the animals are eat-
ing 4 or 5 pounds per head daily at the end of the grass period.
22 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
'Others fatten their cattle on grass alone until a month or six weeks
previous to marketing time, when some cake is given.
In all parts of the country there are feeders who endeavor to finish
their cattle on the grass land or have them forward enough by the
1st of October so that from three to six weeks' yard feeding on hay,
roots, and cake will make prime animals. Where this is done unde-
corticated cotton cake, or a mixture of this cake and linseed cake, is
fed throughout the entire summer. Early in the season from 2 to
3 pounds per head per day are fed, but the amount is gradually
increased at the rate of 1 pound per month, so that the cattle are very
often eating from 7 to 9 pounds per head daily at the end of the
grass period.
FEEDING IN SCOTLAND.
Scotch farmers have given to the world some of its best beef breeds ;
they have been fully as successful in feeding animals for beef, and
from the standpoint of quality and flavor Scotch-fed beef has held
for many years the leading position in the most critical meat markets
of the world. This is remarkable, because Scotch beef is not produced
in any one locality, or confined to any one class of farmers, but is
produced on practically all farms, large and small, within the bound-
aries of Scotland. The number of cattle fed by an individual is
not usually so large as in America, and depends upon the amount
of roughage and roots available.
In former years many of the north of Scotland cattle feeders in
fattening three-year-old and four-year-old cattle fed nothing but
straw and swedes. This method of feeding does not now prevail to
the same extent, as the tendency on every hand is to market animals
at an earlier age. and grain and cake have been added to the rations.
Breeding animals, however, are still fed large quantities of roots by
many stockmen, and in such cases not much grain and cake is given.
FEEDING HREEDIXG CATTLE.
With the exception of bulls, breeding cattle of all ages are kept on
pasture when the weather permits. Calves run with their dams on
grass as soon as it comes. Bull calves begin to eat grain while still
on pasture. With the approach of winter the feed is increased.
In northwest Scotland Shorthorn and Angus bull calves are fed
very liberally until ready for sale, which is when they are between
1-2 and 18 months of age. Hay is usually fed long, and roots are
sliced or pulped. The amounts given are from 10 to 15 pounds of
hay. 30 to GO pounds of roots, and to 12 pounds of grain. Some
grain rations are : Linseed cake 2 parts, wheat bran 1 part, crushed
oats 1 part; crushed oats, linseed cake, and ground barley or corn
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING IN EUROPE. 23
meal, equal parts; bran and linseed cake equal parts. This is the
feeding during the first winter.
Heifer calves are not usually fed pram while suckling, and are not
made excessively fat, luit kept in good growing condition. Some
breeders feed no grain or cake, maintaining them on turnips and hay
during the winter, hut the majority feed crushed oats and linseed
cake. The only heifers which are forced at all are those intended
for show, and their rations contain large quantities of roots, a con-
siderable amount of hay, and a comparatively small amount of grain
and cake. Scotch breeders believe that when fed in this way heifers
are not seriously injured for breeding. They have the fresh, sappy
appearance of grass-fed cattle in June, and three-year-old heifers
which had been fed in this way did not seem to have suffered by it.
In no other line of cattle feeding in Scotland does such uniformity
of method exist as in the feeding of breeding cows. After the
calves are weaned the cows are allowed the run of a grass lot until
severe weather renders it necessary to furnish shelter and winter
rations. At this time some breeders tie their cows in stalls, but the
more general custom is to furnish loose stalls for individual cows or
large covered courts where a number may run together. From the
time they are housed until within three or four weeks of calving
they are maintained solely on turnips and roughage. The amount
of turnips fed varies from 00 to l.">0 pounds per cow per day. The
racks are usually kept well filled with straw at all times and the
turnips are fed in two or three feeds, more generally two feeds, one
in the late morning and the other about 3 or 4 p. m. The roots are
nearly always fed whole to mature cows, but they are very often
sliced or pulped for young cows or heifers which are shedding their
teeth.
As calving time approaches, the cows are generally placed in box
stalls or tied in open stalls and fed more liberally, a grain ration
being added. At calving time and for a week or ten days after,
many breeders give warm bran mashes and in some instances all the
drinking water is warmed. After this the feeding is liberal until
grass arrives. Some of the grain rations fed cows with calves are:
Ground barley, bran, and linseed cake, equal parts: dried brewer-
grains, ground barley, and linseed cake, equal parts: cotton cake
sometimes takes the place of part of the linseed cake. When grass
becomes plentiful, additional feed is not usually supplied.
Breeding bulls are fed liberally until they have proved themselves
to be superior stock getters, buyers always judging a young bull's
ability to sire good beef cattle by his own condition. Some of the
winter grain rations fed yearling and two-year-old bulls are: Crushed
oats, 2 parts; wheat bran, 1 part: ground or cooked barley. 1 part:
V4 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
linseed cake, 2 parts; crushed oats, wheat bran, linseed cake, equal
parts; crushed oats and linseed cake, equal parts. The grain ration
is fed in two feeds, morning and evening; some breeders mix it with
oat chaff or cut hay before feeding. The rations in the summer are
very much the same, green forage taking the place of the roots.
Some breeders do not feed grain and cake to mature bulls and. at
any rate, less cake and barley and more oats and bran are used than
for younger bulls. The allowances of roughage and succulent feed
are proportionately larger in all cases and that of concentrates less.
Some of the grain rations for these animals are as follows : Crushed
oats and wheat bran, equal parts; crushed oats, 2 parts, wheat bran,
2 parts, linseed cake, 1 part ; crushed oats, 3 parts, wheat bran. 2
parts, ground barley, 1 part, and linseed cake, 1 part; crushed oats,
wheat bran, and linseed cake, equal parts.
THE PRODUCTION OF BEEF.
The growing and fattening of cattle for beef engages the attention
of the farmers to a certain extent in all sections of Scotland.
Throughout the Highlands the breeders of Highland cattle grow
store, or feeding, animals, and in the arable districts it is the excep-
tion to find a farmer who is not in some way connected with the beef
industry.
If two-year-olds and three-year-olds are fed. a great deal of rough-
age is used. The amount fed young animals is not so great and the
quality is better. Oat. barley, and wheat straw and the various
kinds of hay are used. The amount of oat straw used is astonishing,
especially in feeding more mature animals.
Sources of feeding cattle. Feeders get their stores from Ireland,
from southwest Scotland, from the Highlands, or in their own neigh-
borhood from small farmers.
The age of the Irish cattle when purchased varies from 12 to 30
months, but the most of them are about 18 months old : the Galloways
from the southwest are from 12 to 20 months old, the Highlands
from 3 to 4 years, and the local stock from 1 to 2 years.
Beef production on high- priced land. In addition to the stockmen
who purchase their feeders there is a considerable number who grow
all the animals they feed, and this work is successfully done in some
instances where land rents for $12.50 per acre. Some of these
farmers purchase calves when a few days old and raise them on
nurse cows, and this is successful if good calves are secured. In
some instances feeders furnish high-class beef sires to the owners of
cows, so that the calves will be of the desired feeding type. These
men aim to have their cattle ready for market before they are 2
vears old. The calves are taught to eat at an early age and are very
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING IN EUROPE. 25
liberally fed until ready for the market. Another successful method
is when open heifers about '20 months old are purchased in the
fall in the Galloway district or in Ireland and maintained as eco-
nomically as possible until March, when they are bred to a high-
class beef sire. Black bulls are generally used on heifers of mixed
color, and Shorthorn bulls on black heifers, so that the calves will
be uniform in appearance. The heifers are grazed during the summer
and do not receive any special care or additional feed until the latter
part of October or the first of Xoveml)er. From this time on they
are fed on hay, roots, and very often a small allowance of grain
and cake, so as to be in good condition at calving time. After calv-
ing they are liberally fed. When the grass season opens they are put
on pasture and fed from 5 to 10 pounds of grain and cake per day
in addition. The calves are weaned about the 1st of September and
three months' additional feeding makes the dams ready for the
butcher.
The advantages claimed for this method are that the heifers arc
growing all the time and increasing in value, that they will rear
good calves and still sell in the open market not as cows but as fat
heifers. As a rule they are purchased for about $40 each and sell
for $80 or $90. On some farms the heifers raise a second calf before
being sold. Where this method prevails one-half of them are sold
as milch cows after dropping the second calf, and the others are
made to suckle two calves each, are bred a third time, and sold as
milch cows after dropping their third calf, or are fed heavily during
the second lactation period and finished for beef.
The calves are taught to eat at an early age and are heavily fed:
they run with the mothers on grass and receive all the grain and cake
they will eat up clean, the feeding being increased as they will take
it, at the rate of half a pound or a pound a month. They are weaned
early in September and from that time on are housed and well fed
until ready for market the following April or May. During this
time they are fed 10 to 15 pounds of mixed or clover hay. 20 to 50
pounds of turnips or swedes, and a grain mixture composed of lin-
seed cake, cotton cake, dried brewers' grains, and corn or barley meal,
equal parts: linseed cake, crushed oats, pea meal, and ground barley,
equal parts; linseed cake, cotton cake, crushed oats, and corn meal,
equal parts. The amount of grain fed varies from 10 to 14 pounds
per animal per day. according to age and size. The best feeders use
more linseed cake and less cotton cake when swedes are fed than
when yellow turnips are fed.
Fattening cattle. The age and condition of cattle at the time of
purchase influence the methods of feeding. A great many feeders
purchase young animals in thin flesh in the fall and carry them
through the winter on light rations, irraduallv increasing the amount
26 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
of cake fed. so that by May, when the grass season opens, they will
be eating about 4 pounds per day. They are then put on grass and
the cake is increased at the rate of 1 pound per month, so that they
will be eating 8 or 9 pounds per day by the middle of September or
the first of October, when they are put in yards to be finished in six
to ten weeks on hay, roots, grain, and cake.
In fall and winter feeding cattle are fed in closed courts or tied in
stalls, and the length of the feeding period varies from six weeks to
seven or eight months. Cattle which have been carried through the
previous winter on light rations and fed cake with grass during the
summer months require but a short period of feeding to put them in
good condition. On the other hand, thin animals with large, coarse
frames require several months to round them out in marketable
condition.
The following rations are fairly representative of prevailing meth-
ods of feeding. In each instance the ration is that used when the
animals are on full feed.
Farm Xo. 1. This farm is located in the extreme south of Scot-
land, in the midst of the Galloway breeding district. The cattle on
feed would weigh in the neighborhood of 1.200 pounds and had been
fed cake on grass all summer: they were almost finished at the time
of the writer's visit early in November. The following ration was
fed : 90 pounds swedes. 7 pounds oat straw. (> pounds mixed hay,
3 pounds crushed oats, 4 pounds bean meal, and 4 pounds of linseed
cake. The swedes were fed in three feeds morning, noon, and even-
ing: the grain and cake in two feeds morning and night; the hay in
the morning, and the straw at night.
Ration for xtccrs fc<l in xoiillicrn Scotland.
Feeding stuff.
Quan-
tity.
Dry
matter.
Digesti-
ble pro-
tein.
Digesti-
ble.car-
bohy-
drates.
Digesti- N I ' i -
^ fat - ra\",
Swedes
Pounds.
90
Pounds.
9. 900
Pounds.
0.900
Pounds.
7.290
Pounds.
0.180
6.356
.084
2. 702
. 056
Mixed hav
6
5. 226
.a>t
2. 454
117-'
Crushed oats
3
2.670
. 270
1.419
.126
Bean ineal
4
3.428
.896
1.972
.048
Linseed cake ..
4
3.632
1.172
1.308
.2H)
31.212
3. 682
17.145
. 762 1 : 5. 12
Farm Xo. 2. This farm is located in Perthshire and is the seat of
extensive cattle-feeding operations. The cattle are fattened at an
early age and are marketed at about 1.200 pounds live weight. The
ration fed during February to cattle which had been on feed since
the middle of October and were to be marketed early in April was
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING IN EUROPE. 27
composed of !."> pounds oat straw. 5 pounds oat chaff. TO pounds
swedes, 10 pounds potatoes. 4 pounds linseed cake, and 4 pounds of
cotton-seed cake. The straw was put in the racks in the morning.
the cake was mixed with the oat chaff and fed in two feeds morn-
ing and night : and the swedes were fed in two feeds at H a. in. and
4 p. in. The cattle were in a large covered court.
Ifatioit fur Ntivrx fcil in I'rrtlixliirt . Scfttlninl.
bohy-
drates.
Oat straw . .. .
Pound*. Pound*. Pound*. Pii
15 13.H20 0. 1HO 5
ida.
7'.t
fttunda.
Oat chaff ..
5 ! 4.2*5 .075 1
(><i
.035 . ..
70 ' 7.700 .700 5
(>70
140
10 2.110 .01*1 1
1 1:511
dill
Ootton-seod cake
4 ' :{.<>72 1.4H8
4H.H
4 3.32 1.172 1
3IIK
35.019 3.705 1
724
1.073 1:5.17
F<irni .\o. >. This farm is located in the Midlothian district, near
Edinburgh. The tenant pays an annual rent of $1-J..">0 per acre for
the land. He does not buy feeders, but purchases heifers, raising
only one calf from them and then fattening them for market. He
therefore breeds his own feeders. They are finished for market at
from 17 to 18 months of a<re. The following ration was fed in Feb-
ruary, when the animals were about 15 months old and weighing on
an average about 1,000 pounds: \-2 pounds mixed hay. <>0 pounds
swedes. :i pounds linseed cake. X pounds cotton-seed cake. '.} pounds
ground barley, and '2 -pounds corn meal. The hay was fed in two
feeds morning and evening: the grain and cake also in two feeds
morning and evening: and the swedes in three feeds morning, noon,
and night.
Ifiitinii for xtccrx f< <l nnir Kilinbnrfili. Xcntlrnnl.
Feeding stuff.
Quan-
tity.
Dry
uiatter.
Digesti-
ble pro-
tein.
Digesti- Vntri
ble i-ur- Digesti- t J- ,
bohv- ble fat.
drates.
PoltHdlt.
12
Pou nil*.
10.452
Ponnilx.
li 7i IS
Pintntl*. P,,n,,ils.
4. "HIS (1.141 .
(Ml
Ii til l
lit III
4..^)ll .1211 .
Linseed cakes
2. 724
S7i
.'.sl .21i' --
Cotton-seed cake
3
2. 754
1.1 Hi
.5117 .:**;
Ground barley
3
.281
1 . JtfiS . 1 14s
<"'nrii meal
1 7s->
. 15S
1 :tu UN;
(> 1 K>
3 7*'
14. "wS .i74 1:4.. VI
*
Farm Xo. 4- This farm is located in Aberdeen, in the very center
of the greatest cattle-feedinff district in Scotland. At the time of the
28
BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
writer's visit the tenant was feeding about fifty head of high-grade
and purebred Shorthorn cattle, which would average about two and
a half years and weigh about 1,400 pounds each. The ration fed was
a very simple one, composed of 15 pounds oat straw, 5 pounds oat
chaff, 130 pounds swedes, 4 pounds linseed cake, and 4 pounds cooked
barley. The straw was put in the feed racks every morning, the
cooked barley and linseed cake were mixed with the oat chaff and fed
in the evening, and the swedes were fed in three feeds morning,
noon, and early evening.
Ration for steers fed in Aberdeen, Scotland.
Feeding stuff. ^itv""
Dry
matter.
Digesti-
ble pro-
tein.
Digesti-
ble.car-
bouy-
drates.
Digesti-
ble fat.
Nutri-
tive
ratio.
Pounds.
Oat straw 15
Pounds.
18.620
Pounds.
0.180
Pounds.
5.790
Pounds.
0.120
Oat chaff 5
4. 285
.075
1.650
.035
Swtdes -i 130
14.300
1. 300
10.530
.260
Linseed cake 4
3.632
1.172
1.308
.280
Cooked barley - - - . - 4
3.564
.348
2.624
.064
39.401
3.075
21.902
.759
1 :7.68
Farm No. o. This farm is located in Forfarshire, which is also a
noted cattle-feeding district. In this district the feeders use more
barley straw and hay than the feeders in the extreme northern coun-
ties. Rice meal is also fed on many farms. On the farm in question
the manager was feeding a large number of high-grade Angus heifers
which had been on feed over four months. They were about two and
a half years old and would average about 1,100 pounds live weight.
The ration in use consisted of 10 pounds barley straw, 5 pounds mixed
hay, 00 pounds swedes, 5 pounds rice meal, 3 pounds cotton-seed
cake, and -2 pounds linseed cake. The straw was put in the feed
racks in the morning, the hay was cut and mixed with the rice meal
and cake and fed in two feeds, morning and evening. The swedes
were sliced and fed in three feeds morning, noon, and early evening.
Ration for steers fed in ForfarxJiirc. Scotland.
Feeding stuff.
Die-psti Digesti-
Quan- Dry wj. blecar-
tity. matter. bl I" ' bohy-
drates.
Digesti- N t u ^-
blefat - r*io.
Barlev straw
Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.
10 i 8.580 0.070 4.120
Pounds.
0.060
ilixed hav
5 4.355 .295 2.045
.060
Swedes
'90 9.900 .900 7.290
.180
5 4 500 ' .450 1.750
.500
3 2.754 1.116 .507
.366
Linseed cake
2 1 810 .586 .654
.140
31.905 3.417 16.366
1.306 1:5.68
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING IN EUROPE. 29
Practically every feeder feeds from 00 to 120 or 130 pounds of
swedes per animal per day, and the rest of the ration is usually coin
posed of such roughage as is available and concentrates. At least
one-half of the latter would IK- cake, and the remainder is made up
of home-grown grains which have been damaged from a market
standpoint or other cheap and easily obtained feeds. Yellow turnips
are sometimes fed in the fall instead of the swedes, but the latter are
much more popular for fattening and are nearly always used.
IRISH METHODS Of FEEDING.
BRKKOI.NO CATTLE.
Few countries are better adapted to the production of vigorous
breeding stock than is Ireland, and this industry promises to make
very rapid development in the near future. With more rigid de-
mands from (treat Britain for quality in feeders, a strong demand
has developed for purebred beef sires, and many of the more pro-
gressive Irish farmers have established herds to supply it.
Methods of feeding show considerable uniformity, and the most
prevalent custom is to allow the cows to nurse their calves until 7 or
8 months old. Some good breeders milk their cows and feed the
calves on whole milk. The feeding of the cows is much the same,
regardless of how the calves are reared. During the late spring,
summer, and early fall they are pastured and no additional feed is
given, unless the pastures are short, which does not often happen.
The winter methods of feeding vary according to climatic condi-
tions. In the south and central portions of the country the cows are
allowed to spend several hours each day in the pasture, and it is said
that herds managed in this manner seldom, if ever, contain tuber-
culous animals. During the early part of the winter, while the cows-
are dry, the stable ration consists of one feed of oat straw, one feed of
mixed hay, and from 50 to 80 pounds of turnips per cow per day.
Xo grain of any kind is given, and the cows not only maintain their
condition, but rapidly increase in flesh. The calves are generally
dropped between the first of January and the latter part of April.
About three weeks previous to calving each cow is fed from :> to S
pounds per day of a mixture of equal parts by weight of crushed oats
and bran. This grain mixture is usually given dry until calving
time, but thereafter it is made into a thick mash with boiling water.
The ration otherwise remains the same: the cow is usually confined to
the stable for a week or ten days, after which she is allowed access
to the grass lot for several hours each day during favorable weather.
In the northern part of Ireland the cows are confined to the stable
during the greater part of the winter. During the early winter they
are fed on oat straw and turnips, and may receive some mixed hay
30 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
as well. They are fed from 60 to 100 pounds of turnips per head
daily, and on some farms even larger quantities are given. The
amount of straw fed is governed only by the appetite of the cow. as
she is given all she will eat. More care is observed in feeding hay.
the amount seldom exceeding 15 pounds per cow per day. It is
claimed that dry cows will nearly always increase in flesh on these
rations. From two to four weeks previous to calving time a small
allowance of grain is given. A mixture of crushed oats and bran, or
ground barley and bran, is generally fed at this time. After calving
the grain mixture is usually made into a thick mash with boiling
water. The amount of turnips is increased about 25 per cent and is
fed in three feeds instead of two feeds per day.
Breeding bulls are rather closely confined both summer and winter.
A small, open paddock is usually provided for exercise: on some
farms they have a grass lot instead. The rations fed during the
winter are usually composed of hay and turnips, with a small allow-
ance of concentrated feed. Sixty to 80 pounds of roots daily is the
usual amount, and from 5 to 1'2 pounds of grain, according to the
bull's condition and the amount of service required. In summer
green forage replaces the roots.
Xo attempt is made to pamper young stock, but great care is taken
to retain the milk flesh. Young bulls are fed more liberally than
heifers.
THE PRODUCTION OF STORE CATTLE.
Generally speaking. Irishmen use no method in producing store, or
feeding, cattle. They are usually bred regardless of type or color.
In only a few cases are purebred sires used or is the feeding liberal.
The large proportion of them are produced by small tenant farmers,
and the animals have to shift for themselves most of the time.
On the larger farms the calves are. in addition to the run of a grass
lot, usually fed skim milk and very often a small allowance of grain
or cod-liver oil to replace the butter fat taken out of the milk.
Recent experiments conducted by the department of agriculture of
Ireland have demonstrated that cod-liver oil is an excellent feed
with skim milk for calves. Calves fed on a ration of skim inilk and
cod-liver oil made practically as large gains as those fed on whole
milk, and much greater than those fed on corn and milk. Flaxseed
is also used. Calves reared in this manner during the summer and
liberally fed and comfortably housed during the first winter do
exceptionally well the following summer and sell well in Great
Britain.
FATTENING CATTLE.
The fattening of cattle is gradually increasing in importance.
Stall feeding is largely confined to the central part of the country,
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING IN EUROPE. 31
and to Ulster in the north; hut summer feeding is practiced in all
parts of the country. When fed on grass, cake and grain are seldom
Driven. Many fanners, especially in central and southern Ireland,
feed two lots of cattle per year on their pasture, the first being
marketed in May and the second in November.
Cattle fattened during the winter in stalls are fed from three to
four months if in fairly good flesh at the start, hut the average
require from five to seven months' feeding to finish them. In the
north of Ireland a great deal of attention is given to the steaming of
concentrated feed and the cutting and slicing of roots. Frequent
feeding from three to six times per day is the prevailing custom.
On some of the hest farms stall-fed animals are groomed once or
twice per week, and the practice is considered very heneficial. The
age of the cattle varies from 1'2 months to 3 years or over. Young
cattle are fed more cake and less roughage than 3-year-olds.
The following are representative rations:
Farm \o. L This is a medium-sized farm near Duhlin, where the
owner feeds ahout 50 head of young steers each winter, ranging in age
from 15 to 18 months. They are fed in a covered court. When on full
feed the ration consists of mixed hay, 15 pounds; turnips, 40 pounds;
crushed oats, 4 pounds; corn meal, 3 pounds, and linseed cake. 3
pounds. The hay is given in two feeds, the turnips in two feeds, and
the grain ration in two equal feeds morning and evening. The
cattle make very satisfactory gains on this ration.
Ifntion for steers fed near Dublin. Ireland.
Feeding stuff.
Quan- Dry . g
tity. matter, ^gj^
Dijjfsti-
l)le car- Di^esti-
b-'hy- blefat.
drates.
Nutri-
tive
ratio.
PoitHflx. Pound*. Pounds.
15 13 065 0.883
Pound*. Ifnind*.
6 135 180
Turnips
44) 3.600 .11 m
2.8HO .080
Crushed oats
4 3.560 .368
1 . 892 . lf>8
Corn meal
3 2.673 .237
2.001 .12(1
Linseed oake
3 2.724 .87!)
.!IH1 .210
2T). 622 2. 769
13. 889 . 767
1:5.64
Farm Xo. 2. This farm is located in County Down, in the north
of Ireland, in the midst of one of the greatest cattle-feeding districts
in the country. The owner feeds about '200 head of cattle each year,
varying in age from -2 to 3 years. In this section more dependence
is placed on straw and turnips than in the central districts. Oats
are generally used with cake, hut both barley and corn are used in
considerable quantities. Both linseed cake and cotton cake are fed.
and prepared cakes are used to some extent. On the farm in ques-
tion the following ration is fed: Oat straw. 1*2 pounds: mixed hay, 8
5154 No. 77 05 M :*
32
BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
pounds; turnips, 80 pounds; crushed oats, 3 pounds; ground barley,
3 pounds; linseed cake, 2 pounds, and cotton-seed cake, 2 pounds.
Hay is given in the morning, straw at night, and the grain and roots
in two equal feeds morning and evening. The roots are sliced.
Ration for steer's fed in County Down, Ireland.
Feeding stuff.
Quan-
tity.
Dry
matter.
Digesti-
ble pro-
tein.
Digesti-
ble car-
bohy-
drates.
dH
( )at straw
Pounds.
12
Pounds.
10 896
Pounds.
144
Pounds.
4 632
Pounds.
096
Mixed hay
8
6 968
472
3 272
072
Turnips ...
80
7 600
800
5 760
160
Crushed oats
3
2 670
277
1 419
126
Ground barley
3
2 673
261
1 968
048
Linseed cake
2
1 816
586
.654
140
Cotton-seed cake . . .
2
1.836
744
338
244
34.459
3.283
18. 043
.886 1 : 6. 1
In some instances more hay is fed than in this ration; in others
nothing but oat straw is given for roughage. The amount of turnips
varies from GO to 100 pounds. The grain ration in some instances is
composed of barley and cake or corn and cake, but on the majority of
farms some oats are fed. In some instances the roots are fed whole.
To one accustomed to the use of heavy grain rations it is remarkable
to note the extent to which the grain ration can be replaced by turnips
and roughage. The increase in weight obtained by the use of these
rations ranges from 2 to 3^ pounds per steer per day.
FEEDING IX FRANCE.
BREEDING CATTLE.
Calves are taught to eat at an early age, and young stock are de-
veloped in a simple manner. Great dependence is placed on green
forage and silage, and some farmers feed beets and carrots. The
amount of grain fed is small. Bulls intended for breeding are some-
what better fed than heifers.
Breeding bulls are maintained in fair flesh. During the summer
green feed is supplied. The winter ration consists of clover or alfalfa
hay and straw, with roots when available. Grain is not fed to mature
bulls, except when they are used heavily or are in poor condition.
On many farms the bulls are given regular work. They may be
used either singly, in pairs, or with an ox. Regular work insures
regular exercise and a good disposition. It is also said that bulls
managed in this way get a much larger percentage of calves than
when confined in a stable or paddock.
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING IN EUROPE. 33
WORK CATTI.K.
The American does not usually associate the use of oxen for lal>or
with progressive farming, but in France they are to IM- found side
by side with the latest and most highly improved lal>or-saving
machinery. When asked why he retains oxen for farm labor, the
French farmer invariably replies that they are more economical than
horses. On an estate where very accurate accounts are kept of every
detail the manage!' claims that four oxen do the same amount of work
as three horses, and that the cost of a day's work of a 4-ox team is
$2..~>0, while that of a 3-horse team is $3.. r >4. It is also said to cost
much less to grow an ox to working age than it does a horse, and he
can be sold as beef at any time. As little grain as possible is fed,
and the rations are composed of the cheapest feeds obtainable.
FATTENING CATTI.K.
The French farmers produce large quantities of beef and all sorts
of animals are used, from the 2-year-old steer to the worn-out
dairy cow or work ox. By far the largest numbers are finished dur-
ing the summer, especially where grazing is possible, and some
prominent farmers claim that were it not for the fact that beef is in
demand at all seasons of the year, winter feeding would be aban-
doned in France.
To meet the regular demand more or less stall feeding is done, and
on some farms it is conducted on a very extensive scale, but where
grazing is practiced the general custom is to finish the animals on
grass alone. When the pastures are short, some additional feed mav
ln> needed, when a ration of about -\ pounds per animal per day of
cotton cake is generally used. Linseed cake is used to some extent,
but is preferred for winter feeding, and corn or a mixture of corn and
cotton cake is used in some sections. Light rations are given. When
cattle are fed in the yard or stable in summer, they are soiled on
alfalfa and clover. In some instances beet pulp, which has been
stored in long pits, is used with good results.
In winter the grain ration consists of about '} pounds per animal
at the beginning and is gradually increased to s or 10 Bounds, which
is considered a heavy grain allowance even during the finishing period.
Home-grown roughage is generally used. Practically all feeders
commend the use of succulent feed for winter feeding. Compared
with American systems, the grain rations are much lighter (less than
one-half), and the amount of roughage fed is about double. The
gains per day are about two-thirds the amount obtained by the best
American feeders. Representative winter rations are as follows:
34
BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
Farm No. 1. This is a large farm in the north of France, where
a considerable number of cattle are fattened each winter. On this
farm there is a large silo and a sugar distillery. The silage is made
of green alfalfa and clover, and is excellent. The sugar distillery
supplies a large amount of beet pulp. Three different rations have
been used with excellent results.
A ration composed of silage, 60 pounds; oat straw, 10 pounds;
ground barley, 5 pounds, corn meal, 3 pounds, and cotton-seed meal,
2 pounds is sometimes used. This ration is fed in three feeds, the
silage morning and night, with one-half of the grain ration fed at
each feed, and the oat straw for a midday feed. A second ration is
composed of beet pulp, 100 pounds; alfalfa, 12 pounds; oat straw,
5 pounds ; ground barley, 3 pounds ; corn meal, 3 pounds, and cotton-
seed meal, 2 pounds.
The most common ration fed on this estate includes both silage and
beet pulp and is composed as follows: Beet pulp, 60 pounds; silage,
30 pounds; clover hay, 5 pounds; oat straw. 8 pounds; ground bar-
ley, 3 pounds; corn meal, 2 pounds, and cotton-seed cake, 2 pounds.
The hay is fed in the early morning, the beet pulp and half of the
grain ration about 8 o'clock in the morning, the oat straw at noon,
and the silage and the remainder of the grain ration at night.
liatlon for steers fed in northern France.
Feeding stuff.
Quan-
tity.
Dry mat-
ter.
Digesti-
ble pro-
tein.
Digesti-
ble car-
bohy-
drates.
Digesti-
ble fat.
Nutri-
tive
ratio.
Beet pulp
Pounds.
60
30
5
8
d
2
2
Pounds.
6. 120
8.400
4.235
7.864
2. 673
1.782
1.836
Pounds.
0.360
.750
.340
.096
.261
.158
.744
Pounds.
4.380
3. 000
1.790
3.088
1.968
1.884
.338
POM Jiffs.
0.450
.085
.064
.0-18
.086
.244
Clover hay
Oat straw
Ground barley
Corn meal
Cotton-seed cake
32. 310
2.709
15.898
.977
1 : 6. 68
Farm Xo. 2. This farm is located in the east central portion of
France. The ration used is simple and contains a large amount of
home-grown feeds. The roughage consists of clover hay, 16 pounds;
oat straw, 6 pounds; fodder beets, 30 pounds; corn meal, 3 pounds;
ground barley, 2 pounds; dried brewers' grains, 3 pounds, and lin-
seed cake, 2 pounds. The hay is fed in two feeds, morning and night,
the straw at noon, the roots in the evening, and the grain morning
and evening.
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING IN EUKOl'E.
Ration for xtccr fed in cant central France.
35
Fuelling st nil's.
Quan-
tity.
D v" *Sr
l>ik'<--ti-
hle car-
bohy-
drateH.
DiiceHti- N Viv"
M" 1 "-' raUo.
("'lover hay
Pounds.
16
I'onmlx. I'oundH.
13.562 1.0K8
I'mtnil*.
5. 724
I'UtlllllH.
0.272
Oat Htruw
6
5 448 .072
2 316
048
Fodder be^tw
!
2.7!*) :
I.I 20
(ic;o
Corn i in 'ill
3
2 673 . 237
2 001
12
Ground ltrley . .
o
1.782 174
1.312
.((12
Dried l>r ewers' graiim . . .
:j
2 754 471
1 OKi
153
Linseed cake
2
1.816 586
.654
140
30.755 2.968
14.710
.804 1:5.68
I
FfcKDIXCJ METHODS IN AfSTKlA-Hl XCiAKY.
UREKDINO CATTLE.
Whore land is rough and is used almost solely for grazing the
methods of feeding breeding animals in this country are rather primi-
tive. Grass supplies the feed during the summer and roughage the
winter ration. In these districts cattle are kept almost entirely for
beef and the calves are generally allowed to suckle their dams.
In the more fertile and densely settled districts, where land is
very valuable, cattle are stabled practically all of the time, but this
practice is considered detrimental for breeding stock, and the most
valuable breeding cows and all young cattle intended for breeding
purposes are given as much outdoor exercise as possible. Permanent
pastures are very rare, and therefore these animals are usually grazed
on the grass lots, on grain fields after the removal of the crop, or on
forage crops. They are also soiled on alfalfa, clover, corn, or a
combination of cereals, and have a small allowance of crushed oats,
corn, and wheat bran. Large amounts of beet pulp are fed in all
parts of the country. The young animals are well fed from birth
until maturity. From weaning until maturity they are grazed and
yard fed during the summer and fed on alfalfa or clover hay with
some corn, oats, and bran, and sometimes linseed cake, during the
winter. On one of the best farms inspected in the vicinity of Vienna
the calves during the first winter after weaning are fed from to
12 pounds of alfalfa, according to size and age. and from 3 to
pounds of a grain mixture consisting of two parts shelled corn, one of
oats, one of bran, and one of linseed cake per head per day. The
yearlings are fed from 10 to 10 pounds of alfalfa and 3 pounds of a
grain mixture of two parts corn to one of bran by weight. On
other farms somewhat similar winter rations are used. In some
instances more grain is fed. especially when other roughage than
alfalfa is used: in some instances no grain at all is given.
36
BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
FATTENING CATTI.K.
Cattle are fed and finished for market at all seasons of the year.
On account of the large number which are fattened on grass alone
and marketed during the summer and fall, an over-supply is likely
to occur at that season of the year, and many feeders prefer
late fall and winter feeding. Home-grown feeds are used as far as
possible, and the use of commercial feeding stuffs is limited and
resorted to only when their addition will render possible the use of
some home-grown product which would otherwise be rejected.
Younger animals are fed more frequently than mature cows or bul-
locks. It is quite a common practice to feed the latter animals but
twice per day.
The following rations represent those fed on the best farms:
Farm X<>. 1. Alfalfa, 10 pounds; oat straw, 5 pounds; corn meal,
(') pounds; crushed oats, 4 pounds. The alfalfa is fed in two feeds
morning and evening, the straw 7 at noon, and the grain in two equal
feeds morning and evening. The animals make good growth on this
ration and take on flesh rapidly. All of the feeds used are grown on
the farm.
If at ion for xteers fed in Austria-Hungary (farm A"o. ./).
Feeding stuff.
Quan-
tity.
Dry
matter.
Digesti-
ble pro-
tein.
Digesti-
ble car-
bohy-
drates.
Digesti-
ble fat.
Nutri-
tive
ratio.
Alfalfa hay
Pounds.
16
Pound x.
14.656
Pounds.
1.760
Pounds.
6.336
Pounds.
0. 192
Oat straw - - - -
5
4.540
.060
1.930
.040
Corn meal
(5
5. 346
.474
4.002
.258
Crushed oats
4
3.560
. 388
1 892
168
28. 102
2.662
14. 160
.658
1 : 5. 87
Farm Xo. ,J. Corn fodder, 20 pounds; clover hay, 10 pounds; corn
meal, 5 pounds; ground barley, 4 pounds; linseed cake, 2 pounds. The
corn fodder is fed in the morning, the grain in one feed at 4 o'clock
in the afternoon, and the clover hay in the evening. This ration is
used in the feeding of grass-grown cattle with fairly good results.
All feed except the cake is home grown.
Ration for xtcerx fed in A iiftt ria-II iiiif/ari/ (farm A"o. 2).
Feeding stuff.
Quan-
tity.
Dry
matter.
Digesti-
ble pro-
tein.
Digesti-
ble car-
bohy-
drates.
Digesti-
ble fat.
Nutri-
tive
ratio.
Corn fodder
P<> mtd.1.
20
Pounds.
11.560
Pounds.
0.500
Pounds.
6.920
Pounds.
0.240
Clover hay
10
8.470
.680
3. 580
.170
Corn meal
4. 455
. :fci5
3. 335
.215
4
3 564
.348
2.624
.064
Linseed cake
2
1.816
. 586
.654
.140
29.865
2.509
17. 113
.829
1:7.56
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING IN EUROPE. 37
Farm X<>. >'. Sugar-beet pulp, !>0 pounds; alfalfa hay. 1(5 pounds;
corn meal, T> pounds. This ration is used in the feeding of mature
cattle and gives excellent results. On the same farm the owner pre-
viously experimented with l>eet pulp to determine the proper amounts
to feed and the most satisfactory adjuncts to use in connection with
it, his object Ix'ing to use as much of the pulp as possible. After giv-
ing various rations a fair test he adopted the one above mentioned.
When larger amounts of pulp are fed it has a pronounced and objec-
tionable laxative effect. The alfalfa is fed to supply the protein
lacking in the beet pulp, and the corn meal to give a firmer finish and
for its favorable influence in counteracting the laxative effect of the
rest of the feed used.
If at ion fitr tttccrs fed in A uxtriu-H iini/arji (fnnn .Vo. 3).
Feeding stuff.
Quan-
tity.
Dry
matter.
Digesti-
ble pro-
tein.
Digesti-
ble car-
bohy-
drates.
Digesti-
ble fat.
Nutri-
tive
ratio.
Beet pulp
i Poiuidx. \
90
Pound*.
9 1X0
Pi Hindu.
540
Pound*.
6 57(1
PlHllldll.
Alfalfa hay . .
16
14.K5S
1.7W)
. :;
o.Wi
Corn meal
5
4 455
395
3 3o5
215
:ix.;l
2. 695
16. 11
.4(17
1:6.37
GKRM \N KKKI)IX<; MKTIIODS.
HRKKI>I.\<; CATTI.K.
In northern Germany, and to sonic extent in the western part, all
breeding animals are gra/ed during the summer and early fall.
Where stable or yard feeding is practiced during the summer a va-
riety of soiling crops is supplied. These consist of green rye in the
early spring, followed by clover or alfalfa in those districts where
they can be grown to advantage, then various mixtures of cereals,
such as oats and barley, peas, oats, and barley, followed by lupines,
green corn, alfalfa, etc.: it is the exception for concentrated feed to
be fed in addition. Cattle are usually fed three times per day.
The winter rations vary according to the age of the animal and the
supply of feed available. For young animals clover and alfalfa arc
most generally used for roughage, and in addition a small grain
allowance is usually given. Older animals art 1 given :i moderate
allowance of roughage. When fed largely on clover or alfalfa they
receive little concentrated feed, but when the roughage consists
largely of poor hay or straw a small allowance of cake is usually
given in addition. All animals, bulls in particular, are maintained
in a thrifty condition without the slightest tendency toward obesity.
Bulls are often used for labor as well as for breeding.
38
BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
FATTENING CATTLE.
Cattle are fed for beef throughout the entire country. In the
grazing districts they are nearly always finished on grass and
marketed during the summer and fall. Some farmers use cake
(especially cotton cake) in addition to grass, but the practice is by
no means general. In the farming districts cattle are soiled and fed
on the by-products of sugar factories and breweries. Rather long
feeding periods are customary, with low-pressure feeding and the
use of rather large amounts of roughage and proportionally small
amounts of concentrated feeds. Beef production, as seen on the best
British or American farms, does not exist in Germany. How T ever.
where beet pulp or wet brewers' grains are used, heavy feeding and
rapid gains are the rule.
In some parts of Germany, especially the southern and eastern
portions, cattle are often used for labor for a few years and are then
fattened for market. Cow beef and 2-year-old or 3-year-old bulls
are very conspicuous on nearly all of the leading markets, and really
prime beef is the exception. Although this may be due in part to
the absence of distinct beef breeds of cattle, the methods of German
cattlemen are very different from those of British and American
feeders. A very large number of calves are marketed as veal at
from six to twelve weeks of age; some of these calves suckle the
dams, but the majority are hand fed on skim milk and grain. When
cattle are fattened during the summer on the cultivated farms and
soiled the majority of farmers prefer having the soiling crops well
advanced toward maturity before using them. In addition to the
green crops, from G to 10 pounds of concentrated feed are usually
given. A ration of corn meal and cotton-seed cake in equal parts
is very highly favored. The fall and winter rations vary according
to the availability of roughage and sugar-factory or brewery by-
products.
The following rations are representative and convey a fair idea of
German fattening rations :
Farm Xo. 1. Clover hay, 10 pounds; oat straw, C pounds; wet
brewers' grains, 50 pounds, and corn meal, 4 pounds.
Ration for tsteerv fed in Germany (farm .Vo. 1).
Feeding stuff. "thy""
Dry
matter.
Digesti
ble pro-
tein.
Digesti-
ble car-
bohy-
drates.
Digesti-
ble fat.
Nutri-
tive
ratio.
Pounds.
Clover hay 10
Pounds.
8.470
Pounds.
0.680
Pounds.
3.580
Pounds
0.170
Oat straw 6
5.448
.072
2.316
.048
Wet brewers' grains j 51)
12. 150
1.950
4.650
.700
Corn meal 4
3.564
.316
2 668
.172
2:> 632
3.018
13 214
1 (190
1 : 5. 19
i
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING IN EUROPE. 39
Farm Xo. 2. Alfalfa, 15 pounds; beet pulp, 100 pounds: corn
meal, .'5 pounds, and linseed cake, \\ pounds.
Ifation for xtccrx fi'd in Uvrmunii (farm \o. ,?).
Digeati-
bit* c-ar-
bohy-
dnit<-H.
t,,tr 9 1 " 111 - i I)r >' I.V^tTrV,' hl " <>ar - Di(cti- ' y Xl'
lity. I matter, ^gro- , F Mt . fllt . ^
Poiiixl*. Pound*. Pound*. I'otind*.
Alfalfa hay 15 13.740 l.dJO :>. 0. 1)
Bet pulp
Corn int-al
cake
.flUO , 7.:*W .(J(IO .
.237 2.0W [ .129 !
2.724 .879 i .981 j .210 ..
.519 1:5.17
Farm \<>. >. Clover hay, 10 pounds; oat straw, 10 pounds; sugar
ln i ets, 20 pounds; dried brewers' grains. 5 pounds, and cotton-seed
cake. ."> pounds.
If at ion for steers fed in (Jennuny (farm \o. 3).
Clover hay
i
Pound*. Pound*. Pounds., Pounds.
10 S.470 0.680 3.580
Pound*.
0.170
Oat straw
10 9.080 .120 3.8BII
20 2 700 ' 220 2.O40
020
Dried brewers' grains
5 4 590 7*5 1.815
Cotton-seed cake
5 4.590 1.8tiO .845
.10 ..
25t.48() ; :itt 12.140 1.135 1:4.01
In many instances German feeders have used much larger quanti-
ties of beet pulp and wet brewers' grains than were fed in these
rations, but the majority believe that the best results are obtained
when from (50 to 100 pounds of beet pulp or about .">0 pounds of wet
brewers' grains are fed per animal per day with other kinds of feed.
The brewers' grains are somewhat too rich in protein for good
results, and by the addition of other feeding stufl's a much better
balanced ration is obtained.
DAIRY CATTLE.
DAIRY METHODS IX GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
ENGLAND.
Cattle of the dairy breeds in England appear to be quite well fed.
Guernseys and Jerseys, for example, are kept in much better condi-
tion than in their native islands. Young animals are usually better
developed at the same age and mature ones are larger, and breeders
do not seem to object seriously to flesh, especially on young stock.
FEEDING BREEDING STOCK.
Bull calves are raised in the usual manner by pail feeding, having
whole milk for three or four weeks, and after that skim milk, roots,
and hay, or skim milk, grain, and cake. Rations of equal parts Avhole
milk and skim milk are fed on some farms. One very successful
breeder feeds 0>-months-old bulls on a ration of skim milk 20 pounds,
flaxseed meal one-half pound (boiled and added to the milk), clover
hay 5 pounds, sliced mangels 10 pounds, crushed oats 2 pounds, bran 1
pound, and linseed cake 1 pound.
Heifer calves are not fed so much grain and cake as bulls. They
are bred from 15 months to 2 years of age.
Breeding bulls are maintained in low condition, and grain and
cake are usually fed only to young bulls or mature ones doing heavy
service. Feeds like corn meal, pea meal, bean meal, and ground
barley are used sparingly and in conjunction with cooling feeds like
roots and green forage. A great deal of exercise is given.
FEEDING DAIRY COWS.
The production of milk generally forms an important part of
English farming operations, and dual-purpose cows are usually kept.
The blood of the milking Shorthorn prevails in practically all parts
of the country, and the special-purpose dairy breeds are more largely
found on the estates of the wealthy classes and the nobility than on
the farms of the small tenant farmers. The market value of the
cows at the end of the milking period and the demand for calves from
such cows for feeding exert an important influence in popularizing
40
CATTLE. SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING IN EUROPE. 41
the cows of the dual-purpose type. This condition of affairs, in a
measure, has an influence on methods of feeding. As milk i not the
only source of revenue for which cows are maintained, methods of
feeding have not always received as close study from such farmer-
as is given the subject when dairy farming is conducted as a specialty.
Mangels, carrots, white, yellow, and swede turnips, and cabbage
are fed. Turnips are given in large quantities either before or after
milking. In some private dairies, especially on large estates, which
are run principally to supply the landlords' households, care is used to
select feed which will not impart undesirable flavors to the milk,
but in a large number of commercial dairies this discrimination is
not exercised.
All feeders feed at least three times daily and many give six <<r
seven feeds.
A few representative rations fed to milch cows in Kngland are
given below :
Farm Xo. 1 . This farm is located in Berkshire and is stocked with
high-class .Jersey cows, the milk from which is used to supply a
fancy butter, cream, and milk trade. The rations fed are said by
prominent dairymen to be the best in England.
During the summer each cow is fed daily, in addition to grass.
2 pounds of undecorticated cotton-seed cake, ?> pounds of wheat
bran, and 8 pounds of clover hay. The daily winter ration is com-
posed of 3 pounds crushed oats, 4 pounds wheat bran. '2 pounds cot-
ton-seed cake, "1 pounds bean meal, 15 pounds mangels, 10 pounds
cut hay, and 8 pounds long hay per head. The grain and cake are
mixed with the cut hay. scalded, and fed in two feeds one in early
morning and the other in late afternoon: the roots are fed after milk-
ing in the morning and the long hay is fed after milking in the
evening.
It'dtiini fur daii'i/ rnirn f<'<! in lifi'kxliirc. Kiiijliiinl.
,. ,. a Quan- Dry i, _ We car
Feeding stuff. ^ ity matter. l ?J*' bohy-
^* I" 1 ,!....".
We fat.
drates.
Mixed hay. . is 15.H7S I.(i2 7 :*K H.U'lti
Mangels... 1"> l.ifltt .Hi.'. .sin .ni;>
Bran... 4 :t.:>^4 .4.ss 1.51^ .ins
Crushed oats :i 2.570 .-'7tl 1.41'.i .l^ii
Cotton-seedcake. 2 l.s:*i .744 .:-< .244
Bean meal... 2 1.714 .448 .list; ,tr_>4
i6. 7S7 :{. 1S;{ 12. 4 .7 1:4.44
Fann Xo. 2. This farm is located in Cheshire, and is stocked with
purebred milking Shorthorns. During the summer months each
cow in full milk receives, in addition to grass, a daily grain mixture
4L>
BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
composed of 2 pounds dried brewers' grains, 1 pound bran, 2 pounds
undecorticated cotton-seed cake, and 1 pound of linseed cake. The
fall and winter rations are composed of mixed hay, 15 pounds; oat
straw, 7 pounds; swedes, 00 pounds; wet brewers' grains, 10 pounds;
cotton-seed cake, 3 pounds; corn meal, 5 pounds, and wheat bran, 4
pounds. The cows receive both morning and evening a mixture of
cut hay, pulped swedes, wet brewers' grains, and some bran, amount-
ing in all to about 15 pounds at each feed, in the form of a scalded
mash. The remainder of the swedes is fed in two feeds of about 25
pounds each, morning and evening. The straw is given at the last
feed at night. The corn meal and cotton cake are mixed and fed in
two equal feeds, morning and evening. About 8 pounds of long hay
is fed as a midday feed, the remainder being cut and fed in conjunc-
tion with bran, swedes, and wet brewers' grains. From the stand-
point of both milk production and the maintenance of a health} 7 con-
dition of the cows the ration was satisfactory.
Ration for dairy coics fed in Cheshire. England.
Feeding stuff. tit?
ter.
b|ir
Digesti-
carbohy-
drates.
Digesti-l N ,? tri -
ble fat. I j.^
Pounds.
Mixed hay ' 15
Pounds.
13.065
Pounds.
0.885
Pounds.
6. 135
Pounds. !
0.180 L -
Oat straw .... . ' 7
6.356
.084
2. 702
.056 .. .
Swedes l 60
6.000
.600
4.800
.120
Wet brewers 1 grains ' 10
2 430
.390
.930
.140
Cotton-seed cake 3
2.754
1.116.
.507
.366
Corn meal 5
4.455
395
3.335
. 215
Wheat bran 4
3.524
.488
1.568
.108
3S.584
3.958
19. 977
1.185 1:5.73
i
Farm Xo. 3. This farm is located in the county of Cumberland
and carries a herd of 40 high-grade Shorthorn dairy cows. Dur-
ing the summer months no other feed than pasture is furnished.
The winter ration is different from that seen on any other farm
visited, and produces a good flow of milk. All of the feeding
stuffs, with the exception of 'the cake, are grown on the farm. The,
daily feeding per head is as follows: At 5 a. m., 4 pounds cut sheaf
oats, 7 pounds pulped swedes. H pounds cotton-seed cake, and \\
pounds linseed cake, all mixed together before feeding: 7 a. m.,
14 pounds of whole swedes and 7 pounds of long mixed hay : J) a. m., 7
pounds of the same mixture which was fed at 5 a. m. : 10 a. m.,
7 pounds long hay: 12 m.. 3i pounds long hay; 2.30 p. m., same as at
5 a. m. ; 4 p. m.. 14 pounds whole swedes; 7 p. m., 7 pounds of cab-
bage and 7 pounds long hay. The cows are watered twice a day, at
8 a. m. and 3 p. m.
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING IN EUROPE. 43
Ii'ntion for (//';// coirx \cA in ('iinibcrlaml. r.injl<iiul.
Feeding Htiiff. < ^ t '
Dry pfKwti-
J&.har
DigeHti-
blo car-
bohy-
drate*.
DiircHti-
bli- fBt.
Ntitri
tiv-
ratio.
Pound*.
Mi \.-.l Imy 24 5
l'onntl*. 1'iiiiniln.
21 :t4> 1 HI;
/-,;.,/.
Ill ir -'l
1'ininilx.
"I
S\\ >'ili"~ i"< "t
4 .Vin iv,
:: ''.in
(INI
Sheaf oats Id
n. 11" 4:*i
l ')'>
150
3 44:} 1 :*'*>
i,;;i
4 X
3 41)5 1 IIDI
1 '"!
'M\
Cablmgi' 7
1.071 i2
">74
(Si*
!
42.819 i 4.961
ai. 735
i >:;
1 :4.77
Farm Xo. 4- This farm is located in Norfolk and is stocked with
one of the largest herds of Red Polled cows to l>e found in England.
During the summer months all cows which have not been in milk
seven months are fed a mixture of undecorticated cotton cake and
linseed cake, in addition to the <;rass. The amount fed varies from
3 to 5 pounds per cow per day. The winter rations are composed of
mixed hay, roots, and a jjrain mixture of crushed oats, wheat bran,
linseed cake, and cotton cake. While some turnips are fed during the
fall months, mangels are relied upon very largely to furnish succu-
lent feed during the winter. The ration fed in January to cows in
full milk was composed of mixed hay. '20 pounds ( 10 pounds of which
was cut and mixed with pulped mangels and <rrain): mangels. ( >0
pounds: crushed oats. 3 pounds; bran, } pounds: linseed cake. '?
pounds, and cotton-seed cake, 3 pounds. The cows were fed a mix-
ture of cut hay. pulped mangels, and half of the trrain and cake in the
early morning and before milking in the evening. The lonr hay was
fed at noon and night, while the roots were fed at s a. m. and '} p. in.
Jtution for duiry cow* fctl in \orfolk.
Feeding stuff.
Quan- Dry gfg^t|.
tity. matter. , D1 t riv
Digesti-
l)le car- Digesti- "?
lx)hv- ble fat.
drates.
Mixed liny
Pimndx. Pound*. Pound*.
20 ! 17.4211 l.iso
Poimil*. I'oiDids.
S. 18" ".240
Mangels
(50 5.460 .660
3.2411 .tHi
Crushed oats
:< 2 670 276
1.4111 12li
Wheat bran
'3 >. I'M . :'.
1.176 ."Si
Liuseed cake
Cot ton -seed cake
3 2.754 1.1 Hi
5"7 :*J6
!tt. 671 4. 477
15.5I 1.IKJ 1:4.00
SCOTLAND.
FEEDING BKKE|)IN(i ANIMALS.
The breeding of dairy cattle is confined almost solely to the south-
west of Scotland, where the Ayrshire breed is maintained. As the
44 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
land surface is rather rough and broken the conditions are not favor-
able for roots or grain crops. The cattle are grazed during the sum-
mer and maintained largely on hay and grain during the winter.
Straw is fed, but not to the same extent as in the grain-growing dis-
tricts. Roots are fed by some farmers, but their use is limited when
compared with the methods prevailing in central and northern Scot-
land. The aim of breeders throughout the entire district is to main-
tain their animals as economically as possible. While they are
warmly housed during the coldest months, the grazing season is
much longer than that of the more highly arable sections of the
country. Calves are raised in the usual way, having whole milk for
two or three weeks, and then milk or sweet whey and grain until
they are C to 10 months old. Bulls and heifer calves are fed the
same way until they are 12 months of age, after which the bulls are
confined and fed more grain and cake than the heifers, the latter
being on pasture as much as possible.
On the farm of one of the most successful breeders of Ayrshire
cattle the calves are fed during the winter on timothy hay, roots, and
a grain mixture composed of equal parts crushed oats, wheat bran,
and linseed cake. At the time of the writer's visit in January the
calves, ranging in age from 9 to 13 months, were eating on an average
10 pounds of hay, 15 pounds of turnips, and 4 pounds of the grain
and cake mixture per day. On other farms no roots are fed and oat
straw is given as part of the roughage. The breeding bulls are not
maintained in very high condition. Their winter rations are com-
posed of roughage, grain and roots Avhen they are grown. During
the summer a great deal of green feed is fed.
FEEDING DAIRY COWS.
Scotch farmers do not patronize creameries and cheese factories,
butter and cheese being made on the farms where the milk is pro-
duced. The men who furnish milk to the city dealers do not as a
rule milk a cow more than ten or twelve months. They are con-
tinually buying fresh milking cows, largely of Shorthorn breeding,
from the northern counties of England, and are selling out of their
stables for beef cows which have been very heavily fed throughout
the entire milking period and for the succeeding four or five months.
Young cows which have dropped their second or third calves are
used, as they milk well, fatten readily, and return the greatest profits
for the feed consumed.
Dairymen who retain their cows for several years do not feed so
heavily. The cows are fairly well fed during the first five months
of lactation, and the amount of grain and cake is then reduced or
omitted entirely. They believe that this method of feeding gives
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING IN EUKOPE. 45
the cow a chance to rest, and her period of usefulness as a breeder
iind milker is therefore very much longer than when heavily fed on
grain and cake.
In the dairies from which the city milk trade is supplied feeders use
large quantities of turnips and swedes as much as 100 pounds per
cow being fed daily and no precautions are taken in regard to the
time of feeding them. The stables are hot, without any provision for
ventilation. These methods do not prevail on farms where butter
and cheese are manufactured. Here a great deal of care is exercised
to avoid injuring the flavor or texture of the finished product by
improper feeding. Some dairymen cut a great deal of the hay and
straw and mix all the grain and cake with it, and either steam or
scald it Ix'fore feeding. On other farms part of the roughage is cut,
mixed with pulped turnips, grain, and cake, and allowed to stand
twelve or fifteen hours before being fed. The cows are fed from four
to nine times per day.
The following rations are fairly representative:
Farm \<>. 1. This farm is located within '2 miles of Edinburgh,
and the methods of feeding are representative of those practiced by
the men who feed their cows heavily for about ten or twelve months
and then sell them to the butcher. The herd contained .">('. cows,
nearly all of which were English-bred Shorthorns from (V.mb"rland.
The winter ration for cows in full milk was composed of 100 pounds
<<f turnips, fed in three feeds morning, noon, and night: TO pounds
of wet brewers' grains, f> pounds of pea meal, and 10 pounds of oat
straw. The pea meal was fed with the wet brewers' grains, which
were given in two feeds, one in the early morning and the other about
r> ]>. m. The oat straw was fed at night.
l\'<tti<ni for dairy ro/rx fed near KilinblU'l/h, Xrutlaiid.
Feeding stuff.
Quan-
tity.
Dry
matter.
/'..iim/x.
17. (11(1
'.1 IMI
4.475
Digesti-
ble pro-
tein.
Digesti-
ble car-
bohy-
drates.
/'.. a mix.
(5.610
:t. son
2.59(1
Digesti-i ^"'f. 1 -
W""| ratV,
Turnips ..
1'otintlx.
100
Til
in
Pmuuis.
1.000
> ~;jj
.130
Pint mix.
0.3JO .
.'.Ml '
.(Nl '
Wet brewers' grains .
( >at straw
Pea meal
1
' 40.U-5
4. >!<) l. ItiO l.Lll.1 1 : 4.'.!.'
y<>. .*. This farm is located in the county of Ayr. and on it
is maintained a herd of 70 cows. The milk is used for cheese making.
During the summer the cows receive a grain mixture of ~1 pounds
bean meal, '1 pounds wheat bran, and 1 pound crushed oats. The
winter ration is composed of timothy hay. 15 pounds: oat chart'. "
pounds: crushed oats. 3 pounds; wheat bran. 3 pounds; linseed cake.
2 pounds, and bean meal. 4 pounds. The hay is fed in three feeds
46
BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
morning, noon, and night; the grain is mixed with the oat chaff and
fed in two feeds morning and evening.
Ration for dairy coirs fed in Ayrshire, Scotland.
Feeding stuff.
Quan-
tity.
Dry
matter.
Digesti-
ble pro-
tein.
Digesti-
ble car-
bohy-
drates.
Digesti-
ble fat.
Nutri-
tive
ratio.
Timothy ha\
Pounds.
15
Pounds.
13. 020
Pounds.
0.420
Pounds.
6.510
Pounds.
0.210
Oat chaff
4.285
075
1 650
035
Crushed oats
3
2.670
276
1 419
128
Wheat bran
3
2.643
.366
1 176
081
Linseed cake
2
1.816
.586
654
140
Bean rnpjil
4
3 428
<S96
1 972
048
27.862
2 619
13 381
640
1-5 16
Farm Xo. 3. This farm is located in Perthshire, near the city of
Perth. The milk supplies the city trade. The herd contains 40
cows, and instead of selling them off at the end of the milking period
the owner breeds them to a good purebred Aberdeen- Angus bull, and
the calves when dropped are eagerly sought for at good prices by
cattle feeders, who rear them on nurse cows.
The Avinter ration is oat straw, 12 pounds; turnips, 100 pounds;
w r et brewers' grains, 20 pounds; linseed cake, 2 pounds; ground bar-
ley, 3 pounds ; wheat bran, 4 pounds, and bean meal, 3 pounds. The
straw is fed in two feeds, the turnips in three feeds, and the wet
brewers' grains and the grain and cake mixed in two equal feeds.
Ration for dairy coics fed in Perthshire, Scotland.
Feeding stuff.
Quan-
tity.
Dry
matter.
Digesti-
ble pro-
tein.
Digesti-
ble car-
bohy-
drates.
Digesti-
ble fat. ,
Nutri-
tive
ratio.
Turnips
Pounds.
100
Pounds.
9.500
Pounds.
1.000
Pounds.
7.200
Pounds.
0.200
Wet brewers' grains
20
4.860
.780
1.860
.280
Oat straw
10.896
.144
4.632
.096
Linseed cake
2
1.816
.586
.654
.140
Ground barlev
3
2.673
.261
1.968
.048
Wheat bran
4
3.524
.488
1.568
.108
Bean meal
3
2. 571
.672
1.479
.036
85.840
3.931
19.361
.908
1:5.44
Farm Xo. 4- This farm is located in the county of Lanark and
maintains a herd of 25 cows. Butter making is its specialty. Dur-
ing the summer the cows are fed equal parts of crushed oats, wheat
bran, and dried brewers' grains, in addition to grass. The amount
varies from 4 to 7 pounds per cow per day, according to the condition
of the pastures. The winter ration includes 20 pounds of mixed hay,
20 pounds of turnips, 3 pounds bean meal, 2 pounds pea meal, 3
pounds wheat bran, and 3 pounds of ground barlev. The turnips are
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING IN EUROPE.
47
fed immediately after milking in the morning and In-fore the cows
are let out in the fresh air for exercise.
Ration for duirn eoirx fed in Lannrk*1tirc, Scotland.
Feeding stuff.
Ouan-
iity.
Dry
matter.
Digesti-
ble pro-
tein.
Digesti-
ble. <-ar- Digenti- N '. ltri
lx,hy- hi,- fat. *2
drates.
Ji i \ ' 1 hay
i'liiniilx.
2<)
t'oiiniln.
17 420
1'nMiifln.
1 l-n
I'oiintlii. I'ltnnd*.
H 1MI 24<>
Turniiw
20
I '.' '
200
II" i HII
l.i'iui HUM!
8
I 2.571
72
t~.'.> <KiH
Pea meal
2
1 ::
:ci
(W 014
Wheat l>mu
;j
2 ill.'!
:''.
17(1 (IKl
Ground barley
8
2 7:j
:.t'l
'.'.> (MM
2M.1W7
:i 015
15 279 459 1:5 41
I
The dairy industry is of great importance in Ireland. Although
all Irish farmers are more or less engaged in milk production, those
of the south of Ireland devote practically all of their attention to
dairying. The cows drop their calves in the early spring and are
milked until late in the fall, as long as the grass lasts, and are then
dried off. During the winter they are fed on rather scanty rations,
such as oat straw, the run of a grass lot, and occasionally some hay.
On some farms the cows are comfortably housed during the winter
and well fed. In the central and northern districts cows are given
much better care and feed during the winter. Grass is the staple
feed in summer in all parts of the country. In the province of
Ulster, especially in County Down, some dairy farmers feed a small
allowance of cotton cake in addition to grass.
The following rations illustrate the methods on the best farms in
central and northern Ireland:
Ftirtn \o. /. This farm is in county Kildare, near the city of
Dublin, and the milk supplies the city trade. Ration: Mixed hay,
10 pounds; clover hay, 10 pounds; mangels. ;50 pounds: crushed
oats, 3 pounds; ground barley. 3 pounds: linseed cake. '2 pounds.
Ration for dairy coirx fed in Count!/ KHilnrc, Ireland.
Feeding stuff.
Quan-
tity.
Dry
mutter.
Digesti-
ble pro-
tein.
Digesti-
ble car-
bohy-
drates.
Digesti- Nutri-
Wefat - raUo.
10
I'otnidx.
8. no
I'oitntls.
0.590
I'nnnils.
l.i I" >
Pitnnds.
0.120
Clover hay
10
8. 470
(i-0
3 580
.170
Mangels
30
2. 7oO
.:>
1.820
.030
Crushed oats
3
2 t>70
.27(1
1.4111
.12(5 ..
Ground lirlev
3
2. (57:?
.m
.048
Linseed cake
1.816
.654
.140
27.0>
2. 7ii
i:i.:l
. (>U 1 : 5. 4
5154 No. 77-
BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
Farm No. 2. This farm is located in County Antrim, in the prov-
ince of Ulster. The milk supplies a city trade. The herd consists
of 40 high-grade Shorthorns. Ration : Mixed hay, 20 pounds ;
turnips, 30 pounds; crushed oats, 3 pounds; corn meal, 3 pounds;
wheat bran, 2 pounds, and cotton-seed cake, 2 pounds.
Ration for dairy cows fed in County Antrim, Ireland.
Feeding stuff.
Quan-
tity.
Dry
matter.
Digesti-
ble pro-
tein.
Digesti-
ble car-
bohy-
drates.
Digesti-
ble fat.
Nutri-
tive
ratio.
Mixed hay
Pounds.
20
Pounds.
17.420
Pounds.
1.180
Pounds.
8.180
Pounds.
0.240
Turnips
30
2.850
.300
2.160
060
Crushed oats
3
2.670
.276
1.419
.126
Corn meal
3
2.673
.237
2.001
.129
Wheat bran
2
1. 702
.244
.784
.054
Cotton-seedcake
2
1.836
.744
.338
.244
29.211
2.981
14.882
.853
1:5.64
Farm No. 3. This is a large farm in County Down, province of
Ulster. Ration : Clover hay, 15 pounds; oat straw, 6 pounds; ground
barley, 5 pounds; wheat bran, 2 pounds, and linseed cake, 3 pounds.
The grain is scalded with hot water and fed in two feeds. The hay
is given night and morning and the straw at noon.
Ration for dairy coios fed in County Doicn, Ireland.
Feeding stuff.
Quan-
tity.
Dry
matter.
Digesti-
ble pro-
tein.
Digesti-
ble car-
bohy-
drates.
Digesti-
ble fat.
Nutri-
tive
ratio.
Clover hay
Pounds.
15
Pt) unds.
12.705
Pounds.
1.020
Pounds.
5.370
Pounds.
0.255
Oat straw
6
5. 448
.072
2. 316
.048
Ground barley
4. 455
.435
3.280
.080
Wheat bran. . .
2
1.762
.244
.784
.054
Linseed cake
3
2 724
879
981
210
27.094
2.650
12. 731
.647
1:5.35
DAIRY FARMING IN DENMARK.
Denmark is preeminently a dairy country and the cattle interests
are all centered on the production of milk. More than a quarter of
a century ago beef production was extensively carried on, but it is
now a thing of the past. Keen competition in the world's markets,
due to improved transportation facilities, drove the Danish farmer
out of the beef business and caused him to devote his attention to
dairying. This change has had a wonderful influence on the type of
cattle bred within the country. The two native breeds, the Red Danish
and the Jysk (or Jutland breed), both of which were formerly used
for beef, have been so markedly changed by a judicious system of
breeding, feeding, and selection that they now rank among the fore-
most breeds of dairy cattle. The aim and purpose of the farmers in
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING IN EUROPE. 49
all parts of Denmark is to keep the greatest number of high-class
dairy cows possible on a given area of ground. When we take into
consideration the light nature of the soil, its northern location, and
the more limited scope of vegetation, we must admit that the farmers
of Denmark, a-s a whole, have advanced and developed dairy farming
in a measure that is certainly not equaled or even approached by that
of any other country. At the present time the average Danish
farmer maintains about one cow for every two and a third acres of
land in his farm, and in addition grows enough young cattle to
replace any cows which are discarded from time to time on account of
age or accident. All calves, except those from the l>est cows and
intended for breeding purposes, are sold for veal when but a few
weeks old.
It is the prevailing custom to stable the cows about eight months
out of each year and green forage is fed during the remaining four
months. Although about one-seventh of each farm is devoted to
grass, cattle are seldom allowed free access to it. In some instances
this grass is cut and fed to the cows in stables or open paddocks. The
most prevalent practice, however, is to tether them in rows and
allow them a new feeding ground each day. This allows each strip
of land several days' rest, and much more feed is obtained from a
given area of ground than would otherwise' be possible.
The cows receive green forage or concentrated feed, or both. The
grass lot is also useful to afford a means of supplying exercise and
fresh air, and some farmers, who do not set aside land for grazing,
have open paddocks adjoining the stables, where the cows spend
several hours each day.
A great deal of attention is given to the study of feeding, and
very accurate records are kept of the amount of feed consumed and
the milk and butter fat produced. By means of these records the
inferior cows can be weeded out of a herd and the average yield
increased. To aid the small farmers in this work the Royal Danish
Society has established a system of " Kontrol " societies all over the
country. The system is as follows: The farmers of a district form
a cooperative society for the purpose of securing a " Kontrol "
inspector from the Royal Danish Society to take charge. Before
such an inspector will be appointed there must be about 1.000 cows
represented by the local membership. To defray part of the expenses
of the work each member is assessed a small amount, which varies in
different societies from % 2<> cents to 53 cents per cow. according to the
number of cows and the character of the work to be done. The
" Kontrol " inspector makes an inspection of each farm about once
every eighteen days, and keeps a set of books with each farm in
duplicate, one set being retained by the farmer. Among other things.
50 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
lie records the total amount of milk produced by each cow since his
last visit (the milk being regularly weighed and entered in a special
book by the farmer) ; the percentage of fat contained in the daily
samples of the milk: a calculation of the butter produced; the
alnount of feed eaten per cow ; the amount of butter produced in
relation to the amount of feed consumed ; the total amount of milk
per cow per annum, its cost, and the net profit per cow. He advises
concerning the selection of bulls for the different cows, the kinds of
crops to grow, and any changes which would be beneficial in the
rations, and recommends the disposal of all cows which have not
returned a profit on the feed consumed. This system has done a
j^reat deal of good and its cost is very small. With some societies
(lie average annual yield of milk per cow has increased 1,000 pounds
in less than four years from the time they were first started. This
increase has been due largely to better methods of feeding and more
careful selection of the cows in the herd.
The Danish farmers fully appreciate the advantages of this sys-
tem and hope for still greater improvements. Every precaution is
taken which will in any way have a favorable influence on the yield
of milk. The stables are well ventilated, so that their winter tem-
perature is about CO F. On many farms the cows are groomed twice
or three times weekly.
HREEDING CATTLE.
Under this head only the methods of feeding young cattle and
breeding bulls will be considered. All breeding cows are kept for
milk production and are fed for that purpose; methods of feeding
them will be discussed in that connection.
Much care is given to the feeding of breeding bulls, and the Danish
farmers aim to retain all sires which get good stock until they are
10 or 1-2 years of age or as long as they prove sure stock getters.
Under the Danish system a bull is not eligible to registration until he
is at least 3 years old and has proved himself a useful sire. These
people have many sensible ideas regarding the management of their
animals. A bull is not purchased or rejected on his general appear-
ance, but the quality and productive powers of his stock determine
his value in the market.
The grain part of the ration is usually crushed oats and bran or
ground barley and bran. Bulls are not fed cotton-seed, sunflower,
or rape-seed cake, but linseed cake is sometimes used. Eoots are
given during the fall and winter months.
THE FEEDING OF DAIRY COWS.
The feeding of dairy cows is a vital question in Denmark. Every-
thing grown on the farm is utilized to the very best advantage pos-
sible and is supplemented by a large amount of imported concentrated
feed.
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING IN EUROPE. 51
A variety of soiling crops is grown on each farm. The first in
season is winter rye, which is ready for cutting in May. Next follow
the clovers, then the various cereal crops, such as oats and barley
and other mixtures. Vetches, JXMIS, and other forms of leguminous
crops are also grown to some extent and are very highly pri/ed. These
crops are allowed to reach a fair degree of maturity before Ix-ing used.
Root crops, especially mangels and beets, are very generally grown.
When cows are tethered during the summer they are fed moderate
quantities of green forage or concentrated feed, or lx>th, in addition to
grass.
The following rations are representative of feed during the summer
season :
Farm Xo. 1. This is a rather large farm near Bregentved. The
cows are tethered for several hours each day on a grass lot. The.
grain ration consists of 3 to (> pounds per cow per day of a mixture
of ^ parts cotton cake. 1 part ground barley, and 1 part wheat bran.
The earliest green feed is winter rye. Later on clover is used, fol-
lowed by a mixture of oats, barley, and vetches sown at different
intervals.
In the early fall roots are used. The amount of fodder fed varies
from HO to (50 pounds per day. according to the condition of the grass
lots.
Farm So. 2. This is a small-sized farm located in the vicinity of
Horsens. The cows are grazed on a grass lot for several hours each
day and confined to the stables or yards the remainder of the time.
The soiling crops are winter rye, clover, mixed grasses, oats and bar-
ley, vetches and roots. The forage is fed in the morning and after
milking in the evening. In addition, from '2 to 4 pounds of cotton
cake are fed each cow daily.
Fat-m Xo. >. This farm is located near Kolding. in the south of
Jutland, and consists of some IS acres. By using rather large
amounts of concentrated feed the owner is able to keep 10 cows. No
land is set aside for grazing, the cows Ix'ing stabled, with the excep-
tion of a few hours daily in an open paddock for exercise. For
soiling winter rye. clover, mixed grass and clover, peas, oat^ and
barlev. and roots are used. The concentrated feed is composed of
cotton cake ~2 parts, dried brewers" grains '1 parts, and ground barley
1 part, and from f> to 7 pounds is fed daily in two equal feeds, morn-
ing and evening.
During the winter cows are confined practically all of the time in
warm stables, and are usually fed three times daily. As a rule, all
grain is crushed or ground, but little labor is expended on the prep
a rat ion of feed.
The following rations illustrate the general methods of winter
feeding.
52
BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
Farm Xo. 1. This is a very large farm, near Bregentved, where
between 180 and 200 cows are milked. During the winter the cows
are confined to the stalls most of the time, and a supply of fresh water
is always before them. The roughage is clover or mixed hay, oat or
barley straw, the combination in most general use being 12 pounds
clover hay and 8 pounds of oat straw. The hay is fed morning and
night and the straw at noon. About 20 pounds of mangels are fed
each morning and evening. The grain ration is crushed oats 2
pounds, ground barley 2 pounds, cotton-seed cake 2 pounds, and bean
meal 2 pounds, fed in two equal feeds, morning and evening.
Ration for dairy coirs fed near Bref/entved. Denmark.
Feeding stuff.
Quan-
tity.
Dry
matter.
Digesti-
ble pro-
tein.
Digesti-
ble car-
bohy-
drates.
Digesti-
ble fat.
Nutri-
tive,
ratio.
Clover hav
Pounds.
12
Pounds.
10.164
Pounds.
0.816
Pounds.
4 296
Pounds.
204
Oat straw
8
7.264
.096
3. 088
064
Mangels
40
3.640
.440
2. 160
040
Crushed oats
2
1.780
.184
.946
084
Barley meal
2
1.782
.174
1.312
.032
Cotton-seed cake _
2
1.836
.744
.338
.244
Bean meal . ..
2
1.714
.448
.986
.024
28.180
2.902
13. 126
.692
1 : 5. Oi>
Farm Xo. 2. This is a large farm near Hasler. and the owner
maintains about 100 cows. Complete records are kept of all the
feed consumed and milk produced. The stables are very warm,
but the cows are out a few hours each fine day in an open court.
About 14 pounds of mixed hay. about pounds of barley straw, and
30 pounds of mangels per cow per day are fed. The grain ration
consists of ground barley 3 pounds, cotton-seed cake 3 pounds, and
wheat bran 2 pounds. The hay is fed morning and night, the straw
at noon, the roots in two feeds late morning and about 5 o'clock in
the afternoon and the grain in two equal feeds, morning and night.
Kation for dairy coirs fed near Haxlcr. Denmark.
Feeding stuff.
Quan- Dry {Jf^ blfclr-
titv. matter. [ bohv-
m - drates.
Digesti- N tri-
blefat - rSo.
Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.
14 12.194 i 0.826 5.726
Pounds.
0. 168
6 5.148 ' .042 2.472
.036
Ground barlev
3 , 2.673 .261 1.968
.048 L ..
Cotton-seed cake
3 ' 2.754 1.116 .507
.336
W T heat bran
2 1 762 .244 784
054
Mangels
30 2 730 .330 1 621 >
.030
27.261 2.S19 13.1177
.672 1:5.18
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING IX EUROPE.
53
Quan-
tity.
Poit mix.
15
6
80
2
2
2
2
Dry
matter.
Pound*, i
13.1 UK
5. 44*
2.79)
1.780
1.7H2
1.836
1.801)
.1*4
.174
.314
.504
2*. 441
2. 463
\<>. >. This is a medium-sized farm in the vicinity of
Roskilde, ami is considered to l>e fairly representative of the average
farm of Denmark. The ration consisted of mixed hay 15 pounds,
oat straw (' pounds, mangels 30 pounds, and a grain mixture of
crushed oats *2 pounds, ground barley '2 pounds, dried brewers' grains
*2 pounds, and rape-seed meal '2 pounds.
Ifation fur dairy roirx fed near Idmkildc. Itriiinark.
Feeding stuff .
Mixed hay . -
< >at straw
Mangels
Crushed oats
Ground hurley . .
Drit>d brewers' grains
Rape-seed meal
I'nnml*. 1'ounil*.
K 135
0.1*0
" 316
.048
1 t!20
.030
.!M6
.1*4
.(t{2
.726
.ne
.474
. 150
13.529
.626 1:6.06
^. 4- This is a small farm near Lyngby, where the owner
keeps fourteen cows on 30 acres. The stables are warm and well
ventilated; water is constantly in front of the cows. Hation : C'lover
hay, 14 pounds; oat straw, C> pounds; Around barley. 3 pounds:
sunflower-seed cake. 3 pounds; wheat bran, '2 pounds; carrots. 30
pounds.
Ration fur dairy coir* fril near Limt/bi/. Denmark.
Feeding stuff.
tity. matter. tern
Ditfesti-
bohy-
drates.
Ditfesti- - l ?* rl "
ble fat. ratio
Clover hav
Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.
14 11. S5* I). ( .I52
5.01 2
Pounds.
Oat straw
2.316
(4*
Ground barlev
3 2. r.73 . 2IJ1
l.iKiS
.14.^ ....
Sunflower-seed eake
3 2 754 '.!
:(*4
Wheat bran
2 1 762 244
7S4
.054
Carrots
30 3 420 40
> 'ty )
. ... 27.915 2.705
13. mis
.?2 1:5. 4H
AVhile in the city of Copenhagen the writer inspected the methods
of the Copenhagen Milk Supply Company, which is owned and
operated by people of the city, who contract with farmers. This
organization has exacting regulations. No farmer furnishing milk
to it is allowed to feed brewers' grains or any distillery refuse. He
must not feed turnips, turnip leaves, nor more than 30 pound-; per
cow per day of either carrots or mangles. Furthermore, no cake,
except rape-seed cake, can be used, and the use of that is limited tr
U pounds per cow per day. and may be fed only when at least .">
pounds of a mixture of oats, barley, and bran are fed with it. Stable
54
BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
feeding of cows in the summer is not permitted under any circum-
stances. They must be fed in the open air, in yards, or pastured in
a grass lot. The feeding of vetches is also forbidden. In addition
to the general trade, there is a special demand for milk for infants.
For this purpose the milk from certain farms only is used. All the
restrictions which apply to the general trade are enforced on these
farms, and in addition the following must be strictly observed:
Except of carrots limited to 15 pounds per cow per day, no roots can
be fed and no cake can be used under any circumstances. These
restrictions increase the cost of production, but this is counterbal-
anced by the additional compensation, as the prices are very much in
advance of those obtained for ordinary milk.
In addition to this company, a similar organization has been
recently established by cow owners for the same purpose. On some
of the farms which were supplying the general trade the cows, instead
of being grazed all the time during the summer season, Avere fed par-
tially on soiling crops. These crops were fed in open feed lots and
not in the stables. On one farm, which was supplying milk for
infants, the cows were grazed all the time and milked in the pasture
lot. In addition to the grass they received about 4 pounds per cow
per day of a mixture of equal parts of crushed oats and wheat bran.
The following winter ration is used on a farm supplying the gen-
eral milk trade: Mixed hay, 15 pounds; oat straw. 5 pounds: man-
gels, 30 pounds; crushed oats, 2 pounds; ground barley, 2 pounds;
wheat bran, 2 pounds; rape-seed cake, H pounds. The hay is fed
in two feeds, morning and night, the straw at noon, the mangels in
two feeds, after milking in the morning and before milking in the
evening, and the grain in two feeds, at milking time, morning and
evening.
Kation fur dairy coirs supplying the Copenhagen milk trade. Denmark.
Feeding stuff.
Quan-
tity.
Dry
matter.
Digesti-
ble pro-
tein.
Digesti-
ble car-
bohy-
drates.
Digesti-
ble fat.
Nutri-
tive
ratio.
Pounds.
15
Pounds.
13.065
Pound*.
0.885
Pounds.
6.135
Pounds.
0.180
5
4.540
.060
1.930
.040
2
1.780
.184
.946
.084
2
1.782
.174
1.312
.032
2
1.762
.244
.784
.054
Ij
1.350
. 37S
.356
.113
30
2. 7*)
.330
1.620
.030
27.009
2. 255
13. 083
.533
1:6.34
On a farm where milk is produced for infants the following winter
ration is in use: Clover hay. 10 pounds; oat straw, pounds: crushed
oats, 3 pounds: ground barley, 2 pounds; wheat bran, 5 pounds; car-
rots, 15 pounds. The feed is fed in the stable, but the cows are
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING IN EUROPE.
55
turned out in an open lot for a few hours each day, weather per-
mitting.
Ifutittn for iliiiry tinrx NI//J/'///'/''/ in ilk far infant*. Dcimmrk.
Fowling Btuff .
Uuan-
tity.
Dry
matter.
DiK"Hti-
blf jiro-
tefn.
DiK<>Hti
bl c*ar- Diwttti-
bohy- bin fat
drat-M.
Nutri-
tiv
ratio.
Clover hay
I 'on mix.
1(1
I'lmntlx.
13 552
Pint mix.
1 OHM
I'fUiniln. ]'nunrl*.
5 72X 272
( >at straw .
6
5 II-
(72
2 :il<; (HX
Crushed oats . .
a
2 B70
276
1 II'.' 126
Ground barley
2
1 7H2
174
1 :i!2 <B2
Wheat bran
4 405
f!H)
i win i:r>
Carrots .
15
1.710
120
1 r.'i (Kin
SJ9.5W7
:.' :un
i:i '.>:. .643
1:6.57
I'KKDIN'C MKTIIODS IN HOLLAND.
Dairying is the most important branch of farming in Holland.
The entire country is densely stocked with the native black-and-white
cattle which in America are designated as the Holstein-Friesian breed.
It is a strictly grazing country and has many natural advantages for
live-stock production. The rich soil and moist climate insure an
abundance of grass and a plentiful hay crop. Root crops also do
unusually well. Of the cereals oats are the most commonly grown,
but wheat and barley are both grown in considerable quantities.
HREKDIXO CATTI.K.
The Dutch system of feeding and rearing cattle is simplicity itself.
The calves are given whole milk until about H weeks old, when the
ration is gradually changed to skim milk and grain. The grain is
cooked or steamed and fed with the milk at first, but when the calves
are old enough the grain is fed dry immediately after giving the
milk. When grass is available, it constitutes the entire ration for
heifers, and during the winter the rations are only sufficient to keep
them growing nicely.
Bulls are fed in the same manner until they are a year old. after
which they are rather closely confined. Bulls used for breeding are
kept in stables or paddocks. They are well fed. but are not allowed
to become fat. Roots in winter and green forage in summer are
largelv used. Regular exercise is jjiven.
~ /
FKKI>IN<; DAIRY COWS.
On the majority of the farms during summer the cows gather all
their feed from the grass lots, although additional feed may be sup-
plied when the grass supply runs short. Bran. cake, and oats are all
used to some extent for this purpose, but the principal feed i< the
refuse from the gin distilleries, fed in open tubs in the grass lots.
OO BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
This resembles brewers' grains and is relished by the animals. The
amount fed per day varies from 30 to 70 pounds per cow, according
to the condition of the grass.
In winter they "use various kinds of home-grown roughage, roots,
and a considerable amount of concentrated feed. Large quantities
of hay and straw are used. The following rations are representative:
Farm Xo. 1. This farm is located in the western part of Holland,
near Alkmaar. and is considered to be one of the best in that locality.
A large herd of very heavy-milking cows are maintained. The win-
ter ration is clover hay, 20 pounds; oat straw, pounds; mangels, 50
pounds; crushed oats, 3 pounds; corn, 3 pounds; wheat bran, 2
pounds; linseed cake, 2 pounds. The hay is fed in two feeds, morn-
ing and night, the straw at noon, the mangels in two equal feeds,
after milking morning and night, the grain at milking times.
Ration for dairy coicx fed in irestern Holland.
Feeding stuff. Q u n '
Dry B 1 ,?'" ble car- Digesti- N t ?*"
matter. ^P' ^ohy. ble fat.
i Pounds.
Clover hav . 20
Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds.
16.940 1.360 7.160 0.340
Oat straw ', 6
5.44S .072 2.316 .048
Mangels - ... 50
4.550 .550 2.700 .050
Crushed oats _ 3
2.670 .276 1.419 .126
Corn meal 3
2.673 .237 2.001 .129
Wheat bran _ 2
1.762 .244 .784 .054 ...
Linseed cake 2
1 816 ' 586 654 .140
35.859 3.325 17.034 .887 1:5.72
Farm Xo. 2. This farm is located in the northern part of Hol-
land, near the town of Helder. The farm is not large, but is heavily
stocked. The winter ration for cows in full milk is as follows:
Mixed hay, 25 pounds: mangels, 40 pounds: crushed oats, 3 pounds;
dried brewers' grains, 5 pounds; linseed cake. 2 pounds. The hay is
fed in three feeds, morning, noon, and night : the roots in two feeds,
after milking in the morning and about 5 o'clock in the evening, and
the grain in two feeds, at milking time morning and evening.
Ration fur d<tirj/ coir* fed in northern Holland.
Feeding stuff.
Quan-
tity.
Dry
matter.
Digesti-
ble pro-
tein.
Digesti-
ble car-
bohy-
drates.
Digesti-
ble fat.
Nutri-
tive
ratio.
Mixed hav
Pi ninds.
g5
Pounds.
21.775
Pounds.
1. 475
Pounds.
10.225
Pounds.
0. 300
Mangels ,.
40
3.640
.441)
2. 160
.04(1
Crushed oats
3
2. 670
.276
1.419
.126
Dried brewers' grains
5
4 590
785
1 815
.255
Linseed cakt>
2
1 816
.586
.654
.140
34. 491
3. 562
16.273
.861
1: 5. 11
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND IKXJ FEEDING IN EUROPE.
57
Farm No. ./. This farm is located at Delft, near The Hague, in
southwest Holland. The owner maintains a herd of .">() cows to sup-
ply the city milk trade. His winter rations are as follows: (Mover
hay, !."> pounds; mixed hay, 7 pounds; wet distillery grains, 40
pounds; corn meal, tt pounds; wheat bran, H pounds; linseed cake, ~1
pounds. The mixed hay is fed in the morning and the clover hav
noon and night. The distillery grains are fed after milking morning
and evening, and the grain ration at milking time morning and eve-
ning. The cows gave a large flow of milk but were in thin flesh at
the time of the writer's visit.
l{<itinii far diiiri/ roir.v fcil in ROUttltCCittrrtt Ifolliinil.
Feeding stuff.
Quan- Drv 1 A?'.'
tity. matter. "<,',,
Iwhy-
dratwt.
Diw-Hti- ^ utl "'
Lie fat. nUo
Clover hay
Pound*. Pound*. Pound*.
15 12.705 1 020 |
I'lllltltlx.
I'oitntlx.
255
Mixed hav
7 t.097 413
*) C|'>
OK4
Wet distillery (grains .
40 ! 720 LafiO
3 720
(urn meal
8 2.073 .2:17
12it
Wheat bran
8 2 043 'Mi
1 17ti
OKI
Linseed cake
2 1 810 5s>
H5.654 4. 1H2
15. 7^4
1.249 1:4.45
1 1
CONDITIONS IX THK CMANNKI. ISLANDS.
JERSEY.
That dairy farming can be conducted on very valuable laiul is
amply illustrated on the island of Jersey. With land for agricul-
tural purposes renting for from $40 to $80 per acre the people of this
little island have been compelled to adopt a very intensified system of
farming. The farms are small and the most important crop is early
potatoes, which are grown for export. The live-stock interests are of
but secondary importance. AVere it not for the fact that animals are
needed to aid in the fertilization of the soil and that they are very
largely maintained on roots and soiling crops which are grown on the
ground after the potatoes are harvested, it is more than likely that no
live stock, except those needed for labor, would be maintained. Beef
animals are not produced at all: sheep do not number 'JOO head
altogether; horses are bred in very small numbers, the greatest portion
of those required for labor being imported: and hogs are to be found
on few farms. The Jersey cattle predominate almost to the exclu-
sion of all others, yet they are not kept in sufficient numbers to supply
the demands of the people for milk and butter. Hutter is imported
nt all seasons of the year, and especially during the winter month-.
In former years, when it was the prevailing custom to have the cow-
calve in the spring of the year, sufficient butter wa> produced to Hip-
ply the demand during the summer, but during the winter there wa-
58 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
a great shortage, which was always supplied by other countries. At
prevent, with the cows calving -at all seasons of the year, there is
enough home-made butter to meet the demands of the higher classes
of people, but the lower classes are compelled to use foreign butter
throughout the entire year.
FEEDING HREEDINC; ANIMALS.
Care is used to avoid overfeeding of young animals. The amount
of concentrated feed is limited, and much dependence is placed on
roughage in winter, grass constituting the sole summer ration.
Calves are usually on a ration of w r hole milk for the first three weeks
of life, after which time it is gradually replaced by skim milk, and
some farmers raise their calves on grass and skim milk. Others,
however, give grain as well. Good results are reported from the use
of rice at this time, some farmers feeding nothing but boiled-rice
gruel. The best feeders boil 1 quart of rice in 2 gallons of w r ater,
which furnishes enough to add to the skim milk for two feeds for four
calves of about 4 months old. If the rice has not been previously
soaked, it is boiled ten hours, but if soaked for twelve hours it can be
boiled sufficiently in one and a half hours. This is a cheap food and
costs about 1} cents per pound.
Both bulls and heifers are fed in much the same way until 15 or
18 months of age, when the bulls are used for service and the heifers
are bred. From this time on the heifers are more liberally fed, espe-
cially during the last three months of the gestation period.
As the majority of the farms are very small, and but few cows are
kept on each farm, individual farmers do not keep bulls exclusively
for their own use. The bulls as a rule are owned and maintained by
a few of the larger farmers, who receive Government premiums for
each bull of merit, provided that the services of such a sire can be
had by the smaller farmers at a certain fee, which is always very
reasonable. The subsidizing system has been adopted to raise the
standard of the cattle on the island and has given very satisfactory
results. On several of the farms visited two or three breeding bulls
w r ere seen. They are all maintained in very thin flesh. During the
v.'i nter they are fed hay, roots (turnips, carrots, and mangels),
and from 2 to 4 pounds of bran each per day. In the summer they
are tethered on grass lots or soiled, with the same allowance of wheat
bran. In some instances young bulls are given a small allowance of
linseed cake, about 1 pounds per day, in addition to the bran ration.
FEEDING DAIRY COWS.
The Jersey cow in her native land is not so liberally fed as in other
countries. In some instances the cows are wintered on the grass lot
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING IN KI'KOPE.
with some straw and a few rwts in addition only, but gem-rally they
receive better care. Roughage is fed in limited quantities, and a
great deal of dependence is placed on the root crops to furnish the
bulk of the winter rations. This is a cheap source of feed l>eeause
they are grown as a second crop on the potato land. Turnips, swede-:,
carrots, and mangels are all grown. On some farms cabbages are
grown for winter feeding. They are not so likely to impart an
undesirable flavor to the milk as turnips, and are growing in public-
favor. Grain and cake are fed in very small quantities. The
majority of farmers use from '2 to 5 pounds per cow per day, and it
is said that only one farmer on the island feeds as much as 10 pounds
to cows in full milk. During the summer no grain is fed as a rule.
Great care is given cows at calving time; warm bran mashes are
usually fed at this time. Bran mashes are frequently fed throughout
the entire period of lactation, and on all farms the cows are grazed
from four to seven hours each day throughout the winter. The free-
dom of the cattle from tuberculosis is emphatic evidence of the wis-
dom of this method of management.
The following rations are representative of those fed on the best
farms, but must be considered as above the general average:
Farm \<>. 1. This is a rather large farm in the parish of St.
Saviours, where a good herd of milch cows are maintained from which
many valuable animals have been exported to America. During the
summer months the cows are tethered on a grass lot and receive no
additional feed. During the fall, winter, and early spring months
they are fed on hay, oat straw, roots, compound cake, wheat bran,
and are on grass for six hours each day. They are fed seven time> a
day at ~> a. in., 3i pounds of hay ; 7 a. in., 30 pounds of roots; 1) a. m..
2 pounds compound cake and bran; from 10 a. in. to 4 p. m. on grass;
4.30 p. m., 3^ pounds hay; 5.30 p. in., 30 pounds roots; (>.30 p. m.. !
pounds compound cake and bran, and at s p. m. f> pounds of oat
straw.
Ration for ihiiri/ coir* fed in N/. Nariourx, ixliiml of .ft rxt-it.
Feeding stuff.
Quan- Dry
tity. matter.
Di^esti
hie pro-
tein.
Digest i-
blt-car-
tx>liy-
drates.
Digvsti-
l)le fat.
1'iiunils. I'uiitirtn.
7 fi 097
UO " 701)
Pininris.
0.413
.600
.0(50
.L'44
.540
1.857
I'oinnlx.
2. SW
4.:i
!.!*: i
.7S4
.illl
10.307
I'nmul*.
0.0*4
.iai
.11411
.Ik'.J
.1711
" 4.540
2 1 . 7l
2 l.Mti
Wheat l>ran
j 19.915
.4>S
Xtrri
tlVe
nit iii.
60
BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
Farm No. 2. This farm is located near St. Helier, and has one of
the largest herds on the island. The methods of feeding are said to
be much above the average. The summer rations consist of good
grass and 2 pounds of cotton cake per cow per day. During the
winter all feed is carefully prepared, the hay and straw being cut,
the roots pulped, and th? bran steamed. The feed is mixed together
and allowed to stand for several hours before being fed. At 5 a. m.
the cows are fed a mixture of cut hay, bran, and cotton cake, or
gluten feed (the latter feed is liked very well, but can not be fed to
advantage with large quantities of roots on account of its laxative
nature) : at 7.30 a. m., cut hay, cut straw, pulped roots, with some
bran or crushed oats; at noon, another feed of the same mixture;
from 1 p. m. until 5 p. m. they are tethered on a grass lot, and
when brought into the stables are given a feed of the same mixture
as at 5 a. m. ; the last feed of the day is given at 7 p. m., and is the
same as that given at 7 a. m. and noon.
Ration for dairy coirs fed near St. HeUer, island of Jersey.
Feeding stuff.
Quan-
tity.
Dry
ble pro-
tein.
bohy-
drates.
Digesti-
tive
ratio.
Mixed hay
Pounds.
8
Pounds.
6.968
Pounds.
0.472
Pounds.
3.272
Pounds.
0.096
O it straw .
4
3.632
.048
1.544
.032
Carrots .
40
4.560
.320
3.120
.080
Wheat bran
o
1.762
.244
.784
.054
Crushed oats...
2
1.780
.184
.946
.084
Cotton cake ,
2
1.936
.744
.336
.244
20.638
2. 012
10. 002
.590
1:5.63
Farm No. 3. This farm is located near Granville, and the owner
is generally recognized as being the best feeder on the island. The
herd numbers about one dozen cows, many of them with records of
17 pounds or more of butter in seven days. The summer ration con-
sists of 3 pounds of cotton cake and good pasture grass for cows in
full milk.
The winter ration consists of mixed hay, oat straw, roots (carrots
until February and mangels during the remainder of the time), cab
bages, compound cake, and wheat bran. At 5 a. m., 4 pounds of
hay; 7.30 a. in., 25 pounds carrots; 9 a. in., 20 pounds cabbages; 9.30
a. in., 4 pounds cake and bran ; from 10 a. m. until 4 p. m., on pasture*
at 4 p. m., 4 pounds of hay; 5 p. m., 25 pounds carrots; 6 p. in., 4
pounds cake and bran ; 8 p. m., 5 pounds of oat straw.
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING IN EUROPE. 61
1\ <il ion fur dairy roirx fwl near (iranrillc, inland nf ./r/vr//.
lM-,,li,,K stuff. <$' B *J r Mj,ro- b ifeh?' SifflS; ^v;-
Mixccl )iiiv
8
< '.>
II
( )ut st niw
4 MO
60
i 'aiiKat,'" -
31
t (MO
4. .".Hi
1
Whwit hruii
i
1
27. 451
3.
1'ixtniln. /'oitnilx. l'itn(tx. I'trtinil*.
U.272 <!.(
i "Xi l.U) i 'I' i
4im :umn . imi
1 I'.t'i .(INI)
I. MO .4i r i
1.17B .OKI
On several other farms visited the same ran<re of feeding stutl's was
used as those mentioned. As a rule, the amounts of ;rain and cake
fed were not so large, while in many instances the amount of roots
given was greater.
GUERNSEY.
Although the island of Guernsey is located quite near the island
of .Jersey, the conditions prevailing are quite different in many re-
spects. Land rents are not so high in Guernsey, but from the stand-
point of live-stock production this has not proved to he an advantage.
The live-stock interests are confined almost solely to the Guernsey
breed of cattle and are of secondary importance from an agricultural
standpoint. The production of tomatoes, grapes, and bulbs, under
glass, occupies the first attention of the people, and live stock are
maintained largely because of their favorable influence on the fer-
tility of the land. Like the farmers of Jersey, the breeders of Guern-
>ey do not give their cattle as good care and feed as those in coun-
tries where the production of dairy and meat products is more im-
portant. However, the methods of feeding are very good on many
farms. A system of feeding which has a slight tendency to produce
flesh is appreciated rather than otherwise. With this exception,
however, the methods of feeding are very much the same as in the
island of .Jersey.
Grass, soiling crops, and roots supply the succulent feed. Man-
gels, turnips, and carrots are the common roots, but parsnips are also
fed and are particularly valuable as they do not taint the milk.
The amount of roughage used is larger than in Jersey.
KKKDIXC HKKKDINti STOCK.
Calves are generally fed more liberally than in Jersey. They are
usually fed some grain and roots after the whole milk is discon-
tinued. IJulls and heifer calves are fed alike.
62
BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
Mature bulls are not maintained in high flesh, some breeders be-
lieving that high feeding tends to make a bull vicious. During the
summer mild-tempered bulls are tethered on grass, but vicious ones
are confined to the stables. Additional feed may be given the bulls
on grass. During the winter one good breeder feeds his mature bulls
on 10 pounds of mixed hay, 5 pounds of oat straw, 60 pounds of roots,
and 3 pounds of wheat bran.
FEEDING DAIRY COWS.
The methods of feeding the milch cows are very much the same as
those prevailing in Jersey, the chief difference being the larger use
of hay and turnips in winter, the use of parsnips, and the greater
attention given to the use of soiling crops for spring and early sum-
mer feeding. Methods of management are also very similar.
The following are representative winter rations, but on many of
the smaller farms more roots and less grain and cake are given :
Farm No. 1. This is a medium-sized farm near St. Martins on
which about a dozen high-class cows are maintained. During the
spring and summer the cows are tethered on grass and on such crops
as oats and vetches. In addition they receive about 2 pounds of cot-
ton-seed cake and 2 pounds of bran each per day. During the winter
they are fed 15 pounds of mixed hay. 50 pounds of roots (parsnips
and mangels), and about 8 pounds of bran per cow per day in addi-
tion to pasture.
Ration for dairy cores fed near St. Martins, island of Guernsey.
Feeding stuff.
Quan-
tity.
Dry
matter.
Digesti-
ble pro-
tein.
Digesti-
ble car-
bohy-
drates.
Digesti-
ble fat.
Nutri-
tive
ratio.
Mixed hay
Pounds.
15
Pounds.
13.065
Pounds.
0.885
Pounds.
6.135
Pounds.
0.180
Parsnips
50
5.850
.800
5.600
.100
Wheat bran
8
7.048
.976
3.136
.216
25.963
2.661
14. 871
!496
1 :6.01
Farm No. 2. This is a large farm located near Catel, on which
about GO cows are maintained, including many of the most famous
show-yard and butter-test winners at the leading island and English
shows.
During the summer the cows receive about 2 pounds of bran and 1
pound of cake each, in addition to grass, those being fitted for exhibi-
tion receiving more, in some instances as high as 3 pounds of cake
and 5 pounds of warm bran mash. The winter rations consist of
about 14 pounds of mixed hay, 3 pounds of oat straw, 3 pounds of
cotton-seed cake, 5 pounds of bran in the form of a warm mash,
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING IN EUROPE.
r,3
and 50 pounds of carrots or mangels per cow per day, in addition
having several hours each fine day on a grass lot. At the time of the
writer's visit the cows were in good condition and giving very satis-
factory returns.
Hatlon for dairy coir* fed near Catel, inland of Guenixri/.
Feeding stuff.
Quan-
tity.
Dry
matter.
Digesti-
ble pro-
tein.
Digewti-
ble car-
boli y-
dnites.
Digits. *;
1 ' 1 " fut ratio.
Mixed hay
Pound*.
14
/'lillltdn.
Pound*.
X2<!
I'oundx.
l'".~
Oat straw
2 ~24
I l.V
Mangels . ...
>ll
4 550
Yrfl
2 7(K)
IH)
. {
2 754
1 111)
:5
Wheat bran . .
4 in',
(Mil
1 INK)
. i:
"T I 1 ,"'
., j.xj
jo (K=i
743 1 ' 4 37
DAIRY FKKI)IX<! IN FKAXCK.
French fanners, especially in the northern and central sections, are
engaged more or less in milk production, and the feeding of the dairy
cow has received considerable attention. While the chief aim is to
produce the largest possible flow of milk from a given amount of
feed, in some districts much attention is given to the effect of feed on
the milk. For instance, some farmers feed cocoa nut meal with the
hope of improving the flavor and texture of butter.
During summer some of the best farmers graxe the cows the entire
time, giving no additional feed except in times of continued dry
weather or overstocking, when a small allowance of cotton-seed meal
or wheat bran-may be given, the amount varying from '2 to < pounds
per cow daily. Some farmers use green forage instead of grain.
Where the land is very valuable and fences are considered wasteful,
the cows are fed in a stable and soiled during summer or tethered on
grass.
In winter the general tendency is to feed rather heavily on rough-
age and sparingly on concentrates. As a rule fully two-thirds of the
dry matter of the ration is obtained from the roughage.
The following are fairly representative winter rations:
Farm Xo. 1. This is a medium-sized farm in Normandy where
about W cows are milked. The roughage is home-grown: in fact, all
of the ration, with the exception of the bran and lin>eed cake, is pro-
duced on the farm. Ration: Alfalfa hay. -J-J pound-: ground barley,
3 pounds: crushed oats. 3 pounds: wheat bran. _' pounds: linseed cake.
1 pound: fodder beets. -20 pounds. The hay i> fed in three feeds,
morning, noon, and night: the grain in two feed: ;it milking time,
morning and night, and the beets about I o'clock in the afternoon.
5154 No. 77 05 M .">
BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
Ration for dairy cows fed in Normandy, France.
Feeding stuff.
Quan-
tity.
Dry
matter.
Di * e8ti - SifSS:
bl tX- "
drates.
Digesti-
ble fat.
Nutri-
tive
ratio.
Alfalfa _
Pounds.
22
Pounds.
20. 152
Pounds. Pounds.
2.420 8.712
Pounds.
0.264
Fodder beets
20
1.820
.220 1.080
.020
Ground barley
3
2 673
281 1 968
048
Crushed oats
3
2 670
276 ' 1 419
126
Wheat bran
2
1.768
244 784
054
Linseed c.nMa
1
.908
.293 327
070
29 985
3 714 l 14 290
582
1 4 19
Farm No. 2. This is a rather small dairy farm located in French
Flanders, a noted dairy district. Although the farm contains but
80 acres, the owner maintains a herd of 30 milch cows in addition to
young cattle and other classes of stock. Eation: Clover hay, 12
pounds: oat straw, 6 pounds; dried brewers' grains, 6 pounds;
crushed oats, 3 pounds; wheat bran, 2 pounds; cotton-seed cake, 2
pounds. The hay and straw are chaffed. In the evening the hay,
straw, and grain to be used the following day are mixed together and
moistened. The mixture is allowed to stand overnight, and before
feeding the next day is scalded with boiling water. It is fed in
three feeds, the largest amount being given at night. However, the
preparation of the feed involves a great deal of labor, and the owner
frankly admits that he would abandon steaming at least if he had
succulent feed.
Ration for dairy coirs fed in French Flanders.
Feeding stuff.
Quan-
tity.
Dry
matter.
Digesti-
ble pro-
tein.
Digesti-
ble car-
bohy-
drates.
Digesti-
ble fat.
Nutri
tive
ratio.
Clover hay
Pounds.
12
Pounds.
10. 164
Pounds.
0.816
Pounds.
4.296
Pounds.
0.204
Oat staw
6
5.448
.072
2. 316
.048
Dried brewers' grains
6
5.508
.942
2.178
.306
3
2.670
.276
1.419
.126
Wheat bran
2
1.762
.244
.784
.054
Cotton-seed cake
2
1.836
.744
.338
.244
27.388
3 094
11.331
982
1:4.38
Farm Xo. 3. This is a medium-sized dairy farm, located in south-
ern Brittany and stocked with an excellent herd of the small black-
and-white Brittany cows. The milk is sold to supply a city milk
trade, and a uniform flow throughout the winter is desirable.
The following ration is fed: Alfalfa, 15 pounds; mixed hay, 5
pounds; corn meal, 3 pounds; crushed oats, 3 pounds; wheat bran,
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING IN EUROPE. f)f>
2 pounds; and cotton-seed cake. -2 pounds. The grain is fed in two
feeds at milking time morning and evening, the mixed hay at noon.
;,::'! the alfalfa morning and night.
l(<ition for ilniri/ <-oirn f<-il in Urittiniii. l-'runrc.
Feeding stuff. tit'v'
Dry ! I,?,,-, bit- car- DieMti-
matter. iin boby- ble fat.
draus.
Nutri-
tiv.-
ratio.
Found*.
Alfalfa 1.5
I'oiintl*. I'lntnd*. I'nitnil*. I'oun<l*.
13.740 l.Bfil) .Y'.'ln 0. IHU '
Mixed hay 6
Corn meal 3
2.73 .ZK 2.<ll .129
Crushed oats 3
2 f7(t 276 1 41!) 12K
Wheat bran 2
1 7(i2 244 7H4 . u',4
Cotton-seed cake 2
1 -'.*' 744 .XW .244
27. 3.44 12.527 ,798
1 :4. 15
1
DAIRY METHODS IX AUSTRIA- HUNGARY.
Most of the milk used in Austria-Hungary is produced on the farms:
of the more fertile sections, where farmers keep hut a few milch cows
and do not follow dairying as a specialty. However, near large
cities there are persons who are engaged exclusively in dairy fann-
ing. It is not common to graze dairy cows and the practice is limited
almost entirely to the hilly districts, where small, productive valleys
are surrounded hy highland which is only suitable for gra/ing.
When cows are stabled they are soiled during the summer.
XHHIMC/' I'ltt'tonx. On the majority of farms the summer rations
consist of from 50 to SO pounds of green fodder per cow per day. and
from 5 to 10 pounds each of grain.
The following rations will convey a fairly good idea of the methods
of summer feeding:
Farm Xt>. I. Alfalfa. ('() pounds: corn. X pounds: cru>hetl oats.
8 pounds; wheat bran. '2 pounds.
Farm \o. ~. Green corn. :H) pounds; green clover. ^0 pounds;
green oats. _?() pounds; corn meal. X pounds: mill feed. '2 pounds, and
wheat bran. '2 pounds.
Fai'iit Xo. ) Alfalfa. TO pounds, fed in three feeds two of -JO and
one of }() pounds. The owner had previously been feeding some
grain, but. deciding it was not profitable, stopped the grain and
increased the alfalfa. According to his statement his cows <ri v( > j us t
as much milk on alfalfa alone as when fed alfalfa and grain, and the
daily ration is alwut 4| cents per cow cheaper.
Winter ration*. During the winter most farmers feed three times
per day. but there is a growing sentiment in favor of feeding but
66
BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
twice per clay. All grain is crushed or ground before feeding; the
roughage is usually fed long, without moistening or steaming.
Far-tn Xo. 1. Alfalfa hay, 20 pounds; corn fodder, 10 pounds;
corn meal, 3 pounds; crushed oats, 3 pounds, and wheat bran, 1
pound. The alfalfa is fed morning and evening, about 8 or 1'2
pounds, respectively, the corn fodder at noon, and the concentrated
feed in two equal feeds, morning and evening. In this instance all
of the feed, with the exception of the wheat bran, is home-grown
and the ration is not considered expensive.
If at ion fur dairy coirs fed in Austria-Hungary (farm Xo. J).
Feeding! stuff. < \% i ~
Dry
matter.
Digesti
ble pro-
tein.
Digesti-
ble car-
bohy-
drates.
Digesti-
ble fat.
Nutri-
tive
ratio.
Pounds.
Alfalfa hay 20
Pounds.
18. 32
5.78
2. 673
2.670
.881
Pounds.
2 2
25
.237
.276
.122
Pounds.
7.92
3.46
2.001
1.419
.392
Pounds.
0. 24
.12
.129
.126
.027
Corn fodder 10
Corn meal . 3
Crushed oats 3
"Wheat bran 1
30. 324
3.085
15. 192
.642 1:5.33
1
Nearly four-fifths of the dry matter and protein in this ration is
obtained from the roughage. It has many features which should
commend it to American farmers, particularly in the alfalfa-grow-
ing districts.
Farm No. 2. This is a rather small farm near a large city, where
the owner aims to keep one cow for each acre of land. Clover hay
10 pounds, oat straw 7 pounds, crushed oats 3 pounds, wheat bran
3 pounds, and linseed cake '1 pounds constitute the ration. The
clover hay is fed in equal feeds, morning and evening, the oat straw
at noon, and the concentrated feed in equal feeds morning and night.
This ration gives very good results. It differs from the foregoing
one in that the two principal sources of protein, wheat bran and oil
cake, are purchased.
Ration for dairi/ coirx fed in Atlxtria-H \infiarn (farm \o. 2}.
Feeding stuff.
Quan- ' Dry
tity. matter.
Digesti-
ble pro-
tein.
Digesti-
ble car-
bohy-
drates.
Pounds.
5. 728
2.702
1.419
1.176
.654
Digesti- -
blefat rltio.
Clover hav
Pounds. Pounds.
16 13.552
7 6.356
3 2. 670
3 2. 643
2 1.816
Pounds.
1.088
.084
.276
.366
. 586
Pounds.
0.272
Oat straw ..
.056 ?
.126
Wheat bran
.081
Linseed cake
.140
27 l7
2.400
11.679
.675
CATTLK, SHEEP, AND H(K! FEEDING IN El'KOPE.
67
Farm \o. ,}. Alfalfa hay, 10 pounds; clover hay. H pounds; corn
fodder. 10 |x>unds; crushed oats. :'. pounds; and corn meal, '' |x>unds.
The clover hay is fed in the morning, the corn fodder at noon, and the
alfalfa hay at night. ' The grain is fed in one feed about 5 o'clock in
the evening.
far
roir* jt-<l in Auxtriu-ll inifiiirti (farm \o. 3).
Feeding stuff. SiVv""
matU-r.
'tpm*"" '">hy- hie. fat. ra tio
/'oMii'fa.
Alfalfa hay in
I'liiiHiln.
'.MI;
Pnniln. r^mmlx. I'oiinrlit.
l.in n.wi n. 12
Clover H
.77
Corn fodder in
.,. ., 4<( ,.,
Corn meal H
2 H 7: {
2:f7 2 mil 129
Crnslied oats '.\
2. H7(l
.276 1 41! .VJfi
27 ""'''
2 4/T i:< 7(H H1 1 <5 2X
DAIRYING IN (JERMAXY.
Dairying is easily the most important branch of the cattle industry
in Germany, especially in the northern and western portions, where
the influence of the Danish and Dutch farmers has been felt. The
milk produced supplies creameries and cheese factories, condensed-
milk factories, and the city milk trade, and a large amount of butter
and cheese is made on the farms where the cows are kept. Some
farms are rather heavily stocked, but usually only a small numl>er of
cows are kept on each farm. Practical men appear to give little
thought to the preparation of rations or methods of feeding. With
the exception of linseed and cotton-seed cake, practically all of the
feed used is home grown or the by-products of home manufactures,
such as sugar production and brewing.
Farm Xo. 1. This farm is located in the northern part of Germany.
Summer ration: Green clover, in season. TO pounds: dried brewers'
grains. 5 pounds, and linseed cake. '2 pounds." At other times
from (>0 to SO pounds of a mixture of oats and barley or peas. oats,
and barley, with the same grain allowance, are fed. During the early
fall about 30 pounds of sugar beets per cow daily are fed instead of
part of the forage.
The winter ration is composed of clover hay. 20 pounds; oat hay.
8 pounds: corn meal. 3 pounds: dried brewers" grains. 3 pounds,
and linseed cake. 2 pounds. The clover hay i> fed in two feeds,
morning and night: the oats hay. which is made by cutting oat<
about ten days before being ripe, is fed at noon. The grain is fed in
IAVO equal feeds morning and night.
"On some farms eotton-sin-d cake is fed in summer instead of linseed cake.
68
BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
Ration for dairy coir ft fed in northern Germany.
Feeding stuff.
Quan-
tity.
Dry
matter.
Digesti-
ble pro-
tein.
Digesti-
ble car-
bohy-
drates.
Digesti-
ble fat.
Nutri-
tive
ratio.
Clover hay
Pounds.
20
Pounds.
16.940
Pounds.
1.360
Pounds.
7 160
Pounds.
340
Oat hay
8
7.288
.344
3.712
.120
Corn meal
3
2.673
.237
2.001
.129
Dried brewers' grains . . .
3
2.754
.471
1.089
.153
Linseed cake
2
1.816
.586
.654
140
31.471
14.616
.882
1:5.54
Farm No. -2. This farm is located near the city of Munich, and
the owner uses large quantities of wet brewers' grains. Summer
ration : At the time of the writer's visit the farmer was feeding 40
pounds of green alfalfa and about 60 pounds of wet brewers' grains
per cow daily. The brewers' grains were fed early in the morning
and about 5 o'clock in the evening. The mangers were cleaned out
before each feeding time, to remove anything which might have been
left over from the previous feed.
The cows were rather thin and their bowels very loose, but aside
from this they showed every indication of thrift and health.
The winter ration on this farm is simple. It is composed of alfalfa
hay, 16 pounds: wet brewers' grains, 40 pounds, and corn meal. 3
pounds. The alfalfa is fed in two equal feeds, immediately after
milking morning and evening, the brewers' grains in two feeds,
early in the morning and about 5 o'clock in the evening, and the corn
meal at midday.
Hut ion for dairy coir* fed near Munich, Germany.
Feeding stuff.
titv.
* blfc^.Digesti- NutH-
d bohy- b,efa, ^
Alfalfa hay
Wet brewers' grains .
Corn meal . . .
Pounds.
16
40
3
Pounds. Pounds.
14.651) 1.760
9.720 1.560
2.673 .237
Pounds. F
6.336
3.720
2.001
'ounds
0. 192 , -
.560 ..
.129 '
27. 049
3.557
12. OT>7
.881 |
1:3.95
1
Farm Xo. 3. This farm is located near Berlin and the milk is
sold to supply the city trade. The cows are stabled throughout the
entire year and allowed out of doors only for a few hours each day
in an open yard. At the time of the writer's visit, during the latter
part of July, the ration was composed of alfalfa about 30 pounds,
green peas, oats, and barley about 40 pounds, and a grain mixture
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING IN El'HOPE. <>9
of 2 pounds wheat bran. "2 pounds corn meal, and 2 pounds cotton-
seed cake.
Being near a sugar factory, the owner uses a great deal of beet pulp
during the early winter. The following ration has l>een used with
satisfactory results: Beet pidp, HO pounds: alfalfa hay, 10 pounds;
clover hay, 5 pounds; corn meal, .'5 pounds: wheat bran. 2 ]>omids:
and cotton-seed cake, 2 pounds. The l>eet pulp was fed in two feeds,
in the early morning and Ix'fore milking in the evening, the grain
about 10 o'clock, the clover hay at 1 o'clock, and the alfalfa hay
after milking.
Ration for dairy (turn fed near Herlin, (icnnany.
Feeding stuff.
Quan-
tity.
Dry
matter.
Die pro- i H .i lv _ KI,. fi.t live
teni ratio
d rates.
I'mtnds.
80
I
Pound H.
8. 180
Poumlx. J'niinflx. I'minilx.
0. 480 5 840
Alfalfa
10
9.160
1.100 3.) 0. iai
Clover hay .
5
4.235
.:m 1.7HO .(K-i
Corn meal
3
:>. i;73
.17 >. 001 .\M
Wheat bran
2
1.7B2
.^44 .784 .1154
Cotton-seed cake
2
1.838
. 744 . 3#< . ->44
^7 82<i
3 145 14 713 32 1:5 13
SWISS DAIHV AIKTIIODS.
The best and most profitable dairy farming in Switzerland is to l>e
found in the more fertile districts of Zurich. Zug. Lucerne, and
Schwyt/. Here the land is considered too valuable for gra/ing, and
all animals not in milk are sent to the mountains to gra/e during the
summer. The milch cows are soiled or tethered on grass or forage
lots during the summer and are maintained very simply during the
winter. In winter hay may constitute the entire ration, and it i>
usually given in three feeds. Some feeders use a small amount of
concentrated feed in addition to the roughage, or it is sometimes
substituted for a small amount of roughage.
On one of the best farms visited the owner feeds the following
ration during the winter: Morning. S pounds clover hay: noon. <>
pounds mixed hay: ."> o'clock. '-\ pounds linseed cake, and at night. 14
pounds alfalfa.
70
BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
liation for dairy coirs ferl in Switzerland.
Feeding stuff.
Quan-
tity.
Dry
matter.
Digesti-
ble pro-
tein.
Digesti-
ble car-
bohy-
drates.
Digesti-
ble fat.
Nutri-
tive
ratio.
Clover hay .
Pounds.
8
Pounds.
6.776
Pounds.
0.544
Pounds.
2.864
Pounds.
0.136
Meadow hay
6
5.226
. 354
2.454
.072
Alfalfa hay
14
12 824
1 54
5.544
132
Linseed cake
3
2.724
879
981
21
27.550
3.317
11.843
.550
1 : 3 94
On another farm the follcrwing winter ration is fed : Morning, 8
pounds clover hay ; noon, 8 pounds clover hay ; C o'clock, 2 pounds
peanut meal, and at night, 12 pounds clover hay.
Another ration for-fJairy cows fed in Switzerland.
Feeding stuff.
Quan-
tity.
Dry
matter.
Digesti-
ble pro-
tein.
Digesti-
ble car- Digesti-
bohy- ble fat.
drates.
Nutri-
tive
ratio.
Clover hay
Pounds.
28
Pounds.
23.716
Pounds.
1.904
Pounds. Pounds.
10. 024 0. 476
Peanut meal .
2
1.786
.858
. 456 . 138
25.502
2.762
10.480 .614
1 : 4. 29
PART II. SHEER
SHEEP FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT IN ENGLAND.
Sheep are raised in all parts of England regardless of the quality
or rent of the land, and the greater part of the feed used is produced
on the farms. In the southern and central parts of the country more
use is made of pasture and forage crops for fall and winter grazing
than is possible in northern England, where feeding must lx> done
under cover. In some parts of the country forage crops are used
during the summer and fall to supplement pasture, and cotton-seed
and linseed cake are very generally fed at this time.
mtKKDINC SHEEP.
KKKPINU TIIK RAM.
The feeding and management of the ram during the breeding
season varies according to the time of the year, the condition of the
ram, and the methods of handling him during the mating season.
Dorset breeders turn the rams with the ewes in June: with other
breeds the usual season is from September 1 to October -JO. To pro-
duce show lambs some breed in August, and some Hampshire and
Suffolk breeders breed all their ewes during this month.
The ram may be allowed to run with the ewes (a quite common
practice) : he may be housed during the day and allowed to run with
them at night, or the ewes may be brought- to him for service. Kams
which are carrying an unusual amount of flesh are always * condi-
tioned '' for a few weeks before being used by being given regular
and abundant exercise and very light rations. In addition, the l>est
breeder's usually give one or two doses of Epsom salts.
Rams which run with the ewes usually receive about 1 pound per
day of a mixture of bran and oats. Feeds rich in protein are used,
and starchy feeds or those rich in oil avoided, as they are inclined to
heat the system and produce flabby flesh. Kams which are housed
during 1 the day and allowed to run with the ewes at uiirht are nearly
c?
always fed green feed, and from ] to 1 pound of oat> and bran.
When a ram stands for service the best breeders prefer giving
him the run of a grass lot at night for exercise. Kams are liberally
72 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
fed during the breeding season, but are never kept fat or in a soft,
flabby condition. At other seasons of the year than mating time
grass, forage, and root crops are used, and as much feeding as possi-
ble is done out of doors; regular exercise is regarded as necessary.
As soon as the breeding season is over the rams are separated from
the rest of the flock and given a small grass lot of their own. Young
rams, or mature ones which have done a heavy season's service, are
usually given from \ to \\ pounds of grain per day, depending on
age and condition. As winter comes on the rams are kept on pasture
as much as possible.
In the northern part of the country rams are kept out of doors a
great deal, but the feeding is more liberal. Mangels are very seldom
fed to rams, turnips being the chief source of succulent feed. Dur-
ing spring and summer rams are at pasture the greater portion of
the time, but have green forage as needed in addition to grass. Grain
is fed on some farms just before the breeding season.
CONDITIONING THE EWES FOR MATING.
A great deal of attention is given to the proper conditioning of
the ewe previous to mating her with the ram, and practically all
successful breeders " flush " their ewes for a few weeks before mating.
This is done by increasing the feed. Ewes so treated will take the
ram sooner than others, which is a decided advantage on those farms
where early lambs are desired, and the entire number of ewes will
come in heat within a shorter period, thus enabling the owner to have
all of his lambs dropped within a few weeks' time, a factor which is
often very beneficial when they are to be marketed. Furthermore,
on account of the increase in vigor and condition of the ewes, a larger
percentage of lambs is obtained and they are much stronger.
Various feeds are used, and for convenience the discussion is ar-
ranged according to breeds.
DORSETS. A successful breeder in Dorset, who is also an exhibitor
and exporter, gives his ewes about \ pound per head per day of
either corn or beans. They are mated in June.
HAMPSHIRE*. A most successful Wiltshire breeder of Hampshires
uses cabbage, rape, and a small allowance of linseed cake for about
two weeks previous to mating. His ewes are turned with the ram
about the Tth of August.
LEICESTERS. A successful breeder in Yorkshire uses good pasture
or folds his ewes on thousand-headed kale, rape, or cabbage.
LINCOLXS. A Lincolnshire breeder who has a most enviable repu-
tation as a breeder of high-class sheep for show and export uses
clover aftermath, kale, or rape.
OXFORDS. A leading 1 breeder and exhibitor in Oxford grazes his
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING IN EUROPE. 73
ewes on second-crop clover for about two weeks previous to turning
them with the nun.
SiiHorsiuuKs. One of the most successful breeders in Shropshire
folds his ewes on rajn* and turnips.
SIFFOLKS. A prominent Suffolk breeder Drives his ewes the best
pastures on the farm and in addition folds them on rafx*, cabbage,
kale, mustard, or any other green feed available.
WENSLEYDALES. A successful breeder in Yorkshire uses rape or
barley stubble which has been seeded to clover.
The Hushing system has some disadvantages. Inducing the ewes
to take the ram earlier than they otherwise would has a decided
tendency to make them return for a second or third service, and in
some instances they will not become pregnant at all. This is caused
by the change in the methods of feeding, and it proved very trouble-
some at one time, but has finally lxen overcome. After some exj>eri-
menting shepherds found that if kept on a rather scanty ration after
breeding the ewes will settle, as a rule, with the first service. The
majority of breeders smear the breast of the ram with some retentive
color which marks each ewe as soon as bred, and she may then l>e
removed from the flock. The short rations are maintained for about
a month. As a safeguard, all ewes are returned to the ram about the
time the second heat is due.
KKKDIXCi THK PRWiXAXT K\VK.
The methods of feeding the pregnant ewe up to within about three
weeks of lambing show rather surprising diversity, especially as to
the use of roots. Some men deem it a most dangerous practice to
feed roots to ewes, especially during the last three months of gesta-
tion, while others who are equally successful even fold pregnant
ewes on turnips, the regular exercise probably overcoming the trou-
blesome effects of the feed.
Practically all breeders gra/e ewes at all times when the weather
is favorable. Ewes in good condition seldom get any grain or cake
until a couple of weeks before lambing. Thin ewes arc generally
separated from the remainder of the flock and given one-half pound
of grain per head daily. The following brief outline conveys a
general idea of the management of the ewes at this time.
An unusually successful Dorset breeder allows his ewes <o run on
pasture until September, when they are folded on cabbage and fed
plenty of good clover hay.
A noted breeder of Hampshires allows his ewes the run of stubble
fields and grass land during the day and folds them on turnips at
night. From the middle of Novemlx?r till the first of I)ecembe they
are out four or five hours each day on grass and are folded in a dry
lot, where they are fed clover hay twice each day.
74 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
A noted breeder of Leicesters simply pastures his ewes. As winter
comes on they receive in addition a small allowance of roots, generally
turnips, and a liberal allowance of cut sheaf oats.
A famous breeder of Lincoln sheep allows his ewes the run of a
grass lot up to the first of December. He then puts them on turnips
until about three weeks before lambing. While on turnips they get
cut clover hay, oats, and linseed cake in addition. They are fed what
hay they will eat up clean and from one-half to 1 pound of grain
per head per day.
A well-known Oxford breeder divides his ewes into flocks of about
thirty in each, and allows them the run of the pasture lots with fre-
quent changes. In open weather no additional feed is given. This
breeder does not use any turnips or other roots until a few days
before the lambs are expected.
A successful breeder of Shropshire sheep allows his ewes the run
of a grass lot and a liberal allowance of dry feed in addition. They
are given all the clover hay they will eat and about two-thirds of a
pound per head daily of a mixture of oats and bran. He is a strong
advocate of feeding plenty of dry feed but no roots until the lambs
arrive.
A breeder of Suffolks uses grass, and in addition folds the ewes for
a few hours each day on rape, cabbage, kale, or mustard up to about
the 20th of October. After that they are allowed the run of stubble
fields and grass land during the day and are folded on cabbage at
night ; this is followed by folding on white turnips and giving sev-
eral hours each day on grass and stubble.
FEEDING THE EWES AT LAMBING TIME.
The methods used at this time are very much the same on all sheep
farms, whether breeding stock or market mutton is the object. Hay
is usually cut or chaffed. From 8 to 18 pounds of roots per head are
given daily. Common grain rations are : Equal parts by weight of
oats, bran, and linseed cake; one part oats, one part bran, and two
parts linseed cake, or equal parts of cotton cake and oats. The
amount fed varies from one-half pound to 1 or H pounds per ewe per
day.
FEEDING THE EWES AND LAMBS BEFORE WEANING.
Ewes suckling lambs have liberal rations of grain and cake and
abundant forage on temporary pasture, so that as little risk as possi-
ble is run by the lambs contracting parasitic troubles. As is well
known, one means to combat stomach worms is to keep lambs off old
pastures. On many farms the ewes are divided, those with twin
lambs being placed in one lot and those with singles in another, ewes
with twin lambs being fed more heavily.
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING IN EUROPE. 75
A brief outline of methods of feeding is given lx>low :
A breeder of Dorset sheep who produces ()ctol>er lambs, the major-
ity of which are marketed for the Christmas trade, feeds as follows:
Ewes with twin lambs get "2 pounds per head per day and ewes with
single lambs 1 pound of a mixture of equal parts by weight of oats
and cotton cake, in addition to grass and green forage. As soon as
they will eat, the lambs are fed a mixture of oats, bran, and linseed
cake, equal parts by weight, and are finished oil' with Ix'ans or jxas
and linseed cake. The amount fed depends on what the lambs will
eat. commencing with about one-eighth of a pound per lamb |>er
day and finishing with from three-quarters pound to 1 pound or more.
The finishing feed is given during the last three or four weeks pre-
vious to marketing.
A breeder of Leicester's gives his ewes a mixture of linseed cake,
cracked peas, bran, and dried brewers' grains. Ewes with single
lambs get three-fourths pound per ewe per day of the mixture, while
those with twin lambs get Ij pounds per ewe per day. All of his
lambs are fed a small allowance, seldom exceeding one-half pound
per day, of a mixture of equal parts linseed cake, cracked corn, and
crushed oats.
A noted Lincoln breeder gives his ewes no other feed than soiling
crops and pasture. Single lambs are not fed any concentrated feed,
but all twin lambs receive a daily allowance of oats and linseed cake.
A prominent breeder of Suffolk sheep feeds his ewes with single
lambs three-quarters of a pound of a mixture of equal parts of oats,
linseed cake, and bran per ewe per day. and his ewes with twin lambs
1 pound per ewe per day of the same mixture. His ewes are divided:
those with single lambs have no additional feed, but all with twins
have grain feed from the time the lambs are '2\ weeks old.
Some breeders of purebred sheep divide the ram and ewe lambs
when a few weeks old and feed liberally on grain. On some farms
all ewe lambs intended for breeding purposes are fed very sparingly
on grain, only oats and bran being given, especially when they are to
be retained on the farm. At weaning time the grain rations are
withheld from the ewes, and they are placed on a short pasture. This
is done for the twofold purpose of drying on" the milk and also to
keep them in a moderate condition until it is time to prepare them
for the mating season. They are taken from the short -grass lot and
fed on such rations as have been previously described for " condition-
ing " ewes.
FEEDING THE LAMBS AFTER WEANING.
Lambs are weaned at the age of 3 or 4 months, and the greatest
care is taken to prevent any setback or standstill at this time. The
76 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
general tendency is to wean as early as possible, so that if the ewes
are on permanent pastures the lambs can be taken away before para-
sites make themselves known. Breeders usually have some choice
green feed at this time, so that the growth of the lamos will not be
retarded. When the weaning season occurs about the same time that
the grain fields are being cleared of their crops, many farmers run
the lambs on the stubble fields, with green feed and grain in addi-
tion. Frequent changes of grazing ground are desired.
Although some men fold their lambs on green feed, the practice is
not a good one in the opinion of the most successful breeders. This
is especially true where they are folded on small areas at a time, as
they then do not get sufficient exercise and take on fat too rapidly.
The most highly commended practice is to allow the lambs the run
of the stubble fields the greater portion of the day, with but a few
hours in the forage lot, or to cut a small amount of forage from time
to time and give the lambs free access to it from the stubble fields.
One of the first things done at weaning time is to divide the lambs
into two or three bunches. Wether lambs, or ewe lambs not fit for
breeding, are separated and put in a bunch by themselves and given
different feed from those intended for breeding purposes. Rams and
ewe lambs intended for breeding are separated, the rams to be more
liberally fed than the ewes.
Many breeders sell their ram lambs in the fall 'of the year, but
others prefer keeping them over and selling them as yearlings.
Those intended for immediate sale are, as a rule, given better care
and feed than those to be carried over the winter.
The following illustrates the methods of feeding from weaning time
until the following spring:
A breeder of Hampshires who weans his lambs about June 1, when
they are 4 months old, folds his ram lambs on vetches and sainfoin
each day during June, in addition to giving them the run of a grass
lot which has not been previously pastured with sheep, and a grain
ration of oats. bran, and linseed cake. During July and the early
part of August, until sale time, they are folded on cabbage and rape,
with about 1 pound of grain. The ewe lambs are folded on vetches,
cabbages, and rape, with no grain, unless the green feed is scarce,
when one-third or one-half pound per day is given. From September
until the 1st of May they are folded on turnips, swedes, and kale,
with one-half pound per day of grain and straw, chaff, or clover hay.
A famous breeder of Lincoln sheep advocates liberal feeding and
very frequent changes of pasture for lambs from weaning time until
the following spring. He divides his lambs according to sex. but
feeds all alike. The principal feeds used are green clover, tares,
rape, and turnips. During the fall and winter they are folded on
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING IN EUROPE. 77
turnips and fed all they will eat up clean of cut clover hay, in which
is mixed about one-half pound per head per day of linseed cake.
A Shropshire breeder feeds as follows: At weaning time, which
is about the 1st of June, when the lambs are 3 months old. they
are divided into two flocks, the rams in one and the ewes in the other,
and are given the best green crops available. Vetches are preferred,
then clover, rape, kale, cabbages, early turnips, and swedes, in the
order named. The lambs are always allowed the run of a new grass
lot during the day for several hours, and when the crops are har-
vested they are changed to the stubble fields. When old mangels are
available they are given for a few weeks, sliced. Some grain is fed.
about one-eighth of a pound per day at the beginning and gradually
increased so that when the lambs are (> months old they are eating
about one-half pound each per day. During the fall and winter they
are pastured on turnips and have the same grain allowance, with as
much good clover hay as they will eat at all times. This man
always keeps rock salt in the troughs and sprinkles about one pound
per day of common salt on the feed of each 75 lambs.
A breeder of Suffolk sheep who weans his lambs about the middle of
June, when they are 44 months old. feeds as follows: The ram lambs
are separated from the ewes and fed on white clover. cabbage>. rape,
and kohl-rabi. cut and fed in troughs. Tn addition they have from
one-half to 1 pound each of grain per day, the object being to push
them along rapidly so that they will be of a good size at sale time, in
August and September. The ewe lambs are put on trifolium and
vetches, which are followed by rape, mustard, and cabbage^, with the
run of the stubble fields when ready. If in good condition no grain
allowance is given, but if not. about one-third of a pound per day is
fed. During the fall and winter they are fed on white turnips and
swedes, with about one-half pound per head daily of grain and a
liberal allowance of pea straw or clover hay. When the turnip sup-
ply is not sufficient, cut mangels are given in the spring.
The methods of feeding practiced on other farms are very similar
to the foregoing, (ireen feed is always given during the summer and
fall until the turnip crop is ready, then the turnips are the chief
feed, with some form of roughage, usually clover hay. and a small
allowance of grain and cake, which in nearly every instance is a mix-
ture of oats, wheat, bran, and linseed cake.
FATTEXIXO LAM US KOK MAKKET.
In the feeding and fattening of lambs for market rather distinct
methods are pursued. Those who rear early lambs aim to grow them
rapidly, so that they will be ready for market in June or the early
part of July. The advantages claimed for this method are that it
78 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
yields quick returns, that the lambs are sold before parasites become
troublesome, and that it gives an opportunity to purchase a bunch of
sheep or lambs for fall feeding, thus increasing the sheep-carrying
capacity of the farm and bringing in larger returns. Those who
prefer late lambs believe that they do not require the same amount of
attention as early lambs, that the ewes do not need so much special
feeding, that warm sheds are not a necessity, and that the lambs can
utilize the waste of the farm during the summer and fall, especially
that of the stubble fields. Where late lambs are reared much care
is necessary during the summer months, and old pastures must not
be used as grazing grounds, as in them' parasites are almost sure to
attack the flock and cause serious losses.
In rearing early lambs the mothers are very liberally fed on clover
hay, grain, and succulent feed. The amount of roots fed is surpris-
ing, in some instances as much as '20 pounds per ewe per day, but
from 10 to 15 pounds daily is considered very liberal feeding. Win-
ter rye. winter barley, and kale are utilized before the grass comes.
The lambs are taught to eat grain at a very early age, most of them
eating well at three or four weeks. Special lamb pens, or feeding
creeps, are provided for this purpose. In some instances a self-
feeder is used, but the majority of farmers prefer such feed fresh
every day. The amount of grain fed is gradually increased until the
lambs are eating from three-fourths to 1| pounds each per day, at
three or three and a half months of age. This method of feeding is
maintained even when the grass is abundant. The lambs are mar-
keted when from 3 to 4 months old, weighing from 60 to 100 pounds
each.
The more prevalent custom in feeding late lambs is to withhold
all grain and utilize the pastures and stubble fields, with perhaps
some green crops in emergencies, until after weaning time, which
occurs in September. At that time lambs are generally folded on
rape. kale, cabbage, or more often turnips. While close folding is
not deemed advisable in the case of lambs intended for breeding, it
is admirably suited to fattening purposes. In addition to the suc-
culent feed supplied in the folds, the lambs are given a grain allow-
ance of from three-fourths to 1^ pounds each day. Cotton-seed or
linseed cake or a combination of the two usually forms one-half to
two-thirds of the concentrated feed. The remainder of the grain
ration is oats, barley, beans, peas, or corn, depending on market
prices. As a rule not much roughage is used in fattening lambs
during the fall, but those who do furnish such feed use either clover
hay or straw chaff. The chief reliance is placed on the use of green
crops and roots, especially turnips.
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING IN EUHOI'E. 79
KATTKXIXiJ SIIKKI*.
The general tendency is to market lambs, hut a considerable
amount of sheep feeding still exists in all parts of the country.
Some of these animals are natives, but a considerable numl>er conie
from Ireland and Scotland, especially from the Scotch Highlands.
The fall and winter methods of .feeding are much the same as those
practiced in lamb feeding. Folding on green crops or on the root
crops is the general custom. In addition grain and cake an- given
to the extent of from 1 to -2 pounds per head per day. In some
instances dried brewers' grains are fed with cake.
Where yard or shed feeding is practiced during the winter tin-
ration usually consists of from three-fourths of a pound to ~2 pound*
per head per day of clover hay. mixed hay or straw chat!', from 1-J
to ^0 pounds of roots, and from three-fourths to 1] or possibly -1
pounds of grain and cake. Some farmers fatten their sheep on grass
alone, feeding in addition cotton-seed or linseed cake, or a combina-
tion of the two, to the extent of from 1 to H pounds per sheep per
day.
SHEEP RAISING IN SCOTLAND.
Sheep, either as a specialty or as an important adjunct of the regu-
lar farming operations, are raised in all parts of Scotland. In the
farming country, where the rent values are from S."> to Sl" per acre,
sheep are considered indispensable, as they not only generally give
handsome returns in mutton and wool for the feed consumed and the
labor expended, but they also increase the fertility of the soil. The
Scotch farmer values sheep very highly as soil improvers. Although
use of commercial fertilizers is very general in all parts of the coun-
try, the farmer who takes possession of a' worn-out farm invariably
resorts to sheep feeding as the surest and quickest method of enrich-
ing his land. On the hill and mountain land sheep are grown in
large numbers. With high and well-drained land the conditions in
Scotland are well suited to the production of sheep, as many parasitic
troubles which so often cause heavy losses among the flock- of
England are almost unknown in Scotland. The climatic condition-
are favorable to the growing of roots, especially turnips, which form
the basis of practically all sheep feeding. The fall and winter
months are generally open and permit the gra/.ing of the turnip
crop, eliminating a great deal of labor in harvesting and saving the
labor of handling the manure.
Sheep folded on turnips are always fed from Mo 1 J pound- each
per day of grain and cake, this feeding being relied upon to enrich
the manure. The influence of sheep hu>bandry on the fertility of
the soil is generally recognized as of sufficient value to compen>ate for
rir>4 NO. 77 or M ti
80 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
the labor expended and for one-third of the total cost of the grain
and cake fed. In some sections of the country the terms of the lease
entitle a farmer who is giving up a farm to reimbursement for one-
third of the total cost of all cake fed on turnip ground during the
year. The influence of sheep feeding on the soil is so great that
many farmers claim that they can not afford to be without sheep,
even if they were to lose money on the mutton and AVOO! produced.
Two and three year old wethers are considered the most valuable
and in-lamb ewes the least valuable to improve soil fertility.
The tendency now is to use younger sheep in feeding than in former
years. The lambs grown on the arable farms are nearly all marketed
under one year of age, while in former years they were fattened as
yearlings and two-year-olds. The 'hill and mountain sheep are also
finding an earlier market. The change in the age of feeding sheep
has been brought about by the demand of the retail dealers for smaller
carcasses to supply smaller cuts. Furthermore, mutton from young
sheep can be sold at once, as it does not require several weeks to
ripen, as is the case of that from two and three year old wethers.
FEEDING PUREBRED FLOCKS.
In the management of purebred flocks Scotch farmers, as a class,
use more simple methods than those of England, and there is not the
same tendency to force young sheep. The lambing season is later,
both on account of the colder climate and because the absence of
danger from parasites obviates the necessity of getting lambs off the
pastures early; March and April are the usual months. In the
management of breeding flocks breeders give plenty of natural feed,
out-of-door exercise, and fresh air.
FEEDING BREEDING RAMS.
During the breeding season most of the breeding rams are allowed
to run with the ewes night and day, and as a rule they receive no other
feed than that obtained in the grass lot. Young and growing rams
or old thin ones are often given some additional feed. The feed used
varies on different farms: in some instances a mixture of linseed
cake, oats, and bran is given, while on other farms oats alone, or oats
and cabbage, are fed : about 1 pound per head daily of the grain mix-
ture is fed. Outside the breeding season rams are fed moderately.
During fall and winter they are on good pasture when the weather
is favorable, and are given hay (clover preferred) and turnips or
cabbage. Up to the opening of the breeding season rams are allowed
the run of a grass lot, with no additional feed.
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND H(KJ FEEDING IN EUROPE. 81
PKKDINC ItltKKDINt; KWKH.
In the feeding of breeding ewes good care and feed are given just
previous to and at lambing time. Breeders, especially those who
breed Border Leicesters, do not as a rule flush their ewes to the same
extent as English breeders. Those who handle the Down breeds give,
more attention to this point, using meadow aftermath, stubble, cab-
bage, rape, or grain. After the ewes are safe in lamb they are not
given additional feed to that obtained on pasture until the winter,
when the best breeders allow ewes tin 1 run of a grass lot, feeding hay
and cabbage or turnips in addition, without grain, until two or three
weeks previous to lambing time.
Where early lambs are produced the ewes are fed very liberal
rations just before lambing, being given a daily ration of clover hay
to the extent of U to '2 pounds, turnips 14 pounds, and from 1 to U
pounds of a mixture of equal parts of linseed cake, crushed oats, and
bran. In some instances dried brewers' grains are given with lin-
seed cake instead of oats and bran on account of the lower cost. The
heaviest grain rations are always given to the ewes with twin lambs.
The lambs are also taught to eat oatmeal or rolled oats, to which
some linseed cake is* added later on. After grass has made a good
start, neither ewes nor lambs are given grain and cake until weaning.
Ewes which lamb during the latter part of March and early in April
are usually given some grain and cake for a few weeks, especially if
the grass is backward in growth.
After the lambs are weaned the ewes are usually put on short pas-
ture until the flow of milk has completely stopped, and in many
instances remain there until the next breeding season.
FEEDING THE LAMBS AFTER WEANING.
The majority of lambs are weaned during August and Septeml>er.
In some instances they are allowed to run together until the middle of
October, when the rams and ewes are divided. On other farms this
division is made at weaning time, (train is fed to all lambs regard-
less of sex for five or six weeks after weaning, so that they may have
a good start and not lose the flesh made while suckling.
The following methods prevail on the most successful farms:
A breeder of Border Leicesters weans his lambs in August. After
weaning the lambs all run together until the middle of October, have
a good grass lot. usually meadow aftermath, and receive about one-
half pound each per day of pats and linseed cake. When the ewes
and rams are separated the rams are put on cabbage or turnips and
are carried in this way all winter, but the grain is increased to 1
82 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
pound or U pounds each per day. When the weather is open no hay
is given, but in stormy weather or when snow is on the ground some
clover hay or mixed hay is fed each day. The ewe lambs are allowed
the run of a grass lot all fall and winter and have some turnips in
addition fed on the grass. In some instances they are folded on a tur-
nip patch for a few hours each day, but grain is never given. This
breeder aims to have his rams well forward as shearlings at sale time,
which is about the first of September. With the ewe lambs growth
and a robust constitution are the points sought for.
On one of the largest and most successful Shropshire farms located
in East Lothian, near Edinburgh, the manager weans his lambs dur-
ing the first week in August, when the ewes and rams are separated.
The ewes are put on second-crop clover until turnips are ready, when
they are fed turnips on grass and have some hay in addition until the
following spring. The ram lambs are better fed. They are grazed
on second-growth clover, are fed cabbages or turnips, and have in
addition from one-half to a pound of linseed cake and crushed oats
each per day. During cold and stormy weather they are fed some
clover hay.
PRODUCTION OF SHEEP ON THE HILLS AND MOUNTAINS.
In the south and southeast of Scotland the Cheviot is the popular
hill sheep, while in the western, central, and northern portions of the
country the hardy Black-faced Highland sheep is used. They fur-
nish the chief source from which the farmers in the arable districts
secure their feeding sheep.
The mountain and hill sheep are bred and grown for feeders, and
the allowance of feed is only sufficient to maintain the older animals
and furnish a rather scanty diet for growing ones. Therefore the
sheep require considerable time to reach maturity. In former years
they were practically all retained on the hills until 3^ years of age.
They are now generally sold between 2^- and 3 years of age. Many
of them are fed as lambs and are ready for the butcher before 9
months of age. and this system is growing in favor, but the great
majority are sent down into the arable districts as lambs to be win-
tered, and are returned to the hills with the opening of spring, to be
sold as feeders the following year. If it were not for this practice,
yearling wethers would be fed generally, but the majority of hill
sheepmen consider it too soon to send their sheep back in six months'
time, and therefore retain them until 2i years of age before mar-
keting.
In some instances the lambs sent to th arable farms in the fall are
not returned to the hills the following spring, but are either sold for
immediate feeding or are grazed during the succeeding winter and
summer to be sold later as yearling store wethers.
CATTLE, SHEKP, AND HOG FKKDIN(! IN El* HOPE. 83
(Jrass, shrubs, and heather furnish the feed throughout ihe various
seasons of the year. The ewes drop their lambs alxiut the latter part
of April or early in May. by which time the weather is usually favor-
able and there is sufficient grass to insure a good supply of milk.
Neither ewes nor lambs get any other feed than grass throughout the
summer and fall, and at weaning time the lambs are sent down to the
arable districts to be wintered, so that they are not compelled to
endure the hardships of a Highland winter. All other sheep, as a
rule, are gra/ed on the hills and mountains throughout the entire
year. The average period of usefulness of the ewes is about five
years. When ."> years old they are generally taken from the flock
and sent to the arable districts, where they an- fattened or. what is
a more common and profitable practice, bred to a first-class mutton
sire. In the latter case they rear one crop of lambs. Both ewes and
lambs are fattened for the early summer market. Young ewes not
needed for breeding purposes are sold in the fall to feeders or to Irish
hill farmers, who breed them to high-class mutton sires to produce
feeding sheep.
FATTENING FOK MAKKKT.
The feeding of sheep and lambs for market is the most important
branch of the Scotch sheep industry. The great bulk of the work is
done during the fall and winter. Many farmers feed at this time of
the year who do not keep any sheep on their farms throughout the
remainder of the year, especially where very intensive fanning pre-
vails. In such cases the sheep or lambs are folded on the turnip
h'elds. Where the land is not so valuable and rents are low. many
farmers keep a large portion of the land under grass and feed sheep
during spring and summer. There are a great many farmers who
breed practically all of their own feeders, but these men either havt
cheap grazing land or they raise early lambs, which are grain-fed
from the time they will eat until marketed, and others raise one crop
of lambs from cast-off hill ewes, as already mentioned.
I'KODt CIN<; I.AMBS FOK KAIM.V SIMMF.R MAKKF.T.
In certain parts of Scotland considerable attention is given to the
production of lambs for the early slimmer market. Those farmers
who are making a success of this have warm pens for the ewe> and
lambs, and give the ewes very lil>eral rations, and the lamb> are fed
grain and cake as soon as they will eat. The lamln are dropped (lur-
ing the latter part of January and February and are forced until
May or June, when they are marketed. The ewes are fed from U to
:2 pounds each per day of clover hay, from 1*2 to U' pounds of turnips,
and from 1 to If pounds of a mixture of wheat bran. eru>hed oats.
84 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
and linseed cake; the larger allowances are fed to those with twin
lambs. The lambs are fed in creeps and are given all they will eat
of oatmeal or rolled oats at first, and later on crushed oats, cracked
corn, and either linseed or cotton-seed cake. Lambs at four weeks
old will eat about an eighth of a pound each day, while at three
months they will take from two-thirds to 1 pound each. When fed
in this manner they make very rapid growth and are always well
fleshed.
FATTENING HILL AND MOUNTAIN EWES AND LAMBS.
When hill and mountain ewes are bought to be bred to a mutton
sire for one crop of lambs, they are bred to drop their lambs in March,
and during pregnancy are given the run of grass or stubble land, with
some turnips, so as to be in fair condition at lambing time. A few
weeks previous to lambing they are fed oats and linseed cake, or
brewers' grain and linseed cake. From lambing time they are fed
well until marketed, the lambs having the same ration as soon as they
are old enough to eat it. Grain and cake is given until grass is good,
but after that time cake alone is fed, the amount varying from one-
third to three-fourths of a pound per lamb per day, and from three-
fourths pound to 1^ pounds per ewe per day. The lambs are
marketed when from three to four months of age, and if ready the
ewes go at the same time, but generally they require about four weeks
more liberal feeding on cake to finish them.
FATTENING LAMBS FOtt MARKET.
Lambs for fall and winter feeding are usually purchased in the
month of September, or if home bred are weaned at this time. They
are first given the run of the stubble land for a few weeks and are
gradually taught to eat turnips, and later are folded on the turnip
land. In addition, they are fed cut hay and a liberal allowance of
grain and cake, largely cake. When the lambs are on common tur-
nips many successful feeders feed cotton cake and dried brewers'
grains, equal parts by weight, to the extent of from one-half to three-
fourths pounds per lamb per day. Should the roots be changed to
swede turnips the grain ration is changed to 2 parts linseed cake, 1
part cotton-seed cake, and 1 part dried brewers' grains. Swede tur-
nips are thought by sheepmen to be more difficult to digest than com-
mon turnips, and the addition of linseed cake is supposed to assist
digestion. The grain allowance is increased during the finishing
period, and may be changed to eliminate the brewers' grains, but
cake is practically always used as a part of the ration. Some farmers
do not put their lambs on the turnip land so soon, but first graze
them for two or three months.
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING IN EUROPE. 85
FATTENING MIIEKI' FOK MARKET.
The fall and winter methods of fattening sheep are very similar
to those descriU'd for lambs. They are usually folded on roots with a
grain-and-hay ration in addition. Roots are usually sliced for sheep
which are teething. The amount of Jiay and grain is not large, but
as much as :ir> pounds of roots per head are fed daily. Practically
all feeding is done in the open.
On lighter land, when a considerable amount is set aside for graz-
ing, sheep are fed during the spring and summer. Some farmers
fatten their sheep on grass alone, but the large majority feed some
concentrate in addition, cotton seed or linseed cake being generally
used. Some good feeders use a small amount of bran in connection
with it. while others feed equal parts cotton seed and linseed cake.
The amount varies from three-fourths to 1 } pounds per head per day.
SHEEP PRODUCTION IN IRELAND.
With an abundance of grass and a temperate climate, the condi-
tions of Ireland are very favorable to sheep raising. For years Irish
farmers have given most attention to the production of sheep for
feeding and the finishing of sheep on grass alone for market, but
recently the breeding of purebred sheep and the fattening of sheep
for mutton have increased, and this has resulted in the adoption of
improved methods of feeding.
FEEDIXO I'lREBREI) FLOCKS.
The methods of feeding purebred sheep resemble those of England
in some respects, but as a rule fewer forage crops are grown and a
much more liberal use is made of grass, and smaller amounts of grain,
hay. and succulent feeds are used. Throughout a great deal of the
countrv grass alone in its season is the principal feed for breeding
sheep.
THE PRODI CTION OF FEEDERS.
The production of feeding sheep is an important industry in
Ireland. The tenant farmers, especially in the western and southern
portions, grow some feeders each year, and although the numl>er
kept bv each individual is generally small the total production is
large. These sheep do not receive a great deal of can 1 , but when
the pastures are not too heavily stocked they do well. Winter feed-
ing is not resorted to except in the case of a prolonged period of
seven 1 weather, which seldom happens.
In the mountains and hilly district?- feeders are raised in a rather
systematic manner. Large numbers of lilaek-facvd Highland ewes
86 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
are annually purchased in Scotland and bred to high-class mutton
sires. The Scotch ewes drop their lambs about the latter part of
April or the first part of May, when the weather is warm and the
grass abundant. They run on pasture at all seasons of the year, and
are thus maintained very cheaply. The feeders are generally sold
when 1-i years old.
FATTENING SHEEP FOR MARKET.
In central Ireland the fattening of sheep for mutton is receiving
considerable attention. On good land nothing but grass is given,
but, where the soil is not so good and the yield of grass per acre less
some additional feed is usually supplied. The principles are prac-
tically the same as those of English feeders, smaller amounts usually
being fed. One very successful ration is equal parts of cotton -seed
cake, linseed cake, and cracked corn. The length of the feeding
period varies from sixty to one hundred and fifty days, depending
on the condition and age of the sheep and the condition of the
markets.
THE SHEEP INDUSTRY OF FRANCE.
The sheep industry of France is quite extensively developed. The
Merino, in some form, is bred for wool, and the British mutton
breeds and their crosses on Merino ewes are used for mutton. These
crossbred sheep generally show a strong inclination toward the
Merino type, and in the opinion of the leading French farmers this
quick reversion to the Merino type is due largely to the methods of
feeding. When introduced into France, bred pure, and maintained
in small flocks, with plenty of green feed and grain, the British
breeds have done equally as well as in England, but under more ad-
verse conditions they seem very 0011 to lose those characteristics
which have won for them so much praise in the mother country.
In some parts of the country sheep are given rather scanty rations
during the winter and are pastured during the milder seasons of the
year. Where there are no fences they are confined in shed^ and
yards during the growing season. Some farmers yard their sheep
at night and herd them during the day. The French farmers, as a
rule, do not grow many special crops for their sheep. Clover and
alfalfa hay and straw are fed during the winter, with grain or cake
and roots when available. The spring, summer, and fall rations
consist of grass, forage crops, cabbage, and roots.
During the breeding season the rams are allowed to run with the
ewes and subsist on the same rations, or they are confined in sheds,
where the ewes are brought to them for breeding. The latter method
prevails on the best sheep farms, especially those of the French
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING IN EUROPE. 87
Government, where Rambouillets are bred. When rams stand for
service they are fe<l clover or alfalfa hay. roots or cabbage.-, and a
liberal allowance of oats, bran, and linseed cake.
On a large number of farms, especially those where Merinos are
maintained, the ewes are bred during August or the early part of
September, during which time they are confined to tlieir sheds or
yards. No special feeding is done. Later in the season when they
are safe in lamb and the fields are cleared of their crops they are
given the run of the grass and stubble fields. Some farmers who are
breeding Southdowns follow the English methods more closely, and
provide roots and other succulent feed in large quantities.
As the lambing season approaches all ewes are fed more liberally.
Lambs are not fed while suckling, except on farms where the English
mutton breeds are raised.
Where grass is available it is the principal feed in fattening. Soil-
ing crops are also utilized, and in some instances grain and cake arc-
used during the summer; small grain rations are the rule. Consid-
erable winter feeding is done, the rations used being very simple.
Some feeders use a ration composed of 1 to ~2 pounds of clover hay
and 1 to \ : l pounds of a mixture of corn and wheat bran per head
daily. Other rations fed by good feeders are as follows: Alfalfa
hay, '1 pounds: corn, 1 pound, and linseed cake, one-half pound per
sheep per day: mixed hay. li pounds: oats, one-half pound: cotton-
seed cake, one-half pound, and wheat bran, one-half pound per sheep
per day. As a rule the amount of roughage given is about U pounds
per sheep per day, while the grain ration varies from 1 to '2 pounds.
PART III.-HOGS.
In practically all European countries considerable attention is
given to the production of hogs. As a rule, farmers are not engaged
in the industry as a specialty. The prevailing custom is for each
farmer to rear only enough pigs to utilize the waste of the farm, but
where dairy farming is followed as the chief occupation pigs are
reared and fed in considerable numbers as an auxiliary industry.
The two industries go hand in hand, and to all appearances neither
one can be so successfully conducted alone as the two combined,
especially in those countries which rank high in the production of
high-class bacon. The real secret of success in European feeding for
prime bacon is due to the large amounts of skim milk and buttermilk
fed with grain and meal.
HOG RAISING IN ENGLAND.
Pigs are fattened for market in many districts. Both the fat and
the bacon pig are produced, but most attention is given to the devel-
opment of the bacon type. In Wiltshire the finest bacon in the world
is produced, and very close discrimination on the part of packers in
grading the pigs and paying for them according to quality has caused
the farmers in these districts to use every possible precaution in
feeding. In the production of fat or lard pigs much less skill is
demanded of the feeder. Although the majority of farmers aim to
produce either one type or the other, on some farms both types are
produced. The fat pig is especially useful in utilizing damaged
and cheap feed when skim milk is not available.
FEEDING THE BROOD SOW.
On the best farms the sows are often 1*2 months old before being
bred. Two litters per year is the prevailing custom, and a good
breeder is never discarded so long as she continues to rear good
litters. The period of usefulness varies from three to eight years.
The sows get exercise during the summer, and feed from pasture or a
forage crop. Clover and alfalfa are both largely used, and many
farmers use vetches and oats or peas and oats. In the milder parts of
the country sows have exercise during winter on pasture, and in the
colder districts special exercising pens are provided under cover.
Raw or steamed mangels, beets, or turnips are fed in winter.
88
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING IN EUROPE. * 89
Previous to farrowing brood sows are fed moderately. Any fat-
tening or heating feed is eliminated entirely from the ration or fed
in very small quantities, and then in conjunction with cooling feeds,
such as skim milk and bran. Within a week or so of farrowing time
the principal part of the ration is decreased and the bran increased.
Sometimes from 4 to 8 ounces of Epsom salts, according to the size of
the animal, are given each sow alxmt two days Ixjfore farrowing.
During the Buckling period, which varies from five to seven weeks,
the sows are very liberally fed. Rations of equal parts bran, shorts,
and barley meal, scalded and fed with skim milk, or two parts bran,
two parts middlings, one part barley meal, and one part corn meal,
soaked or steamed and fed with or without skim milk, are in general
use. The sows are always fed three times per day and in some
instances four times per day. Skim milk and buttermilk are used
whenever they can be had.
The young pigs are encouraged to eat at an early age. When they
are three weeks old some milk and finely ground oatmeal or shorts
are supplied in low troughs where they may get at it.
FEEDING THE HOAR.
In feeding the boar the general idea is to keep him in fair flesh
and good health. Old boars are even kept in thin flesh. Kxer-
cise is given careful attention, both for the favorable influence
which it exerts on the general health and on the condition of
the feet and legs. During the summer the boar is on pasture, and
during the winter he has an open yard for exercise. The best breed-
ers are very strongly opposed to the use of any highly fattening feed.
Corn is seldom used and when fed is nearly always fed with bran,
oats, skim milk, and roots, and abundant exercise is given. When
fed in this manner, especially in cold weather, it is not deemed to be
injurious to the animal.
FEEDING YOl'NG PIGS FOH HKEEDING PI "R POSES.
The young pigs are inspected at an early age. and tho^e which
promise to make useful breeding animals are separated from the rest
and fed accordingly. The rations used are those that will develop
bone and huiscle. and skim milk or buttermilk is used by every
breeder who can secure it. especially during the first four month.-
of the pig's life. Linseed cake to the extent of about 10 per cent of
the ration is fed by many breeders. Feed is generally soaked for
several hours before feeding. Young pigs are usually fed three or
four times per day.
90 % BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
FEEDING PIGS FOR BACON.
Many things are demanded in a good side of bacon. The thick-
ness of fat on the back must not be too deep and must be uniform in
all parts; the fat must not be oily or yellow in color, but must be a
clear, bright white; the flesh must be firm, and the pigs should be
uniform in size to insure uniformity of curing. These results are
only obtained when uniformity, care, and good judgment are used
in compounding rations and feeding them. Considerable latitude is
permissible in the selection of feed, but the use of an undesirable one,
even when combined with others which in themselves are very desir-
able, may depreciate the quality of what would otherwise become a
very good carcass.
The writer is inclined to believe that pounds of gain in the bacon
pig can not be produced as economically as in the case of the fat or
lard hog. This is due to the fact that a much more limited range of
feed can be used with safety in feeding the bacon pig, and some of
the best feeds for the production of heavy gains, such as corn, must
be fed with great care. Practically all the best bacon producers lay
a great deal of stress on the use of dairy by-products. From the
standpoint of quality of the bacon produced no rations have proved
more satisfactory than barley meal and skim milk; shorts and skim
milk ; equal parts barley meal and shorts with skim milk : or equal
parts ground peas, ground barley, and shorts with skim milk. All
of these rations have produced good firm bacon, white in color and
free from oil or flabbiness. Some feeders use equal parts ground
barley and corn meal with skim milk or whey. This ration is said
to produce heavier and more economical gains, but the quality of the
product is inferior.
On some farms bacon pigs are grown as stores for four or five
months, during which time they are on grass or forage crops and are
fed grain rather lightly. They are then confined to the pens for
about three months and are fed liberally. A great many successful
farmers have their pigs ready for market at about (> months old,
which can be done to good advantage where skim milk is available.
FEEDING FAT OK LAUD HOGS.
The farmers in all parts of England feed a considerable number of
pigs to supply the demand for hogs for lard or sausage. They do not
require so much skill in feeding as bacon pigs. Most of these pigs
are marketed between the ages of 8 and 12 months, but there is always
a demand, especially at Christmas time, for a limited number of
heavy pigs. Amount of grain and economy of production are the
two points which receive consideration.
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND H(KJ FEEDING IN EUROPE. *.U
HOG FEEDING IN IRELAND.
The larger fanners in Ireland arc all more or less engaged in the
production of pigs, hut the industry particularly occupies the atten-
tion of the small tenant fanners. In some respects the conditions are
very favorahle for the successful production of swine, as dairy farm-
ing is so generally carried on that skim milk and buttermilk can l>e
obtained on almost every farm. Were it not for the fact that such a
large percentage of the country is in grass and that grain is not
grown in large quantities, pigs would l>e produced in much larger
numbers.
The hacon type is the only one raised, and the Irish fanners have
been very successful, as they produce some of the !>est bacon in the
world. With so many small fanners, each working independently,
it is a rather difficult matter to control the quality of the product, and
bacon curers find it difficult to secure uniform quality. However,
methods of feeding are improving as a result of the work being done
by the experts of the department of agriculture and technical instruc-
tion for Ireland. These experts are advising the use of feed which
can be profitably combined with those available on the farm. The
pigs are ready for market at from C> to S months of ag-, when they
weigh in the neighborhood of '200 pounds.
FEEDING UKEEDING HOGS.
On the best-managed farms breeding animals are very well fed and
cared for, but on many of the smaller farms the methods are very
crude. An impetus has been given to better breeding by means of
a plan whereby $25 premiums are awarded by the department of
agriculture to good boars owned by farmers who are willing to allow
the small tenant farmers the use of such animals at very low service
fees, fixed by the department.
The best breeders allow their sows a considerable amount of exer-
cise during the period of gestation to insure a strong healthy litter.
Two litters are usually raised each, year from each M>W. and liberal
rations are necessary. During the first half of gestation sows have-
past lire and a light ration of grain and cooked potatoes, after which
time feeding is more liberal and skim milk is added. At farrowing
and afterwards the management is similar to that of English breeder-,
with the exception of the potatoes.
Boars are given abundant exercise and kept in moderate tle>h.
Their management as well as that of young pigs is similar to tin-
English method.
FEEDING PIGS FOR BACON.
The experts from the Irish department of agriculture are advo-
cating the use of a ration composed of cooked potatoes, equal parts
92 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
shorts, ground barley, and corn meal to be fed with skim milk or
buttermilk. They also recommend the feeding of some crushed oats
during the last three or four weeks to whiten the fat and make the
flesh firm. As a rule the pigs are fed three times a day and receive
steamed feed during cold weather. Although some exercise is
allowed during early life, the prevailing custom is to restrict it dur-
ing the last two months.
HOG FEEDING IN DENMARK.
In no other European country has such a close study been made of
pig production as in Denmark, and in no other country in the world
has such uniformity of product been obtained. During the past
seventeen years the Danish pig breeders have devoted their entire
attention to the production of bacon. During that time they have
captured the British bacon market by their careful methods of
breeding and feeding and the quality of the bacon produced, and since
1888, the 'year when imports of Danish bacon were first reported by
the British Government, they have received a considerably higher
average price for their total output than any other country exporting
bacon to Great Britain whose trade is enumerated in the official re-
ports. All of their export bacon is sent to the British markets, and
the trade has increased in this time from less than $7.000.000 to more
than $18.000.000 annually.
These results are all the more striking when we bear in mind that
less than twenty years ago the Danes were sending practically all of
their hog products to Germany. Holland, Belgium, and France, coun-
tries which demand the fat type of pig. Although these markets
furnished a fairly remunerative outlet for a time, the business was
unprofitable, and Denmark decided to enter new markets, which
demanded and paid for special products. The British markets were
paying fancy prices for high-class bacon, especially that coming from
Ireland, and the Danes saw a new opening for them, but they realized
that in order to secure this trade it would be necessary to produce
bacon equal to or better in quality than that from Ireland. Always
willing to profit by the experiences of others, the Danish Government
sent special experts to Ireland to study the methods of breeding and
feeding the pigs from which this superior bacon was made. These
experts had instructions to remain abroad until the desired informa-
tion was obtained. They were successful, and since then the Danes
have not only adopted Irish methods, but have improved upon them
to such an extent that it is the Danish and not the Irish brand of
bacon that now commands the highest prices on the British markets,
notwithstanding the fact that Ireland has sent three special commis-
sions to Denmark during the past ten years to ascertain, if possible,
how it is accomplished. The chief advantage which the Danish
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING IN EUROPE. 93
bacon has over that coining from other countries is its uniform qual-
ity. While in Ix>ndon the writer visited the Smithfield market and
was shown there sides of bacon from various countries. Although
in some instances better sides could IK found in the bacon from other
countries, in no instance did the product from any other country
exhibit such a marked uniformity of quality and finish as that from
Denmark, and it was unmistakably evident that very uniform
methods are followed by the farmers of Denmark. The spirit of the
people has a favorable influence in this, as in other lines of work.
In Ireland there is a marked tendency for each farmer to work for his
own interests regardless of results, but in Denmark the cooperative
spirit prevails.
Another factor which is also responsible for the uniformity of the
product is that dairy farming prevails in all parts of the country,
and each farmer has a regular supply of skim milk and buttermilk
for his pigs: these products are. moreover, pasteurized Ix'fore leav-
ing the creamery.
The prevailing custom is to confine in small pens all pips intended
for slaughter. Some exercise is piven breeding stock, especially
brood sows, but even with them it is limited when compared with
that given in other countries.
FEEDING BREEDING HOGS.
Young pigs intended for breeding purposes receive somewhat
better rations than older ones, but as all pigs intended for bacon
must be carefully fed the breeding animals have to utilize kitchen
refuse and other forms of cheap feed. I'p to within six weeks of
farrowing the brood sows are maintained on kitchen refuse, with
some wheat bran, shorts, or crushed oats, a few roots in winter, and
the run of a small grass lot in summer. In fact, almost any combina-
tion of feed which is economical and will keep the sow in a healthy
condition is used. During the last six weeks of pregnancy the
regular ration is increased somewhat and some ground barley given.
This gets the sow in fairly good flesh by the time she has to suckle
the litter. For a few days previous to farrowing the bran is in-
creased and the other feed decreased. The ration is fed in the form
of a thin slop. The feed is the same for about three days after far-
rowing. Then the sow is fed very liberally on grain and dairy by-
products. The grain or meal is usually soaked for -evcral hours in
water and the milk is mixed in at feeding time. In cold weather
many farmers warm the feed. The majority of farmers feed three
times per day. The pigs are allowed to suckle from four to seven
weeks and are always taught to eat by the time they are three weeks
old.
94 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
Individual farmers, unless rearing pigs on a very extensive scale,
do not keep boars of their own. The boars are practically all owned
by pig-breeding societies, which keep them at their different stations,
where the farmers may have the use of them at reasonable fees. This
not only saves the expense of maintaining a boar, but it enables each
farmer to select those boars best suited to his individual sows, and the
litters are more uniform and of better type. These boars are well
fed, but not in such a manner as to interfere with their usefulness.
Xo feeds are used which have a tendency to produce obesity or a
heated condition of the system, and succulent feed is usually supplied.
Young pigs intended for breeding purposes are fed for bone and
muscle. Succulent feed is usually given in small quantities, and in
addition they receive a liberal allowance of skim milk or buttermilk
and grain.
FEEDING PIGS FOR BACON.
As a rule pigs are marketed at about G or 7 months of age, when
they weigh from 160 to '200 pounds, live weight. The Danish buyer
demands pigs which are uniform in size, with an even thickness of fat
on the back. Avhich should be about three-fourths to 1 inch in depth.
The fat should be clear white in color, the flesh firm in all parts, and
there should be a high percentage of lean in proportion to the fat.
Any method of feeding which is undesirable will cause discrimina-
tion on the part of the buyers, and. through the existence of the co-
operative bacon factories, which are owned by the farmers them-
selves, feeders are in very close touch with the work. They have an
excellent opportunity to follow their pigs through the slaughter-
houses and have the faults in the carcasses pointed out by experts.
In this manner farmers have learned many valuable lessons, so that
they are very well versed in the influence of different feeds and
rations on the quality of the carcass. The seller is entitled to a report
on each lot of pigs marketed, and if he has made any changes from
the rations previously used he can ascertain whether or not they are
desirable.
The following rations are used by successful feeders: Ground
barley, cooked potatoes, and skim milk : shorts and skim milk : 2
parts shorts, 2 parts ground barley. 1 part corn meal, and skim milk:
2 parts ground barley. 1 part wheat bran, 1 part ground rye. and skim
milk: 2 parts ground barley, 1 part ground oats. 1 part corn meal,
and skim milk. Corn meal is fed with care, especially during
warm weather: when fed in small quantities with barley, shorts,
oats, and bran, combined with a liberal allowance of skim milk,
there arc no bad results. Some good feeders use corn meal to the
extent of one-third or one-half of the grain ration during the first
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING IN EUROPE. 95
threw or four months and then omit it and finish with oats or similar
feed. Feeders are sometimes compelled to ust corn on account of
the low price of bacon. Ground rye to the extent of alxnit one-third
of the ration gives good results, but rye shorts are not satisfactory
and are only used in small quantities. The l>est feeds are ground
barley, crushed oats, and wheat shorts. Roots are fed during winter
and soiling crops during summer.
METHODS OF FEEDING IN AUSTRIA-HTJNGABY.
The greatest amount of hog raising in the Austrian Empire is in
southern Hungary, where the conditions are especially advantageous.
Dairy farming prevails in practically all the arable sections, and the
by-products are used extensively in pig feeding. Barley is the prin-
cipal grain fed; corn shorts, bran, and milling by-products are used
to some extent. Oats are seldom fed except to breeding animals.
Cooked potatoes are very generally used and are very highly recom-
mended, especially when fed with barley and skim milk, (irass and
forage crops are not used much for fattening.
Pigs intended for market are well fed from the time they are old
enough to eat, so that they will weigh 200 pounds at f> months or from
300 to 350 pounds at 10 months.
FEEDING BREEDING HOGS.
Mature animals are fed sparingly, but growing ones are given
liberal rations. Pasture crops, especially the legumes, are used very
extensively during their season. In summer very little feed other
than pasture is given to brood sows during the first half of the gesta-
tion period. During the winter they have beets or mangels, either
raw or cooked. After this time wheat bran, shorts, mill stuffs, and
oats are fed, the amount being small at first, but gradually increased.
The meal is decreased for a week or so before farrowing, anil is given
in a thin, warm slop. This feeding is continued for a few days
after farrowing. As soon as the sow has recovered she is fed liberally
on skim milk and grain: cooked potatoes and corn meal are fed.
The pigs begin to eat skim milk and shorts or sifted barley meal
when they are about three weeks old.
FEEDING PIGS FOR MARKET.
The Yorkshire has been extensively introduced and the bacon type
of pig is bred in large numbers, but the same care is not observed in
feeding as in Denmark. The people demand both bacon and sausage.
and pigs which do not answer one purpose may be utilized for the
5154 No. 7705 M 7
96 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
other. This simplifies feeding very materially. The market price
of a feed and its efficiency to make gain are given more consideration
than its influence on the quality of the carcass.
The following are representative rations: Ground barley 2 parts,
shorts 1 part, mill stuffs 1 part, and skim milk; ground barley and
corn meal, equal parts, and whey; corn meal, ground wheat, and
crushed oats, equal parts, skim milk, and cooked potatoes. Some
feeders steam or cook their feed at all seasons of the year. Those
who do not steam the feed invariably soak it for several hours in
water or w r hey. Skim milk is usually given after the principal part
of the grain is eaten.
THE HOG INDUSTRY OF GERMANY.
Like other live-stock interests, the hog industry of Germany is
somewhat limited and the home production does not meet the demand.
All farmers raise a few pigs each year for their own use, but only a
few make the business a specialty. When this is done, the methods
of feeding are as good as those in England.
Dairy by-products are very generally used and potatoes and roots
are fed in winter. Nearly all feeders soak meal before feeding and
a great many strain it.
FEEDING BREEDING HOGS.
During the first half of gestation dry sows on grass do not have
much pdditional feed; kitchen refuse may be all that is fed. After
this time the methods of feeding are practically the same as those
described for Austria-Hungary.
Breeding boars are fed green feed in summer and roots in winter,
with grain, and are not allowed to become excessively fat. Young
boars have skim milk as well and are never forced. They are usually
fed four times daily until 3 months old.
Breeding pigs usually have the run of a small grass lot.
FATTENING RATIONS.
Some farmers endeavor to have their pigs ready for market at (5
months old, when they weigh about 200 pounds each. Others grow
their pigs for about eight months and then fatten them for two and
a half to four months, marketing them at 300 to 400 pounds. Those
who finish at the younger age feed very liberally from the time the
pigs begin to eat, and dairy by-products are always used if available.
The rations generally contain ground barley and shorts during the
first few months, corn meal, ground rye, ground wheat, or cooked
CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HOG FEEDING IN EUROPE. 97
potatoes usually being added during the last month or six weeks.
In the latter case kitchen refuse and dairy by-producte are used l>efore
fattening l>egins, and very little grain is fed. When the fattening
period arrives they are fed very heavy rations.
The following rations are representative: Kqual parts ground
barley and corn meal, with cooked potatoes and a little skim milk at
the finish; equal parts ground barley, ground rye. and corn meal:
ground barley *J parts, ground wheat 1 part, ground rye 1 part. In
some instances cooked roots are given.
Those feeds which will produce the greatest gains at the lowest
cost are preferred, as it is the weight of the pig rather than the
quality of the flesh which determines its market value. Fattening
pigs are generally confined in small pens, especially during the fin-
ishing period.
HOG RAISING IN FRANCE.
Although most French farmers raise only enough hogs for family
use and few for sale, in certain districts the industry is quite impor-
tant. The conditions are very fa'vorable, as barley is grown in all
parts of the country and corn is produced in the warmer portions.
Dairy farming is also very general in the northern and central por-
tions and the by-products are available for feeding pigs.
FEEDING BREEDING HOGS.
Breeding animals are fed along similar lines to those of the l>est
English breeders. Grasses, legumes, and other forage crops are
especially utilized. Up to within a few weeks of farrowing time
brood sows receive little or no grain, being maintained almost entirely
on green crops, dairy by-products, and kitchen slops. During the last
six weeks of gestation they receive crushed oats and shorts, or ground
barley, fed as a slop. This is continued up to the last week, when the
grain is reduced and bran or shorts, mixed with water to form a thin
slop, is given. At this time many farmers give from 3 to (> ounces
of Epsom salts in the feed. After farrowing the light rations are
continued for about four days. Young pigs intended for breeding
purposes are fed on dairy by-products, succulent feed, and grain.
The development of bone in these animals is given much attention,
shorts or skim milk being fed with corn. Some breeders attain
the same results with alfalfa and clover, but skim milk is preferred
to overcome the objectionable feature of corn for young pigs.
\
98 BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY.
FATTENING RATIONS.
Some farmers grow their pigs slowly for several months, and then
fatten them quickly. This prevails among the small farmers, many
of whom use no grain except during the last two months, the pigs
being grown on dairy by-products and kitchen slops.
Those who make pig raising more of a specialty force them as
rapidly as possible from the start. No special effort is made to pro-
duce high-grade bacon, and the feeds used are those which will give
heavy gains. The most desirable market weight appears to be 300
pounds, and on many farms it is reached at the age of 8 to 10 months.
A representative forcing ration is one of 2 parts ground barley, 1
part wheat shorts, and skim milk or buttermilk until the pigs are 6
months old, after which corn meal and cooked potatoes take the place
of the shorts. The meal is usually steamed in winter and soaked in
summer. Potatoes are always cooked. Some feeders use gluten feed
with barley meal and skim milk when forcing young pigs. Arti-
chokes are used extensively for fattening and are grazed.
O
(Conelinlc.l f:
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I.'. Term.
rry, r ,H>iii In.', CUBtom-hoUBC (HCW),
Port
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Mex.
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M..rin, St. AllmiiN. Vt.
Die A war Packing Co.,
.!. Mnr|iliy. cure S|>riii^liclil Provision ( '< .,
Muss.
;l. care .lolm Cuduhy Co., \Vicliila,
r<l, HOIK. lulu. Hawaii.
TV, Fort Kairlicl.l, Mi-.
\V. Pope, Aniniiil Quarantine station,
'-. J.
Hr. II. I' rotter, Calais, Me.
Price, can- Hrittain k t Co., Marshall-
[owa.
l>r. K. A. Kam.suy, Kargo, N. Dak.
.iirdson, 707 Kinpin-
KlmXVillr, Ti'iiil.
Iir. A. K Rinhel, care dnlahy 1'iick.
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P, SrlialTl'T.
.Ui.l. Ohio.
Phila-
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Dr. Tni I !i- Kiiiti I
\\ntrrloo. Iowa.
\>r. T. A. Shipley. cari-T. M. Sinclair
II Kapids. Iowa.
Dr. N. ' can- Kin^an & Co., Imlian-
a|ilis. Ind.
Mr. \Viii. II. \Va<li-, Animal Quarantine Station,
Hal. 'thorp, M.I.
Dr. H. N. Waller, lU'J \\
New York. N. V.
Dr. (i. \V. Ward. NewjHirt, Vt,
l>r. Ji. i 1 . Wen.ie, Livestock Exchange Building,
Ka-t Buffalo. N. V.
Dr. W. II. Wray, W Streatliam Uill, London, S.
W., England.