LIBRARY THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SANTA BARBARA PRESENTED BY MR. & MRS. R. W. VAUGHAN ry *" ./f THE AMERICANA A Universal Reference Library Comprising the Arts and Sciences, Literature, History, Biography, Geography, Commerce, etc., of the world EDITOR-IN-CHIEF Frederick Converse Beach EDITOR SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MANAGING EDITOR George Edwin Rines. ASSISTED BV MORE THAN ONE THOUSAND EMINENT SCHOLARS \M> AUTHORITIES ed Under the Editorial Supervision of The Scientific American SIXTEEN VOLUMES Scientific American Compiling Department 258 & 260 Jf if tlj atocnuc i^rtt) *>orfc Copr&iont, 1903 Fhederuk Converse Bi u*n UNIV SANTA BARBARA i THE ENCYCLOPEDIA AMERICANA DEPARTMENT AND ADVISORY EDITORS ASTRONOMY SIMON NEWCOMB, Ph.D., LL.D., D.Sc Astronomer Washington D. C. PHILOSOPHY JAMES E. CREIGHTON, A.M., Ph.D. Professor of Philosophy, Cornell University Ithaca, N. Y. PHYSICS ROBERT S. WOODWARD, Ph.D., LL.D. President Carnegie Institution Washington, D. C. PURE MATHEMATICS CASSIUS J. KEYSER, M.A., Ph.D. Adrain Professor of Mathematics Columbia University, New York ARCHITECTURE AND THE FINE ARTS RUSSELL STURGIS, F.A.I. A. New York City ZOOLOGY DAVID STARR JORDAN, Ph.D., LL.D. President Leland Stanford Jr. University Palo Alto, Cal. LITERATURE EDWARD EVERETT HALE, S.T.D., Boston, Mass. CLASSICAL LITERATURE JAMES HAMPTON KIRKLAND, Ph.D., LL.D. Chancellor Vanderbilt University Nashville, Tenn. EDUCATION ANDREW SLOAN DRAPER, LL.D. Commissioner of Education, State of New York Albany, N. Y. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES (Vol. XV) Andrew c Mclaughlin, a.m. Editor " American Historical Review" Carnegie Institution, Washington, D. C. RELIGION AND THEOLOGY SYLVESTER BURNHAM, D.D. Dean of Hamilton Theological Seminary Colgate University, Hamilton, N. Y. CHEMISTRY ALLAN DOUGLAS RISTEEN, Ph.D. Hartford, Conn. MINERALOGY GEORGE LETCHWORTH ENGLISH Member Association for the Advancement of Science New York City ELECTRICITY WILLIAM MAVER, Jr., C.E. Consulting Electrical Engineer New York ENGINEERING AND MACHINERY WILLIAM MOREY, Jr., C.E. Consulting Civil and Mechanical Engineer New York RAILROADS EDWARD S. FARROW Consulting Railroad Engineer New York MEDICINE SMITH ELY JELLIFFE, M.D., Ph.D. Editor " Medical News " New York LAW HENRY M. EARLE Attorney at Law, New York ROMAN CATHOLIC TOPICS P. A. HALPIN Emeritus Professor of Metaphysics and Ethics CANADIAN EDITORS GEORGE McKINNON WRONG, A.M. Professor of History, University of Toronto Toronto CHARLES WILLIAM COLBY, A.M., Ph.D. Professor of History, McGill University Montreal A Few of the Loading Articles in Volume One WRITTEN AND SIGNED BY SPECIALISTS ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY A -, a ;Vpro f «^Y i-^ho.. ' "0, ''n Sfty irvMicTtrc Wallace Clement Sabine ALUCMIO ■ Ailifttn , p ro fesior of Physics, Harvard University ,,,,■,.. pnnrATiON Henry M. Leipziger A " 1 " ' " ' Al " N I Lectur. 1, New 1 Frank Presbrev ADVERTISING '" The' Frank Presbrey Company, New Yorl .,..,, GEORC1 I I 1' HWORTH El AUA 1 * Mineralogist, New York City , r-Tr-TTTTiTCAi inn vi 11 1\ Charles W. Dabnev AGRICULTURAL EDUI V1IUIN President of the University of Cinci i .... R. A PARKI AIK BKAM Expert for Westinghouse Com] y . .,..»,. .. .. John WlTHERSPOON DuBose ALABAMA Author of 'Life and Times of Yancey' VI VSKA RECENT DEVELOPMENT OF ;---^ m * M , R ; s l l, "" :1 " ^ lsv - lvl - Editorial Staff "New S .rk Daily News ,, .... , , .umj.-i'ct \i Walter I. Ballard ALASKA, COMMERCIAI Expert Statistician, Schenectady, N. Y. ...... N v William Boucher Jones Al ' ' Secretary Albany Chamber of Commerce ....... Cassius J. Keyser A •' |,KA 'Adrian Professor of Mathematics, Columbia University iiruivn Tiii'i'\iii\ Edward S. Farrow \| 1 M1N nn.K.uic Consulting Railroad and Mining Eng er. New York ..,...,.. Forrest Morgan nHfiKltA Connecticut Historical Society VMERICA DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION Charles Worthen Spencer 1 "■' Professor of History, Colgate University AMERICA, UNITED STATES OF Frederick W. Webber, M.A. VMERICAN DIPLOMACY J"" N W> FosT1 R Author of 'A Century of American Diplomacy' AMERICAN FARM IMPLEMENTS &• L. Al di 1 lh icago, ill. VMERICAN FEDERATION "1 1 ^BOR Samuel Gompers President American Federation of 1 abor AMERICANISMS ■•••• I'-. 1 '" ' ' '''I'" "". Author of Word and Phrase AMERICAN LABOR ••• ••••••■ Carroll D. Wwght formerly U. S. Commissioner ot Laboi AMI KI' VN LITERATURE • ■ • ...Edward Everett Hale Author of 1 he Man Without a Country VMERICAN MANUFACTURES Edward D Jones I nil '-rsily ot Mo AMERICAN MINKS Edward S. Farrow Consulting Railroad ami Mining Engineer, New \ ork AMERICAN NEWSPAPERS Charles II. Taylor r of the ' Boston Globe AMERICAN POLITICAL [SSUES Charles Francis Adams Historian and Diplomat AMERICAN PRINTING TRADE A. B. Nichols 1 he Herald Company of P-inEhamton AMERICAN PUBLISHING H. 11. McCluri Of McClure, Phillips & Co. New York AMERICAN RAILROADS Edward S. Farrow Consulting Railroad and Mining Engineer, New \ ork AMERICAN STREET RAILWAYS Edward S. Farrow Consulting Railroad Engineer, New York AMERICAN UNIVERSITY, THE Edward Dela van Perry Columbia University, New \ ork ANALYSIS SITUS Paul Wernicke Professor of Mathematics, State College of Kentucky ANATOMY Smith Ely Jelliffe, M.D. Editor 'Journal of Nervous Diseases' ANATOMY, COMPARATIVE Edwin Grant Conklin Professor of Zoology, University of Pennsylvania ANATOMY OF PLANTS Hermon Theodor Holm Expert Botanist, Washington, D. C. ANT.. A. S. Packard Late Professor of Zoology, Brown University ANTHROPOLOGY', AMERICAN W. J. McGf.e Smithsonian Institution APOLOGETICS George Wm. Knox, D.D. Professor of Philosophy and History of Religion, Union Theological Seminary APPALACHIAN AMERICA W. G. Frost President Berea College APPENDICITIS John B. Deaver, M.D. Specialist, Philadelphia, Pa. AQUINAS, SAINT THOMAS, PHILOSOPHY OF William Turner, S.T.D. Saint Paul Seminary, Saint Paul, Minn. ARCHAEOLOGY, AMERICAN Charles Conrad Abbott, M.D. Archaeologist ARCHITECTURE AND AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE . .Rissell STURGIS, F.A.I. A. Author of ' Dictionary of Architectur' ' ARCHITECTURE, EDUCATION IN Henry R. Marshall Fellow American Institute of Architects, New York ARISTOTLE James E. Creighton Professor of Philosophy, Cornell University ARISTOTELIANISM William A. Hammond Professor of Ancient and Mediaeval Philosophy, Cornell University ARITHMETIC David Eugene Smith Professor of Mathematics, Teachers' College, Columbia University ARIZONA F. W. Hodge Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. ARKANSAS U. M Ex-President American Bar Association ARMAMENT OF THE WORLD Capt. Edward S. Farrow Late Assistant Instructor of Tactics at the United States Military Academy ARMY AND NAVY Alfred T. Mahan Author of 'Influence of Sea Power' etc. ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES, THE H. C. G Major-General and Adjutant-General, U. S. A. ARMY AND NAVY MANEUVERS Col. W. A. Simpson Asst. Adjt.-Gen. U. S. Army ARMY TRANSPORT SERYICE William H. Carter Brigadier-General General Staff ART ... Charles H. Miller. N.A. Municipal Art Society, New York ARTHROPODA V S. Packard Late Professor of Zoology, Brown University ASSEMBLAGES Cassius J. Keyser Adrian Professor of Mathematics, Columbia University ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS . tSAAi M. Bentley Assistant Professor of Psychology, Cornell University ASSYRIOLOGY Ira M. Price Pi fessor of Semetic Language and Literature, University of Chicago ASTRO-PHOTOGRAPHY F. S. Either Of Trinity College ASTRONOMY; ASTRONOMY. HISTORY OF ; ASTRONOMY, PRACTICAL ; ASTRONOMY, THEORETICAL Simon NewCOMB Astronomer and Scientist ASTROPHYSICS S. A. Mitchell Department of Astronomy, Columbia L'niversity KEY TO PRONUNCIATION. a far, father a fate, hate a or a at, fat a air, care a ado, sofa a all, fall ch choose, church e eel, we e or e bed, end e her, over : also as in neuf; and oeu, as in boeuf, coeur; Ger. o (or oe), as in Skonomie. e befall, elope e agent, trident S off, trough g gas, get gw anguish, guava h hat. hot h or h Ger. ch, as in nicht, wacht hw what i file, ice i or I him. it ng nk Span, n, as in caiion (ciin'yon), fiilon (pC-n mingle, singing bank, ink o no, open o or 6 not, on 6 corn, nor 6 atom, symbol p book, look oi oil, soil; also Ger. eu, as in bcutcl 6 or oo fool, rule on ..row allow, bowsprit s satisfy, sauce sh show, sure th thick, thin fll father, thither u mute, use u or u but, us u pull, put 1 between e and i. mostly in Oriental final syllables, as, Ferid-ud-din ii between u and e, as in Fr. sur. Ger. MiilL-r of, very (consonantal) yes, young j gem, genius kw quaint, quite h Fr. nasal m or n, as in embonpoint, Jean, temps z zh pleasant, rose azure, pleasure ' (prime). " (secondary) accents, to indicate syllabic stress INTRODUCTORY. THE publication of a great reference work like the Encyclopedia Americana is an undertaking of such supreme importance and responsibility that the reasons and purposes which have inspired the publishers and editors to under- take its production, at such great expense and involving so many years of preparation, should be briefly summarized. First. — After surveying the encyclopedic field very carefully the publishers of the Americana were convinced that no work had as yet appeared which gave to America — her history, literature, biography, geography, industries and commerce — that thor- ough and careful treatment which the rapidly advancing life and importance of the nation made imperative. They also believed that the time was auspicious for the produc- tion by Americans, who alone could appreciate and faithfully represent the life, thought, and need of their own country, of a National Work — so broad, comprehensive and genu- inelv great that it would everywhere be recognized as the product of native genius, and be acknowledged worthy of the great people for whom it was prepared. This was the Ideal, and upon this foundation the whole superstructure has been built, the result being the natural and harmonious development of the entire sixteen volumes, because for the first time a sustained and systematic attempt has been made to make a distinctively American encyclopedia. It naturally follows, therefore, that the Americana differs from all other similar productions, and it is this difference which makes it superior as a reference work of information for the American people. Second. — The Americana is designed to give complete and practical information. Its scope is universal — there is absolutely no subject that should be included in such a work that does not find its place somewhere in the Americana, but the practical utility of the work has constantly been kept in view, with the result that the relative impor- tance of subjects, both foreign and American, has been most carefully gauged by the editors, rendering the Americana of the greatest practical service. All modern ency- clopedias have followed, to a greater or less degree, the path marked out by earlier works, omitting much of present-day interest, and continuing second-rate topics of little or no importance. The Americana has not hesitated to make a new departure and eliminate this dead-wood, and in its place the reader will find hundreds of important top- ics treated that are not even mentioned in other works, besides a great amount of what might be called miscellaneous information, including biographical and geographical names, actual and legendary characters in fiction, notable buildings, works of art, books, plays, operas, etc. It will be seen therefore, that the Americana contains more subjects of living practical interest to Americans than any other encyclopedia in existence. The maps and illustrations have been prepared especially for the Americana at a large ex- penditure, and they will be found so numerous, correct, interesting and helpful as to lend great charm and value to the work. Third. — The Americana is designed to be the standard authority in this country upon all subjects covered in its pages. Xo existing source of information has been relied v. 1\ I KoIHi I'oKV. apon. Important articles arc written by America's leading scholars and authori- ties, ami are signed by their respective authors, so that the reader knows at once the source of his information. Every department has had the active editorial supervision of men eminent in their professions in this country, and it is largely to the untiring devo- tion and the intelligent work and advice of the associate editors on the staff that the Americana owes its majestic originality of conception and treatment, and the marvel- ous success which has attended every stage of its production. In this connection the acknowledgment of publishers and editors is due to the more than one thousand contrib- utors to the AMERICANA for the generous and patriotic manner in which they have re- sponded, giving their time and invaluable service in order that America might have a thoroughly representative encyclopedia. The Americana represents, to a far greater extent than any other reference work, the authority of American scholarship and suc- cessful practical experience, and must prove indispensable for the daily use of the scholar, the statesman, the student, the professional or business man, and especially to the home circle. Fourth. — The articles of the Americana are written in a style to commend it to the judgment of all. Clear, concise, comprehensive and attractive, the seeker for infor- mation will find the pages of the AMERICANA a perfect delight, so different from the heavy, dull encyclopedic style, while the ease and convenience with which it may be consulted, the fulness of its cross-references, and the richness and recency of its informa- tion render it the most useful, valuable, and popular work yet offered to the American public. While not ignoring the lessons to be learned from the great works of the past and present, the Encyclopedia Americana has independently made its own way along new lines, profiting both by the excellencies and defects of its predecessors and contempo- raries, and it stands to-day the Twentieth Century's monument to American genius, scholarship, and energy. Believing therefore that the Encyclopedia Americana represents in its plan and purpose, its arrangement and treatment, its scholarship and authority, an advance upon all former reference works, it is respectfully dedicated by its editors to the American people, whose life and progress it so fully and faithfully portrays. THE ENCYCLOPEDIA AMERICANA A the first letter of every alphabet ex- cept the old German or Runic and the Ethiopian : the " futhark » of the former places it fourth, the latter makes it thirteenth. As all alphabets ultimately come through the Phoeni- cian (witness the name itself), this arrangement is natural. Our own is inherited from the Latin, which was derived from the Greek ; and the latter in its alpha confirms its traditional derivation from the Phoenician where and in Hebrew it is called alcfli, Ara- maic alph. The name is said to have meant " ox," and so strongly resembles the root-ele- ment of eleph-ant that there is little doubt the original meaning of both was the same. Hence formerly the shape of the lower-case a was de- rived by some from the rough outline of an ox- head with its horns ; but in fact, as evidenced by a comparison of the gradual evolution of forms, the small letters in all cases are derived from the capitals, and the Greek capital A (see table under Alphabet) in its original shape was a somewhat more cursive form of the Phoeni- cian aleph, which itself was a conventionalized form of the Egyptian hieratic, and that in turn (the final step backward) was conventionalized from the picture of an ibis in the ancient Egyp- tian hieroglyphics or ideographs. The sound of the letter has varied little more than the form — perhaps less- — except in mod- ern English, which owing to its composite cha- racter has made it a symbol of so many different vowel-sounds as to be well-nigh meaningless. Yet even here most of them have never quite lost connection with the earlier vocal efforts it stood for, and their fluctuations are fixed by the character of the vocal opening. The Phoe- nician sound represented by the letter aleph cannot have corresponded to the Greek alpha or any of its derivatives, as the former alpha- bet assumed that all syllables began with con- sonants, and aleph was in some sort con- sonantal ; but the Greeks made it a pure vowel, the so-called (< Continental * or broad a as in <( ah." This is the simplest and most funda- mental of all vowel-sounds, the earliest uttered by infants, — whence many grotesque theories Vol. 1.— 1. of its divine origin and the reasons for its position, — since it results from opening the throat and mouth wide and emitting the tone from the larynx, with the least friction or interference possible from the other organs ; and it is still the most general on the Con- tinent of Europe. But even there it has been largely flattened by the French into the short sound as in a at * ; at the end of words in all languages the dropping of the voice tends to slur it toward the sound of u in * but." which in English it quite attains ; and with us it has become the representative of nine distinct sounds, seven of them each recognizably de- veloped from one of the others, and all from the parent sound, while two are of a different order, yet still explicable. The usual arrange- ment (" fate, fat, far, fall," etc.) is entirely mis- leading, as it obliterates this evolution, which the following makes clear : (i) ah, explained above. (2) all, a closer sound than (1), formed by drawing back the tongue, compressing the sides of the throat, and speaking more toward the diaphragm. In general utterance this is perhaps the first change from ah. It is almost uni- versal among the Hindu and Persian masses ("ghaut" for ghat, etc.), and was very com- mon in England and America in the 18th cen- tury : witness pronunciations like " spaw * for " spa * : the curious aberrant <( vawz " for vahz, which has more curiously become ac- cepted as a sort of social touchstone in a small group ; family names like Raleigh, Decatur. Taney, etc., in American pronunciation. (3) was. what. The same pronounced still deeper in the diaphragm, and cut short instead of prolonged. (4) oval. This is the "neutral" sound, cor- responding to " short u " : used in Western lan- guages only in unaccented syllables, and made by lazily opening the organs as little as possible and putting no stress on the expiration of the breath. It is the closest of the vowel-sounds, and the most diaphragmal. and therefore seem- ingly the antithesis of "broad a"; it has in truth no special relation to that more than to e and o ( " silent," " apron B ), but is the common A — AAHMES weakened form of all. In Hindu speech it is . in the familiar "Juggernaut" i ck< rgunge • I Bakarganj ). etc (5) bore. An opener ?>oiiiid than (1). formed in precisely the same manner as (2) except by expanding insti trading the throat. I 1. 1 (it. Identical with (5) except being cut short instead of prolonged; in fact, it sound. 1 ,- 1 n-k. Always a different sound from the others, but not always the same in itself. With the less cultival ers it is nearly iden tical with (5). even with ('■). With others, anxious in av.nl 1 h i ^ flatness and exaggerating in the opposite direction, it is made identical Willi I 1 ). Willi the majority of good Sp it is akin to (1), hut shorter and more dia- phragmal, and with the organs rather closer her. 1 8 1 any, many. This is not one of the group of a-sounds, hut is « short e. » The change was 1 by assimilation of the a-sound to the 1- sound of the closing letter. to 1 die. This, in usual order the first given. considered the typical English a-sound, and actually furnishing the pronunciation of that letter in its alphabetic position, is not merely not an a-sound at all. hut not even a simple 1. being nearly el, sliding quickly from a closer and more .liapliragm.il '• -1 to a vanishing sound of short 1." As in (8), use appears to have been originally as- similation with a final vowel (the sonant t now SO often silent hut " lengthening the 11 before it), and afterwards extended to words where this principle could not act. A, in general, the first term of any -cries. In music, the tir-t note of the scale of \. major minor; and A minor is the relative (or I) minor ol ging to) C majoi . the Continental hi. The open second string ol the violin sounds it. and the instruments of an or- chestra are all tuned to it. In logic, the universal affirmative ("all trade is barter"), distinguished from the particular affirmative trade is barter"). See Logic. In algebra, the first letters of the alphabet, a, b, c. etc.. are used to denote known quanti- ties., while the last, down to z, denote the un- known. — a and .v being u-.-.l tir-t in all cases, the others being added according to need. In geometry and mechanical diagrams, the capitals A. B. C. etc., are used to mark off points, lines, angles, and figures; in compli- cated often supplemented by the small letters and accented, to indicate closer relations of part-. n abbreviation see Abbreviations. As an adjective or attributive, shaped like the letter A ; as, an A tent. A, word. ( 1 ) The form of « an » used before consonants. (2) Broken-down form of "on," or ellipsis of "for a» ("twice a day"). (3) Old form of « ah,» as a war-cry ("A Doug- las!"). Ai, a-one' ("colloquially, «first-class"), the mark for highest-grade wooden vessels in Lloyd's (q.v.) (Register of Shipping.' A re- fers to hull. 1 to rigging and equipment. This rank is assigned by Lloyd's surveyors to new ships for a term of years (prefixed to the sym- bol, as 10A1) dependent on quality of mate- rials and mode of building; but to retain it they must be periodically resurveyed, and if fit are. granted continuation foi one to eight years, marked 10A1 (out. 5A1, etc. A in red means over-age, hut -till fit for any voyages which p.n habl. in endure; A in black, fit for short trip- with similar goods. In all cases the 1 i- omitted 11 rigging, etc., are inferior. Iron tun! 1 t lot hie A preceded by numeral- from 100 down, 100A to 00A re- surveyed once in four years. N.iA and below e in three; rigging, etc., marked same as on wooden ship-. In the German Lloyd's Ai and A are the two best grades ..1 wooden ships; Bi, B, CL, and CK, li iwer ones; iron and steel ships are marked a- in the English classification, but with the resurvey term marked under the A- Aa, a ("water": a general Indo-European word in various shapes. — Ger. ac/i or aach in Aachen, Biberach, etc. ; Lat, aqua, pi. aqua, whence O.F. Aigues, Mod F. Ai.x. in com- pound-; etc.), the name of some forty streams in northern and central Europe: among the f. a French river rising in dept. Pas-de- Calai-. [lowing into dept. Nord, and reaching the Strait of Dover at Gravelines; about 50 m. long, navigable below St. Omer. and connected with Calais and Dunkirk by canal-. Aachen, a'nen. See Aix-la-Chapelle. Aahmes I., a'mess, the founder of the 18th dynasty in Egypt, c. 1600 11.1.. and its final liberator from the Hyksos or Shepherd Kings, Asiatic nomads who had conquered the land a century or two before. Native kings had already recovered it in part; but Aahmes captured the last Hyksos fortress, Hatwaret (Awaris), ex- pelled them from Egypt, and followed them into southern Palestine, besieged their army five years in "Sharuhen" and captured it. He then penetrated farther into Palestine, levying tribute on it and on the seaboard. This began a long series of Egyptian retaliatory expeditions into West Asia and a long dominance over it. He had an admiral of the same name, whose self- laudatory inscription on his tomb is a most valuable mine of knowledge on the military and naval operations of the time. Aahmes-Nefer- t.\ki was his queen: her mummy-case, one of the most magnificent ever discovered, is in the museum at Gizch. Aahmes II., the Amasis of Herodotus, fifth Pharaoh of the 26th dynasty, c. 570-526 b.c. An officer of Apries headed a revolt against him, and overthrew and killed him. Though he seems to have risen from the ranks, and to have loved roystering and disliked royal etiquette, he made a capable and judicious sov- ereign; saved Egypt from conqtn 1 by Nebu- chadrezzar (who ravaged it. but retreated), and managed to preserve it from invasion by Cyrus the Great. He was on very friendly term- with the Greeks: lending his influence to promote their commerce and colonization; assigning them the excellent port of Naucratis, which soon grew into a flourishing city; con- tributing liberally toward the rebuilding of the burned temple at Delphi; and according to Greek story having cordial relations with several phi- losophers and princes — Pythagoras, Polycrates, Under the reign of Aah Egypt enjoyed much prosperity. AALBORG — AARGAU Aalborg, al'bork ("eel-town"), Denmark, the chief city of X. Jutland; on the S. side of the Limfjord (a sea-arm which joins the Cattegat to the North Sea), and on the Danish State Ry., which crosses the fjord by an iron bridge 1,250 feet long, one of the finest pieces of engineering in the kingdom. An important commercial town as far back as the nth cen- tury ( Wallenstein sacked it in 1627, the Swedes in 1644 and 1657), despite a shallow harbor it still has much trade, by means of small vessels, with Scandinavia and England; while its manu- factures — distilleries, leather, lumber, soap, cement, cotton goods, etc. — are now building it up with great rapidity. A bishop's seat, it has a cathedral; also two old churches and an old castle, a museum, and a library of 30.000 vol- umes. Pop. (1890) 19.503; (1901) 3M6-2- Aalesund. See Alesund. Aali Pasha, Mehemed Emin, a-le' pii-sha', me-hem-ed' a-min', a Turkish statesman : b. Constantinople 1815; d. 6 Sept. 1871. Entering public life at 15, he was charge d'affaires at London 1838. ambassador to Great Britain 1841-4 ; chancellor of the divan 1845 ; thrice min- ister of foreign affairs in the troublous years 1846-52 ; grand vizier a short time in 1852, but soon displaced as not in political accord with his companions. Recalled as foreign minister dur- ing the Crimean war of 1854, in March 1855 he took part in the treaty of the "four guaran- tees" ; in July again became grand vizier, and at the Treaty of Paris in 1856 showed great decision and cleverness in looking after Turkish interests, but without entire success. November 1 his political tone forced him to resign, but he remained minister without portfolio, and mem- ber of the Great Council. After Reshid Pasha's death in 1858 he was again grand vizier, and soon again withdrawn; but in November 1861 he resumed the office of foreign minister. He was president of the convention on Rumanian affairs 1864, and member of the Black Sea Conference in London 1871. During the Sul- tan's absence at the Paris Exposition in 1867 he was regent ; and while the very soul of the reform movement energetically suppressed the Cretan rebellion and the movement for Egyptian independence. In the full tide of activity he suddenly died, — an excellent man and states- man who wasted his life trying to vitalize and purify a body of death. Aar, ar, Alex, pseudonym of Anselm Rumpelt, German poet : b. Chemnitz, Saxony, 10 Feb. 1853. His best work was in historical lyrics, collected as 'Will-o'-the-VYisps' (1878). Aar or Aare, ar ("river"), the name of sev- eral German streams : chiefly, a Swiss river tributary to the Rhine, about 175 m. long, the largest in Switzerland save that and the Rhone. Formed by torrents from the vast and famous Oberaar and Unteraar glaciers of the Bernese Alps in E. Bern, it flows N.W. through the romantic valley of Hasli, over the celebrated Handeck Falls, 200 feet high, expands into Lake Brienz, and then past Interlaken into Lake Thun, becomes navigable, passes Bern, turns X and then N.E. along the southern slopes of the Jura past Solothurn and Aarau, and. joining the Limmat, shortly after breaks through the ridge and empties into the Rhine at Waldshut. Chief affluents, the Saane, Zihl, and Emme, the Reuss feeding it from the lake of Lucerne and Zuger See, the Limmat from the lake of Zurich, and the Liitschine from the two splendid Griu- delwald glaciers. Aarau, ar'ow ("Aar-meadow"), Switzer- land, capital of Aargau ; right bank of the Aar, 41 m. N.E. of Bern, 1,100 ft. above sea-level, in a fertile plain just south of the Jura, whose peaks close by are the Wasserfluh (2,850 ft.) and Giselahfluh (2,540 ft.). It has famous man- ufactures of cannon, bells, and fine scientific instruments, besides cutlery, leather, silk, and cotton ; and holds eight fai-rs yearly. There are also historic, scientific, and ethnographic museums, a cantonal library of 89,000 volumes rich in Swiss history, and a bronze statue of the historian and novelist Heinrich Zschokke (q.v.), who lived here. Here, December 1797, the old Swiss confederacy held its last session ; April to September 1798 it was the capital of the Helvetic Republic. Pop. (1901) 7,824. Aardvark, ard'vark (Dutch, "earth-pig"), the Cape ant-eater {Oryctcropus capensis). Also called ground-hog and ant-bear. A South African mammal measuring about five feet from end of tubular snout to tip of long naked tail. It lives in shallow bur- rows and is of timid, nocturnal habit ; it feeds on ants and other insects, licking them up with a long tongue which secretes a sticky saliva. The head is slightly pig-like, with erect ears ; the stout body is sparsely covered with short stiff hairs ; the limbs are short, with strong claws for digging: the flesh is edible and con- sidered delicate, though of peculiar flavor. See Ant-eater. Aardwolf (Dutch, "earth-wolf"), a timid, nocturnal South African carnivore (Pro- teles lalandii), the only representative of the family Protclidiv. It resembles the hyena, to which it is closely related, but has less strength of jaw and teeth. Its fur is coarse ; color, ashy- gray irregularly striped with black ; muzzle, black and nearly naked ; ears, brown outside, gray within. It inhabits burrows, and being unable to kill vertebrates lives upon insects, larvse, and small carrion. Aarestnip, Emil, a're-stroop, Danish poet (1800-56). He was not duly appreciated until after his death, but is now acknowledged one of the foremost lyric poets of Denmark, ranking next to Christian Winther. His 'Collected Poems,' with critical sketch by G. Brandes, was published at Copenhagen in 1877. Aargau, ar'gow ("Aar-shire" : Fr. Ar- govie, ar-go-ve), Switzerland, an extreme X. canton between Basel W., Zurich E.. Luzern S., and the Rhine and Baden X. Area. 543 sq. m. ; capital. Aarau. It consists mainly of spurs of the Alps and Jura, nowhere over 3,000 ft. above sea-level, with numerous fertile valleys watered by the Aar and its S.E. tributaries, the Limmat (or Linth) and Reu: Var) being chief. The climate is moist and variable, and stock-farming and agriculture are advanced : fruit, vegetables, and vines abound, but the wines are inferior. Timber is plentiful. Man- ufactures : cottons, silks, ribbons, linens, hosiery, straw-plait, etc., and important machine works. The boat traffic on the Aar and Rhine, and the active land and water transit trade, employ AARHUUS — AB many. It has several picturesque ruined castles. Aargau, part of old Helvetia, then conquered by the Franks (5th century), a llapsburg fief 1173-1415, then captured bj the cantonal and divided between Bern and Luzern, was split up and a pan made a member of the Helvetic Republic 1798. Its constitution t fixed by the Congress of Vienna in 1815; in 18,11 it gained a democratic one, and lias ever since been a champion of liberalism. In 1841 it suppressed its eight monasteries, and this led to the forma- tion of the Sonderbund (q.v.), or Secession League, of Catholic cantons in 1847. Legisla- tive power is vested in the Great Council, one for every I. too people, which ha-- to submit laws and dei i referendum; executive power in the Small Council of - isen by and from the Great one. Pop. (1900) 206,460, nearly all German. Aarhuus, ar'-hoos, Denmark. (1) District, the E. central part of Jutland, divided into Aarhuus and Randers amfs (or bailiwicks) ; area, 1,821 sq. m. ; pop. about 325.000, mainly employed 111 fishing industries. (2) City, the second largest of Denmark, capital of Aarhuus amt, on a hay of the Catteg tl and the Danish State Ry. ; lias a harl in 1883-90. with a breakwater and six feet of water, regular steamer lines to Copenhagen and England, and a large trade in grain, cattle, etc.; and much shipbuilding, iron-founding, cotton-spinning, and other manufactures, which are giving it rapid growth. It is a bishop's scat, and has been such since 048, making it one of the oldest cities in Denmark; and its cathedral, begun in 1201, is one of the largest and finest church buildings in the kingdom. It has a museum also. Pop. (1890) 33.306; (loot) 51,909. Aaron, a prominent hut subordinate figure of the Exodus period in Jewish history, whose importance increases with the distance of the recorder from the early epochs, and with the remodeling of the early histories by the priest- hood to support their later pretensions and their theocratic ideal of Judaism. In the earlu -t or Elohistio (q.v.) portions of the Ilexateuch, he is brother of Miriam (Ex. xv. 20); but it is Joshua who is Moses' minister for religious rites ami who keeps guard over the tent of meeting (Ex. xxiii. 11), the young men of Israel offer sacrifice, and Moses alone is the high-priest. Aaron, however, seems to be regarded as ances- tor of one set of pi ■ ■_ at the Hill of Phinehas, and perha: at Bethel. In a later porti' n it is he who yields 10 the demand for an idol, and fashions the golden calf — an evident genealogy of Baal-worship, accredited to the ancestor of rival priests. In the Yah- yistic portions hi 5' older brother, but is brought upon the stage only to he ignored: Pharaoh sends for him and Moses to take away the plagues (Ex. vii.t. but he has no independ- ent power and is merely Moses' agent in per- forming miracles, bringing on plagues, etc. The supererogatory nature of his functions makes it probable that bis role is introduced by the priestly redactor, under whose hands he becomes a mighty leader little inferior to Moses: he sometimes receives laws directly from Yahwe ( \"um. xviii.) : he with Moses numbers the peo- ple; the Israelites rebel against him as well as Moses, though, when he criticises Moses, curi- ously Ins inciter Miriam is punished, not him- self (Num. xii. ) ; he and Moses jointly disobey Yahwe's command at Meribah; and he is pun- ished by having his life 1 ire entering Canaan. This magnifying connects itself clearly with the post-exilic books, where he is the ancestor of all legitimate priests, consecrated high-priest by Moses, and alone permitted to enter the Holy of Holies yearly: he represents the tribe of Levi, and even within it his descend- ants alone arc rightful priests, and interlopers (see Kokah) are stricken dead by Yahwe. The pre-exilic prophets know nothing of this claim: Ezekiel traces the origin of the Jerusa- lem priesthood only to Zadok (q.v.). He be- longs to the tribe of Joseph and its struggle to secure admission to the Jerusalem priest- hood. Aaron, Hill of, a lofty mountain range of Arabia l'etr.ea. in the district of Sherah or Seir, 15 miles S.W. of Shobeck. On its highest pin- nacle — called by the Arabs Nebi Haroun — is a small building supposed by the natives to in- close the tomb of Aaron; and it may be the Mount Hor of Num. xxxiii. Aaron ben Asher, Jewish scholar: lived in Tiberias early in the 10th century, lie com- pleted one of the two existing recensions of the vowels and accents of the Hebrew Bible. His rival Ben Xaftali also completed a similar work, but the readings of the former are usually pre- ferred. Aarsens, Frans Van, ar'sens, Dutch diplo- mat: b. The Hague, 1572; d. 1641. From 26 on he represented the States-General at the court of France for many years, first as agent and then as ambassador; and Richelieu ranked him one of the three greatest politicians of his time. He also held embassies to Venice, Germany, and England. The judicial murder of John of Barneveld by Maurice of Orange in 1619 was greatly helped on by Aarsens. who has gained a tardy popular opprobrium for it through Mot- ley's life of John. Aasen, Ivar Andreas, a'sen, e'var an'dra as, Norwegian philologist and poet: b. Orsten, 5 Aug. 1813. At first a botanist, he turned philologist and student of native dialects from patriotic enthusiasm : his great aim was to con- struct from their older elements a new national language ("Landsmaal"), as a substitute for Danish, in pursuance of which end he published several valuable philological works and set going the nationalistic movement called "maalstrccv." As a poet he produced 'Symra,' a collection of lyrics, and 'Ervingen,' a drama. Aasvar, as'-var, Norwegian islands near the Arctic Circle, where the great Nordland herring are caught in December and January to the extent of sometimes 200,000 tons, and 10,000 men are employed, who live elsewhere the rest of the year. Aasvogel, as'fo-gel ("carrion-bird"), the South African vulture, of several different species. Ab, the nth month of the Hebrews' civil year and the 5th of their ecclesiastical (which begins with Xisan), has 30 days, and answers to the July moon, or part of our July and Au- gust. The 9th day was a great fast in memory ABA — ABADIR of the destruction of the first temple by Nebu- chadrezzar, 586 B.C., and the second by Titus, 70 A.D. Aba or Abu Hanifah, or Hanfa, a'ba or a'boo ha-ne'fa, or han'fa, surnamed Alnooma : b. in the 80th and d. in the 150th year of the Hegira (701-771). He is the most celebrated doctor of the orthodox Mussulmans, and his sect is the most esteemed of the four which they severally follow. Aba, a'ba, a mountain in Armenia, part of Mount Taurus, where the rivers Araxes and Euphrates have their rise. Abab'deh, Abab'de, Abab'idek, or Hab'ab, a Hamitic people of E. Africa, descendants of the ancient Nubians, scattered throughout Nubia and between the Nile valley and the Red Sea, but chiefly from 23° N. lat. to the W. border of Lower Egypt. They are small-limbed, but well formed ; very dark, but not negroid in features. Abaco, a'ba-ko (or Lucaya), Great and Little, two Bahama islands 150 m. \Y. of Florida. Great Abaco, the largest of the Baha- mas, is about 80 m. long by 20 wide, with a lighthouse at its S.E. point, at a natural per- foration of the rock known to seamen as K The Hole-in-the-Wall." Little Abaco, 28 m. long, lies W. of its N. point. Area of both, 879 sq. m. ; pop. 2,400. Abacus. In architecture, the flat stone form- ing the highest member of a column, next under the architrave and bearing its first weight. In the Tuscan, Doric, and Ionic orders, its four sides are arched inward, with generally a rose in the centre. In Gothic architecture it was variously employed, according to the architect's fancy. Abacus (Greek &Pa%, from the Semitic T^r, abq, dust). In mathematics, a term applied to several forms of reckoning apparatus, and hence for some centuries to arithmetic itself. The primitive form seems to have been a board cov- ered with fine dust, whence the generic name. Among the Hindus this was a wooden tablet covered with pipe clay, upon which was sprinkled purple sand, the numerals being written with a stylus. (Consult Taylor, in the preface to his translation of the 'Lilawati,' Bombay 1816. p. 6). That this form was used by the ancient Greeks is evident from Iamblichus, who asserts that Pythagoras taught geometry as well as arith- metic upon an abacus. Its use among the Ro- mans of the classical period is also well attested. Another form of the abacus, having many modi- fications, is a board with beads sliding in grooves or on wires. Herodotus tells us that this in- strument was used by the Egyptians and the Greeks, and we have evidence that the Romans also knew it, although preferring a form de- scribed below. It is at present widely used, appearing in the form of the szvanpan in China, the saroban in Japan, and the tschoty in Russia, the latter being the same as the modern Arabian abacus. It is in this type of the abacus that prayer beads have their origin. The third form is a ruled table, upon which counters are placed, somewhat like checkers on a backgam- mon board, a game derived from this type of abacus. This was the favorite form among the Romans, whose numerals were not at all adapted to calculation, and it maintained its position throughout the Middle Ages and until the latter part of the 16th century. The Hindu-Arabic numerals (see Numerals) having then sup- planted the Roman, such an aid to calculation was thought superfluous in western Europe. The counters used were called ^ij0oi by the Greeks, calculi (pebbles, whence calcularc and our calculate) by the Romans, and in Cicero's time aera because brass discs were used. In mediaeval times they were called projectiles be- cause they were thrown upon the table, whence our expression to "cast an account," and Shake- speare's "counter caster." The early French translated this as gettons, gectoirs, and jetons, whence our obsolete English jettons and the modern French jeton, meaning a medal, and also a counter for games. The Germans trans- lated the late Latin denarii supputarii (calcu- lating pennies) as Rechenpfennige, the early printed books distinguishing between reckoning on the line (that is, on the ruled table) and with the pen. The Court of the Exchequer (q.v.) derives its name from this form of the abacus, about which the judges of the fiscal court sat. (Hall, 'The Antiquities and Curios- ities of the Exchequer,' London 1891 : Hender- son, 'Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages, 1 London 1892, p. 20.) Another form of the abacus, possibly introduced by Gerbert be- fore he became Pope Sylvester II. (q.v.), was arranged in columns and employed counters upon which the western Arab forms of the Hindu numerals (see Numerals) were written. The use of the term to designate an instrument of calculation led to its use for arithmetic itself, as in the "Liber abaci' of Leonardo Fibonacci of Pisa (q.v.) and in the works of later writers. Consult: Knott, 'The Abacus,' in the 'Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan,' Vol. XIV. ; Bayley, in the 'Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society' (X. S.), Vol. XV.; Chasles, in the 'Comptes rendus,' t. 16, 1843, p. 1409; Woepcke, in the 'Journal asiatique,' 6 ser., t. 1. See Finxer Notation. Davtd Eugene Smith. Professor of Mathematics, Teachers College, Columbia University, Xew York. Abad' ("abode"), a suffix meaning town or city, common in Hindu and Persian names : as Allahabad, city of God; Hyderabad, city of Hyder ; Secunderabad, city of Alexander. Abad'don, in the Old Testament and the rabbinical literature, Sheol, the underworld, or the place of the lost in it: in Revelation (ix. 11) the King of the Abyss, Greek Apollyon. Ab'adir, according to Augustine the chief god of the Carthaginians ; according to Priscian, a stone which Saturn swallowed by contrivance of his wife Ops, believing it to be his new-born ABAKANSK — ABASOLO Son Jupiter, and hence worshipped with divine hon Abakansk , a mountain range in Siberia, extending from the upper Yenisei to the Tom R., parallel to the Altai Mts. Also a town founded by Peter the Great in 1707. near the Abakan River; nou renamed Minusinsk (q.V.). Ab'alo'ne 1 Sp., origin unknown). Any one of the several species of Haliotis (ear-shells or ears) found along the California coast. I he shell is a spiral so broadly flattened as to make an oval saucer, around the edge of which is a row of holes through which the tentacles when extended. The animal lives on rocks near the shore, feeding on seaweed ; when fright- 1 it withdraws entirely beneath its shell and clings with surprising force to the rock. The shell is lined with a bright mother-of-pearl much used in arts and crafts. The animal itself is used as f 1 by the Chinese and Japanese; quan- tities of them are dried and exported from Cali- fornia to the Orient. The name "abalone" is local, but marine gastropods of the same family are abundant in all seas not too cold, outside the western Atlantic. Sec I Iauotid.e ; Sea-e.vk. Abanah, r Amanah (fir. Chry- sorrhoas, now Barada, 'The cob! I the two famous "rivers of Damascus" mentioned in the Scripture: rising in the heart of the Anti- Lebanon, it fli igh a narrow gorge and spreads fan-wise through the Damascus oasis, irrigating the land and supplying the city, by the canals or "rivers," with its clear sparkling water, so greatly superior to the Jordan in beauty that Xaaman's question is quite intel- ligible. Abancay, a-ban-ki', Peru, capital of dept. Apurimas. 65 111. W of : n the Abancay, an affluent of the upper Apurimac; in an East- Andean valley, the best sugar district in Peru, with large refineries and silver mines. Pop. ( 1889) ?.0OO. Abandonment, the act of abandoning, giv- ing up. or relinquishing. In commerce it is the relinquishment of an interest or claim. Thus, in certain circum- stances, a person who ha- insured property on board a ship may relinquish to the insurers a remnant of it saved from a wreck, as a prelim- inary to calling upon them to pay the full amount of the insurance effected. The principle is also applicable in fire insur- ance, and often under stipulations in life poli cies in favor of creditors. The chief object of abandonment being to recover the whole value of the subject of the insurance, it is necessary only where the subject itself, or portions of it. or claims on account of it. survive the peril which caused the loss At once upon receiving information of a loss the assured must elect whether to abandon, and not delay for the pur- pose of speculating on the state of the markets. The English law is more restricted than the American, by not making thi r half the value conclusive of the right to abandon, and by judging the right to abandon by the circum- stances at the time of action brought, and not by the facts existing at the time of the abandon- ment By commencing full repairs the right of abandonment is waived. An abandonment may be oral or in writing. When acted upon by another party, the effect of abandonment is to devest all the owner's rights. Abano. Pietro di, a'ba-no, pea'trd de, known also as Petrus de AponO, one of the most celebrated physicians of the l.uh century: b. 111 the Italian village from which he takes Ins name, m 1 J4o or IJ50 ; d. I.116. He visited the F.ast m order to acquire a thorough knowl- edge of ( Ireek. and then completed his studies at the University of Pan-. Returning to Italy he settled at Padua, where his reputation as a physician became so great that his rivals, envious of his fame, gave out that he was aided in his cures by evil spirits. It was known, too, that he practi ' nnmoned before the Inquisition. On the first occasion he was acquitted, and he died before his second trial came to an end. Besides the work, 'Con- ciliator Differentiarum Philosophorum et Prre- cipue Medicorum' (Mantua, 1472), he wrote ' lie Venenis eorumque Remediis' 1 1 47- I, *G mantia,' ( Quaes tiones de Febribus,' and other works. Abano, Italy (Lat. "Fontes Aponi'M, lies at the foot of tin- Yiccntine Hills, in Lombardy. Its noted springs, much visited by invalid-, were well known to the ancients, and are referred to by Martial and Claudian. Aban'tes, an ancient Greek people originally from Thrace, who settled in Phocis, and built a town called Aba?. Their name implies an ancestor or leader Abas. Abar'banel. See Abrabanel. Ab'arim ("the beyond-." -c. Jordan), the edge of the Moabite plateau overlooking the entire Jordan valley: a range of highlands form- ing its whole horizon, broken only bj the valley months of the Yarmuk. the Zcrka. and the Jabbok. Its highest elevation is Mount N'ebo, whence Moses had his "Pisgah view" of Pales- tine 1 see PlSGAH >, and whence Jericho is plainly visible. Ancient altars, perhaps Amorite, were ered here in 1881. Ab'aris, the Hyperborean ( fabled as from the Caue t), a legendary sage first mentioned by Pindar and Herodotus. 5th century B.C., hut quite uncertain of date or ex- istence. He had the prophetic gift, and a magic arrow of Apollo on which he rode through the air; cured by incantations, rid the world 1 great plague, etc. The Xeo-Platonists made him Pythagoras' companion. Abascal, Jose Fernando, a-bas-cal', ho-sa' fer-nan'do, Si>.im-h soldier and -talesman: b. Oviedo, 174.?; d. Madrid, 1821. KiilrruiL- vice in 1762, he rose to brigadier-general in the French Revolutionary wars; in 171/j became viceroy of Cuba and defended Havana against the English fleet; then was commander in Xew Galicia, and later viceroy of T'eru. where he showed great ability and kindliness, and in recognition of his efforts to reconcile natives and Spanish was created Marques de la Concordia. He defended Buenos Ayres from the English, and suppressed revolts in Lima and Cuzco ; but having a turn of ill success was recalled in 1816. Abasolo, Mariano, a-ba-so'lo, ma-re-a'-no. Mexican patriot: b. in Guanajuato about 1780; d. Cadiz. 1819. Joining Hidalgo's (q.v.) Mexi- can revolution in 1810, he rose to major-general, d for humanity to prisoners. After the final rout at the Calderon bridge, 17 Jan. 1S11, he fled with his chief; with him was cap- tured by the counter-revolutionists, tried, and ABATEMENT — ABBADIE sentenced to life imprisonment in Spain, where he died. Abatement. Inlaw: d) A removal or putting down, as of a nuisance. (2) A quash- ing; a judicial defeat; the rendering abortive by law, as when a writ is overthrown by some fatal exception taken to it in court. A plea designed to effect this result is called a plea in abatement. All dilatory pleas are considered pleas in abate- ment, in contradistinction to pleas in bar, which consider the merits of the claim. (3) Forcible entry of a stranger into an inheritance when the person seized of it dies, and before the heir or devisee can take possession. (4) The termina- tion of an action in a court of law, or the sus- pension of proceedings in a suit in equity, in consequence of the occurrence of some event, as for example the death of one of the litigants. In contracts, a reduction made by the creditor in consideration of the prompt payment of a debt due by the debtor. In mercantile law, a deduc- tion from duties imposed at the custom-house, on account of damages received by goods during importation or while in the custom-house. A misnomer of plaintiff or defendant can be taken advantage of only by plea in abatement. In heraldry, an abatement was formerly an addition to a coat-of-arms, indicative of disgrace or inferiority ; now it is confined to the bend sinister, marking illegitimate descent. Ab'atis, or Abattis, in military affairs, a defense made of felled trees. In sudden emer- gencies, the trees are merely laid lengthwise be- side each other, with the branches pointed out- ward to prevent the approach of the enemy. When employed for the defense of a pass or en- trance, the boughs of the trees are stripped of their leaves and pointed, the trunks are planted in the ground, and the branches interwoven with each other; and the abatis is laid in a de- pression in front of a trench, for protection from artillery fire. Ab'atos, Egypt, an island in Lake Mceris, famous as the sepulchre of Osiris, and for pro- ducing the papyrus of which the ancients made their paper. Abattoir (Fr.), ab-at- war, a slaughter-house ; sometimes extended to include a great market of which the abattoir proper is only a part. The nuisance of blood, offal, etc., in crowded settle- ments, early forced ancient civilized governments to put the slaughter of the animals under restric- tions. Our first definite information on this point is the system under the Roman empire : the slaughter-houses instead of being scattered about the streets were collected in one quarter, forming the public market, which in Xero's time was one of the most imposing structures in Rome. The system was introduced into Gaul, but the meat supply of Paris was in the hands of a clique of aristocratic families who balked all attempts at reform ; and though as far back as 1567 Charles IX. had issued a decree on the subject, no improvement was made till Napo- leon's time, when the nuisance was shocking. — slaughter-houses abutted on the principal tho- roughfares, herds of footsore and lamenting beasts impeded traffic, the gutters ran with blood, offal poisoned the air. and the Seine was a sewer for it. A commission was appointed to rectify these conditions in 18m, and the live great abattoirs which still exist were formally opened 15 Sept. 1S1S. They have been the models of the world, and for many years had no rivals ; indeed, for symmetry of arrangement they have never been surpassed. But of late the vast American establishments near Chi- cago, at Brighton, Mass., and other places, have carried speed, economy, and cleanliness to an ideal point, and American inventiveness has built up an incredible number of subsidiary in- dustries and products, so that literally not a hair of an animal's body nor a drop of its blood is wasted : foods, medicines, chemicals, manures, building-materials, etc., produced from the refuse of the slaughter-houses are past num- bering. Abauzit, Firmin, ab-6-ze, fer-mart, French scholar of Arabian blood and Protestant par- ents: b. Uzes, 1679; d. Geneva, 1767. He lost his father when only two ; in 1685, on the Revo- cation, the authorities tried to tutor him for a Catholic, but his mother contrived his flight with an elder brother to the Cevennes, where after two years as fugitives they gained Geneva, and the mother escaped from imprisonment and joined them. He early acquired great proficiency in languages, physics, and theology ; traveled to Holland and made acquaintance with Bayle and others, and to England, where Xewton ad- mired him greatly, corrected through him an error in his "Principia," and wrote to him, "You are well worthy to judge be- tween Leibnitz and me." William III. wished him to settle in England, but he preferred to return to Geneva : assisted a so- ciety there in translating the Xew Testament into French, was offered but refused a chair in the University, but accepted a sinecure librarian- ship, and died very aged. He was of wonderful versatility and universality, seeming to have made everything a speciality; Rousseau, jealous of every one, yet eulogized him warmly; and Voltaire asked a flattering stranger who said he had come to see a genius, whether he had seen Abauzit. His heirs, through theological differences, destroyed his papers, so that little re- mains of his work; he wrote articles, however, for Rousseau's "Dictionary of Music' and other works, and edited with valuable additions Spoil's ' History of Geneva.' (Collected works, Geneva, 1770; London, 1773. Translations by Dr. Har- wood, 1770. 1774. For personal information, see Senebier's 'Histoire Litteraire de Geneve' ; Harwood's 'Miscellanies' ; Orme's 'Bibliotheca Biblica,' 1834.) Abba, Giuseppe Cesare, joo-sep'a cha-za'- ra, Italian poet: b. 1838 at Cairo Montenotte. He took part in the expedition of Garibaldi into Sicily in i860, which he celebrated in his poem 'Arrigo.' Among his other works are a tragedy, 'Spartaco,' a historical novel, and lyric poems. Abba (same as papa, etc.'), Aramaic form of Hebrew for "father." In the Xew Testa- ment, used as an address to God ; in the Tal- mud, a scholar's title of honor ; also used as part of proper names: and at present the title nf Syriac, Coptic, and Ethiopic bishops. See Papa ; Pope. Abbadie, Antoine Thomson and Arnaud Michel d', dab-ad-e, an-twan toh-soh (and ar-no me-shel, brothers and explorers: b. in Dublin. Ireland, 3 Jan. 1S10 and 24 July 1815 respectively In 1837-48 they explored Abys- sinia and Upper Egypt, traveled up the White Xile, visited Darfur ( regarded by the English ABBADIE — ABBASSIDES in these places as French emissaries), and made a remarkably large collection of Ethiopic and Vraharic manuscripts. Among .'tlur works e published 'Geodesj oi Pari of Upper Ethiopia' (1860-73) : ""l 'Dictionary of the Amann Language' (1881); and Arnaud, 'Twelve Years in Upper Ethiopia* (1868). Abbadie, Jacques, ab-ad-c, zhak, or James, eminent Fre-xh- English divine: b. Nay, Bern, C. 1654-7; '. Loud. m. 17.7. A poor boy, edu- cated by friends, he took a degree of doctor in theology at Sedan at 17. was minister of a French Protestant church in Berlin some years, then in 1688 accompanied Marshal Schomberg to London for the second English Revolution, and became minister of the French church in the Savoy, lie was strongly attached u< William's cause, wrote an elaborate defense of it. and a history of the conspiracy of 1696 from materials furnished by the government ; and William made him dean of Killaloe, Ireland. A very able man loquent preacher, Abbadie is best known by his religious treatises in French, several of them translated into other languages : the most ■in are that 'On the Truth of the Chris tian Religion,' with its sequel 'On the Divinity of Jesus Christ,' and 'The Art of Self-Knowl- edge. Abbas (Tbn Abd ii Muttaub, 'bn iibd il liiii. uncle of Mohammed; at first hos- him. hut ultimately — after the defeat at Bed'r (see Mohammed) — the chief promoter of his religion. He was the founder of the Ab- bassidc (q.v.) caliphate at Bagdad. Abbas I., of Persia, "the Great." 7th shah of the Sufi dynasty: b. 1567, acceded 15*5 : d. i~ Jan. 1628, Sent to Khorasan as nominal gov- ernor in childhood, at 18 he was proclaimed shah by its nobles, smarting under the oppres- sion of his father Mohammed Khodahendeh's officers ; the father was soon driven from the throne. At this time the Turks had invaded the western Persian provinces, and the Uzbek Tar- tars occupied and ravaged Khorasan, Alihas first transferred his residence from Kasbin to Ispahan; he then by treaty confirmed to the Turks all their conquests, to gain time for chas- tising the Uzbeks, whom in 1597 he surprised and routed near Herat, and followed this by the conquest of Ghilan, Mazanderan, much of Tar- tary, and nearly all Afghanistan. lie then de- clared war against the lurks; and in 1605. with 60,000 men, annihilated their army of nearly double the number at Basra, Bussorah), recover- ing all the lost provinces, and not only securing complete immunity from Turkish aggression for the rest of his life, but extending his empire be- yond the Euphrates. In 161 1 he di< lated to Ach- met I. a treaty which gave Persia Shirwan and Kurdistan. In 1618 he routed the united Turkish and Tartar armies near Sultanieh, securing more territory ; and on the Turks renewing the war in 162.3 he captured Bagdad after a year's siege. ame year he took Ormuz from the Portu- guese; and when he died his dominions reached from the Tigris to the Indus. His internal ad- ministration was no less linn and beneficial. He encouraged commerce, built highways, repressed violence, and left the country flourishing as it never has since. He was favorable to foreign- 1 two Englishmen. Sir Anthony and Sir Robert Shirley, had much influence over him. He was like Herod in every respect: a jealous and cruel tyrant to his family. — he slew his eld- est son and hlinded his other children, — his country alone felt his good side. Abbas-Mirza, a Persian prince and war- rior, favorite son of the shah Feth-Ali: b. 178,!; d. 18.13. He was early convinced of the advan- tages of Western civilization, and with the help of European officers he first id all applied him- self to the reform of the army. He led the Per- sian armies with great bravery, but with little success, in the war with Russia ended by the peace of Gulistan, when Persia lost her remain- ing Caucasus districts and ceded to Russia the sovereignty of the Caspian ; and in that of 1826-8, ended by the peace of Turkmanchai, when she lost most of Persian Armenia. In iSjo lie visited St. Petersburg, to ward off punishment for the murder of the Russian ambassador in a riot at Teheran ; and was sent back to Persia loaded with presents. His eldest son acceded to the throne in 1834. Abbas Pasha I., viceroy of Egypt, grand- son of the famous Mehemet AH: b. 1813; d. 13 July 1854. Early initiated into public life, in [841 he took an active part in his grandfather's Syrian war; in 1848 the death of his uncle Ibra- him Pasha called him to the viceregal throne at Cairo. During his brief reign he did much to undo the progress made under Mehemet Ali : he dismissed all Europeans and fought Western ideas energetically. At the outbreak of the Cri- mean war he placed 15,000 men and his fleet at the Sultan's disposal ; but was shortly after found dead, not without suspicion of foul play. Abbas Pasha II., Hilmi, hel'me, khedive of Egypt, eldest son of the khedive Tewfik: b. 1874: studied at Vienna: on his father's death in 1892 became khedive. He won popularity by reduc- ing the taxes, and tried to throw off the English influence. In 1893 he dismissed four of his ministers, but Lord Cromer interfered and be agreed to follow England's recommendations in all important matters. See also Nubab Pasha. Abbassides, abas'sidz. The, 750-1517, caliphs at Bagdad anil later in Egypt ; nominal sover- eigns of all Islam, but losing Spain at the outset, and never practically obeyed in Africa outside Egypt ; the most famous dynasty of Saracen reigns. They took their name from Abbas (q.v.), the uncle of Mohammed. This descent had given the family great influence by a cen- tury after the Prophet's death; and Ibrahim, fourth in descent from Abbas, bad gained sev- eral victories over the Ommiads (q.v.), sup- ported by the province of Khorasan, when the Ommiad caliph Merwan defeated and put him to death in 747. His brother Abu '1-Abbas, whom he had named his heir, assumed the title of caliph, crushed the Ommiad dynasty in a de- cisive battle near the Zab (750) and acceded to their position. Its members and relatives were nearly all tolled into one spot and exterminated, earning for Abu '1-Abbas the nickname of As- Saffah, "the butcher" ; but one of them, Abd- er-Rahman (q.v.), escaped, and after pictur- esque adventures set up an independent emirate in Spain, which toward two centuries later took the title of caliphate. On Abu '1-Abbas' death, his successor Al-Mansur r moved the seat of royalty to Bagdad, and \ successes against Turkomans a"d Greeks in A .a Minor; but by this time the warlike impulse had ABBATE — ABBESS begun to decay, and the love of luxury and its literary and artistic attendants to come to the front. Means were found of evading the strict- ness of Mohammedan rules; and no courts of any age or country were gayer or more splendid than those of the great Harun al-Rashid, Charle- magne's contemporary (786-809), and Al- Mamun (813-833). The splendor of their palaces, their decorations, their equipages, and the seemingly exhaustless treasures they pos- sessed, gave them a world-wide celebrity — es- pecially in contrast with the poverty-stricken barrenness and barbarism of most Christian sovereigns at that period — which is vivid even yet in literature and popular memory: Harun is the chief princely figure of the 'Arabian Nights,' and Bagdad the center of all picturesque and varied enjoyment. Al-Mamun is still more honorably remembered as the patron of arts and literature. What lay underneath this external gorgeousness — the corruption, the furies of jealousy and bloodshed, and the barbarous op- pression of the many — is outside a notice like this. But external decay soon began to witness internal rottenness. The Ashlabites, Edrisites, etc., carved out independent sovereignties in Africa; the Taherites in 820 set up a separate power in Khorasan, even under the great Al- Mamun. The Greeks, under the new life of the Byzantine empire brought in by Leo the Isaurian (q.v.), pushed them back in Asia Minor; and Al-Mamun's last years were contemporary with the philosopher, soldier, and statesman, the all- accomplished Emperor Theophilus. But the final stroke came from barbarians. The caliph Motassem (833-842), who had fought both Theophilus and the hordes of Turkestan suc- cessfully, distrusting his subjects, formed body- guards out of his Turkish prisoners. They soon became what the Roman prsetorians were — ■ masters of the empire. Motassem's son Mota- wakkel was assassinated by them in his palace (861) and the succeeding caliphs were their puppets; and in 936 the caliph Radhi (934-41) was forced to give up the command of the army and other powers to his general and mayor of the palace, Mohammed ben Rayek. The prov- inces one after another threw off allegiance ; the caliph held only Bagdad and its neighbor- hood; and at last Hulagu, prince of the Mon- gols, fired Bagdad and slew the reigning caliph Motassem in 1258. The Abbassides retained a nominal caliphate in Egypt under the segis of the Mamelukes, and never gave up the claim or the hope of their old position and seat; but in 1517 the Turkish Sultan Selim I., the conqueror of Egypt, bore the last of them, Motawakkel III., a prisoner to Constantinople, finally allow- ing him to return to Egypt, where he died a Turkish pensioner in 1538. (Muir's 'Caliphate' for the best English account; the monumental treasure-house of information for scholars is Weil's great 'Geschichte der Chalifen,' 1846-62.) Abbate, ab-a'te, or Abati, a-ba'te, Nicolo, ne'ko-16, Italian painter, follower of Raphael and Corregio : b. 1512 at Modena, where his earlier works are exhibited: d. 1571 at Fontaine- bleau — his frescoes in which palace are his best-known productions. His finest piece, how- ler, is regarded as 'The Adoration of the Shep- a ds,' at Bologna, where his later work re 'Stly exists. He has another in the Dresden gallery. Abbe, Cleveland, American meteorologist : b. New York city, 3 Dec. 1838. Graduated 1857 at the Free Academy (now College of the City of New York) ; studied astronomy at Ann Arbor with Briinnow and at Cambridge with Gould (1858-64); resided at Pulkova observatory, Russia, 1864-6; director Cincinnati Observatory 1868-73, where he began the system of co-ordi- nated daily weather forecasts which led to the United States establishing the same system and in 1870 calling Prof. Abbe to Washington to direct it, making him professor of meteorology in the Weather Bureau. May 1879 he initiated the movement toward standard time (q.v.) and hour meridians. January 1873 he started the 'Monthly Weather Review,' of which he has re- mained editor. He is professor of meteorology in Columbia University, Washington, lecturer on the same at Johns Hopkins, etc. Among his publications are a work on 'Meteorological Ap- paratus and Methods' (1887) ; 'Studies for Mvthods in Storm and Weather Predictions (1889) ; 'Mechanics of the Earth's Atmosphere 1 (1891), 'Solar Spots and Terrestrial Tempera- ture,' and 'Atmospheric Radiation.' Ab'be, Ernst, German physicist : b. Eise- nach, 1840; d. Jena, 1905. Studied at Jena and Gottingen; became assistant at the latter's ob- servatory, and lecturer before the Frankfort-on- the-Main Physical Society: 1863-70 lecturer at Jena, and 1870 professor there; 1878 director of its observatories; in 1891 he resigned professor- ship. He became distinguished for his work in perfecting optical instruments, especially photo- graph and microscope lenses, having for a long time been connected with the highly reputed firm of Carl Zeiss in Jena. He invented the Abbe refractometer. He wrote a work in German on the ( Refracting and Dispersing Power of Solid and Fluid Bodies. ' Abbe, ab-a, originally the French name for an abbot, but later used in the general sense of a priest or clergyman. By a concordat between Pope Leo X. and Francis I. in 15 16, the French king had the right to nominate upward of 200 abbes commendataires, who drew a third of the revenues of the monasteries without having any duty to perform. They were not necessarily clergy, but were expected to take orders unless exempted by a dispensation. The hope of ob- taining one of those sinecures led multitudes of young men, many of them of noble birth, to enter the clerical career, which however seldom went further than taking the inferior orders : and it became customary to call such aspirant abbes, jocularly, Abbes of St. Hope. They formed a considerable and influential class in society; and an abbe, distinguished by a short violet-colored robe, was often found as chap- lain or tutor in noble households, or engaged in literary work. This class of nominal clergy dis- appeared at the Revolution. In Italy they are called abbate. Abbess, the female superior of some con- vents of nuns, corresponding to the abbot over monks. She was elected from the monastery by • secret votes, inducted by a bishop's consecra- tion, and held office three years or even for life unless deprived for misconduct. The Council of Trent fixed the required age at 40. with 8 years of professed membership in the monastery. She could discipline and even expel the nuns, subject to the bishop; but, being a female, could ABBEVILLE — ABBOT exercise only certain functions, such as giving religious counsel and administering the rule, but no spiritual jurisdiction, as ordaining, conferring the veil, or excommunicating. Abbeville, France, ab-vel (*abbey-town,* of St. Riquier' I, capital of Vbbeville arrondisse- ment, depl Somme ; on both banks of the Somme and an island in it, u m, from Us mouth and head i if navigation (at high tide vessels of 150 to 200 tons can reach it) connected by canals with Amiens (25 m. distant). Lille. Paris, and Bel- gium; on the Northern Ry. It is an old, nar- reeted, picturesque town, with strong ations on Vauban's system; has a won- derfully line church of the flamboyant order, St. Wolfran's, begun under Louis XII. (1462-1515), a very interesting city hall built in 1209, and a library of 1600 now containing 45.000 volumes. It manufactures jewelry, soaps, glassware, and various fabrics, as velvets, cottons, linens, etc. Rut its chut inli-rest 1., the foreign world is for the relics and implements of primitive man (the cave dweller) and the fossils of extinct animals found there. Pop ( 1S96 I I /./Si. Abbeville, S. C, county seat of Abbeville co ; "ii the Southern and Seaboard A. L. R.R.'s; 106 m. W. of Columbia. It is in a rich cotton- grow ue 1- noted for its line climate, which makes it a popular resort for Northern invalids, and has a national hank, excellent pub- lic schools, s,\cral large manufactories con- nected with the cotton industry, llour and Feed mills, brick-yards, etc. Property valuation over $500,000: bonded debt less than $55,000. There are several periodicals. Pop. (1890) 1.696; (1000) 3,766. Abbeville Treaties. ( 1 ) A treaty in 1259 between Louis IX. of France ("St. Louis 8 ) and Henry III. of England, to settle definitely the territorial rights of the two crowns, Louis fearing that his title to some possessions was liable to dispute, and having sought a settlement for man] years. It was negotiated .at Paris with Sun. m de Montfort, Pari ..f Leicester, and signed by the two kings at Abbeville during Henry's visit to Prance. I25Cr€o. hut dated hack to jo May UsO. Henry resigned all title to Normandy, Maine, Anjou, Touraine, and North Saintonge; Louis turned over Perigord, Limou- sin. South Saintonge, and some districts south of the Poire, to he held by Henry in lief. — a sur- render which so enraged the inhabitants that they refused to celebrate Louis' birthday. Henry resigned the titles ,,f Duke of Normandy and Count of Anjou, and agreed to do homage at Puis for those of Duke of Guienne and ' France. 1 •) Between Henry VIII. and Francis P in 1527, Wolsey representing England. Abbey. Edwin Austin, American artist : b. Philadelphia, .\ April [852; studied at the Penn- sylvania Academy of Fine Arts; lived in New York and drew illustrations of a high order for periodicals, also painting water-colors, till 1883. when he removed to England. His two molt individual qualities have been his love for Eng- lish country life and scenery and for the old English poets and dramatics, both of which have resulted in notable illustrations fas of Shakespeare. Goldsmith, etc.) and paintings; and his ability as a colorist. though much of rk has been done without color He has also deep intellectual and spiritual qualities; and all these faculties and tastes together combine in the Famous panels of the 'Search for the Holy Grail' on the upper walls of the delivery room at the Boston Public Library. He was elected member of the Royal Academy July [898; was one of the American jurors on paint- ings in the Paris Exposition of 1900; and was commissioned by Edward VII, to paint the coro- nation ' 'He in Westminster Abbey. (See Pad clilTe's 'Schools and Masters of Painting.' [898; Miither's History of Modern Paint- ing,' 1896. 1 Abbey, Henry, poet and journalist; b. Rondout, X V. It July 1842. lie has pub- lished several collections of pleasing verse: (May Dreams' (1862) ; 'Ralph, and Other Poems' (1866); 'Ballads of Good Deeds' ( [872) ; 'Collected Works' (1885; 3d ed. 1895) ; ' Phaeton ' ( 1901 ). Abbey, Henry Eugene, American operatic manager: b. Akron, ().. 27 June 1846; d. 1896. He was engaged for several years in theatrical, and from [883 in operatic management, produc- ing Italian and German operas with the most distinguished singers of the day. Abbey, a monastery or religious commu- nity of the highest class, governed by an abbot, assisted generally by a prior, sub-prior, and other subordinate functionaries; or, in the case of a female community, superintended by an ab- hess. A priory differed from an abbey only in being on a smaller scale, and governed by a superior named a prior. Abbeys or monasteries first rose in the Past. Among the most famous abbeys on the European continent were those of Clugny. Clairvaux, and Citeaux in France; of St. Galle in Switzerland, and of Fulda in Ger- many; in England, those of Westminster, St. Mary's of York, Fountains, Kirkstall, Tintern, Rievaulx, Netley, Paisley, and Arbroath. The English abbeys were wholly abolished by Henry YIII. at the Reformation. Abbeys were usually strongly built, with walls which served as a di Ii 11-e against enemies and within which were large buildings in which the occupants carried on the work to which they bad been assigned. See AnnoT ; Monastery. Abbitib'bi. a river, a lake, and a former important trading-post of the Hudson Bay Com- pany in the Northwest Territories of Canada. The river is the outlet of the lake, about 49° N. hit., and flows into James Play; the post is on the shore of the lake. Abbo of Fleury, fie -re, French theologian; h. near Orleans about 945; d. 1004. He studied at Rheims and Paris; acquiring great repute as a scholar and scientist (of the time). Oswald, Archbishop of York, induced him to teach for two years in the abbey of Ramsey and aid in re-toring the monastic system; on his return to France he became abbot of Fleury and built up a thriving school there; was sent by Robert IP (son of Hugh Capet) on two missions to Rome. 986 and 996, and each time succeeded in warding off a papal interdict. Later, while trying to re- form the discipline of the priory of La Reole, Gascony, he was killed. Pie wrote lives of the early popes down to Gregory I. (Life by bis pupil Aimoin, in Latin, 'Vita Abbonis abbatis Floriacensis ' 1 Abbot, Ezra, American Biblical scholar: b. Jackson. Me., 28 April 1819; d. 21 March 1884. ABBOT He studied at Phillips Exeter Academy, gradu- ated at Bowdoin 1840, and after teaching in .Maine and Cambridge. Mass., became in 1856 assistant librarian of Harvard. In 1872 he re- ceived a D.D. from Harvard, though a layman, and thence till death was professor of New Testament criticism and interpretation in the Cambridge Divinity School. His wide reading and wonderful verbal memory made him one of the foremost of textual critics and bibliog- raphers ; his mastery of the Greek New Testa- ment text placed him beside the leading scholars of the world ; and on the American New Testa- ment Revision Committee, 1871-81, he was a chief agent in putting its work on an even level of authority with the English, in minute accu- racy of scholarship as well as broad, acute judg- ment. Indifferent to fame, he gave his best work to collaborations or private assistance mostly unacknowledged and unrealized except by scholars. His most important individual book was on the 'Authorship of the Fourth Gospel' (1880), in which he announced the im- portant discovery of Tatian's 'Diatessaron.' Of his other critical work, besides the great Revision, his half of the prolegomena to Tisch- endorf's Greek Xew Testament (1884-94), his additions to Mitchell's 'Critical Handbook of the New Testament' (1880), and his revision of Schaff's 'Companion to the New Testament' (1883), should be mentioned. As a bibliog- rapher, his greatest fame was for the curious and exhaustive catalogue of relevant books he furnished for Alger's 'Critical History of a Future Life' (1864), and his notes to Smith's 'Bible Dictionary' (Am. ed. 1867-70). He also wrote many papers for periodicals. Abbot, Francis Ellingwood, American re- ligious radical: b. Boston, 1836; graduated at Harvard 1859, and Meadville (Pa.) Theological School 1863. A Unitarian minister 1863-8, he started in 1870 The Index, an ultra-radical weekly devoted to religious and philosophical topics; and wrote 'Scientific Theism' (1886), and 'The Way Out of Agnosticism' (1890), besides notable magazine articles. Abbot, George, Archbishop of Canterbury : b. Guildford, Surrey, 19 Oct. 1562; d. 5 Aug. 1633. A cloth-worker's son, he studied at Bal- liol, Oxford, was chosen Master of University College 1597, and three times was vice-chancellor of Oxford. Dr. Abbot's name was second on the list of eight divines ordered in 1604 to pre- pare the present (King James) version of the Bible. In 1608 he went to Scotland with the Earl of Dunbar to arrange for a union of the English and Scotch churches. James took a great fancy to him, and. though Abbot had never held a parish, made him bishop of Lichfield and Coventry in 1609, transferred him to the see of London a month later, and less than a year afterward appointed him Archbishop of Canter- bury. Flattery of the king is accredited as the cause of this astonishing rapidity of prefer- ment ; but once in his seat, at least, Abbot felt no need of such tactics. He opposed the scan- dalous divorce suit of Lady Frances Howard against the Earl of Essex, though the court favored and carried it. In 1618 he forbade the reading, in the Croydon church where he was, of the king's declaration permitting games and sports on Sunday, which the Puritans (to whom Abbot belonged) regarded as a permit to break the Sabbath, and the order to read it as a com- mand to commit blasphemy. He promoted the marriage between the Princess Elizabeth and the Protestant Elector Palatine, and opposed the disastrous Spanish-marriage project of Prince Charles, and thereby won Charles', Laud's, and Buckingham's hatred. The king, however, re- mained his friend. In 1622 he accidentally killed a keeper while deer-hunting, and his enemies tried to have him disqualified for the involun- tary manslaughter. The king made light of the matter, but had to refer it to a commission, which decided in his favor, and he was formally absolved and reappointed. He attended James in his last sickness, and crowned Charles. The latter, on Abbot's refusing to license a fanatical divine-right sermon, deprived him of his func- tions and put them in commission; but, having to summon a parliament shortly after, was afraid of the effect and restored him. From that time he lived in retirement, leaving Laud in complete ascendancy. He wrote many works now forgotten, though one on the prophet Jonah was reprinted in 1845. A geography passed through numerous editions. Abbot, Henry Larcom, American military engineer: b. Beverly, Mass., 13 Aug. 1831 ; grad- uated at West Point 1854; entered the engineer corps. He took part in the survey for a Pacific railroad and of the Mississippi River delta. He served through the Civil War as engineer and artillerist, was wounded at Bull Run, and com- manded the siege artillery before Richmond, an account of which he published in 1867. He became colonel and chief of engineers, and was brevetted brigadier-general U. S. Vols., and major-general U. S. Army. He long commanded the engineers' garrison at Willett's Point, N. V., established an engineers' school, worked out and laid down the submarine defenses of New- York harbor, and accomplished much in the im- provement of mortar batteries and engineering equipment, etc. ; was a member of the Gun Foundry Board and the Board of Fortifications and Defense, of that for the protection of the Mississippi basin, of that on the proposed canal from Pittsburg to Lake Erie, and of the techni- cay Committee of the new Panama Canal Co. He drew the plans for the harbor at Manitowoc. Wis. He was retired in 1895. He is a member of many scientific societies, including the National Academy of Sciences ; and has written, besides many reports of boards and committees and the work above cited, a volume on submarine mines for harbor defense (1881), and, in collaboration, 'Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi.' Abbot, Joseph Hale, American educator : b. Wilton, X. H., 26 Sept. 1802; d. 7 April 1873. Graduated at Bowdoin 1822. tutor there 1825-7; professor of mathematics Phillips Exeter Acad- emy 1827-33; then taught a ladies' school in Boston; subsequently was principal of the Bev- erly. Mass.. high school. lie was for some I 3 recording secretary of the American Acad- emy of Arts and Sciences, and published valu- able scientific papers in its 'Transactions, ' besides writing on pneumatic and hydraulic problems, in which he made ingenious investi- gations. He was associate editor of Worces- ter's Dictionary. ABBOT — ABBOTSFORD Abbot, Samuel, American philanthropist: Vndover, Mass., 25 Feb. 17.W. d. ij April iSi_\ lit- became a wealthy Boston merchant and 1 • !o,ooo in 1S07 toward founding An- ., with $100,000 more by will. Abbot ("father"), originally the head and ruler of a community of monks ; in the k Church hegumenos, "leader," or archi- mandrite, « ruler of the fold,» though the latter is oftener an abbot-general with hegumenoi un- der him. Among the Dominicans the head of a convent was called propositus, a « provost," or prior; among the Franciscans custos, « guar- dian " : among the Camaldules major. The term I abbot » originated in the East, and was first applied to any monk noted for piety, but at length I to the superior. The first abbots were laymen like the rest of the monks in general ; the lowest clergy took precedence of them, and for sacraments they had to attend the nearest church: but the extreme incon- venience or even impossibility of this when the monastery was in a desert or far from a town forced the ordination of the abbots. Abbots could attend councils, and the second Coun- cil of Nice, 787, allowed them to ordain monks to the inferior orders; and ultimately nearly all monks were ordained to some grade of the ministry. To this elevation was added that of allowing pluralities of abbacies, origi- nally forbidden, and even in the 6th century allowed only in special cases; but it increased till early in the 10th century one German prel- ate had twelve abbeys under him, correspond- ing to the archimandrites of the East. Thus, and by the increase of numbers and corporate wealth in the great abbeys, the abbots them- selves became prelates of vast power. Still another cause developed this. — the exemption of abbeys from control of the bishops. They were originally all subject to episcopal jurisdiction, and in the West generally continued so till the nth century; this is expressly ordered in Jus- tinian's code. The exactions of the bishops, however, rendered the exemption increasingly frequent; beginning in 456 the practice grew, and was much helped forward by Gregory the Great, who relieved many abbots from episcopal control and made them responsible directly to the Pope. By the 12th century this had become an evil of the first order in ecclesiastical government, the bishop usually having no authority whatever over the chief centres of religious and often secular power in Ins diocese; and one abbot, of Fulda in Germany, claimed precedence over the Arch- bishop of Cologne. Next came an encroachment ..11 the functions of the bishops: from confer- ring the tonsure and the office of reader they came to be equally associated with the bishops in consecrations; and while originally the bishop chose the abbot from the monks of the house, and then the right of election was transferred to the monks, the abbots came sometimes to choose their own successors. This, however, was stopped in some countries by a counter-process ; the popes in Italy and the kings in France assuming to themselves the right of appointment. Otherwhere the choice was by secret election of and from the monks of the house, unless it furnished no fit candidate, when choice might be made from another monastery of one well instructed himself and competent to instruct others, of legitimate birth and at least 25 years old. His election was for life. His power was absolute except as restricted by the canons of the Church. His exaction of deference in the routine of life was royal: all rose and bowed wlun he entered the church or chapter, his let- ters and orders were received kneeling, and no monk could sit in his presence or leave it with- out permission. They had immense political power, and were on equal terms of intimacy with the greatest in the realm. Many of the abbots were an honor to their countries, and their schools were seminaries of learning and virtue. In time the title was improperly conferred on others wdio had no connection with monastic life, or sometimes even with the Church, — on the principal of a body of parochial clergy or the king's chaplain, and the chief magistrate of Genoa was called « Abbot of the People." Lay abbots, so called, originated in temporarily handing over the revenues of an abbey to some noble, or even the king, for a great public exigency, the noble being titular abbot, but enough of the revenues being reserved from se- questration to support the house. Once in lay hands they usually remained there, and most of the prankish and Burgundian sovereigns and chief nobles in the 9th and 10th centuries were titular abbots of great monasteries, whose revenues they applied to their own uses. This often happened from the monastery's volun- tarily placing itself under the « commendation » of some noble for protection ; and there were sometimes two lines of abbots, — one lay, taking the major part of the income without service, the other clerical, doing the work. This was mostly reformed during the latter part of the 10th century. In convent cathedrals, where the bishop filled the place of the abbot, the superior's duties were performed by a prior. In other convents the prior was the vice-abbot. The superiors of cells, or small monastic establishments depend- ent on the larger ones, were also called priors ; they were appointed by the abbot and held office at his pleasure. (H. J. Feazey's 'Monasti- cism' ; Montalcmbcrt's 'Monks of the West,' ed. 1896, Vol. I.; Bingham's 'Origines' ; Mar- tene's 'Rites of the Ancient Monasteries.') Abbot, The, by Sir Walter Scott. A sequel to 'The Monastery,' but dealing with more stirring situations. The time of the action is 1367-08. While the action goes on partly at Avenel Castle, and Halbert Glendinning of 'The Monastery,' as well as his brother Ed- ward (now an abbot) figure prominently in the story, the reader finds that he has exchanged the humble events of the little border vale by Mel- rose for thrilling and romantic adventures at Lochleven Castle on its island in the lake, north of Edinburgh, where Mary Queen of Scots is imprisoned. The chief interest centres around the unfortunate queen. The framework of the tale it is claimed is historically true. Abbotsford, a fording-place of the Tweed near its confluence with the Yarrow ; the name given by Sir Walter Scott to his property there bought in 181 1, in memory of its use by the monks of Melrose Abbey, it being at the time known as the Clarty [Filthy] Hole. The site is ABBOTT a low hillside on the southern bank, overlooked by the Selkirks. At first only a villa, now the west wing of the pile, he was seized with the idea of founding a great feudal family of the old Scotch pattern, with this for a baronial seat ; and gradually added other sections, copying old Scotch mansions or ruins, or special features of them, making an irregular, rambling, picturesque abode, « a romance in stone and lime.» It now belongs to the Hope-Scotts, descendants of Scott's daughter and Lockhart. Abbott, Alexander Crever, American hy- gienist : b. Baltimore. Md., 26 Feb. i860. He was educated at Johns Hopkins University and at the universities of Maryland, Munich, and Berlin. He is a fellow of the College of Physicians in Philadelphia, and a member of numerous scientific societies; in 1900 was pro- fessor of hygiene and director of the laboratory of hygiene in the University of Pennsylvania. His publications include < The Principles of Bacteriology.) and numerous papers on bacteriol- ogy and hygiene. Abbott, Austin, LL.D., American law-writ- er, son of Jacob : b. Boston, 18 Dec. 1831 ; d. 1896. He was graduated at the University of the City of New York in 1851, and entered the prac- tice of law ; collaborated with his brother Benja- min in valuable legal compilations, digests, text- books, etc. ; was an able law lecturer, and dean of his alma mater's law school 1891-6. He was counsel for Theodore Tilton in the Beecher trial. With his brothers Benjamin and Lyman he wrote two novels, 'Cone Cut Corners' (1855) and "Matthew Caraby > (1858). Abbott, Benjamin, revivalist: b. Long Island 1732; d. Salem, N. J., 14 Aug. 1796. A hatter's and then a farmer's apprentice, some- what dissipated but a kind husband and father and a church-goer (whence his accounts of the pit from which he was rescued are probably dialectic), he was roused to intense conviction of sin at 33 by an itinerant Methodist preacher, joined that Church with his children and his Presbyterian wife, and became one of the most remarkable revivalists of the time, producing wonderful conversions of the most hardened, and often sending hearers into convulsions. In the Revolution the Methodists were suspected of disloyalty, and more than once he was near being mobbed ; but he always preached down his assailants, once turning from their purpose a gang of a hundred soldiers. Serving for 16 years as a local preacher, from 1789 he went on various circuits, and in 1793 was made an elder and sent to Maryland. He carried on his duties till death despite much enfeeblement ; and his career has been one of the most stirring themes for exhortation in the Church. Abbott, Benjamin Vaughan, American law- yer, eldest son of Jacob : b. 4 June 1830 ; d. 1890. He was graduated at the University of the City of New York in 1850, and practised law with his brothers Austin and Lyman. He com- piled nearly 100 volumes of legal digests and reports. He drew up in 1865, as secretary of the New York Code Commission, the penal code which is the basis of the present one. In 1870 President Grant appointed him one of three commissioners to revise the United States stat- utes, which occupied three years, and compressed 16 volumes into one large octavo ; thence till 1879 he was occupied on a great revision of the 'United States Digest.) Among his lesser works are 'Judge and Jury > (1880), collected contributions to periodicals; a Chautauqua book, < The Traveling Law School > ; and ' Famous Trials) (1880). Abbott, Charles Conrad, author and nat- uralist: b. Trenton, N. J., 4 June 1843. He received an academical education, and took the degree of M.D. at the University of Pennsyl- vania in 1865. His life is devoted wholly to scientific and literary pursuits. He is correspond- ing member Boston Society of Natural His- tory ; member American Philosophical Society of Philadelphia; Fellow Royal Society of An- tiquaries of North, Copenhagen; Assistant, Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Cambridge, Mass., 1876-89. Author: < Primitive Industry > (1881); < Naturalist Ram- bles about Home) (1884); 'Upland and Mea- dow) (1886); 'Waste-land Wanderings) (1887); ' Days Out of Doors > (1889); 'Out- ings at Odd Times) (1890) ; 'Recent Rambles> (1892); < Travels in a Tree-top > (1894); 'The Birds About Us > (1894) ; < Notes of the Night > (1895); (novel, 1897) ; < The Hermit of Not- tingham ) (novel, 1897) ; < The Freedom of the Fields) (1898); 'Clear Skies and Cloudy) (1899); 1 In Nature's Realm) (1900,); Report on Indian Stone Implements, in < American Naturalist) (1872), revised and enlarged as 'Stone Age in New Jersey,) in Smithsonian Annual Report of 1876. In 1876 he announced the discovery, since confirmed by other archaeol- ogists, of traces of man in the Delaware River valley, dating from at least the close of the glacial period. Abbott, Edward, D.D., American clergy- man, son of Jacob: b. Farmington, Me., 15 July 1841. He was graduated at the University of the City of New York i860, and at Andover Theo- logical Seminary 1862; in 1863 was with the United States Sanitary Commission at Wash- ington and in the field. The same year he was ordained Congregational clergyman, and 1865-9 was pastor of the Pilgrim Church, Cambridge, Mass. ; in 1879 he was ordained Episcopal priest and ever since has been rector of St. James', Cambridge ; in 1889 he was elected missionary bishop of Japan, but declined. He was associate editor of the .< CongregationaliM ' 1869-78, and editor of the 1 Literary World ' 1878-88, and again from 1895. Among his works are 'Conversations of Jesus > (1875); < Paragraph History of the United States * (1875); 'Paragraph History of the American Revolution) (1876); 'Long Look Series,) juve- nile (1877-80) ; memorial of his father (1882) ; and 'Phillips Brooks) (1900). Abbott, Edwin Abbott, English theologian and Shakespearean scholar : b. London, 20 Dec. 1838; graduated at St. John's College. Cam- bridge; senior classic and Chancellor's medalist (1861). He was master at King Edward's School, Birmingham, 1862-4, and at Clifton Col- lege ; and head-master of the City of London School, 1865-89, raising it to a foremost rank in England. In the latter year he retired. He has been select preacher at Cambridge and Oxford. His works include the well-known < Shake- ABBOTT spearean Grammar > (1869, enlarged 1870), still a classic; 'Bacon and Essex '(1877) ; « Philo- christus > (1878), and < Onesimus ) (.1882), two anonymous romances of the first age of the Church; "Francis Bacon > (1885); 'Anglican Career of Cardinal Newman > (1892); 'St. Thomas of Canterbury > (1808) ; volumes of scr- mons, and other religious works. Abbott, Emma (Wethekell), one of the foremost ol American dramatic sopranos: b. Chicago, 111., December, [849; d. Salt Lake City, 5 J.ui. [891. Beginning in Plymouth Church choir, Brooklyn, N. \ ., she studied abroad with Sangiovanni at Milan and with lulled Sedic, Wartel, and James at Paris; then joined Maple- son's troupe, made her debut at Covent Garden, London, loured three years in Great Britain, and returning to the United States spent her remain- ing years there, the later ones with the Emma Abbott English Opera Company. In 1878 she married E. J. Wcthcrell of New York. Abbott, Frank Frost, American I.atinist: b. Redding, Conn., 27 March [860; graduated at Yale 1882; Latin tutor at Yale 1885-91 ; associate professor 1892; 1894 professor of Latin in the University of Chicago. He has written < Repeti- tion in Latin > (1900), a 'History of Roman Po litical Institutions > (1901 ), and philological work. Abbott, Gorham Dummer, American edu- cator, brother of Jacob and J. S. C. : b. Hal- low. II, Me., 3 Sept. 1807; d. 31 July 1874. lie graduated at Bowdoin 1820, at Andover 1831. Ordained a Congregational clergyman, he be- came a teacher in New York; in 1S45 with bis brothers he established the Abbott Institute for females in New York city and in 1S47 the Spingler Institute, — pioneers in women's higher education; the latter held a foremost rank in the United States for thirty years, and he left it in 1869 a rich man. He wrote didactic works, as « The Family at Home, 1 < Nathan W. Dicker- man,) ( Pleasure and Profit'; also 'Mexico and the United States.) Abbott, Jacob, a famous American juvenile writer and educator: b. llallowell, Me., 14 Nov. 1803; d. 31 Oct. 1879. He graduated at Bow- doin 1820, studied at Andover, and was ordained a Congregational minister ; professor of mathe- matics and natural philosophy at Amherst 1825 o; then established the Mt. Vernon girls' school in Boston, and in 1834 organized and was pastor of the Eliot Church in Koxbury. In 1839 he removed permanently to Farming- ton, Me., and devoted himself to literary work there and in New York, assisting also in fe- male education (see the preceding title), writ- ing extensively for the early ' Harper's Month- ly,' of which he was one of the chief bulwarks, traveling widely abroad, and writing the classic juveniles of which the ' Rollo Books' arc the best known type. — neither their usefulness, their popularity, nor their charm, has yet vanished. He had an excellent dramatic sense, a healthy balance, a sound business practi- cality and a true understanding of and sin- cere sympathy with children, which makes bis didactics charming to rightly constituted chil- dren; no boys and girls were ever less priggish than those in < Rollo.' the conventional bur- lesques of which merely prove that the authors have not read the books, and even so are a testi- mony to their vitality. The chief of his more than 200 volumes are the < Rollo Books, 1 (28 vol- ) . ill. ' 1 .11. \ I'., ml. ' 10 m .1 , I. the ' Julia, Books' (6 vols.), the < Franconia Stories) (10 vols.), the < Marco Paul Suns' (6 vols.), the < Gay Family' series (12 vols.), the vols.), the "Rainbow Series) (5 vols.), and several other series of science and travel for the young; more than s I tin series of illustrated histories to which bis hi other J. S. C. contributed, and 8 vols, of American history. He also edited historical test bcoks and com- piled school readers. Abbott, Sir John Joseph Caldwell, Cana- dian statesman: b. St. Andrews, Quebec, 12 March 1821; d. 1893. Graduated at Met, ill Col- lege, Montreal, he became a lawyer, and was re- garded among the best Canadian authorities on commercial law, being dean of the McGill Col- lege Law Faculty for ten years. In 1859 he was elected to the Lower House "f Quebec, repre seining Argcnteuil till the union of the Provinces in 1867, when he was returned to the Canadian House of Commons. In 1862 he was solicitor- general in the Sandfield Macdonald-Sicotte Cabi- net. In 1887 he joined Sir John A. Macdonald's Cabinet as minister without portfolio, and on Macdonald's death in June 1801 was made pre- mier of the Dominion; but resigned from ill health November 1892, accepting a seat without portfolio in the Cabinet of bis successor, Sir John Thomson. Abbott, John Stephens Cabot, American author: b. Brunswick, Me., 18 Sept. 1805; d. Fairhavcn. Conn., [7 June 1877. He graduated at Bowdoin 1825, and Andover ; was ordained Con- gregational minister [830, and held pastorates at Worcester, Roxbury. and Nantucket, Mass. He resigned the ministry in 1S44 and devoted him- self to popular literature. A fertile writer like his brother Jacob, and with an interest in his own matter that gave a certain charm to his style and excited equal interest in uncritical readers, but with too little acumen and too much rhetoric for the solid historical subjects he had a passion for, he issued very many works use- ful in stimulating public curiosity in history, but of too little weight to endure. The most famous was the < Life of Napoleon > contributed as a serial to < Harper's Magazine.' and a great popu- lar success ; others were < The French Revolu- tion,) < Napoleon at St. Helena,' "The Civil War in America > (1863-6), "Napoleon III.' (1868). • Romance of Spanish History' (1879), 'Fred- erick the Great' (1871), and many volumes of small histories and biographies. Abbott, Lyman, American clergyman and editor, third son of Jacob: b. Roxbury, Mass., [8 Dec. 1835. He graduated at the University of the City of New York in 1853; studied law, and went into partnership with his brothers Austin and Benjamin in 1856; but feeling more bent for the ministry studied theology with his uncle John S. C. and was or- dained 18(10. Till 18(15 be was pastor at Terre Haute, Ind. ; 1865-8 secretary of the Freedmen's Commission, residing in New York, also becom- ing pastor of the New England Church there; in i8(>9 resigned his pastorate for journalism and literature. He was in succession editor of the "Literary Record" department of "Harper's Magazine,) and at the same time chief editor of the " Illustrated Christian Weekly ; then associ- ABBOTT — ABBREVIATIONS ate editor with Henry Ward Beecher of the < Christian Union,' now the < Outlook,) of which he became chief editor on Mr. Beecher's death in 1887, succeeding him also in the Plymouth Church pulpit, which he resigned in 1899 to de- vote himself wholly to literary work. His ear- liest books were two novels in collaboration with his brothers (see Abbott, Austin - ). He has written a (Life of Jesus > (1869), 'Old Testament Shadows of New Testament Truths > (1870), < A Dictionary of Bible Knowledge' and (1896), < The Theology of an Evolu- tionist > (1897), 'Life and Letters of Paul' (1898), < Life and Literature of the Ancient He- brews' (1901), 'The Rights of Man' (1901), 'Personality of God' (1905), etc.; besides edit- ing volumes of Beecher's sermons and devo- tional exercises from his writings. Abbott, Russell Bigelow, D.D., American educator : b. Brookville, Ind., 8 Aug. 1823 ; grad- uated at the University of Indiana 1847. After several years as principal of public schools in Muncie and New Castle, Ind., and of White- water Presbyterian Academy, he was ordained in the Presbyterian Church, 1857 ; held pas- torates in Indiana and Minnesota 24 years, 15 in Albert Lea, Minn. ; and founding Albert Lea College tbere became its president in 1884. Dr. Abbott has been a leading force in his Church body. Abbreviations or « shortenings » are used in writing to save time and space, or it may be to ensure secrecy. The ancient copiers of MSS. invented many contractions to facilitate their labor. Greek MSS. abound in such, and hence often cannot be read without a previous regular study of Greek palaeography. From MSS. these contractions were transferred to the printed edi- tions of Greek authors, and have only been whol- ly disused within the past century ; hence regular lists of them were given in the earlier Greek grammars, because the knowledge of them was absolutely essential to the student. Some of the commoner are still given in some grammars, as many Greek works are accessible only in editions full of them. Among the Romans the marks of abbreviation, called notes or compendia scribendi, were so numerous that, in a classification by L. Annaeus Seneca, they amount to 5,000. With the Latin language the ancient Roman abbrevia- tions passed to the Middle Ages, appearing first on inscriptions and coins, then in manuscripts, and, more especially after the nth century, in charters and other legal documents. The use of them in legal documents was forbidden by an act of Parliament passed in the reign of George II. In the following list most of the abbreviations that are likely to be met with by modern readers are alphabetically arranged, save chemical elements, for which see table of Atomic Weichts. The standard abbreviations used in library catalogues are also given. (For Latin abbreviations see Campelli's < Dizionario di Ab- breviature': Milan, 1899). A. — Acre; Acting; Accept. A: (Lib. cat.). — Augustus. A . I Lib. cat. ) . — Anna. A. or Ans. — Answer. A. A. — Associate of Arts. A. A. A. G. — Acting Assistant Adjutant-Gen- eral. A. A. A. S. — American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science. A. A. G. — Assistant Adjutant-General. A. A. P. S. — American Association for the Pro- motion of Science. A. A. S. — Academics Americana Socius, Fellow of the American Academy (of Arts and Sci- ences). A. A. S. S. — Americans AntiquariancF Societatis Socius, Member of the American Antiquarian Society. A. B. — Able-bodied seaman; Artium Bacca- laurcus, Bachelor of Arts. A. B. C. F. M. — American Board of Commis- sioners for Foreign Missions. Abl. — Ablative. Abp. — ■ Archbishop. Abr. — -Abridgment, or Abridged. A. B. S. — American Bible Society. a/c — Account. A. C. — Ante Christum, before the birth of Christ ; Arch-chancellor. Acad. — Academy. Acad. Nat. Sci. — Academy of Natural Sciences. Ace. — Accusative. Acct. — Account. A. C. S. — American Colonization Society. Act. — Active ; Acting. Ad. — Advertisement. A. D. — Anno Domini, in the year of the Lord. A. D. C. — Aide-de-camp. Adj. — Adjective. Adjt. — Adjutant. Adj t.-Gen. — Adj utant-General. Ad lib. — Ad libitum, at pleasure. Adm. — Admiral ; Admiralty. Adm. Co. — Admiralty Court. Admr. — Administrator. Admx. — Administratrix. Ads. — Ad scctam, at the suit [of]. Ad v. — Ad valorem, at (or on) the value. Advt. — ■ Advertisement. A. E. I. O. U. (The Austrian device) — -Austria est impcrarc orbi universo, or Alles Erdreich 1st Oesterrcich Untertlian, "It is given to Austria to rule the whole earth." /Et. — A~ talis, of age; aged. A. F. B. S. — American and Foreign Bible So- ciety. Afr. — African. A. G — Adjutant-General. Agl. Dept. — Agricultural Department (Depart- ment of Agriculture). Agr. — Agriculture. A. G. S. S. — American Geographical and Statis- tical Society. Agt. — Agent. A. H. — Anno Hcgiric, in the year of the Hegira (Mohammedan era). A. H. M. S. — American Home Missionary So- ciety. Ala. — Alabama. Alas. — Alaska. Alb. — Albany. Alban. — Albanian. Aid. — Alderman. Alex. — Alexander. Alf.— Alfred. Alg. — Algebra. Alt.— Altitude. ABBREVIATIONS Am. — American ; Amos. A. M. — Ante meridiem, before noon; morning; Anno mundij in the year of the world; Ar- tium Magister, Master of Arts. Am. Ass Adv. Sci.— American Association for the Advancement of Science. Amb. — Ambassador. Ann r. — American. Amer. Acad. — American Academy. A. M. E. Z. — African Methodist Episcopal Zion. Aram. — Amalgama, amalgamation. Amt. — Amount. An. — Anno, in the year. A X. A. — Associate of the National Academy. An. A. C. — Anno ante Christum, in the year before Christ Anal. — Analysis. Anat. — Anatomy. Anc. — Ancient ; anciently. And. — Andrew. Ang.-Sax. — Anglo-Saxon. -Annates, annals. Anon. — Anonymous. Ans. — Answer. Ant., or Antiq. — Antiquities. Anth. — Anthony. Aor. — Aorist. A. O. S. S. — Americana- Oricntalis Soeietatis Socius, Member of the American Oriental Society. Ap. — Apostle; Appius ; Apud, in writings of; as quoted by. Apo. — Apogee. Apoc. — Apocalypse. Apocr. — Apocrypha. App. — Appendix. Apr. — April. Aq. — Aqua, water. A. Q. M. — Assistant Quartermaster. A. Q. M. G. — Assistant Quartermaster-General. A. R. — Anna Regina, Queen Anne; Anno regni, in the year of the reign. Ara. — Arabic. A. R. A. — Associate of the Royal Academy. Arch. — Archibald; Architect; Architecture. Archd. — Archdeacon. Arg. — Arguendo, in arguing, or in the course of argument ; argumento, by an argument drawn from such a law. Ari. — Arizona. Anth. — Arithmetic. Ark. — Arkansas. Arm. — Armenian. Armor. — Armoric. Arr. — Arrive ; Arrival. A. R. R. — Anno regni regis, in the year of the reign of the king. A. R. S. A. — Associate of the Royal Scottish Academy. A. R. S. S. — Antiquariorum Regia Soeietatis Socius, Fellow of the Royal Society of An- tiquaries. .Art. — Article. Artil.— Artillery. A.-S. — Anglo-Saxon. A. S.. or Assist. Sec. — Assistant-Secretary. A. S. A. — American Statistical Association. Ass., Assn. — Association. A. S. S. L'. — American Sunday-School Union. Astrol. — Astrology. Astron. — Astronomy. — At suit of. A. T. S. — American Tract Society. Any. — Attorney. Any. -Gen. — Attorney-General. At. W't. — Atomic weight. A. U. A. — American Unitarian Association. A. I'. C. — Anno urbis conditar, or ab urbe con- dita, in the year from the building of the city (Rome). Aug. — August. Aus. — Austria; Austrian. Auth. Ver., or A. V. — Authorized Version (of the Bibl< >. Av. — Avenue; Average; Avoirdupois. Ave, — Avenue. Avdp. or Avoir. — Avoirdupois. A. V. M. — Ancient York Masons. B.— Born. B: (Lib. cat.). — Benjamin. B.. (Lib. cat). — Beatrice. B. A. — Bachelor of Arts. Bal. — Balance. Bait. — Baltimore. B. & F. — Beaumont and Fletcher. Bapt. — Baptist. Bar. — Barometer; Baruch. Bart. — Baronet. Bbl — Barrel. B. C. — Before Christ: British Columbia. B. C. L. — Bachelor of Civil Law. B. D. — Bacealaureus Vitinitatis, Bachelor of Divinity. Bdls.— Bundles. Bds. — Boards ; Bonds. Beau. & Fl. — Beaumont and Fletcher. Beds. — Bedfordshire. Belg.— Belgic : Belgian; Belgium. Benj. — Benjamin. Berks. — Berkshire. B. I. — British India. Bib— Bible ; Biblical. Bibliog.— Bibliographical ; Bibliography. Biog. — Biography ; Biographical. Bisc. — Biscayan. B. Jon. — Ben Jonson. Bk.— Bark; Book. B. LL. — Bacealaureus Legum, Bachelor of Laws. Bis.— Bales. B. M.— Bacealaureus Medieinw, Bachelor of Medicine. Bohem. — Bohemian Bost. — Boston. Bot. — Botany. Bp. — Bishop. Br.— Brig; British; Brother. B. R. — Banco Regis, or Rcgincc, the King's or Queen's Bench. Braz. — Brazil; Brazilian. Brig. — Brigade; Brigadier. Brig.-Gcn. — Brigadier-General. Brit. Mus. — British Museum. Bro. — Brother. B. S. — Bachelor in the Sciences. Bt. — Baronet. Hu. — Bushel ; Bushels. Bucks. — Buckinghamshire. Burl. — Burlesque. B. Y.— Beata Virgo, Blessed Virgin ; Bene vale, farewell. Bx., Bxs. — Box ; Boxes. C. — Caput or capitulum, chapter; Celsius; Cent ; Centigrade; Cents; Centum, a hundred; Cen tury; Circa or circiter, about; Consul. C: (Lib. cat.).— Charles. ABBREVIATIONS C. . (Lib. cat.)— Charlotte. Ca. (circa) — About. C. A.— Chief Accountant ; Commissioner of Accounts. Caet. par. — Ceteris paribus, other things being equal. Cal. — California ; Calends. Cam., Camb. — Cambridge. Can. — Canon. Cant. — Canticles. Cantab. — Cantabrigice, Cantabrigicnsis, of Cam- bridge. Cantuar. — Cantuarice, Cantuariensis, of Canter- bury. Cap. — Caput, capitulum, chapter. Caps. — Capitals. Capt. — Captain. Capt.-Gen. — Captain-General. Car. — Carat. Card. — Cardinal. Ca. resp. — Capias ad respondendum, that you take to answer, — a legal writ. Cas. — Cases. Ca. sa. — Capias ad satisfaciendum, that you take to satisfaction, — a legal writ. Cash. — Cashier. Cat. — Catalogue. Cath. — Catherine, Catholic, Cathedral. C. B. — Cape Breton ; Communis Bancus, Com- mon Bench ; Companion of the Bath. C. C. — Caius College; Compte c our ante, ac- count current ; Circuit Court : County Com- missioner; County Court: Cubic centimeter. C. C. C. — Corpus Christi College. C. C. P. — Court of Common Pleas. C. E. — Civil Engineer. Cel., or Celt.— Celtic. Cels. — Celsius. Cent. — ■ Centigrade, a scale of ioo° from freez- ing to boiling; Central; Centum, a hundred; Century. Cert. — Certify. Certif. — Certificate. Cf. — Confer, compare. C. f. & i. — Cost, freight, and insurance. C. G. — Commissary-General; Consul-General. C. G. H. — Cape of Good Hope. Ch. — Chapter; Charles; Chief; China; Chinese; Church. C. H. — Court house. Chal. or Chald. — Chaldaic ; Chaldea ; Chaldean ; Chaldron. Chanc. — Chancellor. Chap.— Chapter. Chas.— Charles. Chem. — Chemistry. Ches. — Chesapeake. Chic. — Chicago. Ch. J. — Chief Justice. Chr. — Christ; Christian; Christopher; Chron- icles. Chron. — Chronicles. Cic. — Cicero. Cin. — Cincinnati. Circ. — Circa, or circiter. about; Circuit. Cit. — Citation; Cited; Citizen. Civ. — Civil. C. J. — Chief Justice. Cld. — Cleared. Clk.— Clerk. C. M. — ■ Common Meter. C. M. G. — Companion of the Order of St. Mich- ael and St. George. Co. — Company ; county. Coch., or Cochl. — Cochlear, a spoonful. C. amp. (amplum), a tablespoonful. C. mag. (magnum), a large spoonful. C. med. (me- dium), a dessert-spoonful. C. parv. (par- vum), a small spoonful or teaspoonful. C. 0\ D. — Cash (or collect) on delivery. Col. — Colorado ; Colonel ; Colossians. Coll. — Collector ; Colloquial ; College ; Collec- tion. Colo. — Colorado. Com. — ■ Commerce ; Committee ; Commissioner ; Commodore. Comdg.— Commanding. Comm. — Commentary. Comp. — Compare ; Comparative ; Compound ; Compounded. Com. Ver. — Common Version (of the Bible). Con. — ■ Contra, against ; in opposition. Conch. — Conchology. Con. Cr. — Contra credit. Confed. — Confederate. Cong. — Congress. Congl. — Congregational ; Conglomerate. Conj. — Conjunction. Conn., or Ct. — Connecticut. Con. Sec. — Conic sections. Const. — Constable ; Constitution. Cont. — Continued ; contra. Cop., or Copt. — Coptic. Cor. — ■ Corinthians. Cor. Mem.- — Corresponding Member. Corn. — Cornwall ; Cornish. Corol. — ■ Corollary. Cor. Sec. — Corresponding Secretary. Cos. — Cosine. Coss. — Consules, Consuls. Cp. — Compare. C. P. — Common Pleas ; Court of Probate. C. P. S. — Custos Privati Sigilli, Keeper of the Privy Seal. Cr. — Credit; Creditor; Criminal. C. R. — Carolus Rex, King Charles ; Custos Ro- tulorum, Keeper of the Rolls. Crim. Con. — Criminal conversation (adultery). C. S. — Court of Sessions: Custos Sigilli, Keeper of the Seal. C. S. A. — Confederate States of America ; Con- federate States Army. Csk. — Cask. C. S. N. — Confederate States Navy. C. •Theod. — Codice Theodosiano, in the Theo- dosian Code. Ct. — Connecticut; Court. Ct!.— Cental. Cts.— Cents. Cu., or Cub. — Cubic. Cur. — Currency. Curt. — Current. C. W.— Canada West. Cwt. — Hundredweight. Cyc. — Cyclopedia. D. — -Day; Days; Denarius, pennv. pence; Died D: (Lib. cat.)'.— David. D.. (Lib. cat.).— Delia. D. A. G. — Deputy Adjutant-General. Dak.— Dakota. Dan. — Daniel; Danish. Dat. — Dative. D. B. or Domesd. B. — Domesday Book. D. C. — Da capo, again; District of Columbia. D. C. L. — Doctor of Civil Law. ABBREVIATIONS D. C. S. — Deputy Clerk of Sessions. D. I' Divinilatis Doctor. Doctor of Divinity. D D. S Doctor of Dental Surgery. I )ea.- -Deai Di Dei ember ; Declination. Dec. i >f Ind. — Declaration of Independence, Def. — I lefinition. I »cf., I (eft.— Defendant. 1 )cg.— 1 legree : degrees. Del. — Delaware; Delegate; Delineavit, he (or she) drew it. Dem. — Democrat; Democratic. Dep I h puty. Dept. — Department. Dent. — 1 (euteronomy. D. F. — Defender of the Faith. D. G. — Dei gratia, by the grace of God; Deo gratias, thanks to God. D. H.— Dead-head. Diam. — Diameter. Diet. — Dictionary ; Dictator. I >im. — Diminutive. Diosc. — Dioscorides. 1 >i ~c. — Discount. Diss.- — 1 >!"< nation. District. Div. — Division. D. L O.— Dead-Letter Office. D. M. — Doctor of Music. Do. — Ditto, the same. Doc. — Document. Dols.— Dollars. D. O. M. — Deo Optimo maximo, to God, the best, the greatest. Doz. — Dozen. D. P. — Doctor of Philosophy. Dpt. — Department. Dr.— Debtor ; Doctor ; Drachms. D. S. — I^al segno, from the sign. D. Sc. — Doctor of Science. D. T. — Delirium tremens; Doctor Thcologiw, Doctor of Theology. Dub.— Dublin. D. V.— Deo volente, God willing. Dwt.— Pennyweight. Dyn. — Dynamics. F..— East. E: (Lib. cat.). — Edward. E.. (Lib. cat.).— Elizabeth. Ea. — Each. E. & O. E. — Errors and omissions excepted. E. B.— English Bible. Eben. — Ebenezer. Ebor. — Eboracum, York. Feci. — Ecclesiastes. Ecclus. — Ei cli ia ticus. Ed. — Editor; Edition. E. D. — Eastern District. Edin. — Edinburgh. Edm. — Edmund. Edw. — Edward. E. E. — Errors excepted. E. E. T. S. — Earlv English Text Society. E. Fl.— Ells Flemish. E. Fr. — Ells French. E. G. — Exempli gratia, for example ; Ex grege, among the rest. E. I. — East Indies or East India. E. I. C. S. — East India Company's Service. Eliz.— Elizabeth. E. Lon. — East longitude. E. M. — Mining Engineer. Emp. — Emperor; Empress. Encyc. — Encyclopedia. Km ye. Amer. — Encyclopedia Americana. E.N.E. — East-northeast. Eng. — Engineering ; Engineers ; England ; Eng- lish. Hut . Entom. — Entomology. Env. Ext. — Envoy Extraordinary. El "1 - H\ ei \ i .tiler day. Eow. — Every other week. Ep. — Epistle. l'.ph. — ■ Ephesians ; Ephraim Epis. — Episcopal. E. S.— Ells Scotch. Esd. — Esdras. E.S.E. — East-southeast. Esq. — Esquire. Esth. — Esther. H. T. — English Translation. Et al. — Et alii, and others. Etc., or &c. — Et ccctcri, ei caters, ei catera, and others ; and so forth. Eth. — Ethiopic; Ethiopian. Et seq. — Et sequentes, et scqucntia, and what follows. Etym. — Etymological ; Etymology. I'.. U -Stats litis, United States; Evangelical Union. Ex. — Example; Exodus. Exc. — Excellency ; exception. Exch. — Exchequer ; Exchange. Ex. Doc. — Executive Document. Exec. — Executive; Executor. Exccx. — Executrix. Ex. gr. — Exempli gratia, for example. Exon. — E.vonia, Exeter; Exonicc, Exonicnsis, of Exeter. Ex p. — Ex parte, in behalf of, Exr. — Executor. Ez. — Ezra. Ezek. — Ezekiel. F. — Fahrenheit; Farthing; Fathom; Fathoms; Forte; Franc; France; Francs; French; Eri- day. F: (Lib. cat.). — Frederick. F. . (Lib. cat.). — Fanny. Fahr. — Fahrenheit. F. and A. M. — Free and Accepted Masons. F. A. S. — Fellow of the Antiquarian Society. F. B. S. — Fellow of the Botanical Society. F. C. — Free Church of Scotland. Fcap. or fcp. — Foolscap. F. C. P. S.— Fellow of the Cambridge Philo- logical Society. F. C. S. — ■ F'cllow of the Chemical Society. F. D. — Fidei Defendor, Defender of the Faith. F. E. — Flemish ells. Feb. — February. Fee. — Fecit, he did or made it. Fed. — Federal. Fern. — Feminine. F. E. S. — Fellow of the Entomological Society; F( How of the Ethnographical Society. Ff. — Fecerunt, they did or made it ; -Folios ; Fol- lowing; Forti imo F. F. V. — First Families of Virginia. F. G. S. — Fellow of the Geological Society. F. H. S. — Fellow of the Horticultural Society. Fid. Def. — Fidei Defendor, Defender of the Faith. Fi. fa. — -Fieri facias, that you cause to be donf or made, — a writ of execution. ABBREVIATIONS Fig. — Figure. Fin. — Finland. Finn. — ■ Finnish. Fir. — Firkin. F. K. Q. C. P. I. — Fellow of King's and Queen's College of Physicians, Ireland. Fl. — Florin ; Florins ; Flourished. Fla. — ■ Florida. Fl. E.— Flemish ells. F. L. S. — Fellow of the Linnaean Society. Fm. ; Fms. — Fathom; Fathoms. F.-M.— Field-Marshal. Fo. — Folio. F.-O.— Field-Officer. F. o. b. — Free on board. Fol. — Folio. For. — ■ Foreign. F. P. S. — Fellow of the Philological Society. Fr. — Fragmentum, fragment; Franc; France; Francis ; Francs ; French ; From. F. R. A. S.— Fellow of the Royal Asiatic So- ciety; Fellow of the Royal Astronomical So- ciety. F. R. C. P.— Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians. F. R. C. S. (E, I., or L.).— Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons (Edinburgh, Ire- land, or London). Fr. E. — French ells. Fred. — Frederick. F. R. G. S. — Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society. F. R. Hist. Soc— Fellow of the Royal His- torical Society. Fri. — Friday. Frs. — Frisian. F. R. S. — Fellow of the Royal Society. F. R. S. E. — Fellow of the Royal Society, Edin- burgh. F. R. S. L. — Fellow of the Royal Society, Lon- don. F. R. S. S. A.— Fellow of the Royal Scottish Society of Arts. F. S. A. — Fellow of the Society of Arts, or of Antiquaries. F. S. A. E. — Fellow of the Society of Anti- quaries, Edinburgh. F. S. A. Scot. — Fellow of the Society of An- tiquaries of Scotland. F. S. S. — Fellow of the Statistical Society. Ft. — Foot ; feet ; Fort. Fth. — Fathom. Fur. — Furlong. F. Z. S. — Fellow of the Zoological Society. G. — Guineas. G: (Lib. cat.). — George. G. (Lib. cat.). — Grace. Ga. — Georgia. G. A. — ■ General Assembly. Galv. — Galvanism ; Galveston. G. A. R. — Grand Army of the Republic. G. B. — Great Britain. G. B. & I. — Great Britain and Ireland. G. C. — Grand Chapter ; Grand Conductor ; Grand Cross. G. C. B. — Grand Cross of the Bath. G. C. H. — Grand Cro^s of Hanover. G. C. K. P. — Grand Commander of the Knights of St. Patrick. G. C. L. H. — Grand Cross of the Legion of Honor. [St. George. G. C. M. G. — Grand Cross of St. Michael and G. C. S. I. — Grand Commander of the Star of India. G. D. — Grand Duke ; Grand Duchess. G. E. — Grand Encampment. Tenesis ; Gen. — Genealogy ; Genera ; General ; Genus. Gent. — Gentleman. Geo. — George. Geog. — Geography. Geol. — Geology. Geom. — Geometry. Ger. — German ; Germany. Gl., or Gloss. — Glossary. G. L. — Grand Lodge. G. M. — Grand Master. G. M. K. P.— Grand Master of the Knights of St. Patrick. G. M. S. I. — Grand Master of the Star of India. G. O. — General Order. Goth. — Gothic. Gov. — Governor. Gov.-Gen. — Governor-General. Govt. — Government. G. P. — Gloria Patri, « Glorv be to the Father. » G. P. O.— General Post-Office. Gr. — Greek ; Gross. G. R. — Georgius Rex, King George. Gr., Grs. — -Grain; Grains. Grad. — Graduated. Gram. — Grammar. Grot. — ■ Grotius. G. S. — Grand Secretary; Grand Sentinel; Grand Scribe. G. T. — ■ Good Templars ; Grand Tyler Gtt. — Gulta or gutter, drop; drops. H.— Hour. H: (Lib. cat.).— Henry. H.. (Lib. cat).— Helen. H. A. — -Hoc anno, this year. Hab.— Habakkuk. Hab. corp. — Habeas corpus, that you have the body. Hab. fa. poss. — Habere facias possessionem, that you cause to> have possession, — a legal writ. Hab. fa. seis. — Habere facias seisinam, thai you cause to have seisin, — a legal writ. Hag.— Haggai. Hants. — Hampshire. H. B. C. — Hudson Bay Company. H. B. M. — His or Her Britannic Majesty. H. B. M. S — His (or Her) Britannic Majesty's Ship. H. C. — House of Commons: Heralds' College. H. C. M. — His or Her Catholic Majesty. Hdkf.— Handkerchief. H. E. — His Excellency; Hoc est, that is, or this is. Heb. — Hebrew; Hebrews. H. E. I. C. S. — Honorable East India Com- pany's Service. Her. — Heraldry. Herp. — Herpetology. Hf.-bd.— Half-bound. H. G. — Horse Guards. H. II — His or Her Highness; His Holiness (the Pope). Hhd. — Hogshead. H. I. — Hawaiian Islands. Hier — Hierosolyma, Jerusalem. H. I. II. — His or Her Imperial Highness. Hil.— Hilary. Hind. — Hindu: Hindustan: Hindustanee. Hipp. — Hippocr, ABBREVIATIONS Hist. — Historical; History. II. J. S. — Hie jacet sepultus, here lies buried. H. L. — House of Lords. H. M. — His or Her Majesty. II. M. P. — Hoc monumentum posuit, erected this monument. H. M. S. — His or Her Majesty's Ship or Service. Holl.— Holland. Hon. — Honorable. Hort. — Horticulture. Hos. — Hosea. H.-P. — High-priest; Horse-power; Half-pay. Hr — Hour. H. R. — House of Representatives H. R. E. — Holy Roman Empire. H. R. H.— His or Her Royal Highness. H. R. I. P. — Hie requiescit in pace, Here rests in peace. H. S. — Hie situs. Here lies. H. S. H. — His or Her Serene Highness. H. T. — Hoc titulum, this title; hoc titulo, in or under this title. Hund. — Hundred. Hung. — Hungarian. H. V. — Hoc verbum, this word; his verbis, in these words. Hyd. — Hydraulics ; Hydrostatics. Hypoth. — Hypothesis ; Hypothetical. I. — Island. I: (Lib. cat.). — Isaac. I.. (Lib. cat.).— Isabella. la. — Iowa. lb., or ibid. — Ibidem, in the same place. Icel. — Iceland; Icelandic. Ich., or Ichth. — Ichthyology. Icon. Encyc. — Iconographic Encyclopedia. I. Ch. Th. U. S.— 'I (»is=a fish ; whence the symbol of a fish (or the sacred nami . Id. — Idem, the same; Idus, the Ides; Island. Ida. — Idaho. I. E — Id est, that is. I. G.— Inside Guardian. I. H. S. — (Corrupted from Gr. IHZ, abbrev. of IHSOTS, Jesus). Now read Jesus Hominum Salvator, Jesus the Saviour of Men. 111.— Illinois. Imp. — Imperative; Imperator, emperor; Imper- fect; Imperial. In. — Inch; inches. Inc. or Incor. — Incorporated. Incog. — Incognito, unknown. Ind. T., or Ind. Ter. — Indian Territory. I. H. P. — Indicated horse-power. Ind. — Indiana; Index. I. N. D. — In nomine Dei, in the name of God. Indef. — Indefinite. Inf. — Infra, beneath, or below. In f.— In line, al the end Inhab. — Inhabitant ; Inhabited. In lim. — In limine, at the outset. In loc. — In loco, in the place. In pr. — In principio, in the beginning. I. N. R. I. — Jesus Nasarenus, Hex Judeeorutn, Jesus of Nazareth. King of the Jews. Inst. — -Instant; Institute; Institutes; Institu- tion. Int. — 'Interest. Int. Dept. — Department of the Tnterior. Interj. — Intei iection. In trans. — In transitu, in transit. [nt. Rev. — Internal Revenue. Introd. — Introduction. Ion. — I I. 0. O. P.— Independent Order of Odd Fel lows. I. O. S. M. — Independent Order of the Sons of Malta. I. O. U. — I owe you. Ipecac. — [pecacuanha. I. Q. — Idem quod, the same as. Ire. — Ireland. I. R. O. — Internal Revenue Office. Is., Isl. — Island; Islands. Isa. — Isaiah. It.— Italy. I. T. — Inner Temple. Ital. — Italic ; Italian. I. W.— Isle of Wight. J. — Justice, or Judge. J: (Lib. cat.). — John. J.. (Lib. cat.). — Jane. J. A. — Judge-Advocate. Jac. — Jacob; Jacobus, James. J. A. G. — Judge Advocate-General. Jam. — Jamaica. Jan. — January. Jas. — -James. Jo — Junction. J. C. — Jurisconsultus, jurisconsult. J. C. D. — Juris Civilis Doctor, Doctor of Civil Law. J. D. — -Junior Deacon. Jer. — Jeremiah. J. G. W. — Junior Grand Warden. JJ. — Justices. Jno. — John. Jona. — Jonathan. Jos. — Joseph. Josh. — Joshua. J. P. — Justice of the Peace. J. Prob. — Judge of Probate. Jr. — Junior. J. R. — Jacobus Rex, King James. Jud. — Judicial; Judith. J. U, D., or J. V. D. — Juris utriusque Doctor, Doctor of both laws (of the Canon and the Civil Law ). Judg.— Judges. Judge-Adv. — Judge-Advocate. Jul. Per. — Julian Period. Jim. — Junii >r. June. — Junction. Jus. I'. — Justice of the Peace. Just, — Justinian. J. W. — Junior Warden. K. — Karat; Karats; King. K: (Lib. ca( ).— Karl. K. . (Lib. cat.). — Katharine. K. A. — Knight of St. Vndrew, in Russia. Kal. — Kalends, the Kalends. Kan. — Kan K. \ N. — Knight of Alexander Nevskoi, in Russia. K. B — King's Bench: Knight of the Bath. K. B. A. — Knight of St. Bento d'Avis, in Por- tugal. K. R. E. — Knight of the Black Eagle, in Russia. K. C. — King's Counsel; Knight of the Crescent, in Turkey. ABBREVIATIONS K. C. B. — Knight Commander of the Bath. K. C. H. — Knight Commander of Hanover. K. C. S. — Knight of Charles III. of Spain. K. E. — Knight of the Elephant, in Denmark. K. F. — Knight of Ferdinand, in Spain. K. F. M. — Knight of St. Ferdinand and Merit, in Sicily. Kg., Kgs.— Keg; Kegs. K. G. — Knight of the Garter. K. G. C— Knight of the Golden Circle; Knight of the Grand Cross. K. G. C. B. — Knight of the Grand Cross of the Bath. K. G. F. — Knight of the Golden Fleece, in Spain. K. G. H. — Knight of the Guelphs of Hanover. K. G. V. — Knight of Gustavus Vasa, in Sweden. K. H. — Knight of Hanover. Ki. — Kings. Kilo., Kilog. — Kilogram. Kilo., Kilom. — Kilometer. Kingd. — Kingdom. K. J. — Knight of St. Joachim. K. L. — Knights of Labor. K. L., or K. L. A. — Knight of Leopold of Aus- tria. K. L. H. — Knight of the Legion of Honor. K. M.— Knight of Malta. K. Mess. — King's Messenger. K. M. H — Knight of Merit of Holstein. K. M. J. — Knight of Maximilian Joseph, in Ba- varia. K. M. T. — Knight of Maria Theresa, in Austria. Knick. — Knickerbocker. K. N. S.— Knight of the North Star, in Sweden. Knt. or Kt. — Knight. K. P.— Knight of St. Patrick; Knight of Pythias. K. R. C— Knight of the Red Cross. K. R. E. — Knight of the Red Eagle, in Prussia. K. S. — Knight of the Sword, in Sweden. K. S. A. — Knight of St. Anne, in Russia. K. S. E. — Knight of St. Esprit, in France. K. S. F. — Knight of St. Fernando, in Spain. K. S. F. M.— Knight of St. Ferdinand and Mer- it, in Naples. K. S. G — Knight of St. George, in Russia. K. S. H.— Knight of St. Hubert, in Bavaria. K. S. J. — Knight of St. Januarius, in Naples. K. S. L. — Knight of the Sun and Lion, in Persia. K. S. M. & S. G— Knight of St. Michael and St. George, in the Ionian Islands. K. S. P. — Knight of St. Stanislaus of Poland. K S. S. — Knight of the Southern Star, in Bra- zil ; Knight of the Sword of Sweden. K. S. W. — Knight of St. Wladimir, in Russia. Kt. — Knight. K. T. — Knight of the Thistle ; Knight Templar. K. 1. 1. (GnK.r.X). — Kat ra \dwo^va {kai ta Icipo- mena), . or \017ra (loipa), and so forth; and the rest; same as « etc.» K. T. S. — ■ Knight of the Tower and Sword, in Portugal. K. W. — Knight of William, in the Netherlands. K. W. E.— Knight of the White Eagle, in Po- land. Ky. — Kentucky. L. — Lake; Liber, book; Libra, libra, pound, pounds L: (Lib. cat.). — Louis. L. . (Lib. cat.). — Louise. La. — Louisiana. L. A. C. — Licentiate of the Apothecaries' Com- pany. Lam. — Lamentations. Lang. — Language. Lapp. — Lappish. Lat. — Latitude; Latin. L. A. W. — League of American Wheelmen. Lb., or lbs. — Libra or libra, pound or pounds in weight. L. C. — Loco citato, in the place cited; Lord Chamberlain ; Lord Chancellor ; Lower Can- ada ; Lower case. L. C. B. — Lord Chief Baron. L. C. J. — Lord Chief Justice. L. C. M. — Least common multiple. Ld. — Lord; Limited. Ldp. — Lordship. Leg. — Legal ; Legate. Legis. — Legislature. Leip. — ■ Leipsic. Lett. — Lettish. Lev. — Leviticus. Lex. — Lexicon. L. G. — Life Guards. L. H. A. — Lord High Admiral. L. H. C. — Lord High Chancellor. L. H. D. — Litterarum Humaniorutn Doctor, Doctor of the More Humane Letters. L. H. T. — Lord High Treasurer. L. I. — Long Island. Lib. — Liber, book. Lieut. — Lieutenant. Lieut. -Col. — Lieutenant-Colonel. Lieut.-Gen. — Lieutenant-General. Lieut.-Gov. — Lieutenant-Governor Lim. — Limited. Lin. — Lineal. Linn. — Linnaeus ; Linnxan. Liq. — Liquid ; Liquidation ; Liquor. Lit. — Literally ; Literature. Lith. — Lithuanian. L. L. — Loco laudato, in the place praised (quot- ed) ; Lord Lieutenant. L. Lat. — Low Latin ; Law Latin. LL. B. — Legum Baccalaureus, Bachelor of Laws. LL. D. — Legum Doctor, Doctor of Laws. LL. M. — Legum Magistcr, Master of Laws. L. M. — Long metre. L. M. D. — Long metre double. L. M. S. — London Missionary Society. Loc. cit. — Loco citato, in the place cited. Lon. — Longitude. Lond. — London. L. P. — Large Paper ; Lord Provost. L. P. M. — Long particular metre. L. P. S.— Lord Privy Seal. L. R. C. P.— Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians. L. R. C. S.— Licentiate of the Royal College of Surgeons. L. S. — Locus sigilli, place of the seal. L. S. D. — Pounds, shillings, and pence. Lt. — Lieutenant. Lt. Inf. — Light Infantry. L. U. E. — Left upper entrance. LXX. — The Septuagint (Version of the Old Testament). M. — Married ; Meridics, noon ; Mile ; Mille, a thousand; Minute, minutes; Monsieur, mister. M: (Lib. cat.). — Matthew. M.. (Lib. cat.). — Mary. M. A. — Master of Arts ; Military Academy. ABBREVIATIONS M. Am. Soc. C. E. — Member American Society Civil Engineei s. Mace. — Maccabees. Maced. Mao donian. Mag. — Magazine. Mil. — Major. Maj Gen. — Major-Genera!. Mai. — Malachi. Man. — Manassas. Mar. — March. March. — Marchioness. Marg. — Margin; Marginal. Marq. — Marquis. Masc — Masculine. Mass. — Massachusetts. Math. — Mathematics ; Mathematician. Matt. — Matthew. Max. — Maxim. M. B. — Medicines Baccalaureus, Bachelor of Medicine; Musicte Baccalaureus, Bachelor of Music. M. B. F. et II. — Magna Britannia, Francia. el Hibemia, Great Britain, France, and Ireland. M. C. — Member of Congress; Master of Cere- monies; Master Commandant. Mch.— March. M. C. S. — Madras Civil Service. Md. — Maryland. M. I). — Medicina Doctor, Doctor of Medicine. Mdlle. — Mademoiselle. Mdse. — Merchandise. Me. — Maine. M. E. — Methodist Episcopal; Military or Me- chanical Engineer. Mech. — Mechanic ; Mechanical. M il - Medicine. M. E. G. H. P.— Most Excellent Grand High Priest. Mem. — Memento, remember; Memorandum. Merc. — Mercury. M. E. S. — Methodist Episcopal, South. Mess. & Docs. — Messages and Documents. Messrs. — Messieurs, Gentlemen. Met- - Metaphysics. Metal. — Metallurgy. Meteor. — Meteorology. Meth. — Methodist. Mi ■■ — Mexico, or Mexican. M. F. A. — Minister of Foreign Affairs. Mfd. — Manufactured. Mfg. — Manufacturing. M. F. II. — Master of Foxhounds. Mfrs. — Manufacturers. Mfs. — Manufactures. M. Goth. — Mccso-Gotliic. Mic. — Micah. M. I. C. E. — Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers. Mich. — Michael; Michaelmas; Michigan. Mil — Military. Min. — Mineralogy; Mining; Minute, minutes. Minn. — Minne Min. Plen. — Minister Plenipotentiary. Mir. for Mag. — Mirror for Magistrates. Miss — Mississippi. M. I.. A — Mercantile Library Association. MM. — Messieurs, Gentlemen; (Their) Majes- ties. Mine. — Madame. Madam. M. M. S. — Moravian Missionary Society. M. M. S. S. — Massachuseltensis Medicines So- cietatis Socius, Fellow of the Massachusetts Medical Society. M. N. A. S. — Member of the National Academy of Sciences. Mo. — Missouri; Month. Mod. — Modern. Mon. — Montana; Monday. Mons. — Monsieur, Sir. Mont. — Montana. Morn. — Morning. Mos. — Months. M. 1'. — Member of Parliament; Member of Po- lice ; Methodist Protestant M. P. P. — Member of Provincial Parliament. M. P. S. — Member of the Philological Society; Member of the Pharmaceutical Society. Mr. — Mister. M. R.- -Master of the Rolls. M. K. A. S. — Member of the Royal Asiatic So- ciety; Member of the Royal Academy of Sci- i nee. M. R. C. C. — Member of the Royal College of Chemistry. M. R. C. P. — Member of the Royal College of Preceptors. M. R. C. S.— Member of the Royal College of Surgeons. M. R. C. y. S.— Member of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons. M. R. G. S. — Member of the Royal Geographical S^ iciety. M. R. I. — Member of the Royal Institution. M. R. I. A — Member of the Royal Irish Academy. Mrs. — Mistress. M R. S. L.— Member of the Royal Society of Literature. MS. — Manuscriptum, manuscript. M. S. — Master of Science; Memories sacrum, sacred to the memory. M. S. A. — Master of Science in Agriculture. M. S. L. — Mean sea level. MSS. — Manuscripta, manuscripts. Mt. — Mount, or mountain. M. T. C. — Marcus Tullius Cicero. Mth ; Mths — Month ; Months. Mus. B. — Musica Baccalaureus, Bachelor of Music. Mus. D. — Musica- Doctor, Doctor of Music. M. W.— Most Worthy; Most Worshipful. M. W. G. C. P.— Most Worthy Grand Chief Patriai ch. M. W. (',. M — Most Worthy Grand Master; Most Worshipful Grand Master. M. W. P.- Most Worthy Patriarch. Myth. — Mythology. N. — Neuter; North; Note; Noun; Number. N : ( Lib. cat.). — Nicholas. N. . (Lib. cat.). — Nancy. Na.— Nail. N. A. — National Academician; North America; North American. Nab. — Nahum. Nap. — Napi ilei >n : Napoleonic. N. A. S. — National Academy of Sciences. Nat. — Natural. Nath. — Nathanael, or Nathaniel. Nat. Ord. — Natural Order. Naut. — Nautical. Naut. Aim. — Nautical Almanac. N. B. — New Brunswick; North' Britain (i.e. Scotland) ; North British (i.e. Scotch) ; Nota bene, mark well ; take notice. N. C. — North Carolina. ABBREVIATIONS N. D.— No date ; Not dated ; North Dakota. N. E. — New England ; Northeast. Neb. — ■ Nebraska. Neh. — Nehemiah. N. e. i. — Non est inventus, he is not found. Nem. con., or nem. diss. — Nemine contradi- cente, or nemine disscntientc, no one opposing or dissenting; unanimously. Neth. — Netherlands. Neut. — Neuter (gender). Nev. — Nevada. N. F. — Newfoundland. N. G. — New Granada; Noble Grand; (slang) No good. N. H. — -New Hampshire. N. J. — New Jersey. N. I. — Non liquet, it does not appear. N. lat.— North latitude. N. M. — New measurement ; New Mexico. N. N. E. — North-northeast. N. N. W. — North-northwest. No. — Numero, number. N. O. — New Orleans. Nol. Pros. — Nolle prosequi, unwilling to pro- ceed. Nom. — Nominative. Non-com. — Non-commissioned (officer) . Non con. — Not content; dissenting (House of Lords). Non cul. — Non culpdbilis, not guilty. Non obst. — Non obstante, notwithstanding. Non pros. — Non prosequitur, he does not prose- cute. Non seq. — Non sequitur, it does not follow N. o. p. — Not otherwise provided for. Nos. — Numbers. Notts. — Nottinghamshire. Nov. — November. N. P. — Nisi Prius; Notary Public. N. P. D. — North Polar Distance. N. S. — New Series ; New Style (after 1752) ; Not specified : Nova Scotia. N. S. J. C. — Nostcr Salvator Jesus Christus, Our Saviour Jesus Christ. N. S. W.— New South Wales. N. T. — New Testament. N. u. — Name or names unknown. Num. — Numbers (Book of); Numeral. N. V. — New Version. N. V. M. — Nativity of the Virgin Mary. N. W. — Northwest. N. W. T. — Northwest Territory. N. Y.— New York. N. Z. — New Zealand. O— Ohio. O: (Lib. cat.).— Otto. O.. (Lib. cat.).— Olivia. Ob. — Obiit, he or she died. Obad.— Obadiah. Obs. — Obsolete; Observatory; Observation. Obt., or Obdt.— Obedient. Oct.— October. Oct., or 8vo. — Octavo. O. F.— Odd Fellow, or Odd Fellows. O. G. — Outside Guardian. O. H. M. S. — On His or Her Majesty's Service. O. K. (Jocular) — All right or correct. Okl.— Oklahoma. Olym. — Olympiad. O. M. — Old Measurement. Ont. — Ontario. Opt.— Optics. Or., Ore., Oreg. — Oregon. Orig. — Originally. Ornith. — Ornithology. O. S — Old Series; Old Style; Outside Sentinel. O. T.— Old Testament. O. U. A. — Order of United Americans. Oxf.— Oxford. Oxon. — O.ronia, Oxford; Oxonia, Oxoniensis, of Oxford. Oz. — ■ Onsa, ounce. P. — Page ; Part ; Participle ; Pondcre, by weight. P: (Lib. cat.).— Peter. P.. (Lib. cat.).— Pauline. Pa., or Penn. — Pennsylvania. Pal. — Palxontology. Par. — Paragraph. Pari. — Parliament. Par. Pas. — Parallel passage. Pathol. — Pathology. Pat. Of.— Patent Office. Paym.-Gen. — Paymaster-General. Payt. — ■ Payment. P. B. — Philosophies Baccalaureus, Bachelor of Philosophy; Primitive Baptist. P. C. — Patres Conscripti, Conscript Fathers, Senators ; Postal card ; Privy Council ; Privy Councilor. P. C. P.— Past Chief Patriarch. P. C. S. — Principal Clerk of Sessions. Pd.— Paid. P. D.— Philosophic? Doctor, Doctor of Phi- losophy. P. E. — -Protestant Episcopal. P. E. I. — Prince Edward Island. Penn. — Pennsylvania. Pent. — Pentecost. Per. — Persia; Persian. Per an. — Per annum, by the year. Per cent. — Per centum, by the hundred. Peri.— Perigee. Per proc. — Per procurationem, by procuration, or by power of attorney. Peruv. — ■ Peruvian. Pet. — Peter; Petrine. P. G— Past Grand. Phar. — Pharmacy. Ph. B. — Philosophies Baccalaureus, Bachelor of Philosophy. Ph. D.— Philosopliite Doctor, Doctor of Phi- losophy. Phil. — Philadelphia ; Philemon; Philip; Philip- pians ; Philosophical ; Philosophy. Phila.— Philadelphia. Philem. — Philemon. Philom. — Philomathes, a lover of learning. Philomath.- — Philomathematicus, a lover of mathematics. Phren. — Phrenology. P. I. — Philippine Islands. Pinx., or pxt. — Pinxit, he (she) painted it. Pk.— Peck. Pkt.— Packet. PI., or Plur.— Plural. P. L. — Foet Laureate. Plfif.— Plaintiff. Plupf. — Pluperfect. P. M. — Passed Midshipman; Post meridiem, afternoon, evening; Postmaster. P. M. G. — Postmaster-General. Po.— Pole. P. O. — Tost-Officc ; Province of Ontario. P. of H. — Patrons of Husbandry. ABBREVIATIONS P.-O. O — Post-Office order. Pop. — Population. Port. — Portugal, or Portuguese. Pp. — Pages. PP.— Patres. Fathers. P. P. — Parish priest ; Per procurationem, by procuration, or by power of attorney. P. P. C. — Pour prendre conge, to take leave. Pph.— Pamphlet. P. Q. — Previous Question ; Province of Quebec. Pr. — Per, by, or by the. P. R. — Populus Romanus, the Roman people; Porto Rico; Prize Ring. P. R. A. — President of the Royal Academy. P. R. C. — Post Romanum conditum, from the building of Rome. Preb.— Prebend. Pref. — Preface; Preferred. Prep. — Preparatory; Preposition. Pres. — President. Presb. — Presbyterian. Prin. — Principally. Priv. — Privative. Pro. — Procedure. Prob.— Probably ; Problem. Proc. — Proceedings ; Procedure. Prof. — Professor. Pron. — Pronoun ; Pronounced ; Pronunciation. Prop. — Proposition. Prot. — Protestant. Pro tern. — Pro tempore, for the time being. Prov. — Proverbs ; Province ; Provost. Prox. — Proximo, next (month). Prs. — Pairs. P. R. S. — President of the Royal Society. Prus. — Prussia; Prussian. Ps. — Psalm, or Psalms. P. S. — Paddle steamer; Post scriptum, post- script; Privy Seal. Psych. — Psychic ; Psychical ; Psychology. Pt — Part ; Pint ; Payment ; Point ; Port. P. T. O. — Please turn over. Pub. — Publisher ; Publication ; Published ; Pub- lic. P. v. — Post-village. P. W. P.— Past Worthy Patriarch. Pwt. — ■ Pennyweight ; pennyweights. Pxt. — Pinxit, he (or she) painted it. Q. — Quadrigans. farthing; Quasi, as it were, almost ; Queen ; Query', or question. Q. B. — Queen's Bench. Q- C. — Queen's College ; Queen's Counsel. Q. d. — Quasi dicat, as if he should say; quasi dictum, as if said; quasi dixisset, as if he had said. Q. c. — Quod est, which is. Q. e. d. — Quod erat demonstrandum, which was to be proved. Q. e. f. — Quod erat faciendum, which was to be done. Q. e. i. — Quod erat inveniendum, which was to be found out. Q. 1. — Quantum libet, as much as you please. Qm. — Quomodo, how; by what means. Q. M. — Quartermaster. Q. Mess. — Queen's Messenger. Q. M. G. — Quartermaster-General. Q. p.. or q. pi. — Quantum placet, as much as you please. Qr. — Quarter. Q. S. — Quantum sufiicit, as much as may suffice ; Quarter Sessions. Qt.— Quart. (Ju., or qy, — Oniric, inquire; query. Quad. — (Juadrant ; Quadrate. Quar. — Quarterly. Que. — Quebec. Ques. — Question. Q. V. — Quod vide, which see; Quantum j -is. as much as you will. R. — Railroad; Railway; Recipe, take; Regina, Queen; River; Rod; Rood. R: (Lib. cat.).— Richard. R. . (Lib. cat.). — Rebec R. A. — Royal Academician; Royal Academy; Royal Arch ; Royal Artillery. RC. — ■ Reseriptum, a counterpart. R. C. — Roman Catholic. R. C. S. — Royal College of Surgeons. R. C. P. — Royal College of Physicians. R. D.— Rural Dean. R. E. — Reformed Episcopal; Royal Engineers. Rec. — Recipe ; Record ; Recorder ; Recording. Reed. — Received. Rect. — Rector; Receipt. Ref. — Reformed ; Reformation ; Reference. Reg. — Regiment; Register; Registrar; Regular. Reg. Prof. — Regius Professor, Royal Professor. Rel. — Religion. Rep. — Report ; Reporter ; Representative ; Re- public; Republican. Retd. — Returned. Rev. — Reverend; Revelation (Book of); Re- view; Revenue; Revise. Rhet. — Rheti R. H. S. — Royal Humane Society; Royal His- torical Society. R. I.— Rhode Island. R. I. P. — Requiescat in pace, Let him (her) rest in peace. R. M. — Royal Marines; Royal Mail. K. M. S. — Railway Mail Service; Royal Mail Service : Roval Mail Steamer. R. N.— Roval Navy. R. X. R. -Royal Naval Reserve. Ro. — Recto, right-hand page; rood. Robt.— Robert. Rom. — Roman ; Romans. R. P. — Reformed Presbyterian; Regius Profes- sor, Roval Professor. R. R.— Railroad. Rs. — Rupees. R. S. — Recording Secretary. R. S. A. — Royal Society of Antiquaries ; Royal Scottish Academy. R. S. V. P. — Repondec, s'il i-ous plait, answer, if you please. Rt. Hon. — Right Honorable. Rt. Rev. — Right Reverend. R. T. S. — Religious Tract Society. Rt. WpfuL— Right Worshipful. R. U. E. — Right upper entrance. Russ. — Russia; Russian. R. V. — Revised Version. R. W. D. G. M.— Right Worshipful Deputy Grand Master. R. W. G. R — Right Worthy Grand Representa- tive. R. W. G. S.— Right Worthy Grand Secretary. R. \y. G. T.— Right Worthy Grand Treasurer; Right Worshipful Grand Templar. R. W. G. W.— Right Worthy Grand Warden. R. W. J. G. W.— Right Worshipful Junior Grand Warden. ABBREVIATIONS R. W. S. G. XV.— Righl Worshipful Senior Grand Warden. Rx. — Rupees. Ry. — Railway. S. — -Saint; Scribe; Second: Series; Solidus, a shilling; South: Sun; Sunday. S: (Lib. cat.). — Samuel. S. . (Lib. cat.)- — Sarah. S. A. — Secundum artem, according to art; South America ; South Australia. Sam. — Samuel. Sansc, or Sansk. — Sanscrit, or Sanskrit. Sard.— Sardinia. S. A. S. — Societatis Antiquariorum Socius, Fel- low of the Society of Antiquaries. Sat. — Saturday. Sax. — Saxon ; Saxony. S. C. — Scnatus Consultum, a decree of the Sen- ate; Small capitals; South Carolina; Staff Corps ; Supreme Court. Sc. — Scene ; Scilicet, namely, to wit ; Scruple ; Sculpsit, he (or she) engraved it. Scan. Mag. — -Scandalum magnatiim, scandal of the great. Scapa (S. C. A. P. A.). — Society for Checking Abuses in Public Advertising. Sc. B. — -Scientice Baccalaureus, Bachelor of Sci- ence. Schol. — Scholium, a note. Schr. — Schooner. Sclav. — Sclavonic. Scot. — Scottish ; Scotland. Scr. — Scruple. Scrip. — Scripture. Sculp. — Sculpsit, he (or she) engraved it. S. D. — Sainton dicit, sends health; Senior Dea- con ; South Dakota. S. D. U. K. — Society for the Diffusion of Use- ful Knowledge. S. E. — Southeast. Sec— Secretary ; Second ; Section. Sec. Leg. — Secretary of Legation; Secundum legem, according to law. Sec. Reg. — Secundum rcgulam, according to rule. Sect. — Section. Sem. — Scmble, it seems; Seminary. Sen. — Senate ; Senator ; Senior. Sept.— September ; Septuagint. Seq. — Sequentia, following; Sequitur, it follows. Ser. — Series. Serg. — Sergeant. Serg.-Maj. — Sergeant-Major. Servt. — Servant. Sess. — Session. S.-G. — Solicitor-General. Shak. — Shakespeare. S. H. ,S. — Societatis Historic? Socius, Fellow of the Historical Society. S. I. M. — Society for Increase of the Ministry. Sing. — Singular. S. J. — ■ Society of Jesus. S. J. C. — Supreme Judicial Court. S. M. — State Militia; Short Meter; Sergeant- Major; Sons of Malta. S. M. Lond. Soc. — Societatis Medicce Londo- nensis Socius, Member of the London Medical Society. Soc. Isl. — Society Islands. S. of Sol. — Song of Solomon. Sol. — Solomon ; Solution. Sol. -Gen. — Solicitor-General. Sp. — Spain ; Spanish. S. P. — Sine prole, without issue. S. P. A. S. — Societatis Philosophies Americana Socius, Member of the American Philosophi- cal Society. S. P. C. A. — Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. S. P. C. C. — Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children. S. P. C. K— Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge. S. P. G. — Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. Sp. gr. — Specific gravity. S. P. M. — ■ Short particular metre. S. P. Q. R. — Senatus Populusque Romanus, the Senate and people of Rome. S. P. R. L. — Society for the Promotion of Re- ligion and Learning. Sq.- — Scquens, following; usually ct seq., and following (pages) ; Square. Sqq. — Sequcntibus, the following (pages or places). Sr. — ■ Senior. S. R. I. — Sacrum Romanian Imperium, Holy Roman Empire. S. R. S. — Societatis Regice Socius, Fellow of the Royal Society. SS. — Saints; Scilicet, to wit; Semis, half; Ses- sions. S. S. — Screw steamer ; Steamship ; Sunday- school. S. S. E. — South-southeast. S. S. W. — South-southwest. St. — Saint ; Statute ; Stone ; Strait ; Street Sta. — Station. Stat. — Statute. S. T. B. — Sacrce Theologies Baccalaureus, Bach- elor of Sacred Theology. S. T. D. — Sacrce Theologian Doctor, Doctor of Sacred Theology. Ster., or Stg. — Sterling. S. T. P. — Sacrce Theologia Professor, Pro- fessor of Sacred Theology. Str. — Steamer. Subj. — Subjunctive. Subst. — ■ Substantive. Su.-Goth. — Suio-Gothic. Sun., or Sund. — Sunday. Sup. — Superfine ; Supplement ; Supra, above , Supreme. Supt. — Superintendent. Surg. — Surgeon ; Surgery. Surg.-Gen. — Surgeon-General. Surv. — Surveyor. S. V. — Sub voce, under the word or title. Sw. — Swiss. S. W.— Southwest. Swe. — Sweden; Swedish; Swedenborg; Swe- denborgian. Switz. — Switzerland. Syn. — Synonym ; Synonymous. Syr. — Syriac T. — Term ; Territory : Tome, volume. T: (Lib. cat). — Thomas. T. . (Lib. cat). — Theresa. Tab. — Table ; Tabular. Tan. — Tangent. T. E. — Topographical Engineers. Tenn. — Tennessee. Ter. — Territory. Tex. — Texas. ABBREVIATIONS Text. Rcc. — Textus Receptus, Received Text. Tf.— Till forbidden. Tfn. — Till further notice. Th. — Thui Thco. — Theodore. Theol. — 1 neology ; 1 hcological. Theoph. — Theophilus. Theor. — 'I In i iri in Thess. — Thessalonians. Thos. — Thomas. Thurs. — Thursday. Tim.— Timi ithj Tit— Title ; Titus. T. O. — Turn over. Tob.— Tobit Tom. — Tome, volume. Topog. — Topography ; Topographical. Tp. — Township. Tr. — Transpose; Translator; Translation; Trustee. Trans. — Translator; Translation; Transactions; Tran -r Treas. — Treasurer. Trill. — Trinity. Tr. S. — Triple screw. T. S. — 'Twin screw. Tu., Tue., or Tues. — Tuesday. Tur. — Turkey. Typ. — Typical ; Typographer ; Typographical. U. — Union. U: (Lib. cat.).— Uriah. I.— Ursula. U. B.- - United Brethren. U. C. — Upper Canada ; / Wbe condita, year of the founding of Home. I". J. C. — I 'triusque Juris Doctor, Doctor of both Laws i Canon and Civil). U. K. - I nited Kingdom. U. K. A. — lister King-at- Arms ; United King- dom Alliance. Ult. — Ultimo, last; of the last month. Unit. — Unitarian. Univ. — Universal; Universalist ; L'niversity. U. P. — \ iiiu d Presbyterian. U. S. — United States; Ut supra, or uti supra, as above. U. S. A. — United States of America; United States Army. U. S. M — United States Mail; United States Marines- U. S. M. A. — United States Military Academy. U. S. M. C. — United States Marine Corps. U. S. M. H. S. — United States Marine Hospital Service. U. S. N.— United States Navy. U. S. N. A. — United States Naval Academy. U. S. S. — United States Senate; United States Ship. U. s. w. — Vnd so writer, and so further; same as «ctc.» Ut— Utah. V. — Versus, against : Versiculo, in such a verse; Vide, see ; Village ; Violin. V: (Lib. cat.).— Victor. V.. (Lib. cat.). — Victoria. Va. — Virginia. Val — Valorem; Value. Vat. — Vatican. V. C. — Victoria Cross ; Vice-Chairman ; Vicc- Chanccllor. V. D. L. — Van Dicmen's Land. V I'. M. — Verbi Dei Minister, Minister of God's u i >rd. Ven. — Venerable. Vei Vei se. V. G. — Vicar-General. V. g. — Verbi gratia, as for example. Vid. — / 'id, . Vise. — Viscount. Yi/.. or vl. — Videlicet, to wit; namely; that is to say. Vo. — Verso, left-hand page. Vol. — Volume ; Volunteer. Vols. — Volunteers. V P.— Vice-President. V. R. — -Victoria Regina, Queen Victoria. Vs. — Versus, against ; / 'ersiculo, in such a verse. V. S.- -Veterinary Surgeon. N't. — Vermont. Vul.— Vulgate. W.— Wednesday ; West. W: (Lib. cat.).— William. W. . (Lib. cat.).— Wilhclmina. gton. \V. B. M. — Woman's Hoard of Missions. W. C. A. — Woman's Christian Association. W. C. T. U. Women's Christian Temperance Union. Wed.- -Wednesday. W. F.— Wrong font. W. F. M. S. — Woman's Foreign Missionary So- ciety. W. II. M. A. — Woman's Home Missionary As- ition. W. L— West Indies. Wis. — Wisconsin. \\',m1.— Wisdom (Book of). W'k .— Week. Wm. — William W. M. — Worshipful Master. W. M. S. — Wesleyan Missionary Society. W. X. C. T. U. — Woman's National Christian Temperance Union. W. N. W.— West -northwest. W. S.— Writer to the Signet. W. S. W.— West-southwest. Wt— Weight. W. Va. — West Virginia. Wyo. — Wyoming. X., or Xt. — Christ. (X in this and the follow- ing abbreviations is the Greek clii.) X: (Lib. cat.). — Xavier. Xmas., or Xm. — • Christmas. Xn.. or Xtian. — Christian. Xnty., or Xty. — Christianity. Xper., or Xr. — Christopher. Yd.— Yard. Y. M. C. A. — Young Men's Christian Associa- tion. Y. M. C. U. — Young Men's Christian Union. Y. P. S. C. E.— Young People's Society of Christian Endeavor. Yr.— Year: Your. Yrs. — Years; Yours. Y. W. C. A. — Young Women's Christian Asso- ciation. Zach. — Zachary. Zech. — Zechariah. Zeph. — Zephaniah. Zool. — Zoology. ABD-ER-RAHMAN — ABDICATION Abbreviators, a body of 72 writers in the Papal Chancery who have charge of sketching and putting in shape papal bulls, briefs, and consistorial decrees, and signing them in the name of the Cardinal Vice-Chancellor. This body receives its name from the fact of their taking short-hand notes of the decisions to be later expanded. They have existed at least since 1400. Abd-er-Rahman I., abd-er-ra'man, founder of the Moorish emirate (later caliphate) of Cordova (q.v.) : b. Damascus, 731; d. 788. He was a grandson of the Ommiad caliph Hisham, and having fled to Africa escaped the frightful massacre of his family (see Om- miads and Abbassides) by Abu '1- Abbas; a hunted fugitive in the desert, but faithfully protected by the tribesmen, who respected his blood and pitied his misfortunes. Meanwhile Spain was seething with anarchy ; each new caliph sent a new emir there ; the governor of Africa claimed the right to interfere on the ground that the African governors had cap- tured it ; the native chiefs were unwilling to submit to a constant succession of interlopers with no interest but their own, and at last the situation became so intolerable that the Spanish Arabs determined to choose a ruler with his residence in Spain. They selected the wander- ing heir of the overthrown house, and seeking him out in Africa offered him the place. He landed in Spain 25 Sept. 755, and fixed his royal seat at Cordova. His reign was one of incessant warfare. Hosein ben-Yahva, the Abbasside emir, driven from Spain, fled to Charlemagne and implored his assistance ; it was granted and Hosein was re-enthroned at Saragossa, but while the Frankish army was returning through the Pyrenees, the Basque mountaineers fell upon the rear-guard and annihilated it in the pass of Ronccsvalles, with its commander Roland. Sar- agossa was taken after two years' siege, Ho- sein put to death as a rebel, and Spain to the Pyrenees subdued. A formidable rising in 786 was crushed, and Abd-er-Rahman had two years of life to devote to the arts of peace and the building of his famous mosque at Cordova (now used as a cathedral), with its rows of cupolas supported by 850 pillars of jasper. Abd-er-Rahman III., the greatest of the caliphs of Cordova, and the first under whom the emirate assumed the title of caliphate : b. 891, acceded 912; d. 961. Measured by what he found and what he left, he must be counted among the ablest rulers of history. The former was a throne to which most of the provincial governors had thrown off allegiance, and the rest rendered such obedience as suited them ; a country in a state of permanent anarchy and civil war, perishing of racial, religious, and factional quarrels between Arabs and Moors ; the Fatimite .dynasty establishing a great empire in Africa, and looking for _ a speedy succession to the heritage of Spain; on the north, the new Christian states rapidly growing, — Alfonso III. had recently moved his capital across the moun- tains to Leon, and Sancho had founded the kingdom of Navarre, — so that what escaped the Africans would probably fall into the hands of the Christians. Abd-er-Rahman first put down the worst internal revolt, that of the family of the old brigand Omar ben Hafsun, whose stronghold in the mountains of Andalusia had become a centre for all the renegades. Chris- tians, and rebels of the south. He tied the hands of the Fatimites by subsidizing the native princes who held out against them. The north- ern danger was the worst. Ordono II. in 914 raided the territory of Merida ; and though Merida had thrown off allegiance to Cordova, Abd-er-Rahman wished the more to show them that he was their protector. Collecting and equipping a splendid army, in 918 he gained a great victory over the combined forces of Leon and Navarre, following it up with several cam- paigns in which he penetrated to Pamplona, the capital of Navarre. These victories were not final : his fortunes were checkered on the Chris- tian side, and he suffered some defeats. But his suzerainty over Navarre was recognized, and in 960 a deposed king was reseated on the throne of Leon by Abd-er-Rahman's troops. Internal- ly his success and glory were unqualified. At his death he left a consolidated kingdom, a full treasury in place of an empty one. internal order kept by a vigilant police, flourishing agriculture based on scientific irrigation, prosperous indus- tries, commerce whose customs dues furnished the majority of the revenue, an income of whicn one-third paid the current expenses and another third was used for building, and the rest kept for a reserve, the best army in Europe, a superb navy which made him lord of the gates of the Mediterranean, and equality in diplomatic rank with the proudest sovereigns of the world. Abd-er-Rahman, Saracen chieftain who led an army of nearly 90,000 into Gaul, and was de- feated and slain near Poitiers (usually known as the battle of Tours) by Charles Martel (q.v.). Abd-er-Rahman. See Abd-ur-Rahman. Abdication, in strictness, the renunciation of any office by the holder before the expiration of its term ; in actual use, applied only to sover- eign rulers, dc jure or dc facto, who resign the crown in their lifetimes. The motives for this are as various as human fate, character, policy, or necessity, or the events of history. It may he compulsory- — in which case it is really not abdi- cation but deposition — or voluntary. Compulsion may come from foreign conquest ; from foreign commands when the king is a puppet, as with the later Polish kings, or Napoleon's shifting his brothers from throne to throne ; from the com- mands of de facto controllers of the state within, as with the puppet Roman emperors under the barbarian commanders-in-chief of the army; or from popular or factional insurrection's. If voluntary, it may be from desire to let a con- stitutional machine have a fair chance to work alone, as with Sulla and Diocletian ; from satiety with royal power and weariness of royal bur- dens, as with Murad II. of Turkey ; from physi- cal ailments and discouragement, as with the Emperor Charles V. : from penitence and desire to live a religious life, as with more than one mediaeval prince who furnished real models for .Shakespeare's usurper in < As You Like It I ; from weariness of the restraints of royal eti- quette, as with Christina of Sweden, — perhaps also sincere conversion to Catholicism and un- willingness to enforce a Protestant establish- ment ; from unwillingness to obey an overlord to the harm of his kingdom, as with Louis Bona- ABDI-CHIBA — ABDUCTION parte; from inability to face the results of crush- ing defeat, as with Charles Albert of Sardinia; from acceding ti> a higher throne, as with Charles of Naples; from shame at the results of a bad policy, as with William I. of the Nether- lands; from unwillini o retain a throne against the popular will, as with Louis Philippe — for his resignation was not enforced; or other reasons. In monarchies as a whole, the sover- eign can abdicate at will ; in England, only by consent of Parliament — which however, as in the case of James II., can assume an implied abdication which the monarch had no intention of executing, the term being a euphemism for deposition. The following is a list of some of the chief historical abdications, with their dates: Sulla the Dictator B.C. 79 Diocletian the Emperor a.d. 305 Benedict IX, Pope 1048 Stephen TI of Hungary 1141 Ladislas 111. Duke of Poland 1167 Albert the Hear of Brandenburg 1169 John Ballio! of Scotland 1296 Joannes Cantacuzenos, Emperor of the East 1355 John XX11I. Pope 1415 Eric VII of Denmark and XIII of Sweden 1439 Murad II, Ottoman Emperor 1444 and 1445 Charles V, Emperor 25 Oct. 155S Christina of Sweden 1654 John Casimir of Poland 1668 James II of England 1 688 "Frederick Augustus of Poland 1706 Philip V of Spain 1724 Victor Amadeus 11 »>f Sardinia 1730 Ahmed III, Ottoman Emperor 1730 Charles of Naples (on accession to throne of Spain) 1759 Stanislaus II of Poland 1795 Charles Emanuel IV of Sardinia 4 Tune 1802 Charles IV of Spain 19 March 1808 Joseph Bonaparte of Naples (transferred to Spain by Napoleon) 6 Tunc 1808 Gustavus IV of Sweden 29 March 1809 Louis lionaparte of Holland 2 July 1810 Napoleon 1 of France 1 April 1814 and 22 June 1815 Victor Emanuel of Sardinia 13 March 1821 Charles X of France 2 Aug. 1830 Pedro of Brazil 7 April 1831 (Also abdicated the throne of Portugal in_ favor of his daughter, at once on his accession in 1826.) Miguel of Portugal 26 May 1834 William I of Holland I Oct. 1840 Louis Philippe of France 24 Feb. 1848 Louis Charles of Bavaria 21 March 1848 Ferdinand of Austria 2 Dec. 1848 Charles Albert of Sardinia 22 March 1849 Leopold 11 of Tuscany 21 July 1859 Isabella II of Spain 25 June 1870 Amadeus I of Spain 11 Feb. 1873 Abdul- Aziz. Sultan of Turkey 30 May 1876 Pedro II of Brazil 15 Nov. 1888 Milan of Servia March, 1889 Abdiel, ab'di-el ("servant of God"), the one loyal seraph in heaven, according to (Paradise Lost,> « among the faithless, faith- ful only he,» who withstands Satan when the latter is inciting revolt against God for pro- moting his Son over the heads of the angel peers. Milton took the name from the Jew- ish cabalists. Abdomen, ab-do'men, in human anatomy, that portion of the body bounded above by the di- aphragm, below by the pelvis, behind by the lumbar vertebrae, and in front by a thin layer of muscles, the abdominal muscles. This cavity con- tains the chief organs of digestion and the genito- urinary system. By reason of the movements of the diaphragm it is rhythmically changing its size, and the movements of the intestines somewhat modify its internal contour. For purposes of description and for localization the abdomen is divided by a tit-tat-toc figure into nine regions; the upper and lower horizontal lines passing at the lower level of the ribs and the upper borders of the pelvis. From above downward tile mid- dle squares are termed the epigastric, the um- bilical, and hypogastric; to the sides of the epigastric regions are the right and left hypo- chondrium ( under the ribs) ; the right find left lumbar Hank the central umbilical region, and the right and left iliac regions lie down in the pelvis on either side of the hypogastric area. The general location of the abdominal viscera in the various areas is of interest. The liver lies up under the ribs in the right hypochon- drium. stretching over the upper pari of the epigastrium into the left hypochondrium ; the stomach lies mostly in the left hypochondrium and reaches into the epigastrium just below the sternum; the large intestine starts in the right iliac region, the appendix being there also, goes up the right lumbar into the lower portion of the right hypochondrium, crosses straight over, dipping slightly into the umbilical region, from the left hypochondrium it descends into the left iliac region and then turns back into the centre and ends at the rectum. The small intestine occupies most of the umbilical region, extending out into the others. The pancreas lies just be- hind the lower end of the stomach in the epigas- trium. The spleen lies higher up on the left side behind, resting on the 10th and nth ribs. The kidneys are behind high up, in the hypo- chondriac lumbar region, just coming below the free borders of the ribs ; most pains in the small of the back thought to be kidney pains are pains from constipated bowels; kidney pains are high up under the ribs behind. The genital organs lie in the hypogastric and right and left iliac re- gions, the bladder low in front in the centre, the uterus slightly above in the centre, the ovaries.to the right and left in the right and left iliac fossae. In entomology, the whole body of an in- sect behind the thorax. It usually consists of rings or short hollow cylinders, which are united by a joint or membrane, and in some cases, as in the grub of the chameleon fly, slide upon one another like the tubes of a telescope. Some- times it bears a sting or an ovipositor, though in the perfect insect no appendages are found. An abdominal ring is one of two oblong ten- dinous openings or " rings » existing in either groin, or in the right and left inguinal regions. Through these rings pass the spermatic cord in the one sex, and the circular ligament of the uterus in the other. It is through these rings that inguinal hernia, or rupture, occurs. Abduction, the act of abducing or abduct- ing; a taking or drawing away, and specifically an unlawful taking. In the United St the word abduction is ordinarily applied to the illegal seizure and detention of a female for the purpose of concubinage, prostitution, or marriage. The punishment for abduction varies in the different States of the Union. The punishment in the United States is lighter than it is in Eng- land for this offense. For instance, in New- York the crime is punishable by imprisonment for not more than five years, or by a fine of not more than $1,000, or by both. In common and English law this offense is of three kinds: (1) If any person shall ma- liciously, either by force or fraud, lead, or take ABDUCTOR — ABD-UL-HAMID away, or detain, any child under the age of 10 years, with intent to deprive the parents or other persons having the lawful charge of such child, or with intent to steal any article on its person ; or shall receive or harbor such child, knowing the same to have been so stolen or en- ticed, — every such offender shall be guilty of felony, and shall be liable to penal servitude for not more than seven or less than three years, or imprisoned, with or without hard labor, for any term not more than two years. (2) If the girl is under the age of 16 years, the offender shall be guilty of misdemeanor, and being convicted thereof shall be liable to suffer such punish- ment, by fine or imprisonment, or both, as the court shall award. (3) If any person shall, from motives of lucre, take away or detain against her will, any woman having any interest, present or future, in any real or personal estate, with intent to marry or defile her, or to cause her to be married or defiled by any other person, every such offender, and every person counsel- ing, aiding, or abetting such offender, shall be guilty of felony, and liable to penal servitude for life, or for any time not less than three years, or to be imprisoned, with or without hard labor, for any term not exceeding five years. If the woman first consent to be taken away, and after- ward refuse to continue with the offender, and he forcibly detain her ; or if she be forcibly taken away and she afterward consent to her marriage or defilement; or if she be taken away with her own consent, obtained by fraud or imposition, the offense, is the same. But if a man, without fraud, deceit, or violence, marries a woman under age, without the consent of her father or guardian, that act is not indictable at common law. In logic, abduction is a form of reasoning in which the greater extreme is contained in the medium ; but the medium is not so evidently in the lesser extreme. Example : « Whatever God has revealed is certainly true; now God has re- vealed a future retribution ; therefore a future retribution is certainly true.» In the use of this kind of reasoning the minor proposition must be proved to be contained in the major. Abductor, a muscle, the office of which is to draw a limb or portion of a limb to which it is attached away from the centre of that limb. Abductor of the thigh, for example, raises the thigh away from the centre of the body. In law, a person guilty of abduction. Abd - ul - Akhad - Khan, abd-ool-aK-ad'ican, amir of Bokhara : b. 1852 ; succeeded his father Muzaffar 12 Nov. 1885, and without trying to throw off Russian suzerainty abolished slavery and underground prisons, reduced the army, regulated taxes, and proved himself an able and progressive ruler. Abd-ul-Aziz, iibd-ool-a-zez', 32d Sultan of the Ottoman Turks: b. 9 Feb. 1830; succeeded his brother Abd-ul-Medjid (q.v.), 25 June tSoi ; ■ I. 4 June 1876. At first he showed himself liberal- minded and open to Western ideas, and promised economy and reform. But ere long he began to spend vast sums on his army, the embellishment of his capital, hunting, and costly journeys. Despite this, reforms were long hoped for, espe- cially after his visit to western Europe in 1867. His government had great difficulties to contend with in the Cretan insurrection of 1866, the struggle of Rumania and Servia for full auton- omy, and finally the outbreak of Mohammedan fanaticism. In 1871 the Sultan strove to get the succession settled upon his son, instead of his nephew Murad according to Turkish custom. He next tried to set Russia against the other powers, and plunged ever into deeper financial difficulties, while his stupid misgovernment alienated the provinces and led in 1875 to ris- ings in Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Bulgaria. At last a conspiracy forced him to dismiss his minis- ters, and next to abdicate the throne. 30 May 1876. Four days later he was found dead. He was succeeded by his nephew Mehemet Murad, who was shortly deposed on the ground of al- leged insanity, in favor of the present Sultan, Abd-ul-Hamid, and murdered. Abd-ul-Hamid, I., abd-ool-ha-mid', Sultan of Turkey, son of Ahmed HI.: b. 1725; suc- ceeded his brother Mustapha III.. 1774; d. [789. He was involved in two wars with Russia, and the treaty of Kutchuk-Kainardji in 1774 com- pelled him to relinquish the Crimea and other districts; and in 1788 Ochakov, in the Kherson district, was taken by the Russians. Abd-ul-Hamid II., 34th Sultan of the Otto- man Turks : b. 22 Sept. 1842, second son of Abd- ul-Medjid: acceded 1876 on the deposition of his brother Murad V. At this time the insur- rection of Bosnia and Herzegovina was in full blaze, and the intolerable misgovernment in Bulgaria by the local zaptiehs and others was preparing that province to follow suit — the de- sire of the people for security of life, property, and female honor being of course accredited to « Russian intrigues," no other cause being ade- quate. Internally, the « Young Turkey" party, headed by Midhat Pasha — which wished to free Turkey from its European leading-strings, but by honest reforms and a parliamentary system — were equally obnoxious to him as reformers and as revolutionists. The storm of Oriental butch- ery and outrage he turned loose on a Bulgarian district (see Batak) roused the Russians to a frenzy of rightful horror which forced the hand of the Czar, who did not wish war: and in the conflict of 1877-8 the Russian armies advanced almost to Constantinople. Christian Europe would perhaps have been nearly freed from the Turkish incubus, which has blighted every land it has rested on, but that the great powers flamed out in jealousy of Russia : the English Tories were barely restrained from making war on her and leaving Turkish power over the provinces just as it was, by the Liberal uprising headed by Mr. Gladstone. Even the Treaty of San Stefano (q.v.), which Russia exacted from Turkey, was not allowed to stand, the Berlin Congress (q.v.) cutting down the Turkish sacrifices ; even so, however, Servia, Rumania, and Montenegro were freed altogether from Turkish suzerainty, Bosnia and Herzegovina were handed over to Austria, and Bulgaria was left in only nominal dependence, though by a futile contrivance di- vided into two provinces which shortly reunited ; a small part of Armenia was also ceded to Rus- sia. The treaty obligated the Sultan to intro- duce reforms into the remaining Christian provinces, as if the history of the previous half- ceut tiry had not shown what that meant even with a sincere Sultan ; and Abd-ul-Hamid had ABDULLAHI — ABD-UR-RAHMAN no design of paying any attention to it. He was a bigoted Mussulman of the very party which had nullified all the efforts of Mahmud II., Alxl- ul-Medjid, and Reshid Pasha, and believed that infidels should have no choice but slavery or the sword, according to the Prophet's word. He mi himself at once to recover the fullest autoc- racy at home and evade the demands of the Christian states abroad. Midhat was shortly ar- rested, nominally for the acts that had given the Sultan his throne, banished, and died soon and Suddenly. All power was centred in the seraglio at Constantinople, wholesale murders and ter- ror m cowed all opposition, and for many years no whisper of constitutionalism has been heard in Turkey. The European powers were astutely set by the ears to prevent each other from gain- ing any advantage of it ; the Christians were treated WOI e than ever; finally, ill 1895-6 the signal was given to let loose on all Armenia the horrors winch in one spot of Bulgaria had cost Turkey half her European possessions less than twenty years before. Abd-ul-Hamid had done his work well: no abler diabolic statesman has existed in our era. Not a power lifted a finger: even the English Liberal ministry, though Eng- land had forced Russia to leave Armenia to Turkey hy guaranteeing good government for it, raised no hand to protect it. A considerable percentage of the Armenians were exterminated by hordes of savage Kurds and other irregulars, with indescribable details of outrage and tor- ture: and the Sultan found himself raised to such consideration in Europe thai he shortly at- tempted to evade payment of a small Austrian debt, when Count Goluchowski threatened to bombard Smyrna, an effective proceeding which secured a prompt settlement of the debt. In 1807 Crete again rose, and Greece took her part, in the expectation of European help ; but the tune had gone by. In the ensuing war with Turkey she was not only beaten but disgraced ; Europe, however, had the grace not to allow Turkey to resume sovereignty over any Chris- tian land. Shortly after, Abd-ul-Hamid was imprudent enough to let some Englishmen be murdered, and the Powers took Crete from him and gave it a separate government. The basis of his internal power has been his championship of orthodox Mussulmanism : he claims the lit- eral caliphate. Abdullahi. See Khalifa, The. Abd-uI-Latif, abd'ool-la-tef, eminent Arab writer: b, Bagdad, tl6l ; d. there 123I. By way of education be committed to memory the Koran, the chief poets, and not a few grammatical treatises. He studied medicine and practised till [185, when to complete his culture he be- took himself to Damascus, where the famous Saladin had gathered round him the most learned men of the time. After the death of Saladin. who bad liberally assisted him. he went to Cairo, delivered lectures on medicine and other sciences, and published an excellent de- scription of Egypt, still extant and keeping his fame alive: translated into Latin by White (Ox- ford 1800). and into French by De Sacy (1810). He died at Bagdad in 1231. on bis way to Mecca. Abd-ul-Medjid, abd-ool-me-jid', 31st Sultan of the Ottoman Turks, son of Mahmud II. : b. 23 April or 6 May 1823; acceded 1 July i83g; d. 25 June 1 861. He received the usual en- feebling harem education, his father failing in his efforts to rescue his children from 1 1 teni. On Ins accession Turkish affairs were critical. The great viceroy of Egypt, Mehemet Ali, had a second time revolted; (en days pre viously the Turkish admiral bad turned traitor and put the entire Beet m his hands; and three days afterward Melu nut's son Ibrahim, the greatest Moslem soldier of the century, had routed the Turkish army at Xi/ih. and was marching straight on Constantinople, where I he- orthodox party, enraged at Mahmud's reforms, had conspired to place Mehemet Ali on the throne. Hut the European powers interfered, and the treaties of _>; \ov. 1K40 and July 1 S4 1 routined Mi In iin 1 1, . I ■■ -.on \bd nl Medjid at once set about complying with his father's express instructions and carrying out his reforms: 3 Nov. 1X30 he promulgated the " I latti-shcrif of Gulhane." placing all his sub- jects on full religions and end equality, and providing for security of life and property to all, with lust and equal taxation, administration of laws, and conscription; February 1856, after the Crimean war, it was supplemented by another to the same purport. But the Mussulman aris- tocracy and the educated classes (Ulema) re- garded it as an anti-Mussulman revolution to no profit but that of the infidels, and fought it so fu- riously that it remained practically inoperative, and rather sharpened the edge of their ill-treat- ment of the Christians ; and repeated conspiracies were formed against his life, whose members however the kindly Sultan would not put to death. His right hand in reform work was the able and humane Reshid Pasha, a Mussulman educated in France: through him the army was reorgan- ized 1843-4; a board of education instituted 1840; a university founded, with military, med- ical, and agricultural colleges; a hateful' capita- tion lax abolished, slave-trading repressed, and commerce advanced. Nothing can better prove the intrinsic and hopeless rottenness of the Mussulman system under modern conditions than the fact that these measures were written in water and died almost with their birth ; their main fruit was bloody insurrections in various parts (,f the empire, of which the great Syrian massacres of [860 (see Syria) were the worst. In 1840 Abd-ul-Medjid honored himself by bold- ly refusing to surrender Kossuth and the other Hungarian refugees, after the failure of the Hungarian revolution, at the joint demand of Russia and Austria. For the Crimean war. and its antecedents and results, see that head. In later life he sunk into extravagance and sensual- ity ; but he was essentially a good-hearted and honorable man. powerless against fate. He was succeeded not by one of his seven sons, but by his brother Abd-ul-Aziz, the oldest living mem- ber of the house of Othman. Abd-ur-Rahman, abd-oor-ra'man, sultan of Fez and Morocco: b. 1778; succeeded his uncle 1823: d. 1859. His first four years of rule were occupied in quelling insurrections. Next, Aus- tria refused to pay the tribute for safety against pirates levied by Morocco on European ships in the Mediterranean: the Sultan wisely adjusted the dispute by relinquishing this blackmail. (See Morocco.) The religions war under Abd-el- Kader against_ the French in Algeria involv- ed Morocco in its movements : the defeat ABD-UR-RAHM AN-KH AN — ABELARD by the French in 1844 compelled the Sultan to order Abd-el-Kader to quit the country, which, however, he did not for three years longer. The piratical habits of the Moroccans brought him to the brink of war with more than one Euro- pean State. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Sidi-Mohammed (1859-73). Abd-ur-Rahman-Khan, abd-oor-ra'man-Han, amir of Afghanistan, son of Afzul (uf-'zool) Kahn, nephew of the amir Shere Ali, grandson of Dost Mohammed: b. Kabul, 1844; d. 3 Oct. iyoi. During the civil war of 1864 in Afghanis- tan (q.v.) between Dost Mohammed's sons, he played a leading part on his father's side against his uncle, won several battles, — the important victories of Shaikhabad and Khelat-i-Ghilzai were mainly due to his ability, — and for a time his father seemed secure of the amirate: Abd- ur-Rahman was made governor of Balkh, and won great popularity by his moderation and by marrying the daughter of the chief of Badakh- shan. In 1868, however, Shere Ali gained the mastery, and the English government helped to put down further resistance for order's sake. Vakub-Khan drove out his cousin Abd-ur- Rahman, who after hunted wanderings reached Russian territory, and Gen. Kaufman allowed him to live at Samarcand with a pension of 25,000 rubles a year. Here he remained till 1879, when Shere Ali's death, and the weakness of Yakub, whom the English had recognized as amir, gave him a chance to return to Balkh, where he was welcomed. The murder of the British Resident at Kabul and Yakub's deposi- tion followed; Abd-ur-Rahman came forward once more, and was acknowledged amir by the principal chiefs and the English government, which gave him a subsidy of £160,000 a year, and large gifts of artillery, rifles, ammunition, etc. In 1893 the Indian government turned over to him Kafiristan, in the Hindu-Kush mountains, and he brought its savage tribes under control in 1896. The English government showed him great honor, as he deserved ; and made him G.C.B. and G. C.S.I. He was succeed- ed by his eldest son, Habibullah-Khan, who had been associated with him in the government for some time. A Becket, Thomas. See Becket, Thomas a. Abeel, David, American missionary: b. New Brunswick, N. J., 12 June 1804: graduated at Rutgers, studied theology, and held a pastor- ate in Athens, N. Y., 1826-9 ; resigned from failing health, and went to China, October 1829, as chaplain for the Seamen's Friend Society, and in 1830 for the A. B. C. F. M. He visited Java, Singapore, and Siam, studying Chinese ; his health again failing he started for home 1833 by way of Europe, giving addresses on the claims of the heathen in Holland, France, and Switzer- land, in England forming a society to promote Eastern women's education, and in America publishing works on similar subjects and his Chinese experiences. In 1839 he revisited Ma- lacca, Borneo, and parts of Asia, and in 1842 established a mission at Amoy. In 1845 bis health failed finally, and returning he died in Albany in 1846. He was. one of the ablest, most practical, and most successful of early mission- aries. See by G. R. Williamson (N. Y. 1848). Abel, John J., American physiological chemist: b. Cleveland, Ohio, 19 May 1857. ^ e was graduated at the University of Michigan in 1883 ; studying abroad, he took M.D. at the Uni- versity of Strasburg in 1888. He has devoted himself to the chemistry of the human body, and is professor of pharmacology in Johns Hopkins, as well as in charge of the department of physio- logical chemistry. Abelard, ab-e-lar (Fr. Abelard, ab-a-lar), Pierre, pe-ar, a distinguished philosopher, and lover of Heloise. His real name was Pierre de Palais, the other being a nickname spelled in many other ways, but originally Bajolardus, "bacon-licker," from a school joke, which he changed to Habelardus, "bacon-haver," as a retort : b. 1079 near Nantes, in the little village of Pallet, the property of his father Berenger; d. 1 142. Full of intellectual enthusiasm, he gave up his patrimony to his younger brothers to de- vote himself to a life of study. Those studies were very wide, though the usual inclusion of Greek and Hebrew is an error ; but his chief passion was philosophy, and its great implement, the scholastic logic, in which he soon became the most eminent master of his age. Having learned all that Brittany could teach him, he went to Paris, the university of which attracted students from all parts of Europe. Guillaume de Champeaux, a follower of Anselm and an extreme Realist, was the most skilful disputant of his time, and Abelard, profiting by his in- structions, was often victorious over his master in contests of wit and logical acumen. The friendship of Champeaux was soon succeeded by enmity ; and Abelard, who had not yet com- pleted his 22d year, removed to Melun, whither he was soon followed by a multitude of young men, attracted from Paris by his great reputa- tion. Hostility still pursued him, but he left Melun for Corbeil, nearer the capital, where he was still more admired and persecuted. Soon after he ceased teaching to recruit his strength, and after two years returned to Paris and found that his former teacher had removed to a monastery outside the city. He again joined issue with him and gained so complete a triumph that he opened in Paris a school of rhetoric, the fame of which soon de- prived all the others of their pupils. Shortly afterward he was appointed to his rival's chair in the cathedral school of Notre Dame, where he educated many distinguished scholars, among whom were the future Pope Celestin II., Peter of Lombardy, bishop of Paris, Berenger, bishop of Poictiers, and St. Bernard. At this time there resided close to Notre Dame, a young lady, by name Heloise. niece to the canon Fulbert, then of the age of 17, and remarkable for her beauty, genius, and varied accomplishments. Abelard became inspired with such violent love for Heloise as to forget his duty, his lectures, and his fame. Heloise was no less susceptible. Under the pretext of fin- ishing her education he obtained Fulbert's per- mission to visit her, and finally became a resident in his house. His conduct in abusing the confi- dence which had been placed in him opened the eyes of Fulbert. He separated the lovers, but too late. Abelard fled with her to Brittany, where she was delivered of a son. who died early. Abelard now resolved to marry her se- cretly. Fulbert gave his consent, the marriage ABERCROMBY — ABERDEEN was performed, and in order to keep it secret Heloise remained with her uncle, while Abelard retained liis formei lodgings and continued his lectures. Abelard, however, carried her oil a ■nd time anil placed her in the convent of Argenteuil. Fulbert erroneously believed it was intended to four her to take the veil, and under the in- fluence of rage subjected Abelard to mutilation. I [e became, in consequence, a monk in the abbey of St. Denis, and Heloise took the veil at St. Ar- genteuil. Alter time had somewhat moderated his grief he resumed teaching. At the Council of Soissons (lI2l), no defense being permitted him, his "Essay on the Trinity" was declared heretical, and he was condemned to burn it with his own hands. Continued persecutions obliged him at la-t to leave the abbey of St. Denis and to retire to a place near Nogent-sur Seine, where he built a rude hut in which lie deter- mined to live a hermit's life. Even here, how- ever, students flocked to him, and they built him an oratory, which he dedicated to the Holy Ghost and hence called Paraclete. Being subse- quently appointed abbot of St. Gildas de R.UJ5, in Brittany, he invited Eieloise and her religious sisterhood, on the dissolution of their monastery at Argenteuil, to reside at the above oratory, and received them there. He lived for some ten years at St. Gildas. Ultimately, however, he fled from it and lived for a time in other parts of Bi many. St. Bernard, of Clairvaux, the leading op- ponent of the rationalistic school of Abelard, laid his doctrines before the Council of Sens in 1 140, had them condemned by the Pope, and ob- tained an order for his imprisonment. Abelard appealed to the Pope, publishing his defense, and went to Rome. Passing through Cluny he vis- ited Peter the Venerable, who was abbot there. This humane and enlightened divine effected a reconciliation between him and his enemies, but Ahelard resolved to end his days in retirement. The severe penances which he imposed upon himself, together with the grief which never left his heart, gradually consumed his strength, and he died, a pattern of monastic discipline, in 1 142, at the abbey of St. Marcel, near Chalons- sur-Saone. Heloise begged his body and had him buried in the Paraclete, of which she was at that time the abbess, with the view of repos- ing in death by his side. In 1800 the ashes of both were carried to the Museum of French Monuments at Paris, and in November 1817 were deposited under a chapel within the pre- cincts of the church of Monamy. The small chapel, in the form of a beautiful marble monu- ment, in which the figures of the ill-fated pair are seen reposing side by side, is now one of the most interesting objects in the Parisian cemetery of Pere la Chaise. Abelard was distinguished as a grammarian, orator, logician, poet, musician, philosopher, theologian, and mathematician. As a philoso- pher he founded an eclectic system commonly but erroneously termed Conceptualism, which lay midway between the prevalent Realism, rep- resented in its most advanced form by William of Champeaux, and extreme Nominalism, rep- resented in the teaching of his other master, Roscellin, and largely approached the Aristote- lian philosophy. In ethics Ahelard placed much emphasis on the subjective intention, which he held to determine the moral value as well as the moral character of man's action. Along this line his wank is notable, owing to the fact that ln> successors did little in connection with morals, for they did not regard the rules of human conduct as within the field of philosophic discussion. His love and his misfortunes have secured lus name from oblivion ; and the man whom his own century admired as a profound dialectician is now celebrated as the martyr of love. The letters of Abelard and Heloise have been often published in the original and in trans- lations. Pope's poetical epistle, 'Floisa to Ahe- lard.' is founded on them. Abelard's autobiog- raphy, entitled "Historia Calamitalum,' is still extant. Abercromby, David, Scottish philosopher: d. about 1702. His chief work is entitled 'A Discourse of Wit* (1686). He also wrote many treatises and bis work is said to antedate the so-called Scottish School of Philosophy. Aberdeen, 4TH Earl of (George Hamil- ton Gordon), British statesman and premier: b. Edinburgh, 28 Jan. 1784; succeeded to title in 1801 ; d. 14 Dec. i860. He was educated at Harrow and St. John's College, Cambridge. Shortly after returning from a Continental and Grecian tour, full of classical enthusiasm, he established the Athenian Society; whence Byron's sneer at "the traveled thane, Athenian Aberdeen." He severely criticised Gell in the 'Edinburgh Review,' and wrote an introduction to Wilkins' translation of Vitruvius, published separately in 1822 as 'An Inquiry into the Principles of Beauty in Athenian Architecture.' In 1806 he entered Parliament as a Scotch rep- resentative peer, and was twice re-elected. In 1813 he was sent to Austria to bring it into the coalition against Napoleon, and in 1814 was a signatory of the Treaty of Prague; he won credit in diplomacy, and the same year was made Viscount Gordon in the British peerage. During 1815-28 he devoted himself to his es- tates. In 1828 he became chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, and a few months later foreign secretary in Wellington's Cabinet, and had the satisfaction of seeing Greek independ- ence recognized. He warmly supported repeal of the test and corporation acts, and Catholic emancipation. Peel had him in both his Cabi- nets, 1834-5 as colonial secretary, 1841-6 as foreign secretary. In 1846, during the struggle which rent the Established Church of Scotland in twain, he brought in a compromise bill which was denounced by both halves; and after the Disruption in 1843 again attempted conciliatory measures without result. On Peel's death in 1850 he became the leader of the free-trade Conservatives. The Derby administration being unable to stand, Lord Aberdeen in 1853 formed a coalition ministry. For a time it was very popular; unluckily the Crimean war supervened. Aberdeen's tardiness of action and reluctance to enter on hostilities, the result of a constitu- tional aversion to war, irritated the country, which was in one of its periodical anti-Russian frenzies, and bent on fighting. Moreover, the early portion of the war was shockingly mis- managed, as those of commercial countries al- ways are ; and on the appointment of a commit- tee of inquiry, the ministry, wdiich had uniformly resisted the motion, resigned, and Palmerston's succeeded it. This closed Aberdeen's public ABERDEEN — ABERNETHY life. His dislike 10 "spirited" foreign policies and interference with other countries, and his sympathy with the Holy Alliance, gave him the name of an enemy to liberty ; but the above detail shows its injustice. Aberdeen, Miss., city and seat of Monroe county; on the Tombigbee River, and the Illi- nois Cent., the Kansas City, M. & B., and the Mobile & O. R.R.'s; 130 m. S.E. of Memphis, Tenn. Its chief trade and manufacture are cot- ton and cotton products, lumber coming next. Pop. (1900) 3,434. Aberdeen, S. D., seat of Brown County, on the Chicago & N. W., Chicago, M. & St. P., and Great Northern R.R.'s; settled 1880, inc. 1882 ; 280 m. W. of Minneapolis, 125 m. N.E. of Pierre. It is the farming and lumber trade cen- tre of a large section ; manufactures boots and shoes, flour and feed, soap, plows, machinery, etc., and has 10 grain elevators, granite and marble works and creameries. Its factories are supplied with abundant water power furnished by artesian wells. It has national banks, sev- eral daily, weekly, and monthly periodicals, a system of graded public schools, free library, and an assessed property valuation of about $1,500,000. The mayor and city council, co- operating in most appointments, are elected bi- ennially. Pop. (1900) 4,087; (1903) 5,572. Ab'erdeen, the chief city and seaport in N. Scotland, fourth largest in all Scotland ; lies in Aberdeenshire, III miles N. of Edinburgh. William the Lion gave it a charter in 1179; the English burned it in 1336, but it was soon re- built ; within the same parliamentary boundary is a small town a mile N. near the Don mouth, the seat of St. Machar's Cathedral (1357-1527), now represented by the granite nave, which, as restored since 1869, is used as a parish church. King's College and University, founded by Bishop Elphinstone in Old Aberdeen in 1494, and Marischal College and University, founded by the Earl Marischal in New Aberdeen in 1593, were in i860 united into one institution, the University of Aberdeen. It has 23 professors and from 800 to 900 students in its four faculties of arts, divinity, law, and medicine. The students are divided into four " nations," Mar, Buchan, Moray, and Angus. There is a lord rector, chancellor, vice-chancel- lor, and two secretaries. With Glasgow Univer- sity, it sends one member to Parliament. Maris- chal College was rebuilt in 1841. King's College is a stately fabric dating from 1500, its chapel adorned with exquisite wood-carvings. In the 17th century Aberdeen had become an impor- tant place, but it suffered much from both par- ties in the civil wars. It has a flourishing trade and thriving manufactures ; and having been largely rebuilt and extended since the formation of Union Street in 1800, the "Granite City 8 now offers a handsome and regular aspect. Among the chief public edifices are the county build- ings, the post-office, the Market Hall, the Trades Hall, the Royal Infirmary, the lunatic asylum, the grammar school, the art gallery and art school, and Gordon's College. The last has been much extended as a technical school, the foundationers being no longer resident; while the infirmary was reconstructed and modern- ized to celebrate the Queen's Jubilee (1887). Of more than 60 places of worship the only one of much interest is the ancient church of St. Vol. 1— j Nicholas, now divided into the East and West churches, and having an imposing spire 190 feet high. A fine carillon of 2i7 bells was placed here in 1887. One may also notice the market- cross (1686), the Wallace, Gordon Pasha, and three other statues, and the Duthie public park of 47 acres. It has a large trade from the port, and good railway facilities. The chief exports are woolens, linens, cotton yarns, paper, combs, granite (hewn and polished), cattle, grain, pre- served provisions, and fish. Aberdeen has the largest comb and granite-polishing works in the kingdom. There are also several large paper works near by. Wooden ship-building was for- merly a prosperous industry, the Aberdeen clip- per-bow ships being celebrated as fast sailers, but since i860 they have been gradually super- seded by iron or steel steamships ; and, owing to its remoteness from coal and iron, its ship- building now is greatly contracted. Pop. of parliamentary borough (1891) 121,623; (1901) 153,108; 9,386 in Kincardineshire. Aberdeen University, See Aberdeen (Scot- land). Abernethy, John, Irish dissenting clergy- man and pioneer of toleration : b. Coleraine, 19 Oct. 1680; d. 1740. The son of a Nonconformist minister, he graduated successively from Glas- gow and Edinburgh universities, was licensed to preach before coming of age, urged to take an important charge in Antrim at 21, and two years later was ordained there. The work he did there for many years was of the most remarkable kind, in drafts on body, braui, soul, and will ; and he was eminent in all. In 1717 he was invited at once to Dublin and Belfast; the Synod assigned him to Dublin ; he refused to leave Antrim and was considered a Church mutineer ; a furious quarrel followed, developing into the fight in the Irish Presbyterian Church between "sub- scribers" and "non-subscribers" (Abernethy's party), the latter being formally barred out in 1726. The real question at issue was of old orthodoxy versus the liberalizing opinions which he disclaimed holding, but which have of course long since left his position far behind. In 1730 he was nevertheless called to Dublin. The next year came up the question of the Test Act, really involving the whole subject of religious tests in civil life ; and Abernethy took a firm stand against "all laws that, upon account of mere differences of religious opinion and forms of worship, excluded men of integrity and ability from serving their country," asserting near a century ahead of his time that a Roman Catholic could be such. His 'Tracts' were later collected, and did good service in the Catholic Emancipa- tion fight of the next century. Abernethy was the bravest of the brave, not only in advocating unpopular truths to his own harm, but in resist- ing the highest dignitaries in the cause of right. See 'Diary,' 6 vols.; Duchal's 'Life'; 'History of Irish Presbyterian Church.' Abernethy, John, the great English sur- geon, grandson of the preceding: b. London, 3 April 1764; d. 20 April 1831. Educated at Wol- verhampton grammar school, he was apprenticed at 15 to Sir Charles Blicke, a leading London surgeon, assistant surgeon at St. Bartholomew's Hospital ; he also attended the lectures of Pott, the chief surgeon there, of John Hunter, and the anatomical lectures at London Hospital of Sir William Blizzard, who early employed him as ABERRATION — ABILENE demonstrator. Pott, resigning, Blicke took his place, and made Abernethy assistant surgeon in 1787. His lectures drew such crowds that a spe- cial building was erected, now the celebrated St. Bartholomew's Scl I In 1813 he was appointed Surgeon tO Christ's Hospital, in I S 1 4 prole- -or of anatomy and surgery to the College of Sur- geons, and in 1815 full surgeon to St. Bartholo- mew's, a post wliicli he resigned in 1829. Of his numerous medical works the most important is 'Surgical Observations on the Constitutional Origin and Treatment of Local Diseases,' which, from his frequent references to it. became known as ' My Book.' He was one of the first to prove that topical symptoms should be treated by general remedies, especially for the stomach and bowels; and he was a persuasive and influential teacher, though over-dogmatic. He was the first to introduce the capital surgical improvement of tying the great arteries in operations for aneu- rism, etc. See 'Works,' S vols. 1820; 'Me- moirs' by Macilwain, 1853, not highly esteemed. Aberration. In physics, (1) that property of a lens or curved mirror in virtue of which it does not form a sharp, Bat image devoid of false color fringes. Spherical aberration is the geo- metrical distortion of the image due to the fact that the surface of the lens or mirror is spherical instead of having the theoretically best form. It is easy to grind a spherical surface, and more difficult to grind those of other forms; hence in the practical manufacture of a high- grade lens the curvatures are carefully calcu- lated, so that spherical surfaces may be used, while the spherical aberration is still kept within limits that are consistent with the use of the lens ( See Lens.) Chromatic aberration is the defect in virtue of which the focal length of the lens is not the same for all colors. A lens possessing chromatic aberration gives an image that is blurred with rainbow-like fringes; one that is devoid of chromatic aberration is said to be achromatic (see Light). Mirrors, whether concave or convex, have no chromatic alu 1 ration. (2) The slight displacement of the apparent position of a star or other celestial object, due to the fact that although the velocity of light is very great it is not infinite. In recent years much attention has been paid to aberration phenomena, because the observed amount of the displacement of a star indicates that the ether of space is stationary and that the earth passes through it like a fish through stagnant water; while direct experiments indicate, on the con- trary, that the ether is dragged along with the earth to a considerable extent. See Ether. Ab'ert, John James, American military en- gineer: b. Shepherdstown, Va., 17 Sept. 1788; d. 1863. He graduated at West Point in 181 1, and at once went into the War Office ; was ad- mitted to the bar; served in the War of 1812, becoming topographical engineer with the rank of major; was made chief and colonel of topo- graphical engineers in 1838, and assisted in de- veloping important canals and other works. His engineering reports are standard, and he was a founder of the National Institute of Science, since merged in the Smithsonian. Abeyance, meaning expectancy; probably derived from the French bayer, to gape after. When real or personal properties are in ex- pectation, or the intendment of the law, they are said to be in abeyance, or not actually pos- sessed. The word is often used in the Church of England, a living being known as "in abey- ance" when it is left vacant owing to the un- willingness of the patron to declare himself in favor of any particular applicant for the office. Abich, Wilhelm Herman, German miner- alogist and naturalist: b. Berlin 11 Dec. 1806; d. Graz 2 July 1886. After completing a course of study in the natural sciences at the. Univer- sity of Purlin, he traveled in Italy and Sicily. In [842 he was appointed to the chair of nun eralogy in the university at Dorpat, and in 1853 was elected a member of the Academy of Sci- (ii. is in Saint Petersburg, for whom he wrote exhaustive reports of the explorations which he had made in the Caucasus, Russian Ar- menia and northern Persia. He also published several books descriptive of the minerals found in the different countries in which he had trav- eled, the most important of which are: 'Erlau- ternde Abbildungen von geologischcn Erschei- nungen, beobachtet am Vesuv und Aetna 18.13 und 1834' (1837); ' L'eber die Natur und den Zusammenhang der vulkanischen Bildungen' (1841); "Ueber die geologische Natur des ar- menischen Hochlander' (1843); 'l'eber die Natronseen auf der Araxesebeni ' (1846-9); ' Vergleichende geologische Grundziige der kaukas-armenischen und nordpersischen Ge- birge' (1858) ; 'Sur la Structure et la Geologie du Daghcstan' (1862). Abildgaard, a'bil-gord, Nikolai Abraham, Danish painter: b. Copenhagen 4 Sept. 1744; d. Frcderiksdal 4 June ]8<><,. lie studied for some time at the academy in Copenhagen, but in 1772 went to Rome to study under the mas- ters. After his return he was appointed to a professorship at the academy in 1786, and in 1789 was elected a director. The greater num- ber of his paintings were of an historical nature and he had much to do with the founding of the Danish school of historical painting. A series of 10 pictures in the castle of Christiansborg, which burned in 1794, and scenes from Shake- speare and Ossian were his most important works. Abilene, Kan., city, seat of Dickinson County, 163 m. W. of Kansas City, on the Kansas River and three railroads : Union Pacific, Chicago, R. I. & P., and Atchison, T. & S. F. R.R.'s; settled 1856, incorporated 1869, the orig- inal charter being still in force. For many years it has been one of the great agricultural market centres of the State, the focus of a large farm loan business, and the sales-ground for the large droves of cattle that are annually brought from Texas. It has also large manu- facturing interests, including several flour-mills and creameries, as well as manufactures of iron bridges, carriages, etc. Mineral water from ad- jacent sand springs is bottled for export. The government consists of a mayor and council. Pop. (1000) 3,507. Abilene, Tex., city, seat of Taylor County, 160 m. W. by S. of Fort Worth, on the Texas & P. R.R. The centre of a farming, cotton, and stock-raising district, its chief interests lie in its cotton-gins, flour- and feed-mills and grain elevators, although it also has flourishing man- ufactories of saddlery, harness, lumber, and ice. Its educational advantages are excellent, and ABINGDON — ABLUTION include a public high school and a prosperous Baptist college. Pop. (1900) 3,411. Abingdon, 111., city, Knox County; 85 m. N.E. of Quincy; on the Chicago, B. & Q. and the Iowa C. R.R.'s. Settled 1828, incorporated 1857, now acting under charter of 1859. Among its many industrial interests, which include wagon-works, saw-mills, and manufactories of gloves and organs, it has the largest animal-trap factory in the world. Besides its excellent school system, it is the scat of Hedding College (M. E.) and Abingdon (Christian) College, the latter having been founded in 1855. A mayor and council of five is annually elected. Pop. (1900) 2,022. Abingdon, Va., post village, seat of Wash- ington County; on the Norfolk & W. R.R., 315 m. S.W. of Richmond and 140 m. W. by S. of Lynchburg. Settled 1730, incorporated 1788, it has long been noted for its large tobacco and live-stock interests, as well as for its valuable deposits of iron, gypsum, and salt, much of the salt used in the Southern States during the Civil War having been obtained in this vicinity. Its manufactures include wagon-works and planing-mills, besides cigar, tobacco, and pipe factories. It is also the seat of Martha Wash- ington College for girls, the Stonewall Jackson Female Institute, the Academy of the Visitation, and Abingdon Academy for boys. Pop. (1900) 1,306. Abington, Mass., a post township in Ply- mouth County, 20 m. S.E. of Boston, on the Old Colony division of the New York, N. H. & H. R. R.R. Settled in 1680, incorporated 1712. Its southern portion is now known as Whit- man ; its northern portion as North Abington, and both are important manufacturing centres, the chief industries being the making of ma- chinery, shoes, and leather goods. The govern- ment is by town meeting. Pop. (1900) 4,489. Abiogenesis. See Biogenesis. Abjuration, the act of forswearing, abjur- ing, or renouncing upon oath ; a denial upon oath ; a renunciation upon oath. Chiefly a law term and used in the following senses : 1. In the United States when an alien wishes to become a citizen he must declare among other things, that he doth absolutely and en- tirely renounce and abjure all allegiance and fidelity which he owes to any foreign sovereign, etc., and especially, by name the sovereign, etc., whereof he was before a citizen or subject. 2. An abjuration of the realm. During the Middle Ages the right of sanctuary was con- ceded to criminals. A person fleeing to a church or churchyard might permanently escape trial if, after confessing himself guilty before the coroner, he took an oath abjuring the kingdom: promising to embark, at an assigned port, for a foreign land, and never to return unless by the king's permission. By this, however, he forfeited his goods and chattels. 3. Special. An abjuration or renunciation of all imagined allegiance to the Jacobite line of rulers, after the English nation had given its verdict in favor of William and Mary. The oath nf abjuration was fixed by 13 Win. III. c. 16. By the 21 & 22 Vict. c. 48, one form of oath was substituted for the oaths of alle- giance, supremacy, and abjuration. For this form another was substituted by the Act 30 & 31 Vict. c. 75, § 5. This has in turn been super- seded by the Promissory Oaths Act, 31 & 32 Vict. c. 72. 4. An abjuration, renunciation, or retraction of real or imagined heresy or false doctrine. Thus the now abolished 25 Chas. II. c. 2, enacted that certain tenets of the Church of Rome were to be solemnly renounced. Ablution, or the ceremonial act of wash- ing to symbolize purification from uncleanness, is a rite which has been observed by many races of people from the early Mosaic days down to our own time. Under the Mosaical dispensa- tion the act of ablution had four purposes: (1) To cleanse from the taint of an inferior position before initiation into a higher state, as when Aaron and his sons, having been chosen for the priesthood, were washed with water before they were invested with their robes of office ; (2) to cleanse in order to fit one for special acts of religious ceremony, as when the priests were required, under the penalty of death, to wash both their hands and feet before approaching the altar; (3) to cleanse from defilement con- tracted by some particular circumstance which prevented one from enjoying the privileges of ordinary life, of which there were no less than 1 1 species of uncleanness recognized by the law ; and (4) to cleanse or absolve oneself from the guilt of a particular act, as when, in expiation for an unknown murder, the elders of the village washed their hands over the slaughtered heifer, saying, "Our hands have not shed this blood, neither have our eyes seen it" (Dent, xxi .). This practice was also common both among the Greeks and Romans, and it was undoubtedly in accordance with this practice that Pilate called for water and washed his hands to signify that he held himself innocent of the blood of Jesus Christ (Matt, xxvii. 24). Ablution by the priests before the perform- ance of sacred ceremonies was common even among the heathen, while the Egyptian priests carried the practice to such an extreme that they shaved their entire bodies every third day and then washed themselves in cold water twice every day and twice each night, that no particle of filth might even rest upon them. Such an act corresponds somewhat to the more simple wadu of the Mohammedans, a ceremonial wash- ing which they are compelled to observe five times daily, or immediately before their stated prayers, and these do not begin to represent the formal acts of cleansing required by the Moslem law. For example, the ablution for positive defilement required by Moses has its counterpart in the Mohammedan ghual, and yet again, under the Moslem law, the causes of such defilement are specified so minutely that they greatly exceed those of the ancient Jews. So strict was the law upon this point, however, that, when water could not be obtained, it was required that the purification should be made with something that might represent the water. Iii times of drought, therefore, or on occasions nf sickness, the act of purification might be performed by rinsing, or rubbing the hands and face with dry sand. This form of cleansing was called tayetnmum. The ceremony of ablution at communion was adopted by the early Christian Church, and has been retained both in the Eastern and Roman ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY Catholic Churches. In the Roman Catholic Church it has become a liturgical term, denoting the two acts of cleansing performed during the mass: (i) When wine is poured into the chal- ice to disengage any particles which may be left in the vessel ; and (2) when both wine and water arc poured over the priest's fingers into the chalice. In the Greek Church the word "ablution" is applied to a ceremony performed seven days after baptism, when the unction of the chrism is formally washed off from those who have been baptized. Abnormal Psychology covers all consider- able deviations from the typical normal mind. Normal minds like normal bodies differ much among themselves ; it is therefore impossible to lay down any arbitrary rule by which varia- tions from a type or "norm" — at least, if the variation be but slight — may be identified. A pulse rate which, in a young child, indicates health, may, in an adult, be a symptom of dis- ease; a pallid skin which is "normal" to one individual may, in another, proceed from a de- ranged circulation. Similarly, emotional ex- citement which, for a person of sanguine tem- perament, is entirely "natural," may, if found in a phlegmatic individual, express a highly ab- normal mental state ; and what is unhesitatingly pronounced insanity in one person may, in an- other, be laid to eccentricity. Abnormality must, therefore, be taken as a deviation, not from a general normal type, but from a par- ticular standard which a given class of indi- viduals represents. Abnormal psychology is a wider term than "mental pathology" or "mental disease." It is wider because many abnormali- ties of mind occur in a perfectly healthy — non- pathological — condition. Deaf-mutism, for ex- ample, is no more pathological than the having of supernumerary toes and fingers. Abnormal psychology falls into three parts; the first deals with temporary derangements, the second with more or less permanent derangements (mental diseases, including insanity), and the third with defective and exceptional minds. I. Under temporary derangements are to be classed abnormal illusions, hallucinations, dreams, and hypnosis. All these derangements indicate a loss of efficient mental functioning without, however, necessarily entailing a permanent mor- bid condition. In order to understand the sig- nificance of such deficiencies it will be necessary to keep in mind the more important functions which devolve upon consciousness. These are (i) perception, the correct apprehension of the external world of objects and events, (2) the appropriate reaction of the individual upon ob- jects (for example, instinctive, impulsive, and volitional actions), and (3) the establishment and maintenance of adequate social relations with other individuals and groups of individuals (states, corporations, etc.). It is, in general, an omission, a defect, or an exaggeration, con- nected with one or more of these great func- tions, that marks the passage from a normal to a deranged state of consciousness. Among abnormal illusions are to be found some of the slightest and least serious delin- quencies of mental function : delinquencies which are analogous to the lesser and more fleeting ills of the body. Instances are fur- nished by the mistaken perception of ghosts and goblins under stress of strong imagina- tion or high emotional tension, and the seeing of fantastic forms in fire, rock, and cloud. Illusions of this type may, however, rot upon other con- ditions; upon a general temperamental bias, or upon prejudice, or superstition, or excessive fatigue, or hunger, or upon the use of drugs, or, finally, upon disease. Hallucinations are closely related to abnormal illusions. The tra- ditional distinction between the two has been handed down from the time of the French alienist, E. Esquirol (1838), who defined illu- sion as "a false perception of an object," hallu- cination as "a perception without an object." This distinction, though it has little psycholog- ical significance, possesses a certain value in diagnosis; for hallucinations, as thus conceived, indicate a more serious psychological derange- ment than illusions. A relatively small num- ber of hallucinations depend, as a matter of fact, upon the brain alone; in most cases, a peripheral disturbance, somewhere throughout the body, is their ultimate condition. Thus the hallucinatory belief that a part of the body is dead may come from a local paralysis or the con- viction that the bones are tubes of glass from de- ranged organic sensations. Hallucinations arc far less frequent in the sane and healthy than arc the illusions described above. (See PSYCHICAL Research.) They are, however, frequent ac- companiments of certain nervous disorders, for example, epilepsy and hysteria, and in ecstasy, in the dancing epidemics of the Middle Ages and in demoniacal possession, hallucinations have played a prominent part ; while in those forms of insanity which are accompanied by cloudiness of perception and thought (delu- sional insanity, paranoia, and general paralysis) they are extremely frequent. Dreams. The dream consciousness is chiefly a perceiving con- sciousness; will, sentiment, memory, and rea- soning are much less prominent than in waking life. But it is, nevertheless, a consciousness which does not fulfill the normal functions of perception. Dream perceptions are "unreal," and may, therefore, be considered as derange- ments ; although they are no more pathological in their nature than the sleeping state in which they occur. The dream slate is further charac- terized by diffuse unconcentrated attention and by loose and scattered associations. Hypnosis. One degree further removed from the normal mind than the dreaming state is the state of hypnosis. The two states possess, however, certain significant points of resemblance and of difference. (1) In both, consciousness is more or less cut off from the influence of the outside world. In sleep, the avenues of sense are closed. We seek darkness and quiet, avoiding, in general, conditions which would make de- mands upon the organs of sense and of move- ment. Furthermore, the sleeping state itself tends to protect the nervous system from intru- sion ; the sensory paths are blocked. In hyp- nosis, similar conditions obtain. There is a gen- eral insensitivity of the nervous system; so that appeals from the environment arc, as a rule, unsuccessful. The subject is unaware of what is going on about him. (2) Again, both in dreams and in hypnosis, certain stimuli are ef- fective. The course of dreams is partly deter- mined by strong or persistent appeals from ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY without, for example, the chirp of insects, the rumble of traffic, the chill of the room, the cramp of an uncomfortable position. The course of the hypnotic consciousness is similarly determined by the words and gestures of the operator. (3) The dream and the hypnotic con- sciousness share a common attitude of belief in whatever situation is presented. Capacity for discriminating the world of sense from the world of memory and of imagination is lacking to both. The individual is completely cred- ulous. The past and the future are, for the time being, annihilated. The person lives only in the present. (4) Along with these similari- ties there stands a striking and a fundamental difference between dreams and hypnosis. The dream consciousness is broad and shallow. As- sociations run riot. The selective function of the attention which, in the normal conscious- ness, rejects the trivial and the accidental and fixes upon the essential features of the percep- tion or the idea, is lacking. One thing appears as important and as valuable as another. There is no subordination. Consciousness is scatter- brained. Consequently, the dream is (as one discovers upon waking) absurd and fantastic. In hypnosis, on the contrary, consciousness is deep and narrow. Along with the general in- sensitiveness just noted (anaesthesia) there goes a special high sensitiveness (hyperesthesia). The slightest sound or gesture of the operator is caught up by the subject and acted upon. This special sensitiveness — not occult power in the operator — is the secret of rapport. The immediate and uncritical response of the hyp- notized subject is due to his own abnormal psy- chophysical condition and not to any "force 8 ex- erted from without. Although certain of the physiological phenomena of hypnotism are to be found in some of the lower animals, in the state of catalepsy, human hypnosis is, on its conscious side, essentially a social phenomenon. It rests upon the general fact that all persons are, even in normal life, suggestible ; that is, that their beliefs are largely determined by the personal or social influence which the indi- vidual exerts over his fellows. This influence shows itself normally in a mood or intellectual attitude of acquiescence. When the mood grows strong and overpowering — as in the presence of a captivating rhetorician — it becomes the attitude of obedience, of submission to author- ity. Now, in the abnormal state of hypnosis, the mood of submission is heightened, by the narrowing and deepening of consciousness, to the exclusion of all contrary and inhibitory as- sociations. The result is that the beliefs and, consequently, the actions of the subject are en- tirely at the mercy of the meagre perceptual processes supplied, by way of "suggestion," from the operator. Hypnosis is, then, an abnormal psychophysical state which nevertheless closely resembles, in certain prominent features, both the dreaming and the waking states of every- day life. 2. Permanent mental derangements. — There is no general agreement among alienists regard- ing the precise limits of insanity. Some alien- ists regard practically all classes of mental dis- ease as falling under insanity; others restrict the term to those derangements of mind which show a distinct loss of equilibrium among men- tal functions. The meaning of the term is, how- ever, aooroximately fixed by practical and leeal considerations ; an individual is often pronounced insane when his mental condition so paralyses or perverts his personal and social relations that detention and treatment in a hospital for the care of the insane appears advisable. On the border line of mental alienation stand such derangements as hysteria, neurasthenia, and hypochondria. It is clear that these affec- tions stand on a different plane of abnormality from dreams and hypnosis, on the one hand, and from more serious forms of insanity, on the other. They are all of interest to the psychologist (but especially hysteria) because they present typical abnormalities of develop- ment, of the state of attention, and of the func- tions of memory, volition and emotion. Con- sider hysteria. The hysterical is abnormally absent-minded. The range of her attention is exceedingly narrow, so that she may, for exam- ple, in observing an object before her eyes, become quite blind to all other objects in the range of vision. Her capacity for learning is inhibited. She suffers a partial or total loss of memory (amnesia). The will power is im- paired (abulia). The patient becomes a victim to habits of automatic action and to un- controllable emotions and moods. Hysteria fur- nishes, moreover, a rare field for the study of suggestion and for the analysis of personality. French psychologists, who work by preference from the abnormal to the normal mind, have recently made important contributions to our knowledge of this form of mental disease. When we come to insanities proper, we find a bewildering number of symptoms and of dis- eases. Out of these we can, however, extract a few general and typical forms. These in- clude mania, melancholia, circular insanity (all distinguished by abnormal emotions and moods), delusional insanity (distinguished by fixed, irrational beliefs of grandeur, unseen agency, persecution, etc.), volitional derange- ments whose various forms (destructive, homo- cidal, dipsomaniac, kleptomaniac, etc.), are characterized by the lack of voluntary control, and, finally, a class of mental diseases which present the most complete and general loss of function — the highest degrees of mental abnor- mality. This class includes general paralysis, amentia, and dementia. 3. Defective and exceptional minds. — Our third class of abnormality covers (1) minds that are lacking in certain simple processes common to all normal individuals (the mind of the congenitally blind and congenitally deaf, the color-blind, and persons suffering from va- rious impairments of the function of speech). (2) minds in which some set of processes or some function is abnormally developed (phenomenal chess-players, "lightning calcula- tors," and trance "mediums"), (3) the genius, (4) the habitual criminal, the sexual pervert, and other "degenerates." The deficient minds of (1) are of interest to the psychologist inasmuch as they show, by their very deficiency, the part played, in con- sciousness at large, by the lacking elements. The comparison, that is, of a normal mind with a mind wanting in visual or auditory sensation or verbal imagery is important for the psy- chology of vision or of audition or of language. The comparison is useful also in a study of mental substitution ; for the functions of mem- ory, imagination, and social communication ABOLITIONISTS — ABORTION ordinarily borne by visual, auditory and motor imagery must, in the affections named, be borne by other mental processes. Finally, the mental aberrations to be found in the habitual criminal and the pervert bring the psychologist back to the domain of mental pathology and, at the same time, they offer material for investigating the influence upon mental constitution of hered- itary tendency. Consult: Parish, 'Hallucinations and Illu- sions* (1897) ; Nordau, 'Degeneration' (trans. [89s); Galton, 'Hereditary Genius' (1887); Mercier, 'Sanity and Insanity' (180x3); 'Psychology, Normal and Morbid' (1001); Janet, 'The Mental State of Hystcricals' (trans. 1901). I. M. Bentley, Asst. Prof, of Psychology, Cornell University. Abolitionists, the extreme section of the anti-slavery party in the United States, who ad- vocated immediate sweeping away by the national government of Southern slavery, without regard to constitutional guarantee';, vested interests, or political facts; this section and its nickname date from about 1835. Gradual abolition had been the desire of many of the best men even of the South ; and till after the War of 1812 there was no prejudice against the freest ex- pression of opinion on the subject. But the effects of Whitney's cotton-gin were now begin- ning to be felt in making the slave system for the time enormously profitable; and the Mis- souri Compromise, with the insistence of the South thereafter that States should be admitted only in pairs, one slave and one free, showed that the time of apathy had gone by. 'Hie new zeal of the South in upholding, increasing, and justifying the system was met by a new intensity of the North in opposing it, though for a long time confined to a small band of agitators. In 18.13 the National Anti-Slavery Society was formed in Philadelphia; in 183 1 William Lloyd Garrison had founded the Liberator, a weekly continued till 1800, filled from the first with the fiercest denunciation not only of the system but of all connected with it; and a brilliant band of orators, philanthropists, and growing political forces. — Wendell Phillips, Charles Sumner, (unit Smith, and women like Lucretia Mott, — kept the public mind on the alert and furnished a monotonous moral to the course of political events which the people might not otherwise have drawn SO readily. There were grades even among these; and the extremists denied the duty of obeying the United States Constitution, since it contained the clause warranting the fugitive slave law. which was denounced as "a covenant with death and an agreement with hell." In practice they violated it systematically by assist- ing in the escape of runaway slaves, through the machinery known as the "Underground Rail- road," concealing them from pursuit and for- warding them from stage to stage till they reached Canada. But in 1840 the abolitionists divided on the question of the formation of a political anti-slavery party, and the two wings remained active on separate lines to the end. It was largely due to the abolitionists that the Civil War, when it came, was regarded by the North chiefly as an anti-slavery conflict, and they looked upon the Emancipation Proclama- tion as a vindication of this view. See Anti- Slavery Society; Liberty Partv: Slavery; United States — Causes of the Civil War, Aborigines (Lat. "from the origin"; the Greek name was autochthonoi) , the earliest in- habitants of a country discoverable by civilized investigation. Their relation to the animal world as a whole comes under the head of Anthropology; to other races, under Ethnol- ogy; their culture and conditions, under Am 11.1:- OLOGY ; of special countries, under their names, or those of particular tribes. Specifically, in Roman writers, a race traditionally said to have been driven by the Sabines from their )ir>t homes in the mountains around Reate (Rieti), invaded l.atmin. subjugated the native Siculi and occupied the land, along with a tribe of Pelasgi, the two thenceforth taking the name of Latini. If true, these Aborigines would be of Oscan stock and form the non-Pelasgian ele- ment in the Romans. Abortion, the expulsion of a foetus from its natural resting-place before it is capable of carrying on its own life. A variety of different terms have been applied to indicate variations in the character of this process; thus: acciden- tal, when brought about by purely accidental means; artificial or induced, when caused for medical therapeutic reasons; criminal, when in- duced for social rather than medical exigencies; tubal, when rupture of the Fallopian tube oc- curs, discharging the foetus into the abdominal cavity, the pregnancy being extra-uterine. The causes for this accident, apart from in- duced abortion, may be due to paternal, ma- ternal, or foetal defects. The proportion of abortions to full-time pregnancies is about 1 to 7 or 10. Of the paternal causes, alcoholism, syphilis, old age, or physical weakness may be cited. I'be most frequent causes, however, are of foetal and maternal causes, I leath of the foetus is the most frequent foetal cause. The maternal causes may be local or constitutional. Inflammation of the membranes of the uterus, tumors or new growths of the uterus, disease of the ovary, and inflammatory adhesions of the closely associated organs, act as local causes. Alcoholism, starvation, as in times of famine, syphilis, lead poisoning, coal-gas poisoning, acute diseases, as typhoid, pneumonia, and sudden severe shock, are the most common agents act- ing on the mother that bring about the death of the toiii- and its subsequent expulsion. The symptoms are hemorrhage, discharge of the amniotic fluid, and pain. The treatment is always medical. The dangers are mostly those of hemorrhage and blood-poisoning. In law, when abortion is produced with a malicious design, it becomes a misdemeanor, and the party causing it may be indicted and pun- ished. When, in consequence of the means used to produce abortion, the death of the woman ensues, the crime is murder. In all cases of abortion the body of the offence must first be proven. The fact of the pregnancy, the use of the instruments, and the administering of the drugs must be established beyond a doubt. The evidence of the woman upon whom the abortion was com- mitted is admissible but her dying declarations are not admissible unless homicide is charged A person who sells a drug or instrument, knowing that it is to be used for the purpose of causing a miscarriage, is also guilty of a misdemeanor. ABRA — ABRAM Abra, a'-bra, a province and a river in the N. of Luzon, Philippine Islands. The province contains numerous deposits of placer gold, and the river gravel is auriferous. Other minerals, such as coal, copper, lead, iron, and sulphur, are believed to exist in paying quantities, as Luzon is known to be rich in these and other economic minerals. For its head-hunting tribes, see Igorrote; Philippines. Abraham or Abram, the progenitor of the Hebrews and the Arab Bedouin. After deriving his genealogy through Shem to his father Terah and his brothers Nahor and Haran, the narra- tive in Gen. xi.-xxv. proceeds as follow. — each step in the pilgrimage being by express direction of Yahwe, to his purpose of founding the Hebrew nation: — After Haran's death Terah removes with his family from his native Ur of the Chaldees ( ? Mugheir in southern Babylonia), north to Haran, where he dies. Abram then (at 75) takes his wife Sarai and his nephew Lot, Haran's son, and makes his way north by way of Da- mascus (stopping to build altars to Yahwe at Shechem and Bethel) to Canaan, where he receives the promise that he shall become the founder of a great nation, and all the families of the earth shall be blessed in him. Being a pastoral nomad, a drouth in Canaan forces him to seek forage in fertile Egypt ; where he passes off Sarai as his sister, in fear ti.at her beauty will lead to his murder to possess her, and she is taken by Pharaoh, who, on discovering the deception, restores her, but orders Abram out of Egypt. Accompanied by Lot, he returns to a former encampment between Bethel and Ai. The clans of the two kinsmen quarrel over the limited pasturage, as usual with nomad tribes, and Abram proposes that each follow his own fortune. Lot, wishing to quit nomad life, chooses the fertile Jordan plain ; Abram pitches his tent among the oak groves of Mamre, close to Hebron, and the previous promise of his posthumous glory is repeated and solemnly cove- nanted. Lot is captured in a raid of the Baby- lonian king, with his Syrian and other allies, against his revolted vassals of the Dead Sea and Jordan valleys, including the kings of So- dom and Gomorrah, who are overthrown : Abram sallies out to his rescue with a band of tribesmen, beats the confederacy and chases them near to Damascus, and not only recovers his nephew but restores the above kings to their thrones, refusing any reward. The property of the childless Abraham is to descend to his trusted servant Eliezer, and Sarai suggests that he avoid this by having a child from a concubine, a com- mon enough arrangement ; accordingly he has Ishmael by Sarai's maid Hagar, at 86. Four years later it is revealed by Yahwe in person to Abram that he shall have a legitimate son by Sarai, whose name is thenceforth to be Sarah (princess) and his own to be Abraham (father of peoples) ; the promise is afterward repeated by Yahwe and two angels, who visit Abram's tent in human form, the latter going on to de- stroy Sodom and Gomorrah for their wicked- ness, and the former staying behind to inform Abram of it. Abram's plea wins a promise of mercy contingent on ten righteous men being found there, but they are not forthcoming, and only Lot and his family escape. Abram goes to Gerar (Negeb) in southern Palestine, repeats precisely the same performance with the nona- genarian Sarai as before, and the king Abime- lech repeats the part of Pharaoh, with the same apologies and reproaches. Isaac is born, Sarah being 90, and Hagar and her boy Ishmael are driven into the desert by Sarah's jealous fears, where Ishmael becomes ancestor of the Bedouin. Isaac is circumcised at eight days old, as a token of Yahwe's covenant with Abraham. Some time in Isaac's boyhood Abraham is commanded by Yahwe to make a burnt-offering of him, and proceeds to obey, but is spared the sacrifice by Yahwe, who accepts a stray ram instead and blesses him for his faith. Sarah dies in Hebron and is buried in the cave of Machpelah, which Abraham buys of Ephron the Hittite. He later marries Keturah, has six sons by her, dies at 175, and is buried beside Sarah. Isaac has previously married Rebekah, so that the suc- cession is assured. The Jewish stories of Abraham were by no means confined to this account in our canonical book ; they had many others, associating him with Nimrod, etc., which are collected in the Talmud ; and the Mohammedans invented or preserved many more. The. critical view is that there was a real Abram or Abraham (the tradi- tions existing in both forms) , with his home at Hebron, probably a considerable man from the number and persistence of the legends about him ; but that this is all we know. The names of his brothers and ancestry are not persons but Arab clans, and their relations and movements represent what was handed down or believed concerning the North-Arab league that grew into the Hebrew nation, or its original elements. The path of the "bne Terah" from the southern Euphrates valley into Palestine and elsewhere is certainly a correct type of the actual course, as revealed to us by archaeology, of the Semitic tribes who century after century poured out of the Arabian deserts, into and up through west- ern Mesopotamia, to plunder or share the rich Babylonian civilization and wealth, as the bar- barians did that of the Roman empire : accord- ing to the resistance they found they stayed in the Moabite district, turned west to overrun the Jordan valley, or moved north into Syria. For the archaeological results see the chapters on early times in various histories of the Hebrew-;. Kittel's, Stade's, Guthe's. etc.: Sayce's 'Patri- archal Palestine' and 'Early History of the Hebrews,' reverent in tone; Tompkins 'Studies on the Times of Abraham.' Critical commen- taries on Genesis are also serviceable. For the rabbinical legends, the sources — in German — are Beer on the life of Abraham, and Griinbaum on the 'Semitic Sagas,' which gives the Moham- medan legends likewise. Abrahamites, (1) A oth-century sect of Syrian deists, denying the divinity of Christ. (2) In modern use, the Bohemian deists of the later 18th century, who called themselves fol- lowers of Huss, but accepted no religious doc- trine beyond the unity of God, and nothing of the Bible but the Lord's Prayer. They avowed this creed in 1782 on Joseph II. 's promise of toleration; but as they would join neither Jewish nor Christian folds, he expelled them from Bo- hemia the next year and scattered them through Hungary, Transylvania, and Slavonia. Many were martyred, others turned Catholic. Abram. See Abraham. ABRASIVES Abrasives, or those substances used in grinding or polishing, include (a) mineral sub- stances, such as grindstones and whetstones, which are used by simply shaping up the ma- terial found in nature; (b) mineral substances which occur disseminated in the rocks or which must first be freed from impurities and are pre- pared for use by an initial pulverization; (c) artificial abradants. The history of abrasives shows that in ancient times the first class was most largely used, while the artificial abrasives now so extensively employed, were unknown until quite recently. (a) Oilstones and Whetstones (q.v.) are largely American products. For nearly a cen- tury New Hampshire has been the headquarters of the whetstone industry. Whetstone rock is also found in Vermont, Massachusetts and Indi- ana. The best oilstones from New Hampshire are inferior to those of Garland County, Arkan- sas, in which region there are extensive beds of a remarkably compact, white, Paleozoic quartz rock, called Novaculite. Griswold in 1890 an- nounced that this material is a sedimentary deposit of fine-grained quartz and not a chemi- cally precipitated deposit as had been previously supposed. The quarries were largely worked for implements in prehistoric times and since 1840 they have yielded the finest oilstones known. These are sold under the names of "Washita" and "Arkansas" oilstones. The production of oilstones and whetstones in the United States during 1902 amounted to $221,762. The imports, chiefly of razor hones from Belgium and Ger- many, and of "Turkey" oilstones from Italy and France amounted to $56,456. Grindstones are manufactured from a tough, gritty sandstone, found chiefly in Ohio, though Michigan, Mon- tana, Wyoming, and West Virginia add to the output, and England, Scotland, and Bavaria are also producers. The production of grindstones in the United States in 1902 amounted to $667,431. Millstones and buhrstones are far less used now than before the introduction of the roller process of making flour, for while the American production in 1880 amounted to $200,- 000, it fell in 1894 to $13,887. Since 1894 it has steadily increased till in 1902 it was $59,808. This is owing to the increased demand for buhr- stones for grinding the coarser cereals, fertiliz- ers, cement rock, and various minerals. Mill- stones are finer grained and more compact than grindstones. They are usually made from sand- stone or a quartz conglomerate. The buhrstone (q.v.) from France is the best, but the stones from New York, Pennsylvania, and Virginia meet most of the requirements of the trade. (b) Pumice (q.v.), a spongy lava, or a vol- canic ash, is used in scouring powders and soaps. It comes chiefly from the Lipari Islands, but is also produced in Utah and Nebraska. Infuso- rial or diatomaceous earth occurs in beds often miles in extent. It is formed of the siliceous shells of infusoria and diatoms, and is used in scouring soaps and powders. The chief Ameri- can localities are in Maryland. Virginia, New Hampshire and California. Tripoli is a similar variety of opal, but formed from a siliceous limestone by the leaching out of the calcium carbonate. Its use as an abrasive is as a polish- ing powder for metals, etc., but it is also exten- sively manufactured into filters, for which it is admirably adapted. Extensive deposits are worked at Seneca, Missouri, but the chief sup- ply is imported from Tripoli. Crystalline quartz, of which over 15,000 tons were mined 111 Connecticut and Pennsylvania in i'K)2, is used as a wood finisher, in the manufacture of sand- paper, in the sawing of marble, for cleaning cast- ings, etc. Garnet (q.v.) occurs in many of the crystalline rocks, especially in pegmatite and mica schist. Many varieties are recognized by the mineralogist ; but the value of garnet as an abrasive, aside from its great hardness, is de- pendent not on its composition, but oh its struc- ture. If this is distinctly lamellar the material will continually present the sharp edges which are so essential to a good abrasive. Garnet which lacks this lamellar structure is of com- paratively little efficiency for grinding and smoothing. Garnet-paper is much superior lo sandpaper and is extensively used in woodwork- ing and finishing the soles and heels of shoes. The most important localities are in New York, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, and North Caro- lina. Corundum (q.v.), being the hardest min- eral known, except the diamond, ranks next to it among the natural abrasives. It occurs in enor- mous quantities in Ontario, which since 1901 has been the leading producer. It is also ex- tensively mined in Montana, while North Caro- lina and Georgia have until very recently fur- nished nearly all of the domestic supply. Small quantities of corundum are produced in India which go chiefly to the English market. Emery (q.v.) is a natural mixture of corundum with magnetite or hematite. It has been largely mined at Chester, Mass., and Peekskill, New York. The chief supply, however, comes from the Island of Naxos. Greece, and from Asia Minor. The material is brought to this country as ballast and owing to the low prices at which it is marketed, the sale for the American min- eral is much reduced. Diamond, owing to its far greater hardness, brings many times the price per carat which any other abrasive brings per pound. The black amorphous "carbonado" found in Brazil is much harder than the crystal- lized diamond, but it is almost exclusively used for diamond drills, while the dust of the South African "bort" is the material commonly em- ployed as an abrasive in the cutting of diamonds and other precious stones. (c) Among artificial abrasives, carborundum (q.v.) holds first rank. Discovered in 1890, its production has steadily increased from 1,000 pounds valued at $15 per pound in i8g3, to 3,741,500 pounds valued at 8 to 10 cents per pound in 1902. It is generally acknowlc' 1 that it is exceeded in hardness only by the dia- mond, thus ranking above pure corundum. The chief objection to it is its brittleness. Car- borundum wheels and stones, as well as car- borundum cloth and paper, are now active competitors of the similar manufactures of emery and corundum. Crushed steel is exten- sively used in sawing, grinding, rubbing, and polishing marble, granite, and other stones, while the finer grades of crushed steel, known as "steel emery" and "rouge" are used in grinding glass. Artificial corundum is now being manufactured at Niagara Falls by heating the mineral bauxite in the electrical furnace. For further particulars about abrasives see 'Mineral Resources of the United States,' pub- lished annually by the United States Geological Survey. George Letchworth English, Mineralogist, New York City. ABSALOM — ABSINTHE Absalom, third son of King David (2 Sam. Absconding, the going clandestinely or se- xiii.-xv., xviii. ; I Chron. iii. 2). He revenged cretly out of the jurisdiction of the courts, or his brother Amnon's outrage of his sister Tamar lying concealed, in order to avoid their process, by killing him, and was banished from his fa- A person who has been in a State only tran- ther's court for five years. The grudging re- siently or has come into it without any intention admittance probably left him feeling insecure: he cleverly ingratiated himself with the people, and by aid of the shrewd Ahithophel organized a rebellion against his father, which took David unaware and forced him to fly east of the Jor- dan with a small following, while Absalom gained possession of Jerusalem and the court. With this enormous de facto advantage he might of settling therein cannot be treated as an ab- sconding debtor (15 Johns. N. Y. 196), nor can one who openly changes his residence (3 Yerg. Tenn. 414). It is not necessary that the debtor should actually leave the State. Absenteeism, a term applied to the owners of estates in a country who habitually absent themselves from that country and spend the in- easily have maintained his seat ; but according come of their estates in it in another ; in current to the story, one Hushai, pretending to desert use> referring almost wholly to the Irish nobil- David, ingratiated himself with Absalom, and jty whose fixed residence is outside of Ireland, by cunning and flattery persuaded him to a pol- Much of the poverty and many of the disturb- icy of delay, while Ahithophel urged him to ances in Ireland have been charged directly to strike quick and hard, the obviously sensible it, and the Irish people have protested against it course. David with this breathing-space collect- since 1380. While an Irish Parliament existed, ed an army ; his veteran captain Joab, gray in victories and blood, routed Absalom's forces in « the wood of Ephraim » ; and on report that Absalom had been caught by his long hair in the branches he was riding under, and refusal there seemed hope for its gradual dwindling, careers being open for ambitious men in Ire- land; but with its abolition the evil is almost incurable. Hungary suffered heavily from the same cause — its aristocracy looking on their of the messenger to lay hands on the king's son, native country's language and life as badges of Joab himself dispatched him with his spear barbarism, priding themselves on being Germans (about 980 B.C.). David could not have suf- and living in Vienna — till the great national fered the rebel to live ; but the statement that he movement set going by Szechenyi and his held a grudge against Joab for killing him. and companions early in the 19th century- Despite ordered public mourning for his son, has noth- the defense of the system by some economists, ing intrinsically improbable in it. Absalom is and the good theoretical arguments that may be represented as a very handsome and charming made for it, in practice its economic, social, per- prince, and the chronicler plainly has much sym- sonal, and political mischiefs are obvious. Not pathy with him. only is the absent landowner and property- Absalom and Achitophel, a satire of Dry- owner, collecting his rents by agents inaccessible den's, published 1681, with a second part next to complaints, representations, appeals for help in year mainly by Nahum Tate. It was aimed at the efforts of the Whig party to put forward the Duke of Monmouth, Charles II.'s illegitimate son, for the succession against the Duke of York, afterward James II. It is classic liter- ature for the force and fire of its poetry, its intellectual keenness, and its brilliant character- izations of politicians of the « Popish Plot » time under the guise of Scriptural characters: the Earl of Shaftesbury as Achitophel (Ahith- ophel), Buckingham as Zimri, Slingsby Bethel as Shimei, Halifax as Jotham, etc. ; also his poetical contemporaries Shadwell and Settle as Og and Doeg. Abscess, a local collection of pus in a cavity formed by the breaking down of tissue. See Suppuration. Abschatz, Hans Assmann, ap'-shats, Frei- herr von, poet : b. Wiirbitz, 4 Feb. 1646 ; d. Liegnitz, 22 April 1699. A lyric poet of his day, whose poems were in great part called forth by his indignation at the predatory wars of the French. They are simple and without bombast, and show sincere feeling, pure sentiment, and a sturdy, patriotic mind entirely free from class prejudices. His < Poems and Translations) (1704) include a German translation of Gua- rini's < Pastor Fido.> Selections from them were edited by W. Miiller in 1824. Absecon, or Absecum, a bay and an inlet on the coast of New Jersey, northeast of At- lantic City. upbuilding local institutions, etc., and unwilling to acknowledge rackrenting he does not per- sonally see to be such (even a generous and kindly agent dares not be as lenient as he would, in fear of his master) ; but he should be the leader of his section, the fountain of careers, furnishing it employment, having his own suc- cess depend on its prosperity, and the active de- fender of its interests, and rights, and suscepti- bilities. The estate of an absentee owner, in fact, is essentially like a colony in the old con- ception, — a mine to exploit for outsiders who cared nothing for it ; but the colonists of a distant province have a collective power much greater than that of the tenants of an absent landlord. Furthermore, it makes social co-opera- tion for general needs almost impossible. The literature on this subject is nearly coincident with that of the Irish question as a whole ; and the debates in Hansard's < Parliamentary Re- ports > abound in its discussion. Ab'sima'rus, a soldier of fortune who raised, against the Byzantine emperor Leontius, an army which proclaimed him emperor, a.d. 698. He slit Leontius' ears and nose and threw him into a convent. He was taken in 705 by Jus- tinian II., who, after having used him as a foot- stool at the hippodrome, ordered him to be beheaded. Absinthe, a drink prepared from alcohol, the active principle of Artemisia absinthium, and other aromatics, notably the volatile oil of anise. Its frequent and prolonged use leads to a diseased condition known as absinthism that is a product of chronic alcoholism to which the ABSOLUTE — ABSOLUTION effects of the volatile oil of Absinthium are added. Other volatile oils probably contribute somewhat to the general result. Absinthism, in the main, is characterized by a greater amount of affection of the brain than is simple alcohol- ism. The action of the volatile oils is to height- en cerebral excitement, and absinthe-mania is a frequent result of this form of intoxication. See Wormwood. Absolute, opposed to relative; means that the tiling is considered in itself and without ref- erence to other things. In Logic. — (i) Absolute or non-connotative, according to VVhately, is opposed to attributive or connotative. The former docs not take note of an attribute connected with the object, which the latter does. Thus « Rome » and « sky » are absolute terms ; but « Rome, the capital of Italy,» and « our sky » are attributive or con- notative. (See Whately's < Logic,' bk. ii.. ch. v., §§ I, 2-5.) (2) According to J. S. Mill, it is incorrect to regard non-connotative and abso- lute as synonymous terms. He considers abso- lute to mean non-relative, and to be opposed to relative. It implies that the object is to be con- sidered as a whole, without reference to any- thing of which it is a part, or to any other object distinguished from it. Thus « man » is an abso- lute term, but « father » is not, for father implies the existence of sons and is therefore relative. (J. S. Mill's (Logic,) bk. i.. ch. ii.) In Grammar, a case absolute is one consist- ing essentially of a substantive and a participle, which form a clause not agreeing with or gov- erned by any word in the remainder of the sen- tence. In Greek, the absolute case is the geni- tive; in Latin, the ablative; in English, it is considered to be the nominative. In Latin, the words sole stante in the expression sole slants tend vcrtitur (the earth turns round, the sun standing still — that is, while the sun is stand- ing still) are in the ablative absolute. In Eng- lish, thou leading, in the following familiar quotation — « I shall not lag behind, nor err The way, thou leading — » (Milton) is in the nominative absolute. So also is / rapt in the line — « And, I all rapt in this, 'Come out,' he said.'' — Tennyson's (Princess,' Prol. 50. In Law. — (1) Personal rights are divided into absolute and relative — absolute, which pertain to men as individuals ; and relative, which are incident to them as members of society, standing in various relations to each other. The three chief rights of an absolute kind are the right of personal security, the right of personal liberty, and the right of private property. (Black- stone's 'Commentaries,' bk. i., ch. i.) Simi- larly there are absolute and relative duties. Public sobriety is a relative duty, while sobriety, even when no human eye is looking on, is an absolute duty. (Ibid.) Property in a man's possession is described under two categories, ab- solute and qualified property. His chairs, tables, spoons, horses, cows, etc., are his absolute prop- erty : while the term ((qualified property" is ap- plied to the wild animals on his estate. (2) An absolute decision is one which can at once be enforced. It is opposed to a rule nisi, which cannot be acted on until cause be shown, unless, indeed, the opposite party fail to appear. (3) Absolute law: The true and proper law of na- ture. 14) Absolute warrandice ( Scotch convey- ancing) : A warranting or assuring against all mankind. In Physics, absolute is opposed to relative. As this relativity may be of many kinds, various shades of meaning arise; thus : — (1) Absolute or real expansion of a liquid, as opposed to its apparent expansion, the expan- sion which would arise when the liquid is heat- ed if the vessel containing it did not itself expand. (2) Absolute gravity is the gravity of a body viewed apart from all modifying influences, as, for instance, of the atmosphere. To ascertain its amount, therefore, the body must be weighed in vacuo. (3) Absolute motion is the change of place on a body produced by the motion so desig- nated, viewed apart from the modifying influ- ence arising from disturbing elements of another kind. (4) Absolute force of a centre: strength of a center. In Astronomy, the absolute equation is the aggregate of the optic and eccentric equations. In Algebra, absolute numbers are those which stand in an equation without having any letters combined with them. Thus, in the equation 2.r + Q=l7, 9 and 17 are absolute numbers, but 2 is not so. In Theology, God is often spoken of as abso- lute, because any relations he has to other beings are unessential to his nature. In Morals, absolute ethics are those based on a fixed standard, independent of time or society. In Metaphysics, the absolute is an existence apart from all attributes by which it is known as a phenomenon ; but as it cannot be known except by the relation between such attributes and those already known to the mind, know- ledge of the absolute, or of ultimate reality, is contradiction in essence, as the means of know- ing it necessarily reduce it to a phenomenon. In other words, the absolute must exist apart from all relations, and knowledge itself is rela- tion. It would be possible only to a being whose consciousness and the objects cognized were one and the same — that is, an existence which in itself is the universe both of objects and of mind at once, and those objects phases of its own mind — the Spinozan conception. Ab- solute space is considered apart from the mate- rial bodies in it. Absolute time is time viewed apart from events or any other subjects of men- tal conception wu'th which it may be associated. Absolute Zero. — The temperature at which bodies are entirely destitute of heat. For dis- cussion of the principles upon which the dctcr- mihation of the absolute zero is based, sec Ther- modynamics ; Zero. Absolute, Sir Anthony, a character in < The Rivals,' a comedy by R. B. Sheridan. He is a hot-headed, fiery-tempered, generous old man, always in a towering passion, even while he commends his own mildness of manner. His son, Captain Absolute, is the hero of the play. Absolution, in ecclesiastical usage, the free- ing from sin or its penalties. In the Catholic Church absolution has two important and dis- tinctive bearings: ( 1 I Absolution from sin; (2) Absolution from censures. The first is defined as the remission of sin, and can only be given ABSORPTION — ABYDOS by a duly ordained priest in the Sacrament of Penance, which requires, on the part of the penitent, a sincere confession of all his sins, contrition and a firm purpose of amendment. The basis of the doctrine is the authority of the Church and the commission in John xx. 23. In circumstances, where the conditions of the Sacrament of Penance cannot be fulfilled, as in severe illness when the penitent is too weak to speak, or in instant danger of death, conditional absolution may be given on the ground of the moral conviction of the penitent's virtual desire to comply with all the necessary condi- tions. The Councils of Florence and of Trent defined the form of words to be used : "I absolve thee from thy sins, etc." In the Greek or East- ern Church the deprecatory form is used: "May Christ absolve thee, etc. 8 Absolution from cen- sures merely removes penalties imposed by the Church. It may be given either in the Sacra- ment of Penance, or in the external form, that is, in the courts of the Church. It is not necessary for the person to be absolved from censures, to be present or even living. Absolution for the dead is a short prayer imploring eternal rest and the remission of the temporal penalties of sin over a dead body. In the Protestant Churches in general absolution is simply a declarative power of the minister imploring the divine forgiveness. Consult: 'Decrees of Coun- cil of Trent' ; Denys de St. Marthe, 'Traite de la Confession' ; Morinus. Absorption. In chemistry, absorption is the taking up of a gas by a liquid or by a porous solid; and in natural philosophy it is the taking up of rays of light and heat by certain bodies through which they are passing. Absorption of light is the retention of some rays and the re- flection of others when they pass into an imper- fectly transparent body. If all were absorbed, the body would be black; if none, it would be white ; but when some rays are absorbed, and others reflected, the body is then of one of the bright and lively colors. In chemistry the co-efficient of absorption of a gas is the volume of the gas reduced to o° Cent, and "60 m. m. pressure, which is absorbed by the unit of volume of any liquid. Absorption of heat is the retention and con- sequent disappearance of rays of heat in passing into or through a body colder than themselves. Absorption of the earth is a term used by Kircher and others for the subsidence of tracts of land produced by earthquakes. In physiology it is the taking in by the spe- cialized cells of the products of digestion. See Gases, General Properties of ; Light ; Occlu- sion; Spectrum. Abstract of Title, a synopsis, or brief state- ment, of the evidences of ownership of real estate. An abstract should set forth briefly but clearly every deed, will, or other instrument, to- gether with every fact relating in any way to the title, in order to enable the party in interest to form an opinion as to the exact state of the title. The vendor of land, in England, usually furnishes the purchaser with an abstract of title. The vendor is not compelled to fur- nish an abstract of title in the United States. He usually undertakes to give only a mar- ketable 1 title. Plans and sketches of the premises are generally inserted in abstracts of title. Abstraction. In psychology, that process of the mind by which the attention is concen- trated upon one element of a complex idea to the exclusion of the other elements. In thought one object may be taken out — abstracted from — a group of objects, or one element separated frorn the group of elements that go to make up the object presented to our senses. Another form of abstraction is that process of the mind by which general notions or concepts are formed. The process of abstraction for the child begins in his noticing differences in familiar objects. Within certain groups some differences are found to be unimportant. These qualities which are found to be of less importance are then abstracted or removed from the complex idea for which the word denoting this group of objects stands. As this process develops it be- comes deliberate, and the attention may be directed upon resemblances instead of differ- ences. At this stage the grouping of objects according to likenesses results in classification. Consult: G. T. Ladd, 'Psychology, Descriptive and Explanatory,' New York, 1894; W. James, 'Principles of Psychology,' New York 1890; or any work on general psychology. Absyrtus. See Argonauts. Abt, Franz, apt, a German song-writer and conductor: b. Wiesbaden, 22 Dec. 1819; d. 31 March 1885. He studied theology at Leipsic, but abandoned it for music at Mendelssohn's instance. In 1841 he became kapellmeister at the court theatre at Bernburg; shortly afterward relinquishing the post for a similar one in Zu- rich, where he remained till 1852. He was then called to Brunswick as chief conductor of the orchestra in the royal theatre, and made court kapellmeister in 1855. In 1872 he came to the United States at the invitation of a number of choral societies, and was very favorably re- ceived: he conducted at the famous Peace Jubilee in Boston in that year. In 1881 he retired to Wiesbaden on a pension. Many of his songs (for example, 'When the Swallows Homeward Fly,' 'Good Night, Thou Child of My Heart,' 'O Ye Tears,' etc.), have endeared themselves to the heart of the people all over the world. Abydos, Greece, town and castle of Asia Minor, on the Hellespont or Straits of Galli- poli, nearly opposite Sestus. It is famous as being the point from which Xerxes made his celebrated crossing of the Hellespont on the bridge of boats ; and, also, as being the scene of the loves of Hero (q.v.) and Leander (see Mus.eus). Byron adopts the name in his "Bride of Abydos' (1813), characterizing it as a clime where "All, save the spirit of man is divine." It is thought originally to have been a Thracian town, but it subsequently be- came a Milesian colony. In 411 b.c. Abydos revolted from Athens and went over to Dercvlli- das the Spartan. Subsequently the city was captured by Philip II. of Macedonia, but 'in 1./, n.c. it was declared free by the Romans. An- other Abydos was situated in Egypt on the upper Nile, and in the Thebaid was second in importance only to Thebes. It has become famous in modern times because of important nuns found there, the Palace of Mem 1 and the tomb of Osiris being among them. Here also was found the Tablet of Abydos. ABYSSINIA Abyssinia, or Habesh, ha'-bcsh, an ancient kingdom ol E. Africa, now under a monarch who claims the title of emperor. Pop. some 3,500,000. Abyssinia may be said to extend be- tween lat. 8° and 16° N., and Ion. 35 and 41 E., having Nubia N. and \Y., the Sudan \Y., the Red Sea littoral (Erythrsea, Danakil coun- try, etc.) E., and to the S. the Galla country. The area within these limits 1- about IOO.OOO square miles, but the present ruler claims a much more extensive territory; and latterly Abyssinia has come to be surrounded by re- gions belonging to or influenced more or less by Italy. Prance, and Great Britain. The prin- cipal divisions of Abyssinia arc the provinces or Kingdoms of Shoa in the south (including Efat), the strongest and best organized state in Abys- sinia, — capital, Ankobar, of some 7,000 people, 8,000 feet above sea-level, with a salubrious cli- mate ; Amhara in the centre (including Gojam), capital, Gondar, situated on the Gondar plateau, 7.500 feet above the sea : and Tigre in the north, chief places, Antalo. and Adua or Adowa, with Axum near the latter, none of them much over 2,000 population. Adis Abeba in Shoa is the present residence of the ruler, transferred from Adowa after the Italian war, and has grown within two or three years from a small village to a city of some 80,000 inhabitants. Topography. — The more marked physical features of the country may be described gen- erally as consisting of a vast series of table- lands of various and often of great elevations, and of numerous ranges of high and rugged mountains, some of them of very singular forms, dispersed over the surface in apparently the wildest confusion. From these mountains flow inexhaustible supplies of water, which, pour- ing down by the deep and tremendous ravines that everywhere intersect them, impart an ex- traordinary fertility to the plains and valleys below. The loftiest and most remarkable mountain summits occur in the centre of the northern part of the kingdom, immediately west of the Ta- cazze River. Among the highest of these (so far as known) is Ras Dashan, calculated at 15.167 feet and capped with perpetual snow. Abba Tared and Buahit are estimated even higher. Along the eastern side of the country extends a mountain range or escarpment form- ing a natural rampart, with a mean elevation of 7,000 or 8,000 feet for some 600 miles. No volcanoes are known to exist at present, but almost everywhere are numerous evidences of past volcanic action. Perhaps the principal river of Abyssinia is the Tacazze, rising in the moun- tains of Lasta, about lat. 12° N. ; Ion. 39 20' E. It runs north and then west, and after leaving the bounds of Abyssinia takes the name of Atbara, and finally joins the Nile. The chief of the other rivers — if not indeed the chief of all — is the Abay or Abai in the southwest, which after flowing through Lake Dembea, runs south and then northwest, and later becomes the Bahr-el-Azrek or Blue Nile, of which it is in fact the upper portion. Fauna. — The domestic animals consist of horses, cattle, sheep, goats, camels, mules, and asses. Mules, camels, and asses are the usual beasts of burden, the horses being generally reserved for war and the chase. Vast herds of oxen are met with throughout the country. The wild animals are the lion (rare), elephant, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, crocodile, buffalo, hyena, leopard, boar, antelope, zebra, quagga, giraffe, gazelle, and civet. The hippopotamus abounds in Lake Tsana, and great numbers are killed annually for their flesh and hides. The rhinoceros, like the elephant, inhabits the low, moist grounds, and is numerous in certain dis- tricts. Crocodiles are found in various rivers, but the largest and most dreaded are those that inhabit the Tacazze. The buffalo, a compara- tively harmless animal in other countries, is here extremely ferocious. Serpents are numer- ous, among them being the boa, which often attains a length of 20 feet. Bees are numerous, honey being a general article of food ; lo- custs often lay the land waste, and the tsetse fly is destructive to cattle during the rainy season. Productions. — The chief mineral products of Abyssinia are iron, sulphur, coal, and salt. Coal- beds extend along the whole of the eastern frontier of Shoa, but as a combustible coal is scarcely known in the country. Salt is obtained in various places, especially from a plain on the southeastern border of Tigre. Gold is obtained from alluvial deposits, but not in great quan- tity. In some parts of the country iron is abundant and is manufactured into implements. A few hot mineral springs are known and used. Climate. — The climate of Abyssinia is as va- rious as its surface. In the valleys it is delight- ful, but on the mountains often cold. The rains begin in June and continue till September (over a considerable portion of the country at least), during which period they are often so violent as to put a stop to agricultural labor and all other outdoor operations. The finest months of the year are December and January. Commerce. — The foreign trade is chiefly car- ried on through Massowa, Berbera, Zeila, Jibutil, Obok, and other non-Abyssinian ports on the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden ; but the external traffic has never been of great importance, as the nature of the country is adverse to an extensive trade, and there are relatively few commodities suited for export ; moreover, till recently the natives dared not trust their treasures out of their secret hoards, and the royal court was the chief buyer. Menelek's firm administration, however, with its better security for life and property, has recently been extending Abyssinian trade considerably, the United States and Great Britain being the chief beneficiaries, France and Germany ranking next. The imports of 1899- 1900 into Adis Abeba, the capital, and Harrar, near British Somaliland, the chief trade centres, were about $3,500,000. The chief exports are coffee to Arabia, gold to India, wool, skins, ivory and rhinoceros horns, honey, wax, gums, civet, and ostrich feathers ; the chief imports, cotton goods, in which American fabrics take the lead, silks, firearms and needles, bottles, to- bacco, pepper, and antimony for cosmetics. Trade is greatly hampered by the primitive methods of communication, which is carried on by mules and pack-horses ; the distance traversed being not above six to eight miles a day at best. Now, however, French capital is building — for politics, but none the less to the profit of trade — a railroad 184 m. long from Jibutil on the Gulf of Aden to Harrar, south-southwest, to be eventually extended to Adis Abeba; and the Italians are building one. ABYSSINIAN CHURCH Arabs had invaded the country and obtained a footing in Adel, though they were unable to ex- tend their conquests farther. For several cen- turies afterward the kingdom continued in a distracted state, now torn by internal commo- tions, and now invaded by external enemies (Mohammedans and Gallas). To protect him- self from the last the emperor of Abyssinia, about the middle of the 16th century, applied for assistance to the king of Portugal, promising at the same time implicit submission to the Pope. The solicited aid was sent, and the empire saved. The Roman Catholic priests, having now ingra- tiated themselves with the emperor and his family, endeavored to induce them to renounce the tenets and rites of the Coptic Church and adopt those of Rome. This attempt, however, was resisted by the ecclesiastics and the peo- ple, and finally ended, after a long struggle, in the expulsion of the Roman Catholic priests about 1630. The kingdom gradually fell into a state of anarchy, which about the middle of the 18th century was complete. The Negus re- ceived no obedience from the provincial govern- ors, who besides were at feud with one an- other and severally assumed the royal title. Abyssinia thus became divided into a number of petty independent states. A remarkable, but, as it proved, quite futile attempt to resuscitate the unity and power of the ancient kingdom was begun about the middle of the 19th century by King Theodore, who aimed at the restoration of the ancient kingdom of Ethiopia, with him- self for its sovereign. He introduced European artisans, and went to work wisely in many ways, but his cruelty and tyranny counteracted his politic measures. In consequence of a slight, real or fancied, which he had received at the hands of the British government, he threw Consul Cameron and a number of other British subjects into prison in 1863, and refused to give them up. To effect their release an army of nearly 12,000 men under Sir Robert Napier was dispatched from Bombay in 1867 ; it landed at Zulla on the Gulf of Aden in November, and marching up the country came within sight of Magdala, Theodore's capital, in the beginning of April 1868. Defeated in a battle, Theodore delivered up the captives and shut himself up in Magdala, which was taken by storm 13 April. Theodore was found among the slain, the gen- eral opinion being that he had fallen by his own hand. After the withdrawal of the English, fighting immediately began among the chiefs of the dif- ferent provinces ; the three most powerful, Kasa, Gobasie, and Menelek, struggling for the su- premacy. This state of matters continued for some time ; but at last the country was divided between Kasa, who secured the northern and larger portion and assumed the name of Jo- hannes, and Menelek, who gained possession of Shoa. Latterly Johannes made himself supreme ruler, with the title of emperor, or king of kings (Negus Negusti). Taking advantage of the troubles in Abyssinia the Egyptians annexed Massowa and adjoining territory on the Red Sea, and hostilities were repeatedly carried on between them and Johannes. In 1885 the Egyp- tian forces were withdrawn, and Italy, with the consent of Great Britain, declared a pro- tectorate over Massowa and the strip of terri- tory along the coast of the Red Sea. In the fol- lowing year the Italians pushed inward to Saati, a few miles west of Massowa, an action which led to war with Johannes. An Abyssinian force was sent in 1887 to recover Saati ; but though a small Italian force was cut to pieces at Dogali the Italians maintained their posi- tion. On the death of Johannes in 1889, while fighting against the Mahdists. Menelek, who had concluded an alliance with Italy, raised himself to the imperial throne. The result of this was the strengthening of the Italian hold on the country. The Italians regarded their treaty with Menelek as giving them a protectorate over Abyssinia, and by 1892 the whole of Ethiopia was generally recognized as within the Italian sphere. Proceeding to extend and strengthen their position, the Italians in 1889 occupied Keren, capital of the Bogos country, situated 60 miies west of Massowa, and also fortified Asmara, southwest of Massowa. Adowa, the capital of Tigre, and the centre of opposition to Menelek, was occupied in the following year. The Mahdists were also defeated, and Kassala in the Sudan was occupied by the Italians. Menelek, however, later repudiated the Italian protectorate, broke with his former allies, and in 1896 his troops inflicted on them such a de- feat as gave a death-blow to their claim of a protectorate over all Abyssinia. The treaty con- cluded in that year between Menelek and the Italians practically abrogated the treaty of seven years before, but left Italy in possession of a strip along the Red Sea coast from the French colony of Obok on the south to Ras Kasar on the north, known officially as Eritrea (Erythrsa). A British mission in 1897 was favorably received by the emperor, and the boundaries between Abyssinia and the British Somali protectorate were arranged. In 1903, Robert P. Skinner of the United States Department of State nego- tiated a commercial treaty with Emperor Mene- hk. The American commissioner was impressed by the commercial possibilities of Abyssinia. He found the country admirably suited "to cot- ton growing. Minerals are abundant, and the deposits are practically untouched. Abyssinian Church, The. Founded by Frumentius, the first bishop of Ethiopia, about 330 a. p. About 470 a great company of monks established itself in the country, completely changing the doctrines and affairs of the Church, but was a few years later expelled. From 1528 to 1540, the country was overrun by Mohammedans, followed at the end of the 15th century by the Portuguese missions, which remained till 1633, when the Abyssinians resumed allegiance to the Church at Alexandria. The metropolitan or head of the Church is ap- pointed by the patriarch of Alexandria, and is always a foreigner. The Abyssinians are mon- ophysites, generally agreeing with the Copts in ritual and practice. The fasts are long and rigid: confession and absolution are strictly en- forced and the Sabbath and the Levirate* law are generally observed. Idolatry, purgatory, extreme unction, crucifixes, etc., are prohibited. The priests must marry, but only once. The liturgy is celebrated on the ark in the king's palace at Christmas, Epiphany, Easter, and the Feast of the Cross. The Scriptures are read in Geez. the literary language, which is used for all services. ACACIA — ACADEMY Acacia (Gr. akS, spine, from their spiny stalks), a genus of plants, order /.(•!,'")"'""-"<". sub-order Mimosete. They arc trees or shrubs with compound pinnate leaves and small leaf- lets, — in some species wholly or partially unde- veloped, when the petiole or leaf-stalk expands into a blade resembling a leaf, hence called phyllodium. It yields gum arabic, gum Senegal, and other .minis; some have astringent barks and pods, used in tanning. The Australian spe- cies contains considerable tannin, and hence is exported to a large extent. The Indian tree yields an astringent called catechu. Acacius, a-ka'-shius, bishop of C;esarea 340- 365 a.d. He founded a curious Christian sect called Acacians, and that may be termed homo- iothelites, as they held that the Son was like the Father in will, but not of the same or simi- lar substance ; thus differing from the Arians. He induced a synod at Constantinople in 359 to accept the doctrine, whereon St. Jerome said that « the world groaned and wondered to find itself Arian.» It was finally condemned, how- ever, and he was banished. Acacius, St., bishop of Amida in Mesopo- tamia, early in the 5th century. He sold the church plate to redeem 7,000 starving Persian slaves. Vararanes (Bahram), the king, is said to have been so affected by this noble action that he sought an interview with the bishop, which resulted in a peace between that prince and Theodosius II., A.D. 422, and a hundred years' peace was sworn between Rome and Per- sia. Academics, a name given to a series of philosophers who taught in the Athenian Acad- emy, the scene of Plato's discourses. They are commonly divided into three sects: (1) The Old Academy, of which Plato was the imme- diate founder, was represented successively by Speusippus, Xenocrates, and Polemon. (2) To them succeeded Arcesilaus, the founder of the Middle Academy. Under his hands the Pla- tonic method assumed an almost exclusively polemical character. His main object was to refute the Stoics, who maintained a doctrine of perception identical with that promulgated by Dr. Reid in the [8th century. Socrates is said to have professed that all he knew was that he knew nothing. Arcesilaus denied that he knew even this. Wisdom he made to consist in absolute suspension of assent; virtue, in the probable estimate of consequences. He was succeeded by Lacydes, Telecles, Evander. and Hegesinus. (3) The New Academy claims Carneades as its founder. His system is a species of mitigated scepticism. He was suc- ceeded by his disciple. Clitomachus. Charmi- des, the third and last of the new academicians, appears to have been little more than a teacher of rhetoric. Academie des Beaux Arts, ak-ad-a-me da bo zar. See Academy of Fine Arts. Academy, the gymnasium in the suburbs of Athens in which Plato taught, and so called after a mythical hero Academus, to whom it was said to have originally belonged. Anciently there were two public academies: one at Rome, founded by Adrian, in which all the sciences were taught, but especially jurisprudence; the other at Bery- tus, in Phcenicia, in which jurists were princi- pally educated. Academy is the name also of a society or an association of artists, linked to- gether for the promotion of art, or of scientific men similarly united for the advancement of science, or of persons united for any more or less analogous object. Thus the French pos- sess the celebrated Academy or Institute. (See Academy, French.) The use of the word "academy," different from the ancient one, is believed to have arisen first in Italy at the re- vival of letters in the 1 3 1 1 1 century. The near- est approach to these institutions in America is the Smithsonian Institution in Washington. Academy, French, an institution founded in 1(535 by Cardinal Richelieu for the purpose of refining the French language and style. It became in time the most influential of all liter- ary societies in Europe. Together with the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lcttres, the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences, and the Academy of Sciences, it composes the Na- tional Institute of France. It published in [694 the first edition of a dictionary. It has exer- cised a conservative influence on French litera- ture and favors taste rather than originality. It consists of 40 members, besides a director, a chancellor, and a secretary. In 1793 it was sup- pressed by the Convention, but was re-estab- lished in 1816. The French Academy originated in a simple meeting of friends who nut at the house of Conrart, one of their number. These reunions were held informally for many years. At last they attracted the attention of Richelieu. who in 1034 proposed to form an Academy, and from the 13th of March in that year a record was kept of their transactions and a director or chancellor and a perpetual secretary were ap- pointed. The Academy was definitely formed by letters patent of Louis XIII. in January 1635; they were registered by Parliament 10 July 1637. At first the number was 30. The perpetual secretaries since the foundation have numbered 19, and the incumbent receives a salary of 6.000 francs and lodgings at the Institute. Or- dinary members receive 1.500 francs a year. In 1880 the discussion of the qualifications of candidates which had been in vogue for more than 10 years was abolished, but restored in 1896. In 1071 tin- sessions of the Academy be- came public. The library of the Institute was founded by Louis XIV., who presented to it 660 volumes. The members of the Academy, often spoken of as « the forty immortals," were, in 1901, with the dates of their election: Er- nest W. G. B. Legouve, 1855; Due de Broglic, 1862; Emilc Ollivier, 1870: Alfred J. F. Me- zieres, 1874; Gaston Boissier, 1876; Victorien Sardou, 1877; Due d' Audiffret-Pasquier, 1878; Ainu- J. F. Rousse, 1880 ; Rene F. A. Sully- Prudhomme. 1881 ; Adolph L. A. Perraud, 1882; fedouard J. H. Pailleron. 1SX2: FraiiQois E. J. Coppee, 1884; Joseph L. F. Bertrand. 1884; Ludovic Halevv. 1884; Vallery C. O. Greard, 1886; Comte d' Haussonville. 1886: Jules A. A. Claretie. 1888; Vicomte de Vogue, 1888: Charles L de Frcycinet. 1890; Julien Viaud, 1891; Er- nest Lavissc, 1892; Vicomte de Bornier, 1893; Paul L. Thureau-Dangin, 1893 ; Ferdinand Bru- netiere, 1893; Albert Sorel, 1894; Jose M. de Heredia. 1894; Paul Bourget, 1894; Henri Houssayc, 1894; Jules Lemaitre, 1895; Anatole France, 1896; Marquis de Beauregard, 1896; ACADEMY Gaston Paris, 1896; Andre Theuriet, 1896; Comte Vandal, 1896 ; Comte de Mun, 1897 ; Ga- briel Hanotaux, 1897; Claude J. B. Guillaume. 1898; Henri L. E. Lavedan, 1899; Paul Deschanel, 1899 ; Marquis de Vogue and Ed- mond Rostand, 1901. Academy, The Royal Spanish, an institution established at Madrid in 1714 for the same pur- poses as the French Academy. The number of members is limited to 24. Academy of Arts, The Royal, a British institution for the encouragement of painting, sculpture, and designing; founded in 1768 by George III., with Sir Joshua Reynolds as presi- dent. It is composed of a president (P.R.A.), 40 academicians (R.A.), and 20 associates (A.R.A.). which include professors of painting, architecture, anatomy, and perspective. It holds an annual exhibition, open to all artists, at Burlington House, London, of paintings, sculpture, and designs which reach a certain standard of merit. Academy of Design, National, an American institution in New York city, founded in 1826, conducting schools in various branches of the fine arts, and holding semi-annual exhibitions at which prizes are awarded. The membership consists of academicians, who are the corporate body and use the title N.A. (National Acade- mician), and the associates, who use the title A.N. A. (Associate of the National Academy), all, of necessity, artists. Laymen may become fellows of the academy on payment of graded fees. Academy of Fine Arts, The, a French insti- tution, originally founded in 1648 at Paris un- der the name of the Academy of Painting and Sculpture. In 1795 it was joined to the Acad- emy of Architecture, and has borne its present name since 1819. It publishes memoirs, pro- ceedings, and a dictionary of the fine arts. It has 41 members, besides corresponding mem- bers, etc. Academy of France at Rome, an institution for the advanced study of the fine arts in Rome, Italy, founded by Colbert in 1666, during the reign of Louis XIV. It was at first established in the ruined villa Mancini on the Corso. and in 1803 at the villa Medicis. The young artists, painters, sculptors, architects, engravers, and musicians who secure the annual prizes of the Academy of Fine Arts in Paris spend four years there, with an annual pension of 3,500 francs and traveling expenses. Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres, an institution founded at Paris by Colbert in 1663, under the name of Petite Academic It was composed originally of four members, chosen by the ministry to belong to the Academie Francaise. The first members. Chap- elain, Charpentier, the Abbe de Bourzers. and the Abbe Cassagne, met in a salon of the Louvre or in Colbert's library, and devoted themselves to composing the inscriptions for the monuments erected by Louis XIV. and the medals struck in his honor ; hence their popular name. They undertook a medallic history of the reign of the king. In 1701 the Academy as- sumed its definitive form : 40 academicians were named. In 1803 the Academy was reconsti- tuted and became the third class of the Insti- tute. Comparative philology, Oriental, Greek, and Roman antiquities and epigraphy, have re- ceived the attention of the Academy, which has published a series of invaluable records and works. Academy of Medicine, a French institution, founded in Paris in 1820 for the purpose of keeping the government informed on all sub- jects appertaining to the public health. It has sections of medicine, surgery, and pharmacy, and its publications are highly prized by sani- tarians. Academy of Moral and Political Science, founded at Paris in 1795, became the second class of the Institute. It was suppressed by Na- poleon in 1803, but was re-established by Louis Philippe in 1832, and forms the fifth class of the Institute. It is composed of 30 members, divided into 5 sections, with 5 free academicians, 5 foreign associates, and 30 corresponding mem- bers. Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadel- phia, an institution founded in 1812. It has one of the best natural-history collections in this country — especially rich in stuffed birds — and a valuable scientific library. It has published 'Journals' since 1817, and 'Proceedings' since 1841. Academy of Political and Social Science, American, an institution organized at Phila- delphia in 1889 and incorporated in 1891. It has a large number of members and publishes bi-monthly < Annals. > Academy of Sciences, an institution founded at Paris in 1666 by Colbert, and approved by Louis XIV. in 1699. It published about 130 vol- umes of memoirs from 1666 to 1793, when it was suppressed. It was re-established in 1816. It has now 66 members in II sections, with two perpetual secretaries and 100 corresponding members. Academy of Sciences, The Imperial, a Rus- sian institution, founded in St. Petersburg by Catherine I. in 1725, and largely endowed by Catherine II. It has 15 professors, a president and director, a fine library containing 300.000 volumes and many manuscripts, and a museum very rich in curiosities and objects of natural history. It has published < Transactions > since 1728. and at present publishes two volumes an- nually, called < Acta Academic.' including many memoirs on the higher mathematics and the astronomical observations at Pulkowa. Academy of Sciences, The National, an American institution, founded in 1863, consist- ing of 100 members, elected from among the most distinguished scientific men of the United States ; analogous to the Royal Society of Lon- don. Academy of Sciences, The Royal, a Danish institution in Copenhagen, established by the king of Denmark in 1743. It has published transactions ( < Skrifter > 1 since its foundation, and memoirs ( < Afhandlinger > ) since 1823. Academy of Sciences. The Royal, a German institution in Berlin, founded by Frederick I. in 1700; had Leibnitz as its first director, and held its first meetings in 1711. It is divided into four sections, devoted to mathematics, physics, philosophy, and history. It publishes memoirs and monthly reports. ACADEMY OF SCIENCES — ACCENT Academy of Sciences, The Royal, a Swed- ish institution, known also as the Royal Swed- ish Academy, founded in Stockholm as a pri- vate society in 1739; incorporated under its second name in 1741 ; issues annual volumes of 'Transactions,* which were at first published quarterly. Academy of Sciences and Arts, American, an academy established in Boston in 1780 by the Council and House of Representatives of Mas- sachusetts; the successor of an institution founded by Franklin. It has published monthly 'Proceedings' since 1846, and annual 'Memoirs' since 1785, Acadia (Micmac, "plenty"). See Nova Scotia. Acadialite, a name given to chabazite (q.v.) from Nova Scotia (Acadia). Its color is usually salmon to flesh-red. Acajutla, ak-a-hoot'la, Salvador, Central America: its second port in importance, — next to La Libertad, the port of San Salvador, — 10 m. south of Sonsonati, and the seat of a con- sular agent. Acanthite, a mineral found chiefly in the silver mines of Bohemia and Saxony. It is a silver sulphide, Ag;S, identical with argentite (q.v.) in composition, chemical and physical properties, but differs in form, its crystals being orthorhombic, their habit being prismatic and usually elongated. Krcnner argues, however, and with considerable force, that acanthite is but a distorted form of argentite. Acan'thus, the typical genus of the order Acanthacea, or acanthads, a natural order of monopetalous exogens, consisting of herbaceous plants or shrubs, found chiefly in the tropics, where they often form a large part of the weedy herbage. Acanthus is a native of many parts of southern Europe. The family is represented in America by a few wild-growing species; but they are best known as tender garden plants. The best-known species of the genuine acanths (or brancursines, as they were formerly called by a euphemism for the still older "bear's- breech"). are A. mollis and A. spinosus. The former has a stem about two feet high, sur- rounded in its lower half with large, soft, shin- ing, hairy, and deeply indented leaves, and cov- ered from the middle to the top with large white flowers tinged with yellow. In Architecture. — The leaves of either A. mollis or A. spinosus, conventionalized and used for decoration. The latter only were used by the Greeks in the Corinthian capital, of which they were the characteristic, or in acrotcria (see Acroterion), and the leaves were three-lobed, straight, and pointed. The Etruscan and early Roman forms were of split curling leaves ; the later Roman of the Greek trilobate form but using the .1. mollis with its ampler foliage, and combining it with other leafage — olive, laurel, parsley, etc. — to make a luxuriant decoration of architectural features. The acanthus was also used in decorating furniture, table-ware, vases, embroideries, etc., and in frescoes. It was in- herited by the Byzantine and Romanesque art- ists, and persisted till the Renaissance, when in some parts the Gothic displaced it. Acaroid Resin, or Gum, a resin which ex- udes so abundantly from the grass-trees (Xan- thorrhara) of Australia as to cover the base of the leaves and the underground portions of the plants, and is also obtained by crushing and sifting or washing, as much as 50 or 60 pounds being obtained from one plant. Two kinds, red and yellow, are generally distinguished, and are used in varnishes as well as for several other purposes. Acarus, a genus of insects of the tribe Acaridcc. order Arachnida. They are oviparous, have eight legs, two eyes, and two jointed ten- tacula. and are very prolific. All the species are extremely minute, or even microscopic, as the cheese-mite (Acarus domes ticus), and many of them parasitic ; of the latter, the itch-insect (Sarcoptes scabici) is a remarkable example. It is a microscopic animal found under the human skin in the pustules of a well-known cutaneous disease. Many others infect the skin of different animals, such as dogs. hogs, and cattle, and sometimes in considerable numbers. In some instances they damage cow-hides. (See Mites.) Acarus folliculorum is a microscopic parasite of the hair follicles of the skin. It is the lowest form of mite, and is known also as Demodex folliculorum. See Blackhead. Acceleration, the rate of change of the velocity of a body. If the velocity of the body is constant, its acceleration is said to be zero. If the velocity increases uniformly, so that at the end of every second it is greater than it was at the end of a preceding second by a constant amount, the acceleration is said to be uniform, and the motion is said to be uniformly acceler- ated. If the velocity is decreasing, the accelera- tion is said to be negative. A body falling freely under the influence of gravity affords the most familiar example of uniform (or constant) acceleration. When the body falls in air or any other medium, the phenomena are complicated by the resistance of the medium; but when it falls in a vacuum its velocity in- creases every second by the same constant amount. Thus if the body starts from rest, it will have a velocity of 32.2 feet per second at the end of the first second, 64.4 feet per second at the end of the second second, 96.6 feet per second at the end of the third second, and so on. The acceleration produced by gravity is therefore said to be 32.2 feet per second per sec- ond ; but this varies somewhat with the latitude and the height above the sea. (See Force of Gr.witv. ) The acceleration experienced under given circumstances is proportional to the force acting upon the body in the direction in which its motion is accelerated. Thus if the foregoing experiment with a falling body were tried upon some other planet, and we found that the veloc- ity of the falling body was increased by 322.0 feet per second every second (instead of 32.2 feet), we should know that the force of gravi- tation at the surface of that planet is precisely ten times as great as it is upon the surface of the earth. In physics and theoretical mechanics a force is always measured by the acceleration it produces when exerted upon a unit mass. For a further account of the relation between force, mass, and acceleration, also see Force. Accent, the stress or emphasis given by the voice' to a certain syllable or syllables of_ a word, or to certain notes in a bar of music; also, the peculiar intonation of one spoken lan- guage when compared with another ; further, marks used in printing or writing to show the ACCENTOR — ACCESSION position of the stress. In a dissyllable there is but one accent, as a-back', hut in a polysyllable there may be more than one. One of these, however, is always greater than the rest and is called the primary accent ; the others are called secondary. Two wholly distinct classes of accent are found in Aryan languages, the musical and the expiratory ; the former, which is that of some Semitic tongues also, being that of Greek and Sanskrit, the latter that of Latin and Teutonic. Some languages, as French, have no accent, the stress on all syllables being the same, but even here the stopping of the voice gives the final syllable a slight tilt upwards, with the effect of an accent on that syllable. Accent may be free, as in Greek or old Teutonic, — that is, its posi- tion in a word may shift in accordance with the nature of the syllables or of the words which follow, — or fixed, as in later Teutonic and English : perhaps the only remnant of the free accent in English is the word « cannot," which, though often spelled as two words, is really a compound word with an accent shifting accord- ing to emotion. By a change of stress we often indicate the change of an adjective or a noun into a verb, as fre'quent (adj.), frequent' (verb) ; pro'ject (noun), project' (verb). In compound words the accent is commonly on the first ; but when the first element is a prefix, separable or inseparable, it is accented only when the root-word is noun or adjective, the root receiving the accent if it is a verb, — this of course not applying to words borrowed from other languages, for which there is no settled rule, the chance of first usage commonly determining it. The inflections have almost al- ways been left unaccented, and this has aided greatly in the sloughing off of the whole in- flectional system in modern languages : even where retained to the eye they are often not pronounced at all, as in French. There is a certain analogy between accent and emphasis, emphasis doing for whole words or clauses of sentences what accent does for single syllables. One result .of this has been to develop duplicate words with different mean- ings, as of and off, to and too, through and thorough (originally pronounced tho-roo'). All modern verse depends on stress-accent (see Metre) ; while that of classical Greek and Latin, as of some Semitic tongues still, rested on quantity or length of syllables, — a system not easy for those reared on stress to comprehend, much less imitate. Marks of Accent. — In ancient Greek, accents marked the rise and fall in pitch of the voice, and were three in number, the acute (a), the grave (a), and the circumflex (a or a). The same marks are now used in French, and the first two in Italian, though they are largely of historical or etymological interest only, and do not always indicate a difference in pronunci- ation. A mark similar to the acute accent is sometimes used to signify stress in English words, chiefly in poetry ; and one like the grave is used to mark as a separate syllable letters otherwise not pronounced so, for example, learn- ed, abhorred. Marks sometimes called accents are used in mathematics; for example, a'+ b' (read a prime plus b prime). In geometry and trigo- nometry', a circle at the right of a figure indi- cates degrees, one mark minutes, two marks Vol. 1—4 seconds of a degree, as 13° 4' 5*. In mensura- tion and engineering, the mark denotes feet, inches, and lines, as 4' 6" 10'". In Music. — The greater emphasis or inten- sity given to certain notes or passages, as distinguished from their length in time and their quality or timbre. It is divided into three classes,— grammatical, rhythmical, and rhetori- cal or aesthetic. The grammatical accent is al- most always on the first part of a bar; long measures have usually secondary ones, as have polysyllables in words. Rhythmical accent is the more pronounced character given to certain parts of larger compositions, — phrases, themes, motifs,— to mark off entrances, finales, or cli- maxes. Rhetorical accent corresponds strictly to the same emphasis in oratory, in accordance with emotion or a desired effect, and is at the will of the performer. Accentor (« singer-together »), a literary name for the American water-thrushes (genus Siurus) and the European warblers, of which the British hedge-sparrow (incorrectly named) is best known. Acceptance, a bill of exchange drawn on one who agrees absolutely or conditionally to pay it, according to the tenor of the document itself. To render it so valid that, if the drawee fails to liquidate it, the drawer may be charged with costs, the promise of the drawer should be in writing under or upon the back of the bill. An acceptance may be made before the bill is drawn, in which case it must be in writ- ing (15 Johns. N. Y. 6). It may be made after it is drawn and before it becomes due. which is the usual course, or after it becomes due (1 H. Blackst. 313), or even after a previous refusal to accept. The proper form for the acceptance of a bill is to write the word « Ac- cepted » across the bill and sign the acceptor's name, but the drawee's name alone is sufficient, or any words of equivalent force to "accepted.* Byles on Bills, 147; 21 Pick. Mass. 307. See Bill. Access, Right of. The owner of land ad- joining a road or public highway is entitled to access to such highway at any point where it comes up to his land. He may also have an action for the removal, by injunction, of any obstruction to such access, as well as an action for damages. It has been expressly held also that an abut- ting owner has a property right in the use of the street in front of his land as a means of egress and ingress, and for light and air. 47 N. J. Eq. 421 ; 106 N. Y. 157. If a man buys a lot of land from which there is no access to a public highway, upon applica- tion to the proper authorities he may obtain an order for the construction of a road or highway leading from his land to a public high- way. See also Right of Way. Accession is the right to all which a man's own property produces, and the right to that which is united to it by accession either naturally or artificially (2 Kent. Comm. 360). If a man builds a house upon his own grounds witli the materials of another, or. on the con- trary, if a man shall have built a house with his own materials upon the ground of another, in either case the house becomes the property of him to whom the land belongs, for every build- ACCESSORY — ACCIDENT INSURANCE ing is an accession to the ground upon which it stands, and the owner of the land, if liable at all. is only liable to the owner of the materials for the value of them (2 Kent, Comm. 362). The same rule holds where vines, trees, fruits, and vegetables are planted or sown in the ground of another. Accessory, in law, one who is not the chief actor in an offense or present at its commission, but still is connected with it in some other way. Accessories may become so before the fact or after the fact. Sir Matthrt Male defines an accessory before the fact as one who, being absent at the time of the crime committed, does yet procure, counsel, or command another to commit a crime. If the procurer be present when the evil deed is being done, he is not an 1 ^sory, but a principal. An accessory after the fact is one who. knowing a felony to have been committed, receives, relieves, comforts, and -is the felon. In high treason of a pro- nounced character there are no accessories — all are principals. In petit treason, murder, and felonies, there may be accessories; except only n: those offenses which, by judgment of law, arv. sudden and unpremeditated, as manslaugh- ter and the like, which, therefore, cannot have any accessories before the fact. So, too, in petit larceny and in all crimes under the degree of felony, there are no accessories either before or after the fact; but all persons concerned therein, if guilty at all, are principals. (Blackst. Comm., bk. iv., ch. iii.) Presence and actual participa- tion are necessary to constitute a person an accessory. The mere fact of presence or failure to interfere to prevent the commission of a crime is not, alone, an indictable offense. The person must act in concert with the active party. He must by word or act contribute to the felonious purpose. Presence need not he actual, it may be constructive. A man may commit a crime through the agency of an innocent per- son, but the agent cannot be convicted. Where an offense is committed within a State by means of an innocent agent, the employer is guilty as a principal, although he did no act in the State where the crime was committed, and at the time of the commission of the offense was in another State. 1 N. Y. 173 (s. c. 45 Am. Dec. 468) ; 123 Mass. 430. Accho. See Acre. Acciaioli, Renatus, atch-yi-6'le, a Floren- tine who conquered Athens, Corinth, and part of Ikcotia : lived in the beginning of the 15th century. He bequeathed Uhcns to the Vene- tians ; Corinth to Theodosius Palsologus, who married his eldest daughter; and I'xeotia with Thebes to his natural son Anthony, who also got Athens, but this was retaken in 1455 by Mohammed II. Accident, an unforeseen occurrence, par- ticularly if it be of a calamitous character. This is the most common use of the word. In logic: (a) Whatever does not really consti- tute an essential part of a person or thing; as the clothes one wears, the saddle on a horse, etc. ) The qualities or attributes of a person or thing, as opposed to the substance. Thus bitterness, hardness, etc., are attributes, and not part of the substance in which they inhere. I That which may be absent from anything, leaving its essence still unimpaired. Thus a rose might be white without its ceasing to be a rose, because color in the flowers of that genus is not essential to their character. Accidents, in logic, are of two kinds, separable and inseparable. If walking be the accident of a particular man. it is a separable one. for he would not cease to be that man though he stood still ; while, on the contrary, if Spaniard is the accident connected with him, it is an inseparable one, since he never can cease to be, ethnologi- cally considered, what he was horn. (Whately's < Logic, > bk. ii., ch. v.. sec. 4.1 In grammar, a property attached to a word v.lnch nevertheless does not enter into its essen- tial definition. Each species of word has its accidents: thus those of the noun substantive are gender, declension, and number. Compari- son in an adjei live is also an accident. In law, an event which under the circum- stances is unusual and unexpected by the person to whom it happens. It is the happening of an event without the concurrence of the will of the person by whose agency it was caused, or the happening of an event without any human agency. If a house should be burned in conse- quence of a fire nude for the purpose of cook- ing, or warming the house, this would be an accident of the first kind. If the house should be set on fire by lightning, this would be an accident of the second kind. I Fonblanque, Eq. 374. 375 "• The best test of liability for the consequence of an accident turns upon the fact whether the person causing the accident was guilty of negligence or not. If he was guilty of negligence he would be liable unless the person injured was guilty of contributory negligence. In heraldry, an additional note or mark on a coat of armor which may be omitted or retained without altering its essential character. Accident Insurance, a system which indem- nities the insured person for loss of business lime resulting from disabling bodily injuries inflicted by external and accidental violence, or in case of death therefrom within a certain lime pays the legal heirs a sum stated in the contract. The former is done by a weekly in- demnity (graduated according to premium and hazard of occupation) paid in a lump sum on recovery or at the end of a fixed expiration term ; or by a stated sum at once in case of irremediable mutilations. It is a system of limited health and life insurance, paying the benefits only in case of death or disablement from a specified class of contingencies instead of from any contingency ; therefore bounded on the one hand by life insurance and on the other by the benefit societies, but less costly than the one and to larger amounts than the other. These boundaries of limitation are stated in the con- tracts: varying in detail, they are and must be in essence the same in all, as they reduce to the two classes which accident insurance exists by excluding, those which are not accidental and those which are not violent. These, however, form five individual groups: (1) Disease or bodily infirmity, direct or as indirect cause; (2) effects of one's own will, vice, or recklessness, as suicide, drunkenness, fighting or breaking the law, voluntary exposure to unnecessary danger, etc.; (3) legal sentences; (4) poison; (5) weather, except violent manifestations like stroke of lightning. These, however, are much ACCIDENT INSURANCE less simple in practical application than in theory and in some cases are virtually dead letters by popular prejudice or even legal en- actment. The suicide clause has been scarcely enforceable for many years through the refusal of juries to find it as a question of fact; and of late years several States have passed laws invalidating it in any insurance contract. Drunkenness, though not barred by law, is so nearly impossible to make a jury accept that it is practically never entered in plea. The others are of course contestable and perpetually con- tested. Furthermore, different companies and forms of policy vary in the extent or severity of their exclusions, some waiving important factors in this list ; and all of them now, under stress of competition, have added some portions of health and life insurance to the accident con- tract proper, — giving indemnities and payment of principal sum for loss of time or for death through certain contagious diseases. The modern system of accident insurance dates only from 1848 ; but its purposes were fragmentarily embodied in earlier arrangements. The Hanseatic League, the originator of so many good business ideas, seems to have devised this ; at least the Sea Laws of Wisby in 1541 mention the insurance of shipmasters by owners against the perils of the sea, — the insurance of their families of course. A mercantile treatise probably of the same century, compiled for the traders of Rouen, in France, states that « other nations » insure men's lives on voyage, « paying certain sums to their heirs or creditors » ; pos- sibly it refers to the same Hanse practice. In 1665 England applied a rough form of it to the casualties of warfare : a regular schedule of indemnities to be paid to soldiers in the Nether- lands war was compiled, ranging from £62 ias. for both eyes or both arms, £50 for both hands, £29 4s. for both legs, and £18 15^. for both feet, down to £8 Js. for one foot, and with graduated amounts between. Later, a year's pay (not much then) for the loss of a limb was the cus- tomary gauge. But this was a mere pension system; and none of these had the essential feature of modern insurance, a business con- tract as matter of bargain and sale, with the insurance proportioned to the payment. Modern accident insurance originated in Eng- land. Its germ, oddly enough, was primarily not personal but property insurance ; not against bodily injury so much as loss of goods in rail- way accidents. The first charter applied for was for the British and Foreign Life and Property Insurance Co., which never organized ; and the insurance of human beings was added apparent- ly rather to make up a « blanket charter >» than with much idea of profiting by it. But the swift clarification of business ideas on this point, due to the public horror of great railway accidents, — the concentrated volume of destruction in which makes them much more impressive to the imagination than the really far more formidable mass of scattered daily accidents,— is shown by the fact that of ten other similar charters grant- ed in the next three years none of them mention goods in their titles, and most of them show that their business was personal insurance alone. All, however, had « Railway » in their names, and the « ticket » business was long supposed to be the only one feasible. Only 2 of these II ever organized, and the pioneer company, the Railway Passengers' Assurance Co., — opened business 22 March 1849, — for a long time in- sured only passengers actually in the coaches, and by the terms of the policy (thoueh not en- forced) only covered them while moving, ex- cluding even collisions at stations. Its fir-.t rival to be chartered (though not to begin busine 1 covered also accidents on platforms, etc. lint the real birthday of the modern general accident business is 3 June 1850, when another company adopted the plan of its actuary. Edward Riley, and extended its insurance to cover all violent bodily injuries. The next field to be opened was among work- men in the manufacturing districts, their great hazards and consequent need of it making it seem that they would welcome it ; but their poverty and ignorance overbalanced their re quirements, and the experiment was a failure In 1852 Cornelius Walford suggested that the true field lay among the business and profes- sional classes; and although this at first was scouted as fantastic, their individual hazards appearing too slight to found a great business on, it was followed by a brilliant success and the creation of the modern system substantially as it stands. Attempts were occasionally made to frame narrower schemes, as for carriage accidents alone, etc. ; but no success has attend- ed these experiments. A basis as broad as consistent with the essential nature of the busi- ness has been found the only one practicable. The business in the Linked States was found- ed in 1863 by James G. Batterson, a Hartford builder, on a suggestion afforded by the Railway Passengers' Assurance Co.'s tickets, and after consultation with the officers of that company, who generously put all their experience at his disposal ; it proved, however, to be very mis- leading for American conditions. On his re- turn to Hartford he associated several other Hartford gentlemen with him, and a charter was procured for the Travelers Insurance Co.; but owing to entire popular disbelief in the system no business was done till April 1864, its first premium being one of two cents, paid in jest by a business man to insure himself in going from his house to his office. A storm of railway accidents about that time, however, shocked the public so that the enterprise soon became a brilliant success, though it was nearly ruined by the new companies which swarmed into the field. Five western States in the winter of 1864 chartered nearly 100 insurance com- panies of all kinds, over a dozen of them acci- dent companies ; and in April 1865. 25 of the latter were organizing in the United States. To save multiplication of ticket equipments at railway stations, where several companies some- times had them on sale at once, the Railway Passengers' Assurance Co. was organized in May 1865, to consolidate all the ticket business under one head, with office in Hartford. In 1878 all the companies but the Travelers having been long dead, that company reunited the busi- ness to its own. There are now several str companies in the United States, which heads the world in the volume of its accident business. None of them transact this branch of busin alone: all combine it with employers' liability (q.v.) (indirect accident insurance, by a subro- gated blanket liability to an employer instead of to his employees individually), and most ol ACCIPITRES — ACCLIMATIZATION them variously either with life, steam-boiler, elevator, plate-glass, surety, or other forms of personal guaranty. Owing to certain peculiar- ities of the business, its statistics arc not easy to give; but it certainly protects a million of men and their families, and pays $20,000,000 a year for death and indemnity claims. About one-tenth of the insured are paid claims of some sort. The most hazardous of the large general occupations — excluding special hazards like the manufacture of gunpowder and dynamite — is that of freight brakemen ; due not entirely to the inevitable perils of the employment, though they are large, but partly to the reckless bravado bred of familiarity. Next to these in hazard are the employees of rolling-mills. Among the business and professional classes, much the greatest volume of loss is from horse and car- riage accidents, which are many times more de- structive than railway accidents. The development of the accident-insurance field should be noted. It may be compared with the origin of banking from note circulation, which afterward became a feature so insignifi- cant as to be neglectible. Similarly, accident insurance arose from a desire to give protection against the results of railway accidents: but the losses from these do not constitute more than five or six per cent of the total losses among recent companies. Another significant fact is the change in the class mainly covered by it. Theoretically, it should find its chief patronage and profit among those hazardously employed : in fact, the larger companies found long ago that a great business can only be done among these under conditions that render it unprofit- able, and after carrying it on for many years on the installment plan, have mostly been obliged to abandon it altogether and confine their efforts to the business and professional classes, or to such of the working class as have means to pay yearly premiums in advance. Sec Insurance. Accipitres (Lat. plural of Accipitcr. the com- mon hawk), or Rap tores. An order of birds, comprising the birds of prey, — eagles, hawks, owls, and vultures. See Birds of Prev. Acclamation (« calling to ») : properly, ex- pressing any judgment of an assembly or a large part of it by shouting: but in usage re- stricted entirely to a favorable one. The choice of rulers among most early Aryan tribes or na- tions was by acclamation: the candidate was presented by a previous understanding — among the Vikings raised on a shield in the presence of the chiefs — and acclaimed by the voices of the assembled multitude. In some cases, as with the Poles even quite late in their history, the agreement was only made when the throng had gathered and there were more than one set of acclaimers, often ending in a pitched battle to decide which party preponderated. In the minor divisions of modern political life, voting by acclamation is usual ; a ballot being called for only when the parties are so evenly balanced that the preponderance is dubious, or a small majority has great strength of lungs, or the minority wish to make the majority put their position on record, or simply to have the satis- faction of a proved vote. In ecclesiastical coun- cils the vote by acclamation comes first also, the question being put as « placet » or «jit>u placet.* In private matters, acclamation has been used from early times as an expression of good feeling or enthusiasm, as in the customary « hurrahs," " huzzas," and « tigers," and the " hear, hear " of political assemblies, and the responsive shouts and groans of religious re- vivals or prayer-meetings. The applause in theatres, etc., being non-vocal does not etymo- logically belong to the group, but is usually in- cluded as having the same intent. It began with genuine applause, an actor closing the play by some word asking for approval of the company — in the Roman theatre, « Plaudite » ("applaud yc»), or a poet or orator who recited in public expecting and receiving applause; but the claque, in modern French phrase, was very early organized by rich amateurs, who kept bands of paid applauders not only for their own use but to lend to friends. Nero had 5,000 of these, many of them equites or knights, to chant his praises at the direction of a professional music- master ; they were called Augusliniani. In the modern French theatre the 1 laque is on a more modest footing and is paid by the management; the understood reason being (curiously) that it keeps up the spirit s of the actors when the au- dience's coldness might depress them beyond the power to play well, and more rationally that it guides and stimulates the audience itself to genuine applause when it might be simply sluggish and indifferent. In old times applause was shouted at marriages, as « Io Hymen, » « Hymenxe," « Talassio » ; in festal or religious processions; to victorious commanders in tri- umphs or ovations, as « Io triumphe » : and even, contrary to modern feelings of decorum, in churches, the pulpit orator being cheered at good passages. Acclimatization, the gradual alteration which tits a plant or animal to a climate differing from that in which the habits of its species or race have been formed. Acclimatization and naturalization are often mistakenly used as syn- onymous, but naturalization properly means establishment in a new country, and, if the cli- mates of the two countries chance to be the same, acclimatization is not implied. In the consideration of marine animals and plants ac- climatization takes on a slightly different mean- ing, since aquatic life is more affected by the various conditions of the surrounding water than by climate. In Plants. — Many examples of acclimatization are furnished by cultivated plants, among which the most noteworthy are perhaps the cereals. The original species of most of these has not been discovered, but in most cases it is supposed to have lived in sub-tropical or warm temperate regions. Some of these cereals now thrive far better or are more productive in cold, northern climates than in warm regions. But in such cases an important influence may to a greater or less extent obliterate or emphasize the apparent period of growth, the productive- ness, etc. This is the daily duration of sunlight. During the growing period the sunlight lasts longer as the pole is approached, so that the shorter season is more than compensated for by the increased hours of sunlight. It has been found by experiment that certain varieties of corn brought from the southern States to the northern attained their customary height, but generally failed to ripen seed. The progeny of ACCO — ACCOLTI ?uch plants as did mature seed gradually as- sumed the characteristics of northern varieties; they reduced their height and shortened the time necessary to attain maturity. In a few years they resembled other northern varieties in these two respects. The reverse of this case has also been proved ; northern varieties taken to the South at first reached the height and at- tained maturity in the time natural to them in the North, but gradually assumed the character- istics of southern varieties — increased height and greater number of days to reach maturity. But even considering the frequent preponder- ance of this influence and remembering that the production of seed is usually in opposition to marked development of vegetative parts, there is no doubt that plants, in becoming acclimatized, are compelled to adjust themselves to many other less prominent influences, such as humid- ity, temperature, light, and wind. The peach is supposed to have come from China by way of Persia, and since early historical times has grad- ually been fitting itself to more and more northern conditions. It is now found to be a profitable crop in Michigan and New York, which are several degrees farther north than its supposed place of origin. The influence of cli- mate upon cultivated plants is recognized by progressive agriculturists and horticulturists, and each prefers seed grown in a more norther- ly locality than his own. The effects of the new environment, however, soon become evi- dent, and new importations must be made. Seeds grown at high altitudes exhibit the same characteristics as those produced in high lati- tudes ; that is, they are hardier and require a shorter period to reach maturity than those grown in low altitudes or low latitudes. Among naturally acclimatized plants are many remarkable phenomena. Deciduous plants taken from cool climates to tropical conditions hold their leaves for a much longer period than where they are indigenous, or may even become evergreen like their new associates. Plants im- ported from warm regions to cooler may lose the power to ripen seeds, but this defect may be compensated by the development of vegeta- tive reproductive powers. The reverse case is also true. Southern plants may fail to ripen wood completely, and winter killing may result. In cultivated plants, however, this phenomenon, which is often observed in the peach, may be due to improper methods of cultivation resulting in abnormal wood-development. In Animals. — The capacity for acclimatization is possessed in very different degrees by differ- ent animals, even by different individuals of the same species, and depends much upon general hardihood. Exactly what changes take place during acclimatization is not known : sometimes the very specific gravity of the animal is altered, as when fresh- water fishes become adapted to the denser water of the ocean ; similarly, the normal temperature of the individual may grad- ually become altered, as in the case of fishes native to cool water, which chance to work up-stream into hot springs and live there at a temperature which would kill normal individ- uals of the same species. The animals which are most wide-spread over the earth are those which have the greatest adaptability to new climates and new conditions of environment, and the best examples of this adaptability are found among domestic animals (q.v.). About the middle of the 19th century there was much en- thusiasm for transplanting animals from one country to another ; but the results have so often been harmful rather than beneficial to the recipients of the new forms that the effort to improve on nature in this way has been aban- doned. Conspicuous examples are afforded by the sending of the European rabbit to Australia and New Zealand, where it multiplied so ex- cessively in a favorable climate, with abundant food, and through the almost complete lack of enemies, as to become a nuisance and a menace to the pastoral industry. (See Rabbit.) The in- troduction of the agua toads, and afterward of the mungoos (qq.v.) into Jamaica, to subdue the rats that were devouring the sugar-cane, had evil results. The spread of the European house- sparrow (q.v.) in the United States is another pertinent example. Many highly injurious in- sects have been accidentally introduced and ac- climatized in America from abroad; and the same is true of other countries. On the other hand a few instances like the acclimatization of the silkworm in Europe, of bumblebees in New Zealand, or of ladybirds in California, have been highly beneficial ; while much good has come from stocking new streams with de- sirable fishes. Of the several societies founded to promote such transferences, that of Paris (Societe d'Acclimatation) is most important, but latterly has been inactive. In Human Beings. See Hygiene. Bibliography.— 'Variations of Animals and Plants Under Domestication.) Darwin ; < Island Life,) Wallace; 'Tropical Colonization.) Acco, ak'6. See Acre. Accolade, ak-6-lad' (Fr. «embrace,» literally, « on the neck » ) , in heraldry, the ceremony by which in mediaeval times one was dubbed a kright. On the question what this was, anti- quaries are not agreed. It has been made an embrace round the neck, a kiss, or a slight blow upon the cheek or shoulder. In some cases it was a literal box on the ear, for which later was substituted a gentle tap on the shoulder with the flat of a sword. In conferring knight- hood Queen Victoria struck the kneeling sub- ject lightly on the shoulder with a sword and used the words « I bid thee rise, Sir Knight. »> Accolti, Benedetto, ak-ol'te, ben-a-det'6, the Elder, distinguished Italian jurist: b. Arezzo, 1415: d. Florence, 1466. Several other members of his family were noted for legal attainments. He became professor of jurispru- dence in the University of Florence, and on the death of the famous Poggio was made chancel- lor of that republic. With his brother Leonardo he wrote in Latin a three-volume history of the first crusade, not of great value, but interesting as having furnished Tasso the material 'or 'Jerusalem Delivered): pub. Venice 1452. Italian tr. 1543, French tr. 1620. He also wrote a vol- ume of biographies of his distinguished con- temporaries, pub. Parma 1689. Accolti, Bernardo, ak-ol-te, ber-nar'do, Italian poet: b. Florence, before 1466: d. after 1334. He was greatly admired, especially as an improvisatore. Whenever he announced' his in- tention of reciting his verses the shops were ACCOMMODATION — ACCORD AND SATISFACTION closed and the people flocked in crowds to hear him. He was surrounded by prelates of the first eminence; a body of Swiss troops accom- ed him; and the court was lighted by torches. Leo X. esteemed him highly and made him apostolic secretary, cardinal, and papal legate at Aucona. He it was who drew up the papal bull against Luther ( 1520). Though styled in his own day " The Only (one) of Arez/.o » (L 1 Unico Aretino), the fame of his works perished with him. I heir style is hard, his images forced, and his taste marred by Ctation. The best known is a comedy, to now. and accepted by Gnoli in his "Life" of her (Flor- ence 1870). leaves Vittoria much on the level of other passionate Italian 1 her age; but the Countess Martinengo-Cesaresco has recent- ly re-examined the evidence in her < Lombard Studies, > and thinks her innocent of complicity in crime. Much literary use has been made of her story, and Webster's play < The White Devil ' is based on it. Accord and Satisfaction signifies a satisfac- tion agreed upon between the party injured and the party injuring, which when performed is a bar to all actions upon this account. It must be legal. An agreement to stifle a criminal prosecution for a criminal offense such as an assault and imprisonment is void. (2 Wils. 241 ; s East. 204) Where a release is given to one of two joint tort-feasors which recites the receipt from him of a certain sum as full payment, it will operate as a bar to an action against the other torl- ( 136 Mass. 503.) Accord with satisfaction, when completed, has two effects: it is a payment of the debt: and it is a species of sale of the thing given by the debtor to the creditor in satisfaction; but it ACCORDION — ACCUMULATOR differs from it in this, that it is not valid until the delivery of the article, and there is no war- ranty of the thing thus sold, except perhaps the title ; for in regard to this it cannot be doubted that if the debtor gave, on an accord and satis- faction, the goods of another, there would be no satisfaction. But the intention of the parties is of the utmost consequence. (30 Vt. 424.) Accordion, a musical instrument in the form of a small box, generally from 8 to 12 in. long by 4 wide, and containing a number of metallic reeds fixed at one extremity, but left to vibrate freely. A small bellows, formed by a folding apparatus v. hich unites the top and bottom of the box, supplies the wind, which, admitted by keys acting on valves, sets the reeds in vibration. In the harmonium (q.v.) and the American cabinet-organ the same prin- ciple is also employed. The accordion was introduced into America from Germany about 1828, but the principle has long been known in China, and employed for instruments played by the breath. The concertina, flutina, and organ- accordion are improvements. Account, a register of pecuniary transac- tions, whether for personal use, to satisfy a contract, in obedience to law, or as a bill of items sent to a customer who buys on credit. A mutual account is one where debtor and creditor items are opposed between two parties. An open account, or account current, in com- merce is one in which the balance has not been struck; in banking, one that may be added to or drawn upon at any time, as opposed to a deposit account, where notice is required for withdraw- als. To keep an open account is to keep such a one running on, instead of closing it. A stated account is one which all parties have expressly or by implication (as by the debtor's retaining it beyond a reasonable time without objection) admitted to be correct. To open an account is to begin pecuniary transactions with a banker or merchant. In law, an account is a detailed statement of the mutual demands in the nature of debt and credit between parties, arising out of contracts or some fiduciary relations. (32 Pa. St. 202; 1 Mete. (Mass.) 216.) An open account is one in which some term of the contract is not settled by the parties, whether the account consists of one item or many. (1 Ala. x.s. 62.) In equity, jurisdiction concurrent with courts of law is taken over matters of account (9 Johns. (N. Y.) 470; 1 Paige Ch. (N. Y.) 41) on three grounds: mutual accounts; dealings so complicated that they cannot be adjusted in a court of law; and the existence of a fiduciary relation between the parties. Accountant, properly any one who keeps accounts, and till lately applied in the United States to all bookkeepers without distinction ; more generally now restricted to the head book- keepers of large houses or corporations, with difficult or complex accounts calling for expert ability. Especially an « expert accountant » or « public accountant » is understood as one not in the employ of any one house, but hiring his services out to such firms or companies, banks, or public institutions, as either find their ac- counts in disorder or wish a legal verification or a guaranteed statement for the public; or report on bankrupt estates under legal process. Few large financial institutions neglect to support public confidence by having their books period- ically investigated and reported upon by an ac- countant unconnected with the concern. This is gradually building up, through many scandals and frauds upon the public, a much higher standard of professional duty among these ex- perts: it is recognized that it is their duty not merely to certify to the correct balancing of the figures submitted to them, but to use reasonable intelligence and honorable purpose on the man- ner in which those figures were made, and whether they represent facts or gross fictions to deceive outsiders and lure in money to be mis- handled. The proper, and in the United States the only, business of an accountant is to exam- ine accounts and make out balance-sheets and statements. In England they assume a still further duty, that of managing estates and legacies. Accretion, the increase of real estate by the addition of portions of soil, by gradual deposition through the operation of natural causes, to that already in possession of the owner. If an island in a non-navigable stream results from accretion, it belongs to the owner of the bank on the same side of the Alum aqua:. (2 Washburn, Real Prop. 452; 3 Kent, Comm. 328; 6 Cow. (N. Y.) 537.) In some cases it has been held that it makes no difference whether the stream is navigable or not (24 How. ( V . S.) 41 ; 10 Pet. 662) where the owner of land has received accretions thereto. The term « allu- vion » is applied to the deposit itself, while « ac- cretion » denotes the act. Accrington, a manufacturing town and mu- nicipal borough of England, in Lancashire, on the Hyndburn. 20 m. N. of Manchester and 5 m. E. of Blackburn ; on the Lancashire & Y. Ry. ; inc. 1878. It is well laid out, and has va- rious handsome buildings, including the town- hall, a splendid market hall, technical school and school of art, clubs, etc. The manufacture and printing of cottons, chemical works fur their use, and the manufacture of spinning and other machinery, are the chief industries. Coal is wrought extensively. Pop. (1841) under 9,000; (1881) 31,435: (1901) 43.095- Accrington gives name to a parliamentary division of the county; pop. 84.878. Ac'cum, Friedrich, fred'riH, German chem- ist : b. Buckeburg, 1769; d. Berlin, 1838. Re- moving to London at 24, eight years later he was made professor of chemistry and min- eralogy at the Surrey Institution. He published several text-books on these sciences, but is re- membered mainly for being (with an energetic print-seller, Ackermann) the introducer of gas- lighting into England. His < Practical Treat- ise on Gaslight > appeared in 1815. Another valuable service to society was his < Treatise on Adulterations of Food and Culinary Poisons > (1820). As the result of charges against his honesty he returned to Germany, and in 1S22 was made professor in the Industrial Institute and Academy of Architecture in Berlin. Accumulator, a device for the storage of energy, more particularly when the energy is supplied from an intermittent source, or when it is to be withdrawn intermittently or irregularly. The fly-wheel on a steam-engine is a device c< ACCUSATIVE CASE — ACETAL this sort, hut it is nol commonly referred to as an accumulator. The word is practically re- stricted to the following two senses: (i) a storage-battery (q.v.) ; (2) a hydraulic appara- tus, commonly consisting of a plunger which is fitted to a vertical cylinder and heavily loaded with weights. Water is forced into the cylin- der by pumps, with the result that the plunger and its weights are raised, and a considerable quantity of water is thus stored in the cylinder under a high pressure. By the use of such an accumulator it is possible to deliver water for a short time in far greater volume than the pumps feeding the accumulator could deliver it, and vet at the maximum pressure that the pumps are capable of producing. Hydraulic accumu- lators are used in connection with riveting- machines, cranes, and many other heavy tools. Accusative Case, in Latin, — and thence applied to the corresponding case in Greek and other declensions, — that case of the noun, pro- noun, etc., which designates the object to which the action of a verb is immediately directed. It corresponds with what, although the English noun is nearly without declension, is called in English the objective case. See Declension. Aceldama, a-sel'da-ma, a cemetery in Jeru- salem used to bury strangers in. The traditional site is on a small plateau half-way up the southern slope of the valley of Hinnom, near its junction with the valley of Jehoshaphat; and it was certainly used in the 6th century for the burial of Christian pilgrims, and continued in use till the 17th. According to Malt, xxvii. 7, 8 it was bought by the chief priests and elders for a burial-ground, with the 30 pieces of silver re- turned by Judas after the betrayal; according to Acts i. 19 it was bought by Judas himself with the money, which he did not return, and his bowels burst open in it ; according to both, the name means « the field of blood," and it was a potter's. But as the Greek text gives a form « Aceldantach,* which would mean "field of sleep,* a natural and beautiful term for a bury- ing-ground, and as according to Jer. xviii. 2 and xix. 2 there was a potter's in the valley of Hinnom, it would seem that the use and name of the place were very old at the time of Christ, and that the meaning « field of blood » was a misunderstanding, or a play on the real meaning, and its connection with Judas arti- ficial. (History and description by Schick, 1892, quarterly statement of the Palestine Ex- ploration Fund, pp. 283-9.) Aceph'ali ("headless"), in civil history, certain levelers, in the reign of Henry I. of England, who acknowledged no head or em- peror; or, according to another explanation, who were too poor to own any property, and so have any legal superior. In Church history': (1) Bishops exempt from the jurisdiction and discipline of a patriarch. (2) Clergy belonging to no diocese. (3) Those who, on occasion of a dispute in the Council of Ephesus, a.d. 431, refused to follow either John of Antioch or Cyril of Alexandria. (4) Those who rejected the decision of the Council of Chalcedon, 451, on the nature of Christ. (5) In the Sth and 6th centuries, a large section of the followers of the Monophysite, Peter Mongus, who cast him oflf as their leader be- cause of his accepting a peaceful formula called the Henoticon (q.v.). They soon afterward split into three parties, tin- Anthropomorphites, the Barsanuphites, and tin I ianists, who again gave origin to other sects. (6) The Fla- gellants ( q.v, ). Aceph'alocyst' ("headless cyst 1 ), a growth found in the liver, kidneys, and other glandular of man and oftentimes those of the lower animals. Sec I 1 ma. Acer. See Maple; Whistlewood. Aceratherium, a-se-ra-the'ri-um, an ex- tinct rhinoceros which inhabited Europe during the Miocene epoch. It had no distinct horn, whence the name (Gr. +0 + KOH = CH3.COOK Aretvlene Caustic Acetate of Acetylene pQtash poUsh From the acetate of potash so formed the acetic acid can readily be obtained. This mode of formation is of no practical value, but it has a theoretical interest. The relations of acetic acid with the organic radicals are too numerous and complicated to receive general treatment in the present article. The more important ones are noticed elsewhere, see Aldehyde; Alcohol; Ether; etc. Acetic Ether, or Ethyl Acetate, a color- less, inflammable liquid having the formula CH3.COO.C2H5, or GHsO;, prepared by the ac- tion of sulphuric acid upon a mixture of alcohol and acetic acid. It has a specific gravity of about 0.91 and a specific heat of 0.48, and boils at 171° F., under the ordinary atmospheric pres- sure. It mixes readily with alcohol and with ether, and at ordinary temperatures is soluble in about 17 parts of water. See Esters; Ether. Ac'etin, a substance resembling fat in its constitution, obtained by acting upon glycerin with glacial acetic acid. Acetins are known as monoacetin, diacetin, and triacetin, according as the acetic acid has displaced one, two, or three of the hydroxyl molecules in the glycerin. The formula of monoacetin is GHs(OH). (OGH3O); of diacetin, GH 5 (OH) (OGH, 0)i; of triacetin, GH s (OGH s O).. Ace'to-ace'tic Acid, a thick acid liquid, having the formula CHXO.CH-.COOH. At 212° F. it splits up into carbon dioxide and acetone. Ac'etone. (1) A limpid, mobile liquid with a taste suggestive of peppermint. Formula, CH3.CO.CH3. It occurs in crude wood-alcohol, from which it can be separated by distilling over calcium chloride. It is also obtained by the destructive distillation of acetates, notably those of barium and lead. It occurs in the urine, blood, and brain of calcium diabetic patients. Lieben's test for ace- tone in the urine is as follows: Distilled urine is made alkaline by caustic potash, and a few drops of a solution of iodine and iodide of potassium are added. If acetone is present a yellow precipitate of iodoform is formed at once; if alcohol be present in the distillate, the same reaction takes place, but more slowly; but with acetone the reaction is immediate. Acetone is very inflammable, and burns with a white smokeless flame. It boils at 133 F. at ACETONITRILE — ACETYLENE ordinary atmospheric pressuri lfic grav- ity at ordinary temperatures is 0S00. Any one of a certain class of carbon compounds in which two alcoholic radicals are united by the group CO. These compounds arc now called ketones (q.v.). to distinguish them from the particular member of the group defined in ( i ), above. Ac'etoni'trile. a colorless liquid with a pleasant ethereal odor, and burning with a red- dish-bordered flame. It has the formula CI I X. and is isomeric with methyl cyanide. It is best prepared by distilling a mixture of potas- sium cyanide and potassium-methyl-sulphate. It boils at l"8° F. at ordinary atmospheric pres- sure, and has a specific gravity of 0.79. It mixes with alcohol and water. Ac'etyl, the radical of acetic acid, its formula being CHa.CO. Acetic acid may be regarded as the hydrate of this radical, its formula being CHs.COOH. Acetyl chloride, CH3.COCI. is obtained by the action of phos- phorustrichloride upon acetic acid. Acetyl chloride evolves hydrochloric acid when it is heated with any substance containing the rad- icals hydroxyl, amidogen, or imidogen, and hence it is of importance as a test for these substances. Acet'ylene, a hydrocarbon gas, CiHj, com- mercially prepared by adding water to calcium carbide, when both decompose and rccombine into acetylene and slaked lime. It was discov- ered in 1836 by Edmund Davy, when experi- mentally trying water on the impure carbide produced by distilling calcined potassium tar- trate to obtain potassium ; named by Berthclot, who in 1862 prepared it by red-heating ethylene, by electrically vaporizing carbon, and by incom- plete combustion of coal-gas ; the same year W'uhlcr produced the carbide by heating carbon with an alloy of calcium and zinc. Acetylene is also produced by the direct union of carbon and hydrogen when an electric arc is caused to pass between carbon terminals in an atmosphere of hydrogen. But both carbide and gas were laboratory curios till after 1892, when a new method of obtaining cheap carbide was acci- dentally discovered at the works of Thos. L. Willson, a Canadian, at Spray, N. C, and per- fected by the chemist Dr. G. de Chalmot and the electrician J. M. Morchead ; and not long afterward Prof. Henri Moissan of Paris inde- pendently discovered the same in essence, — the electric arc acting on mixed lime and carbon. This at once made the gas of great industrial importance for lighting, and the carbide as an agricultural germicide. Acetylene is a colorless gas of an agreeable ether-like odor ; but the impurities of commercial carbide give it often a garlicky smell. It is much less poisonous than coal-gas or water-gas. and practically harmless. It is .02 the weight of air, so that a 10-foot cube weighs upwards of 75 lbs. It takes fire at 896° F, and in the open air burns very smokily, with clouds of soot ; but when consumed in a suitable burner, with a sufficient supply of air. it gives the whitest and clearest light of any common illumi- nant, the final products of its combustion being carbon dioxide and water vapor, with no trace of the poisonous carbon monoxide. At 1200° it changes to isomeric hydrocarbons, yielding benzene (C«H«) and tar; at 1400° it decom- poses into its elements. It gives off much greater heat in combustion, volume for vol- ume, than coal-gas; but light for light it gives off much less, owing to its vastly greater il- luminating power and consequently much smaller volume to equal light. Mixtures of air and acetylene containing from 2.8 to 65 per cent of the gas arc inflammable in the open, but in tubes the possibility of combustion striking through decreases with their diameter until ir ceases at about one fifth of an inch Pure acetylene is sometimes objected to be- cause the small dazzling point of light strains the eye unless hidden, and the black shadows diminish the real illuminating power. Various diluents have been tried; the only ones in prac- tical service are oil-gas. which is used on all the Prussian government railroad lines, mixed with 20 per cent of acetylene under 10 atmospheres pressure; and air, which in the best burners (the Napheys, a Philadelphia invention of the Bunsen order) is thoroughly mixed with acety- lene to secure perfect combustion and the best illumination. Prof. Vivian B. Lewes of England thinks methane or marsh gas by far the best; it is too costly by itself, but can be generated along with water gas so as to give a cheap mix- ture which a little acetylene enriches into a pow- erful light. When added to coal-gas or water-gas in small proportions (5 per cent or so) acetylene does not increase the illuminating power of the mixture nearly as much as might be ex- pected. When added in considerable propor- tions it becomes a most valuable enricher of coal-gas ; but so is coal, and even the low cost of that is grudged. Storage. — It has been desired to use the gas without the cost and trouble of installing and operating generators ; and the two possible meth- ods are to liquefy it and make a solution of it. The former has been done by a pressure of 39.76 atmospheres at 68°, making a liquid .33 the weight of water and 1-500 the volume of the gas; a jet allowed to escape evaporates so fast that the resultant cold of — 130° F. freezes part of the liquid to a white solid. It is shipped in steel cylinders containing 9 lbs. liquid, or z /i cu. ft., giving 250 feet of gas, equal to 3,000 feet of good coal-gas or some 6,000 of such as many cities give. Frequent explosions of these, however, have caused insurance companies to put them under b^n. According to some authorities these ex- plosions have invariably been due to gross care- lessness ; but according to others, acetylene gas, when stored in the compressed state, is liable to explosive spontaneous decomposition. This last view may very possibly be correct, since acetylene, like nitro-glyccrine, is an endothcrmic substance; that is, its formation directly from carbon and hydrogen is attended by the absorp- tion of heat. These objections do not apply to ne, except when it is stored in consider- able quantity or under a considerable pressure. Acetylene is usually produced as fast as it is consumed, so as to avoid storage so far as possible ; but where this is impracticable it is much safer to keep the acetylene in solution than to store it in any quantity. At 68° F. water dissolves I.I its volume of acetylene, alcohol 6, acetone (q.v.) 15, or at 12 atmospheres 300; ACH/EA — ACHAIA besides, a rise of temperature makes much less increase of pressure within the vessel than with the liquid acetylene, and hence lessens the danger of storage and transportation. The acetone so- lution, also, cannot be exploded, which is the great public bugbear against acetylene. Generators. — Prof. Lewes divides acetylene generators into four types: (i) where water drips on a mass of carbide (as in ordinary bicycle lamps) ; (2) where it rises against a basket of carbide in a bell, or (3) against layers of it in trays without a bell ; (4) where carbide drops slowly into excess of water. The first two are liable to overheat, decomposing part of the acetylene, losing that much and spoiling the burners with tar ; the third is better, the fourth best of all. For small lamps acetylene is nearly confined to bicycles, where water is dropped on a heap of carbide ; they are too small to be in danger from overheating, but are costly to use because the carbide remaining after each lighting is too mixed with refuse to use again. Household lamps are sold, but are not yet in favor. The popular books on chemistry state that acetylene combines with copper, forming a com- pound which readily undergoes explosive de- composition ; but in order to obtain this com- pound it is necessary to pass the gas into an ammoniacal solution of cuprous chloride. A red precipitate of cuprous acetylide, having the formula GH 2 Cu : 0, is then formed, and this precipitate explodes violently upon percussion. A similar compound of silver is known. Acety- lene will not directly attack any of the common metals or alloys, and hence the current fear of .ts being charged with explosive copper salts under the conditions of ordinary practice has no warrant. Its commercial future belongs to the domain of prophecy, not of statistical fact. In theory a manufactured product like carbide cannot com- pete with a cheap native product like soft coal; and improvements in burners and cheap water- gas should greatly increase light and reduce cost. On the other hand, the relatively enormous illuminating power of acetylene largely offsets the cost of the raw material. The use of acety- lene for practical illumination is certainly ex- tending, and the immense output of calcium carbide (q.v.) must find a market. Achaea. See Achaia. Achaei, ak-i'e, Achaians, ak-a-yans, or Achaeans, ak-e'ans, the descendants of the mythical Achaeus, son of Xuthus and grandson of Helen ; a generic term employed by Homer to designate the whole Hellenic host before Troy, and in poetic use applied to all the Greeks in- discriminately. They appear to have been that branch of the Greeks which inhabited south- eastern Thessaly and northern Peloponnesus, and by the Dorian invasion were driven altogether beyond the Corinthian Gulf and cooped into a strip of Peloponnesus along its southern shore, where they were the nucleus of the later Achaian League. See Achaia. Achaemenidae, ak'e-men'i-de, the Greek name of the Persian dynasty (558-330 B.C..) founded by Cyrus the Great,' incfudi'ng Cam- byses, Darius I. and II., Xerxes. Artaxerxes, etc., and ended by Alexander the Great. The familv took its name from an ancestor of Cyrus, found in Persian inscriptions as Haxamanisya. which the Greeks softened to Achasmenes (a-ke'men- ez). Achaia, ak-a'ya, or Achaea, ak-e'a, in Ho- mer, southeastern Thessaly, where was Phthia, the home of Achilles. In later history, a strip of Peloponnesus along the southern shore of the Corinthian Gulf, rising from the coast to wooded hills abounding in beasts of the chase ; the up- lands were fertile with grapes, olives, and other fruits. The nome called Achaia (including Elis) in the modern Greek kingdom, the northwestern part of Morea with capital at Patras. is still so, except along the west coast, on the Ionian Sea. When it first appears in authentic history (He- rodotus), it is a confederacy of twelve towns — Pellene, iEgeira, /Egae, Bura, Helice, ^Egium, Rhypes. Patrae, Pharae. Olenus, Dyme. and Tri- txa — -headed by Helice, and keeping much to itself in Greek affairs. Helice was destroyed by an earthquake and swallowed by the waves 373 B.C., and yEgium succeeded to the hegemony ; and at some time unknown Olenus was deserted. The League took no share in the Pelopon- nesian war, but the Macedonian supremacy and the dynastic struggles after Alexanders death broke it up altogether. Some of the remaining ten towns were held by Macedonian garrisons, some by local tyrants; a state of disunion equal- ly gratifying to Macedonia and intolerable to Greek patriots. In 280, when several kings were dead, Macedonia in confusion, and the great Pyrrhus absent in Italy, Patrae and Dyme, the two westernmost towns, formed an alliance : Tritaea and Pharae joined them : and the new Achaian League, famous in history, which gave southern central Greece more than a century cf order and good government, was begun. The cities probably drove out their garrisons or rulers, as later ones certainly did. Five years afterward Tigium expelled its garrison and joined the League ; Bura was freed and its tyrant slain by its people and their exiled brethren, and joined also; and Iseas, tyrant of Ceryneia, seeing how events were trending, voluntarily surrendered his position with a guar- anty of safety, and annexed the city to the League. Seven towns were now included; and the other three were recovered and annexed not long after. But al! were small and poor ; fortunately for the League, as it was thought too insignificant to molest, and grew up peace- fully and solidly for some 30 years. The chief name in its early history is Markos of Ceryneia, who helped liberate Bura even before his own city was freed, and seems to have been the Washington of the League. But its first en- trance into the role of a great Greek political force began with the expulsion in 249 of the tyrant of Sicyon by Aratus of that city, who induced it to join the League: it not only gained thereby the first city outside the old Achaian confederacy, and became more or less Pan- Greek, but gained Aratus. its second founder, and a statesman and administrator of high order. though his jealousy of other leaders and his military incompetency injured it deeply, still greater accession came in 242. when Corinth expelled its Macedonian garrison and joined ; and in 234 Lydiadas, ivrant of Megalopolis, the powerful city founded by Epaminondas, voIud- ACHAQUA — ACHARN.E tarily resigned his place like Iscas and brought in his city, being made commander-in-chief of the League's army the next year. Before the century had begun its last quarter the League included all northern and central Peloponnesus, and many towns elsewhere. The League was a federal union of absolutely independent States, each having equal power in the Council, which met twice a year — at first and for a long time in a grove near /Egium, but later, at Philopcemen's motion, in the League cities in rotation. The vote of each city was given as a unit, not by elected delegates, but by any of its citizens who were present, any one over 30 having a right to be so; attendance therefore naturally fell to the richer citizens with means and leisure, and the assemblv was a rough representative body of the leading men. The union acted as a unit in foreign affairs, and there was a secretary to record the debates and resolutions. The head officer was the strategos, who was commander-in-chief and civil president at once; he had under him a hipparchos (cavalry commander) and nauarclws (admiral), and a board of ten demiourgoi as assistants in the Council. The League of course had its internal feuds and discordances of policy; and the /Etolian League north of the Gulf (only half Greek, and wholly barbarian in instability and lack of pro- Greek feeling), which alternately allied itself with it and ravaged its territory, was a mis- chievous rival and enemy. But the League would probably have fully held its own till the Romans came, but for Sparta. Clcomenes II. had revolutionized that State, which had shrunk into the narrowest of oligarchies and could not maintain its position ; he had turned it into a socialistic one, and wished to force the League- to join him in a great Peloponnesian union, of which Sparta would be master, imposing both its foreign policy and perhaps its internal or- ganization on the rest, and which would destroy the internal independence of the League and menace the possessions of every property-holder in it. The League was badly defeated by Cleo- in the field, and was between hammer and anvil ; for the only power which could save it was Macedonia, its natural foe and old master, and Antigonus Doson refused to give aid unless the citadel of Corinth, the key of Peloponnesus, held by the League, were given up to him. Aratus felt, however, that the suzerainty of Macedonia, now that the League was strong enough to pre- vent active tyranny, was a less evil than the mastery of Cleomenes ; and by cunning manage- ment he induced the League to pay the price asked for Antigonus' help. Cleomenes was 1 at Scllasia, and his Spartan constitution came to an end, and the League became a de- ncy of Macedonia. Yet Aratus' policy was justified by events so far as the League was concerned: it did not suffer from Macedonian tyranny, though the chance of forming a united Greece was at an end. But that was probably as little possible under Cleomenes as under Macedonia. In point of fact the destroying enemy was not Macedonia but Rome. Under the noble and able Philopoemen of Megalopolis, soldier and statesman of high rank, the League was prosper- ing and giving the citizens an enviable govern- ment. But a pro-Roman policy prevailed, and Philopoemen left the country. In 198 it allied itself with Rome against Macedonia, and this was always the beginning <>f the end with the other party to a Roman alliance. There were wars against Sparta, and a struggle between Roman and anti-Roman partisans in the assem- bly, with Roman envoys and intriguers to fan the flames. Finally, in 167, the Romans de- ported the flower "f the Achaian citizens to Italy, many of them being imprisoned, others — as the future historian Polybius (q.v.), then a youth of 18 — kept as hostages but given Roman advantages. The last struggle took place in 140. when Mummius defeated the League at Corinth, and the independence of Greece or any fraction of it was at an end. All southern and central Greece was made a Roman province called Achaia. ) The first-hand authority for the League is Polybius, unfortunately extant only in frag- ments : in some parts he is pieced out by Livy, passages of whose work are often obvious trans- lations from Polybius. In English the one great work is E A. Freeman's unfinished ' His- tory of Federal Government,) nearly all devoted to the Achaian League ; London, 1863 ; reissued with a fragment on Federalism in Italy.) Achaqua, a-cha'kwa, a South American In- dian tribe probably extinct, though a few hun- dreds, who lived in the upper Orinoco forests in northeastern Colombia, were still existent in 1850. They were utter savages, practising in- fanticide beyond the second child, polyandry, and tattooing. Achard, Franz Karl, aii'art, frants karl, German chemist and physicist : b. Berlin 28 April 1753; d. 1821. He published in 1780 the rt Milts of many and careful experiments on the adhesion of bodies. But later he devoted him- self to the development of the beet-sugar manu- facture, and after six years of laborious endeav- or discovered the true method of separating the sugar from the plant. His process was of enormous service to the countries whom the Napoleonic blockade shut off from the West India sugars. lie was afterward director of the class of physics in the Academy of Science in Berlin. Achard, Louis Amedee Eugene, ash-ar, loo-e am-a-da e-zhan, French novelist : b. April 1S14: d. 25 March 1875. Originally a merchant, he became a contributor to several Paris jour- nals in 1838. After the revolution of 1848 he was active as a royalist political writer; 1848-72 the Revue des Deux Mondes brought out al- most annually a new story from his pen. He depicts pre-eminently conflicts in family life and society. < Parisian Letters,' published in 1838 under the pseudonym of « Grimm, » made his reputation. Other works of his are: < Belle Rose' (1847). 'The Royal Chase' (1849-50), < Castles in Spain > ( 1854 ) , < The Shirt of Nes- sus> (1855), 'Chains of Iron* (1867), < The Viper. (1874). Acharnae, a-kar'ne, a large town of Attica, where the Thirty Tyrants (q.v.) encamped when they marched against Thrasybulus ; and where the Lacedaemonians, under their king Archidamus, pitched their tents when they made an irruption into Attica at the beginning of the Peloponnesian war. Aristophanes, in his ccmedy ' The Acharnians < — where a citizen of ACHATES — ACHILLES the place, sick of war, ravage, and the stoppage of trade, makes a treaty of peace with the Lacedaemonians on his own account — represents the inhabitants as charcoal-makers ; and other comic writers stigmatize them as rough and boorish. Achates, in the .Eneid, a friend of /Eneas, whose fidelity is depicted as so exem- plary that fid us Achates (the faithful Achates) has become a proverb. Acheen. See Achin. Achelous, ak-e-16'us (now Aspropotamo, « White River»), the largest river in Greece: 130 m. long, and not navigable. It rises on the Pindus range, flows south in a boisterous torrent, forming the boundary between /Etolia and Acarnania. and empties into the Ionian Sea opposite Ithaca. In its lower course it is an alluvial stream, winding in great loops through very fertile and marshy plains ; it comes from the mountains heavily laden with fine white mud, which it deposits along its banks and in the sea at its mouth, where it has formed a number of small islands. In Greek legend, the son of Oceanus and Terra, or Tethys, god of the river. As one of the numerous suitors of Dejanira, daughter of CEneus, Achelous entered the lists against Her- cules, and, being inferior, changed himself into a serpent and afterward into an ox. Hercules broke off one of his horns, and Achelous, being defeated, retired into his bed of water. The broken horn was given to the goddess of plenty. Achen, Johann (« Hans ») von, a'Hen, yo'- han fon, or Acken, a'ken, German painter: b. Cologne, 1512; d. 1615. He studied at home, and at Venice under Kaspar Rems, and took service with the Bavarian court 1500: later went to Prague at the invitation of Emperor Rudolph II. The Protestant church at Cologne con- tains his < Crucifixion,) the cathedral at Bonn his < Entombment,' and among his other works are 1 Christ Raising the Widow's Son,' and < Truth Victorious under Protection of Justice.' Achenbach, Andreas, a'Hen-baH, German landscape and marine painter: b. Cassel, 1815. He studied under the eminent Schadow at Diis- seldorf, and became one of the leading artists of that school. He painted in Holland, along the Rhine, and in Norway, producing landscapes of rich coloring and intense realism. He was made R.A. in Berlin, and knight of ;he Legion of Honor in France : and took a first medal in Paris, 1855. Private galleries in the United States have many of his finest works. His younger brother Oswald, b. Diisseldorf 1827 ; d. 1 Feb. 1905, was also a landscape artist, esteemed of more ideal quality than Andreas ; and his pictures of Switzerland. Italy, etc., were largely bought in the United States. Achene, Achenium, Akene, a-ken', etc. (« not gaping"), a dry, hard, one-seeded fruit in which the wrappings of the seed set closely to it ; forming almost a coat. The entire family of Composite are of this sort: the « seeds » of borage, the sunflower, thistle, dandelion, etc. Sometimes they are grouped on a common re- ceptacle, called an etccrio ; as in the strawberry, where it is fleshy, the achenes being the « pits'" or in the centre of the buttercup, where they form the « fruit » ; sometimes they are inclosed in the fleshy tube of the calyx, as in the rose. Achensee, a'Hen-za, a lake in N. Tyrol, Aus- tria, 5;.! m. long by l / 2 m. wide, 20 m. N.E. of Innsbruck. Its shores are of great beauty, and it is a noted summer resort, having many hotels and private villas, while steamers carry passen- gers to points of interest. Achenwall, Gottfried, a'Hen-val, got'fred, German statistician: b. Elbing, 20 Oct. 1719: d. Gottingen, 1 May 1772. He studied at Jena, Halle, and Leipzig, and became professor of philosophy, and later of law, at Gottingen. In economics he belongs to the school of « moderate mercantilists " : but it is in statistics that he holds a really high place. The work by which he is best known is his < Constitution of the Present Leading European States' (1752). In this he gives a comprehensive view of the con- stitutions of the various countries, describes the condition of their agriculture, manufactures, and commerce, and frequently supplies statistics in relation to these subjects. German econo- mists claim for him the title of « Father of Sta- tistics » ; but English writers dispute this, assert- ing that it ignores the prior claims of Petty, and other earlier waiters on the subject. He gave currency to the term Staatswissenschaft (pol- itics), which he proposed should mean all the knowledge necessary to statecraft or statesman- ship. Acheron, ak'e-ron, the ancient name of sev- eral rivers in Greece and Italy, all connected by legend with the lower world. The principal was a river of Thesprotia in Epirus. which passes through Lake Acherusia, receives the Cocytus (Vuvo), and flows into the Ionian Sea south of the promontory of Chimerium, at Glycys Limen or Elaea, now Port Fanari. At one part its course lies between mountains rising pre- cipitously to the height of 3.000 feet. The name is also given to a river of Elis, a tributary of the Alpheus, and to a small river of Bruttium, in Italy, near Pandosia (location uncertain), near which Alexander of Epirus fell in battle against the Lucanians and Bruttians (326 B.C.). Their legendary celebrity appears to have been originally due to the Acheron in Thesprotia. This country being regarded by the Greeks as the end of the world in the West, they sup- posed the entrance to the lower world to be here. As this district became better known, the legendary river was placed elsewhere, and final- ly transferred to the lower regions. In Homer. Acheron is represented as a river of Hades. According to later traditions a son of Helios and Gsea or Demeter, who bore this name, was changed into an infernal river as a punishment for giving drink to the Titans during their war with Zeus. The Etruscans are said to have worshipped Acheron. The name of Acheron was ultimately used in a poetic or figurative way to designate the whole of the lower world. Acherontia Atropos. See Death's head Moth. A Cheval. See Tactics. Achillea. See Yarrow. Achilles, a-kil'ez, one of the heroes of Greek mythology, and in particular the hero of Homer's Iliad. According to the latter he was the son of Peleus. king of the Mvrmidons in Phthiotis. a district of Thessalv. and of the Nereid or sea-goddess Thetis, and the grandson ACHILLES — ACHIMENES of /Eacus; hence ofter. called Peleides and .Kacides. He was educated from childhood by Phoenix, a friend of his father, who accom- panied him to the Trojan war; and Cheiron the centaur instructed him in the art of healing. Achilles went to this war with the knowli that he was to perish in it; his mother having foretold him that he should either live a li and inglorious life, or die young after a glori- ous career. He led ps, the Myrmidons, against Troy in 50 ships. During the first nine years of the war we have no minute detail of his actions; in the tenth a quarrel hroke out be- tween him and the general-in-chief. Agamem- non, which led him to withdraw entirely from the contest. In consequence the Trojans, who before scarcely ventured without their walls, now waged battle in the plain with various issue, till they reduced the Greeks to extreme distress. The Greek council of war sent its most influen- tial members to soothe Achilles' anger, and induce him to return to arms, hut without effect. Rage and grief caused by the death of his friend Patroclus. slain by Hector, induced Achilles to return to battle. Thetis procured from Heplue- stus (Vulcan) a fresh suit of armor for her son. who at the close of a day of slaughter killed Hector and dragged him at his chariot wheels to the camp, but afterward gave the I to Priam, who came in • it Vchilles then performed the funeral rites of Patroclus, with which the Iliad closes. It contains, how- ever, several anticipative allusions to the death Vchilles, which is also mentioned in the Odysse} lie was killed in a battle at the Scaean Gate. Here ends the history of Achilles so far as it is derived from Homer. By later authors a variety of fable is mixed up with it; some per- haps old legend, much certainly outright in- vention. To make him immortal, his mother during his infancy concealed him by night in fire, to destroy the mortal parts inherited from his father, and anointed him by day with am- brosia (the story of Demeter and Demophoon). His father discovering him one night in the fire, Thetis fled ; and his father entrusted him to the care of Cheiron. who fed him with the hearts of lions and the marrow of bears, and gave him the education proper to a hem. Ac- cording to another story Thetis made him in- vulnerable by dipping him in the Styx, hut the heel by which she held him was untouched by the water ; accordingly he received his fatal wound in the heel. The story of Siegfried is patterned on this. To prevent his going to Troy, where it was predicted he should perish, Thetis sent him. disguised as a girl, to the court of Lycomedes of Scyros. He was educated with Lycomedes' daughters, one of whom. I )• meia, became the mother of Pyrrhus or Xeop- tolemus by him. Odysseus (Ulysses) weni the court of Lycomedes to discover him and induce him to join the war, in which Calchas had declared his aid indispensable. Me si c- ceeded by a stratagem. Presenting himself as a merchant, he offered the daughters of I • medes female ornaments and articles of attire for sale, among which he laid a shield and spear. He then raised an alarm of danger, on which the girls fled, and Achilles seized the weapons. He is said to have been killed either by Apollo in the likeness of Paris, or by an arrow of Paris directed by Apollo. According to another account he made love to 1'olyxena, a daughter of Priam; and. induced by the prom ise of her band on condition of his joining the Trojans, went unarmed to the temple of Apollo at Ihymlit.i. and was there assassinated by Paris. Various stories are told oi the relations of Achilles with [phigenia (q.v.), who was brought to the camp at Aulis on pretext of being married to Achilles. In one account Achilles interferes to rescue her from being sacrificed, and sends her to Scythia ; in another he marries her, and she becomes the mother of Pyrrhus. Others say be was united to her in the lower world, where he became a judge; others again say be married Medea in Elysium. Annual sac- rifices were offered to Achilles by the Thessa- lians at Troas by command of the oracle of Dodona ; at Olympia and other places in Greece sacred honors were likewise paid to him. This has led to the unsafe inference that he was originally an Achaian god ; hut remembering the propensity of uncivilized races to deify superior geniuses among them, and such cases as that of Roland, it is much more likely that he was a chief before be was a god. It is probable that a real Thessalian warrior existed who has been thus idealized, though we do not know his name or real deeds. Achilles Tatius, a-kil'ez ta'shi-us, a I writer of romances: b. in Alexandria; flourished in the 5th century of our era. Suidns says he was a Christian bishop, but this is doubted. He wrote 'The Loves of Clitophon and Leu- cippe.i an erotic story in eight books, of pleas- ing but florid style, and without much regard to unity or consistency of plot; it was mod. on Heliodorus' ' Ethiopica.> That the story was very popular in its day is proved by the number of copies of it that are Still in MSS., and by the plentiful imitation oi it in the Mid- dle Ages. An English translation by Anthony Hodges was published in 1638. Achilles Tendon, a tendon, s,, called be- cause, as fable reports. Thetis, the mother of Achilles, held him by that part when she dipped him in the river Styx to make him invulnerable. It is the strong and powerful tendon of the heel, which is formed l.v the junction of divcis muscles, and which extends from the calf to the heel. When this tendon is unfortunately cut or ruptured, as it may be in consequence of a violent exertion or spasm of the muscles of which it is a continuation, the use of the leg is immediately lost ; and unless the part be afterward successfully united the patient will remain a cripple for life. The indications arc to bring the ends of the divided parts together, and to keep them so until they have become firmly united. This tendon is frequently the seat of a synovitis, just above the heel, from excessive exercise. Achimenes, a-kfm'e-nez (from the Greek name of an East Indian plant used in magic), a genus of tropical American plants of the order Gcstirract-ir. greatly cultivated in greenhouses for the beauty of their red. white, and blue flowers, wdiich. if the rhizomes are potted by the first of April, bloom from the last of May till into October or even November. It may also be propagated by cuttings. The species are nu- merous. ACHIN Achin, Acheen, or Atcheen, a-chen' (prop- erly Aclieh, Portuguese corruption Achetii, Dutch Atjeh or Ajeli), a district at the N.W. ex- tremity of Sumatra, till 1873 an independent sul- tanate, now a province of the Dutch Indies : area, 20,471 sq. m. ; pop. (1897) stated at 531,705 (but a true census must be impossible). The surface is divided into an eastern and a western half by a mountain chain which traverses the whole island, rising in the peak of Abong-Abong to 11.000 feet. At the farthest north is the famous Gold Mountain, at the base of which lies the capital. On both sides are numerous stretches of level or undulating soil, watered by small but deep streams, and admirably adapted for tree-culture, gardening, and rice. The flora and fauna agree with those of Sumatra : pepper- trees and areca-nuts grow there. The natives employ themselves in agriculture, cattle-rearing, trade, fisheries, weaving cloth, and working in gold, silver, and iron. The chief agricultural industry is the production of rice and pepper, the latter sent from many small western ports. From Pedir and other northern ports large quantities of betel-nut are exported to India, Burmah, and China. Achin ponies are also much reputed and exported. Minor exports are sulphur, iron, sapan-wood, gutta-percha, dam- mer. rattans, bamboos, benzoin, and camphor. the latter highly valued in China and bringing an enormous price. Silk, once plentiful, has nearly disappeared. Nor is there now much export of the gold that once drew so much trade thither and made it so rich as to astonish foreigners. No place in the East save Japan was so abundantly supplied with it. and it was from far antiquity part of the Golden Cher- sonese. It exported probably 15,000 to 20.000 ounces a year. The imports are mainly rice (the native supply being insufficient), opium, salt, dried fish, cotton goods, iron and copper wares, firearms, pottery, etc. The people are distinct from the rest of the Sumatrans, who are Malays: they are taller, handsomer, and darker, more active and industrious, and good seamen ; but they are treacherous, bloodthirsty, and revengeful, immoral, and inordinately ad- dicted to opium. Their ethnological place is not settled ; they are believed to be Malay at root, though probably with some admixture from India, and not impossibly an Arab strain. Their speech is said by some to be Polynesian at root, though with much Malay loan element. Their literature is entirely Malay, and comprises poetry, theology, and chronicles. The capital of the province is Kota Radja or Achin', situated at the northwest extremity, on a stream navigable by boats, about 4V2 miles from its port Oleh-leh, with which, since 1876, it has been connected by a railway. Formerly a large and flourishing city, it was almost entirely de- stroyed during the war, but is now beginning to revive. It contains a Dutch garrison of 2,000 men. History. — Civilization was first introduced into Sumatra by Hindu missionaries in the 7th century, and a considerable amount of immigra- tion from India followed. In the 13th century it was converted to Mohammedanism by Arabs — the sultans of Achin claim descent from the first Mohammedan missionary — and the Arabic alphabet displaced the Japanese. Northern Su- matra was visited by several European travelers in the Middle Ages, as Marco Polo, Friar Odor- ico, and Nicolo Conti ; and some of these, as well as Asiatic writers, mention Lambri, a State which must have corresponded nearly with Achin : but the first to name it as such is Alvaro Tellez, a captain of the Portuguese Tristan d'Acunha's fleet, in 1506. It was then a de- pendency of Pedir adjoining; but within twenty years it had not only gained independence, but swallowed up all the other States of northern Sumatra. It attained the climax of power under Sultan Iskandar Muda. 1607-36, when it extended from Aru, opposite Malacca, round by the north to Padang on the western coast, a sea- board of 1,100 miles; and its supremacy was owned also by the large island of Nyas, and by the continental Malay States of Johor, Pahang, Quedah, and Perak. It is in fact the only Su- matran State which has at any time been power- ful since the Cape route to the East was dis- covered. Its wealth astonished the European visitors and traders ; and its great commercial repute is shown by the fact that it was to Achin port that the first Dutch (1599) and English (1602) commercial ventures were directed. Lancaster, the English commodore, carried let- ters from Queen Elizabeth to « the king of Atcheen." James I. exchanged letters with Iskan- dar Muda in 1613, and the Achinese sent envoys to the Dutch republic, who were received by Prince Maurice in camp (1602). But native jealousy of foreigners and the latter's rivalry with and destruction of each other's ventures prevented the establishment of permanent fac- tories there. Still, the trade, though spasmodical- ly interrupted, was very important ; foreign merchants of many nations were settled in Achin city port, while other Chinese merchants came annually and held a great fair through June and July. For 58 years after Iskandar's death the Malay oligarchy of chiefs placed fe- males on the throne; in 1699 the Arab party suppressed this system and set up an Arab ruler, and the State rapidly decayed from inter- nal factions. From 1666 on, the Dutch had held possessions around Padang on the western coast, and gradually gained much in old Achin ; in 181 1 the British seized this as well as the other Dutch East Indies. In 1816 Java was restored to the Dutch, but the English colonies insisted the more strenuously that English in- fluence should be maintained in Achin ; and in 1819 the Calcutta government made a treaty ex- cluding all other foreigners from permanent settlements there. In 1824 an exchange was made with the Dutch, of the Sumatran settle- ments for others in Asia ; the above article was not mentioned, but it was privately understood that it should not be insisted on if the Dutch would make no war on Achin. In the conven- tion at The Hague, 2 Nov. 1871, the Dutch in- sisted on the latter stipulation being formally withdrawn, as the Achinese were pirates and chastisement was often needed; and in 1873 Holland- — with plenty of provocation, but grave doubts even at home of its necessity — embarked in the war, which has cost it 15.000 lives and over $100,000,000. and has not yet ended in the real subjugation of the interior country. Achin city was captured and civil government has been instituted in the coast territory ; but the natives are fierce and have a good country for guerrilla warfare, and English blockade-runners ACHISH — ACIDS keep them supplied with arms and ammunition. Many evidences of these wars may be seen in Holland. (The authoritative works are all in Dutch: the chief is Smouck's 'Die Ajchers,' 2 vols. Batavia 1893-s;. There was also one of Veth, Leyden 1873.) Achish, king of Gath in Philistia, with whom David takes refuge when out of favor with Saul; represented as a dull easy man, whom David dupes into believing that he is making war only on the Judahites and their al- lies, when in fact he is raiding the native tribes, and enriching his stronghold Ziklag with their plunder. His lords are not so blind, however, and make him dismiss David before going to battle at Mount Gilboa. David lived with him four months according to one account, a year and four months according to another. Achromatism. Because the several com- ponents of a beam of ordinary light are of different refrangibilities, it follows that they are not brought to a common focus by a simple convex lens. The violet rays meet at a point nearer the lens than that at which the red rays unite, and the optical image is confused and fringed with prismatic colors. This difficulty is greatest with lenses of short focus, whence the early practice of constructing telescopes of enormous length. Sir Isaac New- ton, misled by a really remarkable series of petty accidents, concluded that this difficulty could not be obviated, and that large refracting telescopes were therefore impracticable. He therefore gave his attention to the development of the reflector. In 1757, however, John Dollond, a Spitalfields weaver, discovered that different substances separate the colors of light, for a given mean refraction, to a different degree. He therefore constructed double lenses of two different kinds of glass, — crown glass and flint glass. A con- cave lens of flint glass brings the colors to- gether while not entirely destroying the refrac- tion caused by a convex lens of crown glass. The correction is far from perfect, however. and even the best telescope lenses produce a blue halo surrounding the stellar images. This outstanding color may be reduced by combina- tions of three or more lenses ; but such devices greatly increase the mechanical difficulties of the optician. The present practice is to bring to- gether such portions of the light as most power- fully effect the eye or the photographic plate, leaving the other tints uncorrected. Tin- intro- duction of new kinds of glass, especially the Jena glass, so called, has somewhat improved the chromatic correction of smaller objectives. See Dispersion; Lens: Microscope; Telescope; Light. Achsharumov, Nikolei Dmitriyevich, ach- sha-roo'mof, ne-kolM dme-tre-ycv'ich, Rus- sian novelist and critic: b. St. Petersburg, 15 Dec. 1810 ; d. Moscow, 30 Aug. 1803. For a time he held a post in the ministry of war, but came later to devote himself to painting, and particularly to literature. He first attracted at- tention by a dramatic sketch, (The Masked Ball,' and became more widely known through his novels, (The Double); (The Gambler); < The False Name ' ; ( An Unusual Case > ; ( The Mandarin > ; and < At All Costs > ( ( Was es auch Kosten mag > ). His critical essays in- clude studies of Tolstoi, Turgenicv, Dostoievski, and Herbert Spencer. A Chula, a-shoo'la (Port.), a dance resem- bling the fandango (q.v.). Achurch, Janet, English actress: stage name of Janet Achurch Sharp, now Mrs. Charles Charrington : b. Lancashire; debut at Olympic Theatre, January 1883. In 1887 she joined Beerbohm Tree's company; 7 June 1889 cre- ated the part of Nora in Ibsen's < Doll's House,' the first presentation of Ibsen in English. She afterward starred in India and Australia, and in 1895 came to the United States, acting with Richard Mansfield and for herself. June 1897 she played Cleopatra (Shakespeare's) at the Olympic Theatre, London. Acic'ulite, a mineral better known as needle-ore (q.v.). Acidaspis (« spine-shield »), a small trilobite widely distributed through Silurian and De- vonian rocks, whose striking characteristic is the thick setting of the dorsal shield with such numerous and formidable spines that it must have been almost impossible for even much larger enemies to prey on it. The head-shield is entirely different from that of other trilo- bites, the trilobation being obscured by extra furrows and longitudinal false furrows. The thorax has 9 or to segments, each with long lateral spines and two shorter median ones; the small tail-shield in nearly all species also has them ; in some a row of slender ones on the sides of the head-shield, and a long one project- ing from each posterior angle; and from the middle posterior edge two long ones, straight or curved, often project upward and backward. A few species have the eyes placed, like some crabs and lobsters, on the ends of long, slender stalks, commanding a view in all directions. Ac'idim'etry. See Chemical Analysis. Acids. In popular usage, acids are sub- stances of a corrosive nature, with a sour taste when diluted sufficiently to lose their corrosive action on the tongue, capable of turning certain blue vegetable coloring matters, such as litmus, to a red, and forming neutral compounds with alkalies. In modern chemistry an acid is usual- ly regarded as a salt of hydrogen in which one or more of the hydrogen atoms are replace- able by metallic atoms or by organic radicals. An acid containing one such atom of replaceable hydrogen is called monobasic ; if it has two such atoms of hydrogen it is called dibasic or bibasic; if three, tribasic ; _ and so on. Hydrochloric acid. HO, is a familiar example of a monobasic acid; it has only one atom of hydrogen that can be replaced by potassium (for example), with the formation of the single compound KC1. Sulphuric acid, H:SO,, is a familiar dibasic acid ; with potassium it forms the two compounds HKSO, (hydrogen potassium sulphate), and K : SO. (normal or basic potassium sulphate). Phosphoric acid, H.PO,, is a tribasic acid in which one. two, or all three of the hydrogen atoms may be replaced by metals or radicals. In a polybasic acid the hydrogen atoms need not necessarily all be displaced by the same ele- ment or radicals ; thus microcosmic salt is a phosphate of hydrogen, sodium, and ammonium, with the formula HNa(NTL) PO, + 4ILO. ACKNOWLEDGMENT — ACOMA When an acid contains oxygen it is com- monly named for the substance that is present with the oxygen and hydrogen in the acid. For example, nitric acid is named for nitrogen, and phosphoric acid for phosphorus. It often hap- pens that the same element forms more than one acid with oxygen and hydrogen. In these cases it is usual to give the termination -ic to the one which contains the larger amount of oxygen, and the termination -ous to the one containing the lesser amount of oxygen. For example, H 2 S0 4 is called sulphuric acid, while rLSOa is called sulphurous acid. The salts formed by acids ending in -ic have the ending -ate, such as the acid sulphate of potassium, produced by substituting the metal potassium for one of the hydrogen atoms of sulphuric acid, while those formed by acids ending in -ous have the ending -itr. A vast number of organic acids are known, of which acetic acid is a familiar illustration. Acknowledgment, the act of one who has executed a deed, in going before some competent officer or court and declaring it to be his act and deed. The function of an acknowledgment is twofold : to authorize the deed to be given in evidence without further proof of its execution, and to entitle it to be recorded. The same end may be attained by a subscribing witness going before the officer or court, and making oath to the fact of execution, which is certified in the same manner, but in some States this is permit- ted only in case of the death, absence, or re- fusal of the grantor. The certificate should be in substantially the following form : I, hereby certify that whose name is signed to the foregoing conveyance, and who is known to me, acknowledged before me on this day that being informed of the contents of the conveyance, he executed the same voluntarily on the day the same bears date. Given under my hand this day of , 19 — . In many of the States it is necessary that a married woman be examined separately and apart from her husband touching her voluntary execution of the deed, and the fact of such ex- amination must be included in the certificate. Acland, Lady Christian Henrietta Caroline Fox, commonly called "Lady Harriet"; daughter of the first Earl of Ilchester : b. 3 Jan. 1750; d. 21 July 1815. She married Maj. John Dyke Acland, September 1770, accompanied him to America, and shared Burgoyne's campaign of 1777 with him. He being wounded and carried prisoner into the American lines in the second battle of Saratoga, 7 October, she left the Brit- ish camp by night in a small rowboat and in a driving storm to rejoin him, with her chaplain and maid ; was cordially received by Gates and nursed her husband back to health. Acland reciprocated the kindness when on parole in New York, by helping to relieve the sufferings of American prisoners. He died of a paralytic stroke 2 Dec. 1778; the gratifying story that he was killed in a duel for defending American courage against aspersion being pure invention. Equally untrue is it that she went insane and afterward married Chaplain Brudenell ; she died Acland's widow. She was a graceful and ele- gant woman and is remembered for her chari- ties. Acland, Sir Henry Wentworth Dyke, Eng- lish sanitarian: b. 1815; d. 16 Oct. 1900. He Vol. 1— s was long an expert on cholera and the various forms of plague. He was professor of medicine at Oxford (1858-94), besides serving on various sanitary bodies. He was one of the founders of the Oxford University Museum, and with Rtiskin published an account of its objects (1859). He accompanied the Prince of Wales to America in i860. He was author of 'Memoirs of the Cholera,' etc. Aclin'ic Line, an imaginary line on the surface of the earth, at every point of which the magnetic dip is zero. It is irregular in shape, and its shape and position vary somewhat from year to year; but, roughly speaking, it lies close to the equator. See Magnetism, Terrestrial. Ac'mite, a mineral, in Dana's pyroxene group, crystallizing in the monoclinic system, and having essentially the composition Na.O.Fe«0 3 .4Si0 2 . Hardness 6 to 6.5 ; sp. gr. 3.5 ; lustre vitreous, inclining to resinous ; usual color dark blackish-green or reddish-brown. Oc- curs in slender lustrous prisms in the elaeolite- syenites of Norway, Greenland and Arkansas. Acne, a disease of the sebaceous glands of the skin and of the hair follicles about them, characterized by an infection, an inflammation, and a breaking down of the tissue about the gland. Three main varieties are described, sim- ple acne, deep or indurated acne, and acne rosa- cea, which is a complex affair. Acne simplex. — In this form the affection is superficial, is found usually about the time of puberty, and is more often found in young women. It is a result of the great activities of the skin at this period of development, and is normal if not excessively developed. The "blackhead" or comedo is the first stage. This consists of the swollen sebaceous gland, slightly blackened at its outlet. This swelling continues, and a pustule forms, by reason of infection by one of the many pus-producing bacteria lying in and upon the skin. This results in an inflamed pimple, which may burst and discharge its con- tents, leaving a scar. In a badly inflamed area or pimply skin all stages of this development are usually present. Acne indurata is a more deep-seated form. Here the gland lies deep in the skin, and, as it inflames, gives rise to the feeling of shot beneath the skin. These deep glands rarely rupture through the skin unless irritated by squeezing, in which instance they frequently form small boil-like pimples. Acne rosacea is a combination of a disease of the skin, rosacea, plus an acne. This is the type of diseased nose so commonly termed a "rum-blossom." Acoma, a-ko'ma, New Mexico (the old Spanish Acufia or Acuco), in Valencia CO., 60 m. S.W. of Albuquerque and 15 m. S.W. of Lagun. It is an Indian pueblo of 492 people (566 in 1890), famed especially for its original sue. the "Enchanted Mesa"; a rock table 430 feet high, accessible now only by scaling, and of- old (traditionally) by spiral stairs cut in the stone, in a deep cleft of the upper portion and along a huge detached fragment leaning against it from the bottom, itself reached by a tail tree or a ladder, furnishing a secure fortress against enemies. The Indian tradition is that a long slorm washed the loose earth away from the foot of the lower rock while all the tribe except ACONCAGUA — ACOSTA two women were away in the fields, and it fell over into the plain, leaving the upper portion inaccessible; the women perished, but the re- mainder of the tribe built a new place en the present site, which is the same as when the Spaniards found it. The essence of the tradi- tion is verified by the finding of an old trail, and of shards, etc.. in the tains high around the base. Acoma was visited in 1340 by Alvarado, of Coronado's command, and in 1582 by Es- pejo, who estimated the population at about 5,000. The Indians under Zutucapan stubbornly resisted the Spaniards, anil in 1500. defeated a band of them from Onatc's force; later in the same year Zaldivar captured Acoma and slew five sixths of the inhabitants. A Spanish mis- sion was afterward set up for the small rem- nant. (H. H. Bancroft's 'Arizona and New Mexico,' 1880; F. YV. Hodge, < The Enchanted Mesa,' « National Geographic Magazine,' vol. 8.) Aconcagua, Chile, a-kon-kii'gwa (Sp.-Am. pron. ka'wa). (1) An extinct volcano in the S. Andes, on Chilean territory and dividing it from Argentina ; one of the highest summits in the western hemisphere, estimated at about 23,000 or sometimes nearly 24.000 feet. (2) A river about 200 miles long, rising on the south- ern slope of the above mountain, and emptying into the Pacific 12 miles north of Valparaiso. (3) A central province of Chile, bounded N. by Coquimbo, S. by Santiago, E. by Argentina, S.YV. by Valparaiso. For route of Trans-Andine Railway, via Uspallata pass in this province, see South America. The valleys are very fer- tile, vineyards and orchards are plentiful, and in summer numerous flocks are pastured on the mountain slopes ; figs, nectarines, peaches, etc., are sent to Santiago and Valparaiso. Cop- per, silver, and gold are found. Area, 6,226 square miles. Pop.. about 135,000. Capital, San Felipe. Aconite (Aconitum), a genus of hardy her- baceous plants, of the natural order Ranuncula- cea, long known for their poisonous properties. Many of them are of great beauty, and several are cultivated, especially the common wolf's- bane or monk's-hood (A. napellus). so called from the form of its flowers, characteristic of the genus, which are shaped like a helmet or hood. The United States has also several spe- cies growing wild. The wild monk's-hood (A. uncinatum) is common in rich shady soils along the margins of streams as far west as Wiscon- sin, its blue flowers being one of the marked features of the summer's bloom. Trailing wolf's-bane (A. reclinatum), a white-flowered variety, grows in the southern Alleghanies. The winter aconite (Eranthis), with yellow flowers, is common throughout the Rocky Mountain regions extending to the Pacific coast. It is perhaps more closely related to the hellebores. These flowers hang clustered round an upright stalk and make the aconite a very imposing plant. Some powerful medicines are prepared from the leaves and roots of monk's-hood. Ap- plied externally they produce numbness of sensory nerves, and are used to relieve pain in certain forms of neuralgia, and in acute and chronic rheumatism. Given internally they diminish the force and frequency of the heart's action, render breathing slower, and are em- ployed in acute fevers and inflammations. A poisonous dose causes cessation of breathing and of the heart's action. All the plants of this genus are poisonous; common monk's-hood is very virulent; but tin most deadly seems to be the A. ferox, the bish, or bikh, of Nepal. Aconitic Acid, (also called equisetic or cilrulie acid), a tribasic acid having the formula GHj(0 K Ml 1 . tbe calcium salt of which occurs in several plants of the genus Aconitum, and in the common Equisetum, or horsetail. The acid itself is most easily prepared by the dry distilla- tion of citric acid. Aconitine, a powerful vegetable alkaloid found in the tuberous root of Aconitum napel- lus and other species of Aconitum. In its chem- ical structure it is an acetyl-benzoyl-aconinc, CH, (OCH,).NGv jcocir' or ' cx P ressed in simple form, Cj«H.:NOu (Freund and Beck). It is one of the most deadly poisons and has been known for hundreds of years. Its action as a medicine was first carefully studied by Stoerck in 1702. When locally applied it pro- duces the constitutional symptoms. Its local use in the form of an ointment is of service in neuralgias. Internally its main action is on the heart muscle and on the blood-vessels. It slows the heart and dilates the blood-vessels, causing a marked decrease of blood pressure. It is be- cause of this action that it is so widely used in the acute stages of many affections that are ac- companied by a rapid heart and a tense, bound- ing pulse. Aconite has been called the « vege- table lancet » since it dilates the blood-vessels so. bleeding one into one's own veins, as it were. In poisonous doses it causes nausea, vomiting, cold, clammy skin, very slow weak pulse and breathing, and finally paralysis of the heart and respiration, and death. Death has taken place in from one to five hours from the root. Doses above 3 milligrams (1-20 gr.) a day are dan- gerous: 1-200 gr. is a safe initial dose. Treat- ment is symptomatic, special attention being paid to the respiration by artificial means, and heart stimulants,— strychnine, etc. Acontius, in a Greek legend retold by Ovid in his 1 Heroides.' a youth of the island of Cea. who went to Delos to see the sacred rites performed by a crowd of virgins in the temple of Diana, and fell in love with Cydippe, a beau- tiful virgin. Not daring to ask her in marriage on account of the meanness of his birth, he pre- sented her with an apple on which were in- scribed these words: «I swear by Diana. Acontius shall be my husband." Cvdipoe read the words, and, feeling herself compelled by the oath she had inadvertently taken, married Acontius. William Morris has used the story in the < Earthly Paradise.) Acorn-shell, a barnacle of the family Balan- id;e. See BARNACLE. Acorus. See Flag. Swef.t. Acosta, Gabriel, a-kos-ta, Portuguese phi- losopher : b. Oporto 1 591 ; d. April 1640. Of a converted Jewish family, educated a Roman Catholic, his studies led him back to Judaism, and he fled with his mother and brothers to Amsterdam. He again developed heretical opin- ions, was taken to task by the synagogue, and excommunicated ; his writings were confis- ACOSTA — ACOUSTICS cated and himself fined ; and years of persecu- tion by the Jewish authorities and his family drove him to suicide. Gutzkow made him the hero of his novel 'Die Sadducaer von Amster- dam' (1834), and of his tragedy 'Uriel Acos- ta' (1846). The work which caused Acosta's excommunication was 'Examen Traditionum Pharisseicarum Collatarum cum Lege Scripta' (1623, in Latin). Acosta, Joaquin, a-kos'ta, hooa-ken', South American soldier and geographer: b. Guachias, Colombia, 29 Dec. 1799: d. there 1852. He was an officer of engineers in the Colombian army, member of the New Grenada Convention 1831, later representative in its Congress. In 1834 he explored the Socorro valley to the Magda- lena with the botanist Cespedes, and in 1841 traveled from Antioquia to Aserma to study the various Indian tribes. For a time he was min- ister from Xew Grenada to Ecuador ; was charge d'affaires at Washington 20 July to 8 Nov. 1842: and later secretary of state in New Grenada. He published at Paris in 1848 a his- tory of the discovery and settlement of Xew Grenada, with a valuable map of his own draw- ing, the first made since the independence of Colombia: and in 1849, at Paris, a 'Miscellany of Xew-Grenadan Sciences, Literature, Arts, and Industries,* with portraits and map. Acosta, Jose, a-kos'ta, ho-sa', Jesuit and his- torian : b. Spain, c. 1540: d. rector of Salamanca in 1600. In 1571 he went to Peru, where he spent 15 years, becoming provincial of his order. After two years in Mexico and the West Indies he returned to Spain laden with manuscripts and information, and became a royal favorite. His theological works evinced great learning, but it is by his y 9 537 ■o by 10 435 11 by 11 360 12 by 12 302 13 by 13 257 14 by 14 222 15 by 15 193 16 bv 16 170 16'A by 16V1 160 17 by 17 150 18 by 18 134 19 by 19 120 20 by 20 108 25 by 25 69 30 by 30 48 33 by 33 40 40 by 40 27 5° by 50 I7 60 by 60 12 66 by 66 10 Acre River, a'kra, South America (also called Aquiry, a'ke-re), a tributary of the Purus River. Its sources have not yet been precisely located, but are probably on the east- ern Andean slopes near lat. u° S. From the point at which it becomes navigable for small steamers its course is generally northeast to its confluence with the Purus ; the latter flows nearly parallel to and north of the Madeira, emptying into the Amazon west of Manaos. Together these rivers give access to an exceed- ingly valuable rubber forest district, long in dispute between Bolivia, Peru, and Brazil. The name Acre is commonly applied to the entire region. Bolivia, claiming that her sovereignty had been recognized by Brazil in the treaty of 1867 and by subsequent acts, granted a conces- ACRES — ACROPOLIS sion for developing the rubber products to an Anglo-American syndicate in 1002; but she was not allowed to live up to tins agreement, though she had troops and a military governor on the ground. The Brazilian inhabits imprisoned or i lit every Bolivian in the district, captured Port Acre 24 Jan. 1 903, in- stalled a new governor, and proclaimed their allegiance to Brazil. The latter country there- upon sent an ultimatum to Bolivia, and on 8 February the Bolivian government agreed to admit Brazilian occupation pending a settlement The treaty between Bolivia and Brazil signed 17 Nov. 1903 provides for the relinquishment by the former country of all that part of the vast Acre region lying north of the Abunan, in lat. 10° 20' S., and a line following water courses in a southwesterly direction from that point to lat. ii° S., or approximately to the sources of Acre River. Brazil agrees to pay "an indemnity of £2,000.000 sterling, which the Republic of Bolivia accepts with the intention of using the same . mainly in the construction of railways or other works tending to improve the communications and develop commerce between the two coun- tries' (Art. 3). Moreover, Brazil (in Art. 7) "binds herself to build on Brazilian territory, by herself or by a private company, a railway to extend from Santo Antonio on the Madeira River to Guajara-Mirim on the Mamore, with a branch road running through Villa-Murtinho, or another point near it in the Stale of Matto Grosso, to Villa Bella at the confluence of the Beni and Mamore," the object being to furnish an outlet to the Madeira and Amazon for Boliv- ian products (see South America.) ; and in Art. 8 Brazil "declares that she will negotiate directly with the Republic of Peru the boundary dispute concerning the territory comprised be- tween the source of the Javary (or Yavari : about lat. 7 S.) and parallel 11°. and will en- deavor to reach a friendly solution of the litiga- tion. 8 Bolivia and Peru agreed by treaty of 21 Nov. 1901 to submit to arbitration all contro- versies pending between them; their long-stand- ing boundary disputes were actually referred to the President of the Argentine Republic as arbi- trator in 1904. There still remained to be de- termined the conflicting claims of Peru and Brazil to that portion of the great Amazon basin comprised between lat. 7° S. and lat. 11° S. ; extending from the eastern cordillera of the Andes to the heart of the continent : watered not only by the Acre but by the Jurua and Purus rivers as well; a country imperial in size and of incalculable undeveloped resources, yet so situated that it is wholly dependent upon Brazil. An examination of the maps (see South America) will show that the lands in question are valueless unless Brazil keeps open the only outlets for their produce, the water- ways through Brazilian territory to the Atlantic; that, therefore, Peru cannot reasonably hope to gain anything in this contention by force of arms if Brazil is unwilling to yield. Besides, a resort to arbitration was indicated as the pn per course by the experience of Bolivia and Brazil. Nevertheless, when Brazil demanded the evacu- ation of points in the disputed territory occupied by Peru, as a condition precedent to arbitration, Peru refused compliance, saying that she, for her part, proposed arbitration "without demand- ing previous conditions which should be re- garded as unnecessary by governments really wishing to reach a prompt, just, and pacific set- tlement of their differences" (May 1904). The delay proved fatal to Peruvian interests in this quarter. While diplomatic notes were being ex- changed, Brazilian troops from Manaos defeated the small army of occupation maintained by Peru. Thus the Acre-Purus-Jurua region pas ed under Brazilian control. Acres, Bob, an awkward young country booby of the gentleman class of England, who figures in Sheridan's comedy of 'The Rivals.' Acrisius, in Greek mythology, king of Are,"-, lie expelled his twin brother Prcetus (q.v.) from lu- inheritance and for a time ruled alone in Tiryns and ArgOS, but was later forced irrender to his brother the former kingdom. He was the reputed founder of the Delphic amphictyomy. For the legend concerning the prediction of the oracle that he would die at the hands of Ins grandson, see PERSEUS. Acrobat. See Gymnastics. Acroceraunium, ak'ro-se-ra'ne-um, the N.W. promontory of Epirus, with mountains called Acroceraunia ("thunder-peaks"), which separated the Ionian and Adriatic Seas, and were noted for attracting storms, and hence dreaded by mariners. Its modern name is Chimara or Cape Glossa, or Cape Linguetta. Acrocorinthus, in ancient times the acrop- olis or citadel of Corinth : a steep rock nearly 1,900 feet high, overhanging the city, and crowned with the remains of Venetian and Tur- kish fortifications, ruins of mosques and dwell- ing-houses, and also a barrack with a few soldiers. On its top stood of old a temple of Aphrodite. Acrop'clis, the high part of any ancient Greek city ; usually an eminence overlooking the city, and frequently its citadel. Notable among such citadels were the Acropoleis of Argos, of Messenc. of Thebes, and of Corinth ; but pre- eminently the Acropolis of Athens, to which the name is now chiefly applied. This was the original city (as indeed most of the acropoleis. dating from the times of barbaric insecurity). later the upper city as distinguished from the lower, and was built upon a separate spur or butte of Hymettus. The hill rises out of the plain, a mass of rock about 260 feet high, witli precipitous sides save for a narrow access at the western end where there was a zigzag road foi chariots. The summit of this rock forms an uneven plain 500 by 1,150 feet at the maximum breadth and length. Within this area were reared, chiefly in the days of Pericles, remark- able specimens of architectural art. The build- ings were grouped around two principal temples, the Parthenon and the Erechtheum. Be- tween these temples stood the statue of Athene Promachos (« fighter in front »), by Phidias, the helmet and spear of which were the first objects visible from the sea. About these centre-pieces, covering the rocky height and extending down the steep sides, were lesser temples, statues, theatres, fanes, and odea (music halls). Among the famous buildings on the sides of the Acropo- lis were the Dionysiac theatre, the Odeum of Pericles, and the Odeum, built by Herodes Atti- cus in honor of his wife Regilla. The ravages of accident and war and Athenian marble- ACROSTIC — ACT mercnants, and in case of the Parthenon (q.v.) its deliberate dismantling by Lord Elgin early in the 19th century, have largely destroyed and despoiled these classic works. Archaeologists have secured many important remains of the Acropolis, which are preserved in the collections of various European capitals and in the new archaeological museum at Athens. Acros'tic, a poetical composition, disposed in such a manner that the initial letters of each line, taken in order, form a person's name or other complete word or words. This kind of poetical trifling was very popular with the French poets from the time of Francis I. until Louis XIV. Among other English writers, Sir John Davies, who lived in the 16th century. amused himself in this way. He produced 26 pieces called 1 Hymns to Astrea.> each of them forming an acrostic upon the words Elisabetha Regina. The following is an example: E ternal virgin, goddess true, L et me presume to sing to you. I ove, e'en great Jove, nath leisure S ometimes to hear the vulgar crew, A nd heed them oft with pleasure. B lessed Astrea! I in part E njoy the blessings you impart, T he peace, the milk and honey, H umanity and civil art, A richer dow'r than money. R ight glad am I that now I live, E 'en in these days whereto you give G reat happiness and glory; I f after you I should be born, N o doubt I should my birthday scorn, A dmiring your sweet story. In the Old Testament tnere are 12 psalms written according to this principle. Of these the 119th Psalm is the most remarkable; it con- sists of 22 stanzas, each of which commences with a Hebrew letter and is called by its name. Acrostic verse is no longer cultivated by serious poets, and has in fact been relegated mainly to country newspapers, except as a jest or social pastime. Edgar Allen Poe. however, wrote some striking acrostics, varying the form with great ingenuity. One example, beginning with the first letter of the first line, the second of the second, and so on, forms a lady's name. Acroterion (« extremity »), in architecture, an ornament — statue, palmette, or leaf-deco- ration — placed on the apex of a pediment or one of its lower angles. Act. In the drama: one of the parts into which a play is divided, to mark change of time or place, to give a respite to the actors and audience from the strain and physical fatigue of sitting intent on a long play, and to enable actors to change costumes and managers to change scenery. In Greek plays, where there was no scenery and no change of costume, there were no separate acts, — the episodes separated by the lyrical portions being not such either in design or effect, — and the action was continuous from beginning to end and the unities strictly observed. If the principal actors left the stage, the chorus took up the argument and con- tributed an integral part of the play ; chiefly in the form of comment on the action, but often by supplying necessary information impossible to give in the regular speeches. When it was de- sired to develop the story further than the sin- gle play could conveniently do, another drama. — etymologically the same as act, — carried it on to another time or place, forming the common Greek trilogies, or groups of three, in which the same characters reappear. The Roman the- atre first adopted the division into acts, sus- pending all stage business in the intervals. They made the regular number five, and Horace sets this down as a fixed rule of art. On the revival of letters it was almost universally used by dramatists ; and that it rests on something more than caprice is shown by the fact that Shake- speare, who cared nothing for fixed rules of art and utterly disregarded the unities, never varies this division. For a great drama there is a real reason, though in light comedy it is almost universally dropped at present. The natural division is into three, — introduction, climax, and conclusion ; and the central act still fulfills the same function. But for a great ac- tion this is apt to hurry matters too fast for a proper development either of character or in- terest ; hence the first and the last act are doubled, the approach to the main point and the preparation for the catastrophe being both ren- dered more gradual. Some critics have laid down exact rules as to the part each act is to sustain in a play; but these cannot be justified and have never been regarded. It is obvious, however, that each act should form a certain unity, ending with a point of deep but suspended interest, yet should be an integral part of the whole. Moliere _ began the three-act comedy ; but even to an impatient generation this is too short for a play of power, and four is most preferred. See Drama. In Law. — (1) Anything officially done bv the court, as the phrases « Acts of Court," «Acts of Sederunt," etc. (2) In bankruptcy, an act the commission of which by a debtor renders him liable to be adjudged a bankrupt. (3) In civil law, a writing which states in a legal form that a thing has been said, done, or agreed. (4) In evidence, the act of one con- spirator performed in pursuance of the common design may be given in evidence against his co- conspirators. (5) Acts done, distinguished into acts of God (q.v.), of the law, and of men. In mental philosophy, an operation of the mind supposed to require the putting forth of energy, as distinguished from a state of mind in which the faculties remain passive. In this sense such expressions as the following are used: the act of thinking, the act of judging, the act of resolving, the act of reasoning or of reason ; each of these being viewed as a single operation of the human mind. In parliamentary language, an ellipsis for a law enacted by a congress, legislature, parlia- ment, etc. A statute, law, or edict, consisting of a bill which has been successfully carried through both Houses of Congress or legislature, and received the approval of the executive. See specific titles infra, Act of God ; Act of Settle- ment; Act of Supremacy; Act of Toleration ; Act of Uniformity. In theology, the carrying out of an operation in a moment, as contradistinguished from the performance of a work requiring a considerable time for its accomplishment. In universities, of old, the commencement or taking of degrees ; now disused save as a form at Cambridge. England. The Student « keeps the act » by reading a Latin thesis which he must defend against three opponents named by the proctors. ACTA DIURNA — ACTINOMETER Acta Diurna ("Daily Acts»); also called At r\ Popi 11." Arts of the People •; Pubi n \. ot Public Acts"; Urbana, "Municipal Acl Written daily newspapers in ancient Rome, posted up in public to be read nr copied, then taken down and filed in the public archives. The news was collected by reporters (actuarii) em- ployed hy the Stale, and consisted of much the same sort of matter as that contained in modern newspapers: a miscellany of everything that might interest the citizen, from the latest war news, abstracts of the best speeches in the Senate or Forum or the courts, the most important legal decisions or political events, \jrobably even to interviews, down to the most trivial gossip of the town, — not only births, marriages, divorces, and deaths, murders, do- mestic infelicities, and accidents, but any unusual omens or prodigies, lusus naturw, etc. Pctronius in t Trimalchio's Feast ' gives an admirable bur- lesque of it. The letters of Romans to out-of- town friends were regularly furnished with spicy news from the Acta Diurna, which seem to have taken the place of the older < Annates' or yearly chronicles, too slow for the active later republic and only reporting the more im- portant occurrences, some time after i.ii B.C. The usual statement is that Julius Csesar intro- duced them ; but it hardly seems probable that the Roman people, once used to even an imper- fect form of news-gathering, dispensed with it altogether for three-quarters of a century and did not think of it again until it was invented for them. It is certain, however, that it was in use in Caesar's time, for he ordered Antony's offer of a crown to him on the Lupercalia to be set down in the Acta Diurna. (Le Clerc, 'Ro- man Newspapers.' in French, 1838, entertaining but not cautious in facts; Hiibner, < Acta of the Roman Republic,' in Latin, Leipsic, i860.) Actaea. a genus of the natural order Ranunculacear, represented in the L'nited States by the baneberries. A. alba or white cohosh, or baneberry, is found in rocky woods north from Georgia. A. spicata, red cohosh, or red banc- bem farther west and near to the north than the white baneberry. Acta Eruditorum, the first literary journal of Germany. It was started in 1682 by Prof. Otto Mencke of Leipsic. and enjoyed a long existence and great popularity. It was owned by his family till 1754- after which it began to decline in value and in the number of its sub- scribers ; and the irregularity of its appearance became at length so great that the last volume, for i"*', was published in 1782, exactly a cen- tury from the time when the journal was com- menced. The whole consists of 1 17 quarto volumes, including the supplementary volumes and indices. In this journal Leibnitz first gave the world his notions respecting the differen- tial calculus. Actaeon, ak-te'on, in Greek mythology, the son of Aristaeus and Autonoe (a daughter of Cadmus), a great hunter. He was turned into a stag by Artemis (1 liana) for looking at her when she was bathing (or, as some say, for boasting that he was superior to her in hunting), and was torn to pieces by his own dogs. This incident is exhibited in various ancient works of art. Acta Sanctorum, or Martyrum, the col- lective title given to several old writings re- specting saints and martyrs in the Creek and Roman Catholic Churches, but now applied es- pecially to one extensive collection begun by the Jesuit Rosweyd, and continued by J. Holland. The work was carried on i [661 1 by a society of learned Jesuits, who were styled Bollandists, until 1794, when its further p was pre- vented through the invasion of Holland by the French. In recent times the undertaking has been resumed. Actin'ia. See Sea-Anemone. Actinia'ria (Gk. aktis. ray), the sea-anem- ones. See Anthozoa; Sea-Anemone. Actin'ium. (1) A supposed metallic ele- ment, occurring in nature associated with zinc. Its existence was announced in 1881 hy Dr. T. L. Phipson, who observed that certain salts of zinc gave a white precipitate of zinc sulphid which blackens upon exposure to light and re- turns again to its white state in the dark; the blackening effect not being observed when the substance is ed to the light under a sheet of glass. Phipson attributed this action to the presence of a previously unrecognized element which he called actinium on account of the of its sulphid to light. The zinc sulphid with which he experimented appeared to yield about four per cent of actinium sul- phid, and he suggested that "the presence of this new element in zinc will account, probably, for the discrepancies noticed in the equivalent of this metal as determined hy various , .'serv- ers." The hydrate of actinium is described as a voluminous, white, gelatinous precipitate, with a slight tinge of salmon when seen in bulk. The anhydrous oxid is not volatile and has a pale fawn color. The sulphid is nf a pale canary-yellow color, and when exposed to the direct rays of the sun, unshielded hy glass, it becomes quite black in about 20 minutes. Dr. Phipson's account of the preparation of the salts of actinium is given in the 'Journal of the Franklin Institute 5 for December 1881. The existence of the element is not now admitted by chemists. (2) A radioactive substance, presumably an element, discovered by V De- bierne in tooo. It gives off the same kinds of rays as radium, but the "emanation" that it emits dies away with gn ty. Actinium, like radium and polonium, is prepared from pitchblende, and belongs to the iron group. See Radioactivity. Actin'ograph, a name sometimes given to the actinometer (q.v. ), especially when it is arranged so as to give an automatic record of the intensity of the light. Actin'olite, a mineral in Dana's Amphibole group, having the composition Ca(Mg.Fc) 3 Sii Ou. It occurs in various forms, and includes the varieties nephrite, asbestus, smaragdite, uro- Iite, cummingtonite, dannemorite, and grunerite. Actinolite is greenish in color, and occurs usual- ly in the form of long slender crystals or in a fibrous and radiated state. Actinom'eter, an instrument for measur- ing the intensity of the chemical action of the sun's rays. For use in photography for the judging of times of exposure, the essential part of the instrument is a strip of sensitive silver ACTINOMYCOSIS — ACTION paper, which is blackened by the sun's rays, the time required to darken the paper to a definite shade being taken as the index to the intensity of the light. Any other chemical action that light rays are capable of performing may be made the basis of an actinometer ; but the indi- cations of instruments in which the fundamental chemical changes are different will not neces- sarily agree with one another, because any given actinometer shows nothing but the intensity of the particular part of the spectrum which per- forms the chemical change upon which that in- strument is based. Actinomyco'sis, a disease due to a vegetable parasite, Actinomyces bovis, of the fungus class. This fungus lives its life in grasses and plants and thus infects cattle, in which animals it is comparatively frequent, causing the disease known as "lumpy jaw. B These in turn affect man. See Parasites. In man the symptoms are often very obscure. Some infections of the lungs have appeared to be cases of pulmonary tuberculosis. Pathologic- ally the disease is one of new connective tissue formation with abscess production. It is a chronic disease and often is a slow, suppurative affair affecting the tissues about the pharynx and neck. The bones, lungs, and intestinal tract may be affected. The diagnosis may be readily made by the microscope. Consult: Salmon, 'In- vestigation Relating to the Treatment of Lumpy- Jaw, or Actinomycosis in Cattle. Department of Agriculture Bulletin Xo. 2 (1893). Actin'ophone, better known as the radiophone (q.v.) Actinozo'a, or An'thozoa, a class of ccelen- terates which exist only in the polyp state, not giving rise to a medusa form. They are repre- sented by the sea-anemone (q.v.) and coral polyps. Their bodies are vase-shaped, usually fixed at one end, though most of them are cap- able of slowly moving about. They are provided with a digestive sac partially free from the body- cavity opening into it below, and held in place by six or eight mesenteries radiating from the digestive cavity and dividing the perivisceral space into chambers. The mouth is surrounded with a circle of tentacles, which are hollow, com- municating directly with the perivisceral cham- bers. There is a slightly marked bilateral sym- metry. To the edges of the mesenteries (usually the free ones) are attached the reproductive glands, both male and female, or of one sex alone ; also the « craspeda,» or mesenterial fila- ments, which contain a large number of thread- cells (qv.). The body is either entirely fleshy or secretes a calcareous or horny coral-stock, and when the species is social it is connected by a coenenchyme. In some forms, as sea-pens (q.v.) the entire colony is capable of limited locomotion. There is no well-marked nervous system, but a plexus of fusiform ganglionic cells connected by nerve-fibres in the base of actin- ians. Reproduction takes place by self-division, gemmation, or by eggs, the sexes being separate or united in the same individual ; the young un- dergoing a blastula and gastrula condition, and then becoming fixed. The Actinozoa are divided into two sub-classes, the Zoantharia. and the Alcyonaria (qq.v.). Action. In law, the formal demand of one's right from another person, made and in- sisted in a court of justice which has jurisdiction of the person and the subject-matter of litiga- tion. In a quite common sense, action includes all the formal proceedings in a court of justice attendant upon the demand of a right made by one person, or party, of another in such court, including an adjudication upon the right, and its enforcement or denial by the court. The parties to an action are called plaintiff and defendant, and the former is said to sue or prosecute the latter, hence the word suit instead of action. In some few instances the redress sought by a civil action consists in the recovery of some specific article of property wrongfully and unlawfully taken by the defendant from the plaintiff, but most frequently the object of an action is to obtain compensation in money for an injury complained of, which compensation is technically called damages. The action is said to terminate properly at judgment. Civil actions are those actions which hive for their object the recovery of private rights, or of damages for their infraction. Criminal actions are those actions prosecuted in a court of justice, in the name of the govern- ment, against one or more persons accused of a crime. Transitory actions are those civil actions the cause of which might have arisen in one place or county as well as another. Local actions are those civil actions the cause of which could have arisen in some particular place or county only. Personal actions are those civil actions which are brought for the recovery of personal prop- erty, for the enforcement of some contract, or to recover damages for the commission of an injury to the person or property. Real actions are those brought for the recov- ery of lands, tenements, and hereditaments. Mixed actions are those which partake of the nature of both real and personal actions. In higher theoretical mechanics the word « action » is used to signify the value of a cer- tain integral, whose form may vary according to the character of the problem in hand. In the case of a single particle the action is the space integral of the momentum of the particle, or it is double the time integral of its kinetic energy. In a system of such particles the total action is the sum of the actions of the constituent parti- cles. It is probable that the physical principle corresponding to the mathematical expression called « action » will some day be exhibited to us in a simple form ; but up to the present time no mathematician or physicist has succeed- ed in doing this. The importance of « action » as a mathematical conception may be seen from the following theorem, which has long been known : « If the sum of the potential and kinet- ic energies of a system is the same in all its configurations, then, of all the sets of paths by which the parts of the system can be guided by frictionless constraint to pass from one given configuration to another, that one for which the action is least is the natural one. and requires no restraints The theorem just stated is known as Maupertuis' « principle of least action. » There is also a principle of stationary action, and one of varying action; but it is impossible to eluci- date these without a prohibitive amount of ACTIUM — ACTON mathematics. The last two principles were for- mulated by Sir William Rowan Hamilton. In theoretical mechanics the word « action* is also used to signify a force acting upon a body, as in the expression « action and reaction." See FORCE; Motion. Laws of. In applied mechanics the mechanism by which some operation is effected in a machine is often called the action of the machine; thus we speak of the action of a gun. meaning the mechanism governing the loading and tiring of the gun; or of the action of a piano, meaning the com- bination of keys, hammers, and other parts, by which the player causes the strings of the instru- ment to vibrate. In psychology. See Expression. Actium. ak'shium, Greece, now La Tunta, la poon'ta : a promontory on the W. coast jutting out from the N.W. extremity of Acarnania, on the Ionian Sea at the entrance of the Gulf of Arta (old Anibricia), opposite Prevesa and just N. of Santa Maura (old Lcucadia). Forts Punta and Aktium defend it. It represents one of the greatest of historical landmarks: the naval battle of -' Sept. 31 B.C., between Octavian- us (later the Emperor Augustus) and Antony, which decided the mastership of the then civ- ilized world. For the reasons of the engagement, see Antonius: it was fought by him, not for victory but for escape, which partly explains its half-heartedness and result on his side. Botii armies were drawn up on the shore watching it. After waiting four days for a calm they engaged about noon on the fifth. Antony bad some 500 large ships, Octavianus fewer and lighter ones. Antony on his right was opposed to Agrippa, Octavianus on his to Cselius; Cleopa- tra's to were in the rear. Antony's vessels were huge hulks, too clumsy for manoeuvring; but on the other hand so impenetrable with iron-bolted timbers and brass plates and spikes that Octa- vianus' galleys dared not ram them for fear of shattering themselves, and skirmished rapidly around, hurling missiles and trying to board. It was more like the besieging of forts than a naval battle : one of Antony's tall structures being often surrounded with three or four of its nimble foes pouring darts and fire-balls into it, to which it replied from catapults loaded with heavy missiles. At length Agrippa used his superior numbers to attempt a flanking move- ment; Antony's flag-captain drew his wing away from the centre to prevent it : Cleopatra took alarm, and to make sure of escape her squadron broke through the front rank, throw- ing it into disorder, and sailed away for Egypt. Antony jumped into a small galley and followed her. leaving his command to its fate: even so it fought on till about 4 p.m., when 300 ships had been taken and many burned, and 5,000 men killed; it then yielded. The land army surren- dered a week later. In commemoration of the triumph Octavianus enlarged the temple of Apollo at Actium, dedicated his trophies there, instituted quinquennial games, and built Nicop- olis (« city of victory ») on the site of his army's camp, near the modern Prevesa. (Plutarch's -iSo A.D. The chief critical examina- tions are in German: H. Meyer (ed. Wende, Gottingen 1899); Ewald, "The First Three Evangelists and the Acts of the Apostles' (Got- tingen 1872). Actuality, Law of, in philosophy, the state of being actual; reality. "The actuality of these spiritual qualities is thus imprisoned, though their potentiality be not quite destroyed." — Cheyne. Actuarial Society of America, a scientific organization, established in April 1889, having for its object the promotion of actuarial science bv such methods as may be found desirable. The membership is composed of those con- nected with actuarial pursuits. The enrollment is divided into members and associates. Candi- dates for associate are required to pass such preliminary examination as may be prescribed; a second examination is demanded of candi- dates for member. An annual meeting is held on the first Thursday after 14 May in each year. Other meetings may be called by the council from time to time and by the president at any time on the written request of jo members. The officers of the society are a president, a first and second vice-president, a secretary, and a treas- urer. President and vice-presidents are not eli- gible for the same office for more than two consecutive years. The council is composed of the officers and six other member 5 , two elected to serve for three years, two for two years, and two for one year. The society publishes trans- actions,* containing the proceedings of the meetings, including original papers presented by members or associates, discussions on said papers, and other matter expressly authorized by the council. On 1 June 1903 the total num- ber of members was 123 ; that of associates, 29. Enrollment is not restricted to the United States. Office of the secretary, 32 Nassau Street, New York. Actuary, in ancient Rome, a clerk of public bodies who recorded their acta; also one of the public reporters who prepared the daily news of the city as a written newspaper. (See Acta DlTJRNA.) In modern times, the mathematician of an insurance company, who makes the calcu- lations on which its policy plans and prices are based, and applies the doctrine of probabilities to fire, life, or accident insurance. Although the material on which he works is theoretically fur- nished by the experience of his and other cog- nate companies, and the records of public and private bodies, with the common rules of inter- est, in fact it needs not only great mathematical capacity but great practical sagacity to apply them to actual business ; and no actuary of the highest class is a mere mathematician. In the early days, when experience was still mostly to make, the actuaries were usually the presidents of their companies; in recent times a safe body of experience has accumulated which enables business men to head them, and the actuary's computations and advice relate to slighter varia- tions or special plans. In accident companies the actuary needs to be and usually is a man of large practical acquaintance with different em- ployments, their hazards, the meaning of given employment-names, and those under which the more hazardous employments are disguised as less so: in fire insurance equally he must know the character of different risks. See Insur- ance. Acufia, Manuel, a-koon'ya, man-oo-el', Mexican poet: b. 1S49; committed suicide 1873 from disappointed love, which was the princi- pal theme of his poem-. Acufia de Figueroa, Francisco, a-koon'ya da fe-ga-ro'a, fran-thes'ko, Uruguayan poet: b. Montevideo, 1791 ; d. there, 6 Oct. 1862. His works are a Spanish-American classic from their metrical perfection, though deficient in warmth. The collection 'Poetic Mosaic' comprises every variety of secular and religious poetry, from heroic poems to psalms. Adair', James, American 18th-century In- dian trader and author. He lived 1735-75 among the Indians, mainly the Cherokees and Chickasaws; and in the latter year published a 'History of the Indian Tribes,' especially the southeastern ones, containing an admirable first- hand account of their manners and customs, and a still more valuable though unsatisfactory set of Indian vocabularies. But the chief object of writing the book was to trace the origin of the Indians to the Lost Tribes of Israel ; a curious phantasm (especially as the tribes are known not to have been lost, and the differentiation of stocks must far antedate the Christian era) which has bewitched many enthusiasts since, and was revived and expounded bv Dr. Elias Boudinot in his 'Star of the West' (1816). Adair's views are summarized in H. II. Ban- croft's ' Native Races,' vol. 5, p. 91. ADAIR — ADAM Adair, John, American general and public officer: b. Chester co., S. C, 1759; d. Harris- burg, Ky., 18 May 1840. He served in the Revo- lution : removed to Kentucky 1787; in 1791 was major under St. Clair and Wilkinson in the northwestern Indian expeditions, and was de- feated by the Miami chief « Little Turtle » near Fort St. Clair. He was a member of the consti- tutional convention which made Kentucky a State, 1 June 1792; was State Representative and Speaker, register of the United States Land Office, and 1805-6 United States Senator. He was volunteer aid to Gen. Shelby at the battle of the Thames, 5 Oct. 1813 ; made brigadier- general of State militia Nov. 1814, and as such commanded the State troops at New Or- leans under Jackson, 8 Jan. 1815. He was gov- ernor of Kentucky 1820-4, and L'nited States Representative 1831-3, on the committee on mili- tary affairs. Adair, Robin. See Robin Adair. Adalbert, or Al'debert, a native of France, who preached the gospel in 744 on the banks of the Main. He is remarkable as the first opponent to the introduction of the rites and or- dinances of the Western Church into Germany^ He rejected the culture of the Saints and Con- fession, but distributed his own hair as sacred relics to his followers ; was accursed of heresy by Boniface the apostle of Germany, and condemned by two councils, at Soissons in 744 and at Rome in 745. Finally escaping from prison, he is said to have been murdered by some peasants on the banks of the Fulda. Adalbert, St., of Prague, the apostle of Prussia proper: b. 939; d. 23 April 997. He was the son of a Bohemian nobleman, and his real name was Voitech («host — comfort ») ; was educated in the cathedral of Magdeburg, and appointed the second bishop of Prague in 983. He labored in vain to convert the Bohe- mians from paganism, and to introduce among them the ordinances of the Church of Rome. Discouraged by the fruitlessness of his pious zeal, he left Prague (988) and lived in convents at Montecasino and Rome until the Bohemians in 993 recalled him ; but after two years he again left them, disgusted with their barbarous manners. He returned to Rome, and soon fol- lowed the Emperor Otho III. to Germany; on which journey he baptized, at Gran, St. Stephen, afterward king of Hungary. He proceeded to Gnesen to meet Boleslas, Duke of Poland. Be- ing informed that the Bohemians did not wish to see him again, he resolved to convert the pagans of Prussia, but was murdered by a peasant near what is now Fischhausen. His body was bought by Boleslas for its weight in gold, and became famous for its miraculous power. Its influence was greater than that of the saint himself: the Bohemians, who had re- fused to receive the ordinances of the Church, now suffered them to be introduced into Prague, on the sole condition that these miraculous relics should be transferred to their city. They were rediscovered in a vault in 1880 and deposited in the cathedral. (Life by Heger, Konigsberg 1897 ; Voigt. Berlin 1898.) Adalbert, « The Great," Archbishop of Bremen and Hamburg: b. about 1000: d. 17 March 1072; descendant of a Saxon princely house. He received his office in 1043 from the Vol. 1—6 Emperor Henry III., whose relation, friend, and follower he was. He accompanied Henry to Rome in 1046 and was a distinguished candidate for the papal chair. Pope Leo IX. made him his legate in the north of Europe (1050). He superintended the churches of Denmark, Nor- way, and Sweden, converted the Wends, and as- pired to a great northern patriarchate to vie with the Roman Curia. During the minority of Henry IV. he usurped, in concert with Hanno archbishop of Cologne, the guardianship of the young prince and the administration of the em- pire, and gained an ascendancy over his rival by indulging the passions of his pupil. After Henry had become of age Adalbert exercised the government without control in his name. His pride and arbitrary administration induced the German princes in 1066 to remove him by force from the court; but after a short contest with the Saxon nobles, who laid waste his terri- tory, he recovered his former power in 1069. and held it till his death in Goslar in 1072. His in- justice and tyranny were instrumental in pro- ducing the confusion and calamities in which the reign of Henry IV. was involved. Adalia, Turkey in Asia, a seaport on the S. coast, in the vilayet of Konieh, finely situated on the Gulf of Adalia, from which the houses rise in terraces like an amphitheatre, on a rocky hill and surrounded by fig, orange, and mul- berry gardens. It lies in a fertile but hot and unhealthy locality, producing grain, figs, oranges, wine, etc. It has a small but good port, and carries on a considerable trade; exporting grain, timber, cattle, valonia, etc. It was anciently called Attalia, later Satalia. Pop. about 30,000. 7.000 Greeks. Adam (« one made ») and Eve (« living being, » feminine). As the Old Testament almost invariably uses the article before « adam » («the adam» = «the made one » or « the man"), its use as a personal name is a mere misapprehen- sion, and the implications drawn from it are no part of the text; nor is there any reason to sup- pose it was so intended by the writers who used it, or so understood by the Jews. This, however, is a minor point, as the narratives of the creation and fall, etc., have the same bearing whether the first created beings had names or not : they re- main themselves no less. But those narratives were certainly not understood by their compilers themselves, who merely took them from Baby- lonian sources (see Creation), as implying lit- eral history, — which their discordance should render obvious, — and the difficulties involved in it result from being more Biblical than the Bible, as the Yahvistic portions of the later chapters disregard them, and the Yahvish adds to them at will. The accounts in Genesis are three: (1) The Elohistic (q.v.), in which "male and female » are created at the same time; that is. the whole race, just as the whole animal race is created at a stroke. The inter- pretation as « one couple » is thrown back from the second account. (2) The Yahvistic, in which « the adam » is made from the dust, and « the eve » from the adam ; and which contains the theological part of the story.— the location in the Garden of Eden, the prohibition of God and its disregard, the expulsion, the birth of Cain and Abel, and the first murder. (3) The ge- nealogical list in chapter v., where the race is ADAM — ADAMAWA derived through Seth, and Cain and Abel are unknown; and where the first generations of men are demigods with enormous -pans of life. The last is not only later than the Other two, and corresponding to Greek, Assyrian, etc.. pcdi- grees carrying the race or its first families hack to the gods, hut it is entirely unconnected with the first two. which have a certain relation as efforts of early man to account for the origin and propagation of life on the earth, which every race has undertaken as soon as it attained self- consciousness. The first, however, is that pure and simpie. with no ulterior purpose. The sec- ond is quite other, combining the creation story of a single couple, the progenitors of the human race. — as with the Greek Deucalion and Pyrrha. etc.. — with a deeply moralized account of the origin of moral evil, and the rapine and violence, pain and disease and hardship, which it brought into a world previously free from them. It is this, reflecting the predominant religious tone of the Jewish mind, that has formed the basis first of the Jewish and then of its successor the Christian theology: Adam as the reason for and spring of human sin. This resulted in Paul's conception of two Adams: the fleshly one. whence come sin and death ; and the spiritual one, whence springs salvation. Most of the later Jews regarded the story as an allegory. Philo. the foremost writer of the Alexandrian school, explains Eve as the sensuous part, Adam as the rational part, of human nature. The serpent attacks the sensuous element, which yields to the temptation of plea- sure and next enslaves the reason. Clement and Origen adapted this interpretation somewhat awkwardly to Christian theology. Augustine ex- plained tiie story as history, hut admitted a spiritual meaning superinduced upon the literal; and his explanation was adopted by the re- formers, and indeed generally by the orthodox within the Catholic and the various Protestant Churches alike. More modern critics, loth to abandon it wholly as legend, have sought to separate a kernel of history from the poetical accretions, and attribute the real value of the story not to its form, but to the underlying thoughts. Martensen describes it as a combina- tion of history and sacred symbolism, «a fig- urative presentation of an actual event.» The second narrative may be regarded as embodying the philosophy of the Hebrew mind applied to the everlasting problem of the origin of sin and suffering: a question the solution of which is scarcely nearer us now than it was to the primi- tive Hebrews. Hesiod describes man in his primitive state as free from sickness and evil before Prometheus (q.v.) stole fire from heaven, and Pandora ( who corresponds to Eve) brought miseries to the earth. Prometheus gives man the capability of knowledge; his daring theft is for man the beginning of a fuller and higher life. /Eschylus regards Prometheus as the rep- resentative of humanity led into misery by his self-will until he submits to the higher will of God. This corresponds with the story of Gene- sis, save that in the latter the spiritual features are clearer and more distinct. Adam, Graeme Mercer, Canadian author and editor: b. Scotland iS.tQ. He was trained in Blackwood's publishing house in Edinburgh, and, emigrating, became a publisher in Toronto and New York. He later edited several Cana- dian periodicals, assisted Goldwin Smith on the i Bystander,) and founded with him the < Cana- dian Monthly) (1872). In 1870 he founded the 1 Canadian Educational Monthly.' In i8oX> he e editor of 1 Self-Culture.' He has writ- ten 'An Outline History of Canadian Liter ature ' (1886) ; < The Canadian Northwest > (1895) : and with Ethclwyn W'etherald, the his- torical novel < An Algonquin Maiden > ; etc. Adam, Juliette, ad-an, zhii-le-ct (Mme. Adam, nee Lamber), prolific Parisian journalist and author: b. Verberie, Oise, 4 Oct. 1836. She founded in 1879 the Nouvelle Revue, the organ of the Extreme Republicans, and edited it till her retirement in 1897; and her salon was a noted influence in Paris. Her second husband, Edmond Adam (later life senator, d. 1877), was prefect of police in Paris during the Prussian siege, and her first book was a diary of the siege. She has written largely (often under the pseudo- nyms Juliette Lamber and Comte Paul Vasili) on women's rights and various literary and so- cial subjects; novels assailing Christianity for its crucifixion of natural instincts; 'The Hun- garian Fatherland » (1884), < General Skobeleff> (1886). etc. Adam, Quirin Frangois Lucien, ad-au, ke- rari fran-swa loo-scaii, French philologist: b. Nancy, 1833. His works, largely devoted to the study of primitive or savage tongues, have in- cluded among others American Indian subjects, as 'Sketch of a Comparative Grammar of Cree and Chippcway > (2d ed. 1870 1; 'Studies on Six American Languages 1 (1878): also « Grammar of the Manchouc Language > (1873) ; * Lorraine Patoises > (18.81 I : ' Negro-Aryan and Malay-Aryan Idioms' (1883). Adam, Book of. See Apocrypha. Adamant, a word loosely used to signify a substance of extreme hardness. It is probably derived from the Greek adamas, « unconquer- able." Very possibly the name adamant was at one time applied to a definite substance; but it has been used to signify corundum, various gems, a hard metal (probably steel) that was used in making armor, the lodestone. and various other substances. It is now chiefly used in a poetical or rhetorical sense. Adamantine Spar, a name sometimes applied to corundum (q.v.) on account of its hardness: especially to the dark colored, non- transparent varieties which are used in pulver- ized form for polishing gems. Adaman'toid, a crystalline form belong- ing to the isometric system, and bounded by 48 similar scalene triangles. It has 6 octahedral solid angles, at the extremities of the principal axes : 8 hexahedral solid angles, at the extremi- ties of the trigonal axes ; and 12 tetrahedral solid angles, at the extremities of the digonal axes. Its name is due to the fact that the diamond usually occurs in this crystalline form. (Also, and more commonly, called hexoctahedron.) Adamawa, a'da-ma'wa (formerly Fumbi- na), an internally autonomous sultanate of central Africa, between lat. 6° and n° N., and Ion. 11° and 17 E, : part of the Sokoto empire in northern Nigeria : area some 50,000 sq. m. Much of the surface is mountainous, the mountains rising to about 8,000 ft. The princi- ADAM BEDE — ADAM OF BREMEN pal rivers are the Benue and its tributary the Faro. The eastern part belongs to the German Kamerun ; the western to British North Nigeria. A great part of the country is covered with thick forests, though there are also extensive and splendid pasture lands and cultivated fields. The native inhabitants are industrious and in- telligent, but they have been in a great measure subdued by the Mohammedan Fulahs. who pos- sess innumerable slaves. Slaves and ivory are the chief articles of trade. Pop. conjectured at 3.000.000. Chief towns, Yolo the capital, est. 12.000 to 20.000; Banjo, chief ivory mart; and Nganudere. Adam Bede, the earliest of George Eliot's novels, was published in 1859 as « by the author of (Scenes of Clerical Life. >» A skeleton of the plot gives but a poor impression of the strength and charm of the story. It seems to have been, in the author's mind, a recognition of the heroism of commonplace natures in com- monplace surroundings, of the nobility of noble character wherever found. But Adam Bede, in- telligent, excellent, satisfactory though he is, is subordinated in interest to the figure of Hetty, made tragic through suffering and injustice. Dinah Morris, the woman preacher, is a study from life, serene and lovely. Mr. Irwine is a typical English clergyman of the early 19th century; Bartle Massey, the schoolmaster, is one of those humble folk, full of character, foibles, absurdities, and homely wisdom, whom George Eliot draws with loving touches ; while Mrs. Poyser, with her epigrammatic shrewdness, her untiring energy, her fine pride of respecta- bility, her acerbity of speech, and her charity of heart, belongs to the company of the Immortals. Adam de la Hale, or Halle, ad-ari duh la al, French poet and composer : b. Arras about 1235; d. Naples about 1287' nicknamed the Hunchback of Arras, although he w-as not de- formed. His satirical extravaganza, ( The Play of Adam, or The Play in the Arbor) (1262), constitutes the earliest comedy in the vulgar tongue ; while the pastoral drama. < The Play of Robin and of Marion,* may be looked upon as the earliest specimen of comic opera. Adami, Friedrich, a-da'me, fred'riH, German author: b. Suhl, 18 Oct. 1816; d. Berlin, S Aug. 1893. He wrote stories, plays, etc., a very popular biography of Queen Louise, and «The Book of Emperor William > (1887-90). Ad'ami, John George, English-American pathologist : b. Manchester, Eng., 1862 ; edu- cated at Owens College there and Christ's Col- lege, Cambridge ; studied at Breslau and Paris ; became demonstrator of pathology at Cambridge in 1887; fellow of Jesus College 1891. In 189? he came to Montreal as professor of pathology at McGill University; from 1894 has been head of the pathological department at the Royal \ ic- toria Hospital there ; from 1896 lecturer to the New York Pathological Society. He has pub- lished papers on pathological topics, and articles in Allbutt's < System of Medicine.) Adamine, a mineral better known as adamite. A'damite (named for M. Adam, a French mineralogist), a mineral, isomorphous with olivenite, and occurring in small orthorhombic crystals that are often grouped in fine granular aggregations. It is an arsenate of zinc, having the formula Zn 3 As 3 Os.Zn( OH) : , although cop- per and cobalt may also be present. Its hard- ness is 3.5, and its sp. gr. 4.35. Its color is variable. It occurs at Cap Garonne, near Hyeres, France; and also at Laurium, Greece, and in cer!ain parts of Chile. Adamites. (1) A Christian sect said to have existed in the 2d century : so called because both men and women appeared naked ir theii assemblies, either to imitate Adam in the stale of innocence or to prove the control which they possessed over their passions. The tradition is probably baseless, originating in a name of deri- sion given to the Carpocratians. (See Gnos- tics.) (2) Also called Picards, from the founder of their sect, Picard (nerhaps also Beg- hards). He called himself Adam the Son of God, and advocated community of women. They appeared about the year 1421 on an island in the River Lusinicz, where Zisca surprised them, but was not able to destroy the whole sect. In the following year they were widely spread over Bohemia and Moravia, and especially hated by the Hussites (whom they resembled in hatred toward the hierarchy) because they rejected transubstantiation, the priesthood, and the Sup- per. They subsequently formed one sect with the remaining Taborites. who have accordingly been confounded with them. In 1849 a similar sect sprang up in Austria. Ad'amnan, St. (dim. of Adam), an Irish ecclesiastic and author : b. in Donegal, c. 625 ; d. 703 or 704. He was descended from a cousin of St. Columba and from powerful Irish chief- tains. Entering the monastery of Iona, he be- came abbot in 697 ; but was involved in quarrels with his monks over Easter and the tonsure (en- forcing the orthodox Roman view against the Irish Church view), which hastened his death. He wrote a most valuable life of St. Columba (q.v.), the founder of Iona, full of historical information about the early Irish- Scotcli Church (best edition Reeves', 1857; English translation in the (Historians of Scotland,') 1874, reissued Oxford 1895) \ and a hearsay but valuable report of matters in Palestine in his time, the first we have of that land in the early Middle Ages. Adam of Bremen, celebrated German his- torian: b. probably in Meissen, Saxony: d. 12 October of an unknown year, probably 1076. He lived at Magdeburg, removed to Bremen in 1067, was made canon of its cathedral and next year principal of the cathedral school. His fame rests on his ■( History of the Church of Ham- burg) (1072-6), an inestimable mediaeval classic, for which he gathered material far and wide ; making a special trip to Denmark to interview King Svend Estridson, whose communications he gives. As an appendix to his last book he gives an account of the Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian possessions, containing a passage of ihe first interest to Americans, as verifying the Saga stories of Vinland: « He [Svend] told of still another island found by many in that [At- lantic] ocean. It is called Wineland, because grapes grow there spontaneously. ... I have learned through definite information from Danes that unsown crops also grow there in abun- dance.)) ADAM OF ST. VICTOR — ADAMS Adam of St. Victor, famous medieval hymnologist: d. in Paris c. 1192; nothing is known of him save liis great hymns, the most numerous of any mediaeval writer, and among the foremost in rank. A few have heen finely translated by J. M. Neale; a complete (so far as known) edition was published in London, 3 vols. 1881. Adam Family, British architects, a cele- brated 18th-century family consisting of William and his four sons. William. Robert, James, and John: of whom Robert ranks first and James next. The father was born in Fifeshire, Scot- land, and his work was done in his native coun- try: the town hall at Dundee, the library and university at Glasgow, and many other public and private buildings there and in Edinburgh, etc. Robert was born iii Edinburgh, studied in Italy, and examined the noble remains of Dal- matia before settling in London: his work on Diocletian's palace at SpalatO was a valuable ad- vertisement to Ins talents and taste, and all the brothers increased their repute by publishing engravings of their plans. Under Robert's di- rection they constructed a great number of build- ings in London, — the Adclphi Terrace and the streets around commemorates them specifically. He also did much to remodel the appearance of the city. Robert also built Lansdowne House. Kedleston Hall near Derby, and Regis- ter House near Edinburgh. A special feature of the brothers' work was their careful atten- tion to harmonious interior arrangement and decoration. Adam's Apple, in botany, (1) the name given by Gerard and other old authors to the plantain tree (Musa paradisiaca), from the no- tion that its fruit was that sinfully eaten by- Adam in Eden. (2) The name given, for the same reason, to a species of Citrus. In anatomy, a protuberance on the fore part of the throat, "due to the thyroid cartilages. The name is supposed to have arisen from the ab- surd popular notion that a portion of the for- bidden fruit, assumed to have been an apple, stuck in Adam's throat when he attempted to swallow it. Adam's Bridge, or Ra-ma's Bridge, a chain of shoals across the Gulf of Manaar, between Hindustan and the island of Ceylon, in the Ramaana fabled to have been constructed by monkeys. Adam's Peak, one of the highest moun- tains in the island of Ceylon, about 45 m. E. of Colombo. It is of a conical shape, 7,420 ft. high, and can be seen in clear weather from sea 150 m. away. From its solitary position and immense height above the surrounding coun- try the peak forms a striking and awe-inspiring object and has been for centuries venerated by the inhabitants. On the top. under a sort of open pagoda, is the sacred footmark, a natural hollow in the rock, artificially enlarged, and bearing a rude resemblance to a human foot. Mohammedan tradition makes this the scene of Adam's penitence after his expulsion from Para- dise; he stood 1,000 years on one foot weeping for his sin, hence the mark. To the Buddhists, the impression is the Sri-pada, or sacred foot- mark, left by Buddha on his departure from Ceylon; and the Hindus recognize Buddha as an avatar of Vishnu or Siva. Devotees of all creeds here meet and present their offerings (consisting chiefly of rhododendron flowers) to the sacred footprint, finishing their devotions by a draught from the sacred well, The ascent of the mountain is very steep, and toward the sum- mit is assisted by steps cut and iron chains riveted in the rock, the last 40 feet being accom- plished by an iron ladder. The top is an area of 64 feet by 45. Adams, Abigail Smith, wife of President John Adams: b. Weymouth, Mass., 23 Nov. 1744: d. 28 Oct. 1818. Sin- was daughter of a Weymouth clergyman, who opposed the match and took for a text « My daughter is grievously tormented with a devil. » Though lacking strength and regular school education, she became a self-made force of high order in public affairs and one of the best of early Amer- ican writers : her letters to her husband, col- lected and published, are not only of great his- torical and social value, but full of delightful genial humor and acute comment and judg- ment. Her husband's position kept them apart for years; but she joined him in France in 17S4. went with him to his life of torment in London, and lived in Washington 1789-1801; thence till death at Braintree, now Quincy. Adams, Alvin, founder of Adams Express Co.: b. Andover. \'t.. 16 June 1804; d. 2 Sept. 1877. On 4 May 1840 he started an express business between Boston and New York which developed into the great company above named, formed in 1854 by the consolidation of several ri- val firms, — including Harnden's, the initiator of the express business, — with Mr. Adams as pres- ident. In 1850 he helped to organize the pioneer express service through the California mining camps, which on the consolidation above he sold out. In the Civil War the Adams Express Co. was of immense help to the government; in 1870 it extended its business to the far West. Adams, Brooks, American social writer, son of Charles Francis : b. Quincy, Mass., 2 June 1848; was graduated at Harvard in 1870; and practised law till 1871. Besides magazine papers he has written < The Gold Standard,* < The Emancipation of Massachusetts,) a bitter assault on the Puritan theocracy (1887). < The Law of Civilization and Decay,> and (1900) < America's Economic Supremacy.' Adams, Charles Baker, American natural- ist : b. Dorchester, Mass., 1814 ; d. 1853. He was graduated at Amherst ; assisted in the geological survey of New York, 1836; held scientific chairs in Amherst (1836-8), Middlebury College, Vt. (1838-47), and Amherst again (1847-53) ; State geologist of Vermont 1845-7. He wrote a geolo- gical text-book. Adams, Charles Follen, American dialect poet: b. Dorchester, Mass., 21 April 1842; Union soldier; began writing broken German poems in 1872; author of 1 Leedle Yawcob Strauss, and Other Poems) (1878); (Dialect Ballads' (1887), etc. Adams, Charles Francis, American states- man, son of President John Quincy : b. in Bos- ton, 18 Aug. 1807; d. there 21 Nov. 1886. At the age of two he was taken by his father to St. Pe- tersburg; in 1815 went with his mother thence to Paris; the same year his father was made minis- ter to England, and he was placed in an English ADAMS boarding-school. In 1817 both returned to America ; he was placed in the Boston Latin School, and in 1825 graduated at Harvard. His father had just been inaugurated President, and he spent two years in Washington ; then returned to Boston, studied law with Daniel Webster, and was called to the bar in 1828, but never prac- tised — engaging in literature and political writ- ing in magazines and pamphlets, and editing John and Abigail Adams' letters (1840-?.). He was Representative in the legislature 1841-4, State Senator 1844-6, as a Whig; heading the « Conscience Whig » wing, he edited the Boston Whig, 1846-8, was chairman of the Free-Soil Convention at Buffalo in 1848, and was nom- inated for Vice-President on the ticket with Martin Van Buren. In 1850-6 he edited John Adams' < Works > in 10 volumes. He joined the Republican party on its organization in 1855, and in 1858 was sent to Congress, and re-elected in i860. In 1861 Lincoln sent him to England as minister, as his father and grandfather had been before him. But even their problems were trivial beside his, when the very existence of the Union perhaps depended on how far the English upper classes could drag the government in evasion of international obligations and covert help to the South. The seizure of Mason and Slidell on the Trent nearly precipitated war ; the fitting out of cruisers to destroy United States commerce was put a stop to only after the escape of the Alabama (q.v. ) in the face of Mr. Adams' representations, and his declaration to Earl Russell, then foreign secretary, that per- mitting the Laird rams also to leave Birkenhead was « war.» Napoleon III.'s persistent efforts to seduce the English government into a joint intervention in favor of the Confederacy had to be checkmated ; and the rancorous hostility of one section and the coldness of the remainder of the best society made it a lonely and trying place, which for seven years he filled with a dig- nified resolution of immeasurable importance to his country. Returning to America in 1868, he was elected president of Harvard the next year, but declined : for several years, however, he was president of its board of overseers. In 1871 he was the United States representative on the board of arbitrators at Geneva to settle the Ala- bama Claims (q.v.) ; in 1872 he nearly obtained the nomination as Democratic-Independent can- didate for the presidency, which Horace Greeley secured. In 1874-7 he edited the < Memoirs of John Quincy Adams > in 12 volumes. Adams, Charles Francis (2d), American publicist, son of above : b. in Boston, 27 May 1835. He was graduated at Harvard in 1856, and served as a cavalry officer through the Civil War, rising from first lieutenant to colonel, and being brevetted brigadier-general at its close. Shortly becoming noted for ability in discussion of economic, political, and social questions, he was appointed railroad com- missioner of Massachusetts in 1869; wrote 'Chapters of Erie > (1871) in collaboration with his brother Henry, a series of papers on railroad accidents and on < The State and the Railroads i (1875-6) for the (Atlantic Month- ly,> < Railroads, the Origin and Problems » (1878), < Notes on Railway Accidents > (1870). etc. ; and 1884-90 was president of the Union Pacific Railroad Company. In 1892 he published < Three Episodes of Massachusetts History,' on the settlement of Boston Bay, the Antino- mian controversy, and early town and church government, and in 1893 < Massachusetts : Its Historians and Its History.) In 1895 he was chosen president of the Massachusetts Historical Society, and in 1901 president of the American Historical Association. He has also written lives of R ''chard Henry Dana (1891) and of his father (1900, Am. Statesmen Series), < Lee at Appomattox,' etc. (1902), and much miscel- laneous work. As chairman of the State Park Commission, 1893-5, he contributed materially toward planning out and establishing the great Metropolitan Park System of Massachusetts. Adams, Charles Kendall, American histo- rian and educator : b. Derby. Vt., 24 Jan. 1835 '• d. 26 July 1902. He removed to Iowa in 1855 ; graduated at the University of Michigan in 1861 ; became assistant professor there 1863-7, and pro- fessor of history 1867-85. He studied abroad 1867-8 ; in 1869-70 introduced the German sem- inary method into the United States by establish- ing the Historical Seminary in the University of Michigan; and was made dean of its School of Political Science when established. In 1885 he succeeded Andrew D. White as president of Cornell ; resigned 1892. and till 1902 was presi- dent of the L'niversity of Wisconsin. He was chief editor of < Johnson's Universal Cyclopae- dia,) 1892-5. His most valued work is a < Man- ual of Historical Literature' (1882); he wrote also < Democracy and Monarchy in France) (1872); 'Christopher Columbus) (1892); com- piled (British Orations) (1884); and wrote much magazine and review matter. Adams, Charles R., American tenor: b. Charlestown, Mass., 1848; d. 1900. He studied in Vienna, sang three years at the Royal Opera in Berlin, and nine in the Imperial Opera at Vienna. He was highly reputed as an inter- preter of Wagnerian parts. In 1879 he settled in Boston, where he taught with great approval. Adams, Edwin, American actor: b. 1834 in Massachusetts ; d. in Australia, 1877. He first appeared as Stephen in < The Hunchback > at the Boston National Theatre, 29 Aug. 1853 : played Hamlet at Wallack's (N. Y.) in i860; starred in other cities, and returned to New York in 1866 as Robert Landry in < The Dead Heart ' ; was one of Booth's company when he opened his the- atre 3 Feb. 1867, and played Mercutio and Iago, but won most fame as Enoch Arden. Adams, Frank Dawson, geologist: b. Mon- treal, Can., 17 Sept. 1859; graduated at McGill University in 1878 ; took advanced courses at Sheffield Scientific School (Yale), and at Heidel- berg, applying himself particularly to lithology and physical geology; in 1888 became lecturer on geology at McGill. and in 1803 succeeded Sir William Dawson as Logan professor of geology there. Adams, George Burton, American histo- rical writer: b. Vt. 1851. He is a professor of historv at Yale; author of C Civilization Dur- ing the Middle Ages) (1883), and < The Growth of the French Nation.) Adams, Hannah, American literary pio- neer: b. Medfield. Ma«„ 175;: d. 1? Nov. 1832. Her principal works were an < Autobiogra- phy > ; < History of New England) (i~99) ; ADAMS 'History of the Jews > (1812) ; besides several writings un religious topics. She lived in : iir. Mass Adams, Henry, American historian, son of Charles Francis: b. Boston, 16 Feb. 1858. He was private secretary to his father during the latter's English ministry, and assistant professor of history at Harvard 1870-7, being reputed one of the most stimulating and original instructors as well as brilliant expositors in the country. With several pupils he published in 1876 < Essays on Anglo-Saxon Law, 1 of which he wrote on • Anglo-Saxon Courts of Law.) In 1871 he collaborated with his brother Charles Francis in < Chapters of Erie.' He edited the < North Amer- ican Review.' 1875-6. In 18711 he published Al- bert Gallatin's writings (3 vols.) : in 1882 a life of John Randolph (American Statesmen Series). But his life-work, and with one exception the foremost historical work of America in matter and style, is his < History of the United States from 1801 to 1817 ' — that is, the presidencies of Jef- ferson and Madison (9 vols. 1889-91): in mo- tive a defense of his grandfather John Quincy Adams for deserting the Federalist party; in essence, a history of the causes and conduct of the War of 1812. For this he took up his resi- dence in Washington and spent years ransack- ing its archives. He also lived for long periods abroad, examining various European records, and trained himself thoroughly in military and naval science and construction, besides studying historical and economic problems. Adams, Henry Carter, economist: b. Da- venport, Iowa, 31 Dec. 1852. He was graduated at Iowa College ; afterward took a post-graduate course at Johns Hopkins, of which he became fellow and lecturer. Later a lecturer at Cornell. he is now professor of political economy and finance in the University of Michigan. He was statistician to the Interstate Commerce Commission, and had charge of the transporta- tion department in the census of 1000. He has published works on public debts (1887). on tax- ation, political economy, industrial subjects, etc. Adams, Herbert Baxter, historical student and educator : b. Shutesbury, Mass., 16 April 1850; d. 190T. He was graduated at Amherst in 1872; took Ph.D. at Heidelberg; and on the opening of Johns Hopkins in 1876 was made fellow in history. 1878 associate in history, 1883 associate professor in history, and in 1891, full professor. In 1901 he resigned on account of ill health, and died shortly after. In 1884 he was a leader in organizing the American Historical Association, and was secretary till 1000, then becoming first vice-president. He edited the (Johns Hopkins Studies in History and Politi- cal Science > from the start, also the < Contribu- tions to American Educational History' pub- lished by the United States Bureau of Educa- tion. Ilis chief publication is 'The Life and Writings pf Jarcd Sparks > (2 vols. 1803). Among his historical monographs are ' The Col- lege of William and Mary.' (Thomas Jefferson and the University of Virginia. 1 < The Germanic Origin of New England Towns.) and < Mary- land's Influence in Founding a National Com- monwealth. 1 But his best work was not in writing history, but in training others to write it, and he was a powerful influence in creating the new school of historical research. Adams, Isaac, inventor of the « Adams press" familiar to printers: b. in Rochester, N. 11. 1803; d. 19 July 1883. He was a cotton- mill hand, then cabinet-maker, then machinist. His press — its essence consisting in the raising of the bed against a stationary platen instead of bringing the platen down on the bed — was patented in 1828, and much improved in 1834. He was a member of the Massachusetts Senate in 1840. Adams, John, 2d President of the United States: b. Brauuree. Mass.. of a line of farmers, 19 Oct. 1735; d. July 4 182O. the year after his son was inaugurated President. Graduated at Harvard, he taught school, and read theology for a Church career: but seeing Ins unfitness for it studied law and began practice in 1758, soon becoming a leader at the bar and in public life. In 17(14 he married his famous wife. All through the germinal years of the Revolution he was one of the foremost patriots, steadily op- posing any abandonment or compromise of es- sential rights; and in 1 7(»( » published essays in the Boston Gazette, reprinted in London 1768, entitled < \ Dissertation on Canon and Feudal Law,' really on colonial rights. In 1765 also he was counsel for Boston, with Otis and Grid- ley, to support the town's memorial against the Stamp Act. In 1766 he was a selectman, or in other words one of the three official ruicrs of the head of the New England colonics. In 1768 the royal government offered him the post of advocate-general in the Court of Admiralty, — in fact a lucrative bribe to desert the opposition; but lie refused it. Vet in 1770, as a matter of high professional duty, he took his future in his hands to become counsel (successfully) for the British soldiers on trial for the « Boston Mas- sacre." Though there was a present uproar of abuse. Mr. Adams was shortly after elected Representative to the General Court by more than three to one. In March 1774 he was con- templating writing the 'History of the Contest between Britain and America.' June 17 he pre- sided over the meeting at Faneuil Hall to con- sider the Boston Port Bill, and at the same hour was elected delegate to the first Congress at Philadelphia (1 September), by the Provincial Assembly held in defiance of the government. Returning home, he was made a member of the Provincial Congress, already organizing resist- ance to England. Just after Lexington he again journeyed to Philadelphia to the Congress of May 1775; where he did on his own motion, to the disgust of his associates and the reluctance even of the Southerners, one of the most im- portant and decisive acts of the Revolution, — induced Congress to adopt the forces already gathered in New England as a national army and put George Washington at its head, thereby engaging the Southern colonies irrevocably in the war and securing the one man who could make it a success. In 1776 he was a chief agent in carrying the Declaration of Independence. He remained in Congress till November 1777, serv- ing on the Committee on Foreign Relations and as chairman of the Board of War and Ordnance, very useful and laborious, but making one dread- ful mistake: he was largely responsible for the policy of ignoring the just-rights and decent dig- nity of the military commanders, which lost the country some of its best officers and led ultimate- • JOHN ADAMS, SECOND PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES. ADAMS ly to Arnold's treason. His reasons, exactly contrary to his wont, were sound abstract logic, but thorough practical nonsense. In December I/"" he was appointed commis- sioner to France to succeed Silas Deane. Dr. Franklin and Arthur Lee were there before him; r.nd though he reformed a very bad state of af- fairs, he thought it absurd to keep three envoys at one court and induced Congress to abolish his office, returning in 1779. Chosen a delegate to the Massachusetts Constitutional Convention, he was called away from it to be sent again to France. There he remained as Franklin's colleague, de- testing and distrusting him and the foreign min- ister Vergennes, embroiling himself with both, and earning a cordial return of his warmest dis- like from both, till July 1780. He then went to Holland as volunteer minister, and in 1782 was formally recognized as from an independent na- tion. Meantime Vergennes intrigued energeti- cally to have him recalled, and did succeed in tying his hands so that but for his contumacious stubbornness half the advantages of independ- ence would have been lost, as Vergennes was employed to gain points for France and not for the United States. In the final negotiations for peace he persisted (against his instructions) in making the New England fisheries an ultimatum, and saved them. The wretched state of Ameri- can affairs under the Confederation made it im- possible to do his country any good abroad, and the vindictive feeling of the English made his life a purgatory, so that he was glad to come home in 178S. In the first Presidential election of that year, he was elected Vice-President on the ticket with Washington ; and began a feud with Alexander Hamilton, the mighty leader of the Federalist party and chief organizer of our governmental machine, which ended in the overthrow of that party years before its time, and had momentous personal and literary results as well. As official head of the party he thought himself entitled to its real leadership as well; Hamilton would not and indeed could not surrender his position, for the lesser men looked to him for counsel and policy, and the rivalry never ended till Hamilton's death. In 1796 he was elected President against Jefferson, and his term is rec- ognized as one of the ablest and most useful of our administrations ; but its personal memoirs are most painful and scandalous. The members of the Cabinet — nearly all Hamiltonians — laid official secrets before Hamilton and took advice from him to thwart the President. They dis- liked Mr. Adams' overbearing ways and ob- trusive vanity, — for modesty or a low sense of personal dignity were no parts of his char- acter, — considered his policy destructive to the party and injurious to the country, and felt that loyalty to them involved and justified a dis- loyalty to him. Finally his best act brought on an explosion. The French Directory had pro- voked a war with this country, which the Ham- iltonian section of the Federalist leaders and much of the rank and file hailed with delight, thinking it a service to the world to cripple France as then ruled ; but when it showed signs of a better spirit, Mr. Adams, without cpnsulting his Cabinet (who he knew would oppose it nearly or quite unanimously), nominated a com- mission to frame a treaty with France. He had the constitutional right to do so; but the storm of fury that broke on him from the party has rarely been surpassed in the case of traitors out- right, and he was charged with being little bet- ter. He was renominated for President in 1800, but beaten by Jefferson, owing to the defections in his own party, largely of Hamilton's pro- ducing. The Federalist party never won an- other election ; the Hamiltonians laid its death to Mr. Adams, and American history is hot with the fires of this battle even yet. His later years were spent at home, where he was always interested in public affairs and some- times much too free in his comments on them ; where he read immensely and wrote somewhat. He heartily approved his son's break with the Federalists (see Adams, John Quincy) on the Embargo (q.v.). He died on the same day as Jefferson, both on the 50th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence. Mr. Adams' greatest usefulness and popularity sprang from the same cause that produced some of his worst blunders and misfortunes: a gener- ous impulsiveness which which made it impos- sible for him to hold his tongue at the wrong time and place for talking, his vehemence, self- confidence, and impatience of obstruction. He was fervid, combative, opinionated, and master- ful, and naturally won more hate than love ; but he had trust, admiration, and respect from the majority of his party at the worst of times, and history justifies it. ( ( Works,' by his grandson Charles Francis Adams.) Adams, John, American educator: b. Con- necticut, 1772; d. 1S63. Graduated at Yale in 1795. he was a school-teacher till 1810, and thence till 1833 principal of Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass., which he developed into repute throughout the country. He was teacher of Oliver Wendell Holmes, who, in the lines be- ginning « Grave is the Master's look,» commem- orates him in his poem < The School-Boy,) read at the Phillips Academy centennial in 1878. Adams, John, Confederate soldier: b. Ten- nessee, 1825; d. 30 Nov. 1864. He was gradu- ated at West Point in 1846 ; was brevetted first lieutenant for bravery at Santa Cruz de Ros- ales, 1848; promoted captain of dragoons, 1856; and resigned 1861 to join the Confederate army, in which he rose to the rank of brigadier- general. He was killed at the battle of Frank- lin, Tenn. Adams, John, the name assumed by Alex- ander Smith, one of the mutineers of the Bounty. After intoxication and massacre had killed off all the mutineers but himself, he was shocked into a complete change of heart, and be- came sincerely pious and of upright life; he was the patriarch of the little native and half-caste group on Pitcairn's Island, taught a school and held worship there. It was nearly twenty years after the mutiny before his existence was known; and though technically liable to execution for the mutiny the English officials felt that his hard- ships, exile, and repentance had atoned for the crime, and that it would be wrong to remove the head from the little settlement. He was left un- molested and died in 1829. See Bligh. William; Pitcairn's Island. Adams, John Couch, English astronomer: b. in Cornwall, 5 June 1819; d. 21 Jan. 1892. A precocious mathematician, he became senior wrangler at St. John's College, Cambridge, and ADAMS mathematical tutor there. lie discovered in 1845, by calculation of the perturbations of Ura- 111: , thai another planet must exist beyond it, and fixed its position within two degrees; but search for it not being made, Leverrier of Paris independently made the same discovery next year, and Galle of Berlin at once found the planet (see Neptune). In 1851 he became president of the Royal Astronomical Society; 1858-9 professor of mathematics at Aberdeen University; [859-92 Lowndean professor of as- tronomy and geometry at Camridge, and in 1861 director of Cambridge Observatory. He was a delegate to tin- International Prime Meridian Conference at Washington 1884. Adams, John Quincy, 6th President of the United States, >,„, ,,f John Adams: !>. in Brain- tree, Mass., 11 July ir<>7; (I. Washington, D. C, 2.! Feb. 1848. At 10 he accompa- nied his father on his first embassyto France, and was placed at school near Paris. He re- turned with his father in about 18 months; but soon went back with him to Europe, and at- tended school in Holland and at the University of Leyden. At 15 Francis Dana, his father's secretary of legation, who had been appointed minister to Ku ia, took him with him as his pri- vate secretary. After 14 months' stay in Russia, where Catherine refused to recognize Mr. Dana, lie traveled back alone through Sweden and Denmark to The Hague. Soon after his father's appointment as ambassador a! London in 1785, he returned home to complete his studies, as he believed "an American education to bethe best for an American career," a coolly judi* choice for a lad of 18. He graduated at Har- vard in 1788, entered the office of Theophilus Parsons (q.v.), and in 1791 was admitted to the bar. He now began to take an active interest in politics. He wrote a series of letters to the Boston Sentinel under the signature of «Pub- |icola,» in reply to Paine's "Rights of Man,» and in 1793 defended Washington's policy of neutrality under the signature of « Marcellus.» These letters attracted attention, and in 1794 Washington appointed him minister to The Hague. In 1708 he received a commission to negotiate a treaty of commerce with Sweden ; and traveling through Silesia w-rote an ac- count of it which was published in London, and later translated into German and French. On Jefferson's accession to the presidency he was recalled and resumed law practice. In 1802 he was sent to the State Senate; the next year to the United States Senate in place of Timothy Pickering, leading Hamiltonian. But the Hamilton-Adams feud (see Adams, John) had split the party into rancorously hos- tile halves, and Mr. Adams was practically « boycotted » by the dominant section of his own party, as being an Adams, with an in- genuity of indecent insult curious to read of; -nil worse was it when Pickering was made his colleague by the other faction at the next vacancy. It was good training for the great career of his later life; be was not the man to conciliate his foes, and soon made the breach irreparable by breaking away from the party policy. Through life any action which strength- ened the United States, or increased its dig- nity in the eyes of the world, or simply " showed fight » for any purpose, met with his heartiest approval and warmest support, even though' fa- thered by his worst enemies; and he first sup- ported "(with some reservations) Jefferson's Louisiana purchase, — precisely in the line of the former Federalist policy and the nature of the party, but now fought by them as Jefferson's, — and in 1807 took a far more radical step. The action of France and Great Britain in plunder- ing American commerce for evading their mu- tual blockade laws, and of the latter for im- pri ling American citizens under pretense of their being English runaways, bad enraged the country, but it was helpless against both and felt not strong enough at the time to fight cither ; finally the outrage of the Leopard on the Chesapeake (see the latter name) roused the Republicans to fury, and even many of the Fed- eralists. But the leaders of the latter sym- pathized with England's difficulties in the war with Napoleon, would do nothing to embarrass her, and even defended the Leopard's action. Mr. Adams was as hot as any Republican; he tried to have the Boston Federalists hold a meeting and pledge the government their support in any measures to curb British insolence, and on their n Eusal attended a Republican meeting and was put on a committee to draft such resolutions. The Federalists were soon compelled by popular feeling to do likewise, and Mr. Adams also drafted resolutions there. At the extra session of Congress in October the Embargo on all American shipping was passed, to see if Eng- land could not be starved into better behavior; half ruining New England, most of whose capi- tal was invested in commerce, and injuring Americans much more than the enemy. Mi. Adams was a member of the committee which reported the bill, and earnestly advocated it, — not because it went as far as he liked, but as preferable to showing no resentment whatever, and all the Federalists would permit. The exe- crations leveled at his father for the French mission, and the charges of sectional and party treachery, were repeated on the son; political literature for half a century was glowing with the acrid polemics on the subject, and the prime object of his grandson 1 letiry Adams's is to exculpate him. I lis term in the Senate was to expire 3 March 1809; in the preceding June the Massachusetts legislature elected James Lloyd to succeed him, as an in- sult, which he accepted and at once resigned. Meantime lie had been made professor of rhet- oric at Harvard and delivered lectures there. The next month he declined a Republican nom- ination to the House. On Madison's accession in 1809 he at once appointed Mr. Adams minister to Russia; the Senate for some months refused to confirm the nomination, but at length yielded, and he pass 4'/2 years there. In the peace negotiations with England over the War of 1812. he was a commissioner with Gallatin and Bayard, and again defeated assaults on the American fishing rights like his father. The treaty is usually considered a humiliating fiasco for America; but it is significant that the British press consid- ered it a surrender on their side, and especially reviled Mr. Adams for his share in it. Visit- ing Paris, he was made commissioner to nego- tiate the American-English commercial treaty signed 13 July 1815. Meantime he had arrived in England, 26 May, and received the news of JOHN QUINCY ADAMS, SIXTH PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES. ADAMS Tlis appointment as minister to that country. The synchronisms of wars, treaties, and minis- terships between father and son is so curious that in ancient history it would be treated as indubitable confusion of persons. Eight years later, after leaving America, Mr. Adams was recalled to it as Secretary of State under Monroe, inaugurated March 1817. His greatest achievement was the treaty with Spain ceding Florida to the United States for $5,000,- 000, to be used in paying American claims against Spain; and rectifying the boundaries of Louisiana and Mexico. His utter independence of personal against national considerations is singu- larly shown in his support of Jackson for invad- ing Spanish Florida and hanging Arbuthnot and Ambrister; he hated and despised Jack- son, and the latter had violated all international law ; but he had roughly vindicated United Slates rights and put down dangerous intrigues with savages, and Mr. Adams vigorously de- fended him. He was the author of the « Mon- roe Doctrine,» and though he never dreamed of its later interpretations would not improbably have sympathized with them. He also drew up a report on weights and measures which is still a classic, and shows an almost incredible amount of investigation. An ultimately far more impor- tant question came up over the admission of Missouri as a slave State. The Missouri Com- promise (q.v.) had been passed and put before Monroe for signature, but he submitted to his Cabinet the questions whether Congress had a constitutional right to prohibit slavery in a Ter- ritory, and whether the prohibition of slavery « forever » in the territory north of Mason and Dixon's Line meant while it remained a Terri- tory or thereafter. The Cabinet was unani- mous in the affirmative on the first question ; Mr. Adams was alone in declaring that « forever » included statehood also. In the presidential election of 1824 there was no electoral majority: Andrew Jackson had 99, Mr. Adams 84 (a remarkable vote considering his ungracious manner, gift for making enemies, and refusal to do anything to promote his elec- tion), William H. Crawford 41, and Henry Clay 34. Crawford was put out of the field by a paralytic stroke. As Clay could not be elected, his supporters cast their votes for Adams as preferable to Jackson : the former represented the same public policy as theirs, he was the ablest public official in the country and not per- sonally hostile to Clay, while Jackson was re- garded as an ignorant and violent demagogue. Mr. Adams was elected, and made Clay secre- tary of state, a place to which Clay's talents and position gave him almost a prescriptive claim. The Jacksonians denounced this as a corrupt bargain to defeat the people's will, and absurdly gave it the name of the unsavory Eng- lish _ "Coalition, a catchword which was an efficient party weapon for many years. Mr. Adams' administration had no dramatic events. Its policy was based on a new division of par- ties. The Federalists were dead, consequently cheir opponents were dead also, and the new di- vision was into National Republicans, afterward Whigs, and Democratic-Republicans, or Demo- crats : the former favoring internal improve- ments, a national bank, and high tariffs, the lat- ter opposing them. In reality, the division was between the preferences of the capitalist class and the masses. The Adams administration was Whig, and had the hostility of the Northern commercial classes whose trade the tariff was intended to cut down, and of the Southern planters who would lose as consumers while having nothing to protect as producers. Still more effectively the Jacksonian party, steadily and rapidly growing, used the promise of « spods » to gain support ; and in 1828 Mr. Adams was defeated for re-election by 178 to 83. Mr. Adams retired, as he supposed, from pub- lic life. But in 1831 the constituency of his dis- trict around Braintree elected him a member of Congress on the Anti-Masonic ticket (see Anti- Masonry; Morgan, William); and though that party soon died, his immense ability and unique power in Congress kept him there till his death. By a singular fortune, he owes by far his greatest fame to this relatively small po- sition after his crowning office was laid down. Belonging to no party, a political Ishmaelite, of the loftiest patriotism and the highest integrity, but scornful of nature and irritable in temper, rousing every demon of hatred in his fellow- members, in constant and envenomed battle with them and more than a match for them all, the « old man eloquent » was for many years a storm centre of wonderful picturesqueness. But his repute is not a mere political curio: he had the fortune to take his place at the very outset of the struggle of the slave oligarchy to suppress free speech and writing on the slavery question, and crush political liberty to uphold slavery. He fought the attempt unflinchingly year after year by purely legal methods, up- holding the right of petition as indefeasible un- der any government or for any purpose. — he did not hesitate to submit a petition from Virgin- ians praying for his own expulsion as a nuisance. — and consequently a right of slaves or of others in their interest: and with little sympathy for the anti-slavery cause as such, became by force of circumstances its mightiest champion. He died of a stroke of apoplexy on the floor of the House. Adams, John Quincy (2d), American poli- tician, son of Charles Francis ; b. in Boston. 22 Sept. 1833; d. 14 Aug. 1894. He was graduated at Harvard in 1853, and became a lawyer. A Democrat after the war, he took hopeless can- didacies for the governorship to keep the organ- ization together, in 1867 and 1871, and for the vice-presidency in 1872. He also served in the legislature in 1866, 1869, and 1870. In 1877 he was made a member of the corporation of Har- vard. Adams, Julius Walker, American civil en- gineer: b. in Boston, Mass.. 18 Oct. 1812: d. 13 Die. 1899. Took part of the course at the United States Military Academy; was engaged for many years on railroad and waterworks con- struction, and planned the sewerage system of Brooklyn, N. Y. ; was colonel of the 67th X. Y. Vols, in the Civil War; and was the pioneer engineer of the East River bridge. Adams, Maude Kiskadden, American ac- tress : b. in Salt Lake City. 1 1 Nov. 1S72 ; daughter of an actress who was leading woman of a stock company in that city, under the st name of Adams. At 16 Miss Adams joined ADAMS E. H. Sothern's company in the < Midnight Bell' ; afterward she was m Charles Frohman's stock company, and later supported John Drew. She made a great success in J. M. Barrie's (Little Minister) in 1898. as Lady Babhie, and in 1900 as the Due de Reichstadt in Edmond Rostand's < L'Aiglon.> She played Juliet in [899, and Miss Phoebe in Barrie's (Quality Street > in 1901. Adams, Nehemiah, American Congrega- tional clergy] b. in Salem, Mass., 19 Feb. 1806; d. 6 Oct. 1878. IL graduated at Harvard in 182(1, and at Andover Theological Seminary in 1829. The same year he settled at Cam- bridge, but [834-70 was pastor of the Fssex Street Church in Boston, and was widely re- puted for his eloquence and learning. He pub- lished several polemic works; the most sen- ton was created by 'A South Side View of Slavery,' published in 1854 after a winter in Georgia, in which be lauded slavery as beneficial to the negroes' religious character. Adams, Parson (Abraham), one of (be heroes of Fielding's 'Joseph Andrews, » and the only creditable character in it except the heroine, lie is a huge-framed, simple-souled, great-hearted, utterly disinterested innocent, a brother of Don Quixote, Colonel Newcome, and In. U- Toby. Adams, Samuel, American patriot: b. Bos- ton, 27 Sept. 1722; d. 2 Oct. 180,5. He was son of a rich merchant, ship-owner, and magistrate, a leader in provincial contests with royal gov- ernors, and inventor of the caucus in fact and perhaps unintentionally in name. Educated at the Boston Latin School, he graduated at Harvard in 1740. In 174.5 lie wrote for his master's degree a is upholding the lawfulness of resisting su- preme magistrates, lie became a lawyer; but the profession was under ban with the upper classes, and at his family's wish be entered a leading merchant's counting-house. Shortly af- terward his father set him up in business, in which he lost half his capital, losing the other half by a loan never repaid. Then he became part- ner with his father in a rather unsuccessful brewery. Soon the father lost nearly all his property in a land-bank scheme crushed by an act of Parliament, which extended an English bank- ing enactment to the colonies. The hundreds of ruined .shareholders denounced this act as an invasion of chartered colonial rights, and it turned the cream of the business leaders of Massachusetts, and their sons and daughters, into potential rebels at a blow. On his father's death in 1748 he carried on the brewery alone, and was nicknamed by his opponents « Sammy the maltster." changed to « Sammy the pub- lican » when he was made tax-collector of Bos- ton 1763-5. Meanwhile he had become a great power in town meetings, having strong and sin- cere democratic feeling and a marvelous genius for political management and « caucusing.)) As collector he was a bad business manager and was sharply assailed: but his political headship is shown by his being selected in 1764 to draft the town's instructions to its representatives relative to the Stamp Act. — the first public American protest against the parliamentary right of taxa- tion, — and the like instructions the next year, lie was himself in the legislature 1765-74, being clerk of the House and on the leading commit- tees, drawing up the most important state papers of that stormy time, and spokesman as well as prompter of the incessant wrangles with Govs. Bernard and 1 [utchinson. When the Townsbeiid Acts were passed in 1707, be drafted the legis- lature's petition to the king, the instructions to the Massachusetts agent in England, and the cir- cular letter of February 17(18 to the other colo- nies asking their aid. The latter led directly to the Revolution, George III. ordering Bernard to command the legislature to rescind it or be in- stantly dissolved. The latter refusing by 92 to 17, the king thereon resolved to send troops to overawe the colony. The same year Adams wrote 'The True Sentiments of America,) and in 1769 a famous < Appeal to the World.' The morning after the "Boston Massacre" he was made chairman of a committee to communicate to Gov. Hutchinson and his council the town- meeting vote that the two regiments of British soldiers should be removed to the castle in the harbor. When the governor wished to compro- mise on one. Adams had the people insist on 1 and both were removed, there- after being known in Parliament as the « Sam Adams regiments.)) In 1772 the order was is- sue, 1 that the judges should thereafter be paid by the Crown, not by the colony, and be removable at the king's pleasure: the Boston town-meeting requested Gov. Hutchinson to convene the legis- lature on the question, and on his refusal Mr. Adams revived a proposal of Jonathan May- hew's in 17(15. to have the towns of Massachu- appoint committees of correspondence to consult about the common weal. Eighty towns soon adopted the suggestion, forming an omnip- otent revolutionary legislature beyond the reach of government veto or dissolution, yet quite within the law. The next spring intercolonial committees of the same sort were formed, — an unorganized government of the united colonies. Meanwhile Mr. Adams had kept the public spi- rit inflamed and alive to the nature of the crisis by articles under various pseudonyms in the Boston Gazette, arguing the colonists' legal rights and the practical impossibility of any compromise : thus not only preparing the public for the crisis and bringing over the waverers, but making the crisis itself more inevitable. The management of the tea-ship matter was in the hands of the committees of correspondence of Boston and five adjoining towns, of which Mr. Adams was the active head; and the throwing of the tea into the harbor. 17 Dec. 177.5, was un- questionably supervised or arranged by him. When as a punishment the port of Boston was closed and the charter of Massachusetts an- nulled in April 1774, and the legislature met at Salem under parliamentary order to abase itself and undo its bad work, Mr. Adams locked the door, pocketed the key, and carried through the measures for calling a congress at Philadelphia in September; the legislature adjourned sine die while the governor's clerk was hammering at the door with the writ of dissolution, ami British au- thority was at an end. Mr. Adams' lifework — of assuring the breakdown of a system difficult to work at best, the government of a country by scornful aliens plus the aristocratic native fami- lies—was over. Though a useful and upright public servant, he was of secondary import:, in presence of large problems of constructive statesmanship : his abilities were parochial, and ADAMS — ADAMS FAMILY he does not figure on a national scale. He could manage caucuses and organize jealousies, but hardly frame constitutions. At the Philadelphia Congress he was of course a delegate, and great- ly smoothed over sectional distrusts by his shrewdness, tact, and geniality. In 1775 he and Hancock were the only patriots excepted from amnesty ; and it was Gage's attempt to seize them — under government orders, and with Lon- don forecasts that their heads would soon adorn Temple Bar — that brought on the battle of Lexington and opened the Revolutionary War. They escaped by Paul Revere's warning. He led in pushing forward the Declaration of Inde- pendence, of which he was one of the signers ; and was active in Congressional work till the close of the Revolution. With much creditable service, his sympathies were always with divi- sion of authority ; he believed in committees in- stead of executive heads, and national policy was often affected disastrously by the delays and ir- responsibility involved. He was largely instru- mental in framing the State Constitution of 1780. Nationally, he was of course an Anti- Federalist, opposing a strong national govern- ment in fear of tyranny: after long hesitancy over supporting the Constitution of 1787, he did so only on the understanding that amendments constituting a bill of rights should be submitted ; but his voice in favor of ratification by Massa- chusetts secured it by 187 to 168. and saved it to the nation. He was long on the Executive Coun- cil of Massachusetts, lieutenant-governor 1789- 94, and governor 1794-7 (three terms). Adams, Suzanne, American lyric soprano: b. Cambridge. Mass., 28 Nov. 1873 ; studied with Marchesi at Paris : made her debut 1894 at the Opera, as Juliet in Gounod's « Romeo and Ju- liet." After three years there she went to Nice, then to Covent Garden in London, then (1898-9) to the Metropolitan Opera House. New York. She married Leo Stern the violoncellist in 1899. She has sung in many operatic soprano parts. Adams, William, the first Englishman in Japan: b. Kent, c. 1575. in 1598 he sailed as pilot of five Dutch vessels from the Texel to the East ; landing at Kiushiu, the great Shogun Iyeyasu, who had shortly before crushed his rivals and ended Japan's feudal anarchy, first imprisoned and then took him into service, em- ploying him in shipbuilding, as informant, etc. In 1613 other Englishmen came on the Clove, and with Adams started a factory at Firando, of which Richard Cocks was chief. Iyeyasu dying in 1616, a reaction against foreigners set in. and Adams wished to return to England, where he had left a wife and children ; but was forbidden, and married a Japanese wife, their descendants still living in Japan. He died 16 May 1620. "Pilot Street" in Yedo (Tokio) was named after him. Adams, William Henry Davenport, Eng- lish journalist and critic: b. 185 1 ; d. London 2/ July 1904. He published 'A Dictionary of Eng- lish Literature' (1878); 'The Witty and Hu- morous Side of the English Poets' ( 1SS0) ; 'By- Ways in Bookland' (1S88); (1879) ; (1881). Adana, an ancient town in the S.E. of Asia Minor, capital of Adana vilayet, on the Sihun, about 25 m. from its embouchure in the Mediterranean, and about 30 m. from its port Mersina, with which, and with Tarsus about half way between, it is connected by railway. Pop. 45,000. Adanson, a-dan-son, Michel, French nat- uralist and traveler (of Scottish extraction) : h. 7 April 1727; d. 3 Aug. 1806. Although he gave much time and attention to the study of the sciences, particularly electricity, his chief work was in the realm of botany. From 1784 he spent five years in Senegal and collected a large num- ber of plants and animals which he classified and described. His more important works are: 'Histoire Naturelle du Senegal' and "Families des Plantes,' in which he opposed the system of Linnaeus. Adansonia. See Baobab. Adaptation, the power and process of gradual change in an organism to fit it to chang- ing conditions of environment. See Biology; Evolution. The initial causes of life and evolution are motion and change of condition or environment. Whether there is a principle of life or a special impelling life-giving force or not, or whether what we call life is only a mode of being, we can easily perceive and realize that life is a relation, a process, and a process of adaptation or adjustment to the environment both physical and biological. Adaptation is a fundamental fact in the material universe; the different cos- mical realms are interrelated in their action, and the harmony existing in the movements of the heavenly bodies have excited the wonder and admiration of mankind from the time when man walking erect could look toward the heavens and perceive the stars and guide his course by them. So also in the beings endowed with life. The adaptation of the living world to the environ- ment is a universal fact. The individual mem- bers of each species of plant and animal are perfectly adapted to their surroundings. Though the individual may suffer or perish, in the long run the death of individuals does not disturb the harmony existing throughout nature, which has attracted the attention of observei s and natural- ists from the earliest times. It should be ob- served that plants and animals oft. n have struc- tures or habits which are not adai itive, but this is an exception to the rule, and dt >es not inter- fere with the general course nf nat ure. By the terms environment, surroundings, conditions of life, medium or milieu, or monde ambiant, we mean the nature of any region or area on the earth's surface stocked with plants and animals. The nature of the earth's surface, of the soil, of well-watered regions, of deserts, plains, or barrens, the physics of the air and sea, are taught in our text-books of physical geography. Each such area is inhabited by as- semblages of living beings adapted to such or such conditions or to such a climate, whether dry or humid, hot or cold. We speak of alpine or arctic life, of the flora and fauna of deserts, of mountains, of lowlands, of the great plains, of forests, of the coasts and abysses of the sea. The word « fauna » means the assemblage of animals inhabiting any area, as the word « flora » is used for the plants. Now each of these areas, with its peculiar surface features, climate, soil, etc.. is characterized by a set of plants and animals perfectly adapted to it. and which flourish better there than in adjoining regions. The most successful groups of animals, con- sidered numerically, are the insects and the birds, which have become adapted for a life in the air, for flying, where they are more or less out of reach of their creeping enemies. Adapta- tion to this or that mode of life has been the cause of variability. Every species is adapted to its special niche or habitat. The most remarkable cases of adaptation to extreme conditions of life are seen in animals living in the darkness of caves, or in the dark abysses of the sea, or parasitic animals, as the fluke and tapeworm, the root-barnacles (Saccu- lina). the fish-louse (Lernaa). and many in- sects. In all these forms the body has. as the re- sult of a parasitic life, undergone profound modification, becoming so atrophied in certain respects as to present the utmost contrast to their free-living allies. Adaptation is contin- ually correlated with certain given conditions. If the conditions be changed, in time the organ- isms, unless they are modified and changed to what we call new species, become inadapted, unfit for the new environment, and unsuccessful in the struggle for existence. Extinct species are such unfit, inadapted forms. However well adapted they were at the period in which they lived, when the conditions of existence changed ; when the climate changed from warm to cold, or the reverse ; when the soil changed its elevation above the sea, or degree of dryness or humidity; when one area subsided, and another became elevated, — certain species or groups of species, unless they migrated, or were plastic enough to undergo modification and become what we call « new » species or « new » genera, unable to resist the change, died out. — became extinct. It is the harder parts of these extinct species which we find in the rocks and call « fossils." They are the relics of former worlds, witnesses of the profound changes in physical geography through which our planet has passed. If we examine these fossil shells, and the remains of the hard parts of insects, the bones of reptiles, birds, mammals, or whatever they are. we perceive no imperfection, no half- formed organs, no signs of decay. We see no reason why they were not in their lifetime as Species perfectly adapted to their environment. But living in a changing world, they became ADAR — ADDINGTON useless, cumbered the ground, and had to suc- cumb in the struggle lor existence, and make way for those Eorm better adapted to the new conditions environing them. But extinction has not been thoroughgoing and complete. A few ancient primitive forms have persisted and are still nourishing. Such are many of the Protozoa (Saccamina and oth- ers), the Lingulella and Lingula, the king-crab (Liiuulus), the Peripatus and Scolopendrella, which are probably the ancestral forms of in- sects; among the fishes the Australian lung 6 h (Ceratodus), and among lizards the Hottetia of New Zealand. These forms, by reason of their astonishing vitality, have withstood the most widespread and the profoundest geological changes, but they are exceptional forms. On the other hand there were a vast number of species which were plastic enough to yield to the changes in their surroundings and became modi lied into new species adapted to the new condi lions of existence. It is undoubtedly the case, then, that certain forms became inadapted and suffered extinction, though all through the ages the plant and animal census by no means became at any lime lessened, but rather gradually in- creased in extent. Another fact clearly estab- lished is that the earlier forms were generalized and the later were specialized, and the former, the ancestors of the present species, had to make way for their more specialized descendants. Thus the trilobites were succeeded by the king- crabs, the creeping dinosaurs were succeeded by the flying reptiles or pterodactyls, and the high- ly generalized tailed Amphibia yielded the right of way to the tailless frogs and toads of the present day. Adaptation, then, is the process of modification of organisms caused by changes in the conditions of life. See also Evolution ; Species. Adar, Jewish month, 12th of the ecclesias- tical and 6th of the civil year; representing parts of February and March of ours. The ;ih was a fast for the death of Moses, the 9th for the falling-out of Hillel and Shammai. But the important days were the 13th, a fast in com- memoration of that of the Jews for their threat- ened destruction by Haman (see Esther), fol- lowed by a feast on the next two days for their escape. Adar'ce, a-dar'se, a salty deposit found on the grasses and sedges growing in wet places in ancient Galatia. It is used somewhat for cleansing the skin in cases of leprosy. Adda (ancient Addua). a river of north Italy, descending from the Rruetian Alps, falls into Lake Como. and leaving this joins the Po after a course of about 170 miles. Addams, Jane, American philanthropist: b. Cedarville, 111., 6 Sept. i860. Graduated at Rockford College in 1881, after post-graduate lies in Europe and the United States she became an active social reformer. She inaugu- rated in 1889 at Chicago the establishment known as Hull House, an adaptation of the « so- cial settlement " plan to Chicago conditions. She has acted as street -cleaning inspector in Chicago, and has lectured on the improvement of the condition of the poor in great cities; and for executive power, practical rationality, and unselfishness is one of the leaders of American social reform. See Social Settlements. Addax, or Addas (Lat., of African origin), a North African antelope (Addax nasomacukh his), related to the oryx and similar to it in habits. Its large broad hoofs lit it for travel- ing over loose shifting sand ; it has a long tail, long ears, and spirally-twisted horns three to four feet high. The animal measures about three feel in height at the shoulder; in color it is nearly white, with shading of reddish brown On the head and front of the body. The hoofs arc black and there is a black, shaggy marking on the forehead above a white blaze on the nose. It is now becoming very rare in all parts of the Sahara. The Arabs hunt the adax with grey- hounds. Adder (Anglo-Saxon nadder, Goth, nadro, Ger. natter, a snake), a colloquial name for several poisonous snakes, mostly belonging to the family Viperida, such as the copperhead, moccasin, asp, etc.; and also for certain harm- less snakes of the family Colubridte, particu- larly the spreading adder ( Heterodon platyrhi- iius). which when angry resembles the poison- ous snakes. (See IIolvom:. ) In England the name denotes the only venomous snake of Great Britain. — the European viper (Pclias bcrtts). See Copperhead; Death-Adder; Puff-Adder; Viper: etc. Addicks. John Edward, American capital- ist: b. Philadelphia. 21 Nov. 1841 ; became wealthy and prominent first as a flour merchant, then as a gas manufacturer, organizing and be- coming president of the Bay State Gas Co. of Boston in 1884. and buying control of the Brook- lyn (N. Y.) Gas Co. in 1892. For eight years (1895-1903) he has been of national prominence as candidate for the United States senatorship from Delaware, which he has not succeeded in obtaining, but till recently he has been able to prevent the election of any rival, leaving first one and since 1901 both of Delaware's two scats vacant. The details are: In 180,5 his rival was II. A. Du Pont ; among the members of the legis- lature voting was the former speaker of the Senate, now governor through the death of Gov. Marvel : the Democrats and Populists declared his vote illegal, and refused to scat Du Pont. In 1896 the Republican State Convention to elect delegates to the St. Louis National Convention split and elected two sets. Du Pont and Addicks: the former were recognized as " regular M by the St. Louis Committee on Credentials, and the other section called themselves Union Repub- licans. In 1899 a successor to Senator Gray was balloted for, but there was no election. In 1900 as in 1896 two sets of delegates went to Phila- delphia, and this time the committee seated the Addicks party; though he was thus recognized as State party chief, the 1901 election for sena- tor was again a stalemate, and as there were two to elect, the State was left entirely unrepre- sented in the Senate. In the session of 1903 Addicks nominally withdrew, and a coalition of the Regular and the Union Republicans elected two Senators, a Regular for the short term and a Union for the long term. Adding-Machine. See Calculating - M a- chine. Addington, Henry, Viscount Sidmouth, English statesman: b. 30 May 1757; d. 15 Feb. 1844; educated at Winchester and Brasenose. ADDISON College, Oxford ; he then studied law, and, through the influence of Pitt, entered Parliament (1784) ; was speaker of the House of Commons (1789-1801) ; chancellor of the exchequer and first lord of the treasury; he put through a bill disqualifying clergymen from sitting in the House of Commons, and later, with Pitt's ad- vice, negotiated (1802) the Peace of Amiens, a cessation of war much needed by England. In 1805 he was raised to the peerage. As home secretary (1812-22), he was strict in his ad- ministration of justice and in conservative over- sight of the press and public meetings. Partly due to his too great zeal was the "Manchester massacre." He resigned in 1824, owing to his disapproving of the recognition of the independ- ence of Buenos Ayres. Addison, Joseph, English essayist, son of Rev. Lancelot Addison, subsequently dean of Lichfield : b. at his father's rectory, Milston, Wiltshire, I May 1672; d. 17 June 1719. At 11 he was sent to the Charterhouse, where he made the acquaintance of his friend and future col- laborator Steele. At 15 he proceeded to Oxford, entering first at Queen's College, but two years iater being elected to Magdalen College for skill in Latin versification. He took M.A. in 1693, and held a fellowship in his college from 1699 to 171 1. He had contemplated entering the clerical profession, but was diverted from his purpose by his literary tastes and by the early patronage he received from some of the greatest statesmen of the Whig party. Addison had the good fortune to secure as his earliest patron the poet Dryden. With sympathetic appreciation of Dryden's skill as a translator of classical poetry, the young scholar addressed to him some com- plimentary verses, which the poet approved of and inserted in his < Miscellanies > in 1693. A translation of the fourth « Georgic,» with the exception of the story of Aristsus, bv Addison, appeared in the same collection in 1694. and he subsequently translated for it two and a half books of « Ovid.» A still higher honor was conferred on Addison by Dryden in prefixing his prose essay on Vergil's «Geoigics» to his own translation of that poem, which appeared in 1697. Addison published in 1694 « An Account of the Greatest English Poets.» a running criti- cism in verse, which he dedicated to his fellow- student, the afterward celebrated Dr. Sachever- ell. It is said to be chiefly notably for the ignorance, common to the day, which it displays of early English poetry. Through the introduction, it appears, of Con- greve, Addison early secured an able and power- ful patron in Charles Montague, afterward Earl of Halifax, and in 1695 hi? own pen secured a greater in Lord Somers. He dedicated to this nobleman, then lord-keeper, a poem on one of King William's campaigns, and received as his reward a pension of £300 to enable him to travel in order to fit himself for the service of the king. In 1699, in which year appeared a collection of his Latin poems in the second volume of the < Musarum Anglicanarum Analecta,> he left England, and after spending more than two years in France and Italy was returning home through Switzerland when he was instructed to repair as envoy to the quarters of Prince Eu- gene, then engaged in an Italian campaign. The death of King William in March 1702 cancelled this appointment with the overthrow of his friends. He says, indeed, that he never teceived more than a single year's payment of his pen- sion, and had to defray the expenses of his travels himself. Nevertheless he was able to extend his tour to Germany and Holland, and returned to England at the close of 1703, having attempted without success to procure an ap- pointment as a traveling tutor. During his residence abroad his pen had not been idle. His tragedy of < Cato > is supposed to have been written, subject to after revision, during his stay in France. During his journey across Mount Cenis he wrote his « Letter from Italy, » esteemed the best of his poems, and in Germany his « Dialogues on Medals. » which was not published till after his death. His < Re- marks on Several Parts of Italy in the Years 1701^03 > was published in 1705. It is an im- personal record of impressions in which current events have hardly any place, the absorbing topic being the correspondences traced between pas- sages in the Latin poets and the scenes it illus- trates. _ It was dedicated to Lord Somers. The first ministry of Queen Anne was a coalition one, in which the Whigs had still considerable power, chiefly due to the victories of Marl- borough. Godolphin mentioned to Halifax his desire to have the achievements of the great commanders celebrated in appropriate verse. Halifax strongly recommended Addison, and the commission was at once assigned to him, and he produced the « Campaign,)) which was about as good as a poem made to order by a man of taste and scholarly accomplishments, who was not quite a poet, could be expected to be. Before it was half finished Godolphin's approval was ex- pressed in the form of an appointment to suc- ceed Locke as a commissioner of appeal on excise. One official appointment succeeded an- other till the fall of the ministry, whose favor he had now made, in 1710. In 1706 he became under-secretary of state to Sir Charles Hodges, next year he accompanied Lord Halifax as his secretary on a mission to the Elector of Hano- ver. In 1708 he was elected member of Parlia- ment for Lostwithiel, a seat he exchanged in I/IO for Malmesbury, which place he continued to represent till his death. In 1709 he became secretary to Lord Wharton as lord-lieutenant of Ireland. It may here be noticed that Addison's tem- perament, which greatly facilitated his elevation, determined its limit in a political direction. Extremely shy and even awkward in company, especially among persons of any superiority of pretension, he joined with this diffidence ex- treme caution of offending and solicitous anx- iety to oblige. These qualities, which recom- mended him to men in office, wholly disqualified him for parliamentary life. He is said to have once attempted to speak in the House: but. if ever he had a higher ambition, he sank at once and irretrievably into the position of an abso- lutely silent member. The fall of the ministry in August 1710, fol- lowed by the accession to power of an uncom- promising Tory ministry, happened fortunately for Addison's fame. While he was absent in Ireland his old school companion Steele had start- ed a paper partly devoted to news; but chiefly to essays of a social, moral, and literary charac- ter, the Tatlcr. Addison discovered the authoi ADDISON of *he enterprise by a literary criticism which he had communicated to his friend, and was readily admitted to share in it. The Taller was begun 12 April 1709, and terminated 2 Jan. 171 1. It was followed on 1 March by the Spectator which dropped the news section and consisted entirely of essays. It continued till 8 Dec. 171Z I he Guardian succeeded, from 2 March to I Oct. 1713, and the Spectator was resumed from 18 June to 20 Dec. 1714. The Taller was pub- lished thrice weekly, on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays ; the Spectator and Guardian •very week day. The bulk of the papers were contributed in nearly equal proportion by Steele and Addison. Addison's contributions to the Spectator are distinguished by one of the initials C, L., L, O. Itl humorous and satirical character sketches he hardly excelled, perhaps equalled Steele. If more refined he was less direct and pointed. But he was far ahead of his fellow contributor in scholarship and literary taste, and in the breadth, and height of his ambition. He poured forth the stores of his knowledge on a greater variety of subjects, and indulged his imagination in more elaborate and artistic creations. But besides these independent efforts of his own, he aspired to be a judge and censor of the literary productions of others, and he was, perhaps, be- yond any man of his day, well qualified for the task. Certainly his judgments had less force and perhaps less depth than Johnson's, but they had much more of breadth, harmony, and com- pleteness, were woven with more art into a sys- tem depending on theoretical principles, and were delivered with a grace and eloquence of which the oracular moralist was no master. If his system was somewhat shallow, it had prob- ably the merit of directing attention more to criticism, and preparing the way for better and more philosophic standards of appreciation. Among the most remarkable of his contributions to the Spectator are his criticism on Milton's < Paradise Lost,> his essays on the < Pleasures of the Imagination,) < Vision of Mirza,> his Saturday essays on moral and religious themes, and his < Reflections on the Divine Perfections.) Pre-eminent among his character sketches is Sir Roger de Coverley. Steele originated the idea of a « Spectator » Club and sketched the charac- ters of its members. That of Sir Roger was immediately appropriated by Addison, to whom the delicate humor of its subsequent develop- ment is exclusively due. The remaining works of Addison not yet mentioned are of compara- tively little interest or importance. In opposi- tion to the Examiner, conducted by Swift, he wrote, in the latter part of 1710, five numbers of a Whig Examiner. In 1713 he published, anonymously, « The Trial and Conviction of Count Tariff,)) a libel on the financial policy of the ministry. He had assisted Steele at an early period with his comedy of the < Tender Hus- band,' and die drama of 'The Drummer or the 1 taunted House > was published by Sir Richard Steele after his death and attributed to him. The Freeholder, a political paper in support of the government, published twice weekly from 23 Dec. 1715 to 29 June 1716, was written en- tirely by him. He also wrote a work on the ' Evidences of the Christian Religion.) and a 'Discourse on Ancient ami Modern Learning.) was brought on the stage in April 1713, ' reluctantly, as is said, and though destitute oi dramatic qualities and even deficient in poetry had a great run of success, which was largely owing to political causes. In August 1716 he married the Countess Dowager of Warwick. This connection brought him little accession of fortune, as the widow for- feited her jointure by her remarriage. Her haughty demeanor, nevertheless, is said to have made his home unbearable to a man of hi* nicety of feeling. Whether from this cause, or from the long habit of frequenting taverns, to which he appears ?t first to have had rather an aver- sion, he acquired, according to prevalent reports, a habit of excessive wine-libbing which short- ened his days. These latter days were distin- guished by a return to political life, and dark- ened by some painful literary quarrels. On the death of Queen Anne the lords justices who assumed the government appointed Addison their secretary. For a brief period he resumed his former office of secretary to the lord-lieuten- ant, and in 1715 he was named one of the lords of trade. In 1717 the leading Whigs retired from office, leaving an attenuated party called the German ministry. From this ministry, on 16 April, Addison accepted office as one of the principal secretaries of state. He was probably equally unqualified in point of business capacity and of parliamentary efficiency for this responsi- ble post, and he was probably also sensible of his own incapacity, for it is said that in accepting it he yielded to the ambition of his wife. He retired after II months with a salary of £1.500. Of his literary quarrels one of the bit- terest was with Pope. The cause of it was the publication by Tickell, Addison's secretary, of a part of a rival translation of the * Iliad,) which Pope suspected was Addison's own, and a re- mark of Addison's that Tickell's translation was more faithful than Pope's. Pope in revenge wrote the savage satire contained in his lines on « Aniens, » which he published after Addison's death in his « Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot,» and which at the time he printed and distributed among his friends. Addison does not appear to have replied publicly, but in the Freeholder he liberally praised Pope's < Iliad.' Addison had al- so a quarrel with Gay, and on this occasion he ap- pears to have been in the wrong, as he sent for Gay some time before his death, apologized for having injured him, and promised amends. But the saddest, as it appears to have been the pal- triest, quarrel, was with his ancient comrade Steele. The cause of it was political. Steele attacked a bill for the limitation of the peerage in the Plebeian. Addison replied in a pam- phlet called the « Old Whig.» Steele answered that Addison was so old a Whig that he had forgotten his principles, and Addison made a contemptuous reply. Addison died of asthma and dropsy at Holland House. Of his style as a writer so much has been said that nothing remains to say but to quote the dictum of Johnson, « Whoever wishes to attain an English style, familiar but not coarse, and elegant but not ostentatious, must give his days and nights to the volumes of Addison.» Addi- son had great conversational powers, and his intimates speak in the strongest term-; of the enjoyment derived from his society, but it is acknowledged that he was extremely reserved before strangers. There is a story told of his ADDISON'S DISEASE — ADELAIDE hairing sent for his stepson, Lord Warwick, on his deathbed, and addressed him in these terms, "See in what peace a Christian can die." It is alluded to by Tickell, Addison's executor, and is first told circumstantially by Dr. Young, but the truth of the story has been questioned. Addison was buried in Westminster Abbey. He left a daughter born in the year of his death. His works were published by Tickell in four quarto volumes in 1721. An edition, with notes by Bishop Hurd, in six vols. 8vo, was published in 181 1. A more complete edition with Bishop Hurd's notes was published and edited by H. G. Bohn (in the well-known series, six vols.). A recent edition (in six vols.) is that of Prof. Greene. There have been two recent editions of the Spectator (both in eight vols.) edited re- spectively by G. A. Aitkin and G. G. Smith. Among "Lives' may be mentioned that by Lucy Aikin (1843), which drew from Macaulay an admirable essay, and that by Prof. Courthope. Addison's Disease, a disease associated with disturbance of the functions of the supra- renal glands and characterized by general de- pression of the functions, anxmia, lowered tone of the circulatory apparatus, irritability of the stomach, and pigmentation of the skin. This last symptom is the most pronounced and was fully described by Addison in 1855. The disease is more common in men and between the twen- tieth and fortieth years. It is rare in America. The chief symptoms are (1) pigmentation of the skin ; this is a peculiar brownish, yellow to black, almost bronze-like discoloration ; (2) gastro-intestinal symptoms, nausea, vomiting, at times marked pain in the abdomen, frequent at- tacks of diarrhcea ; (3) asthenia, the patient is always very tired, and is incapable of carrying on his regular occupation ; the heart muscle also suffers very markedly, there being frequent attacks of rapid and feeble pulse with vertigo, and fainting, sometimes fatal. Headache is fre- quent and anaemia may be present. The disease is usually fatal, but recovery has taken place. The treatment is symptomatic, with the pro- longed use of the suprarenal gland. Addled Parliament, The, a nickname given to James I.'s second Parliament, of 1614, because it passed no statute and finished no business. It did, however, settle a far more important question than any point of administration : namely, that the Commons were to have the power of the purse thereafter — that is, the rule of the kingdom — unless the Crown crushed them by force. In a word, it proclaimed the revolution, though not consciously. The previous Parliament had been dissolved for not granting supplies until the king had abolished the illegal imposts and regulated the Court of High Com- mission by statute — that is, given church as well as state into their hands. The elections for 1614 were contested with a passion un- known for generations : the court candidates were overwhelmingly defeated, and 300 of the victorious ones were new men sent up for the first time, among them John Pym. Thomas Wentworth (afterward Earl of Strafford), and John Eliot. After a two months' session they became involved in a quarrel of privilege with the Lords, and the king dissolved the House on that pretext, — really on the point of their re- fusal of supplies, — and imprisoned four of them. Vol. 1—7 Add-Ran Christian University, a Waco, Tex., coeducational institution ; organized in 1873 under the auspices of the Church of the Disciples. Reported in 1899: Professors and in- structors, 20 ; students, 200 ; volumes in the library, 5,000; grounds and buildings valued at $150,000; income, $20,000; number of graduates, 200; president, Albert Buxton, Ph.D. Ade, George, American journalist and author: b. Kentland, Ind., 9 Feb. 1866. He made his first mark as a writer for years of * Stories of the Streets and the Town" in the Chicago News, with remarkable variety of motive and local-reporter's knowledge; published 'Artie,* made up from these, and in 1897 the dialect story 'Pink Marsh'; in 1901-2 two sets of 'Fables in Slang,' full of pungent wit and knowledge of the less agreeable phases of human character; and in 1903 the satiri- cal comic opera, 'The Sultan of Sulu,' a musical comedy, 'Peggy from Paris, ' a political comedy, 'The County Chairman,' a comedy of college life, 'The College Widow,' and others. Adee, Alvey A., American diplomat: b. Astoria, N. Y., 27 Nov. 1842, son of a fleet sur- geon; was secretary of legation at Madrid 1870-7, charge d'affaires at different times: in 1878 be- came chief of the United States diplomatic bu- reau, 1882 third assistant secretary of state, 1886 second assistant, which he still remains. He was secretary of state ad interim 17-29 Sept. 1898; and acting secretary during some of the most acute Chinese troubles of 1900. Adelaide, capital of S. Australia, 7 m. by rail S.E. of Port Adelaide, on St. Vincent Gulf. It stands on a large plain, and is walled in on the eastern and southern sides by the Mount Lofty range ; the town proper is enclosed by a wide belt of garden shrubbery. The first settlement was made in 1836, and named after the queen of William IV. The Torrens divides the town into North and South Adelaide, the former being occupied chiefly with residences, and the latter forming the business portion of the town. Four substantial iron bridges span the Torrens, which has been formed by a dam into a lake one and a half miles long. The streets are broad and regularly laid out, espe- cially in Adelaide proper, to the south of the river, where they cross each other at right an- gles, and are planted with trees. Among the public buildings are the new Parliament Houses, erected at a cost of about $500.000 ; government offices, post-office, and town-hall ; South Austra- lian Institute, with museum, library, and art galleries ; and hospital. The botanical garden, with the botanical garden park, covers more than 120 acres of ground. The chief manufactures are woolen, leather, iron, and earthenware goods ; but the chief importance of Adelaide de- pends on its being the great emporium for South Australia. Wool, wine, wheat, flour, and cop- per ore are the staple articles of export. Among educational institutions the most important are the Adelaide L T niversity ; St. Peter's (Episco- pal) College: St. Barnabas Theological College, opened in 1881, and Prince Alfred (Wesleyan) College. It is the seat of an Anglican and of a Roman Catholic bishop. Glenelg, on the sea, 5 miles away, is a favorite watering-place. Pop. with suburbs (1901) 160,691. Port Adelaide, its haven, dates from 1840. It is a principal port of call for vessels arriving ADELARD — ADHESION from Europe; has railwa) communication with Melbourne, Sydney, and Brisbane. Tramways were introduced in [878. Pop, with Semaphore about 15,000. Adelard, or iEthelhard, of Hath. English philosopher and mathematician of the t2th cen- tury. Little is known of the facts of his life, except that he traveled widely, visiting Greece, Asia Minor, and Africa. He wrote 'Perdiffi- cilis Quaestiones Naturales* and University. Ad'elieland', an Antarctic continent dis- covered jo Ian. 1K40 by L)u Mont d'Urville. It consists of a chain of mountains without promi- nent peaks, with a few shallow bays tilled with icebergs, and a number of islands with rounded summits Adelochorda, a group standing at the base of the branch of phylum ChordatQ, and in- cluding certain animals, formerly supposed to be worms, but now placed in the same group as the vertebrates. The class Adelochorda is represented by Balanoglossus, while with 11 aii 1 provisionally associated two forms of doubtful position, the worm-like Rhabdopleura and thalodiscus. The Adelocephala are worm- like, but from the fact that the body is in part Supported by a structure supposed to In- homolo- gous with the notochord of true vertebrates, and that the animal breathe- through gill-slits, like those of the lowest vertebrate-, it is supposed to be relate, 1 to -ome extinct form winch gave rise to the vertebrates. It is also itself probably an ancestral persistent form. If we throw out the doubtful forms Rhabdopleura and Cepholodis- . u-v leaving only Balanoglossus, we have the old group Enteropneusta. A typical example of the Adelochorda is Balanoglossus (q.v.). Adelphi College, Brooklyn, N. V.. a coed ucational, non-sectarian institution, was in- corporated bv the regents of the University of the State of" New York, 24 June 1806. It is intended to be a school of arts, a college of liberal culture. The requirements for admission and graduation are the same as those of the leading Eastern colleges. It is the only institu- tion in Brooklyn in which a woman may obtain the usual baccalaureate degrees. The curric- ulum is arranged semestrally, and eight semes- ters are required for graduation. The courses in pedagogy are arranged so that the studies preparatory to the profession of teaching may all be taken as a part of the work offered for the degrees of bachelor of arts and bachelor of science, From the beginning the college has always offered special facilities to students who wish to enter the profession of teaching. It also makes provision in afternoon, evening, and Saturday morning classes for teachers in public schools who desire to study for a degree without giving up their positions. Connected with the college are the Normal School for Kinder- gartners, with a two years' course, organized in 1893, and School of Fine Arts. The college reported in 1005 : professors and instructors, •.udeiits, 500; volumes in the library, g.OCO. Adelphi College maintains a preparatory depart- ment, known a- Adelphi Academy, which ha 50 instructors and 760 students. The total value of the property and endowments of the college is $600,000. The total annual income is $118,000. Aden, Arabia: peninsula and town belong- ing to Great Britain, on the S.W. coast. 105 m. E, of the strait of Bab-el-Mandcb, the entrance to the Red Sea. The peninsula is a mass of volcanic rocks. 5 miles long from E. to W., and rising to i.77<> feet. It is joined to the main- laud by a narrow, level, and sandy isthmus. The town is on the eastern shore of the peninsula, stands in the crater of an extinct volcano, and is surrounded by barren, cinder-like rocks. The main crater is known as the Devil's Punch-bowl. Frequently the heat is intense ; but the climate is unusually healthy for the tropics. The Romans occupied it ill the 1st century A.D. Till the discovery of the Cape route to India (1498) it was the chief mart of Asiatic produce for the Western nations: but in 1838 it bad sunk to be a village of fJOO inhabitants. The increasing importance of the Red Sea route gave Aden great value as a station for the Brit- ish to hold: and in 1839 after a few hours' contest it fill into their hands. It is of high importance both in a mercantile and naval point of view, especially as a great coaling sta- tion: it has a garrison and strong fortificatii The population and resources of the place have rapidly increased since 1838. and tin- open- ing of the Suez Canal in i860 gave it a great impetus. The value of its imports (1892-3) was over $20,000,000, while that of its exerts (coffee, gums, spices ) amounted to over $15,- 000,000. It is a telegraphic station on the cable between Suez and Bombay, and on the line to Zanzibar and the Cape. To provide for its growing population, a considerable territory on the mainland has been acquired and added to the peninsula, the total area (including the island of Perim) being 75 square miles; and the settlement, which is politically connected with Bombay (7 days' sailing, or 1,819 nautical miles, distant ). has a population of over 41,000. Adhesion, in physics, the force which holds together two surfaces brought in contact; distinguished from cohesion, the mutual attrac- tion exerted by particles of the same body, and from affinity, since the particles adhering re- main unchanged. It is a force exerted on each other by the molecules of the adhering bodies, and not to be confounded with mere mechanical contact due to pressure. The wetting of solid bodies is an instance. It usually happens that wdien a solid and a liquid come in contact, a film of the liquid adheres to the solid too firmly to be detached, showing its adhesion to the solid to be stronger than the cohesion of its particles or the force of gravitation, as it can be removed only by forcible rubbing or evaporation. On the othei hand, solutions are supposably cases where the adhesive force of solid and liquid overbal- ances the cohesive force of the solid, so that it loses its form and adheres particle by particle; but see Solutions, the true theory of which is keenly debated. The force of adhesion is measured by poising n metal plate on a balance, and then finding what additional ADIABATIC TRANSFORMATION- -ADIPIC ACID force is required to detach it from the surface of a liquid which docs not wet it (otherwise it would be measuring the cohesive force of the liquid) nor act on it chemically. The phe- nomena of capillary attraction (q.v.) depend on adhesion. Solid bodies also adhere to solids: most smooth surfaces will adhere ; the smoother the tighter; and two plates of polished glass laid together can hardly be parted without break- ing them. If the solids are pressed together, it usually increases the adhesive force; but it de- pends but little on atmospheric pressure. Fric- tion is a looser kind of adhesion, which prevents surfaces moving freely on each other, and may result from gravitation or mechanical appliances. Plating, gilding, etc., also depend on adhesion. Soldering, the use of mortar, cementing, gluing, etc., are familiar applications of the principle, in- termediary substances being employed, whose particles have at once great cohesion among them- selves and great adhesion to each of the bodies to be joined. A familiar example is the split- ting a thin sheet of paper by pasting it between two sheets of cloth and pulling them apart after it has dried: the adhesion of paste to paper and cloth is so great that the paper fibres yield to it. Furthermore, air and other gases adhere to sol- ids: a favorite children's experiment is to float a dry needle in a basin of water, it resting on a cushion of air; and when thermometers are filled with mercury it has to be boiled in them to ex- pel the air that adheres to the glass. Every ma- terial body, and every particle of such body in however fine division, is surrounded by its own atmosphere of condensed gases, which are an efficient factor in many physical and chemical phenomena ; this property in comminuted bodies is called adsorption, and in metallic substances is sometimes so avid that they grow red-hot. Adiaba'tic Transformation. In thermody- namics (q.v.) a body is said to undergo an adiabatic transformation when its state or con- dition is modified in such a way that the fol- lowing two conditions are fulfilled: (i) There is no exchange of heat between the body and its surroundings; (2) the transforma- tion is reversible at every stage. It is usual to define the adiabatic transformation by stating the first of these conditions only ; but the sec- ond is equally essential, because if it is omitted the definition will also include the transforma- tion known as "free expansion." (See Gases, General Properties of.) When the body under consideration is a « perfect gas,» and all possi- ble states are excluded from consideration ex- cept such as are uniquely determined when the pressure and volume of the body are given, the adiabatic transformation requires that the product fv* shall remain constant throughout the transformation, k being the ratio that the specific heat of the gas at constant pressure bears to its specific heat at constant volume. For air, k is about I.41. When the changes that the body can undergo are represented graph- ically, as for example on a diagram in which the volume is taken as abscissa and the pressure as ordinate, the lines along which the fore- going algebraic expression is constant are called adiabatic lines or curves. Adiabatic trans- formations are often called isentropic trans- formations, from the fact that the entropy (q.v.) of the body remains constant along every such line. (For further information concerning lines used in thermodynamics, see Line.) Adiaphorists, ii-di-af'or-ists, or Adiaph- orites, a party or wing of the Lutheran re- formers of Germany, who held that certain things practised by the Roman Catholic Church were indifferent and might be received. In 1548 an ecclesiastical controversy broke out among the reformers. The Emperor Charles V. hav- ing issued a paper popularly called the « In- terim.)) in which he prescribed what faith and practice the Protestants were to adopt till the Council of Trent should dictate a permanent form of belief and worship, Maurice, Elector of Saxony, urged Melanchthon and his friends to decide what portions of the document they would accept and follow. Melanchthon consid- ered that to a very large extent the « Interim » might be accepted and obeyed. A controversy in consequence arose between the followers of Luther and those of Melanchthon. It was called the adiaphoristic controversv, and embraced two questions: (1) What things were indifferent; and (2) whether, with regard to things indiffer- ent, the emperor could or could not in con- science be obeyed. Adi-Buddha, a-de-bud-ha, from the San- skrit, the Primord Buddha, a conception of Buddha due probably to the influence of Chris- tianity._ It came into vogue among the Northern Buddhists about the middle of the 10th century. In this conception he is represented as self- existent and omniscient. Adige, a'de-je, a considerable river of N. Italy, which has its source in the Alps of Tyrol, above Brixen ; it enters Italy by Bol- zano and the valley of Trento, flows in a south- ern direction by Roveredo, parallel to and for the most part about 6 miles from the lake of Garda, then, turning abruptly toward the east, passes through Verona and Legnano: it after- ward enters the great delta between the Brenta and the Po, and, forming several branches, emp- ties its waters into the Adriatic Sea. It is a deep and rapid stream, dividing by its course the old Venetian territories from Lombardy proper. The valley of the Adige has been rendered 'or- ever memorable by the wars of Bonaparte. Adi-Granth, the Bible .of the Sikhs (q.v), mainly compiled by the guru (spiritual guide) Arjun (1584-1606), fifth successor of the founder Nanak (q.v.). He gathered up the poetical pieces of his four predecessors and fragments from other great teachers like Rama- nanda, Kabir, Namdev, etc.. and .ndded composi- tions of his own. The tenth and last Sikh guru Govmd (1675-1708), made additions to it, and composed an entirely new Granth. the « Grant li of the Tenth Reign.» The language of these is an archaic Punjabi called Gurmukhi (« from the gurus mouth »). These Granths. with the bi- ographies of gurus and saints, and instructions tor ritual and discipline, comprise the Sikh sa- cred books. Ad'inole, a variety of the mineral albite. Ad'ipate, any salt of adipic acid (q.v). 1 nus the compound of adipic acid with so- dium is called sodium adipate. Adip'ic Acid, an organic acid having the formula C«H,,.0,, and crystallizing in monoclinic Iiminjc which are sparingly soluble in cold ADIPITE— ADIRONDACK MOUNTAINS water, but freely so in alcohol and ether. It melts at 300° F. and is formed by the action of nitric acid on natural fats. Ad'ipite, a gelatinous mineral substance of the same composition as chabazite (q.v.). Adipocere, ad'i-po-ser' Lat. adefs. fat, + cera, wax), a fatty substance consisting largely of palmitic, stearic, and margaric acids, com- bined to some extent with ammonia. It is sometimes formed by the decomposition of ani- mal matter from which air has been excluded. It was first observed by Fourcroy. The most notable example of its occurrence was in the Cimetiere des Innocens at Paris. A large num- ber of coffins had been piled together in this cemetery for many years, and in 1786-87, when the coffins were removed, it was found that in many cases the corpses had been changed into shapeless masses of a dingy white color and waxy consistency, only the bones remaining unaltered. Adipocere is not a result of the de- composition of albuminous tissue, but is formed from the fats that are present in the body at the time of death, the fatty matter collecting to- gether, undergoing further decomposition, and finally losing its glycerine and oleic acid. A similar substance, called bog-butter, is occasion- ally found in peat bogs in Ireland and Wales. Sometimes spelled adipocire. Adipo'cerite, a mineral better known as hatchettite (q.v.). Adipose Tissue, a fatty membrane or tissue. See Fat Tissue. Adiposis Dolorosa, a disease described by Dr. F. X. Dercum of Philadelphia in 1892, and characterized by enormous collections of tat in different parts of the body, not in the hands or feet, and associated with neuralgic-like pains and prickling sensations. Its cause is unknown. The internal use of the thyroid gland has been of benefit in some cases. Adirondack Mountains, a group in the N.E. part of New York State, lying between the depressions occupied by Lake Champlain on the E., the St. Lawrence on the N.W., and the Mohawk River on the S. The group is sometimes included in the Appalachian system, but physically and geologically the two uplifts are quite independent. The Adirondack's cover an area of more than 12,000 square miles and include within their limits most of the coun- ties of Clinton, Franklin, Essex, and Hamilton, and portions of St. Lawrence, Lewis, Herkimer, and Warren. They are formed by several folds arranged parallel or en echelon, with a north- east-southwest trend, sloping on either side to- ward the narrow longitudinal valleys that sepa- rate the individual ridges. Most of the peaks have a rounded outline due to long-continued erosion, although in the northern part, where the highest elevations are found, the peaks are bold and picturesque and have bare rock walls rising several hundred feet in vertical escarp- ments. The summit of the group is Mt. Marcy, 5.344 feet above the sea, and there are many prominences exceeding 4,500 feet, including Mt. Mclntyre, 5,112; Skylight. 4,920: Whiteface, 4.872 ; Santanoni. 4.644 ; and Nipple Top, 4,684 feet. Toward the south and west the elevations become less pronounced and rise but a few hun- dred feet above the level of the plateau, which stands 1,500 feet or more above the sea. The parallel ranges are interrupted frequently by gaps or passes; some of them, like the Avalanche Pass and Indian Pass, possessing beautiful scenic features. Gorges and waterfalls occur along many of the stream valleys, the Ausable Chasm being especially noteworthy. Rivers and Lakes. — The Adirondacks form the water parting between the Hudson and St. Lawrence, both of which streams receive many important tributaries from this region. Most of the western region drains directly into the St. Lawrence through the Oswegatchie, Grass, Raquette, and St. Regis rivers, but a small por- tion is drained by the Black River, which flows into Lake Ontario. On the eastern side there are the Saranac and Ausable rivers and many short streams flowing into Lake Champlain. The Hudson River receives the waters of the Sacondaga, Indian, and Boreas, and has its source in the interior of the mountains in the northeastern part of Hamilton county. The lakes are perhaps the most attractive feature of the Adirondacks; they are distributed over the entire area to the number of many hun- dreds. The greater proportion lie in the larger valleys, to which they conform more or less closely in outline, being elongated along a north- east-southwest axis. Many, however, are nes- tled on the higher slopes at an elevation of 2.500 feet or more above the sea. Lake Tear of the Clouds on the crest of Mt. Marcy has an alti- tude of 4,320 feet. Lakes Champlain and George, the largest of the Adirondack lakes, are among the most attractive sheets of water in the United States. Among the smaller lakes much frequented by tourists are Long, Raquette, and Blue Mountain in Hamilton County, the Fulton Chain in Hamilton and Herkimer coun- ties, St. Regis and the Saranacs in Franklin County, and Lake Placid in Essex County. Most of the lakes are of glacial formation, the outlets of the old rivers having been obstructed by de- posits of glacial material. Geology and Mineral Resources. — The strata of which the mountains are formed belong to the most ancient geological period, consisting for the most part of crystalline formations which were uplifted long before the Appala- chian ranges had been defined. Gneisses, gran- ites, and basic igneous rocks predominate, al- though there are small areas underlaid by lime- stones and quartzites. One of the most prom- inent types is a basic feldspar rock called anorthosite, composed almost entirely of the min- eral labradorite. It constitutes the highest peaks in Essex County. On the borders these ancient formations are overlaid by early Palaeo- zoic strata of Cambrian and Silurian age, which have been little disturbed from their original horizontal position. The whole region was in- vaded by the great northern ice-sheet, which eroded and polished the rock surfaces and upon its retreat left a heavy mantle of drift covering all but the highest elevations. Valuable ores and minerals occur at numerous localities. The deposits of iron ores have been of great economic importance, although in recent years the indus- try has suffered from competition with the Lake Superior and Pennsylvania ores, which can be extracted at much less expense. The mines of ADIRONDACK PARK — ADJUTANT magnetite ore near Port Henry yield a large annual output, which is shipped to distant points for smelting. There are also deposits at Lyon Mountain, Lake Sanford, and Benson Mines, and other localities, which are not exploited at present. One of the richest graphite mines in the United States is located at Hague on Lake George. Garnet for abrasive purposes is mined in large quantities at North River, while ex- tensive deposits of foliated talc occur near Gou- verneur. Marble, granite, and other stones suit- able for building and other purposes, are the basis of a large quarry industry. Forests. — Pine, spruce, and hard woods are found over extensive areas. The mountains have been denuded of much of the larger tim- ber, and the principal lumbering industry is based upon the cutting of pulp-wood for paper manufacture. Spruce and poplar are most valu- able for this purpose. The wholesale destruc- tion of the forests has induced th; State govern- ment to purchase extensive tracts with a view to forest-cultivation and to preserve the sources of the principal rivers. (See Adiron- dack Park.) Game. — The Adirondacks are one of the fa- vorite hunting-grounds of America. Owing to the stringent legal restrictions limiting the sea- son for killing game, there is an abundance of deer, rabbits, partridge (grouse), and water- fowl. Deer are hunted chiefly by stalking, the use of dogs being prohibited. Black bear and wildcats may be found in many parts of the mountains, but moose and caribou, which for- merly were plentiful, have entirely disappeared. Several moose were introduced from other States in 1902 with the hope that they might again roam through the woods in numbers. Brook and lake trout and black bass are found in most of the streams and lakes and furnish ex- cellent sport for the angler. Resorts. — The climate of the mountains is bracing and healthful; in the summer season the heat is tempered by cool mountain breezes and by the elevation, and the severe cold of winter is made more endurable by the dry atmosphere. There are many sanitariums for invalids, espe- cially for those afflicted with pulmonary diseases. The pleasure-seekers, who visit the mountains in great numbers, find ample accommodations in the many hotels and camps. The railway lines afford easy access to most parts of the Adiron- dacks, while by taking advantage of the network of rivers and lakes the most remote regions can be reached without much difficulty. During the summer months steamboats make regular trips for the convenience of travelers on many of the lr.rger lakes. See New York (State). Adirondack Park, a large district, prin- cipally forest land, set apart by the State of New York in 1892 for the protection of the watershed of the Hudson and other rivers of the State, for public recreation, and for the prac- tical study of forestry. (See Cornell Univer- sity.) It covers Hamilton County, and parts of Essex, Franklin. Herkimer, and St. Law- rence counties, and contains many mountain- and lakes. From time to time additions are made to the reservations, as the appropriation - are available, and it is hoped that in time the whole region not under cultivation for crop;;, will be under State control, and while saved for the use of the people, will become a source of revenue to the State from the forestry indus- tries. Adit (« approach »), an underground pas- sage with but one opening ; distinguished from the tunnel proper, which has two. In military use, the burrow by which miners approach a place they wish to sap. In industrial mining, a gently sloping drift, used to drain a mine of the water coming into the workings from the top or sides, or pumped up from below ; usually but improperly called a tunnel. When there are two adits at different levels, the lower one is termed the "deep adit." The greatest in the United States is the Sutro Tunnel, 2,000 feet deep and 20,000 feet long, made in the palmy days of the Comstock Lode near Virginia City, Nev., to drain the mines along it. Aditi, ad'e-ti, in the mythology of the Hindu Rig-Vedas, Infinity endued with life and form, from which are born the Adityas — the source and substratum of the universe ; in later Vedic literature, the mother of the gods of storms (which are represented as life-produ- cing), and of the sun. Aditi is the daughter of Daksha and wife of Kasyapa, and besides being the mother of the 33 gods and of the sun, was also the mother of the Tushitas, or the 12 Adi- tyas. The latter in the Vedic literature num- bered seven and are the gods of the heavenly light, with Varuna at their head. In the Brah- manas and later they numbered 12. with sup- posed reference to the months of the year. Adive, a local Asiatic name of the corsac (q-v.). Adjective. See Grammar. , Adjustment, in insurance, is the determin- ing the amount of a loss. No specific form is necessary to an adjustment. It must be in- tended and understood by the parties to a policy to be absolute and final, in order to render it binding. It may be made by indorsement on the policy, by payment of the loss, or by the acceptance of an abandonment. (4 Burr. 1906; 1 Camp. 134; 22 Pick. (Mass.) 191.) If an adjust- ment is brought about by the fraudulent con- duct of one of the parties, it will not bind the other person. (2 Johns. Cas. 233 ; 3 Camp. 319.) If one party is led into a material mis- take of fact by fault of the other, the adjustment will not bind him. (2 Johns. (N. Y.) 157; 2 Johns. Cas. 233.) Adjutant ('(assistant"), in the armies of most chilized powers, a staff officer, the chief assistant to the commander of a regiment, bat- talion, or squadron, in the drill and discipline of the troops, and their general management off the battlefield, and in such other duties as fall to the commander's charge. In the United States army he is appointed by the colonel for four years, has the rank of captain, and is not eli- gible to reappointment; he is the colonel's sec- retary, and is generally so indispensable that in. time of war ambitious men often dreaded the appointment, as death to further promotion. The squadron and battalion adjutants rank as lieutenants, are similarly appointed for two years, and have the same relation to their chiefs ; there are also post, garrison, and brigade adjutants. For further details see the < U. S. Army Regis- ter.) ADJUTANT — ADMINISTRATION Adjutant, a large stork (Leptoptilus ar- gala) found in India and southeastern Asia, and so called by the English on account of its erect, officer-like appearance. Its Hindu name is «argala.» Its height is about 5 feet, its spread of wings about 14 feet. The back and wings are slate-colored, the bare, flesh-colored head anil neck are marked with black, and elsewhere it is white. The beautiful « maribou » feathers of commerce are taken from the tinder side of the wings. A pouch, which probably serves some purpose in connection with the organs of breathing, hangs from the under part of the neck and is capable of great distension. The bill is of great size, and the appetite of the .bird is correspondingly large. It is a scavenger, its food being carrion, offal, and small live animals, and it runs freely about Indian villages, pro- tected for its useful works. The marabou (q.v.) of Africa is a closely related species. Adjutant-General, an officer on the staff of the commander-in-chief, his secretary and prin- cipal assistant in issuing orders and supervising their execution, making reports and keeping registers, etc. ; and having general charge of the drill and discipline of an army. In the United States he ranks as major-general and is a lead- ing officer in the War Department ; he has charge of the recruiting service, collection of military information, and preparing annual mili- tia returns. Most of the States have an adju- tant-general, similarly related to their militia. Adler, Cyrus, iid'ler, librarian and archae- ologist : b. Van Buren, Ark., 13 Sept. 1863. He was graduated at the University of Pennsylvania in 1883, and took the degree of Ph.D. in 1887 at Johns Hopkins, where for several years he was instructor in Semitic languages. Since 1892 he has been librarian of the Smithsonian Institu- tion ; special commissioner of World's Fair to Turkey, Egypt, Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco; President of the American Jewish Historical So- ciety, and member of numerous learned societies. He is the author of numerous articles on Ori- ental archaeology, Assyriology, Semitic philology, comparative religion, and bibliography : and one of the editors of the < Jewish Encyclopaedia. > Adler, Felix, American lecturer and schol- ar : b. Al/ey, Germany, 13 Aug. 185 1, son of an eminent Jewish rabbi. In 1857 he emigrated tn the United States, in which country and at Berlin ami Heidelberg he was educated. After being for some time professor of He- brew ami Oriental literature at Cornell he founded in New York (1876) the Society for Ethical Culture, of which he is lecturer. Simi- lar societies have been established elsewhere in the United States and in other countries. He 1^ an effective writer and speaker. He has pub- lished 'Creed and Deed' (1878.); 'The Moral Instruction of Children' (1892). In June 1902 he was called to the newly ereated professor- ship of social and political ethics in the depart- ment of philosophy in Columbia University. Adler, George J., German-American phi- lologist: b. Germany, [821 ; d. 1868. He came to New York 1833; graduated at the University of the City nf New York 1S44, and from 1846-54 was professor of German there. He publ a valuable 'German-English Dictionary' 1 many editions since), still very useful for its careful discrimination of synonyms; 'German Grammar 1 1 X. Y. 1868) ; < Wilhclm von Hum- boldt's Linguistic Studies) (N. Y. 1808). and translated Fauriel's 'History of Provencal Fo- etry.> Adler, Hermann, Anglo-Jewish leader : b. in Hanover, 29 May 1839. He has lived most of his life in England, where he has held many positions of high trust connected with his race, having been since 1891 chief rabbi of the Brit- ish Empire, and has been active in general be- nevolence. He was principal of the Jews' Col- lege, London, 1863-91, and as chief rabbi be- came its president. Besides sermons. lectures, etc., he has written < The Jews in England • ; 'o 71, Pine ■■ r ol M iirr-*nwt Vol. XL— N* v \ THE PARTNERSHIP^ rCNRY nmn"HF.RSCOS'LT.K -.1 jomij COPARTNCRSIIII lcoi , ^!'i^.'"-"^'i^." . li WANTED , Fot KINGSTON. Iu«. ' ttVARIi CUOLD H ^ n r^ u:i *?i ^TMnMA-s' BLUOl>6-iiJI), ' LOOMLS I. IILU^..,,, HS " d ^"^»»> M «n,p„,"7" "?*0 be lei. foM, 01 enhtnpd lot iro- TloifinlKT ft Co.No. n front Ji. H J H«- N^SKT^c ARVET 11... II. f »JI t* LUHlttl, |- O R KALI, fot life- 1. j M-ftllt font, d.ft.lia \ jmyj^j xjm »■*■"> , j THOMAS WHITE, brtriiEN TAftRSON, 1W Mornin; vUi be UitfkJ, Uk5 l-j— . c*Jt •• ROLL 1 l> IRON. CEURLAIN -v* Co IN D t C O. ™ r ..„.., ....... Iw-rt-, " NICHOLAS COOKF. 11...... Wk if, k.. IM 1ALE, LITERARY MAGAZINE, lUpcrhDr an.t r int LAWRENCE W WHfrNtY. CHARLES L. CAMMAPJN. (■If. ,V4W«* JvkHntt.V.Ml, ■• »-n.M.MU£i>bi. O I N > A N G, [1RIMB St. Cro« fi«xu *nd Una,. COP AS I'NERSlllP >ki«, 1^1 iMtSqii. iip^r" ■■■>■ .'Wtt» hiv ^ ,u, ,^ J 4«4rtrr all. TTTTTT "JOSEPH CLACKWELU ^ 1 1 ...... ...... ■■- i.. •'•"-r- ■robfS w. t rt..j-eSJ<. «|||tll. Mi ur. .lp i>• LMdMgllM 0,1 It But1.f\( Sll,' '^-^lk<(«.i Hit. "t*w i"l""-uJi-, fUoT."«>'I'l A V.ftrltr, 1 Mum Ptttiw. •WL U On. IM«> <• R* |B»™, I |l«t*d • jMVf <| Ml ADVERTISING the lines of the various periodicals and condi- tions of demand for commodities. Retail Advertising embraces the announce- ments of merchants, large and small, in their own communities, from the full page in each day's newspapers employed by great department stores to the small announcements once or twice a week of the minor shopkeeper. This form of advertising is really a species of news, prepared daily, and is of such interest to the public that many readers take newspapers for their store advertisements, and the journals which carry most of these have the largest circulations. Merchants also publish store news by means of circulars through the mails, minor local jour- nals, programmes, bulletins, posters, etc. General Advertising is the general term de- scribing exploitation intended to reach the public nationally, or in a group of states. It is found chiefly in magazines and reviews, and in daily newspapers. Street cars, billboards and bulletins are employed as accessories. General advertis- ers include large manufacturers of food articles, soaps, musical instruments, clothing, beverages, tobacco, household and office supplies, furniture, plate, jewelry, sanitary appliances, etc., as well as the great insurance, steamship and railroad companies, cities and villages seeking popula- tion, banks and trust companies, and so forth. This is easily the largest branch of advertising, and the one most influential in distribution. It acts as a stimulus to the local merchant's efforts, and is so wide in scope as to touch every class and interest of the nation, however remote. Mail Order Advertising is the term applied to a form of exploitation peculiarly American. When the newer communities of the West were insufficiently supplied by their local merchants, several intelligent merchants in Chicago, a city situated geographically for this form of trade, began to advertise commodities to be forwarded direct to consumers by freight and express, re- ceiving orders and remittances through the mails. This was the beginning of "mail order" ad- vertising. Several of these merchants have built up businesses with a gross annual income of $-'5,000,000 or more, selling practically every- thing in the way of supplies, machinery, food, clothing, etc., direct to the consumer. Thousands of small advertisers operate with a few com- modities through the mails, and many local mer- chants conduct mail order departments. Mail order advertising is found in the magazines, the farm and religious press, the newspapers, and in a class of cheaply printed periodicals known as "mail order journals," having enormous cir- culations among people on farms and in villages who are not reached by more costly magazines or daily papers. A large volume of mail order advertising is also done through catalogues and printed matter sent through the mails. Agricultural Advertising is a form of pub- licity similar to mail order advertising, but which appears chiefly in farm periodicals and exploits machinery, fertilizers, farm animals, stock food, building materials and farm supplies. Trade Journal Advertising appears in the numerous special publications devoted to manu- facturing, retail and wholesale, commerce, finance, medicine and the professions, mining, transportation, etc. Its object is to acquaint local merchants with commodities manufac- turers wish to distribute, to inform engineers and superintendents of manufacturing plants about new machinery, and, generally, to main- tain that great organization which produces and handles commodities up to the point where they pass into the consumer's hands. Advertising Mediums. — In the United States advertising may be divided roughly into four groups, represented by the mediums used : Periodical advertising, outdoor advertising, street-car advertising and mail advertising. Periodical Advertising includes newspapers, magazines, reviews, trade, denominational and farm publications, periodicals printed in foreign languages, theatre and concert programs and other publications, of which there are not less than 23.000 of all kinds. In 1900 the output of printing and publishing in this country was valued at $350,000,000, of which, it is estimated, fully $200,000,000 represented revenue from ad- vertisements in periodicals and the printing of advertising matter. This item of expenditure is increasing so rapidly that it was estimated at $275,000,000 for 1905. Advertising in periodicals exceeds receipts from subscriptions by $30,000,000. During the 20 years from 1880 to 1900 the in- crease in advertising receipts of American periodicals was over 40 per cent. In the four States that publish the greatest number of pe- riodicals — New York, Pennsylvania, Massachu- setts and Illinois — the receipts from advertis- ing in 1900 were over $52,000,000. The adver- tising revenue of some of our largest newspapers runs into millions of dollars yearly. Magazines have shown the greatest growth in numbers, circulation and advertising patronage the past decade. In November, 1904, 31 leading monthly magazines in the United States published a total of 3.128 pages of advertising, representing, at an average of $21 an inch, an income of more than $1,000,000 per month from this source. More than 7.500 separate advertisements were represented, and 2,000 separate business houses, with an average expenditure of $500 each for the month, or $6,000 per year. It is held to be a safe rule to spend 5 per cent of the selling price of a commodity in advertising, so that this advertising for a single month in 31 publications would have to return a gross amount exceeding $20,000,000 to be profitable, or nearly $250,000,000 yearly. While the largest newspaper circulations seldom exceed 300.000 copies, daily, the circula- tion of several monthly magazines is more than 1. 000.000 copies per issue, and of one weekly more than 800.000 copies per issue. Outdoor Advertising includes posters and placards pasted on billboards and barns, painted signs on barns, fences and walls, as well as specially constructed bulletin boards in large cities which are electrically illuminated at night, the erection of advertisements about buildings in process of construction, the use of advertising along railroad lines and at populous seaside re- sorts, etc. As much as $10 per square foot has been paid for the privilege of advertising on a wall in New York City. Electric signs, with advertisements outlined in incandescent lamps, are an important form of expenditure for out- door advertising. The largest advertisement of this sort in the world is a single word on a New York building, with letters 60 feet high. visible to 50,000,000 passenger? on ferries each year. Advertising of this character adds to the attractiveness of a city by its diffusion of light ADVERTISING through the main streets at no cost to the public. Billboards and other outdoor advertising are more often charged with abusi and unstghtli- ness than any other form, and in some cities are prohibited in the vicinity of parks by municipal regulation. They have never come under con- trol to the extent common on the Continent, and in comparison with the outdoor advertisements of London are perhaps pleasing. Outdoor ad- vertising is thought t" be effective in reaching persons not habitual readers of newspapers, as well as to lay emphasis upon newspaper and magazine advertising by repeating the names of commodities more fully described in the press. It necessarily affords no opportunities for de- scription of articles, but is confined to repetition of brands and trademarks. Sired Car Advertising is a medium that has become prominent in the United States since the introduction of electric traction and the spread of trolley lines through cities and suburbs. An enormous population is carried in these vehi- cles — more than 5,000,000.000 cash fares are paid on trolleys yearly, and perhaps two-thirds of these represent an extra ride in the shape of a transfer. It is possible to maintain an adver- tising card in the 32,000 cars throughout the United States, covering about 400 towns and cities, for $150,000 a year, and in point of the number t. is about 14 111. in cir- cuit, and has productive tunny and anchovy fisheries. The group lias a population of 6,300. .War these islands the Romans won a great naval battle with the Carthaginians, 741 in., which ended the first Punic war. .ffigean Sea, e-je'an or i'ga-an, the old name of the gulf between Asia Minor and Greece, now usually called the Grecian Archi- pelago (q.v.). .ffigeus, e'jus. See Theseus. .ffigi'na, a Greek island about 15 m. S.W. of Athens. 111 the Gulf of .Egina (old Sinus Saro- nicus) ; area. 32 sq. 111.; pop alxuit 7.000. It is the triangular top of a partly submerged rocky hill, with deep gorges and ravines, and the eastern half rocky and unproductive: hut the western is a well-cultivated plain, which un- der the warm air anil sea produce the best Greek almonds, with olives and other fruits, wine, and some grain. The non-agricultural inhabitants do a considerable commerce and navigation from the one port, the capital. /Egina (pop. about 5.000), at the northwest, on the site of the old Greek town, of which considerable remains are left, the ruins of solidly built walls and har- bor moles still attesting its ancient size and im- portance. According to the legend, the island was named after the nymph .Egina, brought thither by Zeus. Historically, its first inhab- itants were Achxans, and were expelled by a 1 li >rian colony from Epidaurns, under whom it was one of the foremost commercial cities of Greece, full of hardy, energetic people, born seamen, who covered themselves with glory at Salamis. They were later forced to become a tributary part of the Athenian empire, and in 431 B.C. were expelled altogether. Lysander afterward restored them, but the city's old im- portance was gone. On a bill in the northeast are the remains of a splendid temple of Zeus Panhellenius (or, as others maintain, of Athena), many of the columns of which are still stand- ing. Here were found in the early 19th cen- tury a number of marble statues which once adorned the east and west fronts of the temple ; they were purchased by the king of Bavaria in [812, the deficient parts restored by Thorwald- sen, and are now among the chief ornaments of the Glyptothek at Munich. .ffig'inhard. See EciNHARD. .ffigir, a'jir, a Norse god of the sea-storms, who treats the other gods to foaming beer, and has a wife Ran caring for those lost at sea. Their nine daughters are sea-waves, with names representing the aspects of the ocean. .ffigirite, a mineral essentially identical with acmite (q.v.). Like it, atgirite is mono- clinic, and is a silicate of sodium and both ferric and ferrous iron, the former largely predomi- nating. It is a member of the pyroxene group and is regarded by Miers as an alkali diopside. It is distinguished from acmite by its simple, prismatic crystals, usually bluntly terminated. its dark green color, and its characteristic grass green, pale green and brown pleochroism. Its hardness is 6 to 6.5 and specific gravity about 3.53. It occurs in long prismatic crystals ■ ily in the elxolite-syenites of Norway and Arkansas. .ffigis, c'jts (•'storm"), the shield of Zeus, uMiecl by HcphaMus (Vulcan). From a bably mistaken etymology n was often said to have been the skin of the goat Amalthea, who -.tickled Zeus, ami to have had the Gorgon's head in the centre. \\ hen Zeus was angry he waved and shook the ;egis. making a -ound like mpest, by winch the nations were overawed, It was the symbol of divine protection, and be- came in course of time the exclusive attribute of Zeus and Athene. ./Egis'thus, e-jis'thus, son of Thyestes, and cousin of Agamemnon; adopted son of Atreus (q.v.). He did not accompany the Greeks to Troy, and during Agamemnon's absence lived in adultery with his wife Clytcmncstra. He as- sisted her in murdering her husband on his re- turn, but was himself put to death seven years later by Orestes, son of Agamemnon. This is the account given by Homer; the tragic poets make Clytemnestra alone murder Agamemnon, her motive in .Kschylus being her jealousy and wrath at the death of Iphigenia of Cassandra; in Sophocles and Euripides, the latter alone Later writers also describe .Egi-thus as the son of Thyestes by unwitting incest with his daugh- ter Pelopia. See Agamemnon; Atreus. .ffigium, e'jt-um, Greece, modern Vas- titza, though officially restored to its ancient name. See Achaia, iEgle, a genus of plants of the natural order Aurantiacea. The .UrIc marmelos is the tree which produces the bhel fruit. This fruit is most delicious to the taste, being exquisitely fragrant and nutritious, but laxative. When a little unripe it has been long used in India with great effect as an astringent in cases of diarrhoea and dysentery. iEgospot'amos or .ffigospot'amoi ("goat- river"), the Thracian Chersonesus 1 now penin- sula of Gallipoli) : a river and town memorable for the battle, or rather surprise, in which the Spartan general Lysander annihilated the Athen- ian fleet, 13 Dec. B.C. 405, and ended the Pelo- ponnesian war by the temporary ruin of Athens. The latter had 180 vessels, with a number of coequal commanders, only one of whom (Co- non) had common military sense, and perhaps treachery was at work; while Lysander was an eminent military genius and had no one to con- sult but himself. Having put them off their guard by ostentatious carelessness and absence for several days, he swooped down upon them one day at dinner-time while their ships were totally unprepared (despite the warnings of Alcibiades, whose castle was close by and who was fully a match for Lysander), and destroyed or captured the entire fleet except Conon's small squadron. Athens fell under the rule of Sparta, which set up an aristocratic government, the outcome of which is infamous in history as the Thirty Tyrants. .ffigyp'tus, in Greek legend, son of Beltts, king of Arabia; conquered the land called Eevpt from him. lie gave his fifty sons in marriage to the fifty daughters of his brother Danaus, who had established himself in Argros and was jealous of his brother, and who obliged all his daughters to murder their husbands on the night .ELFRIC — JENEID of their nuptials ; Hypermnestra alone spared her husband, Lynceus. Even /Egyptus was killed by his niece Polyxena. See Danaus ; Egypt. .ffilfric, al'fric, the Grammarian, Anglo- Saxon author and translator; fl. 1006. In his youth he was taught by a secular priest who could scarcely understand Latin. "There was no one," he says, "who could write or under- stand Latin letters until Dunstan and /Ethel- wold revived learning." This may account for his warm interest in education and his industry in translation and compilation. 'A Treatise on the Old and Xew Testaments' (printed 1623); the 'Heptateuchus,' an abridgment and trans- lation of the first seven books of the Old Testa- ment, with the Book of Job (pr. 1699) ; a 'Pastoral Letter,' written for Wulfstan, arch- bishop of York (1003-23), in which he makes the archbishop declare that he will not forcibly compel his clergy to chastity, but admonishes them to observe it ; a 'Latin Grammar and Glos- sary' (printed by Somner, 1659). iElia, a Roman gens, whose members in- cluded Sejanus. Hadrian, and the Antonines, as also the families of Paetus (q.v.), Gallus, etc. .ffilia Capitolina, the new name given to Jerusalem by Hadrian when he colonized it with Romans after the insurrection of 132-5 ad. ; he built a temple to Jupiter Capitolinus, and pre- fixed the name of his own gens, the /Elian. The Christian emperors after Constantine re- stored the old name. .ffilianus, Claudius, e-li-a'nus, a noted Ro- man sophist who flourished in the first half of the 2d century: b. Praeneste, Italy. Of his many works, written in Greek, two are extant: 'Va- rious Histories,' or narratives, in 14 books, and 'Of the Nature of Animals,' anecdotes of ani- mals, — most entertaining and uncritical com- pilations. The 'Peasants' Letters' accredited to him are spurious. Best ed., Hercher, 1858 and 1864. JEmilia'nus, C. Julius, emperor of Rome : a Moor who rose from the lowest stations ; gov- ernor of Pannonia and Mcesia, whose troops killed the Emperor Gallus and gave him the crown. He reigned only four months, when he was killed in his 46th year by his own sol- diers, who then offered the crown to Valerian. .ffimilian Way, a Roman state road about 185 m. long, built by the consul Marcus .Emil- ius Lepidus, 187 B.C., primarily as a military road to make easy communication between Rome and her new possessions in Cisalpine Gaul (Lom- bardy). Beginning at Ariminum (Rimini - ) on the Adriatic, where the Flaminian way from Rome ended, it traversed Bononia (Bologna), Mutina (Modena). and Parma, crossed the Pa- dus (Po) at Placentia (Piacenza), and ended at Mediolanum (Milan). .ffimil'ius Paulus, surnamed Maccdonicus. a noble Roman of the ancient family of .Emilii : b. 230 B.C. : d. 160. He conquered Perseus, king of Macedon. and on this occasion obtained a triumph. 168 B.C. During the triumph two of his sons died. He bore the loss like a hero, and thanked the gods that thev had chosen them for victims to avert had fortune from the Roman people. He was father of the renowned Scipio Africanus the Younger. .ffine'as, in the Iliad, a Trojan prince, son of Anchises and the goddess Venus; second only to his kinsman Hector among the Trojan chiefs. Other stories tell that the care of his infancy was entrusted to a nymph ; but at the age of five he was recalled to Troy and placed under the in- spection of Alcathoiis, his father's friend and companion. He afterward improved himself in Thessaly under Chiron the Centaur, whose house was frequented by all the young princes and heroes of the age. Soon after his return home he married Creusa, Priam's daughter, by whom he had a son called Ascanius. Vergil, whose object is to connect him (according to Latin tradition of untraceable source) with the origin of Rome, tells his further story as fol- lows in the /Eneid. In the night of the cap- ture of Troy by the Greeks, Hector warned him in a dream to fly. /Eneas notwithstanding rushed to the fight ; but after Priam was slain returned to his home and carried off his father, his child, and his household gods, losing, how- ever, his wife, Creusa, in the confusion. With twenty vessels he sailed for Thrace, where he began to build .Enos, but terrified by a miracle abandoned the attempt. Thence he went to De- los to consult the oracle. Misunderstanding its reply he went to Crete, from w-hich he was driven by a pestilence ; thence to the promontory of Actium, and in Epirus found Helenus and Andromache; thence past Italy and through the Straits of Messina, and circumnavigated Sicily to Cape Drepanum on the western coast, where Anchises died. A tempest drove him on the shore of Africa, where Dido received him kindly in Carthage and wished to detain and marry him. Jupiter, however, mindful of the Fates, sent Mercury to .Eneas and commanded him to sail for Italy. While the deserted Dido ended her life on the funeral pile. .Eneas set sail with his companions and was cast by a storm on the shores of Sicily, in the dominions of his Trojan friend Acestes, where the wives of his com- panions, wearied of a seafaring and homeless life, set fire to the ships. Nevertheless, after building the city Acesta. he sailed for Italy, leaving the women and the sick behind. He found near Cumae a sibyl his father's ghost had ordered him to seek, who foretold his destiny and aided his descent into the lower world; here he saw his father and had a prophetic vi- sion of the glorious destinies of his race. On his return he embarked again and reached the eastern shore of the river Tiber, in the country of Latinus, king of the Aborigines (q.v.). His daughter Lavinia was destined by an oracle to a stranger, but promised by her mother Amata to Turnus, king of the Rutuli. This occasioned a war. after the termination of which. Turnus having fallen by his hand, .Eneas married La- vinia. His son by Lavinia, .Eneas Sylvius. was the ancestor of the kings of Alba Longa. and of Romulus and Remus, the founders of the city of Rome. From Ascanius' son lulus the Ro- mans derive the Julian family. For the real origin of Rome, see that title. .ffineas Silvius. See Pius II. .ffine'id, one of the great epic poems of the world ; written in Latin by Vergil and pub- lished after his death, which took place about 10 B.C. Being left imperfect, his friends Varius and Tucca edited it at Augustus' request. For its story, see .Eneas. See also Vergil. .ffiNESIDEMUS — JEQUI .ffineside'mus, Greek philosopher, fl. 80-60 B.C. : b. Cnossus in Crete, removed to Alex- andria. He was a leader of the Skeptical school, and is famous for the "Ten Tropes" attributed In him, — arguments to prove the impossibility of absolute knowledge, and reducible in essence to two, that no two things are alike and every- thing is relative. They are: ( 1 ) That each sen- tient being must have a different perception and conception of the universe from every other because differently constituted; (2) that human igs differ; ( 3 ) that sense organs differ; (4) that the circumstances of perceptions differ; (5) that objects perceived differ in location and dis- tance; (6) that different objects are confounded ; (71 that different combinations make the same sensation seem different; (8) that all knowledge lative; (9) thai degrees of familiarity cause differences in perception; (10) that the intel- lectual speculations, moral theories, laws, man- ners and customs, civilizations, etc., of all races differ (Locke's argument against intuitive ideas). .ffinianes, e-ni'a-nes, in classic Greek, an Achaean people living on the southern border of Thessaly, in the mountains west of Ther- mopylae; members of the /Etolian League and the Delphic Amphictyony. .ffio'lian, a musical instrument. See Musi- cal Instruments, Mechanical. .ffiolian Harp, or .ffiolus' Harp, is generally a simple box of thin fibrous wood to which are attached a number (if line strings, sometimes as many as fifteen, stretched on low bridges at each end, and carefully tuned so as to be in har- mony. Its length is made to correspond to the size of the window or other aperture in which it is intended to be placed. Its width is about five or six inches, its depth two or three. It must be placed with the strings uppermost, under which is a circular opening in the centre, as in the belly of the guitar. When the wind blows athwart the strings it produces the effect of a choir of music in the air, sweetly mingling all the harmonic notes, and swelling or diminishing the sounds according to the strength or weak- ness of the blast. A simpler kind of -Eolian harp has no sounding-board, but consists merely of a number of strings extended between two boards. iEolians ("variegated," mixed race), an ancient Greek people, perhaps the very earliest Greek stock — a mixture of Hellenes and Pe- lasgi — before the special races like Ionians and Dorians had differentiated from it; as their lan- guage was not a distinct dialect like those, but is a mixture of elements from all and presents the closest link of any between Greek and Latin. The Homeric language is /Eolic. The race ex- tended from northeast to southwest through Greece, from the Pagasaic Gulf through Thes saly or at least Phthiotis, Bceotia. Phocis, Locris, and rEtolia north of the Corinthian Gulf, to Elis and Messenia south of it. The sons of ^Esculapius (q.v.), Philoctetes, Odys- seus, Nestor, and the Oilean Ajax, were yEolians :. and legend accredits to the same Stock Jason, Melampus the healer who under- stood the song of birds, Sisyphus the founder of Corinth, and Athamas the great king of the Minyae, son-in-law of Cadmus and father of Phnxus and Helle. The Ach.-cans, if not origi- nally part of the same stock, became blent with them and are classed by the ancients as part of them ; and there is no separate Achaean dia- lect or art. Probably they were one, and the Peloponnesian Achxi were certainly part of them ; and the great emigration commonly called the /Eolian was an emigration of Achaean peo- ple. It seems probable that the emigration from the Peloponnesus began before the Dorian in- vasion, or return of the Heraclidas, as it is often called, which caused so great a revolution in the peninsula. Strabo says the /Eolian settlements in Asia were four generations prior to the Ionian. Their colonies on the Asiatic mainland spread, extending at least from Cyzicus, along the shores of the Hellespont and the /Egean, to the river Caicus, and even the Ilcrmus. Many positions in the interior were also occupied by them, as well as the fine island of Lesbos, with Tenedos, and others of smaller importance. Homer mentions all these parts as possessed by a different people; which would be proof, if any were wanting, that the race of new settlers came after his time. There were twelve cities or states included in the older set- tlments in that tract of Asia .Minor on the /Egean which was known in Greek geography by the name of .Eolis and formed a part of the subsequent larger division of Mysia. Smyrna, one of them, which early fell into the hands of the Ionians. the neighbors of the /Eolians, still exists nearly on the old spot, with exactly the same name; thus adding one to the many in- stances of the durable impression made by Greek colonies wherever they settled. iEolis. See /Eolians. /E'olus, in Greek legend: (1) Ruler of the winds; a sort of sub-deity, having his residence in a floating island, said to be one of the /Eolian Islands, or by the Latin and later Greek poets one of the Lipari Islands. Here he kept the winds in bags (Virgil says in caves), restraining or letting them loose at the orders of Zeus. In the Odyssey he gives them to Odysseus to take care of for a time. (2) The eponymous an- cestor of the /Eolians, located in Thessaly; Hel- len was his father and Dorus his brother (epo- nyms of the Hellenes and Dorians), and Sisyphus his son, the significance of which is not ascertainable. (1) and (2) may have been originally the same, but if so they arose as in- dependent metaphors or eponyms. .ffiqui, an ancient people of Italy, conspic- uous in the early wars of Rome. They inhab- ited the mountain district between the upper valley of the Anio (Teverone) and Lake Fuci- nus. Their origin is unknown ; but they were probably akin to the Volscians, with whom they were in constant alliance. This league after the fall of the monarchy made great headway and captured many towns, their power culminating in the 5th century B.C. At length they were se- verely defeated by Cincinnatus in 458, and again by the dictator Postumus Tubertus in 428. They were finally subdued about 304, and soon after were admitted to Roman citizenship, being included in the new tribes Aniensis and Teren- tina. Henceforth their name disappears from history: but the inhabitants of the upper valleys began to be called /Equiculi. by which name they are mentioned by Vergil as predatory moun- taineers. The name /Equiculani occurs in Pliny. .ffiRARIUM — AERIAL LOCOMOTION .ffirarium, e-ra'ri-um ("money-place"), the public treasury of ancient Rome ; containing not only the state moneys and accounts, but the legionary standards, the public laws (on brass plates), senate decrees, and other important papers and registers. It was located in the tem- ple of Saturn, on the eastern slope of the Capitoline hill. Besides the general treasury, filled from general taxes and drawn on for regular expenses, there was in the same build- ing, a "sacred treasury," or reserve fund, replenished chiefly by a 5 per cent tax on the value of manumitted slaves, which was never drawn upon except on occasions of ex- treme necessity. The senate controlled the serarium nominally even under the early em- perors, who had their separate imperial treasury called the fiscus; but as the senate became a mere name, the figment of two treasuries was gradually abolished. Augustus established also a military treasury devoted solely to army ac- counts. The later emperors had likewise a pri- vate treasury, aside from the general one which they administered for the empire. Aerated Bread. See Bread. Aerated Waters. See Mineral Waters. Aerial Conveyer. See Conveyer. Aerial Locomotion. We are all of us in- terested in aerial locomotion ; and I am sure that no one who has observed with attention the flight of birds can doubt for one moment the possibility of aerial flight by bodies specifically heavier than the air. In the words of an old writer, "We cannot consider as impossible that which has already been accomplished." I have had the feeling that a properly con- structed flying-machine should be capable of being flown as a kite ; and, conversely, that a properly constructed kite should be capable of use as a flying-machine when driven by its own propellers. I am not so sure, however, of the truth of the former proposition as I am of the latter. Given a kite, so shaped as to be suitable for the body of a flying-machine, and so effi- cient that it will fly well in a good breeze (say 20 miles an hour) when loaded with a weight equivalent to that of a man and engine : then it seems to me that this same kite, provided with an actual engine and man in place of the load, and driven by its own propellers at the rate of 20 miles an hour, should be sustained in calm air as a flying-machine. So far as the pressure of the air is concerned, it is surely immaterial whether the air moves against the kite, or the kite against the air. Of course in other respects the two cases are not identical. A kite sustained by a 20-mile breeze possesses no momentum, or rather its momentum is equal to zero, because it is sta- tionary in the air and has no, motion proper of its own ; but the momentum of a heavy body propelled at 20 miles an hour through still air is very considerable. Momentum certainly aids flight, and it may even be a source of support against gravity quite independently of the pres- sure of the air. It is perfectly possible, there- fore, that an apparatus may prove to be efficient as a flying-machine which cannot be flown as a kite on account of the absence of vis viva. However this may be, the applicability of kite experiments to the flying-machine problem has for a long time past been the guiding thought in my researches. I have not cared to ascertain how high a kite may be flown or to make one fly at any very great altitude. The point I have had spe- cially in mind is this: That the equilibrium of the structure in the air should be perfect ; that the kite should fly steadily, and not move about from side to side or dive suddenly when struck by a squall, and that when released it should drop slowly and gently to the ground without material oscillation. I have also considered it important that the framework should possess great strength with little weight. I believe that in the form of structure now attained the properties of strength, lightness, and steady flight have been united in a remarkable degree. In my younger days the word "kite" suggested a structure of wood in the form of a cross covered with paper forming a diamond- shaped surface longer one way than the other, and provided with a long tail composed of a string with numerous pieces of paper tied at in- tervals upon it. Such a kite is simply a toy. In Europe and America, where kites of this type prevailed, kite-flying was pursued only as an amusement for children, and the improvement of the form of structure was hardly considered a suitable subject of thought for a scientific man. In Asia kite-flying has been for centuries the amusement of adults, and the Chinese. Jap- anese, and Malays have developed tailless kites very much superior to any form of kite known to us until quite recently. It is only within the last few years that improvements in kite structure have been seriously considered, and the recent developments in the art have been largely due to the efforts of one man — Laurence Har- grave of Australia. Hargrave realized that the structure best adapted for what is called a "good kite" would also be suitable as the basis for the structure of a flying-machine. His researches, published by the Royal Society of New South Wales, have attracted the attention of the world, and form the starting point for modern researches upon the subject in Europe and America. Any- thing relating to aerial locomotion has an interest to very many minds, and scientific kite-flying has everywhere been stimulated by Hargraw's experiments. In America, however, the chief stimulus to scientific kite-flying has been the fact developed by the United States Weather Bureau, that im- portant information could be obtained concern- ing weather conditions if kites could be con- structed capable of lifting meteorological instru- ments to a great elevation in the free air. Mr. Eddy and others in America have taken the Malay tailless kite as a basis for their experi- ments, but Prof. Marvin, of the United States Weather Bureau; Mr. Rotch, of the Blue Hill Observatory, and many others have adapted Har- grove's box kite for the purpose. Congress has made appropriations to the Weather Bureau in aid- of its kite experiments, and a number of meteorological stations throughout the United States were established a few years ago equipped with the Marvin kite. Continuous meteorologi- cal observations at a great elevation have been made at the Blue Hill Observatory in Massachu- setts, and Mr. Rotch has demonstrated the possi- AERIAL LOCOMOTION bility of towing kites at sea by means of steam vessels so as to secure a continuous line of observations all the way across the Atlantic. hargrave's box kite. Hargrave introduced what is known as the "cellular construction of kites." He constructed kites composed of many cells, but found no sub- stantial improvement in many cells over two alone ; and a kite composed of two rectangular FlG. I. — Hargrave Box Kite. cells separated by a considerable space is now universally known as "the Hargrave box kite." This represents, in my opinion, the high-water mark of progress in the 19th century; and this form of kite forms the starting point for my own researches (Fig. 1). The front and rear cells are connected by a framework, so that a considerable space is left between them. This space is an essential feature of the kite: upon it depends the fore and aft stability of the kite. The greater the space, the more stable is the equilibrium of the kite in a fore and aft direction, the more it tends to assume a horizontal position in the air, and the less it tends to dive or pitch like a vessel in a rough sea. Pitching motions or oscillations are almost entirely suppressed when the space between the cells is large. Each cell is provided with verti- cal sides ; and these again seem to be essential elements of the kite contributing to lateral sta- bility. The greater the extent of the vertical sides, the greater is the stability in the lateral direction, and the less tendency has the kite to roll, or move from side to side, or turn over in the air. In the foregoing drawing I have shown only necessary details of construction, with just suffi- cient framework to hold the cells together. It is obvious that a kite constructed as shown in Fig. 1 is a very flimsy affair. It requires additions to the framework of various sorts to give it sufficient strength to hold the aeroplane surfaces in their proper relative positions and prevent dis- tortion, or bending or twisting of the kite frame under the action of the wind. Unfortunately the additions required to give rigidity to the framework all detract from the efficiency of the kite: First, by rendering the kite heavier, so that the ratio of weight to surface is increased; and secondly, by increasing the head resistance of the kite. The interior bracing advisable in order to preserve the cells from distortion comes in the way of the wind, thus adding to the drift of the kite without contributing to the lift. L ^ ABC Fig. 2. A rectangular cell like A (Fig. 2) is struc- turally weak, as can readily be demonstrated by the little force required to distort it into the form 1 at B In order to remedy this weak- ness, internal bracing is advisable of the cha- racter shown at C. This internal bracing, even : of the finest wire, so as to be insignificant in weight, all comes in the way of the wind, increasing the head resistance without counter- balancing advanta Triangular Cells in Kite Construction. — In looking back over the line of experiments in my nun laboratory, I recognize that the adop- tion of a triangular cell was a step in advance, constituting indeed one of the milestones of progress, one of the points that stand out clearly against the hazy background of multitudinous details. The following ( Fig. 3) is a drawing of a typical triangular-celled kite made upon the same general model as the Hargrave box kite shown in Fig. I. A triangle is by its very struc- ture perfectly braced in its own plane, and in a triangular-celled kite like that shown in Fig 3, internal bracing of any character is unnecessary Fie. 3. to prevent distortion of a kind analogous to that referred to above in the case of the Hargrave rectangular cell (Fig. 2). The lifting power of such a triangular cell is probably less than that of a rectangular cell, but the 1 gain in structural strength, together with the reduction of head resistance and weight due to the omission of internal bracing, counterbalances any possible deficiency in this respect. The horizontal surfaces of a kite are those that resist descent under the influence of grav- ity, and the vertical surfaces prevent it from turning over in the air. Oblique aeroplanes may therefore conveniently be resolved into horizon- tal and vertical equivalents, that is. into sup- porting surfaces and steadying surfaces. The oblique aeroplane A, for example ( Fig. 4 I, may be considered as equivalent in function to the two aeroplanes B and C. The material composing the aeroplane A, however, weighs less than the material required to form the two aeroplanes Fie. 4. B and C, and the framework required to sup- port the aeroplane A weighs less than the twe frameworks required to support B and C. In the triangular cell shown in Fig. 5, the oblique surfaces ab, be. are equivalent in func- tion to the three surfaces ad, dc. ee. but weigh less. The oblique surfaces arc therefore advan- tageous. The only disadvantage in the whole ar AERONAUTICS^ MACHINES. M..M.U Machine '• Balloon with Electric Mob r ling of Capttvi Ball* '- Outline Diagram o( the Ssntoi Dumonl Up 81 1 C AERIAL LOCOMOTION rangement is that the air has not as free access strength. In this case the weight of the com to the upper aeroplane ac, in the triangular form of cell as in the quadrangular form, so that the aeroplane ac is not as efficient in the former construction as in the latter. While theoretically the triangular cell is in- ferior in lifting power to Hargrave's four-sided pound kite is less than the sum of the weights 9 longitudinal sticks rectangular cell, practically there is no sub- stantial difference. So far as I can judge from observation in the field, kites constructed on the same general model as the Hargrave box kite, but with triangular cells instead of quadrangular, seem to fly as well as the ordinary Hargrave form, and at as high an angle. Such kites are therefore superior, for they fly substantially as 6 longitudinal sticks IS longitudinal sticks Fig. 7. well, while at the same time they are stronger of the component kites, while the surface remains in construction, lighter in weight, and offer the same. If kites could only be successfully less head resistance to the wind. compounded in this way indefinitely we would "Perspective View. Fig. 6. — Compound Triangular Kite. End View. Triangular cells also are admirably adapted for combination into a compound structure, in which the aeroplane surfaces do not interfere with one another. For example, three triangu- lar-celled kites, tied together at the corners, form a compound cellular kite (Fig. 6) which flies perfectly well. The weight of the com- pound kite is the sum of the weights of the three kites of which it is composed, and the total aeroplane surface is the sum of the surfaces of the three kites. The ration of weight to sur- face therefore is the same in the larger com- pound kite as in the smaller constituent kites, considered individually. It is obvious that in compound kites of this character the doubling of the longitudinal sticks where the corners of adjoining kites come together is an unnecessary feature of the com- bination, for it is easy to construct the com- pound kite so that one longitudinal stick shall be substituted for the duplicated sticks. For example: The compound kites A and B (Fig. 7) may be constructed, as shown at C and D, with advantage, for the weight of the compound kite is thus reduced without loss of structural have the curious result that the ratio of weight to surface would diminish with each increase in the size of the compound kite. Unfortunately, however, the conditions of stable flight demand a considerable space between the front and rear sets of cells (see Fig. 6); and if we increase the diameter of our compound structure with- AERIAL LOCOMOTION out increasing the length of this space we injure the flying qualities of our kite. But every increase of this space in the fore and aft direc- tion involves a corresponding increase in the length of the empty framework required to span it, thus adding dead load to the kite and increasing the ratio of weight to surface. While kites with triangular cells are strong in a trans- \crse direction (from side to side), they are structurally weak in the longitudinal direction (fore and aft), for in this direction the kite frames are rectangular. Each side of the kite A, for example (Fig. 8), requires diagonal bracing of the character shown at B to pre- vent ili-tortion under the action of the wind. The necessary bracing, however, not being in the way of the wind, does not materially affect the head resistance of the kite, and is only dis- advantageous by adding dead load, thus increas- ing the ratio of weight to surface. THE TETRAHEDRAL CONSTRUCTION OF KITES. Passing over in silence multitudinous ex- periments in kite construction carried on in my .Nova Scotia laboratory, I come to another con- Fig. 9. A.— A Triangular Cell. B.— A Winged Tetrahedral Cell spicuous point of advance — another milestone of progress — the adoption of the triangular construction in every direction (longitudinally as well as transversely): and the clear realiza- tion of the fundamental importance of the skele- ton of a tetrahedron, especially the regular tetrahedron, as an element of the structure of framework of a kite or flying-machine. tip to tip by a cross-bar (see B, Fig. 9; also drawings of winged tetrahedral cells in Fig. 10). A tetrahedron is a form of solid bounded by four triangular surfaces. In the regular tetra- hedron the boundaries consist of four equilateral triangles and six equal edges. In the skeleton form the edges alone are represented, and the skeleton of a regular tetrahedron is produced by joining together six equal rods end to end so as Fie. 12. — Four-celled Tetrahedral Frame. to form four equilateral triangles. Most of us no doubt are familiar with the common puzzli — • how to make four triangles with six matches. Give six matches to a friend and ask him to ar- range them so as to form four complete equilat- eral triangles. The difficulty lies in the uncon- scious assumption of the experimenter that the four triangles should all be in the same plane. The moment he realizes that they need not be in the same plane the solution of the problem be- comes easy. Place three matches on the table so as to form a triangle, and stand the other three up over this like the three legs of a tripod stand. The matches then form the skeleton of a regular tetrahedron. (See Fig. II.) A framework formed upon this model of six equal rods fastened together at the ends constitutes a tetra- hedral cell possessing the qualities of strength and lightness in an extraordinary degree. It is not simply braced in two directions in space like a triangle, but in three directions like a solid. If I may coin a word, it possesses "three-dimensional" strength ; not "two-dimen- Regular tetrahedron Right-angled tetrahedron Obtuse-angled tetrahedron Fie. 10. — Winged Tetrahedral Cells. Consider the case of an ordinary triangular cell A (Fig. 9) whose cross-section is triangu- lar laterally, but quadrangular longitudinally. If now we make the longitudinal as well as trans- verse cross-sections triangular, we arrive at the Fig. 11. — One-celled Tetrahedral Frame. form of cell shown at B, in which the framework forms the outline of a tetrahedron. In this case the aeroplanes are triangular, and the whole ar- rangement is strongly suggestive of a pair of birds' wings raised at an angle and connected sional" strength like a triangle, or "one-dimen- sional" strength like a rod. It is the skeleton of a solid, not of a surface or a line. It is aston- ishing how solid such a framework appears even when composed of very light and fragile material ; and compound structures formed by fastening these tetrahedral frames together at the corners so as to form the skeleton of a regu- lar tetrahedron on a larger scale possess equal solidity. Fig. 12 shows a structure composed of four frames like Fig. II, and Fig. 13 a structure of four frames like Fig. 12. When a tetrahedral frame is provided with aero-surfaces of silk or other material suitably arranged, it becomes a tetrahedral kite, or kite having the form of a tetrahedron. The kite show : n in Fig. 14 is composed of four winged AERIAL LOCOMOTION cells of the regular tetrahedron variety (see has 64 times as much weight and 64 times as Fig. 10) , connected at the corners. Four much wing-surface. The ratio of weight to kites like Fig. 14 are combined in Fig. 15. surface therefore is the same for the larger Upon this mode of construction an empty space kites as for the smaller. of octahedral form is left in the middle of the This at first sight appears to be somewhat inconsistent with certain mathematical conclu- sions announced by Prof. Simon Newcomb in an article entitled "Is the Air-Ship Coming," pub- lished in ( McClure's Magazine' for September 1901 — conclusions which led him to believe that "the construction of an aerial vehicle which could carry even a single man from place to place at pleasure requires the discovery of some new metal or some new force." The process of Fig. 13. — Sixteen-celled Tetrahedral Frame. kite, which seems to have the same function as the space between the two cells of the Hargrave box kite. The tetrahedral kites that have the largest central spaces preserve their equilibrium best in the air. The most convenient place for the attach- ment of the flying cord is the extreme point of the bow. If the cord is attached to points suc- cessively farther back on the keel, the flying cord makes a greater and greater angle with Fig. 14. — Four-celled Tetrahedral Kite. the horizon, and the kite flies more nearly over- head : but it is not advisable to carry the point of attachment as far back as the middle of the keel. A good place for high flights is a point half way between the bow and the middle of the keel. In tetrahedral kites the compound structure has itself in each case the form of the regular tetrahedron, and there is no reason why this principle of combination should not be applied indefinitely so as to form still greater combina- tions. The weight relatively to the wing-surface remains the same, however large the compound kite may be. The four-celled kite, for example, weighs four times as much as one cell and has four times as much wine surface, the 16-celled kite has 16 times as much weight and 16 times as much wing-surface, and the 64-celled kite Fig. 15. — Sixteen-celled Tetrahedral Kite. reasoning by which Prof. Newcomb arrived at this remarkable result is undoubtedly correct. His conclusion, however, is open to question, because he has drawn a general conclusion from restricted premises. He says : "Let us make two flying-machines exactly alike, only make one on double the scale of the other in all its dimen- sions. We all know that the volume, and there- fore the weight, of two similar bodies are pro- portional to the cubes of their dimensions. The cube of two is eight ; hence the large machine will have eight times the weight of the other. But surfaces are as the squares of the dimen- sions. The square of two is four. The heavier machine will therefore expose only four times the wing surface to the air, and so will have a distinct disadvantage in the ratio of efficiency to weight." Prof. Newcomb shows that where two flying-machines — or kites, for that matter' — are exactly alike, only differing in the scale of their dimensions, the ratio of weight to supporting surface is greater in the larger than the smaller, increasing with each increase of dimensions. From which he concludes that if we make our structure large enough it will be too heavy to fly. This is certainly true, so far as it goes, and it accounts for my failure to make a giant kite that should lift a man — upon the model of the Hargrave box kite. When the kite was con- structed with two cells, each about the size of a small room, it was found that it would take a hurricane to raise it into the air. The kite proved to be not only incompetent to earn- a load equivalent to the weight of a man. but it could not even raise itsrlf in an ordinary breeze in which smaller kites upon the same model flew perfectly well. I have no doubt that other inves- tigators also have fallen into the error of sup- AERIAL LOCOMOTION — aSrIANS posing that large structures would necessarily be capable of flight, because exact models of them, made upon a smaller scale, have demon- strated their ability to sustain themselves in the air. Prof. Newcomb has certainly conferred a benefit upon investigators by SO clearly pointing out the fallacious nature of this assumption. But Prof. Newcomb's results are probably only true when restricted to his premises. For models exactly alike, only differing in the scale of their dimensions, his conclusions are un- doubtedly sound; but where large kites are formed by the multiplication of smaller kites into a cellular structure the results are very different. My own experiments with compound kites composed of triangular cells connected cor- ner to corner have amply demonstrated the fact that the dimensions of such a kite may be increased to a very considerable extent without materially increasing the ratio of weight to sup- porting surface : and upon the tetrahedral plan the weight relatively to the wing-surface re- mains the same, however large the compound kite may be. The indefinite expansion of the triangular construction is limited by the fact that dead weight in the form of empty framework is neces- sary in the centra] space between the sets of cells (see Fig. b), so that the necessary increase of this space when the dimensions of the com- pound kite are materially increased — in order to preserve the stability of the kite in the air — adds still more dead weight to the larger struc- tures. Upon the tetrahedral plan no necessity exists for empty frameworks in the central spaces, for the mode of construction gives solid- ity without it. Tetrahedral kites combine in a marked degree the qualities of strength, light- ness, and steady flight ; but further experiments are required before deciding that this form is the best for a kite, or that winged cells without hori- zontal aeroplanes constitute the best arrange- ment of aero-surfaces. The tetrahedral principle enables us to construct out of light materials solid frameworks of almost any desired form, and the resulting structures are admirably adapted for the support of aero-surfaces of any desired kind, size, or shape (aeroplanes or aero- curves, etc., large or small). In further illustration of the tetrahedral principle as applied to kite construction, I built a kite which is not itself tetrahedral in form, but the framework of which is built up of tetra- hedral cells. This kite, although very different in construction and appearance from the Aero- drome of Prof. Langley, which I saw in suc- cessful flight over the Potomac a few years ago, has yet a suggestiveness of the Aerodrome about it, and it was indeed Prof. Langlcy's apparatus that led me to the conception of this form. The wing-surfaces consist of horizontal aeroplanes, with oblique steadying surfaces at the extremi- ties. The body of the machine has the form of a boat, and the superstructure forming the sup- port for the aeroplanes extends across the boat on either side at two points near the bow and stern. The aeroplane surfaces form substan- tially two pairs of wings, arranged dragon-fly fashion. The whole framework for the boat and wings is formed of tetrahedral cells having the form of the regular tetrahedron, with the ex- ception of the diagonal bracing at the bottom of the superstructure ; and the kite turns out to be strong, light, and a steady flyer. I have flown this kite in a calm by attaching the cord — in this case a Manila rope — to a galloping horse. Upon releasing the rope the kite descended so gently that no damage was done to the apparatus by contact with the ground. An attempt which almost ended disastrously, was made to fly a modified form of the kite described in a good sailing breeze, hut a squall struck it before it was let go. The kite went up, lifting the two men who held it off their fnt. Of course they let go instantly, and the kite rose steadily in the air until the flying cord (a Manila rope three eighths of an inch in diameter) made an angle with the horizon of about 45 when the rope snapped under the strain. Tremendous oscillations of a pitching character ensued; but the kite was at such an elevation when the accident happened, that the oscillations had time to die down before the kite reached the ground, when it landed safely upon even keel in an adjoining field and was found to be quite uninjured by its rough experi- ence. Kites of this type have a much greater lifting power than one would at first sight suppose. The natural assumption is that the winged superstruc- ture alone supports the kite in the air, and that the boat body and floats represent mere dead-load and bead resistance. But this is far from being the case. Boat-shaped bodies having a Y-shaped cross-section are themselves capable of flight and expose considerable surface to the wind. I have successfully flown a boat of this kind as a kite without any superstructure whatever, and although it did not fly well, it certainly supported itself in the air, thus demonstrating the fact that the boat surface is an element of support in compound structures like those described. Of course the use of a tetrahedral cell is not limited to the construction of a framework for kites and flying-machines. It is applicable to any kind of structure whatever in which it is desirable to combine the qualities of strength and lightness. Just as we can build houses of all kinds out of bricks, so we can build struc- tures of all sorts out of tetrahedral frames, and the structures can be so formed as to possess the same qualities of strength and lightness which are characteristic of the individual cells. I have already built a house, a framework for a giant wind-break, three or four boats, as well as several forms of kites, out of these elements. See Aerodrome; Balloon; Flying Machines. Alexander Graham Bell. Aerians, a religious sect who arose in the 4th century of the Christian Church and present many features of modern religious liberalism in the way they combatted ecclesiastical tradition and the institutionalism professedly derived from the Apostolic age. They derive their name from their originator and leader, Aerius, a pres- byter of Sebaste, a city of Pontus. Aerius flour- ished about 35S A.D. He was fired with a spirit of revolt against the condition of the Church as he found it. Although an ascetic of a very stern and rigid character, he was shocked at the extravagant lengths to which some of his fellow Christians carried the practice of fasting, and the claims which they made to merit because of this rigorous self-maceration. Although he found fasting a settled institution of the Church be opposed the practice because of the delusions it seemed to lead to. He was also an opposer AERIDES — AERODROME of those special festivals of intercession which were held in behalf of the faithful departed. "Pray for the living, whose needs and suffer- ings some of which you may have caused," he seems to say. To this vigorous and uncompro- mising onslaught on the common and ordinary practices of the Church he recalls such earnest and outspoken fathers of the Reformation as Martin Luther and John Knox. There were a great many people who sympathized and agreed with him, and his sect at one time was very flourishing. The ascendancy of the episcopal order in the Church was a natural aristocratic movement, although Bishop Lightfoot in com- mentary on the Philippians does not seem to think that it was sanctioned either by divine command or apostolic precedent. Aerius main- tained that the bishop was not superior to the presbyter, that they were of the same order, and that a bishop was merely a chairman elected for convenience sake to preside among equals. He seems also to have been opposed to holding of any such set festivals in the Church as Easter. This sect seems to have sown the earliest seed of modern Presbyterianism. Aerides, the wind flower, one of the Orclii- dacca, of which there are 15 species. The finest species, Aerides adoratum, grows wild in parts of Asia, but in cold and temperate climates is cultivated under glass, though flowering at rare intervals. This genus of plants derives its name from the fact that the species appear to take their principal nourishment from the air, as they can exist and thrive in their native clime, sending forth blossom after blossom while sus- pended and far away from any vegetable soil. They bear distichous leaves and their flowers are big and brilliant, while at the same time possess- ing a rare fragrance. Aerial Telegraphy. See Semaphore; Wire- less Telegraphy. A'erinite, a bright blue earthy substance found in the Pyrenees. It has no definite composition, and its blue color is perhaps of artificial origin. Aerodrome (from two Greek words sig- nifying "air runner"'), a form of flying-ma- chine invented by Prof. S. P. Langley, now secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. This machine has never yet been constructed on a scale sufficiently large to sustain a man, but mod- els weighing 30 pounds or so have been built, which, operated by a small steam engine, have worked successfully, and have given fair prom- ise of the solution of the problem of aerial navi- gation. The aerodrome has no gas bag, but relies for its sustaining power wholly upon its wings and upon the machinery which propels it. Prof. Langley has approached the prob- lem of aerial navigation with greater care and more elaborate preparation than any other man. For years before he undertook the construction of even the crudest of flying-machines he con- ducted an elaborate series of experiments upon a whirling table in which the supporting action of the air upon almost every conceivable shape of aeroplane, and at all possible velocities, was accurately measured and recorded. As his data, thus obtained, accumulated, he supplemented them by experiments with small models acting freely in the air; sometimes these were mere planes gliding through the air, and sometimes they we.r? machines driven with screws pro- pelled by rubber bands under tension. Having satisfied himself of the possibilities of mechani- cal flight, he calculated the areas of the sus- taining surfaces that he would need, and the best shape to give them. Then came a long and elaborate series of investigations as to the motor best suited for the work, accompanied by the construction of a number of such motors, which were tested, weighed, and found wanting. His final choice was the steam engine, supplied with steam from a plain copper coil for a boiler, through which a circulation was artificially main- tained, and which was heated by a gasolene flame from a special jet. Prof. Langley's work on the supporting power of aeroplanes is de- scribed in his 'Experiments in Aerodynamics. } He discovered the remarkable fact that in such aerial navigation as was there shown to be possible under certain definite conditions the power required would in theory diminish in- definitely as the speed of the flying-machine in- creased ; and that it would actually diminish, even in practice, up to a certain limit. This ap- parently paradoxical fact is known as "Lang- ley's law." In the completed form of his aero- drome there are two pairs of wings, which do not move like the wings of a bird, but are fixed to the machine and serve as supporting sur- faces. These wings are slightly curved, and each is attached to a long central steel rod for support. From this same rod the body of the machine depends, together with the boiler, the engine, the machinery and the propeller wheels, these latter not being in the position of those of an ocean steamer, but more nearly amidships. They are made of wood, and are between three and four feet in diameter. The boiler supplies steam for an engine of between one and one-and- a-half horsepower ; and weighs a little over five pounds, including the fire grate. The en- gine, with all its moving parts, weighs 26 ounces, and suffices to drive the propeller wheels at a speed of from 800 to 1,200 revolutions per min- ute. The rudder has both a horizontal and a vertical blade, so as to steer in both directions. The total length of the machine is about 16 feet, and the span of the wings from tip to tip is between 12 and 13 feet. The weight of the whole, including the machinery, is nearly 30 pounds. On the day when the aerodrome made its first successful flight from a houseboat on the Potomac River, at its first launching it made a short, sharp dive into the river. No change was made other than a slight adjustment where- by the centre of gravity of the whole machine was moved about three quarters of an inch; but this was sufficient to give the desired balance, and the second launching was entirely success- ful. Prof. Alexander Graham Bell, in 'Nature 1 for 28 May 1896, describes the famous trial on the Potomac River as follows : "Through the courtesy of Mr. S. P. Langley, secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, I have had on various occasions the privilege of witnessing his ex- periments with aerodromes, and especially the remarkable success attained by him in experi- ments made on the Potomac River on Wednes- day, 6 May. which led me to urge him to make public some of these results. I had the pleasure of witnessing the successful flight of some of these aerodromes more than a year ago. but Prof. Langley's reluctance to make the results public at that time prevented me from asking AERODYNAMICS — ^ESCHINES him. as I have done since, to let me give an ac- count of what I saw. « On the date named two ascensions were made by the aerodrome, or so-called < flying- machine,' which I will not describe here further th.i 11 in say that it appeared to me to be built almost entirely of metal and driven by a steam engine, which 1 have understood was carrying fuel and a water supply for a very brief period, and which was of extraordinary lightness. The absolute weight of the aerodrome, including that of the engine and all appurtenances, was, as I was told, about 25 pounds, and the distance from tip to tip of the supporting surfaces was, as I observed, about 12 or 14 feet. The method of propulsion was by aerial screw propellers, and there was no gas or other aid for lifting it in the air except its own internal energy. « On the occasion referred to the aerodrome at a given signal started from a platform about 20 feet above the water and rose at first directly in the face of the wind, moving at all times with remarkable steadiness, and subsequently swing- ing around in large curves of perhaps a hundred yards in diameter, and continually ascending until its steam was exhausted, when, at a lapse of about a minute and a half, and at a height which I judged to be between 80 and 100 feet in the air, the wheels ceased turning, and the ma- chine, deprived of the aid of its propellers, to my surprise, did not fall, but settled down so softly and gently that it touched the water without the least shock, and was in fact immediately ready for another trial. « In the second trial, which followed directly, it repeated in nearly every respect the actions of the first, except that the direction of its course was different. It ascended again in the face of the wind, afterward moving steadily and continually in large curves accompanied with a rising motion and a lateral advance. Its motion was, in fact, so steady that I think a glass of water on its surface would have remained un- spilled. When the steam gave out again it re- peated for a second time the experience of the first trial when the steam had ceased, and set- tled gently and easily down. What height it reached at this trial I cannot say. as I was not so favorably placed as in the first, but I had occasion to notice that this time its course took it over a wooded promontory, and I was relieved of some apprehension in seeing that it was al- ready so high as to pass the tree tops by 20 or 30 feet. It reached the water one minute and thirty-one seconds from the time it started, at a measured distance of over 900 feet from the point at which it rose. This, however, was by no means the length of its flight. I estimated from the diameter of the urve described, from the number of turns of the propellers as given by the automatic counter, after due allowance for slip, and from other measures, that the actual length of flight on each occasion was slightly over 3.000 feet. It is at least safe to say that each exceeded half an English mile. « From the time and distance it will be no- ticed that the velocity was between 20 and 25 miles an hour, in a course which was constantly taking it < up hill > I may add that on a pre- vious occasion I have seen a far higher velocity attained by the same aerodrome when its course was horizontal. « I have no desire to enter into detail further than I have done, but I cannot but add that it seems to me that no one who was present on this interesting occasion could have failed to rec- ognize that the practicability of mechanical flight had been demonstrated. « Alexander Graham Bell.» The aerodrome is described, with illustra- tions, in the 1 Scientific American Supplement,' Nos. 1404 and 1405 : and there was also a popu- lar account in < McClure's Magazine > for June 1897. See also « Story of Experiments in Mechanical Flight," by S. P. Langley. in the Smithsonian 'Report* for 1897. For further information on the subject of aerial navigation, see Balloon; Flying- .Machine. Aerodynamics, that branch of hydrody- namics (q.v.) which deals with the properties, and especially the motions, of air and other compressible fluids. See Meteorology. Aerolite, a name given to stones falling from the sky. See METEORITE. Aerology, that branch of physics that treats of the air. Sec Atmosphere; Meteor- ology. Aeronau'tics, the art of navigating the air by means of balloons (q.v.) or flying-machines (q.v.). See also Aerodrome; Aeroplane; Bal- loon. A'eroplane. This word is used in the following two senses: (1) A plane or nearly plane material surface possessed of a certain degree of rigidity, and used in connection with flying-machines to oppose great resistance to the fall of the machine, while allowing it to travel ahead without much resistance. The planes are usually set parallel with the horizontal axis of the machine, or else they are inclined slightly upward so that as the machine is driven for- ward by its propellers or wings the aeroplane will exert a lifting or sustaining effect. (2) Any flying-machine, but especially that invented by M. Victor Tatin, and tested with a certain degree of success in 1879 at Chalais-Meudon. Tatin's aeroplane was propelled by two screws, which were driven by compressed air. The syllable -plane, in the word in its second sense, is derived from the Greek word pianos, "wan- dering." See Aerodrome; Balloon; Flying- Machine. Aerosi'derite, a meteorite (q.v.) consisting essentially of metallic iron. Aerosid'erolite, a meteorite (q.v.) contain- ing both stone and iron. The name comes from the Greek sideros, iron, and litltos, stone. It was first given by N. S. Maskelyne. A'erostat. See Balloon ; Flying-Machine. Aerosta'tics, that branch of science which treats of the density, pressure, and equilibrium of air and other ga-es. See Gases, General Properties of; THERMODYNAMICS. Aerotherapeutics, the treatment of disease through the medium of air. See Therapeutics. .ffischines, es'ki-nez, the greatest of Greek orators except his rival Demosthenes : b. Attica, 389 B.C.; d. Samos, 314 B.C. That he rose to im- mense influence and high station by his un- aided genius, despite family poverty, would be 1 Departure of Mr. Santos Dumont from the Aerostatic Park on his successful trip on which he won the Deutsch Prize of $20,000. i The " Santos-Dumont No. 6 " maneuvering in midair. * Ascent of the Santos-Dumont Dirigible Balloon No. 5 at Longchampa on July 1 2th. ^SCHYLUS considered his best title to honor in democra- tized modern states: it was charged against him as a foul disgrace in Athens. The further « campaign » accusations of Demosthenes — that his father was a schoolmaster's freedman and his mother a public dancer and courtesan, and that he changed the family name to a more gen- teel form — are valuable only as examples of what passed then for fatal obstacles to public trust and private honor, and the last-named reads curiously in a modern atmosphere. That his father was a poor schoolmaster, and that he worked in the school to help, is probable ; more than probable also are his boasts of good blood despite it, as several of the brothers became leading citizens, one of them being on the board of ten strategoi which conducted military and foreign affairs. He may have been, as alleged, a professional gymnast : unpaid athletics were too reverently worshipped there to make paid ones seem unnatural. He certainly served a long term of military duty (probably not all at once), and with distinction ; for he was in the battles of Mantinea (362) and Tamynse (349), and for bravery in the latter was deputed to carry home the news and accorded a crown. Meantime he had become a magistrate's clerk ; a petty actor ; finally secretary to the important political lead- ers Aristophon and Eubulus, who helped him twice to an election as government secretary. He was now 40 and had not « found him- self » ; but with the chance of addressing the public his true talent soon became manifest. He quickly acquired an eminent mastery of legal and political knowledge, and became a singu- larly graceful and effective speaker, with re- markable finish, harmony, and variety of ora- torical effect. In 348 he was sent to the Peloponnesus to organize a union of the Greeks against Philip of Macedon, but failed entirely, and doubtless became convinced at that time that any such scheme was permanently imprac- ticable. The next year he went as one of the embassy to negotiate peace with Philip, and on their report (which Grote pronounces «a tissue of impudent and monstrous falsehoods," not necessarily of their own invention, but accept- ance of Philip's word), the Peace of Philocrates (another envoy) was concluded in 346. Philip grew more and more powerful, and Demosthe- nes more and more urgent for opposition to his plans, which, however plausible, — a Graeco- Macedonian union against the barbarians and the East, — could in practice only be carried out, as they at last were, by absorbing Greece in Macedonia. .Eschines as steadily supported the Macedonian alliance, and doubtless as honestly, from conviction that for disunited Greece the only choice was between league and conquest — which also was true. In 345 Demosthenes charged him with treason and bribery. He was acquitted without difficulty. Three years later the charge was renewed in Demosthenes' great speech « On the False Embassy » : ^Eschines re- butted it with success in his speech of the same title. He helped on the Macedonian cause all through the reign of Philip and the early part of Alexander's, accused by the opposing party of being a hired emissary of Macedonia, and returning as much and presumably as just abuse as he received. That the public made the ne- cessary discount is proved by the fact that he lost no credit with them. At last he assumed the aggressive with disastrous results. One Ctesiphon having proposed a golden crown for Demosthenes in recognition of his services to the commonwealth, yEschines impeached him for proposing an illegal act, and made his great- est speech, « Against Ctesiphon, » an indictment of Demosthenes' entire public life. Demos- thenes replied with his greatest, « On the Crown » ; so crushing that though the pro- Macedonian party was in the ascendant /Es- chines could not obtain the one-fifth minority of votes legally necessary to save him from atimia, or infamy, and a fine of 1.000 drachmas. He left Athens at once without paying it, and there- after taught rhetoric or schools of oratory in foreign parts ; some say Ionia and Caria, and finally Rhodes after Alexander's death. He died at Samos, aged 75. Three of his orations are extant, — against Timarchus' charge of bribery after his second embassy to Philip, one on that embassy, and the one against Ctesiphon. There is a storv that he read the latter to his pupils at Rhodes, and on their professing to be astonished that despite its brilliancy he should have been defeated, replied. « You would not be if you had heard Demosthenes. » A variant is that he read Demosthenes' speech as a model of rhetoric, and on their expressing admiration, replied, « If you had heard him roll it out him- self ! » (The originals are in countless editions. See for text and best comment. Jebb's < Attic Orators,) London 1876-80. Translations are also plentiful.) /Eschylus, es'ki-lus, the eldest of the three great tragic poets of Greece: b. Eleusis, Attica, 525 B.C. ; d. 456. Euphorion, his father, was prob- ably connected with the mysteries of Demeter, and he is said himself to have been initiated. In 499 b.c. he made his first appearance as a competitor for the prize of tragedy, but was not successful. Before attaining his first triumph he had to appear as an actor on a grander scene. He was present, and highly distinguished him- self, at the battles of Marathon, Artemisium, Salamis, and Plataea. He must have gained as a poet by his experience in this momentous struggle, and probably too his fame as a warrior would help to recommend his compositions as a poet to his countrymen. His first dramatic victory was achieved in 484 B.C. The names of the pieces which composed his trilogy at this time are not known. The < Persae » (< Per- sians >), the earliest of his extant pieces, formed part of a trilogy which gained the prize in 472 B.C. Altogether he is reputed to have composed 70 tragedies and gained 13 triumphs. In the satirical pieces which accompanied the trilogy of tragedies he is said also to have been a mas- ter. Only seven of his tragedies are extant. They are: < The Persians) (remarkable as be- ing founded on contemporary events), (The Seven against Thebes.) 'The Suppliants.) < Prometheus Bound.) < Agamemnon.) < The Choephori,) and < The Eumenides.) The last three form the trilogy of the » Oresteia > (so named as being based on the story of Orestes), the only complete Greek trilogy we possess. It was represented in 458 b.c, between which date and that of < The Persians > the others were brought out ; but, according to a suggestion of Bockh, the representation of the < Oresteia > in 458 b.c. was a repetition .in the absence of the poet. JESCH YNITE — JESCULAPIUS In 468 b.c. he was defeated by Sophocles, and is said to have retired through mortification at this defeat to the court of Iliero, king of Syra- cuse. Of the fact of his residence at Syracuse at this time there appears to be no doubt, and with- out ascribing his retirement to mere jealousy, there are other reasons for associating it with his defeat. .(Eschylus belonged to the old aristo- cratic party, which had long been on the decline. His rival Sophocles, whose first appearance as a dramatist had thus been honored with a tri- umph, was favored by the democratic party, Cimon himself being one of the judges. The decline of his party might thus render Athens an uncongenial residence to .Eschylus, and in- dispose him for an arduous contest in which he did not feel that justice was done to his claims. During his residence at Syracuse he composed many pieces, in which he not only selected local subjects, but used words unintelligible to the Athenians. Unless Bockh's theory is received it must be supposed that /Eschylus returned to Athens for the representation of his < Oresteia.i I lure is a story that be was accused before the Areopagus for impiety either in representing the « Eumenides » on the stage or in divulging the mysteries of Demetcr ; and it is to the period of this representation that the accusation is usually referred. If .Eschylus came to Athens he must soon have returned to Sicily, where he died in Gela. A tomb was erected to him. with an epitaph by himself, in which he speaks of himself as an exile from Athens, and refers to his part in the battle of Marathon, but not to his writings. Of the manner of his death an improbable story is told, namely, that an eagle, mistaking his bald head for a stone, let fall a tortoise on it to break the shell, and thus killed him. .(Eschylus was in a sense the creator of the Greek tragedy, the stage up till his time being occupied with comparatively feeble productions. His style, as is common with early poets, was grand, sublime, and full of energy, though some- times erring in excessive splendor of diction and imagery. Longinus. the celebrated Greek critic, complains of it as being often harsh and over- strained. His plays have little or no plot, and in personal portraiture he does not represent the subtle complexities of human character, which belong to a later development of art, but the bold outlines of strength and daring which per- tain to the conception of gods and heroes. A fatalistic tendency dominates bis views of the unseen, and by making men the sport of su- perior beings supplies abundant material for tragedy. An ethical principle of retribution is not, however, wholly lost sight of. The practice of contending for the prize with a trilogy of plays was established before his time, but he was the first to reduce the trilogy to a unity by linking together three distinct but associated subjects, each of which formed the theme of a play complete in itself yet related to the others. ^Eschylus was a great improver of the stage as well as of the drama. He introduced a sec- ond actor upon the scene, and was thus the founder of true dramatic dialogue, to which be subordinated tin- chorus, which had formerly been the principal part. At a subsequent period he followed the example of Sophocles in intro- ducing a third actor. The dialogue he intro- duced was measured and formal, and without the license of broken lines. This gave it a dis- tant and stately character agreeable to the kind of superhuman heroes which it suited the genius of (Eschylus to put upon the stage. To make the appearance of his personages suitable to their character, he introduced the thick-soled co- thurnus or buskins to raise the stature of the actors, ami he gave them dresses appropriate to the parts they had to play. He himself some tunes acted 111 bis own plays. He also made use of the scene-painter's services, and Agatharchus is said |o have painted for him the fust scenes drawn according to the laws of linear per- spective. From the testimony of Aristotle, how- ever, it seems to be doubtful whether scene- painting was actually introduced by .Eschylus or Sophocles. After its introduction it would no doubt be used by both. He carefully trained the dancers to represent incidents in the play by appropriate action, and he removed from the stage scenes of violence and blood. By a special decree of the Athenian people a chorus was provided at the public expense for any one who wished to produce any work of .Eschylus a second time. After his death his sons Eu- phorion and Bion, and his nephew Philocles, gained triumphs with works of his over Sopho- cles and Euripides, and thus was established a tragic school of ^Eschylus, which continued to flourish for more than a century. The first edition of /Eschylus was printed in Venice in 1518. The best of the earlier editions was that of Stanley (London, 1663). The best recent editions are those of Alliens < Paris, 1877), Wecklein (Berlin, 1884) and F. A. Paley (in the > Bibliotheca Classica '). There are English poetical translations by Potter, Blackie, Plumptre, Morshead, and Swanwick, and a prose translation by Paley. Fitzgerald's semi- translation of the ' Agamemnon, 1 with the widest liberties of omission, addition, and recast- ing, though of no very great service to the scholar, is of incomparable poetic brilliancy, and far the best introduction to make the general reader feel /Eschylus' greatness and charm, Robert Browning also has one of the same play, and Elizabeth Barrett Browning one of the 'Prometheus. 1 .ffis'chynite, es'ki-ntt, the mineral for which Dana's /Eschynite group was named. It is essentially a niobate, titanate and thorate of the cerium metals, containing also iron and calcium in small amounts. It occurs in black, prismatic, vertically striated crystals belonging to the orthorhombic system. Its hardness is about 5.5, and its specific gravity about 5. It is rare, and occurs in the Ural Mountains, in Norway, and in Silesia. It was named by Berzelius from a Greek word meaning "shame," in allusion to the "shameful" inability of chemistry, at the time of its discovery, to sepa- rate titanic acid and zirconia (two of its constituents). .ffiscula'pius (Greek Asclepios), the god of medicine among the ancient Greeks and Ro- mans. In Homer he is merely a man. the Rod of medicine being Paeeon ; the deification was probably founded on the Homeric story, and at any rate was subsequent. The notion that he- was originally a god of light or the underworld, tt reduced » to the tradition of a human being. .ffiSCULIN — -ESOPUS inverts all historic processes and the nature of early thought. In Homer he has two sons, Ma- chaon and Podalirius, famous as heroes and physicians; they are called Asclepiadae, a name retained by their descendants or at least a priestly physician-caste. His daughters, Hygeia (health), Panacea (all-healer), Iaso (healer), etc., are later inventions, abstractions of relevant ideas. The later myths vary : some call him son of Apollo and Arsinoe, some of Apollo and Coronis daughter of Phlegyas. In Hesiod the nymph was faithless, and with her bridegroom Ischys (one of the Lapitha:) was slain by the gods (the raven who brought the news being changed from black to white as a punishment) ; but Apollo rescued his unborn son from the mother's body on the funeral pile, and put him under charge of Chiron, where he grew to excel his master, able not only to prevent death but to raise the dead. At Pluto's complaint Zeus slew him with a thunderbolt, and after his death he received divine honors. The supposition that his worship originated in the Pencus Valley in Thessaly is perhaps due to the Homeric tradi- tion being our earliest record; but if he was originally a healer wonderful to rude bar- barians, it is likely enough that the tradition was Thessalian. Anyway, Tricca there was an old focus of his cult ; but it flourished also to the south, perhaps carried there by the Thessalians forced southward by invaders. It had noted seats in Phocis, Breotia, and especially in the Peloponnesus, where Thelpusa in Arcadia was one familiar seat ; but by far the greatest was Epidaurus south of Corinth. Here was a temple in a grove, where the sick had to spend a night, and the proper remedies were revealed to the priests in a dream, and the cured made sacrifice to ^Esculapius, commonly a cock. The sleep was of course a mere part of the priests' mystifi- cation ; but from their accumulated experience and their register of cases they must have be- came really expert physicians for the times. From thence the worship spread all over Greece and the islands and to Rome, — nearly 200 tem- ples in all ; there were celebrated ones at Cos, Cnidus, and Pergamus ; the cult was introduced into Athens as late as 420 B.C., and to Rome 293 B.C., in consequence of a plague. (Walton, < The Cult of Asklepios,> New York, i8g4 ; Wilamowitz-Mollendorff, < Isyllus von Epi- dauros,) Berlin, 1886.) .ffis'culin, es'cu-lin, a bitter principle found in the bark of the horse-chestnut tree (jEsculus hil>[>ocastanum), especially in the spring, before the buds open. It crystallizes in small prisms having the formula C15H10OB.2H2O. /Esculin melts at 400 F. It dissolves sparingly in cold water, but easily in boiling water, the solution coagulating upon cooling. It is soluble in gla- cial acetic acid and in 24 parts of boiling al- cohol. /Esculin is of special interest to the physicist on account of the notable bluish fluor- escence (q.v.) exhibited by its solution in water. The word is also spelled sesculine, esculin, and esculine. .ffi'sop, the fabulist. As early as the mid- 5th century B.C. at least, fables were circulating in Athens attributed to a certain .Esopus. and held in such esteem that the city erected to him a statue by the great sculptor Lysippus; Aris- tophanes makes one of his characters learn the fables, Socrates versified such as he could re- member, and Plato speaks of them with ap- proval ; Herodotus, born c. 484 B.C., specifically tells us, as referring to a story too familiar to repeat, that when the Delphians offered com- pensation for his murder to the rightful claim- ant, it was claimed and received by one Iadmon, grandson of another Iadmon, a Samian and owner of Rhodopis the courtesan, who lived un- der Amasis, king of Egypt (c. 570-526 B.C.), and was redeemed by Charaxus, the brother of Sappho. That all this mass of detail concerning persons living less than a century before his time, with easily verifiable dates, and about one whose fate was notorious, was in fact told of a myth and abstraction, and that there never was an /Esop, is exaggerating skepticism into ab- surdity ; and the later accretion of fables and confusion of persons is irrelevant. Plutarch (late 1st century a.d.) fills out the story from lost authors, possibly with authentic traditions, perhaps mixed with real myth-making: that he was captured young and brought a slave to Athens, and after several changes of ownership enfranchised by Iadmon (which is inconsistent with Herodotus) ; that during Pisistratus' usurpation he visited Athens and composed the fable of « King Log and King Stork » for the edification of the citizens ; that, going to the Lydian court, he became Creesus' favorite, was sent by him as envoy to Delphi to distribute money to the people (about 564 B.C.), and, re- fusing to do so on account of a quarrel among them, was thrown from a cliff by them. This at least coheres with Herodotus. The stories of his being an ugly blackamoor, and others beyond the above, are derived from a worthless life of him published (but not written) by Maximus Planudes (q.v.), a 14th-century monk, in which he is apparently confounded with the mythical Oriental sage Lokman. As to the fables, it is probable that ^Esop did not write them down, but merely told them to audiences : and it is per- fectly certain that the ones we have under his name are not his (though they may incorporate the same incidents), but substantially a collec- tion made from oral memories by Demetrius Phalereus of Athens about 320 B.C. ; turned into Latin by Phajdrus of the 1st century A.D., with additions of his own much inferior in every way; versified by Babrius, a Greek poet of per- haps the late 1st century; and variously trans- lated and re-edited since. The usual popular « /Esop » is Phxdrus. The origin of the fables is largely Oriental ; but they are much superior to any Oriental prototypes in pith and concise- ness. It is often said also that they are part of the stock of beast-apologues common to the entire Indo-European races ; but this is true only in the sense that animals have been made to talk in all old folk-lore. The special quali- ties of « /Esop » — the immense compression of idea almost to « indecent exposure," in Sydney Smith's phrase, the sweep of generalization, the acute analysis of typical human characteristics — make it unique; and it quite probably in- herits these traits from the genius of the real /Esop. a Greek of the mighty age of Greece. .ffiso'pus, Clodius, a celebrated Roman actor of the 1st century B.C., a contemporary of Roscius. When acting he entered into his part to such a degree as sometimes to be seized with a perfect ecstasy. Plutarch mentions a report .ESTHETICS concerning him while representing Atreus, that, deliberating how he should revenge himself on Thyestes, he was so transported beyond himself that he smote one of the servants who was ig the stage and killed him on the spot. He was a dramatic tutor of Cicero, and be- friended him in exile. His last appearance was ,,i the d die ii m oi I 'ompej 's 'Theatre in 55 B.r. ; his voice thereafter failed. His folly in spending money on expensive dishes made him as conspicuous as his dramatic talents. He is said, at one entertainment, to have had a dish filled with singing and speaking birds, which cost $4,000. His son /Esop inherited his father's worst traits: it was he who drank the $40,000 pearl dissolved in vinegar, to be noted as having drunk the most expensive known beverage. .Esthetics, the science of beauty, in its emotions or attributes. The term aesthetics first received this application from Baumgarten, a Germ opher, who was the first modern writer to treat systematically on this subject. Kant uses the word aesthetics (aisthetikos, per- ceivable by the senses) in a broader etymologi- cal sense, treating in his transcendental aesthetic of the a priori principles of sensuous knowledge. There are, as indicated, two modes of treating aesthetics, scientifically or empirically, by collec- tion and collation of the objects or associations by which the aesthetical emotions are excited, and philosophically by analysis and determination of the cause or source and mode of the emotions. Neither of these modes is independent of the other; but the scientific mode, from the multi- tude of details it involves, is little amenable to summary treatment, and in form at least we shall be compelled to limit ourselves to the other. .Esthetics, like every other branch of philoso- phy, has suffered from the conflict of first prin- ciples which has continually impeded the devel- opment of details ; but it has also profited by this conflict, which has itself brought out facts which might otherwise have been hid. Space will not permit a historical summary, and we confine ourselves to the briefest indications of the views of the leading thinkers. Socrates, according to Xenophon, regarded the beautiful as coincident with the good, and both as resolvable into the useful. Plato, in ac- cordance with his idealistic theory, held the exist- ence of an absolute beauty, which is the ground of beauty in all things. He also asserted the inti- mate union of the good, the beautiful, and the true. Aristotle, whose contributions to aesthetics are of the highest value, treated of them in much more detail than Plato, but chiefly from the scientific or critical point of view. In his "Po- etics » he declares poetry to be a more serious and philosophical matter than philosophy itself. In his treatises on « Poetry » and « Rhetoric » he lays down a theory of art and establishes principles of beauty. His philosophical views were in many respects opposed to those of Plato. He does not admit an absolute conception of the beautiful ; but he distinguishes beauty from the good, the useful, the fit, and the necessary. He resolves beauty into certain elements, as order, symmetry, definiteness. and a certain magnitude, which appears to be relative to the perceptive ca- pacity. A distinction of beauty, according to him, is the absence of lust or desire in the pleas- ure it excites. Beauty has no utilitarian or ethi- cal object; the aim of art is merely to give im- mediate pleasure ; its essence is imitation ; the chief objects of imitation in poetry and music are passions, dispositions, and actions. The essence of poetry consists in this imitation, and not in form. The end of tragedy, he says, is to effect a purification of pity and fear by means of these passions themselves. He also speaks of a purify- ing effect of music in quieting wilder forms of excitement. As this seems a contradiction of his negation of an ethical end in aesthetics it has been disputed whether this purification is ethi- cal or aesthetical. Plotinus agrees with Plato and disagrees with Aristotle in holding that beauty may subsist in single and simple objects, and consequently in restoring the absolute con- ception of beauty. He differs from Plato and Aristotle in raising art above nature. When the artist has logoi (the equivalent in the system of Plotinus of the ideas in that of Plato) for his models his creations may be more beautiful than natural objects. Raumgarten's treatment of aesthetics is essentially Platonic. He made the division of philosophy into logic, ethics, and aesthetics; the first dealing with knowledge, the second with action (will and desire), the third with aesthetics. Where Baumgarten fails of a Platonic stan- dard is in limiting aesthetics to the conceptions derived from the senses, and in making them consist in confused or obscure conceptions, in contradistinction to logical knowledge, which consists in clear conceptions. Kant defines beau- ty in reference to his four categories, quantity, quality, relation, and modality. In accordance with the subjective character of his system he denies an absolute conception of beauty, but his detailed treatment of the subject is inconsistent with the denial. Thus he attributes a beauty to single colors and tones, not on any plea of complexity, but on the ground of purity. He holds also that the highest meaning of beauty is to symbolize moral good, and arbitrarily attaches moral characters to the seven primary colors. The value of art is mediate, and the beautv of art is inferior to that of nature. He classifies the arts according as they express the (sub- jective?) aesthetic idea. The treatment of beauty in the systems of Schelling and Hegel can with difficulty be made comprehensible without a de- tailed reference to the principles of these remark- able speculations. Idealistic systems, which, to say the least, it is difficult to distinguish from pantheism, while it is impossible to find a beauty and even sublimity in the boldness of their de- velopments, they may be described from an outside point of view as exaggerations of Platon- ism, in which human consciousness is made the exhaustive measure of universal being. The control of subject and object, which with Schel- ling constitutes the absolute, is seen in artistic conception within the limits of the ego, and a feeling of infinite satisfaction accompanies this perfect perception by intelligence of its real self. Art accordingly is higher than philosophy, and the beauty of art is superior to the beauty of nature. Schclling's views of art are not clearly developed into particular criticism. In tragedy he finds a conflict of liberty in the subject with objective necessity. In art, according to Hegel, the absolute is immediately present to sensuous perception. With him, as with Schlegel, it is the highest revelation of beauty and superior to ESTHETICS nature. The beautiful is the shining of the idea (the Hegelian idea, or absolute notion into which all existence is resolvable) through a sen- suous medium. Its essence accordingly is in appearance, and in this it differs from the true. Its complement is religion, which embodies the certainty of the idea. Hegel classifies the arts according to the su- premacy of form and matter, a classification which appears somewhat superficial and is very open to criticism. He treats of beauty in much detail, and where he is not Hegelian he is es- sentially Platonic. The extravagance of Hege- lianism, along with its pantheistic tendencies, become more pronounced in the systems of the followers of Hegel, into which we have not space to enter. English writers on beauty are nu- merous, but they rarely ascend to the heights of German speculation. Shaftesbury adopted the notion that beauty is perceived by a special in- ternal sense ; in which he was followed by Hutcheson, who held that beauty existed only in the perceiving mind, and not in the object. Numerous English writers, among whom the principal are Alison and Jeffrey, have supported the theory that the source of beauty is to be found in association' — a theory analogous to that which places morality in sympathy. The ability of its supporters gave this view a tem- porary popularity, but its baselessness has been effectively exposed by successive critics. Dugald Stewart attempted to show that there is no com- mon quality in the beautiful beyond that of pro- ducing a certain refined pleasure ; and Bain agrees with this criticism, but endeavors to re- strict the beautiful within a group of emotions chiefly excited by association or combination of simpler elementary feelings. Herbert Spencer avails himself of a hint supplied by Schiller, which he makes subservient to the theory of evo- lution. He makes beauty consist in the play (sport) of the higher powers of perception and emotion, defined as an activity not directly sub- servient to any processes conducive to life, but being gratifications sought for themselves alone. He classifies aesthetic pleasures according to the complexity of the emotions excited, or the num- ber of powers duly exercised ; and he attributes the depth and apparent vagueness of musical emotions to associations with vocal tones built up during vast ages. Among numerous writers who have made valuable contributions to the scientific discussion of aesthetics may be men- tioned Winckelmann, Lessing, Jean Paul Richter, the Schlegels, Gervinus, Helmholtz, and Ruskin. The theory of Plato affords, we believe, the true basis both of philosophical apprehension and of scientific investigation of the beautiful. What is meant when it is said there is no com- mon quality in what is recognized as beauty beyond the excitement of a pleasurable emotion ? It is not pretended that all pleasurable emotions are comprehended in the notion of beauty: the mere excitement of pleasure is not then sufficient to distinguish the notion. Is the use of the term then a mistake, and does it imply nothing more than the arbitrary grouping together of some pleasurable emotions to the exclusion of others? We have the most conclusive psycho- logical evidence in the structure of all languages that this is not the case, and that there is some notion, simple or complex, subjective or objec- tive, requiring this term to express it. If then we attempt to distinguish between pleasurable emotions, and to group them as emotions of beauty or emotions not of beauty, we must either suppose our emotions to be self-excited, or we must assume a corresponding difference in the exciting cause. We have thus got both an ob- jective and a subjective beauty and it remains to inquire into the nature of the object, whether real or phenomenal, simple or complex, by which the notion of beauty is excited. Associa- tion cannot be an original cause of the emotion, for association as such, and without regard to the nature of the association, can excite no definite emotion such as that of pleasure. If the notion of beauty then is actually excited by association, as it undoubtedly is, it remains to be inquired by what association, and by what elements of the association? Nor can the ex- planation of Aristotle and other philosophers be received, that beauty is merely a recognition of harmony, proportion, symmetry, and such modes in complex objects, for it is as undoubted that there is a self-beauty, the beauty of a straight line in being straight, of a circle in being round, or of blueness in being blue, as that there is a beauty of harmony and propor- tion. Lastly, we cannot limit beauty to the ob- jects of the senses; all that is perceived by intel- ligence, whether in the forms or processes of matter, or in the states or operations of mind, is capable of exciting the emotion of beauty. There is then no common category in which the beau- tiful can be included except the beautiful. It is not the useful, or the good, or the true, the great or small, the high or low, but the beautiful. But Plato has also shown that our ideas, though not resolvable into each other, are mutually dependent and related. They are united in con- crete thought and apprehension, and they form in their totality a whole which constitutes the one- ness of intelligence. If beauty then cannot be resolved into other notions, its relations to and combinations with these notions can be traced, and this constitutes its philosophical definition. Our knowledge is indeed too limited to en- able us to trace all the relations of ideas which are infinite, but a just use of psychology enables us to apprehend in their simplest form even the highest verities, and Plato, in associating in one triad beauty, goodness, and truth, has expressed the highest relation and evolved the highest knowledge attainable of them. The psychological evidence of this union lies within the range of experience, and its generalization is the legitimate operation of reason. To a lim- ited intelligence goodness and truth (or reality) seem often wide apart, but every intelligence must apprehend the desirableness of their union, and occasionally witness practical exemplifica- tions more or less perfect of it. If uniting such partial realizations we assume that to a perfect intelligence truth and goodness would be in per- fect unity, the contemplation of this union will excite in us the highest emotion of beautv. This, then, may be regarded as both the type and the exhaustive realization of the notion of beauty. This trinity has, as indicated also by Baumgarten, a relation to the distribution or natural operation of our faculties. We have reason to apprehend truth, imagination to per- ceive beauty, and conscience to recognize good- ness. Imagination as a mental faculty must not ^ESTHETICS be understood as a more power of reproducing objects of sense in the form of pictorial images. It is the mental power by which we apprehend and combine at will all the elements directly presented to our consciousness, whether from external observation or internal experience. It, as well as reason, is operative, hut it differs from reason both in its mode of operation and in its end. Instead ni tin slowly elaborate process by which reason searches nut the true relations of its objects, it seeks by the readiest process ob- ject-. .>f immediate contemplation on which it can dwell with satisfaction, and accordingly selects for combination those elements which present to it the most immediate affinities. In its constructive data it is as comprehensive as reason, but in its processes it is less sure. It even forms hypotheses, that is, semblances of reason, hut it haves reason to verify them. Hence tin- reason why the perception of the beautiful has been assigned to an inner sense. Hence also the reason why the apprehension of beauty separates itself from the apprehension of truth and of goodness. The apprehension of beauty is always the apprehension of some perfection, of some identi- fication of the good in the real, but in order to produce the emotion of beauty this identifi- cation must be manifest. This it is. and this alone apparently, which associates beauty with the work of imagination rather than with the work of reason, and makes the former the special faculty of beauty. The processes of reason are slow and their results remain long imperfect; thus there is no immediate realiza- tion of the perfection of truth attained by them; but when some final discovery completes a chain of reasoning, and a whole truth stands revealed, there is an immediate perception of goodness in the completed truth, and the emotion of beauty is at once evoked. The work of imagination is subject to the review of reason, but as reason and imagination work on the same fundamental principles, it is the application of these principles alone which reason can review. Particular manifestations of beauty are thus capable of analysis, and we may resolve the elements of the most complex manifestations into two, self- beauty and beauty of combination. The first exists when the simple type or idea is realized in the example, when a straight line is straight, a circle round, a color or a sound pure. When a type is suggested by simulation, on the con- trary, but so imperfectly realized that the defect is apparent, the result is ugliness. It thus needs no metaphysics to distinguish beauty from its opposite. In combination beauty is given when perfect types are combined according to laws of symmetry, proportion, and design. Every single curve, for example, has a particular law, and that curve is beautiful when produced ac- cording to its law : but when a variety of curves are combined according to some law of sym- metry in one outline, there is. besides the self- beauty of the several curves, a beauty in the observance of the law of combination, and in this complex beauty of outline, besides the mani- fested beauty of form, there may be suggested beauties of suppressed continuations. So with combinations of sound and color and more com- plex combinations, as in the forms of animal nnd vegetable life. Two related laws of beauty in combination appear to be the production of the greatest va- riety with the least expenditure of means, and the repetition under siight modifications of sim- ilar forms. The latin- from the comparisons it suggests has a highly educative effect on the perceptive faculties. Thus all the canons of beauty are absolute, but as these canons are applicable only to the elements, whether of self- beauty or of combination, and as we are ig- norant of the laws which determine the number and variety of the more complex combinations, which we learn to know only by observation and comparison, principles of criticism only can be formed, and no absolute standard of taste for common empirical observation. Diversities of opinion are thus easily accounted for. The ex- istence of beauty in the object is distinct from its perception, and in a complex object each ob- server will perceive only those beauties which the capacity and training of his own faculties enable him to perceive. Even the demonstration to reason of the observance of a law of beauty will not help a defective capacity. The instru- mentality of our senses in interpreting to us the beauties of nature demands particular attention. Beauty in an object implies relation of the object to mind in which the canons of beauty exist, but not surely to the perceiving mind only, but also to the conceiving or creating mind. The perception of beauty thus establishes a com- munity between the perceiving and the creating mind. It is an evidence of the validity of the information we derive from those operations of our senses which are deemed most arbitrary. It is the stamp of the Creator on the instruments of our faculties. It is easily possible for art within a narrow range to excel nature, for while nature supplies our types she rarely carries out in any individ- ual example all the details of typical excellence variously presented, The whole causes of these deviations of nature from her own standards it is impossible to assign, but observation shows that ethical causes have a place among them, and the best reason of men has always inclined to give- them a larger place than actually appears. In this also art imitates nature, but in this wider sphere to suppose that art could excel nature would be to assume the superiority of man to the Author of nature. There is thus no ethical indifference for art. To limit it to the mechan- ical imitation of nature, or the mere- selection and combination of sesthetical types without an ethical purpose, would be to place it below the level of reason, and to contradict instead of imitate nature. In assigning a purifying effect to art Aristotle spoke truly as a critic and his- torian, and to denude this purification of an ethi- cal significance would be to lower his authority as a witness, but not to alter the fact. No canon of criticism is more frequently repeated at the present day than that • > f Aristotle, that art is without ethical end. This criticism, however, is not true to nature. Art cannot cease to be aesthetical in order to be ethical. It must always deal with the perceptive, but within its own province it is subject to its own ethical code, and it has besides affinities with the general ends of ethics which cannot be ignored with impu- nity. The pleasure it affords must always be pure, and it may also be instructive. Gayley & Scott, ' Guide to the Literature of ^Esthetics > ; B. Bosanquet, < History of ^Esthetics.) AETA — JETOLIA Aeta. See Negritos. JEthel, prefix in Anglo-Saxon names. See Ethel. .ffithelbold. See Ethelbold. .ffithelhard. See Adelard. iEtheling. See Atheling. .ffither. See Ether. iEthiopis, Greek epic poem in five books by Arctinus of Miletus. Its heroine is Pen- thesilea, the Amazon queen, and its story is that of the events of the Trojan war which occurred after those narrated in the 'Iliad.' .ffi'thiops Martial, an old pharmaceutical name for black oxid of iron. iE'thiops Mineral, a name sometimes given to the artificial black sulphide of mercury. .ffi'thogen, a compound better known as nitride of boron. See Nitrides. .ffith rioscope, eth'ri-o-skop, a form of differential thermometer devised by Sir John Leslie. Both bulbs of the thermometer are en- closed in a concave mirror, one of them being in its focus. The instrument is so sensitive that when directed toward the sky it is affected by a passing cloud. It is not much used at the present time. Aetius, a-e'shius, the last great Roman general and savior of western Europe from being Hun : b. Durostorum on the Danube (now Silistria), c. 390 a.d. ; murdered toward the end of 454. He was son of a distinguished com- mander Gaudentius (probably barbarian) ; in military service while a boy, and given to Alaric as a hostage after Pollentia in 403, remaining three years; later a hostage to the Huns; and gaining close intimacy with both races, of mixed results. After Honorius' death he supported the secretary Joannes against the empress-regent Placidia, and brought an army of 60,000 Huns to his aid ; but, Joannes having just been defeated and slain, the Huns were bribed to go home, and Aetius was made count of Italy and commander of the army, and became the chief adviser and prop of Placidia and her children. His main rival was Boniface, Count of Africa, at Carthage: and the accepted story is that by a base double intrigue he drove him into revolt and calling the Vandals from Spain into Africa ; that on discov- ering the fraud Boniface fought in Italy first a slight battle and then a duel with Aetius, was mortally wounded, and in dying counseled his wife to marry no one but his rival. It is very suspicious; but any way the Vandals overran North Africa ; Boniface was killed ; Aetius in 432 had to flee to the Huns, came back the next year with an army of them, was reinstated, and for the next 17 years was the ruling spirit in the Western Empire, battling in Gaul with Visi- goths. Burgundians, and Franks, upholding by combined soldiership and policy the declining state, with a vigor and genius which made him the one great man of the Roman world in for- eign eyes. In 450 the great Hunnish inva under Attila (q.v.) came rolling down into Gaul with a volume it seemed impossible to stay, and the success of which might have blighted western Europe as their kinsmen the Turks have blighted the eastern portion. Aetius by his di- plomatic skill and knowledge of how to play on the barbarians induced Theodoric the Visigoth to league with him. followed Attila into the Seine valley, and on 20 Sept. 451 checked his progress in the mighty battle of Chalons (q.v.) ; the empire's last victory, and one of the world's turning-points. Attila's death not long after broke up the Hunnish coalition and delivered the empire from it ; but it was also Aetius' death sentence, and with his the empire's. Valen- tinian III.. Placidia's son, hated Aetius' power and had only submitted to it from fear of Attila ; and, feeling now secure, seized the occasion of a visit of Aetius to Rome, to arrange the marriage of his son with Valentinian's daughter, and stabbed him with his own hand. The sack of Rome by the Vandals shortly followed ; and 22 years after Aetius' murder the last of a suc- cession of puppet emperors was pulled down by the barbarian Odoacer. iEt'na. See Etna. iEtolia, ancient Greece, a district lying along the N. shore of the Gulf of Corinth and having Epirus and Thessaly N., Acarnania W. separated by the Acheloiis, and Locris and Doris E. separated by the Daphnus. The only other river of any size was the Evenus. Between it and the Acheloiis lies a marshy but fertile plain, separated by the Aracynthus range on the north from a similar plain, of which two large com- municating lakes — Trichonis (Apokuro) and Hyria (Zygos) — take up a great part. The rest of the country is crossed in all directions by rugged mountains, covered with forests, and intersected by ravines. The plains produced plenty of corn and fine pasture, and the JEtolian horses were famous, while the mountain slopes gave excellent wine and oil ; but for some reason the tribes never till late in Greek history en- tered into the fellowship of Greek civilization, and then but imperfectly. They were wild, backward, anarchic, and untamable ; a race of robbers and pirates, and the best recruiting- ground in Greece for mercenary soldiers. In the Heroic age, when most other Greeks were like them, and Odysseus' grandfather won dis- tinction as an accomplished klcpht, they were conspicuous ; and /Etolia was the scene of the Calydonian boar hunt. (See Meleager.) When they reappear in Thucydides' pages on the Peloponnesian war, they are a congeries of un- federated independent tribes, living by plunder and the chase, with few and poor towns. — Thermon, Calydon, and Pleuron the chief, — and taking tp the mountains when hard pressed. They had a sort of union like the Iroquois League, for common action against a common enemy, but no corporate accountability and no- body to make a treaty with. After Alexander's death Antipater and Craterus invaded the coun- try ; and tin's, with the great new wealth their general trade of soldiering was bringing in and consequent increase of civilized interests, forced them to strengthen the bond into the .Etolian League, first mentioned in 314 B.C.. but of im- mense weight in later times and chief rival to the Achaian League and Macedonia. Unlike the former, it was a league of tribes, not towns. But like that, it was a democracy nominally, every freeman over 30 having a vote if be could ccme to the capital and cast it, but an aristocracy AFFECTION — AFFRE or timocracy in practice, only the wealthier being able. There was a Great Council, or Pansetoli- COn, which met yearly at Thermon, elected all magistrates afresh, and enacted general laws and voted on foreign policy ; a smaller body of Apocletae, who were in fact a cabinet, who pre- pared all questions to put before the Great Coun- cil and seem to have been permanent; a chief magistrate, the strategos (general), who was not only military commander but president of the assembly, put such questions as he chose (Speaker), was elected annually, and was not allowed a vote on the question of peace or war; a hipparchos or cavalry commander; and a chief secretary. After the expulsion of the Gauls from Greece in 279, in which the League did good service, it expanded enormously, not like the Achaian League because of the advan- tages of its membership, but from the exceeding disadvantages of its hostility — for it never lost its piratical character wholly to it-* latest day. It took in Locris, Phocis. and Bceotia. Acarnania, southern Thessaly, and Epirus, many cities in the Peloponnesus. Thrace, and Asia Minor, and the island of Cephallenia; it controlled the oracle at Delphi and tlie Amphictyonic Council. But its wanton invasion of Messenia (S.W. Pelopon- nesus) in 220 brought the Achaian League and Macedonia both against it: Philip V. in- vaded z92tolia in 218, sacked Thermon with its vast accumulated national treasures, and burnt the sacred buildings ; and the next year they made peace In 211 they again provoked a war with Macedonia, and again Thermon was cap- tured, peace being made in 205. In 200 they joined Rome against Macedonia, and helped to win the battle of Cynosccphalae, which crushed Philip; but they were so disgusted with Flamininus' settlement of the country without giving them the advantages they expected, that in 192 they made the fatal error of allying them- selves with Antiochus of Syria against the Romans. Antiochus was crushed in 189. and the independence of the League came to an end. In 167 the pro-Roman party murdered 550 of the patriot leaders, and the League was dis- solved and /Etolia made a Roman province. Affection, in psychology, is a mental ele- ment co-ordinate with "sensation." See Feeling. Affidavit, a statement reduced to writing, and sworn or affirmed to before some officer who has authority to administer an oath. An affi- davit should refer to the cause in which it is made. The common-law rule is that it must contain the title of the cause. The place where the affidavit is taken must be stated, to show that it is taken within the officer's jurisdiction. The affiant must sign the affidavit at the end. It is necessary that the officer signing the jurat should append his official title. An affidavit should also describe the affiant sufficiently to show that he is entitled to offer it, for instance that he is a party, or agent or at- torney of a party to the proceeding. This matter must be stated, not by way of recital or as a mere description, but as an allegation in the affidavit. Affidavit of Defense. — A statement made in proper form that the defendant has a good ground of defense to the plaintiff's action upon the merits. Affidavit to Hold to Bail. — An affidavit which is required in many cases before a person can be arrested. Affiliation is a species of adoption which - in some portions of France and in other 1 opean States. The person affiliated succeeds equally with other heirs to the property ac- quired by the deceased to whom lie had been affiliated, but not to that which he inherited. See Adoption. As to orders of affiliation in bastardy pro- ceedings, see Bastard. Affine Transformation, a-fin', in geom- etry, a transformation by means of which every point in a plane receives a displacement whose direction is parallel to ;i given fixed straight line called the axis of affinity, and whose magnitude is proportional to the distance of the given point from that axis. The affine transforma- tion i- projective; that is. it transforms every straight line into a straight line. Affinity. In law, the connection existing in consequence of marriage between each of the married persons and the kindred of the other. By the marriage one party thereto holds by affinity the same relation to the kindred of the other that the latter holds by consanguinity; and no rule is known to us under which the relation by affinity is lost on a dissolution of the mar- riage more than that by blood is lost by the death of those through whom it is derived. Affinity is distinguished from consanguinity, which denotes relationship by bl 1. The de- grees of affinity are computed in the same way as those of consanguinity. In Chemistry. — The tendency manifested by certain substances to unite with one another so as to produce new combinations, chemically dif- ferent from the primitive ones. The word was originally applied in this sense in the belief that some obscure and undiscovered « affinity » or relationship existed between the combining sub- stances ; but it now appears probable that the contrary is more nearly true, and that the tendency toward combination is strongest, gen- erally speaking, between bodies that are quite dissimilar; though it is impossible to lay down any fixed rule of this simple kind. The modern theory of chemical affinity is too elaborate to be treated adequately under a single heading. See Chemical Affinity; Dissociation; Elec- trolysis; Equilibrium (Chemical); Mo- lecular Theory; Solution. Affirmation, the act of affirming, in the sense of solemnly declaring in a court of law that certain testimony about to be given is true. Also, the statement made. First the Quakers and Moravians, who objected on conscientious grounds to take oaths, were allowed to make solemn affirmations instead ; now everyone ob- jecting to take an oath has the same privilege; but. as is just, false affirmations, no less than false oaths, are liable to the penalties of per- jury. Affre, Denis Auguste, afr', de-ne 6-giist, French ecclesiastic: b. 27 Sept. 1793; d. 27 June 1848. From his prudent and temperate charac- ter he was made Archbishop of Paris by Louis Philippe's government in 1840. Though not yielding blind submission to all its measures, he abstained from offensive opposition ; and when a republic was proclaimed in 1848 he kept aloof from political strife, but displayed earnest AFGHANISTAN zeal for the public welfare. During the June insurrection he climbed on a barricade in the Place de la Bastille, carrying a green bough in his hand, as a messenger of peace ; but he had scarcely uttered a few words when the firing recommenced, and he fell mortally wounded, to die next day. He wrote several theological works and one on Egyptian hieroglyphics. Afghanistan, « Afghan-land, » Asia, a country lying between Persia W. and India and its N.W. frontier tribes E., with the latter and Baluchistan S., and Russia, Bokhara, and the Pamir region N. ; extending from lat. 20° to 38° 30' N. and Ion. 6i° to 75° E. Area, as de- fined N. 1885 and S. 1893, about 215.000 sq. m. ; length E. to W. about 560 m., breadth about 450. Pop. estimated toward 5.000.000. The chief political divisions are Afghan Turkestan, Kafiri- stan, and Badakhshan, with part of the Pamirs turned over to it by the other powers : Kabuli- stan. of which Kabul is the heart, and including Ghazni and Jalalabad; and Herat. There are also independent khanates, and wild tribes which belong to nothing but the semi-enforceable sway of the amir. Topography. — Afghanistan consists chiefly of lofty, bare, uninhabited table-lands, ranges of snow-covered mountains, and deep ravines and valleys. Many of the last are well watered and very fertile, but about four fifths of the whole surface is rocky, mountainous, and unproductive. The surface on the N.E. is covered with the lofty ranges of the Hindu-Kush, often 18,000 and sometimes exceeding 20,000 ft. high ; the loftiest passes are above 12.000 ft. ; and the road often passes along the base of mural preci- pices rising from 2.000 to 3.000 ft. It is an off- shoot of the Himalaya, parting the Oxus basin from the Afghan basins of the Kabul and He!- mand ; and sweeping S.W., at about Ion. 68° (the Irak and Shibar passes) is prolonged by the Koh-i-Baba, which breaks into several almost parallel branches inclosing the valleys of the Heri-Rud (Herat River) and Murghab (Merv River), the two main ones known as Safed-Koh ('(white mountain»; there is another of the same name in the Kabul basin) and Siah-Koh. The E. is traversed by the Suleiman Mts., which extend to the Indus, and are united by a range called the Paghman Mts. with the Hindu-Kush above the Sirak Pass. The principal avenues of communication between Afghanistan and India are the famous Khyber (Khaibar) Pass, by which the Kabul River enters the Punjab; the Gumul Pass, also leading to the Punjab; and the Bolan Pass to the S., through which the route passes to Sind. Of the rivers, mostly in the centre of the country, the largest is the Helmand (old Etymander), which rises in the Koh-i-Baba and Paghman Mts. between Kabul and Bamian, flows S.W. more than 400 m., till it enters the great Hamuli or Seistan swamp ; previous to which, however, its water is almost all drawn off for irrigation canals. About 45 m. below Girishk it receives the Arghand-ab, of about 235 m., rising in the Ghilzai country N.W. of Ghazni, and flowing past Kandahar. Next in importance are the Kabul in the N.E., an af- fluent of the Indus; and the Heri-Rud or Hari- Rud in the N.W., draining the Herat valley. The Amu-Daria or Oxus separates Afghanistan from Bokhara. The only lake worth mentioning (the Hamun being almost entirely in Persia) is the Ab-i-Stada, a shallow sheet about 12 m. in diameter, about 100 m. S.W. of Ghazni, at an elevation of some 7,000 ft. Climate and Natural Products. — The climate is intensely hot in the lower regions and ex- tremely cold in the upper, but fairly salubrious. The rainfall even in the rainy season is slight, and agriculture is maintained by irrigation canals, including a system called karcs, — under- ground channels connecting the springs. The N. mountains are forested to about 10,000 feet; the others are bare. The commonest trees are pine, oak, wild olive, cypress, birch, walnut, and holly. Many indigo-yielding plants grow spontaneously on offsets of the Hindu-Kush, and asafcetida, a resinous gum. is an important product. In the plains the mulberry, tamarisk, acacia, willow, plane, poplar, and date palm, are found ; and fine fruits in the greatest va- riety and abundance — especially apples, pome- granates, and peaches — grow wild. Wild ani- mals are tigers, bears, leopards, wolves, jackals, hyenas, foxes, gazelles, wild asses, etc. Agriculture, Manufactures, and Trade. — The cultivable soil in the valleys, a very small propor- tion of the whole area, is highly fertile under irrigation, but it is ill managed. In many parts two harvests are reaped annually: rice, corn, and millet occupying the land from spring to fall, wheat and barley, beans and peas thence to spring. The staple food of the people is wheat, that of cattle, barley. Other crops are grapes, to- bacco, madder, and cotton, with some sugar-cane. Domestic animals are extensively bred : the chief are the horse, ass, and mule, the ox, sheep with large fine fleeces and enormous fat tails (famous in the « cinnamon stew »), the camel and drome- dary. Manufactures are very scant, though some rugs, silks, sheepskins, camel- and goat- hair fabrics, etc., are sold ; but the export of raw material is large, and forms a great trade with India and a considerable one with Bokhara, employing some 25.000 camels and many ponies, the use of wheeled vehicles being mostly im- possible. The chief articles are wool (mostly sent to Karachi), raw silk, horses, dried fruits, madder, and asafcetida : rugs, silk goods, and rosaries also go out. The mineral deposits in- clude all the great valuable kinds, but political conditions forbid their exploitation ; some iron, lead, and sulphur are worked, however. Precious stones are found in the mountain country around Badakhshan. Chief Towns. — The four leading places of Afghanistan are Kabul the capital, in the east, not far from the Indian border at the famous Khyber Pass, with some 70,000 people ; Kanda- har southwest of it, with 25,000. and Ghazni of 10.000 between them, all three on a great high- road that runs to Baluchistan, and forming a southeastern line of trade; and Herat of 30.000, in the extreme northwest, close to Persia. In Afghan Turkestan the chief place is Balkh ; others are Andkhui, Akcha, Kunduz, Maimene, Tashkurgan, etc. Peoples. — The Afghans proper, or Pathans, as the English call them, are the dominant race, forming perhaps three fifths of the whole. « Afghans » is the Persian name, their own being Pushtaneh or Pukhtaneh, and their language Pushtu or Pukhtu. The latter is Indo-Euro- pean, and they are at bottom of that stock, though heavily mixed with the natives they AFGHANISTAN found there on invading the country (certainly centuries before Christ, as the Greeks found them there in the 4th) ; they claim Jewish descent, but this results from their Moham- medan religion (they are Sunnites), and occa- sional resemblances of feature, as they are not Semites. I hey are a finely built race, hardy, fierce, and turbulent, whose preference is plun- der to live and righting to enjoy. They force the inferior races to do the labor, and the land is cankered with hlood-fettds. They are divided into many tribes, of whom the strongest are the Ghilzais of the cast, and next the Duranis of the west and south (including the present amir and his predecessors of Dost Mohammed's family 1 ; strong also arc the Yusufzais and Afri- dis on the borders of India. Among the others are the Swatis, Waziris, Kakars, and Kostis. There are also races of non-Afghan hlood in Afghanistan: the Hazaras, a Mongol race living chiefly in the northwest : the Jats and Aimaks, Mongol; the Tajiks, believed to he a remnant of the aboriginal population and akin to the Dra- vidians of India ; the I [indkis, an Indian race living in the southwest ; the Kizilbashes, Per- sianized Turks ; etc. Government and Society. — There is a fair code of laws: from the nature of Afghan society the real law is that of the strongest, tempered by the responsibility of governors not to let so- ciety dissolve altogether from absence of justice. The ruler is a hereditary absolute monarch called the Amir, whose power among so fierce a feudal Oriental aristocracy is what he can enforce, which is very little unless he is a man of great abilities and firmness like the late Abd- ur-Rahman. Says a recent writer. « Like most monarchs, he rules not as he will but as he can, and the mantle of his authority covers the most turbulent race under the sun.» This is so even among the accessible peoples with a relatively civilized development of society ; while there are many outlying tribes and chiefs who do not acknowledge his power, and can only be coerced into an appearance of submission by military force, as those of Kafiristan which Abd-ur-Rah- man had but lately cowed at his death. These tribes furthermore arc fanatical Mohammedans, which is always a fighting religion. Those which border on India, as the Afridis 1 whose position at the Khyber Pass, which must be kept open for a clear road to Kabul, makes it needful to hold them in with a strong hand), are counted as under Britisli control rather than that of the amir, who besides receives an annual subsidy of 1,800,000 rupees (formerly 1,200.000), or about $630,000, from the Indian government, to enable him to 111311113111 an efficient army and good order. Every eighth man is nominally subject to draft for military service; but the actual army is about 60,000, the detachments around Kabul, Kandahar, and Herat, and in Afghan Turkestan, numbering 37.000 foot and 7,000 horse, with 360 guns. At Kabul is an ar- senal, also an ammunition factory and a mint having English machinery and supervision. The revenue is from tithes on produce, and naturally varies with the harvests. The money of ac- count is the rupee (about 35 cents). Educa- tion is conducted by Mohammedan schools : of its nature a not unfair description may be found in Count Gobincau's ' History of Gamber-Ali,' in his ' Xouvelles Asiatiqucs ' (Englished as ' Romances of the East 'J. History. — The first invasion of Indo-Euro- peans is before history. The country was sub- jugated after a fashion by Alexander the Great, who founded Herat (as Alexandria Arion), most likely Kandahar, and either Kabul or a colony near it. The Seleucid empire had no actual hold over it ; the Romans lost even its nominal control to tin- Parthians and the later Persian empire; and the Saracens took it after their conquest of Persia. With the break-up of the Bagdad caliphate the Samanide dynasty possessed it, till overthrown in turn by the Ghaznevide, who held it till their downfall in 1183. Jenghiz Khan conquered it in the middle of the 12th century, and Timtir late in the 14th; in 1504 Baber or Bahar. the founder of the n Mogul » dynasty in India, had Kabul for his first capital, and Afghanistan became part of the great Afghan-Hindu empire, and remained a part of it while the Mogul dynasty kept its strength. In 1722 the Afghans raided Persia under one Mahmud, and permanently crippled Ispahan, which liny captured; but in 1738 Nadir Kuli of Persia, later Nadir Shah (q.v.), re- taliated and conquered Afghanistan. In 1747 he was murdered; Ahmed Shah, one of his generals, obtained the sovereignty of Afghan- istan, and became the founder of the Durani, the first .Afghan dynasty, which lasted about 80 years. At the end of that time Herat was all that remained in the hands of a Durani sover- eign, while Dost Mohammed Khan, the ruler of Kabul, had acquired a preponderating influ- ence in the country. He was desirous of gain- ing the assistance of the British against Persia; but believing that he was meditating treachery against them they resolved to dethrone him and restore Shah Sliuja, a former ruler. In April 1839 a British army under Sir Jobn Keane entered Afghanistan, and after overcom- ing some slight resistance entered Kabul and placed Shah Shuja on the throne. A force of 8,000 was left to support the new sovereign, and the rest of the army returned to India. Sir \V. Macnaghtcn remained as envoy at Kabul, with Sir Alexander Burnes as assistant envoy. The Afghans were by no means content with the new state of affairs, however. A widespread conspiracy was organized, which came to a head on 2 Nov. 1X41, when Burnes, Macnaghten, and a number of British officers, besides women and children, were murdered. The other British leaders were disheartened and paralyzed, and a treaty was made with the .Afghans, — at wdiose head was Akbar, son of Dost Mohammed, — by which the former agreed to withdraw the forces from the country, while the latter were to fur- nish them with provisions and escort them on their way to Jalalabad. On 6 Jan. .1842, the British left Kabul and began their disastrous retreat. The cold was intense, they had almost no food — for the treacherous Afghans did not fulfil their promises — and day after day they were assailed by bodies of the enemy. By the 13th, 26.000 persons, among whom were many camp-followers, women and children, were de- stroyed. Some were preserved as prisoners, but only one man, Dr. Brydon, reached Jala- labad with the dismal news. Jalalabad, in which Gen. Sale was stationed with a small force, was soon after besieged by . "flll'iek ft K 11 RJA K il «MH " ^tw*- 4 -i . »T". v Kuhl Sul' ""v iftllu *uh-/-AJub jjf flurtrm v ** iv™ w,„ Sa - J *>«■* *-* 8 B II M v .. x °™> I t >»» cm. ESSS ~\ n.,cO»^n..\ \ | AFGHANISTAN" ' *->^C .-*.. ----;_i_.,„„ /i--. ■■-— AND BALUCHISTAN BOLE OF MILES. ) iixi iw> a» mo Population of pUu'cn Is indicated jjj bj different leiiorliiv, thus: 100,000 «nd oven TEHKKAX W,0» to 100,000 KuutUUar £S sa,ooo to so,ooo- ■ttttd ■;.' icoootoawoo-. g Smaller Flues. >( HjiI I roods l L A I I) r -ggl • c / •Z 'Oi*f the Zambesi, is from E. to \Y. The E. edge of the plateau reaches it^ highest elevation ami greatest ex- tent in the mountainous country of Abyssinia, with heights of 10,000 to 14.000 or 16,000 ft. From this the system extends X. in detached ranges or occasional elevation between the val- ley of the Nile and the Red Sea, with gradually diminishing height to the very delta of the Nile. The E. edge of the Abyssinian plateau presents 3 Steep unbroken line of 7,000 ft. in height for several hundred miles. This line of elevation extends S. toward Lakes Rudolf and Stefanie, and thence in a narrow belt and at a lower average level to the N.E. of the Victoria Ny- anza ; it then proceeds in a S. direction to Kilima-Njaro, beyond which the plateau merges into the Pare .Sits, in the neighborhood of the Pangani River. Immediately to the S. of Lake Rudolf, Mount Nyiro rises to a height of 10,000 ft.; Mount Elgon, to the N.E. of Victoria Nyanza, 14,100 ft.; Mount Kenia, 18,370 ft.; Kilima-Njaro, 19,600 ft.; Mount Mcru, to the W. of Kilima-Njaro, 14,000 ft. The general level of the plateau between Mount Kenia and the lake is from 5.000 to 7,000 ft. To the W. of Victoria Nyanza, between Lakes Albert and Al- bert Edward, Mount Ruwenzori rises to a height of 18,000 ft., and the active volcanic Kirunga Mts., S. of Lake Albert Edward, to 13.000 ft. All these mountains are volcanic in origin, and between Kilima-Njaro and the lake signs of volcanic activity are still visible. The central plateau reaches its greatest average height, over 4.000 ft., in the region embracing the Lakes Victoria, Tanganyika, and Nyassa; it forms a broad belt reaching close to the E. coast, and in an equally broad belt extends from Lake Nyassa to the W. coast. Above this are numer- ous detached heights, like the Rubeho Mts., W. of Zanzibar, the Livingstone Mts. around the N. of Lake Nyassa, and the Mlanje heights S. of that lake: Mount Mlanje being 9.680 ft. S. of the Zambesi occur the Mashona and Matoppo highlands, rising in places to from 5,000 to 7.000 ft. Immediately to the S. of the Middle Limpopo a series of mountains begins which, under various names — Zoutpansberg, Libombo, Drakensberg, Compassberg, Schneeberg, etc. — extends along the E. and S. coast, and N. to some distance beyond Cape Town. In Natal these rise to 10,000 and 12.000 ft., and in Cape Colony to 7,000 and 8,000 ft.; the interior pla- teau averaging about 4.000 ft., but falling to a lower level in the Kalahari desert. Between the Orange River and the Kunene, and the latter river and the Kongo, the escarpment continues, rising in places to 6,000 and 8.000 ft. The gen- eral level lowers considerably as the Kongo is reached. _ The low coast region extends some distance into the interior along this part of the W. coast, the descent from the interior plateau giving rise to the cataracts which so seriously interrupt navigation on the lower Kongo. On both sides of the middle Kongo extends a con- siderable area which sinks from the generally high level of the interior to an average of only about 1.000 ft. From the Kongo and Kameruns the general level of the coast plateau is broken by the Crystal and other mountains rising to 3.000 and 4.000 ft., culminating in the Kameruns Peak, a volcanic mountain rising to 13,000 ft •■"> AFRICA On the S. of the Benue, in the Atlantika group, and between the Benue and the Niger, we find a broken mountain group with heights of from 6,000 to 10,000 ft. ; while in the interior N. of the Gulf of Guinea there is a broad plateau, begin- ning at various distances from the coast, ex- tending across the upper Niger, and rising to 2,000 and 3,000 ft., with irregular ranges rising at places to from 5,000 to 7,000 ft. The Kong Mts., in the region where the Niger has its sources, as a range do not exist. As the middle Niger is approached the general level lowers to that of the Sahara, while N. the low coast region extends far into the interior till the Atlas is reached. Rivers. — The Nile is the only great river of Africa which flows to the Mediterranean. It is now known to receive its waters primarily from the country drained by the great lakes, the Vic- toria Nyanza, the Albert Nyanza, and the Albert Edward Nyanza, and especially from the Vic- toria Nyanza, which itself receives numerous streams. The Victoria Nile connects the Vic- toria and the Albert Nyanza ; and on leaving the latter the river flows in a winding course, of which the direction is almost due N., without further lake expansion, to the Mediterranean. In descending from the lake elevations (of the Victoria 3,900, of the Albert Edward 3,200 ft., the latter connected by the Semliki River with the Albert 2,300 ft.) it makes, both between the lakes and in its subsequent course, numerous falls. Those in upper Egypt are known as the Cataracts. Between lat. 5° and 10° N., under the name of Bahr-el-Jebel, it receives numerous tributaries, mostly from the country to the S. and VV. ; the principal on the left bank being the Bahr-el-Ghazal, on the right the Sobat. After this it takes the name of the White Nile, and receives through the Bahr-el-Azrek and Atbara, or Blue Nile and Black River, the drainage of Abyssinia. The Atbara brings the mud which forms so precious a deposit in Egypt. After this the Nile flows for 1,200 m. to the sea with- out receiving a tributary. Altogether it drains an area of more than 1,000,000 sq. m. The Indian Ocean receives numerous African riv- ers, most of which are short, being the drainage merely of the external slopes of the escarpment of the interior plateau. Among the most considerable rivers on this coast are the Jub, which is formed by several streams rising in the border slopes near Abyssinia, is navigable with difficulty to Bardera, and enters the ocean at the equator; the Webi Shebeli, formed by streams rising on the S.E. slopes of Abyssinia, and los- ing itself in the sands on the coast near the mouth of the Jub ; the Tana from Mount Kenia discharging at Witu ; the Sabaki S. of the Tana ; the Rufiji or Lufiji; the Rovuma, which flows from the mountains E. of Lake Nyassa ; the Beira ; and the Limpopo or Crocodile, which enters the ocean N. of Delagoa Bay. The only great river flowing from a distant point of the interior which breaks the mountain barrier of the E. is the Zambezi, which has its embouchure between the Beira and Rovuma. It is the fourth in size of the continent. It drains a large part of the great tract of pastoral country S. of the equatorial region. Several streams coming from the swampy plateau on the borders of Lunda and the Garenganze country unite to form the Zambezi, the principal being the Liba from the S.W. edge of the Garenganze country. In its middle course it is joined by the Kafue and Loangwe from the N. and the Shire from Lake Nyassa, and by the Chobe and some smaller streams from the S. Below the Chobe are the Victoria Falls, one of the greatest cataracts in the world ; from which the river flows in a semi- circular course to the ocean, breaking through the Lupata Mts., and discharging by several mouths, the most navigable of which is the Chinde. The river is navigable by vessels of some size to the Karoabassa Rapids beyond the Shire, but above that only by boats and canoes. The drainage area of the Zambezi is 514,000 sq. m. Of the Atlantic rivers, the Senegal, Gambia, and Niger have their origin in the mountains near the coast of Senegambia. The Senegal flows in a N. and W. direction, its volume vary- ing much according to the season. In the rainy season it is navigable for 500 to 700 m., in the dry season for about a fourth of that dis- tance. The Gambia takes a winding course to the W., and is navigable for about 400 m., nearly its whole extent. The greatest of these rivers, the Niger, rising in the inner slope of the same mountains, flows N.E. to Timbuktu, whence it turns first E. and afterward S.E., receiving the Sokoto, to its junction with the Benue, which comes from the mountains S. of Lake Tchad. The upper part of the Niger is called the Joliba, and is flanked by several great swampy lakes ; it afterward acquires the name of Quorra or Kawarra. In the N. part of its course it touches on the great desert. It is navigable for light vessels above Timbuktu. Between the Sokoto and the Benue it is interrupted by shoals and rocks to below Boussa. From the junction it flows due S. to the ocean, where it forms a wide alluvial delta, and enters by a number of mouths, the most distant of which are 200 m. apart. The main channel is called the Nun. The drainage area of the Niger is 810.000 sq. m. The Kongo, the second in extent of basin and the greatest in volume of the Afri- can rivers, flows from different slopes of the same watersheds as the Zambezi. Its identifica- tion with the Lualaba, the great stream discov- ered by Livingstone in the centre of the con- tinent, was established by Stanley in 1876-7, this enterprising traveler having descended the river to the Atlantic from a point in the interior W. of Tanganyika. The Lukuga, the outlet of Lake Tanganyika, discovered by Cameron, is a tribu- tary of the Lualaba. The Chambeze, which rises in the mountains between Lakes Nyassa and Tanganyika, is the remotest source of the Kongo system. It falls into Lake Bangweolo, from which it issues under the name Luapula, and flows N. to Lake Mweru; from the N. side of this lake issues the Lualaba, which passes through a magnificent series of lake-like expan- sions and receives numerous tributaries. Below Stanley Falls it receives the Lomami, and above Stanley Pool the Kwa, which is formed by the junction of the Kasai-Sankuru system with the Lukuallu or Kwango. Other tributaries come from the S., and in the N. it is fed by the Uban- gi, which, under the name of the Welle-Makua, ccmesfrom the water-parting between the Nile and Kongo systems. The total length of the Kongo is about 3,000 m., and its drainage area 1,450,000 sq. m. Unlike most of the African AFRICA rivers, the mouth of the Kongo forms an estuary. It is estimated to pour into the ocean a larger body of water than the Mississippi. The Kwan- za rises in the Mossamba MtS., and curves X.W. to the ocean. Like most African rivers, its upper course is interrupted by cataracts, and its mouth closed by a bar. The Kunene rises on the opposite side of the same watershed, and flows S.W. to the Atlantic. From it S. to the Orange River follows a dry belt, through which no considerable river flows to the sea. 1 he Orange, though it rises near the E. coast, and flows nearly across the S. part of the continent, passes for the greater part of its course through a desert region, receiving no tributaries, and is a shallow stream. Its headwaters, the Vaa! and the Nu Gariep, rise on opposite slopes of the Drakenberg Mts., and flow to their junction round opposite .-ides of the Orange River Colony. The Great Fish River, which drains Great Namaqualand, enters the Orange River near the terminal ion of its course. The rivers which reach the ocean do not ac- count for the whole drainage of Africa. There are two great and numerous smaller tracts from which no large river reaches the sea. The two great areas of internal drainage correspond with the two great deserts. That of the X. desert timated at 4,000,000 sq. m. As already in- dicated, it is furrowed with water-courses in every direction, which lose themselves in the sand. The Bahr-el-Ghazal, which is usually dry, but intermittently times out of Lake Tchad, terminates in a salt lagoon on the border of the desert to the N. of the lake. In the S. the Zuga or Botlctle, which forms the outlet of Lake Ngami, in the Kalahari desert, loses itself in salt lagoons at greater or less distance, ac- ting to the supply of water. A region of inland drainage, with salt lagoons, also exists between the Victoria Nyanza and the coast range of mountains. In the low coast land E. of Abyssinia the Hawash River loses itself in the sands before reaching the sea ; and the Webi, as already stated, which flows S. from the So- mali Peninsula to near the equator, likewise terminates in a salt lagoon on the border of the ocean. The Omo flows into the N. end of Lake Rudolf. Lakes. — The only lake of considerable ex- tent N. of lat. 5 N. is Lake Tchad, an enormous flooded swamp. Lake Tana in Central Abys- sinia, the salt Lake Asal in the E., and Lakes Dembel and Abayo in Gallaland, are compara- tively small. Between 5° N. and 15° S. is a series of lakes funning one of the most striking features of the continent. Almost in a line, be- ginning in the S., are Lakes Xyassa, Tan- ganyika, Lifu, Albert Edward, Albert, all lying in more or less elongated rifts or gorges. The series is continued by Lakes Rudolf (salt) and Mnie in the N.E., and, according to some authorities, by the ancient lake now the Red and by the Dead Sea in Palestine. The great Victoria Nyanza, which touches the equa- tor on the north, 1- of a different type, as are Lake Bangweolo (another flooded swamp) on tlie S. of Tanganyika, and Lake Mweru in the N. of Bangweolo. Lake Rikwa or Leopold, be- tween Nyassa and Tanganyika, is partly of the rift type, while Lake Ngami in the Kalahari re- gion is a swamp which sometimes dries up. Lake Leopold II. and Lake Malumba are attached to the lower Kongo. Lake Dilolo is in the swampy region forming part of the watershed between the Kongo and the Zambezi. There are nu- merous alt lagoons in the X. portion of the Sahara. Climate. — The climate of Africa is mainly influenced by the fact that, except the countries on the X. and S. coasts, it lies almost entirely within the tropics. The equator, as already ob- served, cuts 11 nearly through the middle, so that it belong- in latitudinal, though unequally in longitudinal exten ion, to the X. and S. tropics. It is the only continent which extends unbroken from the X. to the S. tropics, ami is consequent- ly the hottest of all. The two sections N. and S. of the equator have, as has already been ob- served, in some respects a very considerable mblance in their general features, the chief modifying circumstances being the greater ele- vation and the smaller longitudinal extension of the southern division, which, by bringing it more within the influences of the ocean, tends to mod- ify its climate. In the belt immediately under the equator, both N. and S., vegetation is intense and rain abundant. For about 10° N. and S. we find true tropical forests, mainly to the VV. of the great lakes, on the middle and upper Kongo and its affluents, and along a belt of the W. coast in the Niger region. To the E. of the great lakes, where the rainfall is not so abundant, are con- siderable areas of poor steppe and scrub country, and generally over the tropical region the trees are scattered and the country more park-like than forestal. Animal life, from herds of elephants to innumerable swarms of insects, abounds in these luxuriant regions. To the N. and S. of the equatorial belt, as the rainfall diminishes, the forest region is succeeded by open pastoral and agricultural country. This pastoral licit extends, in the N., across the Sudan, from Senegambia to Abyssinia; on the S., from Angola and Benguela to the Zambezi. This is followed by the rainless regions of the Sahara on the N. and the Kalahari desert on the S.. extending beyond the tropics, and border- ing on the agricultural and pastoral countries of the N. and S. coasts, which lie entirely in the temperate zone. The w-inds and rains in Africa are chiefly produced by the successive exposure of the va- rious intertropical belts to the vertical rays of the sun. The monsoons of the Indian Ocean exercise the principal modifying influence. From March to September the S.W. monsoon blows from Africa to \-ia, and during the remaining months the N.E. monsoon blows toward the African coast. The indraught of air charged with moisture, at the seasons when the sun is over] 'duces the rainy seasons within the lies, and as the incessant rarefaction of the air by heat continually draws in fresh supplies, the rainfall is on the whole abundant, varying from 50 to 100 inches in the region between 10° X. and the Tn 1 apricorn. In a patch on the Gulf of Guinea the 100 inches is exceeded, though in Somaliland there are almost rainless patches. Xear the tropics, to which the sun comes only once a year, there is only a single rainy season, while in the central part of the zone, which the sun traverses twice in his pas- sage between the tropics, there are two distinct rainy seasons, a greater and a less, according as Longitudt West 20* from Greenwich Longitude East front 20' Greenwich Copyright, /qoj ty Rand Cofyright, iqaQ, by Hand, McXatly & Company AFRICA the wind is in a direction which brings more or less moisture, except in some places in the in- terior, where the two rainy seasons are so pro- tracted as to blend into one, lasting, as in the Manyuema country, from September to July, or In some other parts even longer. The rainy season usually begins soon after the sun has reached his zenith, but on the E. coast the mon- soon charged with the moisture of the Indian Ocean brings it earlier. In the deserts, as al- ready observed, there is hardly any rain ; and this applies also to Egypt, which but for the Nile would be no better than the Sahara. The chief cause of the rainlessness of the deserts is the direction of the winds, which causes the chief moisture-bearing currents to pass, before reaching them, over hot and thirsty regions which deprive them of their moisture; and espe- cially the mountain screens which intercept the moisture of the winds both from N.E. and S.W. Another cause is the want of elevated regions to attract the moisture actually contained in the atmosphere, as in the higher regions of the desert periodical rains do occur. The high mountains of the E plateau and the intervening tropical regions deprive the N.E. monsoon of all its moisture before it reaches the Kalahari Des- ert. Hence the apparently anomalous circum- stance that the greatest heat is found after the equatorial region is passed. The rapid radiation of heat in the desert causes a very great fall of temperature after the sun is down, so that some- times frosts are generated, and this in some mea- sure supplies the want of rain by condensing the moisture in dew. In the desert, too, scorching winds are generated, those of the N. afflicting Egypt and the countries on the Mediterranean coast. The hottest part of the Sahara is in Nubia, where the Arabs say the soil is like a fire and the wind like a flame. The coasts of tropical Africa, especially the W. coast, where colonial settlements have been formed, have been found to have a deadly climate for for- eigners. Geology, Minerals. — The geology of Africa is still very little known. Very ancient crystal- line rocks are found rising into mountain ranges and sometimes spread over large areas. Most of the rocks that overlie them belong to the older formations, so that the continent as a whole is supposed to be of very ancient date. The sands which cover so large an area are be- lieved to be mainly of xolian origin, and not to have been formed by the action of water. The porous clay found so abundantly in west Africa is of comparatively recent date. The region around Tanganyika is of Jurassic origin. Around the great lakes are abundant evidences of enormous volcanic activity at no very remote date; and, as already mentioned, active volcanoes are not unknown. Tanganyika, according to re- cent views, may at one period have been con- nected with the sea. Salt is abundant, though often scarce from want of communication and working organization. Gold is found in abun- dance in southern Africa from the Transvaal region to the Zambezi, and a number of very productive mines have been opened in the Trans- vaal. Diamonds have been found in large num- bers, and in apparently inexhaustible supply, on the Vaal River and its tributaries. In the south- ern central district, particularly the country of Katanga, iron and copper are found, and arc worked in some districts in the countries bor- dering on the Lualaba. Copper is also found in Loanda, iron in Angola, and lead, tin, iron, and copper in Great Namaqualand ; iron, copper, and coal are found in Natal. Vegetation. — The centre of Africa possesses, as already mentioned, an exuberant tropical vegetation. The open pastoral belt at the ex- tremities of the tropics is distinguished by a rich and varied flora. A special characteristic of the vegetation of the southern extremity of Afri- ca is the remarkable variety, size, and beauty of the heaths, some of which grow to 12 or 15 feet and form miniature forests. Cycadacea? and bulbous and orchidaceous plants, aloes, and other succulent plants, also abound. The baobab or monkey-bread tree, first discovered by Adanson in Senegal, is found from the Sudan to Lake Ngami, and palms of one variety or another are diffused over almost every part of Africa. The date palm is the special characteristic of the des- ert, to which it is peculiarly adapted, and there it forms the principal means of subsistence. It is also cultivated as a garden plant in the northern coast regions. This district as well as Egypt has an ancient celebrity for its fertility in grain. Wheat and maize are cultivated, fruit trees also abound, and groves of oranges and olives distinguish the landscape. The castor oil plant, the fig tree, the dwarf palm, and the lotus, formerly an important article of food, are here characteristic forms. The common oak, the cork oak, and the pine form the staple, and the cypress, myrtle, arbutus, and fragrant tree heaths the ornaments of the woods. The pas- toral tropical belt presents a different order of vegetation. Besides the baobab, the cabbage palm, the oil palm, the wax palm, the shea butter tree, the cotton tree, the African oak, and the mangrove here prevail ; rice and maize are culti- vated ; the principal fruits are the banana, papaw, custard apple, lemon, orange, and tamarind. India-rubber plants are found in various forms, as trees and as _ climbing plants, in abundance both in east and west tropical Africa. The preva- lent plants of this district are also found in the fertile parts of Nubia. To the northeast of this region frankincense, myrrh, cinnamon, and cassia abound. The coffee plant is a native of the southern Abyssinian region, and also of western tropical Africa, where it forms thick woods. This plant is supposed to have been transported from Africa to Arabia. Abyssinia, though coffee and spices are native products, possesses gener- ally, from its elevation, the vegetation of a tem- perate region. The swamps of the tropical re- gion abound with papyrus. The cassava, yam, pigeon-pea, and ground-nut are cultivated as bread plants. Animals. — The fauna of Africa is extensive and varied, and numerous species of mammals are peculiar to the continent. According to a scientific view of the geographical distribution of animals, the north of Africa belongs to the Medi- terranean sub-region, while the rest of the con- tinent, forms the Ethiopian region. Africa possesses numerous species of the order Quad- rutnana (apes and monkeys), all of which are peculiar to it. They abound especially in the tropics. The most remarkable are the chim- panzee and the gorilla. The lion is the typical carnivore of Africa. Latterly he has been driven from the coast .settlements to the interior, where AFRICA he still reigns king of the forest. There are three varieties, the Barbary, Senegal, and Cape lions. The leopard and panther rank next to the lion among the carnivora. Hyenas of more than one species, and jackals, are found all over Africa. Elephants in lar^c herds abound in the forests of the tropical regions, and their tusks form a leading article of commerce. These are larger and heavier than those of Asiatic ele- phants. The elephant is not a domestic animal in Africa as it is in Asia. The rhinoceros is found, like the elephant, in Middle and Southern Africa. Hippopotami abound in many of the large rivers and the lakes. The zebra and quagga were numerous in central and south- ern Africa, but the latter is said to be now en- tirely extinct. Of antelopes, the most numerous and characteristic of the ruminating animals of Africa, at least 50 species are considered pecu- liar to this continent, of which 23 used to occur in Cape Colony. The giraffe is found in the in- terior and is exclusively an African animal. Several species of wild buffaloes roam in the interior, and the Asiatic buffalo has been natu- ralized in the north. The camel, common in the north as a beast of burden, has no doubt been introduced from Asia. The horse and the ass are highly developed in the Barbary States. The cattle of Abyssinia and Bornu have horns of im- mense size but extremely light. In Barbary and the Cape of Good Hope the sheep are broad- tailed ; in Egypt and Nubia they are long-legged and short-tailed. Goats are in some parts more numerous than sheep, especially in the Sudan and in Abyssinia. Dogs are numerous, but cats rare, in Egypt and Barbary. The former in the northern towns serve as scavengers. Bears and foxes are found only in the north. The birds of northern Africa are almost identical with those of the south of Europe and the Asiatic countries bordering on the Mediterranean. Many of the African birds are famed for the brilliancy of their plumage, such as the sun-birds, bee-eaters, rollers, plaintain-eatcrs, parrots, and kingfishers. The ostrich is found nearly all'over Africa, but especially in the desert. A remarkable bird of southern Africa is the secretary-bird or serpent- eater, which renders great service to the inhabit- ants by killing serpents. Another peculiar bird of South Africa is the little honey-guide (q.v.), which points out the nests of bees. The whale- headed stork, remarkable for its enormous beak, may also be mentioned. Owls, falcons, eagles, and vultures are numerous. Water-fowl are abundant on the lakes and rivers, and there are many species of quails and partridges. One species of gallinaceous bird, the guinea-fowl, has been domesticated in other countries. Rep- tiles, owing to the dryness of the climate, are comparatively few. The largest is the crocodile, which abounds in the great rivers and tropical lakes. There are several species of venomous serpents, including the horned viper and the African cobra. The chameleon is common. The rivers and coasts abound with fish of numerous species, and some of them of the most brilliant coloring. Insects are numerous. Among the more troublesome species are the locust, tsetse, and white ant. Inhabitants. Civilization, etc. — There is a marked distinction between the races in the north and east of the great desert and those in central Sudan and the rest of Africa and the south. The main elements of the population of north Africa, including Egypt and Abyssinia, are Hamitic and Semitic, but in the north the llamite Berbers are mingled with peoples of the same race as those of prehistoric southern Eu- rope, and other types of various origins, and in the east and southeast with peoples of the negro type. The Semitic Arabs are found all over the northern region, and even in the western Sahara and central Sudan, and far down the east coast as traders. The Somalis and Gallas are mainly Hamitic. In central Sudan and the whole of the country between the desert and the Gulf of Guinea the population is pure negro — people of the black. Hat- or broad-nosed, thick-lipped type, with narrow heads, woolly hair, high cheek- bones, and prognathous jaws. Scattered among them are peoples of a probably Hamitic stock-. Nearly the whole of the narrow southern section of Africa is inhabited by what arc known as tin- Bantu races, of which the Zulu or Kaffir may be taken as the type. The languages of the Bantu peoples are all of the same structure, even though the physical type vary, some resembling the true negro, and others having prominent noses and comparatively thin lips. The Bush- men of southern Africa are of a different type from the Bantu, probably the remains of an abo- riginal population, while the Hottentots are ap- parently a mixture of Bushmen and Kaffirs. Scattered over central Africa, mainly in the for- est regions, are pygmy tribes, who are generally supposed to he the remains of an aboriginal population. The bulk of the inhabitants of Madagascar arc of Malay affinities. The total population is estimated nt about 150.000,000. As regards religion, a great proportion of the inhabitants are heathens of the lowest type. Mohammedanism possesses a large number of adherents in northern Africa and is rapidly spreading in the Sudan. Christianity prevails chiefly among the Copts of Egypt, the Abys- sinians, and the natives of Madagascar, the lat- ter having been converted in recent times. Else- where the labors of the missionaries have been attended with promising success. Over a great part of the continent, however, civiliza- tion is at a low ebb, and in the Kongo region cannibalism is extensively prevalent. Yet in various regions the natives who have not come in contact with a higher civilization show con- siderable skill in agriculture and various me- chanical arts, as in weaving and metal-working. Among articles exported from Africa are gold and diamonds, palm oil, ivory, wool, ostrich feathers, esparto, cotton, caoutchouc, etc. Sec paragraph Commercial Conditions at end of this article. Languages. — The languages spoken on the continent may be divided into two great classes, those native to Africa and those brought in from outside: the former including the three great divisions of Negroid, Hottentot-Bushman, and Hamitic, the latter Aryan, Malay, and Se- mitic ; and the latter again into the pure lan- guages or patois of recent immigrants or trad- ers, and those which have become naturalized by time and change into virtually native tongues themselves. The first division of the extra-African tongues comprises: (1) Pure English in South Africa and Liberia, pure French in Algeria and the scattered trading settlements elsewhere. (2) MARIBOU STORK AN TABIRI AFRICA Four « Creole » dialects: the Mediterranean « lingua franca » or trade jareon ; the English Creole or West African Kru-English ; the Cape Verde Islands Portuguese Creole; and the Boer and Hottentot Dutch Creole. The last three are European in stock, but with much African phonic, inflectional, and syntactical mixture and influence. The second division includes the Malay or Malagasy of Madagascar, and the Se- mitic tongues of the northeast. These last are (i) Pure Arabic (tht Latin of Africa, the uni- versal language of social intercourse and trade wherever Mohammedanism prevails), including the Egyptian, Sudani, Maghreb, and Muscat dia- lects ; (2) mixed, as the Abyssinian dialects, derived from the ancient Geez (q.v.), Tigre and Tigrina, Amharic (originally of southern Abyssi- nia, but now the chief tongue of the country), Harari of the Galla country, Gurague, etc. All these were brought in by Semitic invaders. The native African stocks are classed in Eng- lish books mainly according to the system adopted from Friedrich Muller by R. N. Cust in his 'Modern Languages of Africa'.; later German Africanists prefer that of Lepsius, the chief difference being on the relations of Bantu and Negro or Nigritic. I. Negroid. This has three main divisions: (1) Bantu, a pure language. This immense group occupies, with enclaves of Hottentot- Bushman and Pygmy, the whole vast triangle from the Kamerun west and Zanzibar east down to the Cape, or pretty much all Africa south of the equator. All its components (for which see Bantu) have one grammar though different vocabularies ; the greatest and perhaps purest representatives of it are the Zulus or Kaffirs, and their neighbors the Se-chuana. (2) Ni- gritic, Negro, or Sudan-Negro, between the Sa- hara and the equator. Ethnologically, the races speaking this group of tongues are the purest types of the Negro stock ; but linguistically, they are only classed together from the utter im- possibility of grouping them with any others, though Lepsius thinks them degenerated Bantu, — a conclusion scouted by others, the affinities being very faint. They are many and to all appearance totally unrelated, so diverse and pe- culiar are the idioms ; some, however, think they show marked characteristics in common. They doubtless represent the oldest races on the con- tinent, wandering in small hostile bands and changing their dialects almost from generation to generation, like all such petty camps with un- fixed traditions and no general intercourse ; and may well have scores or hundreds of « lan- guages » among them with no traceable con- nection. (3) The Nuba-Fulah or Ful ; some- times called the Nilotic, frorp its main seat in the Nile valley from Nubia to the Albert Nyanza, and with isolated tribes farther out, as the Barea and Kunama on the northern border of Abyssinia, and the Masai and Oigob southwest. Others dispute the inclusion of the Fulah, con- sidering it a tongue by itself ; perhaps a mon- grel, more likely a family as above, which has picked up some Hamitic words. The Dinka. Bari, and Shilluk are its chief families along the Nile, the Lur or Shuli and Madi being the last to the south; west of the valley it shades into the Nigritic chaos. 2. The Hottentot-Bushman. This is the lan- guage of the dwarf tribes, and its relations to others or itself are vigorously debated. Muller thought it represented two ethnological and lin- guistic divisions. Lepsius thinks it one, Bantu in race and Hamitic in language ; but his con- clusions are not accepted. Besides the main stock in southern Africa, this group includes the Pygmy dialects in central Africa: it is denied that they have kept their original languages, but this is true of many others, and the ethnological and linguistic problems have no necessary rela- tion. 3. Hamitic. This includes (1) the Libyan or Berber dialects spoken across north Africa from the Canaries to Egypt — probably changed scores of times from top to bottom ; (2) the ancient Egyptian, with the four dialects of its descendant Coptic (extinct save as the ritual language of the Coptic Church) ; (3) the non- Semitic or Kushite Abyssinian dialects (for- merly called Punic, sometimes Ethiopic, which was more generally applied to Geez) : as Bi- shari (see Bisharin), the ancient Bedja, be- tween Egypt and Abyssinia; Danakil (q.v.) or Dankali, native name Afar, between Abyssinia, Massowa, and Obok ; Somali and Galla, in their countries ; Agau (through Abyssinia, the users believed to be its aborigines, with dialects as Chamir, Quara, etc.) ; Saho. between Abyssinia and Adulis Bay ; Kaffa, Kullo. etc., in the high- lands south of Abyssinia. The Fulah group (see above) and the Haussas in Sokoto have some Hamitic admixture. These Hamite tribes are much mixed, geographically or more in- timately, with Semitic and Negro tribes or ele- ments. « Equatorial » is a name given in 1889 by Muller to a group of Negro tribes S. of Darfur, of which he wished to make a new family : the Nyam-Nyam and Monbuttu were the chief. All are of a lighter color than the typical Negro, and their languages are more distinctive still. As above said, it is probable that many such groups can be segregated on the best of grounds. Systems of Writing. — Africa has four liv- ing systems (not counting the fossil Coptic or the European used by those races), and has had four now represented only by inscriptions or papyri. The latter are: (1) Ancient Egyp- tian, passing from hieroglyphics (a mixture of ideograms and syllables) through the cursive hieratic to the more cursive demotic, the or- dinary script of business life. A few of the demotic characters are preserved in the ritual Coptic. (2) Ancient Phoenician, the ancestor of all Western alphabets. (3) Ancient Ethiopian, used for the native tongue around Napata and Meroe. It was cursive and borrowed, but it is not known from whence, nor what language it represents. (4) Ancient Libyan or Numidian, borrowed from southern Arabia and read from the bottom up. There are many inscriptions in it in Algeria and Tunis, some of which have been deciphered ; the first was the celebrated bilingual inscription of Takka. The living sys- tems are practically those of the Hamites and Semites, the others being mostly below the grade of civilization which uses such things; and both the former use Semitic systems. The four are : I. The only one developed in a Negro tribe, and with one exception the only one actually in- vented and popularly used within historic times : that of the Vei, on the west coast near Cape Mt., devised about 1834 by Dcalu Bukere, a native AFRICA with a rough knowledge of European printing. It was not an alphabetic system, but a syl- labary, with complicated characters like hiero- glyphics. It was later used for Mohammedan missionary work, but is being supplanted by the European system, the Christian missionaries re- fusing to employ it. j. That of the Touaregs or Saharan Ber- bers, called Hfinaghen, It seems to be a de- scendant of the ancient Libyan, to which it is similar in reading from the bottom up. 3. The Arabic, used by all who wish to write the great language of Mohammedan Africa, the general medium of social and busi- ness communication. It is also widely used to v. rile other African languages: by the Berbers and Suahelis for Libyan ; by the people of Shoa for Amharic, and those of Harar for Harari ; by the Malays of Madagascar ; and by the Kaffirs. 4. The Amharic, used largely in and around Abyssinia; it is an extension and modification of the ancient Gcez or Ethiopic, which there- fore we have not classed as dead, any more than the Greek and Roman alphabets can be so called. It is written from left to right like the Euro- pean languages, the other Semitic systems being the reverse; and the vowels are indicated by modifications of the consonants or marks added to them, making it a semi-syllabic rather than pure alphabetic system. It was borrowed from southern Arabia, and can be traced back to the 4th century on the monuments at Axum, the ancient capital of Abyssinia. Political Divisions. — By recent arrangements, mainly since 1884, great areas in Africa have been allotted to Great Britain, France, Germany, Portugal, Belgium, and Italy, as coming within their respective spheres of influence, in addition to colonial possessions proper. The areas claimed by the various European powers in Africa may be roughly estimated as follows: France, 3,500,000 square miles ; Great Britain, 2,600,000 square miles; Germany, 1. 000.000 square miles; Portugal, 825.000 square miles; Kongo Free State, 900,000 square miles ; Italy, 180,000 square miles; Spain, 154,000 square miles. See paragraph on Colonics under th various countries, Egypt, like Tripoli, is nom- inally under Turkey, but it is actually under British suzerainty. The Kongo Free State is under the king of Belgium. Abyssinia and Morocco are the chief native African and inde- pendent states. The former independent Boer republics, the Orange Free State and the South African Republic, since the Transvaal war 1899- 1902, have been incorporated with the British empire under the name of the Orange River and Transvaal Colonies. In 1903 Great Britain also annexed Kano and Sokoto. History of Discovery. — Although in Egypt and along the Mediterranean coast (see Car- thage and Egypt) Africa was the seat of re- mote and comparatively high states of civiliza- tion, up to the middle of the 19th century the whole of central Africa was a blank; it is now at least as well known as South America. The civilized nations of the ancient world aproached Africa from the Mediterranean and the Red Sea ; there is reason to believe that till the in- troduction of the camel in the "th century A.D. the desert was an insuperable barrier between the Mediterranean countries and central Sudan. The name Africa is mythologically associated with Afer, a son of the Libyan Hercules; but this is only an eponym. It is certainly Phoe- nician, and probably meant "nomadic," a term applied by the Carthaginians to the tribes around. It was the name given by the Romans at first only to a small district of Africa in the immediate neighborhood of Carthage, and nearly corre- sponding with the Roman province formed on the destruction of Carthage. The Greeks called Africa Libya, and the Romans often used the same name. The first African exploring expe- dition on record is that mentioned by Herodotus as having been sent by Pharaoh Necho about of the 7th century B.C. to circumnavigate the continent. The navigators, who were Phoe- nicians, were absent three years, and according to report they accomplished their object. The story has been the subject of much controversy, and was for long generally discredited, but re- cent authorities of weight have pronounced in its favor. The next important voyage recorded is that of Hanno, a Carthaginian, down the west coast, probably 50 or 100 years later. He passed a river with crocodiles and river-horses, and probably reached the coast of Upper Guinea. Herodotus also mentions some young men of the tribe of the Nasamones (living near the Gulf of Sidra) crossing the desert in a westerly direc- tion, and coming to a great river where they saw crocodiles and black men. but it is doubtful if this could have been the Niger. There is no evidence that the Egyptians knew the Nile be- yond the site of Khartum, though they may have sent ships as far as the coast of Somaliland by the Red Sea. Nero sent an expedition up the Nile which seems to have penetrated up the White Nile ; and remains of Roman origin have been found some distance into the Sahara. From the navigators and traders that frequented the east coast of Africa, Ptolemy may have learned that the Nile issued from two great lakes about the equator. Mohammedanism was car- ried into north Africa in the 7th century and very rapidly spread to the Atlantic. By the 10th century the Arabs had crossed the desert, and bit ween this and the 14th century Arab travelers visited central Sudan, the Niger, and other regions, and till comparatively recently they were the great authorities on much of central Africa. The first impulse to a more complete ex- ploration of Africa was given by the Portuguese prince known as Henry the Navigator, who in the early part of the 15th century sent out a series of expeditions along the west coast. These were continued after his death, so that in i486 Bartolomeu Diaz doubled the Cape and in 1497 Vasco da Gama sailed up the east coast as far as Mombasa, and thence to India. Thus for the first time the main outline of the African coast was laid down. Settlements were planted on the east and west coasts by Portuguese, French, English, Dutch, and Brandenburg! rs, but there is no authentic information that any European penetrated into the interior. Maps of the 16th to the 18th century were covered with lakes and rivers, but these were swept away as unauthentic by D'Anville in the middle of the 18th century, and the interior left a blank. An association for the exploration of inner Africa was formed in London in 1788. Additions were made to geography under its auspices by Mungo Park, Hornemann. Burckhardt, and others. AFRICAN ART. i. Horn Comb. .*. I Little Axe. W 'man's Girdle. 4. Club and 5. Head Ornament. 6-7. Fei 1 3. Woman's Sandal. VV >man's Head-Dress, iketry. AFRICA Modern African exploration may be said to begin with Mungo Park, who reached the upper course of the Niger or Joliba, and whose efforts to explore the river to its mouth cost him his life (1795-1805). Dr. Lacerda, a Portuguese, about the same time reached the capital of Ca- zembe, west of Lake Bangweolo, where he died. Hornemann, who traveled for the same society as Park, perished in the desert after sending home accounts of Bornu and the neighboring state";. In 1802-6 two Portuguese traders crossed the continent from Angola, through Ca- zembe's dominions, to the Portuguese posses- sions on the Zambezi. In 1816 Captain Tuckey, in command of a British expedition, sailed up the Kongo, which he took to be the mouth of the Niger, for 280 miles. About the same time Major Peddie, and after his death Captain Campbell, led a party up the Senegal through the Fula or Fella- tah territory, returning to Kakundy on the Nunez. In 1817 Mr. Bowditch explored the country of the Ashantis. In 1818 a French traveler, Gaspard Theodore Mollien, discovered the sources of the Senegal, Gambia, and Rio Grande. In 1819 Ritchie and Lyon traveled from Tripoli to Murzuk, and in 1821 Major Laing made some important journeys in the Mandingo district of western Africa. In 1822-4 extensive explorations were made in north- ern and western Africa by Major Denham, Capt. Clapperton, and Dr. Oudney, the last of whom died on the way. The travelers proceeded from Tripoli by Murzuk to Lake Tchad. While Denham examined the south and west coasts of the lake, Clapperton proceeded west through Bornu to Sokoto, the capital of the Fellahtah country, on the Sokoto, an affluent of the Niger. Impressed with the importance of establishing political and commercial intercourse with this district, Clapperton organized another expedi- tion for the purpose of reaching Sokoto from the west coast. Setting out from Badagry, on the east of Cape Coast Castle, 7 Dec. 1825, and passing through the kingdom of Yoruba he reached the Niger at Bussa. Here he crossed the river and traversed the kingdom of Nupe to Kano, capital of the Haussa country, which he had previously visited, and from thence pro- ceeded to Sokoto, in the neighborhood of which, after a short residence, he died. His servant, Richard Lander, returned to Kano and at- tempted to proceed south through the kingdom of Zegzeg, but was compelled by the natives to return to Darroro, from which he reached the coast. W. Allen, a naval officer, about this time accompanied a mercantile expedition up the Niger, which he surveyed for a certain distance, and in another expedition in 1848 the same of- ficer revised and corrected his survey. Maj. Laing in 1826 crossed the desert from Tripoli to Timbuctoo. but he was killed on his return, and his papers lost. Rene Caillie, after living for some years on the Senegal coast learning the language and initiating himself into the re- ligion and manners of the Arabs, made in 1827-8 a journey to Timbuctoo, and thence through the great desert to Morocco. Richard Lander, accompanied by his brother, leaving Badagry for Bussa in March 1830, ascended the river Niger to Yauri, and descending from thence reached the mouth called the Nun in November. In 1832 he traced other mouths of the river up to the main stream ; and the identity of the great river which passes under various names in dif- ferent parts of its course was thus established. In the south, Livingstone, who was stationed as a missionary at Kolobeng in 1849, passed through the desert of Kalahari, reached the Zuga or Botletle, and after a circuitous route discov- ered its source in Lake Ngami. In 1851 he went north again, proceeding from the Zuga in a more easterly direction. In lat. iy° 25' S., and between Ion. 24° 30' and 26° 50' E., he came upon nu- merous rivers flowing north, which were re- ported to be affluents of a larger river, the Zambezi. In 1848 and 1849 Krapf and Rebmann, mis- sionaries stationed near Mombasa, saw the Kilima-Njaro and the Kenia Mountains. In 1851 Francis Galton, starting from Walfisch Bay, made an extensive survey of the Damara and Ovampo countries, in which he found high pastoral and agricultural table-lands. An expe- dition under the patronage of the British gov- ernment started from Tripoli in 1850 to visit the Sahara and the regions around Lake Tchad. Richardson, the originator of the expedition, was joined by two Germans, Drs. Overweg and Barth. In crossing the desert from Murzuk to Ghat they found some interesting sculptures. From Ghat to Air they found the country wholly desert and uninhabited. On reaching Lake Tchad Richardson went to Kuka, capital of Bornu, Barth to Kano, Overweg to the na- tive states of Mariadi and Guber. Barth and Overweg met again at Kuka in April 1851, but in the meantime Richardson had died. Over- weg explored the lake, and Barth proceeded on another journey south to Massena, in the king- dom of Bagirmi. On his return the death of Overweg left him to prosecute the enterprise alone. He proceeded to Timbuctoo via Kano, and after collecting much information about the Niger and its tributaries, over a great part of the course of which he traveled on his return to Kuka, he reached Tripoli in August 1855. Dr. Vogel, who was sent to join Barth. was put to death at Wadai, and his papers were lost. Dr. Livingstone began another journey from Kolobeng on 15 Jan. 1853. After staying a month at Linyante, capital of the Makololo. he proceeded down the Chobe to Sesheke. and thence ascended the Leambye (Zambezi) to the junction of the Liba. After returning to Lin- yante, and taking with him a party of Makololo, he again set out II Nov. 1853, reached the Liba 27 December, and proceeded to Lake Dilolo, where he found the watershed of the streams which flow north and south (feeders of the Kon- go or the Zambezi) at a level of 4.000 feet above the sea. On his return journey he was con- firmed in the belief that an elevated plateau here crosses the country and forms the watershed of the whole continent. He next crossed the Cassabi river, and on 4 April he reached the banks of the Kwango. both these rivers being affluents of the Kongo. Crossing the Kwanza, he reached Loanda on 3] May. On 20 September he set out on his return journey, and following pretty nearly the route by which be had gone arrived at Linyante. Starting from this place on 3 Nov. 1855, he reached the Zambezi, and proceeding down the river, and visiting its falls, called by him the Victoria Falls, arrived at AFRICA Kilimanc at its month on 20 May 1856, and sailed for England. Thus was accomplished by Dr. Livingstone the remarkable feat of crossing the entire continent from sea to sea — the first time, so far as is known, thai this was done by any European. In 1858 Livingstone returned to resume Ins exploration of the Zambezi re- gions. Entering the Congone mouth of the river in .May, he ascended its tributary, the Shire, to Murchison Cataracts, visited Lake Shirwa and Lake Nyassa, traveled on or near the Zambezi to Victoria Falls, established the identity of the Leambye and the Zambezi, sailed up the Shire to Lake Nyassa, also sailed 156 miles up the Rovuma River, and returned to England in 1864. Betwi 1 n 1856 and 1865 Paul du Chaillu trav- eled extensively on the west coast, in the neigh- borhood of the river Ogowe (or Ogohai). In 1861-2 Major (afterward Sir) R. F. Burton also traveled on the west coast. He ascended the Kamerun Mountains and confirmed some of the observations of Du Chaillu. A French ex- pedition visited the delta of the Ogowe in 1864. Since then that river has been very fully ex- plored, the principal expeditions having been those of Walker, 18(16, 1873; Lieut. Aymes, 1867-8; the Frenchmen Compiegne and Marche, 1872-4; Dr. O. Lenz, 1876; and another French expedition under Savorgnan de Brazza. 1876, who took possess!,,,, of a large stretch of terri- tory for France. This territory now forms part of French Kongo, which had been traversed by various Frenchmen, including Brazza, Mizon, I.e Maistre, Monteil, and others. In 1866 Livingstone entered on his last great series of explorations, the main object of which was to settle the position of the watersheds in the interior of the continent south of the equator, and to discover the source of the Kile. Landing at the mouth of the Rovuma he proceeded south- west round the south end of Lake Nyassa, and then traveling north reached the south end of Lake Tanganyika (discovered by Speke and Burton in 1858). He afterward visited Lakes Mweru and Bangweolo in the basin of the Chambeze, the name given to a headwater of the Kongo. In 1869 he reached Ujiji, on the Tan- ganyika, and crossed the lake, making extensive journeys in the Manyuema country, and reached the Lualaba or upper Kongo, but could not ex- plore it for want of boats. Henry M. Stanley, who had been specially sent by the proprietor of the New York Herald to search for Livingstone, met him at Ujiji on his return from the Man- yuema country, relieved his necessities, and ex- amined along with him the northern end of Lake Tanganyika. Livingston,, afterward started on a fresh journey (in 1872) to determine the course of tlie Lualaba, intending to travel round the south side of Lake Bangweolo; but after suf- fering much from illness he died on the shore of this lake on 1 May 1873. In 1S72 the Royal Geographical Society or- ganized two expeditions to go in search of Liv- ingstone. The one. tinder Lieut. Grandy, sailed some distance up the Kongo; the other, under Lieut. Cameron, started from Zanzibar for Tan- ganyika. On ascertaining the death of Living- stone he proceeded to Lake Tanganyika, where he secured Livingstone's map and sent it to Zanzibar. He ascertained the height of the 'ake; found an outlet, the Lukuga, on the west ide; traversed the Manyuema country; reached Nyangwe, Livingstone's farthest point on the Lualaba : proceeded south up the east side of the valley of Lomane to Kilemba in the Urua coun- try; and reached Benguela, on the Atlantic Coast, .) N'ov. 1875. The identity of the Kongo and Lualaba was at last settled by Stanley, who, between Oetobei 1S70 and August 1X77, de- scended from Nyangwe on the latter river to the mouth of the former. After helping to es- tablish the Kongo Free Slate (1879-85) Stanley proceeded in [887 with an expedition to relieve Emin Pasha, governor of Egypt's equatorial province, hollowing the Kongo and its tribu- tary the Aruwimi. Stanley hewed his way through a vast forest, arrived at the Albeit Nyanza, met Emin there, returned for his rear- guard ami stores, and at last brought Emin and his followers to Bagatnoyo, on the east coast, in 1889. He also discovered Lake Albert Edward and the lofty mountain of Ruwenzori, on the Semliki, between that lake and Lake Albert. The Portuguese Maj. Serpa 1'into journeyed from Benguela to Natal in [878 o; the Germans Wissmann and Pogge crossed from St. Paul de Loanda to Zanzibar in 1881-2; in 1870-80 (after the death of his leader, Keith Johnston), Joseph Thomson crossed from the east coast by the north of Lake Nyassa to the east of Tan- ganyika, and back to Zanzibar ; again in 1883-4 he explored the Masai country between the coast and Lake Victoria; Capello and Ivens went from Angola to Mozambique by way of Bangweolo in 1884-5. One of the most interesting problems con- nected with African geography was the tracing of the source of the Nile. Among the first of the famous explorers in this direction was James Bruce, who in 1770 reached the source of the Blue Nile or Bahr-el-Azrek, and imagined himself to have solved the great problem. But the real source of the Nile remained long un- known, the great lakes connected with its ori- gin being hardly dreamed of till comparatively recent times. In 1858 Burton and Speke. cross- ing from Zanzibar, discovered Lake Tangan- yika, and the same year Speke also reached the Victoria Nyanza. but did not ascertain that it gave rise to the Nile. Speke and Grant in 1862 reached the place where the Nile leaves the lake and followed part of its course to Karuma Falls. At Gondokoro they met Sir Samuel Baker, who proceeded to investigate the unexplored part, but did not fully succeed in his object. Baker in 1871-3 returned to the scene of his explora- tions as the commander of an Egyptian force, and took possession of the country in the name of the Khedive, but added little to his previous geographical discoveries. He was succeeded in his command by Col. Gordon, one of whose officers, Col. Long, more fully traced the Nile between Karuma Falls and the Victoria Lake; while another. M. Gessi, first actually traced the Nile up to its outflow from the Albert Nyanza (1876). Since 1883 the exploration of Africa has been carried out by a multitude of explorers. In the north the French have pushed south from Al- geria, and French explorers, among whom M. Foureau is prominent, have added greatly to our knowledge of the Sahara. Dr. Junker de- voted several years to exploring the country be- tween the basin of the Nile and the Kongo. Mr. AFRICA Stanley in his great journey across Africa in 1876 added largely to our knowledge of Lake Victoria, and of Uganda, the country between Victoria and Lake Albert. Since the British oc- cupation of Uganda, Col. Lugard and many other officers have mapped the country be- tween the coast and the lakes, Uganda it- self, and the country to the west. Italian and British explorers have added to our knowledge of Abyssinia and of the desert between the Nile and the Red Sea. Lakes Ru- dolf and Stefanie have been discovered and ex- plored by Count Teleki and Lieut. Von Hohnel from the south, while James, Donaldson Smith, Cavendish, Robecchi, Bottego, and others have explored Somaliland and ascertained that the Omo flows into Lake Rudolf. Gregory has in- vestigated Mount Kenia ; Meyer has ascended Kilima-Njaro ; Baumann and other German ex- plorers have visited the region to the west and south of that mountain, round by the south of Lake Victoria, and on to Lake Albert Edward. In 1894 Count Gotzen crossed from east to west, discovered Lake Kivu to the south of Lake Albert Edward, and a lofty active volcano near its shores, com- ing out by the Kongo. Many other Germans have been busy in German East Africa, while in British Central Africa, Johnston, Sharpe, Joseph Thomson, and others have filled in many blanks, and British naval officers have charted Lake Nyassa. The unique distinction of being the first white man to traverse Africa from south to north on foot fell to the lot of an undergraduate of Cam- bridge University, Ewart Scott Grogan, who in February, 1898, started from Cape Town with one white companion and a few servants, and eighteen months later reached Cairo, having traveled the greater part of the distance with only the servants, as his white friend left him before the journey was half done. Mr. Grogan brought back a mass of ethnological informa- tion, haying carefully investigated and described the various tribes with which he came in con- tact, and cleared up a number of disputed geo- graphical points. See 'From Cape to Cairo.' London, 1900. Several German explorers have also trav- ersed and mapped Damaraland and Namaqua- Iand ; Lugard has explored the Uganda region : Gibbons and others have traversed the Barotse country. The officials of the Kongo Free State have laid open the courses of the numerous riv- ers that feed the main stream ; Hinde found the Lukuga flowing into the Lualaba ; Grenfell and others established the connection of the Ubangi or Mobangi tributary on the north, with tlie Makua-Welle higher up. which had been ex- plored by Junker and others. Under the auspices of the Royal Niger Company Joseph Thomson and others further explored the Ni- ger; while the Benue and its tributaries and the German sphere in the south have been actively explored by British, French, and German trav- elers. All these three nationalities, moreover, have been busy in the vast area between the Guinea coast and the great bend of the Niger. Prom- inent among them was Binger, who contributed more than any single individual to our know- ledge of this region. The French occupation of Timbuctoo has led to the navigation and ex- ploration of the upper and middle river by gun- boats ; while a French expedition followed the river from Timbuctoo to its mouth. Monteil crossed from Senegal to Lake Tchad and traversed the desert to Tripoli. French expedi- tions have crossed from the Kongo to the Nile, and all the river systems are now mapped in their main features. It may indeed be said that the pioneer exploration of Africa has been com- pleted, the most important blank being the re- gion lying between Somaliland and the upper Nile. What remains to be done is the filling up of the meshes between the vast network of explorers' routes, and this is a task which can- not be completed for many years. Commercial Conditions. — Necessarily in so large an area with so many tribes and peoples who keep no accounts of their transactions, a considerable amount of commerce must pass without being recorded in any way, yet the annual commerce of Africa, of which statistics are available, amounts to over $700,000,000. The total imports at the ports where records are kept amounted in the latest year for which figures are at hand to $429,461,000, and the exports to $263,907,000. The principal imports were dis- tributed as follows : Into British territory. $157,- 575,000; French territory, $92,004,000; Turkish territory, $77,787,000 ; Portuguese territory, $20,- 795,000; German territory, $8,336,000, and into the Kongo Free State, $4,722,000. Of the ex- ports a large share, especially those from the south, is gold and diamonds ; in the tropical region ivory, rubber, palm nuts, and gums, and in the north a fair share of the ex- ports are products of agriculture, cotton, coffee, cacao, spices, dates, etc. The export figures of recent years are less than those of former years, owing to the hostilities in South Africa, which have both reduced production and increased local consumption. Railroad development in Africa has been rapid in the past few years and seems but the beginning of a great system which must con- tribute to the rapid development, civilization, and enlightenment of the <( Dark Continent." Already railroads run north from Cape Colony about 1,500 miles, and south from Cairo about 1,200 miles, thus completing 2.700 miles of the pro- posed « Cape to Cairo » railroad, while the in- termediate distance is about 3,000 miles. At the north numerous lines skirt the Mediterranean coast, especially in the French territory of Al- geria and in Tunis, aggregating about 2,500 miles; while the Egyptian railroads are, includ- ing those under construction, about 1,500 miles in length. Those of Cape Colony are over 3,000 miles in length, and those of Portuguese East Africa and the Transvaal are another 1,000 miles in length. Including all of the railroads now con- structed or under actual construction, the total length of African railways is nearly 12,500 miles, or half the distance around the earth. In 1003 the construction of a railroad from Khartum to Suakin was begun. A large proportion of the railways thus far constructed are owned by the several colonies or states which they traverse, about 2.000 miles of the Cape Colony system and nearly all of that of Egypt belonging to the state. That the gold and diamond mines of South Africa have been and are still wonderfully AFRICAN INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION — AFTER-DAMP profitable is beyond question. The ECimberley diamond mines, about too miles from I Town, now supply 98 per cent of the diamonds of commerce, though their existence was un- known prior to 1867, and the mines have thus been in operation but about 30 years. It is es- timated that $350,000,000 worth of rough dia- monds, worth double that sum after cutting, have been produced from the Kimberley mines since their opening in 1868-9, and tins enormous production would have been greatly increased but for the fact that the owners of the various mines there formed an agreement to limit the output so as not to materially exceed the world's annual consumpl ii in. Equally wonderful and promising are the great Wit water-rand gold fields of- South Africa, better known as the Johannesburg mines. Gold was discovered there in 1883, and in 1884 the value of the gold product was about $50,000. It increased with startling rapidity, the product of 1888 being about $5,000,000; that of iSgo, $10,- 000,000; 1892, over $J0,0O0.O00; 18115. over $40,- 000.000; and 1897 and 1898. about $55,000,000. Work in these mine', was practically suspended during the Boer war. The gold production of the " Rand " since 1884 has I urn over $300,000,000. and careful sur- veys of the field by experts show beyond ques- tion that the "gold in sight probably amounts to $3,500,000,000, while the large number of mines in adjacent territory, particularly those of Rhodesia, whose output was valued at over $4,- 500.000 in 1901, gives promise of additional sup- plies, so that it seems probable that South Africa will for many years continue to be as it is now, the largest gold-producing field of the world. Bibliography: Archeology and Ethnology. — Deniker, ' Races of Man'; South African Native Races Committee, ' Natives of South Africa, Their Economic and Social Condition.' Fauna. — Smith, 'Illustrations of the Zool- ogy 1 if Si nub Africa.' Geology. — Thomson, * Notes on the Geology of East Central Africa. 1 Historical. — British Empire Series, 'British Africa ' ; Brown, ' The Story of Africa and Its Explorers'; Greswell, 'Geography of Africa South of the Zambesi > ; Johnston, ' History of the Colonization of Africa by Alien Races ' ; Stanford, ' Compendium of Geography and I 1 .i\ el ' ; \\ lute, ' The I ><". 1 li ipmcnt of Africa.' Languages. — Blcek, 'Comparative Grammar of South African Languages ' ; Cust, ( Sketch of the Modern Languages of Africa.' Travels. — Burton, ' First Footsteps in East Africa ' ; Cameron, < Across Africa ' ; Grogan, ' From the Cape to Cairo'; Hohtb, 'Seven Years in South Africa »; Livingston, < Mission- ary Travels and Researches in South Africa ' ; Loyd, ' In Dwarf Land and Cannibal Country ' ; Peters, ' New Light on Dark Africa'; Stanley, ' In Darkest Africa.' African International Association, an as- sociation formed in 1876 at Brussels for the purpose of establishing scientific stations in east Africa; the outcome of King Leopold's first Brussels conference of explorers and geog- raphers to devise means for opening up Africa to civilization \t a second one the next year, after Stanley's discoveries of the immensity and prospective commercial importance of the Kon- go basin, the Association planned' to extend its operations there. But the territory was too vast and rich for any great nation to forego its share or let others lock up; finally all (the United States being a party) agreed to leave it to an international conference at Berlin. Ibis opened 17 Nov. 1884 (Prince Bismarck chairman) and closed 26 Feb. 1885. The result was the crea- tion of the Kongo Free State (q.v.), comprising the basins of the Kongo and its affluents, with the king of Belgium as sovereign: to be forever neutral, with perfectly free trade and transpor- tation for citizens of any country whatever, no monopolies or concessions of any kind for its trade to be granted by powers adjoining, all of whom bound themselves to suppress sla- very. African Slave Trade, see Negro, The. African War, The, in Roman history, Caesar's campaign against the Pompeians who after Pharsalia kept up the war in Africa, and u re crushed at Thapstis, 40 n.c The history of it printed as Caesar's is not his, and the author is unknown. Afridis, af re'dez, a tribe of Afghans or Pathans on the northwest Indian border near the Khyber Pass, who after many years of the customary border raids were dignified into al- most a great power by the ill-advised policy of the Indian government in sending out an im- posing army against them in place of the usual small punitive expeditions. The tribe sent their women into the English camp to be cared for and protected, fought for some months in their mountains till the planting season was come, then submitted and promised an indemnity, hav- ing enjoyed the highest glory and felicity their natures could appreciate. Holdich ( 1 Anthro- pological Institute ' for 1899) thinks they repre- sent the early Aryan type, wild but shrewd and civilizable. Afrikander (« Taal » Dutch for African), a native South African ; commonly used for the Dutch stock alone. Afrikander Bond or Bund, an association of wdiite natives of South Africa to make na- tive influence paramount there and ultimately secure its independence; formed in 1870. but thus named in 1880. The Cape Colony wing supported Cecil Rhodes till after the Jamison Raid in 1895, which it considered as fostered by him with objects exactly contrary to its own. It carried the elections in 1898. and while ad- vising Krugcr to grant concessions to the Out- landers for safety's sake, its sympathies were hostile to them ; in the ensuing war it was a heavy handicap to the English, seeming likely at one time to add Cape Colony to the revolt; indeed, it held a convention, 6 Dec. 1900, at Worcester, C. C, condemning the war and Eng. lisb policy, insisting on the recognition of the South African Republic, and censuring the pol- icy of the High Commissioner. The success of the British and the annexation of the territory to the empire of Great Britain brought about a dissolution of the organization. After-damp, the gaseous product formed by an explosion of fire-damp (q.v.) in a coal niine. It consists largely of nitrogen from the AFTERGLOW — AFTER-IMAGE air, and carbon dioxide formed by the explosive combustion of the hydrocarbon gas given off by the coal. It seldom contains sufficient free oxy- gen to support respiration. Hence its danger to the miners. Afterglow, a display of brilliant colors in the western sky after sunset. The colors are usually various shades of red, although yellows and grays are sometimes visible. Afterglows follow volcanic eruptions of explosive character and are generally ascribed to the presence of mi- nute dust particles in the air. The eruption of Krakatoa in 1883 was accompanied by most gor- geous afterglows which were observed through- out the world and persisted for several years. Similar effects were seen over a much smaller area after the outbursts of Mont Pelee and La Soufriere in May 1902. The name foreglow is given to such displays in the eastern sky before sunrise. After-image, After-sensation, and After- percept are the terms used to denote the di- rect after-effects of the stimulation of a sense organ. These after-effects occur in almost all of the sense departments. A brief stimulation of the sense organ gives a primary sensation, then a pause of a fraction of a second, followed by a secondary sensation of the same quality as the primary sensation. After-images of touch follow after brief contact. They do not appear under ordinary circumstances, but may be ob- served if special conditions are produced ; for example, a gentle tap of a point of a needle will be followed by a pause, then an after-sen- sation which differs from the primary sensation in that it seems to be produced from within the body, not from without. The effects of a tem- perature stimulus may persist for a time in the same quality as the primary sensation. After- taste and after-smell have been observed, but have not been studied. Auditory after-sensa- tions, analogous to after-sensations of touch, are very weak and of brief duration. After-images of vision are stronger and more permanent, consequently have been given much more attention by experimentalists. It has been found that after the retina has been stimulated by light for one second, or less, the primary image disappears quickly ; an interval of less than two seconds is then followed by a posi- tive after-image, that is, an after-image of the same quality as the primary image. A stimulus of longer duration is followed im- mediately by the positive after-image, and this image may itself be followed by a negative after-image, that is, an image which differs very much in brightness from the primary image, or is of a different color. With some observers a brief stimulus is followed immediately by a nega- tive after-image, which fades away quickly to be followed after an interval by a more perma- nent positive after-image. Several images may succeed each other immediately or be separated by an interval of time. A stimulus of still greater duration is followed directly by a nega- tive after-image. In such cases the after-image is usually of a color that is complementary to the color of the primary image, especially if ob- served with closed eyes or if projected upon — that is. seen while looking at — a gray back- ground. The duration of the after-image varies with the intensity, duration, and area of the stimulus. The results of experiments, under con- ditions such that the intensity of the light does not vary, have not as yet shown that any one color has more power to produce after-images than any other color. The greater the angular dis- tance of the portion of the retina stimulated, from the fovea, the less distinct and the less durable is the after-image. There seems to be no after-image at an angular distance of 45° or more from the fovea. The explanation for this fact may be physiological, or psychological, or both ; that is, it may be due to the fact that the periphery of the retina is more easily fatigued than the fovea, or it may be due to lack of abil- ity to attend to those portions of the retina which are not customarily attended to. When an object occupies the attention, the eye is so directed toward it that the image falls over the fovea ; the mind does not ordinarily attend to images that are not over or very near the fovea. A blow on the head may cause the after- image to become less intense or to cease en- tirely. Electrical stimulation of the eye and optic nerve will change the character of the after-image and shorten the time of its duration. General fatigue will shorten the duration of the after-image ; for example, it has been found that an after-image lasts about 30 per cent longer in the morning than in the evening. The distraction of attention in any manner has its effect on the course of the after-image ; when the attention is directed wholly upon the after- image the duration is one third longer than when the attention is not concentrated upon it. If one eye only be stimulated, an after-image may appear in the unstimulated eye. Four hy- potheses have been offered to explain this trans- fer of the image from one eye to the other: (1) The appearance is a phenomenon of binocular contrast. When one eye is stimulated by a bright colored light, and the other eye is stimu- lated by a very little gray light or is protected from all light, the contrasted color may be seen in the unstimulated eye during the time of stimulation, and this may leave an after-image in that eye. (2) A second hypothesis is that the eyes are accustomed to function together, and whatever affects one retina affects the other also. This may be considered as a modified form of the first hypothesis. (3) Another hy- pothesis is that the after-image has its seat in the centres in the brain, not in the end organ or retina, and that it may lie seen in whichever eye is open. This hypothesis seems to be over- thrown by the fact that an electrical stimulation of the optic nerve produces a sensation like that produced by a flash of light, but no after- image follows. Another fact difficult for this hypothesis to explain is that if one eye be stimulated the after-image appears in the other eye only in case that eye be well darkened. (4 ) A fourth hypothesis is that the transfer of the after- image is not real but only apparent. In support of this hypothesis it lias been found that when « that portion of the right eye which corresponds to the blind spot of the left eye was stimulated. » (Franz) there was an apparent transfer of the image to the left eye: ul~<> if tin- unstimulated eye be disturbed or interfered with during the course of the after-image no change in the image may be observed, whereas if the stimulat- ed eye be interfered with the image disappears. AFZELIUS — AGAMEMNON (Fechncr, < Elemente dcr Psycho-physik > ; S. I. Fran/, ( After-images,) Psych.' Rev., Monograph Supplement, Vol. III., No. 2, 1899; E. B. ritchener, 'Ueber binocular Wirkungen monocular Reize.' See Eye; Vision. Afzelius, Arvid August, af-tsa'li-oos, ar'- ved o\v-goost', Swedish scholar and author: b. 1785; d. 1871; pastor at Enkoping 1821-71 ; specially esteemed for his researches in Old Norse history and literature. He wrote poetical < Romances > ; translated the Elder Edda, and with Geijer edited a fain.. 11s collection of Swed- ish folk-songs < ,t vols. 1814-17). Ag, the chemical symbol for the clement silver. It is an abbreviation of argcntum, the Latin name for silver. Agades, a'ga-dez, a town of Africa, near the middle of the Sahara, capital of the oasis kingdom of Air or Ashen; at one time a seat of great traffic, probably containing 60.000 in- habitants. In igoj it had a population of about 6,000. Agag, a-gag, (1) in Jewish history, a king of the Amalekites saved by Saul out of the slaughter of his people, and hewn in pieces by Samuel before Yahue's altar: evidently a sur- vival of human sacrifice. (2) A character in Uryden's 'Absalom and Arhitophel,> represent- ing Sir Edmund Berry Godfrey, the London magistrate found murdered shortly after taking Titus Oatcs' deposition concerning the imagi- nary « Popish Plot.» A'gai, Adolf, a-goy, a Hungarian hu- morist: b. 1836. He edited the chief Hungarian COmic paper. Borssem Junkn (John Peppercorn;, and wrote for it brilliant sketches of society, character drawings of national types, etc., of a high order of wit and humor. Agalmatolite, ag-al-mat'6-!it (from the Greek words agalma, image, and litluis, stone), a soft, massive stone, grayish or greenish in general hue, and often yellow, brown, and red, or streaked with those colors. It is soft enough to be cut with a knife, and it takes a good polish. The Chinese use it for carving images, notably small pagodas and grotesque figures of animals and men ; ingenious advantage often being taken of its varied colors for the production of odd effects. The hardness of the Chinese va- riety is mostly from 2.0 to 2.5, and its specific gravity about 2.8. It is not a definite mineral, some specimens being silicious pinite, while others are referable to pyrophyllite and stea- tite. Agama (Caribbean name), a genus of lizards, typical of the large and important family Aganiidcr, which is distributed over all Africa (except Madagascar), Arabia, Asia south of the Caucasus and Himalayan mountains, the Ma- layan Islands, and Australia. None are found in the New World. They are closely related to the iguanas, and are characterized by acrodont dentition (that is. the teeth surmount ridges of the jaw), a broad and short tongue, and the ab- sence of bony tubercles (osteoderms) in the skin, but large and numerous spines are often present. They may have brilliant colors, but many are dull, desert -inhabiting species. Some have parachutes, as the flying dragon, and others defensive appendages, as the frilled lizard. Prominent examples are the dragons, bloodsuck- ers, false chameleons, frilled lizards, spiny-tailed desert lizards, dabs, molochs, and related forms elsewhere described under their own names. The family contains about 200 species arranged in about 30 genera, and is most numerous in the region from India to Australia. Agamemnon, in the Iliad, is the Greek « great king" or "king of kings," the overlord of Greece both north and south of the Gulf of Corinth; the royal scat is at Mycenae in the Peloponnesus. He is represented as a rather weak man, presiding over a turbulent assembly of practically independent feudal chiefs, who will not openly defy him because he is conse- crated to bis position by Zeus, but who are entirely independent as regards their individual districts, though bound to follow him to war when ordered. His character is of course purely the invention of the poet, and its relation to that of Achilles and other chiefs is curiously like that of Charlemagne to Roland and the peers in the chansons; the dashing noble being the real hero, and the monarch slurred as rather petty, unjust, and capricious, king by grace rather than special merit. But the position is not fictitious: archaeology has proved that Mycenae was really the seat of a wealthy and powerful monarchy, probably about 1500 n.r. and somewhat after, as well as that several Troys flourished and per- ished; and these proofs that the basis of the story was traditional and not mythical naturally tempt the sanguine to hope for further points of truth, which research tends steadily to justify. As to the character of the monarchy, later theo- rists take the reverse view from the earlier. Grote held that the account in Homer showed tRe germ of a developing constitutionalism, the criticising commons who were becoming a thorn in the monarch's flesh being satirized and cari- catured in Thersites, and the king only an Aryan chief elected by his equals; Mahaffy thinks it the decay of a monarchy of the Oriental type, the feudal anarchy indicating break-down in- stead of growth. In the legend he is the son of Atreus (q.v.), and brother of Menelaus, king of Sparta, whose wrong in the seduction and carrying away of his wife Helen (q.v.) by Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy, he avenges by a levy of all the Greeks to make war on Troy, when its king Priam will not give up Paris or make him give up Helen. (See Helen ; Iliad; Troy.) The sacrifice of his daughter Iphigcnia (q.v.), to secure a passage from Aulis, is a later fiction, and recalls Jephthah and his daughter curiously. His quarrel with Achilles is the theme of the Iliad. When Troy was sacked, he received Priam's prophetess-daughter Cassandra (q.v.) among his share of the spoils. Returning home after 10 years' absence, be was murdered by his cousin .Egisthus, son of Thyestes (see Atreus), aided by Agamemnon's wife Clytem- nestra (q.v.) with whom he had been living in adultery for a short time previously; and his son Orestes on growing up avenges him by kill- ing his mother, his sifter Electra abetting. In Homer, the motive for Agamemnon's murder is simply that of any adulterous pair in ridding themselves of an inconvenient husband; in ^Es- chylus' < Agamemnon," Clytemnestra slays him with her own hand, professedly in revenge for his sacrifice of Iphigenia, obviously sharpened by jealousy of Cassandra, and throwing the ulti- mate responsibility on Nemesis, who is pursuing the house of Atreus. Lizard Agama co'.onorum). Beetle (Ateuchus sacer). Horned Viher rnusus). AGAMENTICUS — AGASSIZ Agamenticus, Mount, a noted landmark in York co., Maine, near which one of the earli- est settlements in this territory was made in 1631. It is a few miles back from the shore and rises to the height of 673 feet. Agamogenesis. See Parthenogenesis. Agana, ag-an'ya, the principal town of Guam, the largest of the Ladrone Islands, 1,500 m. E. of Luzon, Philippines, and 1,300 m. S. of Yokohama. The Ladrone, or Marianne, group belonged to Spain ; but, as a result of the war between the United States and Spain in 1898, the former took possession of the island of Guam, and in 1899 established a naval station and seat of administration at Agana. with Capt. Richard P. Leary, U. S. N., as first governor. The town contains the usual public buildings of a military station, and a college. Aganippe, -nip'e, a fountain on Mount Helicon, in Greece, sacred to the Muses, which had the property of inspiring with poetic fire whoever drank of it. Agape, ag'a-pe (Gr. agape, love), in eccle- siastical history, the love-feast or feast of charity, in use among the primitive Christians, when a liberal contribution was made by the rich to feed the poor. During the first three centuries love- feasts were held in the churches without scandal, but in after-times the heathen began to tax them with impurity, and they were condemned at the Council of Carthage in 397. Some modern sects, as the Wesleyans, Sandemanians, Mora- vians, etc., have attempted to revive this feast. Agapemone, ag-a-pem'o-ne (lit. « the abode of love"), the name of a singular conven- tual establishment which has existed at Spaxton, near Bridgewater, Somersetshire, since 1859, the originator of it being a certain Henry James Prince, at one time a clergyman of the Giurch of England, who called himself the Witness of the First Resurrection. The life spent by the inmates appears to be a sort of religious epicure- anism. Some of the proceedings of the inmates of the « Abode of Love » have resulted in apoli- cations to the courts of law, where parties for- merly members of the society have returned to the world and sought to regain their rights from Prince and his followers, and such cases have caused some scandal ; but the sect has been scarcely heard of for some years. Ag'aphite, a name given to the turquois (q.v.) by Fischer, in 1806, in compliment to the naturalist Agaphi. It is no longer in general use. Agar-agar, a'gar-a'gar, also known as Bengal isinglass. A dried seaweed or vegetable gum obtained from Singapore. It is almost completely soluble in water, dissolving to a tasteless and odorless mass. It is much used as a culture medium in bacteriology. Agar'ic (Agarlcus), a genus of fungi, char- acterized by having a fleshy cap or pileus and a number of radiating plates or gills on which are produced the naked spores. The majority of this species are furnished with stems, but some are attached to the objects on which they grow by their pileus. Over a thousand species are known, and are arranged in five sections according as the color of their spores is white, pink, brown, pur- ple, or black. Many of the species are edible, like the common mushroom {A. campestris), and supply a delicious article of food, while others are deleterious and even poisonous. See Fungi; Mushrooms. Agaricic Acid, ag-ar-is'ik, a substance having the formula G0H30O;, which is obtained from certain species of mushrooms by extraction with ether or strong alcohol. It is also soluble in hot glacial acetic acid and oil of turpentine. It crystallizes in flat, four-sided plates, and also in prisms, according to the solvent from which it is deposited, and melts at about 290 F. It dissolves in boiling water, but crystallizes out again upon cooling. A similar substance, known as agaricin, is obtained from the fly-agaric by extraction with alcohol, and Jahns states that it is identical with agaricic acid. Several salts of agaricic acid are known. See Agaric Resin. Agaric Mineral, ag'a-rik, or a-gar'ik. (1) A soft, white variety of calcite, breaking easily in the fingers, and occurring in caverns and in the clefts of rocks, in regions where the ground water contains much lime. (2) A variety of silicate of magnesium, found in Tuscany, and also known as mountain-milk or rock-milk. Bricks made from it will float in water; hence it is supposed that this is the material from which the ancknts made their floating bricks. Agaric Resin, a red resinous substance, obtained from certain mushrooms, together with agaricic acid (q.v.) by extraction with alcohol or ether. It melts at 194° F. It is insoluble in water, but dissolves in absolute alcohol, ether, wood alcohol, chloroform, and alkalies. Agassiz, Alexander, ag'as-sT (1835), son of Louis : b. Neuchatel, Switzerland, but taken to America in 1848 and educated at Harvard Col- lege, from which he was graduated in 1855. In 1859-60 he made biological studies along the coast of California and Mexico with the United States coast survey. Later he became wealthy through investment in coal and copper mines, to which he w^is led by scientific knowledge and ex- perience. On his father's death he was appointed curator of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard, but resigned in 1885 on account of ill health. In 1896 he was made an officer of the Legion of Honor. He belongs to many scientific associations, has done much important work in marine dredging and the zoology of the deep sea, as well as on other subjects. His most important publications are < North American Acalephae > (1865); (Marine Animals of Massachusetts Bay) (with Elizabeth Agassiz, 1871) ; (Revi- sion of the Echini) (1872); (North American Starfishes) (1877); and (Report on the Echini of the Challenger Expedition) (1881). Agassiz, Louis (1807-73), a naturalist: b. 28 May at Motier. Canton Fribourg, Switzerland, but during the latter part of his life identified with the advancement of science in the United States. From childhood he showed a strong bent toward zoology, and, after a preparatory training at Lausanne, studied medicine and natural history at Zurich, Heidelberg, and Mu- nich, taking a degree in philosophv at Heidelberg and graduating in medicine at" Munich, 1830. After this he went to Paris and worked under Cuvier until 1832, when he was called to Neu- chatel as professor of natural history, and re- mained there until 1846, when invited to give a scries of lectures in the Lowell Institute course at Boston. The success of these lectures and AGASSIZ — AGATHARCHIDES his desire to study tlic natural history and geol- ogy of America determined his permanent re- moval to the United States; in [848 he wax given the chair of natural history in the Laurence Scientific School of Harvard University. With the interval of three years (1851-54) as profes- sor in the medical college at Charleston, S. C, In continued his connection with Harvard until his death', His enthusiasm, el and clear- ness of thought made him .1 lire-eminent teacher. but 111 his later years lie was relieved from the regular duties of the mIiooI. His first great work. 1 Recherches stir les Poissons Fossiles* (5 vols., 311 plates, 1833-42), was accomplished during his professorship at Neuchatel. This was followed by < Fossil Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone of the British I li written after making several visits to England, and by the ' Nomenclatoris Zoologicus Index) (Soliduri, 1842-46), which, revised and brought up to date by Scudder. was re-issued in [882 as Bulletin No. 19 of the U. S. National Museum. During this same period he had studied both living and fossil echinoderms, and had spent . summers in observing glacial action. The most eminent European biologists, botanists, and geol re among his friends, and he came to America with the hope not only of advancing rice by his own researches, but of waking a deeper interest than American students had yet shown m the natural sciences. Ilis first wife had died in Europe; he remarried in America, and became so engrossed with the work he had undertaken as to refuse the most flattering offers of positions in Europe. In constant de- mand, and traveling widely as a lecturer as Icngas his health permitted, he was nevertheless tantly forwarding his original work. In 1N4S he made a geological and biological survey of the northern and eastern shores of Lake Superior; in 1850-51 he studied the coral reefs of Florida ; later he visited Brazil and the coasts of California. His zeal was untiring, even after his health failed ; besides working through all his later life on his great series. ' Contributions to the Natural History of the United States.) which he had planned on so large a scale that the four quarto volumes completed were but a beginning, he directed constant efforts toward the estab- lishment of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard, giving more attention to it than to any other of his later interests. The plans for it were perfected in 1858, and through his in- fluence the original endowment was supplement- ed by generous appropriations; he gave his own valuable collections to it, and his time and money as well ; before his death the opportunities which he had created there had attracted a group of young men who were to become the foremost American biologists. The founding of a summer school where zoology could be studied out of doors was another of his projects, and this he accomplished on the island of Peni- kese. Buzzard's Bay, in 1873, J ust before his death. Among his more important American publi- cations arc ' Methods of Study in Natural His- tory) ; 'Geological Sketches); < The Structure of Animal Life>: (the first volume of his unfinished ' Contributions)). The amount and scope of his work, together with his great gift of awakening interest in the natural sciences and advancing new views without rousing the opposition of 1I1. dogmatic, gave him rank as the influential of American naturalists, al- though many of Ins opinions ami theories have been superseded by the Darwinian idea of evo- lution, which he opposed. He dud 14 Dec. 1873, and was buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery, where his monument is a boulder from the Aar glacier in Switzerland. ( of Plato immortalizes the banquet given on the occasion of Agathon's dramatic triumph, 416 B.C. Agave, ag-a've, daughter of Cadmus and Hermione, married Echion, by whom she had Pentheus, who was torn to pieces by the Baccha- nals. She is said to have killed her husband while celebrating the orgies of Bacchus. She received divine honors after death. Agave, a genus of remarkable and beau- tiful herbaceous plants, of the natural order Amaryllidaceee, having a tubular perianth with 6-partite limb, and triangular many-seeded cap- sule. They resemble aloes in their growth and general appearance, and the best-known species, Agave americana, is properly known as the American aloe. This is a large plant, the leaves of which are thick, fleshy, and spinous at the edge, and the stem branched and of great height. The flowers have the tube of the corolla nar- rowed in the middle, the stamens longer than the corolla, and the style longer than the stamens. This magnificent native of North America is by no means an uncommon plant in English gar- dens, hut is seldom seen there in flower. There is indeed a notion, but an erroneous one. that the American aloe does not bloom until it is 100 years o'd. The fact is that the time of flowering depends almost wholly on the rapidity of its growth. In hot countries it will flower in a few years, hut in colder climates, the growth being slower, it is necessarily longer in arriving at maturity. The stem, which bears the blos- soms, rises from the centre of the leaves, and when the plant is in a vigorous state it frequent- ly exceeds the height of 20 feet. Branches issue from every side, and in such a manner as to form a kind of pyramid, composed of greenish- yellow flowers, which stand erect and are seen in thick clusters at every joint. When in full flower its appearance is extremely splendid: and if the season be favorable, and the plant be sheltered from the cold in autumn, a succession Of blossoms will sometimes he produced for nearly three months, in the warmer parts of Europe the American aloe is cultivated as an Object of considerable utility. They are frequent- ly set out in rows as fences for inclosures, par- ticularly in Spain, Portugal, and Italy. In some parts the haves are employed for scouring pew- ter, kitchen utensils, and floors. The juice of these leaves is made into cakes, which are used for washing, and will make lather with salt water as well as with fresh. I lie sap when fer- mented yields a beverage resembling cider, called by the Mexicans pulque. The leaves are used for feeding cattle; the fibres of the leaves (called pita, sisal hemp, or henequen) an- formed into thread, cord, and ropes; slices of the withered flower-stem are used as razor-strops. Agde, ag-da, a seaport of southern France, dept. Her. mil. It possesses a remarkable cathedral dating from the Middle Ages, since when the town has been tlu- seat of a bishopric. Pop. (1902) about 8,000. Age, any period of time attributed to something as the whole, or part, of its duration; as the age of man, the several ages of the world, the golden aye In Low, the time of competence to do cer- tain acts. In the male sex 14 is the age when partial discretion is supposed to he reached, while 21 is the period of full age-. Under 7 no boy can Ik- capitally punished; from 7 to 14 it is doubtful if he can; at 14 In- may. At 12 a girl can con- tract a binding marriage; at 21 she is of full age. In mediaeval times, when a girl reached 7, by feudal custom or law a lord might distrain his tenants for aid to marry, or, rather, betroth her; at 9 she was dowahle ; at 12 she could confirm any consent to marriage which she had previously given; at 14 she could take the man- agement of her lands into her own hands; at 16 she ceased, as is still the law ill Kngland, to he under the control of her guardian; and at 21 she might alienate lands and tenements belonging to her in her own right. In the United States at 25 years of aye a man may be a representative in Congress; at ,?o a senator; and at 35 he may be chosen President. The age of serving in the militia is from 18 to 45 inclusive. In England no one can be chosen a member of Parliament under 21 years of age, nor be ordained a priest under the age of 24, nor made a bishop until he has Income ,?o years of age. The age of serving in the militia is from 16 to 45 years. The sovereignty of the realm is as- sumed at 18; though the law recognizes no mi- nority in the heir to the throne. In French Law, a person must have attained the age of 40 to he a member of the legislative body; 25 to be a judge of a tribunal de premiere instance; 27 to be its president, or to be judge or clerk of a cour royale; 25 to he a justice of the peace; 30 to he judge of a tribunal of com- merce, and 35 to lie its president ; 25 to be a notary public: 30 to be a juror. At 21 both males and females are capable of performing all the acts of civil life. Ages of the H'orld. — We find the ages of the world mentioned by the earliest of the Greek poets. Hesiod speaks of five distinct ages: (1) The Golden or Saturnian Age, when Saturn ruled the earth. The people were free from the restraint of laws; they had neither ships nor AGEN — AGE OF CHIVALRY weapons, wars nor soldiers ; the fertile fields needed no cultivation, and perpetual spring blessed the earth. (2) The Silver Age, which he describes as licentious and wicked. (3) The Brazen Age, violent, savage, and warlike. (4) The Heroic Age, which seemed an approxima- tion to a better state of things. (5) The Iron Age, when justice and honor had left the earth. The poet supposed this to be the age in which he himself lived. The idea of ages of the world is interwoven with the religious sentiments of various nations. We find examples of it in the thousand years of the Millenarians, and in the four yugas or ages of the Hindus. The first, or Krita Yuga, a kind of Golden Age, lasted, according to their tradition, 4,000 divine years, each equal to 360 solar years, and, adding its fore and after « twilight," 1,728,000 solar years in all ; men then lived 400 years, and were all giants ; then the god Brahma was born. In the second period, the Treta Yuga, which lasted 3,000 divine and 1,296,000 solar years in all, men lived only 300 years, and vice began to creep into the world. During the third age, or Dwapara Yuga, which lasted 2,000 divine and 864.000 solar years, men lived only 200 years, owing to the increase of vice. The last age, the Kali Yuga, that in which we now live, is to last for 1,000 divine or 432.000 solar years, and the life of man is sunk to one fourth of its original duration. Age of Animals. — The duration of life in animals is generally between seven and eight times the period which elapses from birth till they become adult ; but this rule, besides being vague and indefinite, is quite useless in practice, because it affords no scale of gradation which would enable us to ascertain the precise age of individuals, the only inquiry of real importance or of practical application to the interests of so- ciety. More certain and scientific principles are derived from observing the growth and decay of the teeth. See Cattle; Horse. In Archaology. — The Danish and Swedish antiquaries and naturalists, MM, Nilson, Steen- strup, Forchamber, Thomsen, Worsaae, and others, have divided the period during which man has existed on the earth into three — the Age of Stone, the Age of Bronze, and the Age of Iron. During the first-mentioned of these he is supposed to have had only stone for weapons, etc. Sir John Lubbock divides this into two — the palaeolithic, or older, and the neolithic, or newer stone period. At the commencement of the age of bronze that composite metal became known and began to be manufactured into weapons and other instruments ; while, when the age of iron came in, bronze began gradually to be superseded by iron. See Lyell's < Antiquity of Man,' and Lubbock's < Prehistoric Times.' In Physiology. — If the word age be used to denote one of the stages of human life, then physiology clearly distinguishes six of these : viz.. the periods of infancy, of childhood, of boyhood or girlhood, of adolescence, of man- hood or womanhood, and of old age. The pe- riod of infancy terminates at 2, when the first dentition is completed ; that of childhood at 7 or 8. when the second dentition is finished ; that of boyhood or girlhood at the commencement of puberty, in temperate climates from the 14th to the 16th year in the male, and from the 12th to the 14th in the female ; that of adolescence Vol. 1— u extends to the 24th year in the male and the 20th in the female ; that of manhood or woman- hood stretches on till the advent of old age, which comes sooner or later, according to the original strength of the constitution in each individual case and the habits which have been acquired during life. The precise time of hu- man existence similarly varies. See Longevity. In Geology. — See Geology. Agen, a-zhan, one of the oldest towns in France, capital of dept. Lot-et-Garonne, on the Garonne, 74 m. S.E. of Bordeaux. A fine stone bridge of eleven arches spans the river here, and the aqueduct bridge of the Canal Lateral is an- other striking structure. The town has been an episcopal see with a cathedral since the reign of Clovis, prior to which it was a Roman station. It commands an extensive agricultural trade, ow- ing to its position between Bordeaux and Tou- louse. Pop. 1903, 23,000. Agent, in law, one person who acts for another, called the principal. If a person acts as agent without authority, the subsequent rati- fication of the act will make it binding on the principal just as if he had originally directed it. When an agent acts within the scope of his employment he may bind his principal, and the principal is liable for any fraudulent acts or wrong-doings of the agent so acting. If the agent, having power to bind his principal, does so expressly, he is not liable ; but if he exceeds his authority he becomes personally responsible. The agent is bound to obey the instructions of the principal, and if, in violating them, he binds his principal to a third person, he is personally liable to make compensation. He cannot deal in his principal's affairs to his own profit. The right on the part of an agent to act is called his authority or power. The authority or power must in some instances be exercised in the name of the principal, and the act done is for his bene- fit alone. As a general rule, an agent cannot delegate his authority without special authority from his principal, consequently an agent cannot create a sub-agent without special permission. Any person may act as agent whom the principal wishes to appoint. So broad is this rule that married women and infants, who are incapable of acting in their own behalf, may act as agents, for the appointment takes away the legal insuf- ficiency and permits them to bind their princi- pals when they could not bind themselves. The mode of appointment depends upon the nature of the agency. By a rule of law the evidence of appointment must be of as high a nature as the thing to be done. Thus, to execute a writing under seal, the appointment must be under seal. When the authority or power is coupled with an interest, or when it is given for a valuable consideration, or when it is a part of a security, then, unless there is a special agreement that it shall be revocable, it cannot be revoked. Death, insanity, bankruptcy, the extinction of the subject-matter of the agency, or the execu- tion of the trust, will usually terminate the agency unless the authority is coupled with an interest. Upon the law of agency is based to a large degree the law of partnership. Age of Chivalry, The, or The Legends of King Arthur, by Thomas Bultinch. was pub- lished in 1858. Store than 20 years after, an en- larged edition appeared under the editorship of AGE OF FABLE — AGINCOURT Edward Everett Hale. In Part First the legends of King Arthur and his knights are considered. Part Second deals with the Mabinogion, or an- cient prose tales of the Welsh; Pari third with the knights of English history. King Richard, Robin Hood, and the Black Prince. From the time of its first publication the popularity of the book has been gnat. No more sympathetic and fitting introduction could he found to the legends of chivalry. Age of Fable, The, or The Beauties of Mythology, by Thomas Bulfinch, was pub- lished in 1855, and republished in 1882 under the editorship of Edward Everett Hale. It has become a standard work upon mythology, by reason of its full and extensive treatment of the Greek and Roman myths. Age of Reason, The, by Thomas Paine, vas first published in a complete edition 25 Oct. 1795. In 1703 the First Part appeared, but no copy bearing that date can he found. Part First coiisisis of an inquiry into the bases of Chris- tianity, its theology, its miracles, its claims of revelation. The process is destructive and revo- lutionary. In Part Second the author makes critical examination of the Old and New Testa- ment, to support the conclusions and inferences of Part First. Yet the work is not wholly negative. « The Word of God is the creation we behold." Ageratum, a-ger'a-tum, a genus of plants of the natural order Composite!: (belonging to the Eupatorium tribe of the order), natives of the warmer parts of America. One species, A. mexicanum, is an annual plant of flower borders and has densely clustered capitula of lavender- blue flowers. Several others are also grown in gardens, some of them with purple, white, or pale blue flowers. One of these, A. conycoides, has sky-blue or gray-blue flowers and flower- heads almost conical in form. This species, with A. littorale, grows wild in southern Georgia, and in Florida. Agesila'us, a king of Sparta: b. 442 B.C., and elevated to the throne after the death of his brother Agis II.. in 398. Called by the Ionians to their assistance against Artaxerxes, he commenced his glorious career by defeating the Persians and defending Sparta against the united attack of Thebes, Corinth, etc. In a sub- sequent war with Thebes he had to contend against Pelopidas and Epaminondas. the great- est generals of those times. His prudence, how- ever, saved Sparta without the hazard of a battle. He delivered it anew at the age of 80 years, though it was actually in the hands of Epaminondas. In the spring of 361 he crossed over to Egypt with a body of Lacedaemonian mercenaries, and there, after displaying much of his former ability, he died while preparing for his voyage home, in the winter of 361-360. Though small and insignificant in person he was a noble prince and almost adored by his soldiers. Agglomerate, in geology, a name applied to a rock consisting of angular fragments of other rocks, united or bound together by a matrix of similar materials but of finer texture. The rock is of volcanic origin, but the fragments may be either volcanic or sedimentary, having been ejected from some volcano. Agglutinate Languages, languages in which the modifying suffixes are as it were glued on to the root, both it and the suffixes retaining a kind of distinctive independence and individ- uality, as in the Turkish and other Turanian tongues. (Sec Max Midler's < Lectures on the Science of Language.' ) Agglutination. See Immunity. Aggregation, States of, an expression sometimes used to signify, collectively, the va- rious physical states in which matter can exist. For ordinary purposes it is sufficient to distin- guish two fundamentally different states of ag- gregation, the solid and fluid; fluids being fur- ther subdivided into liquids and gases. A solid body may be defined as one that is callable of resisting a considerable shearing-stress. It is important to note, however, that a true solid does not yield continuously to a small deforming force; it resists deformation, and its resistance increases as the di Formation increases. A fluid, on the contrary, is a body having almost no shearing-strength, and offering very little re- sistance to forces that tend to change its shape. A fluid yields continuously to a deforming force, and a force that will deform it at all will deform it indefinitely, so long as it is allowed to act. Considering the subdivision of fluids into gases and liquids, it may lie said that a gas is a fluid that presses continuously and in every direction on the walls of the vessel containing it. and which follows them indefinitely if they retreat. A gas, if left to itself, lends to expand infinitely in every direction. A liquid may be defined as a fluid which does not follow the walls of the containing vessel if they retreat, and which has no tendency to sudden and indefinite expansion when freed from all restraint. These distinctions between the various states of aggregation in which matter occurs are to a certain extent arbitrary, clastic, indefinite, and inexact. For example, certain kinds of pitch resist the action of deforming forces that are applied for a short time only, and are brittle enough to fracture, like glass, under the influ- ence of a sudden stress ; yet they yield slowdy but continuously to very small deforming forces, when those forces act for a long lime. A body of this sort, strictly speaking, is neither a solid nor a liquid, and to include it in a general classi- fication we should have to have a « semi-solid » division. The distinction between liquids and gases is even more artificial than that between solids and liquids; for a liquid may be made to pass into its vapor in such a manner that it is impossible to state at what moment it ceases to be a liquid. Thus, if water is heated under a sufficiently great pressure up to 700° F.. and is then allowed to expand by a sufficient amount at this temperature, and is finally cooled at con- stant volume, we shall find, at the end of this operation, that it has been entirely transformed into steam, although we cannot say at what stage the transformation took place. See Critical Point; Equilibrium (Chemical); Molecular Theory; THERMODYNAMICS; .MATTER. Agincourt, aj'in-kort, or Azincourt, a-zhati-koor, France, a village, dept. Pas-de-Ca- lais, famous for a battle fought there 25 Oct. 1415. Henry V., king of England, eager to con- quer France, landed at Ilarfleur. took the place by storm, and wished to march through Picardy AGIS — AGNEW to Calais, in order to fix his winter quarters in its neighborhood. With a powerful force the Dauphin advanced against him. Henry V. re- treated to the Somme. The French followed to harass his retreat and to defend the passage from Abbeville to St. Quentin, which he gained only through the inattention of the enemy. The English, however, being destitute of everything and reduced by sickness, Henry asked for peace on disadvantageous terms. The French refused his proposals, and succeeded in throwing them- selves between Calais and the English. These latter consisted of 2,000 men-at-arms and 12,000 archers, and were arranged in order of battle between two hills, with the archers on the wings. Stakes, of which every man carried one, were fixed in front of them. The French, command- ed by the Constable d'Albret, numbered 50,000 troops, of whom 8,000 were men-at-arms ; but other estimates make the French strength much greater. They arranged themselves in two divi- sions, with the men-at-arms, of whom 2,000 were mounted, in front. The English first put themselves in motion. The French horse in- stantly hastened to meet them, but were received with such a shower of arrows by the archers that they fell back on the first division, and threw it into confusion. The light-armed Eng- lish archers seized their clubs and battle-axes and broke through the ranks of the French knights, who could hardly move on account of their heavy coats of mail and the closeness of their array. The English horse rushed to assist the archers; the first French division retreated; the second could not sustain the charge of the victors ; and the whole French army was soon entirely routed. The victorious army, in the pursuit of the flying enemy, took 14.000 prison- ers in addition to those previously captured ; 10,000 Frenchmen lay dead on the battle-field. Among them was the Constable of France, with six dukes and princes. Five princes, among whom were the Dukes of Orleans and Bourbon, were taken prisoners. The English lost 1,600 men killed ; among them the Duke of York, Henry's uncle, whom the Duke d'Alencon slew at his side while pressing toward the king. D'Alengon had dashed the crown from Henry's head, and lifted his hand for a more effectual blow, when the king's attendants surrounded him and he fell covered with wounds. Agis, a'jis, the name of four Spartan kings. Agis I., son of Eurysthenes, founder of the family Agidae, and reputed conqueror of Helos. Agis II., son of Archidamus II., and reigned either in 427 or 426 B.C. to 400 or 399 B.C. He was active in the Peloponnesian war; invaded Attica several times ; and conquered the Atheni- ans at Mantinea in 418 b.c. Agis III., son of Archidamus III., reigned in 338-1 b.c. He en- deavored t<> overthrow the Macedonian power in Europe, but was routed and killed in a battle with Antipater in 331 b.c. The most important of the four kings was Acts IV.. who succeeded to the throne in 244 B.C., and reigned four years He attempted a reform of the abuses which had crept into the state — his plan comprehending a redistribution of the land, a division of wealth, and the cancelling of all debts. Opposed bj his colleague, Leonidas. advantage was taken of his absence in an expedition against the /Etolians to depose him. Agis at first took sanctuary in a temple, but he was entrapped and hurriedlj executed by his rivals. Aglossa, a-glos'sa (Gr. a, priv. ; glossa, tongue), a group of the order Anura (toads and frogs) containing only two living families, the South American Pifidcc and the African Xeno- pida, and characterized by the lack of any tongue and the union of the eustachian tubes into one opening far back in the palate. The pipa toads and South African plathandlers are typical examples. The group is interesting for its antiquity and primitive relationships. Agnadello, an-ya-del'lo, Worth Italy, a village 10 in. E. of Lodi, near which Louis XII. of France completely defeated the Venetians, on 14 May 1509, and the Duke of Vendome gained a victory over Prince Eugene in 1705. Agnano, an-ya'no. till 1870, a small lake, 3 m. W. of Naples, about 60 ft. in depth, and without visible outlet. As it was supposed to cause malaria it has been drained. The sur- rounding country is volcanic and mountainous. On the right lies the Grotta del Cane, where the carbonic acid is dense enough to kill dogs, and on the left are found the sulphurous vapor baths of San Germano, which are valuable for gout and blood disorders. Agnes, Saint, a saint who, according to the received account, because she steadfastly refused to marry the son of the prefect of Rome and adhered to her religion in spite of repeated temptations and threats, suffered martyrdom during the persecution of the Christians in the reign of the Emperor Diocletian, 303 a.d. She was first led to the stake, but as the flames did not injure her she was beheaded. Her festival is celebrated on the 21st of January. Domen- ichino painted a picture representing her at the moment of her execution. Agnesi, a-nya'se, Maria Gaetana, a learn- ed Italian lady: b. in Milan in 1718. In her 9th year she was able to speak Latin, in her nth Greek; she then studied the Oriental lan- guages, and next geometry and philosophy, mathematics having latterly engaged her chief attention. She was appointed, in 1750, professor of mathematics in the University of Bologna, ultimately took the veil, and died in 1799. Her sister, Maria Theresa, composed several canta- tas and three operas. Agnes of Sorrento, a romance by Har- riet Beecher Stowe. The scene is laid in central Italy during the papacy of Alexander VI. 1 1492- 1503). Agnes is the daughter of a Roman prince wdio secretly marries and then deserts a girl of humble parentage. The young mother dies of grief, and Elsie, the grandmother, takes Agnes to Sorrento, where she lives by selling oranges in the streets. Her beauty and her purity attract to her many lovers, worthy and unworthy, and involve her in many romantic and dramatic incidents. Agnew, Cornelius Rea, an American phy- sician: b. New York 8 Aug. 1830; d. 8 April 1888: Professor of diseases of the eye and ear in New York College of Physicians and Sur- geons, lie was a graduate of Columbia College. and later studied in Europe: was surgeon-gen- eral of the State of .Yew Ynrk at the beginning of the Civil War. when he became medical di- rector of the New York State Volunteer Hospi- AGNEW — AGRARIAN LAWS tal. As member of the United States Sanitary Commission he contributed largely to its suc- cess. In 186S he Founded the Brooklyn Eye and Kar Hospital, lit- was interested in the public schools of New York; became Founder of the Columbia College School of Mines, and in 1S74 one of the trustees of the college. His writings are chiefly monographs on diseases of the eye and ear. Agnew, David Hayes, an American sur- geon and medical writer: b. 24 Nov. iSiS; d. 22 .March 1892; for many years professor of sur- gery at the University of Pennsylvania. lie was also the operator in several important eases, notably that of President Garfield, lie pub- lished 'Practical Anatomy' (1867); 'Anatomy and Its Relation to Medicine and Surgery' ; 'Principles and Practice of Surgery' (1878); etc. Agno, ag'no, an important river in the N.W. part of Luzon. Philippine Islands. It is about cw m. in length, describing a circuitous course, parallel with a range of coast mountains, and emptying into Lingayen Gulf. The town of Lingayen is at the mouth of the river, which is accessible by railway from Manila. Agnosticism (Gr. "unknowing"'), a school of thought which holds that man can know noth- ing of ultimate realities, or whether they exist ; since, his only means of knowledge being through comparison of phenomena, the absolute could only be cognized by his senses on assum- ing phenomenal traits, and would then be grasped as a phenomenon and not as absolute, the knowledge of which is therefore a contradic- tion in terms. \\'e cannot know anything out- side our own mental processes and the existence of other minds; in popular phrase, we cannot get behind the looking-glass. This does not, however, deny the absolute any more than af- firm it; and most agnostics (as Clifford, one of the greatest) consider the diversity of phenom- ena as probably indicating a diversity in their causes. The agnostic position involves refusal to accept "evidences" of the origins of the uni- verse, of unseen powers, of a future life, or in general the metaphysical bases of religion, save as more or less probable inferences. The cur- rent idea that it involves rejection of these be- liefs, however, is entirely wrong: the agnostic does not admit that either the affirmative or the negative of them can be a subject of knowledge, .Hid regards the atheist as less intellectually re- table than the devotee. In point of fact, Prof. Huxley, the inventor of the term, thought the existence of beings higher than man rather probable than otherwise, and the government of the universe by a "divine syndicate" of great spiritual essences quite logical. The greatest of modern agnostics was Herbert Spencer. The theory is practically that of the Pyrrhonist or Skeptical school of Greek philosophers. Agnus Dei. See Sacraventai.s. Agosta, or Augusta, a seaport on the S.E. coast of Sicily, in the province of Syracuse, and 12 m. N.N.W. of the city of that name. It was a place of some importance before the earth- quake of 1693, which buried a third of the in- habitants in its ruins, and at the same time by supposed sulphurous vapors which issued from the ground, ignited the powder magazine, and blew up the citadel. It was off this port that Dc Ruyter, the famous Dutch admiral, in com- mand of the united Dutch and Spanish fleet, 22 April if>7(>, was defeated by the French under I (uquesne, and received his death wound. Pop. about 12,500. Agra, a'gra, India, a city in the Northwest Provinces, on the right bank of the Jumna, 841 miles by rail from Calcutta. It is a well-built and handsome town and has various interesting structures, among which are the imperial palai I . a mass of buildings erected by several emperors ; the Moti Masjid or Pearl Mosque (both within the old and extensive fort): the mosque called the Jama Masjid (a cenotaph of white marble) ; and above all, the Taj Mahal, a mausoleum of the 17th century, built by the Emperor Shah Jchan to his favorite queen, of white marble, adorned throughout with exquisite mosaics. There are several Protestant and Roman Cath- olic churches, a government college, and three oilier colleges or high schools, besides a med- ical college. Agra has a trade in grain, sugar, etc., and some manufactures, including beautiful inlaid mosaics. It was founded in 1566 by the Emperor Akbar, and was a residence of the fol- lowing emperors for over a century. Pop. 168,662. The Agra division has an area of 10,139 square miles, and a pop. of 4.767,759. Agrarian Laws, enactments framed at dif- ferent times by the Romans to regulate the pub- lic domain. In the first epoch of the growth of Rome, before the city had extended beyond the Palatine Hill, the whole soil of the state was undivided public property, and from the state, consisting exclusively of citizens, every citizen received a share for his private use. In prin- ciple all the land was therefore undivided public property, and the citizen could only acquire pos- session as tenant at will of the state. In course of time, however, the descendants of the original founders, or the patricians, transformed these primitive concessions into an absolute right called in the Roman law de jure quiritio. 1 lur- ing the entire existence of the republic the principle was recognized that all lands and per- sonal property acquired by conquest were ac- quired for the state, and could only become the property of individuals through the cession to them of the rights of the state. As conquest in- creased the public property, and the class of ple- beians was formed, the Roman government gave them an interest in the public domain as private property on condition of their paving a tribute and undertaking other public services. The pa- tricians, however, always preserved their an- cient right of receiving in possession and using portions of the public property on paying to the public treasury a tithe of its product. From the earliest period of Roman history lands thus held could pass as an inheritance to children, and were even sold under this uncertain tenure, while the state always reserved the power to re- sume possession. Spurius Cassius, a patrician, on becoming consul in the early period of the republic, caused a law to be enacted that some portion of the public lands, long before con- quered, but occupied by the Roman nobles, should be surrendered to the state and assigned to the needy citizens. The law remained a dead letter because of the resistance of the patricians, who not only prevented any new divisions of the public lands, but by violence or usury acquired AGRARIAN PARTY — AGRICOLA those of the plebeians. The keeping of large flocks of cattle practically ruined the common pasture lands, and in fact excluded the small farmers from them. This caused the publica- tion, in 367 B.C., of the Licinian law, so called from Licinius Stoto, its originator. For a brief period this law was put in force, after which it was neglected for nearly 200 years, when it was renewed by Tiberius Gracchus with some additions and modifications in favor of the patricians. The attempt to execute these laws caused the death of the two Gracchi (133 and 121 B.C.). Not one of the Agrarian laws was ever executed, and it is said by the ablest writers that they had none of that leveling and con- fiscatory character which has been so often at- tributed to them. It is believed by able writers that none of the laws aimed at the equal divi- sion of real estate owned by individuals in their own absolute right, or intended any limitation upon the ownership of land. The most promi- nent advocates of the Agrarian laws, Cassius, Licinius, and the Gracchi, all belonged to the class which would have been injured by their operation had they led to an undue interference with the right of private property. Agrarian Party, a political organization in Germany, representing the interests of the landlords (in political life). The first steps to- ward the formation of the party were taken by an assembly called together at Breslau, in May 1869, by M. A. Niendorf (d. 1878), and Eisner von Gronow, but the theory on which the party was based had already been formulated by Johann Karl Rodbertus. The organ of the party was Die Deutsche Landeszeitung, edited by Niendorf. In February 1876 a constitutional as- sembly of agrarian reformers was opened, and adopted the official name of "Steuer und Wirt- schaftreformer." Their programme was espe- cially devoted to the abolition of taxes on land, buildings, and trades. At first especial emphasis was laid on free trade, but this object fell more and more into the background after 1879. Since that date they have sought to limit the importa- tion of food stuffs, and have opposed several commercial treaties supported by the govern- ment ; they have also opposed the emperor's project for a canal system, and have been hostile to his navy policy. As the Agrarians dominate the Conservatives in the Reichstag they have frequently obtained important concessions in commercial matters and forced the government to turn to the Radicals for support for its measures. Agreement, a mutual bargain, contract, or covenant. Agreements may be either express or implied. Express agreements are those openly stated and avowed by the parties at the time of their making. Implied agreements are those which the law supposes the parties to have made although the terms were not openly ex- pressed. There must be an agreement by the parties. a definite offer made by one party and accepted by the other, and they must assent to the same thing in the same sense. The assent must be mutual and obligatory, and there must be a request on one side and an assent on the other. The assent must be broad enough to cover the whole proposition. It must be exactly equal to its extent and provision, and it must not qualify them by any new matter, and even a slight quali- fication destroys the assent. The agreement must be based upon a sufficient consideration (q.v.), and as against third persons this consid- eration must be good or valuable. It need not be adequate provided it has some real value. If the consideration is impossible, or illegal either in whole or in part, the agreement will be void. The agreement may be to do anything permitted by the law, as to sell and buy real estate or personal property. The evidence of the sale of real estate, however, must be by deed, and sealed. In many instances agreements in regard to personal property must be reduced to writing. See Contracts. Agric'ola, Cneius Julius, lived from a.d. 37 to 93, and was a Roman general and governor in Britain, the greater part of which he brought under the dominion of Rome. His life (which extended through the reigns of the nine em- perors from Caligula to Domitian) has been ex- cellently written by his son-in-law, Tacitus, who holds him up as an example of virtue. Agricola was born at Forum Julii (now Frejus in Provence), and was the son of Julius Grae- cinus, a senator put to death under Calig- ula. He served his first campaign in Brit- ain in 60, and after serving in Asia Minor and again in Britain, and governing Aqui- tania as praetor for three years, he was raised to the consulship in 77, and the next year went to Britain as governor. Agricola w r as the twelfth Roman general who had been in Britain, but was the only one who effectually subdued it ; partly by his consummate military skill, partly by his policy in reconciling the Britons to the Roman yoke, and by teaching them the arts and luxuries of civilization. In his fourth campaign he built a chain of forts between the Forth and Clyde to help to keep in check the peoples to the north of this. His seventh and last campaign (a.d. 84) was marked by the total defeat of the Caledonians under Galgacus, at some place called by Tacitus Mons Grampius or Graupius. In this campaign his fleet sailed northward from the coast of Fife round Britain to the Trutu- lensian harbor (supposed to be Sandwich), thus for the first time proving that the country was an island. His death was either caused or has- tened by the minions of the jealous tyrant Domi- tian. Agricola, Johann, German reformer: b. 1492; d. 1526. He was one of the most active among those who propagated the doctrines of Luther. He studied at Wittenberg and Leipsic : was afterward rector and preacher in Eisleben, his native city, and in 1526. at the Diet of Spires, was chaplain of the Elector John of Saxony. He subsequently became chaplain to Count Al- bert of Mansfield, and took a part in the de- livery of the Confession of Augsburg, and in the signing of the articles of Schmalkalden. When professor at Wittenberg, whither he went in 1537. he Stirred up the Antinomian contro- versv with Luther and Melanchthon. He after- ward lived at Berlin, where he died after a life of controversy. Besides his theological works he composed a work explaining the common German proverbs. Its patriotic spirit, strict morality, and pithy style, place it among the first German prose compositions of the time, bj the side of Luther's translations of the Bible. AGRICOLA — AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY Agricola, Rudolphus, the foremost scholar of the « New Learning, 1 in Germany : b. 23 Aug, 144.?. near Groningcn, in Friesland ; d. 28 Oct. 1485. His real name, Roelof Hi mann (husbandman), he Latinized into Agric- ola; and from his native place he was also called Frisius, or Rudolf of Groningen. From Groningen he passed to Louvain, then to Paris, and then to Italy! where, during the years 1473- 80, he attended the lectures of the most cele- brated men of his age, and where he enured into a close friendship with Dalherg, afterward Bishop of Worms. On his return home he endeavored, in connection with several of his former co- disciples and friends, to promote a taste for lit- erature and eloquence. Several cities of Hol- land vainly strove with each other to obtain his presence, but not even the brilliant overtures made to him by the Emperor Maximilian, to whose court lie had repaired in connection with affairs of the town of Groningen, could induce him to renounce his independence. At length yielding (1483) to the solicitations of Dalberg, he established himself in the Palatinate, where he sojourned alternately at Heidelberg and Worms, dividing his time between private stud- ii and public lectures, and enjoying high popu- larity. He distinguished himself also as a mu- sician and painter. With Dalberg he revisited Italy (14S41, and shortly after his return died at Heidelberg. Most of his works were col- lected by Alard of Amsterdam (2 vols. Cologne, 1539)- Agric'olite, a mineral having the same composition as eulytite, but crystallizing in the monoclinic system. It also occurs in globular forms, with a radiated structure, and the crystals, when they occur, are indistinct. The species needs further examination. Agricultural Ant, a remarkable species of ant (Myrmica molefaciens) that cultivates fields of grass around its hill, allowing only one kind of grass (Aristida) to grow in a field; it harvests the- seeds and stores them away as food. The fields may be as large as 15 feet across; roads are laid out from the hill to the outer margin of the plantation, so that the crop may not be trampled, and any weeds which ap- pear among the grass blades are at once cut off. These colonies are often found in large grain fields, which they injure in proportion to their numbers. Agricultural Chemistry is the science upon which scientific agriculture is built ; the chemistry of the atmosphere, of the soil, of ma- nures, of plants, and of animals, describe and explain in large part the phenomena of plant growth and of the transformation of plants into animal products. The basic facts which the investigations of agricultural chemists have re- vealed, and which serve as the foundation upon which the facts derived from further investiga- tion must rest, may be stated as follows : Sources of Plant Food. — The atmosphere and the soil are the two sources from which plants obtain their food. The atmosphere sup- plies the plant, either directly or indirectly, with carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen ; the carbon mainly directly in the form of carbon- dioxid, the hydrogen and oxygen indirectly in the form of water in the soil, which is ab- sorbed by the roots of plants, and nitrogen mainly indirectly in the form of nitrates in the soil, which is also taken up by the roots of plants. The soil is the only source of the min- eral elements used by the plant, and those es- sential for its growth are potassium, magnesium, calcium, iron, chlorine, sodium, phosphorus, and sulphur, though others may be present in the plant as accidental salts; as, for example, silicon, manganese, boron, etc. These mineral elements are obtained from the soil by means of the plant roots. Constituents of Manures. — While plants re- quire and use a relatively large number of chemical elements for their perfect development, those essential in manures are limited to four. namely, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and calcium, for the reason that these are contained in the soil in relatively small amounts, and are required by plants in relatively large amounts. Exhaustion of soil means the exhaustion of one or more of these four constituents, which mea- sure the potential fertility, and a direct manure is a substance which contains one or two, or all of these. The Composition of Plants. — In all normal plant growths there are four distinct classes of substances, namely, albuminoids, fats, carbohy- drates and mineral salts, each of which as a class exercises a special function in the nutrition of animals. The varying proportions of these sub- stances in the different plants also determine the value of any plant as a source of any specific substance for commercial purposes ; as, for ex- ample, sugar or oil. The Composition of Animals. — The annual body consists of three classes of substances, namely, nitrogenous matter, fatty matter, and mineral salts ; these are derived from, and are similar in character to, the same classes of sub- stances in plants. These statements of the basic- principles of plant growth and use clearly indi- cate the important role that agricultural chemis- try may exercise in the many directions in which it may be applied in the development of scientific farm practice It indicates the broad field of agricultural chemistry; and agricultural chem- ists, because of the many important special lines of inquiry, arc classified as soil chemists, fer- tilizer chemists, food chemists, sugar chemists, agricultural industrial chemists, etc.. according as they give special attention to any one of these particular branches. Methods of Analysis. — The application of chemistry in these various directions, has in recent years been accompanied by a development in analytical and research methods, both in the devising of new apparatus and new met hods for the analyses of new materials, and in the im- provement of the apparatus and the methods al- ready in use. The Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, organized in 1880. whjch at first in- cluded only the American chemists engaged in the official analytical control of commercial fer- tilizers, gave the initial impetus to a movement which has been largely responsible for the pro- gress of agricultural chemistry in this country. This organization has gradually broadened its work, and now includes, as members, analysts and specialists in all the various lines of agricul- tural chemical work. To this association is re- ported annually the investigations that have been made by its members in the testing of new AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY and in the improvement of old analytical meth- ods. The good results of such work are particu- larly noticeable in the adoption of uniform meth- ods in the different laboratories, either new, or modifications of those standard methods devised by the earlier investigators. The crude appara- tus and the tedious methods of 25 years ago, which are still in use in many foreign labora- tories, have in this country been supplanted by those which ensure not only greater accuracy, but greater rapidity of execution. These im- provements have made it possible for the chem- ists to perform the large number of analyses now required in the official control of commercial fertilizers, of commercial foodstuffs, and of dairy products. The Study of the Sources of Nitrogen to Plants. — The most important contribution made to science by agricultural chemists in recent years has been in the study of the sources of nitrogen to plants. The experiments of Berthe- lot, Helriegel, Wilfarth, and others in Europe, and of Atwater in America, have modified the views originally held in reference to this subject. That the chief source of nitrogen to plants is mainly directly from the soil in the form of nitrates is not disputed, but the experiments referred to have shown that the leguminous plants, such as peas and beans, have the power of obtaining the free nitrogen of the air, and thus both soil and air contribute to their supply of this element. It has been shown that this absorption of free nitrogen is not performed directly, but the fixation is the result of the joint action of certain micro-organisms present in the soil and in the plant itself; that this fixation is connected with the formation of tubercles on the roots of this class of plants, and that these may be the home of the fixing organisms, which are not present in all soils. In other words, the fact has been established that these plants do obtain their nitrogen from the air, a source inaccessible to other classes of plants, though the exact meth- od and the complete phenomena involved in its appropriation are not yet understood ; these points are matters under investigation at the present time. De nitrification. — Denitrification, or loss of nitrogen from soils and manures by the reduc- tion of the nitrates and the setting free of the nitrogen, is another rather new though closely related phase of the nitrogen question which is receiving the attention of agricultural chemists. Denitrification is also due to organisms contained in manures and in soils, and the question in- volves the study not only of the organisms themselves, but of their food and the conditions which favor or retard their growth. The experi- ments conducted thus far both in Europe and in America indicate that good conditions of soil management do not favor the activity of these organisms, and that losses due to denitrification are greatest where drainage, cultivation, and management are neglected. Chemical Investigation of Soils. — Chemical investigations have shown that the active fer- tility of soils depends both upon the amount of the essential constituents present, and the mutual reactions of the various classes of substances which constitute their bulk. Chem- ical studies have been directed toward separating these substances, and to the discovery of their relations to each other. The combined study of the influence of the chemical and physical prop- erties of soils in encouraging changes in the chemical form of the constituents, and in their absorptive and retentive power for both water and plant-food, has resulted in showing the adaptation of certain classes of soils to specific crops, and has made it possible to indicate clearly the line of profitable culture. Further important results of studies in recent years have had their origin in the discovery that micro-organisms living in the soil exert a de- cided influence in changing its chemical charac- ter, and in contributing to active fertility. It has been established that, other things being equal, soils are fertile in proportion as the physi- cal and chemical conditions are favorable for the growth and development of those living forces. This fact has encouraged the chemical study of the various classes of soil substances as sources of supply of food for these lower organisms, and the knowledge gained has contributed ma- terially to the development of methods of soil improvement. Farm Manures. — The question of the func- tion of natural agencies in promoting fertility is closely related to that of manures, fertilizers, and soil amendments. Chemical studies of the char- acter and value of farm manures as sources of plant food, of the source of loss of the valuable constituents, especially nitrogen, contained in them, and the methods of preservation and use of the various materials, have established the important facts that practically 80 per cent of the fertility elements contained in food are found in the manure, and that more than one half of the nitrogen and practically all of the potash con- tained are in soluble forms. These constituents are readily available as food to plants, com- paring favorably with best artificial supplies, but are liable to suffer great loss, the former by fermentation and leaching, and the latter by leaching. This may be prevented by proper care and the use of preservatives. Fertilizers. — As to the artificial supplies of plant-food, chemical studies have been mainly directed toward the determination of the avail- ability of the different constituent elements con- tained in the various sources of supply. Nitro- gen, for example, shows varying degrees of availability : with nitrate at 100 per cent as a basis, the range is from 80 per cent in dried blood to as low as 2 per cent for leather. These wide variations in agricultural value are not accompanied by variations in commercial value, hence studies have been made of chemical meth- ods for the determination of the availability of nitrogenous substances in mixed fertilizers, in which it is otherwise impossible to detect their source, and such progress has been made as to enable chemists by the use of these methods to indicate the relative value of the materials used. Much study has also been given to the question of the relative availability of the phosphoric acid as found in the various raw and manufactured supplies, and positive information can now be given as to the best sources of supply for specific crops and for special kinds of soil. lAme, Marl, and Other S»il Amendments.— The purpose of the use of these materials is mainly to supply the plant indirectly with its needed constituents, and careful investigations have "shown that lime, for example, while not usually a deficient constituent, performs very AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY important functions in tlie improvement of soil: first, in correcting acidity, and thus making the soil a bettei medium for the growth and dev< lop mint of sod organisms; second, in acting chem- ically on organic matter and on phosphatic and potash compounds in the Soil, and setting free their constituent elements; and third, in chan- ging and improving the physical character of soils. Notable studies along this line have trried out in this country, particularly by Wheeler in Rhode Island, and the results of such investigations have done much to promote the growth of leguminous crops, which add to the soil humus- forming material containing nitrogen ; the humus exerting an important func- tion in increasing the absorptive and retentive pi v, ers of soils. The Composition and Nutritive Value of Plants. — Recent chemical investigations have also resulted in securing more detinue informa- tion concerning the approximate composition of plains. It is now possible to classify clearly the nutritive substances contained in any speci- fic crop, and to determine the composition of the various chemical substances in the same group. In the group albuminoids, for example, methods of analysis have been developed which enable a separation of the various nitrogenous bodies contained in it. and which show their relative nutritive value. Very important studies of this group have been carried out by Osborne in Connecticut : those in the use of the respira- tion apparatus, in tin- studies of human nutrition, by Alwatcr, and of animal nutrition, by Armsby, have already contributed materially to our sum of knowledge concerning the energy value of various nutritious bodies. These results have their application in the utilization of wastes and in the selection and preparation of rations and of dietaries, furnishing a rational basis for the selection, combination, and preparation of fc oils The Chemical Improvement of Plants. — The improvement of plants, not only for use directly as food, but as sources of supply of specific com- pounds for special manufacture, has been very marked in recent years. The chemical study of the sugar-beet, "f sugar-cane, and of sorghum, has resulted in the development of varieties which are much richer in sugar than formerly, and poorer in non-sugars, the substances which interfere with the extraction and crystallization of the sugar. So also the chemical study of maize, combined with the selection of seed, has enabled the building up of varieties which pos- sess a larger than normal proportion of either carbohydrates, the fats, or the nitrogenous mat- ter, thus improving this most useful plant for the purpose of the manufacture of starch or as a source of oil, or for use as food for live stock. The increase in the gluten content of wheat for the flour manufacturer, the improvement of bar- lev for live brewer, are also the direct result of chemical supervision in the growth of these plants. The Chemistry of Dairy Products. — The agricultural chemist has also been active in the study of the composition and character of the milk of different dairy breeds as sources of f( od supply, as well as the processes involved in the manufacture of butter and cheese. Quick and accurate methods for determining the per- centage of the •"— srt.Tt constituent fat have b< en developed, and valuable results have been secured m the study of the changes that take place in the manufacture of cheese. The most important recent discovery is that of Russcil and Babcock of Wisconsin, that enzymes cause the breaking down of the nitrogenous bodies of the milk, and that they, together with bacteria, are factors to be considered in the curing of ilu ese. History. — As a science it was born only a century and a quarter ago. The composition of the sod was then unknown, and its relation to plant-growth, with the true function of fertil- izers, a matter of crude and blundering empirics. It is interesting to note that Lavoisier, wdio did so much to create the general science, for- mulated also its agricultural application with striking accuracy, saying thai the components of plains " in the last analysis are drawn from the air and the mineral kingdom. On the other hand, fermentation, putrefaction, and combus- tion continually restore to these the principles borrowed from them by plants and animals." Sir Humphry Davy, following Lavoisier's indi- cations with zeal, was the first great chemist to make agricultural chemistry a special study and write upon it. delivering a course of lectures before the British Hoard of Agriculture about 1800. and embodying them in a volume. Many of his hypotheses were erroneous, but he greatly advanced the science. As early as 1807 Count Rumford observed that plants deprived of carbonic acid die; and soon afterward Ingenhousz proved that they absorb it only under the influence of sunlight. These facts led to the great generalization, the basis of scientific agricultural chemistry, that plants live mainly on inorganic matter. During the second quarter of the century the distinguished French chemist Boussingault devoted himself almost wholly to agriculture. publishing many papers on it, his < Rural Economy > ( 1844) giving him a European reputation; and the second De Saussure ( d. 1845) wrote 36 valuable papers on vegetable physiology, collected as < Chemical Researches on Vegetation.' But the great era in the sci- ence was made by Justus von Liebig, who pub- lished in 1840a famous work entitled 'Organic Chemistry in its Relation to Agriculture,) translated into several languages and of enor- mous influence. He had great gifts of exposi- tion; and he established in the popular mind the theory of the plants' almost entire dependence on mineral food, hitherto held only by a few men of science. Further, bis researches found- ed artificial fertilization — that is, the use of chemically-prepared fertilizers; and showed how to make the phosphoric acid in mineral phos- phates available by treatment with sulphuric acid. He also demonstrated the value of potash as plant food. He taught that the nitrogen was absorbed solely as ammonia: a view much modified by later researches. The publication of his experiments made a profound impression, and paved the way for the establishment of experiment stations (q.v.), and in the United States led to the formation of the Agricultural Division of the Patent Office, since developed into the Department of Agri- culture. The work of Pasteur showed that fermen- tation was due to living organisms, thus revo- AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES Unionizing the whole theory of organic decay. One important practical application of this dis- covery was the possibility of preserving food by heat sterilization. Liebig's theory of nitrogen assimilation by plants was fully demolished only by the dis- coveries of a few years ago, consequent on Pasteur's, that the proteid matter furnishing the bulk of nitrogenous plant foods is changed by ferments successively into ammonia, nitrous acid, and nitric acid, in which form it is directly assimilated. As the nitrogenous foods are far the most expensive of all essential manures this discovery is vital to agricultural progress. The Chilean and other South American stores of nitrates are not inexhaustible, and hence every means of increasing the nitrates in the soil is of the first importance. A promising method is to convert atmospheric nitrogen into nitric acid by electricity; electric storms do this in trivial quantities, as detectible in rain-water, but the marvelous recent growth of electrical inven- tion now accomplishes it by dynamos. In the development of agricultural colleges and experiment stations chemistry has always been the leading science: of the present di- rectors of United States stations 21 were pro- fessional chemists when appointed; in Europe the proportion is even greater. In the valuable feature of scientific bulletins from the experiment stations, Prof. F. H. Storer of Bussey Institute led the way. But perhaps the most successful popularizer of the science since Liebig was Samuel William Johnson, appointed agricultural and analytical chemist at Yale in 1857, whose books, < How Plants Grow > and < How Plants Feed,' have been more universally read in this country than any other agricultural works. Another powerful early worker was E. W. Hilgard of the Univer- sity of California, whose work on soils is a classic. At Cornell, from its opening to the present, George C. Caldwell has held the chair of agricultural chemistry with distinction. Others of note are C. A. Gocssmann of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, and the late R. C. Kedzie of the University of Michi- gan. These pioneers are worthy of remem- brance for laying broad and deep the founda- tions of future agricultural progress. The Association of Official Agricultural Chemists is by act of 1902 the adviser of the secretary of agriculture in fixing United States food standards. This science has been important in develop- ing the great manufacturing industries de- pendent on agricultural products, as of cane and beet sugar, starch, beer, wine, and distilled liquors. The fertilizer industry, opening up vast new stores of plant food, — as the vast phosphate deposits of the United States, the deposits of Stassfurt, Germany, and the nitrate beds of Chile, — is wholly created by agricul- tural chemistry. It also labors to increase the value of crops for given purposes without in- creasing their draft on the soil by studying the environing conditions which modify its chemical composition, and investigates the nutritive value of the plant foods so as to produce the most economical results from the raw material. It teaches the best methods of utilizing such foods and of conserving them for the future, develops new staple crops, and opens up new avenues of prosperity. Bibliograpliy. — Armsby, (Manual of Cattle Feeding > ; Blyth, < Foods, Composition and Analysis > ; Greiner, < Practical Farm Chemis- try' ; S. W. Johnson, < How Crops Feed,' and ; Lloyd, (Science of Agriculture ' ; H. Richmond, ' Dairy Chem- istry > ; S. Riedeal, < Sewage •> ; Storer, < Ag- riculture in Some of Its Relations with Chemistry > (3 vols.) ; United States De- partment of Agriculture, publications of the Bureaus of Soils, Chemistry, and Plant Indus- try ; The Office of Experiment Stations, ' Food and Nutrition of Man,> and the publications of the American Experiment Stations ; Voorhees, ' Fertilizers > ; Wahnschaffe, < Scientific Exam- ination of Soils ) ; Warrington, < Chemistry of the Farm • ; Wiley, < Principles and Practice of Agricultural Analysis' (3 vols.). E. B. Voorhees, Director New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station. Agricultural Colleges. As a result of national and State co-operation, which enables the ordinary farmer to profit from the experi- ments of widely separated individuals interested in scientific farming, the United States stands foremost in the matter of agricultural develop- ment. Our Department of Agriculture renders the greatest service imaginable to the country; but its facilities are greatly improved by the co-operation of the different State agricultural institutions, while the farmers of each section can rely upon their special State colleges to sup- plement the work of the national institution. The Massachusetts Agricultural College is one of the foremost representatives of the typ- ical institution devoted to practical agricultural education, and its work and studies are devoted chiefly to the training of students in modern scientific farming. The work is conducted both in the class-room and on an experimental farm. The institution is located on a farm of 400 acres at Amherst, and its buildings and land are valued at $315,000. Its annual income from the State and United States amounts to $45,000, and it is provided with a permanent en- dowment fund of over $350,000. There are buildings for nearly every imaginable specialty pertaining to agriculture — a chemical labora- tory, botanical laboratory, plant-house, cream- ery and dairy laboratory, veterinary buildings, barns, museum, library, and entomological lab- oratory and insectary. Instruction is given by a corps of 18 profes- sors and assistants in chemistry, botany, agri- culture, horticulture, zoology, veterinary science, mathematics, civil engineering, and similar stud- ies. Practical work on the farm is a part of the course, and the students cultivate the whole farm, experimental orchard, and nursery. There are 100 acres devoted to orchards, vineyards, and the cultivation of small fruits; 150 acres under cultivation with field crops, and nearly as many more allotted to grass and hay for the 100 head of cattle which are kept on the farm. Consid- erably over 1. 000 men have been educated at the Massachusetts Agricultural College. A recent census of them showed that nearly 400 are AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES to-day engaged in agricultural pursuits; more than a score are instructors in other similar institutions; and others have drifted into a varnty of callings. The effect of the college on the agriculture of the country must prove of immeasurable value if a similar propor- tion of its graduates adopt farming for their life's work, and perform their labors in a scientific manner, as they were taught to do at the institutii m. The State agricultural and mechanical col- leges which have sprung up in most of the leading agricultural States of the East and West, and in many parts of the South, in recent years, have in view the training of young men for scientific and practical agriculture, and also for mechanical and manufacturing arts and sciences. They are endowed by the State, and also by private individuals. They are for the most part under the control of the State Board of Agri- culture, tin governor, and other State officers; but the president and faculty of each institu- tion practically have all the liberty they de- mand in carrying out the work according to well-defined policies. Some of these State agri- cultural colleges arc remarkably well equipped and endowed for the work they have in hand. Thus, the Iowa State College of Agriculture has 15 buildings, which have been erected by the State at a total cost of $500,000. There are nearly 1,000 acres of land attached to the insti- tution. A corps of 55 professors and nearly 600 students is engaged in study and work. All kinds of crops raised in Iowa are cultivated on tin- farm, and cattle, horses, and poultry are kept by the students. Experiments are con- stantly being carried on by the professors and students in agriculture, horticulture, chemistry, ami general fanning, apd '.he results of these experiments are published in bulletins and pa- pers for the lieu, lit .if tin- world. The Pennsylvania State college, called the Agricultural College of Pennsylvania, is even broader in its educational aims than the Iowa college. Almost all studies from agriculture, chemistry, physics, engineering, mining, and mathematics up to philosophy, general literature, and languages are taught there. In recent years this coll, -ye has steadily broadened as a high- grade technical, scientific, and classical institu- tion. Nevertheless agriculture, in all its wide fields of application, is one of the chief studies emphasized at the college. A correspondence course has in late years been organized for the purpose of instructing students on farms who attend the college, but who wish to avail themselves of the researches and facts obtained at it. Forestry is one of the most useful branches of work carried on at this college; and it not only trains young men to appreciate the value of cultivating orchards and woods, but also turns out practical foresters, capable of taking charge of large forests and converting them into profitable possessions, without destroying and denuding them of tn The Michigan State Agricultural College is another institution which, for more than 40 years, has endeavored to help the fanners in their struggle to wrest from the soil a fair compensation for their labors. The original idea of this college was to perfect in their studies all graduates of the common schools who wished to possess a complete practical and theo- retic knowledge of the arts and sciences which bore directly upon agricultural and kindred pur- suits. I 1 inline zoology, meteorology, physics, veterinary science, entomology. bacteriology. chemistry, geology, and agriculture and horticul- ture are a few of the studies pursued. Post- graduates can pursue advanced studies in the sciences, and in the library of 20,000 volumes they can rind nearly all the literature of value pertaining to their particular studies. There are some 6/6 acres of land attached to the col- lege. 230 acres of which are devoted to field s, 45 to woodland. 114 to orchards and garden, 47 to experimental fields, and J40 to for- est. There is a fine arboretum, a botanic gar- den, a grass-garden, and a weed-garden, where 100 or more noxious weeds are groun to show their destructive possibilities to the students. There are some 450 students at the college, ami more than half of them take the full agricul- tural course. The South has a good institution of this class in the' Mississippi Agricultural and Mechanical College, with a faculty of some 24 members, and a student membership of nearly 400. The col- lege is under the management of a board of trustees, with the governor of the State an c.r officio member. The students who attend this college are paid eight cents per hour for their work in the fields or orchards, which enables them to pay for a part of their living while studying. The Kansas State College, with its 300 acres of land, buildings valued tit $350,000, and a fac- ulty of 45 professors and assistants, lias become an important factor in the middle West in developing the agricultural possibilities. Agri- culture, engineering, and general and household economics are taught to the students. There is a dairy, blacksmith-shop, foundry, machine-shop, printing-office, and woodwork and painting shop connected with the college, wdiere practical work can be followed by the students. With agriculture as our leading industry, many of the large universities have in recent years established an agricultural course and • cperimental farms for work in the regular col- lege course. When this subject is mentioned, one turns instinctively toward Cornell Univer- sity, with its admirable agricultural and forestry departments; toward the Ohio State University, with its buildings and equipments aggregating nearly $3,000,000 and with an income of $350,000; or toward the University of Wisconsin, or the University of California. These typical univer- sities, which have given agriculture and horti- culture a prominent place in their curriculums, send forth annually hundreds of students to teach practical farming to new communities which may still labor under the disadvantage of old methods and ideas of agricultural produc- tion. The Ohio State University at Columbus has over i.ooq students, and a corps of 78 pro- fessors and assistants; but it aims to give a sci- entific and classical education to both young men and women. It is divided into six colleges, with one devoted to agriculture and domestic science, and another to veterinary science. Stu- dents pursuing other studies can take courses in these departments, and there are also oppor- tunities for graduate studies in the science of agriculture. There is a well-stocked farm of 200 acres connected with the university, a dairy department, a large laboratory for student work AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION in soils and crops, and a veterinary laboratory and operating building. In the University of Wisconsin, with its membership rapidly approaching 2,000, and a corps of over 130 professors and assistants, there is a college of agriculture, which gives ex- cellent courses in dairying, veterinary science, experimental farm work, entomology, scientific plant investigation, and general horticulture and agriculture. There are cheese factories, cream- eries, and dairies on the farm, with large green- houses for raising plants, extensive barns for cattle, and bacteriological laboratories. The col- lege co-operates with the 60 or more State insti- tutes of the farmers in supplying literature and lecturers, and thus becomes an essential part of the State's chief industry. Like the two former, the agricultural college of Cornell University, in New York, has become one of the greatest factors in stimulating and broadening the farming interests of the State and indirectly of the whole country, while it has contributed largely to the establishment of agri- culture on a firmer and higher scientific basis than ever before in its history. Agricultural Education. The earliest farm- ers in America had to contend with innumerable and great obstacles : with the wildness of nature, the attacks of Indians and wild beasts upon their stock, the difficulty of obtaining farming implements and seeds, and with conditions of climate and soil, very different from those of the old countries whence they derived all their methods. The colonial farmer was compelled to use the crudest methods. He cut down, heaped and burned the small trees and undergrowth, and belted the large ones. He scratched the sur- face a little with a home-made plow, and culti- vated his corn and tobacco with a wooden hoe. He harvested the crop that nature gave him in a careless manner and used it wastefully. He cultivated the same field until it was worn out, when he cleared another and moved his family near to it. So long as land was so abundant, no attention was paid to the conservation of fertility of the soil. America was such a vast and fertile country that it took the people over a century to find out that there was any limit to its productiveness. These conditions were quite sufficient to explain the slow progress made in agriculture during the 1st century or more after the settlement of America. It was not until the close of the 18th cen- tury that the attention of practical men com- menced to be directed to the discoveries of sci- ence, and hopes were excited that immediate benefits would accrue from them to agriculture as they had to the other arts. Lavoisier's dis- coveries and teachings had aroused the hope that chemistry could do a great deal to promote the advancement of farming. Americans com- menced to appreciate their disadvantages as compared with British and continental farmers, and to seek better implements and methods for their work. The newly awakened interest in agriculture was marked first by the formation of agricultural societies. George Washington was one of the best technically educated men in America in his day, and was especially interested in everything pertaining to agriculture. His various State papers show that he not only knew the needs of the country, but that he fully realized that schools for the education of the people and societies for the distribution of know- ledge were necessary for the safety of the re- public. A few extracts will recall his strong opinions on this subject. In his first annual message to Congress (8 Jan. 1790) he expressed the hope that the "advancement of agriculture, commerce, and manufactures, by all proper means, will not, I trust, need recommendation." and adds, "Xor am I less persuaded that you will agree with me in the opinion that there is nothing which can better deserve your patronage than the promotion of science and literature. . . . Whether this desirable object will be best promoted by affording aids to seminaries already established, or by the institution of a national university, or by any other expedients, will be well worthy of a place in the deliberations of the legislature." Notice how agriculture and a national university for the promotion of sci- ence and arts were always associated in Wash- ington's mind. He mentions the advancement of agriculture and the establishment of a national university in the same connection in his first message. He discusses them together in many of his writings during eight years, and finally in his eighth annual message, he says, "It will not be doubted that with reference either to individual or national welfare agricul- ture is of primary importance. In proportion as nations advance in population and other cir- cumstances of maturity, this truth becomes more apparent, and renders the cultivation of the soil more and more an object of public patronage. Institutions for promoting it grow up, supported by the public purse; and to what object can it be dedicated with greater propriety ? . . . I have heretofore proposed to the consideration of Congress the expediency of establishing a national university and also a military acad- emy. The desirableness of both these institu- tions has so constantly increased with every new view I have taken of the subject that I cannot omit the opportunity of once for all call- ing your attention to them." With marvelous foresight Washington urged the necessity for scientific research and education in America, and he planned at the same time for institutions to discover and collect knowledge, and societies to disseminate it. He saw also that agriculture was to be the chief industry in the country, and that it would need the assistance of science. Thus he appears to have associated plans for the advancement of agriculture with those for a national university. Congress promptly estab- lished the military academy, and some years later the naval academy and the department of agriculture. But it has not yet established the national university, which was the chief agency in Washington's mind for the development of all the sciences and arts of peace. Agricultural Societies and Fairs. — The first society for the promotion of agriculture in the United States was organized at Philadelphia on 1 March 1 r^5 : and on the 4th of July following George Washington and Benjamin Franklin were elected members. A similar society was incorporated in South Carolina in the same year, which proposed, among other things, to estab- lish an experimental farm — the first sugge-- of the kind in our history. The New York society for the promotion of agriculture, arts, and manufactures, which had been organized on 26 Feb. 1791, published its first small volume of transactions in 1792. The Massachusetts So- AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION ciety for the Promotion of Agriculture was established 7 March 1792, and commenced, in 1797, the publication of bulletins. The Soci- iety for Promoting Agriculture in the State of Connecticut was organized in 1704, and pub- lished its first volume of proceedings in 1802. Washington was evidently familiar with the work of these agricultural societies; but his knowledge of such agencies was not limited to his own country. In Great Britain, the Bath and the West of England Agricultural socie- ties had been established. Sir John Sinclair, the "inventor of Statistics* and president of the Highland Society, had established, in 1791. the British Wool Society and the Sheep Pair at New- halls Inn. After agitating the subject for a number of years, Sinclair secured the establish- ment of the Royal Board of Agriculture, and was appointed its first president in 1793. Washing- ton's correspondence with Sir John Sinclair shows that he had the benefit of all the infor- mation to be obtained from the father of the British board of agriculture. Agricultural socie- ties naturally led to the establishment of fairs and exhibitions. A member of the Massachu- setts Society suggested first in 1801 that agri- cultural fairs should be held regularly at Cam- bridge spring and fall, and premiums be given for farm products. No action appears, how- ever, to have been taken with regard to this suggestion. Dr. Thornton, the first commis- sioner of patents at Washington, suggested in 1804 that the sale of agricultural products and of cattle would be promoted by the holding of fairs on market days, as in England. As a re- sult of this suggestion we learn from the 'Na- tional Intelligencer' of that year that fairs were hclil "in the mall on the south side of the Tiber." The first fair proved such a success that the citizens raised an appropriation of $;o for premiums for the next one. which was held in April 1805. The third fair, held in Novem- ber 1S05, appears to have been the last. Gov. Edward Winslow, of Massachusetts, is said to have brought to Plymouth, iii the ship Charity, in 1694, "the first neat cattle that came into New England." It was appropriate that his descendant, Elkanah Watson, of Plymouth, should import the first pair of Spanish Merino sheep into Massachusetts, and should then give notice of an exhibition of them at Pittsfield. This small exhibit led to a larger enterprise and the establishment of stock shows in America. An invitation was published by Watson and some 20 other persons calling an exhibition of stock at the same place on I October. This cattle show- was so successful that it became a permanent institution in Massachusetts. A number of pub- lic-spirited citizens of Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia had in the meantime formed, in [809, the Columbian Agricultural So- ciety, which was for many years actively engaged in the work of educating the farmer through the agency of fairs. From these begin- nings agricultural societies have spread all over our country, and agricultural fairs have become a potent agency for the dissemination of valuable information with regard to new crops, implements, stock, and improvement in agriculture generally. Nearly all of the States have now either boards of agriculture or com- missioners or secretaries of agriculture in charge of the farming interests. Their work varies, but usually includes the collection of agricultural statistics, the preparation of weather and crop reports and the oversight of the Stock interests, and frequently also the inspection and analysis of fertilizers and mixed cattle feeds, the testing and examination of dairy and other food products. Some of the State boards con- duct the agricultural colleges, hold fairs, give premiums for fine stock, and hold farmers' insti- tutes. The boards, commissioners, and socie- ties all publish reports and bulletins and many of them accomplish a great deal of admirable educational work. The Patrons of Husbandry (Grange) and National Farmers' Alliance, or- ganizations with many subordinate branches and local societies, have exerted great influence espe- cially in educating the farmers and their families The Farmers' National Congress meets once a year for the discussion of questions of general in- terest. For the stock interests, we have in this country a national live stock association, 5 national dairy unions, and 56 State dairy asso- ciations. There are 14 cattle breeders asso- ciations representing the interests of as many different important breeds. 18 horse breeders associations, 29 sheep breeders associations, 17 associations of swine breeders, etc. Nearly all of the States protect their stock from diseases through the agency of sanitary boards or veter- inarians under the direction of the State boards or commissioners. There is a national league for good roads that is doing much to educate public opinion. Ten States have forestry com- missions or provide for forest protection and improvement in some way. There are besides 18 forestry associations which are doing much educational work. Eleven national or inter- state, and 54 State horticultural and kindred societies are at work. (For the names of these societies and the addresses of their officers, see the Year-book of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1898.) Agricultural Schools. — The origin and de- velopment of agricultural schools in America was a part of a general educational movement against the old classical college and in favor of scientific and technical education. Perhaps the demand for agricultural education was the first one to be heard ; but it had its origin in the same causes which gave rise to the demand for the application of science to all the arts and professions in life. As the great universities of Europe grew out of monastic and cathedral schools, so our first American colleges were all the children of the churches. The preachers were in the early days almost the only learned men, and therefore the only teachers. In the case of the rural schools the preacher was both school director and teacher. The institutions for higher education were also founded and controlled by the associations and presbyteries of the different denominations, and the most learned of their clergy became the instructors. Naturally enough, as their founders and teachers were all preachers, these early col- leges were devoted almost exclusively to the cultivation of theology, classics, and philosophy. Their parson-teachers taught what they held to be the only thing worth learning, and they were right in putting character and culture above everything else. Their methods produced a race of preachers, teachers, lawyers, statesmen, and soldiers scarcely equaled and never surpassed in any country. But a new and rapidly growing country like America needed engineers, chern- AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION ists, miners, and manufacturers, and an ambi- tious and intelligent people were not slow to make their wants heard. Some of the physical sciences, notably chemistry and geology, had already made great progress, and had revolu- tionized some of the arts. The popular writ- ings of great scientific men, notably Liebig's 'Letters' on chemistry, were eagerly read, and people everywhere cherished bright hopes of the benefits to be derived from the application of science to the industries of life, and espe- cially to agriculture. Discovery and invention were already doing much to develop the material resources of the world and to change the occupations of men. Steam was beginning to be used for the purpose of transportation, chemistry was being applied in working iron, in dyeing fabrics, and in many other arts. Great railroads were to be built, but with the excep- tion of the military academy at West Point, there was no school to train the engineers to survey them. Mines of coal and iron were to be opened, but miners had to be imported to open them. Factories needed to be built, but engi- neers had to be brought over from England or Holland to build them. Iron works and many other important industries were calling loudly for chemists, who had to be obtained from Germany or France. These influences, but more especially the need of scientific knowledge in a rapidly developing country, produced a profound effect on the theories and practice of education ; and thus a vigorous demand arose for the sci- ences and their applications to the arts of life. The old college was not meeting the new de- mands : but what the new college was to be. and what its methods, no one knew for a long time. Columbia College, in the city of New York, appointed, in 1792. Samuel L. Mitchell "pro- fessor of natural history, chemistry, and agricul- ture." The records of the college do not show what instruction he gave in agricultural science, if any. but Prof. Mitchell, so far as we know, was, by title at least, the first professor of agri- culture in America. The Philadelphia Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, of which Washington was an honorary member, appointed a committee on 21 Jan. 1-94 to "prepare a plan for establishing the State Society for the Pro- motion of Agriculture, connecting with it the education of youth in the knowledge of that most important art." This committee made a report offering several alternative propositions for promoting agricultural education. One sug- gestion made was "the endowment of professor- ships to be annexed to the University of Penn- sylvania and the College of Carlisle, and other seminaries of learning, for the purpose of teach- ing the chemical, philosophical, and elementary arts of the theory of agriculture." Another suggestion was to use the common school sys- tem of the State to educate the farmer in his business, "the county schoolmasters being made secretaries of the county societies, and the school-houses the places of meeting and the repositories of their transactions, models, etc. The legislature may enjoin on these school- masters the combination of the subject of agri- culture with other parts of education." This is, so far as we know, the first formal effort made in the United States to present the claims of agricultural education to a legislature and to incorporate instruction in agriculture in the com- mon schools. United States Department of Agriculture. — The war with England, the expansion of terri- tory, the rapid development of manufacturing, and many other causes, contributed to retard the progress of agricultural education for sev- eral decades after the beginning of the cen- tury. The agitation continued, but little was accomplished until after 1840. Upon the motion of Elkanah Watson, the Berkshire Agricultural Society of Massachu- setts presented in 1817 a memorial to Congress praying for "the establishment of a national board of agriculture in accordance with the original suggestion of President Washington. 9 The bill reported in the House of Representa- tives was promptly defeated by a large vote. It was well known that President Madison was opposed to it on constitutional grounds. Others based their opposition on the indifference of the farmers of the country and the idea that such a board was not needed. The only strik- ing event in the agricultural history of the coun- try during the next decade was the agitation of silk culture, commonly called the "Morus multi- caulis" craze from the variety of the mulberry tree which was introduced everywhere to supply food for the silk worm. Congress responded to the popular demand for information on this sub- ject by ordering the preparation and publication of a manual of silk culture, which was done. The United States Department of Agricul- ture grew finally out of the recommendation of President Washington for a national board of agriculture, but more immediately out of the seed distribution originated in the Department of State during the presidency of John Quincy Adams. The patent office was first in the hands of the Department of State, and the seeds col- lected by consuls in various parts of the world were turned over to it. as the scientific branch of the government for distribution. So it came about that when on 4 July 1836, the patent office was made a separate bureau and Henry L. Ellsworth, a practical farmer of Connecticut, was appointed commissioner, he found it one of his duties to distribute seeds and plants. It was a congenial duty and one for which he was well qualified both by education and experience. During his travels over the country as Indian commissioner, Mr. Ellsworth had been deeply impressed with the agricultural possibilities of the western prairies and also with the great ignorance and destitution of the settlers upon them. He believed that what they needed was better implements and seeds adapted to the cli- mate and soils. So deeply impressed was he with the necessities of these people that, without the authority of Congress and outside of busi- ness hours, he collected seeds and plants, which he distributed to farmers in all sections of the country, but especially to those in the far West, using the postal franks of members of Con- gress for this purpose. This was the beginning of the seed distribution by the United States government, which has since grown to such colossal proportions. Thus alsfl was born the United States Department of Agriculture. In his first annual report Mr. Ellsworth begged earnestly for an appropriation to continue and enlarge this distribution of seeds and one was made during the last days of the Twenty -fifth Congress which provided S1.000 from the patent office fund "for the purpose of collecting and distributing seeds, prosecuting agricultural in- AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION vestigations. and procuring agricultural statis- tics." With the exception of the years [840, 1841, and [846 Congress made a small appro- priation for this purpose each year from the patent office fund. The first separate app priation for agriculture, made in the year 1854, was $35,000, and it has never been less than that sum. An agent was authorized also at tins time to "investigate and report upon the habits of in ects, injurious and beneficial to vegetation," and a botanical garden was estab- lished. The same year arrangements were made with the Smithsonian Institution for collecting meteorological statistics. The present United States Department of Agriculture was established by an act of Congress, approved by President Lincoln on 15 May 1862. This act was chiefly due to the strong plea made by Commissioner of Patents David P. I loll,, way, of Indiana. It is remarkable that the other great act for the promotion of agriculture in America, known as the land-grant act establishing colleges of agri- culture and mechanic arts, was passed by the same Congress and approved by President Lin- coln on 2 July of the same year, both in the midst of tin- terrors of the Civil War. The art of 15 May 1862 did nol establish an independ- ent department of the government. Its chief officer was styled simply "commissioner of agriculture." He did not become a member of the Cabinet until II Feb. iSSg, when President Cleveland approved another act of Congress making the Department of Agriculture an execu- tive department. Agricultural Colleges. — The demand for sci- entific and technical education did not cease as the years passed by, but grew louder and louder with the development of the country. The his- tory of the agitation in New York may be taken as an illustration. In 1819 there was published anonymously at Albany a pamphlet on "the necessity of establishing an agricultural college," which has been commonly attributed to that active and intelligent man, Simeon De Witt, Surveyor-general of New York. He proposed the establishment of an institution to be called the agricultural college of the State of New York, to be endowed by the State and conducted under State authority. The 'Transactions 1 of the New York Agricultural Society for 1822 contain allusions to the same subjects, and the matter was never allowed to drop entirely out of sight. About 1S25 a private agricultural college or school was undertaken in Columbia County. This was the period (1830 to 1850) of the agita- tion for the so-called "manual labor schools," and many of the schools of the time took that form. The Oneida Institute was one of the first of these schools, and it is said to have had a course of instruction in practical agriculture. These were not manual training schools or tech- nical schools in tin' modern sense, but schools having farms attached where the students could support themselves by manual labor while pur- suing their studies. This plan, which was re- ceived with niucTi popular favor for a time and led to the establishment of numerous schools, was soon found to be impracticable and aban- doned. The demand in New York for agricul- tural education grew steadily, and by 1838 peti- tions bearing 6.000 signatures were presented to the legislature demanding State aid in behalf of agricultural schools. The committee to whom the petitions were referred deplored in strong language "that there is no school, no seminary, no department of any school in which the sci- ence of agriculture is taught," and recom- mended very strongly the establishment of a school of agriculture. No action was taken at this time, but the matter came up in a different form at each succeeding session of the legisla- ture, and appears to have grown steadily in favor. The State Agricultural Society helped greatly to advance the interests of the cause, ami in 1844 appointed a committee of which Gov. Seward, Lieut. -Gov. Dickinson, and James S. Wadsworth, were members, to promote "the introduction of agricultural studies in the schools of the State," and also "for the purpose of selecting books for family and school libraries." It was resolved at the same time. "That this society regards the establishment of an agricul- tural institute and pattern farm in this State, where shall be taught thoroughly and alike the science, the practice, and the profits of good husbandry, as an object of great importance." This committee co-operated with the associa- tion of school superintendents, with the result that that body adopted, in June 1844, a resolution drawn by Prof. Potter, of Union College, set- ting forth the opinion that "the time has arrived when the elements and scientific principles of agriculture should be taught in all schools. 11 Still the Slate look no action. However, numerous private agricultural schools were established. Gov. Hamilton Fish first recommended, in January 1849, in his annual message to the legis- lature, the establishment of a State agricultural college. During the following session of the legislature Prof. Johnson, the great agricultural chemist of Scotland, was invited to Albany and delivered a course of lectures under the aus- pices 6i the New York Agricultural Society. The same year this society established a chemical laboratory at Albany for the analysis of manures, fertilizers, etc. Still nothing was done about the school. Prof. William II. Brewer writes: "In 1850 Mr. John Dclaficld, a graduate of Columbia College, where he may have received instruction from Prof. Mitchell, was living on one of the best farms of the State, in the town of Fayette, Seneca County. He was at one time president of the New York State Agricul- tural Society, and originated and carried out an agricultural survey of Seneca County. He took a deep interest in the cause of agricultural edu- cation, and owing to his action and energy on 15 April 1853. the State passed an act estab- lishing an agricultural college. This act cre- ated a board of 10 trustees, of which Mr. Dela- I was president, but appropriated no money. The college was to he located on Mr. Delafield's farm in the town of Fayette, but as he died 22 October of the same year nothing more was done about building a college there" The Rev. Amos Rrown, principal of Ovid Academy, who was to become later the chief assistant of Sen- ator Morrill in securing the passage of the land- grant act establishing agricultural colleges, appears to have gotten his inspiration and in- formation from Air. Delafield. He afterward became president of the People's College near Havana, N. Y.. and after the passage of the Morrill Act in 1862 secured an act from the legislature of New York, giving the whole of its share of the land-grant to this college. But that institution failed to comply with the condi- AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION tions of the law, and the land-grant of the State of New York was turned over to Cornell Uni- versity, which thus became the agricultural col- lege of the State. This narrative has been intro- duced to show the growth of the idea which led to the establishment of Cornell University, prob- ably our greatest agricultural institution. See Cornell University. The first agricultural college to be actually established and put in operation was that of the State of Michigan. Article 13, section 11 of the constitution of the State of Michigan adopted in 1850, says : "The legislature shall encourage the promotion of intellectual, scientific, and agri- cultural improvement ; and shall as soon as prac- ticable, provide for the establishment of an agri- cultural school." This was the first State constitution to provide for the establishment of an agricultural school. It is noteworthy, also, that it was the first one to provide that all instruc- tion in the district schools should be conducted in the English language. The act establishing the State Agricultural College of Michigan was passed on 12 Feb. 1855. The college was located upon a farm of some 500 acres, situated about four miles east of the city of Lansing; buildings were erected, and the college was formally opened in May 1847. The legislature of Maryland incorporated the next agricultural college in 1856, which was, however, in part a private institution. Some 500 citizens of Maryland, and of the District of Columbia, together with a few from adjacent States, subscribed to a certain amount of stock, which the legislature required should be pro- vided. The stockholders elected a board of trus- tees, and this body located the college upon the estate of Charles B. Calvert, situated in Prince George County, about nine miles east of the city of Washington. The institution was opened for students in September 1859, when Prof. Joseph Henry of the Smithsonian Institution, delivered the oration. Marshall P. Wilder first urged the impor- tance of establishing an agricultural college in Massachusetts, in an address before the Norfolk Agricultural Society made in 1849. The State Senate of Massachusetts passed a bill in 1850 establishing such a school, but it failed in the House. A committee was appointed to investi- gate the matter, and they sent Prof. Hitchcock to the continent of Europe to visit agricultural schools. His report was transmitted to the legis- lature by the governor in the following year, with the result that the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture was established in 1852. Mr. Wilder kept up the agitation, however, and finally in 1856 succeeded in obtaining from the legislature a charter of the Massachusetts School of Agri- culture. The Massachusetts Agricultural Col- lege was not regularly opened, however, until 1867. The general assembly of the State of Pennsylvania incorporated the Farmers' High School, now the State College, in 1854. The act provided that people of different sections of the State might offer land and property and thereby secure its location in their midst. Funds for building and equipment were provided from the State treasury. The State Agricultural Society made certain donations, and the college was opened for students in the winter of 1859. These were the leading agricultural schools established before the passage of the Land-grant Act in 1862. Closely related to these agricultural schools were the scientific schools established at Yale and Harvard between 1840 and 1850, in response to the same demand for a new education. John P. Norton was appointed professor of agricul- tural chemistry, vegetable and animal physiology at Yale College, New Haven, Conn., in 1846. Thus was begun the Sheffield Scientific School, which was more of an agricultural institution than any of the other schools of that time. Prof. Norton began his lectures in 1847, and for some years wrote voluminously for agricultural jour- nals. He also prepared and published his first work, ( The Elements of Agriculture.' Among his first students in the course in agricultural chemistry was the distinguished Prof. W. H. Brewer, of the Sheffield Scientific School at Yale. The Lawrence Scientific School at Har- vard, established about the same time, was founded upon an endowment of $40,000, given by the Lawrences, who, being interested in fac- tories, caused this school to direct its attention more to the applications of chemistry to man- factures. Francis Wayland, president of Brown University, became greatly interested at this time in scientific and technical education, and took a prominent part in the discussion of the reforms needed to adapt the institutions of America to the requirements of the time. In his little book on the 'Present Collegiate Sys- tem of the United States,' he argued earnestly in favor of the introduction of scientific sub- jects into the college curriculum and the adop- tion of a system of electives. A science hall and a museum of geology were erected at Brown in 1840; but means failed to support the scien- tific work, and Dr. Wayland was constrained to resign in 1855, when the old classical course was re-established. These changes were all parts of a general movement for the modification of the classical curriculum, and the introduction of scientific and technical study. Wherever this was done the sciences pertaining to agriculture were sure to be introduced. The next great movement in agricultural education began with the Land-grant Colleges. See Colleges, Land- grant. Requirements for Admission. — The require- ments for admission to the agricultural col- leges vary in the different States in accord- ance with the school systems and the other opportunities for preparation. The Western and Southern agricultural colleges usually take the students from what is known in this country as the eighth or ninth grade of the public school course. A majority of the institutions require for admission either certificates from the preparatory schools or examinations in the more important subjects. The average standard of admission to the agricultural colleges is presented in the report of the Committee on Entrance Require- ments made to the association of colleges at the meeting in November 1896. They recom- mended the following (Rep. of Bureau of Edu- cation, 1S96-7, p. 429) : "The committee holds that it is advisable, as a beginning, to determine the requirements in a few subjects upon which it is possible for all the colleges to agree, and to recommend others, which although too high at present for adoption by some of these institutions, may yet serve as a standard or goal toward which effort may be directed. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION "As a standard series of entrance require- ments, to be adopted as soon as possible, we recommend the following: (i) Physical geogra- phy; (2) United States history; (,.}) arithmetic, including the metric system; (4) algebra to quadratics; (5) English grammar and composi- te hi, together with English requirements of the New England Association; (6) plane geometry ; (7) one foreign language; (8) one of the natural sciences; (9) ancient, general, or English his- tory." Many nf the universities have a much higher standard of admission, some of them requiring a preparation fairly comparable with that for students entering the literary and scientific courses. Candidates for admission at Cornell, for example, must be at least 16 years of age and pass an examination in English, geography, physiology, and hygiene, history of the United States and England, Greece or Rome, plane geometry, elementary' algebra, and at least two of the following subjects: Greek. Latin, French, German, and advanced mathematics. Courses of Study. — The courses of study in the separate colleges for agriculture and mechanic arts are not essentially different from those of the agricultural departments of the State universities, with the exception that in most cases the work of the separate colleges begins a little earlier and is not so much differ- entiated as that in the universities. Many of the separate agricultural colleges have, however, quite as high requirements for admission as any of the State universities, and do as high a grade of work as the best of them. On the whole, it appears that practical agriculture occupies the highest place in the separate colleges, though more research in the sciences pertaining to agri- culture is being carried on in the universities. In universities in which departments of agricul- ture arc maintained, it may be said in general that the tendency is to make the four years' course in agriculture correspond in scope and thoroughness with those in philosophy, sciences, and engineering. As more means are obtained, instruction in agriculture is divided among an increasing number of specialists, who are pro- vided with separate buildings, laboratories, and shops. It is characteristic of American State universities that they are seeing more clearly that agriculture and manufacturing are impor- tant human interests which may rightfully claim the best efforts of the greatest scientific intellects for their advancement, and that on the basis of agricultural sciences may be built a system of instruction in literature, mathe- matics, and technology which is as well or bet- ter adapted to produce scholars, investigators, and leaders in civilization as was the old philo- sophical or the pure science course. The courses of study in agriculture are variously arranged. Nearly all these institutions maintain a four years' course, which is made up usually of two years of preparatory sciences and general cul- ture studies, followed by two years of more advanced scientific and technical agricultural work, largely elective. At present there is little demand in our country for the all-around agri- cultural expert, and few colleges attempt to edu- cate them. Such an expert cannot be trained in four years, if at all. At present the agricul- tural colleges content themselves with giv- ing their students a fair general knowledge of the sciences underlying agriculture, horti- culture, and the animal industry, with opportuni- ties to acquire experience in some one line of practical work. The arrangement of this four years' course differs a good deal in different institutions, but the standard for it is laid in the reports adopted by the association of American agricultural colleges at its meetings in 1X1X1-7. The course of study presents the largest problem now before the faculties of our col- leges. The present courses and methods have been criticised for their lack of "pedagogical form," for the "confusion of studies." and espe- cially for lack of "orderly sequence in the progress of instruction" which has made the classical education and to a certain degree the scientific and engineering courses of our in- stitutes of technology processes commanding the respect of scholars the world over. These critics are in error when they speak of agriculture as an independent science, and propose to formu- late the instruction in it as they would that in chemistry or in biology. The fact is, agricul- ture is not a science but an art, and what we are attempting to do in these colleges is to carry out the injunction of the Act of Congress of 1862 and "teach the sciences (chemistry, physics, geology, biology, vegetable physiology, etc., each including numerous branches), related thereto." For this reason the course of study in agricul- ture with good "pedagogical form" must be made up of a course in chemistry and agricul- tural chemistry, a course in vegetable physiology, a course in the physiology of animals, a course in soil physics, etc. — many distinct courses. When the student has mastered all these it would seem to be possible, if he stays at the college long enough, to teach him in good "peda- gogical form." some of their applications in agri- culture. As Prof. Jordan, director of the Maine agricultural experiment station, has well said: "The real and important need of which the farmer is conscious is for a knowledge of con- ditions and not for methods or for skill in manipulation. When he clearly understands the reasons for that which goes on about him. the right method will appear. The difficulties lie with explanations, not with mechanical pro- cesses. And besides, agriculture is not a busi- ness involving such delicate and intricate mechanical operations that attendance upon a college would be justified in order to learn them, although the modern dairy, the forcing house, and the fruit garden do require skill. The spraying of fruit with fungicides and insec- ticides illustrates how readily the necessary manipulation was acquired when the reasons for these operations became evident. It is the ex- planation of phenomena, then, which the ex- tended course of study should give in order that the farmer may know how to adapt him- self to the varying and complex conditions which he meets in his work." This is the real problem and one which the colleges and universities are working out with marked success. Perhaps the colleges and uni- versities having departments of agriculture are doing more immediate good to the largest num- ber of persons through their short courses and their special schools for dairying, horticulture, etc., than through the long course. These short courses are designed to meet the wants of young farmers who desire practical, helpful instruction in agriculture after leaving the high schools and before taking up their chosen vocations. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION A number of the colleges maintain courses in agriculture of 12 weeks beginning the first of January of each year. They usually include lectures on feeds and feeding, breeds of live stock, elementary agricultural chemistry, physics of soils, meteorology, elements of vegetable physiology, the chief facts of veterinary science, dairying, horticulture, and some of the leading facts of bacteriology. Courses are selected from these to meet the needs of special classes of students from different districts. Laboratory practice is usually given in soil physics, stock judging, dairying, vegetable physiology, and prac- tical horticulture. Other short courses are limited to the chemistry and bacteriology of milk and practical dairying, or to plant propagation, graft- ing, pruning, and practical horticulture. These courses are more largely attended than the four years' course. The tendency at present seems to be to split up the four years' course into special courses or to distribute among the dif- ferent short courses students who cannot attend the institution more than a few months at a time. It is encouraging to note that such stu- dents frequently return winter after winter for additional training. Ex f eases of Students. — The expenses of students in the agricultural colleges of the United States vary with the location and advantages offered. The tuition is uniformly free to all students pursuing the agricultural courses. It is customary to charge small fees to cover the actual expenses of material used in the laboratories and shops. Students pay their own board and personal expenses. Some insti- tutions give free lodgings, though a majority charge only the actual cost of the maintenance of the buildings, fuel, lights, etc. Many institu- tions have special funds with which to pay for student labor, which usually takes the form of a fixed allowance for work regularly performed. The total college expenses of a student will vary from $150 for a session of nine months at a Western or Southern college, located in the country, to $400 or $500 at a university in one of the Eastern States. More assistance and more opportunities for self-support are offered agricultural students than any others in our institutions. The tendency everywhere is to in- crease these opportunities and to reduce the ex- pense of the students of agriculture, while all the facilities provided them are constantly improved. Extension Work in Agriculture. — -The farm- ers' institute is to the adult farmer what the agricultural school is to his son. They were the outgrowth in part of the public meetings of agricultural societies and State boards of agri- culture, and in part of the extension work of colleges and universities. The object of these institutes is to bring the workers in the agricul- tural science: and the practical agriculturists together for the discussion of questions of mutual interest. Through such discussion the farmer gets the benefit of the information which the scientist has obtained in the course of his investigations, and the scientist learns what the farmer's needs and difficulties are. The results of the practical tests made by the farmer of the scientist's theories are also brought out. By such conferences both classes of workers have their opinions and experiences broadened. Insti- tutes in the United States are carried on tinder all conceivable auspices ; most commonly, how- Vol. » — 12 ever, by the State commissioners, the State boards of agriculture, or the agricultural col- leges. In some States there is an independent organization with a secretary of institutes in charge. Some States make special appropria- tions for institutes, others merely allow a limited amount of the funds appropriated for the board of agriculture or college to be used for this purpose. Subjects connected with good roads, public education, and the interests of the home and farm are also discussed frequently. Those connected with sectarian religion or partisan politics should be carefully excluded, but almost any other topic of interest to the local community may properly find its place on the programme of a farmers' institute. In States where institutes have beeen carefully planned and systematically conducted by competent persons they have be- come exceedingly popular, with the result that large appropriations are being made for them each year. Something like the farmers' institute is now held in almost all the States in the Union. Closely related to the farmers' institute are the various other methods of agricultural college extension work, such as co-operative field experi- ments, correspondence courses in agricultural sciences, reading circles for farmers, and itiner- ant agricultural schools. Co-operative field experiments were inaugurated soon after the establishment of the colleges for agriculture. The college or station makes plans and supplies the fertilizers or gives prescriptions for the same, with full directions as to methods of carrying out the experiments. The farmers re- port upon blanks prepared for the purpose, and the different results are compared and pub- lished. A great deal of good has been accom- plished in this way, especially in educating farmers as to the proper method of vsing chemical manures. Similar methods have been used in testing seeds of field and garden crops, and in testing insecticide and fungicide materials and methods. Such co-operative experiments have done much to promote the study of scien- tific agriculture in the States, and especially to develop habits of observation among the younger farmers, who are always the ones to take hold of this work. Instruction by correspondence and by courses of home reading in agriculture have been well developed under the direction of the State College of Pennsylvania. The main features of the plan are, "first, a carefully prepared course of reading designed to cover the most important branches of agricultural science and practice ; second, a reduction of the price upon the books needed ; third, personal advice and assistance through correspondence; fourth, ex- aminations upon the subjects read, with certifi- cates and diplomas for those attaining a certain grade of excellence." "This course has attracted great attention at home and received numerous applications from farmer students, many ol whom have done excellent work, completed the prescribed courses, and received certificates." The courses have now been extended to include five, subjects, with five books in each one; namely, crop production, animal production, hor- ticulture, dairying, and domestic economy. A supplemental list of 15 books is suggested from which students may select reading matter to form additional courses if they desire. The full course consists of the thorough study of 10 books, followed by an examination. Lessons are AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION provided from the various books, and sent the students free of cost, in the form of printed slips. Tiny give suggestions for study, observation, and experiment, with references to the books recommended. Each lesson is accompanied by an examination paper covering the particular subject. The students are expected to rile answers to all these questions and discuss them before they receive the second lesson. Tin' itinerant agricultural school, a still later scheme, has been best developed in the State of New York, under the so-called Nixon Bill, "for the purpose of horticultural experiments, investigation, instruction, and information in New York." This bill placed the sum of $35,000 under the control of the college of agriculture at Cornell University for the two years 1899-1900, and has enabled it to inaugurate a number of most interesting and promising ex- periments in promotion of agricultural know- ledge, especially of nature study in the com- mon schools. The itinerant agricultural school is one only of the plans now being tested by this institution. The meetings of these schools last two or more days. Agriculture in the Common Schools. — From the earliest time it has been the idea of the friends of agricultural education that instruction in this subject should be given in the common schools. The subject has been presented to the legislatures of many of the States, and by some it has been required to be taught. Any real instruction in agriculture must be based upon a knowledge of chemistry, geology, and the physiology of plants and animals. Such a know- ledge cannot be given to young children, and the old-fashioned school teacher, trained to study books, and not things, could give no instruction in nature or science. The whole system of edu- cation had to be revolutionized to prepare the way for the study of agriculture in the schools. Since the introduction of the natural method great progress has been made. Agricultural colleges have trained the professors, who, in normal schools have taught the teachers, who in turn have introduced the new methods in the common schools. The following extract relating to the Cornell attempt to introduce nature teach- ing into the rural schools is from 'Popular Edu- cation for the Farmer,' by A. C. True, Ph.D. There is every reason to believe that the planof " nature teaching," as proposed by Cornell University, may prove a grand success and lie a very great bencht to farmers' children. The element of education winch is at present most lacking in our common .schools is the training of the powers of observation. The chil- dreo need above all things else to be taught to ob- serve carefully and correctly and to state their ob- servations in clear terse language. The ordinary child, whether on the farm or in town, actually sees comparatively little in the world about him. The wonders of the trees and plants in park or meadow, of birds and insects flying about the house, float like shadowy visions before his eyes. " Seeing, he sees not."_ He needs a teacher who can open his eyes and fix his mind on the realities among which his daily life is passed. This accurate observation of natural objects and facts is the only foundation on which sci- entific attainments can rest. The scientist is chiefly a man who sees better than his fellow men. But it is also a great help in practical life. Many farmers acquire much of this power by their own unaided efforts. And these are the very men who most regret that they did not have in early life the help of a trained teacher. The farmer's child lives where he has the best opportunity for sucb training. It would benefit him in the practice of his art, and it would add an interest to his life which would do much to wean him from a desire to leave the farm for the turmoil and uncertain struggles of the town. With proper provision for the training of teachers in normal and other schools, it would tie entirely feasible to have tins nature teaching in all our common scbools within a few years. It is such teaching that the child mind craves. With it the school becomes a de- lightful place and the teacht r an angel of light. Thus far only a few attempts have been made in this country to provide agricultural instruction of the high school grade. It is true that some of the agri- cultural colleges receive students directly from the common schools, but the constant tendency is to raise the grade of instruction in these institutions to a col- lege basis and. Under any conditions, they very im- perfectly perform the duties of secondary schools of agriculture. The University of Minnesota has in re- el nt years maintained a school of agriculture in which instruction in agriculture of_ a lower grade than that fiven in the college of agriculture has been success- ully imparted. This school has proved quite popular. Some 300 students were in attendance last year, and it has been found desirable to offer courses for girls as well as boys. The State of Alabama has re- cently provided for the maintenance of a school of agriculture of secondary grade in each of the nine con- gressional districts of tile State. The establishment of such sjiecial schools of agri- culture of high school grade is greatly to be com- mended. One of the best effects of such schools at the present time is to show the people what distinc- tions should be drawn between colleges and high schools for agricultural education. By the separation of these grades of instruction the colleges will lie enabled to do their work more efficiently, and better opportunities will be secured for those students whose previous training only fits them for high-school work in agri- culture. Ilut it is nut believed that these special agri- cultural high schools will fully meet the needs of our farmers for agricultural instruction of this grade. Any school so distant from the fanner's home as to necessitate long journeys and residence at the school for . two or more years must necessarily be too ex- pensive for most of the farmers' children, especially after they have reached an age when their services may be more or less utilized on the farm. What is needed is courses in agriculture in numerous schools to which farmers' children resort, near their homes, to " finish " their education after they are through with the common schools. Research in the sciences related to agricul- ture was always prominent in the minds of the advocates of agricultural education. After the agricultural colleges were firmly established, and the work of instruction was well under way, it became evident that the department of research in these institutions needed a special endowment and to be placed under a somewhat separate management. The funds provided were not suf- ficient for the purposes of instruction, and re- search and experiment were in danger of being neglected at the colleges so thronged were they with the young people who came to secure the benefits of this free tuition. Several of the land-grant colleges early at- tempted to establish separate departments for scientific research and practical experiments on the plan of the German experiment stations. The act establishing the agricultural college of Maryland, passed in 1856, contained a section requiring the college to establish a model farm and conduct "a series of experiments upon the cultivation of cereals and other plants adapted to the latitude and climate of the State of Mary- land, and keep a careful record of the kind of soil upon which they were undertaken, the sys- tem of cultivation adopted, the state of the at- mosphere, and all other particulars wdiich may be necessary to a fair and complete understand- ing of the results of said experiments." This work was commenced in 1858 and continued two or three years only, when the Civil War stopped all the operations of the college. When Connec- ticut established her agricultural school in con- nection with the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale College, Samuel W. Johnson was appointed professor of agricultural chemistry, and experi- mental work was commenced. "To the influence of AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION the professors and pupils trained in this school, more than to any other single cause, is due the recognition of the importance of the establishment of agricultural experiment stations." In 1870 the trustees for the Massachusetts society for promoting agriculture granted to Harvard Col- lege a sum of money "for the support of a labora- tory and for experiments in agricultural chemis- try to be conducted upon the Bussey estate." A school of agriculture and horticulture had been founded upon the bequest of Benjamin Bussey. The work of the new institution commenced in 1871. The experiments consisted of field tests of fertilizers and chemical analysis of commer- cial manures. The first report was published in December 1871. Other interesting and valuable work was done the next few years, but the commercial crisis of 1873 crippled the institution financially, and it has since been able to make comparatively few original investigations. At a meeting of the State Board of Agri- culture of Connecticut on 17 Dec. 1873 Prof. S W. Johnson of New Haven, and Prof. W. O. Atwater of Wesleyan University, urged the establishment of an agricultural experiment station "after the European pattern." The result of this movement was that the Stati of Con- necticut made, in 1877, an appropriation of $5,000 "to promote agriculture by scientific investiga- tion and experiment." This station was first connected with the chemical laboratory of Wes- leyan University, at Middletown, which had been established by Orange Judd and was in charge of Prof. Atwater, but after two years it was reor- ganized under the direct control of the State and permanently located in the neighborhood of New Haven. The State of North Carolina established an agricultural experiment and fer- tilizer control station in connection with the State University at Chapel Hill, on 12 March 1877. The Cornell University experiment sta- tion was organized by the faculty of that insti- tution in February 1879 without any special appropriation. The New Jersey station was organized in 1880. The Tennessee experiment station in 1882. From these beginnings the experiment stations multiplied in the States until 1887, when Congress passed the Experi- ment Station Act, known as the "Hatch Act," there were 17 stations already in existence. The stations were also authorized to publish annual reports of their operations, and "bulletins or reports of progress" at least once in three months, which should be sent to "each news- paper in the State, and such individuals actively engaged in farming as may request the same." The franking privilege was given for station publications. In the annual appropriation bill for the Department of Agriculture for the fiscal year ending 30 June 1889. Congress estab- lished the office of experiment stations as a branch of the Department of Agriculture. It compiles and publishes the results of their work, and aids them in many ways. The work of the American Agricultural Ex- periment Station supplements that of the col- leges in many most important ways. It is fully described in the admirable publications issued by the office of experiment stations of the United States Department of Agriculture, to which the reader is referred for fuller information. See AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. Consult: 'Reports and Year Book of the United States Department of Agriculture.' Charles W. Dabney. President of the University of Cincinnati, Cin- cinnati, Ohio. Agricultural Experiment Station. An in- stitution for scientific research in agriculture. The modern agricultural experiment station owes its origin chiefly to the work of Boussin- gault and Liebig, born respectively in 1802 and 1803, although the earlier work of Sir Hum- phrey Davy, De Saussure and others had pre- pared the way for that of these great chemists. During the third decade of the century Bous- singault established and for a few years main- tained a chemical laboratory on his farm, and there began the combination of field experiment with laboratory investigation which character- izes the experiment station of to-day. In 1837 a young Englishman, John Bennett Lawes (q.v.), began making experiments in the use of bone superphosphate on his ancestral estate at Rothamsted, near St. Albans, Hert- fordshire, about 25 miles northeast from Lon- don. The success of these experiments led him to engage in the manufacture of super- phosphate and also stimulated a desire for fur- ther investigation, and after some years of preliminary work, in 1843 he associated with himself Dr. Joseph Henry Gilbert, a young chemist and a recent pupil of Liebig, and the two entered upon a systematic line of research which has been continued without material change of original plan until the present day. For more than half a century these two men worked together; both received the well earned honor of knighthood, and before his death, which occurred in 1900, Sir John Lawes made provision for the permanent continuance of the work, under what is now known as the "Lawes Agricultural Trust." The feature of the work of Lawes and Gil- bert which distinguished it from anything that had previously been undertaken, except the work of Boussingault, was the combination of systematic and long continued field and feeding experiments with parallel investigations con- ducted in the chemical laboratory, in which the principal agricultural plants adapted to the English climate are grown both continuously on the same land and in various rotations, the composition of the crops and of the soils upon which they are grown being determined from time to time, and in which large numbers of animals have been fed over long periods and under such conditions that it was possible to determine the chemical elements consumed in the food and the proportion of each utilized by the animal. Extensive detours have also been made into other fields of chemical research, especially that of the assimilation of nitrogen by plants. For many years several general as- sistants have been employed, including chem- ists, botanists, computers and other help. The entire expense of this work has been met by the originator, except that a chemical labora- tory' was presented to him some years ago in recognition of the vtdue of his work. In 1851 a small company of Saxon farmers, organized as the Agricultural Society of 1 sic. incited by the revelations of Liebig and Boussingault (q.v.), who were then in the full zenith of their work, employed a young AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION chemist, Emil von Wolff, and started him in has established stations in Alaska, Hawaii and the experimental study of agricultural prob- Porto Kico. lems, especially those related to the feeding of In 1004 the stations organized under the act animals. In a few years the government was of 1887, commonly known as the "Hatch Act." induced to assume tin- cost of this work, and had a total income of $1,508,820.25, of winch thus was established at Moeckern, near Leipsic, $7191999.67 was received from the National the first public agricultural experiment station Government, the remainder, $788,820.58, coming in the world from State appropriations, fees, sales of pro- In the United States attempts at experimental duce and other sources. The stations em- re earch in agriculture were undertaken at the ployed that year 7(»5 persons in the work of Agricultural High School, afterwards State administration and research, and published 393 College, of Pennsylvania; at the Michigan Agri- annual reports and bulletins, which were sent to cultural College, and at the Maryland Agricul- nearly 700,000 addresses. tural College, all established between 1854 and The following are among the principal sub- 1858, and later several of the institutions organ- jects under investigation by the American sta- ized under the National Agricultural College tions: (II The soil: its physic-, chemistry, and act of 2 July 1862. undertook some investiga- biology; including tillage, drainage, irrigation tions of this character. and the maintenance of fertility by crop rota- The first regularly organized agricultural tion and the use of manures and fertilizers, experiment station in America was established (2) The plant: its physiology, chemistry, nutri- at Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn., in tion and pathology; the introduction of new 1875. under the directorship of Dr. W. O. varieties; improvement in productiveness by Atwater, a young chemist who had become en- selection and breeding; the control of fungous thused with the idea while studying in Ger- and bacterial diseases and injurious insects; many. For the inauguration of this work the various phases of forestry. (3) Animals: private initiative was necessary: Mr. Orange the special adaptations of the various breed . Judd, then editor and proprietor of the "Amcr- the chemistry of animal food- and the econom- ican Agriculturist, ' contributed $1,000 on con- ics of feeding; dairying and it- manifold prob- dition thai the State should appropriate $2,800 lems : the control of animal diseases. for the support of the station for two years. In addition to the work above outlined, This offer was accepted and work was be- several States have laid upon the stations cer- gun in October of that year. In 1877 at the tain lines of police work, such as the inspection expiration of this period the State assumed the of fertilizers, seeds, drugs, foods and animal entire support of the station, and it \va re- feeding stuffs for the prevention of adultera- moveil to New Haven tion; that of live stock to prevent communica- Similar stations were established by North tion of animal diseases, and that of orchards Carolina in 1877; by New Jersey in 1880: by and nurseries for the control of insect pests New York and Ohio in 1882: and by Massa- and fungous diseases: but such work is not chusetts in [883. During this period also sev- scientific research; it frequently interferes 111:1- cral of the agricultural colleges organized terially with the conduct of such research, and their research work on a more definite basis, is more properly an executive function of the and by 1887 there were 17 stations in operation state government. In some States it is so rec- in 14 States ognized. In 1883 a bill was introduced in the House Under the provisions of the Hatch Act the of Representatives of the National Congress stations are governed under the laws of their by C. C. Carpenter, of Iowa, providing for respective States, the National Government ex- the establishment of experiment stations in ercising no control except to make sure, connection with the colleges of agriculture, but through annual financial reports from the sta- it was not voted upon. In the next Congress tions and through personal visits by officers of Mr. Cullcn, of Illinois, introduced a bill pro- the Office of Experiment Stations of the De- viding for a grant of $15,000 annually to each partment of Agriculture, that the money appro- State and Territory for this purpose. This bill priated by Congress is being expended for the was re-introduced in the following Congress purpose designated in the national law by William H. Hatch, of Missouri, and after The stations, in connection with the colleges being so amended as to authorize States, in of agriculture, have organized an "Association which experiment stations independent of the of American Agricultural Colleg<-s and Experi- agricultural colleges bad been previously es- ment Stations," which meets annually at some tablishcd, to use the grant in support of such point in the United States for the discussion of independent stations — a proviso applying to matters pertaining to their work, and the Office the five stations above mentioned — the bill of Experiment Stations publishes a monthly became a law on 2 March 1S87 journal, the 'Experiment Station Record.' in Under this law experiment stations have been which notices or summaries are given, not only established in every State and Territory in the of the publications of the American stati United States. 50 such stations being enumer- but also of the scientific agricultural publica- ated in 1904 — the fund being divided between tions of the world two stations each in Connecticut and New While this work ha- been thus extending in York: while additional stati.ins have been es- the United State- it has also spread over most tablisbed under State or territorial support in of the civilized world, 728 such institutions Alabama, Hawaii. I^ouisiana and Missouri, and being enumerated in other countries in a bul- in several of the States substations or test letin of the Office of Experiment Stations, pub- farms have been e-tablished under State sup- lished in 1904. The only countries in which port, but as adjuncts to the regular stations, experiment stations were not found in that year In addition to these the National Government were Greece, China, Turkey, Russia, Afghanis- AGRICULTURE tan, Beluchistan, Mexico, Central America, Bo- livia, Colombia, Ecuador, Patagonia, Peru, Uru- guay, and Venezuela. The European stations as a rule are con- fined to single lines of investigation, and very often to inspection work merely, whereas the American station generally embraces several co-ordinate departments, each with a chief and one or more assistants and helpers, all working under the general supervision of a single di- rector. Many of the European stations would be classed as substations in America. Another point of difference is that in Europe the sta- tions are very generally limited to laboratory work, whereas in America, England and the English colonies the laboratories are generally used as adjuncts to field investigation. The rapid extension of this work through- out the world and the large and constantly increasing sums of money devoted to it are sufficient evidence that it has obtained and holds the confidence of the people ; but this position has been attained rather through the gradual substitution by the stations' investigations of demonstrated facts for the theories which had previously held sway in agriculture than by epoch-making discoveries, although a few of these also are to be placed to the credit of these institutions. It was the Rothamsted Station which dem- onstrated that leguminous plants do not absorb and fix the free air nitrogen of the air through their foliage, a demonstration which cleared the way for the solution of a mystery which had puzzled the student of plant growth for many years, and Dr. S. M. Babcock, of the Wisconsin Station, perfected a method of determining the fat in milk, which has been adopted throughout the world, and for which a medal was voted to him by the legislature of his State: but it is the patient, plodding work, by which a body of exact knowledge in agriculture is being slowly accumulated, which has been the chief factor in winning confidence and support. On 15 Feb. 1906 a bill, introduced by H. C. Adams of Wisconsin, passed the House of Representatives by a unanimous vote, increas- ing the national allotment to the experiment stations by $5,000 for each State for 1906, this amount to be increased by $2,000 annually until the total shall reach $15,000, at which amount it is to remain, thus making the total appro- priations for this purpose from the general government $30,000 annually for each station. Charles E. Thorne, Director Agricultural Experiment Station, Wooster, Ohio. Agricultural Machinery. See American Farm Implements. Agriculture, in its strict signification, is the art of cultivating the earth for the purpose of causing it to produce more abundant! v roots. plants, and seeds suitable for the sustenance or service of man, and for the support of the ani- mals domesticated in his service. It was the first and has always been the most extensively practised of the arts. In its accepted meaning, however, agriculture not only includes the tillage of the soil and the cultivation of crops, but also the rearing and feeding of all kinds of farm live stock, ami in some instances the manufacture of the products of the farm into such forms as may be more con- venient or more valuable for use or for sale. The manufacture of butter and that of cheese constitute recognized branches of the art of agriculture. The distinction between arable agri- culture, which includes the cultivation of the ground and the growth of crops, and pastoral agriculture, which comprises merely the feed- ing and management of the flocks and herds of the farm, has been observed since the earliest times : "Abel was a keeper of sheep, but Cain was a tiller of the ground." In modern times, and probably in some degree at all times within the historical period, the practice of arable agri- culture has been commonly associated in greater or less degree with the keeping and tending of live stock; but over immense tracts of the world's surface that are unfitted for arable cul- tivation the practice of pastoral agriculture still prevails, as the ancient days, wholly unmixed with the plodding labors of the husbandman All the great nations of antiquity which had attained to any degree of civilization, the Chi- nese, the Assyrians and Babylonians, the Phoeni- cians, and the Egyptians, appear to have held the art of husbandry in high esteem, and numerous references to agriculture and its practices are found scattered throughout all ancient literature. The agricultural practices of Palestine are the subject of repeated allusions in the books of both the Old and New Testaments, and among the Greeks agriculture was described by such authors as Hesiod and Xenophon. The Romans attained very high perfection in agri- culture, and the Latin literature devoted to this subject alone appears to have been extensive. Its authors include, among others, the names of Columella, who wrote a complete treatise on agriculture in 12 books, Vergil, whose 'Geor- gics' constitute the most famous of the classical poems on agriculture, as well as Varro, Pliny, and others. It was in all probability during the Roman occupation that agriculture in Britain first at- tained the position of an art, but during the disturbed period of the Anglo-Saxon conquest its practice fell into inevitable neglect, and the Roman principles of culture were forgotten through disuse. When society became more set- tled, agriculture again revived, especially after the introduction of Christianity among the Anglo-Saxons. Under the feudal system intro- duced by the Normans, agriculture was long neglected in favor of war and the chase, crops were sacrificed to game, and laborers were starved that nobles might have sport. For sev- eral centuries agriculture made no progress, and its English literature did not commence till nearly 500 years after the battle of Senlac. This literature began with Sir Anthony Fltzherbert's 'Book of Husbandry.' published in 1525. which was followed half a century later by Tusser's metrical ' Five Hundred Points of Good Hus- bandry ' Ujout the middle of the 17th century the field cultivation of clover and of turnips was introduced into England by Sir Richard Weston and gradually extended. Blith's 'English Im- prover' was published in 1640. and the 'Legacy or Discourse on Husbandry.' by Hartlib, a fol- lower of Cromwell, and a friend of Milton, in [650. By the end of the century a number of Other works on agriculture had been produced. AGRICULTURE In the succeeding century still greater pro- gress was made, of which the first steps were due tn Jethro Tull, a gentleman of Berkshire, and to Lord Townshend. In Tull's 'Horse- Hoeing Husbandry,' published in i/.tl, was first advocated the system of sowing crops in drills nr rOWS so wide that cultivation could he car- ried nit between them. To Townshend belongs the credit of the introduction of the Norfolk or four-course rotation, which is still widely practised, and which has formed the basis of all the rotations of crops since adopted on light and medium land. The next great name is that of Robert Bakewell i i7_'5-g4) . who discovered the method of improving live stock by judicious mating and selection. He formed the new Leicester sheep, which surpassed all pre-existing breeds in early maturity and fattening pro- pensity, and thus exemplified the principles by which till breeds of farm live stock have since been improved. His methods were soon after applied with like success to the Southdown, the Cheviot, and other breeds. Bakewell's Lcices- ters were also extensively used to improve other sheep breeds by crossing. The same principles, applied in the end of the century to cattle by the brothers Colling, produced from the native Tees- water or Durham the Shorthorn, which has be- come celebrated as one of the valuable breeds. The improved Shorthorn has been even more extensively used in the improvement of other breeds of cattle than the Leicester in sheep. Herefords were subjected to similar selective treatment by Tomkins. Other notable events of the 18th century were the rapid extension of the cultivation of the po- tato, which only attained a position of im- portance among field crops in England about the middle, and in Scotland in the latter half of the century. In this period were also founded the leading agricultural societies, which have ex- ercised such a powerful influence in the educa- tion of farmers and the advancement of agri- culture. These included the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, founded in 1774; the Bath and West of England Agricul- tural Society, founded three years later ; and the Smithfield Club, founded in 1703. In the same year there was established, chiefly through the exertions of the celebrated Sir John Sinclair, the first Board of Agriculture, which continued till 1816. Sir John Sinclair was its first presi- dent, and its first secretary was the famous Arthur Young, whose graphic descriptions of agricultural practices at home and abroad con- tributed in no slight degree to .the general im- provement of agriculture. The history of American agriculture is a continuation of that of Europe so far as the methods and implements of the home-land were introduced by colonists in the New World, and with the exception of the raising of cotton and tobacco by the people of the Southern seaboard the early agriculture of the country was nothing more than the production of food for home or near-by consumption. Even so late as the begin- ning of the 18th century' very little progress had been made, the old ways still holding their own. The development of agriculture in Great Britain and Europe, as outlined above, had its echo in America, but really substantial advance was not made until the wonderful achievements of the next century accomplished more for the world's benefit in decades than had been gained before in centuries. In considering the causes that produced this astonishing advancement and turned an industry into a science we will find in the last analysis that the prime agency was the improvement in the means and methods of transportation. The general adoption of power propulsion made it possible to market crops from lands that were otherwise outside the pale of cultivation, so the great fertile plains of the Mississippi and its tributaries, and the vast arias of Australia, Russia, and South America were added to the food-producing regions of the world. The possibility of marketing the prod- ucts of these remote lands created a demand for machinery to make good the lack of laborers; then as the good soils became exhausted, or the pressure of demand necessitated additional supplies from cultivated land, the problems pre- sented were solved by the labors of scientists, wdio brought chemistry to the aid of the tiller, and agriculture ceased to be a haphazard means of livelihood, becoming, even, almost independ- ent of the vagaries of the seasons. The impor- tance to the farmer of the application of power to the labors of the farm is shown by the state- ment of an official of the Department of Agri- culture, wdio states that the amount of human labor necessary to produce a bushel of wheat was reduced in 66 years from three hours and three minutes to an average of about ten min- utes, while the cost of that labor fell from 17)4 cents to iYi cents a bushel. The improvement in every line of human en- deavor that conies through competition has not failed in agriculture, and it is no longer an ac- ceptable reason for raising certain crops on a farm that they always have been raised there. The successful agriculturist looks upon his farm as a business plant, and strives in every possible way to get from that plant the maximum of product, fitting his crops to the peculiarities of the soil, or, if need be. fitting the soil to the requirements of the crops his market demands. Even the smallest farmer has the world for his market, for the apples raised on the hillsides of Vermont are sold in the markets of New Or- leans, London, and Paris, and the small fruits and vegetables of the southern States are found in the far north at midwinter. The farmer has come to realize the value of such modern aids to business as the advertising pages of the news- papers, and it is no rare thing to find an up- country producer offering his products through the medium of the great metropolitan dailies. So agriculture has awakened with a start, and in great leaps and bounds placed herself in the front ranks of the century's progress. The division of labor in agriculture has, as in other productive occupations, become a fea- ture of the age. Although the farmer should still be somewhat of an « all-around man," he no longer requires to be a plow-wright, farm-imple- ment maker, harness-maker, woodman, etc., but may devote his entire attention to the more im- mediate demands of his vocation. But farming itself has come very extensively under the influence of this division of labor, and each successful husbandman devotes his atten- tion to a particular branch rather than attempt the cultivation of every farm product needed for home consumption. One is a wool-grower, an- other breeds horses or raises beef, or devotes AGRICULTURE his attention to dairying, or market gardening, or fruit growing, or some other specialty. Often a single crop, as tobacco, onions, potatoes, or wheat, receives his principal efforts. Among a great variety of new and improved methods in tillage and soil improvements belong- ing to the century, tile drainage and sub-surface irrigation by means of pipes are instances of marked advance over old practices. Ensilage for forage has been a long stride in the economical preparation and conservation of cattle food. By its means not only is it possible to furnish farm animals with a palatable and succulent food at all seasons, but an important saving of forage, and of labor in securing it, is effected. The introduction of silage as a cat- tle food marks the dawn of an intensive hus- bandry hitherto unknown, making it possible to increase greatly the number of animals kept on a given area, and correspondingly to increase the food supply for the human family. The winter feeding of farm animals is no longer the task of a century ago, but has be- come a simple problem. Indeed, so easy has winter feeding become, that pasturage, the bless- ing of our fathers, has by comparison become difficult, and feeders are becoming keenly alive to the needs of a better system of summer feed- ing than pasturage alone affords. Ever since the patriarch Jacob outwitted his father-in-law in the division of their flocks and herds by the use of « peeled rods,» the art of breeding has been more or less faithfully pur- sued. If we may judge of the results, however, this century has witnessed more progress in many directions than the 3,000 years preceding. Practically all the improved breeds of swine belong to the more recent period. Sheep have undergone a marked transition in fleshing prop- erties, and certain breeds have made no less con- spicuous gains in the quality of their fleece. A sheep producing 52 pounds of wool in 13 months was unheard of a generation ago. The beef breeds of cattle would hardly rec- ognize their ancestors of a century ago as of the same race, while dairy cows of that time would forget their cud in contemplation of a Picterje II., with a record of over 30,000 pounds of milk in a single year. As instances of remarkable development in horses within the century may be mentioned the American trotter and the Kentucky gaited sad- dler. In the former instance the unnatural trot and pace, by selection, breeding, development, and training, have acquired the speed of a mile in 2 minutes 2 l /\ seconds and I minute 5914 seconds, respectively, with a long list of per- formers of miles faster than 2:10. The per- fection of a breed of horses taking each of five different gaits at a word from their riders, which every Kentucky gaited saddler must do, is another monument to the agricultural skill of the age. In the diversity of talents used by husband- men, those of the chemist play an important role. Evidence of this is found in the Wolff- Lehmann and other feeding standards. By pa- tient study extending over a long period of time and a large number of animals, tables have been arranged showing the food requirements of all common domestic animals in all ordinary condi- tions of use. The chemical composition of feed- ing stuffs has been accurately determined. The percentages of nutrients — albuminoids, fat, and carbohydrates (starch, sugar, fibre, etc.) — di- gested by animals have been worked out and re- corded. Numerous tests have been made to determine the most advantageous amounts and proportions of these nutrients for each of the various purposes for which animals are kept. These results, compiled, arranged, and pub- lished, give the feeder information of inesti- mable value in the profitable pursuit of his voca- tion. These studies and investigations have not only proved of great advantage in feeding animals, but have resulted at the same time in the discovery of principles of human nutrition having an important bearing on man's subsist- ence. Great strides have been made in methods of preventing and overcoming animal diseases, de- serving of far more extended mention than it is possible here to make. The discoveries of Dr. Koch, resulting in the preparation of tuberculin as a diagnostic for consumption in cattle; the inoculation of cattle, rendering them immune from Texas fever heretofore considered fatal to all improved breeds ; the successful potassium iodide treatment for milk fever ; and a host of other discoveries, — have marked the century in veterinary achievements. The occupation of the drover has passed away with the advent of railroad transportation of farm animals. While this belongs to the sub- ject of commerce, it is of incalculable impor- tance to agriculture as well. A very large share of the developments' of husbandry may be ascribed to the opening up of the country by the grand facilities for transportation that now an- nihilate both time and space. Interstate and transoceanic traffic in live stock have recently been greatly improved by mechanical and scien- tific efforts until our cattle travel with a degree of safety and comfort not experienced by our human ancestors of a century gone. It is said that among the early town records of Hadley. Mass.. is an entry to the effect that the cows gave so little milk through the winter that the babies had to take cider as a substitute. Could the mothers of those babies go to Had- ley now and observe the methods whereby win- ter has become the principal dairy season in the region, would they not feel that their lives were lived too soon? Contrast the tedious and laborious setting of milk in shallow crocks for two days, then re- moving the cream with a piece of perforated tin, allowing it to sour in the kitchen, acquiring the aroma of boiled dinners in transit, churning with a dash churn and kneading by hand, with the new process of converting fresh milk into « butter for breakfast in a minute and a half." Co-operative butter- and cheese-making has transferred this work from the kitchen of the busy housewife to the factory of the expert, to the great advantage of the product and satisfac- tion of the wearied housewife. Perhaps the most interesting achievement of all is the discovery of organic ferments which ripen or sour cream in butter-making, and the study of the specific effects of each of more than a hundred different species of these organ- isms upon the quality of butter. A practical side of this study is found in the present prac- tice of selecting pure cultures of bacteria for cream-ripening, thus avoiding those forms pre- AGRICULTURE during bad flavors and other undesirable quali- ties. In several large establishments milk is now being modified by changing the proportions of its constituents to make it closely resemble human milk, and for other specific purposes in the feeding of infants, and it lias even been made without the intervention of the cow. During the past 40 years agricultural col- leges have sprung up in each of the United States, doing work calculated to make the 20th- century agriculture far superior to that of the past. Hand in hand with this educational work, investigations have been extended into all the varied fields of husbandry. Inlets are yielding Up their life's history, revealing facts suggestive of methods of protecting our interests against their ravages. .Microscopic organisms reveal a power in nature till now undreamed of, disclos- ing among their numbers our warm friends and our nio^t deadly foes. It has become possible to measure in heat and motion the energy in every pound of food fed to our animals. The calori- meter faithfully measures every gram of gas exhaled from balance between the intake and outgo, and notes the expenditure of energy in every movement of body or limb. Even the ec- centricities of the weather are not allowed to pass unnoted. Forecasts of storm advise the haymaker to be on his guard, and frosts are not allowed to spring upon the ungathercd crop un- announced. Under their specific names the reader will find statistics for each crop, and further informa- tion «>n the general subject may he found under the titles Agricultural Chemistry; Agricul- tural Experiment Stations; Drainage; Irri- gation, etc. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — From the beginning of the 19th century interest in agriculture has called forth a very large number of works, both gen- eral and special, and also a long list of period- icals, some of which are devoted to individual products of the farm. The following list of mainly American and British writings has been selected as representa- tives of the general subject and its main branches. Important specific works are men- tioned under the particular subjects of which they treat : General. — Allen, < New American Farm Book); Bailey, 'Principles of Agriculture); Brooks, < Agriculture > ; Emerson and Flint, ' Manual of Agriculture > ; Fairchild, ' Rural Wealth and Welfare); King, < Physics of Agri- culture 1 ; Loudon, < Encyclopaedia of Agri- culture); Mortimer, 'The Whole Art of Husbandry*; Morton's < A Cyclopaedia of Agri- culture > and 1 Handbook of the Farm > ; Periam, ■ I lie American Encyclopaedia of Agriculture); Roberts, < The Farmstead'; Tull, < Horse- Hoeing Hushandry > ; Voorhees, < First Princi- ples of Agriculture); Wilcox and Smith, 'Farmers' Cyclopaedia of Agriculture'; Young, 'Annals of Agriculture.) < A History of Agriculture and Prices in Eng- land from 1259 to 1793.) by James E. Thorold Rogers (8 vols., 1866-98), is a work of immense research and monumental significance, undertak- ing to recover aspects of the history of the people of England which contemporary records of prices give the means of knowing. It sheds light not merely on agriculture, hut on politics, political economy, etc.. even education, and revolutionizes some accepted views. Crops. — Flint, 1 (Irasses and Forage); Shaw, ' Forage Crops Other Than Grasses,) and 'Soiling Crops and the Silo." For bibliography on individual crops see specific titles. Drainage and Irrigation. — King, 'Irriga- tion and Drainage 1 ; Miles. 'Land Drainage); Waring's ' Drainage for Profit and Drainage for Health > ; < Report of the Massachusetts Drainage Commission > : and < Sewerage and Drainage'; Wilcox, 'Irrigation Farming.) Flowers, Fruits, Vegetables, etc. — Bailey's 'Evolution of Our Native Fruits'; 'Principles of Fruit Growing'; and Principles of Vegetable Growing); Bailey and Miller, 'Cyclopedia of American Horticulture); 'Barry's Fruit Gar- den); Cara, 'Bush Fruits); Fuller's 'The Nut Culturist.) and < The Small Fruit Cul- turist) ; Harcourt, 'Florida Fruits and How to Raise Them); Henderson's 'Gardening for Profit,) and ' Practical Floriculture > ; Lode- man, 'The Spraying of Plants >: Nicholls, ; Stephens, < Book of the Farm.) Live-Stock and Dairy. — Aikman, 'Milk, Its Nature and Composition); Craig, 'Judging Live-Stock > ; Curtis, 'Horses, Cattle, Sheep, and Swine>; Decker, 'Cheese-Making); Felch, 'Poultry Culture); Henry, 'Feeds and Feed- ing); Jordan, 'Feeding of Animals); Miles, 'Stock-Breeding); Robinson, 'Poultry Craft >; Shaw's "Animal Breeding.' and "Study of Breeds); Stewart's 'Feeding Animals.) and 'Shepherd's Manual); Wallace's 'Farming In- dustries of Cape Colony); 'Farm Live-Stock of Great Britain); 'India in 1887); and 'The Rural Economy and Agriculture of Australia and West Zealand'; Wing. 'Milk. Its Prod- ucts); Wright's 'New Poultry Book,) and ' Practical Poultry Keeper.) Manures. — Aikman, 'Manures and the Principles of Manuring); Griffith, 'Treatise on Manures >: Harlan, 'Farming with Green Ma- nures'; Harris, 'Talks on Manures'; Sempers, 'Manures: How to Make and How to Use Them.) Soil.— King, 'The Soil); Roberts, 'The Fertility of the Land.' Periodicals. — < American Gardening.' New York; 'Farm and Fireside.' Springfield. Ohio; 'Farm and Home.) Springfield, Mass.; 'Farm- er's Advocate,) London, Ont. ; < Farmers' Re- view.) Chicago; < Farm Journal.) Philadelphia; 'Florists' Exchange,) New York; 'Michigan Farmer,) Detroit ; < Practical Farmer,) Phila- delphia. Agriculture, Department of, an executive department of the United States, whose head is a member of the Cabinet with the title sec- AGRICULTURE retary of agriculture. It was formed early in 1889 under President Cleveland, the first sec- retary being Norman J. Colman, of Missouri ; he was succeeded in the same year, under Presi- dent Harrison, by Jeremiah M. Rusk, of Wis- consin ; in 1893 President Cleveland in his sec- ond term appointed J. Sterling Morton, of Ne- braska ; in 1897 President McKinley appointed James Wilson, of Iowa, who still holds it (1902). Its germ was a distribution of seeds to farmers by the Commissioner of Patents in 1836, enlarged by Congress in 1839 to include the prosecution of agricultural investigations and collection of agricultural statistics ; in 1854 a special appropriation was made and an ento- mologist employed ; in 1855 a chemist and bota- nist were added and a propagating garden be- gun. In 1862 the Agricultural Bureau was es- tablished separate from the Patent Office, and President Lincoln appointed Isaac Newton, of Pennsylvania, Commissioner of Agriculture; the last Commissioner was Mr. Colman, the first Secretary. The Department's quarters in Washington are in a large park near the Washington Monument. Its functions are ex- pressed by statute as: « To acquire and dif- fuse among the people of the United States useful information on subjects connected with agriculture in the most genera! and compre- hensive sense of that word, and to procure, propagate, and distribute among the people new and valuable seeds and plants B ; but sci- entific and administrative duties have been heaped upon it till it has become not only an enormous workshop and museum of every class of scientific research relating to plant and ani- mal life and that of agricultural animals, but an establishment of practical services in trade and commerce, quarantine, statistics, tree-planting, road-making, irrigation, insecticides, and almost everything that can affect the interests of those engaged in raising and marketing all articles that grow from the ground or living things that feed on them. Even the Weather Bureau was transferred to it, in 1891, from the War De- partment. Its publication department is im- mense, and includes a < Year-Book,> regular • Farmers' Bulletins,' and a monthly list of pub- lications, all sent free to applicants or obtainable through members of Congress. The periodicals, < Experiment Station Record,) < Monthly Weather Review,' and < Crop Reporter,' also works of more special character, are given free to scientific institutions and collaborators of the department, libraries, colleges, and experiment stations, and sold by the Superintendent of Documents. Its cost is about $4,500,000 a year, of which about $700,000 goes to the agricultural experiment stations. The detailed statement be- low will give a full conspectus of its activities. Organization, Subdivisions, and Functions of the Department, 1902. Office of the Secretary. — Supervision of pub- lic business relating to the agricultural industry and management of department subdivisions ; advisory supervision over government agricul- tural experiment stations ; control of quaran- tine stations for imported cattle and of interstate cattle quarantine, including inspection of cattle ships ; also carrying into effect the interstate game laws and those on importation of noxious animals, with authority to control that of other animals. The Weather Bureau. — Records daily exist- ing atmospheric conditions and formulates there- from — for distribution — forecasts of probable weather during the succeeding 48 hours. It maintains a central office in Washington, and about 180 subordinate stations in the United States and West Indies. It also receives daily telegraphic reports of observations in Canada, Mexico, the Azores, and the western coast of Europe. The Bureau of Animal Industry. — Investi- gates the nature and prevention of communicable diseases dangerous to live stock, and takes mea- sures for their extirpation ; inspects live stock and their food products in interstate and foreign commerce, also the transport vessels for export- ed and quarantine stations for imported animals; disseminates information on our dairy interests and their foreign markets ; and reports on our animal industries and means of improving them. Tlie Bureau of Chemistry. — Studies the chemical problems of agriculture : soils, fertiliz- ers, and irrigation waters ; agricultural products and industries; insecticides and fungicides; foods of man and beast; raw materials, products, and processes of agricultural-chemical industries ; chemical relations which modify the results of environment — as soil, latitude, altitude, and me- teorological conditions — on agricultural prod- ucts ; inspects food products imported or for export ; and examines quality of materials used in road construction. The chemical problems of other departments are turned over to it. The Bureau of Plant Industry.— Studies plant life in relation to agriculture, including vegetable, pathological and physiological, bo- tanical, pomological, grass and forage plant in- vestigations and experiments ; has charge of experimental gardens and grounds, the Arling- ton experimental farm, Congressional seed dis- tribution, seed and plant introduction, and tea- culture experiments. The Office of Experiment Stations. — Super- vises the expenditures of those in the United States, manages those in Alaska, Hawaii, and Porto Rico, and prepares publications chiefly based on their results, including the monthly < Experiment Station Record ' ; conducts rela- tions with American and foreign institutions for agricultural education and research ; and super- vises special investigations ordered by Congress, in co-operation with the agricultural colleges and experiment stations. The Bureau of Forestry. — Prepares and ex- ecutes plans for conservative lumbering of wood- lands, public or private; investigates trees and methods for planting, and gives practical assist- ance to tree-planters ; studies commercially val- uable trees for their special uses in forestry, and the relations between forests and fire, grazing, lumbering, stream flow, and irrigation ; main- tains a photographic laboratory and collection and a library. The Bureau of Soils. — Studies physical and chemical properties of soils, and materials and methods of artificial fertilization, with their in- fluence on the original soils ; classifies and maps soils in agricultural districts to show the dis- tribution of soil types for adaptability to certain crops and their management ; investigates alkali problems and their relations to irrigation and seepage waters : reclamation of abandoned lands ; studies tobacco soils and methods of cultivation AGRIGENTUM — AGRIMONY and curing-, introduction of improved varieties, and methods of exporting tobacco. The Division of Statistics. — Collects and di- gests statistics <>f agricultural production; area annually sown 1 the leading crops, their condition on the first day of each month, the quantitative results at close of the crop year, and estimated farm value t December. Supplemen- tary it collects periodical information on minor crops of importance, meadows and pastures, and the principal foreign crops. The stock of corn, wheat, and oats on United States farms at certain regular fixed dates is estimated, with the proportion shipped OUl of the county where grown; the number and value, by species, of animals on United States farms at the beginning of each year, and the annual losses from disease and exposure; also the annual clip of wool and average weight of tlecces. by States and Terri- tories. It computes the world's production of the chief crops, by countries, and prices of prin- cipal agricultural products in various United States markets. The Division of Publications.- — This is the publishing house of the Department. It has gen- eral charge and assignment of expenditures un- der the appropriation for printing and distribut- ing agricultural documents, preparation and distribution of the l Year-Book, > < Farmers' Bulletins, 1 and other bulletins, reports, and cir- culars; supervises the Department's printing and binding in the Government Printing Office; pre- pares the drawings for illustrations; and pre- pares and distributes official information and advance notices to agricultural writers. The Division of Entomology. — Studies the entire field of insect life in it ^ relation to hu- manity; primarily, insects injurious directly to man, to agriculture and horticulture, and to stored products; the geographic distribution of stab insects, and their relations to climate. It conducts field and laboratory experiments with different classes of remedies, and reports there- on. It also studies beneficial insects — both those which are the source of industries, like the honey-bee. the silkworm, and the fig-fertilizing insect and those indirectly beneficial by preying on injurious ones. It makes large collections of insects and of insecticidal machinery and chemicals. The Division of Biological Survey. — Studies the geographic distribution of animals and plants, and maps the natural life zones of the ntry; also investigates the economic rela- tions of birds and mammals, recommends mea- sures for the preservation of beneficial and the distinction of injurious species, and carries into effect the Federal laws concerning the importa- tion of wild birds and other wild animals, and the interstate game laws. The Office of Public Road Inquiries. — Inves- tigates the United States system of road manage- ment, and the best methods of road-making and maintenance; experiments on best methods of road-building, and analyzes chemical and phys- ical qualities of road materials; co operates w'ith agricultural colleges, experiment stations, and local authorities, in building short sections of road a- -sons. etc. The Section of Foreign Markets.— Has for object the extension of our agricultural export trade. It studies foreign conditions of demand and supply ( using chiefly foreign official Statis- tics ot production), and imports and exports, supplemented by details obtained from consular reports, trade journals, and other sources. In eases of special importance a representative of the office is sent to obtain b) personal investiga- tion the information needed. The Division of Accounts and Disbursements. — Audits and pays all accounts and adjusts claims against the Department; decides questions involving the expenditure of public funds; pre- pares advertisements, schedules, and contracts for annual supplies, leases, agreements, letters of authority, and all letters to the Treasury Depart- ment and Department of Justice; issues requisi- tions for the purchase of supplies, and requests for transportation ; prepares the annual estimates of appropriations; etc. 7 lie Library. — The librarian purchases books and periodicals, supervises their arrangement and cataloguing, and has charge of the prepa- ration of catalogues, indexes, bibliographies, and similar publications. Agrigentum, ag-ri-jen'tum, a town in Sicily, of which tins was the Roman name, the Greek name having been AkragaS and the modem Italian name being Girgenti. It is thought to have been founded by Dorian colonists about 582 B.C. Its situation on the southern shore of the island was peculiarly strong and impos- ing, standing as it did on a bare and precipitous rock about [,ooo feet above the level of thi ea. During the Greek period Agragas rose to a position of great wealth and importance, and was adorned with splendid temples and public buildings. Among Sicilian towns it was second onlj to Syracuse. In 406 b.C. the city received a blow front which its dignity and power never recovered, in its capture by the Carthaginians. Under the Roman dominion we do not hear much of the town, which, however, seems to have I" en always prosperous, having mines as well as the most fertile territory. The town is celebrated in Greek history as the birthplace of the famous philosopher Hmpedoclcs, and the celebrated and almost legendary tyrant I'halans was ruler there. — in what capacity is not clearly « d. In the history of fine art Akragas was famous as the centre of a school of sculp- ture and refined architecture. We still have vestiges of this in the extraordinary group of temples, that dedicated to llera Lacinia; that called "Temple of Concord," a remarkably well- preserved monument of the Doric style; that called "Temple of Hercules," much ruined; and. finally, the gigantic Temple of Zeus, a building wholly unique in Grecian art as hav- ing columns engaged in the walls of the cellar and a great interior evidently treated as a pub- lic hall, and differing in this way from all oilier Hellenic temples. Ag'rimony (Agrimonia), a genus of plants belonging to the natural order Rosacea!, distin- guished from the other genera of the same tribe (Rosea) by having but two carpels enclosed in the deep tube of the calyx, from 7 to 20 stamens, and small notched petals. A. eupatoria, or com- mon agrimony, is an erect, hairy, herbaceous plant found on the borders of fields and woods, by the wayside, etc., probably escaped from gardens, as it is not a native of the United States. AGRIPPA — AGUSTITE Agrippa, Herod. See Herod Acrippa. Ague. See Malaria. Aguilar, a-ge-lar'. Grace, an English writer: 1j. in Hackney, _> June 1816; d. in Frank- fort, 16 Sept. 1847. Of Jewish parentage, she at first devoted herself to Jewish subjects, but her fame rests on her novels, < Home Influence,) < A Mother's Recompense,' 'Home Scenes,') and < Heart Studies,) etc., most of which were published posthumously under the editorship of her mother. Aguilar de la Frontera, fron-ta'ra, Spain, a town of Cordova province, Andalusia ; 26 m. S. by E. from Cordova. It has three good squares and several handsome public buildings, and in the time of the Moors was defended by a strong castle. The inhabitants are employed in agricul- ture, stock-raising, manufacturing, and in quar- rying lime, gypsum, and freestone. Pop. about 14.000. Aguil'arite, a native sulpho-selenide of silver, having the formula Ag 2 S.Ag : Se. It is found at Guanajuato, Mex. Aguilas, a-ge'las, Spain, a flourishing sea- port in Murcia province, about 37 m. to the S.W. of Cartagena, with copper and lead smelting works. It carries on considerable trade in ores, etc. Pop. 15,000. Aguilera, Ventura Ruiz, ii-ge-la'ra, ven- too'ra roo'eth, lyric poet, « the Spanish Beran- ger » : b. Salamanca, 2 Nov. 1829 ; d. Madrid, 1 July 1881. After a medical course at home he became a Madrid journalist (1843) and an im- portant official under Liberal governments ; later a director of the Madrid Archaeological Mu- seum. His bold incisive editorials endeavored to instil fervid national patriotism into the masses, an aim also of his poems like « National Echoes') and « Satires.)) His « Elegies » (1862) were masterpieces translated into nearly all Eu- ropean languages. He wrote also < The Book of the Fatherland) (1869); are situated behind the plane of the section shown. Uiik'mg a Sudden Stop. — When an emer- gency occurs, in which the engineer finds it necessary to bring the train to a sudden stop, he moves the handle of the brake valve into a posi- tion for quickly discharging the air from the train pipe, whereby a sudden and material re- duction of the air pressure is effected in the train pipe upon the first car and in the connected chamber at the left of the triple-valve piston a. This results in such a preponderance of air pressure from the auxiliary reservoir upon the right face of the triple-valve piston that the pis- ton is quickly moved to the left, compressing the supporting spring of the stem ;, until it reaches the end of its chamber. The passageway /> being thereby uncovered, air pressure from the aux- iliary reservoir instantly acts upon the upper face of the supplemental piston »:, to force it downward and open the emergency valve n, as illustrated in Fig. 4. To clearly comprehend what then takes place, it is important to fully realize the condi- tions which exisi .it this instant: they are (1) that no compressed air has as yet, during the practically instantaneous operation above de- scribed, entered the brake cylinder from any source: (2) that the compressed air can be dis- charged from the auxiliary reservoir into the brake cylinder only comparatively slowly, be- cause of the restricted character of the port k in the slide valve; and ( .? ) that the air pres- sure in the train pipe, while having been sud- denly and materially reduced below the pres- sure in the auxiliary reservoir, to the extent of 5 or 10 pounds, or possibly more, is still very considerable (60 or 65 pounds), and it has. by merely lifting the check valve o, a capacious and unobstructed passageway, past the open emergency valve n. into the as yet empty brake cylinder. Tn consequence of the existence of these conditions, the check valve is lifted from its seat, against the light resistance of its spring (as indicated in Fig. 4.), and the train- aiua, cnf the rotary valve, communica- tion is established from the main reservoir to the train pipe, through a port leading to the passageway c, ami to the chamber y, by a port leading to the passageway .r. By this means, the main reservoir air is furnished with an un- obstructed passageway to the train pipe, for quickly replenishing the air pressure therein. and the air pressure in the chamber 31 and con- nected reservoir is simultaneously replenished so as to prevent the increasing train-pipe pres- sure from lifting the piston u. The handle of the engineer's brake valve is customarily left in the release position only long enough to as- sure the release of all the brakes upon the train when it is turned into the running position, which restores the conditions illustrated in Fig. 6, whereby the train pipe and auxiliary reser- voirs are again charged with an air pressure of 70 pounds and are so placed in a condition of readiness for the next application of the brakes. About the year 1891, the high-speed brake was devised. As long ago as 1876, during some extensive brake trials in England, with apparatus designed and constructed by Mr. Westinghouse and conducted by Capt. Douglas Galton, in be- half of the Institute of Mechanical Engineers of London, it was discovered that the friction be- tween brake shoes and wheels varies greatly at different speeds. The friction of the brake shoes upon the wheels produces a tendency to stop their rotation, while the friction between the rails and the wheels causes the wheels to con- tinue to rotate in spite of the resistance to rota- tion produced by the brake-shoe friction, and thus the rail friction upon the wheels is what finally and actually retards the motion of the train. In the Westinghouse-Galton brake trials, it was discovered that the rail friction upon the wheels (which is really the friction of rest) is practically the same at all speeds, and the same brake-shoe friction ought therefore to be util- ized at all speeds, to produce the best results in stopping. Rut. as already stated, it was discov- ered that the friction of the brake shoes con- tinually decreases as higher speeds are attained, and it is therefore very desirable that the brake shoes should be applied to the wheels with AIR BRAKE greater pressure at high speed than at low speed, to compensate for the reduced coefficient of friction at the high speeds. The high-speed brake is designed for the purpose of realizing a greater brake-shoe pres- sure at high speed, which is subsequently re- duced, as the speed of the train declines during the stop, until the pressure has become only such as may be safely maintained until the final stop, without sliding the wheels upon the rails, it being a well-known fact that the sliding of wheels upon the rails not only seriously dam- ages the wheels but also very materially in- creases the distance in which the train can be stopped. The apparatus consists of the ordi- nary quick-action automatic brake apparatus, with the addition of an automatic pressure- Tt> BPakb Position of ports Servce Stop fnessuiE Exceeding. 60 Pounds in enAKi Cylinder. reducing valve connected to each brake cylinder. The air pressure ordinarily employed in charg- ing the train pipe and auxiliary reservoirs of the quick-action automatic brake is 70 pounds per square inch : but, in using the high-speed brake, the train-pipe and auxiliary-reservoir pres- sure is increased to no pounds. In conse- quence of this increased train-pipe and auxiliary- reservoir pressure, the emergency application of the high-speed brake occurs with a much in- creased brake-cylinder pressure, which, by means of the automatic reducing valve, is gradually reduced until it becomes only about that which would occur in an emergency application of the ordinary quick-action brake. It is very important that, in ordinary ser- vice applications of the high-speed brake, the brake-cylinder pressure shall not materially ex- ceed that which occurs with the use of the quick- action brake, and it is therefore essential that the automatic reducing valve shall provide such a large release passage for the brake-cylinder air in service applications that the brake-cylinder pressure shall not materially exceed the limit attained with the use of the quick-action brake; but the discharge passage must also be suffi- ciently small in emergency applications to cause the higher air pressure to accumulate in the brake cylinder and to be discharged only slowly. These functions of the automatic reducing- valve are obtained by the use of a triangular port opening, the broad base of which exposes Fig. IJ. Position or PORTS. EMERGENCY STOP. a comparatively large opening for releasing any excess pressure in the brake cylinder in service applications, while in emergency applications the valve moves so as to expose the portion near the apex of the triangular port for discharging the air. The arrangement of this port in the re- ducing valve is illustrated in Figs, n, 12, and 13, which show the upper portion of the reducing- valve structure. At Z, a pipe connects the reducing valve to the brake cylinder. The pis- ton 4 is thus subjected, upon its upper face, to the air presr less than that reg- ularly carried, the discharge valves must be so controlled as to open at wdiatever point is re- quired by the pressure then being carried. The requirements are sometimes met by putting auto- matic lift-valves above, or even directly upon, the mechanical discharge valves, giving the com- the production of high pressures is attended with excessive heat and considerable increase in the volume of the compressed air. As the air leaving the cylinder soon resumes the normal temperature, and decreases in volume accord- ingly, the extra work done in compressing the increased volume is wasted. Compressing cyl- inders in operation are always cooled by water or otherwise; but it is impossible, even by spraying water into the cylinder, to keep the air from rising considerably in temperature. For high pressures, resort is therefore had to com- pound compression, the air being passed suc- cessively through larger low-pressure to smaller high-pressure cylinders, between which are lo- cated inter-coolers whose function is to restore the air to its original temperature before it enters on the next stage. The volume of the air is thus kept as small as possible; and the successive stages of compression result in pro- ducing the required pressure with a minimum of loss from heating during the process. Two- stage machines are preferred to single-stage where air must be compressed to one sixth or AIR-COMPRESSORS a smaller fraction of its volume at atmospheric pressure (measuring pressures from absolute vacuum) ; and three or more stages are required in compressing to one sixteenth or less. Cylin- der diameters are selected which will provide for about the same amount of work being done in each cylinder. Most compressor problems deal with air taken directly from the atmosphere at its sea- level pressure ; but, as at moderate elevation there is a marked decrease of the atmospheric pressure, compressors for high locations must deal with air at pressures below 15 pounds absolute. Under such conditions the volume of air taken into the compressor at each stroke weighs less, and therefore less air is delivered by the compressor, while there is a correspond- ing decrease in the power to run the machine. The ratio of compression, and the rise in tem- perature, are proportionately increased, so that a two-stage compressor may be desirable for pressures that would call for only single cylin- ders at sea-level. Thus, at many of the mines in the Rocky Mountain region, the atmospheric pressure is as low as 11 pounds per square inch, supplies against the piston a force decreasing toward the end of the stroke, while air during compression opposes a force increasing toward the end of the stroke ; thus the power rapidly falls off as the resistance increases, causing a perceptible reduction in speed at the end of each stroke. If such a machine could be run at high speed, the weight (or more correctly, the mass) of the pistons and connections would, by inertia, help out the decreasing steam pres- sure when slowing to pass the centres, and thus produce a more even effort on the crank ; but sufficiently high speeds are not possible for the automatic-lift valves generally used on small compressors. The varying power and resistance can be very satisfactorily balanced by connecting steam and compressing pistons to separate cranks set at right angles. Having provided two frames and cranks, a slight additional out- lay will supply an extra pair of cylinders tan- dem to the first pair, making a full duplex com- pressor. The excess steam pressure at the commencement of the stroke of one side is here transmitted by the crank shaft to the other side of the machine, to help out the deficient pres- Sectional View of Air Cylinders and Inter-cooler. so that 90 pounds' air pressure by gauge re- quires a compression ratio of 9 to 1, which is considerably beyond that proper for a single- stage compressor. In general, high-level com- pressors should be specially proportioned for their work. Methods of Driving. — Like pumps and other machinery, compressors are direct-connected to engines or are driven through gears or belts from separate sources of power. The recip- rocating piston compressor requires a varying effort to balance the cylinder pressure, since, during the stroke, the piston moves against an increasing air pressure, and finally against the full discharge pressure, in pushing out the con- tents of the cylinder. Direct-connected com- pressors are either "straight-line" (tandem), having steam and air pistons on the same piston rod, or they are connected to cranks set at an angle on a common shaft. The first method reduces floor space and cost, but requires very heavy fly wheels, and makes the machine liable to stop on a centre if run much below full speed and capacity. It is evident that steam used expansively sure of the expanded steam when the stroke is nearly finished. Such a machine has no "dead centres," and can be run at very low speed when necessary. As it is generally desirable to maintain a constant air pressure, and to vary the speed of the machine according to the quantity of air required, speed governors for the steam cylin- ders are not needed except to prevent racing in case of a bursting pipe or other excessive discharge of air. Some form of adjustable cut- off valves is very desirable in order to allow of suiting the work of the steam cylinder to the load. The pressure is controlled by automatic devices actuated by the rise and fall of the air pressure, either shutting off the air intake, opening a by-pass around the compressor piston, or .(in case of duplex machines which can start from rest without attention) shutting off steam and stopping the machine. A description of the standard types of com- mercial compressors would be incomplete with- out reference to the most remarkably wasteful "-team eater" known to the compressor trade — a machine using ten times as much steam as AIR COMPRESSORS would be necessary for pumping the same amount of air by means of a fairly economical compressor, and yet a device most ingenious and entirely satisfactory for its work. This is the air-brake pump, which, foi actual conditions of train service — where it Stands idle until the closing of the throttle, and the application of brakes leave a large and heavily fired steam i to blow off at the safety valve until the fire can be checked — is seen to be well adapted. Indicator cards show that the entering, steam i- throttled through about half the stroke, while the exhaust is similarly choked at first and only let out freely about the time of full opening of the valve. The result is a "straight- line" compressor having no crank or flywheel, with nothing moving but its two pistons and one rod, and yet so perfectly balanced between effort and resistance that its strokes are smoothly made at any speed from slowest to fastest, and all with maximum simplicity and minimum weight. These machines are also built with compound steam and two-stage air cylinders, and in these cases have pressures in the cylin- ders so nearly uniform that the steam distribu- tion may be considerably more economical than it is possible to obtain in the single-stage com- pressor. Sec Compressed Air. S. H. Bunnell, Works Manager, Watertown Engine Company. Watertown, A'. )'. Air Compressors. An air compressor is a device used for compressing air. In itself air lacks the power to do work and serves only as a Storer and transmitter of energy. Coal, on the other hand, is a hydro-carbon compound, each element possessing the power to do work when burning. To free the coal of its potential en- ergy it is necessary to apply sufficient heat to begin the operation ,,f burning, and when once started it will continue to give off beat as long as sufficient coal and a sufficient quantity of oxygen are supplied. The burning of coal and the giving up of energy in the form of heat are attended by chemical changes, or changes in the state of matter itself. When air is com- pressed it has the power to do work by expan- sion, and as air is expanded the changes in tin- condition of the air are purely mechanical. Any device which reduces the volume of air with a pressure increase is an air compressor. Air compressors are of two distinct kinds, dry and wet. In the former type a solid piston serves to reduce the volume of air, and in the latter a liquid, usually water, is employed. Dry or Piston Type. — This is the common form of compressor employed to-day and is widely and extensively used. It consists essen- tially of a solid shell or cylinder furnished with suitable valves for the admission and discharge of air, and a piston to effect the desired com- pression. On one stroke of the piston, air is sucked into the cylinder through the inlet valves and wdien the piston reaches the end of its stroke these valves close just before the piston begins the return stroke. On the return stroke the entrapped air is diminished more and more in volume, with an increase in pressure (and temperature, if compression is not isothermal). At a certain point in the stroke, when a pre- determined pressure is reached, the discharge valves open and the compressed air for the re- mainder of the travel of the piston is forced through the valves into a receiver. When all the air is discharged from the cylinder and the piston begins the return stroke, the discharge valves close and the intake valves again open. Such is, in brief, the operation of an air com- pressor. The commercial compressor, however, in- cludes many schemes and modifications to effect the greatest compression with a minimum ex- penditure of work and trouble. In the practical compressor, the details which receive special attention are main frame, main hearings, air cylinders, air heads, air valves, flywheel, main shaft, crank pins, connecting rod, crosshead, pis- tons, piston rod. oiling system, bearings, foun- dation, accessibility, intcrcooler, governing de- vices, method of drive, etc. For discussions on these various items, reference should be made to text-books on the subject. The type of compressor, whether straight line or duplex, single or compound, steam or power driven, depends upon the requirements and natural resources. Following, these points are considered in brief: Straight Line Compressor. — The straight line compressor is designed to take stresses and strains in direct lines. These machines were originally evolved to meet the demands for compressors which may be easily transported in mountainous countries for distant prospect work, shaft sinking and tunneling operations. Obvi- ously, such service is, almost without exception, hard and continuous. This suggests the ques- tion of accessibility and ease in making repairs when no shop facilities are available. The straight line design provides well for all these requirements. Every part of the machine is accessible and an occasional oiling is usually the only attention that such a machine demands. The machine has also been commonly installed in railroad shops for signal work and the like, wdiere absolute reliability in the delivery of compressed air is imperative. For quarrying and also for general contract work this type finds favor. The best straight line machines are built on the lines which a long experience has proved to be the best, that is, power and resistance in straight lines, positive movement of air valves, cold intake air. cooling by a com- plete surface jacketing, resulting in dry air and effective cylinder lubrication, adjustable steam cut-off for the economical use of steam, small clearance space, automatic speed and air pres- sure regulation, medium stroke, high rotative speed, extra heavy bearing surfaces for crank pins, shaft and slides, and automatic lubrication. This type of compressor is self-contained and does not require an expensive foundation. Duplex Air Compressors. — The peculiar re- quirements of air compressing work are met with in the duplex machine in a manner differ- ent from that in the other type just described. In compressing air by means of a reciprocating steam engine the resistance throughout the stroke, due to compression, is inversely pro- portional to the power in the steam end, that is, at the beginning of compression the pressure is greatest in the steam cylinder and diminishes as the stroke advances, due to expansion of the steam ; while the air pressure starts at atmos- phere and increases, due to compression. To equalize resistance and power, no design offers a better solution than the duplex type. AIR COMPRESSORS The respective pistons on one side are so adapt- ed, relative to the pistons on the other side, that when one piston is at the beginning- of its stroke the other is at the middle of its stroke, whereby the resistance of the air on both pis- tons is practically equalized throughout the entire stroke. When steam is the driving fluid, the range of adaptability of the duplex compressor admits of any combinations of duplex or compound steam and air cylinders. The duplex form of construction admits also of installing one side, or the first half, as a compressor complete in itself at a time when the free-air requirement is only one-half of the ultimate demand; the other half may follow later. Sectional Compressors. — In mountainous re- gions and in places inaccessible by good roads, where mule-back transportation is the only available means of conveyance, the sectional compressor is employed. Such a machine is so designed that no one section exceeds a given weight limit or proper mule load. Portable Compressors. — In structural opera- tions where the only air power needed is for driving small machines for operations of a light character and of a shifting nature, the portable compressor outfit possesess many decided ad- vantages. Drilling, chipping and riveting in bridge, railroad, trestle and allied undertakings call for a moderate air supply. It is apparent that the seat of operation is ever changing and that much territory must be covered as the work progresses. The portable compressor is espe- cially adapted for such work. A portable outfit is a complete plant in itself, having boiler, en- gine, compressor, receiver and the necessary appurtenances mounted on one truck. The plant may be drawn by two or more horses. Single and Multiple Stage Compression. — Air is compressed in single, two or more stages, depending upon the degrees of compression re- quired. The practical limiting pressure to which to compress air economically in a single stage is about 70 pounds per square inch gauge. Above this point two, three or more stages are employed. Single stage compressors were the earlier forms of machines designed, and are still extensively used for purposes not demand- ing more than about 70 to 80 pounds pressure. Such machines are used for supplying air to drills, pneumatic tools and the like. Compound compressors have many advan- tages over single stage machines. The efficien- cy, owing to the heat of compression, decreases as the terminal pressure increases, and for pres- sures above 70 pounds the water jacket of the simple compressor is not sufficiently effective for producing the most economical results ; and stage or compound compression is resorted to as the most practical and efficient method for reducing the loss due to the heat of compres- sion. In the compound compressor the cylinder diameters are so proportioned as to divide the work of compression equally between a given number of cylinders. All air cylinders are pro- vided with water jackets and are connected by intercoolcrs. Free air is admitted to the low pressure cylinder, where it is partially com- pressed and then forced into the intercooler. The intercooler acts as a receiver and at the same time removes the heat of compression of the intake cylinder before the air is admitted to the second stage cylinder. In the high pres- sure cylinder (in a two sta.ge machine) the process of compression is completed and the air is delivered to the receiver at the required terminal pressure. The final temperature in each cylinder would be the same if the work was divided equally and the intercooler properly designed, but it will be very much lower than if the compression were done in one cylinder. To illustrate the difference in effect between single, two or three stage compression, let us take a specific case. Let it be required to com- press one cubic foot of free sea level air to 200 pounds gauge pressure, assuming the intake air to be 60° F., and the intercooler process per- fect ; the ideal or isothermal compression re- quires 0.1719 horse-power to do the work. The actual or adiabatic work demanded is 0.26 horse- power for ' single, 0.21 horse-power for two stage, and 0.196 horse-power for three stage compression. Compressing the air adiabatically to 200 pounds gauge pressure in a single stage necessitates a loss of 51.2 per cent. Two and three stage compression occasion losses of 22.2 per cent and 14.0 per cent respectively. The temperature of the air in one stage and at 200 pounds pressure reaches 673° F., while for two and three stage operations 308 F. and 213° F. are the maximum temperatures. The excessive loss in work and the extreme temperature reached in single compression for so high a ter- minal pressure demand the employment of a compound two or three stage compressor. As mentioned above, for single stage compression 70 pounds gauge is about the limiting econom- ical pressure. The temperature reached in com- pressing in a single stage to 70 pounds gauge is about 404° F. The principal advantage of compound com- pression over simple compression lies in the reduction of the loss due to the heat of com- pression, which represents, therefore, a saving in power, since the resistance due to compres- sion is directly proportional to changes in tem- perature. Intercoolcrs. — An intercooler is a device used for cooling the air between stages in a compound compressor. It consists essentially of a shell or casing filled with nests of galvan- ized iron or brass tubes through which cool- ing water circulates. Baffle plates arc pm- vided so that the air passing through the tubes is so distributed with reference to the cooling surface of the pipes that it readily parts with its heat to the cooling water. The great advantage of compounding is due very largely to the use of intercoolers, and this advantage depends upon the fact that more time is taken to compress a certain vol- ume of air, and that this air during the stages of compression is brought in contact with an efficient cooler. A properly designed inter- cooler should reduce the temperature of tin- air back to the original point, that is. to the temperature of the intake air. and even lower if the water is cold enough. The tubes of the intercooler should be placed close enough to- gether that the air when passing through must be split up into thin sheets. These devices are naturally expensive, but first cost is of small moment when compared with the effi- ciency of the compressor and its effect upon the coal and water consumed. AIR COMPRESSORS Steam Driven Compressors. — The air com- tween the cylinders and counterbalancing im- pn tsors in operation to-day are largely of the pulses. These machines arc made with either steam driven variety, 1'i'tli cf the straight line simple or compound air cylinders, the former and duplex types. The duplex steam driven being used for sand blast work and the like, machine represents probably the best form of where the pressure in no case exceeds the eco- compressor for plants of large size and perma- nomical limit of 70 pounds. Above this press- nent character. As the economy of a com- tire compound cylinders are employed and are pressor is to a large extent dependent upon provided with a suitable intercooler to remove the efficiency and economy of the engine to the beat of compression as the air passes from which it is attached, this part of the machine the low to the high pressure cylinder. The air has received special attention and has been cylinders are water jacketed, that the valves developed to the highest point. Three methods and moving parts may be kept cool to assist of controlling steam admission to the steam the machine in its proper performance, cylinders are through slide valves, Meyer ad- The modern power driven compressor justable cut-off valves, and Corliss valves, driven by gears, by a silent chain, or direct The slide valves arc used only on machines of connected to an electric motor or gas engine, comparatively small capacity and moderate operates with efficiency and reliability. The cost, the Meyer on larger and more costly belt driven compressor may be run from a coun- compressors, and the Corliss valves on the tcrshaft or from an electric motor, oil or largest ami most economical machines. gasoline engine. The gear driven compressor Simple and Compound Strum Cylinders. — is especially convenient for connecting to an Simple steam cylinders are used in installa- electric motor. The chain driven compressor tions where the matter of economy in steam is built for connection with any kind of motor, consumption is not paramount. Such cylin- Its construction admits of a minimum dis- ders are used for steam not over a pressure tance between motor and compressor shaft, so of about 75 or 80 pounds. In machines dc- that the least possible space is taken up by the manding the greatest economy and where the complete machine. The power used for run- steam pressure is high, compound machines are ning the belt machine, of course, depends upon resorted to. Steam is admitted first into the conditions. Where there is an existing line high pressure cylinder where it expands and shaft driven by a shop engine with surplus dries work ; it is then exhausted into a steam power, the best method of drive would prob- receivcr and thence into the second cylinder ably be a belt, or if the cramped floor space for further work. prevents adequate belt centres a rope drive may Power Driven Compressors. — The usual be preferable, the driving wheel of the corn- conditions under which an air compressor is pressor being grooved instead of crowned, installed are such as to favor one that is driven Again where water power is available a water independently of any other machinery. Still motor may be used, the conditions of head and there are many cases where the independent quantity of water determining the speed and steam actuated compressor is replaced to ad- thus regulating the use of a belt, chain or di- vantage with a machine driven from some out- rect connection. Where the line shafts are not si.lr source of power. For instance, from a available, the compressor may be operated to line shaft by gearing, belt, chain or ropes, from advantage from either a gas engine or an elec- an electric motor, from a gas or oil engine or trie motor. The selection of either one or the from an impulse, turbine or other water wheel, other of these types of machines depends upon In some of these compressors the driving pul- the availability of either gas or electrical ley or water wheel is on the main shaft and energy. in others a countershaft is used to advantage, Wei or Hydraulic Types of Compressors. — the ratio given frequently being two to one. There are three distinct varieties of wet com- but generally decided by the peculiarities of pressors: First, where power is generated by each separate case. When sufficient water the falling of water; second, where the power power is available within several miles of the is mechanical, ultimately driving a water pis- plant where power is used, this energy may be ton; third, the type in which cooling water is utilized for compressing air to be piped to the injected directly into the cylinder. works and there used with great success and The first is used where there is an abun- economy for pumping, hoisting, drilling and dant water fall and where a high efficiency is many other purposes. In some few cases power not required. The second has the advantage may be converted into electrical energy to ad- of eliminating entirely the undesirable clear- vantage, the current so generated being used ance, as the water used in this instance fills all for driving a number of compressors located the dead space not reached by a solid piston, close to the seat of operations for driving pneu- Piston speed is of necessity limited to a low matic machinery. rate due to the mass of water to be moved. As Pow-er-driven compressors may be of the a result, if a large quantity of compressed air simple straight line type or of duplex construe- is required a multiplicity of compressors must tion, furnished with single or double acting cyl- be used. The third is desirable from the point inders. The simple straight line form may be of excellent cooling, but as the fluid used is a used where the demand for air is light. This poor lubricant, proper lubrication is interfered machine has the same advantage as the steam- with which results in a loss of power and in- driven straight line machine, in that it takes creased wear. This variety also has the de- up stresses and strains in direct lines. Duplex cided disadvantage of causing compressed air machines are largely for service where the de- to become very moist, and unless reheating is mrnd for air is considerable. Such machines resorted to before the air is applied to useful have the advantage of relieving many of the purposes it will cause difficulty in cold weather excessive strains to which the compressor may due to freezing. For a more detailed descrip- be subjected by dividing the work equally be- tion of hydraulic compressors, reference will AIRD — AIR-PUMP be made to literature on the subject. As a matter of fact, the hydraulic compressor is rarely used, as it is largely impracticable due to lack of efficiency and mainly on account of its cumberousness. Air Distribution or Transmission. — After the air is compressed it must be properly stored and conveyed and applied to secure all the bene- fits. For this purpose the aftercooler is im- portant as it serves to reduce the temperature of the air after the final compression, and in doing this it serves as a drier, reducing the temperature to the dew point, thus precipitat- ing moisture before the air is started on its journey. Other important appliances in distri- bution are receivers, which serve the purpose of reservoir, watertrap and rectifier; pipe lines, for transmitting compressed air from the com- pressor to the points of application, and re- heaters, for heating the air close to the point of admission to the motor. Application of Compressed Air. — At the present time compressed air is used in almost every art known to man. Its safety, the ease with which it is transported, its simplicity, its applicability to common engines and its use for many different purposes, its economy and the great service it renders in ventilation and cool- ing are reasons why compressed air is used so extensively. Some of the more important ap- plications of compressed air are for ventilation and heating, air motors, rock drills, quarrying machines, pumps, pneumatic haulage, pneumatic dispatch tubes, pneumatic tools, air jacks, air hoists, air cleaning, etc. See Compressed Air; Pumps, Compressed Air. Edward F. Schaefer, M.M.E., Ingersoll-Rand Company, New York. Aird, Thomas, a Scotch poet who has won praise from high critics, but little popular acceptance: b. Roxburghshire, 1802; d. 25 April 1876. He studied in the University of Edin- burgh, and formed a lifelong intimacy with Carlyle; contributed to 'Blackwood's,' and won the warm good will of Wilson ; edited the Weekly Journal 18.32-5, and the Dumfriesshire and Galloway Herald (Dumfries) 1835-64. He published 'Religious Characteristics.' prose es- says (1827) ; 'The Captive of Fez,' narrative poem (1830); a character story, 'The Old Bachelor in the Scottish Village' (1845), verv popular at the time; etc. But he is best (or at all) remembered now for his 'Devil's Dream.' Airdrie, a municipal and parliamentary burgh, Scotland, in Lanarkshire, 11 m. E. of Glasgow. It depends chiefly on the collieries and iron-works in its vicinity, but has also a large cotton-mill and factory, several extensive foundries and machine-shops, tube-works, and a number of hand-loom weavers. Pop. (1901) 22,288. Air-drill, a rock drill or other form of drill actuated by compressed air. Airedale Dog. See Terrier. Air-engine, an engine in which air is the working body. Such an engine may be operated by air previously raised to a high pressure by a compressor, as in the storage and transmission of power by compressed air; or it may derive its power directly from the burning of fuel. In the latter case it is often called a hot-air engine. ( For the elementary theory of the hot-air en- gine, see Thermodynamics.) Aire-sur-la-Lys, ar -sur-la-le, a town of France, dept. Pas-de-Calais, 10 m. S.E. of St. Omer. It stands at the junction of the Lys with the Laquette, on a low marshy site, but is well built, and possesses several beautiful fountains, a handsome Gothic church, and barracks for 6,000 men. Its trade is chiefly in linens, fus- tians, hats, thread, starch, soap, Dutch tiles, osier work, and grain. Top. (1902) 8,500. Air-gas, an inflammable gas produced by charging air with the vapors of naphtha, gas- oline, or some similar volatile hydrocarbon. Air-gate, in foundry work, an opening left in the mold for the escape of air and other gases as the molten metal enters. Air-gun, an instrument for the projection of bullets by means of condensed air, generally either in the form of an ordinary gun or of a pretty stout walking-stick, and about the same length. See Ordnance; Zalinski. Air-hole (or blow-hole), a fault in a cast- ing, due to the presence of a bubble of air or other gas. Air-lock, an air-tight chamber used in tunneling, when the tunnel has to be kept filled with compressed air to prevent the en- trance of water. The air-lock communicates with the tunnel by one door, and with the out- side air by another. It serves the double pur- pose of permitting the workmen to enter and leave the tunnel without undue loss of air, and of partially mitigating the physiological effects of a too sudden transition from the high pres- sure in the tunnel to the lower pressure out- side. Air-plant, a popular name for plants that live upon the trunks of trees and obtain their nourishment from air and rain but not from the plants upon which they grow. See Epiphyte. Air-pump, a machine invented by Otto von Guericke about 1652, by means of which air or other gas may be removed from an enclosed space ; or a machine for compressing air within an enclosed space : the latter type is usually known, however, as an air-compressor (q.v.). An ordinary suction-pump for water is a rough kind of air-pump; indeed, before water reaches the top of the pipe the air has been pumped out by the same machinery which pumps the water. An ordinary suction-pump consists essentially of a cylinder or barrel having a valve opening from the pipe through winch water is to rise, and a valve opening into the out- let pipe, and a piston fitted to work in the cylinder (the outlet valve may be in the piston). (See Pump. ) The arrangement of parts in an air-pump is quite similar. The bar- rel of an air-pump fills with the air which ex- pands from the receiver (that i>- the vessel from which the air is being pumped), and consequent- ly the quantity of air expelled at each stroke i- lcss as the exhaustion proceeds. Suppose that the receiver or vessel to be exhausted is exactly as large as the barrel ; by the first stroke there is just half the air removed, by the second there is one fourth, by the third there is an eighth, and so on. Suppose the barrel is one third of the receiver as to volume. On raising the AIRSHIP — AIVALI piston the air which filled the receiver now fills both barrel and receiver, so that one fourth is removed at the first stroke, one fourth of the remaining three fourths is removed at the sec- ond stroke — that is, three sixteenths, and one fourth of nine sixteenths at the third stroke; the quantity removed at each stroke forming a series of $, ft, A, Jj s , etc.; that is, the total quantity removed is \ (l + H-(i) 2 +(|) 3 + etc). At each stroke we add a term to this series, and consequently the quantity removed by each stroke becomes smaller and smaller. There are also air-pumps for compress- ing air — the reverse operation from exhausting air — and a compressing pump may be consid- ered as one of the cylinder pumps above de- scribed, hut having the receiver connected with the escape valve. There is not so much nicety required in compressing pumps as with exhaust- ing pumps. It may be observed that at the com- mencement of the stroke the effective pressure against the piston is, we may say, o. and when it has got to that position where the valve opens toward the receiver the effective pressure is that of the air in the receiver. It will be seen that when the pressure in the receiver is considerable the variation of pressure during the stroke is very great. It is on this account that compres- sion-pumps are sometimes used in which a set of cylinders have their pistons worked by a num- ber of cranks differently set on the same shaft, which shaft also carries a fly-wheel. There is seme difficulty in compressing air considerably, from the heating of the pistons and cylinders, when the operation is rapidly proceeded with. Air may be compressed by sending water at pressure into an air-tight chamber containing air. Many interesting experiments may be made with the air-pump. If an animal is placed be- neath the receiver, and the air exhausted, it dies almost immediately ; a lighted candle under the exhausted receiver immediately goes out. Air is thus shown to be necessary to animal life and to combustion. A bell, suspended from a silken thread beneath the exhausted receiver, on being struck cannot be heard. If the bell be in one receiver from which the air is not exhausted, but which is within an exhausted receiver, it still cannot be heard. Air is there- fore necessary to the production and to the propagation of sound. For the mercury pumps that are used in exhausting incandescent electric lamp bulbs, see Vacuum. Airship. See Aerial Locomotion; Bal- ; Flying Machine. Air-thermometer, a thermometer in which temperature is measured by determining the change of volume of a mass of air that is kept at constant pressure, or the change of pressure of a mass that is kept at constant vol- ume. See Thermometry. Air-trap, in steam and hydraulic engi- neering, a place where air can accumulate in a line of piping; as at the highest point of a line of water pipe. Air-cocks are placed at these points to permit of the removal of the accumu- lated air. (Also called air-bond.) Airy, Sir George Biddell, an English as- tronomer-nival : b. Alnwick z~ July 1801 ; d. 2 Jan. 1892, in Greenwich. He was graduated at Trinity College in 1823. In 1826 he was ap- pointed Lucasian professor of mathematics at Cambridge, a chair once held by Newton, and he was the first actual director of the Cambridge Observatory, holding in connection with this post the Plumian professorship of astronomy. In 1835 he succeeded Fond as director of the Greenwich Observatory, and retained this office till 1881, when he retired on a pension. He in- itiated at Greenwich the plan of immediately and completely reducing observations; introduced the regular observation of magnetic phenomena, and of sun-spots by photography ; invented new in- struments for lunar observations; and arranged the British observations in all parts of the world of the transit of Venus in [874. I lis chief works were ' Mathematical Tracts > (1826); (Ipswich Lectures on Astronomy) (1849); < Undulatory Theory of Optics' (1866) ; (Treatise of Sound') (1869); and < Treatise on Magnetism > (1870;. Aisle, in architecture, one of the lateral and usually lower divisions of a building which is divided lengthwise, as bj rows of columns or piers, so that the roof is supported while still the interior is one large hall broken only by the uprights. The basilicas of the Romans were built in that way, as had been the small inte- riors of many Grecian temples; and when the first Christian churches were built in Italy and in the East, this "ha.-ihean" form rivaled the round or polygonal plan and the plan of the Greek cross in popularity. At a later time Christian churches were nearly always built with aisles and a higher central part called usually the Nave. Most churches have an aisle on either side of the nave, and are called "three- aisled" churches, but there are a few with five, and the famous Cathedral of Antwerp in Bel- gium has seven aisles, being almost alone in this respect. It is a mistake to count an outer row of chapels as another aisle. By extension the term covers such a long and narrow compartment of a building as is found in one of the great mo ipies of Cairo, Cordova, and Damascus. These buildings have generally fiat roofs intended always to be of masonry, and that structure is carried by a great number of parallel rows of columns. The resulting "aisles" are, of course, of the same height. In the mosque of Cordova there are 17 such aisles left open, besides two outer ones which are largely enclosed for chapels : all the aisles opening by doors or windows upon a large court. Aitkin, Robert, printer and publisher: b. Dalkeith, Scotland, 1734; d. Philadelphia, July 1802. Emigrated to America, 1769; settled in Philadelphia as a bookseller, becoming later a bookbinder and publisher as well. He pub- lished the 'Pennsylvania Magazine' (1775- 6), and printed numerous documents and state papers for the Continental Congress, among them the < Journals of Congress > from 5 Sept. 1774 to 1 Jan. 1776 (Phila. 1777-80). At his own expense he published in 1782 the first Eng- lish Bible printed in America. This is now the rarest of all early Bibles printed in America, not more than 25 copies being known to exist In 1777 Aitkin was imprisoned for his attach- ment to the cause of independence. Aivali, .\i-va'li, or Kidonia, ki-do-ni'a Cthe ancient Heracleid), a town of Asiatic Tur- key, on the western promontory of the Gulf of AIX-LA-CHAPELLE — AJALON Adramyti, 66 miles northwest of Smyrna. In the beginning of the present century it was a place of considerable note, but in June 1821, during a contest between the Greeks and Turks, it was set on fire by the latter and reduced to ashes. It has again revived, however, and (1902) possesses a population of 35,000. The olive is extensively cultivated in the district, and much oil and soap manufactured. Aix-la-Chapelle, ass, or ax-la-sha-peT (Ger- man, Aachen; Latin, Chntas Aquensis, Aquis- granum), capital of a district of the same name in the Prussian province of the Rhine, 38 miles W. by S. of Cologne. It is a well-built town, pleasantly situated in a fine vale watered by the Wurm, and surrounded by the Venn Hills. It was formerly surrounded by ramparts, but these have been converted into pleasant promenades. The town-house (built in 1353 on the ruins of Charlemagne's palace) contains the coronation room with portraits of the German emperors, half-sized portraits of Napoleon and the Em- press Josephine, painted by David, and many relics of old German art. The nave of the cathe- dral, erected by Charlemagne as a palace chapel between 796 and 804, was rebuilt on the old model by Otho III. in 983, after having been al- most destroyed by the Normans. It consists of an octagon, surrounded by a 16-sided gallery, and terminating in a cupola. The Gothic choir was begun in 1353 and finished in 1413 ; it is of prodigious height (114 feet) and lightness, and the large windows are filled with stained glass. Besides the tomb of Charlemagne, the cathedral contains many relics, the most sacred of which — such as the robes worn by the Virgin at the Nativity, the swaddling-clothes of the infant Jesus, the scarf he wore at the crucifixion, etc. — are shown only once in seven years, and attract many thousands of pilgrims from all countries. As the chief station of the Belgo-Rhenish Rail- way, which connects it with Antwerp, Ostend, and Cologne, Aix-la-Chapelle affords an exten- sive mart to the commerce of Prussia ; it is also a grain market for Belgium, and the seat of com- mercial and other courts. It was eminent as a manufacturing city, especially of cloth and needles, as early as the 12th century ; and its prosperity in this respect still continues. Its woolen cloths are highly esteemed on the conti- nent of Europe and are also exported to Amer- ica, China, etc. All trading countries, including the United States, have consulates in the city. It is estimated that over 30 per cent of the in- habitants are employed in the manufactures of the city. Although Aix-la-Chapelle is an exten- sive seat of manufactures and has considerable commercial relations, it derives its celebrity chiefly from its historical associations, and a considerable portion of its importance and pros- perity from the influx of visitors to its baths. There are in all eight mineral springs here, six of them warm. The most famous is the Im- perial Spring or Kaiser -quelle ; which has a tem- perature of 143 F., and the vapor of which, when confined, deposits sulphur. For the ac- commodation of strangers there are a number of bathing-houses. The rooms for bathing are excellently fitted up. with baths from 4 to 5 feet deep, built in massive stone and in the old Ro- man style. _ About a half mile north of the city is the Louisberg or Lousberg, rising nearly 300 feet higher than the city. It is a favorite sum- mer evening resort of the citizens. Vol. 1— 14 Aix-la-Chapelle was known to the Romans as early as the time of Caesar, and is mentioned by Pliny under the name of Vetera. It was, after 768, the favorite residence of Charle- magne, who made it the capital of all his do- minions north of the Alps and spared no expense in beautifying it. Here he died in 814, and in the cathedral his tomb is marked by a large flat slab with the inscription Carolo Magno. During the Middle Ages it was a free imperial city, and its citizens throughout the empire were exempt from feudal service, from attachment of their goods and persons, and from all tolls and taxes. Thirty-seven German em- perors and eleven empresses have been crowned in this city, and the imperial insignia were pre- served here till 1795, when they were carried to Vienna, and are now in the imperial treasury. By the peace of Luneville (9 Feb. 1801), which separated the left bank of the Rhine from Ger- many, the city was transferred to France, in whose possession it remained till 1S14, when it was restored to Prussia. Pop. (1900) 135,221. Aix-la-Chapelle, Congress of, an impor- tant congress held in October and November 1818. By this congress the army of the allies, consisting of 150,000 British, Russian, Austrian, Prussian, and other troops, which, since the second peace at Paris, had remained in France to watch over its tranquillity, was withdrawn after France had paid the contribution imposed at the peace of 1815. Thus the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle restored independence to France. Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaties of Peace con- cluded at. The first, 2 May 1668, put an end to the war carried on against Spain by Louis XIV. in 1667, after the death of his father- in-law, Philip IV., in support of his claims to a great part of the Spanish Netherlands, which he urged in the name of his queen, the Infanta Maria Theresa, pleading the jus devolutionis prevailing among private persons in Brabant and Namur. The second peace of Aix-la-Cha- pelle, 18 Oct. 1748, terminated the Austrian War of Succession in which the parties were at first Louis XV. of France and the Empress Maria Theresa, and, in the sequel, Spain on the one side, and Great Britain, Maria Theresa, and Charles Emmanuel, king of Sardinia, on the other. Ajaccio, a-ya'cho, or Ajazzo, ii-yat'zo, France, capital of the department and island of Corsica, on its southwest coast, on a tongue of land projecting into the Gulf of Ajac- cio. It is sheltered by mountains from the north and east winds ; and the town and bay are defended by a citadel. The entrance into the harbor is rendered unsafe by projecting rocks. Ajaccio : the birthplace of Napoleon; the house in which he was born is still in a state of good preservation, and has become the property of the nation. It is the handsomest city of Corsica and the seat of a bishop, It contains a cathe- dral, a communal college, a public library, a botanical garden, etc. In the commercial world it is famous for its coral and sardine fisheries, and it has also a trade in wine, grain, olive-oil, and fruits. Pop. (1902) 20,200. Ajalon, said to be the modern Yalo. a village 14 miles west-northwesf of Jerusalem, was the town rendered memorable by Joshua's victory over the five Canaanitish kings, and still more so by the extraordinary circumstance of the miraculously lengthened day. AJ AX — ALABAMA A'jax (Greek, Aias), the name of two of the Grecian chiefs who fought against Troy, distin- guished as Ajax Oileus and Ajax Telamonius. The former, the son of Oileus and Etiopas, a Locrian, was called the Less. When the Greeks had entered Troy, Cassandra lied to the temple of Pallas, whence she was forced and dragged along, hound as a cap- tive. Some accounts add that he violated the prophetess in the temple of the goddess. Ulysses accused him of this crime, when he exculpated himself with an oath. But tlu- anger of the goddess at last overtook him, and he perished in the waves of the sea. The other Ajax was the son of Telamon, from Sa- lamis, and a grandson of rEacus. He understood not how to speak, but how to act. After the death of Achilles, when his arms, which Ajax claimed on account of his courage and relation- ship, were awarded to Ulysses, he was filled with rage, and, driven to frenzy, threw himself on his sword, after having slaughtered the sheep of the Greek army, which he fancied were his enemies. Akron, Ohio, city and county-seat of Sum- mit County, is situated in a range of hills over- looking the Little Cuyahoga River. The Ohio Canal here mounts to the watershed between Lake Erie and the Ohio River by a series of 21 locks. It is 31 miles southeast of Cleveland and 98 miles northeast of Columbus. Railroads cen- tring here are the Baltimore & O., Pennsylvania, Erie, Cleveland, A. & C, Pittsburg & W., North- ern O., and Valley. The town was settled about 1818, but its growth dates from the location of the Ohio Canal in 1825, the surplus water used in lockage, furnished by a system of reservoirs on the Summit level, making the power for large flouring mills then located here. It was incor- porated as a village in 1836, and as a city in 1871. Its location is advantageous for a diver- sified industry, being in the northern edge of the grain belt, and on the southern border of the dairy section of the State, and beds of fire-clay and coal fields being close by. It is the prin- cipal seat of rubber manufactories for the Mid- dle West, the yearly output of these industries alone being $10,500,000, of which the B. F. Good- rich company furnishes about $6,000,000. The number of rubber workers employed is about S,ooo, and the amount paid to them in wages is over $2,300,000 in the year. The printing works of the Werner Company, employing 1,200 per- sons, are located here. The city is also the seat of a large number of other manufactories, in- cluding the American Cereal Company, the Ault- man, Miller & Company, makers of Buckeye mowers and reapers, the American Twine and . Cordage Company, the American Clay Company, the Akron plant of the Wellman, Seavers-Mor- gan Company, where is made hoisting and min- ing machinery, The McNeil Boiler Company, and lesser manufactories of various kinds. At Barberton, the southern suburb of Akron, are the works of the Diamond Match Company, the largest in the world, O. C. Barber, one of the pioneers in this particular industry and founder of Barberton, being a native and resident of Akron. (See Barberton.) In addition to its proximity to the coal fields, Akron has facilities for manufacturing in the way of fuel, in natural gas piped from West Virginia. Under the mu- nicipal code of Ohio, Akron is governed by a mayor, council, board of public service, board of public safety, board of education, and sub- ordinate officers. The school system alone in- volves the annual expenditure of upwards of $160,000, and is of a high and efficient grade. Here is the seat of Buchtel College (Univer- salist), founded by John R. Buchtel, the corner- stone of which was laid by Horace Greeley in 1872. The other principal public buildings are Carnegie Free Library, United States Govern- ment building, Colonial Theatre, Grand Opera House, Methodist Episcopal church, High School building, etc. The annual revenue of the city is over $1,000,000. Akron was once the home of John Brown, and his former dwelling is still standing here, where the councils of his associates in the abolition cause were held. It was also the residence of Sidney Edgerton, first chief justice of Idaho Territory, and first terri- torial governor of Montana. Pop. (1900) 42,- 728, being a gain of 54.8 per cent since i8go. Tn 1903 the estimated population was 61,000. C. R. Grant, Attorney at Law, Akron, O. Alabama, Gulf State of United States (No. 9 in order of admission), hounded N. by Tennes- see, S. by Florida and Gulf of Mexico, E. by Georgia, W. by Mississippi ; extreme length 336 m., greatest breadth 200 m., about 150 at N. border; area (No. 27 in U. S.), 52,250 sq. m., 710 water; pop. 1900 (No. 18 in U. S.), 1,828,697, or 35.5 to sq. m. (No. 26 in density). Whites, 1,001,152; colored, 827,545. Topography. — The great Tennessee Valley, which sweeps into and out of the State across the extreme N., is bordered in its western part by a region of fertile terraces ; in its eastern it separates the picturesque Cumberland Plateau on the N., a continuation of Middle Tennessee, from the declining flat-topped parallel ranges of the Blue Ridge on the S., which enter the State from N. Georgia some I,Coo feet high, and of which the Raccoon Mountains sink to low hills called the Sand Mountains extending to the centre of the State, while the Lookout Moun- tains end sharply about 60 miles within it. To the southwest they are succeeded by a low pla- teau where the great coal and iron deposits lie, to the southeast by the same "Piedmont" region of rolling upland as in all the southern States ; and both decline to the great belt of level coast- land which extends all around those States and comprises three fifths of Alabama's terri- tory. The sea line is short, three fourths of its natural extent being taken up by Florida ; and its only valuable part is Mobile Bay, an inlet 36 miles long by 8 to 18 broad, which receives the great river systems of the State. Other bays are the Perdido, which with the rerdido River divides Alabama from Florida, 20 miles long by 6 to 10 wide, once a nesting-place for pirates and filibusters; the Grand; and the Bon Secours. River Systems (see also Commerce and Nav- igation, below). — The Mobile system drains the greater part of the State. The Mobile River, 45 m. long, as such, and emptying into the Mobile Bay, is formed from the Alabama E. and the Tombigbee W., very crooked alluvial streams. The Alabama is a powerful stream 800 m. long from its farthest sources, but only so named for the 320 m. from the junction of the Coosa N. and Tallapoosa E., just above Montgomery, the State capital; the. Coosa, 350 ALABAMA m. long as such, is formed by the junction at Rome, Ga., of the Etowah and Oostenaula, and receives N. the Cahaba or Cahawba, rising in the mountains N.E. of Birmingham. The Tom- bigbee is about 500 m. long; it rises in Missis- sippi, and just above Demopolis, Ala., receives a large tributary, the Black Warrior, some 300 m. long, wholly in Alabama, rising near the great south bend of the Tennessee at Gunters- ville. The Tennessee, the Ohio's chief affluent, has about 180 m. of its course in Alabama, with a wholly unrelated drainage system. The S.E. portion of the State is drained by the Choctaw- hatchie, the Escambia with the Conecuh, and the Chattahoochee which divides the southern half from Georgia, all emptying in Florida. Climate. — Alabama ranges in climate and products from the temperate to the semitropic regions, — extending from 35 to 30° 10' N., or within 6 2 /j degrees of the Tropic, and from mountain to seacoast ; and still more, from northern mountain to southern coast. Parts of its cool northeastern section are noted as sana- toriums ; the Piedmont region is entirely salu- brious, and near the Gulf the sea winds temper the heat ; along the river bottoms it is malarious. There is little snow or sharp cold in the north, nor extreme heat in the south ; the mean tem- perature for winter is 42.9, for summer 83.9; for the year, in the north 59.70, in the south 66.60. The frost limits at Montgomery are 10 October and 25 April. Average rainfall, 54 inches in the north, 63 inches in the south ; most of the rain is in early spring, especially in February. Geology. — All the Appalachian formations are found here, in three geological divisions : (1) Northern, above a line running southeast from the northeast corner to Tuscaloosa, show- ing Subcarboniferous rock masses and coal measures; (2) Middle, a triangle bounded by above line and one from Tuscaloosa to Colum- bus, Ga., having metamorphic and calcareous rocks, Silurian sediments, and coal measures; (3) Southern, all below this, having drift beds over Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks. The angle between the Alabama and Tombigbee is rich in fossils. Soils, Agriculture, and Forests. — Four terri- torial belts divide the State latitudinally. Each belt is distinguished by a variety of soils, but all soils are productive of forest trees and other wild growths. Each belt is watered in its own degree. Certain staple crops, cotton, corn, the cereals, the legumes, also garden vegetables, or- chard fruits and berries, flourish in degree in all the belts. The first is chiefly the Tennessee Valley, with a red chalky soil excellent for grain, and a sheltered situation making fruit cul- ture profitable, even delicate fruit like peaches. The mountainous districts around have much waste land, compensated by water-power, min- eral springs, and healing climate; the low foot- hills, however, are unsurpassed grazing grounds, and the long valleys between the spurs are highly fertile. The mineral lands have generally a sandy soil, often with clay subsoil. The Pied- mont region is a rolling prairie of great fertility, the_ metamorphic rocks having crumbled into varicolored loams with clay subsoil : around it is a forested girdle of similar loam with gravel or sedimentary rock beneath: the cotton belt is part of the famous Southern « Black Belt." and is a slender strip of black loam sometimes many feet deep, of enormous productiveness, extend- ing across the centre of the State. The south- ern coast land is sandy, but yields fair returns to labor ; much of it is occupied by vast stretches of yellow pine and other woods, af- fording not only lumber, tar, turpentine, resins, etc., but much wax and honey, and the " pine barrens B are broken by alluvial bottoms in which rice is grown. The chief crop of the State is cotton, in which Alabama ranks fourth in the Union, — after Georgia, Mississippi, and Texas ; in 1899, out of 223,220 farms, 192,388 raised cotton ; and out of a total value of all crops of $70,696,268, that of cotton was $42,069,677. The number of bales in that year was 1.106,840; in 1901, 1,103,- 000, from 3,447.751 acres estimated to be under cultivation. Strong efforts have been made to diversify the State's agriculture more, and not without success; but the system of renting farms by merchants to small occupiers, largely negroes, who are supplied with necessaries by the merchant on a crop mortgage, makes it diffi- cult to effect the change, as the cotton is a less experimental crop than new ones, and the mer- chant wishes to sell the occupier other products himself. The partial exhaustion of even the fertile cotton land, however, by continuous planting for many years, has awakened much anxiety for the agricultural future ; and the planting of cow-pease, alfalfa, etc., to enrich the soil and feed greater quantities of stock, has shown a considerable advance. Next in produc- tion to cotton is Indian corn, which is raised on nearly all farms to some extent, and in 1899 amounted to 35,053,047 bushels, with a value of $17,082,271, or nearly one fourth the total o f ->H crops ; corn and cotton thus making up nearly six sevenths of the State's crop products. In 1900, a bad year for corn, that crop had fallen to some 29,300,000 bushels. Oats are the next heaviest cereal crops, having of late years crowded out wheat ; in 1900 the total output was 4.300,000 bushels against 916,000 bushels of wheat. A more valuable crop is sweet potatoes, of which in 1899 the State harvested 3,467.386 bushels valued at $1,687,039; and little behind it was the production of syrup from sugar cane and sorghum, of which 4,395,235 gallons were made in 1899, bearing a market value of $1,405.- 278. Peanuts are raised in the southeast. Peaches and melons are important staples. In farm animals the State is not rich, the num- ber of swine being greatest of any, 1,866.000 in 1900. Minerals and Mining Industries. — The min- eral wealth of the State is enormous, practically all of it lying in the northern and middle geo- logical sections. The advantage of vast coal, iron, limestone, and dolomite (magnesian lime- stone) deposits lying close together has within the past 20 years raised the State from an al- most purely agricultural section to one of the chief manufacturing districts of the Union ; its centre being Birmingham. It is said that iron products can be manufactured more cheaply there than anywhere else on the globe. The coal fields — all bituminous, but comprising all the highest grades, cannel. coking, gas, etc. — occupy 8,660 square miles ; they are named from their rivers, the Warrior, Cahaba, and Coosa. The value of coal mined in Alabama has more than quadrupled in 18 years, rising from less than $2,500,000 in 1886 to over $14,000,000 in 7904, ranking the State No. 5 in quantity and ALABAMA No. 6 in value in the United States. Besides its direct use and sale, a large part is manufac- tured into coke, in which Alabama ranks No. 3. The iron deposits so far mined are 72 per cent red and 28 per cent brown hematite, the State ranking second in the latter ; magnetic, specular, limonite, and other valuable varieties are also present. The mining of this is almost entirely the development of the past two decades; in 1880 the product was but 171,000 tons; in 1889 it had risen to over 1.500,000 tons, and in 1899 to nearly 2,300,000 tons, making the State third in the Union, next after Michigan and Minne- sota — really second, the great Lake Superior beds constituting but one deposit In export of pig iron it ranks first in the Union. The lime- stone, used as a flux, and also burned into quicklime, is quarried to the value of above $300,000 a year. Natural gas has been found. Clays are another valuable mineral asset: nota- bly bauxite, — an alumina with some silica and iron, used for making aluminum, alum, and crucibles, — porcelain, fire, and building clays. Building-stone is largely quarried, including a fine sandstone. Among the other of the won- derful mineral riches of Alabama are soapstone and lithographic stone, emery and corundum, asbestos and graphite, slate and asphalt, phos- phates and marl, manganese and ochre, gold, silver, copper, and tin. There arc mineral springs of note in the north. The marble fields of Talladega County bordering the Coosa River and of Bibb County bordering the Cahaba River are unsurpassed both in abundance of the stone and in its quality. The Italian sculptor. Morctti, whose iron statue, 'Vulcan,* 54 feet high, was selected to represent Alabama at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition (1004) published his judg- ment upon practical test that no white marble known to his profession is as valuable to it in the finer grades of work as that which the Talla- dega quarries afford. These marbles are of many colors. It has been only of recent years that cement beds have been discovered in the black belt. There is a flourishing manufactory at Demopolis on the Tomhigbee and preparations are well advanced (1904) to construct larger plants near Selma on the Alabama. The entire area, 20 miles deep, from Selma to Demopolis, 50 miles, is underlaid with cement rock capable of pro- ducing at a cost nowhere else so low, an in- calculable supply of Portland cement of the highest classification. Gold mining has (1004) received fresh impetus in the northeastern coun- ties, where the supply is present but the mining yet problematical. The State geologist has pub- lished over his signature that the value of the phosphates of the central and southern counties of Alabama to agriculture surpasses the value of the entire coal field to commerce. Manufactures. — The manufacturing industry of the State as a whole has nearly doubled with- in the past ten years. By far the greatest in- crease has taken place in cotton goods, which have nearly quadrupled : an advance due partly to the development of iron industries, the cotton manufacture needing constant facilities for the making and repair of machinery to be profitable. In volume the iron trades far exceed every other. The steel industry is a creation of the past five years mainly ; the Alabama ores, from their phosphorus and silica, are unsuited to the acid Bessemer process, but in 1896 manu- facturers began to show a preference for the open-hearth steel for which they are titled. The following table from the census of 1900 shows at a glance the condition and gain of the lead- ing industries: Value, Value, 1 900 1 890 Iron and steel $17,392,483 $12,544,227 Lumber ami timber products (including turpentine and in, value $2,033,705). .. 12,867,551 8,507.971 Cotton goods 8,153,136 2,190,771 Foundry and machine shop products (iron pipe first, then stoves, car wheels, en- gines, bailers, etc.) 5,482.441 2,195.913 Railroad cars and car-shop work 4,172,192 1,581,207 ,•■■: • 3.7-'6,433 2,474.377 r louring and grist-null prod- " cts ; 3,310,757 3,060,452 Oil, cottonseed, and cake.... 2,985,890 1,203,989 Fertilizers (cottonseed meal mixed with Florida phos- phates) 2,068,162 765,000 Cotton, ginning 1,218,283 213,529 Leather, tanned, curried, and finished 1,005,358 77,066 The total number of hands employed in these manufactories in 1900 was 37,347, against 20,657 > n 1890. It is significant of the trend for consolidation that the number of ironworks was only 25 in 1900 against 35 in 1800; that the coking-works had diminished by 4, and the leather-dressing works by 3. As an instance of the economizing of labor, the flour and grist were turned out by 540 hands against 1,043 in 1890, though there was a considerable increase in value. There were 5,062 establishments al- together in the State, employing $70,370,081 capital and 55,432 hands, and paying $17,299,000 for w f ages and $46,151,026 for materials: output, $82,793,804. The liberality of the State and of municipalities in exempting cotton mills from taxation for 10 years has exerted a powerful influence upon the growth of that institution. Iron manufactories planted in the suburbs of Birmingham, 20 years ago, with the view of escape from municipal taxes by reason of dis- tance from the corporate lines, are permitted to enjoy their original exemption notwithstanding the city now encloses them by a dense popula- tion. The policy of the State Penitentiary in mining coal on its own account with the labor of many hundreds of long term negro convicts, encourages not only manufactures dependent upon steam power, but railroads that transport the products of the mills, to anticipate a steady supply of the fuel. The great saw-mills also receive from the penitentiary a quota of steady and efficient labor. Commerce and Navigation. — The great streams of the State, never closed by ice, afford fully 1.500 miles regular steam navigation, be- sides smaller boats in reaches : and improve- ments under way will increase this. The Mo- bile River and its two great constituents are navigable to Montgomery on the Alabama. 320 miles from the Mobile (the Coosa has also small steamers on it), and to Columbus, Miss., on the Tombigbee. 300 miles ; and the Black Warrior is to be improved and connected with Birming- ham by a canal, which will enable products to be carried to Mobile at about one fifth the pres- ent cost. The Chattahoochee is navigable to Columbus, Ga., about 300 miles up. The Ten- nessee's navigation is unfortunately broken by the Mussel Shoals near its western end in the State. On the Gulf the one seaport, Mobile, is a ALABAMA. 2 O s u ALABAMA port of great importance, the outlet of the great river systems of the State ; with a heavy trade in cotton, coal, and lumber, and soon to have a vast iron trade also. The bay of Mobile, in 1850-60, with a channel less than 10 feet deep, carried an export trade of $45,000,000, mostly cotton in compressed bales. Lighters were used to receive the cotton at the city wharves, to be towed down the shallow channel to sailing ves- sels waiting in the lower bay. In 1859 the Gen- eral Assembly passed a law requiring the county of Mobile to issue $800,000 bonds, the proceeds to deepen the channel. The outbreak of war de- feated the plan, subject to the approval of Congress. Under large appropriations of Con- gress, a channel more than 30 feet deep and with a top width of 280 feet from the Gulf of Mexico to the mouth of Chickasaw Creek, above the city of Mobile, has been successfully opened. The influence of this improvement on the trade of the port, especially in tropical fruits, lumber, and naval stores has been gratifying. The work of deepening the harbor still con- tinues. In 1872 under the direction of the sec- retary of war, a line of canal was surveyed be- tween Guntersville on the Tennessee River and Gadsden on the Coosa in view of pending legis- lation to open both of those long rivers to navi- gation their whole length. The line of canal surveyed was approximately 40 miles and the project was announced feasible at moderate cost. Fisheries. — These employ about 1,000 men, with an annual catch w-orth about $150,000. Railroads and Street Railways. — The rail- road system of the State, which in 1850 com- prised 183 miles, had increased to 1,843 in 1880, 3,422 in 1890, and 4.316 in iqoi, of which 650 were built since 1895, and 118 the previous year; over j4 of a mile to every 10 square miles, and over 2.3 to each 1,000 inhabitants. The great railroad centre of the State is Birmingham, which has six trunk lines converging there. In 1901 there were street railway lines in 11 places in the State, operating 216.95 miles of track. Railroad building began in Alabama at the earliest period in the use of that means of trans- portation in America. In 1832 the Decatur & Tuscumbia Railroad was chartered. 40 miles long, to overcome the obstacle of the Mussel Shoals in the Tennessee River by connecting the two towns that lay at either end of the shoals. The road was very crude in construction, — bar iron laid on wooden stringers, the cars drawn by mules. The rich planters of the level valley through which the line ran its entire length, built the grade by their slave labor, taking for pay stock in the road. Railroad property has grown to the proportion of approximately 1-6 of the assessable values of the State now taxed. Up to the time of secession, all the stock of the various short lines was owned in the State. Under the effects of a changed banking system, substituting the National Bank of issue, founded on government bonds in lieu of the private bank of issue, regulated alone by the State, founded on farm lands and other personal as- sets, with gold and silver coin to an ascertained deposit, railroad stocks and bonds are almost exclusively owned in New York and other mone- tary centres. The State is represented in the practical management of the railroads that pene- trate its territory, in so far as domestic traffic is concerned by its own laws enforced by a railroad commission of citizens. The com- mission is elective at the polls and consists of a president and two associate commissioners, with an office always open at the capitol. It had been the purpose of the State in ante- bellum legislation, enacted in the last decade of slavery, to connect deep water at Mobile with the landlocked mineral wealth of the central counties by rail. There was a definite policy to add to the export cotton trade then enjoyed by Mobile, an export trade in iron and coal. To this end several lines of railroad were chartered and supplementary assistance rendered in the initial movements to build them to completion by loans in cash taken from the "two per cent 9 and "three per cent 8 funds, funds donated to the State by the Federal government from public land sales within her boundaries. The main resources of the projected railroads nevertheless lay in the wealth of slave-owning cotton planters. The results of the war dissipated this reliance and the ownership of the lines as far as com- pleted became promptly absorbed in the North. This change in ownership and control had two inevitable sequence's, the operation of the roads in the interest of northern commercial centres as against Mobile, and the rapid extension of the mileage. State Finances. — The assessed valuation of the State in 1001 was $284,622,937; in 1897, $25i,390,i35._ The State tax was 5'< mills, be- sides a special soldier and school tax of 1 mill each. The bonded debt in 1901 was $9,357,600; and the interest charge, $448,680. The assessed valuation of the State in .1903 was_ $307,643,704. The present State Constitution limits the power of the Legislature to levy in any one year a greater rate than 6'< mills on the dollar State taxes. No county may levy a tax exceeding one half of one per centum by State assessment, except to pay old debts. All incorporated cities are subject to the same limitation of the power of taxation that applies to counties. The State can contract no new debt except that the gov- ernor may borrow $300,000. The governor has authority under the State Constitution to extend the present bonded debt of the State. The State bonds of all classes are now above par. Banks. — In 1901 there were 42 national banks, with $4,075,000 capital. $1,883,750 sur- plus, $17,648,000 deposits, $1,968,000 outstanding circulation ; 20 State banks and trust companies, with $992,000 capital and $2,328,400 deposits ; 6 savings banks, with unreported deposits: and 34 private banks. The national banks in 1004 had increased to 53 with $22,000,000 deposits ; the deposits in private banks then had risen to $17,000,000. The State now has an officer, the bank examiner, on a salary of $2,000 a year, charged with stated and frequent examinations of private banks. Some of the later constructed bank buildings are equal in magnificence of appointments to the best in the United States. The bankers are thoroughly organized. Education. — The public school system of Alabama was founded on a grant of public lands by the Federal government. The principle under- lying the grant is incorporated in the ordinance of 1787, enacted originally by the Congress of the Confederation for the government of the Northwest Territory. It consisted in the dona- tion of the 16th section (640 acres) in each township of government survey to be sold or leased under the State as trustee and the pro- ceeds accruing to be held by the State for the ALABAMA exclusive benefit of public scbools in the town- ship involved. Besides the [6th section tor pub- lic school support, the same act of Congress donated to tin- State for the benefit of a uni- versity within its bounds a large body of public lands. The lands now known as the "University Lands* are rich in coal seams and are now, al- though only partially developed, yielding a large supplement to its income from other sources. The l6th section fund yields a partial support to the public schools, while the State pays the uni- versity an annual interest amounting to $36,000, by constitutional proviso, on the proceeds of sales of its lands received from Congress made in the earlier history of the State. In 1875, a State convention repealed the mil- itary constitution of 1868 under which the public schools had practically suspended. The military regime had accumulated a public debt which had Utterly driven State credit away. Nevertheless the new Constitution prescribed a limit of appropriations for the schools, below which the General Assembly could not reduce the annual sum. In 1901 a State convention again assembled to revise the State Constitution. The Constitution of 1875 prescribed that the public schools should receive from the State not less than $100,000 annually. The Constitu- tion of 1901 so enlarges the limit that the schools now receive about $1,000,000 annually. The Constitution of 1901 ordains methods of pro- cedure under which each county may create a special school fund by taxation. In every en- largement of the public school system the result applies with exact uniformity to the two races wdto must have separate schools. The question of division of the school fund between the races in ratio of race contribution was raised and elab- orately considered in the convention only to be defeated by a decided majority. The youth from 5 to 17 in 1900 were 329,003 whites and 281,348 colored, 610,351 in all: the actual attend- ance, however, was only 161,884 white and 78,549 colored, 240,433 in all, or less than half the total of white and not much over one fourth the total of colored. There were upward of 7.000 schools and 7,500 teachers, the white and colored being taught separately. Besides these there were 48 public high schools, with about 1.300 scholars; and 66 private secondary schools, with some- thing over 1,000 pupils. There are 7 normal schools aided by the Peabody Fund, 3 of them for colored students, besides 3 private normal schools ; 9 agricultural schools for given dis- trict?. The Alabama Polytechnic Institute is the successor to the Alabama Agricultural and Me- chanical College at Auburn. The institution is in a highly flourishing condition and is con- ducted on the military plan. A practical instruc- tion in agriculture and mechanics is given there. Applied science in many features is taught in addition to the usual literary course. There are more than four hundred students there. The University of Alabama rebuilt entirely from destruction during the War is now open to the coeducation of the sexes. A law depart- ment under a dean is maintained in the same grounds for education in the law. At Mobile the medical department for the education of physicians and surgeons is maintained. There are in the State o men's and coedu- cational universities and colleges, and 9 wo- men's; chief among them are: Alabama Baptist Colored University (1878). Alabama Conference Female College, Meth- odist (1855). Athens Female College, Meth- odist, Athens (1842). Bailey Springs Univer- sity, non-sectarian, Bailey Springs (1893). Blount College, non-sectarian, Blountsvillc (1890). Howard College. Baptist, East Lake (1S41). Isbell College, Presbyterian (1849). Judson Female Institute, Baptist (1839). La- fayette College, non-sectarian, Lafayette (1885). Lincville College, non-sectarian, Lineville (1890). St. Bernard College, Roman Catholic, Cullman (1892). Selma University, non-secta- rian, Selma. Southern University, Methodist, Greensboro (1859). Spring Hill College, non- sectarian, Mobile. Tuskcgee Normal and In- dustrial Institute, colored, Tuskcgee (1881). Talladega College, non-sectarian, Talladega. University of Alabama, non-sectarian, Tusca- loosa (1831). Tuskcgee University (q.v.) is of world- wide note for Booker T. Washington's mag- nificent work in elevating the colored race by industrial training. In March 1901 it had 1,050 pupils from 23 States and Territories, Porto Rico, Cuba, and Africa. Churches. — The Baptist and the Methodist Episcopal South are the only strong denomina- tional bodies; of the others, the chief are the Presbyterian. Episcopal, and Roman Catholic. There are about 8,000 churches of all denomi- nations. Charitable and Penal Institutions. — The State maintains an asylum for the insane at Tuscaloosa. It is one of the institutions of the kind that primarily owes its origin to the benev- olent spirit of Miss Dorothy Dix of New Eng- land. The asylum was opened formally in 1860-1. Dr. Peter Bryce, a young physi- cian, was then made superintendent, and held the position the remainder of his life, some 35 years. The reforms in the management of the insane introduced there by Dr. Bryce are fa- mous the world over. There are State schools at Talladega for the blind, deaf and dumb of both races, the races kept separate. At Bir- mingham there is a State-supported school for the reform of white boys. At Mountain Creek the State supports a Home for Indigent Veter- ans of the Confederate Army. The State peni- tentiary is at Wetumpka, a farm of 700 acres. There is a branch farm of 4,500 acres at Spig- ners, 10 miles away, and on the Tallapoosa River, five miles in the opposite direction, is a third farm of 1,800 acres. The coal mines in Jefferson County operated by the State employ some 800 convicts. The saw-mills and farmers hire many. At Spigncrs there is a saw-mill and a cotton-mill. Ordinarily there are 2,500 convicts, 85 per cent negroes. The negro female convicts are perhaps I per cent of all ; the white female convicts yet fewer. The net income from the penitentiary to the State in 1904 is estimated at $250,000. mostly from the coal mines. State Government. — The State offices are held for four years, and incumbents are not eligible for re-election, and the governor not for any State office or United States Senate during or within a year after his term. The governor's salary is $3,000 per annum. The Board of Par- dons consists of the attorney-general, secretary of state, and state auditor, ex officio; its func- tions are only advisory, as the governor has full power. The latter's veto power extends to ALABAMA items of appropriation, but a majority vote overrules it, and a bill becomes law without his signature after a week. The legislature meets once in four years, sessions being limited to SO days ; the Senate is limited to 35 members and the House to 105. Members are paid $4 a day and traveling expenses. The statutes must be revised every 12 years; the State may not vote money for internal improvements ; and revenue bills cannot be passed in the last five days of a session. Congressional Representation. — The State has 9 representatives in Congress. Population and Divisions. — The increase in population has been as follows : 1820, 127,901 ; 1830, 309,527; 1840, 590,756; 1850, 771,623; i860, 964,201 ; 1870, 996,992 ; 1880, 1,262,505 ; 1890, I ,5 I 3-°I7 ; 1900, 1,828,967, an increase of 20.9 for the decade. The foreign-born population was 14,592; colored, 827,545. The colored popu- lation is largely concentrated in the "cotton- belt": in 15 selected counties the negro popu- lation was 399,397 against 122,040 white, while in 2 of them the proportion is between 6 and 7 colored to I white, and in others 4 and 5. The urban population is small : the largest city has under 40,000 people, and only 10 per cent of the population lives in places of 4,000 and over; these places, however, have increased from 10 in 1890 to 16 in 1900, and the negroes crowd into them. The State has 67 counties, whose names and county-seats are as follows : Autauga, Prattville. Baldwin, Daphne. Barbour, Clayton. Bibb, Centrevillc. Blount, Oneonto. Bullock, Union Springs. Butler, Greenville. Calhoun, Anniston. Chambers, Lafayette. Cherokee, Centre. Chilton, Clanton. Choctaw, Butler. Clarke, Grovehill. Clay, Ashland. Cleburne, Edwardsville. Coffee, Elba. Colbert. Tuscumbia. Conecuh. Evergreen. Coosa, Rockford. Covington, Andalusia. Crenshaw. Luverne. Cullman, Cullman. Dale, Ozark. Dallas. Selma. Dekalb, Fort Payne. Elmore, Wetumpka. Escambia, Brewton. Etowah, Gadsden. Fayette, Fayette. Franklin, Russellville. Geneva, Geneva. Greene, Eutaw. Hale, Greensboro. Henry, Abbeville. Houston, Dothan. Jackson, Scottsboro. Jefferson, Birmingham. Lamar, Vernon. Lauderdale, Florence. Lawrence, Moulton. Lee, Opelika. Limestone, Athens. Lowndes, Hayneville. Macon, Tuskegee. Madison, Huntsville. Marengo, Linden. Marion, Hamilton. Marshall, Guntersville. Mobile, Mobile. Monroe, Monroeville. Montgomery, Montgomery. Morgan, Decatur. Perry, Marion. Pickens, Carrollton. Pike, Troy. Randolph. Wedowee. Russell, Seale. St. Clair, Asheville. Shelby, Columbiana. Sumter, Livingston. Talladega, Talladega. Tallapoosa, Dadeville. Tuscaloosa, Tuscaloosa. Walker, Jasper. Washington, St. Stephens. Wilcox, Camden. Winston, Double Springs. Chief Cities. — The largest place, and the commercial port of the State, is Mobile, with 38,469 population ; Birmingham, the Pittsburg of the South, with 38,415 — but Birmingham has a suburban population of peculiar density, num- bering of itself quite 75.000, in hourly contact with the city by electric cars. Montgomery, the capital and head of navigation on the Ala- bama, has 30,346. Anniston, in the Blue Ridge, another iron city and cotton mart, has 9.695 ; Selma, a cotton centre, on the Alabama below Montgomery, 8.713: Huntsville, in the moun- tains north of the Tennessee, the emporium of that region and a noted sanatorium, 8,068; Florence, the head of navigation on the lower Tennessee, 6,478; Bessemer, a new iron city, 6,358; and Tuscaloosa, formerly the capital, head of navigation on the Black Warrior, 5,094-. History. — When discovered by white men, the territory was occupied by great Indian tribes of the formidable Muskohegan stock — Choc- taws, Creeks, and Chickasaws, Alibamos, and Apalachis. Hernando de Soto (q.v.) found the Indians along the upper Coosa more bountifully supplied with corn and beans and inhabiting better quarters than any of the red men he had found on his way from his landing on the Flor- ida coast. At Mauvila, on his way westward, he found the red men well housed and fed and ready for desperate fighting to resist the invader. The first settlement was by the French under the Canadian Bienville in 1702, at Mobile, where he built Fort St. Louis ; the city was founded in 1711, and was the capital of Louisiana for the next 15 years, New Orleans taking its place in 1726. Fort Toulouse was built at the conflu- ence of the Coosa and Tallapoosa in 1714. There w r ere the usual Indian wars and hostilities with the English traders who settled there. When France lost her American dominions in 1763 Alabama was divided at 32 40', the north- ern half being added to Illinois and the southern to West Florida. In 1779 Spain seized the latter, whose British inhabitants had not joined the Revolution, while the United States suc- ceeded to the former. Spain by treaty yielded the territory above 31 to the United States in 1795; for a time it was claimed by Georgia. In 1798 Congress organized Mississippi Territory, with the Mississippi and Chattahoochee as western and eastern limits, the 31st parallel (the present main boundary with Florida) S., and a line from the Yazoo N. ; in 1804 the northern boundary was carried to the southern boundary of Tennessee; in 1812 the territory between the Pearl River and the Perdido was annexed to it by proclamation, and in 1813 Mobile was seized and held by Gen. Jackson for the United States. Meanwhile the Lower Creek Indians, instigated by the British, took up arms against the United States and on 30 Aug. 1813 massacred a large party of settlers who had taken refuge in Fort Minis; the Upper Creeks remained loyal, but were involved in the vengeance which overtook the Indians at the hands of Jackson, who crushed them at Talla- dega and the Horse Shoe Bend of the Talla- poosa. (See Jackson.) They had to give up their lands west of the Coosa and south of Wetumpka, and were gradually expropriated and finally removed west of the Mississippi. (See Creek War: Indian Reservations.) On 3 March 1817 Alabama Territory was organized, capital St. Stephens ; the first legislature met in 1818 at Huntsville. On 14 Dec. 1819 Alabama was admitted to the Union as a slave State, paired with Maine as a free State. In 1820 the capital was changed to Cahaba, in 1826 to Tus- caloosa, in 1847 to Montgomery. Vlabama was one of the earliest of the Southern States to engage in the secession movement, and Montgomery was the first capi- tal of the Confederacy: the ordinance of seces- sion was passed 11 Jan. 1861, 61 to 39. In the ALABAMA secession convention the black belt influence was dominant, as it had been in the government of the State from the earliest period. The di- vision of the vote on the adoption of the Ordinance of Secession was not between a dis- union and a Union party. Two methods of dissolving the Union were under discussion, and one or the other method embraced all the dele- gates of the ioo holding seats, except perhaps a dozen who were unconditional Unionists. William L. Yancey, a lawyer, led the straight separate State secessionists, u ho were 54 in number. Robert Jemison, a capitalist, led the faction favorable to a co-operation of all the slave States for the purpose of some undefined measure of self-defense against the abolitionists represented by John Brown's invasion; William R. Smith was the representative of the uncondi- tional Unionists. Until the military successes of the Federal government occupied the coun- ties in the northern part of the State, the small farmers there exhibited no reluctance to volun- teer in the Confederate army. Forts Morgan and Gaines, which guarded .Mobile harbor, were seized; the senators and representatives re- signed their seats in Congress 21 January, and on 4 February the government of the Confed- eracy was organized at Montgomery by delegates from the seceding States. Selma was made a leading Confederate arsenal and shipyard. The Tennessee Valley was occupied by Union forces early in 1862, the fleet in Mobile Bay destroyed, and the forts retaken by Farragut in 1864, and the whole State rcoccupied April 1865. A pro- visional government was established by Presi- dent Andrew Johnson in June 1865, by the ap- pointment of Lewis E. Parsons, a native of New York who had long resided in Alabama, to be governor. Governor Parsons ordered an election by the full body of electors except the several classes not yet pardoned by the Presi- dent, of delegates to assemble in the capitol at Montgomery September 1865. This conven- tion made a new State Constitution, revoking the Ordinance of Secession, abolishing slavery, providing for the equality of the frcedmen in rights of person and property and ratifying the Thirteenth Amendment to the Federal Consti- tution. The new Constitution restricted the electorate to the white males eligible. The State government set, up by the new Constitu- tion was accepted by all the departments of the Federal government and went into effect De- cember following. The General Assembly, however, refused to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment. Thereupon the Senators and Rep- resentatives from Alabama to Congress were denied seats and by the acts of March 1867 the State government was abolished and military rule restored. Under military supervision the Constitution of 1868 was made and a civil gov- ernment set up. The Constitution of 1868 re- mained in force until 1875, when a new one was made by the people in convention. The State was bankrupted by the carpet-bag regime, and there was great disorder in the attempt to bring the rule once more into the hands of the better classes; hut these conditions have long passed away, and the reorganization of the public debt in 1876 made industrial progress possible. The State is solidly Democratic. JOHN WlTHERSPOON Pr BoSE, Anther of 'Life and Times of Yancey? Alabama, a river formed near Montgom- ery, in the State of Alabama, by the junction of the Coosa and the Tallapoosa. It flows west and then south to its junction with the Tom- bigbee about 50 miles above its mouth, where it assumes the name of the Mobile, and finally falls into Mobile Bay. Steamboats ascend t" Montgomery, 320 miles, but the navigation is interrupted during the season of low water. Some of the largest cotton plantations of Amer- ica are situated on its banks. Alabama, The, a ship built at Birken- head on the Mersey by the Lairds under con- tract with the Confederate States at a cost of $250,000, and sent to sea as a privateer, in the spring of 1862, known as "200." The name in- dicated only that the vessel was, in order of launch from the builders' yards, number 290. Protest had come to the British government from the American minister at the Court of Saint James, Charles Francis Adams (q.v.), against the sailing of the ship. Meantime Capt. Raphael Semmes and 24 young naval officers from the Confederacy arrived in Liverpool with commissions in their pockets to take command. For sake of prudence Capt. Semmes ordered the "290" to sail for the island of Terceira, one of the Azores, under command of Capt. Butcher, a young officer of the British merchant marine. Semmes immediately followed as a passenger on an English ship. His armament had been already shipped to the same rendezvous. At Terceira the privateer ran up the Confederate colors, took her name as ordered by the Con- federate government, and received on board as armament two pivot guns amidships and six 32-pounders, eight guns in all. The manning of the ship was 25 officers in all and about 120 men. Stores for a long cruise were taken aboard, and the vessel, equipped for both steam and sail, entered promptly upon her memorable career. On the night of 11 Jan. 1863, the United States steamer rlatteras engaged the Alabama off the coast of Texas and was sunk. The Alabama roved the seas for two years, seeking the commerce of the United States from both hemispheres. The privateer was supposed to have destroyed one half the Amer- ican merchant marine, then second in tonnage only to that of Great Britain among the nations. On the forenoon of 11 June 1864 the Alabama made anchor in the port of Cherbourg, France. The intent of Capt. Semmes was to dock his ship for much-needed repairs. While Semmes was awaiting the consent of the Emperor Napo- leon III. to the use of the government docks, the news of the arrival of the privateer spread over the land. Capt. Winslow, commanding the United States ship Kearsarge, lying at Flushing, was apprised of the fact by Dayton, United States minister to France, and made for Cher- bourg, sailed into the harbor and out without anchoring, but took position outside. Semmes rightly construed the conduct of the Kearsarge as the equivalent of a challenge to combat. The Alabama steamed out on Sunday morning in faultless weather. The Kearsarge's machinery was additionally protected by a chain-armor covered with one-inch deal boards. However, as that part of the ship was struck but twice, the armor was of no material aid. The Kear- sarge had 163 men and seven guns ; the Ala- bama 140 men and eight guns. The metal car- ried by the Kearsarge guns was heavier than the ALABAMA CLAIMS metal of the Alabama guns. The battle was fought in a circle and lasted I hour and 2 minutes, resulting in the sinking of the Ala- bama. In the first 30 minutes the Alabama lodged a rifled percussion shell near the stern- post of the Kearsarge, which from a faulty cap failed to explode. The shell is now to be seen, in the wood where it buried itself, in the ordnance museum of the navy yard at Wash- ington. Capt. Semmes remained on the deck of his ship until it went down. He and 41 others from the sunken vessel were rescued by the Deerhound, a pleasure yacht belonging to John Lancaster, an Englishman. Many persons had come from Paris to view the battle and the hills along the coast were lined with spectators as it progressed. After the close of the war the British government paid an indemnity to American shippers of $15,500,000, representing losses inflicted by the Shenandoah (in part), the Florida (in full), and the Alabama (in full). Consult: Semmes. 'The Cruise of the Alabama' (1864); Bullock, 'Secret Service of the Confederate States 1 (1883); Sinclair, 'Two Years on the Alabama' (1895) ; also the narra- tives in 'Battles and Leaders of the Civil War' (1887-8), edited by Johnson and Buell. See Alabama Claims. John Witherspoon Du Bose. Author of '■Life and Times of Yancey? Alabama Claims, claims against Great Britain for damages to United States shipping by Confederate cruisers — the Alabama chiefly, also the Florida, Georgia, Shenandoah, and others — built or equipped in British waters during the Civil War, and allowed to depart counter to international law (see Declaration OF Paris; Marque and Reprisal) and to statutes of both countries obligating their governments to prevent expeditions from their territories against friendly powers. At the outbreak of the "War the Confederacy, having no navy, commis- sioned privateers as of old. Great Britain is- sued a proclamation of neutrality, according belligerent rights to both and forbidding arma- ment at English hands to either ; but the Eng- lish officials obeyed their superiors' secret wishes and their own sympathies and not their formal orders, knowing they would not be held to account for preventing $1,100,000,000 of English subscriptions to Confederate bonds from be- coming worthless. Accordingly English built, stored, and manned vessels soon scoured the seas, capturing and burning United States mer- chantmen ; and English colonial ports, especially Nassau, were safe nests for them for any length of time ; while Northern vessels at best were held sternly to the letter of the law, and in some cases illegally imprisoned for many weeks in harbors they had lawfully entered to refit. The least part of the loss was the direct capture of prizes : manyfold greater were the indirect losses caused by the decline in trade from the difficulty in securing freights, the great rise in marine insurance, and greatest of all, the pro- longation of the war and its increased cost while it lasted. The Alabama case, by its flagrancy and Mr Adams' menace, half frightened and half shamed the English government into amending its conduct, and no more privateers left Eng- land ; but those afloat heaped up for it a legacy of trouble, of which the United States steadily pressed for a settlement. As early as the winter of 1862-3 W. H. Seward (q.v.) had served notice on Great Britain of a purpose to hold her to account for « negligence," in diplomatic phrase, in enforcing her laws. From 1865 on there was no cessation in United States urgency of the claims and effort to arrive at some ad- justment, including claims for "indirect dam- ages," above mentioned, which excited the wrath of all parties in England. At last, by the Treaty of Washington (q.v.), 8 May 1871, it was agreed that the « Alabama Claims" (which included those for depredations of other ves- sels) should be referred to five arbitrators ; one to be named by the United States, one by Eng- land, and one each by the king of Italy, the emperor of Brazil, and the president of Switzer- land ; and it defined for their guidance the du- ties of a neutral and the phrase '< due diligence." The commission met at Geneva. 15 Dec. 1871, and named as chairman Count Federigo Sclopis, the Italian nominee. England sent Sir Alex- ander Cockburn ; the United States, Charles Francis Adams; Brazil. Baron d'ltajuba. Bra- zilian minister to France ; Switzerland, ex- President Jacob Staempfli. The chief English counsel was Sir Roundell Palmer ; while the American side was represented by W. M. Evarts, Caleb Cushing, and M. R. Waite (later Chief Justice), — Mr. J. C. Bancroft Davis pre- paring its case. The decision was given 14 Sept. 1872 ; for its rules see Geneva Arbitra- tion. Indirect damages were unanimously barred out, on the ground that they were too indefinite to estimate under international law (q.v.) ; also doubtless for the reason, not openly expressed, that any nation would take its chance of going to war rather than pay such amounts, more than any conceivable war indemnity. England was held liable only for the Alabama (unanimous), Florida (4 to 1), Shenandoah in part (3 to 2), and the tenders of the Alabama and Florida (unanimous) ; the Retribution failed of inclusion by 3 to 2. The total amount was fixed in a lump at $15,500,000, the United States being left to settle with pri- vate claimants. That the total was sufficiently high for the direct losses is shown by the fact that eight years after the establishment of a United States court for distributing it ( 23 June 1874), claims for only three fifths of it had been allowed. On 5 June 1882 a second court was established to deal with the remainder. If the award failed to content the extremists on either side, — the Americans too sore from the war losses and bereavements, a < La Coltivazione,' < Girone il Cortese,> etc. The English poet Wyatt imitated some of his satiri- cal work. The writings of Alamanni are rec- ommended by ease, perspicuity, and purity of style, but often want strength and poetic eleva- tion. Alameda, a-la-ma'da, co-extensive city and township in Alameda co., Cal., on San Fran- cisco Bay and the Southern Pac. R.R. ; 11 miles E.S.E of San Francisco. It is the seat of the College of Notre Dame (Roman Catholic) ; a popular summer resort, and the place of resi- dence of many San Francisco business men. It has numerous banks, electric light and street railway plants, the largest borax works in the world, extensive potteries, oil refineries, and ship-building yards. The government of the city is vested in a board of four trustees, the president of which is executive head. It has grown from a population of 100 in 1854 to about 18,000 in 1903. Alaminos, a-la-me'nos, Antonio de, Span- ish pilot : b. in Palos, Spain, about the end of the 15th century. He is said to have been with Columbus in 1599, and was the principal pilot for the expeditions of Cordova, Ponce de Leon, and others, in the early part of the 16th century. The earliest map of North America is supposed to have been prepared by Alaminos. Alamo, a'la-mo, The, San Antonio, Tex.: a Franciscan mission house built about 1722 and called San Antonio de Valerio ; after 1793 used on occasion as a fort and renamed Fort Alamo. It consisted of an oblong plaza some 2V2 acres in area, enclosed by walls 8 feet high and 33 inches thick, a church, a hospital building, a convent, and a walled convent yard about 100 feet square. It has enduring celebrity as the scene of the battle and massacre of 6 March 1836, in the war for Texan independence. The fort was held by about 140 men under Wm. B. Travis, and on 23 February was invested by a considerable Mexican army (probably about 4,000) under Santa Anna, who at once began a bombardment scarcely intermitted for the next ten days. The little garrison, compelled to man the defenses day and night, and too few to relieve each other, sent desperate appeals to their outside com- rades for help ; but to break through the dense Mexican forces was so difficult that the only reinforcement received was 32 men on the 1st of March. At last a breach was made in the walls, and shortly after daylight on the 6th a general assault was ordered. Twice the storm- ing party were repulsed with heavy loss of lives; the third time they gained the parapet and en- tered the inclosure. No surrender was offered, and the result showed that the Texans knew their foe too well to expect quarter; worn with fatigue and privation, they fought to a finish, till only five were left. These were taken pris- oners, and the savage Santa Anna had them slaughtered on the spot. Three women, two white children, and a negro boy were the sole survivors of about 180 inmates. Santa Anna stated the Mexican loss at 70 killed and 300 wounded, but it is believed to have been much greater. The news of the heroic fight, « the Thermopylae of America," nerved the Texans in all their future efforts, and their slogan was « Remember the Alamo ! » Santa Anna him- self was defeated and captured at San Jacinto a few weeks later. (Corners, < San Antonio de Bexar,) 1890; Williams, < Sam Houston and the War of Independence,) 1893; J. L. Ford, < Origin and Fall of the Alamo,' 1896.) Aland Islands, a group of about 80 is- lands and islets between the Gulf of Bothnia and the Baltic Sea, and near the mouth of the Gulf of Finland; area, 468 square miles. The principal islands are Aland, which is the largest, and gives name to the group, Lemland, Lumpar- land, Ekeroe, Fogloe. Kumlinge, Braendoe, Vor- doe, and Hannoe. Aland, distant about 30 miles from the Swedish coast, is 25 miles long and about 22 broad. In this island is a harbor ca- pable of containing the whole Russian fleet. The chief towns are Aland and Castelholm. The islands are now included in the province of Finland. Pop. about 19,000. Alani, or Alans, one of the warlike tribes which migrated from Asia westward at the time of the decline of the Roman empire. They are first met with in the region east of Mount Caucasus, where Pompey fought with them. From this centre they spread over the south of modern Russia to the confines of the Roman empire. They were engaged in war with Rome in the time of Hadrian, but were defeated by Arrian, the general of that emperor. Marcus Aurelius had much difficulty in keeping them out of the empire, and Tacitus concluded a treaty with them (275 a.d.). About a century later those on the banks of the lower Danube wire conquered by the Huns, after which most of them joined the ravaging expeditious of that people. They accompanied Rhadagais on his march into Italy, and after his defeat they settled first on the Rhine, afterward (about 4111 in modern Portugal. Being there completely de- feated by the Visigoths, they joined the Van- dals, among whom they have become lost to history. ALANUS AB INSULIS — ALASKA Alanus ab Insulis, a-la'nus ab in'su-lis, or Alain de Lille, a-lan' de 101, a noted French scholastic philosopher : b. 1114 ; d. 1203, Of his voluminous theological writings the best known i, the treatise on 'The Articles of the Faith.* His p , Vnti-Claudinus, or On the Duties of a Good and Perfect Man," is one of the most celebrated poetic compositions of the Middle Ages. Alarcon, al-ar-kon', Ferdinando de, called El Scrior Alarcon, a Spanish general: b. 1466; (1. 1540. To his care Francis I. of France was entrust 1 after his capture at tin- battle of 1'avia. He also to< charge of Clement VII. when that pope w.is taken prisoner by the troops of the Constable Bourbon in 1527. Alarcon, Hernando, a Spanish navigator: flourished in the [6th century ; leader of an ex- pedition to Mexico which set sail in 154°- He proved that California was a peninsula and not an island, as had been supposed previously. lie penetrated in boats a considerable distance up the Colorado River. On his return to New Spain he made a valuable map of the California peninsula. Alarcon, Pedro Antonio de, a distin- guished Spanish novelist, poet, and politician: b. in Guadix, 10 March 1833; d. 19 July 1N01. His critical contributions to papers, politi- cal and literary, his description of the Moroccan campaign, but especially his novels and short stories, are among the best of their kind, and present a picture of modern Spanish society as true t" life as it is variegated. His clever es- say, 'The Toil's Christmas,' went through over 100 editions. An imposing number of his sialics appeared under the collective titles 'Lo\e and Friendship,' 'National Tales,' "Improbable Stories.' Among them ( The Three-Cornered Hat' and 'The Scandal' deserve special men- tion. Alarcon y Mendoza, a-lar-lton man-do'- tha, Don Juan Ruiz de, a noted Spanish dram- atist: b. in Tasco, Mexico, about 1588 or 1500:. d. 4 Aug. [639. Little is known about his early life, but be went to Spain in 1600 and became royal attorney in Seville. From [608 to ton he was in Mexico; then he took 1111 1 1 i ^ residence in Madrid, where he was appointed reporter ol the royal council of the Indies, about 1628. The last great dramatist of the old Spanish school, be may he considered also the creator of the so-called character comedy. Elevated sentiment, harmony of verse, and correctness of language distinguish bis works, the principal of which are 'The Weaver of Segovia': 'Suspicious Truth,' the model for Corneillc's 'Liar': (Walls Have Ears'; 'The Proof of Promises'; 'The Anti-Christ.' A complete edition of his work- was published by Hartzenbusch in Madrid 1 Al'aric I., king of the Visigoths: b. about the middle of the jth century; d. 410, and is fir^t mentioned in history in 394 A.D., when Theodosius the Great gave him the command of his Gothic auxiliaries. The dissensions between Arcadius and Honorius, the sons of Theodosius, inspired Alaric with the intention of attacking the Roman empire. In 306 he ravaged Greece, from which he was driven by the Roman gen- eral Stilicho, but made a masterly retreat to II- lyria, of which Arcadius, frightened at his suc- cesses, appointed him govei In 400 he in- vaded Italy, hut was deflated by Stilicho at Pollentia (403), and induced to transfer his services from Arcadius to Honorius on condition of receiving 4,000 pounds of gold. Honorius having failed to fulfil this condition, Alaric made a second invasion of Italy, during which he besieged Rome thrice. The first tune (408) the city was saved by paying a heavy ransom; the second (409) it capitulated, and Honorius was deposed, but shortly afterward restored. His sanction of a treacherous attack on the forces of Alaric brought about the third siege, anil the city was taken, 24 Aug. 410, and sacked for six days, Alaric, however, doing everything in his power to restrain the violence of his followers. He quitted Rome with the intention of reducing Sicily and Africa, but died at Co- senza. Alaric II., king of t he Visigoths from 4S4 to 507 a. ip. At the beginning of bis reign the dominions of the Visigoths were at their great- est extent, embracing three fourths of the mod- ern Spain and all western Gaul to the south of the Loire. I lis unwarlike character induced Clovis, king of the Franks, to invade the king- dom of the Visigoths. In a battle near Poictiers (507) Alaric was slain and bis army completely defeated. The 'Breviarium Alaricianum,' a code Of laws derived exclusively from Roman sources, was compiled by a body of Roman jurists at the command of this King Alaric. Ala-Shehr, a-la-shar', ancient Philadelphia, a town in Turkey in Asia, 70 miles east of Smyrna, famous as the seat of one of the first Christian churches, and still having a vast number of interesting remains of antiquity, con- sisting of fragments of beautiful columns, sar- cophagi, fountains, etc. It is a place of some importance, carrying on a thriving trade, chiefly with Smyrna, to which runs a railway. Top. 19,000. Alaska, I unit al-ak-sbak or al-a-ek-sa, "great land," formerly Russian America; a Territory of the United Slates, the NAV. ex- tremity of the continent ; bounded N. by the Arctic Ocean, S. by the Pacific Ocean, E. by Canada (Yukon District and British Colum- bia], W. by the Arctic Ocean, Siberia, and the Bering Sea. Lat. 54 40' to 71 30' N. ; Ion. mainland 141° to 167 59' 12" W.,to the farthest island (Attoo) about 187 . Length, mainland about 1,150 m., Aliaskan Peninsula and islands 1,500 m. (as far west of San Francisco as Maine lies to the east ) ; breadth N. to S., about 850 m. ; coast line, about 8,000 m. ; area, 590,884 sq. m. Pop. (1900) 63,592 (for items see Popula- tion, below); (1902) about 90,000. Capital, Sit- ka (formerly New Archangel), in the extreme southeast. Sise of Alaska. — For many reasons, but chiefly because of its distance from the United States and the present difficulties of travel in its interior, the size of the territory has been but little understood and probably much under- estimated. The mere statement that the area of Alaska is nearly 600,000 square miles will give but a vague idea of its vast extent. If it were possible to take the whole territory of Alaska and its adjoining islands and place them upon the portion of North America occupied by the ALASKA United States, it would be a simple thing to show exactly the proportionate size of this great possession. This, in effect, has been done, as the accompanying illustration demonstrates. The chart was prepared by Mr. Alfred H. Brooks of the United States Geological Survey. It shows that the Territory of Alaska is suffi- cient in geographic extent to reach from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from Canada to .Mex- ico. Placed in this position on the United States, Alaska would cover 23 States and Terri- tories and the western third of Lake Superior. Topography. — Alaska consists of: (1) A squarish block with the oceans on all sides but the east. (2) A strip of mountain coast 50 to 75 m. wide, for some 500 m. further southeast, the last 300 m. fenced from the ocean by a won- derful maze of 1,100 forested mountainous islands called the Alexander Archipelago, 13,000 sq. m. in area, and separated by glacier-cut They are divided into groups, known as the Fox (the first of which, Unimak, is the largest of the archipelago), the islands of Four Mountains, the Andreanof, the Rat, and the Near islands. The southern part of the main body is a vast concave called the Gulf of Alaska, its two arms the southeast coast and Aliaska: the latter di- vided from the north mainland by Bristol Bay, and nearly made an island by the great Iliamna Lake, the Nikhkak "loch" N.E., and their river outlet S.E. To the east, but physically belong- ing to the first division, is the important Kenai Peninsula, divided from it and the mainland by Cook's Inlet, nearly cut off by Turnagain Arm, and separated on the east by Prince William Sound. Half the western side is taken up by a deep concavity, its cusps being Cape Romanoff on the south, and Point Hope and Cape Lis- burne to the north. From its centre projects the huge tooth-shaped Seward Peninsula, divided Alaska compared with the rest of the United States. channels variously styled sounds, straits, canals, entrances, inlets, etc. They are divided from the mainland N. by Cross Sound, — the ocean opening of the great Klondike route, where the fiord Lynn Canal, an inlet about 100 m. long, leads tn passes over the mountains, — the begin- ning of a striking physical change, where the St. Elias Range and the greatest glaciers begin and the greatest forests end ; and from Queen Charlotte Islands (Canadian) by Dixon En- trance. The chief of these islands are (from the north) Chicagof. Admiralty. Baranof (con- taining Sitka). Kulu, Kupreano, Zarembo, Prince of Wales (the largest), and Revilla- gigedo. (3) To the southwest the Aliaska Penin- sula, about 450 m. long, and a chain of some 150 islands, 31,000 sq. m. in area (the Aleutian Islands or Archipelago) over 1,000 m. further, nearly to Kamchatka. Bering's and Copper is- lands, near the Siberian coast, belong to Russia. from Siberia by Bering Strait ; the western extremity being called Cape Prince of Wales, — only 48 m. from East Cape (the extremity of the Kamchatka Peninsula), with the Diomed Islands between, — and the southern point being termed Cape Nome. The bays south and north of it are styled Norton Sound, off Bering Sea, and Kotzebue Sound, off the Arctic Ocean. The northernmost point of Alaska is Point Barrow, where Franklin's second Arctic expedition end- ed its course. St. Lawrence Island, about 150 m. long, lies between Cape Romanoff and the Siberian peninsula, but nearer the latter; and the Pribyloff Islands of seal fame are out in Bering Sea, about 250 m. northwest of the point nf Aliaska. Physically the Territory may be divided into four sections, climatically and productively dis- tinct : the Coast-Mountain, the Insular, the Basin, and the Yukon-Arctic Districts. ALASKA I. The Coast-Mountain District. — Apart from the islands this consists entirely of two great mountain ranges, geologically distinct, with a glaciered plateau between them. One (the St. Elias Range) starts at Cross Sound where the coast from northwest turns west, and hugs it closely to Prince William Sound. The other (the Coast Range) comes from the United States and Canada, and runs parallel to the coast till it turns, with a narrow table along the sea; continues northwest behind the St. Elias to about 63° N. lat., forming the western water- shed of the upper Yukon; then turns southwest in a stupendous range called the Alaskan Moun- tains of the Kenai and Aliaskan peninsulas, forming the watershed of the Tanana and Kus- kokwim valleys. The coast range proper is a series of irregular spurs with peaks 6,000 to 8,000 ft. high, the permanent snow line being at ' an elevation of about 2,000 ft. The Alaskan Range is the highest elevation in North America : flanked on the east by the grand iso- lated volcano Mt. Wrangell (eruptive early in the 10th century), then from lower summits ris- ing steadily to the west till it culminates in enormous nameless peaks, crowned by a named one, Ml. McKinley, 20,460 ft., the summit of the continent. Of the other peaks in this range, measurements have been taken of Hayes, 14,- 500 ft.; Sanford, 14,000; Tillman and Drum, 13.300 each; Iliamna and Redoubt, volcanoes, about 12,000 each; and Lituya, 11,832 ft. The St. Elias Range is far loftier, narrower, and more regular than the Coast Range, and next to the Alaskan the highest land on the con- tinent. The part beyond Vakutat Ray is known as the Chugach. Mt. Crillon, near Cross Sound, is 15,900 ft. high; Mt. Fairweather just north, 15,292; Mt. Vancouver, above Yakutat Bay, 15,666; Mt. Cook, above Malaspina Glacier, 13.75s: Mt. St. Elias (q.v.), 18,024. The high- est peak of this range, Mt. Logan, back of Mt. Cool ( 19,500 ft.), is in Canada. The seaward Hanks of all these mountains bear in most places fields of everlasting and ever-fresh ice, from which move down to the coast through the valleys the rivers of ice called glaciers; but the St. Elias has scarce anything else, the Chugach producing the most enormous ones on earth outside the polar regions. The Swiss glaciers beside them would be nameless and disregarded rills. These ice-rivers have plowed their valleys into deep gorges, sinking for miles inland far below sea-level and creating the fiords or narrow stccp-walled mountain bays with which the coast is fringed, and making is- lands of the lower coastal lands. Every gorge down to the head of its fiord is choked with these _ ice-streams, pushing swiftly down and breaking off hourly in an amazing number of gigantic icebergs; and where there is a strip of coast between the mountain-foot and the sea, they bank up and spread out over it in titanic ice walls of many miles frontage. The tremen- dous Malaspina Glacier, which lies along Ya- kutat Bay and the coast beyond, is the most not- able of these: it is 1,550 ft. high, and has an area of 500 to 600 sq. m. Valdcz Glacier at Prince William Sound runs 15 m. along the coast, full of death-dealing crevices. The most familiar are those along the Klondike route: Muir Glacier at the head and east end of Glacier Bay, over 200 feet high and 3 m. long, and Pa- cific Glacier to the west of it, off Fairweather Mountain. Other vast ones are Miles Glacier off the mouth of Copper River, and Baring Glacier just east of it. Real rivers are naturally few in this district The little Chilkat running into Lynn Canal is familiar from the pass above it. The largest is the Copper River, with a considerable affluent, the Chechitna, both unnavigable from rapids. Nearly as large and more valuable is the Sushitna (lowing into Cook's Inlet, navigable for no m. ; its affluent, the Yentna, is navigable for 100 more, and leads to a pass into the Kus- kokwim Valley. The Knik empties into a fiord of Cook's inlet, and has an arm, the Matanuska. 2. The Insular District comprises the Ali- askan Peninsula and the Aleutian Islands, the southwestern continuation of the Alaskan chain nearly to Siberia; the lower levels sinking under the ocean, and for over 1,000 miles only the tops showing as islands, though these sometimes rise thousands of feet about the waves. Of the 150 composing the chain 61 are volcanoes, of which 10 are sporadically active ; the monarch of all is the grand Shishaldin, 8,000 ft. above the sea. Akutcn, Mashunin, and others, are also on fire. Bogoslov was thrown up by volcanic action in 1796. They have grass and shrubs, but no trees. The great wooded Kadiak Island, just east and near the mainland, is a prolongation of Kenai Peninsula and belongs to the first group. 3. The Basin District. — This is the great space enclosed by the Alaskan Mountains south- east and the Lower Yukon watershed (a rather low one), and drained into Bering Sea by the Kuskokwim, a large but shallow and bar- obstructed stream rising on Mt. McKinley. Its somewhat sheltered position gives it a climate possible for civilized existence and available for pasturage and some hardy crops in the lower valley, while the upper valley leads through rich mineral lodes. 4. The Yukon-Arctic District. — The Yukon River (q.v.), one of the chief in the world, emerging from Canada, runs for a long distance in a mountainous plateau ; as do its tributaries, the Porcupine, which enters from the northeast at what was Fort Yukon north of the Arctic Circle; Birch Creek, from the southeast not far below, through a now famous mining district; and the Tanana, rising near Mt. Wrangell, flow- ing along the eastern and northern flanks of the Alaskan Range, and entering the Yukon about 152 W. ion. In its lower course the Yukon cuts through a vast swampy moor. The coast to the north is mountainous to Point Barrow, in- cluding the great central western peninsula ; the interior west of the Porcupine 2 J ills continues the moor, sloping to the interminable wastes of tundra (a treeless plain full of ponds and swamps cut up by small valleys) that stretch to the Arctic Ocean. The coast north of the delta is mountainous. Kotzebue Sound receives three large rivers, the Selawik, Kowak, and Noatak ; and into the Arctic Ocean on the northern side flows the Colvillc through vast tundra wastes. Climate. — The climate of the entire Coast- Mountain and Insular districts is dominated by the two influences of the mountain barrier and the Japanese "Black Current" or Kuro Shiwo (q.v.), which flows along it to California. The former shields the coast from the Arctic winds; H = o 0. _- - ■'- ■- Q ALASKA the latter fills the air with warm vapors which the prevailing western winds drive against the icy mountain flank, condensing them into almost perpetual rain or fog. The annual rainfall of the southern strip is from 60 to 90 inches (a fall of 156 inches has been known) ; and the days of rain in the year average from 190 to 285. August and September are specially rainy months. For the same reasons the temperature is less extreme than in districts east of the Rocky Mountains ; up to Sitka it is about the same as that of British Columbia. It rarely exceeds o° or 80°, and is isothermal at 40° annual mean with the lower St. Lawrence, the Rocky Mountains deflecting the line northward. Going north and west there is greater cold, snow and wind ; Cook's Inlet, however, is for some reason free from fog. Along the coast of Norton Sound, where the mountainous coast and the warm current flowing into Bering Sea still exercise a tempering influence, the weather re- mains milder than in the interior, with winters less long and rigorous. But inside the moun- tains, where their shelter, the moderating cur- rent, and the vapors, are all absent, semi-arctic conditions prevail. In the Kuskokwim Valley the average temperature from December to March is about zero, and en the Lower Yukon at Nulato (about 65° N. lat.) it is about — 16 . The Yukon freezes to a depth of from 6 to 9 feet. There is a short warm summer and a very long intense winter in all this district, — the former uncertain, the latter sure; the cold sinks to — -50° in spells. Farther north the climate is pure Arctic: at Point Barrow (where the gov- ernment keeps up at times a whalers' relief house and a weather observatory) the annual mean is 25 ; and the northern tundra has a permanent layer of frozen soil 6 or 8 feet thick from about 3 feet below the surface. Flora. — The moisture and temperate climate of the southern strip has bred the same gigantic forests which cover the entire northern Pacific coast from northern California upward ; their great size and commercial value ending at Cross Sound, and they change to quasi-arctic conditions, but reaching in lesser proportions to Kadiak Is- land. The deciduous trees are rather small, ex- cept the poplars, which are often of great size; but enormous evergreens clothe all the moun- tains to the snow line and cover all the islands. The many thousands of square miles of white pines, cedars, and firs will soon become of prime importance to a world wasting its trees so fast. Most valuable of all as timber is the yellow cedar (Cufrcssas nutkaensis) , a straight-grained and highly durable wood, from which the Haida Indians make their remarkable dugout canoes, sometimes 75 feet long by 8 to 10 wide, and ^ carrying 100 people. The balsam fir is used for tanning. But the local wood-of-all-work is the Sitka or Alaska spruce (Abies sitchensis), the most universal of Alaskan trees, reaching in stunted form to the Arctic Circle, but large enough for much utility only on the southeastern and southwestern coasts. It is too knotty for fine boards; but for rough lumber, house or mining timber, firewood and lightwood, sledges, etc., it is the great resource of natives and for- eigners alike. The Aleutian Islands have only berry bushes and dwarf willows. The hills of the lower Kuskokwim have little wood: but the mountains of its earlier course have heavy spruce forests on their sides, and the valleys are thick with shrubs, grass, and tall flowering herbs. The northwestern hills are naked. The Yukon- Arctic tundra has only in permanence low bushes and dwarf scrub spruce and willows, though the brief summer brings out a profusion of herbage. Fauna. — -That of Alaska is of immense va- riety and commercial importance. The fur ani- mals are of course first in popular interest. Most valued is the sea-otter (Lata.v lutris) of the southern coast, once plentiful and the means of livelihood of many Aleut trappers; but for that reason it is now nearly exterminated, only 154 being caught in 1889. The marten, the wolver- ene, and the coarser- furred ermine are common; sables are found in the forests ; and mink, musk- rat, and some though diminishing otter and beaver in the rivers. Foxes are of several kinds and among the most valuable of fur animals; the white arctic fox is found on the western coast and the northern islands ; the blue fox on the Aleutians, where it is regularly bred for its fur ; red and cross foxes in all parts ; the black fox in the eastern mountains. Bears (q.v.) in- clude the grizzly, black, polar, and glacier, and the gigantic Kadiak varieties. Gray wolves, the ancestors of the sledge dog, furnish a coarse fur, and lynxes and smaller animals, finer varieties. Fossil-elephant ivory is an article of commerce. The food animals include the moose of the Kus- kokwim Valley ; the caribou-reindeer, once nu- merous, but now nearly exterminated, though the government is attempting to stock the coun- try with Lapland and Siberian reindeer ; the arctic hare and porcupine, marmots, squirrels, and lemmings ; with sheep and goats in the south- eastern mountains. The list of birds and mam- mals of purely scientific interest is very great, but cannot be given here. Swarms of insects are as numerous and formidable as in the tropics ; especially mosquitoes, which rise in throngs to the very shores of the Arctic Ocean, sting even bears and moose around the eyes till they are maddened into miring themselves in the swamps, force the native hunter to wrap his head in furs, and make a settled lowland class almost an impossibility. Seals, Whales, etc. — The fin seal once swarmed all along the western coast and the Bering Sea islands, but now resorts solely to the Pribyloff and Copper islands. The former were leased many years ago to the Alaska Commercial Company, under contract to kill only 100,000 adult males a year, no females or very young males. As the herds showed signs of exhaustion, the number was reduced to 30,000; but the company is now able to secure little more than half that number, as pelagic seal- ing — before the herds reach the islands — is rapidly annihilating them. Forbidden by the United States to its subjects, iliis pelagic scaling was done by Canadians (some, perhaps, with American capital behind them), who killed many more at sea than the company does on the is- lands, and without restriction of kind. The United States tried fur years to have GriaL Britain join in suppressing the slaughter; but that country would not antagonize Canada to the behoof of the United States (though to its owli also, as the seals furnish the most important fur of the world). At last, in 1902, Great Brit- ain formed a protective agreement with the ALASKA United States; on which the Canadians took shelter tinder the Japanese (lap; and went on slaughtering as before. Unless all the great Powers join hands, the practical extinction of the fur-seal i^ predictable in no long time, with the destruction of the livelihood of many native Alaskans. The other seals, though of no mo- ment to civilized trade, are the very life of the natives, who shoot and spear them for food, dress, boots, tents, boats, dog harness, whips, etc., and use the skins in barter. The walrus tills a similar function to the Eskimo around and north of Bering Strait; but its hunting by civilized men for ivory is also exterminating tin- race. The natives also rely much on whales, which are likewise hunted by the whaling fleets, which take about 150 a year, and often linger too long and arc frozen in for the winter ; thus arctic conditions render the extinction of the whale unlikely. For Fisheries, Agriculture, Commerce and Transportation, etc., see Alaska. Recent De- velopment OF. See also 1 1 R 1i-\i>e, TlIE. Geology. — Alaska is geologically one of the latest portions of the continent. The west coast and the Aleutian Islands are of very recent vol- canic upthrow; and the entire peninsula islands and Bering Sea basin are still rising. The ac- tivity of the forces now at work is shown not only by the vast number of volcanoes eruptive or but recently so, but by the great number of valuable hot mineral springs of every chemical character. The southeastern strip and archi- pelago are believed to be later than the Triassic period; they are part of the Rocky Mountain granitic system, overlaid by sedimentary rocks. The Sk Elias is thought to be the youngest range on the continent, and post-Tertiary in elevation. Minerals. — Coal is found in many places, from the upper Yukon to the Aleutian Islands and Cape Lisburne, where it is now and then utilized by whalers or revenue vessels. Much money has been sunk in mining it : but it is a sulphurous lignite, endurable only for household use, and it has been found cheaper to import coal for making steam. The iron is also poor. Copper, galena, marbles, and petroleum are other products as yet not much exploited. The all-important mineral product so far is gold, in which Alaska promises to take high rank. The Russians and trappers knew of gold sands and placers, but the Russian government did not wish prospecting in a district utterly beyond effective control. With its acquisition by the I'nitcd States a new policy prevailed, and prospectors began an active search for precious metals. The first great discovery was made on Douglas Island, in the Alexander Archipelago at the foot of Lynn Canal : the first placer, which drew together a mining-camp; then of the quartz ledges they had crumbled from, which in tin- bands of a powerful corporation rank among the richest mines of the world, keeping 1,500 stamps busy, and making the island and adjoin- ing mainland one huge mine, connected by a tunnel under the water. Exhaustless water- power close by, and the ore cars running down to the stamps by their own weight, enable very low-grade ores to be worked at a high margin of profit. Profitable mines have also been opened near by, and the town of Juneau is built up by this interest on the mainland shore oppo- site. Other mines are worked in various islands of the Archipelago and along the shores, some around Sitka, some on Lynn Canal. Placer mining and sand-washing have also yielded a good return at Yakutat Bay and on the islands and shores about Cook's Inlet. Greater still were the discoveries in the Yukon basin, insti- gated by the Klondike placer finds higher up the river OH Canadian soil in 1890-7. The whole upper Yukon was eagerly prospected, and very rich deposits found, especially in the valleys of the affluents Tanana and Birch Creek, which produced about $1,000,000 in 1900. But greatest of all was the result of washing the beach sands on Norton Sound; those at Cape Nome were found in 1898-9 to be so rich that the neighbor- ing streams which fed them wire searched, and some of the richi >l placers on the earth revealed. The return of the washing was fully $4,000,000 in 1900. The whole Territory produced $8,171,- 000, or 395,039 ounces of fine gold, against [21,- 766 ounces valued at $2,459,500 in 1899, or 3^ times increase in one year. Population. — Rough estimates were made by Russians in 1839 and 1863, with results of 39,813 and 30,434 — the latter certainly the more nearly accurate. In [880 the first United States census was attempted under many difficulties, and found 430 whites, 1,756 half-breeds, and 31,240 natives — 33,426 in all. In 1890 a closer computation fixed the total at 32.052 of all kinds. In 1900 it was returned at 63,592: native Indian, 29,536; Chinese, 3,116; Japanese, 279; negro. [68; white, 30,493, of whom only 3,200 were female. The Chinese were mostly in the Southern salmon canneries and lumbering industries. Of the in- crease of 31,540 over 1890, pretty much all white, 23,435 was in the Yukon basin. Making allowance for errors in former calculations, the natives had fallen Off somewhat. In the past two years more than 25,000 men are esti- mated to have poured into the Nome district, making perhaps 90,000 altogether, about 60,000 being white. I In- native races of Alaska are from four main stocks: (1) The Eskimo (q.v.), occupy- ing originally most of the interior and coasts. (2) The Athabascans (q.v.), who occupied the upper Yukon Valley and Eastern mountains, and the southern coast from Yakutat Bay to Cook's Inlet. (3) The Aleuts (see ALEUTIAN Is- lands), of the Aliaskan Peninsula and the islands beyond. (4) The Thlimceets (q.v.), from Yakutat Bay to Puget Sound, a superior race. The Alaskans as a body are of a far higher type than the Red Indians — -a fact which makes the theory of the peopling of America from Siberia improbable. They have not needed to be put in reservations, as they have not the fickleness or ferocity of the Red Indians, have a far better forecast of the future and greater willingness to labor steadily, and have readily taken up civilized individual employments. There is no industry brought in by white men in which natives cannot be employed, though they are debarred from several by the refusal to admit them to citizenship. Unfortunately the rapid killing off of the land and marine animals and river fish by white companies is impairing their old livelihoods, and liquor and alien diseases are decimating them; the Aleuts are nearly exterminated. THE KAIHAK FOX. Painted by CbarUs R. Knight. THE KAl'lAK HEAR. ALASKAN MAMMALS DISCOVERED BY THE HARRIMAN EXPEDITION, ALASKA. ALASKA. COURTESY UF DOUBLEDAY. PAGE 4 CO. I. City of Skagway. Phi.>t by Miles Bros. 2. City of Dawson. ALASKA Government. — Alaska, like other Territories, is governed by United States officials : there is a governor resident at Sitka, a surveyor-general, courts and judges, etc. There is no Territorial legislature, however; but municipal self-govern- ment is allowed to towns of some size. It is divided into three judicial districts, with head- quarters at Juneau, Eagle City, and St. Michael; the judges may appoint commissioners in their districts to act as civil and criminal officers, recorders, judges of probate, etc. A criminal code was given it in 1899, a civil code in 1900. Education and Religion. — In 1900 the United States appropriated $30,000 for public schools in Alaska, and maintained 25. Towns may tax themselves for school purposes. Mission schools are maintained by various Protestant bodies (who are active in Christian work here), and the Russian Greek Ghurch, which also sustains churches. An industrial training-school at Sitka is supported by the Presbyterian Church. The majority of the natives are Christianized. History. — The peninsula and strait were dis- covered in 1728 by Vitus Bering, a Danish navigator in Russian service. He explored the coast and islands in 1741, and Russian adven- turers entered the country, maltreating the natives so that they once provoked a massacre which was frightfully avenged. Capt. Cook explored the coast in 1776, discovering Cook's Inlet. The same year the Russians organized a company for the Alaska trade, and in 1784 made the first permanent settlement at Three Saints, on Kadiak Island. In 1790 they made the famous Alexander Baranov manager. He established a colony on Bering Strait in 1796; in 1799, when the Russian- American Company was organized, with a 20-year monopoly, ex- tended in 1820 and 1844, Baranov, as their manager, took possession of the island named after him, founded Sitka, and began an ex- tensive trade with the natives which was after- ward extended to China and the Atlantic ports of the United States. Under its auspices the Russian Greek Church established many mis- sions. A scheme to lay a cable under Bering Strait, for which energetic explorations were carried on 1864-7, was superseded by the At- lantic cable. But the territory never paid its expenses to Russia, which was saddled with claims on its behoof and was anxious to be rid of it. During the Civil War she was actively friendly to the United States government, put- ting warships at its disposal ; and as a dis- guised payment the government, on the advice of William H. Seward, secretary of state, — who had an enthusiastic belief in Alaska's future, — took the territory off her hands in March 1867, paying $7,200,000 for it. On 18 October the American forces took formal possession at Sitka, and the next year the United States cus- toms, etc., laws were extended over it. The United States and Russia claimed joint owner- ship of Bering Sea as an inland water, to pro- tect their seal-fisheries ; Great Britain could not be expected to allow the claim for so vast an oceanic body, especially when urged by Cana- dian sealing interests, and the seizure of Cana- dian sealing vessels by the United States caused an acrid international dispute for years. At length in 1902 a protective agreement was en- tered into between the two nations ; for its re- sults see Seals, etc., above. There was also an old contention as to United States and Canadian Vol. 1 — 15 boundaries, not pressed because the districts in debate were reckoned worthless. But tin- gold discoveries on the Yukon in 1896-7 and at ( Nome in 1898-9 (see Minerals and Chief Towns, above), with the vast influx of popula- tion, made some settlement imperative ; for years no decision was arrived at beyond a modus Vivendi, the rival claims covering too much of value, but on 3 Sept. 1903 the Alaskan Boun- dary Com mission (q.v.) met in London to de- termine the matter. The chief crux was over the district around Lynn Canal, Canada claiming the ports at the head which form part of the main Klondike routes, — Skagway, Dyea, and Pyramid Harbor. Although it is of evident importance that the United States navy should in case of a crisis be able to obtain coal supplies at Sitka, no coal is kept there by mercantile companies, and the navy has frequently been embarrassed for want of such supplies in the protection of American seal and other interests. In May 1903 prelimi- nary steps were taken for the establishment of a coal station at Dutch Harbor. This port is in the northern part of Unalask;. (q.v.), one of the Aleutian Islands, and is on the direct commercial routes between the ports of Bering Sea and southern Alaska and the Pacific coast of the United States. It is also on the line of steamers passing through the Unimak Pass, most of which make it a port of call. Dutch Harbor will form the fifth station in the chain of coal depots along the Pacific Coast, which will begin at San Diego and include San Fran- cisco, Puget Sound, and Sitka. The fact that Alaska is separated from the States by hundreds of miles of coast line in a foreign domain, con- stitutes a strong reason why that great territory should be provided with its own coaling sta- tions. Territorial status was granted to Alaska 6 June 1900. Bibliograph y. — Abercrombie ( W. R ) , 'Alaska* (1899); Aldrich (H. L), "Arctic Alaska and Siberia 1 ; Balch, 'The Alaska- Canadian Frontier' (1902) ; Bancroft (H. H.), 'Alaska, 1730-1885'; Bruce, 'Alaska: Its His- tory and Resources' ; 'Compilation of Narra- tives of Explorations in Alaska' (U. S. Mili- tary Affairs Committee) ; Elliott, 'Our Arctic Province'; Foster (J. W.), 'The Alaskan Boundary' ; Harriman, 'Alaska Expedition' ; Jackson (Sheldon), 'Alaska 1 ; Karr, 'The Shores and Alps of Alaska'; 'Maps and De- scriptions of Routes of Exploration in Alaska in 1898' (U. S. Geological Survey) ; 'Mono- graph on Seal Islands' ( 10th U. S. Census Re- port) ; Petroff, 'Population and Resources of Alaska' (nth U. S. Census Report); Reid, 'Studies of the Muir Glacier' ; Report of Com- missioner of Education (1901); Russell, 'An Expedition to Mount St. Elias' (U. S. Geologi- cal Survey) ; Schwatka, 'Report of a Military Reconnaissance in Alaska' (1883); 'Along Alaska's Great River' ; Swan, 'The Northwesl Coast' (U. S. Geological Survey) ; Swineford, 'Alaska' ; Vancouver, 'Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific Ocean in 1790-5' ; Whymper, 'Travel and Adventure in Alaska' ; Wright, 'The Ice Age in North America.' Alaska, Commercial. The United States purchased Alaska from Russia, in 1867, for $7, 200,000. Prior to the purchase and for some years, chiefly after the discovery of gold in Cal- ALASKA, COMMERCIAL ifornia in 1849, a considerable trade in fish, lumber, and ice, bad been built up between San ncisco and Alaska. On thai point, the Hon. O. P. Austin, chief of the Bureau of Statistics of the Department of Commerce and Labor, in his monograph on Alaska, published in 1903, says: "Commercial companies were funned in San Francisco and Alaska to engage in that trade, and the information thus obtained regard- ing Alaska and its possibilities, formed some of the causes which led to the favorable considera- tion of the proffer of sale of Alaska, made by the Russian ambassador at Washington to Sec- retary of State Seward, in 1864, and completed in 1867." Thus was the vast territory of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands acquired and added to the national domain of the United States for what is now the value of the country's internal commerce, for only one hour, reckoning that commerce at twenty-two thousand million dol- lars a year, the working days at three hundred yearly, and the working hours at ten for each day. Great progress in Alaskan matters generally, and in its value to the United States has been made since the day on which "Seward's lee- berg" was acquired, but even yet only the fringe of Alaskan possibilities has been touched. With the acquirement of Hawaii, Guam and the Phil- ippine Islands, undreamed of in Seward's day and until a very few years ago, with the far- thest point of the Aleutian Islands almost touchin; ■ farthest point of the Empire of Japan, with the Philippines within as easy reach of Japan s Xcw York is of Liverpool, and with the prolific territory of Hawaii and Little Guam as milestones on the American way across the grct Pacific, who can measure the present commercial possibilities of Alaska, with its wealth of furs, fish, gold, coal, iron, and other minerals? Those possibilities cannot be meas- ured, but a brief study of what has been done and is being done, will afford us a glimpse of what the womb of the future has in store for the Alaskan interests of the United States. . Irea and Population. — According to the census of 1900 the gross area of Alaska is 51)0.804 square miles. In a recent report the governor of Alaska states that this is equal to the area of tin- jo States of Maine, New Hampshire, Ver- mont, Massachusetts. Rhode Island, Connec- ticut, New York. New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina. South Carolina, Georgia. Flor- ida, Alabama, Mississippi, and Tennessee. In his report for 1901, the governor states that the area of Alaska in acres is 369,529,600. The journey from Seattle to the nearest point in Alaska covers no greater distance than a journey from New York to Cincinnati, and from Seattle to the most distant point in Alaska is about as far as from New York to San Fran- cisco. The first is a two-day trip by steamer, and the latter (Seattle to Nome) requires 12 days. From Seattle to the gold fields of the Yukon, by ocean steamer, rail and well- equipped river steamer, consumes about six days. The population of Alaska at the date of the transfer was estimated at about 30,000. One third of this number was Eskimo, located in the entire north, one third Indian, located in the south, and the last one third Russian or mixed Russian and Indian. The census of 1900 gives the population at 63,592, an increase of over too per cent. Of the 63,592, 30,507 were whites, 2 9,53<> natives, 3,116 Chinese, 205 Japanese and 158 negroes. Of the 30,507 whites, .'7.307 were males. It is not estimated that the population is much greater now ( 1905) as the Cape Nome and Yukon gold rushes have quieted down. Industries.- Furs, fisheries, and mining (mainly gold) are the principal industries of Alaska at the present time. From the acquire- ment of the Territory in 1867 to 1004, inclusive, 37 years, the gross product of these industries has been: Furs, $54,000,000; fisheries, $75,000,- 000; mining (since 1880), $62,000,000; total, $191,000,000, or more than 2( times the $7,200,- 000 purchase price of the entire Territory. Mining. — The recorded gold production be- gan with $6,000 in 1880. reaching $9,101,000 in 1904, by the following •quinquennial stages: 1880, $6,000; 1885, $300,000; 1890, $762,500; 1895, $1,615,300: 1900, $8,171,000; 1902, $8,345,- 000: 1904, $9,101,000. The silver production has been small: 1890, $9,697; 1895, $86,880; 1000, $94,772; 1004, esti- mated, $90,000. While gold i : the only mining industry in Alaska, which has so far received particular attention, there arc other mineral de- posits equally valuable waiting development. Large deposits of coal, some of great commer- cial value, exist in the Copper River Valley, and on the shores of Cook's Inlet. Valuable de- posits of iron are believed to exist alongside these coal beds, while extensive copper deposits have been found in the main range of the Coast Mountains. In the Copper River extensive argentiferous quartz deposits of a promising character, have been discovered. From other regions have come rumor", cf mineral deposits. Putting aside these rumors and the present large annual gold production, it is easy to antici- pate how very much greater will be the value of "Commercial Alaska" as soon as railways are built to open these large deposits of coal, iron, and copper, the three mineral resources, the most useful to the gigantic manufacturing interests of the American mainland. In an address to the American Institute of Mining F.ngineers, at the I^ike Superior meet- ing in September 1904, Mr. Alfred II. Brooks said: "The developments of the last five years have shown that Alaska, as a field for mining, stands in the first rank among the possessions of the United States. Its annual gold output is now about $8,000,000. It also produces sil- ver, copper and coal in paying quantities, and its recently discovered tin and petroleum prom- ise to become important products. Concurrent with the gradual development of this wealth. the mining public has ceased to regard the Ter- ritory simply as an Arctic province, where a few placer miners struggle with adverse con- ditions to secure a good stake, or a modest fortune. Of late years there has been a large influx of capital to investigate its mineral re- sources, but in its area of nearly 600,000 square mihs there still remain large uncompleted and little known fields." Mention must also be made of the finding of asbestos, platinum, gypsum, uranium, lead, zinc, graphite in large quantities, near Nome, and marble. The latter promises to become an important product of Alaska. Large quarries covering 400 acres are located on Prince of Wales Island. Gray marble is also found on ALASKA, COMMERCIAL Ham's Island and the contiguous mainland. It is exceptionally hard and stands a test of 10,000 pounds to the square inch. The fact must also be recorded that the principal mines of lignite, anthracite, bituminous and cannel coal, found in every section of the Territory, are located on navigable streams, and near tide water, thus enabling this industry, when railroad transpor- tation is provided, to be placed on a favorable footing as a competitor with the coal fields of British Columbia. The coal mining of Alaska is destined to be an enormous industry. In the Seattle Chamber of Commerce room, there is a lump of coal weighing 1,500 pounds. It came from Cape Sabine, in the Arctic Ocean. Ships have mined their own coal there. In his annual report for 1902, the governor of Alaska said : "One thing about the gold from Alaska that should not be forgotten is that every ounce of it is a measure of human energy and hard- ship, as much so as is a bushel of grain, a measure of the farmer's toil." The report of the Senate Committee, sent to Alaska in 1903 to investigate conditions in the Territory, bears ample witness to the vast wealth of Alaska's mineral resources, sub- ject to the provision of transportation fa- cilities, particularly, for all minerals out- side of gold, the present annual output of which is more than paying the full pur- chase price of the Territory each year. Inci- dentally, the report says : 395-7°9; cost of materials used yearly, $'•"85,776: yearly product, $4,250,984. We Ret an idea of the increase in Alaska's interest in manufactures by noting the figures of that interest, as shown by the census of is**.: Number of establishments. 10: capital. $105,727; wage-earners, average. 78: yearly wages, $18,- 625: cost of materials used, yearly, $30,l<>8: yearly product. $58,440. The increase here shown, in only ten years, is very large, being practically an increase of 98"/ per cent in the yearly product Among the 2.263 wage-earners only one woman was employed. The other 2,262 were males of at least 16 years of age. The census of 1900 gives 1,962 as the horse- power in use in Alaskan factories — an increase of 1. 511 horse power or 555 per cent over 1890. This power was furnished by 40 steam engil 14 water wheels, and II electric motors. Food and kindred product-, such as fish, can- nine; and preserving, etc.. represented $3,821,136 of the $4,250,984 total yearly product of all tile. ALASKA, COMMERCIAL manufacturing of the Territory, which ranks fourth among the States and rerritories of the Union in fish, canning and preserving. In lumber, manufactured and unmanufac- tured, tin cei of 1900 credits Alaska with a rly product of $429,848. Those two items make up the $4,250,984 total yearly manufactur- ing product of 101*1. But that is only a beginning. Winn Alaska has railroads, saw-mills will be built, and its vast forest wealth made use of. Mr. I'ctroff, an authority, says: Forests of Alaska: "The tim- ber of Alaska extends over a much larger area than a great many surmise. It clothes the steep hills and mountain iidi . and chokes Up the val- ley of the Alexander Archipelago, and the con- tiguous mainland; it stretches, less dense, but still abundant, along that inhospitable reach of territory which extends from the head of Cross Sound to the Keuai Peninsula." The "Sitka spruce" is the universal forest tree of Alaska and is found of gigantic si/c on the islands of the 1 Archipelago, and on the shores of Prince William Sound. This spruce is used in the construction of nearly every dwelling throughout the Territory. It- sappy outer por- tion is used as torches to light up the dark dwellings of the interior tribes, and the w 1 used in many domestic ways. The huge plank- for house building are obtained by splitting, mostly by hand. Cine of tl" hi' -1 valuable Alaskan woods is yellow cedar. It combines, says Mr. Pctroff. a fine close texture, with great hardness, durabil- ity, and a peculiar but pleasant odor. The Rus- sian- named it "dushnik" (scented wood). I luring the wasteful Russian occupation of ka, this tree, though of such great value, was nearly exterminated in the vicinity of Sitka, and on the Baranof and adjoining is- lands, but considerable bodies of it still exist on the i'.riti-h Columbian frontier on Prince of Wales Island, on Koo [stand, and a few other islands of the Alexander Archipelago. In the Nass and Skeeua River valleys it is also abun- dant. Other Alaskan woods are hemlock and balsam fir. but not of great value, as compared with the Sitka spruce and the yellow cedar. At present lumber from Puget Sound and British Columbian mills is -hipped to nearly all ports in western Alaska for the use of whites and half-breeds, while the natives in their more remote settle- ments obtain planks and boards by the very la- borious process of splitting logs with iron or ivory wedges. Evidently the forests of Alaska have a large commercial value, which railroads will turn into money. In the meantime, we have it as .1 resource, against the day when the timber and Washington becomes scarce. Fisheries. — The fisheries of Alaska more than pay the entire $7,200,000 original cost of the Territory each year. They are of greater annual value than the annual gold field, though that also, each year, produces more than what the Territory cost. Quoting the Hon. O. P. tin, chief of the Bureau of Statistics again, we find that in 1901 the Territory packed and shipped 2.029.260 cases of 48 one-pound cans each, and [8,042 barrels, composing in all 100,- 000.000 pounds of salmon, taken from Alaska waters in one year. To produce this result required 30 com- panies and individual packers, occupying 55 canneries, and 12 salteries and using 31,000,000 salmon. The capitalization of these enterpi was $22,000,000, and the value of the plants, including vessels, was $12,000,000. All tin- has grown from two establishments in 1881, pro- ducing 13.000 cases a year, of the value of $50,000. The value of the salmon pack in 1901 was $7,075,000. These figures show an increase in the yearly product of 14.000 per cent or 140 fold in the short space of 20 year- The annual packs of salmon since mot have been : 1902, $7.834.000 ; 1903, $8,600,000; kjo.}, 054,000; while the annual breed of salmon does nol lessen, but the contrary. This is a - where we do not have to buy the raw material. It 1- a nature's free gift to us each year, just as is gold and everything else we get out of the tnd. In this reflection we strike the key note of the marvelous prosperity of the United States. — its boundless natural resources. But salmon is not the only fish which Alaska pro- duces. The codfishing industry i- also worth $150,000 a year. The area in which the cod may be taken and the supply justify the state- ment that the cod fisheries of Alaska are des- tined to exceed in value those of Newfound- land, or any other part of the world. A- .1 calculation, there is not less than 125,000 square miles of codfishing in connection with the Alaska coast. Then there are Atka or Attn mackerel, black cod. halibut, and herring. The salmon industry employ- about 13.000 per-, including 5,000 Chinamen and 2,500 natives. The yearly pay roll amounts to about $2,700,000. The tin plate used costs $1,150,000. This dis- bursement of more than a million dollars for tin cans is a noteworthy fact. In 1001, the shipping employed was 110 steamers. 55 sailing vessel-, and 1.777 lighters and boats, a \ imposing fleet. The government tax of 4 cents a case and 10 cents a barrel yields about $100,000 a year. The salmon pack of Alaska fills about on,- half the yearly requirement of the United States. In 1902 the Pacific coast pack was worth $4,259,000. As the two packs combined fill only 75 per cent of the American demand, and as that de- mand grows with the rapid increase in popu- lation, and further, as salmon arc heavy breed ers, it is evident that the salmon industry .f Alaska as well as that of the Pacific coast has a growing future. That part of "Commercial Alaska," as well as the gold part, is an imme- diate and continuously profitable proposition. Fur Seals. — The Pribilof I -lands are the seat of the fur seals industry of Alaska. They came to us in the purchase from Russia. They are leased to the North American Commercial Company by the United States Government for an annual rental of $60,000 and a tax upon each skin taken of $10.22'/.. The number of seals to be killed each year being fixed by regulation of the secretary of the treasury. In the years 1870-1902, the lessees have taken 2,209,621 seals. No official statements of the value of the seal skins taken on the Probilof Islands are made. Mr. Petroff, the agent of the United States Census in [890, estimated the value of seal skins taken in Ala-ka from 1867 to 1890, at $31,537,592. This estimate, combined with estimates from official sources since justifies an allowance of $50,000,000 as the value of the seal skins, taken from the purchase of the Terri- tory to the present date. The sea otter and ALASKA, RECENT DEVELOPMENT OF others bring the total for furs up to $54,000,- ooo. Education and Churches. — The entire edu- cational work in Alaska, except in the incor- porated towns, is under the control of the Rev. Sheldon Jackson, D.D., United States General Agency of Education in the Territory. His report for 1904 shows 35 public schools, 38 teachers, and 2,257 pupils outside of the schools in towns. Nineteen of the new schools were established in 1904. The expenses are $56,211. The Presbyterian Church supports 14 mis- sions and a hospital and training school. The Protestant Episcopal Church has 10 missions, and the Catholic and other religious organiza- tions a smaller number. All this is education, and it has a direct bearing on the present and future of Commer- cial Alaska. Transportation. — Transportation in Alaska, while not to-day the problem it was a few year-; ago, is still the "question of the hour* and the fundamental necessity and prime requisite of commercial or other success in the Territory. In the summer there is one boat of 1,000 tons each day for the ocean travel from Puget Sound to Skagway. One can now go by rail from Skagway to White Horse, over the moun- tains, and freight rates are only one tenth of what they were before the railroad was built. In the summer season the ardent adventurers can go by semi-weekly steamers from "White Horse to Dawson. In the winter the trip has to be made by stage. Lodging houses along the road charge about $6 a day for meals and lodging. In the summer the $75 boat fare in- cludes meals. The steamboats on the Yukon River are modern and well equipped. Nome is reached by steamer from Sitka to Unalaska in the Aleutian chain of islands, and thence north to Saint Michael and Nome. Something is being done for transportation, through sundry small appropriations in the army bill, toward building wagon roads and trails. Says the governor: "Trails are better than nothing. If Congress cannot bring itself to aid us to railroads, then we shall be grateful for wagon roads, and if they are impossible let ' us have trails: but the railroads are bound to be built. The American spirit animates the movement. Governor Gilpin's dream of a 'cos- mopolitan railway' will be realized." Postal Service. — Just as fast as Alaska needs and can take care of post-offices, they are being started. Daily mails leave the Pacific coast for Alaska. The present number of post- offices is about 80, and mails are regularly de- livered north of the Arctic Circle. Telegraphs. — The United States and the world now has telegraphic communication with all the chief centres of population in Alaska. This work has been done by the signal office of the War Department. The lines also con- nect with those of the Canadian telegraph sys- tem, and with all the telegraph systems of the United States. A military cable, 1,300 miles long, connects Seattle with Juneau and Sitka, affording an alternate route (the Canadian is the other") for commercial business and a more direct and sat- isfactory means of telegraphic communication for the government. Land Lazes. — The law recently enacted by Congress permits the application of the home- stead laws of the United States to tracts not exceeding 80 acres. Owing to the lack of sur- veys very few homesteads have yet been ap- plied for under this act. But they will when Alaska has railroads, because railroads involve surveys, and emigration from one point to an- other always follows the whistle of the loco- motive. Commerce. — The commerce of Alaska is a substantial and growing quantity. Beginning with nothing less than a generation ago, it has already reached satisfactory proportions. It is not necessary to trace at length the history of Alaskan commerce from the acquirement of the Territory, as for quite a number of years after that act of farsighted statesmanship Alaska was only thought of as the place from whence the seal skins of our wives, our daughters, and our sweethearts came. It is a vastly different propo- sition to-day, with the acquirement of Hawaii and the Philippines, the American Pacific cable in operation, the American Panama Canal in sight, and the Alaskan boundary dispute set- tled in our favor. Commerce between the United States and Alaska means something these days, and the commerce of Alaska with Canada and the Far East is beginning to tell. A few figures will tell the story. From the U. S. From Other Countries. Total. l8 79 $ 317.000 $ 4,7or ] °90 1,897,000 24.577 '895 3,017,000 55. 080 ■903 9.509.701 477.463 $9,987,164 1904 ....... .10,165,110 667.155 10.77J.4f>; 1905 (est.) ..11,000,000 800,000 11,800,000 Alaskan Exports to all Countries. 1879 1890 1895 .378 4.682 1 1,520 To Other To the U. S. Countries. Total. '9o3 $10,228,569 $1,612,128 $11,840,697 ■9o4 ....... 10,165,140 1.565.690 11.730.830 1905 (est.) . 11,000,000 1,700,000 12,700,000 These export figures are exclusive of the Canadian dug gold — about $10,000,000 a vear. which reaches the United States thi Alaska. Summary for 1904, actual : Alaskan imports $10,5 Alaskan exports 11 ,840,697 Canadian sold 1 0.000,000 Total commerce $32,613,162 Summary for 1905, estimated : Alaskan imports $11,800,000 Alaskan exports , 2.700,000 Canadian gold 1 0.000,000 Total commerce $34,500,000 This is the concrete result of 38 years of American "Commercial Alaska." Nothing to begin with, practically nothing for 27 years after the beginning (only $3,000,000 in 1895), then a growth to $30,000,000 more a year in nine years. Almost an average growth of $1,000,000 a year, for each of the 38 years life of American "Commercial Alaska." witli 27 of those 38 years practically dormant. Walter J. Ballard. Alaska, Recent Development of. Ni er is Alaska, even in popular conception, the lone land of ice and snows which fiction and tradi- tion long presented it. Northward, swift on the ALASKA heels of the gold-seeking pioneers, have gone railroad builders and telegraph linemen, engi- neei . capitalists, hankers, teachers, and settlers, until nol onlj Alaska but the whole vast stretch of the Far Northwest is repeating California's marvelous story of development. Steamers, many of them palatial in their fittings, now navi- gate the Alaskan rivers; towns with organized systems of government are growing fast, with schools and hanks and churches, and streets lighted by electricity, and paved. The telegraph and the telephone connect the principal settle- ments, and railroads are being built which in a \car or two will traverse the peninsula almost from end to end. Vet the new Alaska, which has become so important a reality, is, in a measure, but a startling revival of the commercial Alaska of 60 years ago. Then Sitka — a thousand miles north from Seattle Washington — was the in- dustrial capital of the Pacific coast of America, and San Francisco but a gathering place for in- dolent ranchcros, who bought their plowshares, hoes and hatchets from the industrious work- men of the Far North. From the shipyards of Sitka went forth the first steamships built on the Pacific, and the bells which will chime from many a Catholic mission-house were cast there. No better equipped naval station existed than that at the Alaskan capital, nor busier brass and iron foundries and machine-shops. The Cali- fornia " Forty- Xinn" worked with a pick and shovel made at Sitka; the woolen-stuff clothing which he wore came from Sitka; the salt fish he ate and the lumber with which he built were also the product of far-away Alaska, carried in Sitkan-buill vessels, manned by Sitka sailors. But the military managers of the Russian- American Company were not captains of in- dustry. Vast sums were squandered in imprac- ticable experiments, in mining valueless coal, in extracting iron from inferior ore, in making bricks and woodenware for which no market existed. Thus the trade of Sitka languished, and in time the catching of fish and furs became the only occupation of the Alaskans. Even the purchase of the country by the United States failed for many years to add a stimulus to its lapsed industry. The new North which has arisen may not again dominate the trade of the Pacific Coast, but it has attained an intrinsic importance of which the Russian owners of Alaska never dreamed, not merely through its wealth of min- erals, its furs, and its fisheries, but also in con- s lerahle measure through its possibilities in agriculture. Fields of grain and gardens stocked with every variety of vegetable are now familiar sights on the outskirts of a hundred thriving settlements. From end to end of the Yukon, one of the mighty rivers of the world, the traveler may wander during four months of the year and never see snow. Instead, there will be a tangle of rich vegetation, of great forests, of grass that grows as high as a man's shoulder, and endless fields of beautiful plant life. Wild berries in great variety — raspberries, currants, huckleberries, blackberries, cranberries, etc. — beautiful ferns waving in the soft breezes, great beds of the purple lupine and the red columbine, wild celery and wild parsnip growing many feet high, ponds on which float great yellow lilies, with the purple iris bordering their banks, are everywhere. When Alaska was purchased by the United Slates in 1867 its value was lightly regarded. The price paid — $7,000,000 — was thought to he excessive, ami there was much popular opposi- tion to the terms. Vet in 36 years the govern- ment received in revenues not only the sum expended, but $2,000,000 more. During the same period Alaska and the adjoining Canadian Yukon territory have supplied fish, furs, and mine products amounting in value, at a conserva- tive estimate, to $375,000,000. Good-, worth about $40,000,000 a year are now sent in return, and the amount of capital invested there is prob- ably not less than $125,000,000. Of the future of the new North, President Roosevelt, addressing an audience at Seattle, Washington, in 1903, made this significant prophecy : "The men of my age who are in this great audience will not he old men before they see one of the greatest and most populous State of the entire Union in Alaska. ... I predict that Alaska, within the next century, will support as large a population as does the entire Scandina- vian peninsula of Europe, the people of which by their brains and energies have left their mark on the face of Europe. 1 predict that you will see Alaska, with her enormous resources of mineral, her fisheries, and her possibilities that almost exceed belief, produce as hardy and vigorous a race as any part of America." Not only Alaska, hut the entire northwestern portion of the continent — for many hundred miles beyond the international boundary — is un- dergoing a marvelous development. Ten thou- sand miles of railroad are already tinder con- struction or definitely projected in territory farther north than is now touched by any exist- ing completed line ; a greater mileage than that of the Union Pacific, the Northern Pacific, and the Erie systems combined. A glance at the line in the accompanying map which marks the northern limit of cereal production in America will indicate a reason for this railroad construction. Gold and furs alone could not have brought it about. Were the great western North the bleak counterpart of "pitiless Labrador" the miner and hunter there would still pack their treasures of mineral and fur over weary wastes of snow by dog train. But, whereas in the East the extreme limit of cereal- growing territory is reached in latitude 49, , at a point a little north of Rimouski, on the St. Lawrence River, in the West the limit is Norton Sound, beyond St. Michael's, more than twelve hundred miles nearer the pole. So far north as that are grains now grown. As long as the States to the south are still undeveloped, the north received but scanty attention. At intervals, it is true, had come re- ports of great natural wealth which existed there, and now and then the outcropping of a boundary dispute had lent ephemeral interest to the country. But the gold finds of 1896 in the Canadian Yukon and of 1898 near Nome came when the western States were beginning to be filled up. Thousands of American farmers had already moved northward into the Canadian provinces of Manitoba. Assiniboia, and Alberta, beginning a movement which has since assumed enormous proportions. The gold thus hastened a natural development. Prevailing fallacies re- garding the climate of the new land disappeared. ALASKA In southern Alaska, which is tempered by the warming airs from the Japan current, the ther- mometer rarely falls to zero, and the changes from midwinter to midsummer do not exceed twenty-five degrees. Even at St. Michael's north of the mouth of the Yukon River, the mean summer temperature is 50° F. In the interior the climate is more severe, but not so bitter as is commonly believed. Daily obser- vations during five summers in the Klondike region show that on the average the tempera- ture there rises to 70° or higher on forty-six days, and to 80° on fourteen days ; 90 was recorded in Dawson in June, 1900, and 95 in July of the same year. Great hardships were undergone by the gold miners during the pioneer period, but these were due to abnormal conditions. The gold fever had carried a great swarm of fortune hunters into an unknown country of vast dis- tances. Confusion, suffering, and even starva- tion were the natural outcome. An incident in the construction of the White Pass and Yukon Railway well illustrates the conditions which then prevailed. On the morning of one June day in 1899 there were 2,000 men at work along the line of the new road — doctors, lawyers, teach- ers, and college men, in a motley crowd with Chinese laborers, and rough prospectors who could not write their names. That afternoon came the news of a big discovery of gold near Atlin, and in the evening there were but 600 men in camp. The other 1,400 had plunged into the wilderness, carrying with them the company's picks and shovels, but leaving behind a half week's pay at ten dollars a day. Such was the spirit of recklessness in which the gold-seekers invaded the new country. Scenes similar to those which marked the rush to the Klondike were repeated at Nome. The latter place is without a natural harbor, and pas- sengers and supplies had to be landed through the surf. In the months of June and July this is accomplished with little difficulty, but later in the season storms prevail, and the landing is then attended with considerable peril. Vessels are forced to anchor from half a mile to two miles from the shallow beach, and their cargoes removed in lighters, which were frequently lost in the surf. Wrecks of schooners, barges, steam- launches, boats, and stern-wheel steamers littered the beach at Nome every vear, and pumps, donkey boilers and engines, dredging machinery and damaged provisions were strewn along the shore. The first discovery of gold at Nome was made by a United States soldier who was digging a well, and the first to profit by it was an old prospector from Idaho, who was ill and not able to reach the gulches farther inland. In twenty days the man from Idaho look out three thousand dollars' worth of gold with a rocker. With the news of the find a wild frenzy to dig in the beach seized people everywhere, and during the height of the excitement nearly two thou- sand men were burrowing like moles in the sand. Every man at Nome — physician, lawyer, car- penter, clerk, or whatever else his vocation — abandoned his ordinary work and took up the shovel and rocker. The price of labor went up to fifteen dollars a day, but even at that rate working hands were hard to secure. When tin- army of miners stopped work in the fall the beach for fifteen miles presented a hugh rampart of piled-up sand, giving to the city the appear- ance of having been fortified against invasion. Nome is now a city of 25,000 population, and the building of two new railroads, which are under way, and the improvement of the harbors at Port Clarence and at Solomon, will remove the last of the transportation difficulties of its inhabitants. In the past the only means of for- warding freight from the city to interior points not reached by the Yukon River steamers was by men wading in the shallow streams and push- ing flat-bottomed boats ahead of them. The cost was about $300 a ton for fifty miles, and from 8 to 15 days were required to make that distance, according to the conditions of the weather. Nome is the western terminus of the railroad development of northwestern Alaska, whose roads are the farthest north of all in the world, extending almost within the Arctic Circle. The city is about 250 miles southeast of Cape Prince of Wales, the point at which Alaska most nearly approaches Asia, and is reached by steamers from the western coast of the United States by passing through the Aleutian chain, past Un- alaska, as well as by rail from Skagway and steamboat down the Yukon River. Nome boasts good hotels, large stores, daily newspapers, banks, electric lights, telegraph and telephone systems, and the other usual adjuncts of civiliza- tion in more southern climes. It is connected with St. Michael's by cable, and by telegraph with Dawson and Skagway. Handsome private resi- dences are being built by men who have made their money there and who have settled down to make the city their home. Well-kept lawns and flower gardens add to the wonderful metamor- phosis which has overtaken the sandy beach. Seward Peninsula, on which Nome is situated, is being rapidly "gridironed" by the various rail- roads built to communicate with the principal gold mines and with the other towns in that part of Alaska. The Valdez Copper River & Yukon Railway will run from Valdez, the most northerly port in Alaska, to Eagle City, a dis- tance of 430 miles, and will open up the mineral and agricultural districts of the Copper, Xa- nana, and Yukon valleys. Construction has al- ready begun on this line, the route lying through a country which is heavily timbered, with tribu- tary territory rich in gold, copper, and coal. With a railroad projected, as a part of the Grand Trunk Pacific System, from Port Simpson to Dawson, with a 100-mile line soon to be built from Dawson north, and with the Valdez Cop- per River & Yukon Railway coming east to Eagle City and west to connect with the Nome & Solomon City Railroad, it remains but a question of time when there will be all-rail communication from New York to Norton Sound, a few miles across Bering Strait from tin- continent of Asia. A northern spur from the Trans-Siberian Railway would then realize the once lightly regarded dream of "New York to Paris by rail." The first railroad undertaking in th<- North was begun in southern Alaska and tut British Yukon in 1S98. In June of that year work was begun by a syndicate of English cap- italists on what is now the White Pass & Yukon Railway, extending from Skagway, in Vlaska, to White Horse, Yukon Territory, a distance of 112 miles. It was constructed pri- ALASKA marily to afford access to the sold fields of the Canadian Yukon, but has since been made a link in the continuous rail and river mute to north- western Alaska and Seward Peninsula. The road was completed to White Horse in June, 1900, at places the cost of construction exceed- ing $250,000 a mile. The route had been used for I lie fall of 1897. but the trail was almost impassable, and immense numbers of the animals had died in their tracks. Two thou- sand had t<> be collected and burned with ki sene before the work could be undertaken. In mpting to lower Lake St. Louis about three feet, the entire lake washed away, causing widc- I he total cost of the White - Railroad was about $5,000,000 ; but it paid nearly $2,000,000 profits during its first two years' operatii >ns. From White Horse to Dawson — which has a population of 1.200 a distance of 482 miles, connection is now made by modern steamers in summer and by four-horse sleighs in winter. other places of amusement, and three banks. I he personal and realty assessment of the city led $11,000,000 last year, and post-office or- ders to the value of $1,800,500 were sold. The streets are all thoroughly lighted by electricity. Lines of steamboats along the wharves, l< and unloading, and steam dredges at work in the river, give an animated aspect to the watei front More than $5,000,000 i-- about to be spent by a private company in installing a huge water-sup- ply and pumping plant to furnish water for con- sumption and for mining purposes, in working the deposits that line the side-bars of the neigh- boring streams. Three years ago the inhabitants of Dawson lived principally on dried and canned meats and German sliced evaporated potatoes. To-day fresh meat is brought in, frozen in winter and in refrigerator cars to White Horse in summer, and all vegetables are grown in market gardens nearby. Nothing pleases the Dawson citizen more than to entertain a skeptical visitor from ^^ejtt* . Proposed Railroad Lines. — Present Railroad Lines. UNITED STATES The great Northwest and its projected transportation facilities, showing also the northern limit of cereal growth. The stages used in winter cover the distance, under ordinary conditions of weather, in three and a half days, or at a rate of about 90 miles a day. A railroad was built last summer from West Dawson to Stewart River, a distance of 82 miles, tapping the rich mining districts in that direction. A number of other railroads leading to different gold centres are now being con- structed, and in a few years Dawson will be connected with its outlying districts in every di- rection, and even, it is projected, with the trans- continental lines to the south. w grown regularly. The winters of Alaska are more hospitable than those of the great plains of Wyoming, Montana, and some parts of Nevada, and in the dead of winter horses and cattle can be worked without fear of being frozen. I he temperature frequently is very cold, but there are no storms. Except on the coast of Bering Sea, all the hardy vegetables are grown with marked suc- cess throughout Alaska and the Canadian Yukon south of the Arctic Circle. No finer potatoes, cauliflower, cabbage, kale, peas, lettuce, and radishes could be found anywhere in the United States than samples which I have seen grown at the government experiment stations at Sitka and Kenai, and I have been told by a friend that at Holy Cross Mission he had eaten new pota- toes, cauliflower, and other late vegetables in the month of July. At Rampart, in latitude 65°, winter rye, seeded there in August, lived through the winter perfectly, and matured grain by August of the following year. Barley seeded in May was ripe by the middle of August. The great river valleys of Alaska and the Canadian North embrace cultivable areas large enough to form several good-sized States. All through the interior, in fact, there are to be found extensive tracts of grass lands, the growths from which, could there be found a market for them, would exceed in value the products of all the gold mines. Along the route surveyed for the Valdez Copper River & Yukon Railway, from Valdez to Eagle City, many large meadows, on which the grass was waving waist high, were traversed by the party of engineers. \ number of horses were seen which had run at large in this region for two years. Stock-raising is becoming an important Alaskan industry — within a very few years it is probable that regular shipments of cattle for ex- port will be made. The extensive areas of rich growths of grass and the absence of storms in the winter make many sections of the country ideal places for ranching. The present summer is seeing an important step being taken in this connection. Several large stock-growers of Washington State are planning to convert the Aleutian Islands into vast cattle and sheep ranges, which will surpass in extent the rapidly diminishing ranges of Montana and Texas. One company has already begun the shipment of 25.000 sheep and 5,000 head of cattie to the Aleutians, a first consignment of 8,000 head of ALASKAN BOUNDARY COMMISSION sheep having recently been sent from San Fran- cisco. The company had previously demonstrat- ed that sheep will thrive there, living throughout the winter solely on the grass of the islands, by having landed 1,000 head there about a year and a half ago. The rapidly increasing importance of the North has made the United States government decide to establish a coaling station at Dutch Harbor (q.v.), the present end of the cable from Seattle. In 1892 the total foreign trade of Alaska — by which is meant imports and exports of mer- chandise — amounted to but $28,366, of which the larger part were imports. In 1900 the total trade was little less than $1,000,000. For the fiscal year ending 30 June 1903, Alaska's foreign trade reached a total of more than $22,000,000, of which the exports were about $13,000,000. With the gold and silver added, the exports would have exceeded $26,000,000, making the total foreign trade $35,000,000. The importation of iron and steel products into the Territory during the year exceeded in value $2,000,000. And yet the development of the North has only begun. Its immense wealth of fisheries and of timber has been but little exploited ; its possibilities for agriculture have not even been attempted. Only the industry in furs and its gold mines have received general recognition. When the cod banks of the coast have been ex- ploited ; the salmon industry placed on a more systematic basis ; the deposits of gold, iron, nickel, copper, and coal worked by adequate modern machinery ; the vast tracts of fertile land brought under cultivation, and the railroads briefly indicated in the foregoing sketch have been completed, the great North will be no longer the lone terra incognita of the past, but will throb with an active and productive civil- ization. In the steady stream of population north- ward there is nothing known of the limits of nationality. There are more of American birth in Dawson than there are Canadians. Even in the great wheat lands of Manitoba the farmers from Dakota, Montana, and the other States of the North and West almost equal in numbers those of Canadian origin. The explanation is simple. With its population of 90,000,000 the United States can send forth its pioneers in the ratio of thirteen to one from the provinces of the Dominion. Loyalty to British connection will not prevent the spread of American in- fluence and the growth of American ideals of government. The entire Canadian Northwest is already more American than British in its ad- ministrative systems. Shut off, industrially, from the east of Can- ada by the uninhabited and not very cultivable strip north of Lake Superior and Georgian Bay. northwestern Canada must make its commerce with the northwestern States and with Alaska. From south, west, and north, therefore, the in- fluences will be wholly American, while within its boundaries American capital and American settlers will spread the leaven of the genius of American institutions. A few years ago it was the custom to laugh at the purchase of Alaska as having been, somewhat politely, forced upon the United States by Russia as a return for her supposed friendship during the Civil War. The laugh is no longer appropriate. Larger in area than the combined States of Alabama, Connecti- cut, Delaware, Indiana, Indian Territory, Ken- tucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Mississippi, Rhode Island, New Jersey, New York, Pennsyl- vania, South Carolina, Tennessee, Vermont, Vir- ginia, and West Virginia, or than the British Isles, France, Germany, Portugal, and Belgium together. Alaska, already an important part of the United States, will contribute largely to a social and commercial, if not a political, union of two nations. William R. Stewart. Editorial Staff ■ irts on the Lynn Canal, and the prominent places of export and import for the Yukon and Klondike gold fields, would be in Canadian territory. So would the Porcupine gold fields. On account of the apparent clearness of the terms of the Anglo-Russian treaty in 1825 it may seem difficult to imagine how any interpretation different from that argued f"r by the United States could have been put forth. The original treaty, however, was in French, and dispute an.se as to the precise translation of Vivte." meaning crest, "lisiere." meaning strip, and "cote," usually translated as coast. The treaty also laid down the boundary on supposed topographical conditions which did not exist. When the treaty »;h drawn up the train- ers relied upon some of the maps of Capt. Van- couver, and from observations in the small sec- tion of British Columbia which he explored it seemed apparent that the whole coast was bor dered by a range of mountains which ran parallel to and at a distance of from 25 to 30 miles from the sea. \ a matter of fact there is a jumble of mountains in various places along the coast, but in no case is there a well-defined watershed. The "crests" mentioned in the treaty were even more difficult to decide upon, and with the dif- ference of opinion as to whether the coast line as intended in the treaty ran through the inlets or around them there were grounds for dis- putes, for the settlement of which an international tribunal became necessary. The treaty between the United Slates and Great Britain, of which the appointment of the Alaska tribunal was the consequence, therefore decided that the following questions should be decided upon: 1. What is intended as the point of com- mencement of the line? 2. What channel is the Portland channel? 3. What course should tin- line take from the point of commencement to the entrance to Portland channel ? 4. To what point On the 56th parallel is the line to be drawn from the head of the Portland channel, and what course should it follow be- ii these points? 5. In extending the line of demarkation northward from said p. ant on the parallel of the 56th degree of north latitude, following the crest of the mountains situated parallel to the coast until its intersection with the 141st degree of longitude west of Greenwich, subject to the con- dition that if such line should anywhere exci ed the distance of 10 marine leagues from the ocean then the boundary between the British and the Russian Territory should be formed by a line parallel to the sinuosities of the coast and distant therefrom not more than 10 marine leagues, was it the intention and meaning of said convention of 1825 that there should remain in the exclu- sive possession of Russia a continuous fringe or strip of coast on the mainland, not exceeding 10 marine leagues in width, separating the Brit- ish possessions from the bays, ports, inlets, havens, and water of the ocean, and extending from the said point on the 56th degree of lati- tude north to a point wdiere such line of demark- ALASKAN BOUNDARY COMMISSION ation should intersect the 141st degree of lon- gitude west of the meridian of Greenwich? 6. If the foregoing question should be an- swered in the negative, and in the event of the summit of such mountains proving to be in places more than 10 marine leagues from the coast, should the width of the "lisiere" which was to belong to Russia be measured (1) from the main- land coast of the ocean, strictly so-called, along a line perpendicular thereto, or (2) was it the intention and meaning of the said convention that where the mainland coast is indented by deep inlets, forming part of the territorial waters of Russia, the width of the lisiere was to be measured (a) from the line of the general direc- tion of the mainland coast, or (b) from the line separating the waters of the ocean from the territorial waters of Russia, or (c) from the heads of the aforesaid inlets? 7. What, if any exist, are the mountains referred to as situated parallel to the coast, which mountains, when within 10 marine leagues from the coast are declared to form the eastern boundary? The United States made no actual claim. She reiterated her right to territory which she proved had been recognized as hers by Great Britain and by various official acts of Canada. Various maps were produced to show that Rus- sia had been entitled to the disputed territory and that after the purchase of Alaska that same territory was mapped and charted as belonging to the United States. Among the maps put in evidence was the British Admiralty Chart No. "87, corrected to April 1898, in which the boundary line follows the sinuosities of the actual sea-coast, and de- prives Canada of the inlets which cut into the continent. It was proven also that post-offices have been maintained on various points of Un- disputed strip ; that custom-houses have been established there and have collected duties, and that government and mission schools, particu- larly at the head of the Lynn Canal have been maintained for nearly 20 years. The fact that the possession of the territory by Russians and later by Americans had not been disputed from 1825 until 1898, was also put forth by the United States in support of her claim. The British contention rested primarily on the claim that it would have been impossible to trace at a distance of 30 miles the intricate convolu- tions of the line forming the edge of the salt water, and that therefore a general coast line, including many of the islands and disregarding many of the inlets, was the intention of the framers of the Anglo-Russian treaty. If the 30- mile limit were applied to such a coast, the boundary line would of course cut across all 1 he deeper inlets, giving the British immediate access to the interior. The British also submitted an argument plac- ing a new interpretation of that clause of the treaty which provides that where the boundary line follows the mountain ranges, the crests of these mountain peaks shall mark the precise line of demarkation. It was demonstrated in the rush to the Klondike that there was no general line of mountains anywhere near the coast, but a number of peaks and small mountains were scattered disconnected close along the coast. The British claim that the boundary line should follow the crests of these isolated peaks, had it been allowed, would have deprived the United States of a great portion of their 30-mile "lisiere." The British cited the action of Ameri- can surveyors in 1893 in support of their inter- pretation of "coast." Dr. T. C. Mendenhall, superintendent of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, in that year directed his subordinates to carry their operations inland "30 nautical miles from the coast of the mainland in a direction at ri^ht angles to its general trend." In regard to the mountains it was contended that a gap does not discontinue the general line of the range. The official report of the tribunal was signed and issued on 20 Oct 1903. The signatories were Lord Alverstone, the British commissioner, and the three American commissioner-, who constituted a majority of the tribunal, the Cana- dian commissioners refusing to sign. All the American claims were granted with the exception of those in regard to questions 2 and 3, in which the British contentions were upheld. The original treaty specified that the line should run from the southernmost point of Prince of Wales Island (Cape Muzon) to Port- land Channel. The course of this line, accord- ing to the United States, is due east about 70 miles. The British locate it a little north of east about 66 miles to what they call Portland Chan- nel, and what the Americans call Pearse Chan- nel. The American claim is made on the map of Capt. Vancouver, who first scientifically in- vestigated the territory, and the British claim was made upon the text of Capt. Vancouver's book, which differed slightly from the map. A substantiation of the American contention would have given to the United States Pearse and Sitklan Islands, which command the en- trance to Fort Simpson, to which point Canada proposes to build a new transcontinental rail- way. The decision in regard to Portland Channel or Canal gave Canada Pearse and Wales In- lands, while the United States obtained Sitklan and Kunnughunnut Islands and the broad southern portion of the channel. Three opini were also delivered to Messrs. J. W. Foster and Clifford Sifton, the agents respectively of the United States and Canada, one by the United States commissioners discussing the Portland Canal claims: another by Lord Alverstone on the general issue, and a third by the Canadians protesting in the most emphatic language against all the American claims. The chief interest in the decision lay in the conclusions upon the fifth or main question of Lord Alverstone, who by his impartial and high-minded course re- futed the assumption on which was based the principal objection to the former treaty, that not even on the bench could a British subject be found who would not persist in upholding the supposed interests of his country, no matter how cogent might be the appeals to his sense of justice or of equity. The following is an abstract of Lord Alver- stone's conclusions : "The broad, undisputed facts are that the parties were engaged in making an agreement respecting the archipelago and islands off the coast and some strip of land upon the coast it -rc., city and county-seat of Linn County, mi the Southern Pacific and the Cowalli & E. R.R.'s, and the Willamette River, about 25 m. S. by W. from Salem. The city has good water-power from the Willamette River, and has large manufacturing interests. It ships both grain and Hour. Pop. (1900) 3,149. Albany, West Australia, in Plantagenet co., on King George's Sound. It has one of the finest harbors in Australia, and is a port of call fur the steamers of the Peninsular & Ori- ental Co. It is a consular station of the United States. Pop. about 3.000. Albany Congress, an assembly of repre- sentatives of tin- seven northern British-Amer- ican colonies (Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode Island. New York, Penn- sylvania, and Maryland), called together in 1754 by the British government to consult in regard to the threatening French war. It met 19 June, and two plans were proposed: (1) a league with the Five Nations, which was car- ried out; (2) a proposal offered by Franklin for a political union. In this a common presi- dent was proposed, and a great council repre- senting the different colonies. The president was to be appointed by the Crown; to be also commander-in-chief, to commission all civil offi- cers and appoint all military ones, and have a veto on the council. The council was to con- sist of three-year members, two to seven from each colony; not to be adjourned or dissolved or kept over six weeks in session against its will; it coidd lay taxes, maintain troops, build forts, nominate civil officers, manage Indian affairs, and authorize new settlements; and its acts were to be valid unless vetoed within three years by the Crown. This plan was re- jected by the British Crown because it gave too much power to the colonies and by the col- onies because it gave too much power to the Crown. The significance of this congress lies in the fact that it stimulated the union of the colonies which was afterward accomplished. Albany Regency, in American political history, the nickname of a powerful group of Democratic leaders in New York State, who controlled the party machinery there and acted together for influence in State and national af- fairs about 1820-54: so named because its mem- bers either lived near the capital or held offices which made it their headquarters. Its origin and essence as an aristocracy of « bosses » lay in the system of frequent elections among a democracy, which puts nominations into the hands of 'professionals who will be paid in some shape, creating a permanent standing army of political managers. The Regency was the un- official staff of this army, and was larger than in other States from the imperial field which New York offered for great careers; but it could not have perpetuated its power but for the means of rewarding friends and punishing enemies given it by the " spoils system » (a name derived from the saying of one of its members, William L. Marcy. in 1833. that « to the victors belong the spoils »)• While per- sonally upright, and strong opponents of cor- ruption, they held firmly to this, the very spring of corruption: the giving or taking away of offices, the use of public contracts for printing or other work or supplies, etc. That this was its cement is shown by the fact that after the bitter factional split of 1848 (see Barnburners) had given the Othei party this patronage to use against it, the Regency was reduced in a few years to unorganized individuals. The members of course kept themselves in high or profitable positions according to their capacities or preferences; several alternating between State and national preferment, but never ne- glecting the former basis even in the latter service. The earliest and greatest leader was Martin Van Buren, State attorney-general. United States senator iN_>i 8, resigning to be- come governor of New York, Jackson's secre- tary of state, Vice-President, President. Others were William I.. .Matey. Stair comptroller, judge of the New York supreme court, United States senator 1831, resigning [833 to become governor of New York, Polk's secretary of war. Pierce's secretary of state; Silas Wright, Congressman. State comptroller. United States senator 1833 (succeeding Marcy). resigning 1844 to become governor of New York; John A. Dix, State secretary of state, United States senator 1845-0. Buchanan's secretary of the treasury, again governor of New York 1872-4; Benjamin F. Butler, Van Buren's attorney- general and acting secretary of war; while others held only State offices, — Azariah C. Flagg, Slate secretary of stale and afterward twice comptroller; Edwin Croswell, State printer, editor of the Albany .traits, leading Democratic organ; Benjamin Knower, State treasurer; and others held no offices, — Dean Richmond, Roger Skinner. Peter Cagger, Sam- uel A. Talcott, etc. (Hammond's 'Political History of New York' is a shrewd analy- sis of State politics from a judicious and experienced observer.) Afterward Samuel J. Tilden, Daniel Manning, and others of high stamp, by sagacity of central management, pre- served in a manner the traditions of the older group, though they never had its patronage to use for discipline. Albatross (corrupted from Portug. alca- tros, the cormorant; from Ar. al. the; qadus, bucket, on account of its pouch), a large, al- most exclusively pelagic bird of the family Diotnedeidte, a feature of the lonely southern oceans. They are rarely seen on the north At- lantic, but frequent nearly all other seas, and are never seen ashore except on the barren antarctic islands where they breed. They have great powers of Might and follow ships for long distances to pick up .offal. Their appetites are rapacious, their natural diet consisting of any fishes, mollusks, or other animal matter which they find at the sur- face of the water; tiny ilo not dive. Sailors are fond of them and have a strong supersti- tion against killing them. Like their allies, the petrels, the albatrosses have three fully- webbed toes, while the hind toe is cither en- tirely wanting or represented by a claw. The bill of an albatross is four inches or more long, very thick, and finished by a powerful hook at the tip. The nostrils open from round hori- zontal tubes placed one on each side of the bill, but at its base, instead of together on top as with the petrel. The wings are extremely long and pointed, the tail short and somewhat rounded. The feathers of the body form so thick a coat as to withstand both water and ALBAUGH — ALBERT severe, long-continued cold ; owing to the ex- treme length of the wing the number of flight feathers on it is greater than on the wing of any other bird. The single large white egg of the albatross is usually hatched on the bare earth. Two rather small species of albatross, the short-tailed {Diomcdca albatrus) and the black-footed (Diomcdca nigripcs), occur on the western coasts of North America ; these are about three feet long and seven feet across the wings. The sooty albatross (Pliccbctria fuli- ginosa), of much the same size, belongs broadly to the Pacific Ocean. There are from seven to nine other species, of which the largest is the \\andering albatross (Diomedea exulans) of the southern oceans. It is 4 or 5 feet long and 10 to 12 feet from tip to tip of wings. Its color is white, with black bars across the wing coverts and across part of the back. This is probably the best known species in the family. Albaugh, John, American actor: b. Bal- timore, 30 Sept. 1837. Under the management of Joseph Jefferson he made his first appearance in a play called ( Brutus, ) in 1855. For 13 years he played throughout the United States and in 1868 became manager of various theatres, lat- terly in Washington and Baltimore. He re- tired from the stage in 1899 and devoted his leisure to stock-raising. Albay, a province in the southeast of Luzon, Philippine Islands, and the richest hemp- growing district on the island. It, has yielded as much as 40,000 tons of hemp in a season. The province contains a picturesque volcano, Mayon, which has had several destructive erup- tions, the last in 1888. In January 1900 Brig.- Gen. William A. Kobbe, United States Volun- teers, was appointed military governor of the province and Catanduanes Island, with tem- porary authority over Samar and Leyte Islands for the purpose of controlling the hemp-growing country and occupying and opening to trade the various hemp ports. The principal towns in the province are Albay (the capital), Tivi, Malinao, Tobaco, Malilipot, Bagacay, Libog, Legaspi, Manito, Libon, Polangui, Ligao, Oas, Guinoba- tan, Cagsaua, and Camalig. Vicol is almost the exclusive language of the province. The indus- tries are hemp-growing (annual value $4,750.- 217), ship-building, gold, silver, coal, and iron mining. Pop. (1900) 195,129. Albemarle, The, a Confederate ram, which for a long time did great damage among Union shipping, but was finally destroyed by W. B. Cushing (q.v.), who was entrusted at dif- ferent times with various difficult feats of the sort. Cushing, while the Albemarle was at moorings in the harbor of Plymouth, N. G, on the night of 27 Oct. 1864 entered the harbor and succeeded in blowing up the vessel by means of a torpedo. The Albemarle was rendered com- pletely useless, and Cushing obtained lieutenant- commander's rank and the thanks of Congress for his execution of the exploit. Albemarle Sound, a shallow and narrow body of water on the coast of North Carolina, separated from the Atlantic Ocean by low sand islands. The greatest depth is about 18 feet, but it is generally so shallow as to be (innavi- gable except where it has been dredged. The water is generally fresh and is not affected by the tides. It extends directly west from the ocean about 60 miles. It is the outlet of many of the streams of northeastern North Carolina, chief of which are the Roanoke and Chowan. Alberoni, Giulio, cardinal and minister of the king of Spain: b. Firenzuola, Parma, 1664; d. Rome 1752. He soon gained the favor of powerful patrons, especially the Duke of Ven- dome, whom he accompanied to Paris and then to Spain, the Duke being appointed generalis- simo of the armies of Philip V. Having made himself a favorite of the Spanish king, he rose to be prime minister, became a caidinal, was all- powerful in Spain after the year 1715, and en- deavored to restore it to its ancient splendor. He reformed abuses, created a naval force, organized the Spanish army on the model of the French, and rendered the kingdom of Spain more powerful than it had been since the time of Philip II. Albert, Prince (Albert-Francis-Augus- tus-Charles-Em manuel), Prince of Saxe- Coburg-Gotha, and Prince Consort of England, second son of Ernest I., Duke of Saxe-Coburg, was born at the Rosenau, a castle near Coburg, on 26 Aug. 1819. In 1837 he entered the Uni- versity of Bonn, where he devoted himself to the studies of political and natural science, history, philosophy, etc., as well as to those of music and painting. On leaving the university he made a tour through the chief cities of Italy with Baron Stockmar. On 10 Feb. 1840 he married his cousin, Queen Victoria of England. An allowance of £30.000 a year was settled upon the prince, who was naturalized by act of Parlia- ment, received the title of Royal Highness by patent, was made a field-marshal, a Knight of the Garter, of the Bath, etc. Other honors were subsequently bestowed upon him, the chief of which was the title of Prince Consort (1857). He always took a deep and active interest in the welfare of the people in general. His services to the cause of science and art were very im- portant ; he presided over the commission ap- pointed in 1841 to consider the best means of rebuilding the houses of parliament and the great exhibition of 1851 owed much of its suc- cess to his activity, knowledge, and judgment. He died of typhoid fever on 14 Dec. 1861, after a short illness. A collection of his speeches and addresses was published in 1862. A biography of the prince by Sir Theodore Martin has been published in five volumes, London 1875-80. Albert I., Duke of Prussia, son of Fred- erick, Margrave of Ansbach and Baireuth, and grandson of Albert Achilles, Elector of Bran- denburg: b. 17 May 1490: d. 20 March 1568. In 15 1 1 he was chosen by the Teutonic Knights grand master of their order. Being the son of Sophia, the sister of Sigismund, king of Poland, and descended from one of the most powerful German families, the Knights hoped by his means to be freed from the feudal superiority of Poland and placed under the protection of the empire. Being recognized by Poland he pro- ceeded to Konigsberg and assumed the govern- ment' in 1512. He refused the oath of allegi- ance to Poland, which the previous grand master had evaded, and prepared for resist- ance. In 1520, after protracted negotiations, Sigismund attempted to enforce submission by an invasion of the territories of the Order, but the contest was without decisive result, and in ALBERT the following year a truce of four years was agreed to at thorn. The latter years of his reign were troubled with many intrigues, for- eign and domestic; in 1532 he was put under the ban of the empire, hut su led in trans- mitting his succession to his son. Albert I., Margrave of Brandenburg, sur- named the Bear, from his heraldic emblem, was the son of Otto the Rich, Count of Ballen- stadi. \- Marquis of Lusatia he served the Emperor Lothaire with credit in his war with Bohemia. 'The Diet afterward withdrew Lusa- tia from him, but the emperor for further services conferred on him in 1 134 the mar- gravate of Brandenburg. In 1136-7 he made incursions into the territory of the Wends, who disturbed his government, and checked their disorders. In 1 138 the Emperor Conrad con- fined on him the duchy of Saxony, of which he had deprived Henry the Proud. This led to a war with Henry, in which Albert was deprived of Brandenburg, but was restored by an armis- tice negotiated by the ecclesiastical electors. On the death of Henry (1130) he reassumed the title of Duke of Saxony. A combination was then formed against him, which, in spite of the favor of the emperor, reduced him to extremities. Peace was concluded in 1142. Al- bert resigned Saxony, and Brandenburg was raised to an immediate fief of the empire. He acquired at the same time by inheritance from Przihislas, a Vandal king who had taken his name in baptism, the country between the Elbe and the Oder. He made his new possessions a fief of the empire, and in order the better to guard them removed his residence to Branden- burg. In 1148 he led an expedition into Pomc- rania, and in the following year induced the duke of that country to embrace Christianity. In 1 150 he was raised to the electoral dignity. In 1 157 he made a third expedition against the Wends, conquered their country, and colonized it with agriculturists from Germany, Holland, and Zealand. In 1164 he went on a crusade to the Holy Land. Another war broke out be- tween him and Henry. Duke of Saxony, which was terminated to the advantage of the latter in 1168 by the mediation of the Emperor Fred- erick I. In 1 169 Albert remitted his estates to his son. He died in 1 170. The origin of Ber- lin, Kolln, Aken on the Elbe, and other towns, is attributed to the colonies founded by him. Albert I., Duke of Austria, and afterward emperor of Germany: b. 1248; son of Rudolph of Hapshurg, who had a short time before his death attempted to place the crown on the head of his son. But the electors, tired of his power, and emboldened by his age and infirmities, re- fused his request and indefinitely postponed the election of a King of the Romans (the title of the designated successor of the emperor). After the death of Rudolph, Albert, who in- herited only the military qualities of his father, saw his hereditary possessions, Austria and Styria, rise up in rebellion against him. He quelled by force this revolt, which his avarice and severity had excited: but success increased his presumption. He wished to succeed Ru- dolph in all his dignities, and without waiting for the decision of the Diet seized the insignia of the empire. Ibis act of violence induced the electors to choose Adolphus of Nassau em- peror. The disturbances which had broken out against him in Switzerland, and a disease which deprived him of an eye. made hi 1 more humble. He delivered up the insignia and took the oath of allegiance to the new emperor. Adolphus, after a reign of six years, having lost the regard of all the princes of the empire, Albert was elected to succeed him. A battle ensued near Gellheim, in which Adolphus fell by the hand of his adversary. The last barrier had fallen between Albert and the supreme power, but he was conscious of having now an opportunity of displaying his magnanimity. He voluntarily re- signed the crown conferred on him by the last election, and as he had anticipated was re- elected. His coronation took place at Aix-la- Chapelle in August 1298, and lie held his first diet at Nuremberg with the utmost splendor. But a new storm was gathering over him. The Pope, Boniface VIII.. denied the right of the electors to deprive Adolphus of the impe- rial dignity and bestow it upon one wdio had caused the death of the legitimate sovereign. He accordingly summoned Albert before him to ask pardon and submit to such penance as he should dictate; he forbade the princes to acknowledge him. and released them from their oath of allegiance. The archbishop of Main/ from a friend became the enemy of Albert and joined the party of the Pope. On the other hand, Albert formed an alliance with Philip le Bel of France, secured the neutrality of Saxony and Brandenburg, and by a sudden irruption into the electorate of Mainz forced the arch- bishop not only to renounce his alliance with the Pope but to form one with him for the five ensuing years. In April 1301 Boniface forbade all submission to Albert until he would go to Rome and repair his crimes. The next year Albert entered into negotiations with the Pope. in which he again showed the duplicity of his character. He broke his alliance with Philip, acknowledged that the Western Empire was a grant from the Popes to the emperors, that the electors derived their right of choosing from the see of Rome, and promised to defend with arms the rights of the Pope, whenever he should demand it, against any one. As a reward Boni- face excommunicated Philip, proclaimed him to have forfeited his crown, and gave the kingdom of France to Albert. Philip in revenge an- noyed and persecuted the Pope. Albert was engaged in unsuccessful wars with Holland. Zealand, Fricsland, Hungary, Bo- hemia, and Thuringia. While preparing to re- venge a defeat which he had suffered in Thurin- gia he received the news of the revolt of the Swiss, and saw himself obliged to direct his forces thither. The revolt of Unterwalden, Schwyz, and Uri had broken out 1 Jan. 1308. Albert had not only foreseen this consequence of his oppression but desired it, in order to have a pretence for subjugating Switzerland en- tirely to himself. A new act of injustice, how- ever, put an end to his ambition and life. Sua- bia was the inheritance of John, the son of his younger brother Rudolph. John had repeatedly asserted his right to it, but in vain. When Al- bert set out for Switzerland John renewed his demand, which was contemptuously rejected by Albert. John, in revenge, conspired with his governor, Walter of Eschenbach, and three friends against the life of Albert. The con- ALBERT LEA — ALBIGENSES spirators took advantage of the moment when the emperor, on his way to Rheinfelden, was separated from his train by the river Reuss, and assassinated him. Albert breathed his last, I May 1308, in the arms of a poor woman who was sitting on the road. Albert Lea, Minn., connty-seat of Free- born County, on the Chicago, M. & St. P., the Burlington, C. R. & N., and the Minneapolis & St. L. R.R.'s, about 100 m. S. of St. Paul and 10 m. N. of the boundary of Iowa. The presence of many lakes and artesian wells of chalybeate waters make the city and neighborhood a popu- lar summer resort. It is the market town for a large agricultural and dairy region and has con- siderable manufacturing interests. It is the seat of a Presbyterian college for women (est. 1855), and a Lutheran Academy. Pop. (1900) 4,500. Alberta, a Canadian Northwest Territory, created in 1882, and named for II. R. H. Prin- cess Louise, wife of the Marquis of Lome, then Governor-General. Area, 101,521 sq. m. ; chief towns, Calgary, Edmonton, Lethbridge, and Strathcona (q.v.). The southern part is open and rolling, with timber along the streams and in the foot-hills ; the northern is more or less timbered throughout. The drainage is about equally northward and eastward through the Athabascan and Saskatchewan river sys- tems; some small streams in the south are of the Missouri system. The winters are mild, with little snow, and the summers hot and dry. The rainfall is small, but the melting snow in the mountains affords an abundance of water for irrigation. The winter storms are severe, but the warm west wind, the Chinook, disperses the snow rapidly, and cattle and horses graze all winter. The soil is good in the northern and eastern parts. Ranching and dairying are the chief industries ; extensive irrigation has in- creased general farming in recent years. The natural resources are coal, petroleum, natural gas, building stone, and gold. The mountain district about Banff has been set apart by the Dominion Government as a national park. Three branches of the Canadian Pacific Rail- way (q.v.) traverse the territory, and a short independent line connects Lethbridge with the Great Northern Railway at Great Falls, Mon- tana. The projected lines of the Canadian Northern and Grand Trunk Pacific Railways (q.v.) will pass through Edmonton and the northern part. Pop. (1904) about 70,000. On 1 Sept. 1905 the western portion of Atha- basca was added to Alberta, thus nearly dou- bling its area and materially increasing its population. Alber'tus Magnus, or Albert the Great, Count of Bollstadt, a distinguished German scholar of the 13th century: b. 1200; d. 1280. He studied at Padua, became a monk of the Do- minican order, teaching in the schools of Hildes- heirn, Ratisbon, and Cologne, where Thomas Aquinas became his pupil. In 1245 he went to Paris and publicly expounded the doctrines of Aristotle. It was through his teaching that the philosophy of the Stagyrite became predomi- nant in the Middle Ages. He became a rector in the school of Cologne in 1249: in 1254 he was made provincial of his order in Germany: and in 1260 he received from Pope Alexander IV. the appointment of Bishop of Ratisbon. In 1263 he retired to his convent at Cologne, where he composed many works, especially com- mentaries on Aristotle. Albicore, or Albacore. See Tunny. Albigenses, a religious sect, coming first into prominence in the 12th century, and taking its name from Albi, their principal stronghold. What their doctrines were has not been deter- mined, as no formal statement of them was ever drawn up. It appears that the Albigenses held beliefs similar to those of the Patarins in Italy, the Bulgarians in France, and other similar sects. They styled themselves Cathari the Pure and traced their doctrines to the Manichean sect known as Paulicians, that settled in Bulgaria, whence their tenets spread to France. They taught the doctrine of the Manicheans, that there are two opposing creative principles, one good, the other evil ; the invisible word pro- ceeding from the former, the body and all ma- terial things from the latter. "Their teachers assumed a great simplicity of manners, dress, and mode of life. They inveighed against the vices and worldliness of the clergy, and there was sufficient truth in their censures to dispose their hearers to believe what they advanced and reject what they decried. They also rejected the Old Testament, said that infant baptism was useless, and denied marriage to the per- fect* as they called their more austere members. 9 (Addis and Arnold's 'Catholic Dictionary'.) On the other hand the license permitted to the imperfect gave rise to so much fanaticism and grave social and moral disorders as to threaten the destruction of Christian civilization in the heart of France. They had increased very much toward the close of the 12th century in the south of France, about Toulouse and Albi, and in Raymond, Count of Toulouse, they found a patron and protector. Innocent III., after trying in vain to reform the abuses prevalent among them, was so incensed by the assassina- tion of the papal legate, Peter of Castelnau, in 1208, that he proclaimed a crusade against them, and was supported by the king of France. An army was accordingly collected, large numbers of those composing it being mere mer- cenaries and adventurers brought together by the hope of plunder rather than by zeal for the Catholic faith. The chief leader was Simon de Montfort, father of the well-known Earl of Leicester. Raymond's territories were ravaged, and in 1209 the crusaders took Beziers by storm, and put a number of the inhabitants to the sword. Simon de Montfort was equally severe toward other places in the territory of Ray- mond and his allieSj of whom Roger, nephew of Raymond, died in a prison and Peter I., king of Aragon, in battle. The lands taken were presented, as a reward for his services, to Simon de Montfort, who, however, was killed at the siege of Toulouse in 1218. When Innocent III. heard of the cruelties of the invading armies he recalled his legate Milo for his weakness in not restraining Simon and restored to Raymond the captured territory. Soon after, however, Raymond once more es- poused the cause of the Albigenses. He died in 1222, under excommunication, and his son, Ray- mond VII., was obliged to defend his inherit- ance against the legates and Louis VIII. of France, who fell in 1226 in a campaign against the Albigenses. After thousands had fallen on ALBINISM — ALBUFERA both sides a peace was made in 1229 by the terms of which Raymond was released from the penalties in consideration of a large tribute He ceded Narbonne, with several estates, to Louis IX., and made his son-in-law, a brother of Louis, heir of his other lands. Albinism, a condition in which there is a congenital absence of pigment in the hair, eye, and skin. Animals so affected are albinos. Albinism is also present in the flowers of many if not all plants, white flowers occurring among those of other color on the same plant. Albinos have been known among all races and all peo- ples, hence neither climate nor race are its caus- ative factors. Rare in many races, it occurs frequently in others, as for instance in the Zuni and other tribes of Arizona. The most widely accepted theory is that the condition is due to an arrest of development of the pigment layers in the embryo. Affections of the eye are the most important disagreeable features for albinos. Albion, the earliest name by which the island of Great Britain was known, employed by Aristotle, and in poetry Mill used for Great Britain. The Greeks and Romans probably re- ceived the name from the Gauls, in whose lan- guage it would mean mountain-land or white- land, from the Celtic alp, . said to mean high or white (whence also Alps), the latter name being given to it in reference to the chalky cliffs on the coasts. Albion, Mich., city in Calhoun County. situated on Kalamazoo River, the Lake Shore & M. S. and the Michigan C. R.R.'s, 28 miles south of Lansing. It has three banks, with a combined capital (if $185,000; six churches and good schools. Albion College (q.v.) is located here. There are manufactures of doors and sashes, tools, harness and carriages. It is gov- erned by common council of eight members, elected yearly. First settled in 1831. became a borough in 1855, incorporated in 1885. Pop. (1900) 4,519. W. S. Kennedy, Editor 'Recorder.' Albion, N. Y., the county-seat of Orleans County, on the New York Central R.R. and the Erie Canal, about 4.? m. northeast of Buffalo. It has two banks, public parks, a free library, sev- eral schools and churches, and 5 newspapers. The House of Refuge for Women is located here. The most important manufactures are mowing-machines, carriages, shoes, and plows. There are large stone quarries here and several fruit canneries. The city is lighted by electric- ity. The affairs of the community are adminis- tered by a mayor and board of trustees. Albion was first settled in 1812, incorporated 1828. Pop. (I'joo) 5,749- Albion, New. See New Albion. Albion College, a coeducational institu- tion in Albion, Mich., organized under the auspices of the Methodist Episcopal Church. Professors and instructors, 25; students, 454; volumes in the library, 15.000: grounds and buildings valued at $80,000; productive funds, $228,000; income, $29,000; graduates, 986. Albite, an important member of the feld- spar group of minerals. It stands at one end of the albite-anorthite series of triclinic feldspars (see Feldspar Group). It is a sodium-alumi- num silicate. Na Al SijOs, and is often called "soda feldspar." It has perfect basal cleavage and also cleaves easily parallel to the brachypin- acoid. It is brittle, breaking with an uneven to conchoidal fracture. Its hardness is 6 to 6.5, and specific gravity about 2.63. Its usual color is white, whence its name (from "albus," white), but it is occasionally gray or tinted with blue, green or red. The variety peristerite shows a delicate blue irridescence, similar to the "change of colors" of moonstone, which is also some- times a variety of albite. Cleavelandite is a common lamellar variety, named in honor of the eminent mineralogist, Dr. P. Cleaveland, who died in 1858. Albite crystals present a great variety of forms, some of the simpler of which are quite similar to those of the monoclinic orthoclase. with which albite is often associated in parallel growths and intergrowths such as perthite. Twinning is even more common in albite than in orthoclase, and their analogy is shown by the occurrence of Carlsbad, Baveno and Manebach twins. Several other laws of twinning are, however, followed by albite, not- ably those known as the "albite law" and the "pericline law." Both of these types are very common and often manifest themselves by the polysynthetic twinning lamellae which are so characteristic of the plagioclase feldspars. Al bite often occurs in tabular crystals and embedded masses in which this twinning is re- vealed by striations on the basal plane. Prob- ably the most striking occurrence of albite is at Amelia, Va., this locality producing large groups of tabular crystals, each over a foot in length. It usually occurs in granite or gneiss, and less frequently in the crystalline schists. It is found but rarely in volcanic rocks and in limestones. Many of the most highly prized gem minerals, such as topaz, beryl and tourmaline occur in albitic granite, while albite is often a guide min- eral to columbite, allanite and other rarer min- erals. It is also an essential constituent of dioryte. There are many noteworthy localities in Switzerland, the Tyrol, Cornwall and else- where in Europe, while it abounds throughout the Atlantic Coast States, and is found in espe- cially attractive specimens on amazonstone in Colorado. Albret, Jeanne d\ Queen of Navarre, daughter of Henry II. of Navarre and Margaret of Valois (sister of Francis I. of France), was the mother of Henry IV. of France, and a zeal- ous supporter of the reformed religion, which she established in her kingdom. She was b. in 1528; d. 1572. She married Antoine de Bour- bon in 1548, succeeded her father on the throne of Navarre and Beam in 1555. reigned in con- junction with her husband till his death in 1562, and afterward alone. Albright, Jacob, American minister of the Methodist Church : b. near Pottstown, Pa., 1 May 1759; d. 1808. His work lay among the Germans of Pennsylvania. Becoming impressed with the decline of religious life and of the doc- trines and morals of the surrounding churches, he began a work of reform in 1790. He trav- eled about the country at his own expense, preaching his mission, until he founded in 1800 the Evangelical Association (q.v.), often known as "Albrights." Albufera, a lake about 9 miles square near Valencia, Spain, supposed to have been exca- vated by the Moors. It is separated from the sea ALBULA — ALBURNUM by a strip of land. The revenues from the fisheries of the lake belonged at one time to the Duke of Wellington. Albula, a Swiss river in the Canton Gri- scns, an affluent of the Rhine. 29 m. in length, in which distance it falls over 4,500 feet. Albula Pass, at the head of the Albula Valley, about 7,600 ft. above the sea. In this pass is the most direct road from the valley of the Inn to the valley of the Hiter-Rhein. A railroad now runs through it. Album, among the Romans, a board or tablet on which official notices, such as the prastor's edicts, lists of the members of public bodies, etc., were written, and which was put up in some public place to be seen by all. It was so called either because it was of a white ma- terial (albus, white) or a material whitened, or because the writing on it was in white. Album is a name now generally given to a blank book for the reception of pieces of poetry, autographs, engravings, photographs, etc. Albu'men, or Albumin (L., from albus, white), a substance, or rather group of sub- stances, so named from the Latin for the white of an egg, which is one of its most abundant known forms. It may be taken as the type of the protein compounds or the nitrogenous class of food stuffs. One variety enters largely into the composition of the animal fluids and solids, is coagulable by heat at and above 160°, and is composed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, with a little sulphur. It abounds in the serum of the blood, the vitreous and crystalline humors of the eye, the fluid of dropsy, the sub- stance called coagulable lymph, in nutritive mat- ters, the juice of flesh, etc. The blood contains about 7 per cent of albumen. When albumen coagulates in any fluid it readily incloses any substances that may be suspended in the fluid. Hence it is used to clarify syrupy liquors. In cookery white of eggs is employed for clarifying, but in large operations like sugar-refining the serum of blood is used. From its being coagu- lable by various salts, and especially by corrosive sublimate, with which it forms an insoluble compound, white of egg is a convenient antidote in cases of poisoning by that substance. With lime it forms a cement to mend broken ware. In Botany. — A substance interposed between the embryo and the testa of many plants. It is sometimes soft and fleshy, and at other times hard. It varies greatly in amount in those plants in which it is present, being particularly large in some endogens, such as the cocoanut, in which it constitutes the eatable part of the fruit. In Photography. — A process by which albu- men is used instead of collodion to coat glass or paper. A method of doing this in the case of glass was published by M. Niepce de Saint Vic- tor in the ' Technologist > for 1848. It was subsequently improved by M. le Gray. The foreign transparent stereoscopic views were at one time obtained by the use of albumen in the way now described. Albuminoid. See Proteids. Albuminuria, a condition characterized by the presence of albumen in the urine, irrespec- tive of any organic disease of the kidney. Thus there may be a functional or physiological al- buminuria, following excessive exercise, such as bicycling; febrile albuminuria as a result of fever, being especially common in malaria, pneu- monia, diphtheria, and typhoid ; hemic albumi- nuria accompanying blood diseases, lukemia, anasmia, poisoning by lead and mercury, syphilis, etc. Any of these albuminurias may result in chronic disease. See Kidneys. Albunol, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Granada, near the Mediterranean, on which it has a harbor, some 35 m. to the south of the city of Granada. Pop. 9,400. Albuquerque, Affonso d\ al'bo-kark'e, « the Great," Viceroy of the Indies: b. near Lisbon, 1453; d. in Goa, 16 Dec. 1515. The Portuguese had discovered and subjugated a great part of the western coast of Africa, and were beginning to extend their dominion over the seas and the people of India. Albuquerque, being appointed viceroy of these new possessions, with a fleet and some troops landed on the Mal- abar coast in 1503 ; conquered Goa, which he made the seat of the Portuguese government and the centre of its Asiatic commerce ; and afterward Ceylon, the Sunda Isles, the Penin- sula of Malacca, and the island of Ormuz at the entrance of the Persian Gulf. When the king of Persia sent for the tribute which the princes of this island had formerly rendered to him, Albuquerque presented bullets and swords to the ambassador, saying: « This is the coin in which Portugal pays her tribute." He made the Portuguese name profoundly respected among the princes and people of the East ; and many of them, especially the kings of Siam and Pegu, sought his alliance and protection. He maintained strict military discipline, was active, far-seeing, wise, humane, and equitable, re- spected and feared by his neighbors while be- loved by his subjects. His virtues made such an impression on the Indian peoples that, long after his death, they resorted to his grave to implore his protection against the misgovern- ment of his successors. Yet he did not escape the envy of courtiers and the suspicions of his king, who appointed Soarez, a personal enemy of Albuquerque, to supersede him as viceroy. This news reached him just as he was leaving Ormuz, and gave a severe shock to his shattered health and he died a few days later. Albuquerque, al'be-kerk, N. M., town and county-seat of Bernalillo co. ; situated on the Rio Grande and the Atchison, T. & S. F. and the Santa Fe Pacific R.R.'s ; 75 m. S.W. of Santa Fe. It has an elevation of 5.000 feet above sea- level : is an ancient and interesting settlement, divided into the Old and New towns; and is the seat of the LTniversity of New Mexico and of a government school for Indians. The town is located in a rich gold, silver, iron, and coal mining region, and has also an extensive trade in hides, grain, wool, and wine. There are a number of railroad shops, a foundry and ma-- chine works, a national bank (capital about $150,000), and large trading and jobbing in- terests. Pop, (1900) 6,238. Alburnum, the soft white substance which, in trees, is found between the liber or inner bark and the wood, and. in progress of time acquiring solidity, becomes itself tin- wood. A new layer of wood, or rather of alburnum, is added annually to the tree in everv part just under the bark. ALCALA —ALCHEMY Alcala, name of seven cities in Spain, but by far the most important in Spanish history is Alcala de Henares, province of Toledo. Car- dinal Ximines began the first building of the University of Alcala in 1500. Francis I., in 1517. declared that the cardinal had done for Spain what it had taken many kings to do for France. It was in Alcala that the famous Com- plutensian Polyglot Bible was brought forth. Alchemist, The, a satirical comedy by Ben Jonson ; probably his greatest work. It was played in 1010, and published in 1612. Its sub- ject is the paramount folly of the time, the search for the philosopher's stone. The Al- chemist is the quack Subtle, who, previous to exposure deludes the credulous characters of the play, the chief of whom is Sir Epicure Mammon. Alchemy, or Alchymy, the art which in former times occupied the place of and paved the way for the modern science of chemistry (as astrology did for astronomy), but whose aims were not scientific, being confined solely to the discovery of the means of indefinitely pro- longing human life, and of transmuting the baser metals into gold and silver. Probably the ancient nations, in their first attempts to melt metals, observing that the composition of differ- ent metals produced masses of a color unlike cither — for instance, that a mixture like gold resulted from the melting together of copper and zinc — arrived at the conclusion that one metal could he changed into another. At an early period the desire of gold and silver grew strong as luxury increased, and men indulged the hope of obtaining these rarer metals from the more common. At the same time the love of life led to the idea of finding a remedy against all diseases, a means of lessening the infirmities of age, of renewing youth, and repelling death. The hope of realizing these ideas prompted the efforts of several men. who taught their doc- trines through mystical images and symbols. To transmute metals they thought it necessary to find a substitute which, containing the origi- nal principle of all matter, should possess the power of dissolving all into its elements. This general solvent or menstruum universale, which at the same time was to possess the power of removing all the seeds of disease out of the human body and renewing life, was called the philosopher's stone, lapis philosophorum, and its pretended possessors adepts. The more obscure the ideas which the alchemists themselves bad of the appearances occurring in their experi- ments, the more they endeavored to express themselves in symbolical language. Afterward they retained this phraseology to conceal their secrets from the uninitiated. In Egypt Hermes Trismegistus was said to have left behind him many books of chemical, magical, and alchemical learning. These, however, are of a later date. (See Hermes Trismegistus.) After him chem- istry and alchemy received the name of the hermetic art. It is certain that the ancient Egyptians possessed considerable chemical and metallurgical knowledge, although the origin of alchemy cannot with certainty he attributed to them. Several Grecians became acquainted with the writings of the Egyptians, and initiated in their chemical knowledge. The fondness for magic, and for alchemy more particularly, spread afterward among the Romans also. When true science was persecuted under the Roman tyrants, superstition and false philosophy flourished the more. The prodigality of the Romans excited the desire for gold, and led them to pursue the art which promised it instantaneously and abun- dantly. Caligula made experiments with a view of obtaining gold from orpiment. On the other hand, Diocletian ordered all books to he burned that taught to manufacture gold and silver by alchemy. At that time many hooks on alchemy wen- written, and falsely inscribed with the names of renowned men of antiquity. Thus a number of writings were ascribed to Democritus, and more to Hermes, which were written by Egyptian monks and hermits, and which, as the Tabula Smaragdina, taught in allegories, with mystical and symbolical figures, the way to dis- cover the philosopher's stone. At a later period chemistry and alchemy were cultivated among the Arabians. In the 8th century the first chemist, commonly said to he Geber, flourished among them, in whose works rules are given for preparing quicksilver and other metals. In the Middle Ages the monks devoted themselves to alchemy, although they were afterward pro- hibited from studying it by the popes. But there was one even among these, John XXII., who was fond of alchemy. Raymond Lully. or Lullius, was one of the most famous alchemists in the 13th and 14th centuries. A story is told of him that during his stay in London he changed for King Edward I. a mass of 50,000 pounds of quicksilver into gold, of which the first rose-nobles were coined. The study of alchemy was prohibited at Venice in 1488. Para- celsus, who was highly celebrated about 1525, belongs to the renowned alchemists, as do Roger Bacon, Basilius Valentinus, and many others. When, however, more rational principles of chemistry and philosophy began to be diffused and to shed light on chemical phenomena, the rage for alchemy gradually decreased, though many persons, including some nobles, still re- mained devoted to it. Alchemy has. however, afforded some service to chemistry, and even to medicine. Chemistry was first carefully studied by the alchemists, to whose labor and patience we are indebted for several useful discoveries, for example, various preparations of quicksilver, kermes, etc. It i.s still impossible to assert anything with certainty about the transmutation of metals. Modern chemistry, indeed, places metals in the class of elements, and denies the possibility of changing an inferior metal into gold. Most of the accounts of such transmutation rest on fraud or delusion, although some of them are accom- panied with circumstances and testimony which render them probable. By means of the galvanic battery even the alkalies have been discovered to have a metallic base. The possibility of obtain- ing metal from other substances which contain the ingredients composing it, and of changing one metal into another, or rather of re- fining it. must therefore be left undecided. Nor arc all alchemists to be considered impostors. Many have labored, under the conviction of the possibility of obtaining their object, with inde- fatigable patience and purity of heart (which is earnestly recommended by sound alchemists as the principal requisite for the success of their labors). Designing men, however, have often ALCIATI — ALCMiEON used alchemy as a mask for their covetousness, and as a means of defrauding silly people of their money. Many persons even in our days, destitute of sound chemical knowledge, have been led by old books on alchemy, which they did not understand, into long, expensive, and fruitless labors. Hitherto chemistry has not succeeded in unfolding the principles by which metals are formed, the laws of their production, their growth and refinement, and in aiding or imitating this process of nature; consequently the labor of the alchemist is but a groping in the dark. Alciati, Andrea, Italian jurist and poet: b. Milan, 8 May 1492; d. Pavia, 12 Jan. 1550. For many years an advocate in Milan, he treated the objects of legal science to keen criticism, and was founder of the so-called (< elegant" school of law. He also wrote several antiquarian and historical essays, but his most popular work was the ' Emblems > (Milan 1522), epigram- matic poems on his contemporaries' virtues and vices. Of the numerous editions of this work several are chiefly sought on account of their wood-engravings. Editions of his ' Com- plete Works' in Latin: 4 vols. Basle, 1546-9; 6 vols. Lyons, 1560-1 ; 4 vols. Frankfort, 161". Cf. C. Mignault's ( Life of Alciati > (Milan, 1584). Alcibiades, son of Cleinias, an Athenian of high family: b. in Athens 450 B.c ; d. 404 B.C. His father, who died a few years after his birth, had greatly distinguished himself in the Persian wars, and had taken a prominent part in the expulsion of the Peisistratidae. Alcibiades was a relation of Pericles, who was his joint guardian along with Ariphron. He was re- markable in youth for the beauty of his person, the dissoluteness of his manners, the determina- tion of his character, and the greatness of his abilities. He came under the influence of Socra- tes, who tried to lead him into the paths of virtue ; but though their friendship was strength- ened by mutual obligations, each having saved the other in battle, the passions of Alcibiades were too strong for advice, and little permanent effect was produced on his character. He ac- quired great popularity by his liberality in pro- viding for the amusements of the people, and although guilty of many violent, extravagant, and audacious acts, he had, after the death of Cleon, a political ascendency which left him no rival but Nicias. Both at first cultivated alliance with Sparta, to which Alcibiades had a hered- itary partiality, but the Spartans trusting more to Nicias, he was offended, and induced the Athenians to break with Sparta and ally them- selves with Argos, Elis, and Mantineia (in the Peloponnesian war). In 419 he was chosen strategos, and led a small army into the Pelopon- nesus with which some important operations were effected. In 415 he advocated the Sicilian war, and was chosen one of the leaders of the expedition appointed to conduct it; but before it sailed he was charged with profaning and divulging the Eleusinian mysteries, and mutilat- ing the busts of Hermes which were set up in public all through Athens. He was permitted to take his place in the expedition, but was recalled before his plans could be accomplished. He made his escape and went to Sparta, where he was well received. He divulged the plans of the Athenians, and assisted the Spartans to defeat them. Sentence of death and confiscation was pronounced against him at Athens, and he was cursed by the ministers of religion. He induced the Athenian dependencies of Athens to revolt, and made alliance with Tissaphernes, a Persian satrap. Soon after he abandoned Sparta and took refuge with the Persian, ingratiating him- self by his affectation of Persian manners as he had previously done at Sparta by a similar affec- tation of Spartan simplicity. He now began to intrigue for his return to Athens, offering to bring Tissaphernes over to the Athenian alliance. His intrigue led to the establishment of an oli- garchy (the Four Hundred), but they did not recall him. The fleet, however, which was sta- tioned at Samos declared in favor of a democ- racy and recalled him. The revolution was effected at Athens without the return of the armament, and the banishment of Alcibiades was cancelled. He remained abroad, however, for some years in command of the Athenian forces, gained several victories, and took Chalcedon and Byzantium. In 407 B.C. he returned to Athens, where all proceedings against him were can- celled, but in 406, the fleet which he commanded having suffered a severe defeat, he was deprived of his command. He retired to the Thracian Chersonesus, where he made war with mercena- ries on the Thracian tribes. On the establishment of the Thirty at Athens a decree of banishment was passed against him. He took refuge with Pharnabazus, a Persian satrap, and was about to proceed to the court of Persia when he was assassinated, probably through private revenge. Alcinous, said to have been a king of the Phaeacians, in the island now called Corfu. See Ulysses. Alciphron, al'si-fron, a Greek rhetorician who flourished in the 2d century of the Chris- tian era and attained celebrity through his series of more than a hundred imaginary letters pur- porting to be written by the very dregs of the Athenian population, including courtesans and petty rogues. Their importance in literature is due almost wholly to the insight they afford into the social conditions and manners and morals of the day. The letters from the cour- tesans (hctairai) are based upon incidents in Menander's lost plays, and the new Attic comedy was likewise drawn upon for material. Alciphron, or The Minute Philosopher. See Berkeley, Bishop. Alcira, a well-built and strongly-fortified town of Spain, in the province of Valencia, on an island encircled by two arms of the river Jucar, some 25 m. from Valencia. It was founded by the Carthaginians. Pop. 20.000. Alcmaeon, alk-me'on, a son of Amphiaraus and Eriphyle, was one of the heroes who took part in the successful expedition of the Epigoni against Thebes. He was charged by his father to put his mother to death in revenge for her having urged her husband to take part in an expedition in which his foresight showed him he should perish. She had been gained over to urge this fatal course by a gift from Polynices of the fatal necklace of Harmonia. The matri- cide brought upon Alcmseon madness and the horror of being haunted by the Furies, but at Psophis he was purified by Phegeus, whose daughter he married, giving her the fatal ALCMAN — ALCOHOL present. But the land became barren in conse- quence of his presence, and be fled to the mouth of the river Achelous, the god of which gave him his daughter Callirrhoc in marriage. His new wife longed for the fatal necklace, and sent her husband tn Psophis to procure it under the pretence of dedicating it at Delhi ; but Phegcus, learning for whom it was really intended, caused his sons to murder the ill-fated Alcmseon. Alcman, one of the earliest and greatest of Greek lyric poets, belonging to the 7th century B.C. He is supposed to have been a native of Lydia, and to have been taken as a slave to Sparta. Only small fragments of his odes re- main. He used the broad, homely Doric dialect. His poems were love ditties, hymns, paeans, pro- cessional chants, etc. Alcmene, or Alkmene, alk-me'ne, in Greek mythology, the daughter of Anaxo and Elcctryon, king of Mycenar. She became the mother of Hercules through Zeus, who took the form of her husband Amphitryon. Finally Zeus bade Hermes guide her to the Islands of the Blest, where she was happily united with Rha- damanthus. Alco, a small variety of dog, with a small head and large pendulous ears, found wild in Mexico and Pent, and also domesticated. Alcobaja, a small town of Portugal, in Estremadura, 50 m. N. of Lisbon, at the junc- tion of the Alcoa and Baca ; is celebrated for a magnificent Cistercian monastery, the richest in the kingdom. It was founded in 1148 by Don Alphonso I. The buildings include an early Gothic church, containing the tombs of some of the Portuguese kings. The library is said to possess more than 25.000 volumes. Parts of the buildings are used for barracks. Alcock, Sir Rutherford, diplomat: b. Ea- ling, 1809; (1. London, 2 Nov. 1897. Educated as a physician, he served as surgeon with British troops in Spain and Portugal 1832-6; and was appointed consul at Fuchow 1844. On the way his services were requisitioned at Amoy, where, with Sir Harry Parkes, he succeeded in convincing the Chinese of- ficials that treaty agreements were to be respected and kept. Transferred to Shanghai he showed courage and determination by pro- claiming that English ships would pay no duties, and that 1,400 grain junks then waiting to sail would not be allowed to go until the murderers of some missionaries were seized and punished. Though only one British sloop of war was in the harbor at the time, his bold attitude succeeded. He was appointed first consul-general in Japan 1858, and created K. C. B. 1862. As minister at Peking (1865) he conducted many difficult negotiations with tact and success. Retiring in 1871, he devoted himself to medical charities, promotion of geographical studies, and the fur- therance of a knowledge of Japanese art. Works: ' Medical History and Statistics of the British Legion in Spain* (1838); 'Japanese Grammar* (1861); 'Capital of the Tycoon* (1863); 'Art and Art Industries in Japan* (1878). Alcofribas Nasier, pseudonym sometimes used by Rabelais (q.v.). Al'cohol. (Origin of the word somewhat obscure. According to most authorities it is from the Arabic al-koh'l, koh'l being the finely- powdered black sulphid of antimony used i:i the East for painting the eyebrows. First used to signify this powder, it afterward stood for any fine powder obtained by trituration or sub- limation ; then for any essence or spirit, and lastly for the liquid to which it is now applied. In the latter part of the 16th century spirit dried over powdered carbonate of potash was called spiritus alcolisatus; but Kopp suggests that this is a corruption of spiritus alcalisutus. signifying spirit that has been treated with alkali, and that alcolized [or alcoholized] spirit was then short- ened to alcohol.) 1. Ethyl Alcohol. — Unless otherwise quali- fied, " alcohol ■ is understood to mean the liquid known to the chemist as " ethyl alcohol,* 1 and to the trade as « grain alcohol," or " spirits of wine." It is colorless and inflammable, burning with a flame that is intensely hot but almost non-luminous. Most of the alcohol used in the arts is produced by the fermentation of sugars or starches. A thin paste is made from molasses, finely ground corn or potatoes, or other natural products containing sugars or starches, and a small quantity of malt or other agent containing diastase (q.v.) is added. The mixture is then allowed to stand until the diastase has trans- formed the starch into dextrose (glucose). Taking the chemical formula of starch as (CeHiuOrOa for the sake of illustration, we may have either of the following reactions as the primary effect of the diastase: (C 6 H 10 O 5 ) 3 + H 2 = (C„H 10 O 5 ) 2 + C 6 H 12 9 Starch Water Dextrin Dextrose (C 6 H 10 O 6 ) 3 + 2H 2 0= C 12 H 22 11 +C 6 H 12 6 Starch Water Maltose Dextrose Neither dextrin nor maltose is directly ferment- able, but each slowly becomes further trans- formed into dextrose, as appears from the fol- lowing equations : (C r ,H 10 O 5 ) 2 + 2H 2 = 2C B H 12 6 Dextrin Water Dextrose C, 2 H 22 0,, + H,0 =2C G H, 2 6 Maltose Water Dextrose The reduction to dextrose (glucose) being now complete, yeast is added, and the temperature is maintained at from 72 to 85 F. Under the influence of the yeast-plant (Saccharomyccs cerevisia or Torula ccrevisicr) the dextrose then undergoes fermentation, alcohol and carbon- dioxid being the chief products, according to the equation : C 6 H 12 6 = 2C 2 H O + 2CO3 Dextrose Alcohol Carbon- dioxid (A certain amount of nitrogenous and mineral matter must be present, in addition to the starch and sugar, in order to furnish food for the yeast- plant.) The next step in the process is to distil off the alcohol from the fermented prod- uct. This is usually done in a still heated by steam. One or more redistillations may be necessary in order to obtain the alcohol in a satisfactory state of purity and strength. The product of the original fermentation is weak in alcohol, but the subsequent distillations effect a great concentration, since alcohol is far more volatile than water and therefore passes off first. The British Pharmacopoeia requires recti- fied spirits (produced as described above) to ALCOHOL have a specific gravity of 0.838, which is equiv- alent to 84 per cent of alcohol by weight. The United States Pharmacopoeia fixes the specific gravity at 0.820, which corresponds to 91 per cent of alcohol by weight. It is possible to ob- tain this latter degree of concentration by ordinary distillation ; but it is not possible to free the alcohol entirely from water without dis- tilling it with potassium-carbonate, quicklime, calcium-chloride, or some similar substance pos- sessing sufficient affinity for water to prevent the water from passing over. The best way to elim- inate the last traces of water is to digest strong alcohol with quicklime for two hours at about ioo° F., and then distil, rejecting the first and last portions of the distillate. The product is then subjected to the same treatment a second time, after which it will probably be free from water. Alcohol thus deprived of the last trace of water is termed * absolute B or (< anhydrous 8 alcohol. Its chemical formula is C2H S .0H, and its specific gravity is 0.80625 at 32° F., and 079367 at 59 F. Absolute alcohol boils at 173.1 F., when the barometer stands at 29.92 inches (760 mm.). It freezes at about 200 below zero F., first becoming very viscid. Its low freezing-point has led to its use as a ther- mometric fluid for the measurement of low tem- peratures. Its specific heat is variously estimat- ed, but is in the vicinity of 0.61. Absolute alcohol has a powerful affinity for water, and it is therefore used as an astringent, and ifor certain purposes) as an antiseptic. When ex- posed to the air it quickly absorbs a sensible amount of aqueous vapor, and ceases to be <( ab- solute." According to the experiments of At- water, the human body is capable of oxidizing about two ounces of it per day, since this amount can be administered without any evidence of alcohol appearing in the excreta. Alcohol mixes with water in all proportions, and is extensively used as a solvent for substances that do not dissolve in water: notably for organic substances and for alkaloids and drugs. When absolute alcohol is mixed with water the volume of the mixture is considerably less than the sum of the volumes of the constituents. The specific grav- ity of such a mixture therefore cannot be de- duced by any simple formula ; but it has been found by direct experiment, and tabulated, for all possible mixtures and temperatures. The strength of a given mixture of'alcohol and water may be found by observing the specific gravity of the mixture at a definite temperature by means of a hydrometer (q.v.) and then referring to the tables. The greatest contraction of vol- ume observed upon mixing absolute alcohol and water occurs when 49.8 volumes of water are mixed with 53.9 volumes of absolute alcohol, both liquids being at 32 F. The volume of the mixture is then 100, instead of 103.7, as it would be if there were no contraction. Men- deleeff points out that this particular mixture corresponds to a possible compound having the formula QHe0.3H 2 ; but it has not been con- clusively proved that such compound exists. An alcohol containing 49.3 per cent (by weight) of absolute alcohol is known in the arts and for excise purposes as "proof spirit." This term was originally intended to denote alcohol just strong enough to ignite gunpowder when burned upon it; but it was defined by law in the reign of George III. of England to be spirit "such as shall, at the temperature of 51° R, weigh exactly twelve-thirteenth parts of an equal amount of distilled water" (Watts). At 60° F. proof spirit has a specific gravity of 0.920. A mixture stronger or weaker than this is said to be (respectively) overproof or underproof. Dis- tilled liquors, such as whiskey, brandy, and gin, contain from 40 to 50 per cent of absolute alco- hol, wines from 7 to 20, ale and porter from 5 to 7, and beer from 2 to 10. Alcohol coag- ulates albumen, and, partly for this reason and partly because of its action in arresting the development of micro-organisms, it prevents the putrefaction of dead animal matter. The alkali metals attack absolute alcohol rapidly with the formation of compounds variously known as alcoholates, alcohates, and alcoates, but more definitely and correctly as <( ethylates." Thus al- cohol may be regarded as water in which one atom of hydrogen has been replaced by a mole- cule of the organic radical ethyl, C : H:„ and, water being H-O-H, the formula for alcohol may be written (CsHO-O-H. An alkali metal, when it combines with alcohol, merely replaces the H at the right of this formula ; and sodium ethylate (for example) is therefore (GHa) - O-Na, or simply C;H r .ONa. The commonest test for alcohol in small quantities consists in warming the suspected liquid (or its distillate) with caustic potash and iodine. If alcohol is present iodoform comes down after a time as a precipitate. In England the use of alcohol in the arts is permitted without the payment of an excise tax, provided the alcohol contains 10 per cent of methyl alcohol (wood spirit). Alcohol so treated is known as • methylated spirit " ; it is unfit for drinking, and the methyl alcohol that it contains cannot be readily removed. Al- cohol can be prepared directly from its elements as follows: Acetylene (q.v.), C;H 2 , will com- bine directly with hydrogen to form olefiant gas, GH 4 ; concentrated sulphuric acid will absorb olefiant gas with the formation of hydrogen- ethyl-sulphate, C-Hs-HSO.: and if the product so obtained is diluted with water and boiled, alcohol is formed in accordance with the equa- tion: C 2 H B .HSO.+ H 2 = H : SO<+ GH5.OH. This process is of considerable theoretic inter- est, and is said to be in commercial use in Rus- sia. Until carbide of calcium (from which acetylene is prepared) can be had more cheaply, however, it can hardly be successfully used in the United States. 2. Wood Alcohol, or Methyl Alcohol. — A colorless, inflammable liquid, strongly resem- bling ethyl alcohol in its general properties. It burns with a flame resembling that of grain alcohol, but with sensibly less evolution of heat. It is far cheaper than grain alcohol, because there is no excise tax upon it; in many uses it may be substituted for grain alcohol with suc- cess, its solvent powers being very similar. It cannot be used internally, however, as it is of a poisonous nature, and has a peculiar selective acti6n upon the optic nerve, in which it often induces a condition of permanent atrophy with consequent total blindness. Methyl alcohol is obtained by the dry distillation of wood. The process, as carried out in New York State, is substantially as follows : Hardwood is cut into cordwood size and allowed to season thoroughly. ALCOHOL two-year-old wood being dry enough to yield excellent results. Beech, maple, and birch are most commonly used, birch being the poorest of the three, because it yields a larger proportion of objectionable tarry matter. The seasoned wood is placed in retorts of cast iron or sheet steel, which are cylindrical in general shape, and large enough to hold rather more than half a cord each. A slow fire is then built under the retorts, its intensity being gradually in- creased as the distillation progresses, and regu- lated so that at the end of from 12 to 18 hours nothing remains in the retort but charcoal. The distillate is passed through a condenser, by which a portion is condensed into a watery fluid, while another and very considerable portion passes through in the form of a permanent, non- condensable gas. The non-condensable part con- sists largely of marsh gas, hydrogen, carbon- dioxid, and carbon-monoxid, together with smaller amounts of acetylene and numerous other substances. No attempt is made to utilize this portion of the product except as fuel. The portion that condenses consists largely of acetic acid and methyl alcohol, together with acetate of methyl and acetone, and a considerable quantity of tarry matter. The condensed distillate is passed into settling-tanks, where it is allowed to remain until the greater part of the tarry matter has subsided. The lighter part is then drawn ofT and saturated with slaked lime to fix the acetic acid. A second distillation expels the methyl alcohol, which is recovered by means of a condenser and shipped to the refiners in iron tanks, being known to the trade in this form as * wood spirit." The acetate of lime remaining behind is then recovered by evapora- tion and spread out upon a heated floor to dry. Acetate of lime, as it comes from the alcohol manufacturer, is brown in color, from the tarry impurities that it contains. It is used in the manufacture of acetic acid and the various ace- tates (notably those of iron and aluminum) that are used in dyeing and in printing upon cloth. The impure methyl alcohol, or « wood spirit," that is shipped from the factory to the refiner, usually contains 80 per cent of alcohol and 20 per cent of water. The yield of spirit of this strength varies greatly, according to the skill and care exercised by the manufacturer; but in the best plants it may be taken at from eight to nine gallons per cord of good wood. Crude wood spirit contains considerable empy- reumatic matter as well as acetone, acetate of methyl, and acetate of ammonia. Pure methyl alcohol may be prepared by saturating the crude spirit with fused calcium chloride (CaCl : ) and heating on a water-bath. Methyl alcohol com- bines with calcium chloride, under these condi- tions forming a compound which can be readily purified, and from which the alcohol can again be recovered by distilling with water. A final dis- tillation over quicklime will give the alcohol in its anhydrous or (( absolute * state. Pure methyl alcohol, free from water, has a specific gravity at 32° F. of 0.8101. Its chemical formula is CHi.OH ; it is the hydrate of the organic radical "methyl* (CHj), being analogous in this re- spect to ethyl alcohol, which is the hydrate of the organic radical « ethyl B (GIL). It boils at about 151° F. under ordinary atmospheric pres- sure. 3, Alcohol — In organic chemistry, a member of a numerous class of compounds consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and derived from hydrocarbons containing an even number of hydrogen atoms by the substitution of one or more hydroxyl molecules (HO) for an equal number of hydrogen atoms. The alcohols, as thus defined, include the two substances de- scribed above, and also many others (such as glycerin) whose properties at first sight appear to be radically different from those of either ethyl or methyl alcohol. Alcohols are classified as monohydric, dihydric, trihydric, tetrahydric, pentahydric, and hexahydric, according as they contain one, two, three, four, five, or six mole- cules of hydroxyl (OH). Thus ethyl alcohol, GILOH, is monohydric, while glycerin, CsHs. (OH)s, is trihydric. In the present ar- ticle only the monohydric alcohols will be con- sidered. These are divisible into five general scries as follows: (a) Those having the gen- eral formula CnH.n -f i.OH ; they are derived from the paraffins, Cnll : n ■+> by the substitu- tion of one molecule of OH for one atom of hydrogen, and are known as the " fatty alco- hols." (b) Those having the formula CnH : n — i.OH. Ally] alcohol is the most familiar mem- ber of this series. Its formula is GIL.OH. (c) Those having the general formula CnH : n- 3 .OH. No familiar example can be given. (d) Those having the general formula CnILn — i.OH. This series is derived from the aromatic series of hydrocarbons, just as the first series given above is derived from the paraffins. Thus, when hydrogen peroxid, H = 0=, acts upon ben- zene, GIL, we have CeH.+ H ; ,= ILO ; + GHs.OH, the last expression in this equation being the formula of phenyl alcohol, or (as it is more familiarly known) carbolic acid. (e) Those having the general formula CnH ; n — 9.OH. Cholesterin belongs to this series. It will be evident that the complete discussion of even the monohydric alcohols would be impossible in the present place ; hence in what follows atten- tion will be confined to the fatty or paraffin series of monohydric alcohols, having the gen- eral formula CnHin +,.OH. No less than 17 distinct members of this series are known, the first five, when they are arranged in order ac- cording to the number of carbon atoms they contain, being: Methyl alcohol, CH,.OH. Ethvl alcohol, GIL.OH. Propvl alcohol, GHr.OH. Btitvl" alcohol, GH..OH. Amyl alcohol, GHu.OH. The first two members of this series do not ad- mit of any isomeric modifications; but the third member admits of one such modification, and the following members admit of more than one. For example, propane has the formula CHa.CH>.CHa, and an alcohol may be formed by substituting OH for any one of the H atoms in this formula. If a hydrogen atom at the end of the formula be replaced in this way, we shall obtain the same result whether the substitution be made at the right-hand end or the left ; that much is evident from the symmetry of the ■ formula. But if one of the hydrogen atoms in the central CIL be so replaced, the alcohol thus formed may differ from the one previously ob- tained by an end substitution; and in fact ex- ALCOHOLISM periment show? that two different alcohol? do actually exist, both having the same formula GHtOH. These are distinguished as "pri- mary" and "secondary" respectively. In gen- eral, an alcohol is called "primary" if the carbon atom to which the OH is attached is itself at- tached to only one other carbon atom ; it is "secondary" if the carbon atom to which the OH is attached is itself attached to two other carbon atoms; and it is "tertiary" if this car- bon atom is attached to three other carbon atoms. If it is admitted that the quantivalence of carbon is never greater than four, it follows that no carbon atom can be attached to more than three other carbon atoms ; hence every al- cohol in the class under consideration must be either primary, secondary, or tertiary. The va- rious radicals with which hydroxyl (OH) is combined in the alcohols are collectively called alkyls. Thus CH, (methyl). GH 5 (ethyl), and CH; (propyl) are all "alkyls," and an alcohol may be briefly described as the hydrate of an alkyl. Other alkyl compounds are also known. For example, hydrochloric, hydrobmmic, hydri- odic, or hydrofluoric acid, when allowed to act upon an alkyl hydrate, yields the chloride, bro- mide, iodide, or fluoride of that alkyl. Thus: CH,.0H+HC1 = CH,.C1 + H = 0; and GH..OH + HI = C,H ; .I + H,0. CH 3 .C1 is ''methyl chloride," and CTL.I is "propyl iodide.'" The oxids of alkyls are called "simple ethers." (See Ether.) For example, (C;H = )-.0 is ethyl oxid (or ether), often erroneously called "sulphuric ether" from the fact that sulphuric acid is used in preparing it. By the action of various acids upon alkyl hydrates (or alcohols), salt? of these alkyls. entirely analogous to the metallic salts, are obtained. Thus acetic acid and ethyl alcohol react according to the equation : GH-.OH+CH ,COOH=CH,.COO(GH3)+H : ,0. Ethyl Acetic Ethyl Water hydrate acid acetate This reaction is entirely analogous to the fol- lowing familiar one relating to potassium: K OH + CH ; .CqOH = CH 3 .COOK + HX>. Potassium Acetic Potassium Water hydrate acid acetate See Esters. A. D. Risteen, Ph.D., Editorial Staff, 'Encyclopedia Americana* Alcoholism, a term applied to the symp- toms produced by poisoning with ethyl alco- hol (see Alcohol). Alcoholism may be acute, subacute or chronic, and in order to under- stand its phases a brief review of the more important features of the physiological action of alcohol is necessary. Locally alcohol is an irritant, and induces congestion and increased cellular activity. There appears to be some foundation for the popular view that taken be- fore a meal alcohol increases the appetite and digestive power, for although in any marked quantity it greatly reduces or altogether inhibits the action of the digestive ferments it is prob- able that the increased amount of gastric juice secreted under the influence of small amounts more than makes up for this effect. Some au- thorities maintain that while the stimulant remains in the stomach digestion is retarded, hut that after absorption of the alcohol the process advances more rapidly than would oth- erwise base been the ca*e. The most impor- tant effect of the administration of alcohol is manifested by the nervous system. There Is still some difference of opinion in this regard, some observers claiming that in small amounts it acts as a stimulant, whereas others assert that the apparent increase in intellectual activ- ity is not real but is dependent on depression of the higher centres whereby the normal self control and reserve are cast off and the lower centres are allowed to act without restraint. Experiments have shown that tasks like the addition of columns of figures or reading series of disconnected syllables were less well per- formed when the person had taken moderate amounts of alcohol, though he usually felt in- creased self-confidence and was convinced that the actually inferior work he was doing was especially good. It is in this way that alcohol aids the after dinner speaker, who is by mod- erate amounts of wine relieved of diffidence or embarrassment and enabled to speak with a flu- ency never at his command under ordinary con- ditions. It is probable that the capacity for muscular work also is only apparently aug- mented by alcohol, the slight increase in effici- ency at the start being neutralized by the earlier onset of fatigue. According to modern observers alcohol has but little direct effect on the circulation, though there is some change in the distribution of the blood through dila- tation of the peripheral vessels. Respiration is little if at all affected. The question of whether or not alcohol is a food has elicited much con- troversy, but the experiments of Atwater, Neu- mann, and others show beyond doubt that a certain amount of alcohol can be completely burnt in the body and serve as a source of heat and energy. In this way a saving of other food stuffs is affected, and in this sense alcohol is undoubtedly a food. The view up- held by some of the older authors that alcohol has the power of lessening the oxidation of the tissues is, however, unfounded. The mod- ern tendency is to regard alcohol not as a physiological stimulant but as a universal de- pressant. From the above it might be inferred that alcohol does not possess the traditional value ascribed to it in medicine, and to some extent this is true. On the other hand, there are many legitimate indications for its use that cannot be met by other drugs and few thoughtful clinicians would be willing to do without its aid. Alcohol is often used in popular medicine without a correct conception of its action. Contrary to general belief it does not raise the bodily temperature, but actually causes it to fall on account of the increased radiation of heat from the surface of the body accompanying the dilatation of the blood vessels of the skin. Consequently alco- holic drinks should not be taken before ex- posure with the idea of avoiding fatigue or chilling, though there is no objection to its use when the exposure is over and the in- dividual has returned home wet or chilled through. Acute alcoholic poisoning follows the taking of very large quantities of strong spirits in a short lime, and is not often seen. The patient promptly becomes comatose, the face is con- ge-ted or purplish, there is complete muscular relaxation, weak heart action, and collapse, end- ing in death through paralysis of the heart or ALCORAN — ALCOTT of respiration, or both, unless medical aid is given. Subacute alcoholism is the ordinary type of drunkenness or "intoxication" and pro- duces different manifestations in different in- dividuals. The first effect of moderate amounts of alcohol is tn cause exhilaration, garrulity, in- distinctness and incoherence of speech, blunt- ing of the sense of touch, and loss of muscular control so that the patient is unsteady on his feet and staggers when he walks. Dizziness and disturbances of sight and hearing may also appear, and finally a deep lethargy and stupor supervene. On awaking, nausea, vomiting, headache and mental depression remind the sufferer of his debauch. In some individuals the stage "f hilarity does not appear and quar- relsomeness and moroseness are manifested frnm the start. The insensibility of alcoholic intoxication to some extent resembles that at- tending certain grave disorders like apoplexy, epileptic coma, fracture of the skull, or opium poisoning, and mistakes in diagnosis on per- sons found unconscious in the street are un- fortunately not infrequent. The true state of affairs i- often extremely difficult to recog- nize, and it is always wiser to treat doubtful cases as if the more serious trouble existed. The fact that the breath smells of liquor is of little value, as bystanders may have sought to aid a victim of other conditions in this way, or a man who has indulged in alcohol may also be suffering from some of the difficulties men- tioned. Sonic parsons instead of becoming stuporous pass into a condition of wild excite- ment and uncontrollable fury termed alcoholic mania, during which the most revolting crimes may be committed. In others convulsive seiz- ures, or alcoholic epilepsy, may succeed the first stage. Dipsomania is a form of insanity in which the patient is subject to attacks of irresistible craving for liquor, though in the intervals he may be quite rational and alcoholic beverages may even be repugnant to him. De- lirium tremens is a state of nervous unrest sometimes following a protracted debauch, sometimes appearing in steady, but not nec- essarily excessive, drinkers, usually as the re- sult of some physical or mental shock. There are distaste for food, intense restlessness, terrifying hallucinations and illusions, and ob- stinate insomnia. The treatment of acute alco- holism comprises, first, elimination of the poison by washing out the stomach, purging, rec- tal irrigation with salt solution, and the Turk- ish bath, and secondly, the substitution of other stimulants such as ammonia, strychnine, caf- feine, etc., until nourishment can be retained and strength returns. In delirium tremens the two great indications are to produce sleep and nourish the patient, problems that often tax the ingenuity of the physician to the utmost. Chronic alcoholism is the result of long con- tinued immoderate indulgence in alcoholic liquors and is a serious cause of disease. Nearly all the organs of the body are affected and exhibit a new growth of connective tissue. The blood vessels show the lesions of arterio- sclerosis, the heart is affected in a variety of ways, commonly becoming fatty and weak, the kidneys develop nephritis, the liver cirrhosis, and the stomach is the seat of a chronic catarrhal condition giving rise to nausea, vomiting and distaste for food. There are congestive and catarrhal changes in the respiratory apparatus; the bodily strength is decreased and there is a tendency to obesity. There is also marked in- volvement of the nervous system leading to complete mental and moral deterioration with loss of will power, loss of memory, and inca- pacity for the responsibilities of life. Chronic alcoholics have lessened power of resistance to infectious diseases and readily break down under the stress of any mental or physical strain. The treatment of chronic alcoholism requires isolation of the patient, preferably in an institution, where no intercourse with friends will be possible. In one plan of treat- ment every article of food given the patient is soaked in liquor until the disgust awakened by its odor and taste is sufficiently great to ensure abstinence for a time at least. Some authorities advise immediate withdrawal of all alcohol, others recommend a more gradual process of "tapering off." Which method is preferable depends on the individual case. Hy- podermic injections of nitrate of strychnine form the basis of some of the courses of treatment. See Insanity; Temperance. Consult: dish- ing, 'A Textbook of Pharmacology and Thera- peutics.' Karl M. Vocf.i., M. D, New York City. Alcoran. See Koran. Alcorn, al'kern, James Lusk, American statesman: b. near Golconda, 111., 4 Nov. 1816; d. 30 Dec. 1894. He was educated at Cumber- land College; five years deputy sheriff of Liv- ingston co., Ky. ; member of the legislature 1843; in 1S44 removed to Mississippi and began law practice, and was in the Mississippi legis- lature 1846-65. He was a Scott presidential elector in 1852, declined a Whig nomination for governor 1857, and the same year was defeated for Congress by L Q. C. Lamar. He founded the levee system in the State. In 1861 he was in the Secession Convention, and was elected brigadier-general, but Jefferson Davis refused his commission from political grudge. In 1865 he was elected United States Senator, but not allowed to take his seat. In i860 be was elected governor (Republican), but resigned on election to the United States Senate, where he served [871-7. lie was independent candidate for gov- ernor in 1873, but was defeated. Alcott, Amos Bronson, American philoso- pher and educator : b. Wolcott, Conn., 29 Nov. 1799; d. 4 March [888. In 1823 he set up an infant school, teaching it by conversation; and it gained much local fame. In 1828 he removed to Boston, and till 1836 con- ducted a school of the same sort, exciting wide attention by bis genius for teaching, his revolu- tionary methods, and bis exaggerated respect for the infant mind. His system was disfavored by most people, and in 1836 he removed to Concord, Mass., thenceforth expounding reform views on all human subjects, society and theology, diet and education, politics, morals, and metaphysics. lb- became an admired public lecturer in the great days of the lecture platform. In 1842 he visited England, where a Pestalozzian school near London had been named Alcott House. Returning with two English friends, one of them. Charles Lane, bought an estate in the town of Harvard, Mass., for a communistic ALCOTT — ALCOV settlement, and the others joined him ; but it failed. Mr. Alcott lived in Boston for a while, but finally returned to Concord, where he spent the remainder of his life as a " peripatetic philosopher," as justly said: giving talks in dif- ferent towns and cities on all human subjects when invited, — first at random, but latterly for- mal, with printed topics and regular places and periods. The conversation was nominally open, and questions in order ; but it was soon found better to let it be a monologue by Mr. Alcott, who was put out by interruptions and could not argue. The company lost nothing; for though entirely unsystematic, and having no set philoso- phy which could have been developed into a school, he was fertile in ideas of deep spiritual insight and noble loftiness, and many leaders of thought, as Emerson, acknowledged him as a source of some of their best inspirations. In this characteristic of intellectual scrappiness, yet great molding influence, he may be compared with Coleridge and St. Simon. He was a leader among the Transcendentalists ; and that he was an ardent Abolitionist goes without saying. His grounds in Concord represented his independ- ence of mind and whimsicality: they were fenced by himself with gnarled pine boughs of endless diversity of form, apparently picked up as he walked. He contributed ' Orphic Say- ings' to the Dial, of Boston (1839-42), and pub- lished many scattered papers; 'Tablets' (1868) ; 'Concord Days,' recollections of that place (1872); 'Table Talk' (1877); 'Sonnets and Canzonets' (1877). Alcott, Louisa May, American novelist, daughter of A. B. Alcott : b. Germantown, Pa., 29 Nov. 1832 ; d. Boston, Mass.. 6 March 1888, two days after her father. She was two years old when her parents moved to Boston ; eight when they went to Concord. Her father was her chief teacher, on the system of his famous infant schools : as the latter developed no other geniuses, probably nature was responsible for hers. Thoreau also taught her for a time. She had always creative facility and sense of literary form, and began writing in early youth ; at first for pleasure, then at 16 for periodicals to help support the struggling family, whose mainstay she continued all her life, her father's superiorities not being of the money-making or- der. But for many years afterward she groped for her true field, starting with sensational sto- ries of no permanent merit. For ten years she was a school-teacher. In 1862 she went to Washington as a war hospital nurse, and wrote letters thence to her mother and sisters; on her return in 1863 she recast these into a volume en- titled l Hospital Sketches,' as the easiest avail- able literary capital, not suspecting that she had found her kingdom. In these was first re- vealed her peculiar power of sketching common- place people and scenes in all their commonplace- ness, yet by the play of genial humor and rare selective art making them as charming as the best creations of the fancy. The success of these stimulated the publication of ' Little Women » (written 1867, after return from a year's Euro- pean trip for impaired health, published 1868), which sold 60,000 copies the first year, and after 35 years remains one of the best copyrights in American literature. It raised her at once and justly to one of the front places in American authorship, and remains the one work of hers Lie world would much regret losing. In formal art it has no merits : there is no structure and no climax, merely detached scenes of an uneventful life; little delicacy of touch, though there are passages of much tenderness and pathos : but the healthy sense and stereoscopic Iifelikeness make it rather an addition to people's actual experi- ences than their memories of fiction ; and the girls, despite the blunt portrayal of surface faults and even over-harsh lack of idealization, are loved like sisters by millions. It is the world-photograph of the New England home and the American girl. This was her great oppor- tunity: her own family and friends to "com- pose" and adorn, with scant need for imagina- tion, of which she had little, or plot, in which she was very deficient. After this, with the necessity of inventing a set story, and her per- sonal life mostly wrought into her previous work, her limitations were strongly apparent: 'An Old-Fashioned Girl' (1869), 'Little Men ' (1871), and a series of later juveniles, though only less popular with the young than ' Little Women,' add nothing to her real repu- tation. They are also deformed by two un- wholesome qualities : one derived from her fa- ther,— representing grown people mainly as vexatious interferences with children's enjoy- ment, and the latter as quite capable of teaching wisdom to their elders ; the other a proof how much feminine craving lay underneath her spin- ster life, — making love-sentiment a sauce to everything from the kindergarten up, and the world one vast scene of " philandering." But these pot-boilers had a higher motive and result than most money-earning, for they enabled her father to live his serene life. She adopted at different times a son of her sister, Mrs. John Pratt ("Meg") and the orphaned daughter of her artist sister, Mme. Nieriken ("Amy") ; and kept house for them and her father in vigorous New England fashion, caring for the latter like a baby. Fatigue and excitement during his last hours laid her low with a fatal brain fever. Be- sides the books above mentioned she published 'Flower Fables or Fairy Tales' (1855); ' Moods' (1864, revised 1881) ; a series, ' Aunt Jo's Scrap Bag' (1871-82); 'Work, a Story of Experience ' (1871) ; ' Eight Cousins ' (1874); 'Rose in Bloom' (1876): 'Silver Pitchers ' (1876) ; < Under the Lilacs ' (1878) ; 'Jack and Jill' (1880); 'Proverb Stories' (1882); < Spinning- Wheel Stories' (1884); < Lulu's Library' (1885). Alcott, May (Mme. Ernest Nieriken), American artist, daughter of A. B. Alcott : b. Concord, Mass., 1840 ; d. 1879. She studied at the Boston School of Design, and under Krug. Rimmer, Hunt, Vautier, Johnston, and Miiller. Thenceforward she lived variously in Boston, London, and Paris; after marriage chiefly in the last. She did good work in still-life painting, both oil and water-color, and copied Turner so ably that Ruskin had some of the work adopted for models at the South Kensington schools. She • published ' Concord Sketches.' with a preface by her sister (1869); 'Art Studying Abroad' (1879). Alcoy, a town of Spain, in Valencia, 24 m. N. by W. of Alicante, near the source of the Alcoy, in a hollow encircled by hills. There is a Roman bridge over the river, and the town has ALCUIN — ALDEHYDE a very picturesque appearance. Its chief manu- facture is paper, and it is likewise famed for sugar-plums. Pop, 32,000. Alcuin, or Flaccus Albinus, an English- man, renowned in his age for learning; the con- fidant, instructor, and adviser of Charlemagne. He was probably born in York in 7.15. and wa9 educated under the care of Archbishop Egbert, and his successor .Elbert, with whom he went to the continent, and who afterward gave him the management of the school at York, Having gone to Rome to bring home the pallium (sec Pallium ) for Eanbert, the successor of .Elbert, Charlemagne became acquainted with him in Parma on his return ; invited him, in 782. to his court, and made use of his services in his en- deavors to civilize his subjects. In the royal academy he was called Flaccus Albinus. To se- cure the benefit of his instructions Charlemagne established at his court a school, called Schola Palatina, or the Palace School, and intrusted him with the superintendence of several monas- teries, in which Alcuin exerted himself to diffuse a knowledge of the sciences. Most of the schools in France were either founded or im- proved by him: thus he founded the school in the abbey of St. Martin of Tours, in 796, after the plan of the school in York. He himself in- structed a large number of scholars in this school, who afterward spread the light of learn- ing through the empire of the Franks. Alcuin took his leave of the court in 801, and retired to the abbey of St. Martin of Tours, but kept up a constant correspondence with Charles to the time of his death in 804. lie left, besides many theological writings, several elementary works in the branches of philosophy, rhetoric, and philology; also poems, and a large number of letters, the Style of which, however, is not pleas- ing and plainly betrays the uncultivated charac- ter of the age; nevertheless lie is acknowledged as the most learned anil polished man of his time. He understood Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. The best edition of his works is that published at Ratisbon (1777, 2 vols, folio). See Lorenz's ' Life of Alcuin,' translated into English (Lon- don, 1837). Alcyonaria (from Gk. alkyon[e]ion, bas- tard-sponge), a sub-class of coral polyps (.(»- thozoa), including fan-corals. dead men's fingers." organ corals, the red coral used for beads and ornaments, and others. Eight tenta- cles around the mouth and the eight cells into which the body is divided arc the characteristic elements of this group. See Coral. Alcyone, the brightest star of the Pleiades (q.v.). Also see Kingfisher. Al'dan, a river of E. Siberia, a tributary of the Lena, 1,200 m. in length, navigable for 600 m. The Aldan Mountains run along paral- lel to it on the left for 400 miles. Aldana, Ramon, alda-na ra-mon', Mexican poet: b. 1832; d. 1882. Besides four dramas, among which are 'Honor and Happiness' and 'Nobility of Heart,' he produced lyric poems and sonnets and contributed articles to journals. Aldborough, or Aldeburgh, a small sea- port and watering place of Suffolk, 20 m. N.E. of Ipswich by rail. It was disfranchised in 1832; but in 1885 it received a new municipal charter. It has a quaint, half-timbered moot hall ; and in the church is a bust of the poet Crabbe, who described the place in In-; poem, ' The Borough.' It has a two-mile promenade and lobster and herring fisheries. Pop. 2.150. Aldeb'aran, a star of the first magnitude, forming the eye of the constellation Taurus or the Bull, the brightest of the five stars known to the Greeks as the I lyades. Spectrum analysis has shown it to contain antimony, bismuth, iron, mercury, hydrogen, sodium, calcium, etc. Al'dehyde ("dehydrogenated alcohol," or alcohol which has been deprived of a portion of its hydrogen), a substance intermediate in Composition between a primary alcohol and the corresponding acid. When an alcohol (q.V.) containing the molecular group CIP.Oll. is acted upon by oxidizing agents, it loses two atoms of hydrogen from this group, and becomes trans- formed into a substance which no longer con- tains the hydroxyl group (till), and which is Known as the "aldehyde" of the alcohol from which it was produced. Air effects the desired oxidization readily, when in the presence of platinum black. If the formula of the original alcohol is R,CHj.0H, thai of the corresponding aldehyde is R.CO.H. Aldehydes combine with bisulphites (or acid sulphites), producing com- pounds that are usually soluble in water, but insoluble in a solution of a bisulphite. Hence if a solution containing an aldehyde is shaken with a saturated solution of a bisulphite (such as HNaSOj), the aldehyde is all thrown down in the form of an insoluble compound, from which the aldehyde itself may afterward be liberated by treatment with dilute sulphuric acid and distillation by steam. Aldehydes are easily oxidized into their corresponding acids, and on account of their affinity for oxygen they act as powerful reducing agents. An aldehyde may also be reconverted into the alcohol from which it was obtained, by the action of sodium amal- gam. About 50 aldehydes are known, nearly all of which are volatile liquids. The general relation of the aldehydes to their corresponding alcohols and acids may be illus- trated by the following examples: The formula of methyl alcohol is ('II, oil. or II. (II I HI. In the presence of platinum black, air oxidizes methyl alcohol in accordance with the following equation : II.CIL.OH + = H.O + H.CO.II. Ml (III (or CHjO) is formic aldehyde," or "formaldehyde. 11 This rapidly absorbs oxygen and und< rgoes the change H.CO.II + = H.COOH. Formaldehyde Formic acid Again, if ethyl alcohol (C.H..0H, or CH,. (11,(111 1 is treated 111 the same manner (or, better, if it is oxidized with a mixture of potas- sium bichromate and sulphuric acid), we have CIICH..OH + = CH,.C0.H + IPO. Ethyl alcohol Acetic aldehyde If allowed p> absorb oxygen, acetic aldehyde then undergoes the further transformation CH,.C0.H + O = CH..C00II. Acetic aldehyde Acetic acid Acetic aldehyde, or acetaldehyde. — When not qualified in any way aldehyde is under- stood to mean acetic aldehyde, the substance whose formation from ethyl alcohol has just ALDEN been described. Aldehyde (in this sense) is a colorless liquid with a suffocating smell, misci- ble in all proportions with water, alcohol, and ether, boiling at "0° F., and having a specific gravity of 0.800 at 32° F. It is capable of exist- ing in several polymeric states, each having the same chemical composition as aldehyde, but dif- fering from it in appearance and behavior. Thus although aldehyde may be preserved for a long time if kept in contact with excess of acid, in its pure state it soon deposits a solid substance known as metaldehyde, which sublimes at 250 F. without decomposition, and is recon- verted into aldehyde when confined and heated to 400 F. By treatment with sulphuric or hy- drochloric acid, aldehyde may be converted into a liquid known as paraldehyde, which boils at 255 F. and has a vapor density indicating the formula 3(C.H,0). Aldehyde is used for silvering mirrors and other objects, on account of the property that it possesses (in common with other aldehydes) of throwing down a deposit of metallic silver when heated with a concentrated ammoniacal solution of silver nitrate containing a little caustic soda. Alden, Bradford R., American soldier: b. Meadville, Pa., 1800; d. Newport, R. I.. 10 Sept. 1870. Graduating at West Point 1831, he was instructor there 1833-40 after some camp and garrison life; then for nearly two years aide to Winfield Scott ; after three years more of garrison duty was commandant at West Point 1845-52. Sent to the far West for service in the Puget Sound Indian troubles, in 1853 he organ- ized and led an expedition against the Rogue River Indians of southwest Oregon ; and in the fierce battle at Jacksonville 24 August, was per- manently disabled and forced to retire from the army. He was a man of culture and fine literary tastes. Alden, Henry Mills, American editor and author: b. Mt. Tabor, Vt., 11 Nov. 1836. He graduated 1857 at Williams College, in the class with Garfield and Horace E. Scudder ; in i860 at Andover Theological Seminary, and re- ceived license to preach, but was never ordained. He settled in New York in 1861 ; was managing editor of < Harper's Weekly ' 1863-9, and has been editor of ' Harper's Magazine ' since 1869. His earliest interests were classical, especially in regard to ancient thought, religion, and litera- ture : in the winter of 1863-4 he delivered 12 lectures at the Lowell Institute, Boston, on ' The Structure of Paganism * ; his earliest writings published were two papers on the Eleusinian Mysteries, in the ' Atlantic Monthly > ; and his classical scholarship is recognized as of a high type. In his editorial work he has sought to combine fresh intellectual outlook and the pres- entation of the latest results of scholarship with sound ethics and an elevating social tone ; also to make the magazine American in the best sense and to bring forward new writers. He collaborated with A. H. Guernsey in 'Harper's Pictorial History of the Great Rebellion 1 (1862-5); and has written 'The Ancient Lady of Sorrow, 1 poem (1872) ; 'God in His World' (1890, anonymous), and a 'Study of Death' ('895)1 widely read and admired. Alden, (Mrs.) Isabella McDonald ( 'Pansy 8 ). American juvenile writer: b. Rochester. N. Y.. 3 Nov. 1841 ; married Rev. Vol. 1 — 17 G. R. Alden 1866. She was educated at Ovid and Auburn, N. Y. While she has written fic- tion for adults, and < The Prince of Peace,' a life of Christ, her chief note is as the author of the ( Pansy Books,' Sunday-school juvenile novels, about 60 volumes in all ; and as editor of the juvenile periodical ' Pansy,' 1873-96. She has since been on the staff of the ' Christian Endeavor World ' of Boston and the ' Herald and Presbyter ' of Cincinnati. Her home is Philadelphia. Alden, James, American naval officer: b. Portland, Me., 31 March 1819; d. San Francisco, Cal., 6 Feb. 1877. Becoming midshipman i82«, he accompanied the Wilkes expedition around the world 1838-42; commissioned lieutenant 1841, he served through the Mexican War in all the leading seaboard engagements. The Puget Sound Indian troubles called him thither 1855-6 for active duty. The Civil War found him in command of the steamer South Carolina, and he was sent to the Gulf and had a fight at Galveston, Tex. ; later, in command of the sloop- of-war Richmond, he was at the passage of Forts Jackson and St. Philip and the capture of New Orleans and Port Hudson. He became captain 1863, and commanded the Brooklyn in the battle of Mobile Bay (August 1864) and the assaults on Fort Fisher ; commodore 1866, and given charge of the Mare Island (Cal.) navy yard 1868; in 1869 made chief of the bureau of navigation, and in 1871 promoted to rear-admiral and assigned to command of the European squadron. He was retired 1873. Alden, John, of the Plymouth colony: b. England, 1599; d. Duxbury, Mass., 12 Sept. 1687. His name is familiarized by Longfellow's poem 'The Courtship of Miles Standish.' He was originally a cooper of Southampton, was employed in making repairs on the Mayflower, and came over in her with the Pilgrim Fathers. By some accounts he was the first to step ashore at Plymouth. He married Priscilla Mullens: the tradition is (as used by Longfellow - ) that he had previously pleaded the cause of Miles Standish. He was for over 50 years a colo- nial magistrate, and highly esteemed for probity, sagacity, and resolution. All the distinguished Aldens of the United States are his descend- ants. Alden, Timothy, inventor: b. Barnstable, Mass., 1819: d. December 1858. He was one of many thousands of printers who have dreamed of inventing type-setting machines, and of hundreds who have attempted it. He labored on one from 1846 till death, a horizontal rotat- ing wheel with type-cells on its circumference, making receivers rotate with it to pick out the type at the proper places. His brother Henry W. improved the machine after his death. Alden, William Livingston, American hu- morous writer and journalist: b. Williamstown. Mass.. 9 Oct. 1837. He introduced the sport of canoeing into the United States. He was for a time United States consul-general at Rome. Among his principal writings are ' Domestic Explosives' (1877); < Shooting Stars ' (1878); 'The Canoe and the Flving Proa' (T878); 'Moral Pirates' (1880): 'The Comic Liar' ( [882) : ' Cruise of the Ghost > (1882) : < Life of Christopher Columbus' (1882); 'A New ALDENHOVEN — ALDINE EDITIONS Robinson Crusoe' (1888), etc. Since 1900 he has been London correspondent of the New York Times. Aldenhoven, a town of Prussia, Rhine province; 12 111. N.E. of Aix-la-Chapelle. Here the French, in 1793, under Dumouriez, were defeated by 50,000 Austrian* under Prince Josias of Coburg, and were prevented from making their contemplated invasion of Holland. Alder, the common name for a genus of plants (AInus), of the order Cupulifercc (oak family). In the eastern United States it is a very common shrub, branching freely from the roots, and forming dense clumps along the banks of streams and in other wet places. On the west coast it often attains a height of from 40 to 60 feet in favorable locations. It is found in temperate and cold regions. The species familiar in England has a wood soft and light, but very durable in the water, and therefore well adapted to mill-work, sluices, piles of bridges, etc. Its bark and shoots are used for dye, and its branches for the charcoal employed in making gunpowder. The names black, red, and white-alder are often popularly applied to plants of other orders. Alderman, Edward Sinclair, American clergyman and educator: b. Wilmington, N. C, 27 July 1861. He was graduated from Wake Forest College, N. C, in 1883 and the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary in 1886. He has held Baptist pastorates in Kentucky and has been president of Bethel College, Ky., from 1898. Alderman, Edwin Anderson, American edu- cator: b. Wilmington, N, C, 15 May 1861. He was educated at the University of North Caro- lina: was superintendent of the public schools of Goldsboro, N. C, 1884-87 ; assistant state super- intendent of North Carolina, 1889-92; professor of English and history at the State Normal Col- lege, 1892-93 ; professor of the philosophy of education at the University of North Carolina, 1893-96; president of the latter institution, 1896- 1900; president of Tulane University, 1900- 1904. when he assumed the presidency of the University of Virginia. He has been active in educational work in the Southern States with the design of securing better schools and the increase of revenue from taxes for this purpose. Alderman, a title pertaining to an office in the municipal corporations of Great Britain and the United States. In the United States the powers and duties of aldermen differ in the various States and cities. As a rule they are elected by popular vote and constitute the source of municipal legislation. Alderman Lizard, or Chuckwalla, nick- names in California for a fat-bodied lizard (q.v.). Al'derney ( French Aumgny), an island be- longing to Great Britain, on the coast of Nor- mandy, 10 m. due W. of Cape La Hogue, and 60 from the nearest point of England, the most northerly of the Channel Islands. It is about 4 m. long and l> (1873). Aldobrandi'ni, the name of a Florentine family, latterly of princely rank (now extinct), which produced one Pope (Clement VIII.) and several cardinals, archbishops, bishops, and men of learning. Aldobrandini Marriage, an ancient fresco painting belonging probably to the time of Au- gustus, discovered in 1606, and acquired by Cardinal Aldobrandini, nephew of Clement VIII., now in the Vatican. It represents a marriage scene in which 10 persons are por- trayed, and is considered one of the most precious relics of ancient art. Al'dred, or Ealdred, Anglo-Saxon prelate, bishop of Worcester and archbishop of York: b. 1000 (?); d. 1069. He improved the dis- cipline of the Church and built several eccle- siastical edifices. On the death of Edward the Confessor he is said to have crowned Harold. Having submitted to the Conqueror, whose esteem he enjoyed and whose power he made subservient to the views of the Church, he also crowned him as well as Matilda. Aldrich, Anne Reeve, American poet and novelist: b. Xew York. 25 April 1866; d. there. 22 June 1892. She wrote ' The Rose of Flame ' (1889): 'The Feet of Love,' novel (1800): ' Songs about Life, Love, and Death > (post- humous, 1892). Her early death was widely regretted from the brilliant promise of her work, especially in poetry: some of her lyrics of pas- sion and regret are among the most perfect of American poetic gems in symmetrical art. Ald'rich, Henry, dean of Christchurch, Oxford: b. 1647: d. 1710. He was distinguished as a writer on logic, as an architect, and as a musician. His ' Compendium of Logic > was a text-book till quite recently. He adapted many of the works of the older musicians, such as Palestrina and Carissimi. Aldrich, James, American poet: b. Matti- tuck, L. I., 14 July 1810; d. New York, 9 Sept. 1856. His best known poem is ' The Death- Bed, ' an imitation of Hood, preserved in most anthologies. Aldrich, Nelson Wilmarth, American leg- islator: b. Foster. R. I., 6 Nov. 1841. A far- mer's lad, with district-school education, he was clerk in a store from about 12 to 16 ; but, nat- urally studious and with a strong taste for mathematics, entered the East Greenwich Acad- emy in 1857, and after graduation took a posi- tion in a large wholesale house in Providence, where he soon became a partner. In 1862 he was for nine months on garrison duty near Washington. In 1869 he was elected to the Providence Common Council, where he became a leader as expert in finance and business, and a dextrous manager without compromise of right, and was its president 1871-3. In 1875 he was elected to the legislature, and in 1876 was Speaker of its House. In 1878 he was sent to Congress, taking his seat in 1879 (Forty-second Congress) ; re-elected for the term 1881-3, he resigned in i88t. having been elected to the United States Senate on the 4th of October, to succeed Gen. Burnside, and has been three times re-elected, — in 1886, 1892, and 1898, prac- tically without opposition in his party. Dur- ing more than 20 years he has been known as one of the chief Republican leaders, an au- thority on finance and political economy, and a champion of protection ; rarely taking part in debate, but powerful in legislative work, a mem- ber of committees on civil service and finance, and chairman of the committee on rules for the Fifty-fifth Congress. He was president of the Providence Board of Trade in 1878. Aldrich, Thomas Bailey, author: b. Ports- mouth, N. H., n Nov. 1836. Prepared for Harvard, but his father's death (1852) prevent- ed a college career. Held editorial positions on the New York Evening Mirror and N. P. Willis' 'Home Journal' till 1865. Edited 'Every Saturday,' Boston, 1865-74. and ' The Atlantic Monthly,' 1881-90. As a poet he combines con- ciseness and aptness of expression with a facul- ty for bringing into conjunction subtly con- trasted thoughts, images, or feelings. The best of his short stories are surpassed by no other American writer. In prose and verse he has ever held himself to the highest ideals of liter- ary art and workmanship. His best known volumes are, in verse, 'Cloth of Gold' (1874") ; ' Lyrics and Sonnets ' (1880) ; < Friar Jerome's Beautiful Book' (1881) ; 'Ballad of Baby Bell' (1856); < Wvndham Towers' (1800): 'Unguarded Gates and Other Poems' (1895); ' Mercedes, a Drama ' (1883) : in prose, ' Story of a Bad Bov ' (1870) : ' Marjorie Daw and Other People' (1873) : ' Two Bites at a Cherry, and Other Tales ' (1893) ; ( A Sea Turn > (1902). ALDRIDGE — ALE Aldridge, Ira Frederick, American negro tragedian: b. ( ?) ; d. Lodz, Poland, 7 Aug. 1807. The discrepancies about liis birth and training are monstrous, and indicate invention on one side. One is that he was a mulatto, born near Baltimore about 1810. who picked up Ger- man from immigrants, became Edmund Kean's servant, and developed stage talent under him in England, returned and made a theatrical failure in Baltimore 1830-1, then went back to England and became famous. The other is that he was son of a full-blooded negro pastor in New York city (Greene Street Chapel), an immigrant Senegal chieftain converted and educated, who sent his son to Glasgow I'niversity to study for the same profession, despite a passion for the stage justified by successful amateur perform- ances; but the boy (at this point the stories coincide) dropped theology and made his debut at the Royal Theatre as Othello. He took at once ; and Kean made him Othello to his Iago in Bel- fast. He played Shakespearean roles in London till 1852, regarded as an excellent interpreter in all, but most liked in color-parts, such as Othel- lo, Aaron in ' Titus Andronicus.' Rolla, Zanga, etc. He then played in Brussels and Germany 1852-5 ; the king of Sweden invited him to Stockholm in 1857. The Continent ranked him one of the foremost actors of the age, and the greatest sovereigns, with cities like Bern, show- ered honors and decorations on him and made him member of all sorts of learned societies. He married an Englishwoman. He was on his way to an engagement in St. Petersburg when he died. Aldrovandi, Ulisse, Italian naturalist: b. Bologna, 11 Sept. 1522: d. 10 May 1605. He aroused interest in the natural sciences at a time when they had been long neglected, wrote profusely on natural history subjects, estab- lished the Botanical Garden of Bologna, and, through his legacy to the Senate of Bologna of his collections, left behind him the germ of the great Bologna Museum. A short account of his life, together with a descriptive list of his pub- lished writings and manuscripts, may be found in ' Notizte degli Scrittori Bolognesi,' Vol. I. (Bologna 1781). He was the first to collect an herbarium, in the modern sense of the word. He traveled widely, collecting plants and ani- mals, and preparing himself to write a great work on the animal life of the world. Of this work four volumes on ornithology and one on mollusks were issued before his death, and 10 others, prepared by him from his material, were brought out afterward by his pupils and friends. Many of his manuscripts and drawings were preserved unpublished in the library of Bo- logna. Ale and Beer, well known and extensively used fermented liquors, the best of which is prepared from barley after it has undergone the process termed malting. Beer is a more gen- eral term than ale. being often used for any kind of fermented malt liquor, including porter, though it is also used in a more special sig- nification. " The numerous varieties of malt liquors met with in commerce may be resolved into three great classes — ale, beer, porter. Ale, as the term is generally understood, is a pale liquor brewed from lightly-dried malt, and abounding more or less in undecomposed sac- charine matter and mucilage and the bitter and fragrant principles of the hop ; characteristics which, however, it more or less loses by ma- turation and age. Beer is a fine, strong, well- fermented liquor, darker, less saccharine, and more alcoholic than ordinary ale. Porter is a dark-brown colored liquor, originally brewed from high-dried malt, but now generally made from pale malt, with a sufficient quantity of patent or roasted malt to imparl the necessary color and flavor. Stout, brown stout, etc., arc mere varieties of porter, differing from that liquor only in their superior strength and qual- ity. East India ale, bitter ale, etc., of the great brewers, are beverages which combine the pale color and fragrant bitter of ale (the latter usually in undue excess) with the ' dryness ' and maturity of beer. Table-ale or table-beer is a weak liquor, commonly containing three or four times the proportion of water usually present in ordinary beer or ale. In London porter is called beer, and indeed in all parts of the kingdom the prevailing beverage of this kind consumed by the masses, of whatever class, commonly goes by the name of beer. The three great classes of malt liquor above referred to are, independent of mere differences of strength, excellence, and commercial value, practically subdivided into an almost infinite number of va- rieties. Every county, every town, and almost every brewer is distinguished by the production of a different flavored beer, readily perceived and highly appreciated by their respective vo- taries" (Cyclopaedia of Practical Receipts). These differences depend chiefly on the quality of the materials and the varying proportions in which they are employed, the temperature of the water used for mashing, the length of time the mash is boiled, the temperature at which fermentation is effected, and the extent to which it is allowed to proceed. The color of the beer depends on the color of the malt and the length of time occupied by the boiling. The pale ale is made from malt dried by steam or in the sun; the deep-yellow ale, from a mixture of pale, yellow, and brown malt ; and the dark- brown beer from malt that has been highly dried in the kiln and partly carbonized, mixed with the paler sorts. Besides being made from barley, maize, wheat, and other grains. Inn may be manufactured from a good many other amylaceous and saccharine substances, such as beet-root, potatoes, turnips, beans, cane-syrup, molasses, etc.. but the best is that made from barley-malt. Some of these substances are ex- tensively employed in Germany, which has been celebrated as a beer-drinking country from the earliest times. Many different kinds of beer are there made, among the most important being the Bavarian summer or lager (that is, store) beer, and winter beer, the Bavarian bock beer, Berlin white beer, wheat lager beer, Broyhan beer (Hanover). Merseburg brown beer, etc. The Bavarian beer possesses excellent qualities, and is distinguished from most of the beers of Germany and other countries by the valuable property of not turning sour on exposure to the air, so that it can be preserved in half-full casks equally well as in full ones. This quality it owes to the way in which it is fer- mented, this being done by the untergdhrung process, or process of fermentation from below. The malt-wort is set to ferment in open backs ALEMANNI — ALESSANDRIA with an extensive surface and placed in cold cellars with a temperature not higher than 46^2° to 50°. The operation lasts three or four weeks, and the wort, instead of showing a large head of froth, is scarcely covered with any, the yeast sinking to the bottom in the form of a viscid sediment called the unterhefc, or bottom-yeast. This bottom-yeast is a different substance from the precipitate which falls to the bottom of the backs in the ordinary fermentation of beer. The summer or lager beer is brewed in the coldest months of the year, namely December, January, and February, and is stored up in air-tight cellars. The winter beer is intended for almost immediate consumption, and is hence called schenk (that is, pot or draught) beer. It is rather weaker than the summer beer. The Ba- varian bock beer is a double-strength beverage of the best lager description, with a somewhat darker color than the ordinary lager beer and a sweeter taste. Berlin white or pale beer (wcissbier) is brewed from one part of barley malt and five parts of wheat malt. The manufacture of ale or beer is of very high antiquity. Herodotus ascribes the inven- tion of brewing to Isis, and tells us that the Egyptians drank a liquor which they called zuthos, fermented from barley. Ale or beer was never used to a great extent in Greece or Italy, partly owing, no doubt, to the abundance of wine in these countries. Xenophon, in his 'Anabasis,' mentions it as being used among the inhabitants of Armenia, and the Gauls were also acquainted with it in early times. Ale or beer was in common use in Germany in the time of Tacitus. "All the nations," says Pliny, "who inhabit the west of Europe have a liquor with which they intoxicate themselves, made of corn and water (fruge inadida). The manner of making this liquor is somewhat different in Gaul, Spain, and other countries, and it is called by many various names ; but its nature and properties are everywhere the same. The peo- ple' of Spain, in particular, brew this liquor so well that it will keep good for a long time. So exquisite is the ingenuity of mankind in grati- fying their vicious appetites that they have thus invented a method to make water itself intox- icate." Our Teutonic ancestors would of course bring with them from the Continent their na- tional beverage, and accordingly we find ale mentioned in English history in very early times. It is mentioned in the laws of Ina, king of Wessex (680), and ale-bootl.s were regulated by law in 728. It was customary in the reigns of the Norman princes to regulate the price of ale, and a statute passed in 1272 enacted that a brewer should be allowed to sell two gallons of ale for a penny in cities, and three or four gallons for the same price in the country. The use of hops in the manufacture of ale and beer seems to have been a German invention, and the name beer appears to have come from Ger- many to England with this practice (1524), after which "beer" and "ale" were used respectively for the hopped and the unhopped liquor. In 1552 hop plantations had begun to be formed in England. Ale-houses were first licensed in 1621, and in Charles II.'s reign duties amount- ing to 2s. 6d. a barrel on strong, and to 6d. on small ale or beer, were imposed for the first time (1660). From that time up to 1830. when it was entirely repealed, though the malt-tax re- mained, the duty on the barrel of strong beer varied, being in 1804 as high as 10s. Up to 1823 beer was classed into strong beer and small beer, the former being beer of the value of 16s. and upward the barrel, the latter beer below this value. See also Brewing. Alemanni. See Alamanxi. Aleardi, Gaetano, Italian poet and patriot: b. Verona 4 Nov. 1812; d. there 17 Julv 1878. From his boyhood he was devoted to the study of political and social questions, and was so active in the insurrection in Venetia (1848-9.) that he was twice imprisoned by the Austrians. As a poet he has always been popular in Italy, and many editions of his works have been pub- lished. Alembert, Jean le Rond d', a French mathematician and philosopher: b. Paris 16 Nov. 1717; d. there 29 Oct. 1783. The illegit- imate child of Chevalier Destouches-Canon and the celebrated Madame de Tencin, sister of the archbishop of Lyons, he was abandoned in in- fancy near the church of St. Jean de Rond, a fact from which his Christian name was derived. After he had attained eminence his father rec- ognized him and gave him a pension. While still very young he displayed such precocity of talent that he was placed in the College Mazarin, where he became deeply interested in mathe- matics and philosophy, and, in fact, while he attempted to study both medicine and law, his inability to turn his mind to either of these pro- fessions determined him to become a mathema- tician. In 1740. he was admitted to membership in the Academy of Sciences, and, a year later, he published his celebrated < Treatise on Dy- namics.' Other scientific work followed rap- idly, and in 1750 he became associated with Diderot in the publication of the 'Encyclopedia,' for which he wrote the introduction, the article on mathematics, and many of the biographies. In 1754 he became a member of the French Academy, and in 1772, having declined several pressing invitations to become royal tutor at the court of Russia, he was elected perpetual sec- retary of the Academy. His 'Elements of Phi- losophy,' in which he followed the principles of Locke to their ultimate conclusion, both in skepticism and materialism, had appeared in 1759. Two editions of his works have been published: Paris, 1805, 18 vols. 8vo., and Paris, 182 1, S vols. 8vo. Alencar, Jose Martiniano de, celebrated Brazilian jurist and novelist: b. Ceara 1 May [829; d. Rio de Janeiro 12 Dec. 1877. Although prominent in his profession he is best known as a writer of fiction, his most popular works being 'O Sertancjo,' 'Iracema.' and 'O Guarany,' all of which are stories of local Indian and colonial life. Alessandria, Armistice of, the armistice under which the Austrian general, Melas, re- tired' after the celebrated battle of Marengo. 16 June 1800. By this act Gen. Mela- abandoned to Napoleon every fortification in northern Italy west of the Minc'io, a result which, according to the opinions of the historians, was a more seri- ous blow to the Austrian cause than an uncon- ditional surrender would have been. ALESUND — ALEXANDER Alesund, a town on the western coast of Norway. Its chief industry is codfishing. Pop. about 12,000. Aletia. See Cotton [nsei i Pests. Aleurone, a substance rich in nitrogen, found in the cells of seeds. In the legumes it is found imbedded in the grains of starch, but in grains it constitutes the inner nodule. It is sometimes called gluten (q.v.). Aleu'tian Islands, a chain of about 80 small islands belonging to Alaska Territory, separating the sea of Kamchatka from the northern part of the Pacific Ocean and extend- ing nearly 1,(00 miles from east to west be- tween Ion. 172° E. and i(>3° W. ; total area, 6,391 sq. 111. Pop. (1900), about 2,500. They are of volcanic formation, and in a number of them there are volcanoes still in activity. '1 heir general appearance is dismal and barren, yet grassy valleys capable of supporting cattle throughout the year are nut with, and potatoes, turnips, and other vegetables arc successfully cultivated. They afford also an abundance of valuable fur and of fish. The natives belong to the same stock with those of Kamchatka. They are a strong hardy race, capable of endur- ing extremes of heat and cold. They are nom- inally Christianized, and are connected with the Greek Church of Russia. See Alaska. Alewife (possibly from aloofe, its Indian name), a small anadromous fish {Pomolobus pscudoharengus) found abundantly along the cast coast of the United States, except at the extreme north and south. Somewhat earlier in the spring than its relatives, it goes up the riv- ers in multitudes to spawn. The eggs, which are voided in vast quantities, sink to the bot- tom and stick to rocks, etc. It is closely allied to both the herring and the shad, but it most resembles the shad in shape and color, though it is only from 8 to 10 inches long. It is less esteemed for its quality than the shad, but is of great importance as a food fish, and is taken by millions annually. This fish is called « gas- pereau » in St. Lawrence Bay, and « branch herring » and « sawbelly » locally elsewhere ; but the « alewife » of Bermuda is an entirely different fish, the round pompano. Alexander, a name of various ancient writers, philosophers, etc. (1) Alexander of .Egae; a peripatetic philosopher of the 1st cen- tury a.d. : tutor of Nero. (2) Alexander the .Etolian: a Greek poet who lived at Alexandria about 285-247 B.C., reckoned as one of the seven poets constituting the tragic pleiad. (3) Al- exander of Aphrodisias, surnamed Exegetes; lived about 200 a.d.; a learned commentator on the works of Aristotle. (4) Alexander Corne- lius, surnamed Polyhistor, of the 1st century B.C. He was made prisoner during the war of Sulla in Greece and sold as a slave to Corne- lius Lentulus, who took him to Rome, made him the teacher of his children, and restored him to freedom. The surname Polyhistor was given him on account of his prodigious learn- ing. The most important of his voluminous works was one in 42 books, containing histori- cal and geographical accounts of nearly all the countries in the ancient world. (5) A Greek rhetorician and poet, surnamed Lychnus ; lived about 30 B.C., wrote astronomical and geo- graphical poems. (6) Alexander Numenius ; a Greek rhetorician and teacher of elocution, of the zd century a.d.. two of whose works are historically known. (7) ALEXANDER the Paph- lagonian ; a celebrated impostor who lived about the beginning of the 2d century a.d., obtained a great influence with the people as an oracle; pretended to be .Esculapuis reappeared. Lu- cian chiefly has made him known to us. (8) A Greek rhetorician of the 2d century ,\.i>. . sur- named Peloplaton, who vanquished Herodes Aniens in a rhetorical contest. (9) Alexan- der Phii.alethes; a physician of the 1st cen- tury B.C., who succeeded Zeuxis as president of the famous Herophilean school of medicine, (10) Saint Alexander (d. 326 a.d.); the Pa- li iarch of Alexandria from 312 a.d.; an oppo- nent of Arius; member of the Council of Nice (325 a.d. ) ; commemorated in the calendar 26 February. Ill) ALEXANDER of Trallcs; an emi- nent physician of Lydia, of the Oth century a.d. ; author of two extant Greek works. Alexander, the name of eight Popes. 1. Alexander I., bishop of Rome about 109 a.d., recorded on the list of Popes by all the chronicles except Optatus Mllevitanus. He continued, some say introduced, the rite of using unleavened bread for the Eucharist, of blessing water with salt, and certain rubrics in the mass. He died a martyr's death. 2. Alexander II., Anselmo Baggio, a na- tive of Milan; he lived for some time at the court of Henry III., and in 1056 or 1057 became Bishop of Lucca. In 1059 In- became papal legate at Milan, and, 1 Oct. 1061, through the zeal of Hildehrand. he was raised to the papal throne, consequently the imperial party elected Bishop Cadalovis of Parma, a rival Pope, as Honorius II. Alexander was driven by him in 1062 from the vicinity of Rome. He then withdrew to Lucca, and on the decision of the contest by Bishop Burchard of Halberstadt he was sent by the German court to Italy and rec- ognized as Pope. At the Council of Mantua in 1604, with the assistance of Anno of Cologne, he got possession of Rome against his rival. His reign, under the influence of Hildehrand, carried out the reform of the churches and their emancipation from secular control. When Henry IV. wished a divorce from his wife Ber- tha, Alexander, through his legate, Cardinal Pietros Damiana, decided against him and sum- moned the king to Rome to answer for his crimes, but shortly after he died, 21 April 1073. 3. Alexander HI. (d. 1181), Rolando Raiiuci ; Pope, 1150-81. His career is histori- cally important because of his vigorous pros- ecution, in opposition to Frederick Barbarossa, of the policies begun by Hildehrand. Three anti-Popes, Victor IV., Pascal III., and Calix- tus III., had been confirmed in succession ty the emperor. Alexander succeeded, and after the decisive victory' at Lcgnanc compelled Fred- erick's submission. The papal struggle was carried on in England by Thomas a Becket, end- ing in a victory for Alexander. William the Lion, of Scotland, was excommunicated for opposing him. Important decrees were issued by Alexander III., safeguarding ecclesiastical powers and privileges. 4. Alexander IV., Pope 1254-61 ; a man of great gifts, which, however, were of little avail in his unfortunate times. His administration is ALEXANDER signalized by attempts to unite the Greek and Roman Churches, and the establishment of the Inquisition in France (1255). He was the nephew of Gregory IX. In his battle with Man- fred of Sicily, he suffered bitter humiliations and, deserted by his bishops, was obliged to es- cape from Rome. He died in Viterbo in 1 261. 5. Alexander V., Pietro Philargi, of Can- dia. He was for some time professor in Paris, and in 1402 was made Archbishop of Milan, and in 1404 cardinal. In 1409, after the deposi- tion of the rival Popes, Gregory XII. and Ben- edict XIII., he was elected Pope by the cardinals at the Council of Pisa, but was recognized by only a part of Christendom. He forbade the teaching of Wyclif in Bohemia, and prohib- ited Huss from preaching even in private chap- els. He died at the age of 70, and it was sup- posed by some, though without foundation, that he was poisoned by his successor, Balthasar Cossa (Pope John XXIIL). 6. Alexander VI., Roderick Llangol, was born at Cativa, in the diocese of Valencia, in Spain. 1 Jan. 143 1. He assumed the name Bor- gia when his uncle of that name became Pope as Calixtus III. After studying law he en- tered the papal court and was advanced rap- idly, becoming commendatory archbishop of Valencia, cardinal deacon, and vice-chancellor of the Church in Rome. Appointed cardinal- bishop of Albano in 1476, he was ordained priest in that year. By the unanimous consent of the cardinal electors he was crowned Pope 11 Aug. 1492. His administration was a re- markable one. He cleared Rome of the ban- dits who had infested the city ; held court every Wednesday ; established the Congregation of the Index for the censorship of books: re- pressed the insolence and rapacity of the Roman nobility ; put a stop to the falsification of ec- clesiastical documents; drew up measures for the reformation of ecclesiastical discipline; co- operated with European rulers in their projects against the inroads of the Saracens; effected peace between the kings of Spain and Portugal by repartitioning between them their discoveries in tlie Xew World ; provided missionaries for preaching the gospel in newly explored coun- tries; approved and confirmed several religious congregations; restored discipline in the Church in Flanders ; suppressed magic in Germany and Bohemia; popularized the custom introduced by Calixtus III. of saying the Angelus at mid- day ; encouraged arts, particularly painting and literature ; put an end to the famines which had so often visited Rome ; and issued many noted bulls, letters, and other papal documents, which alone show that he was a man of extraordi- nary genius and power. He is charged by historians like Guicciardini and Burchard and more modern writers who follow them, of licentiousness before his ordina- tion to the priesthood, of simony, nepotism, and cruelty as Pope. It is difficult to reconcile all the crimes attributed to him with his high qual- ities and distinguished deeds. Of late years the tendency of moderate historians is to ex- onerate him from many extreme charges, to extenuate the faults of his youth, and cast doubt on the serious accusations brought against him as Pope. 7. Alexander VII., Fabio Chigi. of Siena, was durine the treaties of peace at Miinster and Osnabriick, papal nuncio in Germany. He was chosen Pope 7 April 1665, through the influence of France. In 1161, in spite of the protests of the Jansenists, he confirmed the condemnation of the five Jansenist dogmas which had been condemned by his predecessor, Innocent X. Later he fell into controversy with Louis XIV. During his rule Rome was beautified in many directions, especially by the colonnade before St. Peter's. He was himself a poet and friend of the arts and sciences. A collection of his poems appeared in 1656. 8. Alexander VIII. (1610-91), Pietro Ot- toboni, of Venice ; Pope 1689-91 ; assisted Italy in wars against the Turks. Through the purchase of the library of Queen Christina of Sweden he enriched the Vatican with 1.900 precious manuscripts. The collection is known as the Ottobonian Library. Cambridge • Modern History,' Vol. I. ; Hefele, ' History of the Councils * ; Parsons, 1 Studies in Church History ' ; Pastor, ' His- tory of the Popes.' Alexander I., emperor of Russia, son of Paul I. and Maria, daughter of Prince Eu- gene of Wurtemberg: b. 23 Dec. 1777; d. I Dec. 1825. On the assassination of his father, 24 March 1801, Alexander ascended the throne, and soon after a ukase was published for diminishing the taxes, liberating debtors, etc. One of the first acts of his reign was to conclude peace with Great Britain, against which his predecessor had declared war. In 1803 he offered his services as mediator between England and France, and two years later a convention was entered into between Russia, England, Austria and Sweden for the purpose of resisting the encroachments of France on the territories of independent states. He was present at the battle of Austerlitz (2 Dec. 1805), when the combined armies of Russia and Austria w r ere defeated by Napoleon. Alexander was compelled to retreat to his dominions at the head of the remains of his army. In the succeeding campaign the Russians were again beaten at Eylau (8 Feb. 1807), and Friedland (14 June), the result of which was an interview a few days after the battle, on a raft anchored in the Niemen, between Alexander and Na- poleon, which led to the treaty signed at Tilsit, 7 July. The Russian emperor now for a time identified himself with the Napoleonic schemes. The seizure of the Danish fleet by the British brought about a declaration of war by Russia against Great Britain and Sweden, and Alexan- der invaded Finland and conquered that long- coveted duchy, which was secured to him by the peace of Friedrichshamn (1809). In 1809- 12 war was carried on against Turkey. The French alliance, however, he found to be too oppressive, and his having separated himself from Napoleon led to the French invasion of 1812. In 1813 he published the famous mani- festo which served as the basis of the coalition of the other European powers against France. After the battle of Waterloo. Alexander, accom- panied by the emperor of Austria and the king of Prussia, made his second entrance into Paris, where they concluded (26 Sept. 1815), the treaty known as the Holy Alliance. The re- maining part of his reign was chiefly taken up in measures of internal reform, including the ALEXANDER gradual abolition of serfdom, and the promo- tion of education, agriculture, commerce, and manufactures, Alexander II., emperor of Russia: b. 29 April [818; succeeded his father Nicholas in 1855, before the end of the Crimean war. After peace was concluded the new emperor sel about effecting reforms in the empire, among the first heing the putting of the finances in order. The greatest of all the reforms carried out by him was the emancipation of the serfs by a decree of 2 March 1861. The czar also did much to improve education in the empire and introduced a reorganization of the judicial • in I luring his reign the Russian domin- ions in central Asia were considerably extended, while to the European portion of the mon- archy was added a piece of territory south of the Caucasus, formerly belonging to Turkey in Asia. A part of Bessarabia, belonging since the Crimean war to Turkey in Europe, but previously to Russia, was also restored to the latter power. The latter additions resulted from the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-8. in which the Turks were completely defeated, the Rus- sian troops advancing almost to the gates of Constantinople. Toward the end of the czar's life several attempts at his assassination were made by Nihilists, and at last he was killed by an explosive missile Hung at him in a street in St. Petersburg. [3 March 1881. He was succeeded by his son, Alexander III. Alexander III., emperor of Russia, son of Alexander II.; b. 10 March 1845; d. I.ivadia, I Nov. 1804. lie married the daughter of the king of Denmark in 1866. After his father's death, through fear of assassination, he shut himself up in his palace at Gatschina. His coronation was postponed till 1883. and was cel- ebrated with extraordinary magnificence, and with national festivities lasting several days. Through the fall of Merv, the subjugation of the Turkomans in central Asia was completed. In 1885 hostilities with England with regard to the defining of the frontier between the Rus- sian territories and Afghanistan for a time seemed imminent. In European affairs he broke away from the triple alliance between Russia, Germany, and Austria, and looked rather to France. He was aggrieved by the new Bulgarian spirit. His home policy was reactionary, though strong efforts were made to prevent malversation by officials, and stern economics were practised. The liberties of the Baltic provinces and of Finland were curtailed. the Jews were oppressed, ami old Russian orthodoxy was favored. Several Nihilist at- tempts were made on bis life, and throughout his reign he kept himself practically a prisoner in his palace. Alexander I., king of Scotland, fourth son of Malcolm Canmore; b. about 1078, in 1 107 succeeded his brother, Edgar, only, however, to that part of the kingdom north of the firths of Forth and Clyde; d. Stirling. 1224. He mar- ried Sibylla, a natural daughter of Henry I. of England, and his reign was comparatively untroubled, though about 1 1 15 he had to quell an insurrection of the northern clans. He founded the abbeys of Scone and Inchcolm and initiated a diocesan episcopate: while his determined resistance to the claims of York and Canterbury to supremacy over the see of St. Andrews did much to secure the independ- ence, not only of the Scottish Church, but of Scotland itself. Alexander II., king of Scotland: b. Had- dington, 1198; d. 1249. He succeeded his fa titer. William the I. ion. in 1 _• 14. He early dis- played that wisdom and strength of character in virtue of which he holds so high a place in history among Scottish kings. His entering into a league with the English barons against King John drew down upon him and his king- dom the papal excommunication; hut two years later the ban was removed, and the liberties of the Scottish Church were even continued. On Henry III.'s accession to the English throne, Alexander brought the feuds of the two na- tions to a temporary close by a treaty of peace (1217). in accordance with which he married Henry's eldest sister, the Princess Joan (1221). 'The alliance thus established was broken after her death without issue (1238) and the Second marriage of Alexander with the daughter of a noble of France. In [244 Henry marched against Scotland to compel Alexander's hom- age; but a peace was concluded without an appeal to arms. In 1240. while engaged in an expedition to wrest the Hebrides from Norway. Alexander died of fever on Kerrera. near Oban. Alexander III., king of Scotland, b, up ; succeeded his father, Alexander II., u;V. d. (2 March 128(1. In 1251 he married the Pririci , Margaret (1240-75), eldest daughter 0: Henry HI. of England. Very shortly aftir he had come of age his energies were summoned to defend his kingdom against the formidable in- vasion of Haco, king of Norway (1263), whose utter rout at Largs secured to Alexander the allegiance both of the Hebrides and the Isle of Man. 'The alliance between Scotland and Nor- way was strengthened in uSj by King Eric's marriage to Alexander's only daughter. Mar- garet (1261-83); the untimely death of their infant daughter. Margaret, commonly desig natcd the Maid < > f Norway, on her way to take possession of her throne, was the occasion of many calamities to Scotland. During the con- cluding years of Alexander's reign the kingdom enjoyed a peace ami prosperity which it did not taste again for many generations. His only surviving sent died with. nit issue in 1284; and next year Alexander contracted a second mar- riage with Je.leta. daughter e,f the Count de Dreux. Alexander I., king of Scrvia: b. 14 Aug. 1876: son of King Milan I. In 1889 Milan abdicated and proclaimed Alexander king under a regency till he should attain his majority ( iS years). On 13 April 1893, when in his 171I1 year. Alexander suddenly took the royal au- thority into his own hands and summarily dis- missed the regent. On 5 Aug. 1900 he married Mme. Draga Maschin. This marriage was ex- ceedingly unpopular by reason of the charac- ter of the new queen, and this fact, joined to her unwise attempts to advance her own fam- ily, induced a crisis which resulted in the as- sassination of the king and queen 11 June 1903. See Sekvia Alexander, Abraham, American agitator: b. North Carolina, 1718 ; d. 1786. His place in history is due to the fact that he was chairman ALEXANDER of the convention which on 31 May 1775 passed the resolutions generally known as the (< Meck- lenburg Declaration of Independence." Alexander, Archibald, American clergy- man, of Scottish descent: b. Virginia, 17 April 1772; d. Princeton, N. J., 22 Oct. 1851. He studied theology, and performed itinerant mis- sionary work in various parts of Virginia ; be- came president of Hampton-Sidney College in 1796, and pastor of a Presbyterian church in Philadelphia in 1807. On the establishment of Princeton Theological Seminary in 1812 he was appointed its first professor, a position which he held till his death. Among other works he published ' Outlines of the Evidences of Chris- tianity,' ' Treatise on the Canon of the Scrip- tures ' (1826) : ' History of the Patriarchs ' (1833) : and ' History of the Israelitish Na- tion ' ( 1852) ; his ' Moral Science ' was post- humous. Alexander, Barton Stone, American sol- dier : b. Kentucky, 1819 ; d. San Francisco, Cal., 15 Dec. 1878. He graduated from West Point 1842, and became lieutenant in the engineer corps ; as such he superintended the building of Minot's Ledge lighthouse off Boston Har- bor, the marine hospital at Chelsea, north of Boston, and the military asylum at Washington, besides repairs on fortifications. He assisted in constructing the defenses of Washington in the Civil War, took part in the first campaign about Manassas, and was brevetted major for conduct at Bull Run ; and remaining with the Army of the Potomac was brevetted lieutenant- colonel for conduct at the siege of Yorktown in 1862. In 1864 he was consulting engineer on Sheridan's staff, and in March 1865 was brev- etted brigadier-general for services in the war. The next two years he was in charge of the con- struction of the public works in Maine; and in 1867 became senior engineer with rank of lieutenant-colonel. Thence till death he was a member of the Pacific board of engineers for fortification. Alexander, Cecil Frances (Humphrey), an Irish poet, born in County Wicklow, 1818: d. 12 Oct. 1895. She was very active in religious and charitable works. She is best known as a writer of hymns and religious poems. Among the most noted are the hymns, • The Roseate Hue of Early Dawn > and < All Things Bright and Beautiful.' Her most famous poem is < The Burial of Moses.' Alexander, Edward Porter, American military engineer : b. Washington, Ga., 26 May 1835. Graduating from West Point 1857. he was made second lieutenant in the engineer corps; resigned 1861, and entering the Confed- erate army served there till the surrender at Appomattox, April 1865 ; at first as chief of ordnance and chief signal officer in the Army of Northern Virginia, then as brigadier-general and chief of artillery in Longstreet's corps, tak- ing part in the Wilderness and Spottsylvania and the siege of Petersburg. From 1866 to 1870 he was professor of mathematics and en- gineering in the University of South Carolina; thence (1871-92) manager and president of some of the foremost Southern railroads, and is a rice-planter in South Carolina. He was a gov- ernment director of the Union Pacific R.R. J 885-7 ; a member of the boards on navigation of the Columbia River and on the Chesapeake- Delaware ship canal 1892-4; and in 1891 en- gineer arbitrator of the boundary survey be- tween Nicaragua and Costa Rica. Alexander, James, American colonial law- yer and patriot: b. Scotland about 1690; d. New York, 2 April 1756. He was an engineer officer in Scotland ; compelled to leave Great Britain for taking part in the Old Pretender's Rebellion of 1715, he came to Perth Amboy, was its first official recorder in 1718, and was shortly after appointed surveyor-general of New York and New Jersey. Studying law, he rose to dis- tinction at the bar. He engaged in political de- bate in the press ; was temporarily disbarred for serving as counsel to a printer accused of se- dition, but was reinstated two years later; held many important public offices, including those of attorney-general and of secretary to the prov- ince of New York: acquired a large fortune, and was a zealous upholder of colonial liberties, — he died from the fatigues of a journey from New York to Albany while sick, to oppose a ministerial project threatening colonial rights. With Franklin and others he founded the American Philosophical Society. His son was the famous (< Lord Stirling " of the Revolution. Alexander, Sir James Edward, a British soldier and explorer : b. in Scotland in 1803 ; d. 2 April 1885; served in the principal wars of his day, particularly distinguishing himself in the Crimean ; conducted an exploring expedition into central Africa, and published several narra- tives of travel. He died 2 April 1885. Alexander, James Waddell, American clergyman, son of Archibald Alexander : b, near Gordonsville, Va., 13 March 1804 ; d. 31 July 1859. He studied in Philadelphia, then graduated at Princeton and from its theological seminary. He held a pastorate at Charlotte C. H., Va., 1825-8, and the First Presbyterian Church in Trenton, N. J., 1828-30. Resigning from ill health, he became editor of the Phila- delphia Presbyterian. He was professor of rhetoric and belles-lettres in Princeton. 1833-44; pastor of the Duane Street Church, New York, 1844-9 ; professor of ecclesiastical history and church government in Princeton Seminary, 1849-51 ; from 1851 till death pastor of his old Duane Street Church, reorganized as the Fifth Avenue, corner 19th Street. He wrote much for religious and other periodicals, and for the Tract Society, and over 30 volumes for the American Sunday-School Union. He published also volumes of sermons; ' The American Me- chanic and Workingman ' (2 vols. 1847 ) ; < Plain Words to a Young Communicant ' (1854) ; a biography of his father (1854) ; < Dis- courses on Christian Faith and Practice ' (1858) ; < Thoughts on Preaching > (1864) ; etc Alexander, John Henry, American scien tist : b. Annapolis. Md., 26 June 1812; d. 2 March 1867. Graduating from St. John's Col- lege, Annapolis, 1826, he studied law, then en- gineering; and a plan for the survey of Mary- land he put before its legislature gained him the appointment of topographical engineer of tin- State, which he held till 1841. preparing annual reports which did much to enlist capital in de- veloping its coal and iron fields. He published a two-part < History of the Metallurgy of Iron,' 1840-2. He was also associated in Hassler ant put down till 383 ; the numerous re- volts of satraps, of Greek cities, and of semi- Greek tyrants during the first half of the 5th century; and the attack on Persia made by rachos, king of Egypt, in ,?'>t. It has been well remarked by Adolf Holm that the position of the Persian empire when attacked by Alexander had s.nne resemblance to that of the Roman empire when overrun by the Germans. Both empires held together merely by the law of inertia; in both tbeir strength lay not in their native elements, but in mercenaries taken from the very pro],],-, the Germans and the Greeks, wdio threatened respectively the safety of the two empires. Alexander proposed to himself nothing short of complete dispossession of Da- rius in favor of himself as captain-general of Hellas, and the establishment of bis own l'an- hellenic empire in the room of the Persian, lie was iiiil led from point to point by this or that strategical reason. His business was not to leave Asia till every satrapy in the Persian empire acknowledged Ins sway. Even the burn- im.; ,,1 tie Persian capital Persepolis was prob- ably no act of drunken folly, as which it has often been described, but rather a signal and emphatic assertion of mastery and ownership, as of one who should say, " The Persian empire is mine, to throw- it into the lire if I please." Alexander bad no intention of remaining king of Macedon. His design was to be the Greek emperor of Europe and Asia; and this position in effect he assumed on the death of Darius. With this view throughout his whole career in Asia he sought as much as possible to fuse and commingle his Asiatic and European sub- jects, very much as England did in India. This was the project to which he was giving all his efforts at the time of his death. The first hostile army he encountered was on the Granicus River (an affluent of the Sea of Marmora). He crossed the Granicus, just as he afterward crossed the Pinarus at Issus, in full view of the enemy, hurled himself with all his force on their centre and completely broke it up. It was not his way to refrain from the pass in quart till be had first hit in tierce. His victories sometimes remind us of the oft-quoted C'est magnifique, mats ce n'est pas la guerre. He won by an impetuous dash a victory which a subtler strategy might have failed to achieve, just as his sword-cut at Gor- dium made away with the knot which his lin- gers could not undo. The victory at Granicus was attended with unprecedented results; Sar- des, Miletus, Ephesns, Halicarnassus submitted one after another, and he established in them racies of the Greek type. In November, 333. Darius, eager to meet the invader, hastened to the sea-coast near Issus (at the head of the Gulf of Iskanderoon). The tactics pursued at the Granicus had here again a successful issue. Darius fled, leaving his family and his treasures in the hands of the conqueror. The mother, wife, two daughters, and son of Darius were treated with a clemency which foreshadowed the ages of chivalry. An Asiatic conqueror would have put the males to death, probably with torture, and would have sent the females to his harem. Captive Greek generals he also spared and liberated. He took possession of Damascus, a city which even then could boas) of a hoary antiquity, and secured all the towns along the .Mediterranean Sea. His plan now was to occupy Egypt, and this was made easy by the capture of lyre on 20 Aug. 332, after a siege of seven months. During the siege a message came from Darius offering Alexander 10,000 talents, the hand of his daughter in mar- riage, and Asia as far as the Euphrates, if he would make peace. " I would accept it if I wire Alexander," said his general, Panncnio. (< So would 1," replied Alexander, "it" I were Parmenio." Gaza fell in November, ;,.!_>, and Alexander, taking possession of Egypt, sacri- ficed to Apis and the Egyptian gods m Memphis, and held musical and athletic competitions after the Greek fashion in lyre. '1 bus he conciliat- ed the affections of his subjects. Politically he organized Egypt as a province in a way which. as Arrian remark--, foreshadowed the Koniau system, giving the civil administration first to two, ami then to a single governor, while the troops were placed under several separate com- manders. It was now that Alexander founded the celebrated Alexandria — destined in two generations to In- tin- first city in the Levant — and marched through the Libyan desert to con- sult the oracle of Jupiter Amnion, whose son he claimed to be. Meantime Darius was collecting an army in Assyria; but before the decisive battle of Ar- bela he made Overtures of peace to Alexander, whose answer was, " I, Alexander, hold all thy treasure and all thy land to be mine," — a verbal cutting of the Gordian knot. The Per- sian force encountered by the Greeks at Gau- gamela. near the ancient Nineveh, and about 50 miles from Arbela (which strangely has giv- en iis name to the battle ever since), is said to have numbered 1,000.000 infantry, 40.000 caval- ry, 200 scythed chariots, and 15 elephants. Alexander had only 40,000 foot and 7,000 horse, but he won a decisive victory on 1 Oct. 331. The Macedonians aimed at the faces of their adversaries, as the Ctcsarians afterward did at Pharsalus. Babylon and Susa opened their gates to the conqueror, who then entered Per- sepolis, the capital of the province of Pcrsis, seized its immense treasures, and burned its palace and citadel to the ground. In the spring of 330 Alexander proceeded to Media in pursuit of Darius. That weak monarch was being carried about by P.essus. satrap of Bactria, who, on hearing of the ap- proach of Alexander, inflicted a mortal wound on Darius and lied, leaving hint to die. Darius died before Alexander came up with him (July, 330). The conqueror sent his body to Per- sepolis to be interred with royal honors. Af- ter taking possession of Hyrcania and Bactriana he was meditating still more gigantic plans, when he learned in the autumn of 330 that Philotas, the son of Parmenio, though cog- nizant of a conspiracy against his life, had not reported it. He put both Philotas and Par- menio to death. The execution of the former has been condemned, but is on the whole de- fensible; the murder of the latter is an inex- cusable act of brutal tyranny. About the end ALEXANDER — ALEXANDRA of 330 or the beginning of 329 he crossed the great range of the Caucasus (not the modern Caucasus, but the Hindu Kush) by a pass at an altitude of 13,200 feet — a march com- parable with that of Hannibal over the Alps. He reached the city of Bactra (Balkh), and made his way north as far as the Jaxartes or Tanais, where he founded a city, probably the modern Khojend. He remained in these regions till the summer of 327, spending the winter in Nautaca, on the right bank of the O.xus. Here occurred the murder of Clitus, and Alexander's marriage with Roxana, daughter of Oxyartes, a satrap of Sogdiana. She had a son named after his father in 323. After the death of Alexander she compassed the destruction of his other wife, the daughter of Darius, and was killed with her son in 31 r by Cassander. The murder of Clitus has been regarded as a great blot on the career of Alexander. But the circumstances in which he was placed greatly extenuate the act. The East believed in the divinity of Alex- ander, and such a belief was almost an essen- tial condition of the permanence of his empire. When one of his own officers openly denied and ridiculed the emperor's pretensions at a state banquet he seriously imperiled the Hellenic raj. The empire of Alexander was never subject to a second single emperor. The destinies of the West awaited the struggle between Rome and Carthage. But his vast empire nowhere save in India reverted to the pre-Alexandrine type. Alexander now formed the idea of conquering India. He passed the Indus in 327, and formed an alliance with Taxiles, under whose guidance he reached the Hydaspes (modern Jhelum). This river he crossed after a severe struggle with Porus, in whom he met an opponent very superior to the Persian satraps who had hitherto confronted him or rather retreated before him. He then moved farther east and crossed the Acesines (Chenab) and the Hyraotes (Ravi), and reached the Hyphasis (Beas), which now joins the last river of the Punjab, the Sutlej, but which then flowed in a different channel. He never reached the Sutlej itself. The mur- murs of his army compelled him to return. The fine instrument which he had fashioned so dexterously broke in his hand. He re- crossed the Acesines to the Hydaspes, where he completed the cities of Nicsea and Bucephala (named after his famous horse Bucephalus), which he had already begun. He had only seen the fringe of India — the Punjab. The won- drous country of Brahma and Buddha never felt the sway of Secundar. It was the only land which, on his departure, reverted to its condition before his arrival. He was obliged to content himself with writing his name large across the histories of Hellenic, Semitic, Egyp- tian, and Iranian civilization. Alexander's name does not appear in Sanskrit literature. When he had reached the Hydaspes he built a fleet, in which he sent part of his army down the river, while the rest proceeded along the banks. The city of the Malli, where Alexander was wounded, is probably Multan ; Puttala is perhaps Haidarabad. The march of 500 miles through the hideous desert of Gedrosia (Ba- luchistan), and the voyage of Nearchus, have given much material to romancers and rhetori- cians. At Carmania he was joined by Craterus, who had marched through the Bolan Pass to Kandahar, and by Nearchus, whose voyage, then thought so marvelous a feat, is no more than the short steam run from Karachi to Bunder Abbas. From Carmania he went to Pasargadae, and thence to Susa, where he de- voted himself with great energy to the task of uniting as far as possible the Macedonian and Persian nations. He himself married two Per- sian princesses, and he gave rewards to those of his staff who followed his example in con- tracting Persian alliances. He sent home to Macedonia, with a present of a talent each, about 10,000 Macedonians who by age or wounds were incapacitated for service. These veterans were led by Craterus, who was sent to succeed Antipater as governor of Europe. Antipater seems to have fallen into disfavor, though in 330 he had done service in defeating Agis, the Spartan king who threatened Megalopolis. It was of this exploit that Alexander contemp- tuously observed, B So there has been a battle of the mice in Arcadia, while we have been conquering Asia." In 323 Alexander arrived at Babylon, where he found numberless envoys from nations near and far. come to pay their homage to the young conqueror. He was engaged in very extensive plans for the future, including the conquest of Arabia and the reorganization of the army, when he fell ill of a fever, shortly after the death of his beloved Hephsestion, which had deeply affected him. He died in 323. after a reign of 12 years and 8 months. The day be- fore a rumor had gone abroad that the great general was dead, and that his friends were con- cealing the truth. The dying king caused his army to defile past his bed, and feebly waved them a last farewell. Alexander was a great administrator, a second Pericles in his devotion to work, an Alcibiades in his distinguished presence, a Phocion in his simplicity of char- acter. Alexander Yaroslavitch Nevski, a Russian hero and saint, the son of the Grand Duke Jaroslav: b. Vladimir, 1219; d. 1263. In or- der to defend the empire, which was attacked on all sides, but especially by the Mongols. Jaroslav quitted Novgorod and left the charge of the government to his sons, Fedor and Alexander, the former of whom soon afterward died. Alex- ander repulsed the assailants. Russia, neverthe- less, came under the Mongolian dominion in 1238. Alexander, when Prince of Novgorod, defended the western frontier against the Danes, Swedes, and Knights of the Teutonic Order. He gained, in T240, a splendid victory on the Neva over the Swedes, and thence received his surname. He overcame in 1243 the Livonian Knights of the Sword, on the ice of Lake Peipus. After the death of his father in 1247 Alexander became Prince of Novgorod, and. on the death of his brother Andreas. Grand Prince of Vladi- mir. The gratitude of his countrymen has commemorated the hero in popular songs and raised him to the dignity of a saint. Peter the Great honored his memory by the erection of a splendid monastery in St. Petersburg, on the spot where Alexander gained his victory, and by establishing the order of Alexander Nevskoi. Alexandra Caroline Marie Charlotte Louise Julie, queen of England: 1>. 1 Dec. 1S44: daughter of Christian IX. of Denmark, and wife of Edward VII., whom she married ALEXANDRETTA— ALEXANDRIAN AGE 10 March 1863. She has had three sons, two of whom are dead, and three daughters. Alexandretta (the ancient Alexandria ad Issum), a small seaport in Syria, on the S.E. coast of the Gulf of Iskanderoon. It is the nat- ural port of Aleppo and northern Syria. The town is rendered unhealthy DJ the surrounding marshes', but this has been partially remedied bj draining one of the largest. The port is a fine hay, running southeast from the Gulf. The im- ports are chiefly grain, rice, and salt; the ex- ports, galls, silk, cotton, and dips or beshmet (a preparation from grapes, used by the natives as 1 1 1 Pop. about 3.000. Alexandria (Iskanderieh of the Turks), an ancient city and seaport in Egypt, about 14 miles west of the CanOpic mouth of the Nile, on tin' ridge of land between the sea and the bed of the (.Id Lake Mareotis. Ancient Alexan- dria was founded by, and named in honor of, Alexander the Great, in 332 B.C., on the site of a village called Rakotis or Racondah. Its plan was sketched by the architect Dinocrates. It stood nearly on the site of the present town, though the configuration of the land has al- tered considerably since then, was 15 miles in circumference, and had 300.000 free inhabitants and at least an equal number of slaves. The Romans ranked it next to their own capital. and when captured by Amru. general of the Caliph Omar (a.d. 641) it contained "4,000 palaces, 4.000 baths, 400 theatres or places of amusement. [2,000 shops for the sale of vege- tables, and 40.000 tributary Jews" (Gibbon). The city was regularly built and traversed by two principal streets, each ioo feet wide and one of them 4 miles long. It consisted of two quarters, Rakotis, or the people's quarter, and Brucheion, or the quarter of the palace. One fourth of the area upon which it was built was covered with temples, palaces, and public buildings, the most conspicuous being the famous lighthouse upon the little island of Pharos, which was connected with the city by a mole: the splendid temple of Jupiter Serapis; the Library, at that time the richest in the world; the Museum, a kind of academy in which learned men of every description were entertained at the expense of the state; an im- mense hippodrome; numerous obelisks and pil- lars, among which were Pompey's Pillar, or more properly Diocletian's Pillar, and the two obelisks known as Cleopatra's Needles. Pom- pey's Pillar occupies an eminence 1.800 feet to the south of the present walls; its total height is 98 feet 9 inches; the Needles, of red granite. and 70 feet high, stood on the edge of the eastern harbor. One was taken to London in 1878 ; the other stands in Central Park. New York. The city was bombarded by the British 11 July 1882. (Sec Egypt.) The present city is chiefly built on the mole, which has been increased by alluvial deposits till it has become a broad neck of land between the two harbors. The European quarter swarms with cafes, shops, and theatres, lighted with gas. The castle stands near the old Pharos, and the handsome new lighthouse has a revolving light visible at a distance of 20 miles. Recent im- provements, undertaken at a cost of $10,000,000, are expected to make the western or the old har- bor by far one of the best and most spacious on the Mediterranean. There is railway communi- cation with Cairo and Suez ; the Mahmoudieh canal, made by Mehemet Ali. connects Alexan- dria with the Nile. Pop. (.1902) about 400,000 Alexandria, Ind., a city in Madison co., on the Cleveland, C, C. & St. L., and Lake Erie & VV. R.R.'s, 45 miles N.I'., of Indianapolis. It is in a natural gas region and has large window glass and lamp chimney factories, and manu factures of paper, steel, axes, and mineral wool. It has municipal water and lighting plants; churches, schools, banks, and daily, triweekly. and weekly newspapers. It was settled in 1X37 and is governed by a mayor, elected for four years, and a council of six members. Poo (1800) 715; (1000) 7,221. Alexandria, I. a. a town of Rapides parisl about 100 miles N.W. of Baton Rouge on the Red River, in the centre of the State, in the midst of a line farming country. It is becom- ing quite a railroad centre, the following roads having entered the town: Texas & Pacific, St. Louis. Iron Mountain & Southern. Southern Pacific. St. Louis, Watkins & Gulf, Louisiana Railway & Navigation Co. It has a number ot institutions of learning, a $30,000 public school building, and a convent of the Sisters of Mercy. It has a number of miles of asphalt street pav ing. The State has recently erected an insti- tution for the insane here. The town docs a good wholesale and retail business, and has a g I trade in molasses, hides, sugar, cotton, and lumber. Here in 1864 a dam was built h\ Lieut.-Col. Bailey, by which a Federal squadron during Ranks' expedition was enabled to pass the rapids. Pop. (1904) est. 10.000. Alexandria. Ya.. city, port of entry, anil county-scat of Alexandria CO.; situated on the Potomac River, the Pennsylvania & So. R.R .' . and trolley line connecting with Washington. I). C, and Mt. Vernon; 6 m, S. of Washington. The river here expands to the width of a mile and gives the city an excellent harbor that will accommodate the largest vessels. The city is an important trade centre; has manufactures aggregating $20,000,000 annually, and is noted for its educational institutions, which include Washington High School. Potomac, Mt. Ver- non, and St. Mary's Academics, and near by the Theological Seminary and High School of the Diocese of Virginia I Protestant Episcopal). There are four national banks, public school property valued at $33,000. and daily and weekly periodicals. Gen. Rraddock made his head quarters here in 1775. and in 1861 Col. Ells- worth, an officer in Maj.-Gen. McDowell's army, was shot after tearing down a Confeder- ate flag which floated from the Marshall House. Pop. (1000) 14.528. Alexandria Bay. N. Y., a village in Jeffer- son co., on the Rome. W. & O. R.R.. about 70 m. N. E. of Oswego. It is a prominent resort of the Thousand Islands. Pop. (1900I 1,511. Alexandrian Age, or School, the school or period of Greek literature and learning that ex- isted at Alexandria in Egypt during the 300 years that the rule of the Ptolemies lasted (323- 30 B.r), and continued under the Roman su- premacy. Ptolemy Soter founded the famous library of Alexandria fsee below) and his son. Philadelphia, established a kind of academy of sciences and arts. Many scholars and men of genius were thus attracted to Alexandria, and a ALEXANDRIAN LIBRARY — ALEXANDRINE a period of literary activity set in which made Alexandria for long the focus and centre of Greek culture and intellectual effort. It must be admitted, however, that originality was not a characteristic of the Alexandrian age, which was stronger in criticism, grammar, and science than in pure literature. Among the grammarians and critics were Zenodotus, Eratosthenes, Aristophanes, Aristarchus, and Zoilus, prover- bial as a captious critic. Their merit is to have collected, edited, and preserved the exist- ing monuments of Greek literature. To the poets belong Apollonius, Lycophron, Aratus, Ni- cander, Euphorion, Callimachus, Theocritus, Phi- letas, etc. Among those who pursued mathe- matics, physics, and astronomy was Euclid, the father of scientific geometry ; Archimedes, great in physics and mechanics ; Apollonius of Perga, whose work on conic sections still exists ; Nico- machus, the first scientific arithmetician ; and (under the Romans) the astronomer and geog- rapher Ptolemy. Alexandria also was distin- guished in philosophical speculation, and it was here that the New Platonic school was estab- lished at the close of the 2d century after Christ by Ammonius of Alexandria (about 193 A.D.), whose disciples were Plotinus and Origen. Being for the most part Orientals, formed by the study of Greek learning, the writings of the New Platonists are strikingly characterized — for example, those of Ammonius Saccas, Ploti- nus, Iamblicus, Porphyrius — by a mixture of Asiatic and European elements. The principal Gnostic systems also had their origin in Alex- andria. Alexandrian Library, a remarkable collec- tion of books, the largest of the ancient world, was founded by the first Ptolemy and fostered by his son. It quickly grew, and already in the time of the first Ptolemy, Demetrius Phalereus had _ 50,000 volumes or rolls under his care. During its most flourishing period, under the direction of Zenodotus, Aristarchus of Byzan- tium, Callimachus, Apollonius Rhodius, and others, it is said to have contained 490.000, or, according to another authority, including all duplicates, as many as 700,000 volumes. The greater part of this library, which embraced the collected literature of Rome, Greece, India, and Egypt, was contained in the famous Museum, in the quarter of Alexandria called the Bru- cheion. During the siege of Alexandria by Ju- lius Caesar this part of the library was destroyed by fire ; but it was afterward replaced by the collection of Pergamos, which was presented to Cleopatra by Mark Antony. The other part of the library was kept in the Serapeum, the tem- ple of Jupiter Serapis. where it remained till the time of Theodosius the Great. When this em- peror permitted all the heathen temples in the Roman empire to be destroyed, the magnificent temple of Jupiter Serapis was not spared. A mob of fanatic Christians, led on by the Arch- bishop Theophilus, stormed and destroyed the temple, together, it is most likely, with the greater part of its literary treasures, in 391 a.d. It was at this time that the destruction of the library was begun, and not at the taking of Alexandria by the Arabs under the Caliph Omar, in 641. There are strong reasons for be- lieving that no library then existed there. _Cf. Petit-Radel. ' Recherches sur les Biblio- theques Anciennes et Modernes > (1819); Ritschl, ' Die Alexandrinische Bibliothek ' (1838) : Weniger, * Das Alexandrinische Mu- seum ' (1875J. Alexandrian Version, or Codex Alexan- drinus (Codex A.), a Greek manuscript of the Bible, now in the British Museum, of great im- portance in Biblical criticism. It is on parch- ment, with uncial letters, without breathings and accents or spaces between the words. It was written probably in the middle of the 5th cen- tury, and contains, in four volumes, small folio, the whole Greek Bible, two letters of Bishop Clement of Rome to the Corinthians, the genu- ine epistle and a fragment of the second, the spurious one, and eight psalms of Solomon, so called. The first three volumes contain the translation of the Old Testament ; the fourth. the New Testament. A large part of the Gospel of St. Matthew and of the Second Epistle to the Corinthians, as well as a portion of the Gos- pel of, St. John, are wanting. The patriarch of Constantinople, Cyrillus Lucaris, who in 1628 sent this manuscript as a present to Charles I., said he had received it from Egypt ; and it is evident from other circumstances that it was written there. But it cannot be decided with certainty whether it came from Alexandria (whence its name). It is said, however, to have belonged to the patriarch of Alexandria at the end of the nth century. John Ernest Grabe followed it in his edition of the Septuagint (Ox- ford, 1707-20, folio, 4 vols.). Dr. Woide pub- lished the New Testament (London, folio, 1786), with types cast for the purpose, page for page and line for line, as in the manuscript itself. A somewhat more accurate text of the New Testament in ordinary Greek type (with the lacunae supplied) was published by R. H. Cowper in i860. Henry Hervey Baber edited a facsimile edition of the Old Testament (Lon- don 1816-28, 3 vols, folio.). In 1864 the com- plete text, along with three other of the oldest texts of the Bible, was published at Oxford, the work being arranged in parallel columns. An autotype facsimile of the whole codex in four volumes was published by the British Museum in 1879-83. The text of this manuscript is of most importance in the criticism of the Epis- tles of the New Testament ; in the Gospels the text is not so good. Alexandrine, the name of a verse, which consists of 6 feet (or of 6y 2 with female rhymes), equal to 12 syllables, the pause being in correct Alexandrines always on the 6th syl- lable ; for example, the second of the follow- ing verses (from Pope's Essay on Criticism) : " A needless Alexandrine ends the song That, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along." The only complete English poem of literary im- portance written in this measure is Drayton's ( Polyolbion.* The concluding line of the Spenserian stanza is an Alexandrine. The French in their epics and dramas are confined to this verse, which for this reason is called by them the Heroic. The Alexandrine derives its name from an old French poem belonging to the middle of the 12th or the beginning of the 13th century, the subject of which is Alexander the Great, and in which this verse was first made use of. ALEXANDROPOL — ALFALFA Alexandrite, a variety of the mineral chrysoberyl (q.v.). It occurs in twin crystals (trillings) and is chiefly remarkable for the fact that while by daylight its color is a dark em- erald to grayish-green, it assumes a beautiful columbine-red color by artificial light. Because of this property, and owing to its rarity and great hardness (8.5), it is highly prized as a gem. Its name, given in honor of Alexander II. of Russia, seems singularly appropriate when it is recalled that the gem is said to have been first discovered in the emerald mines of Takowaja, Siberia, on the very day on which the then heir apparent attained his majority, and further that the green and red colors of alexandrite are the national colors of Russia. The finest alexan- dritcs still come from Siberia, but good gems are occasionally found in Ceylon. Alexandropol (formerly Gumri), a Rus- sian town and fortress in the trans-Caucasian government of Erivan, situated on a bare plateau near the highway from Erivan to Kars. There is accommodation in the military quarters for a force of 10,000 men. The town has several churches and caravanserais, and there are ex- tensive silk manufactories. Pop. 32,078. Alexia. See Aphasia. Alexiad, a life of the emperor Alexis Comnenus (q.v.) by the Princess Anna Com- nena, his daughter. This work, which is one of the most important authorities for the history of the closing years of the 11th century, is writ- ten in modern Greek and divided into 15 books. It gives a vivid picture of the First Crusade. Alexian Brothers. See Cellites. Alexis, a Greek comic poet, a native of Thurii, in Magna Grcecia, afterward an Athenian citizen : b. about 304 B.C., and is known to have lived as late at least as 288 B.C. He was the uncle and instructor of Mcnander, and is said to have written 245 plays. Alexis, Wilibald, pseudonym of Wilhelm Hiring (q.v.). Alexis Mikhailovitch, second Russian czar of the line of Romanof. See Russia. Alexis Petrovitch, the eldest son of the czar Peter the Great and Eudoxia Lapuchin : b. in Moscow, 1690. He opposed the innova- tions introduced by his father, who on this account determined to disinherit him. Alexis renounced the crown, and when Peter set out on his second journey he made his escape in 1 717 to Vienna, where he sought the protec- tion of his brother-in-law, the German em- peror, and thence to Naples, under the pretext of going to his father, who had sent for him. At the command of Peter he returned ; but the enraged czar, regarding his flight as an act of treason, disinherited him by a ukase of 2 Feb. 1718; and when he discovered that Alexis was paving the way to succeed to the crown he not only caused all the participators of his project to be punished capitally or otherwise, but bad his son also condemned to death, and the sentence read to him, as pronounced unani- mously by 144 judges. Although he was soon afterward pardoned, the fright and anxiety which he had experienced affected him so much that he died in the course of four days, 7 July 171S. It is supposed by some that he was poisoned. He left a daughter and a son, afterward the emperor Peter II. Alexius (Comnenus), emperor of Constan- tinople: b. 1048; d. IS Aug. 1 1 18. He was the third son of John Comnenus, the emperor Isaac's brother. Naturally clever, he was care- fully educated under the direction of his moth- er; and at the age of 14 took part in an en- gagement with some European adventurers commanded by a Scot called Russel de Balliol, of whom the youthful warrior afterward be- came an intimate friend. After several suc- cessive emperors had tasted for a brief season the "bitter sweets" of a nominal supremacy over a country torn by anarchy, Alexius, with the aid of the army, was proclaimed emperor, seized on Constantinople, which he permitted his soldiers to pillage, and shut up the nominal ruler in a monastery (1081). The empire was then in a deplorable state. The Turks were profiting by these intestine dissensions to seize upon the Asiatic provinces while Robert Guis- card ami bis Normans were menacing the west, and fierce swarms from beyond the Danube threatened the nearer provinces. However, Alexius did not despair; he sent supplies of money to his ally Henry IV. of Germany to en- able him to attack Rome, the Pope (Gregory VII.) being a linn friend of the Norman lead- er. His Holiness had to flee, and Guiscard hastened to bis aid, leaving in Greece his son Bo- hemond, who gained two victories over Alex- ius; but famine and disease weakened the Nor- man army, which Robert could not rejoin, as he was detained in Italy by a revolt of his vassals. In 1084 he returned to the charge, and after gaining some advantages he suddenly died of an epidemic; although some ascribe bis death to poison administered by one of Alexius' secret agents. In consequence of this event the Nor- mans abandoned all their conquests, and Alex- ius turned his attention to the Turks and Scythians, whom, after an arduous struggle, he completely defeated. Scarcely was this accom- plished when, in 1096, the bands of the first Crusade arrived at Constantinople demanding aid, rudely menacing him in his own palace, and finally compelling him to join them. The alliance did not last long; a war broke out be- tween the emperor and the Crusaders, which ended in the defeat of the latter. The rest of Alexius' life was employed in consolidating his conquests and restoring orderly government in his states, which were much disturbed by here- sies. He died at 70, after a reign of 37 years. He extended bis empire; and for its defense he left to his successors a well-disciplined army, which he had wholly created himself. His- torians differ respecting his conduct and abili- ties; his daughter Anna wrote his life (the Ale.xiad). Alfalfa, also called Lucerne (q.v.) {_M.edu cago saliva), is a herbaceous plant belonging to the natural order Leguminosce. The leaves are pinnate-trifoliate; its flowers small, gener- ally purple in color, situated in the axillary Spikes. The plant is a native of Asia, but has been cultivated in Europe since before the time of Christ. The Spaniards introduced it into South America, but it did not reach North America until some lime between 1850 and i860, when it was introduced into California. Since then it has become the most extensively cultivated forage crop in the United States. Its adaptability to varying conditions of soil ALFARABI — ALFONSO and climate gives it an extensive range, extend- ing from the arid lands of the West, where ir- rigation is required, to the richer soils of the East, and from sea-level to heights of over 7,000 feet. It will not flourish in extremely damp or clayey soils. Its roots strike to great depths, so that it withstands droughts better than most of the forage plants. It is cut when com- ing into bloom, and yields from 3 to 12 tons of hay to each acre. In some regions it is cut every month in the year. It is particularly val- uable as a green manure, as it takes nitrogen from the air, and its deep-growing roots draw from the lower soils large quantities of lime, phosphoric acid, potash, and other minerals useful as crop foods. Alfalfa is relished by cattle whether green, as hay, or as ensilage, but to secure the best results it should be fed with root crops and grain, which add the in- gredients needed for a well-balanced ration. Alfalfa is subject to two fungus diseases, one on the leaf and another on the root, either of which, if not checked, will spread and ultimately ruin the field. The ( Farmers' Bulletins,' is- sued by the Department of Agriculture at Washington and the various State Experimen- tal Stations, give full information on the cul- ture of the plant and the treatment of its diseases. Alfarabi, an eminent Arabian philosopher of the 10th century, was a native of Farab, in Asia Minor, his proper name being Abu Nasr Mohammed ben Mohammed ben Tarkhan ; died at Damascus in 950. His works consist of treatises on different parts of the Aristotelian philosophy. He excelled in music and phi- lology as well as in philosophy ; and one of his most famous works is a kind of encyclo- paedia, in which he gives a brief account and definition of all branches of science and art. The manuscript of this is in the Escurial. His works were printed at Paris in 1638. Alfieri, Vittorio, Count: b. Asti, in Pied- mont, in 1749, of a rich and distinguished fam- ily. His early education was very defective, like that of most men of his rank and country at that time. He died 8 Oct. 1803. At the age of 16 he joined a provincial regiment which was only called together a few days during the year. For some years he led a restless and dis- satisfied life, traveling in Italy, France. Eng- land, Holland, and then through the countries of northern Europe. He next left the military service, and driven by ennui tried among many other things to write dramatic poetry, and met with great success, his first play, ( Cleopatra, 1 put on the stage in 1775, being received with gen- eral applause. He now determined at the age of 27 years to devote all his efforts to at- taining a position among writers of tragic po- etry. Sensible of his deficiencies, he went to work zealously to educate himself. In seven years he composed 14 tragedies, studied Latin and Tuscan, and even, in his 48th year, made himself master of Greek. At Florence he be- er me intimate with the Countess of Albany, wife of Prince Charles Edward Stuart, a daugh- ter of the House of Stolberg. His passion had the effect of stimulating him to strive more earnestly after poetic fame. To continue his labors in a free and independent manner, he broke the last tie that bound him to his coun- try ; and making over all his fortune to his sis- ter, save a moderate income for himself, he lived by turns in Florence and Rome. Prince Charles now dying, Alfieri married his widow, and changed his places of abode to Alsace and Paris. He was at Paris when the Revolution broke out, but after 10 Aug. 1792, returned to Florence. In the troubles of that stormy time he lost his books and the greater part of t lie- complete editions of his tragedies, published by Didot in five volumes. He worked hard to the day of his death. He was buried in the Church of Santa Croce, at Florence, between Macchia- velli and Michael Angelo, where a beautiful monument by Canova covers his remains. Al- fieri's tragedies are full of lofty and patriotic sentiments, but the language is bare and stiff, and the plots barren. Nevertheless he is the first tragic writer of Italy, and has served as a model for those who have followed him. His comedies display the same faults in a vet m glaring manner. His l Abel ' is the most suc- cessful of all his dramatic works. This he called a iramelogedxa — a name as novel as the work itself, which is intermediate between tragedy and opera. Besides his dramas, Alfieri composed an epic poem, lyrics, satires, and poet- ical translations from the ancient classics. His autobiography, a striking exhibition of his char- acter, appeared after his death. His complete works were published at Padua in 1800-11, in 37 volumes. Alfonsine Tables. See Alfonso X. Alfon'so, the name of a number of Por- tuguese and Spanish kings. Alfonso I., the Conqueror, first king of Portugal, son of Henry of Burgundy, the con- queror, and first Count of Portugal: b. mc; fought successfully against the Spaniards and the Moors ; named himself king of Portugal, and was recognized as such by the Pope; d. 1185. Alfonso I., king of Naples and Sicily. See Alfonso V. (of Aragon). Alfonso V., the African, king of Portugal, succeeded his father, Edward I.. 1438. Con- quered Tangiers ; d. 1481. During his reign Prince Henry the Navigator continued the im- portant voyages of discovery already begun by the Portuguese. Under him was drawn up an important code of laws. Alfonso X., king of Castile and Leon, sur- named the Astronomer, the. Philosopher, or the Wise: b. \22b\ succeeded to the throne 1252: d. 1284. Being grandson of Philip of Hohen- staufen, son of Frederick Barbarossa, he endeavored to have himself elected emperor of Germany, and in 1257 succeeded in dividing the election with Richard, Earl of Cornwall. On Richard's death in 1272 he again unsuccessfully contested the imperial crown. Meantime his throne was endangered by conspiracies of the nobles and the attacks of the Moors. The Moors he conquered, but his domestic troubles were less easily overcome, and he was finally dethroned by his son Sancho, and died two years after, 1284. Alfonso was the most learn- ed prince of his age. Under his direction or su- perintendence were drawn up a celebrated code of laws, valuable astronomical tables which go under his name (Alfonsine Tables), the first general history of Spain in the Castilian tongue, and a Spanish translation of the Bible. ALFONSO — ALFRED THE GREAT Alfonso V., king of Aragon: b. 1385; d. 1458. lie was the son of Ferdinand I. of Ara- gon, the throne of which he ascended in 1416, ruling also over Sicily and the island of Sardinia. Queen Joanna of Naples had promised to make him her heir, hut at her death in 14.15; had left her dominions to Rem- of Anjou. Alfonso now proceeded to take possession of Naples by force, which he succeeded in doing in 1442, and reigned till his death in 1458. He was an en- lightened patron of literary men, by whom, in the latter part of his reign, his court was thronged. Alfonso XII., king of Spain. He was the only son of Queen Isabella II. and her cousin, Francis of Assisi, was born in 1857 and died in 1885. He left Spain with his mother when she was driven from the throne by the revolution of 1808, and till 1874 resided partly in France, partly in Austria. In the latter year he studied for a time at the English military college. Sand- hurst, being then known as Prince of the As- turias. His mother had given up her claims to the throne in 1870 in bis favor, and in 1874 Alfonso came forward himself as claimant, and in the end of the year was proclaimed by Gen- eral Martinez Campos as king. He now passed over into Spain and was enthusiastically re- ceived, most of the Spaniards being by this time tired of the republican government, which had failed to put down the Carlist party. Al- fonso was successful in bringing the Carlist struggle to an end (1876), and henceforth he reigned with little disturbance. He married first his cousin. Maria de las Mercedes, daugh- ter of the Duke de Montpensier; second. Maria Christina, Archduchess of Austria, whom he left a widow with two daughters, a son ( Al- fonso XIII.) being born posthumously. Alfonso XIII., king of Spain, son of Al- fonso XII. and Maria Christina, daughter of Karl Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria: b. after his father's death. 17 May 1886, succeeding by his birth, being a male, his eldest sister. His mother was made queen regent during his minority. On 17 May 1902 the young king for- mally acceded to the throne and took the oath prescribed by the constitution, the queen re- gent having taken official leave of the ministry on the 1 2th. The United States was represent- ed at the ceremony by special envoy. The President sent the king a cordial message. Alford, Henry, an English poet and mis- cellaneous writer, philologist, critic, artist, and preacher: b. London, 7 Oct. 1810; d. in Can- terbury, 12 Jan. 187 1. He became Dean of Canterbury in 1856. An accomplished man. his literary work attracted attention in several de- partments. Besides sermons and university lectures, he wrote ' The School of the Heart, and Other Poems' (1835), his most popular volume of verse : ' The Queen's English > (1866). He was best known by his celebrated edition of the Greek New Testament (1844-52), which, incorporating the results of German Bib- lical scholarship, formed a landmark in New Testament study in England and America. He was the first editor of the ' Contemporary Re- view.' Alfred, N. V.. a village of 756 population, in Allegany co., on the Erie R.R.. 12 m. from Hornellsville. It is noted as being the head- quarters in America of the Seventh-Day Bap- tists, and as the seat of Alfred University, a co-educational (non-sectarian) institution, organ- ized in 1836 as a school, incorporated as a uni- versity in 1857. Professors and instructors, 26; students. 215: volumes in the library, 12,136; value of grounds and buildings, $90,000; 800 graduates; total endowment is $450,000. Alfred, or Aluredus, of Beverley, chron- ieler : flourished 1 143. His 'Nine Books of Annals or History of the British Kingdoms to 1129' is largely devoted to the fabulous history of Britain. It is of no use to the historical student, as it adds nothing to what is found in earlier authorities. The best manuscript of the work is among the Hengwet MSS., and has never been printed. Ilearn printed an inferior Bodleian MS in 1716. Alfred the Great, king of the West Sax- ons, and foremost figure in early English his- tory: b. Wantage, 849; d. and buried in Winchester, 28 Oct. 901. Separated from the mass of myth and legend that has clustered about the name of this great king, the following are the known facts of his life, or those which the best scholarship agrees upon as being well authenticated. The fifth and youngest son of /Ethel will f and Osburh, he was sent to Rome in 853, remaining there and at the court of Charles the Bold for several years. The impressions received during this Continental experience and education unquestionably helped to give him that international temper and freedom from narrow- insularjsm which so marked him among the men of his time. Little is recorded of him during the reigns of his brothers /Ethelbald and Kthelberht, but when he became next in line of succession under /Ethelred (866) he was clearly second only in importance to the king himself, a fact attested by his holding the high office of Sccundarius. In 868 he married Ealhswith, daughter of ealdorman /Ethelred the Mickle. In 869 he fought against the Danes at Nottingham, and when the enemy attacked his own Wessex Alfred led the van of his brother's army. Throughout that momentous year of fighting he was easily the leading spi- rit, taking part in the great victory of /Escesdun (Ashdown), and the later battles of Basing and Merton. Soon after Easter, in the midst of the strife with the Danes, ^Ethelred died, and Alfred, then only 22 years of age, took bis place on the throne. A month later he fought the last battle of the year at Wilton. A series of petty defeats, due to his lack of men, com- pelled him to make truce, and the withdrawal of the Danes from Wessex was bought upon the usual terms, — a payment of money. For seven years the kingdom had peace. Then the Danish power again broke upon Wessex, over- running Somerset and Devonshire almost with- out opposition. About Easter a general resist- ance began ; seven weeks later he defeated the enemy at Ethandun (Edington. Wiltshire), cap- turing their stronghold. This broke the assail- ants' spirit; a treaty was concluded with the Danish leader, Guthrum, and Alfred regained all of his own kingdom, added to it all south- western Mercia, and established an overlordship over the lands ceded to the Danes. Alfred and Wessex became the sole English power in Britain. In 884 Guthrum, with a Danish and ALGJE — ALGARVE Scandinavian force, landed in Kent and at- tacked Rochester. Alfred drove them to their ships. In 886 he occupied and fortified London, and a general submission to him seems to have followed throughout Britain. During 894-7 the Danes again proved troublesome. For two years there was fighting throughout the country, but the king with his Londoners and South- Saxons made a vigorous resistance, and the in- vaders, worn out, retired to the Continent. Four years later he died, survived by his wife and five children; two sons, Eadward, his suc- cessor, and /Ethelward ; three daughters, yEthel- flaed. the Lady of the Mercians, /Elfthryth. wife of Baldwin. Count of Flanders, and -Ethelgifu, Abbess of Shaftesbury. King Alfred left behind him magnificently concrete results. He converted ill-trained, short-service levies into a thoroughly organ- ized national army, as powerfully effective a fighting machine as it had formerly been in- effective and helpless. He was the only one of his time to realize that the Danish pirates must be fought on the sea as well as on land. He thereupon created a national fleet : built larger ships than had ever before been used for war- fare ; and so developed his naval force that in time it was fully able to cope with the invaders upon their own element, — the sea. His < Laws -' are but a compilation of the best ones of his predecessors. His own words explain this : " I durst not venture to set down in writing much of my own, for it was un- known to me what of it would please those who should come after us." a Those things which I met with which seemed to me rightest, those I have gathered together and rejected the oth- ers." The importance of his work was really great, for, with the blending of the codes of Wessex, Mercia. and Kent, the conception of a national law began and the idea of separate systems of tribal customs passed away. At Alfred's accession learning seemed dead in England. In his own person, as author and translator, he started English prose into vig- orous life. His translation of Orosius' < His- tory of the World > (edition with modern Eng- ish translation by Bosworth, 1851) became the one accessible handbook of English history; he translated Boetius' * Consolation of Philosophy ' (edition with modern English translation by S. Fox, 1864), recasting somewhat its pagan doc- trines ; the l Pastoral Care ' of Gregory the Great (text and translation by H. Sweet, 1871-2) ; and his English version of Beda's ' Eccle- siastical History ' perhaps suggested a greater work. This was that unique and priceless pos- session of the English race, * The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,' which, without much doubt, was at his bidding put into the shape in which it has come down to us. For the years of his own reign it is a detailed contemporary narra- tive of the highest value. It is to his efforts, to what he preserved, what he wrote, and to what his example and support encouraged others to write, that England has a richer and earlier vernacular literature than any other Western European nation. For his title of • Great " there is no ancient authority, its use going no further back than the 17th century- He never needed it, for his countrymen and the world know no other of the name with whom 't is possible to confound his. The biography cf Alfred by his friend As- set - is our chief authority for the king's life. Though its authenticity has been questioned, modern scholars accept it. A Latin edition is printed in Petrie and Sharpe's c Monumenta Historica Britannica ' (1848), and an English translation may be found in J. A. Giles' * Six Old English Chronicles' (1848). There are modern * Lives > by J. A. Giles (1848; 2d ed. 1854), R. Pauli (1853), and T. Hughes (1869). Freeman's ( Old English History' (1883) and 'Norman Conquest' (1870-6; may be con- sulted with profit, and Stubbs' ( Constitutional History of England ' (Vol. I.) gives the con- stitutional aspect of Alfred's reign. A most at- tractive account is to be found in the chapters of patriotic panegyric in Green's ( Conquest of England.' Algae, a term popularly restricted to ma- rine cryptogamous plants or seaweeds, but which may be generally defined as comprehend- ing all aquatic flowerless plants, whether grow- ing in fresh or salt water, belonging to the class Thallophytes. The only absolute distinc- tion between the Alga? and the remaining Thal- lophytes or Fungi is that the former contain chlorophyll, w'hile the latter do not. The higher forms have stems bearing leaf-like expansions, and they are often attached to rocks by roots. A stem is most frequently absent. The plants are nourished through their whole surface by the medium in which they live. They vary in size from the microscopic diatoms to forms whose stems resemble those of forest trees, and whose fronds rival the leaves of the palm. They are entirely composed of cellular tissue, and many are edible and nutritious, as carra- geen or Irish moss, dulse, etc. Kelp, iodine, and bromine are products of various species. Coulter distinguishes four groups : the blue- green algae (Cyanophycece) , green algae (Chlo- rophycea), brown algae (Phaophycca) , and red algae (Rhodophycea) . Algar'di, Alessandro, one of the chief Italian sculptors of the 17th century: b. 1602; d. 1654. He lived and worked chiefly at Rome; executed the tomb of Leo XI. in St. Peter's, and a marble relief with life-size figures over the altar of St. Leo there. Algarotti, Francesco, iil-ga-rot'e, fran- ches'ko, Count, Italian author: b. Venice 12 Dec. 1712; d. Pisa 3 March 1764. His 'Plu- rality of Worlds' (1733), a popular exposition for ladies of Newton's philosophy, established his fame. Till 1739 he lived much in France and became intimate with Voltaire. The study of French literature and contact with its leading representatives exercised a marked influence on his style. His contemporaries greatly respected his art judgments, and his < Essays on the Fine Arts,' in Italian (Germ. tr. 1760), show keen discernment. Frederick the Great held him in high regard, created him count, and ordered a monument built to his memory in Pisa. The best edition of his works is in 17 vols., Venice, 1 791-4. Algarovill'a, the seed-pods of one or two South American trees (genus Prosopis), valu- able as containing much tannin Algarve, or Faro, a maritime province of Portugal, extending across the southern coast of the kingdom, bounded north by the prov- ALGAZZALI ALGEBRA of Alemtejo, east by the Spanish province of Huelva, south and west by the Atlantic ( Icean. It has a mountainous surface, with some fertile tracts, in which excellent oil, wine, figs, and almonds are produced, and a coast indented with good bays and harbors. Its tunny and sardine fisheries are productive. Faro is its capital. Thi' area is 2,oog sq. m. Pop. 229,000. Algazzali, or Alghazzali, Abu Hamed Mo- hammed, an Arabian philosopher, Persian by birth b 'Pus in Khurasan in 1058 or 1050; d. iiii. He lirst taught theology at Bagdad, but left his chair and traveled in Syria, and lived for some time m Damascus, after which he returned to Persia and resumed teaching. The details of his lift- given by biographers are numerous but contradictory. He was one of the most prolific of the Arabian authors. One of his writings, called the 'Destruction of the Philos- ophers,' was answered by Avcrroes in a book entitled the 'Destruction of the Destruction.' He also wrote several moral treatises. Algaz- zali. as a disciple of the Sulis, was an opponent of the prevailing Aristotelian philosophy of the day, and predisposed to the mystical dogmas of emanation, to which, after a keen and critical Study of philosophy, he entirely resigned him- self. See Dugat s 'Ilistoirc des Philosophies et des Th6ologiens Musulmans' (Paris, 1878). Algebra, Elementary. Any determinate body of entities or symbols subject to a logically consistent SJ Item of laws of operation or combination gives rise to a theory called an algebra. Accordingly there are various algebras, as the algebra of quaternions, the algebra of logic, linear algebra, the algebra of relations, the algebra of opera- lions or o| groups, multiple algebra, etc., and two algebras may differ in respect to cither content or form or both. The subject-matter of ordinary algebra, with which this writing is concerned, consists of the entities known as num- bers, whether real or complex (imaginary), the interrelations and properties of the entities and the laws in conformity with which they admit of combination or operation. As appears from the definition, the use of symbols to denote the entities, relations, and operations is not essen- tial to the conception of algebra, although to its development such use is, on grounds of economy, practically indispensable. The evolu- tion of the number system, one may say of the number concept in its wider generality, has been very slow and very long. For an account of the historical development and for citation of its literature, the reader is referred to the article History ok Elementary Algebra. On the scientific side, algebra has no more escaped the minute refinements of modern criticism than have other branches of mathematics or of science and thought in general. Speaking generally, the desideratum has been to apply the Razor of Occam to hypothesis ami to deduce the doctrine from the smallest number of the simplest and most fundamental data. All mathematics, all science, originates in common sense. It has been justly said that mathematics is common sense refined, ctlu realized. It is the aim of this article, in so far as space limitations allow, to present the elements of algebra in that, aspect, to exhibit it as growing under the stimuli of need and curiosity from a soil of common experience, as the prod- uct of powers that are universal among men. Elementary Faculties and .\\>iions. — Every normal person has the power to form the notions, thing and things; the notion, thing composed of things, i.e., the notion of collection or assem- blage (see General Theory of Assemblages); and the notion of correspondence, of associating a thing or things with a thing or things, as a name with an object. These notions are neither absolutely simple nor absolutely fundamental (possibly there arc no such notions), but rela- tivelv they are very simple and very funda- mental, and it will be seen that they play an all- important role as basis of the concept and doctrine of number. Simple Properties of Assemblages. — For ex- planation of the terms element, assemblage, one-to-one correspondence, equivalence (or Sameness Of power) of assemblages, part and proper part, see GENERAL THEORY OP ASSEM- BLAGES. Assemblages will be denoted by large Roman, elements by small Greek, letters. De- partures from that rule will be such as need cause no obscurity. The questionable "notion" of assemblage of all things is not here admitted. Hence no .i contains everything. If a thing fl not in .1 be put in. there arises IS =A -f /?, where + (plus) denotes the introduction of f), and = means that B and A -f/?arc the same. The in- verse, removing /? from B, yields B—p=A, where — (minus) means such removal. The elements common to .1 and B constitute their intersection. Thus, if .1 is all red flowers and B is all roses, the intersection of .-1 and B is all red roses. Any proper part B of .-1 is the inter- section of B and .1. In that case, .1 +B=A; eg., all rectangles + all squares = all rectangles. If .1 is the intersection of B and ( ', then B+C = B+(C — A); the parenthesis sign dies that C—A is to be taken as a whole; e.g., all men (-all Europeans = all men ( (all Europeans- European men). But (B +C) —A is not the same as B +(C — A), for plainly (all men -fall Europeans) —all European men is not the same as all men -fall Europeans. If, however. />' and C have no intersection and A is part of ( ', then (B+O-.-l = B+(C-A); and, if C is part of B, and. 4 ispartofC,thenB-(C-.4) = (B-C)+A. In all cases, (A f B) +(' = A +'B + C) , .-1 f B - B -tA. If -1 - — /j , i.e., if .1 and B are equivalent, and if a is not in>4 and /?not in B, then A + a — B + /?. So, too, arc A — a and B —j3 if a is in A, (i in /', and if A —^B. Cardinal Number Defined. — It is essential to distinguish between power and sameness of power or equivalence. The power (Machtigkeit) of an .1 is the new assemblage yielded by disre- garding (abstracting from) both the character and the order ><( .l's elements. (See General Tlieory of Assemblages.) The new assemblage,.!, is called the (cardinal) number of A. The num- ber of A is thus an orderless assemblage of characterless elements (units). Every .1 has an A; anil all equivalent .4's have the same A, and conversely. Hence the number A of an .1 is sometimes said to be or to characterize the class of all assemblages equivalent to A. How many elements in .4 or any equivalent assemblage? .In steer: A. Greater and Less Cardinals. — In respect to A and B, it may happen that: (i) A has no proper part equivalent to B. but B has a proper part equivalent to A ; (it) B has no proper part ALGEBRA equivalent to .4 , but A has a proper part equiva- lent to li; (Hi) A has a proper part equivalent to B and B has a proper part equivalent to A ; (iv) neither A nor B has a proper part equiva- lent to the other. If one of the relations holds for .4 and B, it holds for .4' and B' whenever .4— .4' and B~B'. If (Hi) or (iv) is valid for .4 and B, it follows that ^4 — - B, thence that A =B, and conversely; where = means that the cardinals are equal, or the same. If (i) is valid, .4 and B are not equivalent, B is said to be greater than .4, A less than B; symbolically, B>A, A v and < v + 1 ; no number of the series is greater than every other; there is a least cardinal, viz., 1. Any word with its predecessors of the count w'ord series, one, two, . . . , constitute an assemblage equivalent to that whose cardinal the word names; hence. in counting, the word last used tells the number of things counted, no matter in what order. Distinction of Finite and Infinite. — If A +1 =A, A is said to be infinite or transfinite; in the con- trary case, finite. Denote by A" the assemblage: 1, 2, 3, . . . , v, . . . Every element of .V is a finite cardinal, and every finite cardinal is in .V. But .V itself is transfinite for, (.V, a)-~X, where a is not in N: we may pair a with 1, 1 with 2, . . . -B ,4* factors .4 is denoted by .4 ; i.e. , A ■ A ■ A ... Here B is named exponent of A. The continued Hence (.V, a), or A' + i, = .Y; i.e., the number of the part X is equal to the number of the ■whole (X, a). The so-called self-evident truth. the whole is greater than any of its parts, is generally false. It is always valid for finite assemblages, never for infinites. It serves as discriminant of the two classes. The foregoing sketch will serve to indicate briefly something of the simplicity, depth, and generality of the modern doctrine of the car- dinal number. Need of Generalization of X umber Concept. — The numbers in A', the finite cardinals, con- stitute the foundation of arithmetic and algebra. These numbers are necessary but not suffi- cient. They afford answers to hosts of questions about themselves, but at the same time they stimulate curiosity to ask other hosts that they cannot answer. What number added to itself gives 4? What number multiplied bv itself gives 9* For these A' has the answers. Not so, however, if we replace 4 and ( , bv 5 and 10. If (i and b are any two numbers in N, we may ALGEBRA ask: what is their sum? 0+6 — ? Their prod- uct? a-b — ? (or ii/> - ? or aX6- ?) What is the oth or /'i)i power of 6 or o? /> a -= ? u* = ? .V contains the answer to every such question of addition or multiplicatii in or involution. But the inverse operations, subtraction, division, and evolution, yield questions about the cardinals that the latter do not suffice to answer. To answer all such questions, to render the inverse operations always possible, it is necessary to in- vent or create new entities to meet the demands These entities, once created, constitute a new assemblage The union of this with N is then a new enlarged assemblage or domain of numbers. Subtraction, Creation of Negatives. — If .1 is a finite assemblage, />' a proper part of .1, and l< tin- assemblage left on suppressing B, then, if A — a, B =b, R=c, we write c=a— b, formal definition of subtraction of subtrahend b from minuend a, yielding the difjerence c, or a— b. From this definition and thai of addition, it follows that c + b=a. As 1 is finite and /.' is proper part of A, a> b What if/;- I? Then R is empty, and i is not in N We write zero (o) for c, so obtaining a— a —o. Calling zero a num- ber and treating it like the cardinals, we have a + 0— O, a — 0=a. Consider the relation b. If b>a, the relation has no defined meaning, for c is neither zero nor in A'. We give it a meaning. Note that C is to he such that c +b =a. Let n be any number in A', and define ii to be such that h + m=o. The number n is called a negative integer, visually written with th.- bar in front; thus, — ii ; in contradistinction, ii is called positive, and often written +n. To every positive integer corresponds a negative. The sum of any such pair is zero. If c=u — b, where b>a, c now has definite meaning: c is in A', the assemblage of negative integers. For example, if e = 2 — j, c — — 5, or 5, for c + 7 = 2, 5+5+2=0 + 2=2. The growth of the number concept is note- worthy: first, the numbers in A'; next, zero giving the assemblage /s=(.V, o) ; then the negatives, giving E' =(/•-, .V'j. which suffice to answer every subtraction question about finite cardinals, or positive integers. E (tension of Old Operations to New Numbers. — Curiosity grows by what it feeds upon. Hi ing secured the invention of zero and nega- tive integers, it asks: how operate on them? How combine any two of the numbers now in hand, whether new or old? Fot the new num- bers new rules, any logically consistent set, might be adopted. So would result another bra. That would be lawful but not expe- dient. Expedience counsels, though necessity does not compel, the retention and extension of the old rules; as, a+b =b+a, etc. Expedience prevails. The consequences, though formally obtainable, are for beginners best found by some di ice, as the plotting of the numbers on tin- a right line: , . . — 3 — 2 — I O +1 + 2 + 1 . . . For addition and subtraction the new prob- lems are: ( 1 ) - 5 + 2 = ? - a + b = ? (2) +2+(-0 = ? + (> + (-a) = ? (3) -2+(-5) = ? -6 + (-a) = ? (4) -2-(+ 5 ) = ? -6-(+a) = ? I +2-(- 5 ) = ? +6-(-a) = ? (6) -2-(- 5 ) = ? -6-(-a) = ? Zero is obviously either (both) positive or (ami) negative. old question: 5+2-? a +6 = ? Answer by Stepping: begin at 5 or a, steji right- ward, 2 or b steps: old rule. To answer (1), follow old rule: begin at —5, etc. Hence, — 5 +2 = — 3; but by old rule, commutative law, — 5 + 2 =2 +( — 5), hence 2+( — 5) — — 3; but by definition, 2 — 5 = —3, hence 2 + ( — 5) = 2 — 5 : I he reasoning is independent of the particular in- tegers use. 1; hence — a + b = b + (—«)=/> — a; i.e., to add a negative is to subtract corresponding positive. Analogously one may find: —6-1 (— o) — —b — a = -(b+ a); 6 — (- in N, then, from the definitions involved, it is seen that af> is in .V or in A'' according as /> is even or oild; symbolically, (— a)b = + 1 numerically and 7- is in its b ' b let y- + -r=x; then ly- + -7-) -bd = x-bd; -rbd + -rbd = x-bd; ad+bc =x-bd\ b d ad + bc , , , , . ad + bc . . ,, ■ bd= ad + bc; — — — ■■bd=x-bd; bd bd ad+bc a c ad+bc , — j-j — =x\ -r+-r= — n — . r ule for addition bd b d bd found that i.e., division is con- including subtraction). Analogously may be a c a d b ' d be vcrtible into multiplication. The absolute or numerical value of a rational is its value regard- less of sign; e.g., the numerical value of —4 is 4. a ad c eb . a . Plainly, j- =7-3, "7 = 7T ; numerically, r is greater than, equal to, or less than -j- according as the like relation subsists between ad and be. In respect to numerical value, there is a rational and hence an infinity of rationals between every two numerically unequal rationals. Any positive is said to be algebrati ally greater than any negative. Evolution, Radicals. Surds. — The sum, differ- ence, product, or quotient (division by zero being excluded) of any two rationals is a ra- tional. As to these operations, the domain of rationals is closed. Not so, however, if we lowest terms, i.e., a and b are prime* to each other, i.e., have no common factor except 1 a- or — 1 ; then 2/1=7-, an integer equal to a non- integer. Generalized Exponents. — By means of the new- numbers, zero, negatives, fractions, radicals (including surds), the notion of exponent, de- fined for positive cardinals, admits of generali- zation to include such forms as a", a', a -2 , etc. The question is: What do such forms signify? In themselves they are meaningless. It is man who gives them meaning, subject to the condi- tion that his algebra shall be self-consistent. It will be sufficient to indicate the process. For (positive) cardinals, a>» • a n = a»'+». This law is imposed in case a is any number, new or old. Similarly for (a"<)" =a»> n and a>"-b»i=(ai)>n. It readily appears that — =a'»- vhere m ■ n admit evolution. Let 7- be any rational, and 11 b J e-r-' a positive integer. Involution asks: The answer is a rational. But, 11 being a positive integer and -7- being rational, evolution inverts the question and asks for a number k such that k n = -j. In general no rational answers. For example, no rational satisfies the relation k 2 = — 1 or the relation k 2 =2. To meet such needs a new entity, yr, r being rational and n a posi- tive integer, is created by the definition : ( 4 r)"=r. and a is not zero. What signifies ab , b being a positive integer? Assume that ab satisfies the • 1 1 law, a'" -a" =a<"+ n . Then ab -ab . , . . (to b factors) T-+-T + ... (to6 terms) r , . ( -77) = ab b =l jd = a l =a; i.e., \a b / =a, but (in) '=n, hence ab=\a; e.g., V2 — 2* , b c : V / -3=(-3). It similarly follows that a« = 4 o* = \ya) . [n like manner, a°-o*=a l, +6 =a*, bul \-ab=ab, hence a" t. Once men', lei b be a positive integer or fraction, then a~b-ab = ab-b = i!°=i; multiplying by —r, a~b = — - It then requires and admits of proof that the exponent laws hold g 1 in ease the exponents are any rationals. The ease where the exponents are not rationals remains for consideration, requir- ing another order of ideas of which some account follows. Irrational Numbers. — It has been seen that the surds arc irrational. They may be defined by a more general method, available for the * See Theory of Numbers. ALGEBRA definition of ailrlitinnnl irrationals, For ex- ample, the aril timet ic process (hen a u for extracting square rool yields for \ 2 the endless decimal 1.41421 ... Consider the two endless sequences of nationals: (1) 1, 1 1. 1.41. 1.414. 1 n t-'. ■ ■ ; (2) 2, 1.5, ' 1-'. t-4'Si 1.414.5,... Every number of (1) is < every Dumber of (2); it is possible to find in (1) a number m and in (2) a number n such thai 11— ni' he any two sequences of nationals such that: (/) every number of />' is > every one of .1; (ii\ given any positive rational r, small at will, there are in A and B numbers a and h such that b — a. An expression rational and integral in two or more symbols is said to be of .lego. in those lymbols (together) if s is the largest sum of the exponents of those symbols in any term; thus a'b'c ia*b 4 c' jb'c 1 is of degree <) in ii, />, 1 (together) In general, each of two or more expressions is called a factor of their product. In this general sense, u* and o' are factors of (i 3 , and so, too, are -r- and — . In a b a more restricted sense, the factors of an expres- sion rational and integral as to some letter must themselves be rational and integral as to that letter; thus some factors of a'b — a*b are o, a"-, 6, ab, o'6, 1 -a, for division by any of these yields a quotient rational and integral as to ,j and b. In such cases, factors of lowest degree in any symbol are tailed simple factors (in that (symbol). A factor of two or more expressions is called a common factor of them. The common factor of highest degree is called the highest common factor (II .( '/■'.); thus the H.C.F. of a 3 h- and a-b 3 is : ; of a- — b 2 and ac | be, it is 0+6. Every expression is a multiple of its factors. A multiple of two or more expressions is called a common multiple of them; it is their /sec./ common multiple (L.C.M.) if it is the common multiple of lowest degree; thus, the L.C.M. of a ab--r- and a*bc* 1. aW; of (x-a)lx b)\x- c)' and (x-a)\x-b) f x-c) it is ( v — a)'(x — b)'(x — <.-)'. It is readily proved tli.it the product of two expressions is equal to that of their //.('./■'. and L.C.M. If /•. is any algebraic expression, then I:"- , E l E" are respectively the second, third nth powers of /-,, and I: is the square, , ube »lh root respectively of /•.' , /•' /•>. In par- ticular, E' and /•.' are tin' square and the cube of E, Thus ax 1 is the square root of a z .\ '. is the cube root of a*b— *, ,r} — y 1 is the square root of ( v i — yi) 2 , or*+ji-2.iV, Kali, 1, Proportion, Variation. — The fraction -7 is the ratio of a to }>. often written a\b, of which a is antecedent and b is consequent. If a= ■ y z xiv and b=—, then a:b— — . A ratio is commen- w yz surable or incommensurable according as it is or is not a rational number; thus, 2:5 is com- mensurable, but V -' : 1 , ratio of diagonal to side of square, is incommensurable. Plainly, ratio theory is fraction theory. It is easily proved that if then a +c + g + . b + ,/ + /+. b' = 0. If j- =-7, a, b, c, and (x) or the like and read /-func- tion of x, and so on. If f(x) = 2X 2 — 4, then f(o) = -4, f(-i) = -2, }(a)=2a 2 - 4 , etc. The function symbol has reference to the form of the function, and in the same argument or discussion the same symbol may not be used for two different functions. Of great importance are the integral (entire) polynomials, of which the general form for a single variable x is /n(.v) =a^ -\-a v x"~ l +ajt n - 1 -r. . .+a n - l x+a n . The coeffi- cients a,,, a, a n are regarded as arbitrary constants. Accordingly f 1 (x)sa^c+a 1 , said to be linear or of first degree; f ? (x) sa^x 2 +a t x +a 2 , the general quadratic expression or expression of second degree; /jsa^' + . . . + a 3 , the general cubic, f l {x)=a < ^ i + ...+a i , the general biquad- ratic . etc. The general expressions become par- ticular or special on assigning specific (numerical) values to the (literal) coefficients. In any /„(.<) any value may be given to .r, the corresponding value of /„(.v) is then determined. The inverse pri iblem of determining all values of .r for which /„( i 1 shall have a prescribed value is far more difficult. A value of x for which / n (v) is zero is said to cause / n (r) to vanish. To every ex- pression /„(.i) corresponds an equation, /n(.r) =0, of 1st, 2d Hth degree, according as n = 1, 2 n. The equation imposes a condition on x, restricting its variability, allowing it only such values as make /„( x) vanish. (The variable in an equation is called the unknown quantity.) Any such value is a root of the equation. Tin- equation f„(x) =0 has n and onlv n roots (see Theory of Equations). To solve an equation is to find its roots. A linear equation a„x +a l =0 has one root, -, and it may always be found by adding —a, to both members a^x+a, and o and then dividing the sums by a . The re- sult of the addition is the equation 11^ = — a,. Obviously any term may be trans- posed from either member of an equation to the other if at the same time the sign of the term be reversed. Presently we shall see how to solve quadratic, cubic, and biquadratic equations. Factor and Remainder Theorems. — Obviously fn(x) may contain a factor of the form x—a; e.g., x — 2 is a factor of x 2 — 4. If /'„(.») has x — a for factor, then f n 'x) =(x — a)Q, where Q is the quotient of f n (x) divided by x — a. Hence under the supposition f n (x) vanishes when a is put for x. The converse is the factor theorem: If / n (.v) vanishes on replacing the variable x by a number a, then x — a is a factor of f n (x). Proof: divide f n (x) by x — a until the remainder R does not contain x. Then fn(x) =(x — a)Q +R; put a for x, then f n {d) =(0 — o)Q + R, but }„(a) =0, hence R = o, hence /„(.r) = (,r — a)Q. At the same time is proved the remai rem: Division of fn(x) by x—a yields /„(") for remainder. By the factor theorem it is seen that x n — a n is divisible by x—a, for on putting a for x, x* — + ( c -f + T7) =0 - or y' + py+q = o lacking the second term and called ti" I cubic. It is sufficient to solve the reduced cubic, for the roots of the original arc tlun found by the relation x — y . P P* Let v = s — — , then z'+qz* — — =o. This is quadratic in a*, yielding c'=— — ±V7} [where I 1 in the f.ut that s lias six values, it must not be inferred that V has six; for the two P* values c.' and zJ of g» are such that S,Z.' = — — : 27 hence the six g-values, s 1 , r s , &«,, w 2 ;,, ':27, cos = -\q:V -p": 27. The value of may be found by trigonometric table. Hence ^ ~ hi + "^Q =i / ' r c °s +ir sin -*i/r{cos \{0 + 2kn) I i sin \(6 + 2kn)\ and -?/-.,/-% Q ~tyr jcos i(0 I 2/,-) -/sin l(0 + 2ibr), fc=o, J, or 1. The v formul.e then give y-°xfyr cos \(0 + 2kii). The Biquadratic, or Quartit - In general form this is x* t px*+qx* I ra l-j = o. The equivalent reduced quartic, r 1 + ax' + bx +c = 0, is found by replacing * by x — — . To solve the reduced quartic, let x = u+y+g, then x' — 2t ! (i< ! +j> : ) ;') Buy x > (/r i y 1 H l )'-4((iV+jV 1 ; 2 h 2 ) =0; if this be identical with the reduced quartic o 2i> 2 4-;y 2 +c 2 ), b--&uyz, c = (u'+y> | — 4(» 2 .f 2 ' i. Owing to relations be- tween the roots and coefficients of any equation (see Theory of Equations), the roots of the auxiliary cubic /' I — / 2 H —t =0 are 1* 1 2 16 64 y', c' Iieuoling them by /, in, n, we have X = ±Vl±Vni±\ / ti, apparently eight values of \. but really only /ear because the product 1 —6:8. If b is positive the values of v are - v7- Vj7i - Vn, - \//"+ Vm 4- V~n, VT— \/m + vSi, V/ 4- v'nj — VTi ; if /1 is negative, they are the negatives of the former. Historical and Critical Note. — As seen, the general equations of 4th and lower degrees are soluble by means of radicals or root extraction. It was naturally but incorrectly supposed that the same means would prove available in case of the general quintic and equations of higher degree, and one of the great problems of the eighteenth century was to solve the quintic in a manner analogous to that employed above for the quartic, cubic, and quadratic. In 1770 Lagrange proved that the method was not adequate for that purpose, as it gave (or auxiliary equation an essentially general one of sixth degree. By Abel, Wantzcl, and Galois (see Galois Theory of Equations) it was shown to be impossible to solve by radicals any general equation of degree above 4. Subse- quently Hermite proved that the roots of the general quintic are expressible in terms of elliptic functions. The quadratic, cubic, and quartic are solvable by other methods than those given above, but all are essentially the same. The solution of the general quadratic was known to the Arabs in the ninth century. The solution of x 3 + px+q = o was discovered by Scipio I'crrco in the beginning of the sixteenth century. It was rediscovered a few years later by Tartaglia. The solution given above is known as Cardan's, but it is known that Cardan learned it from Tartaglia. Ferrari, a pupil of Cardan's, solved the quartic. The solution, given by Bombelli in his algebra (1579), is some- times attributed to him. Descartes gave a different solution in 1637. The solution pre- sented above is Euler's, having been found by him in 1 770. Higher aquations — Although the general equa- tions of the 5th and higher degrees are not solvable by radicals, many particular equations of such degrees are thus solvable; e.g., x* — i =0 breaks up into two quartics, x' — 1 =0, x* + 1 =0. In works on the theory of ei | nations (see THEORY of Equations) various methods, chief of which is Horner's, are given whereby the commensur- able roots of any equation having numerical coefficients can be found and the incommen- surable roots can be found to any required degree of approximation. Simultaneous Equations. — The general linear equation in two variables or unknowns, as .v and y. is ax + by = c. Solved for one of the variables, say \, in terms of the other, the equa- tion becomi — -. It is seen that x and y a are functions of each other: to any value of cither corresponds a value of the other. Any two ALGEBRA corresponding values constitute a pair satisfying, the equation. There are infinitely many such pairs satisfying a given equation of the kind in question, as many pairs as there are numbers. Ob- viously there are hosts of pairs not satisfying a given equation. All the pairs satisfying a given equation constitute a system of pairs. Two equa- tions a,x + b,y = c, , ajc + b 2 y = c 2 are different unless a, :a 2 = 6, :b 2 = c, :c 2 . Have the two systems de- termined by two different equations any pairs in common? The answer is, one pair. It can be found as follows: Multiplying the former equation by b 2 , the latter by —6,, adding and solving for a:, x = (b 2 c l —b l c 2 ):(a l b,—a 1 b l ); analo- gously, y = (a 2 c,—c 1 a 2 ):(a,b 2 — a 2 b l ). This and only this pair of values of x and y satisfies both equations. In combining the equations, x and y were regarded as the same in both. Two or more equations in two or more unknowns are called simultaneous when the unknowns are treated as representing the same numbers in all the equations. In the foregoing solution the ^-equation was found by eliminating y between the given equations. The elimination was ac- complished by addition. It might have been done otherwise, as by comparison, i.e., solving each equation for y and equating the y-values so ob- tained, or by substitution, i.e., solving one of the equations for y and substituting the j'-value so found for y in the other equation. In any of these ways or by combinations of them one may find a triplet of values satisfying three arbitrary equations in three unknowns, x, y, z: eliminate, say s, between two of them and then between the remaining one and one of the others; so result two equations in x and y, to be handled as above. The method is obviously extensible to the case of n equations in n unknowns. In general, n linear equations in n unknowns are satisfied simultaneously by but a single set of values of the unknowns, but in special cases by more than one set. The latter happens only when the coefficients satisfy some special condi- tion or conditions. Under certain conditions n or more equations in» — I unknowns may be satisfied by a same set of values. Thus ax + b = o and ex + d = o have the same root when and only when be — ad = o; a x x + b l y +c, =o, a^x + b 2 y + c 2 = o , a^v + b 3 y + c 3 = o , are simultaneously satisfied or are consistent when and only when a t b 2 c 3 + a 2 b 3 Cj +a i b 1 c t — a 3 b 2 C) — a 2 b l c 3 — a 1 b 3 c 2 = o. For the ex- pression of such conditions, and the solution of sets of linear equations, by means of deter- minants, sec the article Determinants and works therein cited. Simultaneous equations involving the un- knowns to degrees higher than the first may sometimes be solved. Consider, for example, the pair of equations: ax + by + c = o, dx'+ey 2 +fxy+gx+hy+k=o; from the former y = — (c + ax):a; substituting that y-value for y in the second given equation, a quadratic in x is found ; this gives two x- values ; substituting these in the given linear equation, the two corresponding values of y are found. The corre- sponding values must be properly paired; thus the equations ^x+^y — 5=0 and 2X 2 — xy + y 1 — 22=0 give x — t, and —109:53, y=— 1 and 14S : 53 ; the proper pairing is x = 3, y = — 1, and x = —109:53, y = i48:53; the equations are not satisfied by x = 3, y = 148 : 53, for example. Once more, the two quad rat ics.v 1 +3.1.V = 28, xy + 4.v' = S give, on division (member by member) and clear- ing of fractions, 2(x 2 + $xy) = 7 {xy + 4 y 2 ) ; whence .v = 4v or —yy-.2. For x = $y, the second given equation furnishes 4y 2 + 4y 2 =8 and y = 1 or — 1 whence .r = 4 or —4; using x=— -jy.2 in like manner, one finds y= +4 or — 4 and x = — 14 or 14; in all four pairs of values corresponding thus: x=4, y—i; x=—4, y=—i; ^ = 14, y=— 4; x= — 14, y = 4. In general, an equation of wth degree and one of Bth degree in two un- knowns are both satisfied by tnn pairs of num- bers. The solution of such a pair involves, in general, the solution of an equation of degree mn. Permutations and Combinations. — Any arrange- ment (in a row) of r things (regarded as belong- ing to a set of n things) is called a (straight) permutation 0} the n things r at a time. Two permutations are the same when and only when they consist of the same things in the same order. The number of different (possible) per- mutations of n things rata time is often de- noted by „P r . To find this number, think of any one of the nPr-t permutations of n things r— 1 at a time. There remain n—r+i things. Put one of these after the things of the given permutation. There so results a permutation of the n things rata time. It readily follows that nPr-«Pr-r(n-r + i), *Pr-i=«Pr-2-(»-r + 2), ..., nPi = nP,-(n-i), nl\ = n. Multiplying these equations member by member, it is found that n P r = n(n — 1) . . . (»— r + i). If r = n, IV P n = )i! i where n! (or |«) means 1X2X3 X. . .X» and is read factorial n. It can be readily proved that the number P of permuta- tions of n things {a, b, c, . . .) n at a time, p of the things being a's, q of them b's, . . . , is P = — ; — ^ — . If the order in a permutation of p\q\... n things r at a time be disregarded, the result is a combination of n things r at a time. Two combinations are the same if they consist of the same elements. A common symbol for the number of combinations of n things r at a time is n C r . By permuting the r things of a com- bination in every way, r! permutations arise. It follows that nCr-rl =nPr, whence n C r = «P r :r!. Since, on taking r things from n things, there remain n — r things, it is seen that n C r = n C n —r- Arithmetical Progression. — An A. P. is a series of numbers such that the difference between any two adjacent terms is the same as that between any other two adjacent terms. The general A P. is: a, a+d, a + 2d, .... a + n — id. The theory involves five elements: the common difference, d; the first term, 0; the last, /; the number of terms, n; and the sum of the terms, s. Given any three of the elements, the remaining two can be found. Since 5 C 3 = io, there are but 20 problems to solve, giving rise to as many formula;. The formula for / in terms of a, d, and n obviously is l = a +n — \d. To find s in terms of a, /, and 11. let s = a +(a +d) +(a + 2d) + . . .+(i-2d)+(l-d) +1; then s = l + (l-d) + (l-2d) +. . . +{a-2d) +(a-d) +a; adding, 2s — n{a 4- /) , whence s = -(.a +1) The remaining eighteen formula:, completely exhausting the sub- ject, are: /- - 2 -d + x / 2ds + (a - id) 2 ; / = - -a; . s (n—i)d I = — 4- v — ; s n 2 Jn( j.i }■ n — id); s = 2 2d s — i»(2^ — n— id) ; ALGEBRA .)■/; JJ ± \ " - 2J5; that J = The remaining eigh- = (/ — a) h- (11- 1); d — 2(5 — an) -=-11(11-1); J = (/ 1 -,i')-(25-/-', or, ar*, .... ar*— 1 , ar* The sum s„ of the first 11 terms, by the foregoing (1 nr n formula for s, is: s„ = . If the G.P. 1 —r 1 — r is a decreasing one, ri — 0(11 — 2) . . . (n 11(11 -1) r - 1 • 2 -r + i) a*~'b'+. ■3- arb*-r +. 2 • + nab»-' +b*, an expansion containing it +.1 terms. For proof of the relationship see article Mathematical Induc- tion. It can be proved by algebraic means, most readily by Maclaurin's formula (see Cal- culus), that, if ii is numerically greater than b and 11 is any real number, the same expansion as that above given is valid, i.e., (a+b)* >a* ■ n,i"- l b + . . . , which, however, contains an in- finite number of terms, except in the case where 11 is a positive integer. The equation is called the binomial theorem. It was discovered by Sir Isaac Newton, but its correctness was not proved by him. One of the simplest of its countless applications is its application to the l'[i blem of finding correct to any required degri e of appri iximatii m any real n k it of any real number. For example, suppose it is desired to know the real cube root of 25 correct to five decimal places. We may proceed as follows: (.i J )* 5,s. ■5/25= (25)* = (27 -2)* = (3 s -2)* = J2 4_' _ 40 3-3 2 9-3 5 81-3' The Number e and thi ei re 1 — If n be numerically greater than 1, the foregoing 1 rem yields the equations = 3~: ■ 2.92402. 1 + 1 \ nx = 1 + 1 +- I +X + »! 3! ■H)H). Hence + 1 +- >' \ n) [' n ) = 1 +x-\ ■(•4) KM*- »/" + . ALGEBRA This equation is valid for every value of n numerically greater than i. The limits ap- proached by its members as n increases be- yond every finite value are equal; i.e.. ( I+I+ 7! + 7> + --)* = I+x -- +— ■+• The series on the right is convergent for every finite value of r; in fact, for any given value of x, the series after a certain number of terms converges more rapidly than any decreasing G.P. The series on the left is a special case of that on the right, viz., x — x. The limit of the sum of the first n terms of the series on the left, i.e., its sum (to infinity) is denoted by e; accordingly the equation may be written: e*=i + x + — r H — r +• • • The meaning is that the 2! 3! number e raised to a power indicated by a given value of x is the sum to infinity of the series for that value of x. Since e = i+H : H — ; + ..., 2 ■ 3! its approximate value can be readily calculated. That value, correct to ten decimal places, is e = 2.7 182818284. The number e, one of the most important of all numbers, is incommen- surable, i.e., not exactly expressible as a rational fraction, and it is transcendental, i.e., not a root of an equation ax n + bx n ~ l +. . . =0, win- re the coefficients a, b, . . . are integers (see General Theory of Assemblages). Logarithms. — Let a be any positive number greater than 1. If a x =N, x is named loga- rithm of X to the base a; symbolically, x = log„.Y, or, if the base is supposed known, simply x = logA r . If a be fixed, x and N will vary each with the other, each is a function of the "tlier. Since u°=i, log 1 =0 no matter what the base. But in general the logarithm of a given number will vary with the base; thus, since 2* = 16, 4 2 = 16, log 2 i6 =4, log,i6 = 2. The general connection can be readily found thus: let a x =N and V =N, then log .Y=* and log&.V = »■; also a x = b>, a=6^, log 6 a = ^ = '-21^ ; X loga-V whence log&.V=logoiV-log a &. Calling a an old and b a new base, it is seen that the logarithm of a given number to a new base is equal to the product of the logarithm of the number to the old base and the logarithm of the new base to the old base. Let a x =N, a>=M, then a x +V=NM; hence the logarithm of a product is the sum of the logarithms of the factors. Again, (a") K = .V =n—n 1 Im — >A 3 1 /m — n\ i I l °Zi numbers r„ r 2 r" causes f(x) to vanish; In rice tin- n numbers arc roots of the equation j(x) =0. It can be easily seen that the equation I cannot have more than n different roots unless its coefficients are each zero; that is. /(.v) cannot vanish for more than » different values of x unless a„ = a l = . . . = a n = 0. For if f(r n +,) =0, then ,i„(r„ +1 -r,)(r„ +l -r 2 ) . . . (r„ + , -r„)=o, but by hypothesis no ( )=o, hence ii =o, and f(x) •a i x»~ l + . . . As the latter is to vanish for more than » — i values of X, O, = o , In like manner it would follow that a ; =o " ■-' + . . .+a n is to be equal to /i„t» +b l X n ~' +. . . + b n for all values of .v, then the function (Oj — b )x* + (a,— b l )x n ~ ' + . . .+(a»— b n ) must vanish for every value of x, and, consequently, Oj =■=&„, ., , ■ /„ -/■„. Hence two rational inte- gral functions of degree >i in x are equal for all values of v. i.e., arc taentii .1/, when and only when the coefficients of like powers of * arc equal. This proposition enables us to solve many prob- invi living the determination of undetermined lent l-'of example, suppose it required to find the sum of the squares of the first, n integers \ line the identity i 2 + 2 2 + . . . +(n — i) 2 +n' = a +bn+cn 1 +dn , + en 1 +fn' + . . . , where the coefficients a, b. . . . are to be determined. Re- ne; 11 by tt + x, we obtain 1 J 4-2 2 + . . . + n l + (i! + i) ! Hfl + |.(ii + i) + c(n+i) ! + (;(ti + i)' +e(n + i)* + . . . By subtracting corresponding members of the identities, there results the iden- tity n 2 + 211 + 1 = b + 201 + c + jdn* 1- $dn f d + 4cn 3 + 6cn 2 I ^en + e + . . . As this relation is to be valid for every value of n. coefficients of like powers of n must be equal. Hence e = o, f = 0, . . . , 1 " $>l, 2 = $d + 2C, 1 =i+c+ii; hence b = i, C = h. d = \. Accordingly, 1 2 + 2 s + . . . + (11 . — i) 2 + 11 2 =11 + \n + Jrc 2 + \n 3 ,' true for every value of h, hence for n = 1 , and hence a=o. Therefore I' + a'-K . . + >t 2 = \n\ ,11 + i)(2n + i). Part-fractions. — The so-called principle of un- determined coefficients has frequent application in the solution of the problem, to decompose a ■1 fraction into part -fractions (commonly called partial fractions) whose sum shall be the a traction. Any fraction whose term rational integral functions of x maybe thus de- composed. The method of procedure may be made sufficiently clear by a few examples. It will be observed that the problem is in a sense the inverse of the problem of summing fractions. 2 5 " — 1 For example, the sum of—, —r-^ . and — ; r * 3(i-i) i(2+x) x+4 x+4 _ . is - — -, , or —. r-. — ; — -. The inverse 2X—X'—X° X(l—X)(2 i l I problem is: given the latter fraction, to find its components. It is plain that the only frac- tions whose denominators are linear and whose sum is a fraction of the proper denominator and a linear numerator are — , , and . Hence X I —X 2 +X x+4 a b c — = — H 1 —.whence —X'—X' X l—X 2+X we assume: x+4=a(i —x)(2 +x) +b\(2 I i) lci(i-.v), which is to be valid for all values of .v. Expand- ing the right-hand member and equating corre- sponding coefficients on right and left, we obtain: 4 = 20, i = — a + 26+c, o=—a+b — c; whence a = 2, b=f, c = —\; and the component frac- tions are seen to be — , .«> 5 For ■X)' 3(2 ! 1 )■ another example, we may takcFs;— — t-S r. 0-i) 2 (.t + 2) A little reflection suffices to show that the assump- tion to be made is F = h , — r-, + -, — ■■ — r. X—l (X— i) 2 (x+ 2) Then 4X 1 + 3* — 1 - a(x — 1 ) ! + b(x — i)(.v + 2) + c(x + 2); equating coefficients and solving the resulting equations, it is found that = 1, 0=3, c = 2. in case a factor of the given denominator N is repeated n times, as in 7-7-, r, tnc. (mx+n)"(px+q) assumption to be made is: given fraction mx + n (nix I 11 r lf F is of the form (hi.v + «)" N (/■i \q)' then assume F • ax+b (mx*+nx+l) K (px +q)'(gx +/«) " ax+b ax + b + } 9 . >\ ? + ■ + , mx' + nx + l (mx 2 + nx+l) + etc., as before. If .V is of (»ix- + nx+l)* degree equal to or higher than that of the given denominator, F is converted by division into an integral function 4-a fraction the degree of whose denominator exceeds that of its numera- tor. The latter fraction is then decomposed by the methods above indicated. Indeterminate (Undetermined, Evanescent, III11- sory) 1'orms. — In case of a fraction, c6(.r) 3-7^—, it may happen that both terms vanish for some value of x, as x=a, yielding the form — , which, as division by zero is meaningless, is itself with- out meaning and is commonly called indetermi- nate. In such case we are free (logically) to give the form a meaning, any meaning or value whatever. But while all meanings (values) are allowable, not all are expedient. For ex- ALGEBRA, HISTORY OF THE ELEMENTS OF ample, has a definite value for every x — a jr- value except x = a. For this value the frac- o tion takes the form -. To this we might assign o the value of 5 or — 3, or any other. Rut such a choice would be motiveless. On the other hand, x 2 -a 2 = .r + o for all values of x except a; x — a for this critical value a, the right member takes a definite value, 20, which is accordingly sug- gested as the value to be naturally assigned to the indeterminate form in this case. The de- cisive motive for this choice lies yet deeper: it is that as x varies through a sequence of values, say a -f- J, «-f- }, a +5,. . ., having a as limit, the corresponding sequence of fraction-values, 2a + \, 20 4- h 2a -\- \, .,., approaches 20 as limit. Accordingly, if 4>(x) assumes the form o - for x — a, the value assigned to (x) approaches positive or negative infinity (00 or — 00) accord- ing as the numbers in the fraction sequence are positive or negative. If, as x approaches a, both f(x) and F(x) approach 00, then, for 00 x = a, (x) assumes the indeterminate form — . 00 o But it may be made to take the form -, since o f(x) tF(j)=(itFW)-t(i-t/W) Other indeterminate forms also reducible to the form o -, are 0.00, 00.0, 00 — 00, co°, o 00 . For further treatment see Calculus. The boundary of what is or should be called elementary algebra is ill defined alike in theory and in practice, and beside the topics dealt with in this article other subjects are briefly treated in some of the elementary text-books. Of such additional subjects, the more important, as chance or probability, the complex variable, and theory of numbers, series, and others, are subjects of special articles in this work. Rela- tively meager, merely introductory, text-books of algebra are sometimes quite absurdly de- scribed in their titles as "complete," and others that might be called advanced are improperly characterized as "higher." The better usage has appropriated the term higher algebra to the doctrine of invariants and covariants (q.v.). Bibliography.— Text-books of elementary al- gebra, good, bad. and indifferent, are very nu- merous. The most scientific work on the subject is that by Weber and Wellstein : 'Elementare Algebra und Analysis.' The most comprehen- sive elementary English text-book is Chrystal's < Algebra,' 2 vols. Cassius J. Keyser. Professor of Mathematics, Columbia University. Algebra, History of the Elements of. Taking the definition of algebra as given in the article under that title (q.v.), the history of the subject goes back to the early Egyptians. In a certain hieratic papyrus now in the British Museum, copied by one Ahmes (Aahmesu, the moon-born), about 1700 B.C., from a work writ- ten some centuries earlier, several traces of alge- bra appear. There are symbols for addition, subtraction, and equality, and eleven examples of linear equations with one unknown quantity are given. The unknown quantity is called hau, or heap, the first example involving an equation being "Heap, its seventh, its whole, it makes x nineteen" that is — -f x = 10 . A number of applied problems are also given, and Ahmes shows some familiarity with arithmetic and geo- metric progressions. Such was the stagnation of the later Egyptians, however, that algebra never advanced beyond this point, on the banks of the Nile, at least until Greek influence established the famous school of Alexandria. The Greek mind turned to the science of form rather than to that of number (see Geom- etry, History of the Elements of), and con- sequently but few evidences of algebra are found in Greece during the golden age of philosophy. Whenever a need for algebra is met it is always for the solution of some geometric problem, and whenever a solution is effected it is usually by some device involving geometry. One of the earliest evidences of an algebraic symbolism is seen in a problem of Aristotle's, in which he represents quantities by means of letters, letting A stand for the moving force, B for that by which it is moved, V for the distance, A for the time, and so on. About the same time Hippoc- rates (q.v.) called the square of a number 5iva.fj.is (power), from which the Latins de- rived the name potentia, which appears in our language as power. Euclid (q.v.), c. 300 B.C., proved geometrically certain fundamental laws of algebra, such as a(b + c)= ab + ac, (a + 6) ! = a 2 + 2ab + b 2 , (a — b)* = a* — 2ab + b"; and (a + b)(a— b) =a' — b'. The equation of the second degree was also known to the Greeks, and they were able to solve the general case by the aid of proportion. Archimedes (q.v.) is even said to have solved one case of the cubic, and he undoubtedly knew a consider- able amount about series. It was not, however, until the time of Diophantus (q.v.), c. 300 a.d., that Greek alge- bra attained any standing as a separate science. This great mathematical genius improved the symbolism, divorced the subject from geometry, and created the ancient science of indeterminate equations, a science called in his honor "Dio- phantine Analysis." For reasons above suggested, algebra flour- ished more naturally in the Orient than in Greece. The first Hindu algebraist of any im- portance was Aryabhata. who was born at Pa- taliputra, on the Upper Ganges, in 476 a.d. Part of his "Aryabhattiyam" is devoted to algebra, and covers the fundamental operations, rules for ALGECIRAS square and cube roots, progressions, permuta- tions, equations of the first and second degrees with one unknown quantity, and some treatment i if indeterminate equations, Aryabhata differs from Diophantus in that he considers algebra frnm a broader standpoint, treating it rather as a theory of elementary functions than as the of a particular form of the eqimtion. The next great algebraist in the East was Al Khowarazmi (q.v.), c. 800 a.d., so called from his birthplace, Kharazm, the territory of the modern Khiva, With him algebra takes a still different meaning. It is no longer the theorj of indeterminate equations of Diophantus, nor is it chiefly the theory of elementary func- tions of Aryabhata, hut it becomes primarily the general theory of equations. Indeed tin' title of his work 'ilm al-jabr wa' 1 muqabalah,* means the science of redintegration and equation, a title from which only the words al-jabr have survived, giving the accidental name of algebra to the subject. Al Khowarazmi solved three types of the quadratic, in modern symbolism .r* + ax = b, x* — ax = b, x 2 + b = ax, thus showing his inability to generalize, a failing with all writers before the 17th century. It was two centuries before another writer of prominence appeared. About 1010 a.d., Al Karchi, like Al Khowarazmi of the Bagdad school, wrote a treatise in which he shows famil- iarity with the works of his predecessors rather than great genius himself. Like many of the older writers, he gives attention to those rules for approximating roots, so necessary before the time of decimal fractions. Stated in modern symbolism bis rule for square root is Va = w + • that is, ^10 = 3 + 10 2 7V+ I whence Vio was often used fori ■3h 6 + 1 He also gives the rule Va + b ± V4ab = Vo ± Vb, and a rule for Z«». In the 12th century two Oriental writers of prominence appear, Omar Khayyam (q.v.) the Persian, who died in 1123, and Bhaskara the Hindu, who was horn in 1114. Omar solved one case of the cubic, and was the first to treat equations above the second degree in a sj S- tematic manner. The binomial theorem with positive integral exponents was also known to him. His algebra, published in Paris both in \ tabic and in French, made Omar known in the West as an algebraist some time before FitzGerald made him celebrated as a poet. Bhaskara wrote on both arithmetic and alge- bra, and his work has long been known in Europe through Colebrook's English translation. Among the features of his algebra is the state- ment that — = 00, and the solution of the quad- o ratic by the reduction of ax 1 + bx + c = o to the form (2ax + b) 2 — — 40c + b 2 , a device known in England as the Hindu Method. The rise of modern elementary algebra took place in Italy in the 16th century. It was at this time that the cubic was solved by Tar- taglia (q.v.), the publication being made by Cardan (q.v.) in his Ars Magna in 1545. The solution of the quartic soon followed, after which the quintic occupied the attention of algebraists until its solution was proved to be impossible by the operations of elementary algebra, in the loth century. A common name for algebra at this time was "L'arte niaggiore" (the greater art, whence the Latin title of Cardan's treatise), arithmetic being called by contrast "L'arte me- nore" (the lesser art). The unknown quantity was called, in Latin, res, whence the Italian translation cosa (thing). On this account the science was called the Coss in the early German schools, and the name "Cossic Art 9 was not un- common among the English writers of about 1600. The mere processes and solutions of ele- mentary algebra were fairly perfected by the close of the 16th century, and little he-ides the symbolism was needed to make the subject what it is to-day. The title of Father of modem elementary algebra is frequently given to Vieta (q.v). lie was the first to devise a systematic and fairly satisfactory scheme of literal notation, using vowels for the unknown quantities and con- sonants for the knowns. For example, he used A where we use x, Aq (./ quadratus) for our .v", Ac for .r'\ .L]t] for x, and so on. He also recognized that a letter may represent both a positive and a negative number, and both an integer and a fraction, a generalization not rec- ognized by his predecessors, and one that was perfected later by Descartes. Vieta was also the first to recognize the advantage of making the second member zero in considering an equa- tion. His work greatly influenced the English algebra as set forth by Harriot (q.v.), who ac- knowledged his indebtedness to him. Mention should also be made of the work of Clavius, who did much to meet the demand for a usable text- book at this period. The final touch was put upon the elementary science by Descartes (q.v.), who suggested and used our modern literal notation, and who per- fected the generalizations begun by Vieta. His introduction of the graphic treatment of equa- tions not only revolutionized mathematics in general, but materially assisted in the under- standing of the elements. Since Descartes's time there have been cer- tain improvements in the symbolism of elemen- tary algebra, the theory of approximate solutions of numerical higher equations has been created, chiefly through the efforts of Newton, Euler, and Horner (qq.v.), the binomial theorem has been generalized for negative and fractional ex- ponents, principally by the labors of Newton, the theory and the symbolism of determinants (q.v.) have been developed, the various number S) -terns met in algebra (notably the complex number) have been placed upon a scientific basis, and in general the foundation theories of the science have been greatly strengthened. Bibliography. — Eisenlohr, 'Ein mathemat- isches Handbuch der alten Egyptcr' (I.eipsic 1877): Heath. 'Diophantos' (Cambridge 1885) ; Matthiessen, 'Grundziige der antiken und mod- ernen Algebra der littcralen Gleichungen' (Leipsic 1878) : Cantor, "Geschichte der Mathe- matics' (Leipsic 1880-98, various editions). David Eugene Smith, Professor of Mathematics, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. Algeciras, or Algesiras, a seaport of Spain, on the west side of the Bay of Gibraltar, and 7 m. N.W. of Europa Point. The old town. once possessed of great strength, but now in ALGER — ALGERIA ruins, stood on the Isla Verde ; the modern town stands on the mainland, on an acclivity ris- ing rapidly from the shore, and though un- walled is defended by a fort. A brisk coasting- trade is carried on by the inhabitants. Near Algeciras were fought two naval engagements in July, 1801. In the first the English admiral Saumarez failed in an attack on the French fleet, which was strongly posted in the bay under the protection of the batteries on shore (6 July), but in the second he defeated the com- bined French and Spanish fleets (12 July). Pop. 13,000. Alger, Cyrus, an American inventor: b. West Bridgewater, Mass., II Nov. 1781 : d. Boston, 4 Feb. 1856. He learned the iron foun- dry business, and in 1809 established himself in South Boston, where he soon made himself widely known by the excellence of the ordnance he manufactured. He supplied the United Sta'.es government with a large quantity of cannon- balls during the War of 1812 ; produced the first gun ever rifled in America, as well as the first perfect bronze cannon ; and supervised the casting of a mortar which was the largest gun of cast-iron that had then been made in the United States. Subsequently he made im- provements in the construction of time fuses for bomb-shells and grenades : patented a meth- od of making cast-iron chilled rolls; and was the original designer of the cylinder stove. Alger, Horatio, an American writer of ju- venile books: b. Revere, Mass., 13 Jan. 1834; d. Natick, Mass., 18 July 1899. He graduated at Harvard in 1852, settled in New York in 1866, and became interested in the condition of self-sup- porting boys, described in his series of more than 50 books, including ( Ragged Dick,' ' Tattered Tom,' ' Luck and Pluck,' which became very popular. Other works : ( Nothing to Do : A Tilt at Our Best Society.' a poem (1857) ; 1 Helen Ford,' a novel (i860) ; a series of ju- venile biographies of Webster, Lincoln, Garfield, etc.; and 'The Young Salesman' (1896). Alger, Russell Alexander, an American merchant, capitalist, and politician : b. Lafayette, O., 27 Feb. 1836. He served in the Civil War, rising from a captaincy to the rank of brevet major-general of volunteers. He acquired a large fortune in western enterprises, particular- ly the lumber business. He was governor of Michigan from 1885 to 1887; a candidate for the Republican presidential nomination in 1888; commander-in-chief of the Grand Army of the Republic (1880-90): and became secretary of war in President McKinley's cabinet in 1897. Almost from the beginning of the Spanish- American war of 1898 he was the object of much public censure for alleged shortcomings in the various bureaus in his department, and this pressure became so strong and widespread that he resigned his office in 1899 after an in- vestigation committee had exonerated him. In 1901 he published ' The Spanish-American War.' Alger, William Rounseville, Unitarian clergyman: b. Freetown, Mass., 30 Dec. 1822: d. Boston, Mass., 7 Feb. 1905. Graduated at Har- vard Theological School 1847; filled pastorates in Roxbury, Mass.. Boston; New York. Denver, Chicago. Portland. Me. Works: 'Poetry of the Orient 1 (1856); 'Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life' (1861); 'Genius of Vol. 1 — 19 Solitude' (1861) ; 'Friendships of Women' (1867); 'Life of Edwin Forrest' (2 vols. 1878) ; < Symbolic History of the Cross ' (1881). Alge'ria, a French colony in north Africa, having on the north the Mediterranean, on the east Tunis, on the west Morocco, and on the south (where the boundary is ill-defined) the Desert of Sahara ; area, 122.878 sq. m., or in- cluding the Algyian Sahara, 257,000. The country is divided into three departments — Al- giers, Oran, and Constantine. The coast-line is about 550 m. in length, steep and rocky, and though the indentations are numerous the har- bors are much exposed to the north wind. The country is traversed by the Atlas Mountains, two chains of which — the Great Atlas, border- ing on the Sahara, and the Little, or Maritime Atlas, between it and the sea — run parallel to the coast, the former attaining a height of 7,000 feet. The intervals are filled with lower ranges, and numerous transverse ranges connect the principal ones and run from them to the coast, forming elevated table-lands and enclosed val- leys. The rivers are numerous, but many of them are mere torrents rising in the mountains near the coast. The Shelif is much the largest. Some of the rivers are largely used for irriga- tion, and artesian wells have been sunk in some places for the same purpose. There are, both on the coast and in the interior, extensive salt lakes or marshes (sholts), which dry up to a great extent in summer. The country border- ing on the coast, called the Tell, is generally hilly, with fertile valleys ; in some places a flat and fertile plain extends between the hills and the sea. In the east there are shotts that sink below the sea-level, and into these it has been proposed to introduce the waters of the Medi- terranean. The climate varies considerably ac- cording to elevation and local peculiarities. There are three seasons : winter from November to February, spring from March to June, and sum- mer from July to October. The summer is very hot and dry. In many parts of the coast the temperature is moderate and the climate so healthy that Algeria is now a winter resort for invalids. The chief products of cultivation are wheat, barley, and oats, tobacco, cotton, wine, silk, and dat 's. Early vegetables, especially potatoes and pease, are exported to France and England. A fibre called alfa, a variety of esparto, which grows wild on the high plateaus, is exported in larc ■ quantities. Cork is also exported. There are valuable forests, in which grow various sorts of pines and oaks, ash, cedar, myrtle, pistachio- nut, mastic, carob, etc. The Australian Eu- calyptus globulus (a gum-tree) has been suc- cessfully introduced. Agriculture often suffers much from the ravages of locusts. Among wild animals are the lion, panther, hy.-ena, and jackal ; the domestic quadrupeds include the horse, the mule, cattle, sheep, and pigs (introduced by the French). Algeria possesses valuable minerals, including iron, copper, lead, sulphur, zinc, anti- mony, marble (white and red), phosphate, and lithographic stone. The trade of Algeria has greatly increased under French rule, France. Spain, and England being the countries with which it is principally carried on. and three fourths of the whole being with France. The exports (besides those men- ALGHERO — ALGOA BAY tioned above) are olive oil, raw hides, wood, I, tobacco, oranges, etc.: the imports, man- ufactured goods, wines, spirits, coffee, etc. The manufacturing industries are unimportant, and include morocco leather, carpets, muslins, and silks. French money, weights, and measures are generally used. The chief towns are Al- giers, Oran, Constantinc. Bona, and Tlemcen. There are about 2.000 miles of railways opened ; there is also a considerable network of telegraph The two principal native races inhabiting Al- geria are Arabs and Berbers. The former are mostly nomads, dwelling in tents and wandering o place, though a large .lumber of them are settled in the Tell, where they carry on agriculture and have formed numerous vil- lages. The Berbers, here called Kabyles, are the original inhabitants of the territory and Mill form a considerable part of the population. They speak the Berber language, but use Arabic characters in writing. The Jews form a small bin influential part of the population. Various r races also exist. Except the Jews all the native racus are Mohammedans. There are now a considerable number of French and other col- onists, provision being made for granting them cone, ion of land on certain conditions. There are over 260.000 colonists of French origin in Algeria, and over 200,000 colonists natives of Other European countries (chiefly Spaniards and Italians). Algeria is governed by a governor- general, who is assisted by a council appointed by the French government. The settled portion of the country, in the three departments of Al- giers, Constantine, and Oran, is treated much as if it were a part of France, and each depart- ment sends two deputies and one senator to the French chambers. The rest of the territory is under military rule. The colony costs France a considerable sum every year. Pop. (iyo2) estimated about 4,500.000. Industries. — The wine business at the pres- ent day constitutes the largest industry in Al- geria. Until very recently it had been going up by leaps and bounds, many large fortunes hav- ing been made. During 1900 and 1901, how- ever, the price of wine steadily decreased on account < i the abnormal yield in France, and ■Treat losses were consequently incurred by those who were forced to dispose of their vintage. In 11)02. the crops in France having been great- ly damaged by late frosts, wet. and severe hailstorms, the wine-growers partially recouped their losses. The amount of wine exported from Algeria during 1897 was 781,558 gal- : in 1X98, 796.049 gallons; in 1899, 945,- 879 gallons; and in 1900, 549.131 gallons. The il products are alfa, cereals, cork, table hair, locust beans, olive oil, fruits, and vegetables, and Italian pastes. The area which alfa occupies in the three departments of Alge- ria ; s estimated at more than 12.000.000 acres. The principal district, called the * Alfa Sea," is 2to miles by 95 miles and is bounded on the N. by the Tell, on the W. by Morocco, on the S. by the mountains of Ksowcs. and on the E. by th- Hodna. The producing area is much greater than that actually cut ; nevertheless, in order to prevent the loss which would result from bad working, the governor-general issued an order in 1888 limiting the cutting, sale, and export of alfa. The average production of an acre of alfa is estimated at 8 cwt. after drying and sorting. In 1900 Algeria exported 1,650,- 235 cwt. of wheat, 1,188,153 cwt. of oats, 1,773,- 509 cwt. of barley, and 27,496 cwt. of maize. The barley is much in demand in Europe for malting purposes. Algeria produces excellent hard wheat, giving a flour rich in gluten, and consequently very good for the manufacture of Italian partes and semolina. This industry is annually increasing: the existing works are en- larging and improving their machinery, modern methods of shop management are being intro- duced, and the output of the various establish- ments to-day rivals that of France and other countries. Consult : Wilkin, ' Among the Berbers of Al- geria ' ; Nugent, * A Land of Mosques and Marabouts ' ; Morell, < Algeria ' ; Playfair, ' The Scourge of Christendom.' Algerine War. See Barbary Powers, U. S. Treaties and Wars With the. Alghero, or Algheri, a fortified town and seaport on the W. side of the island of Sardi- nia, in the province of Sassari, and 17 m. S.W. of the town of that name. The port is not good, but 7 m. W. of it is Porto Come, the best harbor in the island. The town is the seat of a bishop and possesses a handsome ca thedral. The inhabitants are mainly employed in wine-growing and coral-fishing. Pop. 10.50c. Algiers (French, Alger), a city and sea- port on the Mediterranean, capital of the French colony of Algeria, is situated on the W. side of the Bay of Algiers. It stands on the slope of a hill facing tile sea, from which its array of white houses, rising in the form of an am- phitheatre, presents an imposing appearance. I he old town, which is the higher, has an Oriental aspect. Its crowning point is the Cas- bah, or ancient fortress of the deys, about 500 feet above the sea. Its streets are narrow, crooked, and dirty. The houses are strong, prison-like edifices, with iron-grated slits for windows, looking into central quadrangles en- tered by a low doorway. The modern town, which occupies the lower slope and spreads along the shore, is handsomely built, with broad Streets adorned with arcades and having ele- gant squares. It contains the government build- ings, the barracks, the commercial warehouses, the residences of the governor-general and the government officials, and the superior courts of justice. The Place du Gouvernement and the Place Bresson here are the two chief squares of the city. The fine Boulevard de la Republique runs along the sea-front, overlooking the bay and harbor. Algiers is the seat of an arch- bishop. It has a cathedral and a number of churches (one of them being an English church) and mosques. There are schools of law. med- icine, science, and letters, and a lyceum ; also a library and museum. It is defended by sea- batteries and other works. The French have been at great expense in improving the port and providing docks. Pop. about 100,000. Algoa Bay, a bay on the S.E. coast o{ Cape Colony, Africa; about 420 m. E. of the Cape of Good Hope. At its entrance, formed by Cape Woody on the N.E. and Cape Recife on the S.W., it has a width of 33 miles. Its shelter is very valuable, as there is no other refuge for ships during the N.W. gales. The ALGOL — ALHAMBRA usual anchorage is off Port Elizabeth, at the mouth of the Baakens, where there is now a large and increasing trade. Algol', a star in the constellation Perseus (head of Medusa), remarkable as a variable star, changing in brightness from the second to the fourth magnitude. Algo'ma, a district of Canada, on the N. side of Lake Superior, forming the N. W. portion of Ontario, rich in silver, copper, iron, etc. Algona, Iowa, city and county-seat of Kossuth County, on the Iowa Cent., Chicago & N. W., and Chicago, M. & St. P. R.R.'s about 123 m. N. by W. of Des Moines, on a branch of the Des Moines River. The city has four banks., handsome public buildings, and flourishing man- ufactures of foundry and machine-shop products, wooden-ware, bricks and tiles. Pop. 3,000. Algonkian System, the name given in the United States to a great series of rocks that succeeds the basal system of the Archaean and is overlaid by the strata of the Palaeozic system. The rocks of the Algonkian system are devel- oped on an enormous scale in the Lake Su- perior region, where they comprise limestones, sandstones, quartzites, shales, slates, and schists, all more or less disturbed and bearing evidence of having been subjected to metamorphism. They also include dikes and beds of igneous rocks, and great copper and iron ore deposits, which are among the richest in the world. A few fossil remains have been found, but little is known as to the life conditions during the Algonkian period. Algonquian, or Algonkian Stock, a North American group once comprising forty or more separate languages, and embracing a larger area than any other on the continent, stretching in a solid block from Labrador to the Rockies and from Hudson's Bay to Pamlico Sound and the Cumberland River at least, except the enclaves of Iroquois in and around New York State, and of Beothukan in, Newfoundland. Outlying tribes were the Shawnee or Shawano to the south ; and to the west the Cheyenne and Arapa- hoe, which clove their way through the heart of the Sioux across the Missouri and into the Black Hills region, and later to Colorado and Wy- oming, their advance westward being checked by the Shoshone group. They numbered sev- eral hundred tribes, or <( villages," entirely in- dependent ; many in which several such villages were grouped together ; and several confed- eracies of tribes united in a loose bond for mutual aggression or defense, though never with any real central government. The chief con- federacies were the Abnaki or Abenaki of Maine and New Brunswick; the Pennacook of New Hampshire, and the adjacent parts of Maine and Massachusetts ; the Powhatan of Virginia and Maryland; the Illinois or Mini of that region and adjacent Wisconsin, Iowa, and Missouri; the Siksika (Blackfeet, etc.) of north- ern Montana and adjacent Canada; the Chey- enne and Arapahoe, already mentioned ; and the Sac and Fox, first at the mouth of the Ottawa, then in northern Wisconsin. (See each title.) Of the individual tribes, the most important remaining were the Micmac, Amalecite, Massa- chuset, Wampanoag, Narraganset, Nipmuc. Pe- quot, Mohegan, Mohican, Metoac, and Wap- pinger on the North Atlantic coast : Munsi, Leni-Lenape or Delaware, Shawano, Nanticnkr, Conoy, Mattamuskeet, on the South Atlantic coast ; Nascapi, Montagnais, Algonquin, Ottawa, Muskegon, Cree, Ojibwa. Misisaga, Miami, Piankishaw, Kickapoo, Pottawotomi. Meno- mini, in the interior; and Atsina in the West. Tradition places the original home of all these tribes on the North Atlantic coast. From their being the first to come in contact with the English settlers, and the history of English settlement for two centuries being a steady record of fierce conflict with and bloody reprisals from and on them, more is known of their minor names and those of their great chiefs — Powhatan, Opechancanough, Philip, Pontiac, Tecumseh, Black Hawk, etc. — than of any others except the Iroquois, and their lan- guages are better studied. Constant wars with the English, French, and Dutch colonists depleted their numbers. Filled at first with the idea of freeing the soil from the whites, they afterward degenerated into mere mercenaries, fighting on either side for revenge or gain. After the AVar of 1812, in which they took the side of the British, the United States government resolved to send them as far west as possible. After 1840 few of them remained east of the Mississippi. In Canada they were not removed from their homes, but were limited as to territory. War and disease have thinned their number until only about 43.000 remain in the United States, and 38,000 in Canada ; there are a few hundred refugees in Mexico. Algonquin (properly Algomekin, K other- siders ") a once powerful Indian tribe along the Ottawa River and Lake Nipissing. Canada. Decimated by the Iroquois, some of them with other Indian waifs took refuge along the Up- per Lakes and assumed the name of Ottawas (q.v.), bringing forth the greatest Indian of history, the mighty Pontiac (q.v.) ; others kept their name and were protected by the French in mission villages. It was French missionaries who discovered almost at their first coming that the Algonquin language was a type com- mon to what is now called the Algonquian stock. The chief body of the remaining tribe numbers nearly 1,000, in villages of Quebec and Onta- rio ; about 250 more are confederated with the Iroquois at Gibson, Out., and Lake of Two Mountains, Que. Alhama, a town of Spain, on the Motril; 25 m. S.W. of the town of Granada. This place is celebrated for its warm medicinal (sulphur) baths and drinking-waters, and also for its ro- mantic situation between craggy mountains. The principal bath was a Moorish edifice, the smaller was circular in form and probably a Roman erection. The town was thrown completely into ruins by an earthquake shock in 1884. Washington Irving, in his < Chronicle of Gra- nada,' gives a spirited account of the taking of Alhama, 8 the key of Granada," from the Moors, by Rodrigo Ponce de Leon, Marquis of Cadiz, in February 1482. Alhambra (Kelat-al-hamrah, the red castle), the citadel of Granada when that city was one of the principal seats of the empire of the Moors in Spain. The wall which surrounded it still stands flanked by many towers, and has a cir- ALHAMBRA — ALI BEY ctiit of -" i miles. Within it wore included sev- eral importanl buildings, besides dwell n houses; but the building to which the celebrity of ite is due is I r, or royal palace of the kings of Granada, seated on the northern brow of a lofty eminence which commands a full view of the city of Granada, and. beyond it. of a charming country, hounded in the dis- tance by a line of lulls. It 1- a place equally interesting to the artist, the antiquarian, and the historian. The erection of the greater part of the present building seems to have occupied almost the whole of the first half of the 14th 1; con IStS mainly of two oblong rcc- ■ -, the one ( which was seric damaged, if not ruined, by tire in Septem- ber 1890), called the court of the Fish-pond or he Myrtles, [38 by 74 feet, and terminating at it< northern end in an apartment 35 feet square, richly ornamented : the other, called the irt of the Lions. 115 by 66 feet, and so named from the white marble fountain in the centre supported by twelve lions. An exact 111. m of this court, on two thirds of the scale of the original, was made by Mr. Owen |, nes in the Crystal Palace. It is surrounded by an arcade, with small pavilions at each end. consisting of 128 columns supporting arches of most delicate and elaborate finish, still very perfect and retaining much of their original beauty. From the character of many of the arches in various portions of the palace they are most appropriately called stalactitic. They are formed on a peculiar system with plaster bricks of various forms in a manner universally pted in the buildings of the Moors. The 1 rmti. in of tin.' arches is remarkable for its simplicity. Over the columns, which are of white marble, and which were probably gilded, are brick piers carrying rough brick arches; :•■ these tiles are placed diagonally, forming diamond-shaped open work, running through the thickness of the walls, and a brest-summer of timber supporting the weight above. To these rough arches are attached the various enrich- ments, and against the tiles are placed the pcr- fora '" ornaments which give a singu- larly light appearance to the arches, and create very beautiful effects from the rays of light cast through the openings on the wall behind them. Alhambra, The, by Washington Irving. (183-'. Revised, enlarged, and rearranged. 1852.) 'Ibis Spanish Sketch-Book grew out oi the experiences and studies of Irving while an actual resident in the old royal palace of the Moors at Granada. Many of the forty sketches have their foundation only in the author's fancy, but others are veritable history. Ali, a'le, cousin and son-in-law of Mo- hammed, the first of his converts, and the bravest and most faithful of his adherents; b. 602; d. 661. He married Fatima, the daughter of the prophet, but after the death of Moham- med (632) his claims to the caliphate were set aside in favor successively of Abu-Bekr, Omar, and Othman. On the assassination of Othman, in 656 a.d., he became caliph, and after a series of struggles with his opponent-, including Aye- sha, widow of Mohammed, finally lost his life by assassination at Kufa. A Mohammedan schism arose after his death, and has produced two sects. One sect, called the Sbiites. put Ali on a level with Mohammed, and .I., not acknow- ibe three caliph-, who preceded All. They are regarded as heretics by the other sect, called Simmies. The Maxims and Hymns of Ali are yet extant. See Cai. it'll. Ali, pasha of Vanina, commonly styled Ali Pasha, a bold and able, but ferocious and utterly unscrupulous Albanian, b. 17.11. s.m of an Albanian chief who was deprived of his tcrri- tories by rapacious neighbors. By his enterpi and success and entire want of scruple he got possession of more than his father had lost, making himself master of a large part of Al- bania, including Vanina. which the Porte sanc- ed bis holding, with the title of pasha. As a ruler he displayed excellent qualities, putting an end to brigandage and anarchy, making roads, and encouraging commerce. He extend- ed In- sway by subduing the brave Suliotes of Epirus, whom be conquered in [803 after a three years' war. Aiming at independent sover- \. he intrigued alternately with England, France, and Russia. Latterly be was almost independent of the Porte, which at length de- termined to put an end to his power; and in [820 Sultan Mahmoud pronounced his depi tion. Ali resisted several pashas who were sent to carry out this decision, only surrendering at last ill l822 on receiving assurances that life and property should be granted him. Faith was not kept with him, however; he was killed ami his head cut off and conveyed to Constantinople, while his treasures were seized by the Porte. Alias, in law, a term used to indicate the names under which a person who attempts to conceal his true name is ascertained to have passed during the successive stages of his ca- reer. An alias writ is a writ issued where one of the same kind has been issued before in the same cause. Ali Baba, the principal figure in the famous 'Arabian Nights' Entertainments' tale of 'Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves.' He over- bears the thieves opening the door of their cavern by the use of the magic words " Open sesame." He does the same in their absence and appropriates as much of their wealth as he can carry. Cassim, his brother, enters the cave later, but having forgotten the magic word is ently found by the robbers and killed. They make an attempt to slay Ali Baba, but are .1. feated by the slave Morgiana, who pours boiling oil in the- jars in which the robbers are hi.1.1. 11. Ali Bey, a ruler of Egypt: b. in the Cau- casus in 1728, was taken t.. Cairo and sold a- a slave, but having entered the force of the Mamelukes, and attained the first dignity among them, he succeeded in making himself virtually governor of Egypt. He now refused the custo- mary tribute to the Porte and coined money in his own name. In 1769 he took advantage of a war in which the Porte was then engaged with Russia, to endeavor to add Syria and Palestine to his Egyptian dominion, and in this he bad almost succeeded when the defection of his own adopted son Mohammed Bey drove him from Egypt. Joining his ally Sheikh Daher in Syria, he still pursued bis plans of conquest with remarkable success, till in 1773 be was induced to make the attempt to recover Egypt with insufficient means. In a battle near Cairc SECION 'N PALACE — Alhambra ALIBI — ALIEN AND SEDITION ACTS his army was completely defeated and he him- self taken prisoner, dying a few days afterward either of his wounds or by poison. Alibi, in law, a plea that the person ac- cused of having committed a crime was else- where at the time when the breach of the law occurred. If he substantiate this, he is said to prove an alibi. In Scotland the defendant must give notice of a special defense of alibi, stating where he was when the crime was com- mitted. In England and the United States this notice is not required. If the accused can make it appear that at the time when the crime charged is alleged to have been committed (it being of a nature to require his personal pres- ence) he was in another place, his innocence will be established, because of the obvious im- possibility of the same person being in two places at once. This species of defense is con- stantly resorted to in trials for crime. One of the principal rules in the application of this species of evidence is that the time relied on, and in which the value of the evidence mainly consists, must correspond closely with the time at or during which the offense is proved to have been committed. If, time having been fixed to a particular day, hour, and minute, the person accused can show that at that exact time he was in another place, his innocence is at once made apparent. Alicante, a seaport of Spain; capital of the province of Alicante ; the ancient Lucentum. It is situated at the foot of a cliff 830 feet high, crowned by the fort of Santa Barbara. It has one of the best harbors on the Mediterranean, and carries on a considerable trade, exporting wine, fruit, esparto grass, etc. It was bom- barded in 1873 by two vessels sent out by Car- tagena insurgents. Prof. Freeman, the English historian, died here in 1892. An American consul has been stationed at Alicante for some years. Pop. (1900) 5°,495- Alicata, or Licata, a-le-ka'ta, le-ka'ta, the most important commercial town on the south coast of Sicily, at the mouth of the Salso, 24 m. E.S.E. of Girgenti, with a considerable trade in sulphur, grain, wine, oil, nuts, almonds, and soda. It occupies the site of the town which the tyrant Phintias of Acrogas erected and n'imed after himself, when Gela was destroyed in 280. Pop. 15,966. Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, by; Lewis Carroll (.Charles L. Dodgson). Alice, a bright little girl, is the heroine of the tale and by following an extraordinary rabbit into a rabbit hole, she finds herself in a land where unreal things seem real. Her mistakes at first barely save her from drowning in her own tears; but she presently meets many queer animal friends besides a crusty old Duchess, a mad Hatter, a sleepy Dormouse, and a March Hare, with whom she has strange experiences, and finally they take her to play croquet with the Queen of Hearts. During a trial by jury at the court of the Queen, Alice becomes excited and calls every one there nothing but a pack of cards. As they rise into the air and come flying down upon her, she awakes to find herself on a bank where she had fallen asleep. A sequel to the story is 'Through the Looking-Glass, > (1871). Alien, any person not legally within the jurisdiction of a country as one of its citizens. By the laws of the United States the childrer. of male citizens, whether born within the coun- try or abroad, are held to be citizens; but all other foreign-born individuals are aliens until made citizens by naturalization. In the United States aliens are nominally prohibited from ac- quiring title to real estate, but in practice they may own lands subject to proceedings by the State to determine the fact of alienage; and, moreover, in nearly all the States there are spe- cial provisions removing such restrictions from resident aliens who are in the course of natural- ization. The rights of aliens to hold personal property and carry on trade are the same as those of citizens. In time of war, however, aliens belonging to the country of the enemy cannot make contracts with citizens or resort to the courts except as accorded such privileges by special treaties. In the United States, if an alien dies without making a will and without leaving any known heirs, his estate immediately vests in the State without office found. An alien may sue and be sued ; he may be tried for crime, and has a right to labor and to trade. No State can pass a law refusing rights tc aliens which are secured by treaty. A law of this kind would be void, for the reason that every treaty made by the authority of the United States is superior to the constitution and laws of any State. Naturalized aliens are sub- ject to political disabilities as follows: They are permanently disqualified for election as President or Vice-President, and cannot become members of the National Senate or House of Representatives until they have been citizens for nine or seven years respectively. In Great Britain there is no discrimination whatever be- tween aliens and subjects as far as property rights are concerned. It is held by British law that the children of aliens born in Great Britain are natural-born subjects. In all Christian coun- tries the tendency of legislation concerning aliens shows increasing liberality, although it is still the policy of the Latin nations, in their colonies, to limit materially the trade advan- tages of foreigners. Alien and Sedition Acts, in American po- litical history, four acts passed by the Federalist party in Congress in the summer of 1798, under John Adams, which were the immediate cause of the first nullification proceedings in the South (see Kentucky Resolutions; Nullifi- cation; Virginia Resolutions), and one of the causes which alienated enough votes from the Federalists to drive them out of power sooner than was inevitable. (For the genesis of the alien acts see also American Party.) The embittered exiles who flocked here from 1790 on were doubly obnoxious to the Federalist-;: both as scurrilously offensive journalists, often- times, and as hostile to all attempts to punish France for her wanton aggressions on American commerce. In 1797 the House was Republican, the Senate Federalist ; the latter attempted to pass measures for defense against France, which the former steadily voted down. At length, in 1798, the publication of the "X. Y. Z." corre- spondence, showing the rottenness of the French Directory, shamed the defenders of France and incensed the moderates into supporting the Federalists: who, having now a majority in both houses, first enacted three laws concerning aliens: (1) 18 June, making the residence be- ALIENATION OF ESTATES — ALIMENTARY SYSTEM fore naturalization Fourteen years instead of five, and the term after declaration of intentions five instead ol three; alien enemies not to be allowed naturalization; registration of all aliens on arrival, under penalties, and entry on such register the only proof admitted on apply- ing for naturalization. (2) 25 June, empowering 1 the President for two years to order out of the Country any alien-- he thought dangerous or engaged in conspiracies, (3) 6 July, legalizing the apprehension or deportation of all resident aliens when war wa ed against the United States. These acts w n denounced by the Republicans on tlire'e grounds, two of State rights and one general: as invading the Consti- tutional rights of the Stales to permit such immigration as they chose up to [808 (really intended to apply only to slaves) ; lint it as- sumed national powers over persons under the jurisdiction of their States; and that it violated the right of trial by jury. It was on these its that Jefferson and Madison drew up the Kentucky and Virginia legislative resolutions; the former oi which, on its repetition in 1799, named nullification as the proper remedy. 1 o June, Lloyd of Maryland intro- duced a bill (1) declaring France an enemy of the United States, and any one who should uphold her or give her aid or comfort guilty of high treason; (2) defining treason; (3) impos- ing $5,000 fine and six months' to five years' imprisonment on any one conspiring to oppose or impede United States measures, intimidate United States officers, stir up insurrection, etc.; (4) imposing a line of not over $2,000 and im- prisonment for not over two years for any utter- ance or writing tending to justify France, or to di lame United States officials as hostile to popular liberties, etc. It passed the Senate by a heavy majority; the House made important changes in it and passed the altered bill by a scratch. These changes were: (1) Canceling the first two sections altogether; (2) substituting for the fourth, the publishing or printing any false, scandalous, or malicious writings to bring the Government, Congress, or President into contempt or disrepute, excite popular hostility to them, incite resistance to United States laws or encourage hostile designs against the United States, etc. To these, which gave Federal judges power to make any opposition to the ruling party a felony, Bayard of Delaware got two clauses added which drew their teeth: the first making the truth a good defense and juries the judges of the fact; the second restricting the term of operation to 4 March 1801 — that is, till a new administration came in, so that it lid expire with the Federalists if they went out, and the Republicans thus lose the eclat of repealing it. It would naturally be supposed that the Alien Acts, which affected only a few foreigners and no internal liberties, and which as a fact remained entirely unenforced, would have caused little commotion in the Republican party: and that the Sedition Act, which struck at all liberty of free speech or publication, and was contrary to the very basis of free govern- ment, and under which at least six prosecutions and most scandalous performances of one Fed- eral judge took place, would have provoked almost a civil war. The facts are an instructive historical lesson against transferring the ideas of one age to another. The Republicans dis- liked the use of prosecutions under the Sedi- tion Act as a party weapon, and resented Judge n decisions; but it was only as 1 against themselves, not as against civil liberty, that they reprobated it. — neither party had attained to that ideal, — and their chief rhetoric and defiance was directed against the harmless acts which tried to prevent their sup- porting France. It was in crystallizing the spirit of State resistance to national power that the acts have their main importance. Alienation of Estates, comprises any method whereby estates are voluntarily resigned by one and accepted by another, whether that be effected by sale, gift, marriage settlement. devise, or other transmission of property by the mutual consent of the parties. 2 Bl. Com., § 287; 55 N. J. L. 417. The term alienation is particularly applied to absolute conveyances of real property. 1 N. Y. 200, 294. Alienations by deed may be by convey- ances at common law ; which are either original or primary, being those by means of which the benefit or estate is created or first arises; or derivative or secondary conveyances, being those by which the benefit or estate originally created is enlarged, restrained, transferred, or extin- guished; or they may be by conveyances under the statute of uses. The original conveyances are the following: feoffment, gift, grant, lease, exchange, partition. The derivative are release, confirmation, surrender, assignment, defeasance. Those deriving their force from the statute of uses are covenants to stand seized to uses, bar gain and sale, lease and release, deeds to lead cr declare the uses of other more direct convey- ances, deeds of revocation of uses. 2 Bl. Com. ch. 20; 2 VVashb. Real Prop. 600. Alienist. See Psychiatry. Ah Ferrough Bey, Turkish diplomatist: b. Constantinople, 1865. After serving as secre- tary of embassy at Paris, London, and Bucha- rest, as well as councilor of embassy at St. Petersburg, he was promoted to the post of minister-plenipotentiary and envoy-extraordinary to the United States. Besides histories of Arabia and Turkey he has published ( Public and Private International Law.' Aligarh, or Alighur, a town in India, in the Northwest Provinces, in the executive district of the same name, 53 m. N. of Agra. Aligarh is merely a fortress, the town being Coel, distant about two miles and connected with Aligarh by a beautiful avenue. It was formerly of import- ance and was more recently one of Dowlel Rao Sindia's principal depots for military stores. The fort is square, with round bastions, ditch, and glacis, and a single entrance, protected by a strong ravelin. It was taken in 1X03 by Lord Lake. Sindia's commander, Perron (a French- man) having previously surrendered, and the whole district was then added to the British pos- sessions. Since that time the fort has been much improved, and the town made the station of a civil and judicial establishment. Pop. of Coel (1901) 70,127. Aliment. See Food ; Nutrition. Alimentary System, or Gastro-intestinal System, is the collection 1,1' organs in animals that is chiefly concerned in the processes of digestion and nutrition. It is. in man. a highly complicated tube of some thirty or more feet in length, beginning at the mouth, then the ALIMONY — ALISON pharynx, the oesophagus leading into the stom- ach, which organ is a dilated and pouch-like portion of the tube. From the stomach the tube is narrowed into the small intestine, there being some twenty to twenty-five feet of this, divided into three parts, the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum. These three parts are distin- guished the one from the other by means of their minute histological structure. At the end of the ileum the tube once more dilates, a pouch is formed, the appendix vermiformis being situ- ated here, and the large intestine or colon begins. This passes up the right side of the abdomen, constituting the ascending colon; crosses over under the liver high up in the abdomen, about on the level of the umbilicus, the transverse colon; then descends on the left side, to turn at the lower iliac region abruptly backward and into the centre of the body to form the short rectum. The tube terminates at the anus, guarded by two circular muscles known as the sphincters. The number of ac- cessory glands and organs that empty their secretions into the intestinal system is very great. The most important are the salivary glands in the mouth, the digestive glands of the ■ stomach, the liver and pancreas, the secretions of which enter by a common duct just below the stomach, and the intestinal glands. Mucous glands are found throughout the entire length of the intestinal system. The structure of the different portions of the tube is similar, but variations in function pro- duce slight modifications, especially in the mus- cular coats. In general there is a layer of mucous membrane on the interior of the canal ; this is surrounded by a connective-tissue sup- porting framework, and is further strensthened by a varying amount of unstriped muscular tissue. The details of structure will be con- sidered in the descriptions of the several organs. (See Intestine; Stomach.) The work of the alimentary system in the complicated chemical processes of digestion is more fully described in various other articles. See Digestion ; Metab- olism ; Nutrition. Alimony, in law, the allowance, awarded out of her husband's estate, to which a wife is entitled on separation or divorce. Jurisdiction in this matter in England rested with the ec- clesiastical court until 1857, when it was con- ferred upon a court of divorce. In the United States it is vested in the courts of equity. Alimony may be granted by the court during litigation, in which case it is known as pendente /'i the \ liantee expedition, 1873 74. and also in the wai in Egypt in 1882, becoming lieutenant-general in that year. He retired in 1893. Aliza'rin (from alisari, the commercial name of madder in the East), a substance having the formula I rl«0 (OH)>, formerly obtained from the rout of the madder (Rubia tinctoria), but now artificially produced from coal-tar and the refuse from the distillation of crude petroleum. It is used a^ a dye, for producing the color known as " turkey red." Alizarin is of in- to the chemist not only on account of its industrial importance, but also because it was the first vegetable coloring matter to be pro- duced artificially; and the year 1868, in which its synthesis was effected by W. 11. Perkin, nning of a new era in industrial chemistry. In the manufacture of alizarin, anthracene (( ',,11,..) is first prepared from coal-tar, and by oxidation (which it read- ily undergoes under the influence of potassium bichromate or other oxidizing agent) is trans- formed into antbraquinonc, CuHaO* The next step is to sulphonate the substance sc formed. Anthraquinone is remarkably stable toward sul- phuric acid, but combination can be effected by strongly beating a mixture of the two, and a solution of mono- and disulphonic acids of an- thraquinone is the result. The excess of sulphuric acid is then removed, and the sulphonic acids are heated with caustic potash to about 350 F. The mass gradually darkens till it becomes almost Mack, at which stage it dissolves in water with the formation of a rich purple so- lution, from which alizarin can be precipitated in abundance by the addition of sulphuric acid. A similar process was also devised by Perkin, in which the first step is the formation of di- chlorantbracene, C»HgCl:, by treating anthracene with chlorine Subsequent treatment of this body with sulphuric acid gives anthraquinone disulphonic acid. CnHoO:(HSO.i) : . This is fusc the, 11 and qaliy, «ashes»), a term originally used for the soluble part of " pol ashes," but since extended to include the hydrate or oxid of any of the metals lithium, sodium, potassium, caesium and rubidium, or of the radical ammonium. The alkalis possess strongly basic properties, and (with the exception of ammonia) rapidly ab- sorb carbon dioxid from the air, when moist, passing into the form of carbonates. They are all soluble in water, and nearly all of their com- pounds are also soluble. The real nature of the alkalis was first conclusively proved by Sir Humphry Davy when in 1S07 he decomposed potash and soda by means of the electric cur- rent. Alkalis in concentrated solution exert a powerfully corrosive action on the skin, and even in very dilute solution they alter the color of certain vegetable infusions very markedly. This property is utilized for detecting free al- kalis in solutions under examination, strips of bibulous paper impregnated with red infusion of litmus being moistened with the fluid to be tested. An exceedingly small amount of frei alkali will transform the red color to a blue. The alkali metals are all monovalent. The early chemist distinguished another class of substances, somewhat resembling the alkalis, as the "alkaline earths." These include the oxids of calcium, strontium, and barium. The alkaline earths are basic in nature, and differ from the alkalis chiefly in being less soluble. Magnesium is sometimes included among the alkaline earths, but it falls more naturally into the zinc group. See Antacid; Soils. Alkalimetry, that branch of chemistry which treats of the quantitative estimation of alkalis present in a given solution. Sec Anal- ysis, Chemical. Alkaloids, organic bases, forming definite salts with acids and resembling in some respects the metals of the alkalis, hence the name. A number of basic nitrogenous compounds of marked physiological action and somewhat anal- ogous in their chemical composition. It has been proposed to limit the word alkaloid to the group of basic nitrogenous principles found in plants, the somewhat similar bodies found in animals being termed ptomains (q.v. ) and leu- comains (q.v.). (See Animal Alkaloids.) Some even class as alkaloids a series of feebly basic compounds prepared synthetically from the anilines, antipyrine, etc. Alkaloids are here considered in their strict sense as basic nitro- genous principles, products of the metabolism of plants. Distribution. — Alkaloids are widely distrib- uted throughout the plant kingdom; many plants contain them, and some plants contain a large number; opium, Papaver somnifcrum, for in- stance, contains a dozen or more alkaloids. The Cinchona family also contains many. In such cases, however, the alkaloids are, as a rule, very closely related in their chemical structure. Cer- tain plant families contain many, others a few or none. Most of the alkaloids are found in the Dicotyledons, a few only are found in the Monocotyledons, Colchicum, and perhaps some of the Liliacece. The cryptogams do not seem to contain alkaloids in the true sense of the word, although ergot was supposed to contain some principles closely resembling alkaloids. The AL-KHOWARAZMI — ALKMAAR Papaveracca, Solanacccr, and Ranunculacea are particularly rich in alkaloids. The Leguminosea, Rubiacee, and Umbellifera contain many, while the large families of the Composite and Labia- iete contain very few. For the most part similar alkaloids are found in related plants, yet a few widely separated plants contain similar alkaloids, berberin being an example. As to their loca- tion in the plants themselves, alkaloids are found mostly in the fruit and seeds ; many are found in the barks, and some in the roots. They are formed for the most part in the actively grow- ing portions of the plant and are probably katabolic products of the plant metabolism. They are usually found in solutions combined with some plant acid in the cell sap, sometimes dissolved in oils or mucilage, and in many instances are stored up in secretory passages in the plant. As to the role that the alkaloids play in the plant economy it is difficult to state positively: they do not seem to be utilized by the plant as a source of energy and in some instances are even poisonous to the plant itself. One of the services they perform for the plant is to aid it in the struggle for existence by being poisonous to animals. The large quanti- ties found in seeds is evidence for the support of this view. For the most part alkaloids are solid, non- volatile, crystalline bodies, a few being liquid and volatile, that is, arecolin, nicotin, coniin, spartein. The former contain carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. The three latter liquid alkaloids contain no oxygen and have a marked odor; the solid alkaloids possess no odor. With few exceptions the alkaloids are insoluble (or soluble with great difficulty) in water. Chemically the alkaloids are divisible into five provisional groups, although it was at one time held that only those bodies belonging to the Pyridin group should be considered as alka- loids. These groups as classed by Bruhl are (I) the Pyrrolidin group — containing an alka- loid from the coca leaf, hygrin; (2) the Pyridin group, which contains a large number, pilocarpin, pilocarpidin, arecolin, arecain, coniin, conydrin, piperin, nicotin, atropin, hyoscamin, cocain, pelleterein, spartein, cystisin, and others; (3) Chinolin group — containing cinchonin, quinin, cinchonidin, strychnin, brucin, curarin, and others; (4) Isochinolin group — containing the opium alkaloids, morphin, papaverin, narcotin, codein, thebain, hydrocotarnin, hydrastin, can- nabin, berberin, corydalin ; (5) alkaloids of undetermined relationship, a few only being of other than chemical interest, ergotinin, colchicin, veratrin, cevadin, jervin, rubijervin, aspidosper- min, yohimbin. anhalonin, lupinin, gelsemin, aconitin, pseudoaconitin, japaconitin, delphinin, emetin, etc. The internal chemical construction of all the alkaloids is extremely complex; for many it is unknown. Most are tertiary bases ; a few are similar to the secondary amines in structure. Ammonia bases are also present in many. Many alkaloids acted on by strong alkalies are broken up into two components, a basic body and a ni- trogen free, mostly aromatic acid. Most of the alkaloids react similarly to oxidizing agents; nitric acid, chromic acid, potassium ferrocya- nide, and potassium permanganate are the most active. The last makes an efficient chemical antidote for many of them. A few alkaloids have been made synthetically. In the making, however, a related base has been necessary. Physiologically the alkaloids are for the most part very active. Some have very little action, berberin, for example, while aconitin is one of the most toxic of substances. Nearly all of them have a marked affinity for nerve struc- tures, on which a few have markedly poisonous action : some of them attacking the sensory nervous elements more particularly (aconitin, cocain) ; others exerting their greatest activity on the motor nervous structures, sometimes in the muscle plates (coniin, curarin) causing paralysis ; others in the motor cells in the anterior horn cells of the spinal cord (strych- nin). Still others exert their influence on the nerve cells of the brain (morphin, hyoscyamin). History. — The history of the discovery of the alkaloids is about one hundred years old. Der- osne of Paris first isolated from opium in 1803 a salt "of opium," as he termed it. This was a mixture of morphin and narcotin, and in 1806 Sertiirner, a pharmacist of Hanover, first definitely discovered morphin. It was not until 181 7, however, that the discovery was noticed. Following this in rapid succession different alka- loids were isolated, — narcotin and emetin in 1817, veratrin and strychnin in 1818, brucin and piperin in 1819, caffein, cinchonin, and quinin in 1820, and by 1835 at least 30 alkaloids were known. At the present time there are more than 200 known, and new ones are being discovered rapidly ; detailed study of more important alka- loids will be found under their respective heads. See Animal Alkaloids: Plants: Poisons. Bibliography. — 'Introduzione alio Studio de- gli Alcaloidi,' Icilio Guareschi ; translated into German as 'Die Alkaloide,' by Kuntz Krause, is one of the most important of modern works. Also see 'La Constitution Chimique des Alca- loides Vegetaux.' by Ame Pictet (2d ed. 1807 ) : 'Die Pflanzen- Alkaloide,' by J. W. Bruhl (1900). For studies of location in plants, see Rusby & Jelliffe, 'Morphology and Histology of Plants* (1899, with bibliography). Al-Khowarazmi, Arabian mathematician of the 9th century. He was the librarian of Al- Mamun at Bagdad, and also worked in the Bag- dad Observatory, where he carried on his astro- nomical and mathematical researches. Among his writings is a geographical treatise. ' Rasm Al-Ard,' giving the latitude and longitude of all places mentioned. He also wrote several mathematical treatises, including one on Hindu arithmetic, and 'Al Jabr wa'l Muqabalah,' dis- cussing the quadratic equation and other alge- braic problems ; both of these were later trans- lated into Latin, the latter giving algebra its name. See Algepra. History of Elements of, and Arithmetic, History of. Alkmaar, a town of the Netherlands, in the province of North Holland, on the North Holland canal, and 20 m. N.N.W. of Amster- dam. It is regularly built, and its appearance has been much improved by the conversion of its ramparts into public walks. Its finest public buildings are the 15th-century church of St. Lawrence and a richly decorated Gothic town- house. It has manufactures of salt, sail-cloth, etc.. and an extensive trade in cattle, corn, but- ter, and cheese. Among interesting; events in its history arc it* successful defense against the Duke of Alva in 1573. and the invention of dam- ALKORAN — ALLAN ask-weaving by a citizen, Pascbier Lammertyn, in 1595. To the west stood the castle of the counts of Egmont. Pop. (1900) 18,275. Alkoran. See Koran. Al'kyl. the radicals of the alcohols (tor example, methyl CH,; ethyl. C=H,; and propyl, C,H,) are collectively called alkyls. (bee Alcohol.) A compound of an alkyl with a halogen is called an alkylogen ; and the me- tallic alcoholates are frequently called alkox- ids, since they may be regarded as double oxids of a metal and an alcohol radical. All Hallows College, Drumcondra, Dublin. Ireland. The foreign missionary college of All Hallows, as its name implies, was instituted for the exclusive object of educating priests for the foreign missions, for the purpose of supplying with missionary priests those parts of the world where the Gospel had never been preached, lhe missionaries, however, going forth from its halls, were tn have as a primary claim on their attention, the spiritual needs, to speak in native parlance, of the "Irish of the dispersion," who, owing chiefly to the effects of bad laws, had begun at that period to emigrate in large num- bers from Ireland. All Hallows was founded in the year 1842 by the Rev. John Hand, a native of the diocese of Meath, Ireland, then a young man, but a few years previously ordained at Maynooth. It was formally opened on All Saints' Day of that year with only one student, a very small beginning indeed, but it increased in numbers and resources till it is now probably one of the great foreign missionary colleges in the world. It is at present, and has been for some time past, in charge of the Vincentian Fathers, and was never in a more flourishing condition. It shelters within its walls some 300 students, all destined for the foreign missions. It is pleasantly situated at Drumcondra, one of the suburbs of the metropolis, on a demesne of rich land, obtained for it through the efforts of Daniel O'Connell, at that time Lord Mayor of Dublin. A large number of Catholic priests in the United States received their philosophical and theological training at All Hallows. Rev. John Reynolds, Brooklyn, N. Y. Al'lactite, a mineral found in Sweden, and crystallizing in small monoclinic prisms or tab- lets having the composition 7MnO.As:Ob.4H;0. Its hardness is 4.5 and its specific gravity about 3.84. It exhibits double refraction to a marked degree, and varies in color from red to green, according to the direction from which it is viewed. This property has given it its name, "allactite." being derived from a Greek word meaning "to change." The variability in color is due to the varying absorption of the ordinary and extraordinary rays of the incident light. See Physical Crystallography. Allah, in Arabic, the name of God, a word compounded of the article al, and the word Elah. which signifies "the Adored" and "the Adorable," and synonymous with the singular of the Hebrew word Elohim. Allah akbar (God is great") is a Mohammedan war-cry. Allahabad, an ancient city of India, capital of a division and district of the same name, as well as of the whole of the northwest provinces, 72 m. W. of Benares. The native town con- sists largely of mud houses. Its English suburb of Canningtown has much more of a European aspect. Among the remarkable buildings of Allahabad are a large triangular fort, occupy- ing a point of land formed by the junction of the Ganges and Jumna; the Jumna Musjid, or great mosque; the mausoleum of Khosru ; All Saints' Church; the Roman Catholic cathe- dral; the Muir Central College founded in 1S74, the chief educational establishment of the north- west provinces ; the Mayo Memorial and town hall. Allahabad is one of the chief resorts of Hindu pilgrims, who come partly to visit a sa- cred cave under the Chali Saturn temple ( whence it is said there is a subterranean passage to Benares), but chiefly to have their sins washed away by bathing in the waters of the sacred rivers of Ganges and Jumna at their junction, where believers sec a third river, the Sarasw.it i (which is in reality lost in the sands at a dis- tance of 400 miles from Allahabad), mingle its current with those of the other two. A great fair held on 14 December is much attended by pilgrims. There are few manufactures. Alla- habad forms a junction in the railway system between Bengal and Central India, and its trade is rapidly increasing. In the mutiny of 1857 it was the scene of a serious outbreak and mas- sacre. Pop. (1001) 175.750. The division of Allahabad contains the districts of Cawnpur, Futtchpur, Hamirpur, Banda, Jhansi, Jalaun, Lalitpur, and Allahabad. The agriculture of the division is greatly promoted by a canal 310 miles long, connecting the Ganges and the Jumna. About five sixths of the surface is under cultiva- tion, the principal crops being rice, pulse, wheat, tobacco, etc. Pop. (1001) 1.548,737. Allan, Sir Hugh, founder of the Allan line of steamships: b. Scotland, 29 Sept. 1810; d. Edinburgh, 8 Dec. 1882. A clerk with limited education, he emigrated to Canada in 1824, was clerk in Montreal stores, became captain in the rebellion of 1837, and in 1838 succeeded bis late employer as a partner in the shipping and shipbuilding business. In 1853 his firm began building iron screw steamships, and their first vessel, the Canadian, made its first voyage in 1855, two more being used as transports in the Crimean war. The Allan Line, after many disasters, gained a permanent footing, and has been a large element in developing Canadian prosperity. Sir Hugh was one of the projectors of the Canadian Pacific Railway, and prominent in the political investigations to which it led. He was a director in banking, telegraph, gold mining, and other large business enterprises, and was knighted in 1871. Allan, Sir William, a distinguished Scot- tish artist: b. 1782; d. 1850. He was a fellow student with Wilkte in Edinburgh, afterward a student of the Royal Academy, London ; then went to Saint Petersburg and remained for 10 years in the Russian dominions. In 1814 he returned to Scotland and publicly exhibited his pictures, one of which ("Circassian Captives') made his reputation. He now turned his atten- tion to historical painting and produced scenes from Scottish history and battle scenes; among them two pictures of the battle of Water- loo, one from the British, the other from the French position, and delineating the actual scene and the incidents therein taking place at the moment chosen for the representation. One of these Waterloo pictures was purchased by the Duke of Wellington. He traveled ex- ALLAN — ALLEGHENY censively, visiting Italy, Greece, Asia Minor, Spain, and Barbary. In 1835 he became R.A., in 1838 president of the Scottish Academy; in 1842 he was knighted. Allan, William, American military writer: b. Virginia, 1837; d. 1880. He was a lieutenant- colonel in the Confederate army during the Civil War. His works are: 'Jackson's Valley Cam- paign' (1862); 'The Battle-Fields of Virginia' (1867) ; and 'The Army of Northern Virginia.' Al'lanite, a mineral, isomorphous with epidote, and containing rare metals of the Ce- rium and Yttrium groups. It is variable in com- position, but is essentially a silicate of these metals, combined with aluminum, iron, and calcium. It occurs in Norway and Finland, and in the United States in Massachusetts, Connect- icut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and North Carolina; also in Canada. It was named for Thomas Allan, of Edinburgh, who described it in 1808. (Also called orthite.) Allan'toin, a-lan'to-in, a substance found in the allantoic fluid of the cow, in the urine of sucking calves, in the leaf buds of the maple, and in the bark of the horse-chestnut tree. It is readily soluble in alcohol and crystallizes in monoclinic prisms having the formula CH»N,0:,. It may be formed by treating uric acid with boiling water and PbO». Compounds of allantoin with several of the metals are known. Allantois, a structure appearing during the early development of vertebrate animals — reptiles, birds, and mammalia. It is largely made up of blood-vessels, and, especially in birds, attains a large size. It forms the inner lining to the shell, and may thus be viewed as the surface by means of which the respiration of the embryo is carried on. In mammalia the allantois is not so largely developed as in birds, and it enters largely into the formation of the placenta. Al'legan, Mich., town and county-seat of Allegan County, 33 m. S. of Grand Rapids. It is situated on the Kalamazoo River and on the Cincinnati N., Lake Shore & M. S., and the Pere M. R.R.'s. It is m the midst of a fertile re- gion, and a large dam on the river a few miles above the village affords valuable water power. Among its industries are mills of various kinds, carriage works, furniture factories, etc. It con- tains a public library, two banks, court house, city hall, and public schools. First settled in 1834. Pop. (1905) 3.941- Allegation is the assertion, declaration, or statement by a party of what he can prove. Under the reformed method of procedure adopt- ed in nearly if not all of the States of the Union, the general rule that the allegations in the pleadings and the proof must correspond has been greatly relaxed. Under our present system a failure to prove an immaterial aver- ment cannot in general be a material variance at the trial, and will be disregarded. If the substance of the issue be proved it is sufficient, i 1 a contract, for instance, agree in substance and legal effect with that stated in the com- plaint, the variance will be disregarded. Alleghanies, a name sometimes used to designate the entire Appalachian mountain sys- tem, but more properly applied to the western range of this system in Pennsylvania, Mary- land, Virginia, and West Virginia. They begin near the New York and Pennsylvania border — the Catskills forming a northern outline — and extend in a southwesterly direction into West Virginia, where the line of elevations is con- tinued by other ranges across Tennessee. In the northern part the mountains have an ele- vation of about 2.000 feet (over 4,000 feet in the Catskills), but they gradually increase in alti- tude southward until in Virginia they rise to 4.500 feet above the sea. Throughout their ex- tent they present a remarkably even crest-line with few gaps and isolated peaks. On the east- ern side the slope is abrupt to the bottom of the longitudinal valley from 50 to 100 miles wide, winch is limited on the east by the paral- lel range of the Blue Ridge; on the west the elevations fall off more gradually. The range forms the water-parting between the streams draining into the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. The former receives the drainage from the eastern slope principally through the Delaware, Potomac, and James Rivers, while the Ohio River collects most of the waters on the western side. The range has been formed by uplift and folding of sedimentary strata, the abrupt edges of which are turned toward the east. Limestone, sandstones, and conglomerates are the predominant formations and range from the Cambrian to the Carboniferous systems. Im- mense coal-seams occur in the higher part of the series, forming the basis of a great mining industry. See Appalachians. Allegheny, Pa., a large manufacturing and residential city opposite Pittsburg on the right or north bank of the Allegheny river and stretching down along the Ohio river, here formed by the confluence of the Allegheny river with the Monongahela ; connected with Pitts- burg by three wooden and five modern steel bridges crossed by numerous electric rail- ways. Is the home city for a large proportion of the business men of Pittsburg. Although having separate municipal governments Pitts- burg and Allegheny form practically one great citv of over half a million people; their business interests being based upon the same natural ad- vantages and th_' same railroad and river trans- portation facilities being common to both. Interior. — Allegheny has a river frontage of six and one-half miles and an area of over 5,000 acres. Originally laid out upon a small plateau slightly elevated above the river, it has gradually spread out over the surrounding hills which rise seven hundred feet above the river or thirteen hundred feet above sea level. The hi'! districts now made accessible by electric railways form a desirable home section. The city owns its own electric lighting plant and pumps its water from the Allegheny river at Montrose nine miles above the city. Has 180 miles of streets, over 100 miles paved, over 80 miles of sewers and 140 miles of water mains. There are two public parks, Allegheny Park, of 100 acres, in the centre of the city, and River- view Park in the northern district. Th ■ most noteworthy monuments are the Anderson monument at the corner of Federal and Ohio streets, the two most important thor- oughfares, the Humboldt, Armstrong. Wash- ALLEGHENY COLLEGE— ALLEGIANCE ington and Hampton battery in the Allegheny park* and the on a height to the west Education. — An efficient public school sys tern is maintained at a tout $400,000 a year. There arc 27 public school buildings val- ued at over $2,000,000 and attended by 30,000 pupils. Is the seat of the Western (Presbyterian), United Presbyterian, and the Reformed Presby terian Theological Seminaries, and the Western University. I he latter was founded in 1819 and is now attended by over TOO students. Under I iv the famous Allegheny Observatory located on a height in Riverview Park. In con- nection with the public schools a public library of Some 20,000 volumes is maintained, located in the High School Building- The Carnegie Free Library of nearly 60,000 volumes, the lust of the large number of libraries founded bv the munificence of Andrew Carnegie, is located on one of the corners of the public square and is the most conspicuous building in the city. Religion. — There are in churches, the most pron lificeS being St. Peter's ( K. C), Trinity (Ev. l.uthi, North Avenue (M. 1 I, nuel (Trot. Epis.), and Sandusky Street (Bapl Benevolent Institutions. — Three modern well- equipped hospitals arc maintained, viz., Alle- gheny General, Presbyterian, and Saint John's I Lutheran 1. lit orphan asylums and other benevolent institutions the most important are The Home of tiie Friendless, The Orphan I lome for Colored Children, The Orphans' Home on Ridge Avenue, and the Saint Joseph's (R. C.) Orphan Asylum. Also the seat of the Western Penitentiary. Trade and Manufacturing. — The system of slack water navigation now under construction bj the United States government on both the Allegheny and Ohio rivers make this an im- portant shipping centre especially for coal and Other bulky products. The heaviest manufac- tures are those developed by Pennsylvania's coal and iron, foundries and blast furnaces, roll- ing mills, locomotive and car works, machinery, stoves and furnaces, plumbers' goods ; other prod- ucts are gla-s, white lead, and colors. There are also large (four mills and four large pickling and preserving establishments. At one time the city was the centre of the tanning industry of the United States and still has many large tan- neries in operation. In 1000 there were r< ported 893 manufacturing establishments, with 20,804 employes and an output valued at $54,136,067, paying $10,352,502 for wages and using $50,122.- tpital. Finances. — The assessed valuation in "1 ' was over $95,000,000. The city's expenditures are over $2,500,000 a year, of which $400,000 goes for schools ami $150,000 each for the police and tire departments. There ire ten banks with an aggregate capital and surplus of ?7.ooo,ooo. ernment. — The executive power ; s ■, in a iii:!< I for a three year term. The mayor appoints all the minor city officials and employes. The legislative power is vested in the city council of two chambers. History and Population. — The settlement was laid out in 1788 and incorporated as a bor- ough in [828. The first settlers consisted largely of Scotch-Irish, later reinforced by a large in- tlux of German immigrants. In 1S40 it had a population of 10,089 and was granted a city charter. Its population according to the census of 1900 was [29,896 and Us estimated population now (1906) is 145,000. Its greatest disasters were m 1S74: a lire on July 4th wholly 01 par- tially destroyed 199 buildings, and three weeks later a heavy local flood swept away much prop- erty and cost 124 lues. EDWARD E. Eg< Librarian Carnegie Free Library, Alleghi Allegheny College, a co-educational (.Methodist Episcopal) institution in Meadville, P ; organized in 1815 reported at the cud of 1905: Professors, 16; students, 290; volumes in the library, 20,000; grounds and buildings val- ued at $200,000; productive funds, $450,000; in- come, $42,500; graduates, [,386. Allegheny River, a river of Pennsylvania an 1 Xew York; a headstream of the Ohio. It rises in Potter County, Pa., and joins the Mo- nongahela at Pittsburg. Among us tributaries are French Creek ami Clarion and Conemaugh rivers. Its length is about 400 miles, and it is navigable for about 150 miles above Pittsburg. Allegiance is the obligation of fidelity anJ obedience which an individual owes to the government under which he lives, ,,r to Ins sovereign in return for the protection he re- ceives. It may be an absolute and permanent obligation, or it may hi- qualified and tempo- rary one. The citizen or subject owes an abso- lute ami permanent allegiance to bis govern- ment or sovereign, or at least until, by some open and distinct act, he renounces it and be- comes a citizen or subject of another govern- ment or another sovereign. While domiciled in this country the alien owes a temporary and h cal allegiance which continues during the period of his residence. Publicists and statesmen everywhere recog- nize this obligation of temporary allegiance by an alien resident in a friendly country. In the case of Thrasher, a citizen of the I'niled States resident in Cuba, who complained of in- juries suffered from the government of that is- land, Mr. Webster, then secretary of state, made in 1851 a report to the President in answer to a resolution of the House of Representatives, in which he said: "Every foreigner hom, residing in a country, owes to thai country allegiance and obedience to its laws so long as he remains in it. as a duty upon him by the mere fact of his residence and that temporary protection which he enjoys, and is as much bound to obej its laws as native subjects or citizens This is the universal understanding in all civilized states, and nowhere a more established doctrine than in this country." Acquired allegiance is that kind id allegiance which binds a citizen who was born an alien. but has been naturalized. Local allegiance is that which is due from an alien while resident in a country, in return for the protection afforded by the government. Natural allegiance is that which results from the birth of a person within the territory and under the obedience of the government. It was at one time a fundamental principle of the com- mon law of England that natural allegiance was perpetual and could not be renounced without consent of the sovereign. The same doctrine . maintained in the United States for some years. This principle has, however, been re- ALLEGORY — ALLEN puditfted by statute in both countries. The act of Congress enacted 27 July 1868 declared that « the right of expatriation is a natural and in- herent right of all people, indispensable to the enjoyment of the right of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. The British Naturaliza- tion Act of 1870 has practically the same provi- sions. The fourteenth amendment to the Con- stitution of the United States provides that '■ all persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside." The consequence of this amendment is that the individual owes allegiance to the State in which he resides, and to the Federal government, his duty to the lat- ter being paramount. Allegory (from Greek alio, something else, and agoreuein, to speak), a figurative represen- tation, in which the signs (words or forms) sig- nify something besides their literal or direct meaning, each meaning being complete in itself. In rhetoric, allegory is often but a continued simile. Parables and fables are a species of allegory ; for example, the beautiful parable in one of the tales in the 'Arabian Nights,' in which the three religions, the Mohammedan, Jewish, and Christian, are compared to three similar rings, bequeathed to three brothers by their father. Sometimes whole works are alle- gorical, as ' Reynard the Fox,' Spenser's faerie Queene,' and Bunyan's 'Pilgrim's Progress.' When an allegory is thus continued through long works it is indispensable to its success that not only the allegorical meaning should be appropriate, but that the story should have an interest of its own in the direct mean- ing apart from the allegorical signification. There was a time when every poem was taken as an allegory; even such works as those of Ariosto and Tasso were tortured from their true meaning and made to pass for allegorical pictures. No poet has made use of allegory in a more powerful and truly poetical manner than the great Dante. Allegory is often made use of in painting and sculpture as well as in literature. Allegri, Gregorio, an Italian composer and a singer in the papal chapel, considered one of the most excellent composers of his time : b. Rome about 1580 (according to others 1590) ; d. there 1652. His "Miserere" has particularly distinguished him. It is even now regularly sung during Passion Week in the Sistine Chapel at Rome. Its subject is the fifty-seventh psalm ( which in the Latin version begins with the word Miserere), and is composed for two choruses in five- and in four-part harmony. This composi- tion was once esteemed so holy that whoever ventured to transcribe it was liable to excom- munication. In 1770 Mozart, then only 14 years of age, disregarded this prohibition, and after two hearings made a correct copy of the original. Allegro, an Italian word signifying gay, and used in music to express a more or less quick rate of movement. The degrees of quick- ness are indicated by additional qualifying words or by derivatives of the word allegro. thus allegretto or poco allegro means rather lively; allegro moderato, commotio, giusto, mod- erately quick ; allegro maestoso, quick but with dignity; allegro assai and allegro molto, very quick ; allegro con brio or con fuoco, with fire and energy: allegnssimo. with the utmost ra- pidity. Pm allegro is a direction to play or sing a little quicker. Presto indicates a still quicker rate than allegro, but there is usually also this difference between the presto and allegro move- ments, that the former demands nothing more than rapid execution, while the latter requires to be performed with expression as well as quick- ness. The first movement of a symphony and other similar compositions is called the allegro. See Music. Alleine, Joseph, English nonconformist clergyman: b. Devizes, 1634; d. Taunton, 17 Nov. 1668. Educated at Oxford, he became as- sistant at St. Mary Magdalene's Church, Taun- ton, in 1655, but was ejected for nonconformity in 1662. He was the author of 'An Alarm to the Unconverted.' Allemontite, a tin-white, metallic mineral, regarded as a native alloy of arsenic and anti- mony. SbAs 3 . It usually occurs in fine-gran- ular or mammillary forms. Its hardness is 3.5 and specific gravity about 6.20. It is found at Allemont in France, also in Bohemia and Ger- many. Allen, Alexander Viets Griswold, Protes- tant theologian: b. Otis, Mass., 4 May 1841. Graduated Kenyon College. O.. 1862. Andover Theological Seminary, 1865 ; rector St. John's Episcopal Church, Lawrence, Mass., 1865-7; professor of church history. Episcopal Theo- logical School, Cambridge, since 1867. A prom- inent leader in modern religious thought ; he has written 'Continuity of Christian Thought' (1884); 'Life of Jonathan Edwards' (1889); 'Religious Progress' (1893) ; 'Christian In- stitutions' (1897) ; 'Life and Letters of Phil- lips Brooks' (1900). Allen, Alfred, author and playwright: b. Alfred. X. V.. 8 April 1866. He graduated at Alfred University, studied at the Johns Hop- kins and Columbia universities and the Ameri- can Academy of Dramatic Arts in which last he is now a professor. His plays are 'Jack the Giant Killer' ; 'A Burglar Honeymoon' ; Playmates' ; and 'Head of the House' : all have been produced on the stage. Novels: 'The Heart of Don Vega' : 'Judge Lynch" ; 'The Cup of Victory* (with Richard Hovey). Allen, Charles Grant Blairfindie. See Allen, Grant. Allen, Charles Herbert, American diplo- matist : b. Lowell. Mass.. 15 April 18 fi. He gradu- ated at Amherst 1869: associated with his father in the lumber business in Lowell ; served in bath branches of the State legislature, and in Congress in 1885-9: was defeated as Republican candidate for governor of Massachusetts, 1891 ; .and succeeded Theodore Roosevelt as assistant secretary of the navy in May 1898. On the pas- sage by Congress of the Porto Rico tariff and civil government bill, in April 1900, the Presi- dent appointed him the first civil governor of Porto Rico: he resigned July 1901. Allen, David Oliver, missionary: b. Barre, Mass., 1S00; d. Lowell. Mass.. 17 July 1863. He was graduated at Amherst College in 1823; ALLEN and became- a missionary in western India 1827- 53. He established schools in the province of Bombay, wrote tracts in Mahratta, and edited a new translation of the Bible in that language. He also wrote a ' History of India, Ancient and Modern ' (1856). Allen, Ebenezer, American soldier: b. Northampton, Mass., 17 Oct. 1743; d. 26 March 1806. He emigrated to Vermont in 1771, and was made a lieutenant in Col. Seth Warner's regiment of * Green Mountain Boys." In 1776 he was a delegate to the conventions in the New Hampshire grants, and in 1777 to those which declared the State independent and framed its Constitution. In July of that year he was made captain in Merrick's battalion of « Rangers," and took an active part in the battle of Bennington; in September he captured Mount Defiance; and ik titty prisoners among the troops retreat- ing from Ticonderoga. He afterward became major and continued to win distinction during the war. He lived at Burlington in his later years. Allen, Edward Patrick, an American Roman Catholic clergyman: b. Low ill. Mass, 17 March 1853. He worked in the Lowell mills as a boy, acquiring bis early education at an evening school and from local priests; graduated ai Mount St. Mary's College, Emtnitsburg, Md., in 1878; took a course in theology; was ordained a priest in 1881 ; was president of Mount St. Mary's College in 1884-^97 ; and on 16 May 1897 was consecrated fifth bishop of Mobile, Ala. Allen, Elisha Hunt, American legislator and diplomat : b. New Salem, Mass., 28 Jan. 1804; d. 1 Jan. 1883. Graduating at Wil- liams College, 1823, he became a lawyer at Brat- tleboro, Vt., but soon removed to Bangor. Me., and was a member of the Maine legislature 1834-41, and speaker in 1838. He was elected rep- resentative to Congress in 1841. Removing to Boston in 1847, be was elected to the Massachu- setts legislature in 1849. Appointed consul at Honolulu in 1852, he held that post till 1856, and thence till 1876 was chancellor, minister of finance, and chief justice of the Hawaiian king- dom. Several times during that period and from 1876 onward he was its minister to the United States and died in Washington, dean of the dip- lomatic corps. Allen, Elizabeth Akers (Chase), Ameri- can poet : b. Strong, Me., 9 Oct. 1832. She was married in i860 to Paul Akers, the sculptor, who died in 1861 ; and in 1865 to E. M. Allen of New York. Her first volume, ( Forest Buds,' appeared under the pen name of « Florence Percy") (1855). Other works: 'The Silver Bridge and Other Poems ' (1866) ; a volume of 1 Poems' (1866), which contains 'Rock Me to Sleep, Mother ' (her authorship of this pop- ular ballad, once disputed, is proved in the New York Times, 27 May 1867); ' The High Top Sweeting and other Poems* (1891), 'Sunset- Song' (1902). Allen, Ethan, American soldier: b. Litch- field, Conn., 10 Jan. 1737; d. 13 Feb. 1789. About 1769 he removed to Bennington, Vt. The Vermont territory had been given by the Crown to both New Hampshire and New York under conflicting grants; and when the dispute was settled (1764) in favor of New York, Gov. Went worth of New Hampshire had already granted 128 townships, and continued to grant others up to the Revolution. New York at once proceeded to re-grant the same territory, but the indignant settlers drove out the surveyors, ap- plying the "beech seal" (fresh-cut rods) to enforce their withdrawal. The English gov- ernment ordered the status quo to be respect ed by New York, and further disorders averted by granting only ungranted lands; the New York authorities continued to send surveyors, their grantees persisted in attempting to take possession of their lands, and the New Hamp- shire grantees continued to eject both deputy sheriffs and claimants by armed force and to chastise them besides. Allen at once took part in the dispute and soon became a leader : an athletic and adventurous giant, he was now in his element. In 1770 he was appointed agent for the settlers at Albany, where they were to plead their rights; the decision went against them, and a fresh attempt being made to enforce New York rights, the settlers raised a regi- ment for defense, called " Green Mountain Boys,» of which Allen was made colonel. Tryon of New York, historically more re- nowned for vanity and bad temper than ability or success, proclaimed him an outlaw and of- fered £150 for his capture: but under Allen, Seth Warner, and other able partisan chiefs the settlers held New York at bay. Allen in 1774 answered publications in defense of the New York claims by a tract defending the Ver- monters, reprinted in 1779. When the Revolu- tion broke out Congress ordered Arnold to raise troops and seize the British fortresses on the New York border: but the Vermonters fore- stalled them by collecting a force of (< Green Mountain Boys » at Castleton, Vt., under Allen's command, which on 10 May 1775, captured Ti- conderoga and its garrison without a combat, and shortly after Crown Point and Skenes- borough (Whitehall), giving them a mass of stores and the command of Lake Champlain. This action moved Congress to grant them the same pay as Continental soldiers, and to recom- mend the New York Assembly to employ them in the army under their own- officers. Allen and Warner journeyed thither and asked admittance to the session: and after some grumbling over receiving proclaimed felons a heavy majority voted to admit Allen, and later to raise a regi- ment of Green Mountain Boys. Allen wrote a letter of thanks, and proposed an invasion of Canada, which was rejected. He then joined Schuyler's army as a volunteer, was sent on secret missions to Canada, meeting on the last one Col. John Brown, who agreed to join him in an invasion of Canada. Fort Chambly was captured; but Brown left Allen in the lurch at the attack on Montreal, and Allen was taken prisoner 25 September and sent to England. He was chained and treated with great severity, but after some months was sent to Halifax, N. S., and exchanged 6 May 1778. On returning to Ver- mont he was appointed commander o-f the mi- litia, and Congress made him lieutenant-colonel in the regular army. The old land-grant feud still raged, and in the attempted British intrigue (1780-3) to have Vermont annex itself to Can- ada as a protection against New York. Allen paralyzed British military action by professing to consider a bribe for favorable action ; later he was charged with treason, but the charge was ALLEN not sustained. He settled in Bennington and finally in Burlington, where he died. He was a member of the legislature ; and after the war was a delegate to Congress, where he worked for the admission of Vermont as a State, which it had been by self-proclamation since 1777. It was not till 1789, however, that New York waived its claims, and Allen did not live to see the result. He wrote the story of his cap- tivity (1779) ; and ' Reason the Only Oracle of Man' (1784). being a deist of the Paine stripe. (See Sparks' ' Life, ' and Henry Hall's ' Ethan Allen,' 1892.) Allen, Frederick De Forest, classical scholar: b. Oberlin, Ohio, 1844; d. Cambridge, Mass., 4 Aug. 1897. He graduated at Oberlin College 1863, and studied at Leipsic. From 1866 to 1880 he held professorships in the uni- versities of Tennessee, Cincinnati, and Yale. In 1880 he accepted the chair of classical philology at Harvard, holding it until his death. He published an edition of Euripides' ' Medea ' (1876), ( Remnants of Early Latin' (1880), a revision of Hadley's ' Greek Grammar' (1884), and ' Greek Versification in Inscriptions ' (1880); besides contributing many papers to classical journals and editing numerous classics. Allen, Fred Hovey, author and Congrega- tional clergyman : b. Lyme, N. H.. 1 Oct. 1845. He graduated at Hartford Theological Semi- nary and studied abroad. Later he became pas- tor at Boston and Abingdon, Mass.. and edi- tor of the Suffolk County Journal, Boston, and a lecturer on art. He has published : 'Modern German Masters' (1885); 'Recent German Art' (1885); 'Great Cathedrals of the World' (1886); 'Popular History of the Reformation' (1887); and edited numerous art works. Allen, George William, Canadian states- man: b. Toronto 1822. Called to the bar in 1846 he became senator in 1867. For many years he was chairman of the Committee on Banking and Commerce. In 1891 he became member of the Queen's privy council for Canada. He pre- sented the city of Toronto with the ground on which is built the Canadian Institute. He was for a long time chancellor of the University of Toronto. Allen, Grant (Charles Grant Blair- fixdie Allen), essayist, novelist, naturalist: b. Kingston, Canada, 24 Feb. 1848; d. London, 25 Oct. 1899. He graduated at Oxford in 187 1. and for a time was professor of logic and philosophy in Jamaica, but spent the greater part of his life in England. Widely known as a scientist in several departments, he aimed to popularize sci- ence, and his brilliant style contributed greatly to his success in this respect. His score or so of novels and works of light fiction attained great popularity, but though entertaining have only an ephemeral value. His outspoken agnos- ticism is reflected in many of his writings. In science his chief titles are, < Physiological /Es- thetics ' (1877); 'The Color Sense' (1879); ' Evolutionist at Large ' (1881) ; ' Flowers and Their Pedigrees' (1883); 'Charles Darwin' ( 1885) ; < Force and Energy ' (1888) ; < Story of the Plants' (1896) ; < Evolution of the Idea of God' (1897). In fiction the following were most widely read. ' This Mortal Coil ' (1888) : ' The Great Taboo ' ( 1890) ; ' The Duchess of Powysland ' (1891) ; < The Woman Who Did' (1895); 'The British Barbarians' (1895); 'Under Sealed Orders' (1896). Allen, Harrison, anatomist: b. Philadel- phia. 17 April 1844; d. there, 14 Nov. 1897. He graduated M.D. at the University of Penn- sylvania 1861 ; was assistant surgeon in the United States army 1862-5 : professor of comparative anatomy and medical zoology in the University of Pennsylvania 1865-78, and of physiology 1878-95. He was the author of numerous articles and books on the subjects connected with his professorship, and of ' Stud- ies in the Facial Region ' (1874) ; ' Analysis of the Life Form in Art' (1875); 'System of Human Anatomy' (1880). Allen, Henry, religious enthusiast: b. New- port. R. I., 14 June 1748; d. Northampton, N. H, 2 Feb. 1784. He was founder of the sect known as " Allenites " and made numerous converts in Nova Scotia. He asserted that Adam and Eve before the fall had not corporeal bodies, that the Bible is to be interpreted wholly in a mystic or spiritual sense, and denied the doc- trine of the resurrection of the body. He was an eloquent preacher and published some sermons and hymns. Allen, Henry Watkins, American soldier and public officer : b. Prince Edward County, Va., 29 April 1820; d. 22 April 1866. He removed in early youth to Missouri, where he was sent to Marion College ; he subsequently became a teacher in Grand Gulf, Miss., studied law and entered practice there. He raised a company for Houston's Texas war against Mexico ; and after the war was over resumed practice, and was sent to the legislature in 1846. Settling in Baton Rouge, he was elected to the Louisiana legislature in 1853. In 1859 he went to Italy, to share her struggle for independence against Austria : but arriving after it was over, made a tour of Europe, which he described in < Travels of a Sugar Planter.' He was elected to the leg- islature in his absence. He was one cf the Southern Whigs who joined the Democrats after the party break-up caused by the Kansas-Ne- braska bill. At the opening of the War he was commissioned by the Confederacy lieu- tenant-colonel; later colonel, and military gov- ernor at Jackson. He was wounded at Shiloh ; constructed fortifications at Vicksburg ; was dis- abled at Baton Rouge ; made brigadier-general September 1864 ; and shortly after elected gov- ernor of Louisiana. He was a vigorous and efficient magistrate, with almost dictatorial powers. After the War he migrated to Mexico and started the (English) Mexico Times in the city of Mexico, where he died. Allen, Horace N., American minister: b. Delaware. Ohio, 23 April 1858. He graduated at Ohio Wesleyan University, and after a medical course went to China as Presbyterian missionary. Going to Korea in 1884 he was in Seoul at the time of the coup d'etat of that year and saved the life of a prince related to the queen : he was thereupon made court physician and allowed to establish a hospital under government orders. He came to Washington in 1887 with the first Korean legation, and returned in 1890 as United States secretary of legation : won great confi- dence for sagacity and acquaintance with Korea and in 1897 was made I'nited States minister ALLEN •here. He has written ' Korean Tales ' : a chronological index of Korea's foreign relations; and many papers for the ' Korean Repository' and the ' Transactions of the Foreign Society of Korea.' Allen, Horatio, American engineer: b. Schenectady, X. Y., iSoj; d. i muting at Columbia University in 1823, in 1826 lie was resident engineer on the summit level of the Delaware & Hudson Canal, and was sent to Eng- land m [828 to buy locomotives for its proposed railway. In 1829 he made the first locomotive trip in America at Honcsdale, Pa., with the ' Stourbridge Lion.' He was chief engineer, ■ (. of the Smith Carolina Railway, then the 1 line in the world: and in 1838-42 was chief assistant engineer of the Croton Aqueduct. He was chief engineer and afterward president of the Erie Railway, consulting engineer of the Panama Railway and the Brooklyn Bridge; president of the American Society of Civil En- gineers 1872-3. He invented the swivel car- truck. Allen, Ira, younger brother of Ethan (q.v.) and a "Green Mountain Boy": b. Corn- wall, Conn., 21 April 1751 ; d. 7 Jan. 1814. lie went to Vermont in 1772 and was an active sup- porter of Ethan in the "■ beech seal " proceedings. He was a member of the Vermont legislature 1776-7, and of the Vermont Constitutional Con- vention 1778 : v as its first secretary of state, then its treasurer, and surveyor-general. He was in the battle of Bennington, 1777. In 1780-1 he was a Vermont commissioner to Congress to contest the New York land claim. In 1789 he aided in organizing the University of Vermont; and in 1 702 was a delegate to the convention that ratified the United States Constitution after Ver- mont's admission as a State. In 1705. as senior major-general of militia, he went to France and bought arms to be sold to the State; but in re- turning was captured by an English cruiser, taken to England, and charged with supplying the Irish rebels with arms, and only won his suit after eight years. Imprisoned in France in 1798 he returned to the United States in 1801. He wrote ' The Natural and Political His- tory of Vermont ' (London 1798) ; ' Statements Appended lo the Olive Branch' (.1807). Allen, James Lane, American novelist: b. near Lexington, Ky., 1840. He was educated at Transylvania University in his native' State and uccessively an instructor in Kentucky Uni- versity and Bethany College. Wot Virginia. In 1886 he removed to New York city and has since devoted himself entirely to literary pur- suits. In his short stories and novels he has v employed a Kentucky background, and his finished literary style, though somewhat too highly elaborated for the taste of the average reader, has been much admired by the more critical. His prose is characterized by a markedly poetic cast, and his realism is of that under kind which concerns itself with es- sential truths rather than with photographic fidelity to local types. His published books com- prise: * Flute and Violin > (T891) ; ( The Blue Grass Region and Other Sketches' (1892); < John Gray, a Novel > (1893) ; ( A Ken- tucky Cardinal' (1894); < Aftermath > (1895); ' A Summer in Arcady ' (1896); 'The Choir Invisible ' an expanded version of ' John Gray' 1 18071 : ' The Reign of Law ' (1900). Allen, Jerome, American educator: b. Westminster West, \'t., 1830; d. 1894. He grad- uated at Amherst 1851 ; was professor and prin- cipal of several Western institutions thence till 1885; professor of pedagogy at the University of New York 1887-93. He was the chief agei in founding the New York School of Pedagogy and became its dean in 1889. He wrote < Handbook of Experimental Chemistry ' ; ' Methods for Teachers in Grammar'; ' Mind Studies for Young Teachers ' ; and ' Tempera- ment in Education.' Allen, Joel Asaph, naturalist: b. Spring- field. Mass., 19 July 1838. He studied under Agassiz at Harvard; took part in scientific ex- peditions to Brazil, the Rocky Mountains, and Florida 1865-9; was chief of the scientific party accompanying the Northern Pacific railroad survey 1873; and curator of vertebrate zo- ology in the American Museum of Natural His tory, New York, since 1885. He is author of ' Monographs of North American Rodentia' (with E. Cones, 1877) ; ' History of North Amer- ican Pinnipedes ' (1880): editor of 'Bulletin of Nuttall "Ornithological Club' (1876-83), and of its successor, ' The Auk ' (1884-1901 ) ; and has written hundreds of minor articles on orni- thology and mammalogy. Allen, Sir John Campbell, Canadian jurist: b. Kingslear, N. B., October [817 ; d. Fredericton, N. B., 27 Sept. 1898. He was member of the New Brunswick House of Assembly 1850-115; solicitor-general 1856-7; speaker 1863-5; attor- ney-general 1865. He opposed the confed eration of the Maritime Provinces and Canada. He was chief justice of the supreme court 1875-96. and was knighted by the queen 1889. His ' Law Reports ' (6 vols.) and rules of the supreme court and acts of assembly : ting to the practice of the courts are ranked highly. Allen, John Romilly, English civil neer and archaeologist: b. London, 9 June 1847. Educated at Rugby and King's College, Loud' n, he became resident engineer on Baron de Ren- te r's Persian railways, and on the construction of the docks at Leith and at Boston, Lincoln- shire. Has lectured on archaeology at Edin- burgh University College. London. His published books arc : ' Design and Construction of Dock Walls ' (1876) ; < Christian Symbolism in Great Britain' (1887); 'Monumental History of the Early British Church > (1889) : ' Early Christian Monuments of Scotland ' ' '003). Allen, Joseph Henry, Unitarian clergyman and author: b. Northborough, Mass.. 21 Aug. 1821 ; d. Cambridge, Mass., 20 March 1898. He graduated at Harvard 1840, and at its divin- ity school 1843. and tilled pastorates at North- borough. Roxbury, Mass.. Washington, D. C, Bangor. Me., and other places till 1878. For twelve yeai - he was editor of the ' Christian Ex- aminer.' He was also lecturer on ecclesiastical history at Harvard 1878-82, editor of the < Uni- tarian Review ' 1887-98. and a prolific writer on religious and philosophical subjects. His chief works are: 'Ten Discourses on Orthodoxy' (1841JI: 'Hebrew Men and Times' (1861); ' Christian History in its Three Great Pe- riods ' (3 vols. 1880-2) ; ' Positive Religion ' (1892) ; ' Unitarianism Since the Reforma- tion ' (1894); translations of Renan's ' Anti- ALLEN Christ,' 'Origins of Christianity,' and 'His- tory of the People of Israel.' A Latin grammar and other schoolbooks, prepared in collaboration with Prof. J. B. Greenough, are extensively used. Allen, Karl Ferdinand, Danish historian: b. Copenhagen, 23 April 181 1 ; d. there, 27 Dec. 1871. He became professor of history and northern archaeology at the University of Co- penhagen in 1862. His principal works are : 'Handbook of the History of the Fatherland' (1840), very democratic in tone, and 'History of the Three Northern Kingdoms' (1864-72). Allen, Richard, preacher: b. 1760; d. Phil- adelphia, 26 March 1831. He organized the first church for colored people in the United States and was elected first bishop of the African Methodist Episcopal Church, 1816. Allen, Robert, American soldier: b. Ohio about 1815; d. Geneva, Switzerland, 1886. Graduating at West Point in 1836, he was second lieutenant in the Seminole war, assistant quar- termaster in the Mexican war, brevetted major for conduct at Cerro Gordo, and was in the bat- tles that led to the capture of the City of Mexico. Appointed chief quartermaster of the Pacific di- vision, he was transferred to Missouri at the outbreak of the Civil War, with headquarters in St. Louis, in charge of supplies and transporta- tion for armies in the Mississippi Valley. He was made colonel in 1862, brigadier-general of volunteers 1863, brevet brigadier-general in the regular army 1864, brevet major-general 1865. From November 1863 to 1866 he was chief quartermaster of the Mississippi Valley with headquarters at Louisville, outfitted Sher- man's march across country to Chattanooga, and the Kentucky, Virginia, and North Carolina expeditions. After serving a second time as chief quartermaster of the Pacific division he was retired in 1878. Allen, Thomas, landscape and animal painter: b. St. Louis, 19 Oct. 1849. He studied at Washington University, graduated at Royal Academy of Diisseldorf, and studied in France three years. Has frequently exhibited at the Paris salons and was a judge of awards at the World's Fair, Chicago, 1893. His studio is in Boston, Mass. Allen, Viola, American actress: b. 1867; made her debut at the age of 15 at Madison Square Theatre, N. Y., in 'Esmeralda.' She has played leading classical, Shakespearean, and comedy roles with Lawrence Barrett, Salvini. Joseph Jefferson, and W. J. Florence. Between 1893-1900 created and played parts in 'Sowing the Wind.' 'The Masqueraders,' 'Under the Red Robe,' and starred in Hall Caine's 'Chris- tian' and F. M. Crawford's 'In the Palace of the King.' Allen, Walter, American author and jour- nalist: b. Boston, Mass., 21 March 1840. He graduated at Yale in 1863 ; served in the pay- master's department of the navy, 1864-5 1 has been connected with leading newspapers in Portland, Me., Cincinnati, Boston, and New York, and contributed to the periodicals : and was appointed by President Hayes to investigate the condition of the Ponca Indians. He was as- sistant editor of Webster's International Diction- ary and author of 'Governor Chamberlain's Administration in South Carolina' and 'Life of Gen. U. S. Grant.' Allen, William, Cardinal, English ecclesi- astic: b. 1532 in Lancashire, studied at Oxford and was Fellow of Oriel College. Owing to the persecution of Catholics under Queen Elizabeth he left England, and in 1568 he, with the assist- ance of Dr. Vendeville, founded an English College at Douay, where aspirants to the priest- hood might obtain the instruction denied to them at home. During the first five years of its existence, this college trained and sent back to England over 100 priests. Another of his claims to the gratitude of English-speaking Catholics is that while professor at Douay. in collaboration with Gregory Martins and Richard Bristow he translated the Bible from the Latin Vulgate into English. This translation is known as the Douay Bible (q. v.) and is the one generally used by Catholics in England and America. Allen, William, American preacher and miscellaneous writer: b. Pittsfield, Mass., 2 Jan. 1784; d. Northampton, Mass., 16 July 1868. He became president of Dartmouth Uni- versity in 1817, and was president of Bowdoin College 1820-39. Of numerous works, both in prose and verse, the best known is 'American Biographical and Historical Dictionary' (3d ed. 1857). Allen, William, American public official: b. Edenton. N. C, 1806; d. 11 July 1879. He studied law at Chillicothe, Ohio, was admitted to the bar at 21, and in three years had become noted as a coming leader. In 1832 he was elected (Democratic! member of Congress by one vote, the youngest member of the Twenty- second Congress. He was a leading champion of his party ; took an active part in the 1836 can- vass for Van Buren. and was given the United States senatorship by the Democrats at the earli- est age of any senator before or since. He was re-elected in 1843. and in 1848 was tendered the nomination for the Presidency by the supporters of both Cass and Van Buren, but refused from loyalty to Cass. After the expiration of his term Mr. Allen took no further part in public life for nearly a quarter of a century, till 1873, when he was elected governor of Ohio : again nominated in 1875 as a "rag-money" champion, he was defeated by Rutherford B. Hayes. His stentorian voice gave him the Congressional nickname of the "Ohio Gong" : and he is cred- ited with the famous slogan of the cam- paign of 1844 on the question of the northwest- ern boundary', "Fifty-four forty or fight." Allen, William Francis, historian and es- sayist : b. Northborough, Mass., 5 Sept. 1830 ; d. 9 Dec. 1889. He graduated Harvard in 185 1 : studied at Berlin, Gottingen. and Rome. 1854^6: was professor of Latin and history in the Uni- versity of Wisconsin 1867-89 and is noted as a scholar of wide and varied attainments, equally strong in the linguistic, historical, and archae- ological sides of his subjects. A list of his writings covers thirty i2mo. pages. Three of especial interest may be found in the Transac- tions of the American Philological Association for the years given: 'The Battle of Mons Graupius 1 (1880) ; 'Lex Curiata dc Imperii)* (1888): 'The Monetary Crisis in Rome, A.n. 33' (1887). Allen, William Henry, American naval officer: b. Providence, R. I., 1784: d. 1S13. He entered the navy in 1800 and served in some of the greatest naval battles in American history. ALLEN — ALLIANCE OF THE REFORMED CHURCHES For bravery displayed on the Chesapeake and United States he was made commander of the brie Argus in June 1813. He did great damage jhsh commerce in the Irish Channel, cap- turing in a month 27 ships. In a few days the Argus was taken by the English brig Pelican. In the battle Allen was shut, died soon after- ward, and was buried with military honors in Plymouth, England. Allen, William Vincent, American politi cian : 1). 1847; leader in the People's or Populist party; became senator from Nebraska in [893. In the memorable special session of 1893 he took a prominent part in opposing the repeal of the silver purchase act. lie was chairman of the Populist national convention of 1896, and instrumental in obtaining us indorsement of William Jennings Bryan for President. Allen, Willis Boyd, American writer: b. Maine. [855. Besides a collection of verse, en- titled 'In the Morning, ' he has written several books for young people, including 'The Red Mountain of Alaska,' 'Pine Cones,' (1885); 'Silver [tags' (1886), 'Kelp.' 'Navy Blue' ( 1888) ; 'The Mammoth-Hunters.' Allen, Zachariah, American inventor: b. Providence. R. 1.. 15 Sept. 1705; d. 17 March 1882. He was graduated at Brown University in 1813, and was admitted to the bar in 1815, but soon turned his attention to manufacturing. He traveled ir Europe 1825, to study manu- facturing methods, and on his return published the 'Practical Tourist.' He invented in 1S21 the first hot-air furnace for household use; in 1833 the automatic cut-off valve for steam en- gine- ; and later an improved lire engine, ex- tension rollers, and a storage system for water- power. He first suggested the system of inn tual mill insurance, and drafted laws to regu- late the sale of explosive oils. He was the first to compute the motive power of Niagara. He was a member from 1822 and president from 1880 of the Rhode Island Historical So- ciety. He published 'The Science of Mechan- ic-' (1829); 'Philosophy of the Mechanics of Nature' (1851); \c posits of limestone, iron ore. /me. cement, etc., added to its increasing importance in trade and wealth. An inadequate water supply, one of its chief drawbacks, was removed in 1828 by the organization of a water company, and the city now owns and operates its water-works. In 1838 the original name of the town wa- restored, and in 1807 it received a special charter. Allentown now rank- Second only to Pater-011 in the United State- for th. manufacture of silks, and has considerable manufactures of iron and steel, furniture, ce- ment, thread, and cigars. The large court- house, tine hospital, spacious prison, and other public buildings are of hewn limestone. The numerous educational establishments include Muhlenberg College, a Lutheran institution founded in 1867; the Allentown College for Women; a theological seminary, and a mili- tary institute. The city is governed under a charter of 1889 by a council divided into an upper house of 11 members and a lower house of 22 members, presided over by a mayor, who is elected tricnnially. The city's annual income is about $450,000. The inhabitants are largely of German descent, and German 1- -till com monlv spoken. Pop. (1890) 25,228; (1900) 354I& Allerton, Isaac, one of the 'Pilgrim Fathers': b. England about 1583; a. New Haven, Conn., 1659. He was one of the most influential members of the Plymouth Colony, hut on account of some disagreement with his associates he removed to New Amsterdam in 1(131. and later to New Haven. Mary Allerton, his daughter, was the latest survivor of the original Mayflower company. All Hallows. See All Saints' Day. Alliaceous Plants. See Allium. Alliance, 0., city of Stark co., situated on the Mahoning River, at the junction of the Alliance & Mahoning, Lake Erie, Pittsburg, Fort Wayne & Chicago, and other R.R.'s. 56 miles S.S.E. of Cleveland. It is in a thriving agricultural region, and is a busy industrial centre with manufactures of agricultural im- plements, white lead, terra cotta ware, and ex- tensive steel works, manufacturing heavy ma- chinery, structural iron work, boilers, cranes, gun carriages, steam hammers, and drop torg- ings. The first settlement, made in 1S38, was known at Freedom until 1850, when the name wa- altered to Alliance. It- principal educa- tional establishment. Mount Union College, ,» Methodist Episcopal institution, was founded in 1S46. Alliance, incorporated as a city under a charter of 1854. is governed by a mayor, elected every two year-, and by a council of 12 mem- bers. Pop. (1890) 7,607; (1900) 8,974. Alliance of the Reformed Churches Hold- ing the Presbyterian System, a voluntary or- ganization popularly styled the Presbyterian Alliance, formed in London in 1875. Its coun- cils have much moral significance but possess no legislative authority. Rather more than 90 Presbyterian bodies are represented in tile Alli- ance, with some 25,000.000 adherents in all parts of the world. The first General Council of the ALLIBONE — ALLIGATOR Alliance met in Edinburgh in 1877: and the sub- sequent councils were held in Philadelphia, 1880; Belfast, 1884; London. 1888; Toronto, 1892; Glasgow, 1896; Washington, 1899. Allibone, Samuel Austin, bibliographer and librarian: b. Philadelphia, 17 April 1816; d. Lucerne, Switzerland, 2 Sept. 1889. For a time he engaged in mercantile pursuits ; was book- editor of the American Sunday-School Union, 1867-73 • an d in 1879 was appointed librarian of the Lenox Library, New York. He is best known by his ' Critical Dictionary of English Literature and British and American Authors ' (3 vols. 1854-71), a monumental work that cost him 20 years of labor. It contains notices of 46,- 499 authors, with extracts from reviews of their works, and 40 classified indexes of subjects. It is an indispensable reference work for libraries and students. A supplement containing over 37,- 000 authors, by John Foster Kirk, appeared in two volumes, 1891. Others of Allibone's works are : ' Poetical Quotations from Chaucer to Tennyson' (1873); 'Prose Quotations from Socrates to Macaulay ' (1876) ; ' Great Authors of all Ages: Selections ' (1880). Alike, or Allis (Fr. alosc, from Lat. alau- sa), the larger European shad (Alosa vulgaris), about 20 inches long. There is but one other shad in Europe, the twaite. In the Rhine val- ley both are called maifisch. See Shad: Twaite. Allier, al-le-a, a central department of France, intersected by the river Allier and partly bounded by the Loire ; surface diversified by off- sets of the Cevennes and other ranges, rising in the south to over 4,000 feet, and in general richly wooded. It has extensive beds of coal as well as other minerals, which are actively worked, there being several flourishing centres of mining and manufacturing enterprise : mineral waters at Vichy, Bourbon, L'Archambault, etc. Large numbers of sheep and cattle are bred. Area, 2,822 miles. Capital, Moulins. Pop. 500,000. Allier, a river of France, tributary of the Loire, rising in the department of Lozere and flowing northward about 200 miles through Lo- zere, L'pper Loire, Puy de Dome, and Allier. Allies, Jabez, English antiquary, and one of the earliest writers on folklore : b. Sulsley, 22 Oct. 1787; d. 29 Jan. 1856. He devoted his life to the study of the antiquities in his native county, embodying the results in his monumental work, < The Ancient British, Roman, and Saxon Antiquities and Folklore of Worcestershire ' (1852). Alligator, the name of a genus of croco- dilian reptiles derived from a corruption of the Spanish cl lagarto, <( lizard," from the Latin laccrtus, a lizard. Alligators differ from croco- diles mainly in having relatively short and broad snouts and by the circumstance that as a rule the first and fourth tooth on each side of the lower jaw enter into pits in the upper jaw, whereas those of crocodiles slide outside of the jaw and are visible. The caymans of South America may be included in the general term. These reptiles are confined mainly to the rivers of the New World, in which they typically rep- resent the crocodiles of the eastern hemisphere, but there is one species in China (Alligator si- nensis) first made known in 1879. and resembling the South American species. The best-known species are the alligator of the southern States (Alligator mississtppiensis) ; the cayman of Surinam and Guiana (A palpebrosus). and the spectacled alligator (A. sclcrops), found in Bra- zil. In the water a full-grown alligator is a formidable animal, on account of its great size and strength. These reptiles swim with wonder- ful celerity, impelled by their long, laterally- compressed, and powerful tails. On land their motions are proportionally slow and embar- rassed, owing to their weight, the shortness of their legs, and generally unwieldy proportions. It grows to the length of 15 or possibly 20 feet, and is covered above by a dense armor of horny scales. Under the throat of this animal are two openings or pores, the excretory ducts from glands which pour out a strong, musky fluid, giving the alligator a peculiarly unpleasant smell. In the spring of the year, when the males are under the excitement of the sexual propensity, they frequently utter a loud roar, which, from its harshness and reverberation, resembles distant thunder, especially where numbers are at the same time engaged. At this period frequent and terrible battles take place between the males, which terminate in the discomfiture and retreat of one of the parties. The females make their nests in a curious manner, on the banks of rivers or lagoons, generally in the marshes, along which, at a short distance from the water, the nests are arranged somewhat like an encamp- ment. They are obtuse cones four feet high, and about four feet in diameter at the base, built of mud and grass. A floor of such mortar is first spread upon the ground, on which a layer of eggs, having hard shells and larger than those of a common hen, are deposited. Upon these another layer of mortar, seven or eight inches in thickness, is spread, and then another bed of eggs; and this is repeated nearly to the top. From 100 to 200 eggs may be found in one nest. It is not ascertained whether each female watches her own nest exclusively, or attends to more than her own brood. It is unquestionable, however, that the females keep near the nests and take the young under their vigilant care as soon as they are hatched, defending them with great perseverance and courage. The young may be seen following the mother through the water like a brood of chickens following a hen. When basking in the sun on shore, the young are heard whining and yelping about the mother, not unlike young puppies. In situations where alli- gators are not exposed to much disturbance the sites of the nests appear to be very much fre- quented, as the grass and reeds are beaten down for several acres around. The young, when first hatched, are very feeble and helpless, and are devoured by birds of prey, soft-shelled turtles, etc.. as well as by the male alligators, until they grow old enough to defend themselves. As thr eggs are also eagerly sought by vultures and other animals the race would speedily become extinct but for the great fecundity of the fe- males. The alligator is generally considered as dis- posed to retire from man, but this is only where they are frequently disturbed. In situations where they are seldom or never interrupted they have shown a ferocity and perseverance of the most alarming character in attacking individuals in boats, rearing their heads from the water ALLIGATOR-APPLE — ALLITERATION and snapping their jaws in a threatening manner. At present alligators, though still numerous in the remoter parts of Florida and Louisiana, are no longer regarded as very dangerous. Their numbers annually decrease, and at no distant period they must be marly, if not quite, exter- minated. In the winter the alligators spend a great part of their time in deep holes, winch they make in the marshy hanks of rivers, etc. They feed on fishes, reptiles, small quadrupeds (dogs if they can get them), or carrion, and though very voracious arc capable of existing a long time without food Compare Crocodile; and sec CAYMAN ; .1 '< Alligator-apple. See Custard-apple. Alligator-fish, one of the Agonidte, a fam- ily of fish whose slender bodies arc armored by large bony plates. One species 12 inches long dothecus acipenserinus) is found on the northern Pacific coast. Alligator-gar, the immense greenish col- ored gar (Litholepis tristachus) found in the southern States and southward through North America, and sometimes measuring 10 feet. See (Iak. Alligator-lizard, any member of the genus Sceloporus, which, although iguanid, has many small species without the typical iguanid charac- t( ristics. They abound in Mexico and the south- western United States, and one species (Scelo- porus undulatus) is the familiar "fence lizard " of the colder Slates. Though often mconspicu- |y colored on the back except for black cross- lines, the throat and inferior surfaces are gen- erally striking in color, and frequently there are light' lines along the sides. They arc often ignorantly called poisonous! but all are harmless. Alligator-pear, or Avocado-pear, a tree, Pejpea gratissima, of the natural order Lauracea, indigenous to subtropical and tropical America and widely cultivated in warm countries for its more or less pear-shaped, purple- or grecn- skinned fruits, each of which contains a single seed embedded in a yellowish-green edible mar- row-like pulp. Wherever it grows the alligator- pear is highly prized as a salad and is usually served with "pepper, salt, and vinegar, or with wine and snee. hut natives of temperate climates usually have to acquire a taste for it. It is rich in oil, which may he used in soap-making and in lighting. ["he seeds yield a black dye. Little beyond the selection of chance seedlings has been doni to obtain improved varieties. Seed- lings are easily raised and begin to hear in about five years if planted in good soil in warm places. outhern Florida and southern Cali- fornia the avocado-pear docs not produce pala- table fruit in the United States. The American market, therefore, which is limited to the larger cities, is mainly supplied from Hawaii, Mexico, and the West Indies. The fruit is sometimes called midshipman's butter and aguacate. Alligator-terrapin, -tortoise, or -turtle, the snapping-turtle ; more particularly, a very large species (Macrochelys lacertina) which is eaten ami esteemed as a delicacy in the lower valley of the Mississippi. It sometimes weighs 50 pounds. Allingham, Helen (Paterson), English art- ist: b. 26 Sept. 1848. Received her art educa- tion in the Royal Academy Schools, and married the Irish poet, William Allingham (q.v./ in 1S74. She has drawn much in black and white for the ' Graphic ' and other periodicals, and her work as an illustrator has been much admired. Allingham, William, Irish poet: b. Bally- shannon, Ireland, 19 March 1824; d. llampstcad, iS Nov. 1889. From 1846 to his retirement in 1870 he held various posts in the Irish customs service. He was sub-editor of ' leaser's Maga- zine,' 1870-4, when he succeeded James Anthony Froude as editor, and conducted it with ability until 1879. At its best Allingham's poetry is excellent, being simple, clear, and graceful, and whether pathetic, sportive, or descriptive is al- ways characterized by delicate artistic expres- sion. His best work is in the volume called < Day and Night Songs' (1854). 'Laurence Bloomficld in Ireland' I 1864), a long poem winch has been called " the epic of Irish philanthropic landlordism." has a wealth of fine description, but was not a public success. Other volumes are. 'Poems' (i8so), 'The Ballad Book' (1864), 'Songs, Ballads, and Stories' (1877). 'Collected Poetical Works > (6 vols. 1888-0.D. Allison, William Boyd, American legis- lator: b. Perry. Ohio, 2 March 1829. A farmer's son, he received an excellent education, first at Allegheny College, Pa., then at Western Reserve College, Ohio. Studying law, he practised in his native State till 1857, when he removed to Dubuque, Iowa. An ardent Republican and a trusted local political leader, he was sent as a delegate to the Republican national convention in Chicago in i860, which nominated Lincoln. In the early part of the Civil War he served on the governor's staff, and was actively engaged in raising troops for the Union army. In 186.3 he was elected to Congress, and served by suc- cessive re-elections till 1869; on 4 March 1873 be was elected to the United States Senate, and has been four times re-elected, in 1878, 1884, l8go, and 1896, his nearly 30 years of service making him one of the oldest as he has always been among the most influential leaders. He has served on many important committees; and as chairman of the Finance Committee in 1878 was the chief author of the bill that committee re- ported for the purchase of silver bullion usually known as the Bland-Allison Act, for the pur- chase of silver bullion (see Bland Silver Bill), a compromise from the free-coinage bill of Con- gressman Bland. He has repeatedly been a strong candidate in Republican national conven- tions for the presidency; and was offered the secretaryship of the treasury by both Garfield and Harrison. In 1892 be was a representative of the United States at the Brussels Monetary Conference. All is True, a nlay attributed to Shake- speare. The burning of the Globe Theatre (29 March 161,3) while the piece was being played destroyed the manuscript. Parts of the drama were incorporated into the play of ' Henry VTII.' Alliteration, the succession or frequent oc- currence of words beginning with the same con- sonant. In the older Scandinavian, German, and Anglo-Saxon poetry it served instead of rhyme. It is found in early English poetry with the same function. As thus used it had a certain regu- larity of accent and emphasis. In ' Piers Plow- ALLIUM — ALLOPHANE man > the line is constructed with two hemi- stichs, the former with two words beginning with the alliterative letter, and the latter with one, thus : " Her robe was full rich with red scarlet engreyned." The poetry of widely separated nations exhib- its this device, it being found both in India and in Finland. It still remains in Icelandic poetry. Early in the 17th century English writers ran to great extravagance in the use of alliteration, both in prose and poetry. It is said that preach- ers from their pulpits addressed their hearers as * chickens of the church " and " sweet swallows of salvation." No other device of composition so easily lends itself to fanciful conceits or in- genious trifling. The ease with which devices may be marshaled would hardly tend to make the ordinary reader appreciative of Churchill's description of himself as one " Who often, hut without success, had prayed For apt alliteration's artful aid." But the couplet itself is a striking proof of its own truth, for it shows that the poet did not know what alliteration is : it must be of con- sonants, not vowels, and even so his a's are alike only to the eye, not the ear. All good poets have used it to lend musical beauty or emphasis to their verse, though it can be over-used or mis- used. Following are a few from the chief American poets : " And the spark struck out by that steed in his flight Kindled the land into flame with its heat." Longfellow. " It carves the bow of beauty there, And the ripples in rhymes the oar forsake." Emerson. " Of wailing winds, and naked woods." Bryant. "And /iark! /low clear bold chanticleer, K'armed with the new wine of the year." Lowell. " Stole with soft steps the shining stairway through." Holmes. " What a rale of ferror now their furbulency (ells! " Poe. " Across the mournful marbles play." Whittier. Allium, a genus of about 250 perennial, rarely biennial, bulbous herbs of the natural or- der Liliacea, mainly indigenous to the colder parts of the northern hemisphere. The leaves are generally long and narrow, often, however, cylindrical and hollow; the flowers in umbels, often with bulblets among them. Many of the species are economically important ; for instance, Allium cepa, the onion; Allium sativum, garlic; Allium porrum, leek; Allium ascalonicum, shal- lot; Allium scluriwprasum. chive; Allium sco- rcdoprasum, rocambole, each of which is treated separately under its common name. Several un- cultivated members of the genus are also used as food in countries where they grow wild. Allium vineale, wild onion or wild garlic, a Eu- ropean species introduced into the United States, is a troublesome weed, especially in New Eng- land pastures, since it imparts a strong flavor of garlic to the milk of cows feeding upon it. (See Garlic.) Many species are natives of the United States, but none of them have been cul- tivated for food ; some, however, are planted for ornament. Perhaps the most common eastern species are Allium cernuum. Allium canadense, and Allium tricoccum, the last generally known as the wild leek, a broad-leaved species which grows in moist woods, from Maine to North Carolina and westward to Wisconsin. Some of the hardy species are grown for ornament in gardens; for example, Allium moly and Allium roscum, from Europe; Allium victorialis, from Siberia; Allium acuminatum, from the western States. Others, especially Allium neapolitanum, a tender European species, are often grown in greenhouses. Allmers, Hermann Ludwig, al-merss, her'man lut'vik, German poet and author : b. Rechtenfleth, 11 Feb. 1821. His 'Ic'le Days in Rome' (1869; oth ed. 1896) was widely read. Others are: 'Captain Bose' (1882); 'Fromm und Frei' (1889), a volume of religious poems; 'From an Old and Young Past Time' (1895); 'Collected Works' (Oldenburg, 6 vols. 1891-5). Allmouth, a fish. See Goosefish. Alloa, a river port of Scotland, pleasantly situated on the north side of the Forth, 5 m. from Stirling, and in the county of Clackman- nan. It is irregularly built, but contains some good streets and buildings, including the parish church, the county court-house, the town-hall, and the public baths. It carries on several manufactures, chief of which are ale, whiskey, woolen yarn, and bottles. There are some large collieries in the neighborhood. Alloa has an ex- cellent harbor, from which it exports coal, ale, and fire-brick, and imports timber, hemp, oak- bark, grain, etc. A new wet dock was opened in 1881. The river is here crossed by a viaduct of the North British Railway. There is an an- cient tower in the vicinity, once the residence of the Erskine family. Pop. (1901) 11,417. Allobroges, the name of a people who lived in ancient Gallia Narbonensis and occu- pied the country below the Lake of Geneva and the Rhone, now included in Savoy and the French province of Dauphine. They long struggled for their independence against the Romans, but were finally subjugated by Fabius Maximus. Allocution, an address, a term particularly applied to certain addresses made by the Pope to the cardinals. Allodium ("without vassalage"). Applied to lands, allodium, or allodial tenure, signifies an estate held by absolute ownership, without re- garding any superior to whom any duty is due on account thereof. The title to land in the LTnited States is essentially allodial, and every tenant in fee simple has an absolute and un- qualified dominion over it : still, in technical language, his estate is said to be in fee, a term implying a feudal relation, although such a re- lation has ceased to exist in any form, while in many of the States of the Union the lands have been declared to be allodial. Allopathy. See Therapeutics, Al'lophane, al'6-fan; from the Greek alios, "other," and phonos, "appearing," in allu- sion to its change of appearance before the blowpipe, a native silicate of aluminum, hav- ing the formula AUSiOt + 5H,0, and occurring in thin, amorphous, brittle incrustations, with n. hardness of 3. and a specific gravity of about 1.87. It is found in a great variety of colors, due to the presence of other minerals. In the United States it occurs in Massachusetts, Con- necticut, Pennsylvania, and Tennessee. ALLOSAURUS — ALLOY Allosaurus, an extinct carnivorous dino- saur of gigantic size, inhabiting North America during the Jurassic Period. It was one of the largest of llesh-eating animals, exceeding 30 feet in length, and comparable with an elephant in hulk. The animal was a biped with long hind legs, small fore legs not reaching the ground, and long massive tail. The jaws are three feel long, with pointed, sharp-edged teeth, and the toes armed with large sharp claws, those of the fore foot being especially powerful. Tin- hind feet somewhat resemble those of birds. Fn--.il skeletons of herbivorous dino- saurs frequently show deep scratches and scor- ings on the softer edges of the bone, and broken-off teeth of Allosaurus are very often found associated with them, showing that this animal preyed on the carcasses of his huge herbivorous contemporaries; it was well adapt- ed also by its teeth and claws to attack them when alive, and was probably their especial foe. See Dinosaur Allotropy, a-lot'ro-pi, or Allotropism (from the Greek alios, "another," and tropos, "manner"), the property exhibited by certain substances of existing in two or more different states distinguished from each other by differ- ent properties. The most familiar case of allot- ropy is afforded by carbon, which exists in a number of allotropic modifications, of which charcoal, graphite, and the diamond are famil- iar examples. Allotropy is not exhibited by the metals to any marked degree ( see, however, Silver). Sulphur exhibits many allotropic forms, of which the following are the best known: (1) It occurs in rhombic crystals, hav- ing a sp. gr. of 2.07, melting at 235° F., and soluble in carbon disulphid; (2) in monoclinic crystals, having a sp. gr. of I.g6, melting at 243 F., and soluble in carbon disulphid ; (3) in an amorphous plastic stale, insoluble in car- bon disulphid ; (4) immediately above its melting- point it is thin, clear, and amber-colored ; (5) at about 400 F. it becomes thick and dark ; and (6) at about 650 F. it is again thin, but re- mains dark. Ozone is a familiar allotropic form of oxy- gen, produced when the silent electric discharge is allowed to act upon oxygen. It is known that the molecule of oxygen contains two atoms, and that the molecule of ozone contains three atom* This suggests that allotropy, in all cases, may be due to a similar change in the number of atoms present in a molecule, but so little is known of the ultimate structure of sol- ids and liquids that speculation of this sort is of no great value. Mot .if the non-metallic elements have allo- tropic modifications, and remarkable cases of allotropy are observed among chemical com- pounds. In the case of a compound, two states of a substance having the same chemical compo- sition are said to be isomeric when their con- Stituents are combined by different modes of atomic linkage ; and they are said to be allo- tropic when the kind of atomic linkage is the same in both cases. See ISOMERISM. Allouez, a-16-a', Claude Jean, French Jesuit missionary: b. France, 1620; d. Indiana, 1600. He explored portions of the valley of the Mississippi and the Lake Superior region, founding the Mission of the Holy Ghost on I-ake Superior in 1665, and continuing at Kas- kaskia the mission established there by Mar- quette. Sec autobiography included in the 'Jesuit Relations' (1900). Alloway, Thomas Jefferson, a Canadian surgeon: b. 1847; was graduated at the Medi- cal Department of McGill University in 1869; spent a year in advance study in London ; served time years in the British navy; and in 1894 became gynxcologist-in-chief to the Montreal General Hospital and assistant professor of gynaecology in McGill University. Dr. Alloway has made a world-wide reputation. Al'loway, a parish of Scotland, now in- cluded in Ayr parish. Here Burns was born in 1759, and the "auld haunted kirk" near his birthplace was the scene of the dance of witches in 'Tarn o' Shanter*. Alloxan, a-lok'san, a substance produced by the action of dilute nitric acid upon uric acid, and having the formula GH.NsGY It is freely soluble in water and crystallizes in the trimetric system when a saturated solution is al- lowed to cool, and in monoclinic prisms when deposited by evaporation from a warm solution. It is converted into alloxantin (CnH.N.ft) by the action of SnClj and other reducing agents, and into alloxanic acid (C.H.NjO:.) by the ac- tion of the fixed alkalis. Ammonia combines with it to form murexid, a substance that was used about the middle of the 19th century for dyeing silk and wool purple and red, but which was soon displaced by the aniline colors. Alloy' (Latin, ad to, and ligare, to bind), an intimate and apparently homogeneous mix- ture of different metals, usually prepared by combining the constituents in a slate of fusion. From the earliest times alloys have been used for coins, implements, and works of art; but notwithstanding this fact no general and de- tailed theory of their nature and properties has yet been given. There is some evidence that certain metals form definite chemical combina- tions with one another when mixed in proper proportions, and until recently it was thought that alloys consist of certain definite com- pounds of this sort mixed with more or less of one or more of the constituent metals in the free state. While this may be the case, the modern tendency is strongly toward regarding alloys as solutions of metals in one another. See Solution. Some metals will not mix when melted, or will not mix in all proportions; and even when a desired mixture can be obtained in a state of fusion it not infrequently happens that a more or less complete separation of the constituent metals occurs at the moment of solidification. Attempts have therefore been made to prepare alloys by other methods. In some cases it has been found possible to obtain true alloys by mixing the constituents in a pulverized or finely- ground state, and then consolidating them under great pressure. In other cases alloys can be formed by the simultaneous electro-deposition of their constituents, or by the electro-deposition of alternate thin layers of those constituents. The success of this latter method depends upon the known fact that a metal deposited electro- lytically often penetrates, to a measurable depth, the one upon which it is deposited. At the present time the alloys used in the arts are ALL SAINTS* BAY; ALL SAINTS' DAY produced almost exclusively by fusion ; the va- rious other methods that are known being con- fined to the laboratory. The physical properties of alloys can seldom be inferred from those of their constituent metals. Thus speculum metal is brittle, like glass, although both copper and tin (which are its sole constituents) are ductile. A very small change in the composition of an alloy will often make a marked difference in its physical proper- ties ; and such apparently trifling circumstances as the order in which the components are added are also frequently of the greatest importance. The melting point of an alloy is usually lower than the melting points of its constituents would appear to indicate ; but even this is not an in- variable rule. If all possible combinations are made by fusing together a given pair (or group) of metals in all proportions, by a con- stant method of manipulation, it is commonly found that there is one particular alloy that has a lower melting point than any other combina- tion of the same metals. The alloy having this property is known as the "eutectic" alloy of the metals that it contains. By a similar systematic variation in the pro- portion of the components we can find out what alloy of any given metals possesses any particular physical attribute to a maximum or mini- mum degree. Thus Thurston has made an elab- orate investigation of the strength of the copper- tin-zinc (or "kalchoid") alloys, and has shown that the strongest of these contains 57 per cent of copper, 1 per cent of tin, and 42 per cent of zinc. An alloy having 56 per cent of copper, 2 per cent of tin, and 42 per cent of zinc has nearly the same strength, however, and is more generally useful because of its greater ductility. Thurston has called the compositions, copper, 58 to 54; tin, y z to 2y 2 ; zinc, 44 to 40, the "maxi- mum bronzes." Tobin bronze, containing 58.22 per cent of copper, 2.30 per cent of tin, and 39.48 of zinc, belongs in this class, and has shown a tenacity as high as 66,500 pounds per square inch of original sectional area. Like Thurston's "maximum bronze," Tobin's alloy can be forged or rolled at a low red heat, or worked cold. When cold-rolled its tensile strength may be raised to 104,000 pounds per square inch without any serious corresponding loss of ductility. Properly speaking, neither Tobin's alloy nor Thurston's is a "bronze." Strictly, bronze is an alloy of copper and tin, and brass is an alloy of copper and zinc; but in practice small amounts of zinc are often added to the bronzes, and small amounts of tin to the brasses, so that there is no longer any hard and fast line be- tween the two. Guillaume, of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, has recently obtained some remarkable results with alloys of nickel and iron, which afford excellent illustrations of the fact that little can be safely inferred concern- ing the properties of an alloy from those of its constituents. Thus it was found that an alloy containing about 25 per cent of nickel is prac- tically non-magnetic, being as insensible to the action of a magnet as copper, although iron and nickel are the two most magnetic substances known. Alloys containing 24 per cent (or less) of nickel are magnetically irreversible, in the sense that they do not lose and regain their magnetism at the same temperature. Thus alloy containing 24 per cent of nickel loses its mag- netism at a cherry-red heat, and does not be- come magnetic again until it has been exposed to a temperature in the neighborhood of 32° F. Equally remarkable results were obtained in studying the coefficients of expansion of nickel- steel. It was found, for example, that an alloy containing 36 per cent of nickel has a coefficient of expansion which is almost negligible, even in refined scientific work. This particular alloy has been called "invar," because its length is so nearly invariable under the influence of heat. Nearly every pendulum clock that is made in Germany to-day has its pendulum rod made of invar, except possibly some of the cheapest grades. (For further information concerning nickel-steel alloys see the 'Engineering Maga- zine,' October 1901, page 79; and the 'American Machinist,' 8 Jan. 1903, page 67.) The gen- eral composition of some of the commoner al- loys is given in the following table, but it should be remembered that these proportions (which are expressed in percentages by weight) are variable in practice to a certain extent : COMPOSITION OF COMMON ALLOYS. Nan V T) ffl 0. H .-J Other Metals Gun metal Bell metal Phosphor bronze. Aluminum bronze. Valve metal Brass (common) . Muntz metal. ... Delta metal Brazing metal (soft) Brazing metal (medium) Brazing metal (hard) German silver. . . . Speculum metal. . Common solder... Fine solder Babbitt metal. . . . Pewter Britannia metal . . Type metal Aich metal Dutch metal. . . . Newton's metal. Rose's metal. . . . 91 9 75 25 92% 7 16 10 bb% 33M 60 40 5o 42 bo \2'A 37 a 5° 50 75 25 60 20 67 33 50 50 bb* 3lK 3 89 80 20 90 80 59 39 85 i5 19 31 2b 25 Yz phosphor. 10 aluminum jo nickel S antimony 10 antimony 20 antimony iron 50 bismuth 50 bismuth Both the gold and the silver coins of the United States contain 90 per cent of pure metal. The silver coins contain 10 per cent of copper, and the gold coins contain 10 per cent of copper alloy, not more than one tenth of which can be silver. (See Thurston's 'Brasses, Bronzes, and Oth- er Alloys,' New York 1893, for valuable and extensive information on alloys containing cop- per, zinc, lead, and tin. For alloys of nearly constant electrical resistance see RESISTANCE, Electrical. All Saints' Bay, or Bahia de Todos os Santos, a bay on the coast of the State of Bahia in Brazil, forming an excellent natural harbor. On its east side stands the port of Ba hia. The neighboring country is well adapted for the cultivation of rice and sugar-cane. All Saints' Day, a festival instituted by Pope Boniface IV., early in the 7th century, on the occasion of his transforming the Roman ALL SORTS — ALL'S WELL heathen Pantheon into a Christian temple or church, and consecrating it to the Virgin Miry and all the martyr'; It is kept by the Roman Catholic Church, and bj churches in communion with the Church ol England on i November, and by the Greek Church on the Sunday after Whitsunday. It is designed, as its name implies, to honor all departed saints, and was formerly called All hallows. In many American churches a custom has grown up of making the Sunday nearest i November the occasion of a service in memory of those who have died during the year. All Sorts and Conditions of Men, a novel by Sir Walter Besant. The famous People's Palace of East London had its origin in this story; and because of it Besant was knighted. The story concerns chiefly two characters, — the very wealthy orphan, Angela Messenger, and Harry Goslett, ward of Lord Joscclyn. Miss Messenger, after graduating with honors at Newnham, resolves l>) examine into the con- dition of the people of Stepney Green, in the Whitechapel region, where she owns great pos- sesions. To indicate to the working women of East London a way of escape from the mean- ness, misery, and poverty of their lives, she sets up among them a co-operative dressmaking establishment, she herself living with her work- girls. Her goodness and wealth hring happi- ness to many. The hook ends with the opening of the People's Palace, and with the heroine's marriage to Harry Goslett. All Souls' College, Oxford, was founded in 14.17 by Henry Chichele, archbishop of Can- terbury, for a warden, 40 fellows, 2 chaplains, and clerks. The present arrangement of fel- lowships was fixed by statutes which came into operation in 1882. All Souls' Day, the day on which the Catholic Church commemorates all the faithful deceased. It was tirst enjoined in the nth century by Odile. Abbot of Cluny, on the monastic order of which he was the head, and soon afterward came to be adopted by the Church generally. It is observed on 2 No- vember. Allspice, or PlMENTA, is the dried berry of a West Indian species of myrtle (Myrtus pi- mento) which grows to the height of 20 feet and upward, and has somewhat oval leaves about 4 inches long, of a deep shining green color, and numerous branches of white flowers, each with four small petals. This tree is by some botanists referred to the genus Eugenia and called E. pimento. Others again constitute a genus Pimento, the present species being P. officinalis. In the whole vegetable creation there is scarcely any tree more beautiful or more fragrant than a young pimenta-tree about the month of July. Branched on all sides, richly clad with deep green leaves, which are relieved by an exuberance of white and richly aromatic flowers, it attracts the notice of all who ap- proach it. About the month of September, and not long after the blossoms have fallen, the ber- ries are in a fit state to be gathered. At this time, though not quite ripe, they are full grown and about the size of peppercorns. They are gathered by hand. The berries are spread in the sun to be dried, an operation that requires great care, from the necessity of keeping them entirely free from moisture. By the drying they their green color and become a reddish brown; the process is known to be complete by their change of color and by the rattling of the seeds within the berries. They are then packed into bags or hogsheads for the market. When the berries are quite ripe they are of a dark pur- ple color and filled with a sweet pulp. Pimcnta is thought to resemble in flavor a mixture of cinnamon, nutmegs, and cloves, whence it has obtained the name allspice. For its use in medi cine see Condiments. Allston, Margaret. Sec Bergengren, Anna ; Fahquhak, Anna. Allston, Theodosia Burr. See Burr, The- ODOSIA. Allston, Washington, American painter and author: b. Waccamaw, S. C, 5 Nov. 1779; d. Cambridge, Mass., 9 July 1843, He graduated at Harvard, 1800; studied art in Europe, 1801-y; n sided in England, 1811-18; and opened a studio in Boston, Mass., 1818. His painting 'The Dead Man Revived ' was awarded a prize of 200 guineas. Other well-known works are, 'The Prophet Jeremiah' ; 'Spanish Girl'; 'Spalatro's Vision of the Bloody Hand': ( Belshazzar's Feast,' and portraits of Benjamin West, Cole- ridge, and himself, lie has a high reputation as a colorist and has been called the "American Titian." His writings comprise, 'The Sylphs of the Seasons' (1813); 'Monaldi,' a romance of Italian life (1841), and 'Lectures on Art, and Poems' (1850). See Ware's 'Lectures on the Works and Genius of W. Allston' (1852), and the 'Life' by Flagg (1892). All's Well that Ends Well, a play by Shakespeare, the story of which came to the poet from Boccaccio through Paynter's ' Palace of Pleasure.' It tells how Helena de Narbon forced her love on a handsome and proud young French nobleman, Bertram de Rousillon, with whom she had been brought up from childhood. It is a talc of husband-catching by a curious kind of trick ; but Shakespeare endows Helena with such virtues that we excuse and applaud her action. Hence all's well that ends well. She heals the king, asks for and accepts Ber- tram as her reward, and is married. But the proud boy flies to the Florentine wars on his wedding-day, leaving his marriage unconsum- mated. Helena returns sorrowfully to Rousil- lon, and finds there a letter from her husband to the effect that when she gets his ring upon her finger and shows him a child begotten of his body, then he will acknowdedge her as his wife. She undertakes to outwit him and re- claim him, and leaving Rousillon on pretense of a pilgrimage she has it reported that she is dead. In reality she goes to Italy and becomes Ber- tram's wife in fact, and not mere name, by the substitution of herself for the pretty Diana with whom he has an assignation arranged. There is an entanglement of petty accidents and incidents connected with an exchange of rings, etc. But finally Helena makes good before the king her claim of having fulfilled Bertram's conditions; and she having vowed obedience, he takes her to his heart. Shakespeare has followed his original closely, hut the Countess, the Clown Lafen, and Parolles are creations of his own. ALLUVION — ALMA COLLEGE Alluvion, the legal designation of land gained from the water by gradual changes in the shore line. In English law the form of the word generally used is alluvion, and in Scotch law alluvio. In both of these the enactment is, that if an "eyott," or little island, arise in a river midway between the two banks, it belongs in common to the proprietors on the opposite banks; but if it arise nearer one side it then be- longs to the proprietor whose lands it there ad- joins. If a sudden inundation cut off part of a proprietor's land, or transfer the materials to that of another, he shall be recompensed by ob- taining what the river has deposited in another place; but if the process be a gradual one there is no redress. In the United States the proprie- tor of the bank increased by alluvion may law- fully claim the addition, this being regarded as the equivalent for the loss he may sustain from the encroachment of the water upon his land. Sea-weed which is thrown upon a beach, as par- taking of the nature of alluvion, belongs to the owner of the beach. 2 Johns. N. Y. 322. But sea-weed below low-water mark on the bed of a navigable river belongs to the public. 9 Conn. 38. See Accretion ; Avulsion. Alluvium, a word formerly applied to the gravel, mud, sand. etc.. deposited by water sub- sequently to the Noachian deluge. It was op- posed to diluvium, supposed to be laid down by the deluge itself, or, in the opinion of others, by some great wave or series of waves originated by the sudden upheaval of large tracts of land or some other potent causes, different from the comparatively tranquil action of water which goes on day by day. Now alluvium is especially employed to des- ignate the transported matter laid down by fresh water during the Pleistocene and Recent periods. Thus it indicates partly a process of mechanical operation and partly a date or period. It should not be forgotten that the former has gone on through all bygone geological ages and has not been confined to any one time. Many of the hardest and most compact rocks were once loosely cohering debris laid down by water. The most typical example of alluvium may be seen in the deltas of the Nile. Ganges, Missis- sippi, and many other rivers. Some rivers have alluviums of different ages on the slopes down into their valleys. The more modern of these belong to the Recent period, as do the organic or other remains which they contain, while the older (as those of the Somme, Thames, Ouse, etc.), which are of Pleistocene age, enclose more or less rudely chipped flint implements, with the remains of mammals either locally or every- where extinct. Though in many cases it is pos- sible clearly to separate alfciviums of different ages, yet the tendency of each new one is to tear up, redistribute, and confound all its prede- cessors. Volcanic alluvium is sand, ashes, etc.. which, after being emitted from a volcano, come under the action of water and are by it redeposited, as was the case with the materials which en- tered and filled the interior of houses at Pom- peii. Marine alluvium is alluvium produced by inundations of the sea, such as those which have from time to time overflowed the eastern coast of India. Allyl, in chemistry, the radical CHi:CH. CH 2 , or GHo. (The isomeric radical CHa.CH : CH is called propenyl.) Allyl forms many com- pounds, of which the most important is per- haps allyl alcohol, C3H5.OH, which is produced when glycerin is distilled with oxalic acid. Al'lyn, Robert, American clergyman and educator: b. Ledyard, Conn., 25 Jan. 1817; d. 7 Jan. 1894. Educated at Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn., he entered the Methodist Episcopal ministry. He was appointed commis- sioner of public instruction for Rhode Island in 1854, and served three terms in the legislature of that State. He was president of the Wesley- an Female College, Cincinnati, Ohio. 1850-63, and of McKendree College, Illinois. 1863-73. Al-Mamun, ma-mon', a caliph of the Abasside dynasty, son of Harun al-Rashid : b. 786 ; d. 833. Under him Bagdad became a great centre of art and science. Alma, Mich., a town in Gratiot County, 38 m. W. of Saginaw, on Pine River, and Ann Arbor and Pere Marquette R.R.'s ; founded 1854 ; inc. 1872. It manufactures flour, lumber, and beet sugar ; has water works and electric lighting. It contains Alma College (q.v.), and Alma Sanitarium, widely reputed. It has one- year mayoralty and a council of six. Pop. (1000) 2.047. Alma, a river in the Crimea, rising at the foot of the Tchadir Dagh, and flowing W. into the Bay of Kalamita, about half way between Eupatoria and Sebastopol. On the steep banks of the stream, through the channel of which the British troops waded amid a shower of bullets, a brilliant victory was won 20 Sept. 1854. by the allied armies of England, France, and Turkey, led by Lord Raglan and Marshal St. Arnaud. over the Russian army commanded by Prince Menschikoff. It was the first battle of the Crimean war. Almack's, the name formerly given to cer- tain assembly-rooms in King Street, St. James's, London, derived from Almack. a tavern-keeper, by whom they were built, and whose real name is said to have been M'Call. and transformed into Almack by reversing the syllables. The premises are now known as "Willis's Rooms." First opened 20 Feb. 1765, they soon became famous for the extreme exclusiveness displayed by the lady patronesses in regard to the ad- mission of applicants for tickets. These fair arbiters composed a board of six. which held its sittings every Monday evening during the London season, and issued those fiats which were supposed to affect so conclusively the claims of the received or rejected applicant, as the case might be. to occupy the upper circles in the fashionable world. To have danced at Almack's became almost proverbial as indicative of exalted social position. The name was also given to a gambling club estab- lished by the same Almack in 1763, to which such men as Charles James Fox, William Pitt, and Gibbon belonged. Alma College, a co-educational institution in Alma. Mich., organized 1887 under Presby- terian control ; reported in 1899: Professors and instructors. 20: students. 254: volumes in li- brary. 17,000: grounds and buildings valued at $60,000: productive funds, $220,000; income $155,000; graduates, 213. ALMADA — ALMANAC Almada, a town of Portugal, in the prov- ince of Estremadura, on the left bank of the estuary of the Tagus. opposite Li-bon. It is built upon a height, in a well-cultivated country, and has long been celebrated for its figs. It has a strong castle on a rock, a hospital for British seamen, a Latin school, several depots for wine, and a mineral spring. Pop. 7,000. Almaden, Cal., a town in Santa Clara County, noted for its mines of mercury and its mineral springs. It was named alter the Span- ish town mentioned below on account of its four quicksilver mines, the New Almaden, Provi- dence, Enriquita, and Guadelupe. Large quan- tities of mercury have been distilled from the ore (cinnabar), and the existence of this de- posit has been of immense benefit to the Pacific State-. Pop ( 1000) 1.599- Almaden, or Almaden del Azogue (mine of quicksilver), a town in Spain 50 m. S.W. of the town of Ciudad-Real in the province of the same name. It is widely known for its rich quicksilver mines which have been worked F01 centuries, and in which some 4,000 miners are employed. Since 1645 the mines have been the property of the Crown. The town contains a ruined castle of tin- Moorish period and a school of mines. Top. (1900) 7.45'). Almagest. The usual appellation of the 'Syntaxis' of Ptolemy, derived from an Arabic term signifying "the greatest." This celebrated work was written about the middle of the 2d century of our era, and comprises an exposition of the ancient system of astronomy, so elaborate and thorough as to have made it a standard for 13 centuries. It contains the most ancient known catalogue of the stars, with observa- tions of the motion of the planets, and determi- nations of their periods. Several editions, one in Greek and others in Latin, appeared in Europe between 1500 and 1 700. The most recent ac- cessible edition is that of the Abbe Halma, which is in Greek and French (2 Vols. Paris 1814-15). Almagro, Diego, one of the companions of Pizarro in the conquest of Peru, was a foundling, and the exact date of his birth is not known; d. 1538. He engaged with Pizarro and Fernando de Lugue in the long and arduous ex- pedition in which they made the discovery of Peru (1524-27), took part in the conquest of the country and the treacherous murder of Atahualpa (1533), and after frequent disputes with Pizarro about their respective shares in their conquests he led an expedition against Chile, of which he was appointed governor. Having failed to conquer his new province he returned to find Cuzco in possession of the Indians, who had expelled Pizarro. He re- conquered it and made himself governor, but, Pizarro returning, a struggle took place between the two parties in which Almagro was finally overcome, taken prisoner, strangled, and after- ward beheaded. He was avenged by his son, who raised an insurrection in which Pizarro was assassinated in 1541. The younger Almagro was put to death in 1542 by De Castro, the new viceroy of Peru. Almagro showed himself, like most of the Spaniards engaged in the con- quest of the Xew World, capable of enduring great privations with heroic constancy, and of effecting wonderful achievements by undaunted valor, but cruel, rapacious, and unscrupulous in success. Almagro, a town in Spain in the province of Ciudad-Real, 12 m. from the city of Ciudad- Real, in the midst of an elevated sterile plain. Its streets are wide and well paved and there is a large open public square. Lace is made here to a considerable extent, as well as soap, brandy, and coarse pottery. It is best known, however, as the centre of Valdepenas district. Pop. (1900) 8,015. Almalee, a town of Asiatic Turkey, on the river Myra. 25 in. from its mouth, and 50 m. W.S.W. of Adalia. It is beautifully situated in a kind of natural amphitheatre enclosed by lofty mountains. It has thriving manufactures and a considerable trade. Pop. 12,000. Alma Mater, a term familiarly applied by those who have attended a university to the particular university they have attended. The adjective altHUS in Latin means cherishing, fos- tering, dear. Almanac, a table or calendar, in which are set down the revolutions of the seasons, the rising and setting of the sun. the phases of the moon, the most remarkable conjunctions, posi- tions, and phenomena of the heavenly bodies, for every month and day of the year; also the several fasts and feasts to be observed in the Church and State, etc. The history of the almanac, and even the etymology of the word, are involved in considerable obscurity. It is generally derived from the Arabic article al, and the verb manach, to count. The modern almanac answers to the fasti of the ancient Romans. Almanacs became generally used in Europe within a short time after the invention of printing; and they were very early remark- able, as some are now in England, for the mixture of truth and falsehood which they contained. In 1579 their effects in France were found so mischievous, from the pretended pro- phecies which they published, that an edict was promulgated by Henry III. forbidding any pre- dictions to be inserted in them relating to civil affairs, whether those of the State or of private persons. No such law was ever enacted in England. It is singular that the earliest English almanacs were printed in Holland on small folio sheets; and these have occasionally been preserved from having been pasted within the covers of old books. In the reign of James I. letters patent were granted to the two universi- ties and the Stationers' Company for an exclu- sive right of printing almanacs. These, in 1775, were declared to be illegal. During the civil wars of Charles I., and thence onward, English almanacs were conspicuous for the unblushing boldness of their astrological predictions and their determined perpetuation of popular errors. The Stationers' Company, who had managed to retain a monopoly notwithstanding the inva- lidity of the letters patent in their favor, were guided merely by commercial principles in sup- plying the market, and accordingly adapted their almanacs to the taste of the public, which, on one occasion, when the trial was actually made, refused to purchase them without the predic- tions. Gradually, however, a better taste began to prevail, and in 1828 the Society for the Dif- fusion of Useful Knowledge had the merit of ALMANDITE — ALMA-TADEMA taking the lead in the production of an unexcep- tionable almanac in Great Britain. The example thus set has been almost universally adopted. Almanacs, from their periodical character and the frequency with which they are referred to, are now more and more used as vehicles for conveying statistical information. Regiomon- tanus was the first person in Europe who pre- pared almanacs in their present form, without the predictions, which were in all probability introduced into Europe from the Persians. Once they were almost entirely filled with sub- jects of a religious character. At another time they overflowed with astrological calculations and predictions. In the time of Napoleon an almanac was published in France, in which, to every day, an achievement of the emperor, or something else relating to him, was added. Almanacs, in the petty principalities of Germany, exhibit the endless genealogical tables of the princes. Some almanacs in modern Greek, print- ed at Venice, where formerly all books in this la'nguage were published, are quite full of astro- logical superstition and matters relating to the Greek Church. A modern Persian almanac con- tains a list of fortunate days for certain pur- poses; as, for example, to buy, to sell, to take medicine, to marry, etc. ; and predictions of events, as earthquakes, storms, political affairs, etc. One of the most curious almanacs is an Italian one, exhibiting Italian vivacity in a striking manner. To the entry 30 July is added, Sudano ancora le ossa! (Even the bones sweat) ; to 11 August, Oh! die noia! (Oh! how distress- ing!) ; to 12 July, Cascano le braccia (The arms fall) ; to 2 January, Stivali e ombrellol (Leggings and umbrellas!) In Germany, almanack is the name given to annuals like those which used to appear in England and the United States under the names of 'Souvenir,' 'Forget-me-not,' etc. In France a work once appeared annually, entitled 'Almanach des Gourmands,' which was con- ducted with much spirit and is in high repute among epicures. Some of the almanacs that are regularly published every year are extreme- ly useful, and are indeed almost indispensable to men engaged in official, mercantile, literary, or professional business. Such in Great Britain are 'Oliver & Boyd's Edinburgh Almanac,' 'Thorn's Official Directory,' and the 'British Al- manac,' with its 'Companion.' 'Whitaker's Al- manac' is also known as a very comprehensive and valuable compendium. The ' Almanach de Gotha,' which has appeared at Gotha since 1764, contains in small bulk a wonderful quantity of information regarding the reigning families and governments, the finances, commerce, population, etc., of the different States throughout the world. It is published both in a French and in a Ger- man edition. 'The Nautical Almanac' is an important work published annually by the Brit- ish government, two or three years in advance, in which is contained much useful astronomical matter, more especially the distances of the moon from the sun, and from certain fixed stars, for every three hours of mean time, adapted to the meridian of the Royal Observ- atory, Greenwich. By comparing these with the distances carefully observed at sea the mariner may with comparative ease infer his longitude with sufficient accuracy, in case he has no chronometer for keeping Greenwich time. This almanac was commenced in 1767 by Dr. Maskelyne, astronomer royal. The French 'Connaissance des Temps' is published with the same views as the English ' Nautical Almanac ' and nearly on the same plan. It commenced in 1679. Of a similar character is the 'Astronomisches Jahrbuch,' published at Berlin. The 'American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac' is issued annually since 1855 by the United States government. The first American almanac was that of William Pierce of Cambridge, published in 1639. The most famous of American almanacs was 'Poor Richard's' published in Philadelphia by Benjamin Franklin under the pseudonym of "Richard Saunders.'' This almanac was probably imitated from tl.at of Thomas, of Dedham, Mass., which was kept for a good many years and contains many pleasant and witty verses, jests, and sayings. The information printed in these almanacs seems to have been the only means of carrying news to the more distant parts of the country. 'The American Almanac' appeared between 1830-61, and a second publica- tion under the same name was edited for several years by Ainsworth R. Spofford. Several of the largest newspapers in the United States now issue almanacs which are marvels of condensed information. See Calendar. Al'mandite, or Al'mandine, a variety of the garnet (q.v.). Alman'sa, a town of southeastern Spain (Murcia), near which was fought (25 April 1707) a decisive battle in the War of the Spanish Succession, when the French, under the Duke of Berwick, defeated the Anglo-Spanish army un- der the Earl of Galway. Pop. 8.000. Alman'zur, or Almansur, a caliph of the Abasside dynasty, reigning 754-775. He was cruel and treacherous and a persecutor of the Christians, but a patron of learning. Alma-Tadema, Laurenz, Dutch painter: b. West Friesland, Holland, 8 Jan. 1836. He was educated at the Antwerp Academy of Fine Arts under the artist Leys and obtained a medal at the Paris Salon of 1864 and another at the Paris Exposition of 1867. He went to England to live in 1870, exhibiting at the Royal Academy that same year ( Un Amateur Romain,' and 'Un Jonglier,' which attracted immediate at- tention. He became a member of the Royal Academy in 1879. and in 1899 was knighted. His especial field is the portrayal of Greek and Roman life, and all his work is marked by the most careful attention to archxological details. He is scholarly in execution, his coloring ac- curate, and his artistic feeling rarely at fault, but while his canvasses attract the eye and delight the intellect they seldom touch the heart. Among his more noted pictures are 'The Vintage Festival' ; 'The Four Seasons' ; 'Antony and Cleopatra' ; 'The Women of Am- phissa' : 'An Audience at Agrippa's' ; and 'A Reading from Homer.' See Zimmern's 'L. Alma-Tadema: His Life and Work' (1886). Alma-Tadema, (Miss) Laurence, English novelist : b. in England. She is the second daughter of the noted artist, L. Alma-Tadema (q.v.) and has published 'Love's Martyr' ; 'The Wings of Icarus' ; 'The Crucifix.' a collection of tales: 'Realms of Unknown Kings.' a book of verse: 'The Fate Spinner' (1900); 'The Unseen Helmsman' (1901). ALMOND — ALOYSIUS Almond, the tree and nut of Amygdalus com- munis of the natural order Rosacea!, supposedly a native of the Mediterranean region and of southwestern Asia, but so long in cultivation that its origin is a matter of conjecture. In habit of growth the tree, which reaches a height of 20 or 30 feet, is like the peach, with which some botanists surmise that it was formerly identical, but from which, by selection, it has become differentiated, the hard, inedible pulp of its fruit (a drupe), which splits at maturity and and exposes the pit or "almond" of commerce, being replaced by the edible fleshy part prized in the peach. Varieties of almonds are classed as bitter or sweet. The former, little grown outside the Mediterranean region, furnish prus- sic acid and oil of bitter almonds used in per- fumery and culinary preparations ; the latter, grown extensively in California and southern Europe and in similar climates, furnish one of the most agreeable of nut fruits. The sweet almonds are divided into hard- and soft-shelled varieties, the former little grown, the latter ex- tensively. Some specially thin-shelled sorts are known as paper-shells. The kernels, particu- larly of sweet almonds, are rich in a mild fixed oil which is expressed for medicinal and other purposes, but the nuts are chiefly used for des- sert, either directly or in some prepared form, such as confectionery. The almond succeeds best upon light, thor- oughly drained soil so situated that early frosts, which destroy the fertility of the blossoms, need not be feared. The trees, which are generally propagated by budding the desired varieties upon bitter almond seedlings, are set about 25 feet apart, different varieties that blossom si- multaneously being planted in each other's proximity to ensure cross-pollenation, self-steril- ity being characteristic of many varieties. If trees are properly trained during their first three or four years they demand little severe pruning afterward. Cultivation docs not differ materially from that of other tree-fruits. In California the nuts are harvested from August to October, dried for several days, and if discolored, as is often the case where the air is very humid, they are lightly sprayed with water and then treated with sulphur fumes to bleach the shells some- what. Nuts that are too badly discolored to respond to this treatment are cracked by ma- chinery and the karnels sold largely to confec- tioners. Because frost and self-sterility have been often overlooked, almond-growing in Cali- fornia has been remarkable for failures ; many orchards have been cut down for firewood. But when and where conditions are favorable the crop is a profitable one. In 1897 218 carloads \vre shipped from California; in 1898 only 25. Planting in that State is practically at a stand- still. Attention has been drawn to parts of Arizona and New Mexico as probably adapted to the almond, and some orchards have been planted. About $1,000,000 worth of almonds are imported annually. The almond is attacked by a vegetable fungus which appears first as a yel- low rust on the leaves. This often leaves the tree bare of foliage as early as 15 July. Spray- ing is the only remedy. See Fungicides. As an ornamental tree the almond, like the peach, is often planted even in localities unfavor- able to fruit-production. But its relative, the dwarf almond (Amygdalus nana), a native of southern Russia, is hardy and is recommended as an ornamental shrub by nurserymen for northern climates. Aloe, a genus of succulent-leaved plants of the natural order Liliacea;, natives of warm countries. The numerous species range in height from a few inches to 25 feet or more. Some arc valued for their fibre, which is used for cord-, net-, and fabric-making : others for the medicinal qualities ascribed to them. Chief among the latter are several arborescent species, Aloe succotrina, A. spicata, A. purpurascens, and A. arborescent, from which Cape aloes is mainly derived, and Aloe vera, an East and West [ndian species found also on certain is- lands of the Mediterranean Sea and in Italy, which yields Barbadoes or hepatic aloes, Aloe Perryi furnishes Zanzibar or Socotrina aloes, also a transparent pigment valued in miniature- painting, and a rich violet dye. Aloes, the inspissated juice of the leaves of a number of species of Aloe, a genus of the lily family of over 100 species, widely distrib- uted in warm arid regions. The leaves are long, thick, and succulent, and the juice that yields aloes is thin and flows readily from the cut leaf. This is then thickened (inspissated) by natural or by artificial drying, and there results a yellow to brownish to blackish, or greenish, mass of a tarry, waxy, or glassy consistency. The aloes that is used in the United States is either Barbadoes aloes, from Aloe vera, or Soco- trina aloes, from Aloe Perryi. As a medicine aloes has been used for cen- turies. It is a powerful cathartic, acting par- ticularly on the large intestine, its active prin- ciple being termed aloin. Its action is extremely variable, and in large doses it has been known to induce abortion. See Cathartics. Aloes Wood (sometimes called also eagle wood, calambac, paradise wood, or agallochum), the inner part of Aquilaria ovata and Aloes agal- lochum, trees of the order Aquilariacee, natives of the tropical parts of Asia, and supposed to be the aloes or lignaloes of the Bible. They are large, spreading trees. Aloes wood contains a dark-colored, fragrant, resinous substance, and is much prized in the East as a medicine and for the pleasant odor it diffuses in burning. Alopecia, a partial or complete loss of hair in large quantities. This is due to a number of causes and frequently leads to baldness (q.v.). Alopecia is of two main kinds : primary or sec- ondary. In primary alopecia there may be ( 1 ) a congenital lack of hair (this is rare) ; (2) senile alopecia, due to the advent of old age ; (3) premature baldness, this may be a natural product, or it may be the result of a chronic seborrhea, or dandruff (q.v.). Aloysius Gonzaga, Saint: b. in Lombardy 1568. At the age of 17 he transferred his in- heritance and right of succession to his brother Rudolph and immediately set out for Rome. Here he entered the novitiate of the Society of Jesus, and shortly after began his studies in the Roman College. While nursing the victims of a contagion then ravaging the city he con- tracted the disease, which carried him off in his 25th year. His brief career was characterized by such extraordinary virtue that he was canon- ized a saint by Pope Benedict XIII. in 1726, and is now recognized by the Catholic Church as the Patron of Young Students. His feast day is celebrated June 21. ALPACA— ALPHABET Alpaca, nr Paco (Ar. al, the : Peruv. paca), a semi-domesticated animal (Lama pacos), na- tive to the Andes and valued for its wool. It is a cameloid mammal, closely allied to three oth- ers of the same region, the vicuna, the llama, and the guanaco ; but it much resembles a sheep, except in the length and erect carriage of its head. The natural growth of its thick woolly hair would be about two feet, but it is clipped, the annual growth being about eight inches. In color the wool varies from pale yellowish brown or gray to black; its fibre is straighter than that of sheep wool, and very fine, glossy, and elastic. The animal is now seldom seen in an entirely wild state. See Llama. Alp-Arslan ("strong lion"), the greatest ruler of the Seljuk Turks: b. Turkestan, 1028; d. Berzern 1072. He succeeded his uncle Togrul 1063, consolidated his realm into one kingdom, and then proceeded to a career of conquest in- terrupted only by his death. He conquered central Asia to the Oxus ; and invading Armenia and Georgia, in August 107 1. he overthrew and captured the Emperor Romanus IV 7 . (Diogenes* in a bloody battle near Malaskerd. between Van and Erzerum, and only released him on payment of a vast ransom. He was assassinated while invading Turkestan and was buried at Merv. Alpena, Mich., a city and the county-seat of Alpena County, no miles north of Bay City; on the west side of Lake Huron, at the head of Thunder Bay, on the Detroit and Mackinaw Ry. It is divided in two by Thunder Bay River. Industries, etc. — There are extensive manu- factures of paper from wood-pulp, and of cement from limestone and clay. Further establishments include two large tanneries, large extract works (hemlock) for export trade, two foundries and machine shops, five saw-mills, 20 shingle-mills, two veneer-mills, a woolen-mill, two flour-mills, three large sash and blind factories, two large excel sior-mills, quarries, and two stave and heading factories. The harbor facilities are excellent. Public Institutions. Buildings, etc. — There is a public library and a park system. Lutherans have three church edifices; Catholics, three; Methodists, two; Congregationalists. one; Pres- byterians, one; Episcopalians, one; Baptists, one; Seventh Day Adventists, one ; Jews, one ; Free Methodists, one ; Church of Latter Day Saints, one; and Non-Sectarians, one. The three banks have a combined capital of $250,000, with an annual business of $2,500,000. History and Government. — Alpena was settled in 1835, and was incorporated in 1871. It is governed under a revised charter of 1897 by a mayor, biennially elected, and a council of 12 members, elected annually. The mayor has no power of appointment. Pop. (1904) 12,400. Michael O'Briex. Alphabet (from alpha and beta, the first two letters of the Greek alphabet), the ordinary series of the letters or syllables (in syllabic alphabets) of a language. For an account of what is known or conjectured of the origin of alphabetic and other systems of writing, see Writing. The English alphabet, like the most of those of modern Europe, is derived directly from the Latin, but owes its ultimate origin to the Phoenician, which gave birth also to the ancient Greek, the Etruscan, the Gothic, etc. According to tradition the Phoenician Cadmus introduced writing into Greece, the letters first used being the same as the Phoenician, but after- ward undergoing changes both in sound and form. It would appear that the Phoenicians themselves borrowed their alphabet from the hieratic alphabet of Egypt, whence also the He- brews may have obtained theirs during their long stay in that country, though it is more probable that like others they were content to receive it at second-hand from the Phoenicians. The Hebrew alphabet now employed is not the original one, but has an Aramaic origin, hav- ing been adopted some time after the Captivity. The Hebrew alphabet proper, as we find it on ancient coins, is evidently the same as that of the Phoenician inscriptions. The names of the letters in Phoenician and Hebrew must have been almost the same, for the Greek names, which, with the letters, were borrowed from the former, differ little from the Hebrew. By means of the names we may trace the process through which the Egyptian characters were transformed into letters by the Phoenicians. Some Egyptian character would, by its form, recall the idea of a house, as for example, in the Phoenician or Hebrew beth. This char- acter would subsequently come to be used wher- ever the articulation b occurred, whether in the beginning, middle, or end of a word. Its form might be afterward simplified, or even com- pletely modified, but the name would remain, as beth still continues the Hebrew name for b, and beta the Greek. Our letter m, in Hebrew called mini, water, has still a considerable re- semblance to the zigzag wavy line chosen to represent water, as in the zodiacal symbol for Aquarius. The letter o, of which the Hebrew name means eye, was originally intended to represent that organ. From the ancient Greek alphabet are generally derived in a direct line the ordinary Greek alphabet, the Latin, and the Etruscan, though the last may have been di- rectly derived from the Phoenician. The later Greek alphabet furnished elements for the Cop- tic, the Gothic, and the old Slavic alphabets. The Latin characters are now employed by many nations, such as the Italian, the French, the Spanish, the Portuguese, the English, the Dutch, the German, the Hungarian, the Polish, etc., each having introduced such modifications or additions as are necessary to express the sound of the language peculiar to it. The Greek alpha- bet originally possessed only 16 letters, though the Phoenician had 22. These were the five vowels, a, e, t, 0, v, (a. e. i, o, u. as in French), and the n consonants, ft 7, S, k, X, p, v, ic, p, a, t (b, g, d, k. I. in. n. p. r, s, /). According to one tradition, Palamedes, a contemporary of the Trojan war, invented f (.r) and the three aspirates 0, {e and o), which completed the Greek alphabet of 24 let- ters as still used. Besides these, there was anciently the digamma, a character correspond- ing pretty nearly to v, which afterward slipped out of the Greek alphabet ; and the character representing an aspirate at the beginning of words. The original Latin alphabet, as it is found in the oldest inscriptions, consisted of 21 letters; namely, the vowels a. e. i. 0. and 11 and the consonants b, c, d, f, z, h, k, I, m, n, p. ALPHONSINE TABLES — ALPS <7, r, s, t, x. 7. slipped out at an early period, and g took its place. To these we might also add the characters a and D bbd i Daleth 5 ra tn A ^ E e £ Epsilon & E ee n He 6 >t=w ^ \H y YF F (Digamma) fi F ff i Vau 7 & £ t j I z Zt j Zeta X 2 z Zain 8 © <£> B H H Kri Eta B H nh n Cheth 9 < S «. © e O e #^ Theta 8 to Teth 10 W y * I 1 i L lota 1 1 > lod II *=* A ■y A K i< K K Kappa K K k 5 Caph 12 && £ £ V A A A Lambda U L 11 * Lamed 15 k 5 7 1 M M UIJU Mu r M com Mem 14 ***A**V\ •■* » *1 N N yv Nu r N nti 3 Nun 15 ■ ■»■■ •-»-• $ J "" X e Xi a + X x D Samech 16 o o o O Omicron o V Ain 17 § *> 2 1 r 7T 7rc; Pi p P P D Pe 13 "S /• r r M r 2 Tzade 19 /] A ? ? 9 9 Q qq P Koph 20 <=> ^ i A P P ?e Rho fr R P r 1 Resh 21 jiM * w * S c C <7 Sigma V S /£• W Shin 22 1 5 + T T T r Tau T T z t n Tau i n III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI ALPS mountains alp has a peculiar meaning, and sig- nifies one of the high pastures for which the Alps are distinguished. This great congeries of mountains may be said to be included between lat. 44 and 48 N. ; and Ion. 5° and 18 E. The culminating peak of the whole system is Mont Blanc, 15,781 feet high, though the true centre is St. Gothard, or rather the mountains between the sources of the Rhone and the Inn, and the Swiss cantons Valais, Bern, Uri, and Grisons on the north; and canton Tessin, and Lombardy and Sardinia on the south. It is a curious fact that its great central mass is nearly equidistant from the pole and from the equator. From its slopes flow, either directly or by af- fluents, the great rivers of central Europe, the Danube, Rhine, Rhone, and Po. Round the northern frontier of Italy the Alps form a re- markable barrier, shutting it off at all points from the mainland of Europe, so that, except in the valley of the Adige, where a remarkable break occurs in the chain, or at the opposite extremity at Nice, it can only be approached from France, Germany, or Switzerland, through high and difficult passes. Accordingly nearly all the great passes of the Alps are connected with roads from the northern kingdoms into Italy. As usual with mountain systems of great altitude, the highest peaks of the Alps arc reached by a gradual ascent through a succes- sion of outer ranges and elevated intermediate valleys. The total width of the system is there- fore always great and can hardly anywhere be measured with precision, opinion varying as to the points at which the outer limits should be fixed. Toward the east, however, the system, while it diminishes in height, becomes more widely extended, some of the transverse valleys extending to 150 miles, while that of the Drave reaches 200. From Bellinzona, in the canton of Tessin, to Altorf, in that of Uri, the distance is 50 miles. The outer range is called by the Italians Pre-alpi, by the Germans Voralpen. The main chain of the Alps, which commonly determines the watershed of the countries through which it passes, contains some of the highest peaks ; but at several points there are extensive ramifications of the system proceeding at various angles from the main chain, and more or less connected with it, and which some- times exceed in mass and altitude the cor- responding parts of the principal chain. Such are the Alps of Dauphine and Savoy, and the Bernese Alps. The principal valleys of the Alps run mostly in a direction nearly parallel with the principal ranges, and therefore east and west. The transverse valleys are commonly shorter. In the section called the Lepontine Alps, how- ever, long ranges run north and south, forming valleys transverse to the dividing line of the waters, and terminating in the great Italian lakes. The slopes toward the south are more precipitous than toward the north, and as most of the collateral ranges lie to the north of the main chain the great valleys are mostly to be found in the intervals between them. The trans- verse valleys of the Alps frequently lead up through a narrow gorge to a depression in the main ridge between two adjacent peaks. These are the passes or cols, which are found by tracing a stream which descends from the moun- tains up to its source. The col is usually found to receive the drainage of the neighboring peaks, and when it is of sufficient extent a small lake is generally formed, from which a stream flows down on each side. When the one stream has been traced up to its source the passage across the mountains is completed by following the course of the other. The principal passes, now well known, are more than 50 in number; but there are many others more difficult and dan- gerous which have never had more than a local reputation. The common divisions of the Alps have been taken from the Romans, whose acquaintance with the Alps as the northern boundary of Italy was considerable, yet their classification, being formed mostly for practical purposes, was far from complete. Several modern divisions have been added. The Romans were acquainted with many of the best passes, to which from their altitude they gave the name of Mons. Before noticing these divisions a glance may be taken at the general direction of the main chain. The most convenient starting-point is on the Medi- terranean coast, near Nice. Eastward the chain proceeds along the coast till it forms a junction with the Apennines, which may be con- sidered as one extremity of the system. In the opposite direction it proceeds northwest, and af- terward north on the boundaries of France and Italy to Mont Blanc : it then turns northeast and runs generally in this direction to the Gross Glockner, in central Tyrol, between the Drave and the Salza, where it divides into two branches, the more northerly of which proceeds northeast toward Vienna. The southern chain subdivides again, one branch running in a south- erly direction, connects itself with the mountains of Dalmatia, and by a southeasterly continuation with the Balkans and the mountains of Greece; the middle branch proceeds toward the Drave and Danube. With these continuations, which lose themselves insensibly in other ranges, the Alps may be considered to terminate. The Maritime Alps. — The first great division of the Alps extends from their junction with the Apennines to Monte Viso, a distance of about 100 miles. This mountain is the nost prominent object from the basin of the Po, wher- ever the Alps are visible. The division of the Alps from the Apennines has been variously fixed at Col di Tende and Col d'Altare. near Savona. The northern limit of the Maritime Alps is to the south of Monte Yiso. The cul- minating-points are the Aiguille de Chambeyron, 11,155 feet, and the Grand Rioburent. 11,142 feet. The principal pass is the Col di Tende (6,158 feet), which was made practicable for carriages by Napoleon. It leads from Nice to Turin. The road is dreary, but commands a view of the Alps from Col d'Iseran to Monte Viso. There are carriage roads over the Col di San Bernardo and Col di Nava. Numerous tributa- ries of the Po and the Durance with the Var and other lesser rivers rise in the Maritime Alps. The Cottian Alps. — Anciently named after a chief of the district, and extending from Monte Viso to Mont Cenis — consist of numerous mountain masses irregularly grouped, the main line running northeast, and the principal rami- fications to the west of it. The length is about 60 miles. Modern geographers have distinguished a separate group, divided from the main chain ALPS by the valley of the Durance, which are called the Dauphine Alps. These contain loftier peaks than the main chain. Principal peaks of the Cottian Alps: Monte Viso, [2,605 ft-i Char- donnet, 12,373; Ciamarclla, 12,081; of the Dau- phinese Alps: Pic des Serins, 13,462; La Meije, 13,081 ; Pelvoux, 12.973. There is a carriage road hy Mont Genevre (6.102 feet) between the valleys of the Durance and the Dora Ripaira, and by the Col de Sestrieres (6,33s feet) from Cesanne to Pignerolo. The road hy the former, Ccsanne to Briancon, was constructed by order of Napoleon. The difficult pass of Col de la Roue, Rardonneche to Modane, is that sup- posed to have been traversed hy Caesar in order to attack the Helvetians. The Durance and the Dora Ripaira rise in the Cottian Alps. The Graian Alps. — From Mont CenistO Mont Blanc (50 miles long). This group has exten- sive ramifications in Savoie and Piedmont. The principal peaks are. in the main chain. Aiguille de la Sassiere, 12,326 feet; in the Piedmontese group. Grand Paradis, 13,300; in the Savoie group, Grande Casse, 12,780. Mont Cenis (6.765 feet), the most frequented of all the Alpine passes, was crossed by Pepin to attack the Lombards. A carriage road over it was constructed by Napoleon in 1803-10, leading from the valley of the Arc to Turin, and unit- ing with the road from Mont Genevre at Susa. A railway now passes through the mountain by a tunnel nearly eight miles long. (See Cenis.) The pass of Little St. Bernard (7,192 feet) lies between the valleys of the Isere and Aosta. It was made practicable for cars by Augustus, but is now only available for mules. It appears to have been the road taken by Han- nibal. The Col de Bonhomme (8,195 feet) com- municates with the Col de la Seigne (8,327 feet) in the Pennine Alps. They lead by a mule path from Contamines to Courmayeur. The Stura, and Orca, and the Arc and Isere, rise in the Graian Alps. The Pennine Alps (Celtic, pen or ben, a hill) is the loftiest range of the whole system, having Mont Blanc at one extremity and Monte Rosa at the other (60 miles). Here also begin the most extensive ramifications of the system, some of the collateral ranges rivaling or ex- ceeding in mass and altitude the main chain. The Alps of Haute Savoie form a northwestern continuation of this range. The northern boun- dary of the Pennine Alps is the Valais, or upper valley of the Rhone. On the opposite side of this valley, and nearly parallel with the main chain, runs the great range of the Bernese Alps. Here the grandest panoramas of Alpine scenery are exhibited. The great peaks of the two vast ranges are only about 20 miles apart, and be- tween them run transverse ranges presenting innumerable secondary heights. From the Mat- terhorn (Mont Cervin), between Mont Corn- bin and Monte Rosa, a series of great heights, including the Weisshorn and the Gabelhorn, run to the north. The main range contains Mont Blanc, Monte Rosa, and Mont Cervin, three of the highest peaks in Furopc. On the west the Bernese Alps are connected with the Jura range. The principal heights of the Pen- nine Alps are Mont Blanc. 15,781 feet; Monte Rosa, 15,217; Mischabelhc'irner (Dom), 14.935; Lyskamm, 14,889 ; Weisshorn, 14,804 ; Matter- horn, 14,780. In the Bernese Alps are the Fin- steraarhorn, 14,026; Aletschhorn, 13.803; Jung- frau. 13.071. There are bridle passes, the Col de la Seigne, already mentioned, and the Col de Ferret (8,320 feet ). on each side of Mont Blanc. The pass of Great St. Bernard is celebrated for its hospice. (See Bernard, Great St.) It was crossed by Napoleon in 1800, but it is not prac- ticable for carriages. There are several passes, as the Col du Cervin. the Schwarzthor, and the Col du I.ys. from 10.000 to 14.000 feet in height. The mosl easterly pass is the Simplon, 6,595 feet, from Brieg to Domo d'Ossola. It has a carriage road made by Napoleon. This is about 36 miles long and 25 feet wide through- out, and is carried over steep precipices and through six galleries hewn in the rock. The Grande Galerie is 683 feet long. A double rail- way tunnel, the longest in the world (12^2 miles), is being driven through the Simplon. Numerous tributaries of the Rhone rise in the valley between the mountains, and on the Italian side the Dora Baltca, Scsia, and other rivers. The Le pontine Alps form the continuation , >f the main chain on the south side of the great valley or depression stretching from Martigny in the Valais to Coire in the Grisons, the west- ern portion of which forms the basin of the Rhone, the eastern that of the Vorderrhein. From this chain branch the northern and eastern extensions of the Swiss Alps beyond the Bernese range, the eastern boundary of which is fixed at t he- defile of the Devil's Bridge, near Ander- matt, crossed by the Reuss. The Lepontine range extends to the Splugen Pass. The line of wa- tershed is generally parallel to the valley of the Vorderrhein ; but here, as already noticed, some of the principal ranges run transverse to it, terminating in the great valleys in which lie the lake'; Maggiorc. Como, etc.. fed by numerous tributaries from this and the following division of the Alps. This division forms the great water-parting of the whole system. Within a radius of a few miles from the St. Gothard Pass rise the Rhone, the Aar, the Reuss, the Vorderrhein, the Ticino, the Toccia, and the Maggia. The principal pass is the St. Gothard (6,936 feet), over which pass is a carriage road from Bellinzona to Altorf. Through this moun- tain mass a railway tunnel more than nine miles long was opened in 1882. The Grics Pass (8,050 feet ) conducts from Obcrgestelen to Formazza. The Bernardin Pass (6.71*) feet), constructed by the Swiss government, leads from Coire to Bellinzona. The road from Coire to the Splii- gen is the same as leads to the Splugen Pass (6,945 feet), through which it proceeds to Lake Como. This route commands the finest views of Swiss scenery in the Grisons. Previous to the construction of the present road by the Austrian government in 1823 it was difficult and dangerous. Marshal MacDonald, who crossed it in 1800, lost a large number of men by avalanches at a gorge in the passage of the Cardinello, which the new road avoids. The carriage road over the Furka Pass from Obcr- gestelen to Andermatt. completed in 1867, af- fords a fine view of the Schreckhorn and Fin- steraarhorn. The peaks here are of less elevation. The highest, Monte Leone, is 11,696 feet; the Piz Valrhein is 11.14S feet, and several are above 10.000. Of the northern ranges Todi is 11.887; Bifertenstock, 11.237: Scheerhorn, 11,132, and there are many above 10,000. ALPS The Rkatian Alps extend from the Spliigen to Dreiherrnspitz, on the borders of Salzburg and Tyrol. The Engadine, or valley of the Inn, divides them into two portions. The chain is also broken by the valley of the Adige. To the south, separated by the valley of the Adda, are the Lombard Alps, while the more northerly continuations embrace the Tyrolese and Bava- rian Alps. In the main range are the Piz Ber- nina, 13,294 feet; Piz Roseg, 12,936; Orteler- spitze, 12,814; in the Lombard Alps, Monte Adamello, 11,832; Presanella, 11,688; and Care Alto, 11,352. The other ranges are inferior in height. Good roads now become more numer- ous. The Malloya Pass (5,942 feet) leads from Chiavenna, by the valley of the Inn, to Inns- bruck, and communicates with the road over the Julier Pass (7,503 feet) to Coire. The Pass of Glurns (4.400 feet), from the valley of the Inn to the Adige, is the lowest pass over the main chain. It joins the road to Milan by the Val- telline, the highest part of which is 9.174 feet. This is a carriage road constructed by the Aus- trian government for communication with their Lombard dominions. The Brenner Pass (4.588 feet) leads from Verona to Innsbruck. The Brenner is crossed by a railway. The northern ranges are intersected by the Septima, Julier, Albula, and other passes. The Adda, Oglio, Adige, Hinterrhein, Inn, and other rivers, rise in this part of the chain. Noric Alps. — The main chain of the Alps here divides into different sections, as already mentioned. The northern part of the chain ex- tending to Vienna was anciently called the Noric Alps, while the southern continuations were known as the Carnian and Julian Alps, the names Venetian, Dalmatian, and Pannonic Alps being also in use. The culminating peak of the northern range is the Gross Glockner, 12,405 feet. Farther east the heights are of much less elevation. In Carinthia and Styria two parallel branches called the Styrian Alps enclose the up- per valley of the Mur. In this group is the Hafnereck, 10.044 feet. In south Tyrol and Venetia several peaks rise above 10,000 feet. The Carnic Alps run from the frontiers of Tyrol and Venetia to the frontier of Carinthia. They are separated from the northern range by the Gailthal. The height of the southeastern con- tinuations of the Alps rapidly diminishes, and they k>se themselves in ranges having nothing in common with the great mountain masses which distinguish the centre of the system. Mount Terglou, near the northwestern extrem- ity of the Julian Alps, has a height of 9,371 feet. The name Dinaric Alps is given to a continua- tion from Mount Klek through Croatia and along the borders of Dalmatia and Herzego- vina. There are various points of vantage from which extensive views of Alpine scenery are commanded at the expense of a moderate amount of climbing. The Rigi, which can now be ascended by railway, is one of these. There are hotels at the top, 5.905 feet above the level of the sea, and 4.468 above the Lake of Lucerne. A favorite view from hence is to watch the sun rise over the Bernese Alps. The Faulhorn (8,799 feet), southeast of Lake Brienz, com- mands a near view of the same range. The Becca di Nona (8.415 feet), south of Aosta, gives, according to some authorities, the finest Vol. I— 11 panoramic view to be obtained from any summit of the Alps. From the Corner Grat (to which there is now a railway from Zermatt), and va- rious points in the valley of Chamonix, par- ticularly the Montanvert, which is visited to see the Mer de Glace, views of various interest are obtained. The most accessible Alpine gla- ciers are those of Aletsch, Chamonix, and Zer- matt. Climate. — In the lower valleys the mean tem- perature ranges from 50 to 60°. Half-way up the Alps it averages about 32° — a height which, in the snowy regions, where snow always lies, the average does not attain. But even here the solar radiation produced by the rocks and snow is often so great as to raise the barometer to 120 and even higher. The exhilarating and invigorating nature of the climate in the upper regions of the Alps during summer has been acknowledged by all who have perambulated these romantic scenes. The freshness of the breeze as it comes from the snowy peaks tem- pered by the rays of a southern sun, enables the traveler, without weariness, to perform dis- tances on foot that at home he would have shrunk from attempting. Notwithstanding, how- ever, the invigorating nature of the climate, the inhabitants of the higher valleys are often af- flicted with goitre and cretinism. Botany and Zoology. — In respect to vegeta- tion the Alps have been divided into six zones. The limits of these depend not on absolute height, but on height modified by exposure and local circumstances. The lowest is the olive zone. This tree flourishes better on sheltered slopes of the mountains than on the plains of northern Italy. The vine, which bears a greater winter cold, distinguishes the second zone. On slopes exposed to the sun it flourishes to a con- siderable height. The third is the mountainous zone or region. Cereals and deciduous trees form the distinguishing features of its vegeta- tion. The mean temperature about equals that of Great Britain, but the extremes are greater. The fourth region is the sub-Alpine or conif- erous. Here are vast forests of pines of various species, which have in many places been incon- siderately cut down, the result being that the valleys have been deprived of shelter and de- nuded of soil. Most of the Alpine villages are in the two last regions. On the northern slopes pines grow to 6.000, and on the southern slopea to 7,000 feet above the level of the sea. Thii is also the region of the lower or permanent pastures where the flocks are fed in winter. Tht fifth is the pasture region, the term alp being used in the local sense of high pasture grounds. It extends from the uppermost limit of trees to the region of perpetual snow. The landscape is adorned with numerous shrubs ; rhododendrons, junipers, bilberries, and dwarf willows being among the distinctive forms of vegetation. The sixth is the region of perpetual snow. The line of snow appears from a distance to be con- tinuous at a limit which varies, according to seasons and localities, from 8,000 to 9.500 feet, hut on approaching this apparently continuous line it is found to be broken up and crossed by patches of brilliant vegetation, the limit of which appears to be want of soil rather than severity of climate. Few flowering plants extend above 10,000 feet, but they have been found as high as 12,000 feet. At this great elevation ALSACE-LORRAINE species of quadrupeds may be seen, the bou- quetin or wild goat, and the chamois, whicn delight in heights inaccessible to man. The bouquetin, which has become very rare, scales the most elevated peaks, while the chamois is generally found rather lower, but is never seen in the plains. In summer the high mountain pastures are covered with large flocks of cattle, sheep, and goats, which in winter are removed to a lower and warmer level. The marmot, and white or Alpine bare, inhabit both the snowy and the woody regions. Lower down are found the mole, the wildcat, the fox, the lynx, the bear, and the wolf; but the last two are now extremely rare. The vulture, eagle, and other birds of prey frequent the rugged Alpine rocks, and "the snowy ptarmigan" seeks food and shel- ter among the diminutive plants that border upon the snow-line. Other kinds of game, in- cluding the grouse, woodcock, and partridge, may be found from the upper limit of the woods to the more level and habitable parts below. Several kinds of water-fowl frequent the higher lakes, where excellent trout and other fish are found ; but those situated at the greatest ele- vation are, from their low temperature, en- tirely destitute of fish. Geology and Minerals. — -The geological structure of the Alps is highly involved, and is far, as yet, from being thoroughly investigated or understood. In general three zones can be distinguished, a central, in which crystalline rocks prevail, and two exterior zones, in which sedimentary rocks predominate. The rocks of the central zone consist of granitic gneiss of va- rious forms, seldom pure granite, gneiss, horn- blende, mica slate, and other slates and schists. In the western Alps there are also considerable elevations in the central zone that belong to the Jurassic (Oolite) and Cretaceous formations. From the disposition of the beds, which are broken, tilted, and distorted on a gigantic scale, the Alps appear to have been formed by a suc- cession of disruptions and elevations extending over a very protracted period. The large beds of calcareous rock which overlie the older rocks both to the east and west appear to have been ruptured and rolled back by the upheaval of the central mass. Mining is not carried on to an extent proportionate to the magnitude of the mountain range. Iron and lead, however, are found in considerable abundance, and the Blei- berg (lead mountain) mine, in Carinthia, fur- nishes the purest lead in Europe. Rock-salt is abundant toward the north of the chain, and the salt-works of Bex in Canton de Vaud, of Hall in Tyrol, of Hallein and of Berchtesgaden in the vicinity of Salzburg, are of note. Mercury ex- ists chiefly in the east part; the richness of the mine of Idria, northwest of Trieste, is well known. Besides those principal products, gold, silver, copper, zinc, alum, and coal are wrought to some extent. Alsace-Lorraine, al-sas-16-ran' (German, Elsass-Lothringen) , a district occupying the extreme southwest corner of Germany, bounded west by France, east by Baden, and south by Switzerland. Its length from north to south is 12.3 miles; its breadth varies from 22 to 105 miles; and its area is 5,580 square miles, of which 1,353 belong to Upper Alsace (in the south), 1,844 to Lower Alsace (northeast), and 2,383 to Lorraine (northwest). Pop. (iooo) 1,717,451, of whom 76 per cent were Roman Catholics, and more than 80 per cent spoke Ger- man — mainly the vernacular Alsatian, a dialect of Alemannian. The most populous districts in their order are Lower Alsace. Lorraine, and Up- per Alsace. The French-speaking population is mainly in the larger towns and in Lorraine. The Rhine flows 115 miles north by east, along all the eastern border, and receives, below Strasburg, the 111 from Alsace, 127 miles long. Other rivers are the Moselle, flowing through Lorraine past Metz, and its affluent, the Saar. Along the Rhine is a strip of level country, 9 to 17 miles broad and declining from 800 to 450 feet above sea-level. Westward of this rise the Vosges Mountains, culminating at a height of 4,677 feet ; while Lorraine, rather hilly than mountainous, rarely attains 1,300 feet. About 48.5 per cent of the entire area is arable, 11.6 meadow and pasture, and 30.8 under wood. Alsace-Lorraine produces much wine, grain, and tobacco; it is rich in mines, iron and coal; and manufactures iron, cotton, wool, silks, chemicals, glass, and paper. It contains the important cities of Strasburg (pop. igoo, 150,268); Muhl- hauscn (pop. 1890, 27,538); Metz (pop. 1890, 60,186); Colmar (pop. 1890, 30,411). As a French province, Alsace was divided into the departments of Haut-Rhin and Bas-Rhin. Lor- raine fell into the departments of Meuse, Moselle, Meurthe, and Vosges (parts of all which still remain French). The lieutenant- governor (Statthalter) , representing the im- perial government, resides at Strasburg, and is assisted by a ministry of five departments and a council of state. From the 10th century Alsace-Lorraine formed part of the German empire till a part of it was ceded to France at the Peace of West- phalia (1648), and by the Peace of Ryswick (1697) the cession of the whole was ratified. German never ceased to be the chief language of the people, and all newspapers were, during the whole period of the French possession, printed in both languages. In 1871, after the Franco-Prussian war, Alsace and German Lor- raine were, by the Treaty of Frankfort, incor- porated in the new German empire. The great mass of the population was strongly against the change, and 160,000 elected to be French, though only 50,000 went into actual exile, refusing to become German subjects. Since the era of the Revolution Alsace in sentiment was wholly French. To Prance she gave the bravest of her sons — Kcllcrman, Richer, and many another hero. Strasburg first beard the 'Marseillaise' ; and MM. Erckmann-Chatrian, Lorrainers both, have faithfully represented their countrymen's love of La Patrie in the days of the second as of the first Napoleon. Of late it is claimed by the Germans that, through the emigration of the irreconcilables and the immigration of German settlers, the tendency of the old natives to ac- cept the inevitable, and the rising up of a new generation, to whom the French connection is a tradition, the situation has slowly but steadily changed in favor of Germany and the existing firm but fair administration. The irritating passport system, a special grievance not in force elsewhere in Germany, was withdrawn in 1873. On 9 May 1902, Emperor William directed that a bill be laid before the Federal Council abol- ishing paragraph 10 in the imperial constitution, which imposed practically a dictatorship on the reichsland of Alsace-Lorraine. ALSOP — ALTON Alsop, Richard, poet: b. Middletown, Conn., 23 Jan. 1 761 ; d. Flatbush, L. I., 20 Aug. 1815. He studied at Yale, but did not complete his course. He formed the literary group known as the "Hartford Wits," which includes Benjamin Trumbull, Lemuel Hopkins, and Theodore Dwight. Alsop was largely responsi- ble for the 'Echo' (1791— 5) , a series of traves- ties and burlesques on current fads and liter- ature (pub. in book form 1807). He wrote ( Monody on the Death of Washington' (1800) ; the 'Enchanted Lake of the Fairy Morgana' (1808). Altai (al'tl) Mountains, a mountain range of central Asia, extending from the desert of Gobi in a northwesterly direction along the boun- dary of Mongolia and Sungaria. After pass- ing the Russian frontier it gradually falls off in altitude and merges into the steppes. The rivers of this region are mostly head waters of the Obi and Irtysh. The mountain scenery is generally grand and interesting. The highest summit is Baluka, about 17,500 feet above the sea. The area covered by snow and glaciers is large. The mountains have a severe climate, but agriculture is carried on to some extent in the larger valleys. The inhabitants are chiefly Russians and Kalmuks. Altaic Languages, a family of languages occupying a portion of northern and eastern Europe, and nearly the whole of northern and central Asia, together with some other regions, and divided into five branches, the Ugrian or Finno-Hungarian, Samoyedic, Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic. Also called Ural-Altaic and Turanian. Altar, the structure on which sacrifices are offered or incense burned as an act of wor- ship. In the Catholic Church, the sacred table on which is offered the Sacrifice of the Mass. The earliest altars were of wood, but Pope Sil- vester, at the beginning of the 4th century, decreed that the altar should be made of stone, or at least that part of it on which the chalice and host are placed. The ritual of the Catholic Church commands that the altar must be con- secrated by a bishop or a mitred abbot who has received the faculties and the relics of a saint to be enclosed in the altar stone, which is placed in the centre of the table of the altar. Altgeld, John Peter, American politician: b. Germany, Dec. 1847; d. 12 March 1902. Brought to Mansfield, Ohio, in infancy, he re- ceived a public-school education ; served in the Civil War as a private in the Union army, 1864-65 ; taught school in Missouri ; became a lawyer there and county attorney of Andrew County in 1874. Removing to Chicago in 1875 he became prominent in the Democratic party. An unsuccessful candidate for Congress in 1884, he was judge of the Chicago Superior Court 1886-91. Elected governor in 1892, one of his first official acts was to pardon three anarchists, imprisoned since 1887 ( two for life and one for 15 years) for complicity in the bomb-throw- ing which killed seven policemen in Chicago, 4 May 1886 (see Anarchism ; Haymarket Massacre). It should be said that many leading United States citizens had petitioned for their release on the ground of insufficient evidence, an assumption which Judge Gary (q.v.) has vigorously repelled. Altgeld was governor till 1897. He was a prominent champion of free silver and an active supporter of Bryan for the Presidency in 1896 and 1900, and was defeated as independent candidate for mayor, 1899. He was an able speaker, an efficient advocate of prison reform, and appears to have been moved chiefly by sympathy with the working class. He wrote 'Our Penal Machinery and Its Victims.' 'Live Questions,' etc. Althaea. See Hollyhock; Marsh Mallow. Althorp, Lord. See Spencer. Altiscope, an instrument consisting of an arrangement of mirrors in a vertical framework, by means of which a person is enabled to over- look an object (a parapet, for instance) inter- vening between himself and whatever he desire^ to see, the picture of the latter being reflected from a higher to a lower mirror, where it in seen by the observer. Altitude, in mathematics, denotes the per- pendicular height of the vertex of any plane or solid body above the line or plane of its base ; thus the altitude of a triangle is measured by a perpendicular let fall from any one of its angles upon the base, or upon the base produced ; there- fore the same triangle may have different alti- tudes, accordingly as we assume one side or an- other for its base. Again, the altitude of a cone or pyramid, whether right or oblique, is meas- ured by a perpendicular let fall from the vertex to the plane of its base. Similar remarks apply to other solids. In astronomy altitudes are measured or estimated by the angles subtended between the object and the plane of the horizon: and this altitude may be either true or apparent. The apparent altitude is that which is obtained immediately from observation ; and the true al- titude that which results from correcting the apparent altitude, by making allowance for parallax, refraction, etc. The altitude of a ter- restrial object is the height of its vertex above some horizontal plane assumed as a base. Alton, 111., city in Madison co., on the Mississippi River, and on the Chicago & A., the Cleveland, C, C. & St. L., the St. Clair, M. & St. L, the St. Louis, C. & St. P., and the St. Louis, K. & N. W. R.R's ; about four miles above the mouth of the Missouri River and 15 miles north of St. Louis. Its river lines of transportation include the Eagle Packet Com- pany line, the Diamond line, the St. Louis & Clarkson, and the St. Louis, Naples & Peoria. Alton was settled early in the century, but was not incorporated as a city until 1837. The city, built upon a high limestone bluff, has very pic- turesque surroundings. The Mississippi River is spanned here by a railroad bridge, and the city is connected by electric railway with Upper Alton, two miles to the northeast, where is lo- cated Shurtleff College (q.v.). Monticello Sem- inary (q.v.) is located at Godfrey, four miles from Alton, on the Chicago, A. & J. R.R.. Alton has in addition to an extensive river and railroad trade, large manufacturing interests. The Illinois Glass Company, manufacturer of glass bottles, is located here, and gives employ- ment to 3,200 persons. The company owns and operates a railroad and uses Yx of the output of a large coal mine. Some of the other manu- factures are flour, shovels and picks, foundry and machine-shop products, and shoes. Among the prominent public buildings are the Hayne's ALTON LOCKE — ALUM Memorial Public Library, a Home for Aged Women, the St. Joseph's Hospital, tbc Ursuline I'omenl and id churches. I he city is governed by a mayor and common council elected every two years by the people. There are two na- tional banks, two savings banks, three daily newspapers, trolley systems and electric light. In 1837, Elijah P. Lovcj.w i.|.v.), the aboli- tionist, was murdered here. A monument to his memory was nan.. I in 180;. Pop (1900) [4,210; including North and Upper Alton, 18,000. I). K. Sparks, Pres. of the Sparks Milling Co., Alton. Alton Locke, a story by Charles Kingsley, published in 1850. It was Ins first novel, and displayed the author's broad sympathy for the condition of the English working classes. It excited immediate attention, and was an impor- tant (actor in arousing the upper classes to a realization of their responsibilities toward the less fortunate. The altruism of Locke and his friends, Crossthwaite, Mackaye, Lady Ellcrton, and Eleanor, forms an admirable and inspiring feature of the book. Altoona, Pa., city in Blair County, on the Pennsylvania Railroad, 118 m. E. of Pittsburg. It has an elevation of 1,182 feet above the sea; situated in the midst of a most picturesque mountain region, at the eastern base of the Alle- ghany Mountains. For many years Altoona has been regarded as the most typical of American railroad towns, for here are located the immense repair shops of the Pennsylvania Railroad, and over 10,000 workmen are engaged in manufac- turing and repairing locomotives, passenger coaches, and freight cars. There are other large and important manufactories here, of ma- chinery, agricultural implements, coal-mining machinery, etc. It is also the business centre of a considerable agricultural region. The city con- tains a public library building, high school, several hospitals, and numerous churches and private schools. The famous Horseshoe Bend, on the line of the Pennsylvania Railroad, is lo- cated near the city, and Lakemont Park is a well-known pleasure ground within the city limits. The municipal government is vested in a mayor, city council and subordinate adminis- trative officials, who are elected annually. The city owns the waterworks plant, which was acquired in 1872 at a cost of $680,000, and upon which $20,000 is expended annually. The city's expenses aggregate $250,000 yearly, of which amount nearly $100,000 is expended for schools. The city was founded in 1850 by the Pennsylvania Railroad Company. It was first incorporated as a borough in 1854, and chartered as a city in 1868. During the great railroad strike of 1877, Altoona was the centre of the disturbed section and troops were ordered out to protect railroad property here. It is a growing, thriving city. There arc three daily and nu- merous weekly newspapers. Pop. (1880) 19,- 710; (1890) 30,337; (1900) 38,973. and esti- mated (1903) 41,600. Altoona, or Allatoona Pass, a mountain pass in northern Georgia, the scene of a sharp engagement between the Federal troops under Gen. Corse and the Confederates commanded by Gen. French, on s Oct. 1864. The losses on each side were about equal. Altrices, birds whose young come out of the egg in a helpless condition and are reared and fed in the nest. All the higher birds, as thrushes and sparrows, arc of this kind. The term is opposed to i'recoics, a name applied to birds whose young arc able as soon as batched to take care of themselves, as in the cases of game- and shore-birds. Altruism, a term in psychology and ethics to denote disposition and conduct directed to- ward the well-being of others. It is contrasted with egoism, or self-seeking disposition and con- duct. It is essential to altruism, as well as to egoism, that the good of others, or of self, should be consciously and intentionally pursued. Actions and dispositions which are instinctive, such as maternal instinct, arc not, properly ^i.aking, altruistic, nor are the opposite ego- istic. It is only when the consciousness of self is sufficiently developed in the child to give rise to a contrast between self and the "other" {al- ter), that the conscious pursuit of the interest of one of them is possible. This is covered by psychologists by saying that real altruism and egoism arc always "reflective. 8 Altruism is also applied to the type of ethical theory which bases morality upon generous or altruistic disposition or conduct (in the sense defined above). Altsheler, Joseph Alexander, American author and journalist: b. Three Springs, Ky., jo April 1862. lie studied at Vanderbilt Univer- sity and has been connected with the Louisville Courier-Journal and the New York World. His novels are chiefly on American historical sub- jects: 'The Sun of Saratoga'; 'In Hostile Red' ; nt 50 years ago, attempts were made to apply the reducing properties of alumi- num. Without exception the experimenters ALUMINO-THERMICS heated their compounds externally. The re- action was always so violent that they could only operate with very small quantities. It will easily be seen that to arrive at alumino- thermics on a commercial scale from such a Starting point required patient study and as- siduous work. The recipes for gunpowder or dynamite sound fairly simple, but it re- quires more than a mere mixture of the in- gredients to obtain any effect sufficient for industrial development. Tn all exothermic processes the physical properties of the ingredients, in this case par- ticularlv tlmse of the oxides, need consider- ing. Then the methods of manufacture have to be worked out for each case. The appli- cations may be roughly divided into two main divisions, the one concerning the metal- lurgist. the other the engineer. The latter application may be summarized in the word "welding." The study of the metallurgical application preceded that of the other by a few years. Among the pure metals produced by the alumino-genetic reaction may be men- tioned in the first instance chromium free of carbon. It is used in the manufacture of particular qualities of chromium steel with a limited percentage of carbon, and nowadays hardly any high-speed tool steel is made without it. Pure manganese also produced by this process finds employment in copper and nickel manufacture, and. furthermore, in the production of particular sorts of manga- nese steel of great strength and great elas- ticity with 12 to 14 per cent, manganese, used particularly for bolts of machinery exposed to great strains. Pure molybdenum and ferro-vanadium have also lately been put on the market. Ferro-titanium has been in use with a number of steel works for quite a considerable time. Considering the innumerable details con- nected with the application of so new and practically unknown a force, it is not sur- prising that only since a Jew years the proc- ess has been introduced on a large and com- mercial scale. The most important of these welding processes is the one by which a con- tinuous rail — a necessity of modern trolley- road construction — is simply, cheaply and effectively obtained. The marked advantage enjoyed by this system is the absence of any bulky equipment: a crucible, a mould box, and. in some rare instances where a complete butt weld of the head of the rail is desired. a rail-clamp is all that is required. All these materials, including the necessary quantity of thermit, can easily be moved on a hand truck. Each weld, according to the section, requires from is to 20 pounds of thermit, and the metal welded around the joint will only weigh, therefore, from S to 10 pounds. The thermit reaction takes place in a crucible which rests on a simple iron stand, that can be attached to the rails or rail- clamps where such are used. The crucible consists of a sheet-iron mantle lined with magnesia or corundum slag, which is tamped round a sheet-iron conns suspended in its middle. The bottom is formed by a hard magnesia stone provided with an exchange- able outlet which will stand 9 or 10 runs. The life of the crucible itself is about 25 reactions; the wear and tear will amount, therefore, to only a few cents per joint. The crucible is plugged by inserting two asbestos washers covered by a metal disk nver the outflow or thimble. In the latter is suspended a piece of iron wire, the lower end of which projects below the base of the crucible. This is driven up by a sort or spade and so "taps" the crucible. The heat nf the thermic reaction might in spite of the asbestos washers burst through the plugging material. To prevent this the metal disk is further covered by a layer of magnesia sand. The thermic is then poured into the crucible from bags containing the necessary amount for each section. After the charge in tin' crucible has been ignited in the usual way the reaction takes its course and the crucible is tapped to allow the liquid steel to flow into the mould. The mould is made according to a special design for each section. Its two parts, one on each side, exactly tit and firmly enclose the rail. It must be dry and porous. On a large scale moulds can be made by manu- facturers of refractory earthenware or by railway lines, according to their require- ments, in their own shops, by tamping an ordinary mixture of loam and sand in equal parts into a sheet-iron case placed over the model. This sand mould must be dried dur- ing a couple of hours at a temperature of alii nit too" C. Before placing the mould round the joint, the rail ends must be cleaned of dirt and rust with a wire brush and slightly warmed. In case the tops of the rails are to be butt-welded the sections must be filed. The great heat of the liquid thermit steel literally melts and amalgamates the ends of rails projecting into the moulds, making them as one, so that when cool it leaves a continuous rail. The joint, if any- thing, is stronger than an equal section of the rail, from the fact that a shoe or collar is left around the rail at the joint of thermit steel. As the whole heating of the rail ends :s a uniform one, and the same is done without exposure to the atmosphere; and as the final cooling is done under the same conditions as that under which a rail is made, it has been found that there are no changes in the ingredients or temper of the steel in the rail, and it is left just as it was, except that the ends are melted together up to, and generally a little above the bottom of the tread of the rail. If the alignment and surface of the rail at the joint was perfect before making the weld, it will be found to be the same after, except that a slight longitudinal expansion has taken place, caused by the heat: and all of this is to the benefit of the joint, for with the heat it tends to butt-weld the heads; in fact, it does so if the rail ends touch each other when the weld is made. The cost of relining crucibles and moulds amounts to but a few cents per joint, and experience shows that the item of labor per joint should not run over 15 cents. The sys- tem can be applied on short lines with the ALUMINO-THERMICS same economy as on long ones, for it is only a question of the number of men, and con- sequently the number of joints required per day. It is especially an ideal system for re- pairing old worn joints, for but little paving need be taken up (sufficient to take off the old fishplate), and in a few minutes a joint may be raised and welded, and that would prolong the life of an old track for many years. The strength of the weld is about 80 per cent, of the strength of the original material. The shoe welded on to the foot of the rail not only makes up for the remaining 20 per cent., but materially strengthens the rail at the joint. The so-called third rail is also welded by this means. The skin resistance of copper bonds increases with time, and frequent re- pairs are necessitated thereby. Welding obviates these repairs. It can be done in two ways. The first is identical with the one described (but without the use of clamps), and is now in extensive operation. The second consists in welding a small bridge of thermit iron between the feet on one side of the rail. The other side of the ioint, where there is no thermit-welded bridge, is me- chanically strengthened by an ordinary light fishplate. In this case the crucible is super- flous. The welding portion of about three pounds only is placed directly into the upper part of the mould, which is prolonged by a piece of gas pipe. The question of the continuous rail with exposed T rails on railroads is not solved at present for want of sufficient tests. Of course, welding is the only means by which a continuous rail, properly speaking, can be obtained with exposed rails. That it is prac- ticable within certain limits and that it is de- sirable to have greater lengths of exposed track welded together is admitted by per- manent-way engineers. The question is be- ing investigated at present, but some time must elapse before a definite opinion can be arrived at. In any case exposed rails can undoubted! v be welded without any risk in tunnels and subways, where differences of temperature are very slight, and contraction and expansion therefore only minimal. Steel girders for construction work ca::, of course, be welded in the same way as rails. For really solid jointing equal to the strength of the girder itself, welding is necessarily cheaper than riveting. Considerable work of this kind has already been done in Germany, but in Europe there are few of the wonder- ful steel-girder constructions which so greatly impress the European on his arrival in this country. There is a wide field for this work in the United States as soon as the preparatory experiments and calculations have been made and officially sanctioned. The result of the reaction in the crucible is a liquid iron, which sinks to the bottom, and an aluminum slag that swims on the top. Whoever has a supply of thermit and ignition powder has a supply of liquid mild steel, which, on account of its low contents of carbon. o.T per cent., is very malleable and ductile. Foundries can correct faulty eastings, machine shops can mend broken or worn out parts, and last, but not least. marine engineering works can repair large steel castings, such as crank shafts, and par- ticularly broken sternposts. The weld can either be effected by running the thermit iron round the ends of the piece in the shape of a ring, or by both running it between and around at the same time. The mould must be made of sand and loam in equal parts, or one-third sand and two-thirds china clay. It must be absolutely dry. Thermit steel being much hotter than steel out of a furnace, the mould must have no trace of moisture. Dry first gradually and then in the furnace to dull red heat. The quality of the thermit steel may be adapted to various requirements by mixing small, clean iron punchings, or the like, into the thermit powder. For 5 to 10 pounds or more an admixture of 5 to 10 per cent, of punchings will not make the overheated steel lose the property of melting and fusing with the metal with which it comes in contact. The proportion of punchings may be increased considerably (even 20 to 25 per cent.) for larger operations. Iron or steel punchings will moderate the temperature of the reaction, and increase, of course, the quantity of the metal available for the weld. The most startling, and at the same time, the most effective work done in the way of repairs by the thermit is in connection with marine engineering. To weld broken stern- post of large trans-Atlantic liners, or crank- shafts, or similar pieces, crucibles of six feet in height, with a capacity of seven to eight cwt, have been constructed. The reaction in these hardly takes longer than in a small crucible. The enormous advantage offered to steamship owners by such repairs will be apparent when it is remembered that a broken sternpost would otherwise have to be replaced by a new one. Besides this ex- pense, the one incurred through loss of time, the steamer being laid up in dry dock for many weeks in order to have the new part fitted in, is very heavy indeed. In nearly all experiments the thermit is ignited in a crucible so as to allow the liquid steel to flow out independently from the much lighter slag. The slag is not used in welding solid pieces, except as an addi- tional reservoir of heat. The slag, however, has the peculiar property of adhering in- stantly in a thin layer to any cold metal ob- ject with which it comes in contact. Were thermit to be ignited directly on a piece of metal, the slag would get in between the liquid steel and the object to be operated upon, and would prevent the fusion of the two metals, which is essential for a good weld. An application where thermit may be ig- nited on the object, is in repairs of broken roll bosses. The roll is firmly fixed so that the welding surface lizes horizontally. The mould carries on its inside, suspended by an overlapping rim, an iron ring of one-half inch diameter. After this mould and ring are firmly fixed one-half inch of liquid cast iron or cast steel is poured on the welding surface. On this the thermit powder is ALUMINO-THERMICS — ALUMINUM poured and ignited. About 30 to 40 pounds arc taken for the superficial foot. This will soften the metal to a depth of about two inches. As soon as the reaction is finished the thermit must be well stirred. The slag, on account of its low specific gravity, will thus be driven to the surface, and will cling to the iron ring which i- suspended 111 the mould. After a few minutes more liquid steel is added from the ladle held in rcadi- ness, and after thoroughly stirring the con- tents of the mould the iron ring is lifted out, and all the slag will be found adhering to it. This repair is in common use with the largest works in Germany. The property of the slag of adhering in a thin refractory layer to any metal surface leads to an application of the thermic process where it plays the leading part — that is, in welding wrought-iron pipes. Of course, the heat of the iron, if applied direct, would destroy the thin walls of any pipe. But as the slag is absolutely refractory to liquid steel, it replaces in a way the steel for the purpose of welding. The modus operandi is changed in some essential particulars. The reaction takes place in a crucible with a solid bottom: a small quantity of thermit only is ignited at first, and to this more is added as the mass subsides, and finally the contents are poured over the lip of the crucible in order to direct the slag, and not the iron, onto the thin walls of the pipe. To butt- weld the pipes, the ends must be made to fit accurately on to each other, and must be made bright with a file or emery paper. The two pipes are then firmly pressed together by the clamping apparatus, and the sheet- iron mould, well surrounded with moist sand, is attached. Welding temperature will take place within a minute or two after pouring. The clamps then want tightening one turn of the screw, and the weld is completed. The mould box is removed almost at once, and can be used several times. The surrounding mass, containing the iron be- tween layers of slag, like the yolk in the white of an egg, is easily removed with a hammer. Such welds will stand pressure of hundreds of atmospheres — as a matter of fact, as much as the pipe itself. About 30.000 to 40,000 pipe joints have been welded by this method, the advantages of which are, shortly, that the opera- tion can take place anywhere without removing the pipe from its position, and that it is cheaper than a solid flanged joint. The dimensions of the mould have been carefully worked out and tabulated for every size of wrought-iron pipe up to six inches diameter. The thermit used for pipe welding is of slightly different compo- sition to the one for welding solid pieces. Be- sides these there are two other kinds of thermit, chiefly distinguished by the greater plasticity of their slag. One of these, so-called "white ther- mit," is used for annealing locally the plates of armor-clads, which are hardened to such an ex- tent by carburization as to prevent any tools being used on them. Such armor plates can be easily softened by applying to the hardened sur- face a layer of thermit slag with thermit steel at the back of it. For cast iron, and in some cases for steel, a special thermit is used which gives an alloy of iron and titanium so that the titanium enters the liquid metal. This is introduced below the surface of the bath by fastening the box containing the thermit to a -hank and holding it down on the bottom of the ladle. The reaction takes place all through the contents of the ladle and thoroughly stirs them up in the space of a minute or two. Gases and particles of slag are driven upwards, so that the fluidity of the iron is increased. The proportion of added thermit is only one-quarter to one- sixteenth per cent, ^i the total content- of the ladle. The effect of the titanium is 10 bind small quantities of nitrogen to increase the fluidity of the cast iron, and to produce a liner grain. Another application of the "box-reaction" is important for steel castings, and especially for easting large steel ingots, to prevent the familiar phenomenum of piping. In the heads of such blocks hollow spaces are found which mostly cause 30 to 40 per cent, of loss. The thermit process as used for this purpose con- sists in introducing a box of anti-piping thermit into a block with aid of an iron rod. The box is introduced, of course, only after the piping has been formed. The head layer, which has already become solid, is broken through for this purpose. Immediately after the reaction is completed, steel which is held in readiness for this purpose is poured into the open hole. The method is really very simple, and one learns very quickly at which time to introduce the box. Moreover, it is very cheap, only about 10 pounds of thermit being required for blocks of 20 tons weight. The simplest, and at the same time, most effective application of thermit in foundry practice is the following: Wrap thermit in a paper parcel and throw it on the liquid metal as it rises in the riser. The liquid metal will be revived at the point where it is most liable to chill, and the well-known troublesome shrinkage cavities will be avoided. When applied to cast iron the paper must contain some ignition powder at the bottom; with steel this is unnecessary. Edward S. Farrow, Consulting Railroad and Mining Engineer. Alu'minum, a lustrous, nearly white metal, widely used in the arts. Its existence was rec- ognized by Davy, although he did not succeed in isolating the metal. Davy gave it the name "alumium," and afterward "aluminum." The name is derived from the Latin word alumen, signifying "alum"; but the Romans and the Greeks had no very exact knowledge of chemistry, and alumen and its Greek equivalent were used to designate a variety of substances whose one common property is an astringent taste. The substance now called alum was in all probability included among them, for it was well known to Geber. Alum was long believed to be of the same nature as the vitriols, until Paracelsus announced that the vitriols contain metals, while alum (he said) does not contain a metal, but derives its properties from an "inter- mixture of the earths." It was long believed that the earth contained in alum is of a calcare- ous or lime-like nature: but in the 17th century it was noticed that an alum may be obtained by treating clay with sulphuric acid, and in a ALUMINUM treatise published in 1746 Pott stated that the earth forming the base of alum is of an argilla- ceous or clay-like nature. Eight years later, in 1754, Marggraf announced that alumina, the earth (now called the oxid) of alum, is en- tirely different from lime, and that it exists in clay, combined with silica. At the beginning of the 19th century alumina was generally admitted to be the oxid of some metal and Sir Humphry Davy and other chemists endeavored to decom- pose it and obtain the metal itself. They were unsuccessful, however, and the isolation of alu- minum was first accomplished by Wohler in 1827, by heating the chloride of alumina with metallic potassium. The potassium abstracted the chlorine and thereby set the aluminum free. Paracelsus was wrong in asserting that the base of common alum is not a metal, but his error was due to his pardonable ignorance of the fact that all the so-called "earths" are oxids of metals. The new metal proved to be most remarkable. Although it had so powerfully resisted all the earlier attempts to separate it from the oxygen with which it was combined, yet, when the sepa- ration had once been effected, it was found that the metal exhibits no very marked tendency to oxidize, even when heated in oxygen. It is nearly white, but has a slightly bluish tinge. It is about as hard as silver and is very malleable and ductile. It can readily be drawn out into wire or beaten into leaf. It takes a good polish, especially when alloyed with about three per cent of silver. It has a tensile strength about equal to that of copper, and a specific gravity of only about 2.6. It melts at about 1,300° F., its specific heat is 0.221, its coefficient of ex- pansion (Fahrenheit scale) is 0.00129, and its atomic weight is 27.1. Bars of the metal emit a very musical sound when struck, but it is said that a bell made of it "sounds like a cracked pot." Aluminum is very feebly magnetic. It is scarcely affected by nitric acid, though hydro- chloric and sulphuric acids will dissolve it, and it is entirely unaffected by sulphur, except at high temperatures. Solutions of caustic potash or soda, however, dissolve it readily, with evolu- tion of hydrogen. Aluminum is exceedingly abundant in nature, for next to oxygen and sHica it is the chief component of the earth's crust. Feldspar and mica contain it in considerable quantities,- as well as common clay, which is formed by the disintegration of feldspar. The oxid of alu- minum occurs in many beautiful forms, giving us the ruby and the sapphire, besides forming an essential part of the garnet, topaz, turquoise, and emerald. Corundum and emery, which are al- most indispensable for grinding and polishing purposes, are also forms of the oxid. Kaolin, used in the manufacture of porcelain, is a very pure silicate of aluminum. The beautiful lapis- lazuli contains a considerable proportion of alu- minum : and ultramarine blue, formerly obtained by pulverizing lapis-lazuli, is now prepared ar- tificially from kaolin, together with other sub- stances. The red color of the ruby is due to a trace of certain chromium salts, and the blue of the sapphire is probably due to a trace of some compound of cobalt. By melting oxid of aluminum in the oxyhydrogen blow-pipe flame, adding a slight amount of certain metallic oxids, and cooling again, artificial rubies and sapphires have been made which are indistinguishable from the natural gems, except to the eye of an expert. Although aluminum is far more abundant than tin, copper, lead, zinc, or iron, it can be ex- tracted from the minerals in which it occurs only with the greatest difficulty. Until very recently the aluminum of commerce has been prepared by substantially the method first given for its isolation by Wohler, the chief dif- ference, aside from matters of practical detail, being the substitution of metallic sodium for the more expensive potassium. At the present time, however, practically all of the aluminum that is produced is obtained by electrolysis. Prof. C. F. Chandler describes the Hall process (which differs from the Heroult process only in its details) as follows: "It was a remarkable fact, after all the attention that had been devoted to the subject of aluminum by St. Claire Deville and other chemists, that it remained for a young graduate of Oberlin College, Charles M. Hall, to devise the process by which all the alu- minum in the world is now manufactured. It occurred to young Hall, whose attention was drawn to the subject while he was still a col- lege student, that some way might be found for extracting aluminum by electrolysis. Satisfied that it would be impossible to employ an aqueous solution, he sought for other solvents, and finally discovered that a melted bath of the double fluorides of aluminum and metals more electro-positive than aluminum (such as sodium or calcium) is a perfect solvent for alumina, taking it up as promptly as hot water takes up sugar, and dissolving as much as 25 per cent of its weight. Having thus found an anhydrous solvent for alumina, the next step was to ascer- tain whether the solution would yield up the aluminum promptly to electrolysis." The most gratifying success attended these further experi- ments, and the practical details of the process were worked out at Kensington, Pa. The ves- sels or pots employed in the making of alumi- num by this method are rectangular iron boxes, thickly lined with carbon, which constitutes the cathode. The anodes consist of 40 cylinders of carbon, each about 3 inches in diameter and 18 inches long when new. These are supported above the pot, dipping into the bath of melted fluorides. No external heat is employed, the heat developed by the resistance to the current being sufficient to maintain fusion. Alumina is added from time to time as required, and the process goes on quietly. The resistance of the bath is low when charged with alumina, but it increases fourfold the moment the alumina is ex- hausted. An incandescent lamp, connected with each bath in parallel, emits no light while the re- sistance of the bath is low, but the moment the resistance is increased by the exhaustion of the alumina the lamp begins to shine and tin workmen hasten to stir in a fresh supply of alumina. The process is continuous, and it i* only necessary to keep the baths supplied with alumina and to draw off the metallic aluminum from the bottom of the pot from time to time. Each pot produces about 100 pounds of alu- minum, 99 per cent pure, per day of 24 hour- The electric resistance of aluminum is about twice that of copper, but owing to the lightness of aluminum and its constantly diminishing price (about 30 cents a pound in' 1902") it bids ALUM-ROOT — ALVA fair to be a serious rival of copper in the trans- mission of electricity. Many long lines of alu- minum wire have been installed in the West. One of the most interesting, in the East, is a line used to transmit power to Hartford, Conn., from a point on the Farmington River, about 12 miles distant. Three aluminum cables are used, con- taining over 00,000 pounds of metal. The line was designed for 20,000 volts, and it is said that in this instance the use of aluminum instead of copper has proved an entire success, both electri- cally and financially. The most valuable property of aluminum is perhaps the facility with which it alloys with most other metals except lead. It has been alloyed with bismuth, calcium, copper, chromium, gold, iron, magnesium, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, nickel, platinum, silver, sodium, tin, titanium, tungsten, and zinc. Some of its alleys with gold are very beautiful, and it has been proposed to use one of them in the manufac- ture of coins. An alloy with nickel called "nickel silver,® promises to be useful in the fu- ture, as it is strong and easily worked and has a beautiful white lustre that will not tarnish. The most useful alloys of the metal at present are those with copper, which are known as "aluminum bronzes." The alloy containing 3 per cent of copper is whiter than aluminum; and that containing from 90 to 95 per cent of copper has a color resembling gold. Aluminum bronze is hard and elastic and is not easily affected by chemical reagents. It is much used in the manufacture of articles of all kinds, from cheap jewelry to heavy bearings for machinery. (For information concerning the working of alu- minum and other technical points consult J. \Y. Richards, 'Aluminum, Its Properties, Metal- lurgy, and Alloys.' Philadelphia, 1890.) Notwithstanding the abundance of aluminum in nature, it is not taken up by plants save by a few cryptogams. The ash of Lycopodium ehamecypartssus sometimes contains ^,7 per cent of alumina, while the ash of oaks, figs, and birches, grown in the same soil, contains none. Alum-root, the name given in the United States to two plants on account of the remark- able astringency of their roots: (1) Geranium maculatum, or spotted cranesbill, is a native of North America from Canada to North Caro- lina : it has an angular, downy stem, 3-5-parted leaves with deeply toothed lobes, obovate entire petals, the filaments scarcely ciliated at the base; the color of the flowers is a pale lilac. It is em- ployed successfully as a remedy in dysentery among children : the tincture is recommended in cases of ulcerated sore throat, soreness of _ the gums. etc. The plant contains large proportions of gallic acid and tannin. (2) Heuchera antrri- Cana (natural order Saxifragaceir) is a downy plant with rough scapes and leaves, the latter bring on long petioles, 5-7-lobed. toothed; the calyx is 5-cleft. petals undivided, five stamens; the styles are remarkably long. It contains tannin and is used in preparing a wash for wounds, ulcers, etc. Alum-shale, a slaty rock of different de- grees of hardness; color grayish, bluish, or iron- black; often possessed of a glossy or shining lustre. It is chiefly composed of clay (silicate of alumina), with variable proportions of sul- phid of iron (iron pyrites), lime, bitumen, and magnesia. It is found abundantly, and from it is obtained the largest part of the alum of com- merce. Alunite, al'u-nit, a native subsulphate of aluminum and potassium, having the formula K(A10),(SO,)» + 3H. (| . and occurring both massive and in rhombohcdral crystals resembling S. It is white with a vitreous lustre, with a hardness varying from 3.5 to 4, and a specific gravity of about 2.6. It has been found, in the United States, in California and Colorado. Ac- cording to Dana it was first called "aluminilitc. 1 ' a name afterward abbreviated to the present form. Alum may be obtained from it by re- peated roasting and lixiviation. (Also called alum-stone and alum-rock.) Alun'no, Niccolo (real name Niccolo di Liberatore), an Italian painter of the 15th cen- tury, the founder of the Umbrian School: b. in Foligno about 1430; d. 1502. Alunogen, a-lu'no-jen, a native hydrous sulphate of aluminum, having the formula An (S0,)j + 18H2O. It occurs massive, as an in- crustation in mines and quarries, and also in delicate fibrous forms. Its hardness varies from 1.5 to 2, and its sp. gr. is about 1.7. It occurs in large quantities in Jackson County, N. C, and near Silver City, N. M. ; and it is found in many other parts of the United States in small amounts. Aluredus, an English historian: b. about 1 100. See Alfred of Beverley. Alva, or Alba, Ferdinand Alvarez de Toledo, Duke of, Spanish statesman and gen- eral : b. 1508; d. Thomar, 12 Jan. 1582. He was educated by his grandfather, Frederick of Tole- do, who instructed him in military and political science. He commanded unoer Charles V. in Hungary, and was present at the siege of Tunis and in the expedition against Algiers. His cau- tious character and his inclination for politics at first led men to believe that he had but little military talent; and his pride being touched at the low estimation in which he was held, his genius was roused to the performance of ex- ploits deserving remembrance. He won in 1547 the battle of Miihlberg against John Frederick, elector of Saxony, and in 1555 was commis- sioned to attack the French in Italy, and Pope Paul IV., the irreconcilable enemy of the em- peror. When Charles V. resigned the govern- ment to his son. Philip II., Alva received the supreme command of the army and conquered the states of the Church and frustrated the ef- forts of the French. Philip, however, compelled him to contract an honorable peace with the Pope, whom Alva wished to humble. He ap- peared in 1559 at the French court in order to marry Elizabeth, the daughter of Henry II., by proxy, for his sovereign ; she had been at first destined for the crown-prince, Don Carlos. About this time the Netherlands revolted, and Alva was entrusted with a considerable army and unlimited power to reduce the rebellious provinces. Scarcely had Alva reached Flanders at the end of August 1567, when he established the Council of Blood, at the head of which stood his confidant, Juan de Vargas. This tribunal condemned, without discrimination, all those whose opinions were suspected and whose riches excited their avarice. The present and absent, the living and the dead, were subjected ALVARADO — ALWAR to trial, and their property confiscated. The cruelty of Alva was increased by the defeat of his lieutenant, the Duke of Aremberg, and he caused the Counts of Egmont and Hoorn to be executed. He afterward defeated the Count of Nassau on the plains of Gemmingen. Soon af- ter, the Prince of Orange advanced with a pow- erful army, but was forced to withdraw to Germany. The Duke stained his reputation as a general by new cruelties, his executioners shedding more blood than his soldiers. The pope presented him with a consecrated hat and sword, a distinction previously conferred only on princes. Holland and Zealand, however, still resisted his arms. A fleet fitted out at his com- mand was annihilated, and he was everywhere met with insuperable courage. This, and per- haps the fear of losing the favor of the king, induced him to request his recall. Philip will- ingly granted it, as he perceived that the resist- ance of the Netherlands was rendered more ob- stinate by these cruelties, and was desirous of trying milder measures. In December 1573 Alva proclaimed an amnesty, resigned the command of the troops to Louis de Requesens, and left the land in which he had executed 18,000 men, as he himself boasted, and kindled a war that burned for 68 years, cost Spain $800,000,000, its finest troops, and seven of its richest provinces in the Low Countries. Alva led an army into Portugal, gained two battles in three weeks, drove out Don Antonio, and reduced all Portu- gal, in 1581, to subjection to his sovereign. He made himself master of the treasures of the capital and permitted his soldiers to plunder the suburbs and surrounding country with their usual rapacity and cruelty. It is said of him that during 60 years of warfare he never lost a battle and was never taken by surprise. Alvarado, Pedro de, a Spanish soldier of fortune, the companion and lieutenant of Cor- tez: b. Badajoz about 1499; d. 1541. He was of good family, his father being a knight of the order of St. James. In 1518 he accompanied Grijalva in a small expedition sent by Velasquez, governor of Cuba, to explore the American coast. A considerable amount of the precious metals was obtained by barter, and Alvarado was despatched to Cuba with this treasure and with a report of the regions which had been explored. When Cortez was called away to meet Narvaez, who had been sent by Velasquez with a superior force to supersede him in com- mand, he left the capital and his royal captive, Montezuma, in Alvarado's charge, and in 1523 was sent with a considerable force to reduce the tribes of Indians in the direction of Guatemala. Having beaten off all opponents he founded a city now called Guatemala la Vieja, and es- tablished a port on the Pacific, which he called Puerto de la Posesion. Embarking for Spain, he was received with great honor by the em- peror Charles V., who, in acknowledgment of his services, made him governor of Guatemala. He shortly returned to America with a numer- ous band of knights and kinsmen, and Guatemala speedily became a prosperous citv. An attempt which he subsequently made on Quito, but which he was induced to relinquish, was resented by Pizarro as an intrusion within the boundaries of his command, and he embarked a second time for Spain to vindicate his conduct to the emperor. Alverstone, Sir Richard Everard Webster, first baron A; British Lord Chief Justice: b. 22 Dec. 1842. He was educated at King's College, the Charterhouse Schools, and Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1868 he was called to the bar and became Q. C. ten years after. He was ap- pointed attorney-general in June 1885 in the Conservative Government, and in spite of the fact that he never held the position of solicitor- general and did not at the time occupy a seat in Parliament. He was elected for Launceston in the following month and later exchanged his seat for the Isle of Wight which he continued to represent until his elevation to the House of Lords. Except under the brief Gladstone ad- ministration of 1886 and the Gladstone- Rose- bery Cabinet of 1892-5. Sir Richard Webster was Attorney-General from 1885 to 1899. In 1893 he represented Great Britain in the Bering Sea arbitration, and five years later he dis- charged the same function in the matter of the boundary between British Guiana and Vene- zuela. In 1899 he succeeded Sir Nathaniel Lind- ley as Master of the Rolls, at the same time be- ing raised to the peerage as Baron Alverstone. In October of the same year he was elevated to the office of Lord Chief Justice upon the death of Lord Russell of Killowen. Alvey, Richard Henry, American ju- rist: b. 1826. He was admitted to the bar in 1849: was a member of the Maryland State Con- stitutional Convention; chief judge of the Fourth Judicial Circuit, and a judge of the Maryland court of appeals in 1867-83 ; chief- justice of the latter court in 1883-93; became chief-justice of the court of appeals of the Dis- trict of Columbia in 1893, and one of the Ven- ezuela boundary commissioners in 1896. Alvord, Benjamin, American soldier: b. Rutland, Vt., 8 Aug. 1813 ; d. 17 Oct. 1884. Re- ceived a military education at West Point, and after serving in the second Seminole war, and in the Mexican war also, was paymaster of the Department of Oregon, 1854-62. He was briga- dier-general of volunteers, 1862-65, retiring from the service in 1881 with the rank of briga- dier-general. He published 'Tangencies of Cir- cles and of Spheres' (1855); and Prince Adalbert of Prussia (1842), Herndon (1850), Ave Lallemant (1858), Bates (1861), Marcoy (1866), Agassiz (1866-7), and others; and its tributaries by Hartte, Chandless, Abend- roth, etc. See Herndon, 'Exploration of the Valley of the Amazon* (1853); Bates, 'The Naturalist on the River Amazons' (1864) ; Wallace, 'Narrative of Travels on the Ama- zon and Rio Negro' (1870; second edition, 1889) ; Matthews, 'Up the Amazon and Ma- deira Rivers' (1879) ; Guillaume, 'Amazon Provinces of Peru' (1888) ; Schutz-Holzhausen, 'Der Amazonas' (1895). See South America. Amazo'nas, or Alto Amazona, the largest of all the Brazilian States and the farthest north : bounded N. by Dutch and British Guiana and Venezuela; E. by the State of Para; S. by Bolivia and the State of Matto Grosso ; W. by Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. Its area is 732,- 460 sq. m., or nearly three and a half times that of France, and except for mountain ranges on the Venezuelan border it is an alluvial plain. Its capital is Manaos. Population of the State (1900) 207,600. (See Temple, 'The State of Amazonas.' ) The name Amazonas is al.so borne by a territory of Venezuela with a population of about 20,000, and a department of Peru with a population of about 35,000. Am'azons, in Greek legends a nation of female warriors. They were fabled to have cut off their right breasts in order not to inter- fere with their use of the bow, and variously to have expelled men from their country or kept them in subjection for the continuance of the race. The earliest traditions locate them in Asia Minor, and relate their appearance at the siege of Troy under their queen Penthesilea. Amazonstone, a beautiful green or blue feldspar. It is a variety of the mineral mi- crocline and occurs in magnificent crystals in granite near Pike's Peak, Col. Inferior crystals occur in New Jersey, the Ural Moun- tains and many other localities. Large quan- tities of green, cleavablc amazonstone have been obtained :it Amelia, Ya., and have been worked up as semi-precious and decorative stones. Ambala, or Umballa, the name of a dis- trict of N. India and its capital. The latter was the scene of a treaty between the governor- general of India, Lord Mayo, and the Emir Shcre Ali of Afghanistan in 1869. The town contains several important churches, a dispen- sary, hospital, and a leper asylum. Pop. 80,000. Ambale'nia, Colombia, a city in the de- partment of Tolima, on the Magdalena River, 50 111. W. of Bogota. It is the trade centre of a rich agricultural region, exporting large quanti- ties of excellent tobacco. Pop. 8,500. Ambari Hemp. Sec Hibiscus. Ambarv'alia, a Roman festival in honor of Ceres, which was observed in May. The bless- ing of the goddess was then besought on the wished-for harvest Ambassador (from the Medixval Latin Atnbasciator, an agent), a diplomatic officer of the highest rank, the representative of one na- tion at the court of another. In this capacity he is expected to support the interests and dig- nity of his own State. Ambassadors are ordi- nary when they reside permanently at a foreign court, or extraordinary when sent on a special occasion. When ambassadors-extraordinary are vested with full powers, as of concluding peace, making treaties and the like, they are called plenipotentiaries. Ambassadors are often loose- ly styled ministers. Envoys are ministers em- ployed on special occasions, and are of less dig- nity than ambassadors. Until 1893 the United States had been represented at foreign courts by persons with the rank of ministers-resident, accredited in the care of the great powers as envoys-extraordinary and ministers-plenipoten- tiary. In that year, however, an act of Con- gress was passed allowing the President to accredit ambassadors as United States represent- atives at several of the more important Euro- pean courts. When acknowledged as such, am- bassadors are exempted absolutely from all allegiance and from all responsibility to the laws of the country to which accredited. Should they be so regardless of their duty, however, and of the object of their privilege, as to in- sult or openly to attack the laws of the govern- ment, their functions may be suspended by a refusal to treat with them, or application can be made to their own sovereign for their recall; or they may be dismissed and required to de- part within a reasonable time. An ambassador is considered as if he were out of the territory of the foreign power, by fiction of law, and it is an implied agreement among nations that the ambassador, while he resides in the foreign state, shall be considered as a member of his own country, and the government has exclusive cognizance of his conduct and control of his person. Ambassadors' children born abroad are held not to be aliens. (7 Coke, 18 a.) The persons of ambassadors and their domestic ser- vants are exempt from arrest on civil process. (3 Burr. 401, 1731.) Amba'to, a town of Ecuador, on the slope of Chimborazo, 70 m. S. of Quito. It has a flourishing trade in grain, sugar, and cochineal. Pop. 12,000. AMBER— AMBITIOUS WOMAN Amber, one of the most important and valuable of the fossil resins. It is one of the oxygenated hydrocarbons and its mineralogical name, succinite, emphasizes one of its distin- guishing characteristics, namely, the presence of from S to 8 per cent of succinic acid. Its com- position is represented by the formula GoH M 0«. It occurs in irregular masses, usually of small size but sometimes weighing up to 15 or 18 pounds. It has a yellow color, resinous lustre and conchoidal fracture. Its hardness is 2 to 2.5 and specific gravity 1.05 to I.I. Along the shores of the Baltic Sea, especially in East Prussia, mining for amber has been carried on for two centuries. In this region shafts are sunk through a superficial stratum of marl and sand, a bed of lignite with light sands and gray clays, and finally a layer of green-sand, 50 to 60 feet thick. All of these strata contain amber, but in the lower portion of the green-sand there is a stratum 4 to 5 feet thick of "blue earth" in which amber nodules occur so abundantly that 50 or 60 square rods yield several thousand pounds. This "blue earth" stratum extends out under the sea and there the amber is freed and cast upon the shores by the waves, especially after the autumnal storms. Numerous other localities are known, but none are so prolific. In the United States amber-like resins have been found in the green-sand formation of Martha's Vineyard, Harrisonville, N. J., and elsewhere. Pliny declared amber to be <{ an exudation from trees of the pine family," a conjecture that proves to be correct. The fact that it was at one time fluid or nearly so is established by its occasional inclusion of insects ; and its antiquity is also established by the fact that most of the species of insects so included are now extinct. Amber becomes strongly electrified when rubbed, and the power that it then possesses, of attracting light bodies to itself, was proba- bly considered by the ancients to be the out- ward sign of the mysterious virtues that they attributed to the mineral. It was greatly es- teemed for ornaments and charms, and Pliny says that among women u it had been so highly valued as an object of luxury that a very di- minutive human effigy, made of amber, had been known to sell at a higher price than living men, even in stout and vigorous health." He also says that a necklace of amber beads was con- sidered to protect the wearer from secret poisons, and to be efficacious as a counter-charm against sorceries and witchcraft. In the time of Nero an expedition sent from Rome to the Prussian amber-beds returned with 13,000 pounds of the precious substance. In modern times amber is chiefly used for the manufacture of mouthpieces for tobacco pipes and for the preparation of a kind of var- nish. The attractive power exhibited by amber when rubbed was the first electrical phenome- non observed by man, and the word "electricity" was derived from electrum, the Greek name for amber. Amber-fish, any one of a genus of fishes (Scriola) related to the pilot-fishes, many spe- cies of which are found along our coasts, the most of which are known by other names. The great amber-fish, or amber-jack, is a food-fish of some importance in the Gulf of Mexico and the West Indies, reaching a weight of 100 pounds. Others in that region are more commonly known as madregals ; and a species of the Pa- cific Coast is the highly-prized yellow-tail (q.v.). The name refers to the prevailing color. Am'berg, the ancient Bavarian capital of the upper Palatinate, is situated on both sides of the Vils, in the midst of numerous iron- works. It is well built, and on the site of its former walls are shaded walks. Glass, iron wares, stoneware, tobacco, beer, vinegar, and arms of good quality are manufactured here. The principal buildings are a Gothic church of the 15th century, the royal palace, the town- house, and the Old Jesuits' College, and it pos- sesses a gymnasium and a large library. At Amberg the Archduke Charles defeated the French general, Jourdan, on 24 Aug. 1796. Pop. (1900) 22,000. Amber Gods, The, a story by Harriet Prescott Spofford, published 1863. It is char- acterized by superb depth and richness of color, like a painting by Titian. An amber amulet or rosary possessing mysterious influences gives the title to the story. Am'bergris, a gum-like substance of great value in the making of perfumes, obtained from the intestinal canal of the sperm whale, or found floating in pieces of various sizes on the surface of the sea. It is a product of cetacean di- gestion, and often contains the beaks of cuttle- fish, a fact which conclusively proves the place of its origin, until recently much in doubt. When first extracted from the alimentary canal it has the feeling and consistency of thick grease, and chemically seems to be of the nature of cholesterin, but after exposure to the air hardens and acquires its characteristic sweet earthy odor. Some odd stories were told by the old writers to account for its origin, of which the least absurd was that it was the excrement of the whale. It was held by the ancients to be of great value in certain diseases, but is now used entirely in connection with perfumery, and is worth about $20 a pound. The name is also given to a barren island on the coast of Yucatan, on account of the quantities of am- bergris gathered along its shores. Amber Insects. The great majority of the fossil insects of the Oligocene (Tertiary) period have been obtained from the amber of the Bal- tic shores of Prussia, upon which they had rested in life, stuck fast and then been over- flowed. The most fragile and delicate flies, moths, and many other insects, besides spiders, mites, centipedes and Crustacea, are preserved in this gum or resin, which was evidently formed in the same manner as gum copal, also a late tertiary or quaternary gum. Ambitious Woman, An, a novel by Edgar Fawcett (1883). It is a keen yet sympathetic analysis of an American female type whose dominant trait is social ambition. Claire Twi- ning is reared in the ugly poverty of a Brook- lyn suburb, but is clever and capable, with strong aspirations for the luxuries of life. Through the good offices of a schoolmate she gains a social foothold. If Claire's transforma- tion seems a little sudden, there is genuine strength in the story and much truthful obser- vation of city life in New York. AMBLER — AMBOYNA Ambler, James Markham Marshall, sur- geon ami Arctic explorer: b. Virginia, 30 Dec. 1848; (1. in the Lena Delta, Siberia, 3] Oct. 1881. Educated at Washington and Lee University and the Medical College of the University of Maryland, he practiced medicine in Baltimore 1870-4; entered the navy as assistant surgeon 1874; and was selected as volunteer for that post to the Jeannette arctic expedition under George W. De Long, 1879. When their vessel sank, 13 June [881, he accompanied his chief along the Lena and was alive at the date of the last entry in De Long's journal, 30 Oct. 1881, but probably died the following day. His remains were dis- covered by Chief Engineer Melville 23 March 1882. Upon his body were found memoranda on 'Ice Formed by Sea Water.' and 'Remarks on Snow Crystals,' published in De Long's 'Journal' (Boston 1883). Ambleside, a town in the English lake district, Westmoreland, the home of Harriet Martineau, and near which Wordsworth and Dr. Arnold resided. The chief industry is the manufacture of coarse woolen goods. Pop. (1901) 2,536. Ambleteuse, a French village on the Eng- lish Channel (> miles north of Boulogne, noted as the landing-place of James II. on his flight from England 1689. In 1805 Napoleon erected a monument here to the Grand Army. Pop. (1901) 685. Amblydactyla. See Amblypoda. Amblygonite, am-blig'6-nit (from the Greek amblygonios, "obtuse-angled"), a min- eral crystallizing in the triclinic system, and having the chemical formula AlPO.-LiF. The lithium is often partially replaced by sodium, and the fluorin by hydroxyl (OH). Its hard- ness is 6, and its specific gravity about 3.05. It is translucent and white, or more or less tinged with various colors. It occurs in certain locali- ties in Saxony. Norway, France, and Peru ; and in the United States it has been found in Maine and Connecticut. It is a valuable lithia ore. Amblyopia, defective, weak, or blunted vision, a word now widely employed instead of the term amaurosis, meaning blindness (q.v.), since the modern methods of examination of the retina have made known the more exact char- acter of the affections of this part of the eye. Defective, weak, or blunted vision due to dis- order of the retina usually may be attributed to the following main causes: (1) certain poisons, notably alcohol, wood alcohol in particular, to- bacco, lead, and urxmic poisoning of Bright's disease; (2) certain functional or reflex dis- turbances, as in hysteria; (3) changes in and about the optic nerve, as pressure of inflamma- tions, or of tumors, leading to optic neuritis; (4) cerebral changes, such as hemorrhages, tu- mor of the brain, localized injury of the brain, usually leading to localized types of amblyopia (hemianopsia) ; (5) defective cerebral devel- opment, causing congenital amblyopia. Amblyop'sidae, a family of fresh-water fishes closely allied to the cyprinodonts and re- markable for living altogether in caves, except one species found in the ditches of the rice- fields of South Carolina. Among many pecu- liarities may be noted the facts that the vent is at the throat instead of in the usual position behind the ventral fin, and that all of the under- ground species are blind. See Cave-dwelling Animals. Amblypo'da, an extinct order of hoofed mammals found in the Eocene formations of North America and Europe. They are dis- tinguished by a primitive pattern of teeth and short post-like feet resembling those of ele- phants. The chief types are Pantolambda, Cory- phodon and Uintatherium (qq.v.). Amblys'toma, a genus representing a sub- family (Atnblysto matinee) of salamanders of North and Central America, and northern Asia. The parasphenoid bone is toothless. A com- mon American species is the spotted salamander (./. tigrinum) whose young in certain Mexican lakes never reach the adult condition, and are known as "axolotls." See Axolotl; Salaman- der. Am'bo, a reading-desk or pulpit, which in early churches was placed in the choir. The epistle and gospel were read from the ambo, and sermons sometimes preached from it. It had two ascents — one from the east and the other from the west. In many churches there were two ambos, one on each side of the choir, from one of which the gospel was read, and from the other the epistle. The earliest are at Ravenna in the cathedral and the Church of Saint Apollinare, and are of carved marble. (See Pulpit.) The name ambo was also given to an eagle-shaped reading-desk, now usually termed a lectern. Amboise, am'bwaz, Aimeric d\ a famous French admiral, brother of Georges d'Amboise (q.v.) ; d. 1512. He became in 1503 Grand Master of the Knights of St. John in Rhodes, and gained a great victory over the Sultan of Egypt in 1510. Amboise, Bussi d\ See Bussi. Amboise, Georges d\ a French cardinal and minister of state: b. at Chaumont-sur-Loire 1460: d. 1510. He became successively bishop of Montauban, and archbishop of Narbonne and of Rouen, and in 1498 Louis XII. made him prime minister. He failed in his attempt to secure the papacy, but his policy toward France was wise and statesmanlike. He reformed the Church, remitted the people's burdens, and con- scientiously labored to promote the public happi- ness. Amboise, a French town in the depart- ment of Indrc-et-Loire. on the Loire. 15 miles by rail east of Tours. It lies in a rich vineyard district and has been called "the Garden of France." The town is memorable as the scene of the conspiracy of the Huguenots against the Guises (1560). It contains a beautiful chateau dating from the time of the Renaissance. Pop. (1001) 4,600. Amboy'na, or Amboina, the most impor- tant of the Molucca Islands, being the seat of their government and the centre of the com- merce in nutmegs and cloves; greatest length, 33 miles; greatest breadth, 10 miles; area, about 260 square miles. It is composed of two un- equal peninsulas united by an isthmus about a mile broad, the larger known as Hitu, the smaller as Leitimor. Its general aspect is at- tractive and its climate salubrious. It is cov- ered almost throughout with forests, affording AMBOYN A — AMBROSIA BEETLE a great variety of beautiful wood for inlaying and ornamental work. Sugar and coffee are cultivated. The surface is generally rugged and hilly, sometimes rising into mountains of gran- ite. The soil in the valleys and along the shores is very fertile, but a large portion remains un- cultivated. In 1605 Amboyna was taken by the Dutch from the Portuguese, and shortly after- ward some English factories were erected there: but in 1623 the Dutch seized the English fort, tortured frightfully Capt. Towerson and nine others to obtain a confession of conspiracy, and put them to death — a performance famous as "The Massacre of Amboyna." Pop. 30,000. Amboyna is also the name of one of the resi- dencies into which the Molucca Islands are divided, including Buru, Caram, Aru Islands, the Bandas, and others. Pop. 95,000. Amboyna, the capital of the Dutch resi- dency of that name situated on the northwest shore of the peninsula of Leitimor and defended by Fort Victoria. The houses, built in Dutch fashion, are generally of one story, owing to the frequency of earthquakes, one of great se- verity occurring in January 1898. It contains a governor's palace, town-house, two Protes- tant churches, several mosques, an orphan hos- pital, a theatre, and a large covered market- place. The streets are wide, and are planted on each side with rows of fruit-trees. Pop. about 10,000. Ambriz, am-brej', a seaport, capital of a district of the same name in the Portuguese colony of Angola, west Africa. Originally the capital of Quibanza it was taken by the Por- tuguese, who in 1855 built a fort, a custom- house, and a church which formed the nucleus of the present town. It has a number of fac- tories and a trade in india-rubber, coffee, and palm oil. Pop. about 3,000. Ambros, am'bros, August Wilhelm, a not- able Austrian writer on music: b. 17 Nov. 1816 in Mauth, Bohemia ; d. Vienna 28 June 1876. He was trained for the civil service and served in it with distinction ; but his tastes led him elsewhere, and he rose to eminence as the author of ( The Limits of Music and Poetry,' besides numerous essays and studies connected with art. His masterpiece, 'The History of Music* (1862-8) a work which cost him many years of labor, was carried only to the fourth volume. A fifth, completing the work, was added by Langhaus. Ambrose, Saint, a celebrated Latin father of the Church : b. 333, or according to other ac- counts, 334, probably at Treves (the ancient Augusta Trevirorum), where his father resided as pretorian prefect of Gallia Narbonensis: d. Milan. 4 April 397. It is told that a swarm of bees covered the eyes of the boy while slumber- ing in the court of his father's castle, and the nurse was astonished to perceive the bees going in and out of his mouth without doing him any injury. His father, possibly recalling a similar wonder, mentioned of Plato, prophesied future greatness for his son. Ambrose studied law at Rome under Anicius Probus and Symmachus. and then went to Milan and began to plead causes while yet a youth. His pleadings were so eloquent and skilful that in a short time Pro- bus, the prefect of Italy, chose him a member of his council ; and in 369, with the approval of the Emperor Valentinian, appointed him gov- ernor of the provinces of Liguria and /Emilia (North Italy). In 374 he was called to the bishopric of Milan by the unanimous voices of Arians and Catholics. Ambrose long refused to accept this dignity, but in vain. He fled by night, and thought himself on the way to Pavia, but unexpectedly found himself again before the gates of Milan. At length he yielded, received baptism, for he had hitherto been only a cate- chumen, and eight days after was consecrated a priest. The 7th of December is still celebrated by the Church on this account. On his elevation to the bishopric he bestowed all his wealth on the Church and among the poor, resolving to live as simply as possible, and at the same time t^j exercise his functions as an ecclesiastical ruler with firmness and vigor. He was employed by the court to negotiate with Maximus, then threatening Italy, whose advance he succeeded for a time in arresting (383). Four years later he was sent on a like mission, but his conduct on this occasion so offended Maximus that he had to return to Milan, having accomplished nothing. In his struggles against the Arian her- esy he was opposed by Justina, mother of Va- lentinian II., and for a time by the young em- peror himself, together with the courtiers and the Gothic troops. Backed by the people of Milan, however, he felt strong enough to deny the Arians the use of a single church in the city, although Justina, in her son's name, de- manded that two should be given up. He was commanded to quit the city, but this he refused to do, being still supported by the people. About this time Ambrose, instructed by a dream, searched for and found the relics of two martyrs, Gervasius and Protasius. The people crowded to see these bones, and, ac- cording to Ambrose himself, the eyes of the blind were opened and devils were cast out by touching them. Although the court derided these miracles they were accepted by the people, 2nd the triumph of orthodoxy was secured. He had also to oppose paganism. In 390, after the massacre at Thessalonica, he refused the Em- peror Theodosius entrance into the church of Milan for a period of eight months, only re- storing him after a public penance. (See The- odosius.) The later years of his life were de- voted to the more immediate care of his see. His writings (the best edition is by the Bene- dictines, two vols, folio, 1686-90), bear marks of haste, and show his theological knowledge to have extended little beyond an acquaintance with the works of the Greek fathers, from whom, especially Origen. he borrowed consider- ably. The "Ambrosian Chant 9 or (< Te Deum Laudamus" has been ascribed to him, but was written a century later. He may he considered the father of the hymnology of the Latin Church. He is the patron saint of Milan, which observed his 15th centenary in 1897. Ambro'sia, in the Greek mythology, a balsamic juice which formed the food of the gods and preserved their immortality. It was used also as an ointment. Mortals permitted to partake of ambrosia received an increase of beauty, strength, and swiftness, becoming in some measure assimilated to the gods. Ambrosia Beetle. See Wood-boring Bee- tles. AMBROSIAN CHANT — AMERICA Ambrosian Chant. Sec Gregorian Chant. Ambrosian Library, public library in Mi- lan: founded by the Cardinal Archbishop Fed- erigo Borromeo, a relation of St. Charles Ror- romeo, and opened in 1609. It now contains over 175,000 printed books and 8,400 MSS. Amelan'chier, a genus of shrubs or small trees of the natural order Rosaces, natives of Europe, Asia, and America. The species, which are few in number and closely related, have al- ternate, simple, deciduous leaves, numerous racemes of white showy flowers appearing in early spring often before the leaves, and. in summer, edible spherical or oblong red or dark purple berries with more or less bloom. They are ornamental, hardy, succeed upon many soils and in many climates, and are readily propagat- ed by seeds or muckers. Ame"lie-les-Bains. Sec Arles. Amendment, in law, the correction of any mistake discovered in a writ or process. At common law, amendments, in the absence of any statutory provision on the subject, arc in all cases in the discretion "f the court for the furtherance of justice. The power of amend- ment is regarded as incidental to the exercise of all judicial power. Amendments are very liberally allowed in all formal and most substan- tial matters under statutes in modern practice. They are allowed cither without costs to the party amending, or upon such terms or condi- tions as the court may see proper to impose. In legislative proceedings, a clause, sentence, or paragraph proposed to be substituted for an- other, or to be inserted in a bill before Con- gress, and which, if carried, actually becomes part of the bill itself. As a rule amendments do not overthrow the principle of a bill. The Senate of the I'nited States may amend money- bills passed by the House of Representatives, but cannot originate such bills. The Constitu- tion of the I'nited States contains a provision for its amendment. (U. S. Const. Art. 5). America: a brief account of the derivation and meaning of the word. The name Amalric (in Old High German Amalrich or Amel- rich; Gothic Amala-reiks or -reikis; variants Am-el, Am-ul, and Am-il-rih, -rich, or ric) originated among the Goths in Northern and Central Europe; was adopted by other nations of the Teutonic stock before the great migra- tion of those kindred peoples; and was carried into all West European countries. — even to England and the Mediterranean coasts — by the Northern conquerors between the fifth and twelfth centuries. The famous East Gothic dynasty of the Amala received its name, accord- ing to tradition, from a national hero whose mighty labors had earned for him the title Amal, which, as wc shall presently explain, was a purely democratic term, connoting personal character and achievement, without the slightest implication of social rank. From the dynastic name, the Goths as a race, or. more narrowly, the East Goths, were famil- iar!' Die Amelungen; the Amal king in the fourth century ruled from the Baltic to the Black Sea ; at the beginning of the sixth century a king of the West Goths in Spain and France, a grandson of Thcodorich the Great, was called Amalarich. The word of democratic meaning thus spread through a few lands was destined to live, in the centuries that followed, united inseparably with the other short word which appears in the name of the West-Gothic king. The signification of the compound is of ex- traordinary' interest. Its second member appears in Old English (for example, in the Anglo- Saxon epic of Beowulf) as ric, meaning power- ful, or, when a substantive, control, domain, or empire — the modern German Reich. Ac- cording to von Humboldt ('Examen Critique,' vol. iv) and Professor von dcr Hagen, the fundamental meaning of the first member (its root, am, often occurring in the dialects of Iceland and Scandinavia in the forms aina, ambl, etc.) is labor, endurance of great toil. Accepting this view, we find that the title of the Gothic national hero, Amal. expressed popular appreciation of "the man of great or laborious enterprises." Simply that. In order to show that Amal, when uniting with the aristo- cratic monosyllable, retained its original value, so characteristic of the people who used it every day ; that, at least, they never thought it meant "the mighty," as some authorities have asserted recently ; we need only point to the facts that they prefixed it to ric. which itself signified "mighty," and that folk stories served to remind them constantly of the primitive meaning of the first member. Amalric. then, was the name which compacted the old ideal of heroism and leadership common to all Germanic tribes, the ideal that stands out most clearly in the character of Beowulf — the Amal of Sweden, Denmark, and Saxon England. The compound plainly meant what the North Euro- pean hero-stories described: The man who ruled because he labored for the benefit of all. In France, this name was softened to Atnaury. Thus, a certain theologian who was born in the 12th century at Bene, near Chartres, is called indifferently Amalric of Bene or Amaury of Chartres. England, in the 13th century, could show no more commanding figure than Simon of Montfort-/'.-l»iaiiry, Earl of Leicester, to whom King Henry once said, "If I fear the thunder, I fear you, Sir Earl, more than all the thunder in the world." A Norman Amalric was that Earl Simon, creator of a new force, and a democratic one, too, in English politics. "It was," says the historian Green, "the writ issued by Earl Simon that first summoned the merchant and trader to sit beside the knight of the shire, the baron, and the bishop in the parliament of the realm." In Italy, after the Gothic invasion, the Northern name suffered comparatively slight euphonic changes, which can be easily traced. As borne by a bishop of Como in 865 it became Amelrico or Amclrigo. But the juxtaposition of the two consonants / and r presented a difficulty in pronunciation which the Italians avoided : they changed //-, first, to double r. and then to a single r. Still. 600 years after Bishop Amelrigo died, the Floren- tine merchant, explorer, and author usually re- tained the double r in his own signature, writ- ing s Amerrigo Vespucci," and, by the way, accenting his Gothic name on the penultimate (Amerigo, not Amerigo). In Spain the name must have been rare, since it was often used alone to designate the Florentine during his residence in that country. There was, ap- AMERICA parently, no other Amerigo or Amerrigo in the Spanish public service early in the 16th century. We must again look toward the North for the scene of the next important change, and among the men of a Northern race for its author. Martin Waldseemiiller, a young German geog- rapher at St. Die, in the Vosgian Mountains, whose imagination had been stirred by reading Amerigo's account of voyages to the new world, bestowed the name America upon the conti- nental regions brought to light by the Floren- tine. It is not enough to say, with Mr. John Boyd Thacher ('Columbus,' vol. 3; compare also his interesting 'Continent of America'), that Waldseemiiller "suggested" this designa- tion. As editor of the Latin work, the 'Cos- mographiae Introductio' (5 May, 1507), he stated most distinctly, with emphatic reiteration, his reasons for this name-giving; placed con- spicuously in the margin the perfect geographi- cal name, America, and at the end of the volume put Vespucci's narrative. Further, on a large map of the world, separately published, he drew that fourth part of the earth which was the 'Introductio's' novel feature — marking it firmly, "America." It is impossible to adopt the suggestion of Prof, von der Hagan, that Wald- seemiiller was distinctly conscious of giving the new continent a name of Germanic origin. "Quia Americus invenit," says the 'Introductio,' "Americi terra sive America nuncupare licet." But the case stands otherwise when we ask why Europeans generally caught up the word. Its association with so many men before Ves- pucci certainly commended it to Northern taste. Marrion Wilcox, Author of 'History of War with Spain, 1 etc. America, the second in size of the isolated land masses of the globe; containing about three tenths of the total land surface and perhaps half the cultivable area, but less than one tenth the population. The name was origi- nally used only for central Brazil, and was fairly enough applied in honor of the Italian, Amerigo Vespucci (q.v.), who discovered it. It was first employed for the entire known Western world by Mercator in 1541, and is usually but not properly understood to include Greenland, which is physically a part of Europe. The extreme points marking the limits of this vast continent are: N., the point of Boothia Felix, in the Strait of Bellot, hit. 71 ° 55' N., Inn. i)4° 34' W. : (in Alaska, Point Barrow, lat. 7'° 23' 31" N., Ion. i^6° 21' 40" W.) S., Cape Froward, lat. 53° 53' 45" S., Ion. 71 ° 18' 30" W., or, if the archipelago of Tierra del Fuego is included, Cape Horn, lat. 55° 59' S., Ion. 67 (6' W. ; W.. Cape Prince of Wales, lat. 65 33' N., Ion. 167 59' W. ; and E., the Point de Guia, lat. 7° 26' S„ Ion. 34 47' W. Its total area is not far from 16,000,000 sq. m., with- out Greenland or the polar archipelago (which comprise perhaps 1.000,000 more), of which North America with Central America and the West Indies contains some 8,700.000 and South America 7,300,000. There can be no pretense of exactness about these figures, however : Alas- ka and polar Canada are not thoroughly sur- veyed, and good recent authorities differ by 250,000 miles or more even as to accessible lands like South America. The total population is over 150,000,000. Nominally one "continent," it is really two if not three sections, geologically independent in origin. The northern, from the Arctic Ocean to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in Mexico on the west (where the last slopes of the Anahuac plat- eau of the Rocky Mountains sink to the plain, and the Guatemalan highlands are not in sight) and Florida on the east, is connected with the southern by two great parallel ridges. One of these, called Central America, is continuous, joining South America at the west side, and ' dwindling to 28 miles across at the Isthmus of Panama ; the other submerged, consisting of Haiti, Porto Rico, and the Lesser Antilles, joining at the eastern side ; the two united transversely by Cuba and Jamaica and the projection of Yucatan, and enclosing the Carib- bean Sea, 1,500 miles from end to end. The continental mass, 8,700 miles from Alaska on the northwest and Boothia Felix on the northeast to the south end of Patagonia, is prolonged by a vast archipelago of arctic islands up from Hudson Bay, ending suddenly like a drift line about 125 W. Ion., and at Grant Land about 83° N. lat., and by another at the south called Tierra del Fuego, on the Antarctic Ocean, to a total of some 9.600, nearly four fifths the dis- tance from pole to pole. But as with the eastern continent, some force has massed the land chiefly at the north : two thirds of the con- tinent is north of the equator; the extreme point of the continuous northern islands reaches to a few hundred miles from the pole, the last of the southern is 2,350 miles from it ; Alaska is 1. 100 from the north pole, Argentina is 3.400 from the south. The same causes make it form part of a nearly solid ring on the Arctic Ocean, the northwest projection of Alaska being sepa- rated from the northeast of Kamchatka by only 40 miles of strait, and the continent being connected with Europe by a series of islands one to two hundred miles apart, while the immense though widely unequal gulfs of the Pacific west and the Atlantic east separate the habitable portions. The axial dimensions of the continent are not very dissimilar to those of the eastern. Its length is about the same as the breadth of the other from China to England, its greatest breadth about the depth of the other from the Arctic to the Indian Ocean-; but its relative slenderness gives it less than half the area. It is in fact an immense peninsula slightly severed from the main mass, with the shape and the southerly direction of the majority of penin- sulas. From nine to ten thousand miles long, it is little over 3.000 across its main north and south lines, from Labrador to British Columbia, or from Peru to Brazil; about 2.100 from Sa- vannah to San Diego, a few hundred across Mexico, 1,725 at the Tropic of Capricorn just above Rio Janeiro, 750 from Buenos Ayres to Valparaiso, and so on southward. Moreover, as shown by its configuration relatively to that of the opposite shores of the eastern, and the differences of the northern and southern con- tinents, it is a strip rent from the eastern mass by a tremendous geological convulsion, the At- lantic being the channel thus left. That ocean is relatively small and of regular breadth from Labrador and Brazil to England and Liberia, compared with the immense abyss of the Pacific and its sweeping arch from the Bering Sea to Australia and Chile; from Newfoundland to AMERICA Ireland is but 1,900 miles, from Cape St. Roque in Brazil to Cape Palmas in Liberia but 1,700; while from San Francisco to Yokohama is 5,500, from Quito to Singapore (almost exact antip- odes) 12,500, and from Valparaiso to Sydney 8.000. But a still more striking proof is that the continents fit together almost as accurately as the blocks of a dissected map, allowance being made for the long period since their sepa- ration. The great eastern projection of North America is toward the Bay of Biscay, that of South America toward the Gulf of Guinea, the great western projection of Africa toward the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. The same closure (about 45 ) which would bring Newfoundland against Brittany, and Labrador against the British Isles, would make the Congo empty against the Brazilian coast and the West Indies surround Senegambia. In physical char- acter also the northern and southern portions of each are akin: northeastern North America has the broken island-fringed peninsular coasts and the gigantic inlets and inland seas of Europe, while South America has the solid coast-wall and the absence of lakes characteristic of west- ern Africa. Not to mention the great polar archipelago or Hudson's Bay, and allowing the archipelago at the south end of Chili to set off against the Alexander Archipelago along the south Alaskan coast, there is no parallel in South America to oceanic bodies like the Gulf of Mexico, or lesser ones like the Gulf of St. Lawrence northeast to Puget Sound northwest, or the Gulf of California southwest ; or the mass of sheltered bays and sounds along the eastern coast to the Great Lakes ; to islands like those around the mouth of the St. Lawrence or to Vancouver's, or peninsulas like Nova Scotia, Florida, and Lower California. It must be said, however, that the rent between the eastern and western continental bodies must have taken place very early, for there are strong physical differences between South America and Africa: the chief mountain ranges of the former being on the west, of the latter on the east ; the African rivers are less copious, and mostly have cataracts above their mouths. Apart from this, the structural characteris- tics of the northern and southern continents have striking similarities, largely nullified for human use by the difference in location already mentioned. Each is a rather slender triangle with the vertex to the south. Each is joined to the next northern portion of the globe by a northwestern peninsula, the trend of the whole as far south as Bolivia being regularly south- east from Bering Strait, just as that of the Asiatic coast to the Philippines is southwest ; so that the north Pacific is a semicircular gulf. Each has to the north an immense archipelago and a vast island-ringed inland sea. Each has a framework of mountain and plain correspondent in general, though with some important differ- ences. In each, according to the law that the largest continental mountain chain is on the side of the largest ocean, there is a western range of immense height and mass, hundreds of miles broad and split into parallel sections sometimes connected by transverse spurs, stretching its entire length ; quite recent in origin, and the volcanic action which raised it still energetic in parts. The Andes in South America thus correspond to the Rockies in North America; but the current idea that they form part of one continuous system is erro- neous, — the Andes end in Venezuela, and the Rockies arc of different genesis. Each con- tinent has on the east a much shorter chain, much older and therefore much lower, from the erosion through geologic ages, and its volcanic fires long since spent ; and as the highest points are worn down earliest, each is now rather a broad plateau with some elevations than a mountain wall. The Alleghany-Appalachian system in the United States corresponds to the Brazilian chain, which has no one distinctive title. Each continent has also a lateral range beginning in the north centre, turning first south and then east till it ends somewhat north of the eastern vertical chain, and cut in its course by the chief river running northeastward ; and in each it is much the oldest part of the con- tinent. The Laurentian chain in North Amer- ica, crossed by the Saskatchewan, is a trivial counterpart to the great lateral ranges of Vene- zuela and the Guianas, crossed by the mightier Orinoco. In each continent the two main ranges are connected by an almost uninterrupted plain many hundreds of miles broad, sloping south- ward to the ocean, and drained by three im- mense hydrographic systems with slight and sometimes non-existent divides: one running east and emptying just north of the eastern ver- tical range, the Great Lakes and the St. Law- rence in the north corresponding in position to the oceanic Amazon in the south ; the second running south and discharging a little south of the same range, which thus forms one side of a huge triangle of which the rivers form the other two, — the Mississippi and Missouri in North America comparable to the Parana and Paraguay which form the La Plata in South America ; a third running northeast and dis- charging into the northern ocean, the Saskatche- wan, with the Red River of the North and Lakes Winnepeg and Manitoba, corresponding to the Orinoco. Besides these, each has a river following the eastern side of a spur from the main range up to the northern ocean, the Mack- enzie in the arctic regions and the Magdalena in Colombia, though the former is the drainage of a great arctic plain while the latter is con- fined between two ridges. With regard to the watersheds, those of North America lie within a few miles of each other in Minnesota; the headwaters of the Illinois in the Mississippi basin lie within a half mile of the Chicago in the St. Lawrence system, and the two have now been connected ; the Amazon and Plata systems are only three miles apart ; and those of the Amazon and Orinoco are actually connected by the so-called "river 8 Cassiquiare, a deep and broad natural channel about 150 miles long, running either way according to circumstances. These, however, by no means exhaust the large drainage systems of North America, though in South America the closeness of the western chain to the ocean throws the whole burden on the east. The Pacific slope of the north is drained in the semi-arctic regions by the immense Yukon, one of the great rivers of the globe. On the eastern side the great mass of the arctic moors sends its drainage through a network of small streams, and sinks like Great Bear, Great Slave, and Athabasca ~\ ; AMERICA Lakes, by the Mackenzie to the northern ocean, the Great Fish River taking the east arctic waters. Farther south the Pacific drainage is by the Fraser into Puget Sound, and by the Columbia into the Pacific. The smaller Sacra- mento drains central California. The Great Basin between two arms of the Rockies sends its scanty and precarious rainfall into the Gulf of California by the Colorado. East of the range in the south the Rio Grande has a long course and forms the boundary between the United States and Mexico, but, despite its im- pressive name, is not of great volume. Between this and the Mississippi system several consid- erable streams drain the Texas region ; the Colorado, Brazos, Sabine, etc. East of the Appalachian system a number of fair-sized and beautiful rivers flow to the Atlantic — the St. John's, Penobscot, and Kennebec, the Con- necticut, Hudson, Delaware, and Susquehanna, the Potomac, James, Cape Fear, Savannah, etc. In South America the large rivers of the eastern slope are the San Francisco and the Paranahiba of northern Brazil ; but between this range and the Amazon system a great plain is drained by the huge Tocantins, which, though emptying only at the mouth of the Amazon, is really a part of its basin. The drainage systems of America have no parallel on the globe. The Amazon discharges more water into the sea than the eight largest rivers of Asia together, and the Mississippi more than all the streams of Europe large and small. The navigable waters of the St. Law- rence, Mississippi, Amazon, Orinoco, and Plata systems together amount to over 100,000 miles in length. The five Great Lakes of America alone, excluding large bodies like Winnipeg, Manitoba, Champlain, etc., and the polar lakes, make up an area of 89,000 square miles, or con- siderably more than England and Scotland to- gether. Another physical similarity between the two continents might be found in the relations of the Gulf of Mexico to the northern continent and the great Argentine plain to the southern : both lie in the same position with regard to the eastern and western mountain chains, though the one is submerged. But the differences are also great. The main drainage system of the central plain in North America is to the south, by the Mississippi ; that in South America is to the east, by the Amazon; while the Great Lakes are scarcely a drainage system at all for anything but the melting snows of the Rockies, which supply them through deep rock fissures. They are hollows in the oldest rock elevation of the continent, with the ground sloping away from them in every direction not far from their shores ; not a single considerable stream flows into them, nor even into the St. Lawrence west of Montreal. But the most vital difference structurally is due to the position of the western chain. In North America the chief height is on the eastern flank a thousand miles from the Pacific, the gradually lessening slopes leaving space for an empire along that ocean, and their drainage forming great rivers. In the southern continent it hugs the ocean so closely that not a stream of any size flows into the sea, and the cultivable area is but a petty strip on the coast. More than half the whole western side of South Ametica is occupied by one state, some 1,500 miles long by 50 or 60 wide, which even so finds none too much terri- tory with its slender width and partly barren soil. The northern continent has also an im- mense advantage in the character of its coast line : what with its archipelagoes, sounds, and river-mouths in the north, and the sheltered in- dentations farther south, it is well fitted for commerce, while the whole South American coast has only one or two good harbors above Patagonia. The greatest differences in the civilized destiny of the two continents, however, are due to the northward massing of the land heretofore mentioned. All the United States and southern Canada lie in the temperate re- gions : the largest and most fertile part of South America lies in the tropics. The narrow south- ern part of North America lies in the warm semi-tropic ocean ; that of South America in the south-polar sea. A quarter of all North Amer- ica is a worthless polar waste, but perhaps as large a space of South America is an uninhabit- ed and pestilential tropic jungle; and the im- provements in food production and means of warmth which push back the reign of the one are perhaps balanced by the hygienic inventions and commercial uses tending to reclaim the other. Certainly the northern part has much more arable land and much less miasmatic or enervating climate than the other, nothing what- ever that compares with the pestilential coasts and inland swamps of the southern. The Mis- sissippi valley, the largest continuous body of agricultural land on the earth, is not only of immensely greater value than the grassy steppes of the temperate southern plain of South Amer- ica, but the prairies of the north, which cor- respond in position to the Amazonian forests in the south, are a still more striking contrast. Commercially the north is equally favored in comparison. From the nearness of the conti- nent to Europe relatively to Asia, and from the structure of the continent throwing the mass of population and production east of the great mountain chain, the chief commercial relations of America must always be with the western side of the other continent. Bui. North Amer- ica is directly opposite Europe, the commercial head of the world ; while South America's east- ern neighbor is barbaric Africa, and most of its harbors are either along the miasmatic northern and northeastern coast, unfit for great cities, or the semi-polar shores of Patagonia. (For general works on American geography and topography see the ( Ncw Universal Ge- ography,' translated by Keane and Ravenstein from Elisee Reclus' French work, 1890-4 ; Daw- son's 'North America, Canada, and Newfound- land,' 1897; Keane's 'Central and South Amer- ica,' 1901 ; Shaler's 'Nature and Man in America,' 1891 ; Wright's 'Ice Age in North America,' 1889; Powell's 'Physiographic Re- gions of the United States,' in "National Ge- ographic Monographs,' Vol. I. 1895.) Physical and Climatic Conditions. — In a con- tinent practically spanning the entire space from pole to pole, every variety of climate may be inferred; and with every elevation from sea- line to everlasting ice even in the tropics, each latitude is sure to contain as endless varieties in itself. In both North America and Asia the western side is both warmer and of more even temperature than the eastern, owing to ocean AMERICA currents generated in the tropics and flowing eastward, the Guli Stream through the_ Atlantic, the Kuro Sliiwo through the Pacific. 1 lie Rockies, however, give a peculiar character to western North America, to be mentioned later, and even in interior Alaska the isotherms rise, — the parallel of Dawson City in the Klondike is that of the north end of Hudson Bay and far into south Greenland. The eastern side of both continents lias about the same climatic belts: China corresponds fairly to the United States, and Peking has a climate not unlike Boston. But if we compare eastern North America with Europe, and to a less extent South America with the East, the leading trait is its greater cold in every /one from just below Great Bear Lake; St. Petersburg and Christiania are on a level with the southern tip of Greenland. Sitka has much the same parallel as Aberdeen; Co- penhagen and Moscow, Glasgow and Edin- burgh, correspond with central Labrador, north- ern James Bay, and some distance north of Lake Winnipeg. All the British Isles, all the Netherlands, and the greater part of Germany, are north of the city of Winnipeg, which itself is about on the parallel of Paris ; St. Paul and Ottawa correspond to Bordeaux, Turin, and Bucharest, centres of wine and roses; Boston and Chicago to Rome, New York to Naples; Philadelphia is south of Madrid and Constan- tinople; Washington corresponds to Lisbon and Corfu, St. Louis to Athens. The thirtieth par- allel is about that of New Orleans and the Isthmus of Suez ; the twentieth passes through the heart of Mexico, also just below Calcutta and Mecca, and through the Sudan and Sahara; the tenth through Venezuela, also through Gui- nea and just above Ceylon. The equator touches Quito and the mouth of the Amazon, and also divides Sumatra and Borneo and Lake Victoria Nyanza ; the Amazon and the Kongo traversing about the same zones. Even allow- ing for the elevation of the Mexican plateau, the temperatures of India and of the deserts of Arabia and Africa cannot be paralleled even on our tropical coasts. The difference is due to environing conditions and internal structure combined. Above the European mass is a par- tially thawed sea ; above that limit in America lie many hundred miles of ice-clad land masses, while to the northeast is the continental mass of ice-capped Greenland, piercing deep into the eastern side the polar inlet of Hudson Bay. But a partial cause is the mountain framework which in Europe lies mainly east and west and in America north and south. In the latter, therefore, what is practically one long plain stretches from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico, the polar winds finding no obstruction as they sweep southward. There is not a spot in North America east of the Rockies absolutely secure from intense frosts ; and there are no definite north-and-south climatic belts, the only sharp divisions being those east and west of the Rockies. In Europe and west Asia, on the con- trary, where the mountains cut off the polar winds, the climate will often vary from north- temperate to semi-tropic within a score of miles. This isolation of different parts, giving the most varied lives and habits time to grow into deep-set racial distinctions, has produced by their varied strains and interaction the splendid civilization of the Western world ; while the two great plains which fill the centre of each continent, linked by a fertile and temperate plateau, in itself the must tempting of all, gave no opportunity for differentiation, and the tin- diversified monotony of a single racial stock and culture was one of the influences which kept progress at a spot reached by European races thousands of years before. Geology.— The great western chain of both continents, which would seem to be the chief formative base of both, is in fact very much the newest section in each case, though each is of independent origin as shown by the energy of still remaining volcanic action in both, while the uplift of the eastern side has so long ceased that erosion has worn them down many thou- sands of feet, trenching immense valleys, and building up vast plains to the west by their detritus. The Archaean portion of North America, the first in order of appearance above the water, is the northeastern part: the elevation in which the Great Lakes and Hudson liay are hollows, the Laurentian system of Canada, the Adiron- dacks of northern New York, and a southern tongue east of the Blue Ridge. The line of forces thenceforth acted steadily to the west- ward, the surface formations regularly growing more recent in that direction. This portion is not merely the oldest of the western continent, but one of the oldest on the globe, the "New World" being new only from the standpoint of European history, not of geology or ethnology. This and the polar archipelagos are composed of Azoic or Palaeozoic rocks of extreme an- tiquity. The mountain escarpment skirting Labrador and extending north and west is mainly granite and other archaic rocks. To the west stretches the vast pre-Silurian plateau called by Suess the "Canadian buckler." By erosion this has been almost denuded of its upper Palaeozoic strata, and the whole of Hud- son Bay excavated to a slight depth on the surface of its eastern section. The eastern part of the Appalachian system is mostly Silurian; its western plateau and the bases of most of the Mississippi valley are Carboniferous; while as we go westward we encounter in succession Triassic, Cretaceous, and Tertiary formations. The Rocky Mountain system shows the greatest activity of volcanic forces at its ends, in Alaska and Mexico. In the old portions of the United States and Canada there are no active volcanoes; and the strength of eruptive force, greatest in the Aleutian Islands, steadily diminishes eastward and southward, occasional eruptions occurring on the southwestern coast, while Mount Wrangell is semi-eruptive only. In Mexico, Popocatapctl and others indicate the beginning of the equatorial belt of volcanic forces exhibited in Central America and the Antilles. But all the Cordilleran system is relatively of recent elevation, though old enough for heavy erosions to have taken place, exposing strata of every age as they were tilted up, cre- ating some valleys and filling up others. In the region from California to Puget Sound the sur- face over many thousand square miles is lava, the valley of the Snake and Columbia for Ion? distances being cut through lava beds, and field? of black scoriae forming a peculiar feature in the northern Pacific States and Pacific Canada. To the south of the Appalachian system, along NORTH AMERICA {Political) Scale 100 300 500 70 ybo Statute Utiles to one inch Capitals of Countries* Capitals of States ■ O titer Cities • Comparative Area 120* Longitude West f rom G <■■ -/ ,jooo//. 4f CENTRAL AMERICA ' ljooo/1. ■ „. *" SOUTH / AMERICA £ - kTOH Copyright , fqQ3, by Kind, McXally £" '- £~y ctfi 1 ' Jitfi s* y ?>,. Jt C T 1 C O C E A JV ■"V ' /-7.V i "- HUDSOX BAY ^ (Relief) Scale 100 300 /6o Statute Miles to one inch Dark Drown indicates highest land Dark Blue indicates deepest water C "*'*saAM sB* NORTH AMERICA - • s ^ • * » '* * , " igoj, tyJianJ, J4cNally t AMERICA the Atlantic and the Gulf, the flooring is Cre- taceous and Tertiary, therefore of recent up- lift. In South America the eastern highlands are also of enormous antiquity, as shown hy their archaic composition, with a sandstone cap not since submerged, their horizontal layers, deep erosions, and detritus plains, indicating no up- lift since the earliest times and a great height of the original chain. The Andes (q.v.) are quite recent, and full of volcanoes still or but recently active, but they are not all of a single age, however, and show successive uplifts. The plains between have Tertiary bases under their alluvial surface. Much of the erosive action on these primi- tive elevations and the uplifts between them has been due to a vast glacial ice cap, the so-called Laurentian glacier, which at an uncertain but relatively recent period, ending probably from 50.000 to 100,000 years ago, covered all North America from the polar regions down to Phila- delphia and the Ohio and as far west as the Missouri, leveling hills and hollows, creating soils, excavating lake beds, changing the courses of streams and the outlets of gigantic lakes, cutting out and blocking up fiords and harbors, and depositing enormous masses of rock and gravel moraines. To this, among other things, is due the creation of New York harbor and Niagara Falls, and the turning of the Great Lakes through the rocky St. Lawrence valley instead of the Mohawk and Hudson. This ice cap has by no means wholly disappeared yet : the immense glaciers on the northwest coast and in the Rocky Mountain heights, some of them hundreds of square miles in extent, are remnants of the one great glacier of ancient times which still covers entirely the turtle-back conformation of Greenland. South America too has had its glacial periods, spreading from the south-polar regions and producing the same effects as in its northern neighbor. The great height of the Andes keeps them still existent up to and beyond the equator, and on the south they are of frequent occurrence. The Cordilleran System. — The two great axial chains which form the western base of the double continent, though (as said) of in- dependent origin, have strong similarities and a like relation to the remainder of the surface, and may conveniently be treated together. For their detailed composition and characteristics, see Andes and Rocky Mountains. It should be noted that these are not mere dividing walls, but vast formative elements of the continental mass- es, and themselves of continental volume. With their foothills and spurs they amount in South America to at least 1,000,000 square miles in area, and in North America to some 2.500.000, or toward a third of the entire surface. They include almost every possible character of soil and climate and natural product, and suitability for every employment, — agriculture, manufac- tures, or mining. They make climates of their own, so that no inference can be drawn from that on one side to that on the other, and the two may have the difference of five degrees of latitude or five thousand miles of distance: one side may be a sponge, the other a rainless desert, one a glacier, the other a garden. They make the difference between Puget Sound and Labra- dor, and on the other hand between the Mexican plateau and the Nicaraguan plains, between Peru and Caracas. They enclose fertile provinces and deserts of rock and sand each large enough for an empire, and have great lakes and consid- erable rivers entirely their own. As the development is better studied from the south, we shall begin with South America, whose Cordilleras descend by steep short ter- races to the seashore, or to a narrow belt of level land immediately adjoining it, form regu- lar chains, display the loftiest masses of all America, and send out only short branches to the eastern plains ; whereas the North American Cordilleras lean, in the west, on elevated pla- teaus, so as to favor a large development of rivers, are less vertical in their structure and less high, and send to the east more extensive ramifications. The names of particular groups of the Andes are taken from the countries to which they more especially appertain ; thus, pro- ceeding from south to north, we have the Cordil- leras of Chile, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, and Co- lombia. This is the highest mountain mass on the globe, and except the Himalayas has the highest peaks. Beginning among the rock islands of the Fuegian archipelago, it runs through Patagonia as a low single range with summits of perhaps 8.000 feet; rises swiftly through Chili, growing at once higher and more multiplied, with summits of 12.000 to 18,000 feet, till it culminates in the stupendous ncvado of Aconcagua, from 23,000 to 24,000 feet high, the loftiest elevation on the western hemisphere. Beyond this it divides into two enormous paral- lel arms with a high plateau between, and lower ranges to the east in Argentina increasing its complexity. Thence to the Isthmus it is not a ridge, but a rock continent 200 or 300 miles wide, with a great number of peaks from 19,000 to 21.000 and even 22,000 feet high, and the very "passes" over them 15.000 or 16,000 feet above the sea, terrific and nearly impassable gorges above the highest summits in Europe. Sometimes it contains three or four parallel ranges, with two and even three immense till- able valleys on the same base. It attains its greatest breadth at about lat. 18 S., in central Bolivia, where it is some 300 miles wide, with three main ranges ; and at this point, in the northern part of the province of Tacna, taken by Peru from Bolivia, it and the correspondent coast curve northwest as far as 5°, its course in this direction being exactly coincident with the limits of Peru. On these plateaus was situated the empire of the Incas. just northeast of the turn it holds the great Lake Titicaca, some 1,800 miles in area, on a high plateau 12,645 feet above the sea. This part is called the Royal Cordillera, and contains several peaks above 20.000 feet, Ancohuma (21,490) being the high- est. At the Gulf of Guayaquil it again turns north, with a gradual trend east to about lat. 4 N., when it curves north and west to meet the Isthmus, forming a large but nameless gulf. Near the equator, in Ecuador, are a number of very lofty volcanic summits, the two highest and most famous of which are Chimborazo, 20,498 feet, and Cotopaxi, 19,613 feet. Thence to the Caribbean the height decreases, and in Colombia it divides into three, two running north and the third extending well into Vene- zuela, the true end of the Andean system. AMERICA Central America is hardly a part of cither great system. The Isthmus is a low plateau, succeeded by highlands rather than mountains in Costa Rica ; then conns the depression near- 1\ ("died by Lake Nicaragua, the largest inland body of water south of the Great Lakes, where the elevation sinks to less than too feet above the sea. The mountains begin in northern Nica- iia and occupy the entire breadth of Hon- duras, Guatemala, and Salvador, from ocean to in, but they arc not of great height and consi-t of several detached ranges with active or extinct volcanic peaks. These sink to the broad plain at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, forming the dividing line between the mass of North American and South American organic species, though zoologically the central plateau is a northern tongue thrust into two lines of tropic territory along the Gulf and Pacific The Rocky Mountain system, or northern Cordillera, begins with the plateau of Anahuac which the City of Mexico is situated, the seat of the original culture overthrown by Cor- tes. It is from 4.000 to 7.000 feet high, and is flanked by mountain ranges and isolated vol- canic peaks, active or quiescent, the highest summits in Mexico. Orizaba, the loftiest, is [8,250 feet high, but the most remarkable and imposing is Popocatapetl. rising 17,520 feet from the floor of the valley, the highest peak of the world in practical isolation, its whole height visible from sea level. At this point the main ridge of the Rockies (the Mexican section is known also as the Sierra Madre, which prop- erly is the name of the northeastern spur) sud- denly turns far eastward from the Pacific, and for the remaining 3.500 miles of its course keeps hundreds of miles from it. so that the broad western slope is drained by very large rivers, as the Columbia and Fraser, and in the extreme north the mighty Yukon, one of the great streams of the whole globe. But it throws out lesser arms to the west nearly to the ocean. Between the main range and the great Sierra Nevada arm is enclosed the desert Great Basin of L'tah and Nevada and northern Arizona and New Mexico: a waste of alkaline earth and naked rocks, of river courses dry except in the infrequent rains, and roaring torrents then for a few hours or minutes; of the great canons, gulleys cut sometimes a mile deep into the solid by the swift sand-laden currents. It is drained to the Gulf of California by the only real stream of water of any size in the whole region, the Colorado. The Sierra Nevada has for its crowning summit Mount Whitney, in California. 14.898 feet high. Still farther west it throws out the Coast Range, running through California, Oregon, and Washington up to Pugct Sound. The Sierra Nevada is continued, through independenl volcanic action, by the Cas- cade Range of Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia, with Mount Shasta. 14.310 feet, in the south, and Mount Rainier or Tacoma, 14,526 feet, in Washington. The system as a whole, across from California and Oregon to Colorado and Wyoming, is 1.000 miles wide, with a number of north-and-south ranges rising from a plateau from 5.000 to 10,000 feet high, and with a large number of peaks between 14.000 and 15.000 feet high. The main range in Colo- rado has for its chief divisions the Front, San- gre de Cristo, Park, Sawatch, and San Juan ranges; Long's and Pike's Peaks, Blanca Peak, Mounts Lincoln and Harvard, and Uncom- pahgre Peak are the best known of the sum- mits. The system follows the coast around nearly to Asia, rising in leaks all along the Aleutian Island, the chief being the noble Shishaldin, 8,000 feet high ; and north of Yakutat Bay, a great landmark, where the coast turns west and the greatest glaciers begin, the place where the temperate zone properly gives place to the semi- arctic. A branch continues straight on, runs far north to the Yukon watershed, then turns west again and rejoins the other in southwest Alaska. In the course of the latter it throws up mighty peaks, the monarchs of the northern continent, including Mount St. Elias, 18,024 feet, and Mount Wrangell, a great isolated semi- active volcano, 17,524 feet; the altitude rising as it goes west, it culminates in Mount McKinley, 20,464 feet, the highest elevation in North America. The Eastern Mountains and tl\c Plains. — In North America the backbone and nucleus of the continent is locally known as the Alleghany system in the northern half of the United States, and the Appalachian in the southern ; but for scientific purposes the latter name is commonly extended to the whole. It extends from Gaspe peninsula, between the lower St. Lawrence and Chaleur Bay, below Quebec, through the United States to north Alabama and north Georgia, where the mountains sink down to the great coastal plain which girdles the United States from fifty to a hundred miles back from the coast shore. Between the mountain and plain is a foothill region usually known as the Piedmont region. The mountains are a plateau from 50 to 200 miles wide and averaging 1,500 to 3.000 feet high, but with peaks rising to 6,204 feet in Mount Washington (New Hampshire) and 6,707 feet in Mount Mitchell (North Caro- lina). The range has many local names for the different divisions, as the White and Green, the Adirondacks, the Taconic, Iloosac, and Catskill, the Alleghany, the Blue Ridge and South Mountain, the Black and Smoky, etc. On the west they slope through rolling up- lands to the most peculiar feature of the North American surface, entirely unlike any other part of the globe, the prairies, called savannahs in English books, but never in American speech : a block of undulating plains of enormous extent in the centre of the Mississippi basin, com- posed mainly of dark, rich loam from a foot to several feet deep over a bottom of clay, and of such composition that tree-growth is entirely absent naturally and very difficult artificially, even where rainfall is plentiful, though grass and other crops grow abundantly. Often this will be as level as a floor for scores of miles together, and the eye sweeps uninterruptedly over a grassy ocean to the horizon. On the west of this extend to the Rockies lands often as flat as the prairies, but lacking their individ- ual trait and called plains instead. The same features are repeated in northwest Canada from Manitoba to the Rockies. In South America the eastern chain is simi- larly formed of several parallel ranges follow- ing the Brazilian coast, on a wide plateau, a re- duced copy of it running through the Guianas. AMERICA The whole centre is an immense plain sloping sharply up to the Andes; but in place of the vast treeless flats of the northern continent there is the most enormous forest of the world, two and a half millions of miles in extent, a swampy jungle inhabited only by a unique tropic fauna and the few savages who wander through its intricate paths. North of this, however, are considerable plains along the Orinoco called llanos. Below the range the country is a great grassy steppe, rather ill-watered and infertile, called pampas, and extending through Argen- tina and Patagonia. (See reports, bulletins, and monographs of the United States Geological Survey ; reports of the Canada Geological and Natural History Sur- vey; Suess' ( Das Antlitz der Erde' (The Face of the Earth), Prague 1883-8; Felix and Lank, 'Geologie und Palaontologie der Republik Mex- ico,' Leipsic 1890; Steinmann, 'Sketch of Ge- ology of South America,' in 'American Na- turalist,' Vol. XXV., 1891.) Climate, Rainfall, and Natural Sections. — The habitability of a land outside of arctic re- gions depends first upon its water supply and secondly upon its disposition. The trade winds which supply the rainfall of all countries by the ocean vapors they carry blow nearly east and west, the easterly called specifically "trades," the westerly "anti-trades." The eastern con- tinent has its greatest length in this direction and a great mountain wall on the east ; hence much of central Asia lying beyond the reach of vapors remains a permanent desert. America, from its narrowness and its sides be- ing toward these winds, is much more easily supplied. The Great Lakes add to the rainfall in their region; the Gulf of Mexico, as will be demonstrated, turns the whole east centre from a potential desert to a garden : and the only entire deserts are between two arms of the western range in the northern part, and some portion of the strip along the western coast of the southern. In the polar regions the cold and physical con- formation make the water supply of little avail. Northern Alaska and northern Canada are flat, spongy moors but half reclaimed from the ocean, with permanently frozen subsoil, thawing slight- ly in the brief, intense summer (sometimes of 120°), and developing a few mosses, grasses, and weeds, with dwarfed shrubs and clouds of mosquitoes. (See Alaska.) But the distance southward to which arctic conditions extend is far greater on the eastern coast than the west- ern, owing to the effect of the Rocky Mountain wall in breaking the force of the polar winds, and of the warm ocean vapors ; the latter also make the temperature far more equable. The midwinter arctic temperature of 50° and below has no representative on the western coast. The Labrador coast, latitude for latitude, is 20° colder than the Alaskan in me3n annual tempera- ture, about 20° against 40° even in the extreme northwest ; and its mean midwinter temperature 30 colder, — 25° against 5°. Even from the in- terior to the western coast the isotherms rise astonishingly : that of north Virginia at lat. 40 N. is that of British Columbia at 50 . On the other hand, the range of temperatures is much greater on the east, the temperature rising pretty steadily as we go southward, to 8o° mean annual on the Mexican Gulf coast, a range of 60° from semi-arctic to semi-tropic, while in the corresponding part of southern California it is only 70°, a range of 30". The midwinter range is over 100° on the east coast, not above 50° on the west; the midsummer is 40 in the east, not over 20° on the whole coast from southern California to Bering Sea. Much greater extremes still are found in the Cordil- leran region, where the mean annual embraces a scale of 6o°, and the mean midsummer runs from 40 to 95 in southern Arizona and north- ern Mexico, while the thermometer rises to 120° at times, as at Fort Yuma and similar places. From about lat. 52° N. to perhaps 44° in the interior and east, the climate, though not quite fatal to civilized energies, is very severe, with winters of seven or eight months, and summers at best but short and not always calculable, though rising to 100° and over in waves ; with sudden intense "northers" and "blizzards" of intense cold with fine dry snow sometimes par- alyzing business activities for days. The dry atmosphere, however, makes it less trying than the damper though somewhat warmer eastern weather ; it has developed great cities and popu- lous States in the L T nited States and flourish- ing communities in Canada above 50° ; and the industrial and intellectual future of the region is as promising as that of any part of the con- tinent. There is not much difference between the central and eastern parts in this respect, Duluth and Quebec, St. Paul, and Ottawa, correspond- ing closely in parallels and nearly in climate. Northwestern Canada and the northern cen- tral States of the L T nited States form the great cattle and wheat district of North America ; and this on both sides of the Rockies is the chief timber section. South of this is the great "tem- perate" section, shading into the semi-tropic by imperceptible degrees, but which in the United States may be roughly divided by the basin of the Ohio. The northern portion has summers and winters of the same general character as the former, but less intense at either extreme, neither hot waves nor cold waves usually last- ing long; the weather damper than in the farther north. It is the chief region of Indian corn and apples, hay and potatoes, etc. The southern half shows the beginnings of tropic elements in the seasons, which are not so much winter and summer as wet and dry ; in the luxuriance of vegetation and characteristically tropic varie- ties; in the less bracing atmosphere, and in the bottom lands its languorous oppressiveness ; in the domestic architecture, where the obviouj desire is to escape heat rather than to ward off cold ; and in the productions, such as cotton and tobacco, rice and sugar, sweet potatoes and oranges in the far south. The Pacific slope, however, is an exception to this, its climate resembling the western coast of Europe much more than the eastern of its own. All the isothermal lines curve sharply northward west of the mountains. From Puget Sound to San Diego there is no extreme range of climate, no such division into quasi-arctic and quasi-tropic as on the eastern slope ; though the northern part from its heavy rains is the greatest timber region of the continent north, and the southern a great country of vineyards, almond orchards and other south-temperate products. California reaches from about the AMERICA parallel of Boston to that of north Georgia and Mississippi, hut has neither the raw, harsh New England climate nor the heavy southern atmosphere, and southern California is a noted warm sanatorium. The high arid plateau of north Mexico experiences ex- treme alternations of temperature, from 95 to 40 ; but on the coasts and below the great Ana- huac table-land the region becomes semi-tropic. Sugar-cane, cotton, and coffee now ascend to the lower mountain regions, and in their place, at sea-level, appear pineapples, bananas, etc. Central America from its narrowness and low elevation has an island climate, tropic and pesti- lential on the shores and along the streams, moderate and healthful on the higher ground in the interior. This and the Antilles are the re- gion of sugar, indigo, cochineal, ginger, va- nilla, capsicum, etc. South America, lying on both sides of the equator, has in the central and eastern parts a much less range of climate than North America, the greatest in a single section being found in Argentina, where it is some 30 ; over the whole continent the mean annual tem- perature ranges from 8o° to 40 , the midwinter (our midsummer) from 8o° to 35°, and the midsummer from 85° to 50'; north Argentina, the Cordilleran section, having, as before, the greatest alternations. The southern west An- dean slopes are cooled and equalized by the west winds from the ocean; the northern parts are a tropic desert ; but on the different levels of the range are found every climate of the earth from tropic to arctic. The tropic productions and characteristics south of the equator, ex- cept as deflected by local conditions, are much like those north of it. The zone reaching south as far as lat. 40 S. has a mean temperature of 71 ° in the warmest and 53° in the coldest month. There the palm still thrives on the lower basin of the La Plata beside the mulberry and indigo ; the pampas and the west coasts of Chile are characterized by beautiful araucarias (the pine of the southern hemisphere), by beeches and oaks, the potato and the arrow- root. The plants in cultivation are a curious blending of the vegetation of the northern and southern United States: wines, olives, oranges, hemp, flax, tobacco, wheat, Indian corn, and bar- lev. The southern limit of the periodical rains reaches as far as lat. 48 S., when the mean tem- perature of 5Q° in the warmest and 39° in the coldest month still favors the growth of cereals, and on sheltered spots of the west coast the growth even of the vine and the finer fruits. The zone reaching to the southern extremity 0! America shows comparatively little difference between the warmest and coldest month, the mean temperature of the one being 41° and of the other 25 ; but the low degree of summer warmth produces a marked change in the form of vegetation, which now presents only a few trees, as the beech and birch, and an extraor- dinary abundance of mosses and ferns. As in passing from the equator to the pole the region of the vegetable world gradually declines, so in climbing from the tropical shores to the ice- covered mountain summits three different cli- mates have been distinguished by the names of tierra caliente, temp lade and fria ("hot, temper- ate, frigid). Of these the templada extends over those healthy and beautiful regions where a kind of perpetual spring prevails, and green pastures and noble forest trees are found united with the fantastical and gigantic forms of the tropics. The question of rainfall is difficult to group systematically with that of climate. The mass of the northern continent is in the region of the anti-trades or prevailing westerly winds. The Japanese Black Current, the Gulf Stream of the Pacific, running northeast and striking the polar currents and the cold shores, ice- bound for many hundreds of miles, sends up a great steam of fog which is blown against the wall of the Rockies and sent back by them upon their western slope in a rainfall from 50 inches up to 100 or even more, that makes the northern coast from southern Alaska to northern Califor- nia one gigantic forest of immense timber. The rainfall on Puget Sound is from 75 to over 100 inches in winter, and the annual average on the Pacific coast of Alaska is 90 inches. In the southern part, along southern and Lower California, the Cordilleran region above the Gulf, and west Mexico, the same winds blow ; but the land is too warm to cool and precipitate the vapors to the same extent ; and such pre- cipitation as there is takes place mostly on the crests of the coast ranges, the Cordilleran re- gion being mostly semi-desert or wholly so. In the summer the coast ranges are too warm to retain all the moisture of the vapors, which therefore give a little at these seasons, 10 to 20 inches in all to the interior regions. The Mississippi valley is saved from becom- ing the most tremendous desert on earth, a sec- ond Sahara, by the Gulf of Mexico and the western wall combined. If it had to rely on the Pacific winds it would be utterly rainless; but these westerly winds in the Gulf region set up whirls of cyclonic disturbance which make an easterly eddy, carrying saturated currents in that direction ; and these, striking against the Rockies, are turned northeastward through the central and eastern valley, giving it abundant water. This eastward set, however, leaves the western valley only the edge of its course; the far western, as in western Kansas and Nebraska, being rainless for considerable periods and scantily supplied at best. The rainfall ranges from 60 inches on the coast to 30 around the Great Lakes, which add something to the mois- ture of their district. The same cyclonic move- ment makes the same easterly eddy in the At- lantic, and the Atlantic coast receives its 40 to 50 inches a year from that source. Central America is in the region of the trades or easterly winds, and is so narrow that its climate is that of a semi-tropic island. In this region the rainfall is enormous, creating heavy tropic vegetation and increasing to 200 inches at Panama and the northwestern shores of South America, short rivers like the Atrato carrying almost a continental volume of water. All tropical South America is within the trade- wind belt, its moist warm climate creating the enormous forests of the Amazon basin, the oceanic volume of that "river 8 (rather a huge set of parallel drainage channels in one vast swamp) and its tributaries, and the lesser but still mighty Orinoco. On the western slope of the Andes this portion receives no vapor and is a desert down to north Chili. But in central and south Chile and Argentina the anti-trades begin once more, and North American conditions 1 • r AMERICA are repeated : the westerly winds giving to that coast a mild, equable temperature and heavy rainfall, while the Andes bar nearly all the moisture from the east, and the great southern plains or pampas are a relatively arid steppe. Taking the continent as a whole, the rainy zone is disproportionately extended in America; and as it stretches over all the zones, the vege- tation is remarkably diversified, from the lowly moss of the north to the lordly banana of the tropics. The giant chain of the Andes every- where rises above the snow-line. From the sterile Peruvian coast, burned by tropical heats, one can look up to summits covered with perpet- ual snow and ice ; and one may climb from the gigantic equatorial vegetation of Quito to heights where only the condor testifies to the ex- istence of organic life as he wings his flight over snow-fields and glaciers. In Peru the culture of cereals is carried on at the height of 12,000, and near Quito at 9,000 feet. The north and south of America have the same length of day; but in the seasons which depend not merely on astronomical but on a variety of local causes, the analogy does not hold and very remarkable discrepancies appear. Thus, for example, the east coast of Brazil has the rainy season from March to September, while Peru, lying under the very same latitude, has it from November to March. Within the tropics the transition from the rainy to the dry season takes place almost instantaneously; but in receding from the tropics on either side, the change of seasons becomes more and more gradual till at last, in the polar zones, nature, bound in icy chains, affords for living existence only a short awaken- ing out of a long winter sleep. (See publications of the United States Weather Bureau, the Canadian Meteorological Office, and the Mexican Weather Service ; Greely's 'American Weather,' 1888.) Flora. — The sections of cultivation have been dealt with already and we shall consider here only the indigenous features. From north to south the general succession is as follows : The surface-thawed arctic tundra bears only reindeer-moss, blossoming weeds in its brief hot summer, and dwarf willows. From about the Arctic Circle to the southern coast of Alaska, James Bay and the North Saskatche- wan, we find shrubby plants, most of them yield- ing berries ; then the universal wood-of-all- work, the famed "Alaska spruce,* with clumps of birch and alder: these at first sparsely, then forests of conifers, — larger spruces, pine, hem- lock, and fir. This coniferous growth extends in enormous volume down the cool wet Pacific slope to central California ; the giant redwoods and sugar-pines, etc., and the huge sequoia, the largest and oldest plant on the earth, being fa- mous everywhere. Eastern Canada is forested with similar coniferous species ; so is the Unit- ed States through Michigan, Wisconsin, and west to Minnesota, to southern Missouri and northwestern Arkansas, and to northeastern Texas and the Indian Territory. The central United States has predominant deciduous (hardwood) trees, such as the oak of many varieties, the beech, maple, elm, chestnut, black walnut, hickory, ironwood, pepperage, red mul- berry, etc. In the southern States the yellow pine holds foremost place. The characteristic forms of the southern States are the magnolia, palmetto, tulip-tree, plane-tree, pecan, etc., with the cypress everywhere in the swamps. The Cordilleran woods are chiefly conifers, and on the mountains ; on the plains and in the valleys are the yucca, cactus, etc., whose dense, thorny growth is termed chaparral. The wild pictur- esqueness and even grotesqueness of the cactus forms is noted ; and it furnishes food for ani- mals that would otherwise starve on the arid steppes. The north Mexican plateau has little wood except on the mountains. Southward vegetation blends with the tropical forms, and in Central America and the Antilles the most valuable trees are the mahogany and boxwood, and of vegetable products vanilla and ginger. In South America there is no arctic region ; but the great differences in altitudes and the water supply give it a wide range of native pro- duction. The immense rainfall and steady tropic heat of the north shore along the Carib- bean and in the Magdalena valley create a pro- fuse tropical flora on the lowlands, changing to palms, bamboos, tree-ferns, etc., on the higher levels, and coniferous trees on the mountains. Along the Orinoco the llanos, plains with im- mensely tall grasses and great single trees, take the place of forests. The vast selvas or swamp forests of the Amazon occupy the heart of the continent. These colossal tropic jungles, often formed into an almost impenetrable web by multitudes of creeping and climbing plants, con- tain an almost unexploited variety of magnifi- cent trees with the most beautiful ornamental woods,- — as rosewood, cocabola, etc., — products like india-rubber, brazilwood for dyeing, cin- chona for medicine, etc. Dense forests of cinchona overshadow the mountain terraces of Quito. South of the selvas are the forests of Matto Grosso, the great Brazilian province east of Bolivia ; south of this again, and of the Bo- livian Cordillera, is the Gran Chaco, or "great round-up," from the Paraguay to the Andes, — a region of three to five hundred thousand square miles, largely plains, but with heavy for- ests including the wax-palm, and with tree-like thistles on the lower plains. Now begin the pampas of the lower La Plata, which are fine grassy plains in the northern part, but in south Argentina and Patagonia become semi-arid steppes. The western strip has already been dealt with. (Gray's 'Synoptical Flora of North America,' 1886-97; Heller's 'Catalogue of North Ameri- can Plants North of Mexico,' 1900; Sargent's 'Silva of North America,' 1 890- 1 ; Britton and Brown's 'Illustrated Flora of the Northern United States, Canada, and the British Posses- sions,' 1896-8; Berg's 'Physiognomy of Tropi- cal Vegetation in South America,' 1894; Rus- by's 'Enumeration of Plants Collected in South America,' in 'Torrey Botanical Club Bulletin,' Vols. XV, XX., XXII., XXV., XXVII.). Fauna. — The distribution of animal life in America proves by itself what was probable on geologic and physiographic grounds, that the proper division between the two continents is not at the Isthmus of Panama, but at either Nicaragua or Tehuantepec, and that the junction was relatively late. Zoologically considered South America includes also not only Central America and the Antilles, but the Mexican plains and coasts east, west, and south of the plateau of Anahuac. The faunae of the two con- AMERICA tincnts have almost no common feature. Fur- thermore, the North American species are in many respects closely allied to the North Asi- atic, while the South American mammalia and hirds have hut slight affinities to those of any other section of the world, and those of the most general kind; fully four fifths of its spe- cies heing unknown outside its own limits. North America, with this proviso, in Sclater's and Wallace's classification, is Palaearctic in the arctic regions and for some distance south of the northern ocean and west of Hudson Bay, and Nearctic through the rest of its hulk; while South America, thus extended, is Neotropic. Some authorities, however, from the close affinities of the first two, group them to- gether into '"e as Holarctic or Triarctic. In North America, for instance, the fur animals arc not very different from the Siberian kinds ; the reindeer, moose (called elk in Europe), and bighorn are closely akin to Asiatic con- geners: the bison belongs to the buffalo family; the cat family is represented by the panther and wildcat : the wolf family by various classes of wolves, and probably by the Eskimo dog ; the bear family by several distinct sorts. The white goat has close foreign relatives; so have the beaver, marmot, rabbit, squirrel, and most of the other rodentia. the weasels, insectivora, bats, and others. The birds, reptiles, and amphibia are nearly all identical in family with Old World groups, and often in species. The fresh- water fish and mollusks of the cold regions of both arc generally akin, and sometimes the same, though in the great rivers of the southern half many new form-; have developed, the river mollusks being much more numerous and spe- cialized in the United States than in any other part of the world. But there are very notable individual forms. The North American "great cat," variously called panther, catamount, cougar, puma, mountain lion, American lion, etc., has long been specialized in this region ; the musk-ox and the skunk are our own, as are the pronghom and the gopher. And there are still more striking absences where all analogy would lead us to expect strong repre- sentation. The horse, camel, and rhinoceros originated in North America as late as Ter- tiary times, but have entirely disappeared. There is but one marsupial, the opossum, no antelopes, and but one genus of native swine, in Texas and Arkansas. South America shows a new world. Out of 10 orders of mammalia with 33 families which it contains, 13 families are confined ex- clusively to it. All its families in two orders, the Primates (monkeys) and Edentates (arma- dillos, sloths, and ant-eaters), are its own. and five of its nine families of rodents; while of the Chiroptcra (bats), one family, the Phyllostomi- dcr. which includes the vampire bats or blood- suckers, is peculiar to it. Its deficiencies are equally notable, though less so in some re- spects than of the northern continent, as it lacks none which originated there. The horse family group is represented only by the tapir, the ruminants only by the llama, and the bears only by the Andean bear of Chile and Peru. There are no Ungulates but a small deer and one genus of swine, no members of the weasel or civet families, and only two small genera of insectivores. The birds, instead of having a wider range as might be thought, are still more individual : 23 families, including hundreds of genera, are exclusively South American, while only three out of its 118 genera of hum- ming-birds, one of its 43 genera of tanagcrs, eight of its 70 genera of tyrant flycatchers, one of its 14 genera of macaws, four of its 13 genera of pigeons, one of its 12 genera of Cracidcc (curassows, etc.), two of its It species of goatsuckers, etc., have any habitat beyond itself. Of its wading and swimming birds, 18 of its 24 genera are peculiar to it. The reptiles are much less specialized, only four out of 60 genera being entirely individual, and those of lizards ; the species, however, are more pe- culiar than this would indicate, the boas and scytales being distinctively South American, and the iguana practically so, though known some- what north of this region. The waters nat- urally are much less specialized. Of the am- phibians only three out of 16 genera are local. The fishes have four families and 17 genera, of which one family with its one genus, and a genus of another, are peculiar to the South American, the resemblances being mainly to the African families. The sirenoids represent extremely an- cient forms. The insects are also not so differ- ent in form as might be anticipated. But this view understates the specific variations, for on the whole South America is a zoological land apart. (See 'The Standard Natural History,' Bos- ton, 1885; Alfred Russel Wallace, ( The Geo- graphic Distribution of Animals,' 1876; Mer- riam's 'Geographic Distribution of Life in America,' in Vol. VIII. of 'Proceedings of the American Biological Society.' For special por- tions, Cope's 'Crocodiles, Lizards, and Snakes of North America,' in United States National Museum Report, 1898; Apgar's 'Birds of the United States,' 1898; Goode's 'American Fishes.' 1888; Edwards' 'Butterflies of North America.' 1868-88.) Political Dit/isions.— Xhe independent States of both North and South America are all re- publican in government, though it was only in 1889 that Brazil became a republic. The con- tinent is politically divided as follows: Independent Republics. North America — Capitals. Sq. m. Pop. 1000. U. S. Proper Washington. .. 3,025,600 76,303,387 Alaska Sitka 590,884 63,592 Hawaii Honolulu 6,449 I 54,ooi Porto Rico San Juan .... 3,530 953.243 Total 3,636,463 Mexico Mexico 767,316 Central American States — Guatemala New Guatemala Honduras Tegucigalpa. . . Salvador San Salvador. . Nicaragua Managua 46.774 46,250 7,225 49.: 77.474.-'23 ■ 3,570,545 ,574.340 420,000 9'5.5I2 407,000 309.683 Costa Rica San Jose 22,996 Total 172,445 3.626,535 41,655 1.572,797 10.204 1,211,625 18,045 700,000 Cuba Havana Haiti Port au Prince San Domingo San Domingo.. South America — Colombia Bogota 504,773 4,600,000 \'ene;uela Caracas 593.943 2,444,816 Ecuador Quito 125,000 1,271,000 Peru Lima 695.733 4,609.999 Bolivia La Paz 567.430 2,300.000 Chile Santiago 290.829 2,712,145 Argentine Republic. Buenos Ayres. 1,113,849 4,794. '49 air: _ j Copyright, iqoj, by Rand, McXally £- I Copyright, 1993, ty J\anJ, McNally &* Comp^nf AMERICA, DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION Uruguay Montevideo. . . 72,210 Paraguay Asuncion 157,000 Brazil Rio Janeiro. ... 3,218,130 900,600 660,000 18,386,815 Total 7.338,897 4-.679.524 European Dependencies and Possessions British — Capitals. Dom. of Canada. ...Ottawa Ontario Toronto Quebec Quebec New Brunswick . . r redericton . . . Nova Scotia Halifax Prince Edward I.Charlottetown . Manitoba Winnipeg Assiniboia Regina Saskatchewan .... Prince Albert . . Alberta Calgary British Columbia. Victoria Unorganized Territories Newfoundland .... St. Johns Labrador (dep. Newf*.) Bermudas Hamilton British Honduras . . Balize Bahamas Nassau Barbados Bridgetown Jamaica (including Turk's Island. .. .Kingston Windward Islands.. St. George's Grenada and Grenadines St. George's. . . St. Vincent Kingstown St. Lucia Castries Leeward Islands. . ..St. John's Antigua (i n c. Barbuda and Redonda) St. John's Virgin Islands Dominica Roseau St. Christopher (St. Kitts) Basseterre Nevis Charlestown. . . Anguilla Montserrat Plymouth Trinidad Port of Spain . Tobago Scarborough. . . British Guiana .... Georgetown . . . Falkland Islands. . . Stanley Sq. m. 219,650 344.450 28,100 20,550 2,000 64,066 89.340 I 108,000 > 99.255 ) 383.300 2, 141 ,289 42,200 120,000 20 7.562 5.450 166 145 132 233 Total . 170 58 291 65 50 35 32 '.754 114 120,000 6,500 3,809,401 Pop. 2,167,978 1,620,974 331.093 459,116 103,258 246,464 145,000 1 ')". .» 74.484 210,000 4.200 ■6,423 35.226 53.000 192,000 745.104 72,000 4'. 054 48,650 39,000 4.639 26,841 32,000 15,000 4,100 13,000 260,517 21,400 283,278 1.789 French — ■ St. Pierre St. Pierre 10 Miquelon St Pierre 83 Guadeloupe, etc .... Rasse-Terre ... 583 Martinique. Fort de France. 381 French Guiana ....Cayenne 30.450 7.457.588 5.7O0 550 165,899 187,692 30,300 Total 3 1 ,507 Danish — Greenland (as colony) 46,740 Danish West Indies.. Charlotte Ama- lie St. Croix or San- ta Cruz Christiansted. . 84 St. John Charlotte Ama- lie 21 St. Thomas Crux Bay 33 Total Dutch — Curacao Willemstad. . . Dutch Guiana or Su- rinam Paramariho. . 10,516 10,783 984 14.389 46,878 403 46,060 4S.672 Si.524 66,490 Total 46,463 Total North and South America settled or under government, sq. m. 15.919.274; pop. 148,846,664. Forrest Morgan, Connecticut Historical Society. America, Discovery and Colonization of. The effective discovery of America was a gradual process, made possible by the first west- ward voyage of Columbus across the Atlantic and developed by attempts to determine the rela- tion of the lands thus encountered to the Asiatic continent. The body of legends concerning European or Asiatic contact with America prior to the 15th century bears witness only to a vague impression of or conjecture at the exist- ence of land in the western part of the Atlan- tic Ocean, which led to nothing effective in the way of confirmation of such conjecture or occu- pation of the territory. The contact by the Norse colony in Greenland in the nth century with the shores, probably of New England, which the Northmen knew by the name of Vinland, led to nothing more than occasional resort to certain of its facilities such as timber, and cannot be regarded as a discovery in any com- plete sense. Nothing can detract from the unique distinction of the expedition of Colum- bus in 1492. The cosmography of his time was in error as to the size of the earth and conse- quently underestimated the distance intervening between the western limit of Europe and the eastern shores of Asia. But this error could in the nature of things only be brought to light by an actual test by a westward voyage across the Sea of Darkness. This test it is the sufficient glory of Columbus to have furnished and its im- portance for cosmography cannot be overesti- mated. Nevertheless, in its relation to America alone, discovery in the complete sense was rather made possible, than achieved by Columbus. It was under the auspices of the Atlantic States of Europe that development of the results of this voyage was carried on, and of these Atlantic States, Spain and Portugal at first took the leading part. At the time of Columbus' great voyage, Portugal had nearly completed the development of the possibilities of an eastward maritime route to the Oriental trade regions, the goal of maritime endeavor. The Spanish patron- age of Columbus naturally led the Spanish Crown to claim for the westward approach to the Indies, thus made possible under its auspices, the same advantages which papal action had secured for Portugal in connection with the eastward route. By a papal bull of 25 Septem- ber 1493, superseding those on the subject pre- viously issued, enterprise upon the ocean was declared open to both Spain and Portugal, with the understanding that Spain should refrain from infringement upon the Portuguese mo- nopoly of the African coast by using only the westward approach to the Indies. By the Con- vention of Tordesillas, 7 June 1494. the line 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands was set by the two nations themselves as a division be- tween their respective areas of maritime activity. Spanish voyages between 1493 and 1502 now skirted most of the island and continental shores of the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, without, however, making much progress in elucidating the connection between these regions and the Asiatic continent, with which they were still somehow supposed to be connected. In the meantime, by the Cabral voyage to Brazil in 1500 and those of the Cortereals to Labrador and Newfoundland in 1500-1502, Portugal found an interest in westward voyages, for she claimed that not only Brazil, hut also the regions in the vicinity of the fishing grounds in the north were east of the line of demarcation. The expeditions of Vespucius. Coelho and Jaques, 1501-1503, not merely satisfied Portu- guese curiosity as to the extent of their posses- sions accessible by the westward voyage, by AMERICA, DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION establishing the southwestern trend of the Bra- zilian eoast, but, what was very much more im- portant, by establishing the continuance of this land mass to a point as far south as the latitude of the southernmost point of Africa, practically ensured the conviction that here was a New World. This was a land mass, insular or penin- sular in its connection with Asia on the north, of such extent as practically to constitute a part of the world co-ordinate with Europe, Africa, and Asia. It was to the New World, as thus conceived, that the name America, perhaps a little more than halt seriously, was proposed by friends of Amerigo \ c-pucci ill 1507, to be ap- plied, and the name thus applied was but very gradually extended, as the truth became known, to the whole double continent. Spain's great efforts in exploring voyages as distinguished from land expeditions into the interior, were now concentrated upon the search for a strait through, or a passage to the south of, the lands revealed by the voyages since 1492. This was in ise to the epoch-making voyage of da Gama in 1407. More accurate acquaintance with the extent of the Asiatic continent developed by Portuguese activities in the Far East subse- quent to the voyage of da Gama was a favorable condition for such attempts as the Spaniards were making, and the voyage of Magalhaes in the service of Spain in 1519-22 to the south of the New World revealed the extent of the waters lying between it and the Asiatic conti- nent. This was a fundamental fact, knowledge of which was in large outline logically sufficient to establish the separate continental character of the territory brought to knowledge since 1492. Appreciation of this significance of .Magalhaes' voyage was slow in developing, how- ever, and not until after exploring con- quests of the western shores of the continent from bases on the eastern shore, like the con- quests of Mexico and Peru by Cortez and Pizarro in 1519-21 and 1531-33, Almagro's and Valdivia's Chilian expeditions in 1535-40, and expeditions like those of Cortez and Alar- con and Coronado to Lower California and up the Colorado River in 1526-40, that the outline of the continent on its western shore was traced out as far as Southern California. The coast north of this region was only reached and effectively made known by a succession of voy- ages covering a considerable space of time and headed by representatives of different nations. Most prominent in this enterprise were the expe- ditions of Drake in 1577-80, which probably ed the northern California coast; Bering, the Russian, in the strait bearing bis name and on the Alaskan coast, in 1741, and Vancouver on the coast of what is now British Columbia in 1792. The eastern shore of the continent — unless we include the voyage of Gomez from Labrador to Florida in 1525, which was not fol- lowed up — was outlined by Spain only as far north as Chesapeake Bay, the remainder being the scene of French and English activity after the Spanish power was becoming embarrassed in Europe. After the voyage nf Magalhaes in 1522. Span- ish interest in the Xew World concerned itself rather with the task of exploring the interior of the regions whose boundaries Spanish voy- ages had skirted, than with further extension of the lines of inclusion. The glittering suc- cess of Cortez in Mexico in 1519-21 was respon- sible for many attempts in imitation of such an achievement, and in the course of these attempts much knowledge was attained of the conditions in the interior of the continent. Pizarro's con- 'jii- St of Peru led 011 to the exploration and attempted conquest of Chile and to the crossing of the Andes and the descent of the Amazon by Orellana in 1541. The La Plata system was explored by Sebastian Cabot and Hugo (iarcia in 1527-30. In the northern continent. Florida had been discovered by IN nice de Leon in 1512 and proved a part of the continent b) Pineda, who also made acquaintance with the Mississippi in 1519. In the course of the wandering of such parties as those led by de Leon, Narvaez, Cabeza de Vaca and Coronado from 1512 to tin middle of the century, much of the interior was seen as far north as the Missouri and Ohio systems, but only the extreme southeast and southwest portions, that is, California and Flor- ida, saw any attempt by Spain to occupy the territory thus wandered over. The task of ad- ministering and exploiting what she already had was sufficient to absorb what energy could be spared from European occupations. France and England, in the meantime, were becoming less and less inclined to respect the claims of Spain in any direction not hacked up by present physical force, and more and more inclined to take up a line of aggression in mari- time endeavor, not only for the sake of weaken- ing the general position of Spain, but also be- cause of the stirrings of individual enterprise within their own populations. It was only under these circumstances that England began to make use of the claim based upon the Cabot voyages of 1497-98. Conditions inclining the government to a policy of respect for the claim of either Spain or the Pope were now wholly changed, and as against any right to territory west of the line of Tordesillas, England pursued the policy that occupation must, within a reason- able time, be added to discovery to constitute a valid title to territory in the New World. According to this criterion, the achievements of England and France in the 16th century can only be regarded as preliminary or preparatory in character. In each case internal strife at home and the exigencies of the European situ- ation prevented the achievements of discovery and incipient settlement from being followed up. Nevertheless they served to reveal in an effective way that portion of the continent in which condi- tions for transplantation of European institu- tions and life were most favorable. The stretch of shore left unoccupied was comparatively small and the great work of France was exten- sive, and rapidly spread over the interior accessible by water-routes from the shore. While England's great work was the permanent and slow-expanding settlement of the strip be- tween the coast and the mountain-barrier of the Alleghanies. In 1524 Verrazano, a Florentine in the service of France, coasted from North Carolina to Newfoundland, and in 1534-41 the first French attempt at settlement was made under Cartier and Roberval, and though it was not at this time maintained, the foundation was thus laid for the French claim to the territory of the Saint Law- rence system. Attempts to invade the un- doubted sphere of Portugal by Villegagnon in Brazil in 1555. and of Spain by Ribaut and I.au- donnierc in Florida and South Carolina in 1562, AMERICA, DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION were promptly suppressed. So that when, at the beginning of the 17th century Frenchmen were in a position to take up transatlantic activity once more, the Saint Lawrence basin naturally became the scene of their endeavors. From Port Royal in Nova Scotia in 1603, headquarters were shifted in 1607 to Quebec, and once estab- lished at one end of the great interior waterway system, and headed off from southward expan- sion by the hostility of the Iroquois, the line of least resistance led naturally to the interior by the west. These circumstances, coupled with the character of the emigrating population, account for the most signal achievement of the French in the New World — exploration of the continental interior. This went on coincidently with the process of colonization and thereby a fundamental characteristic of New France on the mainland was illustrated — the attempt by the government to nourish a true colony in eastern Canada, while the adventurous population, mis- sionary, and fur-trader, overran the surface of the great interior. Trails were made by Nicol- let in 1634 as far as the Illinois country by the Lakes and the Fox River route, by Radisson and Groseilliers in 1658-59 as far as Lake Superior and the Hudson's Bay region, by Joliet and Marquette in 1673 to the Mississippi. And by 1682 La Salle had opened up the connection between the Gulf of Mexico at the Mississippi's mouth and the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. By 1699 a French settlement was planted in Louisi- ana and in 1718 New Orleans was founded. With England, the order of proceedings was different. Exploration of new regions was a preliminary to their filling up with settlers and bursts of exploring activity occurred in the in- tervals of the great stages in the process of colonization. The Cabot voyages gave her the basis of the claim to the continental shore to the north of Florida, but her first ex- ploring activities were in connection with the search for the northwest passage to the Orient by such commanders as Davis and Frobisher in 1576-78 and with the attempt to occupy Newfoundland by Gilbert in T 579- With the career of Raleigh, the English maritime enterprise takes definite beginning in the colonizing line with the attempt at Roanoke in 1585, and from then till well into the 18th century English exploring activity was mainly concerned with the coast between Florida and Newfoundland, the basis of her colonies on the main. This was as characteristic of the English career in the New World as the French method of rapid and extensive spread from an unde- veloped base. In the course of occupation of the coast, the English found themselves pre- ceded in the strategic regions of the Hudson and Delaware valleys by the Dutch, and falling back on the principle of prior discovery alone, which, as against Spain, she had disregarded, made con- quest of the New Netherlands settlement in 1664, as an invasion of the right to the whole, claimed by virtue of the Cabot voyages. British interest in the interior awoke in the 18th cen- tury, and, mostly under colonial leaders, British hinterland was extended to a hostile contact with the French claims to the interior based on discovery and exploration of the Saint Lawrence system. This being settled, by the elimination of New France from the continent in 1763, Eng- lish exploring activity found its scene, after the Vol. 1—23 separation of the seaboard colonies with their westward extensions to the Mississippi, in the extreme northern part of the continent, with the territory of the Hudson's Bay Company as the base. Here in the later years of the 18th century the early expedition of Verendrye to the Canadian Rockies by the Saskatchewan in 1741 through the interior of the Canadian Northwest was followed up by Hearne in 1770 and Alexan- der Mackenzie in 1789. The areas in the New World within which the colonizing activities of the European Atlantic States were carried on conformed in a general way to the scenes of their earliest contact and activity. Portuguese colo- nization in the New World was limited to Brazil, the only portion of the continent within the limits marked out by the line of Torde- sillas. Spanish activity radiated from the Carib- bean archipelago in all directions and included the greater part of habitable South America, Central America, and the southern portion of the North American continent. French colonies were to be found among the West Indies, but the greatest extent of French settlement was in the neighborhood of the Saint Lawrence sys- tem, while the English, late comers as they were, occupied strategic points among the islands and stretched along the continental shore from Florida to the Kennebec. In the list of participators in the work of colonizing the New World there must be added to the European Atlantic States already men- tioned as conspicuous in discovery and explora- tion, Holland and Sweden. But the brevity of the duration of these attempts hardly entitles them to a place of equal significance with the other four as colonizers in America. The Swed- ish colony founded in 1637 on the banks of the Delaware was regarded by the Dutch as an intrusion on their rights and fell victim to Dutch conquest in 1655. The Dutch enterprise on the Hudson and Delaware was in turn held by the English as equally an intrusion on English North America and the Dutch were disposst- in 1664 by the same means as they had them- selves employed upon the Swedes. During their development of New Netherlands the Dutch were not successful in planting the colony firmly on an agricultural basis, the fur trade proving attractively profitable. A system of colonial government in too close dependence upon a clumsily working confederate government at home and a system of local government which repressed individual initiative retarded the de- velopment of the colony. A few islands in the West Indies and a small stretch of the north- eastern coast of the South American continent still remained — and do yet — as Dutch colonies in the New World. Portugal began her American colonization in 1531 in Brazil, but was unable to give it the requisite attention until the iSth century. In the meantime the comparative freedom from re- straint enjoyed by the colonizing population had exercised a developing effect, and, putting in practice lessons in regard to the exploitation of a tropical colony learned elsewhere. Portugal developed a colonial establishment stable enough to afford a refuge for the House of Braganza during the period of Napoleonic occupation of the Iberian peninsula. In 1821. the Brazilians with the concurrence of their regent, himself of the royal house of Portugal, proclaimed their AMERICA, DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION independence from the Crown of Portugal, and tins independence was subsequently ratified by treaty. The Spaniards began colonizing with the second voyage of Columbus and the islands of the Caribbean, particularly Haiti and Cuba, be- came the serins of .in . cploitation of the super- ficial riches of the tropics which served as bases tor exploring conq the territory of the mainland. The policy of Spain towards her wide domain in the New World, as worked Out in the loth century, not in abstract theory, but in combination of theory with practice, was but little more illiberal, but considerably less intelli- gent than that of other States, But the climate of the part of the New World falling to them was not conducive to the steady, strenuous per- sistence necessary for the building up of perma- nent wealth-producing communities. Nor were the original characteristics of the colonizing population calculated to make success in such a career likely. The natives were not able to offer stubborn resistance to the rapidly moving enterprises of the conquista- dores. A certain tendency to amalgamate with the natives — a tendency which weakened the stronger without strengthening the weaker race — did not prevent the evasion of the laws in- tended to protect the natives from the rapacity of their conquerors and to keep the two oppo- nents of the official class in balance against each other. The too rapid early successes in the realm of military conquest and the easily won response to the search for the precious metals still further unfitted the Spaniard for what mod- ern colonizing peoples are finding the most dif- ficult of tasks — the intelligent exploitation of the possible economic resources of a tropical region where the available labor supply is for various reasons inefficient according to Euro- pean standards. Nevertheless, though the Span- ish dominance over such a great part of the Xew World could not guarantee prosperity to this Empire, it was rather the shock given by the Napoleonic attack on the mother country and its consequences on Spanish internal war- fare than the inherent strength of the separate divisions of Spanish-America, that accounts for the revolt of the greater part of this Empire in the first three decades of the 19th century. And at the same time that political separation was taking place. Spain in Europe stood in such need of political help from England that a com- mercial invasion of Latin-American markets could not be prevented. With this once accom- plished and llie Napoleonic danger passed, the influence of England was publicly and privately used to obstruct all attempts from Spain to re-unite the scattered fragments of the once mighty power in America. The sluggish de- velopment, to call it by no worse a name, which characterized what remained to Spain of do- minion in America between the Latin-American revolts and the wresting of Cuba and Porto Rico by the intervention of the United States in 1898 illustrates the degree of effectiveness of Spanish colonial policy according to modern economic standards. French colonization in America received much attention from the home government and the French temperament was one adapted to success in dealing with the natives, and in amal- gamation with them in preserving the elements of strength. But on the other hand the over- zealous and intemperate] v exercised interference from home frequently nullified all the good that the lavish furnishing of assistance in materials and in military protection did to the fortunes Of the colony. The climate was as excessive in its rigor as that of New Spain was in the < ippi -site direction. '1 he hostility of the Iroquois, fiercest of all the native tribes, obstructed ex- pansion to a m. ire favorable clime and made extensive use of a vast forest domain for the fur-trade a more easy and attractive program than the jog-trot business of intensive agricul- ture and the development of permanent com- munities on tin- frontier for which latter task lack of the habits of initiative in self-govern- ment unfitted the colonizing population. The only colonizing material in the French people ca[iable of developing such traits — the Hugue- nots — was peremptorily excluded from New France. So that when the English expansion had at length come into collision with the bor- ders of the French forest preserve in the interior, New France on the continent was capable, by reason of the feudal and military force pervading its population, of effective resistance against the superior numbers of the English settlements co- operating but clumsily with each other. As between the French and British empires as world-units, however, there was soon no ques- tion of superiority, and France was definitively excluded from the continent as the result of the Seven Years' war (q.v.). The French posses- sions in the West Indies, acquired in various ways during the 17th century, remain to her, and make of her to that extent an American power. The colonizing work of England in America belongs to the colonial period of United States history (q.v.). In broad outline, her policy to- ward her American domain was one which, whether with design or not, allowed wide scope for individual and local initiative. The English population afforded good colonizing material. The Indians gave no such serious trouble as did the Iroquois in the case of the French in the early stages of their colonizing. Defense against European attacks upon the colonies was effective. As builders of settlements in the New World, the English were eminently successful. In de- vising, or at any rate, applying a system of political connection between the home govern- ment and the colonies, the English reached an unfortunate place in their internal political rie- velopment coincidently with a critical stage in the relations of colonies and mother country. The strain at that time and under those cir- cumstances brought upon colonial loyalty proved too great and by the separation of the 13 Atlantic sealward colonies, Great Britain's power in the Xew World was cut down to control of certain important West India islands and the area so recently wrested from France. Under the new spirit of the British Empire which appeared i the 19th century, these possessions have been 3 developed and bound ill sentiment to the inter ests of the mother country that Great Britain stands second only to the United States as an American power. Consult: Winsor, 'Narrative and Critical History': Fiske, 'Discovery of America'; Payne, 'Cambridge Modern History' (Vol. I.) ; Morris, 'The History of Colonization' ; Roscher, 'The Spanish Colonial System.' Chari.es Worthen Spencer, Professor of History, Colgate University. AMERICA, UNITED STATES OF America, United States of. Half of the entire land area of the world, estimating it at 51,410,700 square miles, is in the possession of four nations, one of these four being the United States of America (q.v.). The territory of this nation covers 3,846,595 square miles. Each of the three other nations possesses a greater area, the British empire (q.v.) covering 8.964,884 square miles; Russia (q.v.), 8,660,395; and for $15,000,000, a territory covering 875,025 square miles. Oregon, 288,689 square miles, was acquired under what is known as the Florida treaty (q.v.) in 1819; and the same year witnessed Spain's cession of Florida, 70,107 square miles, for a consideration of $5,000,000. Texas, an independent republic with 389.795 square miles of territory, was peacefully annexed in 1845. Mexico ceded 523,802 square miles of States, 2,718,744 Sq. HUM Colonial Possessions 147,730 Sq Miles Territories 880.121 Sq wiles China (q.v.), 4,277,170. The territory of the United States is all contiguous, with the ex- ception of outlying insular possessions. That of the British Empire is widely scattered. Rus- sia and China have each the advantage of con- tiguity of territory, but Russia is one of the least developed of civilized nations, while China as yet has scarcely begun the march of modern progress. The history of the United States has been marked by a territorial expansion (see United States — Territorial Expansion) which is wonderful on account of its rapidity and the fact that it is the result, almost entirely, of peaceful acquisition, a very large proportion of the acquired territory having been ceded by other nations, as in the case of the Louisiana territory in 1848, for a consideration of $15,000,- 000, and the payment of claims held by Ameri- can citizens against the Mexican government, amounting to $3,250,000. By the Gadsden Pur- chase (q.v.) of 1853, so called because it was negotiated by James Gadsden, United States minister to Mexico, 36,211 square miles, forming the southern part of the present territories of Arizona (q.v.) and New Mexico (q.v.), were purchased from Mexico for $10,000,000. Thus, down to the period of the Civil War of 1861-5. the area of the United States had been increased by 240 per cent. The aggregate amount paid for ceded territory, including $499,768 interest on the $5,000,000 paid for Florida, was $48,749,768. After the Civil War Russia ceded Alaska (q.v.) Original Thirteen State 5 909,060 Sq. Miles Eatenalon Prior to the Civil War 2,183,629 Sq. Mils. Extension Since Civil War 763,906 Sq. Wiles Purchase in 1803, and of the Alaska purchase in 1867, the first of which nearly doubled the area of the country at that period. The 13 Brit- ish colonies which began the war for independ- ence in 1776, and which Great Britain was forced to recognize as the United States of America in 1783, comprised a territory of 909.050 square miles. Briefly told, the story of expan- sion follows: By the Louisiana Purchase (q.v.) in 1803 the United States acquired from France, in 1867, and the United States secured 599-446 square miles for $7,200,000. The Republic of Hawaii (q.v.) declared for annexation in 1897 and now forms part of the United States as one of the territories. Its area is 6.740 square miles. Following the nation's success in the Spanish- Vmerican war of 180S it acquired in that year the island of Porto Rico, 6,740 square niile^: Pine Island, 882 square miles : and Guam Island. i~5 square miles. In 1899 ,ne Tutuila group of the AMERICA. UNITED STATES OF Sanioan Islands, 73 square miles, was acquired ; and Spain ceded, in consideration of $20,000,000, the archipelago known as the Philippine Islands (q.v.), which has an aggregate area of 143,000 square miles. The total extension of United States territory during the century amounted to 2,937,535 square miles, a territorial growth of {23.14 per cent, at a cost for ceded territory of $75,949,768. Multiplication of constituent States has been fully as rapid as extension of territory, the vast regions acquired being opened up to settlement under conditions inviting large immigration. The first of the new States, however, was Ver- mont, whose territory had been claimed for years by New York and several of the New England Slates. Vermont was admitted to the Union in 1791. Two other States have been created within the territory covered by the Washington, 1889; Idaho, 1890; Wyoming, 1890; Utah, 1896. Growth of population rather than acquisition of territory has been, of course, the occasion for the creation of States. With a few excep- tions all of the States admitted to the Union were primarily organized with territorial govern nutUs, responsible to the federal authority at Washington, and remained territories until pos- sessed of population sufficiently large to justify statehood. The first census of the United States, taken in 1700, showed a total population of 3,926,214, which exceeds by less than half a million the population of New York city, as shown by the census of 1900, and which is prob- ably exceeded by the population of that city in the present year — 1904. The total population of the country in 1900 was 76,305.387. The in- crease, as shown by each decennial census, original 13, namely, Maine, detached from Mas- sachusetts and admitted in 1820; and West Vir- ginia, formerly included in Virginia, which State, already divided physically into two sections by the Alleghany Mountains, was divided in senti- ment at the beginning of the Civil War, the western section adhering to the Union cause, and receiving recognition as a State in 1863. The full list of States added to the original fed- eration, together with the respective dates of admission, follows: Vermont. 1791 ; Kentucky. 1702: Tennessee, 1796; Ohio, 1803; Louisiana, 1812; Indiana. 1S1O; Mississippi, 1817; Illinois, [818; Alabama, 1819; Maine, 1820; Missouri, 1821 ; Arkansas, 1836; Michigan, 1837: Florida, 1845; Texas, 1845; Wisconsin. 1848: California, 1850; Minnesota, 1858; Oregon, 1859: Kansas, 1861 J West Virginia, 1863: Nevada, 1864: Ne- braska, 1867; Colorado, 1876; North Dakota, 1889; South Dakota, 1889; Montana, 1889; ranged between 36.4 per cent and 20.7 per cent, the general tendency being toward a reduced percentage as the country grows older and becomes more thickly settled. The average de- cennial increase from 1790 to 1900 is 30.9 per cent. Following are the figures showing the population at the close of each decade: 1790, 3,926,214; 1800, 5,308,483; 1810, 7,239,881: 1820. 9,638,453; 1830, 12,866,020; 1840, 17,069,453: 1850, 23,191,876; i860, 31,443,321; 1870, 38,558.371: 1880, 50.189.209; 1890, 63,069,756; 1000. 76.305,387. The population in 1004, as es- timated, is about 84.000.000. Immigration from foreign countries has nat- urally been a large factor in the increase of pop- ulation. During the period from 1821 to 1850 the total number of immigrants arriving in this country was 2.455.812. Of this number 1,038,824, or 42.3 per cent, were from Ireland, while Great Britain sent 367,933, making the AMERICA, UNITED STATES OF total contribution from the United Kingdom something more than 57.2 per cent of the entire foreign addition to the population of the United States. The great tide of German immigration began during the same period, the number of German immigrants being 593.841. There was also a considerable influx of the Scandinavian element, Norway, Sweden and Denmark send- ing 16,966. Italy had made a small beginning with 4,531 ; and there was a mere driblet of r >393 from Russia and Poland. Canada (q.v.) and Newfoundland (q.v.), which have supplied a large and valuable element of the population, began their contributions during this period with 57,624. Of the 2,598,214 immigrants who ar- rived during the decade, 1851-60, Queen Vic- toria's subjects constituted 51.5 per cent, not counting the 59,303 who came from Canada and Newfoundland; there were 914,119 from Ire- land and 423,974 from Great Britain. Germany outnumbered Ireland in her representatives, sending 951,667. The Scandinavian countries sent 24,680; Italy, 9,231; and the Sclavonic coun- tries, 1,621. During the ten years from 1861 to 1870 the tide of immigration fell off to 2,314,824, owing largely to the conditions existing here as a result of the Civil War. The quota from England and Scotland, however, showed a very- large increase, the figures being 606,896 ; Can- ada and Newfoundland sent 153,871, as against 59.303 during the preceding decade ; the Scan- dinavians numbered 126,392, an increase of more than 500 per cent ; the Italians made a note- worthy increase with 11,728, while Russia and Poland's contingent increased to 4,536. This decade brought the first perceptible wave of the large tide which has flowed from Austria-Hun- gary, the number from that country being 7,800. While the German and Irish immigrants were greatly decreased in number they constituted a very large proportion of the whole, the Ger- mans leading the list of nationalities with 787,468, and the Irish coming third with 435.778. An increase of nearly half a million immigrants is shown by the record for the ten years from 1871 to 1880, the number for that decade being 2,812,191. Germany continued in the lead, but with a further reduction in her figures. The German immigrants numbered 718,182. Ireland was a trifle better represented than in the previ- ous decade, sending over 436,871, while Great Britain fell off to 548,043. The tide from Can- ada and Newfoundland was more than doubled, with 383,269 as the actual figures. Scandinavian immigrants numbered 243,016, or nearly double the number for the preceding ten years, while Austria-Hungary, Italy, Russia and Poland all made an immense increase in their representa- tion, Austria-Hungary sending over to this country 72,960 persons ; Italy, 55,759, and the Sclavic countries, 52,254. Immigration touched high-water mark in the record for the perioc in- cluding the years 1881-1890. The figures wire 5,246,613. Germans led the list with 1.452,970. The immigration from other countries, in the order of the larger figures was : Great Britain, 8o".357; Norway, Sweden and Denmark. 656,494; Ireland, 655.482: Canada and New- foundland, 392,802: Austria-Hungary, 353.719; Italy, 307,309; Russia and Poland, 265.088. Something more than half of the immigration for the decade ending with 1890 was from Italy, Russia and Poland, and Austria-Hungary, in the order named. The Italians numbered 651,899; Russians and Poles, 602,010 ; Austrians and Hungarians, 592,707. Germany supplied 505,152; the Scandinavian countries, 371,512; Ireland, 300,179; Great Britain, 207,019; and Canada and Newfoundland only 3,064. Besides the coun- tries named other countries have supplied from i8o : 355 to 374.703 immigrants for each of the periods, but those named have been selected for mention because of the influence which their emigrants must necessarily wield in determining the general character of the present population of the United States. The proportion of for- eign born people to the entire population as shown by each census during the period covered is as follows : 1850, 9.7 per cent ; 1860, 13.2 per cent; 1S70. 14.4 per cent: 1S80, 13.3 per cent; 1890, 14.8 per cent: 1900, 13.7 per cent. The proportion of those native born, but of foreign parentage, can be shown only from 1870. as fol- lows : 1870, 28.2 per cent : 1880. 29.8 per cent ; 1890. 33.0 per cent; 1900. 34.3 per cent. See Immigration to the United States. AMERICA, UNITED STATES OF By far the wealthiest country in the world, the United States possesses 30.S per cent of the world's entire wealth, nearly double Great Brit- ain's share, nearly two and a half times that of France, and more than three times that of Ger- many. The amount possessed by this country is. in round numbers, 127,625 millions of dol- lars, divided as follows : Farms, $20,710,000,000; railways, $11,300,000,000; buildings, $22,230,000,- 000; furniture, $8,000,000,000; merchandise, $7,815,000,000; bullion, $1,175,000,000; sundries, $19,695,000,000. The wealth per capita of the tion is $1,519.34; that of the entire world being $302.78; and that of other countries than the United States, $225.12. The annual produc- tion of wealth as shown by the census of 1900 is $18.161, 189,533, the manufacturing industries producing more than 70 per cent. The figures are: Mineral products, $1,257,732,261; farm ts, $3. 7' >J. 177,706; manufactures. $13,030,- 279,566. There is a large surplus production, extensions. There are 70 canals in all, including the new Illinois and Mississippi Canal, begun in [902, but .not completed in i'W4. The total length of these artificial waterways is 3,627 miles. Most of the canals arc intended for boats, barges and other light craft. Some of them have not been in use during recent years, but it is by no means certain that they will be abandoned, especially in view of the fact that the desirability of canal improvement has re- ceived recognition and the work of canal con- Weatth per Capita foreign Countrli; 1223.12 Wealth par Capita The World •302.78 Wealth por Capita United Statea $1,619.34 tin preponderating element of which consists of cotton, breadstuffs and provisions, this finding a ready market in foreign countries and making the balance of trade very large 111 favor of this country. The total exports of merchandise for the fiscal year ended 30 June 190.3 were $1420,138,014, including foreign merchandise re- shipped abroad to the amount of $27,906,377. Breadstuffs and provisions constituted about 35 per cent of the total value, and represented about 13 per cent of the farm product of the country. The total imports of merchandise for the same year were $1,025,751,538, the balance in favor <'f the United States being $394,386,476. See United States — Commercial Develop- 1 of the; United States — Economic De- velopment of the. Struction continues. The most important canal undertaking of all history is that of uniting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans by cutting through the isthmus connecting North and South Amer- ica, a work which the United States government proposes to carry out with the most expedition possible. See Panama Canal. No country is the world possesses so many and so far-reaching railway systems as those of the United States. Statistics for 1900 show that of the entire length of railways in all parts of the world this country has considerably mote than one-third — 39.3 per cent; in fact, the esti- mated number of miles of railway in operation in the United States in 1904 is 210,000. More than half of this mileage has been put in opera- tion since 1880. The story begins with 23 miles RA.ILWAY8 OF THE WORLD IN 1900 United Statei, 311,287 Kilometer. Other Countries, 479.283 Kllometen Total, 790,570 KH. Canals (q.v.) were an important factor in the early development of the country, and although they have been very largely superseded by the railways, they continue to assist materially the vast domestic commerce, and constitute a con- siderable element in transportation interests. Of the many canals which have been constructed in the United States 23 are ship canals, several of these being designed to make more available certain natural waterways of which they are of railway in 1830 ; and the additions have been as follows, by decades: 1840, 2,795 miles; 1850, 6,203 miles; i860, 21.605 miles; 1870, 22,296 miles; 1880, 40.340 miles; 1890, 73.392 miles; 1900. 27,680 miles; 1901-4, 15.500 miles, esti- mated. The capital stock of the various railway companies aggregated, in 1904. $6,355,207,335 ; the gross earnings were $1,908,857,826; the net earnings were $592,508,512; and the total amount of dividends declared was $190,674,415. AMERICA, UNITED STATES OF The number of miles run by passenger trains was 429,014,1 16; the number of passengers car- ried was 696,949,925: and the total movement of passengers was 20,895,606.421. The number of miles run by freight trains was 548,680,595; the freight carried aggregated 1,306,628,858 tons; and the total freight movement was 17,292,198,079. Among speed records made the highest was 4.08 miles in 2 minutes, 40 seconds, on 18 Feb. 1901, near Screven, Ga. This is a speed of 107.09 per hour. A train maintaining this rate of speed could make a complete circuit of the globe at the equator in about 6^2 days. See American Railroads. Means of communication bear as important a relation to the material development and pros- perity of a country as do means of transporta- tion (see Railway Transportation), and in the magnitude of telegraph and telephone inter- ests the United States holds a leading position, while the post-office department of the govern- ment renders service which is excelled in only a few particulars by that of one or two foreign governments. On the other hand the postal af- fairs of the United States have their own points of excellence, and are subjected from time to RAILROAD EXTENSION BY DECADES year ended 30 June 1903, shows a public con- venience maintained at an almost constant ex- pense to the government in excess of the rev- enue derived from it. In the entire period the revenue exceeded the expenditures in twelve years only, namely, in 1837, 1838, 1839, 1840, 1842, 1843, 1844, 1845, 1849, 1850, 1851, and 1866. The revenue has grown from $4,945,668.21 to Si 34.224,443. 24; and the expenditures from $3,288,319.03 to $138,784,487.97- While the ser- vice is conducted at a loss which has to be made up from the general revenues of the gov- ernment, it must be remembered that the gov- ernment itself employs it to a very large extent, free of postage, and thus the apparent loss is made up in large degree, if not altogether. For instance, the number of pieces of first class mat- ter carried free for the government in the year 1902-3 was 153.233,677, which, at the minimum, represents $3,064,670.06 in postage. It is safe to add 25 per cent to this sum, which would make the amount $3,830,837.57, or within $729,207 of the deficiency for that year. The number of post-offices in the United States is 74,169, which number does not include the branch post-offices and sub-stations in large cities, of which there 1830 - 3 miles °* railroad In operatic* 1850 6.203 mltea added 21.608 miles added 22,296 miles added 40.340 m.ies added 73,392 rmlea added 27,680 miles added ,15,500 miles ad time to such improvement as study and experi- ence suggest. For the telegraph service of the country there existed in 1901 systems using 1,156,998 miles of wire, stretched over 219,938 miles of country. These afford means of in- stant communication with every part of the con- tinent, and, by connection with the thousands of miles of submarine cable, with every country in the world. The number of messages trans- mitted in 1901 was 83,555,122. For telephone service there are 1,354,202 miles of wire, ar- ranged in 508,262 circuits. They connect 1,348 exchanges and 1,427 branch offices. In addition to the public telegraph and telephone wires there is a large mileage of wires for both tele- graph and telephone service which are the prop- erty of railway and other corporations, firms and individuals. The increasing use of the tele- phone has had an effect upon the growth of the telegraph interest, which nevertheless has a large share in the general increase which is felt by all enterprises identified with public con- venience. The history of the postal service of the United States from 1837 to the close of the fiscal are several thousands. The force employed is immense, the free delivery in cities alone em- ploying 19,542 carriers, and the rural free deliv- ery routes an additional 15,119. The estimated number of pieces of matter passing through the mails during the year 1902-3 included 4,262,933,677 pieces of first class matter; 770,657,590 postal cards; 2,615,685,614 pieces of second class matter, or newspapers sent out from the offices of their publication ; 1.053,637,057 pieces of fourth class matter, such as books, pamphlets, circulars, etc. ; 93.380,005 pieces of fourth class matter, consisting of mer- chandise, etc. ; 60,001.332 pieces of first class matter sent to foreign countries; and 31,171,413 pieces of all other matter sent to foreign coun- tries ; making a grand total of 8,887.467.048 pieces. These figures are beyond ordinary com- prehension, but their vastness may be appre- ciated by estimating the size of each piece of matter mailed as that of an ordinary letter en- velope. They would cover a plain about seven miles square, or larger than any ordinary town or city. If laid in a belt along the equator they would encircle the globe with a girdle 112 feet AMERICA — AMERICAN AS OFFICIAL DESIGNATION wide, or twice the width of an ordinary street. See Postal Service in Commerce. The care and transfer of money is a matter of stupendous importance in a country of such vast wealth and productiveness. It rests mainly with the banking interest, as a matter of course, and this is another of the immense interests of the country. A great amount of money is trans- ferred, however, through the money order de- partment of the post-office, as well as through the express companies which constitute another very large interest, and through the telegraph companies. The amount of money transferred through the money order department of the post-office during the fiscal year 1902-3 was $353,627,648.03 aggregate represents main- ly small transactions, and bears only a small proportion to the exchange business of the bank-. I he total number of banks in the United Suites in 1903 was 18,514, divided as follows: State banks and trust companies, 8,545; private bank-. 3,002; savings bank-, 8.(4: national banks, 5,223. The total capital of these institutions w as $1,652,700,362; and the total deposits were $11,246,266,227. See Banks and Banking; Money. In this presentation of the area, population, wealth and productiveness of the United States there is seen the largest development of material resources ever known under any form of gov- ernment, and it is due in a great measure to the beneficial influence of that republican form of government under which the United States has grown to be one of the most powerful as well as the most prosperous of nations. The great interests of which mention has been made have been fostered and guarded by a government chosen by the voice of the people, and returning to the people at comparatively short intervals for a renewal of the authority confided to it. I he character of the people becomes therefore a matter worthy of study. As already shown the growth of population has been considerably ac- celerated by immigration from other countries. The incoming element-, have been widely dis- tributed, and absorbed and assimilated to a marked degree, especially in the succeeding gen- eration. Compulsory education (q.v.) of the young has been a potent factor in this work, and the privileges of citizenship together with religious freedom (see United States — Civil and Religious Liberty in the) have had a full share in it. There is no country in the world where churches of every denomination are found in greater proportion to the population, and there is no country where so many large and self-supporting congregations of every denom- ination exist. White there is no government support given to any church, nor any legal enactments which interfere with a free choice of any religion or no religion, there is not only full protection for the peaceful worshipper, but also a recognition in law ef the sacredness of the name of the Deity and of the day in each week set apart for worship. If more interest is taken in education than il religion it is be- cause all intelligent classes regard education as an element of growth, while the religious class, to a large extent, regard it as a part of religion. Census reports show in their tables relating to illiteracy a reduction of illiterates for each de- cade since 1880. the proportion of illiterates falling off steadily among the native born popu- lation, including colored people and Indians. Between 1890 and 1900, however, there was in- crease in the proportion of illiterates among the foreign-born population, which can be easily traced to the changed character of immigration (q.v.). The percentage of illiteracy to the total population, even since the acquisition of the Philippine Islands, and the coming of more ig- norant classes of immigrants, is much less than in any other country. For complete account of the history and development of the United States see under United States. Frederick W. Webber, M.A. America, the American national hymn, written in 1832 by the Rev. Samuel Francis Smith. The air to which it is sung is that of the English national hymn, 'God Save the King,' the composition of Henry Carey in 1742. See National Hymns. America, the name of the schooner yacht winning the international yacht race of [851. The prize obtained, a silver tankard, has since been known as the "America's Cup." Sec Yachts and Yachting. America, Prehistoric. Sec ARCHEOLOGY, American. American Academy of Medicine, an or- ganization formed in 1876 to encourage the proper educational preparation of physicians. Membership about 1,000. American Academy of Political and Social Science, an organization formed in 1889 to promote scientific study of the social sciences. American Allspice. See Calycanthus. American Aloe. See Agave. American Antiquarian Society, an asso- ciation organized in 1812 at Worcester, Mass. The object of the society is the study and pres- ervation of the antiquities of America, and the advancement of art and science throughout the world. Its library includes over 100,000 volumes, including a large number of the rarest Americana, very complete files of American newspapers, and a rich collection of manuscripts, and its ' Proceedings' have been published semi-annually since 1849. It maintains an im- portant museum of antiquities, gathered in all parts of North, South and Central America. American Anti-Slavery Society, The. See Anti-Slavery Society, the American. American Art. Sec Art. American. American Asiatic Association, an organi- zation formed in 1898 to foster and safeguard the commercial interests of the citizens of the United States, and others associated therewith, in Asia and the East. Membership 280. American as Official Designation. In June 1004 an order was issued by Secretary of State Hay that on all new record-books, seals, etc., used by representatives of the- United States in foreign countries there should appear the words "American Embassy," "American Le- gation/' etc., in place of "Embassy of the I'nilcd States." "Legation of the United States," etc., previously employed. The usage thus applied to all diplomatic establishments and consular offi- cers had been followed by Secretary Hay when AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR SCIENCE AMERICAN BUREAU OF MINES ambassador to England, his position being that all countries composed of "United States," for example, Mexico, Brazil, Colombia, etc., were described by the geographical, not the political name of the country. American Association for the Advance- ment of Science, a society originally known as the Association of American Geologists, founded at Philadelphia in 1840. In 1842 it added Naturalists to its name and was known by this title until 1847, when the present organi- zation was formed. During the past 50 years the names of practically all the leaders of American science have been on the register of the association, and the 52 volumes of its "Pro- ceedings' contain many of the most important contributions to scientific literature published in this country. The association numbers about 4,000 (1903) members, including in its list of active Fellows such well-known scientific men as Newcomb, Barker, Brush, Young, Lesley, Morse. Langley, Mendenhall. Goodale, Prescott, A. Hall, Harkness. Morley. Gibbs, Gill, Putnam, Gilbert, Woodward, and Minot. Among promi- nent educators who are members and have taken active interest in its work are ex-President Gilman and President Remsen of Johns Hop- kins, ex-President Low of Columbia, President Schurman of Cornell, President Jordan of Stan- ford, President Drown of Lehigh, President Pritchett of the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology, ex-President Mendenhall of Worcester Polytechnic Institute, and President Dabney of the University of Tennessee. Many names prominent in the professions and in business are found on the list of members. The yearly meet- ings, held in different centres, occupy a full week, and as the work is now so extensive, the different sections hold separate meetings. The 'Proceedings* are published in an annual vol- ume, and members receive the publication "Sci- ence.' American Association of China, a branch of the American Asiatic Association, organized in 1898 and located in Shanghai. Membership IOO; office of the secretary, Shanghai, China. American Baptist Missionary Union, The, a missionary organization of the Baptist Church, formed in Philadelphia 18 May 1814 as "The General Missionary Convention of the Baptist Denomination in the United States for Foreign Missions. 9 The Southern Baptists withdrew in 1845 because of differences on the slavery question, and the society assumed its present name in 1846. The headquarters were estab- lished at Boston in 1826. The sole object of the Union is the diffusion of the gospel by means of missions throughout the world. Any church which has made a contribution to the Union during the year may appoint one annual member, and one annual member for every' $50 contributed above the first $50, provided that no church be entitled to more than 10 annual mem- bers. Anyone may become an annual member on payment of $10 during tlrfe preceding financial year. At every annual meeting the Union elects a president, two vice-presidents, a recording sec- retary, and one third of a board of managers. I he board of managers consists of 75 persons, at least one third of whom shall not be ministers of the gospel. The board of managers electa an executive committee, with chairman, recording secretary, corresponding secretaries, assistant secretary, treasurer, and auditing committee. For the year ending 31 March 1902 the L'nion had 481 missionaries and 3.325 native helpers. Receipts were $680,518.79, appropriations $621,- 853-71- American Bar Association, a society organized in 1878, with a present (1903) mem- bership of about 1,800. American Bible Society, The, organized in New York in 1816, to encourage the wider cir- culation of the Bible. Its officers are a president and 26 vice presidents. The 88th annual report for 1903 shows that the society printed and pur- chased in the coarse of the year 2,058,989 Bibles, of which 1,993.358 were issued in foreign coun- tries. The statistician of the society also states in the report that since its organization the so- ciety has issued more than 72,000,000 Bibles. The total number of Bibles issued in the United States in the year ended 31 March 1903, was 746,423, of which New York received 225,735, Pennsylvania 135,938, and Illinois 62,878. Wy- oming received only 56 copies, and Arizona 87, while the Philippine Islands stand charged with 11,774 copies. Among the "sales and grants" to foreign lands it is interesting to note that Cuba received 20,398. Africa 6,725, China 1,425 and Canada only 218. American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, The, a missionary organ- ization of the Congregational Church, formed at Bradford, Mass., 29 June 1810, "for the pur- pose of devising ways and means and adopting and prosecuting measures for promoting the spread of the gospel in heathen lands." Nine commissioners were then chosen, five from Mas- sachusetts and four from Connecticut. A char- ter was not obtained from the Massachusetts legislature until 20 June 1812. The first annual meeting was held at Farmington, Conn., 5 Sept. 1810. At the close of its ninth decade (1891- 1900) the Board had 20 missions, 97 stations, 1,209 out-stations, 167 ordained missionaries, and a total of 544 American laborers. Native helpers numbered in all 3.483. There were 505 churches with 50,892 members, and 120 high schools and colleges. For the nine decades 2,347 missionaries had been sent out, the aggre- gate receipts were $32,845,372.49, and 157,658 members were received into the churches in care of the Board. The Board is a corporate body, limited to 350 active members, selected by ballot, at least one third being clergymen and one third laymen. Honorary members (who become such on payment of $100. or, if clergy- men, $50) may participate in all the delibera- tions of the Board, but do not vote. American Bureau of Mines, an organiza- tion incorporated under the laws of the State of Xew York, with headquarters in New York city. The objects of the association are to reform and encourage the mineral industry of the United States ; to discountenance popular error as to the financial and industrial conditions of mineral interests : and to effect mutually benefi- cial relations between capitalists and men of practical science. Facts bearing upon economic and statistical science which demonstrate the importance- and general utility of these branches of knowledge are stored; trustworthy informa- AMERICAN BUREAU OF SHIPPING — AMERICAN COLLEGE tion as tn sound mining ami other mineral en- terprises i- supplied, while such a^ arc unsub- stantial or spurious arc exposed; and the services of an organized and permanent faculty of ex- perts arc provided. A Museum of Metallurgy and Practical Geology for the illustration of ores and mineral products, and of mining and metallurgical constructions and appliances, and a library and reading-room have been and are important sections of the organization's equip- ment. American Bureau of Shipping, a maritime association established in New York in 1867, for the purpose of collecting and disseminating in- formation upon subjects of marine or commer- cial interest, of encouraging and advancing worthy and well-qualified commanders and other officers of vessels in the American mer- chant service, and of promoting the security of life and property on the seas. American Chemical Society, an associa- tion established in 1S76 for the support and en- couragement of chemical research. Membership about 2,200. American Civic Association, an organiza- tion formed 10 June 1904 by the consolidation of the American League for Civic Improvement and the American Park and Outdoor Associa- tion, its objects being the cultivation of higher ideals of civic life and beauty in America, the promotion of city, town, and neighborhood im- provements, the preservation and development of landscape, and the advancement of outdoor art. The Association marks a distinct epoch in American development. ■ Stockbridge and New- ton Center, two Massachusetts towns, both of which have town improvement associations more than half a century old, lay claim to the first organized effort in the United States for the preservation of natural beauties and the gen- eral improvement of the village surroundings, but the movement which the association repre- sents first began to assume large proportions in southwestern Ohio, where a number of man- ufacturers, publishers, and real estate men awoke to a realization of the fact that improved sur- roundings made better workmen, caused men to buy homes, and led people to become inter- ested in good literature. The beginnings of the movement were along modest lines. The term "hack yard improvers," first applied to its pro- moters in derision, was accepted as a watch- word, and the progress made has been such that now the Association represents men who have undertaken all kinds of effort for public beauty and improvement, no matter how extensive. For some years there were two bodies working in this field — The American Park and Outdoor Art Association and the American League for Civic Improvement. A consolidation was ef- fected at a joint meeting in Saint Louis in June 1904. and the result of this merger — The Amer- ican Civic Association — represents about 480 local improvement organizations. The work of the Association is divided into the following various departments: Women's Outdoor Art League; Parks: Arts and Crafts; Children's Gardens: City-making: Outdoor Art: Factory Betterment; Libraries: Public Nuisances; Pub- lic Recreation : Railroad Improvement ; School Extension; Social Settlements; and the Press. An active propaganda is carried on by means of department leaflets, clipping sheets, and other methods. Membership consists of life members, sustaining members, members, and affiliated members. Tbe head offices of the Association are in Philadelphia, Pa. American Climatological Association, a medical organization founded in New York city in 1884 "for the study of Climatology, Hydrol- ogy, and Diseases of the Circulatory and Respi- ratory Organs." Candidates for membership must have contributed something to the litera ture of the subjects before election, this insur- ing a select membership, which the roll ■-hows to be very generally distributed among the med ical profession throughout the United States, with distinguished honorary and corresponding members in England, Canada, Mexico, South America, South Africa, and Australia and other parts of the world. Annual meetings have hern held since the foundation, at which papers con fined strictly to the objects mentioned in the constitution of the organization are read and discussed and afterward published in the 'Trans- actions' of the Association: 20 volumes have already appeared, and copies are sent annually to the principal libraries throughout the world The title of some recent contributions showing the value and wide scope of this association are: 'The Advantages of Southern California in the Treatment of Tuberculosis' ; 'The Climate and Waters of Hot Springs, Va.'; 'Something of the Geography of Croupous Pneumonia'; 'Re- cent American Contributions to the Methods of Prevention and Treatment of Pulmonary Tu- berculosis' ; 'Climatology as a Study in the Medical Schools' ; 'The Climate of Santa Bar- bara, California': 'The Climatology of Mus koka, Ontario, Canada'; 'The Climates and Diseases of Central America and Panama.' The head offices are in Philadelphia ; the organ- ization must not be confounded with a similar important and co-friendly society, "The National Association for the Study and Prevention of Tuberculosis," with headquarters in New York city. American College. American. See College, The American College of Heraldry and Gene- alogical Registry, an institution similar in character to the British "Herald's College," founded in i860 and incorporated under the laws of the State of New York. Its objects are to gather genealogies, or family records and family history, for perpetuation to posterity; the gene- alogical department recording births, marriages, and deaths: the historical, obtaining the deriva- tion and compiling the history of families; and the heraldic, ascertaining, emblazoning, depict- ing, and engraving family coats-of-arms, crests, mottoes, etc. See Heraldry. American College in Rome, Italy. This pontifical college was founded 8 Dec. 1859 by Pope Pius IX. for the purpose of training young men for the Catholic priesthood in the United States of America. By a pontifical decree it was placed under the direction of the Congrega- tion of the Propaganda, the students being obliged to attend the courses of lectures given at tiie University of the Propaganda. The reg- ular course embraces two years of philosophj AMERICAN COMMERCE — AMERICAN DIPLOMACY and four years of theology, while preparatory classes are held for students who have not completed the college course in their own coun- try. The American College opened with twelve students, three of whom afterward became archbishops: Michael Corrigan, of New York; Patrick Riordan, of San Francisco ; and Robert Seton, titular of Heliopolis. Ruben Parsons, the historian, was also one of the original twelve. The College has trained many distin- guished churchmen during its existence of less than 50 years, giving to the United States 17 bishops, among whom are the present Arch- bishops Farley, of Xew York, and Moeller, of Cincinnati. It has likewise supplied the Catho- lic University at Washington with its present rector, Rt. Rev. Mgr. O'Connell, and with sev- eral professors ; and two of the recently ap- pointed bishops to the Philippine Islands, Denis Dougherty, of Philadelphia, and Fred- crick Rooker, of Albany, are among its alumni. The College has at present about 100 students. Rev. Eugene Donnelly, Graduate of the American College, Rome. American Commerce. The growth of a nation largely depends upon the development of its economic resources, and the success of the commercial and industrial institutions is to a great extent determined by the wisdom of the laws under which they operate, as enacted by the national legislative body. In the early days of American commerce, the domestic industries did not aggregate in value many millions of dollars, and included mainly the manufacture of textiles, lumber, furniture, wagons, harness, hats, ships, meat products, and a few others of minor import- ance. Against this in 1900 may be placed the following statistics : Manufacturing establish- ments, 640,056; capital, $9,858,205,501; proprie- tors and firm members, 708,623 ; wage-earners, average, 5.370,814; yearly wages, $2,323,055,634; miscellaneous expenses, $1,030,110,125; cost of materials used, $7,363,132,083; and value of yearly product, $13,058,562,917. In addition, farm lands and products were valued at $20,439,901,164 and $4,739,118,752, respectively; minerals and their resultants produced in 1902 were valued at $1,260,000,000; the exports in 1903 were valued at $1,420,141,679, and the im- ports aggregated $1,025,719,227. In 1903 the merchant marine registered 24,425 vessels of 6,087,345 tons, including canal boats and barges ; there being registered 12,836 sailing vessels of 1,965,924 tons, exclusive of canal boats and barges, and 8,054 steam vessels of 3.418.088 tons. In the coasting trade the tonnage of ves- sels registered was 5,141,0:7, and in the for- eign trade and whale fisheries, 888,776 tons. In 1004 the total mileage of railroads was 212,349. representing liabilities of $14,289,259,959 and cost of road and equipment of $11,233,311,285. During the year 715.654.951 passengers were rarried and 1.27;. 321,607 tons of freight moved. The total traffic and other earnings were $1,008,343,310. In 1003 the national debt amounted tn $025,011,637, after deducting the treasury cash balance ; the government receipts ordinary were $?o6. 196,674. and expenditures, $477o42.6:;S ; post-office receipts. $134,224,443. Tn 1904 the money in circulation amounted to *2,5I9.I42.86b; the bank deposits were about $10,000,000,000; the bank clearings were $102,150,313,931; and the estimated wealth of the country was over $125,000,000,000. For details see Alaska, Commercial; America, United States of; American Man- ufactures; American Railroads; American- Merchant Marine; American Mines; Banks and Banking; Commerce; Commerce, Inter- state; Commercial Organizations; Exports and Imports; txpoRTs and Imports of the Latin-American Countries; Finance; For- eign Trade; Industrial Corporations; Phil- ippine Islands, Products of; Trusts; United States — Foreign Commerce of the; Indus- tries of the; History of the Tariff; Reci- procity; Commercial Development; Economic Development; and the articles on the various industries in this encyclopedia. American Commonwealth, The, an im- portant study of American political, social, and economic conditions by James Bryce, the emi- nent historian of the Holy Roman Empire. Part I. treats of the Federal government. Part II. considers the State governments (including rural and city governments), their departments, constitutions, merits, and defects. Part III. is devoted to the political machinery and the party system. Part IV. discusses public opinion, — its nature and tendencies. Part V. gives concrete illustrations of the matters in the foregoing chapters. Part VI. is concerned with non-politi- cal institutions. The work is lucidly written and as easy for the laity to comprehend as for those familiar with the practical workings of our government. The chapters dealing with the professional and social sides of American life, and especially those devoted to the Ameri- can universities, have been enthusiastically re- ceived by \mericans. American Conflict, The, an account of the American Civil War and its causes, by Horace Greeley. It is a great magazine of materials for the political history of the United States with regard to slavery. American Cousin, Our, a well-known play by the English dramatist, Tom Taylor ( 1858). It was very popular in the sixties, and it was while present at its representation in Ford's Theatre in Washington that President Lincoln was assassinated. American Dialect Society, an association organized in 1888 for the study of words in American English differing in pronunciation and use from the accepted usage. Membership 300. A bulletin of 'Dialect Notes' is published yearly. Office of the secretary, Western Re- serve University, Cleveland, Ohio. American Diplomacy. It may be justly claimed that the United States, in its brief ex- istence as a nation, has exercised a greater influence in the same period in molding inter- national law than any other nation ; and it has done much to raise the standard of diplomatic practice. From the beginning it has stood as the champion of a freer commerce, of respect for neutral and private property in war. and of the most elevated ideas of national rights and justice. When the United States entered the family of nations, there existed a marked contrast be- tween the state of law which controlled the rights and intercourse of nations and that v ' enforced the rights and duties of the individual AMERICAN DIPLOMACY inhabitants of the respective nations. The civil law, which was in force in most of the countries of continental Europe and their colonies, was the accepted product of the ripened experience of many centuries of Roman jurisprudence. The common law which prevailed in England and its colonies had been brought into an estab- lished system through the careful study and practical application of successive generations of renowned jurists. But the law erf nations was then in its infancy. Only one century had ed since Grotius, who has been styled the father of international law, had compiled his treatise on the 'Rights of War and Peace' ; and Vattel had but recently published his 'Law of Nations,' and the principles he enumerated were far from being an accepted code. International law was still in a formative state when the United States began its career. The latter had scarcely entered upon its organized life when the wars consequent upon the French Revolu- tion forced it to consider its rights and dirties as a neutral power. It soon learned that there were no established principles which warring nations respected. In referring to its early his- tory, a secretary of state in 1853 said to the British minister for foreign affairs: "From the breaking out of the wars of the French Revolu- tion to the year 1812, the United States knew the law of nations only as the victim of its systematic violation by the great maritime pow- ers of Europe." The first effort on its part toward the main- tenance of international rules of conduct was in President Washington's neutrality proclama- tion of 1793, which, within less than a genera- tion, brought about a complete change on this important subject. The proclamation was a simple announcement of the neutral attitude of the government, and a warning to American citizens to observe it. But the significance of the act was in the strict impartiality of its enforcement, and the resulting legislation of Congress, which became a model for all other nations. The power of the President to issue such a proclamation based solely upon the principles of international law, without any dorncstic leg- islation respecting offenses against neutrality, was seriously questioned, and in 1794 an act was passed defining what were offenses against neu- trality and affixing penalties therefor. During the revolt of the Spanish-American colonies so much trouble was occasioned thereby to the Uni- ted States authorities that the law was carefully revised in 1818, and it has since practically re- mained unaltered. Hall, one of the latest Eng- lish authorities on international law, says: "The policy of the United States in 1793 constitutes an epoch in the development of the usages of neutrality. ... It represented by far the most advanced existing opinions as to what the obligations [of neutrality] were. ... In the main it is identical with the standard of con- duct which is now adopted by the community of nations." Tlie American colonies, in assuming their independence, established a diplomatic service similar to that of the European countries and it has continued to be so maintained. But the question has often been raised in and out of Congress whether, in the existing conditions of the world, the system is necessary and its util- ity justifies its expense. With many in the country the diplomatic service is regarded as a purely ornamental branch of the government and its maintenance a useless expenditure of public money. But whenever the question has been made the Subject of inquiry by ' the various Presidents and secretaries of state have given their opinions in favor of the utility and necessity of the service, and Congress has continued to authorize it ; and it has come to be accepted as a permanent branch of the gov- ernment. While the United States has adopted the European system of a diplomatic and consular service, in one important particular the general practice of other nations lias not been followed. The service is not made a life career, and no examination is required for admission to it, either as consul, secretary of legation, minister, or ambassador. Appointments are made of per- sons usually from civil life, and without any previous diplomatic experience. The two sys- tems have their advantages. It docs not neces- sarily follow that because a young man can pass a successful examination, he is destined to make an able minister or ambassador. The Brit- ish and other governments have frequently found it necessary to appoint to the highest posts in the diplomatic service persons from other branches of the administration or from civil life. On the other hand, the system fol- lowed by the United States exposes the gov- ernment to mistakes and sometimes to morti- fication and ridicule because of the inexperience or inaptness of its representatives. But ap- pointments to the higher posts are generally of persons who have served and gained distinc- tion in legislative bodies or in the professions, and although not experienced in the arts of diplomacy, they are usually able to cope with their colleagues on all subjects where great principles are involved. There is a growing sentiment, however, in the country in favor of at least placing the consular service upon a permanent basis. Up to recent years the highest grade in the diplomatic service of the United States has been that of minister plenipotentiary, but these rep- resentatives sometimes complained that they were often humiliated and their usefulness some- times impaired by the lower positions to which they were assigned in the diplomatic corps. The remedy suggested was to raise the rank to that of ambassador. Secretary Marcy declined to make the recommendation to Congress in 1856. A similar position was taken by Secre- tary Frelinghuysen in 1884, who said it would be an injustice to the ministers to give them higher rank without increasing their salaries, and that Congress would not vote the allow- ance commensurate with the mode of life of an ambassador. Later Secretary Bayard claimed that serious inconveniences would arise from introducing "into our simple social democracy . . . an extraordinarily foreign privileged class." Notwithstanding these objections, in 1893 Congress authorized the appointments of am- bassadors to countries whose governments would reciprocate in such grade, and ambassa- dors are now sent by the United States to London, Paris, Berlin, St. Petersburg, Vienna, Rome, and Mexico. Soon after the reception of ambassadors in Washington the question was raised whether they should have precedence over AMERICAN DIPLOMACY the Vice-President, but it has been decided against them. The "inconveniences" anticipated by Secretary Bayard have been experienced on more than one occasion, but the innovation seems to be permanently established. The fiction of international law that ambas- sadors represent the person of their sovereign in a greater degree than ministers was created at an epoch when there was a recognized dis- tinction between empires and monarchies, and between these two grades and republics. All distinction between sovereign nations has been abolished, and they now stand on an equality, but the ambassadorial pre-eminence is still rec- ognized, even in the American democracies. The diplomatic dress or uniform of an Amer- ican representative, although an apparently trivial matter, has occasioned considerable discussion and a varied action on the part of the govern- ment. In the early years of its history, the diplomatic representative was left without any instruction upon the subject, but when the commissioners to negotiate peace with Great Britain in 1814 went to Europe a simple uni- form was adopted, and by a circular of the department of state in 1817 this uniform was prescribed for the diplomatic representatives at foreign courts. This order continued in force, with some modification during the admin- istration of Jackson, up to the advent of Secre- tary Marcy, who prided himself on his attach- ment to republican simplicity. In 1853 he issued a circular which became famous in diplo- matic annals, in which the representatives of the United States were advised to appear on public occasions "in the simple dress of an American citizen" unless such costume was ob- jected to by the court to which the represent- ative was accredited. The circular was much criticised, but its spirit was practically approved by Congress in the passage of an act in 1867 prohibiting officials in the diplomatic sen-ice from wearing any uniform or official costume not previously authorized by Congress. As by law only officers who have served in the army or navy are authorized to wear a uniform in the diplomatic service, the great body of the corps come under this prohibition. From the time of Dr. Franklin, the first min- ister to France, American diplomatic represent- atives have sought to be distinguished by en- tire frankness and straightforward conduct. This is indicated in the instruction to John Jay when he was sent abroad on an important mission by President Washington. The secre- tary of state wrote: "It is the President's wish that the characteristics of an American minister should be marked on the one hand by a firm- ness against improper compliances, and on the other by sincerity, candor, and prudence, and by a horror of finesse and chicanery." Much is said in disparagement of the Amer- ican diplomatic representatives abroad, and it is not to be disguised that under the system of appointments some unfit and uncultured persons have been found in the service who have re- flected little credit on the country. But their discreditable acts have been out-done by the misconduct of the representatives of foreign governments accredited to Washington. This misconduct has embraced flagrant violations of international law and practice, intermeddling with domestic politics, and official and social improprieties of various kinds. Within the first century after the organization of the govern- ment, a list has been created of foreign diplo- mats dismissed by the government of the United States, or recalled in disgrace, which embraces three British ministers, two French, two Span- ish, one Russian, and one Austrian minister. No such record of dishonor can be compiled against American representatives as that made at the seat of government of the United States by the representatives of the most polished na- tions of »he Old World. The War of 1812, undertaken by the United States against Great Britain, was pre-eminently a struggle on the part of the former to main- tain and enforce correct principles of interna- tional law. It involved the claim by Great Britain of the right of visitation of neutral vessels and the impressment of such of their crews as the visiting party saw fit ; the doctrine that free ships make free goods, or the exemp- tion of innocent neutral commerce from seizure in time of war ; and the paper blockades which were sought to be enforced by the warring powers. None of these questions were settled by the terms of the treaty of peace between the United States and Great Britain. But the con- tention of the United States as to all of them has come to be accepted by all the nations of the world, and by none of them more heartily than by Great Britain. The right of visitation and search of vessels was a frequent subject of negotiations, but while the British government relaxed the enforcement of its alleged right after the war, its claim was not finally aban- doned until 1858, when it formally accepted the contention of the United States. A strange incident in connection with this question oc- curred soon after that date. During the Civil War, the commander of a United States naval vessel arrested a British mail steamer, the Trent, on the high sea, visited her with an armed force, and carried away as prisoners two Con- federate diplomatic agents en route to Europe. In the United States the naval commander was hailed as a hero, but in England the act was regarded as an insult to the British flag and a just cause of war. A hostile conflict was avoid- ed by the prompt surrender of the Confederate agents and a disavowal of the act, as in direct contradiction to the attitude of the government consistently maintained from its foundation of the immunity of the vessel carrying the Ameri- can flag. The claim of the right of impressment (q.v.) was connected with the subject of naturalization and expatriation, which has been the occasion of much diplomatic correspondence and contro- versy on the part of the United States with European powers. From the beginning of its existence, the former has encouraged immigra- tion ; liberal laws for the naturalization of for- eigners have been passed ; and the right of expatriation has been maintained. In this branch of international law this attitude has had a marked effect upon the practice of na- tions. One of the chief causes of the War of 1812, it has been seen, was because of the impressment of seamen, naturalized citizens of I'.ritish birth, taken from American vessels. The old common law doctrine was that no British subject could denationalize himself, and that he owed perpetual allegiance to the crown ; but the persistent claim of the United States was finally recognized by Parliament in the nat- AMERICAN DIPLOMACY uralization act of 1870. The doctrine of ex- patriation is now generally accepted by the nations, and the L'nited States has succeeded in having it embodied 111 many of us treaties. The subject of free ships was given much prominence through the armed neutrality during the Revolutionary War. was one of the unset- tled issues of the War of 1812, and was finally recognized as a principle to be incorporated into the international code by the great powers of Europe, as embodied in the Declaration at Paris of 1856. This declaration consisted of four rules, which were, briefly stated, (1) the aboli- tion of privateering: (2 ) the exemption from seizure of an enemy's goods under a neutral flag ; (3) .1 like exemption of neutral goods under an enemy's Hag: and (4) that a blockade, in order to he valid, must be effective. All of these but the first had been long advocated by the United States, and even the first had been incorporated in its treaty with Prussia of 1785. The latter was plainly in the interest of nations having a strong navy. Nevertheless, the United States was ready to accept them all as rules for the government of nations, but Sec- retary Marcy proposed to the great powers that they go one step further and declare that private property of belligerents at sea be exempt from capture. As private property of belliger- ents on land has been exempted by the rules of war, there would seem to be no sufficient rea- son why the same treatment should not be ap- plied to like property at sea. President McKin- ley instructed the American representatives at The Hague Conference of 1899 to advocate it, but they were not successful. President Roose- velt continued to urge upon the nations this advanced measure to mitigate the ravages of war, but it has not yet been inserted in the international code. The fourth rule of the Paris Declaration was, in effect, a formal recognition of one of the principles contended for in the War of 1812, that there can be no blockade by mere procla- mation. Its application bore heavily upon the l'nited States during the Civil War, but it consistently observed the principle by making its blockade of the southern ports effective. An effort has been made of late years to establish what is known as a pacific blockade, by which one or more States seek to bring constraint upon another State by closing its ports without a declaration of war. In the case of the block- ade of Crete by the great powers of Europe in 1897, the Uniled States declined to concede the right as applicable to its commerce ; and when a similar attempt was made in 1902 of a pacific blockade of Venezuelan ports by Great Britain, Germany, and Italy, the objection of the United States to its interference with American vessels led to the abandonment of the project, and to the establishment of a real war blockade. The subject of neutrality assumed an im- portant phase during the War of the Rebel- lion, and the duties and responsibilities of a neutral state were the occasion of a heated controversy with the British government. Al- though the latter had incorporated in its laws the substantial provisions of the United States statutes of 1818, it dissented from the position asserted by the United States as to its duties in the practical application of its acts of Parliament and the recognized principles of international law. The construction of Confederate cruisers in British ports and the aid afforded them in such ports was held to be a failure on the part of that government to discharge its duties as a neutral power, and for these acts the United States made grave complaint and filed a large claim for pecuniary damages. Alter much dis- cussion the matter was submitted to the arbitra- tion of a tribunal, which met at Geneva. (See Geneva Tribunal.) In the treaty providing for the arbitration there were inserted three rules as to neutrality which were to govern the arbitrators in their decision. These rules were based upon the American statute and mainly followed the contention of the United States. The result was a decision in favor of the latter, with a large award in damages. The two gov- ernments had agreed in the treaty that they would submit the rules to the other maritime powers for their acceptance, but this was never done, chiefly because of the extreme construc- tion placed upon some of their clauses in the opinions of the neutral arbitrators. The gen- eral consensus of publicists is that these rules are a correct statement of existing international law. One of the conspicuous features of the rela- tions of the United States with foreign nations is its readiness to accept arbitration for the settlement of questions that do not prove sus- ceptible of adjustment by diplomatic methods. It has been one of the foremost of the nations in advocating this method of arranging inter- national complications, and in preserving peace by means of treaties of arbitration. The first treaty negotiated after the organization of the government under the Constitution — the Jay Treaty (q.v.) of 1794 — was made with Great Britain to avert war which was then immi- nent. It contained provisions for the adjust- ment of three of the most irritating of the questions in controversy by a reference to arbi- tration, and three separate commissions were created for that purpose. The year following, the second treaty negotiated by the new gov- ernment, that with Spain of 179S, also contained a provision for arbitration. The country was not so fortunate in its second controversy with Great Britain. The questions at issue were of such grave character that it did not seem pos- sible at that day to settle them by any other method than a resort to war; but by the treaty of peace of 1814 four boards of arbitration were created to settle boundary questions. These all related to the frontier with Canada, which ever since the independence had been a source of almost constant discussion, often of angry con- troversy, and more than once has brought the countries to the brink of war. But in every instance when the usual method of diplomacy failed, arbitration has been resorted to with suc- cess. During the two generations which followed the War of 1812 all questions of controversy with foreign powers, with one exception, have been settled by peaceful methods. In that period the United States created many courts and com- missions of arbitration. The most of these have been with Great Britain, but more than 20 of them have been with other nations of Europe and America. The controversy growing out of the manner in which the British government enforced the neutrality laws during the Civil War, for a i'me threatened the peaceful rela- tions of the two countries. When the offer of AMERICAN ECONOMIC ASSOCIATION — AMERICAN FARM IMPLEMENTS the United States to adjust the question by arbi- tration was made, the British government in the first instance assumed the position that its national honor was involved, and that that could not be submitted to arbitration. But bet- ter counsels prevailed, and the Tribunal of Ge- neva was created to adjust the controversy. It was the most important arbitration in which the United States ever engaged, and was one of the most august and imposing ever held in the world. It involved questions of supreme impor- tance and pecuniary claims of great magnitude ; but its special significance was in the spectacle of two great nations being able to compose weighty matters, which had awakened the pas- sions of their people to a high state of bitter- ness, by an appeal to reason and the arbitrament of friendly powers in place of war. Next in importance for the United States to the Geneva arbitration was that relating to the protection of fur seals in Bering Sea, held in Paris in 1893. The decision of the tribunal was against the contention of the United States, and as a result it had to pay about half a million of dollars in damages and sustained a heavy loss in its annual income from the seal islands. Disappointment was felt over the result, but the mature judgment of the country is that it was a wiser settlement of the questions at is- sue than to push them to the extreme of war. One feature of the many arbitrations in which the country has engaged is worthy of special notice. A spirit of equity and fair dealing has alw f ays marked the conduct of the government in cases where any suspicion of fraud or exaggerated damages has attached to arbitral decisions. The commissions with Ven- ezuela, Haiti, Mexico, and other countries might be cited in illustration. They show that, though the government is sometimes misled by design- ing claimants or by the unwise action of its diplomatic agents, it has not hesitated when fully possessed of the facts to undo any injuries in- flicted upon friendly powers by means of in- ternational commissions, and that fraud, once exposed, cannot reap the benefit of its iniquity under the cover of the finality of an award. The Alaskan Boundary Tribunal of 1903 is an instance of the settlement of a question not possible of adjustment by diplomacy and not deemed appropriate- for reference to arbitra- tion. A court was constituted, composed of three members from each country, and they were empowered to judicially settle the questions sub- mitted to them. The danger feared was that there would be an equal division of the court. but in this case the matter was settled by an award rendered by a majority of the members which has been accepted by both governments. This brief review shows that in its short career the United States has had an important part in molding the code of international law. The chief actors in the work done by this country have been the secretaries of state and its diplomatic representatives abroad. But they have had worthy coadjutors in giving this code shape and permanence. The exposition of the law of nations, as set forth in the decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States, has had a great influence in molding that law. and its opinions are recognized as of the high- est authority by foreign publicists. Among au- thors in this department of law none carry- greater w-eight throughout the world than Story, Kent, Wheaton, Halleck, Woolsey, Wharton, and other American writers. When the services are recalled of these diplomatic, judicial, and scholastic representatives of the United States, it is just to say that no body of men in any country have done as much to improve and en- large the principles of international law. or have exercised a more salutary influence on the affairs of the globe. See also Diplomacy; In- ternational Law; United States — the Di- plomacy of. j hn \V. Foster. American Economic Association, a society organized in 1885 for promoting free discussion of economic questions and the publication of monographs. Membership 1,000. Office of the secretary, Ithaca, N. V. American Electro-Therapeutic Associa- tion, a society formed in 1892 for the promo- tion of knowledge in whatever relates to the ap- plication of electricity in medicine and surgery. Membership 200. Office of the secretary, New Haven, Conn. American Embargo. See Embargo. American Entomological Society, an asso- ciation established in 1859 for scientific investi- gation of insect life. Membership 125. Office of the secretary, Philadelphia, Pa. American Farm Implements. The pro- duction of food and fibre absorbs about three fourths of the labor of the male workers of the world. In the United States, during the early decades of the 19th century, about 80 per cent of the male workers of the nation were em- ployed on the farm. During the past century, however, farm implements and machines have come into use which have so increased the efficiency of labor that about 35 per cent of the male workers of the United States produce the food and fibre of the nation, and furnish an enormous surplus which is exported to other countries. Nowhere else in the history of hu- man industry can so striking an illustration be found of the influence of inventions upon the welfare of mankind. From time immemorial, until the 19th century, agriculture was carried on by hand labor. Horses or oxen were used for plowing and harrowing, but the labor of seeding, planting, cultivating and harvesting the crops was performed by the exertion of human muscle. Wheat was sown broadcast by hand, reaped by hand with a sickle, and separated from the straw and chaff by hand labor. Corn was planted by hand with a hoe, and cultivated with a hoe, and was gathered and shelled by hand. Grass was cut with a scythe and raked and handled with hand rakes and forks. Pro- duction was so limited by these primitive meth- ods that people who wished, like the pioneers of America, to enjoy an abundance of food and other simple comforts of life, were compelled, of necessity, to live on the farm, where they could be assured, by their own efforts, of a proper supply. The farmer was unable to pro- duce a surplus that would feed a large urban population. Manufacturing industries were not only limited by the lack of food to sustain cities, but were also limited by the lack of a market for factory products, for an agricultural country which could not produce a surplus for sale was unable to buy the products of urban industries. AMERICAN FARM IMPLEMENTS The farmer of the North lived in a log cabin, wore homespun, and sent his children to a log schoolhouse. The only section where agriculture was conducted on a commercial basis was the South, where the planters profited by -lave labor. It is generally assumed thai the railroads brought prosperity to the people, by affording the pioneer fanner the means to market his products. Government statistics throw an in- teresting light on this subject. Railroad con- struction in the United States began in 1828, and continued at the average rate of about 300 miles per year until 1X40. For a few years the com- merce of the country made substantial growth, but tlie period from [837 to 1846 was one of great depression, which the railroads were unable to relieve. Bank resources, which showed but little loss in the year following the panic of [837, shrunk to a remarkable degree from 1840 to 1843, tin only period in the past seventy years when there was a serious loss in bank capital. The railroads did not stimulate the production of wheat during this period, for a large amount was imported from Europe in 1837, and the census reports show that the crop of 1839 amounted to only 4.97 bushels per capita, which was not enough to supply the people with wheaten bread. From 1800 to 1846 exports of Hour amounted to an average of about a million barrels per year, and showed no material in- crease, while exports of wheat were actually less from 1830 to 1840 than in the first decade of the century. If the tirst 15 years of the railroad be com- pared with the first 15 years of the reaper, a most remarkable contrast is found. The reaper was first placed on the market successfully for the harvest of 1845. In 1847 exports of wheat and flour leaped to $32,178, 161, about five times the average of the preceding forty years, and grew rapidly from 1850 to i860. The wheat crop, which had not increased as rapidly as population from 1839 to 1849, gained more than 70 per cent from 1849 to 1859, the largest in- crease that is shown in any census decatle. In 1880. after 35 years of the reaper, exports of wheat and flour amounted, in one year, to $225,879,502. Prior to 1850 corn was used ex- tensively for bread, because the supply of wheat was deficient, hut since 1850 the L'nitcd States has produced for exportation a surplus of about five billions of bushels of wheat. Railroad con- struction, which had averaged only 300 miles per year prior to the introduction of the reaper, made remarkable gains in 1847 and 1849, and progressed at the rate of about 2,000 miles per year from 1 850 to i860. A broad examination of the subject shows that railroad construction and agricultural in- ventions have gone hand in hand in the develop- ment of agriculture in America. Railroads could not be operated profitably in the agricul- tural States without the traffic that is produced for them by labor-saving inventions on the farm: and. on the other hand, there would be little demand for these inventions if the railroads were not available to market large commercial crops. The fanner of a century ago. without these inventions and the railroads, was a peasant who toiled with his hands to produce a living for his family. The farmer of to-day is a ma- chine operator who rides on a comfortable spring seat and uses labor-saving inventions to produce commercial crops. American inventions have made agriculture a commercial business in which a man, without employing help, can support a family comfortably ami produce wealth. Amen can farmers enjoj a greater average of comfort and wealth than any other class of people, of equal numbers, in the world. The reaper, invented in 1X31 by Cyrus II McCormick (q.v.), of Rockbridge County, Va„ and patented by him in [834, was the first im- portant step in developing the implements and machines of modern agriculture, Wheat niu-t be harvested within a few days after it ripens, or the crop will be damaged or destroyed by the weather. When wheat was cut with sickles a man could only harvest three to five acres, in an average season, and this limitation accounts for the small production of wheal prior to the introduction of the reaper, which broadened production by enabling a given number of men to harvest a larger acreage. Tin- McCormick reaper of 1X31 was used successfully for several seasons, hut the facilities for manufacturing a complex machine like a reaper were s ( , limited at that time that it was not until 1X45 that the invention was made a commercial success. The McCormick reaper embodied the foundation principles of modern harvesting machines. I he machine was balanced on two wheels, like a cart, one, the master wheel, being geared to furnish power for the mechanism. The plat form extended between the two wheels, and on its front edge was the cutting mechanism, a reciprocating knife, operated by a crank, and moving over fixed fingers. The most notable feature of the McCormick reaper was the divider and the revolving reel, which separated the grain to be cut from the standing grain, and laid the flowing Swath, by a positive delivery, on the platform, so that the straws would lie in parallel order and make a compact sheaf when bound. It was the reel and the divider that made the McCormick invention a commercial success, be- cause grain in all the ordinary conditions of har- vest could be handled successfully. The great- est problem in reaping is not to cut the grain, but to make it lie down peaceably on the platform after it is cut, especially since a large proportion of the wdieat crop becomes more or less lodged and blown down by winds and rains before it is cut. A score or more of inventors had anticipated McCormick in efforts to design or construct reapers, but while some of them had machines that would cut the grain, they had no practical devices for delivering it in gavels so it could be bound into sheaves. Robert Mc- Cormick, the father of Cyrus H., made a ma- chine in 1816 with a revolving scythe, and in the papers of Thomas Jefferson is found a copy of a letter which he wrote to an inventor, com- menting on the design of a machine of the same character. None of these numerous designs of American and English inventors proved prac- tical, and it remained for Cyrus II, McCormick, who inherited the problem from his father, to bring together the four essential elements of modern harvesters: the reel, the divider, the reciprocating knife and the platform. A few years after the reaper was made a commercial success, the self-raking attachment took tin- place of the man who had raked off the gavels by hand. In [858 C \Y and W. W. Marsh, of Illinois, patented a notable improvement which 2 < 3 a Q ■J -J 3 -1 O z EH < z >— I z 3 a z AMERICAN FARM IMPLEMENTS led the way to the modern binder. In their machine endless toothed belts carried the grain from the platform over the master wheel, and deposited it in a receptacle. Two men stood on a footboard or platform outside the master wheel, and, taking gavels alternately from the receptacle, bound the sheaves on tables attached to the machine. In 1873 the first automatic sheaf binding harvester, the invention of Sylvanus D. Locke, was placed on the market, and a year or two later other machines of the same type, using wire to bind the sheaves, were successfully introduced. About the time the wire binder had become settled on the market, a new invention, the twine binding mechanism, upset all the calcu- lations of harvesting machine manufacturers, as the farmers preferred twine to wire, which be- came scattered over the fields from the threshed straw and proved a nuisance. The foundation patents on the twine binding mechanism were issued in 1875 to Marquis L. Gorham, of Rock- ford, 111. After he had tested his invention in the field, but before he had perfected it for the market, death cut short his career, and it remained for John F. Appleby, of Beloit, Wis., to complete the development of the twine binder. More than twenty manufacturers took licenses under the Gorham and Appleby patents, and twine binders were placed on the market in 1880, since which time the business has grown to large proportions. Fully a million binders are in use on American farms, and a large export busi- ness has grown up. Through the use of Amer- ican harvesting machines, Russia, the Argen- tine and Australia have become large exporters of wheat, and single cargoes of American ma- chines, which are shipped to European countries, contain more machines than the entire output of any European manufacturer in this line. In any humid climate it is necessary to bind the wheat in sheaves and let the straw and grain dry out in the shock before threshing, but in many of the western States the harvest season is dry, so that a more economical method can be followed. In western Kansas and Nebraska, and other States farther west, headers are used successfully. The header is a wide cut machine, usually taking twice as wide a swath as a binder, and cutting just below the heads, which are elevated into a wagon and hauled to stacks or ricks to await the thresher. In California, Oregon and Washington the combined harvester carries a threshing attachment, which is operated by the traction wheel, so that a wide swath is cut and threshed and delivered in bags as the machine is drawn across the field by horses or a traction engine. The combined harvester, how- ever, can only be used where the harvest season is very dry, and where the straw grows stiff, so that the wheat can stand until it is dry enough to thresh. The mowing machine, the corn planter and the two-horse corn cultivator, distinctively American inventions, have served the same pur- pose in promoting the production of meat in the United States as the reaper in promoting wheat growing. Farmers were not able to pro- duce live stock and dairy products on a large commercial scale until they had been provided with labor-saving inventions for the cheap pro- duction of hay and corn. Obed Hussey was the inventor of the foundation features of the mow- ing machine, but his work was not completed Vol. 1 — 24 until the hinged or floating bar had been in- vented by Lewis Miller. Hussey's first patent was taken out in 1833 on a reaper which he had made near Cincinnati, Ohio, that year. Owing to the fact that he obtained his patent on an improvement in reaping machines, and the fur- ther fact that it was issued a few months before tlie first McCormick patent on the reaper, many writers have given to Hussey the credit for the invention of the reaper. The two machines, however, were essentially different. The Hussey machine had no reel or divider, and while the cutting mechanism worked well, it was never a commercial success as a reaper, because it could only be used when the wheat stood up straight. The McCormick reaper was balanced on two wheels, like all modern harvesters. The Hussey machine had four wheels, two in the same posi- tion as the wheels of a modern mower, and besides these a grain wheel, at the grainward end of the platform, and a castor wheel at the rear. Dropping the two superfluous wheels and the platform, the machine embodied the founda- tion features of a mower. In 1847 Hussey patented, as an improvement on his machine, the open back guard or finger, which proved a vital feature of successful mowing machines. 1 he upper part of the finger, through which the knife moved, was cut away at the rear, so that grass and trash which were drawn into the slot by the knife were swept away to the rear by the pressure of the grass passing over the bar. Curiously enough, Hussey never made any serious effort to develop his machine as a mower. He believed all his life that he was the inventor of the reaper, and for twenty-five years he worked incessantly but unsuccessfully to estab- lish his machine on the market as a reaper. The only financial reward that he ever reaped, how- ever, was in 1858, near the close of his life, when a syndicate of mowing machine manufac- turers, who were operating under license from him, paid him $200,000 for his patents. A few years before, he had made application to the Court of Claims at Washington for a financial reward from Congress for his inventions, stating that he was not worth at that time more than $500 above his liabilities. He worked all his life, the greater part of the time in poverty, in efforts to establish his invention as a reaper, and did not know that his patents covered the foun- dation features of the mower, a machine second only to the reaper in its importance to agricul- ture. It remained for practical licensees under his patents to recognize their value and pay him for them a price far in excess of the reward that he had hoped to obtain from Congress. In 1856 and 1858 the most important patents on the hinged or floating bar were issued to Lewis Miller, of Canton, Ohio, who was identified with the leading firm in the syndicate that bought the Hussey patents. Miller's improvement al- lowed the bar to float freely over the ground, and to rise or fall at either end so as to conform with the inequalities of the surface. While the mower was the most important hay-making invention, because it enabled the farmer to harvest a larger acreage of hav, manv other inventions have been of vast service in promoting the cheap production of forage. Steel sulky rakes made short work of gathering the hay into windrows, and the hav tedder, which is used after the mower to shake up the hav so it AMERICAN FARM IMPLEMENTS will dry quickly, makes il possible to put the hay in the barn or stack within a few hours after it i- cut Hay loaders are now used extensively, taking the hay from the swath or windrow and loading it on the wagon. Barns are equipped with hay carriers and forks, operated by a horse, which take the hay from the wagon and save the hard labor of pitching it by hand. The same equipment is also used for stacking in the field. On western ranches, very wide sweep rakes are used to gather the hay and drag it up to the stack, where a stacker, operated by a horse, ele- vates it from the ground to the stack. Xext to harvesting machines, the threshing machine is undoubtedly the most important fea- ture of the mechanical equipment of modern agriculture. Early in the 19th century the 'ground hog" thresher came into use. This was a -imple machine, operated by a tread power, threshing with a spiked cylinder which revolved over a spiked concave. It had no mechanism for cleaning the grain. The straw was forked or raked away from the tail of the machine by hand, and the pile of chaff and grain was afterwards cleaned by running it through a hand fanning mill. These machines, however, found but little use so long as the crop was limited to the amount that a man could reap with a sickle. as the farmer could store his small crop in the barn and thresh it out in winter, either with horses on the barn floor, or with the Rail, a long, jointed club. The first English separator, combining a threshing cylinder with fanning and screening devices, was made in 1800, but this was a stationary machine, like many other in- ventions of that period, designed to be set up in a mill, to which the grain must be brought. Hiram A. and John A. Pitts, of Winthrop, Maine, were the inventors of the first portable threshing machine with cleaning devices. They were engaged in making horse powers for oper- ating "ground hog" threshers, and in 1837 they patented a machine which combined the threshing cylinder with an endless belt and beaters, which separated the grain from the straw and chaff. George Westinghouse (q.v.), the father of the inventor of the air brake, began making thresh- ing machines at Fonda, N. Y., about 1840. later removing to Schenectady, and he patented a number of practical improvements in separating and cleaning devices. After 1850. when farmers began to raise wheat for market, a large number of inventors and manufacturers of threshing machines entered the field, and machines of the endless apron or grain belt type soon came into general use. Soon after the Civil War. however, these machines gave way to the "vibrator" type of separator. The endless apron or grain belt, in spite of all the beaters and shaking attach- ments that were used with it, allowed a little grain to go through with the straw and be wasted. Cyrus Roberts, of Belleville. 111., pat- ented in 1852 and 1856 the chief features of the modern separating mechanism, which consist- of a series of vibrating rakes over which the straw passes from the cylinder. The most notable im- provement of recent years is the "wind stacker " The tail of the machine is closed, and the straw is blown by a revolving fan through a large steel pipe. This invention saves the labor of all the men who were formerly needed on the straw- stack. Automatic band cutting and feeding at- tachments, and automatic grain weighers, have also come into general use. The horse power was succeeded in the decade following the CivD War by the portable engine, and this in turn by the traction engine, which, for countries where coal is scarce, is fitted to burn straw. The grain drill was one of the latest of modem implements to come into general use, as the farmers found it more economical, until well past the middle of the century, to sow their wheat broadcast by hand. English inventor- began patenting grain drills in the 18th century, and many American patents were issued prior to 1X50, but the grain drill did not become a practical implement until it was provided with a force feed, which would regulate exactly the amount -own. The lir-t patent on a practical force feed was issued in 1851 to Foster, Jessup & Brown, of Palmyra, X. Y. ; but it was not until farmers began sowing commercial fertiliz- ers that drills replaced broadcast seeding in the East. In the West, the "hoe" or pointed tube of the early types of grain drills could not be used successfully in prairie soil, and the farmers sowed their grain by hand, or used simple broadcast seeders, until the drill manufacturers had borrowed the shoe from the corn planter. In late years disc drills have become popular. The first patent on a practical corn planter was issued in 1853 to George VV. Brown, of Illinois. This implement was not, as many writers have supposed, an adaptation of the grain drill. The function of the grain drill is to spread the seed as much as possible, so the crop will cover the ground and prevent the growth of weeds. Corn, however, does not thrive unless each hill has at least a square yard of clear, cultivated soil around it, and hence corn is planted in hills, and the hills are placed in check, so they can be cultivated both ways. The Brown invention planted two rows. It was operated bj two men, or a man and a boy, one of whom drove while the other sat in front and operated the dropping lever. It was customary, before the introduction of the check rower, to mark the field by driving ac r oss it with a sled which had two or more runners, making marks at the proper distance apart for the hills. The planter was then driven at right angles across the marks, and the operator of the dropping lever would aim to drop the hills even with the marks, so they would be in alignment across the field, as well as in the rows following the planter. The check rower, which was invented and intro- duced by George D. Haworth, of Illinois, as an improvement on the planter, operated the drop- ping mechanism automatically. A wire is stretched across the field, anchored at each end, and as the planter is driven forward the wire draw- through it, and buttons or links at suit- able intervals operate the dropping device. The Haworths were the practical inventors of this device, and placed it on the market, but did nol obtain a clear patent on it, as, technically, it had been anticipated by a prior inventor, whose patent was assigned to them and reissued. The most ingenious and original feature of the George W. Brown patents on the corn planter was the planting shoe, which was shaped like a scimeter, so it would cut through or rise over any trash on the surface of the field. The seed dropped through a channel in the heel of the shoe, and was covered by a wheel which fol- lowed. I AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR So many inventors have contributed useful features to the two-horse straddle-row cultivator that it would be difficult to name any one who is entitled to pre-eminent credit. Cultivators are made in a greater variety of forms and styles than any other implement in extensive use, but the basic idea of all modern cultivators is to utilize two horses and straddle the row. Two wheels, with an arched axle, support the frame work and the seat for the operator. The cultivating shovels or points are attached to two gangs or frames, one on each side of the row, which swing freely and are held in the proper position by the operator, by means of stirrups in which he holds his feet. Walking wheeled cultivators are still used to some extent, but the prevailing demand is for riding imple- ments. Harvesting the corn crop is a problem that has engaged the attention of American inventors since 1850, but it was not until 1895 that a prac- tical corn binder was placed on the market. This machine was patented in 1892 by A. S. Peck, of Illinois, but did not prove practical until many improvements had been made by inventors of the McCormick experimental staff. A binding attachment, much like the mechanism of a grain binder, stands in a vertical position in the machine, and the corn is carried into it by gathering chains while the machine travels forward astride the row. A later type of this machine is the corn shocker, which holds the corn erect in a frame, without binding it in bundles, until a shock is collected, when the frame and shock are raised by a crane on the machine and swung around to the ground, the shock, meantime, being tied at the top by the op- erator. The latest successful type of machine for harvesting corn is the corn picker, which travels along the row in the field and picks and husks the ears without cutting the stalks. The portable corn husker and fodder shredder, which is operated like a threshing machine, has also proved a successful invention, and many thou- sands of machines of this type are now in use, especially in the dairy States, where the farmers want to save the fodder and shred it for feeding. Power corn shelters have been in use since i860, and are indispensable wherever corn is grown for shipment to market. The first successful machine of this type was invented by Augustus Adams, of Sandwich, 111. For the preparation of the soil a multitude of implements are used. The subject of Plows has been considered in a separate article. Har- rows are made in many forms, including the disc harrow, which is used extensively in place of the plow, to prepare stubble land for seeding. The steel disc has made its appearance in grain drills, and in planters, and has even endeavored to supplant the moldboard in the plow. Potato planters, spraying implements and digging ma- chines have placed the potato crop on a com- mercial basis. Cotton planters are used success- fully, but disappointment has been the only- reward of inventors who have sought to devise a cotton harvester. The greatest service which the inventor could render to the cotton grower was the invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney (q.v.). While the gin is not strictly speaking a farm implement, since it is not used on the farm, it made a great commercial crop of an obscure plant that had been of little or no value to the farmer. R. L. Ardrev, Chicago, III. American Federation of Labor, a national organization of American trade-unions, in which the rights of the constituent units are preserved intact. As in the Federal government, all pow- ers not expressly granted in the written consti- tution are reserved to the subordinate bodies : but still further, as in the Articles of Con- federation, it has not power of compulsion ( ex- cept to suspend or expel a union), and any union can override its decisions as far as its own action goes. To this is due its steady growth and harmony. What every union fears most of all is being controlled in matters per- taining to its own trade by persons outside that trade ; and a minority regularly coerced on its own ground will eventually secede. It originated in 1881. Its predecessors had been the National Labor Union, 1866-72, which ended its career by entering politics and nom- inating a candidate ("David Davis) for the Pres- idency ; and a number of sectional orders, of which the chief was the Knights of Labor (1869). The latter were generally hostile to trade-unions, holding them based on "false and selfish principles of temporary advantage, to the sacrifice of the general interests" of labor, and the Knights attempted to break down trade barriers in workmen's action by organizing local assemblies of miscellaneous laborers. This an- tagonized those who believed that only members of a given craft had a right or the proper know- ledge to direct its action ; and on 2 Aug. 1881 representatives from trade-unions, the Amal- gamated Labor Union (a split from the Knights of Labor) and the Knights of Industry, both secret orders, held a conference at Terre Haute, Ind., ostensibly to establish a national labor congress, but in reality (as stated) to form a new order to supplant the Knights of Labor. This was defeated, and the conference issued a call for a convention at Pittsburg in November, where the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions of the United States and Canada was constituted. On 8 Dec. 1886 this fused with a separate trade-union congress, and changed its name to the American Federation of Labor ; and in 1889 acknowledged the continuity of ex- istence by dating its proceedings to [881. Its membership is of local unions, central unions of cities. State federations, national and interna- tional trade-unions. As a local union may thus belong to three different superior bodies, with a possible conflict of jurisdictions, the Federation takes charge of these mutual relations. It rec- ognized the national and international unions as having supreme jurisdiction, but it approves and urges State and central bodies as helpers in gaining the common objects. These objects, as stated in its constitution, are: (1) "The encouragement and formation of local trade and labor unions, and the closer federation and combination of such bodies, to secure legislation in the interest of the working masses." (2) 'The establishment of national and international trade-unions, based upon a strict recognition of the autonomy of each trade." etc. (3) "An American Federation of all na- tional and international trade-unions, to aid and assist each other." and "the sale of union-label goods, and to secure national legislation in the AMERICAN FOLK-LORE SOCIETY — AMERICAN INSTITUTE interest of the working people, and influence public opinion by peaceful and legal methods in favor of organized labor." (4; "To aid and encourage the labor press of America." Its executive organization at first was a sec- retary and a legislative committee, and it an- nounced that it would have no salaried officials; but for efficient working it has been compelled to modify this rule. It has a salaried president and secretary, a treasurer, and six vice-presi- dents, who together form the executive council, which meets quarterly. The president for many years lias been Samuel Gompers. The funds are derived from a per capita tax of 6 cents per year from each member of an affiliated trade union, and $10 each from central unions and State federations. Until 18S7 it could not grant money in aid of strikes; but in that year a revised constitution gave the execu- tive council the right to call on the unions for financial aid to such strikes as it approved. This voluntary aid was insufficient, and in 1889 an- other amendment permitted it to levy a compul- sory tax of 2 cents a week on each member of an affiliated union, for not over five weeks, in aid of strikes or lock-outs. The policy of the Federation is fixed in open conventions held in a different city in November of each year. The affiliated organizations are entitled to but one delegate until their member- ship reaches 4,000, two delegates up to 8,000, three delegates up to 16.000, four delegates up to 32,000, and so on. Thus, for instance, the largest affiliated organization, the United Mine Workers of America — having a membership of fully 225,000 — will send seven delegates, and is entitled to no more. The chief rival of the American Federation has been the Knights of Labor ; but it has prac- tically supplanted that from the superior ration- ality of its basis. The Knights admitted anyone to membership except lawyers, bankers and sa- loon-keepers: the Federation confines member- ship to workingmen, not admitting even farmers who are employers of labor on their farms. The Knights were a centralized society based^ on lodges established by the central union; the Fed- eration is based on its unions' individuality. But chief of all, the Knights assumed that organiza- tions of all classes of workers in one union in each locality would bring about the best result-, wdiile the Federation realized the organization of each trade in its particular union and the affil- iation of all unions in a comprehensive federation was sure to strengthen each and bring advantage to all. The Knights confounded all distinctions and potentially overruled each trade by the vote of outsiders. By recognizing the common-sense principle that each interest can manage its own affairs best, the Federation has grown till, on 1 Oct. 100.?, it had in affiliation national and international union-, 112; State federations, 29; central unions, 529: and local unions, 1,725. 'I he total membership of unions is estimated at about 1,750,000, of whom more than half have joined since 1897. It does not contain all the trade- unions, a considerable section still remaining outside, as the great railroad federation of five unions, and the Bricklayers' Union; but it con- tains the United Mine Workers of America fits largest body), the International Typographical Union of North America, the Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners, the Cigar Makers' In- ternational Union, etc. Its activity in securing favorable and defeat- ing unfavorable legislation for laborers has been very great and very successful. These are too many to detail; but it may be said that its first convention of 1881 demanded a national eight- hour day for government employees, and exclu- sion of Chinese and contract laborers; and all these were granted by 1886. It also secured the establishment by law of Labor Day. Since then 11 ha- steadily favored shorter hours, non-em- ployment of children, better sanitary conditions, regulation of convict employment, abolition of "government by injunction," etc.; and in 1893 pronounced decisively for free coinage. It began in 1X04 the publication of 'The American Fcd- cralionist.' an official monthly magazine. Con- sult: Aldrich. 'American Federation of Labor,' Vol. III. of Economic Studies (1898) ; Gompers, 'The Labor Movement': McGuire, 'The Amer- ican Federation of Labor' ; and annual reports of the Federation. Samuel Gompers, President American Federation of Labor. American Folk-lore Society, an associa- tion founded in 1888 for the collection and publi- cation of the folk-lore of North America. Mem- bership 410. Office of the president, Field Columbian Museum, Chicago, 111. American Forestry Association, a society organized in 1882 and incorporated 1897. It aims to promote a business-like and conservative treatment of the forest resources of this conti- nent ; the advancement of educational, legisla- tive, and other measures tending toward this end; the diffusion of knowdedge regarding the conservation, management, and renewal of for- ests, the proper utilization of their products, methods of reforestation of waste lands, the planting of trees for ornament, and cognate sub- jects of arboriculture. Membership 2,000. Its official organ is 'Forestry and Irrigation.' Of- fice of secretary, Washington, D. C. American Geographical Society, an asso- ciation established in 1852 and aiming to en- courage geographical exploration and discovery ; to investigate and disseminate new geographical information by discussion, lectures, and publi- cations; to establish in the chief maritime city of the country, for the benefit of commerce, nav- igation, and the great industrial and material in- terests of the United States, a place where the means will be afforded of obtaining accurate information for public use of every part of the globe. It has a geographical library of 30,000 volumes and a large and very valuable collection of maps, charts, and atlases relating to every part of the world. It publishes a 'Bulletin,' and co-operates and interchanges information with 200 domestic and foreign geographical and other scientific societies. Membership 1,200. Office, 15 West 81 st Street, New York. American Historical Association, a so- ciety organized in 1884 and incorporated by an act of Congress in 1889 for the encouragement of historical research. Membership 1,100. American Indians. See Indians, American. American Institute of Architects, an asso- ciation organized in 1857 for the advancement of the art or profession of architecture. It has published its 'Proceedings' annually since 1867. Its permanent headquarters are in its own build- ing, the "Octagon," Washington D. C. Mem- bership 800. O o n a o AMERICAN INSTITUTE —AMERICANISMS American Institute of the City of New York, an organization founded in 1828 for the promotion, by exhibitions and fairs, of agri- cultural, commercial, manufacturing, and artistic interests throughout the Union. It is now di- vided into five sections : The Farmers' Club, the Henry Electrical Society, the Horticultural Section, the Photographic Section, and the Poly- technic Section. It has a scientific library of 15,000 volumes. American Institute of Electrical Engi- neers, a society established in 1884 for the advancement of electrical engineering. It pub- lishes volumes of its 'Transactions.* Member- ship 1,600. American Institute of Homceopathy, a society organized in 1844. Membership 2,000. American Institute of Mining Engineers, an organization founded in 1871 to promote the arts and sciences connected with the economical production of the useful minerals and metals, and the welfare of those employed in these in- dustries, by means of meetings for social inter- course and the reading and discussion of pro- fessional papers, and to circulate, by means of publications among its members and associates, the information thus obtained. Membership 3,500. American Ipecac. See Gillenia. American-Irish Historical Society, founded in Boston, Mass., 20 Jan. 1897, to make better known the Irish chapter in American history. The organization draws no creed lines and is non-political. It has published a number of books and pamphlets along its chosen line of work. The society is national in its scope, and has members throughout the country. The or- ganization holds its annual gathering in New York city, and publishes yearly a bound volume called the 'Journal' of the society. The mem- bership is about 1,000. In addition to the national officers, there is a vice-president for each State. Americanisms, in language, are words or phrases peculiar to the English speech of the United States or of British America. They may be (1) forms originating in America; or (2) forms that have emigrated from Britain and that have continued in use here while they are obso- lete there; or (3) that have undergone here an essential change of signification. Examples of words originating here or at least first intro- duced here into the vocabulary of the English language are Buncombe, Caucus, Gerrymander; of words here in current use but now antiquated in England we have Fall (the season), Wilt (verb), Whittle; and of words with changed signification we have Corn (maize), Partridge (quail or ruffed grouse), Store (in England shop). These three processes of new word coinage, of survival of meanings in one prov- ince of the language which in another province have become obsolete, and of essential change of signification, are inherent in all languages, and can be traced in a comparison of two counties as clearly as in two countries. Americanism ex- presses the character of English speech in America: it does not imply anv inferiority of American English to British English ; nor is American English subject to correction by the laws that British English prescribes for itself : Americanism and Briticism in speech are mu- tually on an equal footing; unlike Gallicisms, Germanisms, or even Scotticisms, Americanisms are not aliens in English, but natives. Among the Americanisms to to be noted in what follows are many words or phrases which belong to the vocabulary and phraseology of slang, and are universally regarded as vulgarisms and sole- cisms and vicious growths of the vernacular speech of America; as such they are "Ameri- canisms," but they are no more part of legitimate American speech than is costermongers' English part of the English language of the home coun- try. In the front rank of Americanisms must be classed those which are most racy of the soil and that could not have been evolved in any social or physical environment other than was and is presented in this new world. The first settlers had to clear the boundless forest which covered the land, and constantly to guard their lives and their possessions against the forays of the savages : they went always armed to their day's work. Such words and phrases as Going on the war path. Digging up the hatchet, Bury- ing the hatchet, Scalping, Tomahawking, recall the hero-tales of American pioneering; and from the same period come Shanty, Blazing out, Clearing, Backwoods (in Canada, "the Bush"). They "took to the woods" or "to the timber" for refugeat the approach of the redskins in overwhelming force. In the sparsely peopled settlements the necessity for neighborly help in gathering in the harvest or in erecting a log cabin or in providing comforts for the winter led to the custom of the Raising-bee or Build- ing-bee, the Quilting-bee, the Husking-bee: the origin of the word Bee in this sense is un- known ; the custom itself survives in rural dis- tricts, and a few years ago a new sort of Bee — the Spelling-bee had great vogue ; and that was followed by the Definition-bee ; these "bees" met with much popular favor in England. Log- rolling is another example of co-operation among backwoodsmen, when neighbors associ- ate to collect each other's logs for the winter fires. Logrolling came early into use as a term of the art of practical politics to signify the co- operation of members of a legislative body to promote one another's schemes. Literary Log- rolling is when authors combine to create a market for each other's productions by mutual puffery. Salt springs to which the big game used to resort were Salt Licks ; the spaces be- tween stretches of water over which the pio- neers had to carry their canoes were Portages. As settlers began to seek homes in the West on government lands, the distribution of the public domain became a business of vast proportions and "a Land-Office business" became a superla- tive term of comparison. A Section of land is a square mile or 640 acres ; a very usual subdivi- sion is the Quarter section, 160 acres. In the nearer West, as in the East, bodies of land were Farms : in the farther West, Ranches ; in the South. Plantations. The verb to Deed is a pure Americanism : the phrase "To convey by deed" was too slow. A settler who acquired land from the government "blazed out" his grant by cut- ting with his axe marks on the bark of trees: the word is from the French blazon, a term of heraldry. A Lot of ground is any distinct portion of land, and in towns and cities is a piece of ground with a definite frontage, usually 25 feet. The use of the word lot in the AMERICANISMS sense of a parcel of land seems to have origi- nated with the Puritans in Massachusetts: for this they had scriptural authority, Joshua xv. To go Across hits is to take the shortest route; l)ii t to make a Bee line toward a place is to ha^tr to it in a straight line. Im- migrant is an Americanism, and it is the urately tit word to signify one who conies to a country as a settler. lender- foot, a most expressive American slang word to designate the newcomer into a newly opened gold or silver mining district, is current coin no less in Australia than in the Rocky Mountains. In California, in the early days, many words came into use and have since remained in gen- eral circulation, for example, Placer, Prospect- ing, Diggings, I'ay Dirt, Gulch. Bonanza is of later introduction. Crevasse is a breach in the embankment of a river; the word is of French origin in the province of Louisiana and specially denotes the effect of a flood of the Mississippi River. Of like origin is the word used to designate the embankment of the Mississippi, Levee. I he word is also used to designate a river front of towns situate on othei rivers in the Mississippi valley which are naturally con- fined within their own banks. In English usage Levee is accented on the first syllable, but in the United States the accent falls usually on the last. Incidentally it may be remarked of another American usage of the word Levee to signify an evening reception of visitors by the President of the United States, "the President's Levee," that it is a rank solecism, and means in effect (i morning reception in the evening. Freshet, in obsolete English usage, meant a stream of fresh water : in the sense of an inun- dation it is an Americanism. Blizzard, signify- ing a violent, blinding storm of wind, snow, and sleet, is a word of unascertained origin. Prairie is as distinctly American as Veldt is South African or as Tundra is Russian and Siberian. In the vocabulary of politics, besides Log- rolling, already mentioned, we have Gerryman- der, to make an unfair distribution of electoral districts for party ends : this American political trick is called by the English political philos- opher Jerrymandering; and one of the English dictionaries gives as an alternative spelling Jer- rymander, while in Gerrymander it makes the g soft: thus pronounced, the word Gerrymander is a Briticism. What for the British is a political canvass is for us a Campaign, and a Campaign is conducted to a considerable extent in accord- ance with the tactics and strategy of real war. The successful party is the Victor, and to him, under the ancient laws of war, belongs the spoil. Speaking from the Stump, Taking the stump, were originally literal expressions of fact. Bun- combe, or Bunkum, seems to be authentically derived from the name of a county of North Carolina, whose representative in Congress, when begged not to weary the House with his oratory, replied that though he was addressing the House he intended his speech for the good people of Buncombe. The derivation of the word Caucus from Calkers is plausible. In 1770 the calkers and ropemakers of Boston held fre- quent meetings to denounce the British govern- ment and its local agents, and those meetings were called by the Tories Calkers' meetings. The Caucus, a preliminary meeting held for the pur- pose of selecting a candidate for office, or, in case of a legislative body, to decide upon the policy to be supported by members of a party in the open sessions, is an American invention; of late it has been introduced in England. Spread-Eagle oratory has its name from the ex- travagant style of stump orators and Indcpcnd ence Day spouters when they glorify the Bird of Freedom. Highfalutin, a word that cannol he traced to its original source, denotes turgid, bombastic oratory. To Enthuse is unqui tion ably an Americanism, and it is base coin formed from the word enthusiasm, which, whether in Greek or English, has no corresponding active- transitive verb form. Of party names and nick- names may be mentioned Wine and Tory, of the pre-revolutionary era, Federal and Republi- can of the period after independence, then Whig again, and instead of Republican either Dcnm cratic Republican or simply Democrat, with the nickname (about 1835) Locofoco (giv- en first to a body of radicals who, in Tammany Hall, New York, after a 111. 1 1 ing was officially dissolved and the lights put out, produced locofoco matches, te- kindled the lights and continued the meeting: the locofoco match, or locofoco cigar was intro- duced in 1834, 'he word meaning ' substitute for fire" — 111 loco foci. It was a cigar with friction- match attached). Other party names and nick- names are Republican, Silver-grays, Copperhead, Carpet-baggers, Lily Whites. The man in any political organization who possesses or is be- lieved to possess authority to dictate the party's policies is the Boss. The word is the Dutch baas and is the usual designation of an employer or overseer of workmen. A few years ago po- litical terrorism in the South, designed to bar to negroes access to the polls, was known as Bull- dozing, a word which cannot be traced to its origin with certainty, and which is no longer in use. Roorback is a false and injurious report set afloat in the crisis of a political campaign, usually a very short time before the canvass is closed, so that it may have damaging effect be- fore contradiction or refutation can be made. The phrase "a good enough Morgan till after election" recalls an incident in the history of New York politics. William Morgan, author of a book purporting to reveal the secrets of Free- masonry, was kidnapped, and the anti-Masonry party charged the Freemasons with having mur- dered him. To counteract this charge, which was credited largely by public opinion, the Masonic society, or rather its friends in the Whig and Democratic parties, spread reports of the finding of the missing man; whether true or false, these reports furnished "a good enough Morgan till after election." Right, as equivalent to very, is by some writers classed among Americanisms ; but that is an error, though undoubtedly the word is more commonly used in that way here than among the English. In the style Right Rev- erend, Right Worshipful, etc., Right has the meaning of very : in Tyndale's Bible occur such phrases as Right sorry. Right humble, and in writers of the 14th century the same usage is to be seen. But Right here, Right now, Right away. Right off are Americanisms and are not found in the colloquial speech of Britain. In British English of these latter days Sickness is hardly used save in the sense of nausea ; but the best British authors do not countenance that restriction of meaning. In the United States, outside the circles in which the time o' day is AMERICANISTS given from London, the words Sick and Sickness have the same signification they have had in the general language at least from the 14th century, when mind-sick, mind-sickness, were current phrases ; and in the King James version of the Bible sick and sickness have the same purport which they have in the American vernacular. Ugly, in the sense of cross-grained, ill-natured, is an Americanism, though English usage has the nearly parallel phrase, an ugly customer. An American can ride in a coach ; but an English- man, if he is to ride at all, must go on horseback or be borne on the back of some other animal. British restriction of the meaning of Ride is inconsistent with the usage of the translators of the Bible, who make Joseph, for example, and Jehonadab ride in chariots. The garment which Americans style Vest is better styled by the English Waistcoat. Peart, pronounced, and often written, Peert, meaning lively, brisk, sprightly, without any suggestion of sauciness or "freshness," is gone out of use, at least of literary use, in England: it is an Americanism, but its habitat, so to speak, is restricted. A special use of Peart is to signify the improved Jone of one who is recovering from a sickness. The place of business at retail which in England is a Shoo is in the United States a Store. Of late a tendency has appeared toward adoption of the British usage of these terms. In regions unaffected by this tendency Shop is still what it was 50 years ago in this country, a work-place, and a Store is a place where goods are kept in store for sale. But even while Shop and Store retained their cis- atlantic meanings, there were numerous phrases current which are inconsistent with the American meanings of Store and Shop, for example, Shop-worn, Smelling of the shop, Shop-boy, Shopping, Shopkeeper, Shop- lifter, etc. The grocer's store or shop is here called a Grocery, not-so in England : there Grocery signifies only the wares sold by a grocer. Unquestionably American is the use of the word Drummer in the sense of one who solicits or touts for custom. The phrase. He struck oil, will probably survive after all the oil wells have gone hopelessly dry. What we call Baggage is by the British called luggage, though the reason of the differ- ence can hardly be that we travel with less im- pedimenta than they. The development of our railway systems has brought many new words into the vernacular, but none more expressive than the verb Telescope. The conversational speech of Americans at one time seemed to be seriously threatened with invasion by a host of spurious, illegitimate word- coinages, especially of verbs made out of nouns, as to Advantage, to Ambition, and of pompous verbs made out of nouns ending mostly in -ation, as Orate, Donate ; but that danger was happily averted. The use of Transpire in the sense of happen, occur, is of American origin, but the use quickly spread to England : the solecism was promptly branded by scholars, but it still lives and flourishes. Balance, in the sense of remain- der, is another Americanism which has attained a currency which it does not deserve. Mad, in the sense of angry, is an Americanism of the baser sort. To Wilt, on the other hand, a "provincialism" in England, but in America a word in universal use, is one of the valuable contributions of the American province of the English language to the mother tongue's general store. The proverbial Whittling of the Yankee keeps alive an ancient native English word for knife. Among notable or curious phrases current in the United States may be mentioned Flying off the handle, — losing self-control through pas- sion : one is then like the axe-head which has quit the haft. To Get religion, or even to Take religion, is a phrase constructed on the pattern of "to take a cold" or "to take the measles." To be Posted plainly had its origin in the counting-room. Bibliograpliy. — Pickering, 'Vocabulary of Words and Phrases Suffered to be Peculiar to America' (1816) ; Lowell, introduction to 'The Biglow Papers' (1848) ; Elwyn, 'Glossary of Supposed Americanisms' (1858) ; Bartlett, 'Dic- tionary of Americanisms' (1859) ; White, 'Words and their L'ses.' chap. 3 (1870) ; Scheie de Vere, 'Americanisms' (1872) : Harris, 'Uncle Remus' (1880); Farmer, 'Americanisms, Old and New: a Dictionary of Words, Phrases, and Colloquialisms Peculiar to the United States, British America and the West Indies' (1889); Norton, 'Political Amer- icanisms' (1890) ; Emerson, 'Dialect of Ithaca' * Joseph Fitzgerald, Author of '•Word and Phrase.'' Americanists (from Americanistes) , all those who devote themselves to the study of (1) the native races of America — their origin, distribution, history, physical characteristics, languages, inventions, customs, and religions ; (2) the history of the early contact between America and the Old World. The name was probably first given to the members of the French Societe Americaine de France, and later to students of any nationality who are in- terested in the archaeology, ethnology, and early history of the two Americas. Since 1875 such students have met at irregular intervals in an as- sociation known as the Cong-res International des Americanistes. This congress grew out of the Societe Americaine de France, which was formed in 1857 by several French students who had become interested in the pre-Columbian civ- ilizations of South America and Mexico; after this society had flourished for 18 years its members decided to invite Americanists of for- eign countries to a congress. The first inter- national meeting was held in 1875 at Nancy, France, where statutes were adopted and plans laid for the continuance of the organization. Since then ten other meetings have been held in various European cities, and two in America (City of Mexico, 1895, and New York city, 1902). At first the intention was to hold bien- nial sessions, but after a few years it was de- cided to meet at irregular intervals, the council of each congress determining the time and place of the next session. The meetings have a poly- glot character, as speakers may use either French, German, Italian. Spanish, or English. The addresses may be either written or oral, and are limited to 20 minutes in length. All papers presented may, with the approval of the committee, be issued in the printed ' Proceed- ings' which are usually in French ("Congres In- ternational des Americanistes, Comte-Rendu' ), and published in two volumes for each meeting. In addition to the papers the reports contain AMERICAN JEWISH HISTORICAL SOCIETY — AMERICAN LABOR lists of the members enrolled and minutes of the business transacted .it each session. Any one interested in the subjects discussed may become a member of any congress by a subscrip- tion (three dollars, American money, or an equivalent in the currency of the country where the congress meets), which entitles him not only to take part in the sessions but to receive the reports of the congress and all other publications issued by it. The subjects considered at each meeting range through meteorology, geology, archaeology, and ethnology to comparative philology, the history of the pre-Columbian arts and religions, the early discoverers of America and its early relations to European nations. Representatives from almost every nation, even from China and Japan, are found on the lists, which have included as members (not neces- sarily as attendants) many of the most eminent archaeologists, ethnologists, and anthropologists in Europe, England, and America. For a full account of the 13th congress, held at the Ameri- can Museum of Natural History in New York city 20-25 Oct. 1902, see 'Science,' New Series, Vol. XVI. p. 884. Previous meetings are re- ported in 'Nature,* Vol. XIV. p. 355; 'Popular Science Monthly,* Vol. XXXIV. p. 686; and Vol. XXXVIII. p. 685. American Jewish Historical Society, an association organized in [892 i<>r the purpose of collecting and publishing material bearing on the history of America. It is a national or- ganization with a membership of 243. Presi- dent, Dr. Cyrus Adler ; secretary, Max J. Kohler. American Labor. According to the census of [900, the total number of people in the United States engaged in gainful occupations of all kinds was 20,074,11", of which number 23,754,205 were males and 5,319,912 females. These figures include wage-earners and wage-payers, employers and employees, engaged in manual and profes- sional service. Of this number between 18,500,000 and 20.000.000 may be reckoned wage-earners. And although statistics are lacking, we will not be far astray if we estimate that the corre- sponding classes at the beginning of the national existence numbered about 500.000. As to the racial composition of this class, four fifths of the population of the United States at the close of the Revolutionary War was of Kng- lish descent, but at the present time careful con- sideration would indicate that only about one half of our population can claim the English as their mother tongue; and yet, during the first quarter of the 19th century, immigration could not have affected the nationality of our working pie to any great extent, nor until 1840. In 1833 the largest number in the first third of the present century arrived, being 58,640 immigrants. Great impetus was given in the forties by the famine in Ireland in 1846-7, and by political causes in Germany. The total immigration since the Revolutionary War and up to July 1901, was 20.253.073. while the foreign-born residing in this country at the census of 1900 was 10.460,085, being 13.6 per cent of the whole population. These large additions to our population had a marked influence upon our industrial conditions, because in the very nature of the case their num- bers, almost en masse, went to swelling' the ranks of labor. The manufacturing and mechanical industries absorbed a much larger proportion of the new element than agriculture, and the tend- ency of our immigrants to assimilate with our mechanical industries increases the supply of labor in comparison to the demand, and at times may have lowered wages and crippled the con- suming power of the whole body of the popula- tion. But this was not serious, and it may have been imperceptible, for at the time of the acceler- ated movement of immigration there was a vast development of the railroad interests of the country, which could not have been carried on so extensively and completely without a large body of common laborers. Immigration supplied this labor, but it soon began to find its way into organized industry. As the tendency of wages has been constantly upward since the close of the 18th century, it cannot be argued that the assimilation of immigrants with our own native labor has reduced wages, but it can be assumed that such assimilation may have retarded their increase beyond what was experienced. During the years of depression after 1893 immigration was checked, but with the renewal of prosperity during the past few years the movement has practically assumed its old proportions of nearly half a million a year. The character of immi- gration has changed, and this change has not been for the better. If immigration could be left entirely to natural motives it is quite evident that the movement would be retarded gradually, but it is stimulated by transportation companies, in their desire to secure business, to such an extent that a large body of objectionable immi- grants are brought here. When it is known that an immigrant can be transported from Italy to Chicago for less money than a first-class passen- ger can travel from New York to Chicago, it 1- not strange that people flock to the United States; and during this past decade it is quite certain that labor in America has suffered through this class of immigration, especially in mining districts, where wages have been kept down and much distress has prevailed through the influx of cheap foreign labor. At the nation's beginning its labor was do- mestic, and working people were engaged in agricultural pursuits, the fisheries, and in the clearing of forests, while a small percentage were engaged in what is known as domestic manufac- ture and in commerce. The factory system, dating from 1790 as the year of its birth, did not become influential until after 1820. With the complete establishment of textile factories, in 1813, at Waltham, Mass., where the first com- plete factory in the world for the manufacture of finished cloth was built, labor began to find a new avenue of employment, and the young women of the rural districts were induced to enter factories as spinners and weavers. Thereafter growth of the textile factory was rapid, both in New- England and the Middle States. Fair wages and easy work attracted the women of our own country, and English girls, until Irish immigra- tion commenced, and during the last 25 years or more the Irish operative has been giving way gradually to the French-Canadian and rep- resentatives of other nationalities. Of course, all manufacturing received a great impetus during the Revolutionary War, when our people were obliged to furnish their own supplies. At the close of the war these efforts ceased or production was greatly reduced, and AMERICAN LABOR America was still a subject of Great Britain in respect to its manufacturing interests, until the complete establishment of the factory system. The old domestic or hand system was not long in passing, and the regime of invention and machinery holds full sway. Along with this change in the method of production, mining has been developed to an enormous degree, until now the United States produces more iron than Great Britain. This industry has brought into employment a vast body of skilled workmen, and the ramifications of the industry still greater forces. Our large towns and cities are, as a rule, thoroughly equipped with sewers, and the manufacture of pipes and mains for this pur- pose, as well as the manufacture of gas-pipes and mains and plumbing work generally, has been the result. These latter changes have occurred within the last 60 years. be seen from the accompanying table. This change was largely brought about by the factory system, under which women could attend light- running machines with skill and with fair remu- neration. They constitute a new economic factor in industry, and being a new economic factor, they cannot as yet hope to receive liberal wages. It can hardly be said that they have displaced men, but they have displaced boys and girls to a considerable extent. The first tendency under the factory system was to employ children, and the number constantly employed increased from year to year until the last 25 years, when the number has been rapidly on the decline. Public senti- ment voiced by legislation, as well as the econ- omies of production, is driving the children out of our factories ; women are taking their places. In some industries men have taken the places of women, the change of the form of work result- NUMBER OF MALE AND FEMALE WAGE-EARNERS REPORTED FOR PRINCIPAL OCCUPATIONS IN IOXW. Occupations Agriculture, Fisheries, and Mining: Agricultural laborers. . Fishermen and oystermen Lumbermen and raftsmen Miners and quarrymen . . Stock-raisers, herders and drovers Domestic and Personal Ser- vice : Barbers and hair-dressers Bartenders Engineers and firemen (not locomotive) Housekeepers and stew- ards Laborers (not specified) Launderers and laun- dresses Nurses and midwives . . . Servants and waiters... Watchmen, policemen, and detectives Trade and Transportation: Agents (claim, commis- sion, real estate, in- surance, etc.) and col- lectors Bookkeepers and ac- countants Clerks and copyists.... Draymen, hackmen, teamsters, etc Hostlers Messengers and errand and office boys Sailors and boatmen .... Salesmen and saleswomen Steam-railroad employ- ees Males 3,747,668 67.715 71 ,920 562.50 83,056 125.542 83.377 223,318 8,224 2,505,287 335.282 12,26^ 276,958 129,711 230,606 180,727 544.881 538,029 64.850 64.959 78.253 461,909 580,462 Females 663,209 462 100 1.365 1.932 5.574 440 146,929 '23,975 50,683 108,691 ,283,763 879 10,556 74.153 85,246 904 79 6,663 '53 149.230 1,688 Total 4,410,877 68,177 72.1 20 563,866 84,988 131,1 16 88,817 155.153 2,629,262 385,965 120,956 '.454. 79' 130,590 241,162 254,880 630,127 538,933 64,929 71.662 78,406 611,139 582,150 Occupations Street railway employees Stenographers ana type- writers Telegraph and telephone operators Manufacturing and _ Me- chanical Industries: Bakers Blacksmiths Boot and shoe makers and repairers Butchers Carpenters and Joiners.. Cotton-mill operatives... Dressmakers Iron and steel workers. . Machinists Marble and stone cutters Masons (brick and stone) Milliners Painters, glaziers, and varnishers Plumbers and gas and steam fitters Printers, lithographers, and pressmen Saw and planing mill employees Seamstresses Silk-mill operatives Tailors and tailoresses. . Textile mill operatives (not otherwise speci- fied) Tin-plate and tinware- makers Tobacco and cigar fac- tory operatives Wood-workers (not oth- erwise specified) Woolen-mill operatives. . Males 68,873 26,246 52,459 74,860 226,284 169,393 "3.578 :'i'J.7"7 2,090 287,241 282,574 54.317 160,638 ".739 275,782 97,659 '39,'66 161,251 4.837 22,023 160,714 53.437 68,730 87.955 104,468 42.566 Females 46 86,118 22,556 4,328 '93 39.519 208,912 378 113.956 545 600,252 120,216 246,004 344.794 346,884 3.370 290,611 57' 283,145 '43 S4,46o '67 86,120 '.759 126 I5,98l 373 146.105 32-437 68,935 51,182 1.775 43.497 6,805 30,630 Total 68,919 1 12,364 75.oi5 79. '88 226,477 160,805 87.859 -77-54' 97,785 155,147 161,623 150,942 54.460 229,649 104,619 70,505 «3'.452 I". 273 73. '96 Tlie change in the system of work has prac- tically done away with apprenticeships, their place being more than filled by manual training and the work of the trade schools. With the establishment of the factory system apprentice- ships were less obligatory. By 1850 the resort to them was waning, while since the vast de- velopment of the factory system, especially sub- sequent to the Civil War, they have been --till less prevalent. Another great change which has come in the way of industry is the employment of women, who were engaged only in domestic labor, except in rare instances, in 1789, but are now represented in almost all industries, as may ing in such displacement. Laundry work is practically factory work now ; and the old domes- tic hand weavers, who were to a large extent women, have seen their work transferred to the factory. These industrial revolutions have car- ried with them other changes, which perhaps are more ethical than economical in their rela- tions. For instance, under the old system of labor, employers had a paternal relation to their employees, and even in the early cotton-mills in New England the paternal system of caring for employees was adopted, notably at Lowell, and later on also in Manchester, Conn., under the Cheneys' administration of the silk works; but AMERICAN LABOR as the factory system lias spread, this paternal care has been lessened, although during the last few years there lias been a great revival in the discussion of the usefulness of such paternal oversight The public is considering this ques- tion, and great employers here and there are trying the experiment of taking an interest in the home welfare of their employees as well as in their efficiency. The changes in the industrial system have had many ramifications. The labor movement in this country began with the 19th century. Prior to the establishment of the factory system there was little organization. Here and there a club of skilled workingmen existed, notably in the Eastern and Middle States. Since 1825, however. the movement has been rapid, and its results, while not always satisfactory, are indicative of real progress. In the early years of the labor movement many arguments were advanced against it, and the attempt made to prevent work- ingmen from joining in organization. The mer- chants and ship owners of Boston, at a meeting held in the Exchange Coffee Rooms on 15 May 1832, voted to discountenance and check what was called the unlawful combination formed to control the freedom of individuals as to the hours of labor, and to thwart and embarrass those by whom they were employed and liberally paid. It was held everywhere that labor ought to be left free to regulate itself, and that neither the employee nor the employer should have the power to control the other ; and the stock argu- ment that organization would drive trade from the country was resorted to. Hut the condition of labor as it now exists is a vast improvement upon its condition at any other period. It may, perhaps, be well simply to say that wages, even during the past half-century, have increased, on the whole, something over 60 per cent, while the general course of prices has been downward, and to such an extent that the relative real wages — that is, wanes measured by wholesale prices, and showing, on this basis, the purchasing power of money — have increased over 90 per cent since i860. To-day organized labor has many de- fenders. It is looked upon with disfavor m some quarters, but as a rule, employers are quite willing that their employees should organize, for they have their own organizations and do not feel like denying the right to others. Of course, a very large proportion of the working people of this country is unorganized, and I presume this is true of manufacturers and employers on their side ; but as the methods of production are brought to a larger and grander scale, organiza- tion in every direction will more and more pre- \ .iil. At present organized labor is estimated at 2,000,000. This is the result of an estimate based on the claims of different organizations. I am inclined to think it is too liberal an estimate, and yet, placed in comparison with 18,500,000 wage-earners, it does not seem large; but, as a rule, organized labor is employed in the manu- facturing and mechanical industries, and in this sense the percentage is high. The proportion of organized manufacturers to the whole body is probably much larger. As the labor movement has grown, strikes have become more frequent, and while undoubtedly the era of strikes is pass- ing away, yet it will be some time before the downward scale is reached as to numbers and importance. The great strikes in the country have bad a marked influence in many directions. They have excited working people to undertake other strikes; they have brought bitterness be tween employer and employee, and yet on the whole they are bringing a new line of thought to the public mind, and their study will result in good to all classes. Strikes are teaching the public its interests in industry as over against the personal and selfish interests of the two par- ties immediately involved. The labor question has met with a great change as a result of the Civil War. Our negro population has lost some of the old occupations in which it was engaged in the North half a century ago, but it is gaining others. In the South the employment of the negro is becoming more varied and his condition more hopeful as one of pecuniary prosperity. Negro labor is abundant, good, and steady in certain lines. The question is often asked, whether the division of employment lessens the quality of work. Prob- ably not, for the great principles of modern in- dustry are association, concentration, and specialization. With the first the second is absolutely essential, and the third is the result of concentration. If these things lessen the quality of the work, then the opposite must be true — that without them quality is improved. This carries the argument too far. If there is much truth in it, then the .simplest, humblest kind of work is best for the worker, and sawing wood and paving streets, the most ordinary manual toil, would he better for the worker than the employment of his intellect in tending a machine. \\ • >rking people have experimented with co- operation, profit-sharing schemes, and other methods of increasing wages. These experiments have met with varying success. They are likely to do some good, but it will be a long tune before the moral character of the men involved will permit successful management of co-opera- tive schemes. The co-operative principle is that of our modern system of industry. Pure co- operation, probably, cannot succeed, from an eco- nomic point of view, but the co-operative spirit can prevail to a higher degree than it now does ; and these things have reduced the hours of labor from 11, 12, and 13 per day to 8, 9, and 10 per day. These changes, however, came gradually, and as the result of improved methods of pro- duction. Then law stepped in and made the custom the public voice. The first ten-hour law in this country, however, was not passed until 1874, when the State of Massachusetts provided that women and children should not be employed over ten hours a day in the textile factories of the State. Another specific change which has come is the frequent payment of employees for their services. The method in former times was to pay the working people part in cash and part in goods, and settlements were made at long intervals. Now everywhere, with a few excep- tions in the West, where to some extent the truck system still prevails, cash payments at short intervals are the rule. This change has been brought about both by public sentiment and by statutory enactments. One of the greatest changes which has been wrought by the new system has come through corporations. When the century began, the workingman and his employer were practically associated. With the establishment of the fac- AMERICAN LABOR tory system there came the necessity of using large capital, more than one man or a firm of men contributing ; so the corporation became a necessary factor in the development of industry. The ethical relations between employer and em- ployee were changed at once. In this way the organization of labor has grown on the ground that one organization should deal with another; that if the stockholders lose their personality and are represented by a manager, the large body of working people lose their personality, and their interests should be represented by a manager or a committee. One of the vital changes resulting from this growth of corporations is the liability of the employer to the employee for damages received while in the employment of the cor- poration. The old common-law rule relating to the liability of employers for accidents occurring to their employees is that a workman cannot recover damages for injuries received through the carelessness or negligence of a co-employee, although a stranger may recover for an injury following the same carelessness or negligence. This rule grew up under the domestic system, when employer and employee worked side by side. But when expanded methods are intro- duced this old rule becomes somewhat ridiculous. Yet, as the common-law rule grew up before great industrial enterprises were established, courts have been governed by it ; but now it is being broken down by statutory restrictions in different parts of the world, although it still holds good in many States. There are very many other points where changes in relationship have been made by the change in system. Look- ing the field over broadly, the conclusion must be reached that on the whole the working people have been gainers during the progress of the past century — gainers not only in wages, both real and nominal, but in their relations to society. To a very marked degree, as was long ago pointed out by De Tocqueville, the American nation consists of workers. Such wealth-aris- tocracy as there is in the country is almost al- ways traceable back by the remove of a gener- ation or so to a hard-working ancestor, of "the laboring class." At the present time the younger members of very wealthy families are devoting their time and service to labor as assiduously as if their subsistence depended upon their earn- ings. In America, therefore, labor holds a more honorable place in the minds of all the people than it does in any other land, and individuals can look forward to the highest class of associa- tions, both social and intellectual, as a result of their application of skill, provided always they are ruled by integrity, and shall build up a char- acter which will sustain itself under all con- ditions. A study of conditions, however, proves that the base of the social structure is growing narrower as time, as education, as a wise altru- ism lead men out of their lowly conditions to a better plane ; and the American laborer every- where is an active, earnest, and, I believe, an honest factor in keeping up the struggle to secure a higher standard of living. Our 18.500,000, and over, of wage-earners con- stitute a vast body on whose prosperity, intelli- gence, and moral worth is based the welfare of the Republic. With their happiness goes the happiness of the whole people. But they demand something more than is indicated by content- ment, for their experience with American inven- tions and educational system 1 ; teacher them that from rude instruments of toil they have become intelligent factors, in both a social and a political sense. So it is they join in the great struggle to lift themselves to a higher plane of living. All the disturbances which we have seen during the past score of years, and which seem, superficially considered, to indicate that we are approaching an industrial war, are but protests against fixed conditions. These disturbances often arise from unwise considerations and from ignorance of the conditions of production, but they all indicate one grand trend, and must be considered as a part of the progressive movements of our age. These views constitute the chief elements of what is known as the labor movement, in which American labor has actively participated for a great many years — first, seeking organization; second, by organization, making its protests and issuing its demands. Philosophically, these pro- tests and demands must be viewed as educational factors and not as war factors. "Labor," Ruskin says, "is the contest of the life of man with an opposite ; the term 'life' in- cluding his intellect, soul and physical power, contending with question, difficulty, trial or ma- terial force. Labor is of a higher or lower order as it includes more or fewer of the elements of life ; and labor of good quality, in any kind, in- cludes always as much intellect and feeling as will fully and harmoniously regulate the physical force." So the struggle of the wage-earner be- comes of that high order which insists upon recognition as a factor in securing to all people something beyond the mere wants of existence. A man who is working simply to secure food, shelter, and raiment, that is, the conditions abso- lutely essential to keep him an efficient working machine, is not the best product of civilization ; but the man who is willing to work industriously to secure these absolute necessaries to make his services efficient, and then, over and beyond them, something of the spiritualizing necessaries of life, is a credit to our civilization; and these spiritualizing influences can be secured only when, after paying for the necessary lubrication of his working muscles, he is able to furnish himself and his loved ones with elements of life which have heretofore been considered luxuries. He must be able to secure something of these higher elements, or he loses, and retrogression is the result. He must be able to educate his family, and to give them of the best things of life to such an extent that they become active participants in the results of invention, which throw around life everywhere more than could be secured under old conditions. From what has been said it will be clearly understood that conditions are not always favor- able ; that there are fluctuations, business de- pressions, having their discouraging influence, and strikes, unsettling the public mind. The clash between ethical and economical conditions leads to disruptions sometimes in business asso- ciations, and arrays, to all appearances, capital on the one side and labor on the other, and gives color to the occasional prophecy that this clash will lead to bloody strife. The causes for this clash are mostly ethical, growing out of the relations of men and the lack of appreciation of the duty which is owed to the public. Mi caulay said that the evils arising from liberty were only to be cured with more liberty. So the evils AMERICAN LEGION OF HONOR — AMERICAN LITERATURE which apparently surround US at the present tune, and which apparently grow out of the industrial world, are the results of an intelligence which did not exist in the past, and the cure for them re intelligence. Capital and labor are in- telligent enough to get into difficulty; they are not always intelligent enough yet to keep out of difficulty. It requires a very high moral character on the part of both employer and employee for each to recognize the rights and the privileges of the other: but with tl lition, quarrels, as such, will largely cease, and contests of mind will take the place of those unhappy contests which arc now so frequent. When the employee recognizes that his highest social duty is to render the very best service of wdiich he is capa- ble, and tin- employer recognizes that his Inch- est social duty is to compensate the best service with the best wage, a vast deal of friction will be avoided. Integrity of business involves both the employing and the employed elements of society. Confidence in each other is the surest cure for many of the difficulties, and while the world is growing altruistic, it will not grow altruistic at the expense of individual develop- ment ; but after the rendering of the best social service there will come a co-ordinated force in- volving both altruism and individualism. Either means destruction in a degree. Co-ordination means success and reasonable happiness. The ethical force cannot rule at the expense of the economical, nor can the economical force rule at the expense of the ethical. Their co-ordinaticn is the true line of progress. As American labor comprehends this more and more clearly, and I believe it is comprehending these principles, and as the employer comprehends them more and more clearly, we may hope for the adjustment of difficulties on a plane of moral responsibility not yet reached, except incidentally. The settlement of labor controversies is one thing, their preven- tion another. If the intelligence of different elements lias not reached that degree whereby they can be prevented, then there should be some recognition of that settlement and adjustment which recognize the importance of each side in the success of industrial enterprises. Carroll D. Wright, U. S. Couunissioner of Labor. American Legion of Honor, a beneficial fraternal organization founded in 1878; reported for [902: total membership, 6,386; grand coun- cils, 8; sub-councils, 260; benefits disbursed in its last fiscal year, $628,156. American Literature. A hundred years ago and for half a century afterward, every assembly of students in this country was enter- tained by discussions on a "Possible Literature" of America, — how soon there would be an American literature was a favorite question, grief or complaint that there was not an Amer- ican literature came in if the speaker or writer were of cynical vein. The introspection wdiich was thus developed among people who were born for something better than introspection had its good results. Every printed word, one may say. was collected, which showed that between 1602 and the 19th century, any man or woman had written anything in America. Such a col- lection as Samuel Kettell's "Specimens of Amer- ican Poetry' shows the eagerness with which critics who were forecasting a glorious future for our literature were willing to preserve all the crystals from the past and eager to persuade us that they were jewels. The truth seems to be that for the 17th and 18th centuries there was no class of men or women who would now be called "literary people." At the same time, the new settlers and the nun and women of half a dozen generations which followed, said what they had to say, and generally said it well. For they did not think much about the way of saying it, they did not talk much about it. they had no professional critics. There were among them those who "harked hack" to English models. After the establishment of newspapers (see Newspapers), which runs back to the year 1704, the sad necessity of journalism (q.v.) compelled the press to create every week a given number of square inches of what is called "matter." Thus, there appeared in the three cities a few of those writers who have to write as much when they have nothing to say as when they eagerly proclaim something not known to the world before. It was not until 1555 that in the printed books of England the first fruits of the dis- covery of America appear. Richard Eden then published his translation of Peter Martyr's 'Dec- ades,' and he adds to them some new narra- tives of voyages not described in the original. An English translation of Rihaut's 'Florida' was printed in 1563. In 1576 the first edition of Sir Humphrey Gilbert's plea for a northwest passage appeared, and an account of Frobisher's voyages was published in 1578. In 1582 we touch solid ground as we come upon the name of Hakluyt. The Island of Roanoke has the honor of furnishing the first original American work to English literature. The four letters of Ralph Lane, who was the first commander of Raleigh's first colony, are the oldest American writings now extant of any Englishman and were perhaps the first ever written. They were written 12 Aug. 1585 from what he calls Porte Ferdynando. One of them was to the famous Sir Philip Sidney. They were printed in i860 for the first time in the Transactions of the American Antiquarian Society. The English archives have now been thoroughly searched and have probably yielded up all that can be found in them of intercourse with America in this mythical century. There are two or three narratives of the adventures of sailors who straggled from Mexico, where the Spaniards had made them prisoners, to the fisheries of the northeast, where they were relieved by the fish- ermen. The earliest of these is dated in the year 1582. In the collections of Hakluyt and Purchas will be found other narratives of a similar character which struggled into print in one way or another. Professor Tyler in his admirable survey of the subject, places the year of the birth of American literature in the ode of Michael Drayton, published in 1607, the year always assigned as the birthday of the nation, the year of the birth of Virginia, the year of John Smith and Powhatan and Pocahontas. The history and criticism which belong to this subject have been admirably handled by the Messrs. Duyckinck, by Professor Tyler's 'His- tory of American Literature from Colonial Times.' by Mr. Kettell, who has been named, and by Professor Charles F. Richardson's 'American Literature' (1607-1885). It must AMERICAN LITERATURE be enough here to say that Captain John Smith in his various accounts of Virginia and of his voyages on the coast, created a real interest in that "brave new world which hath such people in it." Dr. Tyler refers also to George Percy, William Strachey, Alexander Whitaker, John Pory, and George Sandys. The original edi- tions of the publications of these men are now among the most interesting nuggets of the book collectors. The Hakluyt Society has re- published many of them and has proved its value to the students of our early history. There is one interesting tract of Strachey 's which would answer one pathetic question. He says, "Before I have done I will tell you the story of the lost colony." But in nothing that has been found of Strachey's is that history told. That school of historians whose habit is to draw a blue pencil, as the trade says, across everything entertaining in history is fond of stamping John Smith as a liar wherever he goes outside Sandy Hook or Lincolnshire or the Strand. It is the fashion of to-day to throw the story of Pocahontas overboard and even Dr. Tyler, who is sympathetic, calls it the "fable of Pocahontas." But this is to be said, when IOO men trained like cockneys, embarked on an unknown sea, explored an unknown bay, tried the adventure of an unknown river, talked in an unknown language with a savage chief who has never heard of such people before, the in- cidents of such acts when written by them will not be exactly like those of a London counting- room or of a college lecture room. The Hunga- rian gentlemen, I believe, find Smith's account of Hungary and its Turkish wars intelligible and reliable. Smith's surveys of Massachusetts Bay are entirely intelligible and show an ac- curate acquaintance with the region which he describes. Now, it is hardly fair when you can verify an old author's personal narrative in nine cases out of ten, to say in the tenth case that he is a liar, simply because you have no material for verification, on the one hand, or contradiction, on the other. Close after the little series of Virginian writers came the series of the Massachusetts historians. They also have been most carefully edited ; and it is now only by a fortunate accident that a student of to-day is able to add any anecdote new to other students regarding the first generation of New England. The journal of William Bradford, one of the first governors of the Plymouth Colony, has a story which is dramatic. With a fortunate prescience of the value of every word which related to the Plymouth emigration, William Bradford wrote the 'History of Plymouth Plantation. 1 His sons and indeed all the people of the old colony knew of the exceeding worth of this volume. It was used by Morton, Prince, and Hutchin- son and the others of our earlier historians. A great part of it was copied and from the copy thus made it was consulted by our historians till the year 1855. In that year a quotation from it, which was not in our copies, appeared in Bishop Wilberforce's history of the Eng- lish Church. On inquiry it proved that this gentleman had consulted the original which was in the Library of the Bishop of London in Fulham Palace. He immediately gave permis- sion that the whole should be copied on the request of Mr. Charles Deane. Subsequently, as a result of the efforts of Senator Hoar, the various authorities in England gave back the precious manuscript to the State of Massachu- setts, and it is now one of the treasures most sacredly preserved in the State House in Bos- ton. As Dr. Tyler calls Drayton's ode the be- ginning of American literature, the Massachu- setts people may well call William Bradford's chronicle the beginning of the literature of New England. It should not be forgotten, however, that the letters containing the accounts of Gosnold's unsuccessful colony in 1602 were written before the time when Bradford began to write his history. When the larger colony of Massachusetts Bay was formed the general court of that col- ony, according to a very early record, directs that paper books shall be furnished for pre- serving all journals by the first settlers. For- tunately for their successors, Governor John Winthrop in the midst of all his other cares used his manuscript books, and his notes made almost daily are now cited as Winthrop's 'His- tory of New England.' They cover the period from 29 March 1630, when he sailed from England, to 11 Nov. 1648. It is a con- venient aid to memory that Winthrop's death followed close on the execution of Charles the First. Sadly enough all the other blank books thus furnished seem to have served other purposes from that for which they were in- tended. They were perhaps, used for sermons now forgotten, or possibly for cartridges so soon as cartridges were invented. Such mate- rials for the early history as have been pre- served have generally been printed by the care of historical societies or similar agencies. There is a charm about them such as belongs to all fresh narrative where the writers are thinking of the thing done and not of the methods of expressing it. This charm which hangs around Columbus' 'Letters' ; Sir Thomas More's 'Utopia' ; Defoe's 'Robinson Crusoe' ; Swift's 'Gulliver's Travels,' is the same charm which is to be found in Purchas and Hakluyt and the early narratives of those who wrote by the light of a pine knot with pens made from a bird's wing. In such simple utterances we are to look for the first handiwork of American literature. The first graduates of Harvard College made a class of nine young men, six of whom sought their fortunes in Europe. The year of their Commencement was 1642, and the theses are preserved in which according to the custom of their time, they offered to defend 54 propositions against all comers. It has been observed by modern critics that all these propositions are now known to be false. This is a somewhat cynical statement with regard to them. But when one learns that these young gentlemen were prepared to prove that Hebrew is the mother of languages, one looks with caution upon their courageous statements on other points with regard to the heavens or the earth, the sea or the skies. Four of the number be- came clergymen. The name most distinguished in history is that of Sir George Downing, who did not distinguish himself for the courage of his convictions. As early as 1639, the government of the colony had cared for its future education hy the establishment at Cambridge of a printing plant. This was done almost si- multaneously with the establishment of Har- vard College by the same authority. And it was a good omen that the first publication ac- AMERICAN LITERATURE credited to the new printing house was the 'Freeman's Oath,' as ordered by the general court, to be taken by those who were chosen into the company. Universal suffrage was not yet dreamed of even by Sir Thomas More. The first book which can be called a book which appeared from the press, was the 'Bay Psalm Book,' the work of Thomas Welde, John Eliot, and Richard Mather. John Eliot already looking forward to his work among the Indians was making his first studies of the language of the people for whom he cared. The modern students speak of this language as the Natick dialect of the Algonquin tongue. Eliot's work was of the first impor- tance and before he died the publications in that language alone of books printed either in our Cambridge or in London makes a depart- ment in literature of more than 30 volumes. These books were printed to be used in wig- wams and log cabins. The copies which strayed into libraries were but few and those Indian books of that century which remain are among the rarest treasures of the collectors. Of Eliot's 'New Testament' in the first edition there are but 14 copies. Of the second revised edi- tion, published more elegantly, there are 39 copies. The work that Eliot gave in translat- ing the Bible into the Algonquin tongue has been spoken of more than once as work thrown away. But to say this is absurd. Eliot proved himself to be one of the first philologists of any period of literature. His analysis of the Indian language is to this moment a guide to those who choose to study it. With the progress of discovery it has proved that the Algonquin language, of which the Massachusetts language was a dialect, was the language of more than half the Indians of our part of the Continent. To this hour it is spoken by the Catawbas who are living in North Carolina, the Pamunkeys who are living in Virginia, by the Delawares who have been carried from Delaware Bay to Kan- sas, by the Micmacs, Penobscots and other In- dians of Maine and of the northeast, and even by the Arapahoes in the west. Northward and westward it is spoken as far as the tribes of the great Ojibwa family, far beyond Lake Superior, and often near to the Arctic Ocean. Of 300,000 Indians, more or less, now in the territory of the United States, more than half would have been understood in conversation by Massasoit and Philip. An admirable bibliography of Algonquin literature has been prepared by James Constantine Pilling. It is published by the United States Bureau of Ethnology. The work of devoted Moravian ministers in Penn- sylvania in the same lines belongs rather to the next century. Among the early settlers of Massachusetts was Anne Bradstrect, a girl of 18. She was the daughter of Thomas Dudley, who became the second governor of Massachusetts. She was the person called the "Tenth Muse" by Cotton Mather. Her poems, many of which were writ- ten before she came to America, are an interest- ing and curious memorial of the better educated colonists. She lived for most of her life at Andover in Middlesex County in Mas- sachusetts Bay. The most diligent search in her poems shows hardly any reference to the outward aspect of the country in which she lived. Her flowers and her birds belong to the flora and fauna of England and not of Middlesex County. Between 1642 and 1700 Increase Mather and Cotton Mather, are the names most often referred to as we lock back on our literary history. Of Increase Mather we have in print 85 publications, mostly separate sermons. Of Cotton Mather the col- lection is much larger, the number of titles being 382. The modern fashion is to speak of the Mathers with a sneer as bigots and to dis- miss them from the lofty consideration of our time. But whoever remembers the duties to which they had to put their hands is disposed to regard them more favorably. There was but little subdivision of work for the men who had been educated to be the leaders of their country. And certainly some allowance is to be made for ignorance of the laws of electricity when the teacher whom you are judging has to study his electricity as Cotton Mather did while he en- courages soldiers for warfare, while he checks the smallpox by inoculation, while he is writ- ing the history of the past and is caring for the poverty of to-day. Franklin says in a letter of his to Cotton Mather's son, that if he himself had been of any value to the world, he owed it to Cotton Mather's 'Essays to Do Good.' It is rather hard to throw Cotton Mather over- board either as a quack or a fanatic when such a man as Franklin was willing to write for him such an epitaph. It is fortunate for this generation that at a comparatively early period of his life Mather brought together in his Magnalia historical papers which he had already written, some of which had been printed. The date of the first edition of the Magnalia is 1702, but the work belongs almost entirely to the 17th century. Cotton Mather was himself born in the year 1663, so that a good deal of his record of the history of the first settlement is put on paper at second hand. Occasionally an unfortunate error here has puzzled his readers. For instance, before the discovery of the original Bradford manuscript, we owed to Mather the statement that the Pilgrim Fathers came from Ansterfield in the county of Yorkshire. This proved to be the misprint of the London printer for Ansterfield. It was only on the discovery of this error by the late William Hunter that the American pilgrimages to Scrooby and Austerfield begun. A good deal of injustice has been done Mather from what is in itself a comparative trifle, that his great book has not yet been edited by any competent editor. Even the detail that there is no decent index to it has greatly diminished its usefulness to historians in this generation. They ought to remember that he was but 39 years old when it was printed, and the corrections to his work which a man makes between 39 years of age and 60 nowhere appear in it. The reader is referred to the articles Mather, Increase; Mather. Cotton, and Mather, Samuel, which in their place state what these men did for the growing colony during the period when it ceased to be a trading company and became, really an inde- pendent State. Thomas Hutchinson, a governor of Massa- chusetts, was a man of letters. And if he had not been the unfortunate governor whose dis- loyalty to the State gained for him the hatred of those around him, he would have been re- membered with gratitude as such. He was an enthusiast about the history of the Pilgrims and of the fathers of Massachusetts. The first AMERICAN LITERATURE volume of his 'History of Massachusetts' was published in Boston in 1764, and the second volume in 1767. Alas, he was not equal to the duties of a great crisis, he deserted his country- men, and by his country was branded as a traitor. But for this he would be named to-day as the first in the series of distinguished Ameri- can historians. The assiduous and successful attention which has been paid to the century of coloniza- tion has very naturally given to New England readers a better history of what passed in the 17th century than we have of the first half of the 18th century. During that time the people of the United States were involved in war with France. This meant for them a frontier war in which every savage was commissioned by French or Jesuit authorities to descend upon the borders of the English settlers. Excepting the stories of frontier warfare, there was not much to write history about. There are a few exceptions but in general the crown governors sent over by William and Mary, Queen Anne, or by the first Georges were but a poor set. They initiated nothing and were well pleased if they could avoid a quarrel with the colonial assemblies. The one distinguished royal gov- ernor is William Shirley, who filled so well the duties almost unexpected, of a commander in chief of North America. So it happens that in reviewing the literature of the country we have no longer such unaffected and simple narrative. But we find ourselves more in the walks of religious speculation and of theology. In the front of the writers on such subjects is Jonathan Edwards, who chal- lenged the attention of the learned in the Eng- lish-speaking world by studies and results which have become famous. In the penury of frontier villages, and living day by day in what seems very petty surroundings, this distinguished man elaborated his studies on the divine counsels and placed his poor limits on the infinite in methods and language which will survive all other American literature of the first half of the century. It is inevitable perhaps that in the midst of such discussions of the Idea, there shall appear on the other side of the horizon discussions of the fact, or of those realities which men can see with the eyes and hear with their ears. And in our case, Benjamin Franklin was born into the world in the year 1706. Before he was a man he was well advanced in those studies of the English language which gave him afterward his power to express himself to men. Long before he was a statesman and diplomatist, he was conducting his experiments on electricity and when he drew the lightning from the skies, he attracted the attention of all the learned world of his time. When we speak of the American authors of those 50 years the fame of Edwards and Franklin overshadows all the rest. With the discussions attendant on the American Revolution, a new school of author- ship began. It now seems clear enough that the more thoughtful leaders of English opinion were from the very beginning amused, not to say delighted, with the simple dignity with which such men as the Adamses. Franklin. Dick- inson, and the great Virginia statesmen con- ducted the discussions, whether of matters of trade, of taxation, or of government. "History, my Lord." said Lord Chatham, in his famous address to the House of Lords, "has been my favorite study. ... I must avow that in all my reading, and I have read Thucydides and have studied and admired the master states of the world, for solidity of rea- son, force of sagacity, and wisdom of conclu- sion, no nation or body of men can stand in preference to the General Congress at Philadel- phia. The histories of Greece and Rome give us nothing equal to it." To this moment, indeed, no careful student of constitutional law or of the foundations of states can go forward in any intelligent inquiry without reading with care the work of the American statemen of that time. It is interesting to observe that at the same time, perhaps from the same cause, the theo- logical literature of America becomes less and less interesting. The mind and heart and soul and strength of the educated men of America was steadily drifting into an interest of the pres- ent relations between God and man and the present sway of the eternal law, much more important to men and women, and among the rest, of men of letters, than theological expla- nations of the secrets of the universe. The student of to-day finds it worth while to read the publications of Thomas Mayhew, of Boston, of Dr. Witherspoon, of Princeton, of Dr. Sam- uel Johnson, of New York. But this is not be- cause he cares so much for what is called theol- ogy in its narrow definition, but because these men enter as champions of the people into that larger theology of men who really believe that they themselves and all men may be partakers of the divine nature. Franklin with his genuine instinct for "To- gether'^ did not live long in Philadelphia with- out bringing together one and another club of men of inquiring disposition. One of these clubs still exists in the American Philosophical Society (q.v.). Another founded the fire de- partment of Philadelphia. And, indeed, most of the activities which had given that city dis- tinction, even before 1775, may be traced to such origins. Franklin's own newspaper, the 'Even- ing Post,' may be spoken of as really a literary journal. 'Poor Richard's Almanac' (q.v.) was not only an index of time and weather, but it was in its way a philosophical treatise. It was soon translated into French. Le Bonhomme Richard was known in French hamlets which knew nothing of the tea tax or the stamp tax. So soon as peace was declared such institutions as the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, as the Massachusetts Historical Society, as Tammany in New York, which was originally a scientific and philanthropic institution, came into being. The governors of the colleges took new courage : and Commencements and the cele- brations which accompanied them gave good occasions for such appeals or lamentations with regard to an American literature, or the want of it, as gave a healthy stimulus to the literary life of the new nation. A curious illustration of the increasing con- fidence in home and the literature of home, as years went by. would be found in the series of college addresses of which the first were pub- lished at Cambridge in 1796. The Phi Beta Kappa Society, founded in 1776 at William and Mary College in Virginia, soon outgrew its first limitations ; and its annual exercises at Cam- bridge and New Haven were attended by grad- uate members who liked to renew their college AMERICAN LITERATURE memories. Brandies of it were founded in Brown College in Providence, in Dartmouth College in New Hampshire, and as years passed on, in other similar institutions. The early addresses by scholarly men in these societies were almost uniformly exhortation that the peo- ple of America might pay more attention to scholarship and literature. Meanwhile, and under such incentives, there grew up of course in one centre or another, small coteries of literary men and literary women. With an amusing regard to tradition such men seemed to have felt that there could be no literature without an epic or two on which it should be built Timothy Dwight's 'Conquest of Canaan,' Joel Barlow's 'Columbiad,' which are all but forgotten, and several others which are forgot- ten, were the results, almost of a sense of duty in this regard. No one can suppose that either of e men was inspired by any divine inrlatus of the poet. As you read the dreary lines you feci that the writer thought that there must be an epic and that because there must be he would write it, with the same feeling that a column of soldiers storms a redoubt. By the side of such men, however, there came to be naturally nun and women who loved to clothe great thoughts or charming with fitting dress. There came, more and more, to such men and women, as there were, more and more readers to sym- pathize with them. And as popular education and wealth and leisure, and above all, freedom, brought upon the stage such men and women, the literature of America such as it is to-day was born. It is interesting to see that almost all of the early books which we should now class as "efforts" in literature, were published by sub- scription. And there is something pathetic in the memoirs of the earlier literary men where they describe their personal visits from place to place as they solicited subscriptions to pay for the printing of their books. President Dwight himself visited the camp of Washing- tun in 1775 and obtained the subscription of Washington and the other distinguished men around him for the publication of the 'Conquest of Canaan.' The reader must remember that the practical introduction of stereotyping in England or America is as late as the beginning of the 19th century. It was necessary, there- fore, to test the market in some way when a book was first printed, so that the printer or publisher or author might know how many copies should be printed. It must be remem- bered, also, that the printers had no capital which would enable them to keep in type the cumbrous pages of a book which passed the size of a pamphlet. Paine's 'Common Sense,' in 1776, was probably the first hook which attained at once a circulation in the least approaching the large editions of to-day. The trade, as the hook-selling community still likes to call itself, now begins putting out as a feeler a small edi- tion printed from stereotypes. In our day in a vault in the side of a mountain, or perhaps in a vault under a sidewalk we preserve such plates from which a book has been printed, and according as the demand may prove, new edi- tions can be issued at a comparatively small expense. But up to the year 1813 there was no such resource. A great publisher is on record as saying that when you have sold 5,000 copies of a book, you know ynii can sell ioo.ooo. But that before the book is printed no man or woman can do more than guess whether it will haw 1,000 leaders or 1,000.000. There is a great truth hid- den in this exaggeration. See American Pub- lishing. The pecuniary poverty of the printers of the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century caused many American authors to go to England fur the printing of their production. Barlow's 'Columbiad' was printed in England lrving's books appeared first in London. Indeed Irving's wide reputation may be said to have been English bed ire it was American. And he spent much of his early life in Europe, perhaps from the feeling that for a man of letters Eu- rope was a home while America was a wilder- ness. James Fenimore Cooper made Europe his home for many years, feeling apparently that he could not find society of his own kind in his own land. The same is true of other American writers as far down as the thirties of the 10th century. That was the worse for the infant literature of the nation. Writer- watched pain- fully for the expressions of English criticism, and one line from a Grub Street critic was sweeter to them and worth more than any words from their own countrymen. It is indeed im- possible to overstate the effect which was even- tually produced by the "American system," as it was called, in the discussions of tariff legisla- tion which followed the short war with England. From the moment when the American printer could send out to the world books as well printed as the printers of England, one may trace new strength in American authorship. The International Copyright law of 1801 compels the publishers of all books which claim American copyright to print them in America. In a truly celebrated article in the 'Edinburgh Review' of 1820, of which no other line is remembered, Sydney Smith said, "Who reads an American book? who looks upon an American picture?" The men who painted American pictures were very mad, as their vernacular would say ; and the men and women who wrote American books were equally mad. The writers had a better chance to express their anger than the painters. The sneer implied was the more cut- ting because for most purposes of literature it was true. Possibly it had some share in the growth, almost from that moment, of a litera- ture which can fairly be called American. The worst of it was, perhaps, that Sydney Smith was in an advance guard of the Liberals of England. He could not be called the product of an "effete civilization," and his words could not be ascribed to Tory jealousy. American readers had known how to prize him and they read his articles if they did not read their own. But really an American author had little right to complain so long as Mr. Cooper called a woman a female simply because Walter Scott did, so long as our writers knew more of Robin-red-breasts and bulfinches than they knew of bluejays or mock- ing birds, so long as their best actors came from England as every play upon their stage was Eng- lish, and so long as their scholarly men read the 'Edinburgh Review' and the 'London Quar- terly' and the 'New Monthly Magazine' as they rend no American journal. The American col- lege boy knew much more of the loves and hates of literary men in England, one might almost say, than the English boy of the same time did. AMERICAN LITERATURE The English reviews and magazines passed from hand to hand in the American reading rooms while their American rivals died a slow death due to the incompetency of most of the writers. But as the 19th century advanced the tide turned. Dr. Holmes in a happy phrase, quoted as often as Sydney Smith's which has been cited, fixes Emerson's first Phi Beta Kappa address as "our intellectual declaration of independence." I heard the address in 1837, and half a century afterward I heard his second Phi Beta address. Whoever will compare the two will see what Dr. Holmes means. To the thoughtful reader now it seems impossible that Emerson's first address should have seemed extravagant or in any way, indeed, out of the common to the men of that time. But it did seem so then. It is true that ever since the century began such addresses on Commencement Days or on other literary occasions, have still given four fifths of the time to pathetic appeals to young men to create an American literature. The orators, generally, clergymen or lawyers, did not understand that such books as Lewis and Clark's journals were American literature, that Pitkin's statistics was a book of American litera- ture, that Flint's 'Mississippi,' or Pike's 'Ad- ventures' were vigorous bits of proper national literature, that the Constitution of the United States or John Adams' proposals for the State constitutions were American literature, as much as the Waverley Novels belong to Scotch litera- ture, or Petrarch's 'Sonnets' to Italian literature. But by the middle of the 19th century, people had found out that literature is not a thing by itself to be worshipped and loved like some lonely classical statue in some separate shrine in a gallery, but that literature is simply the expression of what is. In the matter of Ameri- can literature it proved that Americans had to state for the world the foundation principles of government. They had to describe for the world physical features of a continent of which the larger world knew nothing. And even the lan- guage in which they spoke would bear the marks of the climate, the soil, and the history of that continent. So soon as we throw aside the follies of talking about literature as literature and of worshipping it as a separate idol, so soon Amer- ican literature can be spoken of as a thing in any sort distinct from the literature of the feudal system or other literature of the ancient world. To review in the very briefest way the lit- erary advance of the nation from the era of independence to the 9th of March 1904, we have to look first at the speeches and letters and pamphlets of the statesmen; and next at the reports of the explorers. There are individual poems and a few sporadic books in prose which linger in the remembrance of antiquaries, — Philip Frenau's Revolution poems, one or two sermons, perhaps may be classed among such memorials. To speak in a broader sense the first work of Irving stands as the first work in the large _ calendar of our modern literature. His amusing studies of early New York were known then, but the 'Sketch Book' as it was published in London in the years between 1820 and 1822 at once obtained a wide reputation, both in London and in America. Irving showed from the first that he could handle American subjects with a pen as light and a fancy as charming as gave life to Bracebridge Hall Vol. I— 15 or his other English studies. In 1825, when Navarrete first published in Madrid the original documents of Columbus' voyage, Alexander H. Everett, who was then our Minister in Spain, called Irving's attention to these invaluable memoirs and suggested his work on the life of Columbus. Irving went at once to Madrid and was attached to the American Legation there while he studied the subject which is so closely identified with his name. And afterward, when the Spanish people received him as our Minister there, he enjoyed his well deserved fame. Here was an American who could meet English writers on their own terms. Irving was master as well as they of whatever is meant by style or method in literature, whatever secret of the guild there is. In our time there is no longer a patron who shall endow a book as an emperor might endow an opera house at his capital. For a time or a nation without patrons, you must have such patronage of the public in advance as Dr. Dwight sought for with his subscription book ; or, as it has proved, in 150 years, you must have magazines. This means, if one speaks to the Philistines, that you cannot have large whole- sale business, no, and you cannot have manu- factures unless there be retail business. Dr. Johnson and Oliver Goldsmith had found this out when they worked for Cave and the 'Gen- tleman's Magazine.' (See Periodical Litera- ture.) One and another adventurer tried the magazine experiment in Boston, or Philadelphia or New York. But alas, the printers of the magazines were almost as poor as the authors were. The people of the country also were very poor in other affairs. As late as 1834 Dr. Holmes wrote for the 'New England Magazine' the first papers in the 'Autocrat of the Break- fast Table.' But the 'New England Magazine,' even with such contributors, died for want of readers. The new series of the Autocrat, in 1857, begins with the words, "As I was saying when you interrupted me." which referred to the death of the first series a quarter century before. Still, the names of those old magazines are interesting grave stones which show the roadway for a struggling national literature. The 'Harvard Register' of 1807 is one of the earliest. The Lyceum follows the Collegian, Harvardiana, and now almost every university gives this excellent field for the tournament of squires and even of pages who look forward to golden spurs of knighthood. A few lines of the Harvard 'Lyceum' of 1810 may be worth copy- ing. They are from a clever parody of Barlow's 'Columbiad' and describe an early steamboat. They are among the boy amusements of Edward Everett. So where high Hudson belts his hundred hills, Winds his wide wave, and York's broad bason fills; With engine force the fluid fields to plough. The mighty Steam-boat points his sailless (.row. Knees from the winds no gales, the sea no tides. Whirls the wheel oar, and o'er the river rides. l,o with what art the nice machinery turns. With what tierce force the pitchy pine pole burns. See the black Boiler, in whose darksome womb. The prison'd water vapours into fume: The hollow Cylinder, whose shining side Cramps the crook'd Chain, and turns the densing tide: Etc., etc., etc. Of those of the magazines proper which were manfully and loyally sustained for many years is the 'Knickerbocker' which was published in New York monthly for several years. Most AMERICAN LITERATURE of the authors who won distinction in the litera- ture of the century made their maiden contribu- tions to its pages. In Boston a beginning, which proved to be a foundation, was made in the issue of the 'Monthly Anthology,' of which the first number was printed in 1809. It was the work of a literary club, and it is very creditable to the literary life of the day. Some original trans- lations from the minor poems of the great Ger- man poets slipped in. And by this time, Amer- ica had found out the resources of the German colleges. George Bancroft, Frederick Hedge, Edward Everett, Henry F. Quitman, George Ticknor studied in the German colleges. The success of the 'Anthology' and perhaps a cer- tain jealousy of the literary tyranny of the 'London Quarterly' and the 'Edinburgh Re- view' led William Tudor, with the spirited young fellows who wrote for the 'Anthology,' to announce the 'North American Review' of which the first number was published in 1815. ft may be said of the 'North American Review' that a desire to imitate the English quarterlies weakened it for perhaps a quarter of a century. But its tone was always dignified and on really national questions it was American. In the earlier numbers of the 'Review' it admitted poetry and some short articles which did not pretend to be criticism of books. The suc- cessive editors of the 'Review' were William Tudor, Edward Tyrrel Channing, Edward Everett, Jared Sparks, John G. Palfrey, Francis Bowen, Andrew Preston Peabody and Alex- ander Everett, and James Russell Lowell. A few years after the Civil War it was removed from Boston to New York under the direc- tion and charge of Allen Thorndike Rice. In Philadelphia what was called the 'American Quarterly Review' was published under similar auspices. Meanwhile what had attracted attention at once to a very great extent was the success of Cooper's novels. The later novels of Scott were still engaging the attention of readers when Cooper's earlier stories were published. He had left Vale College without a degree, disgusted with something or other as youngsters are apt to be in colleges, and had joined the United States navy. This as it proved, was fortunate for the literature of America. After the short war with England, he was stationed on Lake Ontario, which was at that time in the wilder- ness. At his father's home he had already made acquaintance with the wrecks of the Six Nation Indians (q.v.). At Oswego he fell in somehow with the last of the Mohicans. His study of a real forest and his studies of the forecastle of American ships are both genuinely national, and although he could not resist the spell of the "great enchanter," and imitated Sir Walter Scott whenever he got a chance, the early Cooper novels have the great charm of being interesting. To this hour the school boy reads them as his grandfather read them and regards them among Ids best friends. In Cooper's later novels there may be seen a tinge of ill temper because be fancied that be bad not been esteemed fairly by bis own countrymen. But the early novels have established themselves in a well assured place in the literature of bis country. Few people remember them, but it is said that the German novels on American subjects by Sealsfield (q.v.) were the inducement for a time of the great German emigration which began as soon as these spirited books began to be printed. His German name was Karl Posted. Meanwhile the leaders of the nation had found out that a republic stands or falls accord- ing to the education of its people. It is impos- sible to estimate the change produced by the early determination of the more civilized States to improve the education of every child born in their borders. At the beginning of the century you might say that there was nobody to buy books, even if angels or archangels had de- scended from heaven to write them. But even in the middle of the century an army of readers, men and women, had been created. It began to be evident that a good book in the English lan- guage had more readers in America than it hail in England. It began to appear that the reputa- tions of English writers depended quite :is much upon the American readers as upon those of the British Islands. Scott, Byron, Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Southey, had more readers "ii this side of the ocean than on their own. The same was true later of Macaulay's 'History' and of other books of permanent value. Disraeli said as early as 1845 that America was the pres- ent posterity for the Englishman, — that an Eng- lish author knew wdiat posterity would think of him by learning what the American of to-day thought of him. The creation of such a body of readers led to the growth of a genuine Amer- ican demand for wdiat could be called an Amer- ican literature. A school of history grew up first in which Irving had led the way in which the great historical addresses of Webster and the Evcretts and other orators were an essential part. The subserviency to English critics di- minished as more and more scholars came from France and Germany. It would be fair to say that Bancroft, Prescott and Motley, as histo- rians, Emerson as a philosopher, Longfellow, Lowell, Holmes, and Whittier as poets, made a distinct American school after the year 1830 when Bancroft announced his plan for bis his- tory, or more definitely perhaps in 1833. So far as this was a New England school it was some- what affected by the literature of the Continent of Europe, but this effect has been overstated. Emerson was not at all indebted to Germany in his work. Longfellow's poems are distinctly American when they are not translations. Lowell won his English reputation by the ad- mirably national characteristics of the Biglow Papers. Still a distinct ripple on the tide of literary advance may be found in all the sea- hoard States when in the twenties of the last century, the Holy Alliance (q.v.) exiled from Germany Lieber, Pollen, Beck, and some other young students who had displeased Metternich, What is familiarly called the Lyceum Sys- tem introduced an element of value constantly increasing in the higher education. It ought to be remembered that the Lyceum introduced Ralph Waldo Emerson to the people of America in a much shorter time perhaps than any pub- lished writing would have done without its as- sistance. Where the trustees and faculties of colleges would have refused to invite Mr. Emer- son to speak, the students of college societies would gladly send him an invitation. (bice heard he was of course sure to be remembered. Not to speak of other lecturers who were in- structing all the northern states, arousing curi- ositv as to subjects on which they hardly touch- ed, Ralph Waldo Emerson when he took up the AMERICAN LITERATURE work of a prophet unlimited by the restrictions of the priesthood led the way in a revelation which has affected all the literature of his time, whether in America or in England. In the smaller New England circle, Margaret Fuller, afterward the Countess Ossoli, by "conversa- tions" and published essays called the attention of many young people to the wider realms of thought and especially to the more modern movements of philosophy and literature. With the existence of a sufficient body of readers large circulations became possible for magazines. The first which succeeded pecuni- arily were those who told the most stories, and it was on the basis of story telling that the 'Southern Literary Magazine,' 'Graham's Maga- zine.' the 'Godey's Ladies' Book,' and the 'Boston Miscellany of Literature and Fashion' came into being and by their success with the public created the literary magazine of to-day. When a Boston publisher could say in 1841, "We sell 1,000 copies every month to the Lowell fac- tory girls," the word was spoken which showed that a sufficient supply of readers is necessary in the creation of a literature, and will in its time bring into being a sufficient number of writers. The 'Knickerbocker,' the 'New Eng- land Magazine,' and the 'Port-Folio' had failed to enlist anything like the public support which waited on all decent magazine work after the public schools had created their army of readers. One and another ineffectual effort was made to turn away the current of the English magazines and to introduce an American circulation in its stead. It is interesting to see that the early numbers of 'Harper' were written almost wholly by English writers and large editions of •Fraser's Magazine,' of the 'Dublin University Magazine,' and of 'Blackwood' still made up the popular reading of the reading rooms. But in 1857 the 'Atlantic Monthly' was created with such writers as Bancroft, Prescott, Motley, Holmes, Lowell, and Longfellow among its very earliest contributors, and one may say, on its working staff. Lowell was an office editor of the 'Atlantic.' 'Putnam's Maga- zine,' in New York, sprang full armed into existence It introduced itself by an article which awakened curiosity, and perhaps one may say national pride, on the question, "Have we a Bourbon among us?" From that day to this, magazine literature has held an important part in the work of the better literary men of America. The short story had been invented in Eng- land. The serial story as Dickens and Thack- eray had shown, gave admirable opportunities for feeling the public pulse. It is amusing to- day to read that the publishers of the 'Anti- slavery Standard' doubted whether they should pay James Lowell $400 a year for his contribu- tions to that journal, contributions among which are some of the best poems which he ever wrote. This is only one among the many illustrations which peep out from the books of biography as to what Dr. Johnson or Goldsmith would have called the patronage of the readers of maga- zines and their editors. The encouragement to authors was little but it was enough. In the year 1849-5C the people who read anti-slavery newspapers began to talk of the serial issues in which the story of 'Uncle Tom's Cabin' was going forward in a newspaper called 'The Na- tiwnal Era.' The southern writers on the Civil War ascribe to that book the complete change in American politics and in the questions which led to the war which belongs to the middle of the century. In 1851 the story was published in book form and at once became known not simply in America but in England and in all the litera- ture of the civilized world by means of transla- tions. Its circulation in England, for instance, was the first circulation of a book on what was called popular prices. One edition of it ap- peared in a newspaper issue at the cost of one penny a copy. Mrs. Stowe's supremacy as a writer of fiction established itself at once and from that moment to this, American literature can make the boast that it has furnished the book of which more copies have been printed than of any other book which originated in the English language. It is a little curious that its only possible rival, if one considers simply the number of copies printed, is 'Robinson Crusoe.' Mrs. Stowe's story is that of a fugitive slave ; Defoe's story is that of a shipwrecked slave trader. Since the issue of 'Uncle Tom's Cabin' no American writer has cared to show his ac- quaintance with the etiquettes of marquises and dukes. The temptations of travel give to the American readers every now and then a good book as where 'Daisy Miller' takes them by night into the Coliseum, or when husband and wife stray together in the gardens of a German watering place. But no American writer selects a European scene from any wish to work for the sympathies of European readers. On our own continent our historians find their themes, our novelists their interests. With the Civil War the dependence upon English criticism and the respect for it died in a night. Up till that time, young America had permitted the dis- tance of the writer to be warrant for his edu- cation and his judgment. At that time in the nation's struggle for its existence, it received no sympathy from the writers of England. They had been trained under feudal institutions and they were glad and pleased that democratic insti- tutions were to fail. The young men and women of America learned that for the criticism or for the education which belonged to this nation, they must study their own country. In truth the society of America is American society, the laws of America are American laws. Its prospects and hopes are those of a democracy. As the strata of its rocks and the growth of its trees are different from those of England, so are the foundations of the state and the customs of its administration. It is impossible here to consider in the least detail the methods of different writers who have won the love and admiration of their countrymen in the years which have followed. The central observation is that as soon as America furnished readers enough a proper American literature followed the demand. As soon as the system of the country made possible first-rate printing offices in rivalry with the best printing houses in England, the American de- mand for American books could be answered at home. In naming Cooper and Irving we have named the two writers distinctly American whose published work was first everywhere known. Other authors printed their books which were forgotten. There was perhaps something ludicrous in the effort to create aboriginal en- thusiasms which did not exist. For instance, any early copy of the 'North American Review' AMERICAN LITERATURE will show the standing advertisement on the cover that the publishers had a "supply of the 'Yamoyden' kept constantly on hand." The 'Yamoyden' was a poem on a supposed hero or heroine of Algonquin origin named the •Yamoyden.* But the publishers spoke of the volume as a commission house might speak of so many bushels of wheat or of barley. Books or essays of purely American type struggled into existence and some of them are still remem- bered. Edgar Allan Poe was born in the year 1809 and died in the year 1849. Warren Bur- tons 'District School.' Mrs. Oilman's 'New England Housekeeper,' some of James K. Paulding's sketches and essays were distinctly American. Mrs. Sedgwick and Miss Sedgwick wrote admirable and unaffected books. Ed- ward Everett and Alexander H. Everett with all the advantages of early European training were thoroughly American in their orations and in the work which they did in the 'North American Review.' That 'Review 5 it- self while it imitated aspects of the English quarterlies always carried an American chip on the shoulder and defied all foreign travelers or foreign critics who did not find perfection in everything American. A story of pure Amer- ican life, most instructive to the student of that older time is Sylvester Judd's story of ' Mar- garet, a Tale of the Real and Ideal, Blight and Bloom.' Judd was a poet, but this prose novel has proved his best work. The exquisite genius of Nathaniel Haw- thorne would have worked its way through any difficulties. In his own nation his favorite earlier subjects drawn so largely from the tradi- tions of the early centuries, undoubtedly had their share in introducing him to the great body of readers. So soon as he traveled abroad, he showed that he could handle any traditions and was at home in any atmosphere. As in all work of men of genius his temperament and as he says, the traditions of his life, governed to a cer- tain extent his choice of subject. But always it is Hawthorne who is the master and fascinates the reader ; and there is no other Hawthorne. In other instances perhaps a certain charm is given in English circles to the naivete of what one may call the frontier habit of the American writer. Walt Whitman had an affectation of expressing a disgust which he did not really feel with all the conventionalities and institutions which did not smell of the pine knot or of kero- sine. He is said to be better known in England than in America. This is somewhat as it has happened with an American preacher like Moody and others who could be named, who has won attention even by the accent of his voice. After he had won attention abroad he needed nothing more. We may say again that this is no place to enter into an analysis or other dis- cussion of the work of different American authors and of their hold upon the national life. When one remembers that no prose writer of our country is more likely to be generally read three centuries hence than the despatches of Ulysses Simpson Grant, he hesitates before he shall say who are the literary men. Give time enough and Washington becomes a lit- erary man, and Judge Marshall. But this may be said, that of the 29 heroes in the New York Hall of Fame, Thomas Jefferson, James Kent, Joseph Story, Asa Gray, Jonathan Edwards, William Ellery Channing, Horace Mann, Henry Ward Beecher, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, and Washington Irving, would not have been named among the most distinguished Americans except for their work with the pen. Franklin might be num- bered as a naturalist. Washington or Gran) as soldiers; but the 12 who have been named won their place simply as authors. And every one who is in any way familiar with their work understands that this work is distinctly Amer- ican. You could not mistake it. If you read 25 pages from any of these authors, you would know that he was brought up under the insti- tutions of a Republic and that the width of horizon, may one say. comes in as a part of the atmosphere to which in the omnipotence of God the American is accustomed. In naming those to whom the country owes the growth of its literary taste, the charm of gi travelers and great historians should be added to the great statesmen. But the list as far as it goes is not useless, for it shows what is the current of average feeling of the people of America. The people of America is sovereign of America and as everywhere the sovereign is the fountain of honor. We could choose no better instance of the encouragement given by the people to the author of first-rate genius and ability than is found in the literary career of John Fiske. Fiske owed none of his suc- cess to official position. No distinguished re- view called attention to the way a young man needed encouragement, but simply Fiske had a great deal to say and he said it. And by the time be said it there was a nation of people who had been educated to appreciate and enjoy what he said. He used to say that even in his young life he was looking forward to history as the study which he was to pursue through his life. The opportunity came for the gratification of this passion. He seized upon the opportunity, and the American people recognized the hand of a master. But Fiske was not to be shut up within any narrow range of study or of author- ship. He had his own views of life and duty, of ethics and of destiny, and he wrote them down. He said what he wanted to say in a form which won the sympathy of all thought- ful people, and there were enough readers trained to careful thought to welcome the gifts which in such service he made to the nation. Perhaps in speaking of this instance we are speaking simply of the step forward which the conscience and heart of the whole nation made in obedi- ence to the word of Ralph Waldo Emerson, who gained a welcome in all quarters, — in the miner's cabin or in the sanctum of kiln-dried seminaries. It has been said that of the early volumes of Emerson's 'Essays' millions of copies might be found to-day in the hands of the most ignorant or the most learned men and millions of men who never heard his name are living under the inspiration of his prophecies. It is said by the English critics that Mr. Long- fellow's poems are better known by the people of England than are Lord Tennyson's. Perhaps this is true. It has also been curiously true that more than one English reputation has been first made in America. Carlyle's first books were well known here before the critics of Eng- AMERICAN MANUFACTURES land honored them with their approval. The English writers whined a good deal so long as they had no protection at American law for their copyrights. This nation was creating a reading class at an expense such as monarchs never dreamed of, such as England has never thought of, and it was the fashion to chide Americans because at the outset they did not throw open the market thus created to the writers of a nation where there was not one reader for a hundred in America. The Inter- national Copyright Act has remedied this griev- ance. But it has not proved that either the English or American author has gained readers by any of the accidents of publication. The rule holds which Abraham Lincoln laid down so well that the people who like that sort of thing will read that sort of thing. But so far as statistics of the trade in books go, it is evi- dent that the rank and file of American readers are interested in American subjects treated by writers who feel the American impulse and were early baptized in the ways of democracy. It is more necessary to say this in this article because so much of the less important writing for the American daily press of this century' is from the pens of men who are educated in the British Islands or on the Continent of Eu- rope. Such men do not fully understand the spirit of the life in which they live and neces- sarily treat its questions as foreigners. Of writers now living it is hardly becoming to speak in these pages. The first novelist of this generation born in Ohio, cradled in the midst of the matchless resources of that empire State, still lives young and vigorous, to delight the readers of the English language in all parts of the world. He has occasionally toyed with European scenery and experience, but his work is the work of a true democrat trained to know that men live for each other and in the 20th century each man has to live for each and each for all. After you cross the Mississippi River, when you buy your morning newspaper, the chances are that you find no reference in it to any lands on the eastern side of the Atlantic or the western side of the Pacific. The journal- ists of that region also have their affectation which compels them to leave Europe and Asia disregarded as they might disregard the govern- ments of Sesostris or of Nebuchadnezzar. For even the names of the leading writers of to-day, whose works are far too numerous to be cata- logued here, we must refer the reader to those names separately as they will appear on differ- ent pages of this encyclopedia. Edward Everett Hale, Author of '■The Man Without a Country.^ American Manufactures. The 12th census marked the close of the first complete century of manufactures in the United States. It thus became the most important statistical basis by which to measure the future advancement of American industry. It was with these words that the final report of the 12th census on manu- factures began. It might have been added that t'ne 12th census is the first to occur since the United States has become distinctly a manu- facturing nation and has produced a surplus of manufactured goods with which it has entered the world's trade to acquire foreign markets. History. — In 1791, when Alexander Hamil- ton submitted his celebrated "Report on Manu- factures" to Congress, he was able to refer to the household system of manufacture by means of which each family unit supplied many of its own needs; and he described the remarkable de- velopment of this type of manufacture in south- ern Xew England, where considerable quantities of coarse cloth, clothing, and nails were pro- duced. In addition to this, some twenty indus- tries were mentioned which had reached a con- siderable development, involving special build- ings, the division of labor, the ingathering of raw materials from distant localities, and the distribution of the manufactured articles throughout the States. While this was a respectable beginning, the chief task of the American people for at least five decades was to push forward the frontier. Up to 1840 this work went on. By that time compact settlement had reached the Mississippi River, and the further growth of population re- quired the building of railways and the estab- lishment of manufactures. By 1850 the chief forms of labor-saving agricultural implements of American origin were introduced and began their work of liberating an increasing proportion of the population from agriculture. The Civil War increased the need of the country for man- ufactured articles, and, accompanied as it was by a high tariff to provide government revenue, provided a powerful impulse to develop home manufactures. Down to 1880 agriculture was the chief source of wealth in this country. The last two censuses have shown manufacture to be dominant. In 1900 the value of agricultural products was $4,700,000,000; the net value of manufactured products was $5,900,000,000. We may group our industrial history into periods, therefore, roughly as follows : 1609 — 1789 Colonial period. 1790 — 1840 Period of western settlement. Agriculture for home consumption except cotton. 1840 — 1880 Period of agricultural dominance. Laree export of raw materials. r88o — 1900 Dominance of manufactures for home use. 1900 — Period of foreign trade in manufactures as well as raw materials. General Comparisons. — To gather some of the chief results of the recent census investiga- tion into a few sentences we may say that when we speak of "American manufactures" we mean 512.339 establishments, using $9,835,086,909 of capital, and involving the labor of 397,174 offi- cials and clerks and 5.316,802 wage-earners. This vast equipment consumes $7,348,144,755 worth of raw materials annually and makes out of the same manufactured products worth al- together $13,014,287,498. These figures all show a healthy increase over those of 1890. There are 44 per cent more establishments now than then ; 50 per cent more capital is used : a fourth more wage-earners are employed ; and the an- nual value of the gross product is 40 per cent more than in 1890. In 1S10 the manufactured goods produced in this country were worth $27.58 per capita of the population, or $165.48 for the average family. In i860 manufactures were worth $60.06 per capita, or $118.32 for the average-sized family of that period. In iSoo the per capita value was $140.72. or, for a family of 40 persons, $733.63. In 1000 the per capita value of manu- AMERICAN MANUFACTURES factured g Is was $172.21, or $809.39 for the a\ erage family ol 4 7 pei 51 ms, Classification of Establishments. — There are three ways in which manufacturing establish- ments may l>e classified : 1. According to the general economic class to which they belong. The 512,254 establishments considered by the census as 'manufacturing establishments, 10 in the strict meaning of the term, are divided into: hold industries and repairing 15,6x0 Manufacturing ther 296,444 I 1 these we may add small establishments pro- ducing .inn valued at lessthan $5">- 127,419 Government establishments 138 Kducaliu11.il, . haritable and penal establishments. 383 2. The second classification of establishments is according to the form of organization tin- pli yed. It is as follows : individual ownership 372,703 Partnership K>t7'5 Company or corporation 40,743 1' 1 hi 1.765 Miscellaneous 174 The corporation is the form in which the larger businesses are usually organized, and con- trols 59.5 per cent of the product. Co-operative associations are confined t • > the manufacture of butter, cheese, and condensed milk. 3. Ilie third classification is according to in- dustry. The 12th census has given us for the in -t time a carefully digested grouping of manu- factures, as folli m 5 : { 1 ) Food and kindred products, (2) textiles, 1 () iron and steel, (4) lumber, (51 leather. (6) paper and printing. (7) liquor and beverages, ( fostering can- over the maritime interests of the nation in the same manner that other govern- ments did i" theirs. And, while our govern- ment pursued this course, our shipbuilders were enabled to produce ocean steamers superior in speed and fully equal in any other respect to those built elsewhere, while rapid progress was being made toward assuming a position in ocean steam navigation equal to that held in the days of sailing vessels. But when, owing to internal troubles, the government's fostering care was withdrawn, while foreign governments adhered to the policy of granting pecuniary aid to estab- lish steamship lines with other countries, then did the United States maritime trade begin to decline, until it was comparatively driven from the ocean, but few American-built steamers crossed the Atlantic, and rarely was the Ameri- can commercial flag seen in any port in Europe. During the Civil War a large amount of American shipping was sold to foreigners, and the capital thus released was invested in the building of railroads under a system of enor- mous land grants — really subsidies, which the country was ready to vote for its immediate ad- vantage, but denied to the shipping interests. The subsidies which should be granted to our builders to create a mercantile navy superior to any are. instead, paid to foreign shipowners in the shape of freight money, to an amount vari- ously estimated at from $00,000,000 to $110,000,- ooo per annum, the greater part peacefully ab- sorbed by Great Britain, Confederate cruisers almost annihilated the Union merchant marine during the Civil War, capturing and burning most of the ships which had not been sold or hastily transferred to foreign Rags. In l86l the merchant marine was registered at S,S39,8l3 tons, and it was not until 41 years later, in lt)02, that this figure was pa »ed with a total of 5,797.902 tons. In 1903 it had reached -'4.425 vessels of 6,087,345 tons, including canal boats and barge; : there being registered [2,836 sailing vessels of 1.065,021 tons, exclusive of canal boats and barges, and 8.054 steam vessels of 3,418.088 tons, distributed ton-, more and whale 15.541 tons among the geographical divisions of the At- lantic, Gulf of Mexico, the Pacific, Northern Lakes, Western ri\ers, Porto Rico, and Hawaii. In the coasting trade the tonnage of vessels registered was 5,141,037, or 282,323 than loo-', and 111 the foreign trade fisheries 888,776 tons, an increase of over 1902. .Since 1898, throughout the world there lit. been a period of extraordinary activity in ship building, in which the yards of the United States have shared, their average annual output being approximately 400,000 gross tons. Ibis revival is due principally to the construction of the new navy. Ill anticipation of a steady run of work on government ships, new plants, equipped with the most modern appliances, were laid down, available, of course, for men han t ships also. During 1001 we built I.40I vessels of 468,831 gross tonnage. Of 1,000 tons and upward there were launched [6 merchant ves- sels from _\oj0 to i_\;(o tons each, 05.105 in all; 5 steel ferry, river, and bay Steamers, of 5.479 tons; vvith - square-rigged vessels aggregating 12.336 tons, 21 wooden schooners of 36,122 tons, and 4 rigged barges of 7,,t5o tons; total sea- going vessels of 1,000 tons and over, 53, aggre- gating 156.4.11 tons. It is interesting to note that that of the Great Lakes exceeded it. amounting to 41 vessels of [58,63] tons, while in 1004 there was launched for service on the Great Lakes the steamer "Wolvin," 560 feet long, then described as the largest freshwater ship in the world, but surpassed in 1005 by four other mammoth fresh-water steamers, each of over 12,000 tons, 569 feet long, 56 feet beam, and 31 feet depth ; these four vessels alone representing a total carrying capacity equal to tin entire Beet of the Great Lakes 25 years ago. At the be- ginning of the fiscal year 1002-3 there were under construction or contracted for in our yards 25 steel steamships of 1,000 tons and up- ward. For the transatlantic trade there were 7 large vessels of 76,060 tons; including two 600-foot ships for the Atlantic Transport Line of 13.400 tons; the Finland of 12,760 tons, for the International Navigation Company: the Missouri and Maine of 0.S00 tons each, for the Atlantic Transport Line; and for the same line two vessels of 8,000 tons each. For the trans pacific trade there were two immense vessels of AMERICAN SHIPriNG COMPANIES, 1005. Name of Owners, American-Hawaiian Co American Mail S.S. Co Atlantic & Caribbean Co n & Philadelphia S.S. Co California Shipping Co Chapman, I. I-*., & Co S S Co Cromwell S.S. Co Empire Transit Co [nternational Nav. Co Mallory, Chas. II., & Co Merchants' & Miners' Co N. Y. & Cuba Mail S.S. Co Oceanic S.S. Co OM Dominion S.S. Co Pacific Coast S.S. Co Pacific Mail S.S. Co Sewall. A ,8 Co., Hath, Me Southern Pacific Co Standard < 111 Co I'. S. & Port. 1 Rico S.S. Co No. of Gross Vessels. Tonnage. 4 14,816 4 7.540 s 6,207 6 16.674 16 28,851 6 11,125 16 25.460 5 5,084 2 10,311 12 64.573 8 18.671 M.437 17 38.77' 5 io,<;i8 18 27,800 1 1 1 -.S',. . 1 1 28.713 15 32.342 '7 4'.6s8 3 9.080 2 5.038 Routes. New York. San Francisco, Honolulu. Boston. Philadelphia. Jamaica. New York. I'orto Rico, Venezuela. Boston. Philadelphia. Pacific Coast Ports. Foreign Ports. New York, Philadelphia. San Domingo. New York, New Orleans. Foreign and Domestic Ports. New York, Southampton. Antwerp. New York, Mobile, New Orleans. Baltimore, Boston. New York, Havana. Mexican Ports. Honolulu, Australian Ports. Baltimore, Boston. S. Francisco, Mexico. British Columbia. San Francisco, Panama, Hong Kong. Foreign Ports. New Orleans, Havana. Galveston. Furotwrin Ports. New York, Porto Rico. AMERICAN MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY — AMERICAN MINES 20,000 tons each building at New London, Conn., for the Great Northern Steamship Company; same trade via Hawaii, the Siberia of 11,726 tons, for the Pacific Mail Company; Hawaii coasting trade, two of 8,600 tons each. For the Atlantic coasting trade there was a 9,000-ton vessel for the Standard Oil Company, a 6,250- ton for the New York & Texas Steamship Com- pany, and a 5,252-ton ship for the Ocean Steam- ship Company; beside nine vessels from 1,000 to 4,577 tons. Among notable modern passenger steamers, all steel, are the following: The Kroonland, 12,760 tons, launched in 1901 (as was her sister the Finland); the largest ocean steamer ever built in America ; con- structed by the Cramps in Philadelphia for the International Navigation Company. Length over all, 580 feet ; molded breadth, 60 feet ; molded depth, 42 feet; displacement, 23,100 tons. Speed, 17 knots; engines, two triple-expansion, cylinders 32^, 54, and 89^2 inches, 42-inch stroke; indicated horse-power, 10,200; boilers, single-ended Scotch, 170 pounds pressure. Passenger capacity, 364 first class, 190 second class, 1,000 steerage. The Korea, 11,276 tons, launched 1901 ; her sister, the Siberia, followed in 1902 ; they are largest and fastest steamers of any nationality running on the Pacific, the Korea the very fast- est. They were built by the Newport News Shipbuilding Company for the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, and run between San Fran- cisco, Japan, and China. Korea's average sea speed, 17.78 knots ; on the trial trip she made the remarkable record of 18 to 19. Length over all, 572 feet 4 inches; molded depth, 41 feet 10 inches ; displacement, 18,400 tons on 27-foot draft. Coal-bunker capacity, 2,600 tons; en- gines, twin quadruple-expansion, vertical in- verted cylinders, 35, 50, 70, and 100 inches di- ameter, 66-inch stroke ; boilers, 6 double and 2 single-ended Scotch, 200 pounds pressure. Pas- senger capacity, 210 first class, steerage 54 white and 1,144 Chinese. The Sierra, built by the Cramps in 1000 for the Oceanic Steamship Company, one of three sister ships recently launched, to run from San Francisco to Honolulu (every 10 days), Samoa, Australia, and New Zealand (every three weeks), and Tahiti (every month). The Sierra is a very handsome twin-screw ship of 6,253 tons. Length, 400 feet ; breadth, 50 feet 2 inches ; molded depth to spar deck, 37 feet 2 inches. En- gines, triple-expansion vertical, cylinders, 28, 46, and 75 inches diameter, 48-inch stroke ; indi- cated horse-power, 8,000; speed, 17 knots; actual speed for the 7,200 miles from San Francisco to New Zealand, 15 knots. The three are con- structed as auxiliary cruisers at need ; with double bottom. The Morro Castle, built by 'he Cramps in 1900 for the expanding West India trade ; 6,004 tons gross ; 8,280 displacement ; length, 416 feet ; breadth, 50 feet; molded depth, 36' j feet. She has a double bottom and seven steel bulkheads to the main deck. Engines, triple-expansion, 4-cylinder ; cylinders. 32, 52, 60, and 60 inches diameter, 42-inch stroke; indicated horse-power, 8,000 at 170 pounds pressure. Sea speed. 17 knots. Passenger capacity, 104 first class, 60 intermediate, 44 second class. Crew. 117. Other interesting facts are that the two largest cargo steamers ever built in America, the Shawmut and the Tremont, both of 9,606 tons, are plying regularly on their routes be- tween Puget Sound, Japan. China, and Manila; that the Alaskan, of 8,716 tons, built at San Francisco, and now trading between Hawaii and the Atlantic coast, is the largest merchant steamer ever launched on the Pacific; while in river passenger boats a new vessel is being built in 1905 for service on the Hudson which sur- passes in size, speed, and general equipment all hitherto constructed, the dimensions of the new boat being length, 400 feet, breadth, 82 feet, with accommodation for 5,000 passengers, and a speed of 23 miles an hour. The year 1902 saw the consummation of a steamship combine, by which five of the largest transatlantic companies, the White Star, Do- minion, Leyland, Atlantic Transport, and Ameri- can Red Star, were merged into a single com- pany with nearly 1,000,000 tons of shipping un- der its control. The combination was formed on strictly international lines, with a joint American and British control, the general man- ager of the line being an American with resi- dence in this country. The organization was so arranged that the various companies included in the consolidation preserved their autonomy, and every consideration is shown their national and local surroundings. The combination was ar- ranged to afford better transatlantic service at decreased cost, with more uniform rates, and a better distribution of traffic over the American and Canadian seaports. During the year 1902 both the largest vessel in the world and the fastest vessel at that time were launched, the Cedric, of 37,870 tons, about 1,000 tons larger than her sister ship the Celtic, and the Kaiser Wilhelm, with a sea speed of 24 knots. In size, although not in speed, these vessels were sur- passed in 1905 by the steamship Amerika ; length over all, 700 feet; breadth, 74 feet: depth, 53 feet; displacement, 42.000 tons: cargo capacity, 22,000 tons; built at Belfast, Ireland; wlnle in 1906 will be launched the steamship Kaiserin Augitste Victoria, length over all, 705 feet; breadth, -j-j feet; depth, 53.9 feet: built at Stettin, Germany. Innovations on these two steamers include elevator service between the five passenger decks, Turkish and electric baths, and modern a la carte restaurants. Consult: Bates, 'American Navigation' (1902); Marvin 'American Navigation' (1902) American Microscopical Society, an asso- ciation organized for the purpose of promot- ing microscopical studies by granting aid lo members from invested funds, and by publi- cation. Office of secretary, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb. American Mines and Mining. The adop- tion of new methods in mining operations has been justified by an improved product, a reduced productive cost, or an increased rate of produc- tion. The introduction of machine methods in mining marked a revolution in this field of activity, and the history of mining since that time has been largely the history of the develop- ment of mining machinery. There is no more significant evidence of this fact than is to be found to-day in the coal mines of this country. In this work the unusual conditions have been met by the development of special types of machines. foal is to-dav the most powerful factor in AMERICAN MUSEUM — AMERICAN NEWSPAPERS the industrial life of the world. Its production is the most important industry of the age, and has made possible the marvelous devel- opment of the loth century. In point of value, coal exceeds the total production of all other minerals. It will be conceded that an industry, which in a few years has overshadowed all others is one to which the best thought must have been given and the highest skill applied. While this is true in every department which pertains to the handling of the product from the miner to the consumer, there has not been until quite recently a corresponding advance in the actual mining of the coal over the crude and laborious methods which obtained 50 years ago. The rapid advancement of the American mining industry, aided by modern and inexpen- sive handling and splendid transportation facil- ities, is appreciated when it is noted that out of the world's annual production of 50,000,000 tons of pig iron, the United States alone fur- nishes about 20.000,000 tons, which if made into telegraph wire one-fifth of an inch thick, would extend from the earth to the sun. The yearly valuation of this product of pig or cast-iron is than $250,000,000, while nearly $50,000,000 are annually paid in wages to about 85,000 men and boys employed in its production. Legitimate mining, conducted as a business • ui business principles, is more certain of large profit than any mercantile or industrial occupa- tion. A retrospect of mining in the United States will show that where skill and economy have figured in mining operations, the result has been to create riches for companies and indi- viduals, in many instances beyond the dreams of avarice. The foundations of states and pros- perous cities have been laid by mining men, due principally to the enormous profits that legiti- mate mines 1 if this country have paid. Govern- ment statistics show that American mining properly conducted is one of the safest invest- ments for capital, besides possessing the attrac- tion, speculative to an extent, that every ten feel of shaft or tunnel made in a meritorious mine is liable to strike a bonanza of still richer ore. American mining has progressively gone forward until the present annual output in the United States exceeds $1,000,000,000 in value. The minerals, including natural gas and petro- ]< 11111. contributing to this aggregate are in great variety, and may he classed as follows : Anti- mony, asbestos, asphaltum and bituminous rock, 1 rytes, bauxite, borax, buhrstones and mill- . cement, clay, coal — anthracite and bitu- minous, e.ipper, corundum and emery, crystal- line quartz, feldspar, Hint, fluorspar, fullers' net, gold, graphite, grindstones and pulpsto urn, infusorial earth, tripoli and pumice, iron ore, lead ore, lithographic stone, limestones and dolomites, lithium ore, manga- nese ore, marble, marl, mica — sheet and scrap, mineral pigments, monazite, oilstones, whet- thestones, ozocerite, phosphate rock, platinum and iridium, precious stones, quicksilver, sandstones and quartzitcs, silica sand, siliceous crystalline rocks, silver, slate, sulphur and pyrite, talc and soapstone, tung- uranium and vanadium, zinc ore. chrome ore. magnesite, molybdenum, nickel and cobalt, and rutile. When mining was in its infancy, the methods of drawing were primitive and cruel. Fir-t it was done by women and girls, who were used as beasts of burden. Then came the car run- ning on wooden stringers, which 111 tune gave place to iron rails, and finally dogs, ponies, mules and horses were substituted for hand labor in hauling. As the mines became larger in output and more extensive in distance, the need of better methods became imperative. The next improvement was the tail and endless rope, which through irs of service has proved both reliable and economical. Sometimes the power engines are at the surface, and often underground, operated by compressed air. 1 hen there is the steam locomotive, the electric motor, the air locomotive, and the gasoline motor, the latter still experimental. Of these steam is used to a very limited extent, as the legal and mining conditions which admit of its operation are rarely found. Electric power is now suc- cessfully applied to such operations as hoisting, hauling, drilling and cutting, as well as lighting and the driving of pumps and ventilating ap- paratus. Electric wires may be run anywhere and under any conditions to be found in a mine; they are easily and quicklv laid, occupy small space, and may be readily tapped when- ever it is desired to operate machinery. In con- trast with other means of power transmission. electricity does not require many isolated boiler and engine plants, with long, inflexible and costly lines of piping, nor does it involve com- plicated and troublesome mechanism which is costly to attend and maintain, but it makes pos- sible a considerable saving through the utiliza- tion of water-power or the consolidation of independent steam-power plants. See Mines and Mining. Edward S. Farrow, Consulting Railroad and Mining Engineer. American Museum of Natural History. See Museum. American Newspapers. The history of the printing of newspapers in America properly begins on 25 Sept. 1690, for it was upon that date that Richard Pierce, of Boston, issued the first number of what was to have been a pe- riodical publication. Strange as it may seem, however, this first American journalist was en- dowed with a sense of originality of which even the makers of the modern sensational news- paper might find reason to be proud, for, in his salutatory, he stated that as there were many false rumors being circulated in the town of Boston which were constantly doing a great deal of harm, he requested his readers to fur- nish him with a list of those persons who were starting such stories that he might advertise them in the succeeding issues of his paper. In other words, his plan was to print a regular weekly list of all the liars in town, a scheme which would certainly have sold many copies of the sheet bad not the authorities put an end to the project by promptly suppressing the news- paper. This journal was to have borne the name of 'Public Occurrences, both Foreign and Domestic.' As only one issue of this strange newspaper appeared, the historians of journalism have usu- ally failed to mention it. but, instead, have given the credit for the publication of the first periodi- cal to John Campbell, a Scotchman, and the postmaster at Boston, who issued the first num- ber of 'The Boston News-Letter,' on 24 April AMERICAN NEWSFAPERS 1704. It was printed on half a sheet of pot paper, with a small pica type, folio, and its entire contents consisted of several extracts from 'The London Flying Post,' in relation to the pretender ; the queen's speech to Parlia- ment regarding that subject; a few items of local news ; four short paragraphs of marine intelligence from New York, Philadelphia, and New London, and a single advertisement — that of the proprietor. This was just 82 years after the appearance of the first English newspaper in London, and 99 years after the first newspaper in France. Germany had antedated all other countries, having made several short-lived at- tempts to establish periodical journals as early as the latter part of the 16th century. For more than 15 years Campbell had the journalistic field entirely to himseif, but, in the latter part of 1719, another paper, called 'The Gazette,' was started in Boston, and, in 1721, a third was established by James Franklin un- der the name of 'The New England Currant.' In the meantime there had appeared at Philadel- phia the first newspaper published outside of New England. It was called 'The American Weekly Mercury,' and its first number was is- sued by Andrew Bradford, the son of William Bradford, 22 Dec. 1719. The first paper to be printed in New York was 'The New York Ga- zette,' established in Oct. 1725, but by 1740, the number of newspapers in the English colonies in America had increased to ir, three of which had been established in Pennsylvania — one be- ing printed in German — one in New York, one in Virginia, one in South Carolina, and the re- maining five in Boston. In the beginning the American newspaper was a very small affair, being little more than an abstract of such papers as might chance to arrive from Europe on or about the date of publication. In fact, little change was made in them until after the time of the Revolution when the political agitators found it convenient to make use of them in presenting their appeals to the people. It was largely for this purpose that the first daily newspaper, 'The American Daily Advertiser,' was established in Philadel- phia by Benjamin Franklin Bache, in 1774. During the time that the seat of government was at Philadelphia, it was this paper that was used by Jefferson to oppose the Federal section of Washington's administration as well as all measures which originated with Hamilton or his friends. In 1802, Zachariah Poulson became its proprietor, and the name which he gave to it, 'Poulson's Advertiser,' was retained until 1839, when it was consolidated with 'The North American.' The second daily newspaper was 'The New York Daily Advertiser,' first issued on 1 Mar. '785, by Francis Childs & Company. About a year later, 29 July 1786, the first newspaper ap- peared west of the Alleghany mountains. It was published at Pittsburg, Pa., and was called 'The Gazette.' During the early post-Revolutionary days, Alexander Hamilton's special organ was 'The United States Gazette.' a paper established in New York in 1789, by John Fenno, of Boston. The territory comprised within the New Eng- land States had no permanent daily newspaper until 3 Mar. 1813. when the Boston 'Daily Ad- vertiser' was started by William W. Clapp. Prior to that time two distinct attempts to establish such papers had been made. As early as 6 Oct. 1796, Alexander Martin, an Irishman, started 'The Polar Star,' which lived about six months. It was followed, I Jan. 1 , altb P. Wayne's 'Federal Gazette,' which ceased publication in less than three months. Of the hundreds of papers started in New York be- tween 1725 and 1827, when the first number of 'The Journal of Commerce' appeared, only two now survive, 'The Commercial Advertiser.' now better known as 'The Globe and Commer- cial Advertiser,' and 'The Evening Post.' The history of the penny newspaper dates from 1830, the idea having been suggested by the 'Illustrated Penny Magazine,' first issued in London during that year. During the next few years, therefore, several similar attempts to in- troduce cheap papers were made in the United States, notably at Philadelphia and Boston. As these publications were always as small as they were cheap, however, they were but short-lived, and it was not until I Jan. 1833, when the price of 'The Morning Post,' was reduced to one cent by its publishers. Dr. Shepard. Horace Greeley, and Francis V. Story, that any pretentious effort was made to print a cheap newspaper. Although this experiment was not a success its failure was due to causes other than that of the price, so, when Benjamin H. Day established the New- York 'Sun.' 3 September of the same year, he also fixed its price at one cent, and the day of the cheap press had come. During the time which elapsed between the beginning of the 19th century and the year 1833 American journalism passed through two of the most important transition periods in its history. After having served its purpose as the mouth- piece of more or less patriotic agitators, it en- tered upon a period of party conflict, which, while fierce enough, was not always directed along judicious lines. Edited by adventurers, often brilliant men whose flashing wit attracted widespread attention to their utterances, this was the time in which the purpose of the Ameri- can press could in no sense he depended upon. It was not until 1815, or a little later, that the newspapers of the country became pretty thoroughly emancipated from the control of these politicians. It was still more a political tract than anything else, however; it was narrow in its field and intolerant in its expressions, but DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN" JOURNALISM FROM 1775 TO 1905. 1775 1800 1810 182S 1840 1S50 18C0 1870 1880 1880 1885 1S90 1895 1900 (USl tU S'. (A)... 254 387 574 9°-) 1,662 1.988 -'. 377 282 1,902 3,*73 4.295 8,633 7.S11 10.241 13.562 15. "06 15.681 . o2 z; 100 95 280 622 96 1,167 160 9?q no I»9 260 2,150 2 4 Q 2.328 2f~l 2.550 2t2 37 150 ?6i 861 1.403 2.526 4-°5i 5,871 IK -,14 IO, IOO 13,304 17,712 20,217 (A) Ayer's American Newspaper Annual. •Tri- weekly. AMERICAN NEWSPAPERS still, ;it the same time, its utterances were deliv ered with freedom and courage. It was not until 1833 that the first real newspaper appeared This was the New York 'Sun.* and the success of its policy of publishing the news instead <>f devoting its columns to the editor's personal and en eccentric opinions upon political matters was so immediate that it was soon followed by many rivals. Tims commenced the last and greatest period in the development "f the Ameri- can press. STATISTICS OF AMERICAN NEWSPAPERS (Taken from Ayer's American Newspaper Annual for 1905) Stale or Territory. A'ahama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Klorida < Seorgia 1 tawail , Idaho Illinois Indiana Indian Tei ritory.... Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Mi. higan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire. . . . New Jersey New Mex co New York , North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Philippine Island*... . Porto Rico Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming 23 3 IS 2., 127 38 37 4 3 IQ 24 8 156 12 <~9 65 30 »4 17 '7 81 66 46 •4 84 '74 28 Totals 2,377 16,152 600 2,550 262 198 9 43 *4S 474 286 97 27 24 u" 271 18 9« ,185 58a ■ 74 8 So 632 235 165 98 ■ 40 413 586 662 207 7:5 79 5-7 24 128 280 «3 ,069 182 246 77" »95 170 8 9 39 "4 281 241 7°5 56 84 163 173 57' 4° 267 S9 3 9< 30 '3 35 »7 142 7 '5 61 9 "5 6 35 26 3 574 ■7 6 •33 it •7 234 I 3 2 7 1 H 1.1 6 2 2 «5 '4 61 2Q2 -7' '71 35 66 1*3 355 39 1 1 1 ".721 838 -93 "1 ~*9 74- iil 212 158 .98 '. 1 > 79- 793 242 1,021 104 641 35 isg 37" 73 2.O. 7 .63 26^ I,l66 337 227 3- '4 (I, ■56 ■ 1 , 122 8'S 84 105 246 288 125 720 5' No reliable statistics nf newspapers were kepi prior to 1810, at which time there were 366 pub- ins of all classes in the United States. None of these publications appeared west of the Mississippi River, and only 25 of them were published daily. It is interesting to compare the number of newspapers published at that time with those issued in 1005. (The American Newspaper annual tjives the preceding tables) The comparison is given in the tables at the top of the next column : Total 1 lail Semi- Weekly Tri- weekly Weekly 1810 3' 6 -3.553 25 -.457 3« ' 1 ■5 50 it ■ From reliable sources the following list "f newspapers, which were started prior t-» or dur- ing the year [800 and which are still in exist ence, was compiled : MAINE. Port'and Vdvcrtiser NKW HAMF'SIIIKB. Keene New Hampshire Sentinel . Cheshire Republican Portsmouth New Hampshire Gazette. Journal VERMONT, Rutland Herald Windsor Vermont Journal , MASSACHUSETTS. Greenfield Gazette and Courier Haverhill Gazette Newburypon. . . Herald ( weekly i Northampton Hampshire Gazette (weekly) Plttsfield U rkshirc County Eagle (weekly). Sun Salem Ga/etie ami Mcicury Register Worcester Spy RHODB ISLAND. Newport Mercury CONNECTICUT. Bridgeport Republxan Farmer. Hartford L'ourant New Haven Connecticut Herald and Journal. Nor walk Gazette Norwich Courier NEW YORK. Pallston Spa ...Journal Cambridge Washington County Post Catskill Recorder Hudson Gazette New burg Register O wego Gazette Troy Northern Budget Utica Herald and Gazette N. Y. City Commercial Advertiser Shipping and Commercial List ami New York Prices-Current NEW JERSPV. Newark S' ntinel of rreedom New Brunswick Times Trenton State Gazette 1785 ■ I , 1 1 S75 fi 1793 »7'U 178.J 1792 i7y5 I7QJ 1786 17P9 1800 1768 1801 1770 1758 170a ■764 I7<-6 1800 1756 1798 I I* I7Q2 1785 171)6 1800 "797 ■ 793 ■797 "795 1796 17.3 ■ 7)2 PENNSYLVANIA. Oiambersburg.. Franklin Repository ( rettysburg Star and Sentinel 1 rreensburg Westmoreland DemiKT.it . Lancaster Intelligencer Norristown Herald Philadelphia.... North American Pittsburg Commercial Gazette Reading Adlcr (German) York Gazette DB1 AWAlcK, Wilmington Delaware Gazette and Slate Journal. MARYLAND. Annapolis Marytand Gazette Baltimore America VIRGINIA. Alexandria Alexandria Gazette. Augusta Chronicle OHIO. Cincinnati Commercial Gazette. ■ 79° 1800 1 98 ■ 794 '799 1784 Z786 17'fi Z796 1784 ■745 '7.1 1784 1785 ■ 793 In point of age the following arc the ten oldest newspapers in the United States : 1. Annapolis, Md.. Maryland Gazette 1745 2. Portsmouth, N. H , New Hampshire Gazette 1756 3. Newport, R. I., Mercury 1758 4. Hartford, Ccnn., Courant 1764 5. New Haven, Conn., Connecticut Hera'd and Journal 17™ 6. Salem. Mass . Gazette and Mercury i7'8 7. Worcester, Mass., Spy "77 AMERICAN NEWSPAPERS 8. Baltimore, Md., America i;73 9. Windsor, Vt., Vermont Journal 1783 10. Alexandria, Va., Alexandria Gazette 1784 Prior to 1810 the circulation of the most widely read daily newspaper did not exceed 900 copies, while there were few publications, either weeklies or semi-weeklies, that could boast of a larger circulation than that of 600 copies. Sup- posing that there were 25 dailies in 1810, issuing 310 times a year; 36 semi-weeklies; seven tri- weeklies, and 290 weeklies, each with a circula- tion of about 600 copies, the aggregate circu- lation for the year would have been considerably less than 2,000.000 copies, while the value of the paper used could not have been in excess of $125,000. Compare those figures, therefore, with these from the United States census report for 1900, when the total sum invested in the news- paper and periodical publications of the country was stated to be $192,443,708; when there were 94,604 persons employed in this business, their total wages for the year amounting to $50,- 333.0SI, and when the total value of the news- papers and periodicals produced was fixed at $222,893,569. During the year 1900, no less than 956,335,921 pounds of paper were used by the newspapers in producing their aggregate circula- tion of 8,168,148,749. The cost of this paper was $22,197,060. During this year the amount received from advertising was $95,861,127, while the amount from subscriptions and sales was $79,928,483. Enormous as these figures may seem, however, they are now far too low, for the five years that have elapsed since the last census was taken has been a period of wonder- ful growth in every branch of the newspaper field. The following table is interesting as showing the steady development in number and circulation of the industry of daily paper making in America: Ykar 1850 i860 1870 1 ■' ■ 1890 1900 Number of Dailv Papers Published Tot.il Circulation Per Ksue 251 387 574 971 I,( 10 2,235 758,454 1,4:3,435 2, box, 5,47 3. 5^6, 395 8,387,188 15,102,156 To attempt to tell the story of the growth of the American newspaper without relating some particulars in regard to the wonderful feats which it has from time to time performed would be to give but a superficial view of the subject. Prior to the days of the telegraph the daily press had great difficulty in obtaining its information about current events in other parts of the countrv. To offset this disadvantage they adopted three methods of quick communi- cation. One was by pony express ; another was by carrier pigeons, and, when steam had been sufficiently developed to make fast travelling by rail or steamboat possible, special trains and boats were frequently chartered for special occa- sions. The New York 'Herald' and the New York 'Journal of Commerce' were the first papers to own swift sailing yachts which were used to obtain early information from incoming European vessels, while A. S. Abell, of the Bal- timore 'Sun,' established his own overland express between New Orleans and Baltimore. This consisted of 60 blooded horses, housed at conveniently located relay stations, and the pro- ject was so successful that, during the Mexican War, he not only beat all the other newspapers in getting news, but he secured his information so far ahead of the government's own despatches, that he was able to advise the officials at Wash- ington of important events, sometimes more than 30 hours before the reports of the happen- ings had been received at the War Office. An- other instance of conspicuous enterprise was shown by Henry J. Raymond. While a reporter for the New York 'Tribune,' he was sent to Boston to report a notable speech by Daniel Webster. Returning by boat, he arranged to have the necessary composition frames and cases erected in his room, that, as fast as he could write, the sheets might be put into type, so that all were ready for publication the instant he reached the office. In 1846, when the entire country was so greatly excited over the Oregon boundary dis- pute with Great Britain, several of the news- papers combined to send a swift pilot boat to England. There all the important news was obtained; the boat returned as quickly as it went, and the American people were provided with the information they craved many days before it could possibly have arrived if it had come by the ordinary channels, the slow-sailing vessels of that day. As so much enterprise was shown by news- paper publishers at a time when the means of quick communication were few and costly, it was but natural that they should have hailed the steam railroad and the electric telegraph with delight. During the 10 years between 1840 and 1850, the period in which these inventions were first generally extended, the circulation of the American papers increased more than two-fold. In fact, they seized upon the tele- graph with such avidity, that, to overcome the inconvenience and delay caused by the manner in which they were crowding one another, the press associations were formed, in 1850. By means of these associations the ordinary news which occurred in the populous parts of the country was sent, practically in duplicate, to all the papers subscribing to the service, and indi- vidual papers were compelled to rely upon special correspondents only for reports of such important events as they might desire to "cover" with more attention to detail. It was the same story in the latter sixties, when the cable had been laid, for it was this invention that made it possible for papers in the United States to obtain long reports of the progress of the Franco- Prussian War of 1870. Although the revision of the New Testament was completed at a time when cable rates were still very high, W. W. Story, of the Chicago 'Times,' ordered that S.ooo words of the new version should be cabled to his paper, and, when the complete work arrived at New York on the steamer, it was tele- graphed to him in its entirety, 21 wires being used for that purnosc. Owing to the high rates at first charged for telegraph and cable messages the papers of those days did not get the almost unlimited news service which they receive to-dav. Even as late as 1870 the night rate from California to Boston was 10 cents a word; between Chicago and Bos- ton it was live cents a word, and between Wash- ington and Boston, two cents a word. Since AMERICAN NEWSPAPERS that time the rates liav. I fully 66 per cent, while the tolls paid by press associa- tions is now about 14 cents per hundred words, irrespective of the number of papers to which the despatches arc delivered. 1 he original cable rate was $100 for zo words, whethei served to . to the general public, while the rate to newspapers 1- now but 10 cents a word, either for day or night service. The result of the high tolls was shown in the compact despatches published by the news- if that clay. For example, when the America won the international yacht race. 22 Aug 1851, no report of the event was received by any American paper until 4 September, when the news came 111 the form of a despatch from Halifax. On this day the report in the New I. 'Sun' contained about 500 words, the 'Tribune' used but 250 words about the con- i. 1. and the ' E veiling Post' was content with 200 words. So, too, when Brooks assaulted Sumner, the Senator from Masachusetts, in 1854, the longest report sent to any Boston paper com- I less than half a column, and this was printed quite inconspicuously at the bottom of the page. In 1S60, when Lincoln was nominated for the Presidency, at Chicago, one operator was able to send out all the press matter that was offered to him, while, at recent conventions, the hundred and more operators have had all they could do to handle the millions of words of riptive matter tiled with them by corre- spondents representing every newspaper of prominence in the country. When these facts are remembered, however, it does not seem so strange that the aggregate number of words of pn -s matter that went over the Western Union wires in [870. was but 28.000. 000. whereas the total number of words contained in press specials handled by the same company in recent has leen no less than 10 times as great. At the same time there was some excuse for the lack of interest displayed in news events. Those were the days of small and compact papers and even the best printing plants of that time would have been Utterly unable to cope with such an avalanche of nev a that which daily floods the modern newspaper office. At that day stereotyping had not been discovered, es were slow, and hand-composition was the only method known to the trade. As papers were printed directly from the type, and as even the Hoe lightning steam-presses, patented in 1847, had a capacity which seems exceedingly ipared I 1 that of presses to-day, newspapers with large circulation were com- pelled to go to press much earlier than their less popular rivals, a fact which placed them at great disadvantage in obtaining late news. The ities for tin- distribution of papers were also few and inadequate, even for those days. Scarcely more than 40 years ago some of the most progressive journals in this country de- pended solely • to carry their papers to their subscribers, while larger lots, the papers intended for dealers, were trundled through the streets on wheelbarrows. To-day all the news- papers have their own systems of fast delivery wagons, and the most progressive publishers charter "special" trains, not only for their Sun- day editions, hut frequently for other occasions during the year. The first paper to begin the work of stereo- typing its pages was the New York 'Tribune. This was 111 [861. Four years later the Bullock perfecting pre", made in Philadelphia, made it possible to print a paper from plates, both sides at the same time, at a rate of from 6,000 to 10,000 an hour. The R. Hoe & Company per fecting press appeared in 1871. This printed from 10,000 to 12,000 eight-page papers an hour, and it was quickly followed by the other Hoe inventions, the double press, the quadruple press, and, finally, the sextuple, with its working capacity of from 60,000 to 75,000 eight-page papers an hour, and with attachments capable of printing from 4 to 64 pages. The latest inven- tions are the color presses, made both by Hoe and by Scott, by means of which papers may be printed in several colors at once. As the result, every up-to-date newspaper office is now equipped with facilities for printing in almost every hue of the rainbow, although it is only within the last quarter of a century that pub- lishers have attempted to use illustrations of any kind. During the late seventies an attempt was made to establish an illustrated daily, but the publication had but a brief existence. From that day illustrated journalism was practically unknown in America for many years. It was more than 20 years ago when the wood-cut was the only form of illustration adapted to newspaper uses, and as it required two or three days to make each wood-cut they were not avail- able at short notice. Now, however, with all our facilities for almost instantaneous illustra- tion it is no rare thing to find midnight happen- ings graphically pictured in the morning editions of the daily newspapers. The invention of type-setting machines is another innovation that has an almost incal- culable effect in the development of the modern newspaper. By the use of such a machine one operator is capable of performing as much work as three men could formerly do by the old method of hand composition. Some of these machines make a new cast of type each day, and all of them represent a marked increase of product at a great reduction in cost. The growth of the Sunday newspaper dates from the Civil War, but it was many years after the conclusion of that struggle before the large Sunday editions began to make their appearance. In fact, it was less than 35 years ago that one of the leading papers in Boston increased the size of its Sunday issue from four to eight pages, ami. strangely enough, the change met with all kinds of adverse criticism. During the next few days many of the subscribers to this journal called at the office to protest that the new paper was much too large, and this same criticism has continued as the great Sunday papers have steadily increased in size. Ii spite of the protests of these indignant critics, how- ever, the fact remains that the American news- paper has simply kept pace with the development of the country. With greater facilities for news gathering, and with modern methods of distribution, the circulation of the prominent newspapers has increased to a degree that would once have been considered beyond all bounds of possibility. So. too, is this true in regard to advertising. Whereas, in 1810, the total amount of advertising printed in all the papers in the United States could scarcely have cx- ceeded a few hundred thousand dollars, the in- AMERICAN NOTES — AMERICAN PARTY come from such sources to-day is now in excess of $100,000,000 per annum. To print all the news that the modern newspaper is required to print, to give space to all the features and special articles that the public has come to demand, and to find room for all these columns upon columns of advertisments, is certainly beyond the scope of any small, compact sheet. If it is true, as its friends claim, that the newspaper is one of the great sources of education in this country, upon what does this reputation rest? Certainly not upon its news alone, for the papers of every land describe the important happenings of the day. No, it is these special features, the articles de- scriptive of travel and of all the progress of the world in every field of human endeavor — in other words, the "magazine" articles that have now found wider circulation through the col- umns of the daily newspaper — that have made these organs what they now are, a great edu- cational factor which has exerted more influence upon the development of the intelligence of the American people than it would be possible to estimate. Whatever the critics may think or say, therefore, one cannot deny the fact that newspapers are big to-day for the simple reason that they are required by the public, and those who are best acquainted with the journalistic situation find that every indication points to larger rather than to smaller papers. Great as this country is, it has by no moans reached the end of its development, and, as it grows in population, and expands commer- cially, the demands upon the newspapers will necessitate a corresponding growth in this prod- uct of American industry. Charles H. Taylor, Editor ' Boston Globe.'' American Notes, a work bv Charles Dick- ens, published in 1842 and embodying his im- pressions of the United States. American Numismatic and Archaeological Society, an association organized 1858, incor- porated 1865. Its objects are the collection and preservation of coins and medals, the investiga- tion of matters connected therewith, and the popularization of the science of numismatoloev; also the collection, examination, and elucidation of the antiquities of this and other countries. Membership about 300. See Numismatics. American Oriental Society, an association organized in 1842 for the promotion of Oriental scholarship. All its publications are in the semi- annual journal of the society (cited as "Jaos"), which for 60 years has been an authority on Oriental subjects and in which appear mono- graphs and special articles of all sorts relating to the Orient. The society has numbered among its presidents some of the most distinguished scholars of the country- — Hadley, Woolsey, \\ hitney, etc., and from its inception has been a medium of communication between the East and the West. In age it outranks the German Oriental Society and all others except the Royal Asiatic Society of England. Membership, 350. American Ornithologists Union, an asso- ciation organized in 1883 for the advancement of its members in the science of ornithology. Membership, 825. It issues a quarterly maga- zine, 'The Auk.' See Ornithology. Vol. 1 — 26 American Party, the name of three sepa- rate political organizations in the United States. I. The only one of great importance, usually styled "Know-Nothings." The genesis of this party lay deep in the nature of American set- tlement and history. The Constitution crystal- lized political parties definitely into Federali>ts and Anti-Federalists : the one upholding firm government on the general European model, with the local aristocracies in the ascendant ; the other desiring the least possible govern- ment of any sort, and no upper-class ascendancy. Immigrants who had left Europe because of too free indulgence in freedom of speech, thought, and action, allied themselves with the Anti-Federalists, which led the incensed Fed- eralists, on gaining power in 1795, to raise the term for naturalization from two to five years, and in 1798 to 14 years, besides passing the Alien and Sedition Laws (q.v.). The Republicans, coming into power with Jefferson in 1801, in 1802 repealed the obnoxious acts and restored the term to five, swelling their ranks for years with a relay of acrid foreign democrats. Six members of the Congress which declared the War of 1812 against Great Britain were mem- bers of the Society of United Irishmen ; and the Federalist Hartford Convention of 1814 brought forward a provision against aliens hold- ing office. Quiescent for many years, the move- ment revived (1835) in New York city, wdiere a compact and clannish foreign body of immi- grants, avid of office and openly allying them- selves as foreigners against the natives, was accumulating; one procession bore a transpa- rency lettered <( Americans shan't rule us." The religious question was also then, as since, a formidable factor in the trouble. In 1843 the Democrats carried the city by a close vote, and distributed the majority of the offices to foreign- ers, with the result that in the November elec- tion for State Senator an "American Repub- lican" candidate polled nearly a fourth of the vote, and the next spring a "Native American" candidate defeated the Democrat by 4,000, and the regular Whig party nearly vanished in the city. The excitement spread to New Jersey and Philadelphia ; riots between natives and foreigners cost some lives and much property, including two Catholic churches. The Whigs voted with the Native party to secure its vote for Clay; but finding that it resulted in Native local officials and Democratic presidential ma- jorities, drew off, and by 1847 the Native party had pretty much disappeared. Clay in 1S44 had six Native American electoral votes, four from New York and two from Pennsylvania; and for some years the Middle States cast small votes for the party. A new birth came to it about 1852. The Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 had largely dis- solved and recombined both Whig and Demo- cratic parties, and those of the former who wanted the status quo on slavery without public agitation cast about for a new issue to keep their organization together. The Native Amer- ican issue was temptingly at hand, and indeed had never ceased to be a sore in the Whig mind. The tremendous flood of foreign immigration set going in part by the Irish famine of 1847, in part by the revolutionary movements of 1848-50 on the Continent, had kept a steady stream of reinforcements pouring into the Democratic party which almost swamped the AMERICAN PARTY WliiRS and made it quite impossible to win elections except by fusions that sacrificed all political principle or consistency; they felt it a genuine wrong to the native or long-resident >es, and there was nothing in the use to winch the other party put their victories to make them feel Otherwise. They now developed a secret oath-bound society whose real name was "Soils of '76, or Order of the Star-Spangled Banner 9 ; but its name or precise object (.of course they knew its general aim) was not re- vealed to members till the "lodges," which they instituted in imitation of the Masons, had raised them to the higher degrees. Hence their stock answer to questions concerning it was "I don't know," which became the popular motto of the order and gave them the nickname of "Know- Nothings." Tile evils it "viewed with alarm" were the increasing power of the Roman Catho- lic Church, the vast sudden lb "id of immigra- tion which was taking the control of the United States out of the hands of its citizens, and the greed of foreigners for office which greatly multiplied the danger from their actual number, Its motto, or at least the essence of its princi- ples, was "Americans must rule America," — doubtless with a reminiscence of the foreign motto before mentioned; and the countersign at its lodges was an order said to have been issued by Washington at some unspecified oeca- - 1 ■ mi. "Put none but Americans on guard to- night." It acted in pi. lilies, not by putting up separate tickets, which would have kept tally on it and given the other parties a clear target and open victory, but by indorsing selected can- didates of the ■ ilhers ill secret convention of delegates from lodges, at which every member must vote or be expelled. This could not be known till election, and hence made havoc of all political calculations and left the workers beating the air. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill, which extinguished the Whig and created the present Republican party, and made the shivery i^sue one of life or death, drove into the KnOW- Nothing party a vast number of the moderate section not yet ready to oppose the South; it now took or was given the name of the Amer- ican party, and came into the open field. In 1S54 it carried Massachusetts and Delaware and polled over 120,000 votes in New York State. Thus far it had been almost wholly a Northern party; but in 1855 it made deep inroads in the South as well, where foreigners were few and the issue was locally innocuous. In that year it elected the governors and legislatures of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Con- necticut, New York, Kentucky, and California; the controller and legislature of Maryland and the land commissioner of Texas; and narrowly missed carrying the legislature of the latter, and those of Virginia, Georgia, Alabama, Mis- sissippi, and Louisiana. But even at this time, when it was sweeping all before it, and the con- servative of both parties were crowding into it panic-stricken to avoid the real issues hurry- ing the country to the precipice, keen observers saw its hollow ephemerality : Horace Greeley of the New York Tribune said that "it contained al H nit as much of the elements of permanence as an anti-cholera or an anti-potato-rot society." With 1856 it came into the national field, and for slavery tried to substitute terrific visions of a revival of the terrors of the Inquisition; de- nounced Archbishop Bedini, the papal nuncio, as an emissary of diabolic designs; and forced public discussions in which all the misdeeds of the mediaeval Christian Church before ."f\ after 15JO were recounted. February [856 a national nominating convention was held at Philadelphia; and its outcome, to the disgust of the majority, turned on slavery aftei all. A secret "grand council" held a session 19-21 February to draft a platform; and after three days of violent contention reported as par) ol it this curious "straddle," in later political slang: That all public offices should be given to native-born citizens, and the term before naturalization be 21 years; that "all laws" (that is, the Fugitive Slave Law) should be enforced till repealed or declared unconstitutional; that Tierce's administration be reprobated for re- pealing the Missouri Compromise; and that State councils be recommended to drop their "degrees" and Substitute a pledge 'if Imnor from members, — that is, that it cease to be a secret terror to other parties and be one itself, Hut this meant (bath, as did its absurd attempt to gain Northern votes by opposing the Kansas- Nebraska Bill, and Southern votes by upholding the Fugitive Slave Law. In the open convention of 22 February, 50 Northern delegates offered a resolution that the secret grand council could not bind the Convention by a platform; ami on its rejection withdrew. The convention then nominated Millard Fillmore of New York for President, and Andrew Jackson Donelson of Tennessee for Vice-President; and the Whig national convention later adopted the nomina tions, but made no reference to the platform, In the spring of 185(1 the party still increa ed its power, there being only local issues at stake; New Hampshire and Rhode Island elected "American" governors, making eight of the 32 States in their hands. But the presidential election showed what a phantom the party was: Fillmore gained the electoral vote of but one State. Maryland, with eight electors; the popu- lar vote was 874,534 OUt UI a tnta ' of 4.053»907; and in New Hampshire it sank from 32,119 for governor in spring to 422 in face of the real issue. It elected 15 or 20 Congressmen, car- ried Rhode Island and Maryland State elec- tions in 1857, and in the Senate of December bail five members. In the Congress e>f 1859 it had become a Border State parly, with one Senator from Kentucky and one from Maryland, and 23 Congressmen, — three from Maryland, five from Kentucky, seven from Tennessee, one from Virginia, four from North Carolina, two from Georgia, ami one from Louisiana. In the cam- paign of 1800 its members largely made up the Constitutional Union (Bell-Everett) party, which tried to avert the war. The party was by no means without its use: it brought forward many strong leaders who did good service in the real parties when the issues had shown them- selves inevitable. 2. A party directly adverse to the first in being founded on opposition to secret societies: organized by the National Christian Association at the adjournment of its convention at Oberlin, Ohio, in 1872. Organization was completed and the name adopted at a convention in Syr. 11 11 e, N. Y., in 1874. At Pittsburg. 9 June 1875, a platform was adopted demanding recognition of the Sabbath, introduction of tin' Bible into public schools, prohibition of the sale of liquors, withdrawal of the charters of secret AMERICAN PATRIOTIC SOCIETIES — AMERICAN POLITICAL ISSUES societies and prohibition of their oaths, inter- national arbitration, restriction of land monopo- lies, resumption of specie payments, justice to the Indians, and direct popular vote for Presi- dent and Vice-President. James B. Walker of Illinois was nominated for President. In 1880 it again made nominations ; in 1884 S. C. Pome- roy was nominated, but withdrew in favor of John P. St. John, the Prohibition candidate. 3. A party organized at a convention in Philadelphia, 16-17 Sept. 1887. Its platform de- manded a 14-years' residence for naturalization ; exclusion of anarchists, socialists, and other dangerous characters ; free schools ; the building of a strong navy and coast fortifications, and internal improvements ; prohibition of alien pro- prietorship ; permanent separation of church and state; and enforcement of the Monroe Doc- trine. Forrest Morgan', Connecticut Historical Socictv. American Patriotic Societies. See Patri- otic Societies. American Philological Association, a so- ciety inaugurated by William D. Whitney, of Yale, at Pciughkeepsie, 1869 as an outgrowth of the Oriental Society, Classical Section. Its ob- ject is the same as that of the British Philologi- cal Society (q.v.) : it publishes an annual volume of 'Transactions' and also 'Pro- ceedings,' detailing its meetings and giving titles of papers presented. It has a member- ship of some 600. American Philosophical Society, The, is the oldest scientific society in America. Ben- jamin Franklin, in his 'Autobiography,' states that in the year 1727 "I united the majority of well-informed persons of my acquaintance into a club which we called the Junto, the object of which was to improve our understandings." As the population of the colonies grew, Franklin saw the need of a society of larger scope and usefulness than the Junto; therefore, in 1734, he issued a circular, entitled 'A proposal for pro- moting useful knowledge among the British plantations in America,' in which he urged "that one society be formed of virtuosi or in- genious men residing in the several colonies, to be called The American Philosophical Society, who are to maintain a constant correspondence. That Philadelphia, being the city nearest the centre of the colonies, communicating with all of them northward and southward by post, and with all the islands by sea, and having the ad- vantage of a good, growing library', be the cen- tre of the society." The proposition was favorably received, and in the following spring Dr. Franklin wrote to Gov. Cadwallader Colden, of New York, that the Society "is actually formed and has had sev- eral meetings to mutual satisfaction." He gave a list of the members, and added that "there are a number of others in Virginia, Maryland, Car- olina, and the New England colonies who we expect to join us as soon as they are acquainted that the Society has begun to form itself." In January 1769 this society united with an- other which had been subsequently formed in Philadelphia with a similar object, and entitled "The American Society held at Philadelphia for promoting Useful Knowledge," and the consolidated societies took the fused name of "The American Philosophical Society held at Philadelphia for Promoting Useful Knowledge," and elected Benjamin Franklin its first presi- dent, and he held this office by successive annual reelections until his death in 1790. The Society at once entered upon arrange- ments to carry out a notable scientific under- taking of great magnitude for those days, namely, to make observations of the expected transit of Venus in the following June — a rare phenomenon which had not occurred for 130 years and would not recur for 105 years. It erected three temporary observatories and appointed a committee, of which David Kitten- house was the head, to have charge of the ob- servations on the day of the eclipse. The weather in northern Europe was cloudy, but in the neighborhood of Philadelphia it was per- fectly clear, and a high European authority has said that "the first approximately accurate results in the measurement of the spheres were given to the world, not by the schooled and salaried astronomers who watched from the magnificent royal observatories of Eu- rope, but by unpaid amateurs and devo- tees to science in the youthful province of Pennsylvania." The results of these observa- tions were printed in the first volume of the Society's 'Transactions,' which was published in quarto form in 1771. The publication of the quarto 'Transactions' still continues, and in addition the Society publishes 'Proceedings' in octavo form. Franklin was succeeded in the presidency by David Rittenhouse, the eminent astronomer, who held the office for five and a half years, until his death in 1796, and he in turn was succeeded by Thomas Jefferson, who held the office until 1815. including the eight years of his incumbency of the Presidency of the United States. "The tran- quil pursuits of science," he wrote, were his •'supreme delight," and the most exciting polit- ical duties could never withdraw him from them. Jefferson was succeeded in the presidency by Dr. Caspar Wistar, the eminent anatomist, and subsequent incumbents were Dr. Robert Patter- son, Chief Justice Tilghman, Peters S. Du Ponceau, Robert M. Patterson, Dr. Nathaniel Chapman, Dr. Franklin Bache, Prof. Alexander Dallas Bache, Judge Kane, Dr. George B. Wood, Frederick Fraley, and Edgar F. Smith. The membership of the Society since its foundation has included names distinguished in science on both continents. The number of members who may be elected in any one year is limited to 15 residents of the United States and s foreign residents. The election of mem- bers is held during the general meeting in April of each year. The ordinary meetings of the Society are held on the first and third Friday of each month, from October to May inclusive. The society possesses a library of over 40.000 volumes, which is specially rich in the files of the publications of the learned societies of the world, and is housed in a fire-proof building erected in Independence Square on land granted to it by the State of Pennsylvania in 1785. I. Minis Hays, Secretary American Philosophical Society. American Political Issues, 1788-1852. By this term is here meant the issues which swayed the voters in tin- Presidential elections, and in the congressional elections of the Presidential years. These elections were the "round-up" or register AMERICAN POLITICAL ISSUES of the accumulated drift during the four years previous, and formed one of the influences de- ciding the drift during the next four, ["hey fall int 1 7X8-1800, 1804-12, 1816— 20, iS_>4 40, 1844-52. In the first, the Federalists are in power: the controlling issues arc those of strong v. weak government, and of deference to the educated classes v. the vox populi. In the second, the Federalists are the opposition, fling away the excuse fur their existence, and after a casu; I revival are extinguished. In the third, there are no issues and no party, properly speaking; the candidate is accepted by inertia from the old line of leaders, and the administration is able to grant the chief wishes of both the old sections. In the fourth, the former Federalist elements recombine under new names, with the basis of a strong spending and nationalizing government, replacing the dead is- sue of a strong executive one. In the fifth, the slavery question is the central issue. 1788. — The division over candidates has usu- ally and naturally coincided with the division over policies; but in the first election, of 1788, it was not so. There was but one possible can- didate, Washington; he represented all parties. He had seen the Revolution nearly aborted first, and the Confederation nearly wrecked after- ward, by the weakness of the central govern- ment; this confirmed his natural bias as a "nationalizing 8 Federalist, anxious above all things for a government which could keep order, pay its debts, and secure respect from other nations. On the other hand, as a Southern farmer, he commanded the confidence of that section, which distrusted the Northern commer- cial interests ; and as Washington, he was the idol of the masses everywhere. Furthermore, the very basis of the election had cut the ground from under the chief opposition party. The overshadowing issue, almost the only one, of the Confederation, — which had no president nor regular elections, but only scattering "by-elec- of congressmen, — was whether it should be replaced by a stronger government ; the adop- tion of the Constitution had settled that, and the Anti-Federalists were shut down to voting for the personnel to administer a system they disliked and dreaded. Besides this, all their ablest sympathizers were Federalists fur tin- time being, not from love of a strong government but experience of too weak a one; so that "Federalist" for election purposes meant not so much a party as almost every one in the coun- try of capacity, experience, or business or in- tellectual standing. 1792. — Again Washington was the unan- imous candidate. The same men substantially were sent to Congress ; indeed, there w ere few deralists to send who would not dis- credit and weaken the cause. But the Anti-Fed- eralist voters had the less hesitation, because their natural leaders had now begun to split away and lay the foundations of the Demo- cratic-Republican party. Jefferson was the first to take a stand against the Federalist policy, in the matter of the Bank ; shortly reinforced by Madison and Edward Randolph. 1796. — Washington, who could have held the office for life, refused it further. There was now a contest over policies represented by candidates identified with them, and each representing a section as well : John Adams stood for the Northern commercial States, with most to lose from conflicting local impositions * > 1 1 commi or foreign depredations and restrictions which a weak government could not repel; Jefferson, the lifelong champion of the extreme democratic principle, — the least government, the cheapest, and the most ttnshowy, possible, — stood for the mass of fanners, largely in the South and V. who simply wished to be let alone and have no taxes, and thought commerce of no benefit or concern to them. The latter also formed a part of the rapidly growing mass who resented the Federalist claim that political office needed any superior ability or training, and were eager to pass it around in rotation. Quite as strong as cither was the sympathy of the masses for the French Revolution, which the Federalists de- tested. The latter won, but only by gi of two Southern electors and in reality by a single vote; they lost save for these the entire South beyond Maryland, and all but one elec- toral vote of Pennsylvania as well. In a word, the party had represented a temporary national necessity which was ceasing to be imperative, and a minority business interest ; and as the former vanished, it was shrinking to the basis of the latter. 1800. — ■ For the personal feuds which rent the Federalists in twain, see Adams, John, and Hamilton, Alexander; but the influence of these in defeating the party is always overrated. If Hamilton had loved Adams like a brother, and all Adams' cabinet had been loyal and united, the general result of the election would not have been different ; unless we arc to sup- pose that New York Federalists voted for Jef- ferson because their chiefs hated each other, or that the party's recent policy had gained it votes since 1796, which is notoriously the re- verse of truth. It had not only angered the Democrats, but displeased many of its own moderates, by the Alien Law for deporting all foreigners politically disagreeable to it, and the Sedition Law to shut the mouths of its oppo- nents (see Alien and Sedition Laws); the Hamilton wing had tried to force through a war with France to strengthen its domestic policy; the growing popular sentiment now was to tnake the United States a political island, severed from all relations with the rest of the world which would cause us difficulties. The election was decided for Jefferson by the reversal of New York's 12 electoral votes: local feuds had something to do with it, Burr's political "boss- ship" much ; but beyond all, the growth of the country was away from Federalism, and at best the party had not one electoral vote to lose with- out being displaced. 1804. — Had the relations of the parties re- mained the same as in 1800, there is still no reason to think there would have been any re- turn to a Federalist administration. From 1789 to 1797 their programme had been not merely the best, but the only one as a whole possessing either utility, dignity, or even safety; yet the disintegrating forces were so strong, and the squalor of the Confederation so thoroughly for- gotten, that the party barely escaped expulsion in the very prime of its usefulness. Even in the next four years, its errors were trivial compared with its services, especially in creating the navy; yet it was beaten — not very heavily, but with incidents proving that its lost sections would AMERICAN POLITICAL ISSUES not come back to it. But so far from the issues remaining the same, the Federalist representa- tives, with that egregious blindness to the sources of popular strength which is never seen except in "practical politicians," committed the amazing folly of attempting to tie their oppo- nents' hands by borrowing all their discarded doctrines. The Democrats in power had at once become converts to a strong government and a liberal construction of the Constitution ; the Federalists, instead of outdoing them and claiming support as the originators of the policy, adopted the strict-construction theories and the decentralizing policy of their opponents. The Democrats having appropriated the Federalists' strength, the latter revenged themselves by ap- propriating their enemies' weakness. This was especially glaring in the case of the Louisiana Purchase, an extreme Federalist measure, and by far the greatest title of Jefferson to the name of statesman : it is quite incredible that the Federalists should have opposed this, even as partisans, or as possessing the rudiments of political common-sense. Their astute policy re- ceived its fitting reward : in 1800 Jefferson had won by 73 to 65 ; in 1804 he received 162 to 14. 1808. — The Democrats, having had full power to put in force their cherished theories of in- sularity and independence of international ties, at once proceeded to make a reductio ad absur- dum of them, and hang them like a sack of stones about their own necks. Jefferson was placed between the upper millstone of the Eng- lish right of search and impressment, ending in the bloody outrage of the Leopard on the Chesa- peake (q.v.)i and the nether of his own resolve not to fight, the disbelief of all parties alike in our ability to fight a naval war with England, and the determination of the North, which pos- sessed most of the fighting resources, not to use them against England. He solved the prob- lem by the Embargo (q.v.), which saved the need of fighting by sacrificing the commerce he did not value, and the prosperity of a section he was quite resigned to see unprosperous. The moribund Federalist party gained a galvanic life from this, which for the time looked like a real one : in 1804 it had carried only Connecticut and Delaware and part of Maryland ; in 1803 it carried all New England but Vermont (the one State which had no commerce to lose), three votes from North Carolina and Delaware, and the two Marylanders as before, — 47 in all. 1S12. — The same causes which had operated during the previous four years had continued with ever growing efficacy during this four. The feeling against England among the Democrats, the feeling among the Federalists that England was fighting the world's battle against Napoleon and must not be crippled, ever grew in intensity; the misery and hate in New England with its hamstrung commerce kept pace with either ; a generation of youths was growing up who never saw the Revolution, — the War of 1812 was officially determined by four Southerners be- tween 26 and 29; and the conquest of Canada, instead of a naval war where it was universally believed our entire fleet would be at once seized and impressed into the British navy, had struck the war party as a happy resource. The politi- cal campaign of 1812 was made on the issue of war or a repeal of the non-intercourse act. Madison was given a second term on the ex- press condition of his approving the war; he detested it as strongly as Jefferson, but as the majority had its teeth set, felt that he might as well head it as any one else. He secured it by 189 to 89; the Federalists by a fusion had car- ried, besides their old States, New York and New Jersey, and more of Maryland. A new era seemed coming for the Federalists ; but it was an illusion. They had no party principles, and not even a party candidate except a borrowed one (George Clinton) ; and their entire basis of life now was on an issue by its nature temporary. 1816-20. — The close of the War of 1812 ex- tinguished the old issues. The mostly inglorious land war had been forgotten in the blaze of New Orleans ; we had proved that our navy not only could fight the queen of the world on equal terms, but would never again be wantonly de- fied ; the people were full of satisfaction at com- ing out so well, and of anger at the Federalists, whose chief section had carried opposition to the point of discussing secession. Federalism was in many minds tainted with treason. Fur- thermore, the New England capital driven out of commerce by the embargo and the war hid begun to re-embark in manufacturing, wished for a protective tariff, and could only have it from the governing element, which was hope- lessly Democratic. Rhode Island, the first to establish mills, was the first of the southern tier to break away from its old allegiance. Massa- chusetts, Connecticut, and Delaware, by small majorities, clung to the ancient faith ; but in 1816 the Democrats carried 16 States with 183 votes, including the rest of New England. The government had bid for these votes by a United States Bank and a light protective tariff; and in 1820, the "Era of Good Feeling," or rather of "No Issues," Monroe was elected unani- mously save for the vote of one elector, disgusted with the business "rings" growing up around the administration. 1824. — The administration still further car- ried out Federalist ideas by a great system of internal improvements, and by strengthening the tariff. In a word, while nominally Democratic- Republican, its policy had become so Federal- ized as to have a stronger hold on its new allies than on its old constituents, and the issue in 1824 was whether that policy should be sustained or reversed. John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay represented the former, in different sec- tions ; Andrew Jackson the reaction to old- fashioned Democracy, with strict construction, economy, and no intermeddling with business de- velopment ; William H. Crawford the regular Democratic "machine," with no ulterior purpose but office. Thus divided, no candidate had a majority. Jackson had the most; Adams was elected by the House of Representatives, still so far dominated by educated politics as to con- sider Jackson an ignorant and pestilent dema- gogue; he made Clay — who had the lowest vote of the four, but was the Southern leader most in accord with his policy, and the most of a statesman — secretary of state. This "Coalition" (q.v., No. 2) was denounced by the enraged Jacksonites as a corrupt bargain, and the House election as defeating the people's will : hut there is no reason for assuming, as is currently done, that the anger gained Jack-. 11 any electoral votes. 1828. — The Democratic reaction had gained strength, and the Jackson enthusiasm swept all the factions into his fold, by virtue of the State AMERICAN POLITICAL ISSUES Conventions which had now assumed the office of nominating. On that side the issue was much more Jackson than any definite party pro- gramme; but Jackson as representing the hatred of the masses, especially the Southern and West- ern masses, for the "money power," for all ac- tivities of government beyond keeping itself alive, for tariffs and government subventions, and for all claim of superiority in the educated class, and all political initiative except by spon- taneous popular movements. In short, Jackson was the agent of a democratic revolution, which supported him with a swarm of new men, and approved his policy of turning out the trained officials neck and heels. Adams held his vote well: the stock reasons for his defeat — his un- graciousness, his refusal to employ patronage, his revival of charges against the New England Federalists — are absurd in face of the fact that he had but one vote less than in 1824, and of Jackson's enormous plurality. No candidate representing trained statesmanship, culture, and a liberal government policy, could have won this election. 1832. — The Democratic tide swept on over- whelmingly. Jackson's unprecedented use of the veto power to defeat internal-improvement schemes voted for by members of his own party, only bound the majority more tightly to him; his war against South Carolina for attempted nullification cost him her votes, but brought him reinforcements from the nationalist section; his hostility to the Bank of the United States was a prominent issue in the canvass, and was that of his constituents. Nothing better proves the senselessness of accounting for great politi- cal results by personal factions or squabbles, than the fact that Adams in 1824 and 1828 had more electoral votes than all Jackson's oppo- nents together in 1832. 1836. — The issues of this year were the carrying on of Jackson's policy, though its great objects had been accomplished, — the deposits had been placed in State "pet banks" instead of the United States Bank, — and his dictation of his own successor. To oppose this dictation, one party sprung up with the ardent Jacksonian Hugh L. White as nominee, another as a Georgia State Rights faction, — though Jackson had championed the Georgia rights in the mat- ter at issue (see Cherokee Case) ; Jackson's influence, however, was powerful enough to nominate Van Buren as the "regular" candi- date, and he was elected by a much reduced vote from Jackson's. 1840. — Few men have had a worse legacy than Van Buren received in the Presidency; and few have made a better use of it. Almost his entire term was occupied by the panic of 1837 and the three years of hard times which SUC- d ii ; caused entirely by Jackson's "monkey- ing" with the currency of which he knew noth- ing. The State banks which replaced the United States Bank as depositaries, and were used as I democratic political machinery, instead of man- aging the funds with discretion as the old bank had done, issued masses of notes till a tre- mendous inflation of the currency had created a vast land speculation ; then he suddenly with- drew recognition of the paper currency and brought the whole structure down with a crash. Van Buren was a politician, but he was a sound statesman and financier and an honorable public man: he would have no more meddling by the government with the banking business for which it was unlit, even to extricate his own adminis- tration from a scrape; anil after three years' struggle he established the Sub-Treasury sys- tem, to the lasting benefit of the country, lint with the customary popular perspicacity, lie was nude the scapegoat for calamities which he had not caused and whose renewal he hail prevented. Furthermore, the Whigs outbid the Democrats in avowed submission to the "popular man- date," their candidate Harrison promising to disuse the veto; they outdid them in the "popu- lar hero" line by turning a useful but not very brilliant Indian battle into a second Marathon, or rather repeating the name without discussing the details; capped their swarms of mythical anecdotes of Jackson's homespun habits and unpretentious heroism by an equal number aboul Harrison, models of his hypothetical "log cabin" and bibulous reproduction of his "hard cider" days; they made bargains and absorbed both the Southern free-lance opposition parties: and by all this and their campaign of "noise, num- bers, and nonsense," carried all but three old States and four small new ones, 234 to (»■ — a majority which suggests that possibly the noise and nonsense were not needed nor efficacious, and a quieter campaign of sensible argument might equally have won, with a real leader like Clay and no ruinous bargains. 1844. — Harrison had barely survived his in- auguration; and the usual policy of "placating" the strongest part of the opposition by giving them the Vice-Presidency (Tyler) had produced its usual and deserved fruit of turning the ad- ministration over for the whole four years to the Nullification party, except so far as the Whigs tied its hands. This under Clay's leadership they did, consolidating the party by steady war on Tyler, and heartening themselves at last to do what they had not before and did but once again — put forth a platform. It was a very compact and well-expressed one, excellent from the Whig or present Republican .standpoint; but it was displaced as an issue by far more exi- gent and pungent practical ones. The tariff of 1842, which was almost weeded of protectionist features by the joint efforts of Tyler and the Democrats, was made one of the arguments; but the decisive one was Texas. For years the great object of the Calhoun wing of the Democrats had been to annex Texas; partly to increase slave territory and balance Northern growth, partly with the immediate aim of disrupting tin- Whig party by forcing it to take a position which would drive away either the Northern or the Southern wing. Tyler, deprived of Whig sup- port, again drew near to the Calhoun party to which he had formerly belonged ; in 1844 Cal- houn was made secretary of state; and witli this administration backing, the Calhoun party obtained control of the Democratic national con- vention, committed it to Texas annexation, and gave the nomination to the Southerner Polk in- stead of the Northerner Van Buren. Clay was asked to declare himself on this point ; he wrote an evasive letter which cost him the support of the political abolitionists (see Liberty Party), who nominated a ticket of their own with disastrous results to both. The three tick- ets were those of Polk, Clay, and Birney; the first on the issues of protection, distribution of land sales, cutting down Presidential power, and dodging all phases of the slavery question; the AMERICAN POLITICAL ISSUES second on the "re-occupation of Oregon and the rc-annexation of Texas" ; the third on immediate abolition of slavery. The last-named cast only 62,300 votes ; but enough of those were in New York and Michigan to turn the former's 35 and the latter's 6 electoral votes from Clay to Polk, electing the latter, bringing in Texas, and bring- ing on the Mexican War. 1848. — The Mexican War had been the dom- inant issue for a couple of years before, and the Democrats had striven to make it destructive to the Whigs by forcing them into obnoxious dec- larations of principle; but the latter voted sup- plies for it, and evaded abstract pronouncements as to its righteousness. The Wilmot Proviso (q.v.) was a heavier blow, for the Southerners looked on it as a primary touchstone of sectional loyalty, which stood above party loyalty. The one salvation was a popular moderate candi- date who could be accepted by the voters to whom the Democrats were simply impossible ; and such a one was found in Gen. Zachary Tay- lor. A Louisiana slaveholder, no Southerner could suppose he would sign a bill endangering his own property ; known to dislike the veto, he could be trusted by the North to obey the ver- dict of Congress if it passed the Proviso; a pop- ular hero, he commanded the great unreflecting brute vote which supposes military and civil functions somehow related. He was elected by reason of a split in the New York Democracy, the country being about evenly divided ; that he was elected at all, however, is remarkable proof of the terror of the conservative masses at hav- ing the slavery firebrand thrown into politics. It was this vote which elected the Whigs Clay and Taylor ( the former really elected so far as the Democratic competitor went), and the Democrats Pierce and Buchanan, each in the hope of suppressing the question altogether. 1852. — Taylor died in 16 months, and the Vice-President Fillmore completed the term; but all through the four years each of the two parties of unlimited slavery extension and sla- very restriction was drawing its ranks together, and forming into the parties soon to contest the final mastery. In place of Whig and Democrat, it was increasingly North and South. Unfor- tunately, the South was willing to fight and the North as yet was not ; and the so-called Com- promise of 1850, like most compromises, was practically all on one side, the Northern Whigs letting the measure go by default. They did not like it, but the South insisted, and they had much more confidence in placating their own constituents for adhering to it than the South for not doing so ; once passed, therefore, they proclaimed it a sacred and irrepealable decision, as being a "compromise." and the Fugitive Slave part as being a sacred obligation to uphold. As always, the "reopening of agitation" was ex- ecuted by the Southern wing: before the Presi- dential nominations were made, they had de- termined to force the Whigs to an absolute declaration of party policy, a touchstone of legitimate membership. First at the Whig caucus of 20 April, then at the Baltimore national con- vention of 16 June, they insisted on the party recognizing the Compromise as a finality ; in the platform, the last article, of great length and minuteness, made the Fugitive Slave Law, by name, a part of the organic constitution of the party. This was death, and the Southern Whigs must have so intended it. Gen. Scott, as a military hero, was made the candidate. The Southern Whigs, instead of voting for him on account of the Fugitive Slave plank, largely voted against him because the anti-slavery men in the convention, for no assignable reason, had voted for him, and he was said to be partial to Seward; the Northern Whigs largely voted against the platform: and the Whigs carried only four States, Massachusetts, Vermont, Ken- tucky, and Tennessee, and less than a third of the next Congress even nominally, a third even of that being Southerners who soon became Democrats. The Whig party was no more : "died of an attempt to swallow the Fugitive Slave Law" was the epitaph proposed for it. Forrest Morgan. Connecticut Historical Society. American Political Issues, 1856-1900. My review will begin with the year 1856 — the year in which I cast my first vote, also one in which James Buchanan was chosen President. But it must be premised that each election does not represent a debate ; not infrequently it is merely a stage in a debate. It was so in 1856; it has been so several times since. Indeed, since 1840 — the famous "Log Cabin and Hard Cider" campaign of "Coon-Skin Caps," and *Tippecanoe and Tyler too," prob- ably the most humorous, not to say grotesque, episode in our whole national history, that in which the plane of discussion reached its low- est recorded level — since 1840 there have been only six real debates, the average period of a debate being therefore 10 years. These debates were (1) that over slavery, from 1844 to 1864; (2) that over reconstruction, from 1868 to 1872; (3) legal tenders, or "fiat money," and resump- tion of specie payments were the issues in 1876 and 1880: (4) the issue of 1888 and 1892 was over protection and free trade; (5) the debate over bimetallism and the demonetization of sil- ver occurred in 1896; and, finally (6), imper- ialism, as it is called, came to the front in 1900. Since 1856, therefore, the field of discussion has been wide and diversified, presenting several issues of great moment. Of necessity also the debates have assumed many and diverse aspects, ethnical, ethnological, legal, military, economical, financial, historical. The last is that which in- terests us. Slavery Issue. — The first of the debates I have enumerated, that involving the slavery issue, is now far removed. We can pass on it historically ; for the young man who threw his maiden vote in i860, when it came to its close, is now nearing his grand climacteric. Of all the debates in our national history that was the longest, the most elevated, the most momentous, and the best sustained. It looms up in memory; it projects itself from history. As a whole, it was immensely creditable to the people, the com- munity at large, for whose instruction it was conducted. It has left a literature of its own — ■ economical, legal, moral, political, imaginative. So far as the historical aspect of that great de- bate is concerned, two things are to be specially noted. In the first place the moral and econom- ical aspects predominated; and, in the second place, what may be called the historical element as an influencing factor was then in its infancy. The slavery debate was so long and intense that all tin- forces then existing were drawn into it. The pulpit, for instance, participated AMERICAN POLITICAL ISSUES actively. The physiologist was much concerned over ethnological problems, trying to decide whether the African was a human being or an animal; and, if the former, was he of the family of Cain. Thus all contributed to the discussion ; and yet I am unable to point OUt any distinctly historical contribution of a high order; though on both sicks the issue was discussed histori- cally with intelligence and research. Especially was this the case in the arguments made before the courts and in the Scriptural dissertations; while mi the political side the speeches of Sew- ard and Sumner, of Jefferson Davis and A. H. Stevens, have little to be desired. The climax was perhaps reached in the memorable joint de- bate between Lincoln and Douglas, of which it is not too much to say the country was the au- dit "v. Beginning in its closing stage, in December 1853, when the measure repealing the Missouri Compromise of 1820 was introduced into the Sri late of the United States, and closing in De- cember 1S60, with the passage of its ordinance of secession by South Carolina, this debate was continuous for seven years, covering two Presi- dential elections, those of 1856 and i860. Of the great slavery debate it may then in fine be said that, while the study of history and the lessons to be deduced from history contributed not much to it, it made history, and on history has left a permanent mark. Of the canvass of 1864, from our point of view little need be said. There was in it no great field for the historical investigator, the issue then presented to the peo- ple being of a character altogether exceptional. I he result depended less on argument than on the iiuteome of operations in the field. Nor was it greatly otherwise in the canvass of 1868. The country was then stirred to its very depths over the questions growing out of the war. The shattered Union was to be reconstructed ; the slave system was to be eradicated. These were great political problems ; problems as pressing as they were momentous. For their proper solution it was above all else necessary that they should be approached in a calm scholarly spirit, observant of the teachings of history. Never was there a greater occasion ; rarely has one been so completely lost. The assassination of Lincoln silenced reason ; and to reason and to reason only does history make its appeal. 1 he unfortunate personality of Andrew Johnson now intruded itself; and, almost at once, what should have been a calm debate degenerated into a furious wrangle. Looking back over the can- vass of 1868, and excepting General Grant's singularly felicitous closing of his brief letter of acceptance — "Let us have peace" — I think it would be difficult for anyone to recall a single utterance which produced any lasting impres- sion. Reconstruction. — The debate over recon- struction, begun in 1865, did not wear itself out till 1876. In no respect will it bear comparison with the debate over slavery which preceded it. Sufficiently momentous, it was less sustained, less thorough, far less judicial. Toward its close, moreover, as the country wearied, it was gravely complicated by a new issue ; for, in 1867, began that currency discussion destined to last in its various phases through the lifetime of a generation. It thereafter entered in greater or less degree into no less than nine consecutive Presidential elections, two of which, those of 1876 and 1896, actually turned on it. Currency Issue. — The currency debate pre- sented three distinct phases: first, the- pmpi i tion, broached in 1807, known as the greenback theory, under which the interest bearing bonds of the United States, issued during the Civil War. were to be paid at maturity in United States legal tender notes, bearing no interest at all. This somewhat amazing proposition was speedily disposed of; for early in 1869, an act was passed declaring the bonds payable "in coin." But, as was sure to be the case, the so- called "fiat money" delusion had obtained a firm lodgment in the minds of a large part of the community, and to drive it out was the work of time. It assumed too, all sorts of aspects. Dispelled in one form, it appeared in another. It is difficult to say what the dividing issue of 1876 really was. The country was then slowly recovering from the business prostration which followed the collapse of 1873. The living de- bate was over material questions, the cause of the prolonged business depression and the rem- edy for it. The favorite specific was at first a recourse to paper money. The government printing-press was to be set in motion in place of the mint; and even hard-money Democrats of the Jacksonian school united with radical Republicans of the reconstruction period in guar- anteeing a resultant prosperity. Again the teachings of history were ignored. What, it was contemptuously exclaimed in the Senate, do we care for "abroad!" From this calamity the coun- try had been saved by the veto of I 'resident Grant in 1874; and the following year an act was passed looking to the resumption of specie payments on 1 Jan. 1879. Seventeen years of suspension were then to close. Over this measure the parties nominally joined issue in 1876. The Republicans, nominating Governor Hayes of Ohio, demanded the fulfilment of the promise; the Democrats, nominating Governor Tilden of New York, insisted on the repeal of the law. Vet it was well understood that the candidate of the Democracy favored the policy of which the law in debate was the concrete ex- pression. The contest was thus in reality one between the "ins" and the "outs." But not the less for that, in the canvass of 1876 a field of great political usefulness was opened up to the historical investigator; a field which, I submit, he failed adequately to de- velop. A public duty was left unperformed. From time immemorial to tamper with the es- tablished measures of value has been the con- stant practice of men of restless and unstable mind, honest or dishonest, whether rulers or aspirants to rule. The Tariff Issue. — The administration of President Hayes was curiously epochal. During it the so-called "carpet-bag governments" dis- appeared from the Southern States; the country resumed payments in specie ; and on 28 Feb. 1878, Congress passed over the veto of the Presi- dent an act renewing the coinage of silver dol- lars, the stoppage of which, five years before, constituted what was destined thereafter to be referred to as "the crime of 1873." This issue, however, matured slowly. Public men, having recourse to palliatives, temporized with it ; and through four Presidential elections it lay dor- mant, except in so far as parties pledged them- selves to action calculated, in the well-nigh AMERICAN POLITICAL ISSUES idotic formula of politicians, to "do something for silver." The canvasses of 1880 and 1884 are therefore devoid of historical interest. The first turned largely on the tariff; and yet, curiously enough, the single utterance in that debate which has left a mark on the public memory was the wonderful dictum of Gen. Hancock, the can- didate of the defeated opposition, that the tariff was a local issue, which a number of years be- fore had excited a good deal of interest in his native State of Pennsylvania. Nor is the rec- ollection of the debate of 1884 much more in- spiring. It was a lively contest enough, under Grover Cleveland and James G. Blaine as op- posing candidates, a struggle between the "outs" to get in and the "ins" not to go out. But a single formula connected with it comes echoing down the corridors of time, the alliterative "Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion" of the unfor- tunate Burchard. That of 1888, presenting at last an issue, rose to the dignity of debate. In his annual message of the previous December the President, in dis- regard of all precedent, had confined his atten- tion not only to the tariff, but to a single feature in the tariff, the duty on wool. In so doing he had, as the well understood candidate of his party for re-election, flung down the gauntlet, for only three years before the Republicans, in the Presidential platform, had laid particular emphasis on "the importance of sheep industry* and "the danger threatening its future prosper- ity." They had thus pledged themselves to "do something" for wool, as well as for silver, and the President now struck at wool as "the tariff- arch keystone." But, while in this debate the economist came to the front, there was no pro- nounced call, and, indeed, small opportunity for the historian. Three Great Issues.— Returning to the re- view of our national debates, we find that in 1892 the shadow of coming events was plainly perceptible. The tariff issue had now lost its old significance; for the infant industries had developed into trade- and legislation-compelling trusts. These were suggestive of new and, as yet, inchoate problems ; but to them the con- stituency was not prepared intelligently to ad- dress itself. Populism was rife, with its crude and restless theories; a crisis in the history of the precious metals was clearly impending with the outcome in doubt ; indiscriminate and un- precedented pension-giving had reduced an over- flowing exchequer to the verge of bankruptcy. The debate of 1892 accordingly dropped back to the politician's level, that of 1876, 1880, and 1884. Of quite another character were the two can- vasses of 1896 and 1900. Still fresh in memory, the echoes of these have indeed not yet ceased to reverberate ; and I assert without hesitation that not since 1856 and i860 has this people passed through two such wholesome and edu- cational experiences. In 1896 and in 1900, as in the debates of 40 years previous, there was a place, and a larger place, for the student, whether investigator or philosopher. Great problems, problems of law, of economics and ethics, problems involving peace and war, and the course of development in the oldest as in the newest civilizations, had to be discussed on the way to a solution. That the prolonged de- bate running through those eight years was at all equal to the occasion I do not think can be claimed. Even his most ardent admirers will hardly suggest that Mr. Bryan in 1896 and 19CO rose to the level reached by Lincoln 40 years before, nor do the utterances of Mr. Roosevelt, Mr. Depew, or Mr. Hanna bear well a compari- son with those of Seward, Trumbull, and Sum- ner. Indeed, in the whole wordy canvass of 1896 I now recall but two instances of the pro- fessor or philosopher distinctly taking the floor; but both of those were memorable. They im- parted an elevation of tone to discussion, im- mediately and distinctly perceptible, in the press and on the platform. I refer to the single utter- ance of Carl Schurz before a small audience at Chicago on 5 Sept. 1896 and to the subsequent publications of President Andrew D. White, in which, from his library at Ithaca, he drew freely on the stores of historical experience in crushing refutation of demagogical campaign sophistry. What were the issues of the last Presiden- tial canvass ? On what questions did its debate turn? Three in number, they were, I think, singularly inviting to those historically minded. To the reflecting man the matter first in im- portance was what is known as "imperialism," the problem forced on our consideration by the outcome of the war with Spain. Next I should place the questions of public policy involved in the rapid agglomerations of capital, popularly denominated trusts. Finally, the silver issue still lingered at the front, a legacy from the canvass of four years previous. The debate of 1900 is a thing of the past. Each of those issues can now be discussed, as it might well then have been discussed, in the pure historical spirit. Let us take them up in their inverse order. Silver and Trusts. — -Shortly after 1870 the policy of demonetizing silver was entered on ; and in 1873 the United States gave its adhesion to that policy. Thereafter, in the great system of international exchanges, silver ceased to be counted a part of that specie reserve on which drafts were made. Thenceforth the drain, as among the financial centres, was to be on gold alone. In the whole history of man no precedent for such a step was to be found. So far as the United States was concerned the basis on which its complex and delicate financial fabric rested was weakened by one-half; and the cheaper and more accessible metal, that to which the debtor would naturally have recourse in discharge of his obligations, was made unavailable. It could further be demonstrated that without a com- plete readjustment of our currencies and values the world's accumulated stock and annual pro- duction of gold, could not, as a monetary basis. be made to suffice for its needs. A continually recurring contest for gold among the greatest financial centres was inevitable. "A change which," in the language of Lccky, "beyond all others affects most deeply and universally the material well-being of man had been unwittingly challenged." The only question was, Would the unexpected occur? Then, if it did occur, what might be anticipated? Such was the silver issue, as it presented itself in 1896. On the facts, the weight of argument was clearly with the ad- vocates of silver. Four years later, in 1900, the unexpected had occurred. As then resumed, the debate was re- plete with interest. The lessons of 1892 and 1896 had a direct bearing on the present, and in the light shed by them the outcome could be AMERICAN POLITICAL ISSUES forecast almost with certainty; but it was a world question. Japan, China, Hindustan, cn- tered into the problem, in which also both Amer- icas were factors. It was a theme to inspire Burke, stretching back, as u did, to the Middle Ages, and involving the whole circling globe. Rarely has any subject called for mure intelli- gent and comprehensive investigation; rarely has one been more Confused and befogged by a denser misinformation. The discoverer and sci- entist, moving hand in hand, bad during the re- mission of the debati , l< i n getting in their work, and under the touch of their silent influence the world's gold production rose by leaps and bounds. Less than 10,000,000 ounces in l8y<>, in 1899 it had nearly touched 15,000,000; and in money value it alone then exceeded the com- bined value of the gold and silver production of the period. So much for the silver question and its pos- sible treatment. In the discussion of 1900 the last word in the debate of 1896 remained to be uttered. A page in history, both memorable and instructive, was to be turned. Next, trusts — those vast aggregations of capital in the hands of private combinations, constituting practical monopolies of whole branches of industry, and of commodities necessary to man. Was the world In I" subject to taxation at the will of a moneyed syndicate? The debate over this issue, if debate it may be called, is still very recent. In it the lessons of history were effectually ignored ; and yet, if applied, they would have been sufficiently suggestive. The historian was as conspicuous for his absence as the demagogue was in evidence. The curious feature in the present discussion, that which in the mind of the student of things as opposed to words imparts a special interest to it, is that, while the trust of vast aggregation of capital and machinery of production in the hands of individuals intended to control com- petition is in fact the modern form of monopoly, is is in its methods and results the direct op- posite of the old time monopoly; for. whereas the purpose and practice of that was to extort from all purchasers an artificial price for an in- ferior article through the suppression of com- petitors, the first law of its existence for the modern trust is. through economies and magni- tude of production, to supply to all buyers a bet- ter article at a price so low that other producers are driven from the market. The ground of popular complaint against them is not that they exact an inordinate profit on what they sell, but that they sell so low that the small manufac- turer or merchant is deprived of his trade. This distinction with a difference explains at once the wholly futile character of the politician's outcry against trusts. It is easy, for instance, to de- nounce from the platform the magnates of the sugar trust to a sympathizing audience; and yet not one human being in that audience, his sym- pathies to the contrary notwithstanding, will the next morning pay a fraction of a cent more per pound for his sugar, that by so doing he may help to keep alive some struggling manu- facturer who advertises that his product does not bear the trust stamp. As to the outcome of conflicts of this char- acter history tells but one story. They can have but one result, a readjustment of industries. A single familiar illustration will suffice. Any one who chooses to turn back to it can read the story of the long conflict between the loom and the spindle. Formerly, and not mi very far back, the distaff and spinning-wheel were to be seen in every house; homespun was the common wear. To-day the average man or woman has never seen a distaff, or heard the hum of a spinning-wheel. Ceasing long since to be a commodity, homespun would be sought for in vain. Vet the struggle between the loom of the manufacturing trust and the old dame's spin- ning-wheel was, literally, for the latter a tight to the death. The operator's time was worth absolutely nothing except at the wheel; she must needs work for any wage; on it d< pi her bread. A vast domestic, industrial readjust- ment was involved; one implying untold human suffering. The result was, however, never for an instant in doubt. The trust of that day was left in undisputed control of the field; and it always must, and always will be, just so long as it supplies purchasers with a better article at a lower price than they had to pay before. The process does not vary; the only difference is that each succeeding readjustment is on a larger scale and more far-reaching in its effects. Such, stripped of its verbiage and appeals to sympathy, is the trust proposition. But the popular apprehension always has been, as it now is, that this supply of the better article at a lower price will continue only till the producer, the monopolist, has secured a complete mastery of the situation. Capital, it is argued, is selfish and greedy, corporations are proverbially soul- less and insatiable; and, as soon as competition is eliminated, nature will assert itself. Prices will then be raised so as to assure inordinate gains; and when, in consequence of such profits, fresh competitors enter the field, they will either be crushed out of existence by a temporary re- duction in price, or absorbed in the trust. All this has a plausible sound; and of it as a theory of practical outcome the politician can be relied on to make the most. But on this head what has the historical investigator to say? His will be the last word in that debate also ; his ver- dict will be final. The lessons bearing on this contention to be drawn from the record cover a wide field of both time and space; they also silence discussion. They tend indisputably to show that the dangers depicted are imaginary. The subject must, of course, be approached in an unprejudiced spirit and studied in a large, comprehensive way. Permanent tendencies are to be dealt with; and exceptional cases must be instanced, classified, and allowed for. Attempts, more or less successful, at extortion in a con- fidence of mastery, can unquestionably be pointed out ; but in the history of economical develop- ment it is no less unquestionable that, on the large scale and in the long run, every new con- centration has been followed by a permanent reduction of price in the commodity affected thereby. The world's needs are continually sup- plied at a lower cost to the world. Again, the larger the concentration the cheaper the prod- uct ; till now a new truth of the market place has become established and obtained general ac- ceptance, a truth of the most far-reaching con- sequence, the truth that the largest returns are found in quick sales at small profits. Does history furnish any instance of a finan- cial, an industrial, or a commercial enterprise — a bank, a factory, or an importing company — ever having been powerful enough long to rcgu- AMERICAN POLITICAL ISSUES late the price of any commodity regardless of competition except when acting in harmony with and supported by governmental power? Is not the monopolist practically impotent unless he has the constable at his call? To answer this ques- tion absolutely would be to deduce a law of the first importance from the general experience of mankind. So doing would call for a far more careful examination than is now in my power to make, were it even within the scope of my ability; but if my supposition prove correct the corollary to be drawn therefrom is to us as a body politic and at just this juncture one of the first and most far-reaching import. In such case the modern American trust, also, so far as it enjoys any power as a monopoly, or admits of abuse as such, must depend for that power and the opportunity of abuse solely on governmental support and cooperation. Its citadel is then the custom-house. The moment the United States revenue officer withdrew his support the Amer- ican monopolist would cease to monopolize, ex- cept in so far as he could defy competition by always supplying a better article at a price lower than any other producer in the whole world. The Issue of Imperialism. — It remains to pass on to the third and last of the matters in debate during 1900, that known as imperialism. This was the really great issue before the Amer- ican people then ; and it is the really great issue before them now. That issue, moreover, I with confidence submit, can be intelligently consid- ered only from the historical standpoint. In- deed, unless approached through the avenues of human experience, it is not even at once ap- parent how the question, as it now confronts us, arose and injected itself into our political ac- tion ; and accordingly, it is in some quarters even currently assumed that it is there only fortui- tously, a feature in the great chapter of accidents, a passing incident, which may well disappear as mysteriously and as suddenly as it came. Stud- ied historically, I do not think this view of the situation will bear examination. On the con- trary, I fancy even the most superficial investi- gator, if actuated in his inquiry by the true his- torical spirit, would soon reach the conclusion that the issue so recently forced on us had been long in preparation, was logical and inevitable, and for our good or our evil must be decided, rightly or wrongly, on a large view of great and complex conditions. Leslie Stephen, in one of his essays, truly enough says: "The Catholic and the Protestant, the Conservative and the Radical, the Individu- alist and the Socialist, have equal facility in proving their own doctrines with arguments which habitually begin, 'All history shows.' Printers should be instructed always to strike out that phrase as an erratum, and to substi- tute T choose to take for granted.' * And else- where the same writer lays it down as a general proposition that: "Arguments beginning 'All his- tory shows' are always sophistical." What is by some known as the doctrine of manifest des- tiny is, I take it, identical with what others, more piously minded, refer to as the will, or call, of God. The Mohammedans say : "God clearly calls us" to this or that work; and with a con- science perfectly clear proceed to rob, slay, and oppress. In like manner the political buccaneer and land pirate proclaims that the possession of his neighbor's territory is rightfully his by mani- fest destiny. The philosophical politician next drugs the conscience of his fellowmen by declar- ing solemnly that "all history shows" that might is right; and with time, the court of last appeal, it must be admitted possession is 9 points in the law's 10. It cannot be denied, also, that quite as many crimes have been perpetrated in the name of God and of manifest destiny as in that of liberty. That, at least, "all history shows." But, all the same, just as liberty is not- withstanding a good and desirable thing, so God does live and will, and there is something in manifest destiny. As applied to the develop- ment of the races inhabiting the earth it is, I take it, merely an unscientific form of speech ; the word now in vogue is evolution, the phrase "survival of the fittest." When all is said and done that unreasoning instinct of a people which carries it forward, in spite of and over theories to its manifest destiny, amid the despairing out- cries and long-drawn protestations of theorists and ethical philosophers, is a very considerable factor in making history; and consequently one to be reckoned with. In plain words, then, and Mr. Stephen to the contrary notwithstanding, "all history shows" that every great, aggressive, and masterful race tends at times irresistibly toward the practical assertion of its supremacy, usually at the cost of those not so well adapted to existing condi- tions. In his great work Mommsen formulates the law with a brutal directness distinct!}' Ger- manic: "By virtue of the law that a people which has grown into a state absorbs its neighbors who are in political nonage, and a civilized peo- ple absorbs its neighbors who are in intellectual nonage — by virtue of this law, which is as uni- versally valid and as much a law of nature as the law of gravity — the Italian nation (the only one in antiquity which was able to combine a superior political development and a superior civilization, though it presented the latter only in an imperfect and external manner) was en- titled to reduce to subjection the Greek States of the East which were ripe for destruction, and to dispossess the peoples of lower grades of cul- ture in the West — Libyans, Iberians, Celts. i; t r- mans — by means of its settlers; just as England with equal right has in Asia reduced to subjec- tion a civilization of rival standing, but politically impotent, and in America and Australia has marked and ennobled and still continues to mark and ennoble extensive barbarian countries with the impress of its nationality." The following quotation I must commend to the thoughtful consideration of those classified in the political nomenclature of the day as Anti- Imperialists. A most conscientious and high- minded class, possessed with the full courage of their convictions, the efforts of the Anti-Im- perialists will nut fail, we and they may rest as- sured, to make themselves felt. They enter into the grand result. Nevertheless, for them there is food for thought, perhaps for consolation, in this other general law, laid down in 1862 by Richard Cobden : "From the moment the first shot is fired, or the first blow is struck, in a dispute, then fare- well to all reason and argument : you might as well attempt to reason with mad dogs as with men when they have begun to spill each other's blood in mortal cnmb.it. I was so convinced of the fact during the Crimean War. which, you know, I opposed, I was so convinced of the utter uselessness of raising one's voice in opp AMERICAN POLITICAL ISSUES to war when it was once begun that I made up my mind that as long as 1 was in political life, should a war again break out between England and a great power, I would never open my mouth on the subject from the time the first gun was fired till the peace was made, because when a war is commenced it will only be by the exhaustion of one party that a termination will be arrived at. If you look back at our history what did eloquence in the persons of Chatham or Burke do to prevent a war with our first American colonies? What did eloquence in the persons of Fox and his friends do to prevent the French Revolution, or bring it to a close? And there was a man who at the commence- ment of the Crimean War opposed it in terms of eloquence, in power, and pathos, and argument equal — in terms, 1 believe, fit to compare with anything that fell from the lips of Chatham and Burke — I mean your distinguished townsman, my friend Mr. Bright — and what was his suc- cess? Why, they burnt him in effigy for his pains?' Turning from the authorities and the lessons by them deduced from the record called history, let us now consider the problem precipitated on the American people by the Spanish war of 1898. The first and most important lesson is one which, in theory at least, is undisputed ; though t . 1 live up to it practically calls for a courage of conviction not yet in evidence. That a de- pendency is not merely a possession, but a trust, a trust for the future, for itself, and for human- ity, is accepted by us in this debate as a postu- late. Accordingly, our dependencies are in no wise to be exploited for the general benefit of the alien owner, or that of individual components of that owner, but they are to be dealt with in a large and altruistic spirit with an unselfish view to their own utmost development, materi- ally, morally, and politically. And, through a process of negatives, "all history shows" that only when this course is hereafter wisely and con- secutively pursued, should that blessed consum- mation ever be attained, will the dominating power itself derive the largest and truest benefit from its possessions. As yet no American of any character, much less of authority, has come forward to controvert this proposition. But, as- suming the correctness of the proposition I have just formulated, a corollary follows from it. A formidable proposition, I state it without limita- tions, meaning to challenge contradiction, I sub- mit that there is not an instance in all recorded history, from the earliest precedent to that now making-, where a so-called inferior race or com- munity has been elevated in its character, or made self-sustaining and self-governing, or even put on the way to that result, through a condition of dependency or tutelage. I say "inferior race 8 ; but, I fancy, I might state the proposition even more broadly. I might without much danger as- sert that the condition of dependency, even for communities of the same race and blood, always exercises an emasculating and deteriorating in- fluence. I would undertake, if called on, to show also that this rule is invariable — that from the inherent and fundamental conditions of human nature it has known and can know no excep- tions. This truth, also, I would demonstrate from well-nigh innumerable examples, that of our own colonial period among the number. In our case it required a century to do away in our minds and hearts with our dependential tra- ditions. The Civil War and not what we call the Revolution was our real war of independ- ence. And yet in our time of dependency you will remember we were not emasculated into a resigned and even cheerful self-incapacity as the natural result of a kindly, paternal, and protec- tive policy; but, as Burke with profound insight expressed it, with us the spirit of independence and self-support was fostered "through a wise and salutary neglect." But, for present pur- poses, all this is unnecessary, and could lead but to a poor display of commonplace learning. The problem to-day engaging the attention of the American people is more limited. It relates solely to what are called "inferior races"; those of the same race, or of cognate races, we as yet do not propose to hold in a condition of per- manent dependency ; those we absorb or assim- ilate. Only those of "inferior race," the less de- veloped or decadent, do we propose to hold in subjection, dealing with them, in theory at least, as a guardian deals with a family of wards. It'luit History Teaches. — My proposition then broadens. If history teaches anything in this regard it is that race elevation, the capacity in a word for political self-support, cannot be im- parted through tutelage. Moreover, the milder, the more paternal, kindly, and protective the guardianship, the more emasculating it will prove. A "wise and salutary neglect" is the more beneficent policy ; for, with races as with individuals, a state of dependency breeds the spirit of dependency. Take Great Britain, for instance. That people, working at it now con- secutively through three whole centuries, after well-nigh innumerable experiences and as many costly blunders, Great Britain has, I say, de- veloped a genius for dealing with dependencies, for the government of "inferior races"; a genius far in advance of anything the world has seen before. Yet my contention is that, to-day, after three rounded centuries of British rule, the Hin- dus, the natives of India, in spite of all material, industrial and educational improve- ments — roads, schools, justice, and peace — ■ were in 1900 less capable of independent and ordered self-government, than they were in the year 1600, the year when the East India Com- pany was incorporated under a patent of Eliza- beth. The native Indian dynasties, those natural to the Hindus, have disappeared ; accustomed to foreign rule, the people have no rulers of their own, nor could they rule themselves. The rule of aliens has with Hindustan thus become a domestic necessity. Remove it — and the high- est and most recent authorities declare it surely will some day be removed — chaos would inevi- tably ensue. What is true of India is true of Egypt. Schools, roads, irrigation, law and order, and protection from attack, she has them all — '* But what avail the plow or sail. Or land or life, if freedom fail?" The capacity for self-government is not acquired in that school. But of this England itself furnishes an ex- ample in its own history, an example well-nigh forgotten. In fundamentals human nature is much the same now as 20 centuries back. During the first century of the present era the Romans, acting in obedience to the law laid down by Mommsen — the law quoted by me in full, and the law of which Thomas Carlyle is the latest and AMERICAN PRINTING TRADE most eloquent exponent, the law known as the Divine Right of the most Masterful — acting in obedience to that law the Romans in the year of grace 43 crossed the British channel, over- threw the Celts and Gauls gathered in defense of what they mistakenly deemed their own, and, after reducing them to subjection, permanently occupied the land. They remained there four centuries, 100 years longer than the English have been in Calcutta. During that period they introduced civilization, established Christianity, constructed roads, dwellings and fortifications. Materially, the condition of the country vastly improved. The Romans protected the inhabi- tants against their enemies; also against them- selves. During hundreds of years they benevo- lently assimilated them. Doubtless on the banks of the Tiber the inhabitants of what is now Eng- land were deemed incapable of self-government. Probably they were ; unquestionably they became so. When the legions were at last withdrawn, the results of a kindly paternalism, secure pro- tection, and intelligent tutelage became apparent. The race was wholly emasculate. It cursed its independence ; it deplored its lost dependency. As the English historian (Green) now records the result : "They forgot how to fight for their country when they forgot how to govern it." Man is always in a hurry ; God never ! is a familiar saying. Certainly, nature works with a discouraging indifference to generations. Each passing race of reformers and regenerators does indisputably love to witness some results of its efforts ; but, in the case of England, in conse- quence of the emasculation incident to tutelage and dependency on a powerful, a benevolent, and beneficent foreign rule, after that rule ended — as soon or late such rule must always end — throughout the lives of 18 successive generations emasculated England was overrun. At last, with some half dozen intermediate rulers, the Normans succeeded the Romans. They were conquering masters ; but they domesticated themselves in the British Islands, and in time assimilated the inhabitants thereof, Saxons, Picts, and Celts, benevolently or otherwise. But, as nearly as the historian can fix it, it required 800 years of direst tribulation to educate the people of England out of that spirit of self-distrust and dependency into which they had been reduced by four centuries of paternalism, at once Roman and temporarily beneficent. Twelve centuries is certainly a discouraging term to which to look forward. But steam and electricity have since then been developed to a manifest quickening of results. Even the pace of nature was in the 19th century vastly accelerated. Briefly stated then, the historical deduction would seem to be somewhat as follows : Where a race has in itself, whether implanted there by nature or as the result of education, the ele- vating instinct and energy, the capacity of mas- tership, a state of dependency will tend to edu- cate that capacity out of existence ; and the more beneficent, paternal, and protecting the guardian power is, the more pernicious its influence be- comes. In such cases the course most bene- ficial in the end to the dependency, now as a century ago, would be that characterized by "a wise and salutary neglect." Where, however, a race is for any cause not possessed of the innate saving capacity, being stationary or decadent, a state of dependency while it may improve ma- terial conditions, tends yet further to deteriorate the spirit and to diminish the capacity of self- government ; if severe, it brutalizes, if kindly, it enervates. Chari.es Francis Adams, Historian and Diplomat. American Printing Trade. Although the printing trade had its inception in America con- siderably prior to the Revolutionary War, it was not until some time after the conclusion of that struggle for liberty that it began to assume the proportions of a national industry. In the year 1775, lor example, there were less than 100 printing establishments upon American soil, and these were almost exclusively confined to the coast towns. Even as late as the year 1810 there were but 35 printing shops scattered about throughout the interior of the country, while, in 1/75, with the exception of the two or three offices that were located in Massachusetts and Pennsylvania, the art of printing had no inland representation. A few years later a printing establishment was opened at Lexington, Ky. ; another soon followed at Pittsburg, Pa., and the third office was finally located at Cincinnati, Ohio. In almost every instance these printing offices were established for the primary object of printing newspapers, although each of them not only possessed the necessary facilities for the production of jobwork. but were also able to print and bind books on the rare occasions upon which such contracts presented themselves. From the earliest days in the history of the printing trade in America. Xew York, Phila- delphia, and Boston have been the three great centers of this industry. Other seaport towns had their local shops, but the bulk of their busi- ness was small. In fact, during the first 50 years in the life of the new nation it was Phila- delphia that took the lead in every branch of the printing industry, and, by the beginning of the 18th century the Quaker City presses, of which there were no less than no constantly in opera- tion, were producing more English publications than any city in the world, with the single ex- ception of London. It was here that Matthew- Carey, the first great American publisher, r^iali- lished his plant, and with all its daily and weekly newspapers, and its book-printing and binding establishments, Philadelphia was indeed the most important center of the American printing trade. Gradually, however, as the demands for printed works increased, other cities came into line, Albany, Hartford, and Worcester l>emg among those that developed a comparative large trade. Their chief industry was 111 the printing of pamphlets. The newspapers of that day con- tained so little matter that they were easily read, and, as they were passed from man to man, their numerical circulation was extremely small. As the result, therefore, little effort \\ made to enlarge them, and persons who, like the politicians, wished t<> reach the general p lie were compelled to address themselves to the people through the medium of pamphlets far as actual literature was concerned the countrv was practically devoid of authors, and the books which were printed upon American prr-ves wen- almost exclusively those which been pirated from English publishers. Later some religious and technical hooks appeared, but it was many year* before general literature began to display any marked degree of development In the beginning everything that was used AMERICAN PRINTING TRADE in the art of printing was imported from Eng- land. The American printers had English presses. It was from England that they ob- tained tluir type. Even the better qualities of printer's ink was imported, for the ink that was produced in this country was of such an in- ferior grade that it could be used only in the roughest kinds of jobs. From time to time va- rious American printers made some slight im- provements upon the old presses, but no great evidence of progress was shown until the estab- lishment of a permanent type foundry. Although it was the latter part of the 18th century before there was any permanent estab- lishment for the making of type in this country, several attempts had previously heen made to introduce such an innovation in the printing trade. As early as 1775 Benjamin Franklin had sent the complete equipment for a type foundry from Paris, but the attempt to establish this branch of the industry was not a financial suc- cess, and it was accordingly soon discontinued. Some ten years later a Scotch firm opened a foundry in Philadelphia, but it' did not thrive, and the few other scattered efforts that were made to provide American workmen with American-made type met with the same fate. In [796, however, two Scotchmen opened a type foundry in Philadelphia under the firm name of Binny X- Ronaldson, and. as the time now seemed ripe for such an establishment, they were sufficiently successful to be able to continue operations. In 1805 another foundry was opened by the firm of Wing & White, in Hartford, but they found themselves unable "to compete with the Philadelphia foundry until, in 1810, the establishment was removed to New York. Two years later the firm of David & Georg- Bruce established a stereotyping plant in New York, and, when the already established foundries re- fused t" supply them with type for their opera- tions, they began to cast it for themselves, and si M.11 became one of the most successful lypc- making houses in America. Their success, in fact, as much as the increasing demau 1 f >r type, inspired others to follow their example. In 1S16 a foundry was established in Boston; in 1817 another was opened in Baltimore, and, by 183O, there were no less than twelve foundries in full operation in various parts of the country. At the present time there are about thirty of these foundries in the United States, many of which are under the control of the American Type- Founders Company. In the early days of the printing trade in America stereotyping was, of course, unknown, and the local publishers were accordingly com- pelled to recompose the type for each new edition that might he recpiired. The introduc- tion of stereotyping by the Bruces in 1813, there- fore, suggested such economy that the enter- prise could scarcely have failed to meet with favor at the hands of the printers. While the plaster process, the first method of stereotyping in vogue, was invented in England by Lord Stanhope, tidings of this great discovery were soon brought to this country, and David Bruce at once set sail for the old world for the express purpose of ecuring the information that would enable him to make practical use of the new in- vention in America. Although the stories that had reached this country had pictured the new discovery as a perfected invention. Lord Stan- hope's experiments had actually by no means been concluded, and, as tin result, Bruce found 11 impossible to acquire anything more than the most superficial knowledge concerning the Finding that all material facts were being withheld from him, and that it would he- useless to attempt to persuade Lord Stanhope to disclose his secret, Bruce returned to the United States. So far from admitting his de feat, however, he promptly went to work, and, with the little information In- had obtained, he managed by his own genius and mechanical skill to make a plate that was in every respeel su- perior to any that had as yet heen cast in Eng- land. Through his own diligence he had mastered the defects which Lord Stanhope had heen unable to overcome, for his plate was not only perfectly level on both sides, hut it was of uniform thickness in every part. In fact, so successful was he that an Englishman named Watts, who had succeeded in learning his I' . went hack to Europe with his knowl- edge. There In- found scons of master -printers who, disgusted with the English invention, were glad to he taught how the American plates were made, and it was through his eff irts that both Austria and Germany acquired the art of stereotyping. From the day on which David & George Bruce opined their foundry in New York they had all the orders that they could till, for American publishers were quick to appreciate the economical advantage of the new invention. It was the time when the public was just be- ginning to demand hooks, and as the plaster casts were not only made without great expense but also guaranteed plates of great durability, printers were eager to stereotype all hooks that might by any possibility require a second edition. From this simple beginning, therefore, came the great stereotyping industry of America. By 1850, the year in which the making of plaster plates attained its greatest development, there were more than 50 firms engaged in this busi- ness in the United States, while more than 1,000 men were employed in the work. Then came the modern improvements — the electrotyping for hook-work and the introduction of the papier-mache process in the making of news papers — since which time the making of plates has become practically an art by itself Prior to 1805 comparatively little printer's ink was made in this country. Although print- ers were supposed to know how to mix the com pound, the preparations that they concocted proved such a poor substitute that all the good inks were imported. In 1805. however, two firms — one in Philadelphia and the other in Cambridgeport — began the manufacture of printing ink, and. since that time, the industry has been steadily extended until there are now about 35 firms engaged in this branch of the printing trade. About i860 the cheapness of aniline colors inspired a more genera! use of colored inks, hut as many of these tints soon lost their brilliancy they did not become very popular until the chemists had succeeded in cor- recting this fault. The period between 1810 and 1833 witne ed many great improvements in the art of printing. One of the most important innovations was the substitution of iron for wood in the making of hand presses. Although wooden presses had been used since the time of Gutenberg they had always proved a handicap to good printing. AMERICAN PRINTING TRADE Even the strongest wood was weak, and as the machine was liable to give way in some part at any pull, the pressmen found it impossible to obtain a good impression, even when the type surface was no larger than 12 bv 20 inches. As the natural result, all hand-presses were small affairs, and as they required the services of two expert workmen to keep them going the process was as costly as it was slow. In the adoption of the iron press American printers followed the example of their English brethren. The first iron press to be made in America was completed about 1820, but, sometime previous to that date, such presses had been imported from England. Recognizing the advantage of a machine that was capable of printing a sheet three times as large as the old press and with no greater muscular effort, American printers soon demanded them, but, in spite of this de- mand, it was several years before the wooden presses were relegated to the junk-heap, some of them having been in use, even in New York, as late as 1850. In the beginning presses were made by Turney, Worrall, Wells, and Smith, but gradually the business began to center with 11. ic in New York and Ramage & Bronstrup in Philadelphia, until, finally, nearly all the presses were manufactured by these houses. Another invention that proved an invaluable aid to the progress of the art of printing was the making of elastic rollers for inking the type. The original method of inking was a most laborious system, the application of the ink being made with balls of pelt. Early in the 10th century, however, an English compositor dis- covered that a composition of glue and molasses, long used in the making of pottery, could be ap- plied in the inking of type, and from this idea was evolved the composition roller which was so necessary to the success of the first machine presses. This roller was first employed in this country about 1826. Another invention that played an important part in the production of cheap printing was the improved method of paper manufacture which came with the intro- duction of Fourdrinier's machine. This, too, was introduced in America soon after 1826, and, since that time the growth of the printing industry has been a steady and rapid evolution. Of course, the great necessity under the new conditions was more rapid printing facilities, and this demand was met by the inventors about [829. Some 15 years prior to that time a German printer named Konig went to England to produce a cylinder machine for the use of the London Times. While the press that he con- structed was rather successful, he returned to Germany before it was perfected, leaving the English inventors to complete the improvement of Ins work. This they did in many respects, but the credit for the first actual success in the making of cylinder presses is due to the Ameri- can manufacturers, firms like R. Hoe &: Co., who took the somewhat unsatisfactory foreign ma- chines and brought them to a state of com- parative perfection. By depending only upon good materia] and thorough workmanship they produced cylinders that were so much more satisfactory than the foreign goods, that, in spite of the fact that the home product is cheaper. English printers have long found it expedient either to import American printing machines, or to make their own presses from American models. After 1833, therefore, America needed no further help from England in the development of her printing industry. With the best of paper, ink, type, and presses, all made in this country, and with plenty of money to invest in manu- facturing enterprises connected with this trade, it was unnecessary for her to turn to any foreign nation for assistance, and when, in 1830, the system of cloth book-binding was introduced, all the requisites for literary progress were in her own hands. Of course, with the development of the power press the character of the newspapers of this country also began to change. Whereas they had originally been small and dull, having but little news in them, the ability to print many copies enabled them to increase their circulation as well as their size. In 1833 -he New York Sun, printing a sheet nj/ by 17 inches on a hand press, could not produce more than 400 copies an hour. As the demand for the paper continued to increase, however, a cylinder press, propelled by a man at a crank, was introduced in 1834, and a year later, this was supplanted by a double-cylinder operated by steam power. As other papers in other parts of the country met with similar experiences, the demand for rapid newspaper presses continued, and, bv 1845, it was found that even the double-cylinder machine was too slow for the requirements of the con- stantly growing circulation of the great dailies. See American Newspapers. It was to comply with this demand that R. Hoe & Co., in 1847, invented the type-revolving rotary printing press, a machine in which the type was fastened to the cylinder and succes- sively presented to each of the imprc- cylinders placed around it. For more than 20 years this press was able to meet every demand of periodical publications, but, in [869, finding that it had at last become too slow. R Hoe & Co. perfected their web -printing machine, a press which prints continuously from stereo- tyoed plates on a cylinder against an endless roll of paper. In spite of the almost incredible speed at which this press can be run, other inventions, which have since been perfected, now enable it. not only to print 4, 8, 12. or even more pag. ■-. but at the same time, to fold, count, and paste them; to insert sheets or add the necessary covers, or even to print illustrations in many colors. In 1854 William A. Bullock perfected the first cylinder machine that was capable of printing a newspaper from a roll on both sides at the same time, but the other improvements have been the work of R. Nik- X- Co., or some of their business rivals like Cottrell, Babcock, Campbell, Potter, Huber, Miehle, Joss, and others. Great as has been the improvement in the making of machine-presses, however, the other branches of the art of printing have succeeded in keeping pace with it. In stereotyping, for example, the invention of tin' papier-mache process enabled printers to make a number of impressions of the same Dage of type, while the demand for a convex plate was met. in [854, when Charles Craske, of New York, since, in stereotyping a curved surface. The period between 1833 and the outbreak of the Civil War also witnessed many improve- ments in the art of printing, the most important being the introduction of fast printing in fine book and job work. The invention of the power AMERICAN PROTECTIVE ASSOCIATION —AMERICAN PUBLISHING pri s had been a blessing to the newspapers, but, for a lung time, book and fine job work was still dune on hand presses. It was not until 1S36 that Harper & Brothers introduced a power- press, although Daniel Fanshaw of New York, the printer of the Bible Society, had 10 power printing machines in operation in his shop prior to that time. These machines were manu- factured by Daniel Treadwell of Massachusetts, and, although the, h bulky and incon- venient, they were the best presses on the market until the Adams press came to take their place. During all this period, however, it was believed that cylinder machines were incapable of doing fine work, and it was not until Francis Hart, of New York, had demonstrated the fallacy of this ry that the incredulous could be persuaded to make the change which the proper develop- ment of the trade had so long demanded. To Joseph A. Adams belongs the credit of devising the American method of making-ready woodcuts, and he it was who first demonstrated the feasibility of the new process of electrotyp- ing by making successful electrotype plates, in 1839. It was in 1838 that the type-casting machine was invented by David Bruce, and about 1850 that the method of printing illustra- tions on dry paper was discovered. The art of engraving on wood was practiced until comparatively recent times, hut the intro- duction of the art of photo-engraving destroye 1 its usefulness, for, while wood engravings were extremely costly, the new process made the cheapest of illustrations possible. Lithography, or the art of printing upon stone, has been em- ployed in the United States since 1819. It was not until 1825 that its use became commercially practicable, but, since that time, this form of printing has developed so rapidly that, in 1004, the amount of such work done was estimated to be nearly $40,000,000, a production which re- quired the employment of more than 9,000 persons. 1 >ne of the latest, and, unquestionably, one of the greatest improvements in the art of printing was the invention of the typesetting machine, which is now in such general use in all large establishments that it may be said to have practically supplanted hand composition. It is by such inventions, however, that the printing trade has been revolutionized until it has grown from the small proportions of a business which engaged the attention of less than 500 men to a great national industry, in which the capital in- ted, according to the 1904 estimate, is in excess of $300,000,000, that has an annual output that is valued at more than $350,000,000, and which gives employment to not less than 175,000 persons. Albert Buckley Nichols, The Herald Company of Binghamton. American Protective Association, or "A. P. A.," a secret order organized through- out the United States and Canada. Its chief doctrine, as announced in its declaration of principle, is that "subjection to and support of any ecclesiastical power not created and con- trolled by American citizens, and which claims equal, if not greater, sovereignty than the gov- ernment of the I'nited States of America, is irreconcilable with American citizenship" ; and it accordingly opposes "the holding of offices in national, State, or municipal government by any subject or supporter of such ecclesiastical power." Another of its purposes is to prevent all public encouragement and support of sec- tarian schools. It docs not constitute a separate political party, but seeks to control existing par- tics, and to elect friendly and defeat objo I able candidates by the concerted action of citi- zens affiliated with all parties, much after the style of the American or "Know-Nothing* party. The order was founded 13 March 1887, and in 1900 claimed a membership of over 2,000,000. American Psychological Association, a so- ciety founded in 1892 for the advancement of psychology as a science. Persons arc eligible to membership who are engaged in this work. Membership, 135. Office of secretary, Columbia University, New York. American Publishing. The book trade or publishing industry in the New World had its origin in a more remote period than is gen- erally supposed. It began within 100 years of the invention of printing, and from the date of the first American book, 1535, to the year 1799, over 7,000 different books had been published, nine tenths of them however being pamphlets. The 19th century saw almost the full develop- ment of book publishing, the establishment of colleges and schools and the founding of many libraries, creating an ever-increasing demand for the best in literature. Early American Books. — The first book printed on the American continent is said to have been "La Escalcra Spiritual dc San Juan Climaco." published in Mexico in 1535. It was a translation from the Latin into Castilian. Other hooks were printed on the first press set up in Mexico and six or seven books are known to have been published in Peru before 1600. In the United States the earliest publication was a pamphlet called "The Freeman's Oath," printed in Boston in 1639 This was followed in the year 1640 by the "Hay Psalm Book," printed by Stephen Dave at Cambridge, Mass. After its publication in the colony it was reprinted in England, where it went through 17 editions, the last one bearing the date of 1754. It was also a highly popular work in Scotland, 22 edi- tions having been printed there, the last dated 1759. The first original American book pub- lished in this country was Mrs. Anne Brad- street's "Poems," and this volume, issued in Cambridge, Mass., in 1640, was republished in London in 1650. Cambridge remained the only publishing town for a long time, and for 21 con- secutive years issued about one volume a year. In 1653 Samuel Green published John Eliot's famous "Catechism" in the Indian language, fol- lowed in 1659 by the Psalms in Indian, in 1661 by the Indian New Testament, and in 1663 1>3 the whole Bible in the Indian tongue. This was the fust Bible printed in America. Early Publishers. — In New York city the original book publisher was William Bradford, who became official printer in 1693, for "40 pounds a year and half the benefit of his print- ing, besides what served the public." In 1694 he i^ued the "Laws of the Colony." the first bound book published in New York. In '738, Christopher Saner established a publishing house at Germantown. Pa., and issued the first German Bible printed in America in 1743- The firm of Little, Brown & Company was estab- AMERICAN PUBLISHING lished in 1784 in Boston while in the following year in Philadelphia, Lea Brothers & Company and Henry Baird & Company began business. It was also in 1785 that S. E. Bridgeman & Company began publishing books at Northamp- ton, Mass. The existing house of J. B. Lippin- cott & Company was established in Philadelphia in 1798. The firm of Harper & Brother began business in New York in 1817. From this date the publishing business had a rapid growth, among the firms established being the following in New York : Baker, Voorhis & Company, 1820; D. Appleton & Company, 1825; D. Van Nostrand, 1830; Ivison & Company, 1831 ; John Wiley & Sons, 1832; John F. Trow, 1835; A. S. Barnes & Company, 1838. In other cities the early firms included the following : Cincinnati, O., U. P. James, 1831 ; Springfield, Mass., G. & C. Merriam Company, 1831 ; Louisville, Ky., John P. Morton, 1825; Richmond, Va., J. \V. Randolph Company, 1831 ; Mobile, Ala., G. H. Randall. 1831 ; Montgomery, Ala., Joel White & Company, 1833 ; Lancaster, Pa., John Baer's Sons, 1817. The Early Book Trade. — As an adjunct to publishing, the selling of books originated in Boston as early as 1652, when Hezekiah Usher opened the first shop. Many colonial book- sellers printed and published their wares. Ben- jamin Franklin (q.v.) was among the early book printers. In 1732, Richard Fry, an Englishman and bookseller of Boston, advertised : " Whereas it has been the common method of the most curious merchants of Boston to procure their books from London, this is to acquaint these gentlemen that I, the said Fry, will sell all sorts of accompt books, done after the most acute manner, for 20 per cent cheaper than they can have them from London. * * * For the pleasing entertainment of the polite parts of mankind, I have printed the most beautiful poems of Stephen Duck, the famous Wiltshire poet. It is a full demonstration to me that the people of New England have a fine taste for good sense and polite learning, having already sold 1,200 of these poems." The first conven- tion of booksellers for the regulation of trade seems to have been held in Boston, 1724; it was for the special purpose of increasing the prices of certain works. Toward the close of the century bookselling began to take rank among the most considerable commercial pursuits, though it then only foreshadowed its present comparative importance. Works of standard character, involving large expenditures, were undertaken by publishers, who, in such cases, usually subscribed together as a guarantee for the printer's outlay. The trade was conducted upon established principles, and innovators were held in poor esteem. All these usages were, however, disturbed by competition, and after the publication of the Waverly novels, of which rival editions were issued, the individual mem- bers of the trade acted more independently of each other, and their customs afterward partook of a less narrow spirit. The American company of booksellers was founded in 1801. Books were formerly sold in sheets, to be bound as pur- chasers might desire, a practice which no longer obtains. The universal diffusion of education in America, and the inquiring mental character Vol. 1—27 of its people, not only increased the circulation of books but reduced their price, and the old- fashioned veneration which literary works had once inspired experienced no little modification. Externals were of small consequence to the great body of readers, and works were pur- chased not so much for preservation as for im- mediate reading. Statistics. — From 1825 to 1840 the number of American publications show an aggregate of 1,115. Of these 623 wsre original and 492 were reprints from foreign works. The population of the United States in that year was about 17.000,000. In 1853, 733 new works were pub- lished in the United States, of which 27S were reprints of English works, 35 were translations of foreign authors, and the remainder were orig- inal American works. The population of the United States had reached about 25.000,000. an increase of 50 per cent compared with 1840. The original American works published in 1853. compared with the 15 years ending in 1840, show an increase of about 800 per cent in less than 20 years. In other words, the original American publications of the book trade seem to have advanced about 15 times as fast as the population. In 1880, with a population of 50,000,000, the new books published during that year amounted to about 2.000 — nearly three times more than in 1853, whereas the population had only doubled. The total number of new books published in each year, according to the records of the "Publishers' Weekly" from 1881 to 1903 inclusive, were as follows: NEW BOOKS PUBLISHED. 1S81 i£8 2 2.99* '893 5.134 3.472 1894 4,484 ■883 3,481 1895 5,469 1S84 4,o38 1896 5.7°3 1885 4,030 1897 4.928 :886 4,776 1898 4,886 ■887 4.437 1899 1888 - 4,631 igoo 1889 4.014 1901 8,141 '890 4,559 1902 7,833 1891 4,065 1903 7,865 1892 4,862 Included in these figures are different edi- tions of the same book issued by different pub- lishers. The total for 190^. of 7,865 books includes 2,072 new editions. Of the new books, 5,621 were by American, 1,356 by English and other foreign authors. The 888 books required to make up the total of 7.865, were in 1 "in sheets," i. e.. they were printed abroad, and bound in this country. Fiction leads, with 977 American and 483 foreign books. Law comes next with 605 titles, all but three American : education holds third place. (627 titles') and re- ligion and theology fourth, with 513 titles. The output for 1902 and 1903 may be compared as follows : 1902. 1903. Fiction, American 903 977 Fiction, Foreign 818 483 Law 622 605 Education 408 627 Theology 433 S'3 A more detailed classification of the output of books in the United States during a single AMERICAN PUBLISHING year will be found in the report for 1902, as fi .ll«<\\ 5 : BOOK PUBLICATIONS FOR 1902. Classes Fiction Law Juvenile Education Theology and religion Political and social science... Biography, correspondence.. . History 1 B try and dr. una Literature and collet ted \. "rks Physii il and math, science Descrip, geog., travel Medicine ana hygiene Fine .iris, illust. ^ift books \ seful arts Philosophy 1 » sin. and rural S p. iris ami a in use men is. . . . Hu r and satire V/i irks ol reference Totals Grand total Copyright books by American au- thors including new editions. Books by English and other foreign authors including new editions. -e.i ,S"0 _. u U e a W~ .£2 vi u> § 6.2 a — ' 003 388 408 433 223 253 ■78 220 3" 259 267 243 110 1 j'> 62 73 46 49 98 818 2 39 108 78 8 37 59 •30 '36 "9 ■3 30 47 6 26 9 8 3 2 76 16 87 63 128 40 95 64 49 06 80 83 26 60 33 ■5 ■4 7 2 1 1 5.2IO 1 1,578 1.045 >.578 5,210 7.833 Popular Books. — In 1903 there were 1,700 book publishers in the United States. While Boston and Philadelphia remain true to their earlier reputations as leading book centres. New York has become the largest book mart and the leading factor in the manufacture of books. Chicago too has assumed an important place in the hook trade, while some hundreds of books are published annually in Cincinnati, San Fran- cisco, Cleveland, and other smaller cities. The majority of American books are published by 100 firms in New York, Boston, Chicago, and Philadelphia. During 1902 and 1903 the his- torical novels enjoyed widespread popularity, and nine books of this class circulated to the extent of 1,400,000 copies. This enormous out- put, however, did not lessen the sale of older and more standard books. These were largely reprints. A popular work 75 years after its first publication is often found to have been reprinted 20 times by as many different pub- lishers. Of the world's great standards, hun- dreds, and in some cases thousands, of editions have appeared. There is, nevertheless, a dis- tinction to be made between the manufacturer of 1 ks who takes old works and reprints them, and the publisher who issues entirely fresh and original matter. Among early suc- cessful books Mrs. Stowe's "Uncle Tom's Cabin" had a phenomenal sale. 500.000 copies being sold in less than five years in the United States, and by April [852 more than 1,000,000 had been re- printed in Great Britain. Of Longfellow's poems, without taking into account unauthor- ized English reprints, the American sales in 1830 57 amounted to 325,550; from the latter date till 1901, 220,000. School Buuks. — No small factor in book- making during the 19th century was the phe- nomenal production of school and college text- books, in fact, the publication of educational works has increased steadily. In 1902 the re- ports showed a list of 433 educational works, while in 1903 this was increased to 607. This is illustrative of the remarkable growth in school book publishing. Of books for use in the public schools editions of 500,000 copies, intended for one year's consumption, are not an unusual event. Messrs. D. Appleton & Company for many years sold over [,000,000 copies of Web- ster's "Speller" every year; and \V. B. Smith & Company, of Cincinnati, Ohio, sold over 1,000,000 copies of the Eclectic Series during each year. The electrotype plates of school- books, Bibles, prayer-books, and hymn-1 ks, are very rarely changed, r.nd enormous quanti- ties are sold every year. Miscellaneous Books. — In the United States many encyclopedias, dictionaries, the complete works of standard authors in definitive editions, anthologies of literature, etc., are sold by sub- scription ; and the initial expense of such books being enormous, before a single copy of the book is made, the sales must be enormous also. Then there are many "books which are not books" — such as city directories, which are usually pub- lished by a company devoted exclusively to the publication of this one book; State directories, list of dealers in each business, and commercial agency reports (each of these agencies makes four revised editions of its books each year, each book measuring about 11x13 inches, and containing about 2,500 pages of matter in close print. There are also innumerable genealogies, indexes, catalogues, together with many other productions which are truly books, but which cannot be called literature. Commercial Value. — In the publishing of books the following are the items of outlay which need to be taken into account: Cop) right, paper, typesetting, author's corrections, clectrotyping, press work, binding, advertising. Publishing means a great deal more than merely printing and binding a book. It means putting it where it is likely to sell. The machinery of distribution, which means the method of get- ting books finally into the bands of readers through the various middlemen, is vastly im- portant. The manufacture of a book now de- mands the assistance of various branches of mechanical skill. Besides the paper-maker, the type-founder, and the printer, to whom it gives a large proportion of employment, it engages, exclusively, the bookbinder. Its material form has, till the present era of cheap publications, always borne a commercial value extravagantly disproportionate to its matter. Copyright. — A common arrangement be- tween the American author and publisher is a payment of 10 per cent royalty on the retail price of all sales; sometimes a cash sum is paid, and the publisher secures the copyright, which is granted for 28 years, subject to renewal by the author, his widow, or children for other 14 years. A condition is that a copy of a title- page must be registered with the librarian of Congress, and two copies of the book lodged there within ten days of publication. The entry fees are 50 cents for an American author, $1.00 T < ' £ i I ° • i ? ■X Or T O kj « -* < * m -crtrg-u^fc i _21 — X. AMERICAN PUBLISHING for a foreigner, and 50 cents additional for a certificate of record. A copy of any new edi- tion must also be sent to the librarian. (Sec Copyright.) By the provisions of the Inter- national Copyright Act (1886), a foreign au- thor's rights are protected in Great Britain, Belgium, France, Germany, Hayti, Italy, Spain, Switzerland, and Tunis. Colonial authors can also secure copyright without publication in the United Kingdom, and a work copyright in the United Kingdom is copyright in Canada. Ameri- can cheap reprints of British books are admitted to Canada subject to a customs duty of 12V2 per cent, to be paid over to the British author, but the returns from this source have been very small. Bookbinding. — Since 1885, in the book-mak- ing industry, many improvements have been made in wire-stitching machines. One of these machines will stitch anything from two sheets to a book two inches thick, and with several of them either round or flat wire may be used. There has also been introduced a noteworthy combination folding and wire-stitching machine, which, by a continuous and automatic operation, takes the sheets from the feeders, and folds, gathers, collates, covers, and wire-stitches them. Paper-cutting machines have been improved by the introduction of automatic clamps, indicators, and gauges. The invention of a steam round- ing and backing machine has increased the ca- pacity of from 500 to 1,000 books per day to a capacity of from 5,000 to 6,000 in the same lime. The latest case-making machine feeds itself from a roll of cloth which it automatically cuts into pieces of proper size for use. The cloth is first covered with glue by contact with a cylinder revolving in a pot of glue. It is then cut by the machine and nicked in corner sections ; boards are supplied from a holder and a back lining from a roll, both receptacles forming part of the machine. This process completed, the nearly finished product drops a little, the cloth is folded over the boards and back lining, and the binding, after passing through a case smoother, is delivered in a finished state. Among other inventions are a casting-in ma- chine, for putting the body of a book into its cover, and a gathering machine. This latter in- vention promises important developments in economy. Book Plates. — About the year 1804 the art of stereotyping was invented in England, and in a few years was introduced into this country. With the type -printed book under the old con- iliiiiins a publisher did not dare print a large number of copies of any book unless he believed it would have a quick sale. Books were bulky, and took up too much space. Consequently, the types for a first edition were distributed when they left the press; then had to be reset with renewed chances of error in the second edition. Resetting for two or more editions added largely to the cost of the book and lim- ited its supply. The process of stereotyping first used, known as the plaster process, served book printers for about 50 years. The practice of the art was brought to New York by David Bruce in 1813, but the first book stereotypes in America was the "Westminster Catechism." made by J. Watts & Co. of New York in June of the same year. For the printing of books, all methods of stereotyping have been super- seded by electrotyping, which was experiment ally tried in New York as early as 1841, and was in general use before 1855. Book Imports. — The summary of imports of books and other printed matter for 1902 and 1903 shows the following: (free OF DUTY.) Imported (mm ICJ02 I903 $1,057,909 174.326 615,140 379,047 42,091 20,379 $». 327.75c 167.965 623,889 264,037 ■ Totals $2,288,802 $2,438,862 CD! ! 'ABLE.) Imported from United Kingdom France Germany Other Europe British North America China Japan Other Countries Totals $1,112,017 76,201 261,464 83. 59 48,228 3.3°8 15,256 5.869 $1,605,402 $1,181,040 82.800 307,061 96.381 46,127 3.728 21,117 5,266 Si, 7(4. '59 The total imports for 1903 amounted to $4,183,021 as against $3,894,204 for 1002. Book Exports. — The books and other printed matter of domestic manufacture exported from the United States during 1902 and 1903 repre- sent the following : Countries to Which Exported United Kingdom Belgium France Germany Italy Netherlands Other Europe British North America •.■;•■ Central American States and British Honduras Mexico Cuba Other West Indies and Bermuda... Argentina Brazil Chili... Colombia Venezuela Other South America Chinese Empire British East Indies Japan ._ British Australasia Philippine Islands Other Asia and Oceanica British Africa AH other Africa Other Countries Totals $4,016,845 $3,9",634 5l, 94, if 70,143 10Q,o6o '7.!'7 1 , 162,903 10.475 220,129 7". '54 3'. 517 35.232 30.927 44,488 36,612 19,700 47. "5 3°.74 29,706 59.897 239.677 140,881 109,293 11.465 1,102,248 27.251 49.852 I93.'2S 27.038 ■0.735 33.294 .557.331 ■5.978 152.499 80,864 4". 01 I 40.199 37.582 ■0,237 3.499 '1. | .1 25.750 22,826 5'-,. -5 , 191,031 52,159 20,698 50,164 9.979 34 During the decade 1894 to 1904 the only striking change recorded in the book-publishing trade was the enormous and phenomenal circu- lation of a dozen popular no ,-cls. During this AMERICAN QUARRYING— AMERICAN RAILROADS period the advance in good taste and in artistic beauty of product was a marked characteristic of the industry. Fashions in bindings changed annually, but a widening range of materials and patterns, more daring use of designs and inks, and the invention and general use of au- tomatic binding machinery supplemented im- provements in printing, permitting lower prices for books and promoting phenomenal sales. It is a significant coincidence that the decade which witnessed extraordinary advance in all details of mechanical productions in this industry should be characterized also by the most note- worthy advance in the good taste and apprecia- tion of the general public. H. H. McCh-rf. Of McClure, Phillips & Co.. New York. American Quarrying. See Quarrying. American Railroads. The first railroads in the United States were built to carry stone, gravel, anthracite coal, and other heavy ma- terials. These of necessity were short. One was built on Beacon Hill in Boston, in 1807; one in Delaware County, Pa., in 1800; and one at Bear Creek Furnace. Armstrong County, Pa., in 1818. Other short roads were simultaneously con- structed, all having tracks composed of wooden rails. In 1812. Col, John Stevens, of Hoboken, N. J., issued a pamphlet stating "that trains of carriages would be drawn on railways at 20 or 30 miles an hour," and further said. "1 can see nothing to hinder a steam carriage from moving on these rails with a velocity of 100 miles an hour." This was a daring prophecy; but in 1827 the Delaware & Hudson Canal Co. began the construction of the Carbondale R.R., extending from Hohcndale, Pa., to Carbondale, a distance of 27 miles. Horses were the motive power for drawing the cars which were used in transport- ing coal from the mines to the canal. In 1828 this company sent Horatio Allen, a machinist and civil engineer, to England to purchase iron rails, and to order 3 locomotives of such pattern as he might determine upon after his arrival in England. The first of these made its trial trip on 9 Aug. 1829. and was the first locomotive ever run in America. Mr. Allen ran the engine himself, and would permit no one else on it, as he considered the risk of life and limb too great. The Baltimore & Ohio R.R., the first under- taking to transport passengers, was projected in 1828. constructed in 1829, and opened for busi- ness from Baltimore to Ellicott Mills, 15 miles, in May. 1830. Horses were used, and where the change of teams was made, gave rise to the well-known relay station 9 miles from Baltimore. In 1830, Peter Cooper built a locomotive, the first ever constructed in the United States, and ratulated himself that he made better time than the horses on the Baltimore & Ohio R.R. This engine weighed less than a ton, the boiler was about the of a flour barrel, and the flues were made of gun barrels. In 1830 there were but 23 miles of railroad in use. During the succeeding 10 years the total mileage reached 2.818. The line from Albany to Schenectady. 17 miles, was opened in 1831. Five years later Albany and Utica had rail connec- tion, and in 1842. Buffalo was reached. In the meantime lines had been built from New York and Boston to Albany, so that the then East and West were in easy communication by way of the railroads and the Great Lakes. In the year 1850, the length of the railroads in the United States aggregated 9,021 miles; in i860, 30,635 miles; in 1870, 52,914 miles; in 1S80, 93,296 miles; in 1890, 163,597 miles; in 1900, 193,346 miles. The present mileage of the railroad systems of the United States, in excess of 200,- 000, only partially indicates their magnitude, when it is remembered that the present total value of railroad assets ($13,000,000,000) is about one-seventh of the total present wealth of the United States ($90,000,000,000). There are about 1,000 operating railroad com- panies in the United States; but the railroad system of the United States is conveniently di- vided into 7 groups, each group occupying a nearly distinct section of the country, tin of the grouping being found in differences in production, density of population, and various social and ecomonic conditions prevailing in the 7 sections of the country. In each of these sec- tions there is considerable unity in the operation and ownership of the railroad systems. These territorial groups are as follows : ( 1 ) The New England States; (2) the region west of New England and the middle Atlantic seaboard, north of the Ohio and James rivers, and east of Chi- cago and Saint Louis (trunk line territory); (3) the section south of the Ohio and James rivers and east of the Mississippi (southern territory); (4) the region west and north of Chicago and Saint Louis, including the chief grain-raising States of the United States (granger territory) ; (5) south and west of Saint Louis (southwestern territory); (6) west of the granger and southwestern territories (trans-continental or Pacific lines) ; (7) a sub- division of lines within the trunk-line territory whose business consists chiefly of transporting anthracite coal from the Pennsylvania mines to the seaboard. This grouping of the American railroads into 7 systems, based upon physical differences in territory and economic conditions, is not entirely satisfactory, as it gives little or no information regarding ownership and management. A grouping along this line would be as follow-: 1 1 ) The Boston & Maine, 3.283 miles; (21 New York, New Haven & Hartford, 2,027 miles; (3) the Vanderbilt roads, 20,798 miles; (4) the Pennsylvania system, 19,301 miles; (5) the Philadelphia & Reading system, 2,145 miles; (6) Morgan roads, 11.229 miles; (7) Morgan & Atlantic Coast Line Company roads, 10,071 miles; (8) Illinois Central. 5,380 miles; ( () ) Seaboard Air Line, 2.61 1 miles; (10) Gould roads, 15,504 miles; (11) Moore road- it.003 miles; (12) Chicago, Milwaukee & Saint Paul, 6.604 miles; (13) Chicago Great Western, 056 miles; (14) Hawley roads. 2,376 miles; (15) Wisconsin Central, 978 miles; (16) Harriman roads, 16.468 miles; (17) Morgan-Hill roads, 24.711 miles; (18) Atchison. Toneka & Santa Fe, 7.876 miles. This classification, subject to constant change by transfers of ownership, shows that four-fifths of the railroad mileage of the United States is now in the hands of a few large interests and capitalists, between whom there is developing a community of interest or harmony of action that is restraining competition in rate-making. The United States government has sought to supervise or regulate the entire business of rail transportation in order to establish and main- tain equitable relations between the carriers and .- . 1: -jM > ■ * TMt f^09.47« FREIGHT CARS OF THE US.— . - ■J tQUA IN BULK 41 GREAT PYRAMIDS ■MHIHp^^ RAILWAY STATISTICS OF THE UXITED STATES. AMERICAN REPUBLICS— AMERICAN SHIPBUILDING the people served. This result cannot be at- tained solely by statutory prohibitions. In America, laws to be enforced must give expres- sion to public opinion and in order to make unjust discriminations impossible, the public must declare that it is as much a crime for public carriers to deny to one individual or community advantages to which they are justly entitled, as it would be for the government to show favors to some citizens, and discriminate against others. The problem is a continuing one, the specific necessity for government regulation varying from time to time. In 1870 it was necessary to secure cheaper rates to the seaboard for the agricultural products of the Central States ; during the period from 1870 to 1890 it was necessary to adjust the rates charged at small local towns and large cities ; at the present time it is imperatively necessary to secure rela- tively reasonable rates for rival areas of pro- duction and for rival economic interests in the same area of production. In the last few years new ideas have led to the betterment of railroad management and operation and the railroad personnel has been educated to a high standard. The system of to-day is a development resulting from 75 years of experience. From the first crude plant by gradual stages has been evolved the modern economical transportation machine of to-day. From the first crude rate sheet has been evolved the present successful, if complicated scheme of charges, successful because it moves the traffic to the satisfaction of the shippers, the benefit of the country at large, and produces a profit to the corporation owning the properties. See Railway Systems, American. Edward S. Farrow, Consulting Railroad and Mining Engineer. American Republics, Bureau of. The Pan-American Congress held in Washington in 1889, though ostensibly convened merely to con- sider arbitration and the improvement of com- merce between the republics of the western hemisphere, had a much broader object in view : to express in practical form the solidarity of American interests, and devise means to pro- tect them. Believing that a closer union be- tween us is possible only through confidence born of closer intimacy, the Congress created the International Union of American Republics and organized the Bureau of American Repub- lics (with a supervisory International Executive Committee} to effect that purpose. The Bureau's original function of publishing tariff data, port regulations, trade statistics, etc., was soon extended to the diffusion of all sorts of exact knowledge concerning the American republics, showing their natural solidarity and mutual protective necessities. To this end it publishes a monthly bulletin in English, Span- ish, Portuguese, and French, now in its nth volume; handbooks to the Central and South American states ; their tariff, immigration, and other laws of general interest, and a great va- riety of information otherwise inaccessible on their commerce, industries, and general condi- tions ; also an alphabetical code of commercial nomenclature in parallel English, Spanish, and Portuguese columns comprising over 50.000 du- tiable commodies, for the use of customs and consular officers and shippers. Tn 1000 it began compiling from the best sources special large- scale maps of various republics, containing all economic data, lines of rail and wire, mines, areas of cultivation, etc. As a further instru- ment it has built up a library of ' American ' of nearly 10,000 volumes, and a valuable col- lection of maps and photographs, in the subject- catalogues of which are noted all the works and articles on America, and cognate maps, in Washington libraries. It also receives all offi- cial documents published by American countries. American Revolution. See United States — American Revolution. American River, in north central Califor- nia, is formed by the union of its northern and southern forks near the western boundary of the county of El Dorado, whence it flows south- west between the counties of Placer and Sacra- mento and falls into Sacramento River near the city of Sacramento. For about six miles it has been rendered navigable for small steamers. The north fork, considered by some as the true American River, rises among the hills at the base of the Sierra Nevada, flows west-south- west, forming the boundaries between Placer and El Dorado counties for 100 miles, and unites with the south fork 30 miles above the city of Sacramento. The south fork flows from Bonpland Lake through El Dorado County, and forms part of the division between the counties of Sacramento and El Dorado. American Scenic and Historic Preserva- tion Society, a national organization estab- lished in 1895 for the protection of American scenery and the preservation of American land- marks. American Schools of Law. See Law, American Schools of. American Shipbuilding. The inception and development of this industry in America is primarily due to the enterprise of the early colonists of New England, who thus wove into the fabric of a history of isolated colonization, replete with incidents of hardships and self- sacrifice, the magical thread of commerce which connected them with the outside world. The first effort was inspired by the desire of the members of the Church of England Colony, established at Sagadahoc, Maine, in 1607, to re- turn to the mother country after the disc ing experiences of a hard Xew England winter. Thus, at the mouth of the Kennebec River, near one of the most important shipyards of the present time, the keel of the first American-built ship was laid, a little two-masted vessel about 60 feet long, which was named the "Virginia." From that time up to 1630, a few small \ were built for various special purposes; but, shipbuilding did not assume the dignity of an industry until the trade of Brazil and the Dutch West Indies, monopolized by the Dutch West India Company, was thrown open to the col- onists of New Amsterdam. This gave an im- petus that was felt all along the coast. Boston and Salem builders produced several vessels ranging in size from 150 to 300 tons, which en- gaged in profitable trade with Spanish ports ; while the shipping owned in the port of New Amsterdam increased in less than 20 vears, fn in a fleet of 15 or 20 small vessels, to one of 60 good-sized ships, and over 100 sloops, engaged in both foreign and coast-wise trade, and from this time up to the middle of the iSth century, the industry grew steadily under impulse-; from one source or another New York ( New Amsterdam) was engaged in an extensive ex- AMERICAN SHIPBUILDING porting trade of ilotir and biscuits, while Massa- chusetts employed at leasl [,ooo vessels in the development of her fishing trade. The period from 1750-70 may, therefore, be considered the t:i-l epoch of the industry. In the latter year, the American vessels represented a tonnage of about 400,000, approximately one-third that of Great Britain, and nearly one-half of this amount was turned out of the shipyards of Mas- sachusetts. By this time, however, Philadelphia had become a big center of activity. It was the most accessible port to the West Indies, our principal market at that time, and consequently turned out a large proportion of the 400 or more vessels built annually in the country. The beginning of the Revolution, therefore, found the industry in a most flourishing con- dition, and although during the following war the merchant marine and the fishing and whaling fleets of the country were practically annihilated, the demand for privateers and vessels of war served to sustain the effort until the close of hostilities allowed its redevelopment, so that at the close of the 18th century, the tonnage of American shipping amounted to nearly 700,000. From [800 to 1812, however, the commercial hostility of Great Britain practically manifested by the exclusion of the West Indian trade from the Americans, the seizure and confiscation of their ships, and the detention of a large number of them in various ports, for alleged evasions of British laws, prevented the much greater de- velopment probable under different conditions. The War of tSu gave the finishing stroke and caused a sharp decline in the industry until [815, when a new impulse was given by a rapidly increasing coast-wise trade, and the demand for a larger number of packets in the line of trans- atlantic passenger transportation, due to the in- creased emigration from Europe to America at the close of the war. The annual tonnage in- creased steadily from about 50,000 in 1820, to about (mo.ooo in 1855. Several packet lines were established between New York, Philadelphia, and Boston and Britisli and French and other European ports, and also a great many lines touching at the important ports along the coast from Portland, Maine, to New Orleans. La., and the gulf ports of South America and Mexico. The vessels were built on speedy hues; had roomy accommodations for passengers; ranged in size from 500 to 1,000 tons, and marked one of the most prosperous periods of the industry. About the year 1840, English steamers were placed in competition with those sailing packets, and aided by their superior carrying capacity, slowly but surely supplanted them in the course of a few years. The vessels thus thrown out of the packet line service were converted into freighters, and caused a slight decline in the industry, which, however, was relieved about the \ear 18J5 1)/ the demand for large and swift-sailing vessels for the Chinese tea trade. This inaugurated the era of famous clipper ships, the construction of which being still further stimulated by the Cali- fornian gold discoveries of '49, extended the period of their maximum usefulness to the be- ginning of the Civil War in i860. These vessels represented the highest skill of the American naval architect. The shipyards of Xew York, Boston, and Philadelphia built them in sizes ranging from 750 to 2,400 tons. Their lines were laid down sharp, and under their lofty masts anil enormous spreads of canvas, they made the best records ever made by sailing vessels, and the tonnage of American shipping very nearly equalled that of Great Britain. The Civil War. however, terminate 1 their career. English-built Confederate privateers, running under steam, swept the seas, and American ships representing hundred of thou- sands of tonnage were either destroyed or were compelled to seek protection under foreign tlags. At the end of that war, America was no longer a maritime nation. The events of that war had developed new principles ami new methods of shipbuilding. The advantages to In- derived from the use of iron as a material of construction had been demonstrated beyond a doubt sometime previously, and while the in- dustries of America were paralyzed by the inter necine conllict, the English shipyards had taken full advantage of their opportunity, and backed by governmental subsidies, had re-established Great Britain's old-time supremacy of the sea. From i860 to 1882, the stagnation in the American effort was extreme. In 1855 the num- ber of vessels turned out of the American yards amounted to 381 ships and barks, and uli brigs, while in 1885 only 11 ships and barks left the ways. The seriousness of the situation was recog- nized by the American capitalists as early as 1870. It was plain that a great producing nation could not be truly great, or develop itself to an extent commensurate with its vast natural re- sources, without the possession of an ample merchant marine, and they decided to revive the shipbuilding industry. Accordingly, 4 steamers, the Ohio, Indiana, Pennsylvania, and Illinois, were built by the Cramp Company, of Phila delphia, for the transatlantic trade. They were unquestionably as tine as any vessels of their time, but they were unable to compete with the British vessels which operated under larger sub- sidies. It was apparent that adequate governmental subsidies were necessary to sustain the effort of private capitalists, and that the growth of the British merchant marine was directly cine to such liberal assistance. Therefore, steps were taken by the various steamship companies, to obtain large cm, e sious from the government, and the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, which was already receiv- ing a subsidy of $500,000 per annum, for a monthly mail service to Japan and China, offered to double the service for .111 additional $500,000 per annum. A hill granting this sub- side was passed by Congress in 187,?. but dis- closures confirming the fact that a million dol- lars had been spent by the company to influence a favorable vote in Congress, and the subsequent failure of the companv to comply with the re- quirements of the bill, led to the abrogation of the new contract by the government. The total subsidies paid to the Pacific Mail Company dur- ing its 10 years of contract service amounted to $4,583,000: but, as no increase in the Oriental trade of the United States could be traced di- rectly to the influence of a subsidized mail service, the resultant effect was a steady decline of the merchant marine. Another attempt to ameliorate these con- ditions and affect a revival was made when the steamships New York and Paris, of tin- Inter- H W CO DC U < CO CO w AMERICAN" SHIP IJUILDIXG. Copyright, 190S, by Scientific American. THE MINNESOTA, THE LARGEST VESSEL BUILT IN AMERICA Length, 630 feet; Breadth, 73 feet inches; Molded Depth. 56 feet; Displacement on 33 feet draft. • is: Speed, H kn.'t- AMERICAN SILKWORM— AMERICAN SOCIETY OF ENGINEERS national Navigation Company's line, were ad- mitted to an American register on the condition that two other vessels, their equal in every par- ticular, should be built in American ship yards. The government granted to these vessels a pay- ment of $4 a mile for carrying the mails upon the condition that they were capable of main- taining a sustained speed of 20 knots an hour. The result of this agreement was the con- struction of the steamships St. Louis and St. Paul in 1895, and the effective application of the system of mail-carrying contracts. At the present time the subsidies for carry- ing the mails are defined on a mileage basis. It amounts to $4 per mile for first class steamers ; $2 a mile for second class steamers; $1 a mile for third class steamers; and 66 2/3 cents per mile for fourth class steamers. In addition to this the post-office department pays American mail steamships $1.60 a pound for first class matter, and 8 cents a pound for all matter below that grade. The first general subsidy measure designed to establish a system of direct navigation boun- ties was introduced in the United States Senate in 1898, and was passed by that legislative body in March, 1902. It consisted of four titles: "Ocean mail steamers," "general subsidy," "deep- sea fisheries," and "general provisions." Pay- ments for carrying mails were based upon speed and tonnage instead of mileage, and the ocean mail steamers were divided into seven classes on this basis. For 100 miles sailed, steamers of the first class received 2.7 cents per gross ton ; those of the second class, 2.5 cents ; third class, 2.3 cents; fourth class, 2.1 cents; fifth class, 1.9 cents ; sixth class, 1.7 cents ; and those of the seventh class, 1.5 cents. The section entitled "general subsidy," provided for the payment of a bounty of I cent per gross ton for every 100 nautical miles sailed, to all vessels not re- ceiving the mail subsidy, and was intended to offset the alleged greater cost of construction, and the greater expenses incurred in the naviga- tion of American" vessels. Under the title "deep-sea fisheries," provision was made to grant a bounty of $2 per gross ton per annum on American vessels engaged for at least three months in deep-sea fishing, and $1 per month to each sailor employed on such vessels. This measure was brought before the House during the last session of the Fifty-seventh Congress; but was adversely reported upon by the com- mittee in charge and failed to become a law. The period of great internal development of the country is practically at an end. The great railroad systems are practically built, and the vast accumulations of wealth in the country are seeking investment. If it is demonstrable that the margin of profits on present investments can be enhanced or even prevented from de- clining by investments in ships, such investments will be made and the industry will grow steadily but surely under the normal conditions of trade. In this connection it is interesting to note the evolution of that distinctly American type of vessel, the "schooner." From a handy two- masted craft of about 100 or 150 tons, extremely serviceable in the coast-wise trade, it has been developed to the mammoth "seven master" of the Thomas W. Lawson type. The development of the larger schooners appears to have been along the lines of maximum carrying capacity at the minimum operative expense. Vet, since the building of the Thomas W. Lawson, in 1902, no effort has been made to duplicate her, al- though she has made several fast trips from Chesapeake Bay to Boston, and they were un- doubtedly remunerative. In fact only one six-masted schooner is un- der construction at the present time ( 1905), and no seven-masted schooner is even under con- templation. The reasons for this are quite clear. Her extreme length of 395 feet makes her unavailable for the general coasting trade, as she is unabl to load for crooked river ports, and is a misfit at many of the wharves at other places. It is, therefore, apparent that in the matter of size the sailing vessel has reached her limit, and is already showing a tendency to go back to the less unwieldy five-master, well adapted, not only to the coast-wise trade, but also to the trade with foreign countries, involving extended deep-sea voyages. For detailed information relative to the de- velopment of the American shipbuilding in- dustry during the last decade in special lines, consult the articles under the titles Naval Con- struction ; Sailing Vessels ; Ship; Shipbuild- ing; and Steam Vessels, in this encyclopaedia. American Silkworm. See Silkworm. American Social Science Association. See Social Science Association, American. American Society of Civil Engineers, an association organized 5 Nov. 1852, 111 the 1 n of New York, its object being the professional improvement of its members, the encourage- ment of social intercourse among men of prac- tical science, the advancement of engineering in its several branches, and of architecture, and the establishment of a central point of reference and union for its members. Among the means to be employed for attaining these ends are period- ical meetings for the reading of professional papers, and the discussion of scientific subjects, the foundation of a library, the collect maps, drawings and models, and the publica- tion of such parts of the proceedings as may be deemed expedient. The early life of the Society was a stn.ggle for existence and it was not until 1867 that the organization had a permanent headquarters, and began its work in earnest. The lir-.t pub- lication was the address of President James P. Kirkwood, delivered 4 Dec. 1867, and print- ed in Vol. I. of 'Transactions' bearing date of 1872. The first Annual Convention was held in New York 16 June 1869, 55 members being present. The second and third conventions were also held in New York, but the fourth was held in Chicago and the annual conventions are now held at widely separated points. In 1869 the membership of the Society was 160; the membership in iqoi is over 3.200. The so- ciety has a splendid library of over 50.000 vol- umes, thoroughly classified and indexed and which is kept up to date by new additions. A monthly publication of 'Proceedings 1 is issued in which are printed the professional papers in advance of their presentation at the semi- monthly meetings. These papers with all the discussion to which they give rise, are subse- quently printed in 'Transactions.' two and some- times three volumes of which are issued an- AMERICAN SOCIETY OF ENGINEERS nually. The last report of the Secretary shows the assets "t" the Society to be over $_>.t5.ooo. The organization is in no sense a local one, and it has never had any subsidiary branches or been affiliated with other organizations. Its men i of practitioners engaged in all branches of Civil Engineering, the broad- est interpretation of that term being used. From the beginning, admission to its privileges has b n dependent solely upon professional expe- rience and personal character. That the Society is beneficial to the pro- fession is evidenced by the eagerness with Which membership in it is sought. The reasons for this are apparent, inasmuch as among its ob- jects arc to assist the young engineer pro- fessionally during the earlier years of his career, and. when he has proved himself worthy, to stamp him as one qualified to direct "the great sources of Power in Nature for the use and convenience of Man." That it- influence is far-reaching is shown by the fact that it has members in 51 of the ~\ subdivisions of the United States, as well as in 31 foreign countries. This foreign mem- bership constitutes <)'_• per cent of the total list. Charles Warren Hunt, Secretary of '.he Society. American Society of Mechanical Engi- neers, a professional organization composed of engineers practising principally in the depart- ment of generation, distribution and utilization of mechanical power. It is one of four organ- izations of engineers, national in its character and with a considerable foreign membership also, which exists for the purpose of the reading and discussion and publication of papers on en- gineering subjects and for the advancement of the profession of engineering in any direction within its scope. The society was formed in 1880 by a group of persons in and near New York city, who ree- led that the existing societies of mining and civil engineers did not naturally and instinctively offer a scope for the developing strength of mechanical engineering in the United States. 1 1 s first meeting was held in New York city in the autumn of 1880. Since that two meetings have been held eacli year; the annual meeting in the city of Xew York, and the other meeting in various cities of the Union; meetings have fallen in Boston, Providence Philadelphia, Al- a, Pittsburg. Cleveland. Nashville, Rich- mond, St. Louis, Chicago, and San Francisco. These meetings last three or four days and are always made the occasion of visits to im- portant engineering enterprises in the city which is entertaining the society. Usually from 15 to 20 papers are read and discussed at each of these meetings and the papers with their discus- sions are issued to all members in the form of an annual volume, averaging a thousand pages and copiously illustrated. These volumes which are designated 'Transactions' are an accumula- tion of most valuable professional literature, re- sults of tests and experiments, researches into new fields and are tilled with recorded data of observation. The society was incorporated as a national organization under the laws of Xew York State in 1881, and has maintained its execu- tive offices in Xew York city. For seven or eight wars its headquarters were in office buildings in the business district, but in iS.Sc) the movement was started of having its library of professional literature open in the evenings and for this purpose the society rented quarters in the Mott Memorial Library build- ing. Madison Avenue near 27th Street. The success of the evening opening of its library warrantee! the step which was taken in 1S90 of purchasing the property which had been altered by the New York Academy of Medicine for this purpose and which included not only a library space and equipment, but a convenient audi- torium of small size for the holding of meetings. The society expects to be a participant in the provision of a wealthy engineer and donor whereby three of these national societies will be accommodated in a special building designed specifically for the needs of organizations of this class. In addition to the publication of an annual volume the society conducts a free public refer- ence library of engineering. This binary is particularly rich in the current contributions to other scientific and engineering societies both in English and in other languages and in periodical literature published through the jour- nals of technical journalism, both at home and abroad. This class of literature is of ; significance in lines in which progress is as rapid as in the industrial departments of engineering. The library contains (1004) over 9.000 books and 5.000 pamphlets. It has also a valuable collection by bequest of antiquities in engineer- ing and scientific matters, and obtains by ex- • the scientific publications of the United States Government and corresponds with the important technical societies of Europe and the continent. The cosy auditorium and the library exhibit much material in portraits, busts, and memorials of engineering achievement It is specially rich in drawings and other documents belonging to the work and history of Robert billion and early steam navigation. The society has also discharged a valuable function by the service of professional commit- on special subjects. These profc- committees have mainly been concerned with the work of formulating the best procedure in - lines, with a view of having such pro cedure a species of standard whereby uniformity might be secured. Committees of the society have reported on uniform methods for conduct- ing tests of boilers, on uniform methods of con- ducting tests of engines; on uniform standards in structural material, and have prosecuted re- search on the fire resisting properties of ma- terial, advisable methods for conducting tests of strength and similar problems. These reports are made by the best experts connected with the society, and while the society officially never adopts their recommendation by legislative action, these recommendations carry- great weight by reason of the sources from which they come. The society is governed by a council. - sisting of a president, six vice-presidents, nine managers, a secretary and a treasurer. F. K. HUTTON, Secretary of the Society. American Society of Naval Engineers, organized 1888 for the purpose of publishing a quarterly journal covering the general field of AMERICAN STREET RAILWAYS marine engineering and naval architecture with cognate subjects bearing on these. The publica- tions of this society are regarded as works of reference by the marine-engine builders of the world, as well as by the admiralty officials of the various countries. During the existence of the society special effort has been made to cover every distinct feature of marine engineering design. While the council of the society has been exceedingly conservative as regards ad- mitting original material to the columns of the 'Journal' of the society, special encouragement has been given to naval officers to take ur> origi- nal work, and to particularly note the engineer- ing weaknesses of warship construction, so that each new type of war vessel, at least as far as machinery design is concerned, will be a dis- tinct improvement upon its predecessor. Sub- scribers to the 'Journal' are members. Office of secretary, Washington, D. C. American Street Railways. As far back as 1630 an enterprising mine owner at Newcastle- on-Tyne, finding the roads between his mines and the river so bad as to seriously interfere with the hauling of coal, conceived the idea of laying in the road wooden rails, and running thereon cars with wooden wheels. From that time to the present the transportation of goods and passengers has been a leading industry. The idea of the street railway grew out of the steam railroad agitation, when the first steam railroad was built in the United States in 1829. This idea rapidly materialized and the first street ■ ailway was built in New York City in 1832, the tracks being laid on Fourth Avenue from Prince Street to Harlem, the rail consist- ing of strips of flat-iron laid on granite blocks. The cars resembled the stage coach then in use and were mounted on flanged wheels. This road being a financial failure, it was not until 1836 that the next street railway was built in Boston. After this time street railways were built in all large American cities, and between i860 and 1880 the horse railway had become an established institution. As cities grew and dis- tances became longer, there was created a need of a motive power to draw the cars faster than horses could transport them. In some cases steam locomotives were used in the suburbs of large cities, but this was considered impracti- cable on account of the noise, dirt, and danger. Numerous f electro-magnetic and pneumatic devices, each applied to those operations in which experience lias shown it to be mosl effective. The construction is noticeable for the liberal design of its working parts and contacts, and the great margin of power available for their operation; while the general design and simplicity of operation insures great reliability of service and low cost of maintenance. See Street Railways. Edward S. Farrow. Consulting Railroad and Mining Engineer. American Sunday-school Union, a re- ligions association having for its object the organization and support of Sunday-schools in Ij neighbor!] Is, or those where religious sentiment is t Inided to sustain denomina- tional ones; the publication of religious juvenile literature, etc. It is not a union of churches, hut of Christians of various denominations, re- quiring no common creed hut a desire to save souls and promote the study of the Bible ; and is managed entirely by laymen, though employ- ing both ministers and laymen as officials and in its work, which of course includes the main- tenance of missionaries to organize schools and enliven religious sentiment. It has had but six presidents in nearly 80 years of work, — Alex- ander Henry, John McLean, John A. Brown, Robert L Kennedy, William Strong, and the present president, Morris K. Jesup. It has also a board of managers, the members elected for one, two, and three years; and an executive committee. Its headquarters are at Philadel- phia, where it first came into being. Its genu was the First-Day Society, founded in [791, whose managers petitioned for free schools in Pennsylvania; this led to the formation of the Philadelphia Sunday and Adult School Union in 1S17, which later united with similar socie- ties and changed its name to the present title in 1824. In tiSjl the Philadelphia union published one book and supported one missionary ; in 1902 it maintained nearly 100 permanent mis- sionaries and published several thousand books and other publications. Its income is about $125,000 a year, and it organizes on an average about 1,350 Sunday-schools annually. American Sycamore. See Plane. American System. See Tariff. American Tariffs. See Tariffs. American. American Temperance University, a co- educational (non-sectarian) institution in llar- riman, Tenn., organized in 1891. Professors, 30; siu lents. 400; volumes in the library, 1,000; grounds and buildings valued at $100,000; grad- uates, 200. American Textile Industry. See Textile Industry, American. American University, The. Prof. Ladd of Yale University, in an essay originally read be- fore the "Round Table" of' Boston, about 1888, says: "Any one possessed of the requisite in- formation knows at once what is meant by the university of France, the English universities, or a German university ; but no one can be- come so conversant with facts as to tell what an American university is." And again: " — it is scarcely less true than it was a score of years ago, that, although there may be universities in America, no one can till what an American university is." While not so accurate at the present day as when first made, it is still true enough, if one fail to tree himself at the very start from de- pendence upon the name as necessarily indicative of the thing. It is incontestable that within recent years the conception of the natural and necessary relation of the "university" to the "college" has become much clearer, and that many and important changes of organization and administration have resulted, SO that it is certainly easier than it was in [888 to define, or at least to describe, the American university. However, there remain difficulties of many kinds; and it still is, and will undoubtedly be for years to come, if not actually impossible, at least very difficult, to give a definition broad enough to include all institutions of learning in the United States which possess true uni- versity character, and precise enough to ex- clude all others. The first difficulty is this: The names "uni- versity" and "college," as Used in the official titles of institutions, are absolutely worthless as indications of the character of these insti- tutions. Among the scores of titular "universi- ties" in this country most arc merely colleges, some good, some indifferent, some so badly endowed and organized as to be not even good high schools. On the other band, Bryn Mawr "college" has never assumed, even in informal use, the name "university," yet offers true uni- versity instruction of the highest order in most of the subjects covered by the philosophische Fakultat of a German university ; and even Harvard and Columbia, though they have now acquired a true university character, of a very elaborate type, and are habitually spoken of as such, have retained in their corporate titles their ancient designation of "college." It happens that in the most eastern States the word "uni- versity" is much less used as a title, the higher institutions of learning having mostly been founded while the English influence was still strong, many of them indeed in colonial times, under direct English authority, and so having adopted the peculiarly English name of "col- lege." In the newer States more ambitious plans prevailed, and the consideration of conditions in non-English European countries — -notably those of Germany, where the universities had ob- tained a more commanding position and influ- ence than elsewhere by the beginning of the 19th century — led to the choice of the name of apparently greater dignity. This considera- tion seems also to have been paramount with the founders of the countless purely sectarian institutions which sprang up all over the coun- try, and still lead a precarious existence, striv- ing to hold the attention of their brethren in the faith by promiscuously showering down honorary degrees. Yet it would be grossly un- fair to assume that in all cases the name of university was adopted out of pure conceit: in many the choice of name was the proclamation of a purpose sincerely cherished, and resolutely carried forward, amid difficulties of which the European critic can form no conception, to a realization more or less complete. It will be necessary then to get rid of this first difficulty by ignoring completely the difference in title. If we shall succeed in describing the thing, though we may be ever conscious of the un- AMERICAN UNIVERSITY fortunate ambiguity of terms, now doubtless too firmly fixed in official and legal use to be easily changed, we may rest content. Another difficulty is this. It is now clearly seen that, as institutions, the college and the university, having very different functions, de- mand a different organization and administra- tion. Yet the full recognition of this fact is comparatively recent, and the logical conse- quences have been reached in only a few in- stances. The circumstances of foundation and the necessities of the hour have made it prac- tically impossible for the university and the college in the United States to exist apart. There are still but two institutions which may be called even fragmentary universities entirely unconnected with a college : The Clark Uni- versity of Worcester, Mass., and the Catholic University of America at Washington. Down to 1876, when the Johns Hopkins University was opened, whatever real university instruction was offered was organized at a college already existing, and even the founders of the Johns Hopkins, though their chief purpose was avow- edly to provide for university instruction of the bighest grade, felt it necessary or at least advisable to organize a college also. The wide scope planned for Cornell University, opened in 1868, from the first necessarily included a college, nay, many colleges, as part of the scheme. In all discussion of the American uni- versity, therefore, in this article it must be borne in mind that the term (with the two exceptions noted above) is used to include only certain parts of institutions whose organism is often highly complex, and that probably no two institutions coincide in theory or even in prac- tice, though certain principles and practices are common to those of more complete type. What then is that American university, a description of which is here undertaken, if it does not anywhere exist in completeness and exactness, unobscured by contact with institu- tions of different character and divergent aims? It will be least misleading to say at the outset: It is nowhere. In so far, therefore, Prof, von Hoist's famous pronouncement is right ; a uni- versity in the European sense does not exist in America. And yet, from Harvard on the Atlantic tidewater to the University of Cali- fornia, which looks out through the Golden Gate upon the Pacific, and from Minneapolis to New Orleans, will be found many institutions which offer training in the methods of scien- tific research, opportunities for the prose- cution of such research, and abundant fa- cilities in the way of libraries, museums and laboratories, to those individuals who have had such preliminary training as to be able to profit fully by these advantages, and which certify by the formal bestowal of a particular degree or degrees that the individual receiving one of them has proved himself or her- self to have acquired the methods and habits of such scientific research. This is equivalent to saying, in the technical language in vogue in the United States, that these institutions offer to graduate students courses leading to advanced or higher degrees. Where such courses are well organized and equipped and successfully main- tained, there is a university at least in part, and. it may be, in the whole. Whether the in- stitution do only this, or this and many other things besides, and whether it be called uni- versity or college, may be important questions from some points of view ; for the point of view of this discussion the existence of such organization for research work by graduates is the test, and it is its purpose to describe as clearly as possible such organization of this character as may be found in the United States of America. Apparent or evident divagations from this strict purpose will perhaps find read- ier pardon from the foregoing allusions to some of the difficulties in the way. It has often been remarked by observant foreign travelers in the United States that among this young people many institutions change less rapidly than in the older nations of Europe. This conservatism, in large part an English trait persisting through many gener- ations, is particularly observable in the field of education ; experiments are carefully tried, downright innovations still less willingly adopted. Only where occasion is offered for new foundations are we apt to find a ready breaking with traditional forms. When, on re- viewing the American institutions of learning to discover which of them give the opportuni- ties for training in the methods of research that we have taken as our standard of measure- ment, we find them to be almost without excep- tion colleges, or technical schools, or professional schools as well, or all of these together, we also find that they were generally colleges first of all, and that training in research was made a part of the system only later, very gradually and hesitatingly, the two institutions which dis- claim all "college" work being almost the young- est, and one of them not yet displaying a very encouraging vitality. We find also that one of the oldest and most famous colleges of all, Yale, was also the first to institute regular courses of instruction for those who wished to pursue their studies after receiving the degree of bachelor of arts. The union of college and university may fairly be called the typical American form of organization for the higher education. Only in the institutions of comparatively recent origin do we find that university organization was at- tempted from the first. The professional and technical schools have generally occupied a position of great independence toward the in- stitution as a whole, in many cases having hardly more than the name in common, but possessing their own budgets and boards of trustees, some- times even being administered as proprietary schools, wherein the professors divided among themselves the fees paid by the students. The medical schools have been the most independent in this respect. It should be borne in mind that in the case of such complex institutions the name "university" is applied to the whole, so that, theoretically at least, the university may include the equivalent of a German university, technische Hochschule (formerly called Poly- technicum), landwirtschaftliche Hochschule or agricultural college, and Gymnasium. Passing under review the many types of organization wherein university and college are united, we find that in most cases the graduate and under- graduate work are carried on by the same in- dividuals, so that, instead of a university and a college being in alliance, so to speak, as might be said if the body of instructors of each AMERICAN UNIVERSITY part were composed of quite different individu- als, with one governing body for the whole, we have to do really with a complex and overlap- ping structure. Herein lies, it must he said, one of the gri for the Amer- ican university, though there are valuable com- pensations. The American university profes- sor is rarely able to devote himself exclusively to advanced scientific work with well-prepared students, but must, in most cases, carry on a good deal of mere class work as well, which cannot but prove detrimental to the progress of his researches. The Slat,- Universities. — At the present time, in each of 20 of the States of the Union, there is maintained a single "Slate university, 8 supported exclusively or prevailingly from pub- lic funds, and managed under the more or less direct control of the legislature and adminis- trative officers of the State. In some cases private benefactions have notablj supplemented the support given from public revenues. These States are the following: Alabama, California, Colorado, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kan- sas Louisiana, Maine, .Michigan, Minnesota. Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, Nevada, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tenm see, I exas, Vir- ginia, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin, Wyoming.* The organization of these institu- s, while more similar than that of the uni- versities which are autonomous corporations, yet shows many points of divergence; and their extent and standards of scholarship vary even more widely. The larger among them exhibit a very complete development of technical and professional schools, with the exception of schools of theology, which naturally have no place in a country where State aid is not ex- tended to religion. The professional schools of law and medicine, however, are generally sup- ported, at least in greater part, by the fees re- ceived from students, and up to the present time none of them has been put on a true university basis. Otherwise, the sources of income of these universities are mainly the following: (1) The of land-grants made in 1862 by the Federal government, in accordance with the famous "Morrill Act" of 1862, for the main- tenances of colleges whose leading object should be instruction in those branches of learning re- lating to agricultural and mechanical arts, in- cluding military tactics, and not excluding other scientific and classical studies. (J) State tax- ation, whether by way of annual appropriations from the general taxes of the state, or by con- tinuous appropriations from a permanent spe- cial tax. _ (3) Tuition fee- (only in some of the universities, while in many instruction is entirely gratuitous), (4) Private gifts and endowments — the least common source of revenue, al- thoug rilliant exceptions are to be noted. The universal verdict of public opinion, in the States where such institutions are main- tained, is that they, as State organizations sup- ported directly by public taxation from which ixable individual is exempt, should be open without distinction of sex. color or religion to all who can profit by the instruction therein * The University of the State of New York is rot a university at all. but rather a State board of education, with supervision of all instruction j;iven in the State. The " University <>f France." as constituted under Napoleon I., is closely analogous to it. given, Each forms the uppermost division of the general system of public education of the State in which it is maintained, and is man- aged with a view to completing the schemi 'it' instruction begun in the primary and earned on in the secondary schools. Control i- \ in a board of public officials, generally called "regents." For example, the board of regents of the University of Minnesota consists of the governor of the State, the superintendent of public instruction, the president of the uni- versity, and seven members appointed by the governor and confirmed by the senate. In Michigan the regents are elected by popular vote for terms of eight years — an unusual fea- ture. The composition and mode of choice of these boards varies greatly in different Si and not less their fitness for the n pon bilities entrusted to them. In some Stan-, a- in Michi- gan and Wisconsin, the result of many years' endeavor has been, though after many vicissi- tudes and bitter struggles, the creation of noble schools of training; in others the constant changes in political complexion of tin 1 lature, and the self-seeking of party lead have made the univcrsitii s mere shuttle. 1 of public or party opinion, and not only has their development been hindered, but in some cases their usefulness deliberately crippled. In- stances are not unknown where particularly able and courageous professors, who would not cut their scientific opinion, after the prevailing fash- ion in politics, have been driven from their chairs, even by outrageously underhanded methods. Of the State universities the most prominent and successful are those of Michi- gan, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and California. The first mentioned is the oldest and perhaps the best known. Under the direction of a series of singularly able men it has grown, since its foundation in 183", into a position of com- manding importance. The three others, while considerably younger, have shown a surpris- ingly rapid growth. See State Universities. Contrast with European Universities. — The foregoing account of the thief types of univer- sity organization in the United State, will, it is hoped, have made clear most of the details in which their structure is peculiarly American. The older institution-, starting from the English type of college, never developed in the direction of universities of Oxford and Cambridge, where the idea of the university as a great teaching body was lost in the excessive development of the college as a place of residence, and of the university as primarily a congeries of colleges. The early mediaeval universities of Europe, on the continent as well as in England, generally provided for their students places of residence in buildings set apart for this purpose, instruc- tion of the lower grades in connection with these residence halls, and higher instruction independently of them. On the continent, how- ever, especially in France and Germany, the residential feature rapidly became less impor- tant, and finally, with a few unimportant excep- tions, disappeared altogether, so that the entire resources of the universities, though often scanty enough, could be turned to account fi r the work of instruction. In England exactly the opposite occurred ; the residential halls be- came, through the impulse of successive pious foundations, the important factors in the uni- versity life, even attaining corporate independ- AMERICAN UNIVERSITY ence and ultimately great wealth, and gradually assumed most of the instruction of the stu- dents, though the examinations and the award of degrees remained the prerogatives of the uni- versity as a whole — conditions which made directly for the fixity of residence characteristic of English universities, and adopted as a matter of course in the American colleges patterned after the English model. If the establishment of Harvard and Yale colleges had been fol- lowed at brief intervals of time by the founda- tion of other residential colleges in Cambridge and New Haven, and if there had existed in the colonies an established church with a prestige such as that possessed by the Church of England in the home country, keeping the colleges under its control, a state of affairs similar to that at Oxford would doubtless have resulted. The scanty population and limited means of the colonies, and their independence of the Church of England, prevented such a result, fortunately', on the whole, for the educational welfare of the country at large. Yet the residential feature has persisted throughout the history of the American college ; though abandoned here and there, as at Columbia and the University of Pennsylvania, it has been restored at the latter, has again been adopted in principle, if not yet in practice, at Columbia, and deliberately in- troduced, in various forms, at many new insti- tutions, even in some which at first had made no provision for students' residence. The American institutions differ furthermore from the English universities in this, that their growth has been so largely in the direction of professional and technical schools, though these have been thus far in less than a half a dozen instances placed on a real university basis. The points of difference between the Amer- ican and the continental European universities are not less apparent. Taken as a whole, the American institutions exhibit only a portion of what in Europe is thought necessary to the con- stitution of a complete university, viz.. the tra- ditional four faculties of theology, law, medi- cine and philosophy, because, although all four may be in existence (as for example at Har- vard), they are not all organized and admin- istered on the same plane; but on the other hand they include elements which in Europe are sharply marked off from the universities, namely, technical schools, and undergraduate schools, which in some cases correspond fairly well to the lycee or gymnasium of France or Germany, in others to the last two or three years of these institutions and the first year of the university or technical school. If we separate the strictly graduate schools of the American universities from the remainder of their respective institu- tions, we shall find them in general covering pretty nearly the ground of the '"philosophical faculties 8 of Germany, and more or less closely approximating them in methods of work. A decided point of difference, however, consists in the comparative infrequence of migration on the part of students from university to university, which is so nearly the universal rule in Ger- many. Present Day Problems. — When the prob- lems of education are all solved, education itself will be dead, and the need of it greater than ever. The entire range of education in the United States has been in a state of rapid tran- sition for many years already, and nowhere have the changes been more constant than in the domain of college and university education. From the establishment of graduate courses at Yale in 1847 until the present day, probably no year has passed without seeing some new ex- periment tried, some old institution reorgan- ized or new one founded. If the new institu- tions have often shown too little willingness to profit by the experience of others, or to adopt the ways and means of other lands, it must .be remembered that the educational problem has been but one of many with which the leaders of thought in this country have been confronted, and that in the attempt to conform institutions to the spirit of the country it has been necessary first to discover, often at great pains and heavy cost to the experimenter, what that spirit was. Naturally the most important question has been and still is that of organization. It has doubtless become apparent from the foregoing description that no two universities are just alike, and that the differences do not by any means concern unimportant points. Ever}' pos- sible variety of organization and administration seems to the observer — especially the foreign observer — -to have been tried, except that of a consistent and rigid adherence to forms sanc- tioned by centuries of permanence in Europe. The vacillation has come from uncertainty as to the true purposes of the university. In Europe these purposes were long ago settled : the university exists to train servants of the state, or, as prevailing in England, to train up a race of gentlemen who shall never forget the obli- gations of their caste. It is the glory of Ger- many that she has seen more clearly than other nations how truly the highest scientific train- ing is none too good for her public servants. The wholly different conditions prevailing in the United States have been reflected in the organization of our universities and colleges. There is no state religion, and the national Constitution forbids the patronage or proscrip- tion of any sect; consequently the theological faculty, originally the most important in the universities of western and northern Europe, found no state recognition. The practice of the law was subject to few restrictions, and in- deed in at least one State is still open to every citizen of mature age, so that the schools of law, when they began at all, grew up mostly on a basis of private organization, with purely practical training as their object, and often un- derbid one another in their eagerness for stu- dents. With such exceptions as the nature of the profession brings with it. the regulation of the study and practice of medicine went the same course, proprietary schools being the most frequent form of organization for instruction in the healing art. As for the faculty of arts or philosophy, which, originally preparatory for one of the others, had in Germany been put on a par with them and made the doorway to the new profession of teaching in the State schools, its ground was partially covered by the cur- ricula of the best colleges. The character of these colleges, however, resembled more nearly that of the German philosophical faculty of two cen- turies ago. The state systems of education did not at first include more than elementary schools, so that there was no great incentive for prescribing a college course for those per- sons who wished to teach in them ; nor would such a regulation have been popular in intensely AMERICAN UNIVERSITY democratic communities, or, in the poverty of many oi the states, easilj possible of fulfilment. Under these circumstances the European con- ception of a university was l« >^i ; and when it began to be regained, different systems, impel and incongruous n is true, but still in many ways useful, had grown up to till the needs which arc supplied in Europe by the university. Other needs had made themselves felt in Amer- ica even mure keenly: the needs incident to the rapid settling and exploitation of a new country, where vast distances and a phenomenal growth cit' population made imperative some pro- vision for training in the technical professions and mechanical arts. It is not strange, then, though it has been unfortunate for the country at large, that the last need to he recognized ill education has been the need of thorough train- ing in the humanities and in pure science, in what has been admirably well called "disinter- ested scientific thinking, as distinguished from technical or commercial science. >) American educators are not yet at one as re- gards the true function of the university. In general, two opposing views are chiefly held. The purpose of the Leland Stanford, Jr., Uni- versity is declared to be: "To lit young persons for success in life." An admirable purpose, no doubt, hut one which the university must share in common with many other institutions. Of a like breadth of conception is the avowed pur- pose of Ezra Cornell: "i would found an insti- tution where any person may find instruction in any study." The brilliant history of Cornell University is chiefly due to the wisdom of the men who have seen what limitations should be put upon this great plan. This view of the true function of a university is chiefly prevalent in the West; one sometimes hears it said that the western universities exist solely for the sake of the students, while some oi tin eastern universi- ties seem to think that the students exist chiefly for the sake of the universities or of science at large. The universities of private foundation are proceeding more and more on the assump- tion that their function is to train, in their graduate departments or faculties of philosophy, specialists, as teachers, and to a less extent as investigators; those which have raised some of their professional schools to true university rank by refusing admission to all who have not re- ceived a non-professional degree aim not merely to instruct the future physicians and lawyers in the technique of their professions, but to give them true scientific insight and philosophic grasp. Until there is agreement as to the true function of a university, there cannot be agree- ment as to their organization and administration. Whoever holds to the Stanford idea will wish t" see all departments of instruction put on pre- cisely the same plane: whoever believes that scientific research is the highest and noblest aim of education will demand for the university an organization which shall emphasize this, leaving to other institutions the teaching which is en- tirely practical. As a whole, American universities seem to be trying to do too many things at once, generally with an altogether inadequate equipment of in- structors, and with an insufficient endowment Each university aims to cover the entire field of instruction: the result is that the professors, who are, except in the professional faculties, almost always college instructors as well, are cruelly overburdened with teaching and admin- istrative duties, wilh the inevitable result that few of them can carry on much research. The organization of most of our universities i too Complicated, Many professors have to attend two, three, or even four [acuity meetings each month, and serve on committees without mini her; some of them are < veil expected to do purely clerical work. Perhaps the most important of American University problems at present, as hearing di rcctly upon the necessary organization and de- termining it, is the relation of university or graduate work to undergraduate work and to professional training. With the very liberal regulation, often lack of regulation, exercised by the State governments over the practice of the professions of law anil medicine, the number of practitioners has inevitably become exces- sively great. The need of stricter control has been seen, and many Stales have increased the requirements for admission to practice. That any of the Slates will require a complete collegiate education as a preliminary to admission to prac- tice is a very remote possibility. It rests with the universities to raise the plane of their pro- fessional schools so that only the fittest will survive. Experience has shown that raising the standard of an institution is surely followed in a tew years by an increase in numbers as well as in the quality of students entering. A be- ginning has already been made, as indicated above, for the professional schools of law and medicine. As for the technical schools, most of them, whether connected with the universi- ties or not, have been too ready to admit stu- dents on very slight requirements. Perhaps in time the best of these will see that a go.nl pre- liminary training ought to he demanded of their students, and so put themselves also on a uni- versity level. Enough has been said, it is hoped, to show- that there is little chance of re-eslahlishing in any American university the traditional four faculties, unaccompanied by any other depart- ments of instruction. If means were abundant, it would perhaps he advisable to separate en- tirely from the universities the technical schools, except such as should he willing to demand a preliminary degree for admission and to develop more fully the theoretical and research side of their teaching. At present undue prominence is given to the technical schools in many insti- tutions, largely because they are the best pay- ing parts, and the lone of the whole institution, as an organization that should exist as largely for the advancement of research as for any other cause, is distinctly lowered thereby. The graduate school, or faculty of philoso- phy, hears closer relations with the collegiate course than can he borne by any professional faculty. The overburdening of professors al- luded to above might be remedied by the ap- pointment, wdiere endowments would allow, of professors exclusively for graduate work on the lines of the faculty of philosophy, who should he able to engage in extended research work with advanced students. Hitherto no institution has been in a position to do this in any large degree. Nor has it been possible to try on a really instructive scale the experiment of a uni- versity without college or technical schools. Whether such a university could properly main- tain a faculty of theology, it is hard to say. AMERICAN UNIVERSITY The Union Theological Seminary in New York, while under Presbyterian management, is in many respects a real university faculty, and the same may be said of some few others. The relations between Columbia and the Union Seminary have become close, with the good result that many students of the latter attend courses at Columbia under the faculties of po- litical science and philosophy, and are eligible for Columbia degrees. Concerning the precise relation to be borne by the graduate work to that of the college, no general agreement has yet been reached. Even where the two are carefully separated, no such great dissimilarity in methods exists as prevails in Germany between the gymnasium and the university. Where, as at Harvard, the lines of demarcation are partly obliterated, the change from one method to another is very gradual. Johns Hopkins aims above all at producing spe- cialists, and even her college courses are largely shaped to this end. The results certainly jus- tify her policy. The preparation which the candidates for ad- mission to the graduate schools bring with them is naturally very varied. For many kinds of ad- vanced work, the general training given in the college is not enough ; so that the student, in order not to lose much valuable time afterward, has to begin his special studies before receiving his first degree. This is encouraged by the system in vogue at Columbia, especially in the case of students looking forward to medicine or the law. A tendency to over-early specializa- tion is showing itself in many places; the stu- dents are naturally anxious to begin the active duties of life as soon as possible, and are un- willing to postpone the acquirement of the pro- fessional degree until the 25th or 26th year of their age. A remedy for this has been sought in several directions, but none of the plans tried has been successful enough to prevail over the Others. The trouble seems to lie largely in the loss of time during the earlier school years. The pupils are not taken in hand early enough, nor do they receive severe enough training. With the improvement in organization and methods which is everywhere noticeable, it ought to be possible after a few years to send young men and women to college at 16 as well prepared as they are now at 17 or 18. With this done, the college course might well be shortened to three years. It may be asked, what of the Lehrfreiheil and Lemfreiheit, the freedom for teacher and learner, as they are claimed for the universities of Germany, in those of America? As for the first, the American university professor has lit- tle cause for complaint; whatever may have been the case 25 years ago, he may now teach what he likes nearly everywhere, though now and then the regents of a State university, or the re- ligious body controlling a divinity school, raise noisy protest. In one respect there is yet much room for improvement: as yet no serious effort has been made to introduce one of the most val- uable features of the German university sys- tem, the system of Privatdosenten. It is not yet possible for a young man of ability to secure the right of lecturing at a university by merely proving that he is competent to do it. The in- troduction of this custom has been several times attempted, but so far with quite insignificant results. As for the Lemfreiheit, that too has be- come naturalized among us ; even the under- graduate enjoys a large measure of it, largest in those colleges where the elective system has taken firm root. One development of it, the migration of students from one university to another without loss of standing, is still unsat- isfactory. The custom is highly desirable, and is steadily gaining ground in America ; it is much commoner from the colleges to the purely professional schools, students of law and medi- cine naturally seeking the large cities; the chief obstacles to its adoption are the differences be- tween the various universities in the matter of organization and of requirements for degrees, and the close connection between college and university which lead the college graduate in many instances to remain for graduate work where he has taken his bachelor's degree, out of pure attachment to his alma mater. It is interesting to observe how rapidly the spirit of independence with responsibility is de- veloping among the graduate students. At 22 or more institutions which maintain graduate schools the students in these have formed them- selves into associations for the furtherance of their mutual interests, and these clubs have formed a national federation which holds an- nual meetings, where papers are read, and ques- tions affecting the whole range of graduate work are discussed. The interest shown in these pro- ceedings, and the intelligent spirit in which many important questions are approached, make these associations into a most valuable adjunct to the work of the graduate schools. At the fourth annual convention, held at Cambridge, Mass., in December, 1898, addresses were delivered by President Eliot and Prof. J. W. White, of Har- vard, and papers were read, followed by ani- mated discussion, on the following topics : The migration of students ; the regulations concern- ing major and minor subjects; specialized scholarship v. preparation for teaching, as a basis for graduate study; the master's degree; graduate studies in European universities; the regulation of graduate to undergraduate courses. The federation of graduate clubs also carries on a determined opposition to the practice of con- ferring the Ph. D. honoris causa. A project vigorously advocated by many emi- nent American educators is the foundation of a national university for tin- United Stales, to be situated at Washington, to be controlled by a board of regents under the chairmanship of the President of the United States, and to be con- stituted on the true university basis of admitting to any of its schools only those who have re- ceived the preliminary training shown by the possession of a bachelor's degree. The plan is an alluring one from some points of view. (See National University.) To add another institution of learning to those that swarm in the United States, unless the new comer should at once outrank them all in the mag- nitude and completeness of its equipment, and unless its rise should imply the setting of a number of the minor lights, would be a very doubtful service to the cause of univer- sity education. So far no endowments at all comparable with those of half-a-dozen of the universities already existing have appeared; and it is extremely doubtful whether con- gress could be depended upon to give the institution the thoroughly adequate sup- AMERICAN UNIVERSITY — AMES port without which it must remain at lust one additional "toi o < if a university. 11 Edward Delavan Perry, imbia University, New York. American University, The, a post-graduate institution in Washington, mded under the auspices of the Methodist Episcopal Church in 1891, with Bishop John F. Hurst as chan- cellor. American Water-color Society. See Water-Color Society, American. American Whigs. See Whigs. America's Cup. See Yachts and Yacht- ing. Americus, Ga„ county-seat of Sumner CO., on the Georgia & A. and Central of Ga. R.R.'s, about 7S miles southwest of Macon. The town was settled in 1832, and is governed under a charter granted in 1889. There is a mayor and council of six. It is the business centre for a large cane and cotton region and has also sev- eral manufacturing industries. Pop. (1900) 7.674. Amerighi Michelangelo. See Caravaggio. Amerigo Vespucci. See Vespucci. Amerind, a word suggested by Maj. J. W. Powell to describe the American Indians as dis- tinguished from other Indians. Amerling, a'mer-ling, Friedrich, Austrian painter: b. Vienna 1803; d. there 1887. He studied painting in Vienna, and also in London, Paris, and Munich, and spent some years in Italy. Upon his return to Austria he was se- lected to paint a portrait of the Emperor Franz I., and from that time ranked as the most prom- inent portrait painter of that country. His portraits number about 1,000, and are distin- guished by brilliant coloring, but sometimes fail of definiteness of characterization. Consult: Bodensuin. 'Ihnulert lahre Kunstgeschichte Wiens' (1888); and Frankl, 'Lite' (1889). Amersfoot, a town in Holland, in the province of I trecht, and 12 miles northeast of the town of Utrecht. By the Eem, on which it stands, it has a navigable communication with the Zuyder Zee. It manufactures woolen goods, tobacco, glass, and silk-yarn, and carries on an extensive trade in grain. The Roman Catholic church of St. Mary, built in the 14th century, has a Gothic tower 308 feet high, considered to In- one of the finest in Europe. There is a college of the Jansenists in the city, it being one of the chief centres of this sect, which does a- exist outside of Holland. The Grand Pensionary of Holland, Jan von Oldenbarne- commonly called Barneveldt, was born here. Pop. (1902) 20,500. Ames, Adelbert, American soldier and Reconstruction official: b. Rockland. Me., 31 (let. 1835. Graduating at West Point in 1861 he was assigned to the artillery and served through the Civil War with distinction : was wounded at Bull Run and brevetted for gallantry there; took part in nearly all the battles of the Penin- sular campaign, in Fredericksburg, Chancellors- ville, Antietam, Gettysburg, and before Peters- burg; was brevetted colonel, was brigade and division commander at times, brevetted major- gi neral of volunteers for conduct at the cap- ture of Fort Fisher, and major-general in the regular army for general conduct in the war. In 1806 he was made lieutenant-colonel. From 1868, when lu- was appointed provisional gov- ernor of M1--1~-11.p1 (extended the next year to the 4th military district of the States lately in insurrection), to 1876, he was in the thick of tin- "carpet-bag" troubles; upheld by United States troops, the negro vote, and a small section of whites, mostly recent immi- grants, and bitterly fought by the mass of the white inhabitants. Mi ippi was among the last of the revolted States t<> accept Recon- struction or the War Amendments as fixed facts. The preponderant negro population and the backwardness of much of the while made the race problem more acute there than any- where else in the South; the elements at Ames' disposal were unfit to base even a decent civil- ized structure upon, and they frightfully plun- dered and misgoverned the State; on the other hand, according to Ins side, the white portion would not do its best to reduce the evils by co- operating in good faith with the administration, and simply defied all orders: and the State went into anarchy tempered by local vigilance com- mittees. He held an election for a legislature 30 Nov. 1869, convened it 11 Jan. 1870, was elected United States Senator for the unex- pired term from 4 March 1869, and in 1873 was elected governor of Mississippi and resigned his seat in the Senate — the whiles regarding all these elections, under the conditions, mere military usurpation and illegality. His gover- norship was charged with sacrificing the civil- ized interests of the State to the blacks, and on 7 December there was a bloody race riot at Vicksburg, followed by others through the State. Ames sent to Washington for more troops to maintain order, the white party coun- tered with fresh charges, a congressional in- vestigating committee was appointed, and for two years the State had — like several Southern States through this period — a formal govern- ment perfectly powerless, and a real government consisting of the rough consensus of intere I among the larger white landowners. In No- vember 1875 these recovered control of the State by suppressing the negro vote wherever troops were not actually present. The legisla- ture which met in January impeached Ames and all his executive officers; the State Administra- tion was paralyzed: the national administration was sick of upholding impossible local govern- ments ; and Ames finally agreed to resign if the impeachment were withdrawn. He at once re- moved to New York ; later to Lowell, Mass. In the Spanish-American war he was a briga- dier-general of volunteers. Ames, Charles Gordon, an American clergyman, editor, and lecturer: b. Dorchester, Mass., 3 Oct. 1828. He graduated at the Ge- auga Seminary, Ohio; was ordained in 1849 as a Free Baptist, but later became a Unitarian and pastor of the Church of the Disciples, Boston. He was editor of the Minnesota Republican, the first Republican paper in the Northwest, in 1854, and the Christian Register of Boston, 1877-80. He wrote 'George Eliot's Two Mar- riages* (iSsm : 'As Natural as Life' (1894): 'Poems' (1898) ; etc. He has preached and lec- tured in 20 States, and has always been deeply interested in social and philanthropic questions. AMES Ames, Eleanor Maria (Easterbrook), pseudonym "Eleanor Kirk," author: b. Warren, R. I., 7 Oct. 1831. Besides numerous contribu- tions to newspaper and periodical literature, she has published: 'Up Broadway, a Life Story' (1870) ; 'H. W. Beecher as a Humorist: Selec- tions' (1887) ; 'Information for Authors' (1888) ; 'Periodicals that Pay Contributors' (privately printed) ; editor 'Eleanor Kirk's Idea,' a monthly magazine. Ames, Fisher, American orator and states- man : b. Dedham, Mass., 9 April 1758 ; d. there, 4 July 1808. His father died when he was six. A precocious scholar, he graduated from Har- vard at 16 ; taught school some years to support his impoverished family, cultivating himself by- wide reading and profound study of the classics and the Scriptures ; studied law, and began practice in Dedham in 1781. He made a repu- tation as "Brutus" and "Camillus" in the Bos- ton papers, was sent to the legislature in 1788, won laurels, and was elected to the convention to ratify the Federal Constitution. His speech there on biennial elections gave him fresh re- pute as one of our foremost orators. In Decem- ber he was elected (Federalist) Representative to Congress, and re-elected through Washing- ton's administration to 1797: he was chosen to pronounce the congressional address to Wash- ington on his retirement; and on 28 April 1796 delivered his masterpiece of eloquence and ef- fectiveness, on the appropriation to carry Jay's treaty of 1794 into effect, — so impressive that the other party protested against taking a vote until after an adjournment, because the House was too excited to decide rationally. Retiring from public life on account of feeble health, he spent his later years mainly on his Dedham farm, though writing papers in 1798 to urge the Federalists to resist French aggressions, which was pouring oil on a conflagration (see Adams, John; Alien and Sedition Laws, and the names of the various political parties of the time), serving for a time on the State Council, and delivering a eulogy on Washington before the legislature. He declined the presi- dency of Harvard in 1804. He was an orator by inspiration, studying his subject and taking notes to expand on the moment, and full of flashing epigrams and pregnant laconics. A large public school in Dedham Centre com- memorates his name. ('Works and Life,' I vol. 1809 ; 2 vols. 1854, by his son Seth ; selected speeches, four new, 1 vol. 1871, by his grand- son.) Ames, James Barr, professor of law: b. Boston, 22 June 1846. Graduated at Harvard in 1868, the Law School, 1872. Instructor in history. Harvard, 1872-3 ; associate professor of law, 1873-7 1 professor of law since 1877, and dean of the law school since 1895. He is the au- thor of numerous articles in the 'Harvard Law Review' and other legal periodicals, and has compiled collections of cases on torts, pleading, partnership, notes and bills, and suretyship. Ames, Joseph, painter: b. Roxbury, N. H., 1816: d. New York. 30 Oct. 1872. Though wholly self-taught he early began portrait- painting, opened a studio in Boston, and had success enough to obtain means to go to Rome and study. While there he painted a fine por- trait of Piu* IX. He was elected member Vol. 1—28 of the National Academy of Design. 1870, and soon had more orders than he could fill. Some of his best known portraits are those of Ristori, Prescott, Emerson, Rachel, and Presi- dent Felton of Harvard. 'Maud Muller' and 'The Death of Webster' are his best known ideal paintings. Ames, Joseph Sweetman, professor of physics: b. Manchester, Vt. 3 July 1864. He graduated at Johns Hopkins in 1886 and is pro- fessor of physics there. He is author of 'Theory of Physics' (1897); 'Manual of Experiments in Physics' (1898) ; 'Free Expansion of Gases' (1898) ; 'Induction of Electric Currents' (2 vols. 1900) ; editor 'Scientific Memoir Series,' 'Fraunhofer's Papers' ; assistant editor 'Astro- physical Journal,' 'American Journal of Sci- ence.' Ames, Mary Clemmer, American journal- ist and author: b. Utica, N. Y., 1839; d. 18 Aug. 1884. Educated in Westfield, Mass., she began very young to write for the Springfield Republican; then removed to Washington and became for many years a regular weekly cor- respondent of the New York Independent, her 'Woman's Letter from Washington' in which made her one of the best known and most influential woman writers in the country. Her style, especially on attractive masculine per- sonalities, was somewhat Oriental; but she was honest and sincere in a time of pervasive lob- byism and self-seeking. She wrote also bio- graphical sketches of the Cary sisters, Emerson, Longfellow, Charles Sumner, Margaret Fuller, and George Eliot; 'Ten Years in Washington' (1871); 'Outlines of Men, Women, and Things' (1873); the novels 'Victoria' (1864), 'Eirene' (1870), and 'His Two Wives' (1874) ; and a volume of poems (1882). She married early Rev. Daniel Ames, and was divorced ; in 1883 Edmund Hudson, proprietor of the 'Army and Navy Register.' Her home in Washing- ton was long a social and literary centre. (Works, Boston, 1885; memorial by her hus- band, 1886.) Ames, Nathan P., American manufacturer: b. 1803; d. 23 April 1847. In 1829 he established cutlery works at Chicopee Falls, Mass., which attained a national reputation, their swords especially being largely bought by the United States. In 1834 he removed the works to Cabot- ville (Chicopee), where he lived and died; and incorporated with others the Ames Mfg. Co., which in 1836 added a bell and bronze can- non foundry that had equal fame and furnished the larger part of the government's brass can- non in the Civil War, as well as the bronze stat- ues of De Witt Clinton in Greenwood Cemetery, Brooklyn, N. Y., of George Washington in Union ' Square, New York, and of Benjamin Franklin in School Street, Boston. The works supplied the British government just before the Crimean war with machines for making mus- kets. Ames, Oakes, manufacturer and pro- moter: b. Easton, Mass., 10 Jan. 1804; d. 8 May 1873. The son of a blacksmith who had become a manufacturer of highly reputed picks and shovels, he trained himself in his father's works, and with his brother joined the firm as Oli- ver Ames & Sons. The opening up of California in 1848 and Australia in 1851 by the gold dis- AMES — AMHERST eries created an immense demand for their goods in mining, settlement, and railroad build- ing, which raised the firm to the front rank in business and wealth; and in the Civil War they had great contracts for shovels, swords, etc, Mr. Aim-, was in the Massachusetts executive council 1861, and 1 1 in 1862 till death. In 1864 the failure oi attempts to carry through the nationally exigent Pacific Railroad led Presi- dent Lincoln's government to call on Mr. Anus to undertake it. He risked financial ruin if it failed, investing $1,000,000 and making his whole fortune responsible for the rest: it could not be expected that he should forego a corre- sponding profit if it succeeded. The work was finally accomplished by organizing a construc- tion company (see Credit Mobilier of Amer- ica), which paid itself largely in stock and bonds of the Union Pacific, practically making tin- two companies one, and enabling the former to charge the latter its own prices [or work and supplies, the government paying the bills. Credit Mobilier stock became enormously valu- able, and the directors were charged with cheat ing the government and using the stock to buy congressional support for the fraud. Mr. Ames' anomalous position as congressman, director in both companies, contractor for immense sup- plies to the railroad, and the ablest manager of the whole enterprise, caused the chief fury of the assault to fall on him; and in the tremen- dous public scandal and investigation which fol- lowed he was censured by the Forty-second 1 ongress and died shortly after. His son Oli- ver ((|.v. ), however, induced the Massachusetts legislature to re-examine the case, and on 10 May 1883 (the 14th anniversary of the comple- tion of the railroad) it passed a resolution ex- onerating Mr. Anns. The Union Pacific Rail- road erected a monument to his memory at Sherman. Wyoming, the crest of the road, 8,550 feet above the sea. Ames, Oliver, manufacturer, brother of Oakes above: b. Plymouth, Mass., 5 Nov. 1807; (1 o March 18;;. His brother's partner, he was a sharer in all bis business enterprises; president pro Inn. of the Union Pacific Railroad 1866-8, formal president 1808-71 ; a director in the Credit Mobilier. After his brother's death he became head of the manufacturing firm. He was a member of the State Senate [852 and 1857. Ames, Oliver, manufacturer, son of Oakes above: l>. North Easton, Mass, [831; d. 1895. lie was trained in his father's works, and as his h< 11 spent several years in paying off the ob- ligations of millions of dollars incurred by the Union Pacific Railroad and other undertakings. Entering public life avowedly to vindicate his father's memory, he was lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts 1882-6; in [883 obtained the vindicatory resolution he sought; and 1886-8 was g' n erni >r. Ames, Samuel, jurist: b, Providence, R. T., 6 Sept. 1800; d. there 20 Dec. 18(15. Graduated at Brown, 1823; studied law with Judge Gould at Litchfield, Conn. He served for many years in the Rhode Island State Assembly, being speaker 1844-5. He was elected chief justice of the State supreme court 1856, but resigned in 1X0^ .hi account "f ill health. In 1839 lie mar- li.d Mary Throop Dorr, daughter of Thomas W. Dorr, leader of the rebellion in 1842. Au- thor and editor of 'Angell and Ames on Cor poratioiis,' and vols. 4-7 of the 'Rhode Island Reports. 3 Ames, Iowa, city in Story County, on the Chicago & N.W. R.R. It is the seat of the State Mechanical and Agricultural College and has a public library, banks, churches, schools, and two newspapers. It was first settled in 1864. Pop. (iyoo) 2,422. Amesbury, Mass., town in Essex County, situated on the Mcrrimac River and on the Boston & Maine R.R. ; 27 miles north of Salem. It has manufactories of cotton and woolen goods, boots and shoes, machinery, and car- riages, and was long the residence of the poet Whittier. The town was settled in 1630. Pop. (1900) 9,473. Ametabola, those insects in which devel- opment is direct, there being no metamorphosis. Am'ethyst (from the Greek amethystos, "not intoxicated"). In mineralogy (ij a violet or purple variety of crystallized quartz, the color being probably due to traces of manganese or iron. It is esteemed as a gem, and was worn by the Greeks in the belief that it lessened the intoxicating effects of alcoholic drinks upon its possessor. It is widely distributed, but speci- mens pure enough in color to be used as gems are not common. The finest amethysts come from Brazil, India, Siberia, Pennsylvania, and North Carolina. (2) The precious (or Oriental) amethyst is a crystalline oxide of aluminum, violet in color from the presence of traces of some other metal- lic oxide, and very brilliant and beautiful. Min- eralogically the Oriental amethyst is a variety of corundum (q.v.). Amhara, am-ha'ra, a district of Abyssinia, lying between the Tacazze ami the Blue Nile, but of which the limits are not well defined. Ihe Amharic language, next to the Arabic the most widely used of all the Semitic languages, has gradually gained ground in southern and central Abyssinia, and has become tin- court lan- guage'. It has a literature of its own, including a version of the' Scriptures. Amherst, Jeffery, Baron, British soldier remembered for his American services: b. Kent, England, 29 Jan. 1717; d. 3 Aug. 1797. lie was a duke's page, by his favor entering the army as ensign at 14, and became Gen, Lord I.igonier's aide; serve. I through the- war eif the Austrian Succession, I74l~8. anil was at Dettingen (1743), Fontenoy (1745). and Roncoux (1740); in the Seven Seats' war beginning 1756 be was at the French victory of Hastenbeck, 1 757- He had become noted as a brilliant sohlie-r and ranked as lieutenant-colonel; in 1758 Pitt se- lected him to ... operate with Prideaux in con- quering Canada from the French, made him major-general, and gave him command < • f the expedition against Louisburg, which he speed- ily reduced, 27 July. In the following Septem- ber he- superseded Abercromby as commander- in-chief of the English forces in America and captured Crown Point anil Ticonderoga the fol- 1. wing year. On 8 Sept. 1 700 he captured Mon- treal and en.l.d the- French dominion in Canada, F. .r this he was made governor-general < >f the British possessions in America, thanked by Par- liament, and made a Knight of the Bath. But in face of Pontiac's conspiracy (1762) he failed, AMHERST — AMICI as other English commanders had so often be- fore, from insisting on conducting Indian like European warfare, and despising the Ameri- can militia and American experience. But as American trivialities like Pontiac's war were un- known or unregarded in England, Amherst on his return in 1763 was received with immense enthusiasm as the conqueror of Canada; and as he was also a favorite of George III., and ac- tively supported the policy of coercing the colo- nies through the years before the Revolution, his honors did not cease. He was titular gov- ernor of Virginia 1763-8, without going there, governor of Guernsey from 1770 on, privy coun- cilor, 1772 on, 1772-82 and 1783-93 commander- in-chief of the British army, and was made a field marshal on resigning his command. In 1776 he was raised to the peerage. In 1780 he took an active and most humane part in sup- pressing the London "no popery" riots. Amherst, port of entry and capital of Cum- berland County, Nova Scotia, Canada, situated on an arm of Cumberland Bay, an extension of Chignecto Bay, the extreme northeastern arm of the Bay of Fundy ; on the Intercolonial Rail- way. 138 miles north by west of Halifax, Nova Scotia, and about midway between that city and Saint John, Xew Brunswick. It was formerly called Fort Lawrence. Amherst is the centre of a rich agricultural and lumbering district; has factories, iron-foundries, tanneries, and ship- building establishments; and has an especially large trade in lumber and ship-building. Some of the richest coal mines in the Province are near here, and grindstones and gypsum are quarried in the vicinity. The county and rail- way buildings, the churches, and hotels are sub- stantial structures. Amherst has a bank, and daily, semi-weekly, and weekly newspapers. Pop. (1901) 4,964. Amherst, Mass., a town in Hampshire co., situated on the Boston & Maine and the Cen- tral Vermont R.R.'s, 23 miles northeast of Springfield. It has manufactories of paper, straw and palm-leaf hats, and leather, and is best known as the seat of Amherst College (q.v.), the State Agricultural College, and the State Experiment Station. Pop. (igoo) 5,028. Amherst College, at Amherst, Mass., one of the best known and most influential of New England colleges, though it has kept to the older ideals of an all-round liberal education, neither workshop nor professional school, and has not attempted to broaden into a university with spe- cialized departments. As with all the earlier United States institutions of learning, the ob- jects and impelling causes of its foundation were religious. It was started by an association of Congregational ministers who first took action in 1815, and was based on Amherst Academy, opened December 1814. and for many years one of the foremost academies in Massachusetts. The trustees of the academy were long the trustees of the college also, and the original plan was merely to endow a professorship of languages there to train educated ministers. They then enlarged it to a charity fund for <( the classical education of indigent young men of piety and talents 1 ' for the ministry. A convention of the churches in western Massachusetts on 29 Sept. 1818 lo- cate! the new- institution at Amherst : the corner- stone was laid Aug. 1820, and the institution opened 18 Sept. 1821. For some years the in- tention was to incorporate Williams College with it; but 011 a petition to the legislature per- mission to remove Williams was refused. The first president was Rev. Zephaniah Swift Moore, who died 29 June 1823 largely as a result of overwork. He was succeeded by Rev. Heman Humphrey, who retired in 1845. when the in- stitution was threatened with bankruptcv, and its members and friends hardly expected to maintain it as anything more than an academy, and was succeeded by Rev. Edward Hitchcock, then professor of natural theology and geology there, and considered the foremost of American geologists. In his nine years' tenure he greatlj extended the reputation of the college and saw it much more prosperous, and by his firm but conciliatory spirit, his weight of character, and sagacity of policy, gave it more internal unity and outside friendship. He resigned the presi- dency in 1854, but retained his professorship and was succeeded by Rev. William Augustus Stearns, who died in 1876 : an able and excellent business man and administrator, and sound con- servator of the college interests. His successor, Rev. Julius H. Seelye, who held office till 1890, placed it within its chosen boundaries alongside the best of other colleges : his reputation as scholar, publicist, educator, and humanitarian was more than national and drew the best class of pupils there. He resigned in 1890 from fail- ing health, and has been succeeded by Merrill Edwards Gates to 1899, and Rev. George Harri-. the present president. The college in 1902 had 36 professors and 410 students, and had gradu- ated over 4,200 in all, of whom considerably over half had become clergymen or teachers. It had a library of over 75,000 volumes and very re- markable scientific museums ; President Hitch- cock's private collection of fossil footmarks, or ichnological cabinet, the choicest in the world, and his admirable geological and mineralogical cabinet, greatly supplemented by Prof. Benjamin K. Emerson, "a Mecca to geologists and sa- vants" ; the Adams conchological and the Shep- ard meteoric collections: also the collection of Indian relics presented by Edward Hitchcock, Jr. It has likewise the Pratt gymnasium and natatoriuni, athletic field, and college hospital, presented by the sons of Charles Pratt of Brook- lyn, N. Y. Its income is about $110,000, and its scholarship fund has swelled by degrees to 5300,000, the income of which goes to indigent students. Alfred S. Goodale, Registrar. Amice, or Amict (Tat. amictus, girt around), a vestment worn by priests in the Ro- man Catholic Church during the celebration of mass. After the general adoption of the cravat had rendered the amice unnecessary as a neck- cloth, it was retained for the significance which it had acquired as an emblem of the cloth where- with the Saviour was blindfolded by the Jews the night before his crucifixion. Amici, Giovanni Batista, an Italian savant: b. in Modena, 1786: d. 1864. He studied nat- ural history at Bologna, and mathematics at Modena. He became professor of mathematics at the college of Fanaro, and for some time general inspector of education in Modena, where in 1831 the Grand Duke of Tuscany appointed AMICIS; AMIDE him director of the Florence observatory, as .ii- of thi ted com< t disi i Pons. This office he held until his death, publishing every year the result oi his astro- itions, al thi ame time con- tributing important papers on natural history to the Memorie della Societa Ualiana. Science is illy indebted to him for his improvement of the tele i i ipes, and of tmera lucida, invented hy Hooke Hid Will laston. I [i have from Ins earlii d much attention to optical instruments, and before he was 20 he made a til. ■-cope of a mixture composed by himself. In 1827 he made dioptric mil which are sold with his name attached, and. notwithstanding the im- 1 microscopes of Oberhauser, are still in great favor. He was assisted in his labors by in, Vincenzo Amici, who is professor of mathematic al the University of Fisa. Amicis, Edmondo de, Italy's foremost 19th-century descriptive writer: b. Oncglia, of parentage, 21 Oct. 1846. Educated at Coni and Turin, he attended the Modena mili- tary school; entered service 1863 as suh-licu- tenant, acted against the Sicilian brigands, and served through the Austro-Prussian war of 1866, being at Custozza 24 June. Me remained in the army till the occupation of Rome in 1870; but bis literary vocation was plain. In 18117 he took of a Florentine paper. L' Italia Militare. In 1868 his first volume. 'Military Sketches, 5 short stories of the phases of a soldier's life, bad sweeping success and marked him as the coming Italian litterateur; and in 1871 be settled at Turin and devoted himself to authorship. His next work was 'Recollections 5 (of 1870-1), dedicated to the youth of Italy; a fresh collec- tion of stories followed. But a craving for trav- el turned him into the path which has given him his greatest fame: the foreign world at bast knows him mainly by the brilliant, glowing vol- umes describing the countries of Europe and other continents be visited, their national charac- teristics and habits, and, most of all. the springs of their life and thought. They are enthusiastic, sympathetic, optimistic, full of sensuous delight in beauty, rich in color, and vivid in clearness of portrayal; but they exhibit too a marvelously keen analytic power as well as acute photo- graphic sensitiveness to impressions and mar- literary skill in translating them into language. The greatest of these perhaps is 'Hol- land' (1874'), a singularly fine analysis of the essence of Dutch life and the sources of Dutch art in that life; others are 'Spain* (1873). 'Rec- ollections of London' (1874). 'Morocco* (1876), 'Recollections of Paris 5 (1878), ple' (1878). He published also in these 'Literary Portraits 5 (1881), sympathetic studies of Daudet, Zola, Dumas Jr.. Augier, Coquelin. and Deroulede; "The Friends, 5 on friendship in general (1882); historical novel- 1 collection in part old, entitled 'The Gate of Italy 5 (1884) : 'On the Ocean 5 (1889). Later, educational and social prob- lems deeply occupied bis mind: his 'Cuore 5 (Hearts; Englished as 'The Heart of a School- boy 5 ), a juvenile in which a pupil tells the events of a school year day by day, has sold nearly 200.000 copies in Italy : a novel for adults on similar lines is 'The Workmen's Mis- tress 5 (189;) ; followed the same year by 'The Roman:e of a Master 5 (1895), which has a Strong socialistic bent. He avows himself that he think- socialism the only available spring of a vital Italian literature now. His latest works are 'Everybody's Wagon 5 (1899), 'Memories 5 i lope ami 1 llory ' 1 ['I'm), and 'Rec- ords of Infancy and School' (1901). Amide (am'id; from ammonia, + «/<•), in chemistry, a general name for a class of bodies which may be regarded as derived from am- monia, XII . by replacing one or more of the hydrogen atoms in that substance by an equal number "f monovalent acid radicals. Thus formic acid, H.CO.OH, may be regarded as a hy- drate of the acid radical HCO; and the com- pound HCO. NIL, which is known as "forma- mide," and is obtained by the action of ethyl formate upon ammonia, may be rei de- rived from ammonia by the substitution of the radical HCO tor one of the hydrogen atoms in NHs. Similarly, acetic acid, CH«.CO.OH, may 1" regarded as a hydrate of the radical "acetyl 8 (CdllM: an. I acetaniide, which has the for- mula CjHiO.NHi, and is produced by the ac- tion of ethyl acetate upon ammonia, may be re- garded as derived from ammonia hy the substitution of the radical "acetyl" for one of the hydrogen atoms in the ammonia. Taking the general formula of a normal fatty acid as X.CO.OH, where X represents an alco- hol radical (see AlXOHOl 1. an amide may be formed by substituting the monovalent acid radi- cal, XCO, for one of the hydrogen atoms in XII . The resulting substance, XCO.NH : , is called the "primary amide" of the acid radical XCO. By the further substitution of XCO for one of the atoms of hydrogen remaining in the primary amide, a "secondary amide 55 of the same acid radical is obtained, having the formula (XCO)j. NH. It is evident that a "tertiary amide," hav- ing the formula tXCO)a.N, is also possible. For some purposes it is convenient to regard the primary amide. XCO.XH-. of the monobasic acid X.CO.OH, from the opposite point of view; namely, as derived from the acid by the substi- tution of the radical NH : for the hydroxyl group OH. Obviously the result is the same in eithi r case; but this latter view makes the deportment of dibasic acid radicals easier to describe. Thus in the dibasic acid Y(CO.OH l 9 1 where Y is a divalent radical), the first result of the substitu- tion of NHj for OH is the formation of the body Y(CO.OH).(CO.NH :: ), which is both an acid and an amide, — an amide because it is ob- tained by the substitution of NH; for OH. and an acid because it still contains one mob rub of hydrogen that is replaceable by a monovalent metal or radical (namely, the molecule of 11 in the OH). Bodies of this type arc called "amic acids." If the molecule of OH remaining in an amic acid is replaced by a further substitutii f XT I . the resulting substance. Y(CO.NHj)a, is called a «di-amidc." and may be regarded as formed from two molecules of ammonia by the substi- tution of the divalent acid radical Y(CO); for one third of the total hydrogen present in those molecules. The chemistry of the amides is very involved. They arc mostly solid bodies, neutral to litmus, but capable of forming compounds with acids. The most familiar example of the class is the primary amide of acetyl, or "acetamjde.' 5 This AMIDO ACIDS — AMIS ET AMILES substance, which is usually obtained by the dry distillation of acetate of ammonium at tempera- tures exceeding 375° F., has the formula C.II.O.XH:, as noted above, and forms hex- agonal crystals. It melts at about 180 F., boils at about 432 , and is quite soluble in water. Diacetamide, (QH 3 0) 2 .NH, and triacetamide, (GHjO )j.N, are also known. See Amine; Imide; Xitrile. Amido Acids, intermediary products in the metabolism of proteids. In the process of digestion notably, the proteids (albumens) un- dergo a gradual series of transformations where- by the complex proteid molecule is broken down into simpler and simpler compounds, until at the end of the process carbonic anhydride, water, urea, uric acid, ammonia, etc., are the results. While these end products of metabolism are well known, the intermediary products are the object of much inquiry. In the intestinal canal, under the prolonged action of the pancreatic juice fer- ments, simpler nitrogenous principles are found, leucine, tyrosine, aspartic acids — these belong to the general group of the amido-acids. Schutz- enberger has described amido-acids of the (i) leucine class, CNH,N-f- 1 N0 2 — such as alanine, propalinine, butalanine ; (2) of the acrylic se- ries CnH,n-,XO, (3) amido-acids of the gluco-protein class, sweet in taste, with the gen- eral formula CnH,nN 2 4 ; ( 4 ) amido-acids such as tyrosine, tyroleucine, and glutaminic acid. References: 'Text-book of Physiology,' Schafer, Vol. I., p. 30. Amiel, Henri Frederic, a distinguished Swiss essayist, philosophical critic and poet : b. in Geneva, 27 Sept. 1821 ; d. there 11 March 1881 ; was for five years a student in German universities, and on his return home became pro- fessor of philosophy in the Geneva Academy. He is author of several works on the history of literature, as 'The Literary Movement in Ro- manish Switzerland' (1849) ; 'Study on Mme. de Stael' (1878) ; and of several poems, among them 'Millet Grains' (1854). But his fame rests principally on the 'Journal,' which ap- peared after the author's death. Amiens, a'myaN', an old French city, once the capital of Picardy, and now of the department of Somme, on the many-channeled navigable Somme, 81 miles north of Paris by rail. Its fortifications have been turned into charming boulevards, but it still retains its old citadel. The Cathedral of Notre Dame is a masterpiece of Gothic architecture. Begun in 1220, or a little later than Salisbury Cathedral, it is 470 feet long, and has a spire (1529) 426 feet high ; but its special feature is the loftiness of the nave, 141 feet. In his little work called 'The Bible of Amiens,' Ruskin says this church well deserves the name given it by Viollet-le- Duc, "the Parthenon of Gothic architecture," and affirms that its style is "Gothic, pure, au- thoritative, and unaccusable." Other noteworthy buildings are the Hotel de Ville (1600-1760). in which the Peace of Amiens was signed ; the large museum (1864), in Renaissance style; and the public library, founded in 1791 and containing 70.000 volumes. Amiens has considerable manu- factures of velvet, silk, woolen, and cotton goods, ribbons, and carpets. Peter the Hermit and Du- cange were natives, and there are statues to both of them. The "Mise of Amiens." was the award pronounced by Louis IX. of France, in 1264. on the controversy between Henry III. of England and his people as to the "Provisions of Oxford." The Peace of Amiens (27 March 1802; was a treaty intended to settle the dis- puted points between England, France, Spain, and Holland. By it England retained possession of Ceylon and Trinidad and an open port at the Cape of Good Hope ; the republic of the Ionian Islands was recognized; Malta was restored to the Knights of St. John ; Spain and Holland re- gained their colonies, with the exception of Trinidad and Ceylon ; the French were to quit Rome and Naples ; and Turkey was restored to its integrity. In the Franco-Prussian war, on 27 Nov. 1870, General ManteufFel inflicted, near Amiens, a signal defeat on a French army 30,- 000 strong, and three days later the citadel sur- rendered. Pop. (1903) about 92,000. For a re- cent account of the cathedral see T. Perkins' 'The Cathedral of Amiens' (1902). Amina, the sleep-walking heroine of Bellini's opera 'La Sonnambula.' Amine (am'in; from ammonia + ine), a general name for a compound formed by re- placing one or more of the hydrogen atoms of ammonia by an equivalent number of metallic atoms or basic organic radicals. (Compare Amide.) As in the case of the amides, a given monovalent radical can form three compounds of this sort according as it replaces one. two, or three of the hydrogen atoms of the original ammonia. For example, the monovalent basic radical "ethyl," GHs, forms primary ethyl amine (or "ethylamine"), C-Ho.XH-, when it replaces one atom of H in NH,; secondary ethyl amine (or "diethylamine"), (C 3 H 5 )=.XH, when it re- places two atoms of H ; and tertiary ethyl amine (or "triethylamine"), (C2H..UX, when it re- places all three of the hydrogen atoms in the ammonia. The base by which the hydrogen in the ammonia is replaced need not be organic. Potassium, for example, may replace an atom of it, with the formation of potassium mona- mine (or "potassamine"), K.NH : . A derivative of ammonia, in which one atom of the typical hydrogen is replaced by a monovalent acid rad- ical, and another by a monovalent basic radical or by a monad metal, may be considered to be either an amine or an amide. Thus CH 3 .C;H 3 0. XH. in which one atom of the hydrogen has been replaced by the basic radical "methyl" (CH.,), and another by the acid radical "acetyl" (GH3O), may be described as a modified methylamine, or as a modified acetamide. The simpler amines are strongly basic in character, and may be formed by the action of ammonia on the ethers of inorganic acids. They are mostly volatile or capable of distillation. When ammonia is added to a cold solution of a salt of an amine, the amine is expelled from its combination and precipitated. The most important amines, in the arts, are methylamine (q.v.) and aniline (q.v.). Amirante Islands, a group of small islands in the Indian Ocean, lying southwest of the Sey- chelles. They were taken possession of by Great Britain in 1814 and form a dependency of Mau- ritius. They produce cocoa-nuts, and turtle and fish are abundant. About six are inhabited. Amis et Amiles, a'me' za a'mel', a chan- son of the Middle Ages, dating from about the beginning of the 13th century. The work con- AMISTAD CASE sists of 3,500 lines, in which are narrated the adventures of two friends. Amistad Case, in United Slates history, one of the landmarks of the slavery question. The Spanish government, by decree of Decem- bei [817, forbade the importation of slaves from Africa into its dominions after 30 Dec. 1820, on penalty of confiscation of the slave-ship and im mediate freeing of the negroes. The trade nevertheless went On tinder transparent dis- guises. In the spring of (839 the slave-hunters in Vfrica made a large rapture "f Sierra Leone natives, including their chief Cinque, and sent them to Havana; where two months after- ward two Cuban planters, Pedro Ruiz and Jose Montez, bought 38 youths and men, three girls, and .1 boy, and shipped them on 27 June for naja, Puerto Principe, on the schooner I. 'Amistad. under passport from the governor of Cuba obtained by falsely alleging that they were domestic slaves. Cinque organized a plan fur revolt, and when four days out they rose, killed the captain and one of the crew, wounded two others in the contest, and forced the re- maining whites to surrender; but they did them no violence, and set all on shore except the two planters, win mi they managed to make under- stand that they must steer fur Africa. These gradually changed course in the nights and fogs, and brought the vessel north off Culloden Point (near Montauk), at the east end of Long Island, where on 26 August she was noted as "suspi- cious" by Lieut. Gedney of the coast survey, on the brig Washington. He sent a boat to her, and one of the planters declared himself the owner of the negroes and claimed United States piotection. Some of them had gone on land in a boat ; Gedney seized them as under New York State jurisdiction, and the vessel as a "prize rescued from pirates." and brought them to New London, Conn. The negroes were com- mitted fur murder on the high seas, to be tried at the circuit court of 17 September at Hart- ford, and meantime lodged in New Haven jail. The planters claimed them as slaves, appealed to the Spanish minister Calderon, and he demanded their surrender of the United States district attorney for Connecticut. The latter wrote to the secretary of state (Forsyth of Georgia) ask- ing if the negroes under treaty with Spain might not be surrendered before the court sat; the sec- retary transmitted the question to the President (Van Buren), but warned the district attorney to take care that no court whatever put the ves- sel, cargo, or slaves (sic) beyond the control of the Federal executive. Meantime the anti- slavery interest had bestirred itself and secured funds, able counsel, and an interpreter of Afri- can : and the circuit court (Judge Thompson) decided on the 23d that the killing of the captain of the LAmisiad. being an incident of the slave trade, was not a crime against the law of nations. The negroes were remanded to jail till the district court in November should decide whether they were free or slave. The next day the United States attorney-general, Felix Grundy of Tennessee, was ordered to prepare an official opinion on the Spanish minister's requcs? and tin- claim of Gedney et at. for prize money. He replied in November that ship, cargo, and negroes should be surrendered according to Art. 9 of the treaty of 27 Oct. 1705, as the United States under international law had no power to investigate the truth of facts stated in Spanish official papers, — in other words, whether the gc vernor's passport was obtained by fraud, and the negroes were free according (o the Spanish law already cited; though hardly one could speak a word of European and none much more, and the planters were obviously perjured in swear- ing ignorance of tlnir being recently imported. Hut this article any way related only to vessels and goods rescued on the high seas from pirates; and under this interpretation the negroes were at once the pirates and the cargo, and had com- mitted piracy in seizing themselves from their owners. The Spanish minister protested that no United States court had any jurisdiction. The administration, not daring to take the case out of its court., went as far as it could by ordering the district attorney to act .as legal adviser to the planters and tile another indict- ment for them with new pleadings; sent a vessel to lie off New Haven in order to carry the negroes back to Cuba as soon as the district court pronounced them slaves, as was taken for granted (this was the fust trial for violating the slave-trade laws that had taken place except in slave Slates, where of course no convictions were ever found), and to do it instantly unless an appeal were interposed, which was "not to be taken for granted"; ordered that Gedney and his associate Meade accompany it to give evi- dence in court; and that these directions be kept secret. But the anti-slavery counsel had no difficulty in showing that kidnapping foreigners was not only not protected by United States or even Spanish law, but was directly contrary to both (the anti-slavery doctrine outside the courts was that the kidnapped had a natural right to kill tlnir captors if they could, and a legal right to hold ship and cargo as prize in such case, and the United States had no right to interfere) : and the court pronounced them free, and ordered them delivered to the United States executive to be sent back to Africa. The plain- tiffs at once appealed to the supreme court, and the administration continued its partnership in a private suit. The case of the negroes was ar- gued in February and March 1.841 by John Quincy Adams, wdio had previously introduced resolutions into the House directing the Presi- dent to report to Congress the authority by which Africans charged with no crime were held in custody; Roger Sherman Baldwin, the district attorney, admitted in open court that they were newly from Africa when bought: and on 9 March the court (Taney, C. J.) pronounced them illegally held as slaves and liable to no punishment for their acts. The case roused the fiercest excitement in both the free and slave sections of the country. In 1844 the astound- ing bill was reported by the chairman of the House committee on foreign affairs to pay Ruiz and Montez $70,000 compensation; but it was laid on the table and never reappeared. This ends the "case." but a word may be added on the negroes. They were removed to Farmington, Conn., well cared for. and instructed in the rudi- ments of education by a competent professor. Cinque kept them under stern discipline; they were excellently behaved and much liked; and some of them, being unusually quick of intelli- gence, were exhibited for proficiency in New England towns. About the end of November they were sent back to Africa with some mis- sionaries, and a mission was afterward estab- lished in the district. AMITOSIS — AMMONIA Amitosis. See Mitosis. Amlwch (pronounced Amlook), a seaport town in North Wales, on the north coast of the island of Anglesey, and 14 miles northeast from Holyhead. The harbor is partly cut out of the solid rock. There are copper mines near the town, and mining is said to have been carried on here by the Romans. Pop. (1901) 5,308. Ammanati, Bartolomeo, a sculptor and architect: b. Florence, 151 1 ; d. 1592. His chief work was the Trinity bridge over the Arno at Florence. Ammen, Daniel, American naval officer : b. Brown County, Ohio, 15 May 1820; entered the United States navy 7 July 1836 as midship- man. He was in the Wilkes exploring expedi- tion around the world 1838-42, in the East India sciuadron, and on the coast survey ; on the ex- pedition to the Paraguay River 1853-4. He commanded the Seneca at the capture of Port Royal, 7 Nov. 1861 ; promoted to commander 21 Feb. 1863 ; in charge of the Patapsco at the as- sault on Fort Macallister, 3 March 1863, and on Fort Sumter, 7 April ; commanded the Mohican in the attacks on Fort Fisher, December 1864 and January 1865. He was commissioned cap- tain 1866, was chief of the bureau of yards and docks 1869-71, and of the bureau of navigation till 11 Dec. 1877, when he was made rear-ad- miral on the retired list. He designed the Ammen life raft and the ram Katahdin. He wrote 'The American Inter-Oceanic Ship Canal Question' (1880) ; 'The Atlantic Coast,' (1883); 'Country Homes and their Improvement'; 'The Oid Navy and the New' (1891). Ammergau, am'mer-gou, a district or gau on the river Ammer in Upper Bavaria. The inhabitants are occupied in making figures of saints, crucifixes, toys, etc., of wood, ivory, and glass, from which a considerable trade arises, having its centre in the villages of Ober and Unter Ammergau. The former village is famous on account of the Passion Play (q.v.). Am'meter. See Galvanometer. Ammon, an Egyptian deity, whose worship spread all over Egypt and other parts of north Africa, and many parts of Greece. The Egyp- tian hieroglyphic monuments call him Amini, the Greeks identified him with their supreme god Zeus, while the Romans regarded him as the representative of Jupiter. His worship cen- tred in the Egyptian Thebes, which the Greeks therefore called Diospolis or the City of Zeus. lie is represented as a r^m, as a human being with a rani's head, or simply with the horns of a ram. His most celebrated temple was in the Oasis of Siwah in the Libyan desert. Ammonia (supposed to be so called because originally prepared from the dung of camels near the temple of Ammon, in Egypt), a gaseous compound of hydrogen and nitrogen, having the formula NIL. It may be formed in small quan- tities by the direct combination of its elements under the influence of the silent electric dis- charge; hut in the arts it is commonly prepared by the decomposition of nitrogenous matter. Formerly it was manufactured in large quan- tities by the destructive distillation of horns, hoofs, and hides, and from this fact it was known as "spirits of hartshorn." It is now chiefly obtained as a by-product in the manu- facture of coal-gas. Coal suitable for the man- ufacture of gas contains nitrogen, often to the extent of 2 per cent of its weight ; and in the distillation of such coal the nitrogen combines with a portion of the hydrogen that is also present, and is driven off in the form of am- monia; or more often it combines with the sulphur present and is obtained in the form of a sulphate. Salts of ammonia also occur in nature, sometimes in considerable quantities. In Tuscany ammonia sulphate is obtained as a by- product in the manufacture of boric acid. See Boussingaultite; Larderelute ; Mascagnite. Ammonia (NH 3 ) is a colorless gas at ordi nary temperatures and pressures, but at 60" F. it condenses into a colorless and expansible liquid upon the application of a pressure of about seven atmospheres. At the freezing point of water a pressure of 4.4 atmospheres suffices to liquefy it ; and at about 29° below zero, I'"., it condenses into a liquid at ordinary atmo- spheric pressure. Ammonia thus liquefied by pressure is much used, in the arts, for the pro- duction of low temperatures and the manufac- ture of artificial ice. (See Refrigeration, Arti- ficial.) It freezes at about 103° below zero, F., into a white crystalline solid. Liquid XI l : , dis- solves the alkali metals without chemical change, forming blue solutions. Ammonia gas is very soluble in water at or- dinary temperatures, the solution constituting the so-called "ammonia" or "aqua ammonia" that is familiar in every household. At 32 F. and at ordinary atmospheric pressure water will absorb 1,148 times its own volume of NH 3 ; and at 68° F. it will absorb 740 times its own volume. Both ammonia gas and its solution in water possess strongly alkaline properties, turning red litmus paper blue and combining with acids to produce definite salts. The solution of am- monia gas in water is attended by a considerable development of heat, and it is usual to consider that a definite compound of ammonia and water is formed. The formula of this compound may be written NH,.H ; 0, but many considerations suggest that NH..OH is a better and more logi- cal form. NH 4 is here considered to be a radical, analogous in its chemical deportment to the familiar alkali metals sodium and potassium. According to this view ordinary "aqua am- monia" would be regarded as a solution of the hydrate of the radical Nil,; ami for many years past chemists have admitted the existence of such a radical, which they have called "am- monium." Upon adding hydrochloric acid to a solution of ammonia gas, a compound known as "sal ammoniac" is obtained, which is used largely in electric batteries that are intended for open circuit work. The reaction by which this substance is formed may be written Kll.,-f- HC1 = NH 3 .HC1; or if the existence of a definite hydrate in the "aqua ammonia" is admitted, we may write the reaction NH..OH + HC1 = NH,. CI + H = 0, in which case the reaction is in ail respects analogous to that by which potassium chlorid (for example) is formed when hydro- chloric acid acts upon potassium hydrate: K0H + HC1 = KC1 + H,0. All the other salts that are formed by the combination of ammonia with acids can be similarly expressed bj admit- ting the existence of the radical NIL and treat- ing it. in the formulae, as though it were a metal of the alkali group. All the "ammonium" com- pounds are isomorphous with the corresponding potassium compounds. AMMONIACUM; AMMONITES Aqua ammonia, or "caustic ammonia" (as it is sometimes called ■' for many purpi in the arts, notably in the | by the ammonia proces iDIUM), and in dyeing and calico-printing. Large quantities of the sulphate ire u rs and in the manufacture of ammonia alum (see Alum). The chloride of ammonium is used (as above noted ) in certain common forms of electric batteries, and also in soldering, in dyeing, and in many minor ways. The carbonate is largely used in the manufacture of baking powders and for scouring wool. Ammonia is expelled from all of its com- pounds by quicklime, and the usual test for ammoniacal compounds consists in beating the substance to be examined, together with caustic bine or caustic soda or potash. If ammonia is present in any considerable amount it is liberat- ed by this treatment and may be recognized by smell or by its action on litmus paper. Nearly all of the compounds of ammonia are readily soluble in water, the acid tartrate and the ible platinic chloride being the chief excep- tions. Ammonia forms the starting point for an ex- irdinarily long list of compounds, many of which are exceedingly complicated. See Amide; Amine. Ammoniacum is a paim resin derived from the stems of Dorema ammoniacum, a forest plant of Persia. Other species of Dorema yield similar products. The plant has an abundant supply of milky juice which exudes spontaneously and hardens in various-shaped masses. Fine tears, varying in size from two to five mm. up to the size of a hazel-nut are obtained from insect-punctured wounds, while the so-called ammoniacum amygdaloides is obtained from the root of the plant. Ammoniacum consists of a mixture of vary- ing proportions of ethereal oils, I to 2 per cent, resins, gums, 65 to 70 per cent; and pectin like bodies. Ash 20 per cent. A certain amount of water is always found in the commercial pi net. The ethereal oils are found in small quantities only, generally less than 10 per cent. It is soluble in carbon disulphide. The resin is to be distinguished from other resins in that its alcoholic solution gives a red reaction when added to a bromide of sodium solution. 30 gr. NaOH in Aq. Mr. 20 gr. Aq. 1 liter. Umbelhf- eron would seem to be absent. Ammonites, or "children of Amnion." In the cuneiform inscriptions their land is called Bit-Amman, as if Amman were a personal name; but Genesis says Ben-ammi, and Ammi was perhaps a local god. Their land was in the rn part of the district now called Belka. on the northeast of the Dead Sea next the desert : its capital Rabbah or Rabbath-Ammon. Their real history begins with Saul, though Jephtbah the freebooter is said to have delivered Israel from them, and one tradition represents Balaam as an Ammonite — but this is thought a later excuse for excluding them from the Jewish body. They were in a state of chronic border warfare with the Hebrew-, their close kinsmen, and speaking a closely related dialect. Nahash, king of Amnion, besieges Jabesh-Gilead (1 Sam. xi.), and offers terms for its capitulation on condition of putting out the chief men's right . — but Saul wins a crushing victory over the besiegers. David as Saul's enemy is well treated by Nahash ; but when he takes Saul's place the old feelings are resumed. Hanun, the son and successor of Nahash. u David's messci ongratulation with gross contumely (2 Sam. x. ) ; David wins a victory over them and the Syrian allies they have called in, and exacts a frightful vengeance from them, putting his captives to the torture quite in the Assyrian fashion, and leaving us to infer that there was little to choose in savagery. They probably recovered their independence after Solomon's death. Later they were subjugated by the Assyrians, as the inscriptions of several kings evince. Under Jeroboam II. they make incursions into Gilead and are blamed for in- humanity. After the Israelitish deportation of 734 they occupied the land of Gad ; under Jehoiakim they are incorporated into Judah : under Zedckiah they are allied with him against Assyria, but seem to have drawn out in time for safety, and Israelitish fugitives find refuge with their king Baalis. Later they intermarried with the Jews, and there was a village of them in Benjamin; Judas Maccabeus defeated them; but they were gradually absorbed by invading Arab tribes. Their great local god was Mill in Ammonites, the general name for the fos- sil cephalopod mollusks of the order Ammon- oidea, given originally because of a fancied re- semblance of the coiled specimens first known to a ram's horn, the symbol of Jupiter Ammon. Subsequently it served as a generic name for a group, but this has been abandoned in the light of later information. The Ammonoidea are one of the two orders of chambered tetra- branchiate cephalopods, the other being the Nautiloidea (see Nautilus). Their remains are found fossil in marine Palxozoic rocks- from the Devonian to the close of the Mesozoic Age. More than 5,000 species have been described, grouped into about 100 families, and these into nine sub-orders in two divisions, (1) Intrasipli- onata and (2) Extrasiphonata. The first group contains a single primitive (Devonian) sub- order having the siphuncle dorsally situated; the second contains all the remainder, which agree in having the siphuncle ventral. The classification is based upon the complexly lobed pattern of the sutures, or lines of union betvt the septa or partition walls of the chambers and the outer wall of the shell. (See Ceph ilopoda. ) The shells of ammonites were typically coiled in a single plane and ran in size from an inch or two in diameter to two or more feet; but this varied greatly, even to partial or entire straight- ness. The surface of the shell, too, was in many cases smooth and polished or slightly ridged, while in others it was roughly ringed or covered with cross-lines, spikes, and tubercles, in handsome variety. Some shells were so com- l*re-sed as to have the proportions of a watch; while others were almost globose. As Hyatt states, ammonoids experienced a progressive evolution from the early Devonian until the upper Juras, when the group reached its summit of importance and was represented in great numbers and variety in all parts of the world : that is. when it attained the summit of its evolution in complexity of structure, form, and ornament. Ammonoids exist in great abun- AMMONITES. 1 7 Ammonites cordatus. *, * Ammonites Coupei. 5 , fl Ammonites opulentus. 7 Ammonites nummularis. 8 Ammonitrs cavernosus. B Ammonites rotula. 10 Ammonites Humphryi. AMMONIUS SACCAS — AMMUNITION dance in the rocks of this period in the western United States, especially those of the irregular group called Ceratites, which succeeded the Palaeozoic Goniatites, and other primitive forms. The Jurassic ammonoids show a mixture of retrogression with some progressive features. "Part of their losses are regained by the evolu- tion of the vast number of forms and modifica- tions during this period, but there are numerous localized signs of retrogression, due perhaps to unfavorable surroundings." Indications of this kind occur sporadically throughout the Jurassic time and become general in the Cretaceous period. Many of the later forms were openly or grotesquely coiled, or coiled only when young, becoming nearly or quite straight when they grew older, as in Ptychoceras, Turriteles, Scaphites, etc. These degraded "old-age" types were evidently due to the waning forces of life or to disease, because similar though much less marked uncoiling of shells, due to unfavorable condition of the water, have been observed in the fresh-water Planorbis of Steinheim, Germany, and elsewhere. (See Evolution; Senescence.) Hyatt thus infers that there was in the European seas, at least, a widespread unfavorable change in their physical surroundings, "similar to but more extensive than that which affected Euro- pean forms during the Lower Oolite," and to this influence he ascribes the uncoiling of the shells of Spiroceras and its allies. At the close of the Cretaceous period the ammonoids entirely disappeared. We thus see in the vast and more or less complete and continuous series of these beautiful shells, in which the imperfections of the geological record are less marked than in other groups, the process of rise, culmination, decline, and death of a type, presenting also beautiful illustrations of the biogenetic law (q.v.). The type begins with infantile and larval forms, then evolves youthful, mature, and finally old age forms, which present in their simple and closely coiled shells a return to the original simplicity of the infancy and childhood of the type. Concerning the animals which made the shells, nothing is known except by inference. The growth of the shell begins with the forma- tion of the primitive conically-shaped shell called "protoconch," and then the secondary shell begins to grow and becomes coiled up in one plane. Like the nautilus the mollusk lived in the outer chamber of its shell, from which it periodically advanced. The aperture of this outer chamber was closed when the animal withdrew into it, either by a single horny plate (aiiaptychus) or by a pair of calcareous plates (aptychus). The very earliest appear to have been swimmers, like the nautiloids ; but the great bulk of the ammonites undoubtedly lived gregariously alongshore, where they crawled about, carrying or partly dragging their shells. and searching for the animal food upon which they subsisted. The learned Zittell points out that their shells were proportionately less bulky than those of the nautiloids, and correspondingly less buoyant; and the probability is that they swam little and were rarely active. There is reason to believe that in the case of some species the eggs were retained within the shelter of the living-chamber until they hatched, and that the young remained there until somewhat grown. See Goniatites. Bibliography. — Cook, 'Cambridge Natural History. Mollusks' (1895); Zittell-Eastman, 'Text-book of Palaeontology,' Vol. I. (1900) ; Hyatt, 'Genesis of the Arietidx' (Memoirs Mus. Comp. Zool., Vol. XVII., 1889); 'Phylo- geny of an Acquired Characteristic* (Proc. Amer. Philos. Society, Vol. XXXIL, No. 143, 1894) ; Wurtenberger, 'Studien uber die Stam- mesgeschichte der Ammoniten' (Leipsic 1880), and numerous other papers ; also articles by D'Orbigny, Neumayr, Pumpelly, Quenstedt, 'Sandberger, Suess, Waagen, White, Whiteaves, Wright and Zittel. Ammo'nius Sac'cas, a Greek philosopher who lived about 175-250 a.d. Originally a porter in Alexandria, he derived his epithet from the carrying of sacks of corn. The son of Chris- tian parents, he abandoned their faith for the polytheistic philosophy of Greece. His teaching was historically a transition stage between Platonism and Neo-Platonism. Among his dis- ciples were Plotinus, Longinus, Origen, etc. Ammonoosuc, the name of two small rivers in New Hampshire which rise in Coos County and flow in a southwest direction, emp- tying into the_ Connecticut River. The lower Ammonoosuc is about 100 miles long and the upper 75 miles long. Ammophila, a grass common on sandy beaches, a coarse perennial, with running root- stocks. It is of value as a binder of loose sand and is employed for that purpose throughout the world, its destruction being forbidden in Eng- land under severe penalties. Ammunition, the articles which are re- quired in firearms and ordnance to render the mechanism effective. From the earliest period of settlement shot and bullets have been made by Americans. Lead was brought with them from England and Holland, and cast in molds, many of which are still preserved in old houses in New England, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. They differed only in size, so whether each pro- jectile weighed an ounce or the twentieth of an ounce, the same plan was adopted. Shot-towers were invented at an early date. The metal, a compound of lead and arsenic, the latter form- ing one hundredth part, is melted at the top of a high tower and poured into a colander. The lead passes through in drops instead of streams, each assuming a perfectly spherical form, and falls into a basin of cold water, there being in- stantly chilled in the globular form. After this the shot are rolled down an inclined plane, those which are not truly spherical falling off at the sides, while the perfect ones continue in a direct course. The holes through which the liquid metal passes are from one thirtieth to one three hundred and sixtieth of an inch in diameter. Shot is much used for killing small game, which would be torn in pieces by a heavy bullet : ami a shot-gun also requires less accurate marksman- ship than a rifle. _ Bullets are still cast in molds, but in the factories this operation is performed with great celerity. The ridge caused by the meeting of the two parts is automatically re- moved by a knife. Swaging of bullets is also practised. The total quantity of shot made in New York annually is valued at $400,000, there being three shot-towers. Early in the 10th cen- tury no method was commonly known of getting AMNESIA — AMOR accurate results from a gun. but it was noticed that a bullet was marly always flattened or smashed at the end nearest the powder. It' the ball was large for the bore of the gun it reached its mark more certainly than if the bore was large. It was therefore the common practice for hunters to put a patch or wad around their bullet, which prevented the powder from falling out, and also kept the bullet straight till it had l.ii the muzzle; and it was also discovered that if there were grooves inside the barrel which twisted iimre or less, a rotary motion was im- parted t<> the bullet, which added much to its range and its powers of reaching its aim. This con tituted the rifle, and after its method of construction became generally known no other weapon was used for bunting large game. They were used to some degree in armies even fifty years ago. Gradually the smooth-bore musket was driven out and soldiers were supplied alone with ritles. But another article was necessary In fore this could be completely accomplished. Until the second quarter of the century the fire which was required to he communicated to the powder came from a blow of the hammer of the gun upon a piece of flint. Frequently there was a miss. Percussion-caps were introduced about this time. They depended for their value upon the quality of igniting with a blow, their shape, like that of a cup, bemg only requisite in older to keep them on the nipple of the gun. They were much more certain in action than the flint had been, and soon drove it out everywhere. A later improvement in ammunition was by the introduction of cartridges, the powder and bul- let being together. The metallic cartridge is an invention made in France about l8,ti and intro- duced here shortly after. A greal improvement was also made in France in [845 in the shape of the bullet, which did not become known here till file tune of the Crimean War. It was the Minic bullet, having tor its peculiarity an elonga- tion of the projectile. Hitherto all olhers had been round. The part which was foremost ta- pered to a point, but the rear was flat, as if the bullet had been cut from a round rod of bid. A heavier bullet was thus attained, a more thorough rotation was imparted, and little re- sistance was experienced from the air. The new projectile would carry twice the distance of the oin 11 superseded, and would even at that point he more destructive. The total production of ammunition in the United States in 1900 was valued at $6,538,482; business was carried on in 35 establishments, which had 2.267 workmen, paid $1,110,482 in wages, and used materials valued at $4,645,850. See Armament of the World; Pike-Arms; Ordnance. Amnesia. See Aphasia. Amnesty, an act of oblivion passed alter an exciting political period. Express amnesty is one grained in direct terms. Implied amnesty is one which results when a treaty of peace is made between contending parties. Amnesty and pardon are very different Amnesty is an act of the sovereign power, the object of which is to efface and to cause to be forgotten a crime or misdemeanor. A pardon is an act of the same authority which exempts the individual on whom it is bestowed from the punishment which the law inflicts for the crime he has committed. 7 I'd. (U. S.) 160. Amnesty is the abolition and forgetfulness of the offense; par- don is forgiveness. A pardon is given to one who is certainly guilty or has been convicted; amnesty, to those who may have been so. Amnesty Proclamation. An act passed 25 Dec. l!S()8, granting amnesty to all who were guilty of treason against the United States or adhered to their enemies during the Civil War. This included domiciled aliens. But the procla- mation did not entitle one w1ms L - property bad been sold under the Confiscation Act of iSoj to reclaim the proceeds after they had been paid into the treasury of the United States. Amnion. See Foetus. Amoeba, or Proteus Animalcule, a pro- tozoan classified as one of the rhizopods, which is present almost everywhere in fresh water, and sometimes in moist earth, and is commonly taken as the type of the unicellular animals. It is a mere drop of animated jelly I protoplasm, q.V.), hardly visible to the unaided eye. which under the microscope is seen to be divisible into an inner granular mass (endosarc) and an outer clearer part or envelope (cctosarc) ; but there is no essential difference in substance between them. Imbedded in the interior granules is a large Spherical globule, the nucleus, consisting of a clear chromatic substance containing mi- nute granules of chromatin. A contractile vacuole lies in the ectosarc, ami manifests more or less regular and rythmical expansions and contractions; this seems to serve the purpi of an excretory organ. The amoeba continually throws out irregular threads and extensions (pseudopods), so that its shape is more often like that of a drop of any thick liquid which has fallen and spattered, than of a globule; this shape is changing incessantly as the creature slowly creeps about. Whenever it touches any edible particle of organic material it slowly enfolds it, and the particle sinks into the body, where it is gradually dissolved, its nutritive material is digested and assimilated, furnishing food and fuel to the protoplasm, and the innutri- tions parts are finally gathered into the vacuole, whence they are squeezed out and discarded. Amoeba reproduces if self by a simple process of division. A constriction takes place at a point where the nucleus will be divided, and 011 until the animal becomes dumbbell shaped. Finally the two parts separate, and each becomes a distinct and perfect whole, each with its half of the original nucleus, which at once becomes, in each case, a whole' nucleus. AlTr a time these individuals in turn undergo a similar division, and so on. It may there- fore be said that amoeba never ceases to exist — -never dies; but simply multiplies indefinitely by repeated divisions. Certain forms of Amoeba, notably . /. d'li, are the cause of a distinct kind of dysentery now termed amoebic dysentery. This is a dis- ease mostly of the tropics, but is also found endemic in the United States. Occasionally the parasite may infect the liver, causing an abscess in that organ. The disease is difficult to treat. Amor, the god of love among the Romans, equivalent to the Greek Eros, lie had no place- in the national religion of the Romans, who derived all their knowledge of him from the Creeks. According to the later mythology Amor is the son of Venus and Mars, the most beautiful of all the gods; a winged boy with AMORGO — AMOS bow and arrows, sometimes represented blind- folded. His arrows inflict the wounds of love, and his power is formidable to gods and men. He is not always a playful child in the arms of his mother, but appears sometimes in the bloom of youth, for example, as the lover of Psyche. He is brother of Hymen, the god of marriage, whom he troubles much by his thoughtlessness. According to the earlier my- thology he is the oldest of all the gods, and ex- isted before any created being. In English the god of love is less frequently called Amor than Cupid ; yet with the ancients cupido denoted, properly, only the animal desire. Amor'go (ancient Amorgos), an island in the Grecian Archipelago, one of the eastern Cy- clades, 22 miles long, five miles broad ; area, 106 square miles ; has a town of the same name, with a castle and a large harbor. Pop. 5.000. Amorites. Though made a separate tribe in the varied and rhetorical lists of the peoples in Canaan ousted by the Israelites, the name is used by Amos in the 8th century as a general term for the primitive inhabitants of Canaan, with attribution of gigantic size and power, as most old nations do with their special aboriginal predecessors. Some critics think, however, that "Canaanite" is used for the peaceful set- tlers of the plains, and "Amorite" for the war- like tribes on the hills to the north. At any rate, the latter term is always used when hostile tribes are meant. Moses' foes include Sihon and Og the Amorite kings, and Joshua deals with 12 kings of the Amorites west of the Jordan. The Amarna letters show that the coast as far north at least as Sidon was called Kinahi (Canaan), and perhaps the Amorites were the people of the interior ; but the usages may be due to the writers coming from different sec- tions. Amory, Blanche, a shallow, selfish, world- ly girl in Thackeray's novel 'Pendennis.' Amory, Robert, physician: b. Boston 3 May 1842. He graduated at Harvard 1863, M.D. 1866, and studied in Paris and Dublin. He was lecturer at Harvard on the physiological action of drugs 1869 ; then professor of physiology at Bowdoin Medical College till 1874. Author of 'Bromides of Potassium and Ammonium' (1872); 'Action of Nitrous Oxide' (1870); and important papers on 'Chloral Hydrates,' 'Pathological Action of Prussic Acid.' and 'Photography of the Spectrum' : the volume on 'Poisons' in Wharton & Stille's 'Medical Jurisprudence' ; and 'Electrolysis and Its Ap- plications to Treatment of Disease' (1886). Amory, Thomas Coffin, lawyer and au- thor: b. Boston 1812; d. there 1889. He gradu- ated at Harvard 1830 ; and for many years was connected with the municipal government of Boston. Author of 'Life of James Sullivan' (2 vols. 1859) ; 'Military Services of Maj-Gen. John Sullivan' (1868) ; 'Life of Sir Isaac Coffin' (1886); 'The Siege of Newport: a Poem' (1888); 'Charles River: a Poem' (1888). Amos, the prophet: the earliest identifia- ble Hebrew writer, and the first extant prophet who wrote his prophecies, therefore of great historical importance not only for Hebrew con- ditions in his age. but for the evolution of their religious thought. He lived under Jeroboam II. of Israel (790-749 B.C.) and Uzziah of Ju- dah at least during part of his career; was in Is- rael perhaps between 765 and 750, though there are strong reasons for putting him after 745. He was probably a man of position, a fig-planter and cattle-owner (though he calls himself a fig-picker and herdsman) from Tekoa in Judah (see 2 Sam. xiv. 2 for the estimate of its peo- ple's astuteness in David's time), near Arabia and the Dedanites ; his opportunities for meet- ing varied human elements had been good, his intellect was vigorous and his nature lofty, and his writings show a singular cultivation and re- finement which reminds one how often the Eastern herdsman thus surprises the traveler. He felt that he had a burning moral message to deliver to the Hebrews, and the place to deliver it was in the far more important north- ern kingdom, then in the flower of its prosperity first and last. Assyria had been greatly weak- ened by the growth of the kingdom of Urartu (Armenia) to the north, and by internal re- volts under Ashur-dan (772-755); meantime it had trampled Damascus into a temporary im- potence for aggression. Jeroboam in his long reign was therefore able to win back all that Hazael had taken away, and extend his king- dom from Hamath in Syria down to the Dead Sea : he captured two places in Gilead, and his people thought their military prowess irresisti- ble ; they suffered from no raids or tribute, wealth and luxury were increasing rapidly, and self-indulgence with it. As always, laxer for- eign religions had come in also : Yahwe was relied on as the national champion, but other gods were worshipped also, and even with him the connection was becoming non-moral, a costly ritual usurping the place of ethical religion. Into this comfortable and boastful population, expecting no attack from Assyria, and with their unhampering religion, came the great moral teacher from the other kingdom, preach- ing everything most alien and distasteful to them : that their military successes are nothing, and Yahwe will raise up a nation to carry them off beyond Damascus (transplantation, as a means of breaking up rebellious elements and unifying the empire, was introduced by Tiglath- pileser II. of Assyria, 745-727, which suggests the later date for Amos) ; that Yahwe hates their burnt-offerings and wants nothing but righteousness ; that precisely because he is closer to them will he judge them more severely; and that while he will eventually not let the race of Jacob die, he will not restore it till the pres- ent kingdom has been obliterated from the earth. This was taking the heart out of the people ; and when he came to Bethel, the northern Jerusa- lem, and reiterated his warnings that Jeroboam would die by the sword and the people be de- ported, Amaziah the high priest reported him to the king as a public nuisance and conspirator, and contemptuously told him to go back to Ju- dah and prophesy to such as would pay him, but not to do it in Bethel, for it was the king's. This brought out the invaluable autobiographic fragment (vii. 14-15), wherein he tells us of his position, and that he is none of the guild of professional prophets and does not need to take fees for his utterances, but a private individ- ual with a call from God to go out and tell the truth. For him, indeed, it is correct to say God and not Yahwe : he is an ethical AMPHIBIA monotheist. His writings as lliey stand show signs of change and interpolation from subse- quent hands ; but the undoubtedly authentic part exhibits fine literary as well as intellec- tual and spiritual qualities, and the imagery is graphic and certifies to his pastoral and agri- cultural employment. (A special work on Amos is by H. G. Mitchell, Boston, 1S89.) Amphib'ia, a class of back-boned creeping animals comprising the newts, frogs, and toads, together with several extinct groups, which is ified between tlie fishes and the reptiles. The most prominent characteristic is indicated by the name, which refers to the fact that these animals are provided with a respiratory appa- ratus which enables them to breathe both water and air. It is not meant, however, that the Amphibia are able to breathe in either air or water at the same time, but that the young are provided with gills and live in water up to a certain age, or in rare cases permanently, after which they acquire lungs and thereafter breathe atmospheric air. As these young as a rule are different from their parents and must undergo metamorphosis from the larval into the adult condition, amphibians as a class are usually said to undergo metamorphosis, but this is equally true of some fishes and it is not true of all amphibians. The evidence not only of mod- ern similarity of structure, but that obtained from a study of the fossil forms, makes it plain that the Amphibia are the result of the evolution of a branch from an ancient fish- stock, probably by way of the lung-fishes or Dipnoi (q.v.). On the other hand they are related in a not very different degree to the reptiles. The connection link according to Gadow, is formed by the Stcgoccpliali; all the recent orders are far too specialized. The line leading from Stcgoccpliali to fossil reptiles is extremely gradual, and the same consideration applies to the line which leads downward to the fishes; but the great gulf within the I'ertcbrata lies between fishes and amphibians, that is, be- tween absolutely aquatic creatures with internal gills and fins, and terrestrial four-footed crea- tures with lungs and fingers and toes. No great phylogenetic importance attaches to the pos- session of external gills, as it is not unlikely that in the Amphibia these organs owe their origin to entirely larval requirements. Although in the Palaeozoic age the great stegocephalous amphibians (more usually called labyrinthodonts, q.v.), flourished as the only terrestrial vertebrates of importance, the class never attained a dominant position. Inter- mediate between the aquatic fishes and the grad- ually rising terrestrial reptiles, the amphibians were pushed aside in a double way by the struggle of evolution, until now most of them have become extinct. The remainder persist only because they have found shelter in the nooks and corners of the world to which they have become adapted by small size and aquatic habits ; and only one group, the frogs and toads, fortunate in their plasticity, have spread over the whole globe and exhibit some richness in forms. The class Amphibia is divided into two sub- classes: (1) Stegocephali (q.v.), which is wholly extinct; (2) Lissamphibia, which in- cludes all of the modern forms, contained in three orders: (1) Apoda, composed of the family Ca-cilliidic (see Co7.cii.ua ns) ; (2) Urodela, including the long-tailed, smooth- skinned, aquatic salamanders, newts, mud-pup- pies, and the like; (3) Anura, comprising the tailless forms, or frogs and toads, of which there are two divisions, — the few Agl which have no tongue, and the tongue-bearing Phaneroglossa, which includes the great ma- jority of forms. Fossil Amphibia. The modern frogs and salamanders are a small and scanty remnant of the Amphibia of Palaezoic time. During the Carboniferous and Permian periods they were the dominant form of life and of great variety in form, including some of very large si/e, 12 feet or more in length. All these ancient Amphibia belong to an extinct group, the Labyrii (sometimes called Stegocephalia), or "armored amphibians, 1 distinguished by having the wide flat head completely roofed over with bom, and the body more or less armored with bony plates and scales. The skull has two openings for the eyes, two at the front margin for the nostrils, and a single one in the middle for the pineal eye. Like modern amphibians, they breathed by gills when young, but by lungs when adult. All had long tails and most of them short stout legs. Some were elongated and snake-like, others tadpole-like with large heads shaped like a broad arrow (Diplocatllus) and no limbs; others, and these the largest, heavy-bodied, with flat conical or semi-circular heads, short legs, and five-toed feet {Labyrinthodon, Eryops). These ancient amphibians illustrate various stages in the evolution of the backbone of mod- ern Vcrtcbrata from the notochord or segmented rod of cartilage from which it was derived. In the smaller and more primitive types the seg- ments of cartilage are but slightly ossified in a number of separate plates or incomplete rings of bone. In others each vertebra is composed of two or four pieces, which remain separate during life instead of consolidating into a single bone, as in modern vertebrates. In others, again, the verte- bra is completely united. The oldest known labyrinthodonts are from the Carboniferous rocks, and are related to some of the older Palaeozoic dipnoan fishes, from which they may have been descended. In the Permian they at- tained large size and great abundance, and con- tinued into the Triassic period, by the end of which they had become extinct. Their foot- tracks, often preserved in muddy sandstones of these periods, are sometimes curiously like the impressions of a human hand, whence they re- ceived the name of Cheirotherium, or "beast- with-a-hand, 8 before their nature was recog- nized. The frogs and salamanders are probably descended from primitive labyrinthodonts, but are very little known as fossils. One fossil spe- cies, allied to the giant salamander of Japan, was found in the Miocene strata of Oeningen many years ago (1726) and was supposed by an early naturalist to be the fossil skeleton of a man, and described as "homo diluvii testis ct thco- scopos'" — the man who was witness to the Del- uge and saw God — a quaint reminder of the geological speculations of two centuries ago. Consult Gadow, 'Amphibia and Reptiles 1 (London. 1001) ; Boulenger, 'Catalogue of Batrachia* in British Museum (London, 1882) ; and many papers in English scientific periodi- cals; Cope, 'Batrachia of North America.' AMPHIBIA. i. A Spanish Salamander (Pleurodires waltli). 2. European Crested Newt (Triton cristatus). 3. Menobranch (Necturus maculatus). 4-5. East African Toad (Breviceps mossambicus). 6. A Mexican Toad t Rhinophrynus d t 7. An Amphisbaena tSiphonops annulatus I. 8. Hnrned Frog 1 Ceratobatrachus GuentherO. 9. Flying Frog (Rhacophorus pardalis< AMPHIBOLE — AMPHIOXUS Amphibole, am'fi-bol (from the Greek amphibolos, "doubtful," in allusion to the diffi- culty of distinguishing it from pyroxene). In mineralogy, (i i a common mineral, crystalliz- ing in the monoclinic system, and varying greatly in chemical composition. The name was first given by Haiiy in 1801 as distinguishing a species of which he regarded hornblende and actinolite as varieties. In 1809 he included tremolite also. In general, the species may be described as a normal metasilicate of calcium and magnesium, associated with iron, manga- nese, sodium, potassium, and hydrogen. (2) Amphibole group. — An important group of minerals, including the species described above, and taking its name therefrom. Its con- stituent species are widely different in chemical composition, and are closely allied to the mem- bers of the pyroxene group. All the species of the amphibole group have a prismatic cleav- age of from 54° to 56°, and they also exhibit close relationships in the optical properties. A!i the species of the pyroxene group have a funda- mental prism with an angle of 93 and 87°, the corresponding angle in amphibole being 56 and 124°. The specific gravity of the pyroxenes is usually higher than that of the species of the amphiboles with which they are likely to be con- fused. Alkalis are met with more commonly in the amphiboles, and magnesium is also more prominent in that group. The amphibole group is divided into three main sections according to the crystalline forms of its species. Dana's classification is as follows : A. Orthorhombic Section. AnthophylHte. (Gedrite.) B. Moxoclixic Section. Amphibole: Non-aluminous varieties: Tremolite. Actinolite. Cummingtonite. Dannemorite. Grunerite. Richterite. Aluminous varieties: Edenite. Pargasite. Hornblende. Glaucophane. Riebeckite. Crocidolite. Arfvedsonite. (Barkevikite.) C. Triclinic Section. --Enigmatite. Amphibol'ogy, an equivocal phrase or sentence, not from the double sense of any of the words, but from its admitting a double con- struction, as "The duke yet lives that Henry shall depose." The word that may be ambigu- ous, and consequently the sentence is an exam- ple of equivocation, not amphibology. Amphic'tyon'ic League or Council, in an- cient Greece, an assembly composed of deputies from 12 Greek tribes, each of which sent two deputies, who assembled with great solemnity; composed the public dissensions, and the quar- rels of individual cities, by force or persuasion ; punished civil and criminal offenses, and partic- ularly transgressions of the law of nations and violations of the temple of Delphi. After the decision was published a fine was inflicted on the guilty state, which if not paid in due time was doubled. If the state did not then submit, the whole confederacy took arms to reduce it to obedience. The assembly had also the right of excluding it from the confederation. An instance of the exercise of this right gave rise to the Phocian war, which continued 10 years (b.c. 355-346). Amphic'yon, a genus of extinct mammals, found fossil in Miocene rocks, which is usually placed among the extinct Cauida (dogs), but has many bear-like features, such as plantigrade, five-toed feet, and the structure of the ulna and radius. The largest species was about the size of a bear, but with a very dog-like head. It belonged to the Old World, but a closely al- lied American Miocene form is Daphanus. Am'phineu'ra. See Mollusks. Amphi'on, in Greek mythology, son of Zeus and Antiope, his twin brother being Ze- thus. He is represented as being the oldest of the Grecian musicians. In Lydia, where he maried Niobe, the daughter of King Tantalus, he learned music, and brought it thence into Greece. He reigned in Thebes, which he partly built, and it is said that at the sound of his lyre the stones voluntarily formed themselves into walls; also that wild beasts, and even trees, rocks, and streams followed the musician. With the aid of his brother Zethus he is said to have avenged Antiope, who had been imprisoned and ill-used by his father, and to have bound Dirce, his stepmother, to the horns of a wild bull. This incident is supposed to be represented by the famous piece of sculpture, the Farnese bull, in the Farnese Palace at Rome. Am'phiox'us, the lancelet, a small animal of the marine class Lcptocardii. Its earliest scientific name is Branchiostoma. From its somewhat worm-like form it was for a long time regarded as a worm by some authors, and ori- ginally as a mollusk (Limax) by Pallas. It is now named Atnphioxus lanceolatus; lives buried in the sand just below low-water mark, the head or "oral hood" projecting above into the water. It also swims in a vertical or upright position, also frequently lying on one side on the sand ; and burrows head foremost rapidly downward in the sand. It extends along our coast from the mouth of Chesapeake Bay to Flor- ida ; also on the eastern coast of South America and in the north European seas, the Mediter- ranean, the East Indies and Australasia, the spe- cies being truly cosmopolitan. Another very closely allied genus, Asymmetron, includes two species, one of which occurs at the Bahamas, and the other in the Louisade Archipelago, southeast of New Guinea. The body of Atnphioxus is about two inches in length, slender, compressed, pointed at each end, hence the generic name {Atnphioxus, a/upl both, o£!>$, sharp), the head-end being thin and compressed. The muscular segments are dis- tinct to the naked eye. From the mouth to the vent is a deep ventral furrow, and a slight dorsal fin extends along the back and beneath as far front as the vent, forming the ventral fin, while the wider portion at the tail is the caudal fin. The oral hood has a large me- dian external opening, which is oral, surrounded with a circle of ciliated tentacles supported by semi-cartilaginous processes arising from a cir- cumoral ring. At the bottom of this opening is the mouth which leads directly into a large AMPHIPODA — AMPHISBiENA broad pharynx or 'bronchial sac," protected at the entrance by a number of minute ciliated lobes, ["he wails of this sac are perforated by long ciliated sins, of which there are more than a hundred pairs, comparable with those of the bronchial sacs of ascidians and of Balanoglos- sus. The water which enters the mouth passes out through these slits, where it oxygenates the blood and enters the peribronchial cavity, thence passing out of the body through the ab- dominal pore (atriopore). The pharynx leads to the stomach with which is -onnected the liver or ccccum. There is a system of blood- vessels, but no heart. A contractile median vessel, the ventral aorta, beginning at the free end of the liver, and extending along the under- side of the pharynx, sends branches to the sac and two anterior branches to the dorsal aorta. On the dorsal side of the pharynx the blood is poured by the two anterior trunks, and by the branchial veins which carry away the aerated blood from the branchial bars, into a great lon- gitudinal trunk or median dorsal aorta, by which it is distributed throughout the body. There are also vessels distributed to the liver, and returning vessels, representing the portal and hepatic veins. The blood-corpuscles are white and nucleated. The vertebral column of the true vertebrates is represented in the lancelet by a notochord, a long, flexible, cylindrical rod pointed at both ends, which extends to the end of the head far in front of the nervous cord; and also by a series of semi-cartilaginous bodies above the nervous system, and which are thought to rep- resent either neural spines or fin-rays. The nervous cord is a rod-like structure which lies over the notochord. It is not divided into a true brain and spinal cord, though the cord is slightly enlarged at the anterior end, where a rudimentary ventricle is said to exist. The nerve-cord sends off a few nerves to the peri- phery, with a nerve to the single minute me- dian eye. An olfactory pit opens externally on the left side of the snout. The principal excre- tory organs are about nin ly pairs of peculiarly modified nephridia, situated above the pharynx, and in relation with the main ccclomic cavities. The reproductive glands are srptare masses or pouches, of which there are about 26 pairs at- tached in a row on each of the walls of the body-cavity. The individuals may be male or female, the only sexual differences being in the reproductive glands. I he eggs may pass out of the mouth or through the pore. Kowalevsky found them issuing in May from the mouth of the female, and fertilized by spermatic particles, likewise issuing from the mouth of the male. The eggs are very small. 0.105 millimetres in diameter. The eggs undergo total segmentation, leaving a segmenta on cavity. The body-cavity is next formed by invagination. The blastoderm now invaginates and the embyro swims about as a ciliated gastrula. The body is oval, and the germ does not differ much in appearance from a worm, starfish, or ascidian in the same stage of growth. No vertebrate features are devel- oped. Socn the lively, ciliated gastrula elongates, the alimentary tube arises from the primitive gastrula cavity, while the edges of the flattened side of the body grow up as ridges, which afterward, as in all vertebrate embryos, grow over and enclose the spinal cord. When the germ is _>4 hours old it assumes the form of a ciliated flattened cylinder, and now resembles an ascidian embryo, there being a nerve cavity with an external opening, which afterward closes. The notochord appears at this tunc. In the next stage observed the adult characters have appeared, the mouth is formed, the tir-t pair of gill-openings are seen, II additional p; appearing. It thus appears that while the lance- let at one time in its life prevents ascidian fea tures, yet, as Balfour states, "all the modes of development found in the higher vertebrates are to be looked upon as modifications of that of Amphioxus." A. S. Packard, Late Prof. Zoology, Brown I 'niversily. Amphip'oda, an order of Crustacea, in which the body is compressed and usually arched. 'I here is no carapace or distinct cephalothorax, but a small head, bearing two pairs of antenna. a pair of jaws (mandibles), and three pairs of maxillae. The thoracic segments are separate and like those of the abdomen, not being fused and united with the head segments. Respira- tion is performed by lamellate Or leaf-like gills arising from the middle pair of legs. The am- phipods are represented by the common beach- flea or beach- or sand-hopper (Orchestia agilis) ; by Gammarus, or "scud," species of which live both in the sea and in fresh-water. Extreme forms are the ghost-like or skeleton-like atten uated Caprella, abounding in eel-grass below- low tide; and which in walking loop the body somewhat like a geometricid caterpillar. Another form is Chelura terebrans, which burrows in wood, in company with the gribble. It is very active and frequently destructive to submerged piles. Other forms arc eyeless and live in caves or dark well-. Amphipolis, an important city of Thrace or Macedonia; at the mouth of the Strymon River. 33 miles from the Tigean. It was founded by an Athenian colony about 4.50 1:1 ; was captured by Sparta in 4J4 B.C ; and near it the Spartans defeated the Athenians in 42J B.I Subsequently it became a Macedonian pos 1 sion ; was called Popolia in the Middle Aees; and its site is now occupied by the Turkish town of Yenikeui. Am'phisbae'na, one of the degraded worm- shaped li/anls nf the family . 1 inphisbiCiiiilic, which lead an entirely subterranean lite, bur- rowing like earth-worms. They have a skin forming numerous rings and containing only vestiges of scales except upon the head. External limb, are absent (except in one genus), but only vestiges remain of any limb-bones. Their tails are SO shorl and blunt that they arc- popularly said in some countries i" have two heads, whence the scientific name of the group. This notion is strengthened by their ability to move either forward or backward with equal case. About a dozen genera and more than 60 species are known, most of which inhabit the warmer parts ,,f America and Africa: some also live in Asia Minor and in Spain. They are fre- quently found in ants' nests, and have been called "mothers of ants" in consequence. Their eyes and ears are concealed beneath the skin. A common species in South America and the West Indies {Amphisbama fuliginosa) is checkered black and white, and is from one to two feet in length. Like the others it feeds AMPHITHEATRE — AMRITSIR upon worms and small insects found under the surface of the ground. They are quite harm- less. Am'phithe'atre, with the Romans, a build- ing without a roof, of a round or oval form, destined for the combats of gladiators or of wild beasts. In the middle was the arena, a large place covered with sand, on which the fights were exhibited. Round about were the vaults or caves in which the animals were kept ; above these was the gallery, from which ascended successive rows of seats, each of greater height and circumference than the pre- ceding. The first 14 were for the senators and judges, the others for the common peo- ple. Julius Cssar erected the first large am- phitheatre at Rome for his gladiatorial exhi- bitions. It was of wood. Statilius Taurus, 20 years later, built the first stone one. The Coliseum at Rome is the largest of all the ancient amphitheatres. (See Coliseum.) In Verona there is one the interior of which still shows the whole ancient architecture and is carefully preserved. Am'phitri'te, in Greek mythology, a daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, or of Nereus and Doris. Poseidon wished to make her his wife, and as she hid herself from him he sent a dolphin to find her, which brought her to him, and received as a reward a place among the stars. As a goddess and queen of the sea she is represented as drawn in a chariot of shells by tritons, or riding on a dolphin, before which a cupid swims, with the trident of Poseidon in her hand. Amphit'ryon, in Greek mythology, king of Thebes, son of Alcauis, and husband of Alc- tnena. Plautus, and after him Moliere, have made the trick played upon him by Zeus (in as- suming his form in order to enjoy the embraces of his wife) the subject of amusing comedies, in which the return of the true Amphitryon, and his meeting with the false one, occasion several humorous scenes. Am'phiu'ma, a genus of Amphibians that lose their tadpole gills, but retain a gill slit. See Kongo Snake. Amphora, a vessel used by the Greeks and Romans for holding various liquids, par- ticularly wine They were of various forms, but most commonly tall and narrow, with a pointed end which fitted into a hole or socket to enable them to stand upright. Properly an amphora was a two-handled vessel, from Greek aniphi. both, and phero, to carry. Amphoteric, a chemical property of many organic substances, urine, milk, blood, etc., to show acid to blue litmus and alkaline to red litmus, thus paradoxically being both acid and alkaline. Am'plitude, in astronomy, the distance of any celestial body or other object (when re- ferred by a secondary circle to the horizon) from the east or west points ; the complement to the amplitude, or the distance from the north or south point, is called the azimuth. Ampudia, Pedro de, Mexican soldier. He first appears in the wars against Texas, Santa Anna (q.v.) making him a general in 1840. He engaged in forays and fights here for some years, coming into conflict with Summerville's Texas troops and commanding the land forces in the siege of Campeachy ; compelled to re- treat 26 June 1843, he went to Tabasco, and in 1S44 captured and summarily executed Sent- manat who had assaulted it. The act was loud- ly condemned, and he was dismissed. He re- appeared in the United States-Mexican war under Arista ; was in the fight at Matamoras, II April 1846; was given command of Monte- rey, but surrendered to Taylor 24 September and vanishes from history. Ampulla (Lat.), in antiquity, a vessel bellying out like a jug, that contained unguents for the bath ; also a vessel for drinking at table. The ampulla has also been employed for cere- monial purposes, such as holding the oil or chrism used in various church rites and for anointing monarchs at their coronation. Ampullaria. See Apple-Shell. Am'puta'tion. See Surgery. Amraphel, king of Shinar (= Sumer, the Sumerian or South Babylonian plain), a mon- arch mentioned in Gen. xiv. as an ally of Che- dorlaomer, king of Elam. in subduing his re- volted Palestinian vassals. Two other allied kings are named: Arioch of Ellasar ( Larsa, South Babylonia) and Tidal of Goiim ( translat- ed "nations" in Authorized Version; identified by some with Gutium in Media, by others with "the tribes >> = the wandering Kuril- 1. Wither of the names nor any mention of the raid is found on the inscriptions; and the expedition, with its capture of Lot and the successful re- capture by Abraham, has no critical standing. Nevertheless it is most interesting historically; for the non-Jewish names are apparently gen- uine, and the conditions are precisely those of the times which the names would imply. Arioch would correspond to the Babylonian Eriaku, supposed to be found in a fragmentary epic on the invasion of Babylonia ; Tid"al to a Tudhkula or Tudhghula also said to be recognizable there ; and Chedorlaomer to Kudur-Laghamar. the first half of which is found in other Elamite royal names, as Kudur-Mabuk, etc.. and the last is probable. As to Amraphel, he is very plausibly Hammurabi (q.v.). the great revivor of the Babylonian monarchy about 2250, after its conquest by the Elamites ; or rather Ham- murabi-ilu (the divine name el or ilu added, as common in Babylonian and Egyptian: cf. Jo- seph-el and Jacob-el against the Hebrew Joseph and Jacob), or perhaps Hammu-rapaltu, a probably dialectic variant of Kimta-rapashtu actually found written. Chedorlaomer's expe- dition is like other known ones of Babylonian kings against the lands west to the Mediterra- nean, which they claimed as tributary. But there is a closer verisimilitude, which makes it practically certain that the substance of the story was taken from a Babylonian tablet de- Mug an actual occurrence: Amraphel in the story is a subordinate ally of Chedorlaomer. and the historical Hammurabi was apparently a de- pendent sub-king of Babylon under the Elamites before he threw off their yoke. The added Abraham story may represent a tradition welded with the other in later times. Amritsir, um-rit'sar, or Umritsir (that is, "the pool of immortality"), a town of Hindu- stan, capital of a district of the same name, in AMRU — AMSTERDAM the Pan jab, the principal place of the religious worship of the Sikhs. It is. on account of its favorable situation between Cabul and Delhi, Cashmere, and the Deccan, a place of great trade, and has considerable manufactures of shawls and silks; but its chief attraction to the natives is the sacred pond constructed by Ram Das (one of the earlier pontiffs of the Sikh faith), in which the Sikhs immerse themselves that they maj be purified from all sin. I hi I holy basin is 150 paces square, built of brick, having in its centre the chief temple of the Sikh religion. • Under a silken canopy in this temple is deposited the book of Sikh religion and laws, called the Granth. The voluntary contributions of pilgrims and devotees support this place, to which 600 priests are attached. Pop. (1901) 164,000 (including cantonments). The district of Amritsir lies between the rivers Ravi and Bias. It is intersected by nu- merous canals. Its area is 1,601 miles. Pop. 02) 2,500,000. Am'ru, originally an opponent, and subse- quently a zealous supporter of Mohammed, and cue of the ablest of the Mohammedan warriors. He brought Egypt under the power of the Caliph Omar in 638, and governed it wisely till his death in 663. The burning of the famous Alexandrian Library has been generally attrib- uted to him, though only on the authority of a writer who lived six centuries later. Amsdorf, Nicolaus, a Protestant reformer of the 16th century: b. in Gross-Zschopa, near Wurzen, on the Mulde, 3 Dec. 1483; d. 14 May 1505. He was educated at Leipsic, and then at Wittenberg, where he was one of the first who matriculated (1502) in the recently-founded uni- versity. He obtained various academical honors, and became professor of theology in 1511. He joined Luther at the very beginning of his struggle (1517) ; continued all along one of his most determined supporters; was with him at the Leipsic Conference and the Diet of Worms; and was in the secret of his Warthurg seclu- sion. He assisted the first efforts of the Ref- ormation at Magdeburg, at Goslar, and at Ein- beck ; took an active part in the debates at Schmalkald, where he defended the use of the sacrament by the unbelieving; and spoke out strongly against the bigamy of the Elector of Hesse. He urged the separation of the High Lutheran party from Melancthon, got the Saxon dukes to oppose the Frankfurt Recess (1558), and continued to fight for the purity of Lutheran doctrine until his death. Amsler, Samuel, one of the most distin- guished of engravers: b. in Schinznach, in the canton of Aargau, 1791 ; d. 18 May 1849. Ams- Icr's principal engravings are 'The Triumphal March of Alexander the Great' and a full- length 'Christ,' after the sculptures of Thor- waldsen and Dannecker ; the 'Burial of Christ,' and two 'Madonnas,' after the pictures of Raphael; and the 'Triumph of Religion in the Arts.' after Overbeck, his last work, on which he spent six years. Amsterdam, formerly called Amstelredam, the capital of the Netherlands, is situated in the province of North Holland, at the influx of the Amstel to the Ij or Y (pronounced eye), an arm of the Zuyder Zee. The city is built in the shape of a semi-circle, and within this semi- circle four canals — the Prinsen Gracht, Keizer's Gracht, Heeren Gracht, and the Singel — ex- tend in the form of polygonal ere c< nl . nearly each "ther. while numi rous ■ mailer canals intersect the city in every direction, di- viding it into about 90 islands, with about 300 bridges. The site of Amsterdam was originally a peat bog, and all its buildings rest upon piles that are driven .some 40 or 50 feet through a mass of loose sand and mud until they reach a solid stratum of firm clay. This foundation is perfectly secure as long as the piles remain under water. At the beginning of the 13th century it was merely a fishing village, with a small castle, the residence of the lords of Amstel. In 1296, on account of its share in the murder of Count Floris of Holland, the rising town was demolished; but in 1311, with Amstelland (the district on the banks of the Amstel), it was taken under the protection of the Counts of Holland, and from them received several privileges which contributed to its sub- sequent prosperity. In 1482 it was walled and fortified. After the revolt of the seven prov- inces (1566) it speedily rose to he their first commercial city and a great asylum for the Flem- ish Protestants; and in 1585 it was considerably enlarged by the building of the new town on the west. The establishment of the Dutch East India Company (1602) did much to forward the well-being of Amsterdam, which, 20 years later, had 100,000 inhabitants. In the middle of that century the war with England so far reduced the commerce of the port that, in 1653. 4,000 houses stood uninhabited. Amsterdam had to surrender to the Prussians in 1787. to the French in 1795; and the union of Holland with France in 1810 entirely destroyed its foreign trade, while the excise and other new regulations im- poverished its inland resources. The old firms, however, lived through the time of difficulty, and in 1815 commerce again began to expand — an expansion greatly promoted by the opening in 1876 of a new and more direct waterway be- tween the North Sea and the city. The city has a fine appearance when seen from the harbor or from the high bridge over the Amstel. Church towers and spires, and a perfect forest of masts, relieve the flatness of the prospect. The old ramparts have been leveled, planted with trees, and formed into promenades. Between 1866 and 1876 many spa- cious streets and an extensive public park were added to the city. Tramways have been suc- cessfully introduced, and the harbor greatly improved. There is railway communication with all parts of the country and of Europe. Rich grassy meadows surround the city. On the west side are a great number of windmills for grinding corn and sawing wood. On each side of the three chief canals, with a row of trees and a carriage-way intervening, are hand- some residences. The building material is brick: and the houses have their gables toward the streets, wdiich gives them a picturesque ap- pearance. The defenses of Amsterdam now ist in a row of detached forts, and in the sluices, several miles distant frorr the city, wdiich can flood in a few hours the surrounding land. A hard frost, however, like that of 1794-?. when Pichegru invaded the country, would render this means of defense useless. The population, wdiich from 217,024 in 1704, sank to 180.179 in 1815, rose steadily to 503.285 in 1897, of whom the majority belong to the AMSTERDAM — AMUR Dutch Reformed Church. Of the remainder, about 80,000 were Catholics, 30,000 German Jews, and 3,200 Portuguese Jews. The chief industrial establishments are sugar refineries, engineering works, mills for polishing diamonds and other precious stones, dockyards, manufac- tories of sails, ropes, tobacco, silks, gold and silver plate and jewelry, colors, and chemicals, breweries, distilleries, with export houses for corn and colonial produce ; cotton-spinning, hook-printing, and type-founding are also car- ried on. The present Bank of the Netherlands dates from 1824, Amsterdam's famous bank of 1609 having been dissolved in 1796. The former Stadhuis ("townhouse 9 ), con- verted in 1808 into a palace for King Louis Bonaparte, and still retained by the reigning family, is a noble structure. Built by Van Kam- pen in 1648-55, and raised upon 13,659 piles, it extends 282 feet in length by 235 feet in breadth, and is surmounted by a round tower rising 182 feet from the base. It has a hall 120 feet long, 57 wide, and 90 high, lined with white Italian marble — an apartment of great splendor. The cruciform Nieuwe Kerk (New Church), a Gothic edifice of 1408-14, is the finest eccle- siastical structure in the city, with a splendidly carved pulpit, and the tombs of Admiral de Ruyter, the great Dutch poet Vondel, and va- rious other worthies. The Old Church (Oude Kerk), built in the 14th century, is rich in painted glass, has a grand organ, and contains several monuments of naval heroes. Literature and science are represented by a university sup- ported by the municipality (till 1876 known as the Athenteum Illustrc), by academies of arts and sciences, by museums and picture galleries, a palace of national industry, a botanical gar- den, several theatres, etc. The new Ryksmti- seum contains a truly national collection of paintings, its choicest treasure being Rem- brandt's 'Night-guard.' Rembrandt (q.v.) made Amsterdam his home ; and his statue (1852) now fronts the house he occupied. Spinoza was a native. The hospital for aged people, the poorhouse, house of correction, the orphan asylums, a navigation school, and many benevolent societies, are well supported and managed on good principles. A water supply was introduced in 1853. The North Holland Canal, to which Amsterdam is so largely in- debted for the rapid increase of its commerce, is noticed under Zuider Zee. Pop. (1891)417,539. Amsterdam, N. Y., a city of Montgom- ery County, 33 miles northwest of Albany. It is located on the Mohawk River, the Erie Canal, and the West Shore railway, and is a busy manufacturing centre. Industries, etc. — Amsterdam has about half a hundred factories, among the numerous prod- ucts being such diversified objects as carpets, knit-goods, rugs, wagon-springs, paper, silk, paper-boxes, and brooms. There are also foun- dries and machine-shops ; three daily newspapers are published. Public Institutions, Buildings, etc.— Here are located an academy, a hospital, a board of trade, numerous churches, and a Roman Cath- olic institute. There are well-paved streets, a fine system of drainage, an excellent water sup- ply, and an electric lighting system. History. — Amsterdam was first settled about 1778, and until 1804 it was known as Veeders- Vol. 1 — 29 burg. It was incorporated as a village in 1830, and as a city in 1885. Pop. (1890) 17,336; (1900) 20,929; (1905) 23,943. Amu, Amoo, Amoo Darya (Arab. Gihon), a river of Central Asia, the ancient Oxus. It takes its rise in the eastern Pamir, near the boundary of eastern Turkestan, flows at first generally west (to Ion. 66° E.), thence generally northwest, and empties by a delta into the southern part of the Aral Sea. It receives several affluents from the mountains of Turke- stan and the Hindoo Koosh. About 1.600 miles in length, it is navigable by light draught ves- sels for about 800. As a means of irrigation. it is of considerable importance. Amulet, a piece of stone, metal, or other substance, marked with certain figures or char- acters, which people wear about them as a pro- tection against diseases and enchantments. The name, as well as the thing itself, is derived from the East. The word comes from the Ara- bic hamalah (anything hung round the neck). Among the Turks, and many people of central Asia, every individual thinks an amulet neces- sary to secure him from harm. They were introduced into Christian Europe by the Jews. With the ancients, for example, the Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, they were frequently found. From the pagans they were introduced among the Basilidians. Their amulets were stones with the word Abraxas engraved on them. The Jews had many superstitious notions abou'. amulets. Many Christians of the 1st century- wore amulets which were marked with a fish as a symbol of the Redeemer. To the Christian divines the use of amulets was interdicted by the Council of Laodicea under penalty of dis- missal from office. With the spread of Arabian science and astrology the astrological amulets of the Arabians, the talismans, came into use in the West. The Turks, the Chinese, the people of Thibet, and many other nations, have yet great confidence in them. See Superstition ; Talisman. Amur, am-6r', a river formed by^ the junction (about lat. 53 N. and Ion. 121 E.) of the Shilka and the Argun, which both come from the southwest. From the junction the river flows first southeast and then northeast, and, after a total course of 3.060 miles, falls into the Sea of Okhotsk opposite the inland of Sakhalin. It is very valuable for navigation, and carries a considerable fleet of steamers, but on account of the bar at its mouth goods are generally disembarked and carried overland to Alexandrovsk. In 1636 Russian adventurers made excur- sions to the lower Amur, and in 1666 built sta- tions and a fort at Albazin. In 1685 both stations and the fort were taken by the Chinese, but were promptly retaken by the Russians, who in 1689 abandoned the whole territory of the Amur to the Chinese. In 1854-6 two military expeditions were con ducted by Count Muravieff, who established the stations of Alexandrovsk and Nikolaeysk. In 1858 China agreed to the Treaty of Tien- tsin, by which the boundaries of Russia and China were defined. The left hank of the Amur and all the territory north of it became Rus- sian ; and below the confluence of the I'ssuri both' banks. In i860, after the occupation of AMURATH — AMYL Pekin by the British and French, General Igna- tiefl secured the .signature of Prince Kung to a treaty by which Russia acquired the broad and wide territory comprised between the river Amur and the mouth of the Tumen, extending io° of latitude nearer the temperate regions, and running from the shore of the north Pacific eastward to the banks of the river Ussuri, a principal affluent of the Amur. In September 1900 Russia took formal possession of the right bank of the river. This vast territory falls into two Russian provinces — the Maritime Province between the Ussuri and the sea, and the government of Amur north of the river. The latter has an area of 175,000 square miles. The country is richly timbered, and is admirably adapted for pasturage and agriculture, though the climate is severe. Fur-bearing animals are still plenti- ful, and the river alxnmds in fish. The capital is Khabarovka. Nikolaevsk, once the only im- portant place in these regions, is on the Amur, 26 miles from its mouth, where the river is Ij4 miles wide, and in places 15 feet deep; but the political centre tends southward to the more temperate Maritime Province (area, 730,- 000 square miles), near the southern end of which is situated the important harbor of Vla- divostok ("Rule of the East"), or Port May, which in 1872 was placed in telegraphic com- munication with Europe by the China submarine cable, and is now the capital of the Amur provinces. The island of Sakhalin (Saghalien), north of the Japan group, along a portion of the coast of Asiatic Russia, and formerly possessed partly by Russia and partly by Japan, is also a part of the Amur region in the wider sense. Amurath I., ;i'm66-rat, a sultan of the Turks; succeeded bis father Orchan in 1 360. He founded the corps of Janissaries, conquered Phrygia, and on the plains of Cassova defeated the Christians. In this battle he was wounded, and died the next day, 1389. Amurath II., one of the more illustrious of the Ottoman emperors, succeeded his father, Mohammed I., in 1421. at the age of 17. In 1423 he took Thessalonica from the Venetians; in 1435 subdued the despot of Servia, besieged Belgrade, which was successfully defended by John Hunniades; defeated the Hungarians at Varna in 1444, and slew their king, Ladislaus. He died in 1451. Amurath III., succeeded his father, Selim II., in 1574. His first act was the murder of his five brothers. He added several of the best provinces of Persia to the Turkish empire. He was noted for his avarice, and his sensual ex- cesses made him prematurely old. He died in 1595- Amurath IV., succeeded his uncle, Mus- tapha X., 1623. After two unsuccessful at- tempts he took Bagdad from the Persians in 1638, and ordered the massacre of 30.000 prison- ers who had surrendered at discretion. The excessive cruelty and debauchery of Amurath IV. have earned for him the character of being one of the worst sovereigns that ever reigned over the Ottomans. He died in 1640. Amurath V., Sultan of Turkey: b. 21 Sept. 1840. and succeeded to the throne in 1876 as the result of a revolution that caused the over- throw of his uncle Abdul Aziz. His reign was for a few months only, as he developed strong symptoms of insanity and was deposed in Au- gust 1876. Amyclae. (1) An ancient town of Laco- nia, on the eastern bank of the Eurotas, 2^ miles southeast of Sparta. It was the home of Castor and Pollux, the "Amyckean brothers." It was conquered by the Spartans only before the first Messenian war. (2) An ancient town of Latium, which claimed to have been built by a colony from the Greek Amyclae. Amygdalin, a-mig'da-lin (from the Latin amygdala, "almond*), a crystalline substance occurring in bitter almonds, in the kernels of apples, pears, and peaches, in the leaves of the laurel (CeraSHS luuro-ccrasus) , and in the leaves and bark of various species of the genus Primus. It has the formula C»H«iN0ii+ 3H1O, and is of special interest to the chemist because it was the first known of the numerous class of substances termed "glucosides" (q.V.), It is obtained by extraction, with boiling alco- hol, of the pulp left after the expression of the oil from bitter almonds. The alcoholic solu- tion is concentrated by evaporation, and the amygdalin precipitated by the addition of ether, in which it is insoluble. Like the other gluco sides, amygdalin does m>t form salts with acids, but is decomposed by them with the formation of glucose. Amyg'daloid, in geology, an igneous rock- containing numerous almond-shaped or spherical enclosures of material distinctly different, either chemically or physically, from that which con- stitutes the rock itself. The enclosures were originally cavities due to the inclusion of steam or gases. Lava frequently exhibits a structure of this kind, its enclosures being commonly calcite or quartz. Am'yl (from the Latin amylunt, "starch," its first-known compounds being obtained by the distillation of fermented starchy matter), an important organic radical having the form- ula C.-.Hn, and belonging in the fatty series. It is also called "pentyl," because, in the l<>ng list of analogous radicals having the general formula CnH 2 n+, amyl is the particular radical in which n = s. Amyl cannot exist in the free state, but two of its molecules can combine to form the paraffin "decane," CwHe, which is a liquid boiling at about 320 F. The radical amyl can have no less than eight dihercnt isomeric forms, and the chemistry of its compounds is correspondingly complicated. Of the many com- pounds that are known, however, only three arc especially important in the arts. These are : (1) amyl alcohol, (2) amyl acetate, and (3) amyl nitrite. (1) Eight isomeric amyl alcohols are the- oretically possible, one for each of tiie theoret- ically possible isomeric forms of the radical it- self; and seven of these are actually known. Five of the seven are of no particular impor- tance in practical chemistry, but the remaining two, known respectively as the "active" and "inactive" amyl alcohols, constitute the greater part of the fusel-oil (q.v.) that is obtained abundantly in the manufacture of potato brandy, and less abundantly in the preparation of many other kinds of distilled liquors. "Active" amyl alcohol has the formula OLCKGH-XIL' >l 1, boils at about 262 F., and takes its name fro;^ AMYLENE HYDRATE — AMYRAUT the fact that it rotates the plane of polarized light to the left. "Inactive" amyl alcohol has the formula (CrLKCH.CH^CH^OH, boils at about 269 F., solidifies at — 4° ¥., and has no effect upon polarized light. These two kinds ai amyl alcohol may be obtained, mixed, by washing fusel-oil with water, and subsequent rectification. They may then be separated by fractional distillation, or by other more exact methods, for which see special treatises. (2) Amyl acetate (more exactly, <( iso-amyl acetate," since six acetates are known), is pre- pared by distilling a mixture of the foregoing amyl alcohols with sodium acetate and sulphuric acid. It is a liquid, boiling at about 282° P., and possessing a strong fruit-like smell. It is used for flavoring cheap confectionery. (3) Amyl nitrite, &Hu.NO ; , may be formed by distilling a mixture of the foregoing amyl alcohols with potassium nitrite and dilute sul- phuric acid. It is a yellow liquid, with an ethe- real, fruity odor. When its vapor is inhaled, it paralyzes the vaso-motor nervous system and lowers the blood pressure. Amyl nitrite is often administered in this way for the cure of obsti- nate hiccoughing. Its effects are powerful and almost instantaneous, and it should never be tried except under the guidance of a physician. Amylene Hydrate, an alcohol used as a hypnotic. It is technically a tertiary iso-amyl alcohol [(CH 3 )2C(OH)CH 2 CH:,], and is a limpid, colorless, neutral fluid with a peculiar odor and a burning taste. It is miscible with eight parts of water and freely miscible with alcohol, chloroform, and fixed oils. It has an action on the human body similar to that of other alcohols, and is a useful hypnotic, occupy- ing a position between chloral, which is twice as strong, and paraldehyde, which has about half the strength of amylene hydrate. In large doses it is a heart depressant. Amylop'sin, a chemical (or unorganized) ferment, occurring in the pancreatic fluid, to- gether with steapsin and trypsin. The chief function of amylopsin, in intestinal digestion, is to effect the conversion of starches and similar substances (amyloses) into sugars (dextrins, maltoses, isomaltoses, and glucose). The con- version takes place in the small intestine. Amy- lopsin is often called the "pancreatic diastase." Sec Pancreas. Am'yl° se , any carbohydrate (q.v.) which can be classified as starch, dextrin, cellulose, or natural gum. The remaining members of the carbohydrate group are classed as glucoses or saccharoses. The general formula of an amy- lose is (CJT,„Or.)n. See Carbohydrate; Cel- lulose; Dextrin; Starch; Gum. Amyntas, the name of various characters in ancient Greek or Macedonian history, espe- cially kings of Macedonia. (1) A son of Alce- tas, reigned about 540 to 500 B.C., and he was succeeded by his son, Alexander I. (2) King of Macedonia, son of Philip, and brother of Perdiccas II.; reigned 393 to 369 B.C.. having gained the crown by the murder of Pausanias. He was engaged in war with the Olynthians and assisted by the Spartans. He was father of Alexander, Perdiccas, and the famous Philip. (3) Philip excluded the grandson of Amyntas II. from his succession and he was put to death in the first year of the reign of Alexander the Great because of a plot against the life of Alex- ander. The 4th was a Macedonian officer in Alexander's army. Amyntor, Gerhard von, pseudonym of Dagobert von Gerhardt, a German novelist and poet: b. Liegnitz, Silesia, 12 July 1831. He entered the army in 1849, took part in the cam- paigns of 1864 and 1870-1 as a major, was se- verely wounded in the former and resigned in 1872; settled in Potsdam in 1874. His principal works are 'Peter Quidam's Rhine-Journey' (1877), an epic; 'Songs of a German Night Watchman' (1878) ; 'The New Romancero' (1880), poems; 'The Priest' (1881), an epic; novels, 'It Is You' (1882); , to 'baptize), those who baptize again persons admitted to their communion, when such con- verts have been baptized in their infancy or have been merely sprinkled and not immersed in baptism or have been baptized in any way without being capable of declaring the doctrines which they believe and giving a reason for the hope that is in them. Baptists (q.v.) of the present day are not properly to be styled Ana- baptists, as they lay no capital emphasis upon the necessity for rebaptism, although they have very definite canons on the subject of immersion. Anabaptists of the early Church. — In the 3d century of the Christian era, the century which witnessed such violent and bitter controversies, the question of baptism came also under dis- cussion. In the Eastern Church, including Asia Minor, Egypt, North Eastern Africa and Constantinople, it was definitely maintained that baptism was invalid unless it was administered by one of the clergy with proper matter and form. In the Western Church, including Italy, Gaul, Spain, and North Western Africa, it was held that the virtue of baptism lay in the invo- cation of the Trinity, and the ceremonial sprink- ling with, or immersion in the water. Any bap- tism thus administered by a person of either sex, by a clergyman or a layman, was equally valid. When two children in their play mim- icked the act of a priest whom they had seen baptizing an infant, Saint Augustine of Hippo declared that the boy wdio had Deen thus bap- tized by his companion was a real and actual partaker of the benefits and bound by all the vows pertaining to this sacrament. The contro- versy between the East and the West continued, however, to rage with such fury that two coun- cils were called to settle the question. The one was held in Iconium, Asia Minor, in 235, the other at Synnada in 256. At these theological synods the decision arrived at was, that rebap- tism was unnecessary for those who had been baptized by heretics. The storm of controversy swept westward to Northern Africa as far as Carthage, where Tertullian supported the posi- tion of the Eastern Church in contrariety to that of Saint Augustine and other Western doctors. Agrippinus, bishop of Carthage, maintained against the bishop of Rome that baptism under certain circumstances ought to be repeated. His followers were called Agrippinians and his de- fiance of the bishop of Rome took the form of a concilier decree which was issued by a synod which he convened and which endorsed the sen- tence of Iconium. In tin year 253 Stephen, bishop of Rome, fulminated a bull of excommu- nication against all the bishops of Asia Minor, including Cappadocia, Galatia and Phrygia, whom he rtylcd Rebaptizers and Anabaptists in an opprobrious sense. Minister Anabaptists. — In the 16th century there arose in Europe a religious sect known as Anabaptists, whose main tenets carried the prin- ciples of the Reformation to the extreme limit of that revolutionary movement. Their principles were those of revolt against mediaeval feudal- ism just as much as against ecclesiai Meal author- ity. They were socialists as well a^ reformers, mystics and fanatics. Their existence was one of the results of the Renaissance as interpreted to the common mind. Their views were demo- cratic and individualistic. They rejected all authority, all tradition, all dogma, everything in short that militated against the absolute inde- pendence of the individual mind and spirit This tendency acquired at length the character not only of liberty but of license, and the term Anabaptist has thus become associated with every extreme, not only of license but of licen- tiousness, of rebellion and political outlawry. It is quite absurd to associate the term Anabaptist as employed historically with any phase of Christian thought, practice or opinion. It really is a term applied to those who at a turning point in the history of European thought, social, polit- ical and religious, became intoxicated with the idea of individual liberty, and the result was violence and excess of the worst character. The history of the movement is as follows: The doctrine of adult baptism was first put forth by Thomas Miinzer, the Lutheran pastor of Zwickau in Saxony, in the year 1520. Miinzer soon obtained many followers who joined him in his uprising against all civil and religious authority. Although openly belonging to the Reformation movement they very soon became completely repudiated by the followers of Luther and his adherents. But the spirit of insurrection against feudal tyranny prevailed amongst all the common people on the Rhine, in Westphalia, Holstein, Switzerland, Flanders and throughout the whole Netherlands, and the increase of Miinzer's followers became so dan- gerous that the magistrates and civil authorities found it difficult to restrain them. Miinzer was compelled to leave Zwickau; he visited Bo- hemia, resided for two years at Alstadt and Thuringia and in 1524 was found propagating his doctrines in Switzerland. He was the prin- cipal inciter of the Peasants' War, which was entered upon with a view of establishing an ideal Christian commonwealth with communistic institutions. This war reached its culmination in 1525, when Miinzer led his forces against the representations of established order and was defeated at the battle of Frankenhausen 15 May 1525, Miinzer was taken prisoner and with sev- eral of his associate leaders was tried, con- demned and executed. But all this was looked upon by the Anabaptists as merely a form of welcome persecution. New associations were formed : new prophets and teachers arose ; the propaganda was extended amongst the peasant' and serfs of Germany, Austria and Hungary io every direction. It may be necessary to state that the tenets of the Anabaptists are to be ANABASIS — ANACHARSIS summarized in their own words as follows: "Impiety prevails everywhere. It is therefore necessary that a new family of holy persons should be founded, enjoying, without distinction of sex, the gift of prophecy, and skilled to inter- pret Divine Revelations. Hence, no need for learning; for the internal word is more than the outward expression. No Christian is to be al- lowed to go to law, to hold an office in the civil government, to take an oath in a court of jus- tice or to possess any personal property ; every- thing amongst Christians must be in common. 8 John Bochhold, or Bockel, a tailor, of Ley- den, aged 26, and John Matthias, or Matthiesen, a baker of Harlem, came, in 1553, to Munster in Westphalia, a town whose inhabitants followed the doctrines of the Reformation. Here they soon won the adherence of the excited populace, and among the rest, of Rothmann, a Protestant clergyman, and the Councillor Knipperdolling. The magistrates in vain excluded them from the churches. They took violent possession of the council-house, and towa r d the end of the year a treaty was signed securing the religious liberty of both parties. Being strengthened by the ac- cession of the restless spirits of neighboring cities, they soon made themselves masters of the town by force, and drove out their adver- saries. Matthiesen came forward as their prophet, and persuaded the people to devote gold, and silver, and movable property to the common use, and to burn all books but the Bible ; but in a sally against the bishop of Mun- ster, who had laid siege to the city, he lost his life. He was succeeded in the prophetic office by Bochhold and Knipperdolling. The churches were destroyed, and twelve judges were set over the tribes, as in Israel ; but even this form of government was soon abolished, and Bochhold, under the name of John of Leyden, raised him- self to the dignity of king of New Zion, as the Anabaptists of Munster called their kingdom, and as such was ceremoniously crowned. From this period (1534) Munster was the scene of all excesses of fanaticism, lust and cruelty. The introduction of polygamy, and the neglect of civil order, concealed from the infatuated people the avarice and madness of their tyrant and the increase of danger from abroad. Bochhold lived in luxury and magnificence ; he sent out sedi- tious proclamations against the pope and Luther, as well as the neighboring authorities : he threat- ened to destroy with his mob all who differed in opinion from him ; made himself an object of terror to his subjects by frequent executions, and while famine and pestilence raged in the city, persuaded the wretched, deluded inhabitants to a stubborn resistance of their besiegers. The city was at last taken, 24 June 1535, by treachery, though not without a brave defence, in which Rothmann and others were killed, and the king- dom of the Anabaptists destroyed by the execu- tion of the chief men. Bochhold, and two of hjs most active companions, Knipperdolling and Krechting, were tortured to death with red-hot pincers, and then hung up in iron cages on Saint Lambert's steeple, at Munster, as a terror to all rebels. In the meantime, some of the twenty-six apostles, who were sent out by Bochhold to ex- tend the limits of his kingdom, had been suc- cessful in various places : and many other teach- ers, who preached the same doctrines, continued active in the work of founding a new empire of pure Christians, and propagating their visions and revelations in the countries above men- tioned. It is true that they rejected the prac- tice of polygamy, community of goods, and in- tolerance toward those of different opinions, which had prevailed in Munster ; but thev en- joined upon their adherents the other doctrines of the early Anabaptists and certain heretical opinions in regard to the humanity of Christ, which seemed to result from the controversies of that day about the sacrament. The most celebrated of these Anabaptist prophets were Melchior Hoffmann and David Joris. The for- mer, a furrier from Suabia, first appeared as a teacher in Kiel in 1527; afterward, in 1529, in Emden ; and finally in Strasburg, where, in 1540, he died in prison. He formed, chiefly by his bold promises of a future elevation of him- self and his disciples, a peculiar sect, whose scattered members retained the name of Hoff- mannists in Germany till their remains were lost among the Anabaptists. They have never owned that Hoffmann recanted before his death. David Joris, or George, a glass-painter of Delf*, born in 1501, and rebaptized in 1534, showed more depth of mind and warmth of imagination in his various works. In his endeavors to unite the discordant parties of the Anabap- tists, he collected a party of quiet adherents in the country, who studied his works (as the Gich- telians did those of Bohme), especially his book of miracles, which appeared at Deventer in 1542, and revered him as a kind of new Mes- siah. Unsettled in his opinions, he traveled a long time from place to place, till at last, to avoid persecution, in 1554, he became a citizen of Basil, under the name of John of Bruges. In 1556, after an honorable life, he died there among the Calvinists. In 1559 he was accused, though without much reason, of profligate doc- trine and conduct, and the Council of Basil or- dered his body to be burnt. Undoubtedly by no means all the Anabaptists of Germany indulged in social and political ex- cesses. The fanaticism which characterized some of the early Anabaptists is sufficiently ex- plained by the tendency of human nature to rush into extremes. The iron hold of the ec- clesiastical hierarchy, which had cramped the church for ages, being suddenly relaxed, men had yet to learn what were the genuine condi- tions whether of civil or religious liberty. But these considerations were overlooked, and the reformed churches, with one consent, regarded the Anabaptists with horror and disdain. The correspondence of the Reformers is full of allu- sions to the subject. Anabaptists are spoken of with reprobation, and a distinction is not suf- ficiently made between the sober Christians and the worst fanatics of the party. It is probable, at least, that their faults have been exaggerated even by the best writers. Anabasis. See Xenophon. Anabolism, the building-up process of organic life. The term metabolism (q.v.) is used to express the interchange of the life pro- cess constantly going on in living plants and animals. Anacharsis, the name of a Scythian phi- losopher who flourished about 600 B.C. and was a friend of Solon, by whose influence he ? received into Athenian society. Returning to Scythia, he was put to death because of his per- formance of certain Greek religious ceremonies. ANACHRONISM — ANAESTHETICS Modern reader? have been familiarized with the name through J. J. Barthelmy*s famous 'Voyage du Jcune Anacharsis en Grece' (1788). Anachronism, an inversion of chronologi- cal relation, unintended or otherwise. In com- mon parlance it is confined to the antedating of customs or events, particularly in imagina- tive works with a l>asis of history. Anaconda, Mont., city, the county-seat of Deer Lodge Count] ; 27 miles northwest of Butte on the Northern Pacific, Great Northern, and Butte, Anaconda & Pacific Railways. It was founded in 1884, following the erection of its great copper-smelting w>rks. which are the largest in the world. They treat daily between 5.000 and 10.000 tons of ore mined in the vicin- ity. Deposits of graphite and sapphires are found near the city. Anaconda also has large railway shops, brick works, machine shops, and other manufactories, hanks, telephone and tele- graph service, and daily and weekly newspapers. The Hearst Free Library contains about 6.000 volumes. Anaconda has grown rapidly with the development of its great copper industry. In [880 it was a small mining camp; ten years later its population was 3,975. Pop. 1 lOOO) 0453. Anaconda ( origin unknown; possibly na- tive name), the largest snake in America (Eunectcs muriiius), sometimes reaching a luigth of 30 feet. It is found in or near shal- low lakes and streams in Brazil, Guiana, and other parts of tropical America, where it spends much of its time in the water. It feeds on small animals, is closely related to the boa con- strictor, and is not venomous. Ornamental h.ther is prepared from its skin, which is bright brown, marked along the back with blotches, and along the sides with rings of darker color. Compare Boa. Anacreon, a famous Greek lyrist: b. Teos, about 560 B.C. ; d. 476 B.C. Long resident at the court of Polycratcs of Samos, he went to Athens in 522 and was distinguished by the favor of Hipparcbus. His principal themes were love and wine, but he was a satirist as well. He was greatly esteemed throughout Greece, great henors being paid to his memory. Only two complete poems and some fragments of his works are extant, the well-known 'Anacreon- tea* being poems after his manner, but dating from a very much later period. Anadir, or Anadyr Bay, a large inlet of Bering Sea, much frequented by whaling- vessels. It is about 250 miles wide, a peninsula of half that breadth lying between it and the Arctic Ocean. Anadir, or Anadyr, the most easterly of the larger rivers of Siberia. It rises in the Stanovoi Mountains, and falls into the Gulf of Anadyr after a course of some 400 miles. Anadyomene, a surname of Venus, and referring to her as rising from the sea. It was applied by the ancients to a picture by Apelles, which represented the goddess emerging from the waters. Anaemia, literally without blood, popularly poorness of blood. In medicine, however, it may apply to two very different classes of disease in which there may be a reduction of the amount of the blood, in its entirety, in its corpuscles, red or white, or in one particular, or important ingredient, as the red coloring matter of the blood, the hemoglobin. These two are secondary and primary an.-emias. Secondary anaemia may follow a hemorrhage, long-continued wasting disease as Bright s disease, suppuration, tuberculosis, cancer, gas- tric ulcer ; may result from inanition ; may he due to the presence of intestinal parasites, nota- bly the hook-worm disease, Uncinaria (the poor whites of the South, earth-eaters, etc., seem to have this disease) ; or may result from acute or chronic poisoning as l-om animal parasites, malaria; or plant parasites, the bacteria, in the acute infectious diseases; or the poison may be inorganic, such as lead, mercury, copper, or ar- senic. Primary anaemia includes two di Chlorosis (q.v.), the green-sickness of young girls; and pernicious anaemia (q.v.), a peculiar disease of the blood-making organs. See Blooi Diseases. Anaesthesia, the loss or impairment of sensibility, a term usually applied to the diminu- tion or loss of the senses of touch or pais (analgesia, or temperature sensations), but may apply to the diminution of the sense of smell (anosmia), or olfactory anaesthesia; that of sight (retinal anaesthesia) taste (agustia), of the muscle sense, of the sense of hearing, or any of the special senses. Anaesthesia of any of these different varieties may result from in- jury to any part of the sensory nervous chain or neuron (q.v.). If the injury involves the external portions of the sense organs, which are different for all types of sensations, as in a cut of the wrist including a sensory nerve, the anaesthesia is termed peripheral anaesthesia; if the sensory nerve centres are affected, as in some apoplexies, it is termed a central anxsthe- sia. Anxsthesias may be general or local ; complete or incomplete ; permanent or transi- tory ; unilateral, on one side of the body (hemianxsthesia), due to injury of the spinal cord or brain on the opposite side; or In! usually due to some symmetrical lesion of the spinal cord, as in myelitis, broken back, tumor pressing on the cord, syringomyelia, locomotor- ataxia, hysteria, etc. The tracing of the nerve fibres to and from an area that is anxsthetic makes one of the most fascinating studies in medicine. Certain drugs, such as cocaine, aconitum, chloroform, ether, etc., alss occasion anxsthesia. See Anesthetics; Sensation. (References: "Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology.' Baldwin ( 1003) ; Flechsig & Bech- ttrew, 'Die Leitungsbahncn im Gehirn und Riickenmark' ; E. Long, 'Les Voies Centrales de la Sensibilite Generale,' 1899.) Anaesthetics, agents used to produce anxsthesia, a word first employed by Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes. In early times it was known that pressure on the carotid arteries on each side of the neck could bring about temporary unconsciousness and resultant anxsthesia. The gentle art of garrotting grew out of this gen- eralized knowledge. Ancient peoples used opium, cannabis indica, and alcohol to produce anxsthesia. particularly analgesia, or relief from pain, but it was not until the early part of the 19th century that the discovery of the general anxsthetics, nitrous oxid, ether, and chloroform was made, and still later the wonderful develop- ANACONDA (Eunectes murinus). ANAGNI — ANAKIM merits made in the art of local anaesthesia by the use of cocaine and its congeners. For remedial measures anaesthesia may be local or general. Cold from ice, or from freez- ing mixtures, ethyl chloride, etc., is a very effi- cient local anaesthetic for the performance oi small operations, such as opening boils, felons, etc. A large number of drugs have the power of numbing the sensory nerves of the skin and are extensively employed to relieve itching and soreness. These are mostly of the phenol or carbolic acid group, thymol, menthol, etc. Even more efficient in its action on the sensory nerve filaments is the alkaloid cocaine, obtained from the South American coca plant. Applied in appropriate watery solution (2 to 4 per cent) to the mucous membrane of the ear, eye, nose, throat, urethra, vagina, or rectum, it quickly brings about loss of all pain sensations, or, inject- ed into the skin, causes complete anaesthesia over a circumscribed area, permitting of cutting ope- rations. When injected into the spinal canal it brings about complete loss of pain sense in all portions of the body below the site of the in- jection, sometimes even more extensively. This method of inducing anaesthesia without loss of consciousness has some very advantageous fea- tures in surgical procedures and was first prac- ticed by a New York physician, Dr. J. Leonard Corning. Other related alkaloids, eucaine, holocain, have similar properties to cocaine. Still other compounds made by the synthetic chemist have been widely employed, principally as analgesics (q.v.). General anaesthesia is usually brought about by the inhalation of some vapor. Nitrous oxid gas, chloroform, ether, ethyl chloride, etc., are those most frequently employed, especially the three former. Nitrous oxid (q.v.) was the first of this series to be suggested. It was made by Sir Humphry Davy in 1800, but was not used in practice until about 1844, when Dr. H. Wells, an American dentist, employed it in the ex- traction of teeth. The anaesthetic properties of ether were known for some years before put to practical use. As to its first use there is much contro- versy. It seems certain that one Dr. Crawford W. Long of Georgia first used ether as a general anaesthetic, but to W. T. G. Morton, a dentist of Boston, should be given the credit for demonstrating its value and use to the medical profession. Long did his first operation under ether 30 March 1842, for the removal of a cystic tumor of the jaw. He reported his ex- periments to the Georgia State Medical Society in 1842. Morton's work was begun in 1846, on 30 September, when he extracted a tooth while the patient was under the influence of ether. He subsequently demonstrated his meth- od at the Massachusetts General Hospital, and then patented his product under the name Letheon. The following year Sir J. W. Simpson of Edinburgh announced the discovery of the anaesthetic properties of chloroform and demon- strated its value in obstetrics. At the present time all three of these anaesthetics are exten- sively employed. In Europe chloroform is pre- ferred ; in this country ether is used more often. The statistics of deaths following these two shows ether to be the less dangerous, although it has more disagreeable after-effects than chloroform. Chronic bronchial and kidney disease contra-indicate the use of ether, while in respect to people with weak hearts chloro- form is to be avoided. See Chlorofokm ; Ether ; Nitrous Oxide. References: Probyn Williams, 'Guide to Administration of Anaesthetics* (New York, 1901) ; F. R. Packard, ■'The Discovery of Ether in the History of Medicine in the United States' (Philadelphia, 1901) ; E. Overton, "Studien iiber die Narkose* (Jena, 1901). Anagni, a town of Italy, 40 miles east- southeast of Rome. It was the birthplace of four Popes — Innocent III., Gregory IX., Alex- ander IV., and Boniface VIII., and as the chief city of the Herriici was a place of importance during the whole period of Roman history. Virgil mentions it as "wealthy Anagnia." Pop. (1901) 10,059. Anagram, a word or sentence resulting from the transposition of the letters of a given word or form of words. The most exact ana- gram, sometimes termed palindrome, is that formed by reading the letters backward — evil, for example, thus read, constituting live. The making of anagrams was a favorite mediaeval amusement and is still an occasional pastime. Anaheim, Cal., city in Orange County, situated in a fertile valley, 28 miles south of Los Angeles, on the Southern P. and Santa Fe R.R.'s. It is the centre of the wine trade for southern California, producing over 1,000,000 gallons annually. Anaheim has a public library, high schools, Saint Catherine's Academy, and 11 churches. It was settled in 1859. Pop. (1900) 1,456. Anahuac, a name applied to the great central plateau of Mexico, elevated from 6,000 to 9,000 feet above the sea and including more than the area of the republic. It contains sev- eral lakes, and Popocatepetl is the loftiest of the volcanoes which rise from it. Anaitis, the Persian water goddess of an- tiquity, extensively worshipped in the East. Anakim ("long-necked ones" = giants), a general term, like Amorites or Rephaim, used by the Hebrews for the pre-Jewish inhabitants of Palestine ; but with special reference to the colossal stature accredited to them, as by others to the wild fierce tribes they encountered on first entering their adopted land. Like the Greek giants, they were mountain-dwellers (Josh. xi. 21-2), all through Judah and Israel as later di- vided, and apparently with palisaded strong- holds at Hebron and other places. This passage says Joshua drove them thence, but that rem- nants survived at Gaza, Gath, and Ashdod, then or later Philistine cities. An older pas- sage, however, says in the Authorized Version that it was Caleb who expelled "the three sons of Anak," whose names are given, from "the city of Arba [Kirjath-Arba] (the father of Anak), which is Hebron." But this is a lu- dicrous misapprehension of the scribe. "Sons of the Anakim" means in Oriental phraseology clans of that people, here turned into a person with personal sons. The other part is still more grotesque. "Kirjath-Arba" means "city of four" (probably from the incidents of its settlement) ; but the scribe has taken "Arba" for a person. If the oldest text spoke of the city of the "father of the Anakim" (that is, their ancestral home). ANALCITE — ANALOGY OF RELIGION the metaphor is intelligible enough; but as such metaphors in tbe East arc usually feminine, it is most likely the original said "mother of Ana- kim," and the copyist corrected a supposed error. Analcite, a-nal'sit (from the Greek word meaning "weak," in allusion to the feeble elec- tric properties it manifests when heated or rubbed), a mineral usually classed as a zeolite, or hydrated double silicate of sodium and aluminum, with the formula NaAlShO + H=0 ; although Doelter maintains that the water can- nol be water of crystallization, and writes the formula thus: NaAlSid-r- 2H 2 SiO„ Analcite is commonly colorless or white, with a vitreous lustre, its hardness is from 5 to 5.5, and its specific gravity about 2.26. It occurs in a va- riety of forms, but usually in trapezohedrons. There has been much controversy over its crys- talline structure, owing to certain optical anomalies that it exhibits; but it is now usually n Ferred to the isometric system, the weak dou- ble refraction that it often exhibits being prob- ably due in part to anomalous internal stresses, and in part to a loss of water, and a consequent modification in molecular structure. Beautiful crystals of analcite are found near Mount /Etna and in Nova Scotia. In the United States the mineral occurs in tli^ trap rocks of northern New Jersey, Colorado, California, and the Lake Superior region. See Leucite. Analemma, a geometrical term implying the projection of a sphere upon the plane of a meridian with the point of sight an mfinitely dis- tant point of the radius perpendicular to that plane. This projection is sometimes styled orthographic. The sun-dial has been called an analemma, and the term has also been used to indicate a scale showing the declination of the sun and the equation of time of various periods of the year. Analgesics, remedies used to control pain. These have come largely into use during the past 10 to 15 years. Before that time the pro- fession had to rely chiefly on a few drugs, notably opium, cannabis indica, and their allies, for the relief of pain of nerve and muscle: neuralgia, acute rheumatism, sick headache, and other transitory or persistent affections of the sensory nerves. Synthetic chemistry has intro- duced a large number of new drugs that have been found very useful in allaying the pain and discomfort of many conditions heretofore borne with heroic stoicism. The commonest of these new remedies are antipyrine, acetanilide or anti- febrin, and phenacetin. These are but a few of a large list of similar drugs. The numerous drug-store mixtures sold as headache powders, etc., are usually mixtures of the cheapest of these, acetanilide or antifebrin, with other prod- ucts. See Anesthetics; Antifebrin; Anti- pyretics; Phenacetin. Analogue, a term in comparative anatomy employed to denote resemblances, as an organ of an animal or plant performing the same func- tion as another part in a second animal or plant differently organized. It is much used by geolo- gists in comparing fossil remains with living specimens. Analogy, a correspondence of relations between one thing and another. In logic it implies the resemblance of rela- tions, a meaning given to the word first by the mathematicians. To call a country which has sent out various colonies the mother country implies an analog)- between the relation in which it stands to its colonies and that which a mother holds to her children. As more commonly used it is a resemblance on which an argument falling short of induction may be established. Under this meaning the element of relation is not especially distinguished from others. "Analogical reasoning, in this sec- ond sense, may be reduced to the following for- mula : Two things resemble each other in one or more respects; a certain proposition is true of the one, therefore it is true of the other." If an invariable conjunction is made out be- tween a property in the one case and a property in the other, the argument rises above analogy, becoming an induction on a limited basis; but if no such conjunction has been made out, then the argument is one of analogy merely. Ac- cording to the number of qualities in one body which agree with those in another, may it be reasoned with confidence that the as yet unex- amined qualities of the two bodies will also be found to correspond. Metaphor and allegory address the imagination, while analogy appeals to the reason. The former are founded on simi- larity of appearances, of effects, or of incidental circumstances ; the latter is built up on more es- sential resemblances which afford a proper basis for reasoning. In zoology analogy is applied to the resem- blance between the entire bodies, or between special structures of organs, in animals of un- related types. Thus a whale is analogous in form to a fish, its paddles analogous to the fins of a fish. The wings of an insect are analogous to those of a bird. Analogy implies a dissimi- larity of structure of two organs, with identity in use or function, as the legs of a bird or quad- ruped and those of an insect. These analogies arc the result of the adaptation of the animal to similar habits, modes of life, or like environ- ment, and result in convergence (q.v.), paral- lelism, and sometimes mimicry (q.v.). (See also Homology'. ) Osborn defines analogy m evolution as embracing similar changes due to similar adaptation in function both in homolo- gous and in non-homologous organs, both in related and in unrelated animals. The different grades of analogy are shown by Osborn in the following table : ANALOGY IN EVOLUTION. Analogous Variation (Darwin): Similar congenital variations in more or less distantly related animals and plants. Parallelism: Independent similar development of re- lated animals, plants, and organs. Convergence : Independent similar development of unrelated animals, bringing them apparently closer to- gether. Homoflasy (Lankester) (? Homomorfhy Furbnn- ger) : Independent similar development of homologous organs or regions giving rise to similar new parts. Analogy of Religion, The, a famtAis work by Bishop Joseph Butler, published in 1736. The full title is have connectivity c if they permit of c independent paths between any two points .1. B. The connectivity of a I surface, i.e., one without boundary and yet having all its points at finite distances, is not changed by puncturing it. For instance, tin- intersection "f the double ring of Fig. i with a plane remains equivalent with itself (and to : hi iw the plane moves. Taking B at an infinitesimal di itance from .1. all i ween them hut those equivalent to the shortest one, approach closed curves (Fig. 2). Hence there are c — i independent Fig. 2. closed curves on a surface of connectivity c. Conversely, an independent set of c — 1 closed curves does not divide the surface (for this would give rise to an equivalence between those [ding any portion of it) and can readily be so connected with two points .1. B, as to form r slight changes) 1 -1 paths from .1 to />', in addition l" which there is the direct line join- ing these points. Connectivity is often investigated by the method of sections. The latter are incisions of three types: (1) cross-sections between two j„, m ts on tin boundary. They may he bound- it drawn between points of the same bounding-curve, or bound-joining, if between different ones. The former increase, the latter diminish, the number of boundaries by unity. re-entrant sections, along closed curves, each furnishing two new rims; (3) a- (sigma-) sections, starting at a boundary point and ending at a 1 own right or left edge. These contain a re-entrant section and a bound-joining section, and increase the number of bounding- curves by unity. Limiting our investigations to surfaces any sufficiently small area of which may be con- sidered simply connected, we may divide any one, or system of several, of them by a sufficient number (r the characters tit of a closed analytical surface /(v. y. c)=o. Let /(.v, y, z) be negative in the interior of this surface, and consider the family of surfaces j(x. y, c) = >.. As X increases from — 00 to o. the surface has no real part at first, then, through iln tage of isolated points or curves, real surfaces will develop. An isolated point develops into an ellipsoidal surface, increasing K by 2. while a closed curve (without multiple points) becomes an anchor-ring, leaving K unchanged. This, or the opposite, may occur several times as the parameter increases. Also, double points of the surface may arise, in the neighborhood of which the surfaces resemble one- or two-sheet hyper- boloids, changing from the one shape to the 1 >t her as the double-point stage is passed. In each of these cases the increase of K is found t" be L fja fa . sgn (signum) meaning ± 1 ac- /.u /.12 /33 cording as the determinant is positive or m a- tivc, and fjl fJl fJl " dx' '* dy' ' 3 dz' f J2LJJ± '" dx 1 dx ' } = . _'_ = J± e tc. /I2 dxdy dy ' bemg partial derivatives. Examples. — (1) The surfaces formed by rota- tion of the lemniscates l(x-ay+y'][(x + ay+y']-a' =A (Fig. 3) about the .r-axis. For positive / they present single sheets of ellipsoid connectivity (K = 2), for negative X, pairs of sheets of the same kind (A" =4). Within an infinitesimal sphere about the origin the transition is from the one-sheet to the two-sheet hyperboloid, as / decreases through zero. At k= —a* the two sheets be. ANALYSIS SITUS come isolated points and vanish (A' = o). (2) the sheets, therefore each counting for n cross- The surfaces formed by rotation of the same sections. Hence m K = 2 n + 2\ n - ?(,%■ - 1 )] _ n m = 2 n - I (,?,■/ - 1 ) . « = 1 y a c A* One half of the connectivity, viz., p ■=— = 1 — — 22' is known as the deficiency of the surface. This is also found to be the difference between the maximal number of double points a curve of the nth order may have, and the actual num- ber of them (d) on the curve /(.v. y. z) = o : ()! — l)(lt — 2) ?= — a. Besides, p is the number 2 * of integrals linearly independent on the surface. Laterality. — Granting that within a sufficientlv small neighborhood of every point P. any of the surfaces we consider has two sides (right and left) distinguished by the two perpendicu- lars to be drawn from P, it may happen that some continuous path on the surface starting at P on the right side, arrives at P on the left side. The surface is then called unilateral, in the absance of such a possibility, bilateral. We have hitherto tacitly assumed the bilateral type for our surfaces. Moebius called attention to the fact that a rectangular strip of paper aba'b', if its sides 6a. a'b' be joined after a twist of 1S0 , as Fig. 4 Fig. 3. — Lemniscates. lemniscates about the y-axis. At >l= — a' they reduce to an isolated curve and vanish without changing the characteristic (K = 0). / 1 1 '12 / 1 3 Thus K becomes — 2 1 sgn /,, f 22 j 23 , the sum /3l /32 /33 to be taken over all points of intersection of the three surfaces: /,=o, / 2 = o, / 3 = o. Moreover, this expression lends itself to transformation into the integral by means of which Gauss represents the "total curvature" of the surface f(x, y, z) -=o, so that we finally get: K = — total curvature. Connectivity of Riemann Surfaces. — If w be an w-valued algebraic function of the complex variable z (see Complex Variable), let all values of z be represented on a spherical surface. Superpose radially n copies or sheets of this surface and imagine that for one value z for which the n v- values are distinct, one value of w belongs to each z . i.e.. to each of the n sheets. The values w, . . . :<.•„ will vary continuously with z, constituting n branches of the function w. For some values of z, however, say for z = b lt b 2 . . . . , b m . some among the quantities u\ . . . w n will turn out equal. In these points we assume connection between the corresponding sheets, and denote them as branch-points. Such con- nection may not be feasible where other sheets intervene. In 4-space this difficulty would not arise. Limited as we are to 3-space, we may still suppose passage possible in these points between the sheets in question. Further, we find that whenever, starting at z . we take z in a loop (in all sheets simultaneously) about a branch- point, on returning to = the values w, . . . w n will have undergone a permutation typical of that branch-point. We prevent such loops, and render the branches single-valued, by means of incisions through all the sheets concerned, from z to each branch-point. We further join every left edge of these incisions with the right one that exhibits the same a;-values. This process (which, strictly speaking, again calls for a fourth dimension) completes our Riemann surface. If we use a circular punch to cut out neigh- borhoods of the m branch-points (through all the sheets), the portion punched out at bi, Where first ,?;, then /?,-, . . . sheets are connected, Will show it -(.■?,-, -1') -(,.?,-,- 1)- ... distinct simply connected parts. Thus all branch-points furnish 2£n — J'.(i,y— i)J elementary areas. The neighborhood of z , similarly punched out, ynhls n separate circles. The remainder falls into n elementary surfaces by means of m in- cisions from z to the branch-points, through all Fig. 4. — Moebius' sheet. directs, becomes unilateral. Moebius' sheet may conveniently be represented by folding the rectangular strip into triangular shape "as in Pig- 5 The folds may be distinguished as posi- b.a Fig. 5 . tive or negative according as, on our way from ab i" a'b', we pass from the lower to the" upper sheet or the reverse. Each corresponds to a torsion of ±n. Positive folds will cancel against negative ones. Evidently a strip folded into the shape of a polygon of an even number of sides will thus represent a bilateral surface; if the number of sides be odd, a unilateral one. Ruled ANALYSIS SITUS surfaces of the third order contain the Moebius sheet (Masckke) Closed surfaces without double point i are I ilateral. Indicatrix. — The two normals at a point P, not being in the surface, are more conveniently replaced by a small circle about the point, taken m a definite (say counter-clockwise) rotation about /'. On tin- other side (of this point's neighborhood) the same rotation will be a clock- wise one about /'. Similarly, within the surface two infinitesimal perpendicular straight lines may be drawn, which if produced would form a right-handed Cartesian coordinate system (see Analytic Geomi iky) on one side (which we may define as the right one) and a left-handed one on the other. Such alternating contrivances are called in, lira/rices (Klein). They may be distinguished as right and left, or as positive and \tive. If constructed continuously {i.e., without sudden transition to the opposite one) on continuous paths for all points that can thus bo reached, one indicatrix will result for each point on a bilateral surface, while on a unilateral one a point will have both of them. Hence the term double surfaces for the latter type. Unilateral Surfaces. — It will be noticed that Moebius' sheet has one continuous edge. Also, Fig. 6. if we pursue any closed path, our direction of progress and a direction on the surface per- pendicular to the former and pointing to the left may be taken as an indicatrix. Along some PlO. 7. — Effect nf a bilateralizing re-entrant section on Fig. 6. One side is shaded. closed paths the latter will be reversed. A line closely following such a path on its left will not close, as its beginning and end will be on oppo- site sides of the path. An incision along the latter evidently leaves our surface connected. Thus, on a unilateral surface, at least one non- dividing re-entrant section can be made. We shall call it a bilateralizing one. In fact, the number of bilateralizing re-entrant sections will be that of independent paths along which the indicatrix is reversed. This type of the re- entrant section, however, yields only one new bounding-eurve. For only after completing a double circuit about the above closed path will the line following it on the left close in its turn, showing that the two edges of the incision blend into one. There also becomes possible a new kind of cross-section that leaves unchanged the number of boundaries {bilateralizing cross-sec- tion), as we see by merely tracing a bilateraliz- ing re-entrant section and then making a cross- section that crosses the trace once between two points of one- boundary. Let our surface possess B bounding curves; let it become simply connected by virtue of 6 bilateralizing, 5 bound-severing, and j bound- joining cross-sections. Then j — G — 1—D—s, and B +s — (c — i — b — s) = i or B + 25 +b =c. Since b is not zero, the number of boundaries of a uni- lateral surface will always be less than its con- nectivity: B, . . . \ „ of a point in u-space, functions of 111 1. lets /, . . . / m : i, >,(/, . . . ( m ). iu- planes will then be linear functions. Lines, com- mon planes, etc., arc m-planes for >n = 1 , 2 . . . In rt-space, we call surfaces complementary if their dimensions add up to n. dual if they add up to 11 — 1 . In R„ lines and 2-surfaces are comple- mentary, while lines are dual to lines (self-dual). ed m-surfaces are boundless and contain no points with infinite t rdinates. They sepa- rate the dual planes of 11-space into interior and exterior ones. Taking any complementary plane (11 — »i-plane) that does not intersect the closed m-surface, we can move into it any exterior dual plane (« — 1 - m-plane) without allowing it to inter- sect tile surface on the way. can reverse it there by turning it through 180 , and bring it back to riginal position along the path on which it was brought. An interior 11 — 1 — m-plane, if we attempted to do the same, would describe an 11 m-surface which must intersect the given 111-surfacc. Besides distinguishing between the or and exterior of our closed »i-surfacc this also shows that tile interior is bilateral, the exterior unilateral, with regard to the dual planes. Examples. — (1) The limiting case of a closed figure without dimension is a couple of points In 1 traight line) it bounds a segment. parates the straights of 2-space (common plane) into those passing between it (interior) and the exterior one . and 'Lies the same for the 2-plai pace. (->) The interior of a cir- umference is an area in 2-space; in ice it consists of the straight lines passing through it. Take a plane not intersecting it: an exterior straight line may be moved into the without commg in contact with the circle. may there be turned through 1S0 and brought back. — Although points cannot be reversed, it is as natural 111 an anaylsis situs as in projective geometry to assume unilaterality for the infinite plane. This is merely to extend to a limiting case what is true generally. Pig. 13. — Interior "i order 2 ann is even this be- comes 2 - (-i)«M 9 = 3-P 1 +P 2 ..-P m _ 1 ; if m is odd, I{ — i)ln q =0 (Poincare). Literature. — Since no treatise on analysis situs has been published, a few of the main papers on the subject will here be mentioned. W. Dyck (Math. Annalen. vol. 32. p. 457) gives the literature preceding his article (to 1888). The pertinent publications of the savants named above are as follows: Listing, < Der Census raura- licher Complexe' (Gottinger Abhandlungen, 1S61), and < Vorstudien zur Topologie' (Gotti Studien, 1847): C.Jordan, ; Gauss, ( Werke, ' V, p. 134; Kronecker, ( Berliner Monats- berichte' (1S69, p. 159, p. 6SS, 1873, p. 117. 1878, p. 95); Betti, 'Sopra gli spazi di un numero qua lunque di dimensioni' (Annali di matematica, 1S70); Tait, 'On Knots' (Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, 1879, 1SS4, 1SS6; also Proceedings of the same Society, 1876 to 1S79); Simonv (Math. Annalen 19 and 24); Brill (Math. Ann. iS); Heffter (Math. Ann. Boy (Math. Ann. 57); Maxwell. 'Theory of Electricity and Magnetism' (vol. 1, p. Veblen (Trans. Am. Math. Soc, 1905, p. S3). The subject of analysis situs of higher dimen- sions, especially of 4-space, has been greatly advanced by the following six recent papers by H. Poincare: 'Analysis Situs' (Journal de l'Ecole Polytechnique, 181)5); 'Complement a l'A. S. ' (Proc. London Math. Sue, 1900); 'Second complement a l'A. S.> (Rendiconti del Circolo matematico di Palermo, 1899); *Sur certaines surfaces algebriques' (Bull. Soc. math, de France, 1902); *Sur les cycles des surfaces algebriques' (Journal de Math, 1902); aves. * They have a trans- versed mouth, an oblong outlet, a helmet-like form, and simple ambulacra. Ananias, a member of the Church at Jerusalem, struck dead with his wife Sapphira because of an attempt to misrepresent the amount of their gifts to the Apostle Peter. The name was also borne by a Damascus disciple named in connec- tion with Saul's adventure there, and bya high- priest in Jerusalem belonging to the Sanhedrim. Ananier, or Ananyer, a Russian town about 220 miles northwest of Kherson, with some little agricultural trade and a mixed population of Russian Jews and Rumanians. It was annexi d to Russia in 1792. Pop. (1897) about 17,000. Anapa, a seaport town of Russia, situated on the Black Sea. It has been variously the possession of Turks and Russians, but has be- longed to Russia from 1829. Pop. about 7,000. Anapaest, in prosody, a foot consisting of two short syllables and one long one. In the comedies of Aristophanes it was the dominant measure, and Greek choruses employed it in their exits and entrances. From this latter circumstance it was frequently styled the marching rhythm. Ana'phalis, a genus of plant of the tribe Inuloidcce of the family Composites. The characteristics are nearly the same as Antetmaria.viz.: heads many flowered, dioecious; flowers all tubular; and the pistillate corollas are very slender. Involucre dry and scarious, white or colored, and imbricated. The receptacle is convex or flat, not chaffy; anthers caudate; achenes terete or flattish. The main difference between the two lies in the pappus, as in the A naphalis the pappus in the sterile flowers is not thickened at the summit or scarcely so and that of the fertile flowers not at all united at the base; fertile heads usually with a few perfect but sterile flowers in the center. A. m:r- goritacea (pearly everlasting) is found on dry hills and in the woods, is common to the north- ward and flowers in August. The stem is erect, corymbose at the summit, has many heads and is leafy; leaves broadly to linear-lanceolate, taper- pointed, sessile, and soon green above; the involucral scales are pearly white, very numer- ous, and obtuse or rounded. Consult: Gray, •Manual of Botany> (New York, 1889). Anaphrodisiacs, an-af ro-dlz'I-aks, are rem- edies that diminish sexual power or desire. They may act directly on the genital centres in the spinal cord, indirectly through the circula- tion on the brain, or locally on the sense organs. Inasmuch as local irritation is a frequent cause of stimulation of the sexual sense, attention to cleanliness is imperative and the removal of all sources of irritation indicated. There are many simple ways of allaying the excitement for the time, such as the application of ice, and cold baths, local or general, are of great benefit. The diet should also be regulated, spicy, stimulating, and heating foods should be carefully avoided, and the main foods should be vegetables. The clothing should be as light as possible, and if necessary drugs may be administered. Local analgesic applications, such as weak solutions of carbolic acid — 1 to 2 per cent — or oxid of zinc ointment with carbolic acid, are useful. Of the general anaphrodisiacs the bromides are the best. Bromide of sodium or potassium is most fre- quently employed. Special medical advice is needed in the treatment of persistent sexual ex- citement. See also Aphrodisiac. Anaptomorphus, a fossil lemur from the Eocene of Wyoming, allied to the modern tar- ANARCHISM sier. Some authorities have considered this ani- mal as related to the ancestral line of man. Anarchism, a theory of social organiza- tion, numbering, it is said, about one million ad- herents. Its doctrines represent the extreme of individualism. It looks upon all law and gov- ernment as invasive, the twin sources whence flow nearly all the evils existent in society. It therefore advocates the abolition of all govern- ment as we to-day understand the term, save that originating in voluntary co-operation. Anarchists do not conceive of a society without order, but of an order arising out of the law of association, preferably through self-governing groups, for it may be said that, with here and there an exception, anarchists regard mankind as gregarious. "Our object is to live without government and without law." says Elisee Re- clus, the eminent geographer, and to-day the leading anarchist of France. Anarchists do not ignore the enormous economies resulting from the law of association, but insist that the law will be better served in a state of freedom and in the absence of all compulsion. They believe that everything now done by the state can be better done by voluntary or associative effort, and that no restraint upon conduct is necessary, because of the natural tendency of mankind in a state of freedom to respect the rights of the individual. The repression of crime, where crime might arise, could safely be left to spon- taneously created organizations, such as the Vigilance Committees in early California, where no State government existed. In the view of Prince Kropotkin, the leading Russian anarchist, no cause for litigation would arise after we had abolished "the present system of class privilege and unjust distribution of the wealth produced by labor, that creates and fos- ters crime." To quote further from Kropotkin: "We are nurtured from our birth to believe that we must have government. Yet the history of man proves the contrary. When small bodies or parts of humanity broke down the powers of their rulers and resumed some part of their foreordained freedom, these were always epochs of the greatest progress, economically and intel- lectually. In the direct ratio to the freedom of the individual he advances." It is not easy to sum up in a few paragraphs the leading doctrines of any economic sect and at the same time retain absolute accuracy of statement. It should therefore be said that anarchists, while agreeing that the doctrine of laisscz fairc should be extended to all depart- ments of human activity, are by no means in agreement on all points. There are evolutionary and revolutionary anarchists, and communist- and individualist-anarchists. The point on which all are agreed is in their opposition to compulsory forms of government, and in re- garding the necessary despotism of majorities in a democracy as only a little less hateful than the despotism of a monarchy. "Governments are the scourge of God," says Proudhon, with whom the philosophy of modern anarchism may be said to have begun. Pierre Joseph Proudhon was born in Be- sangon, France, in 1809, and died in 1865. Germs of the doctrine of which he is the found- er may be traced to much earlier, even ancient periods. Among his modern precursors is Wil- liam Godwin (b. in Wisbech, England, 1756; d. Vol. I— JO in London, 1834), wno > s better known as the author of the novel, 'Caleb Williams,' but who in his 'Inquiry Concerning Political Justice,' which appeared in 1793, advocated the abolition of every form of government, and formulated the theory of anarchistic communism. But modern anarchism as a force in sociologic thought began with the publication of Proud- hon's famous essay, 'What is Property' (1840). In it he rejects all law and authority, but in a work which appeared in 1852 entitled, 'The Fed- erative Principle,' he seems to have modified in a measure his former theory of government and favors the formation of self-governing com- munities. In the former work occurs the phrase which is destined to be forever associated with the name of Proudhon, but which was uttered by the Girondist Brissot a half century earlier, "Property is robbery." It was upon the notion that he had furnished a demonstration of this thesis that Proudhon especially prided himself. But this phrase as used by the father of anarchism must be held to apply rather to modern methods of acquisition than to property itself, for Proudhon was an in- dividualist, not a communist-anarchist, and strove, however unsuccessful he was in making himself understood, rather to refine than to de- stroy the idea of property. In all his reason- ing on this point there is much dialectic subtlety, of which, with perverted ingenuity, Proudhon was overfond ; but it may be said that what he really sought was the overthrow of all prevail- ing theories of property with a view to render- ing it unassailable from the standpoint of exact equality and social justice. A few years later the doctrines of anarchism in the hands of Mi- chael Bakunin underwent a change from the advocacy of a purely peaceful revolution to one of force. Bakunin was born 1814, died 1876. He was prominent in the Paris Revolution of 1848, was surrendered to Russia and sent to Si- beria, but succeeded in making his escape. His principal work, in addition to innumerable pam- phlets and addresses, is 'Dieu et 1'fitat.' "The propaganda by action," as it is termed, by which it was hoped to inspire such dread and horror as to compel the adoption of measures of social amelioration, or perhaps the overthrow of the state itself, has borne abundant fruit in the attempted assassination of Emperor William in 1878, in the attempt upon the life of the German princes in 1883. in the assassination of President Carriot, of France, in 1894, of the Empress Eliz- abeth, of Austria, in 1898, of King Humbert, of Italy, in 1900, and of President McKinley, by Czolgosz, in the autumn of 1901. Other anarch- ist crimes were the throwing of a bomb in the French Chamber of Deputies, in 1893, by Vail- lant, and the bomb explosion in Paris, caused by Emile Henry, in 1894. The Haymarket tragedy of 1886, in Chicago, by which a number lost their lives in an ex- plosion from a bomb thrown by some unknown hand, and which resulted in the trial and con- viction of seven professed teachers of anarchism in that city, four to the gallows, two to life im- prisonment, and one to a term of 15 years, aroused the attention of the whole civilized world. It is now seen, after the lapse of 17 years, that these men, even if dangerous to the community, were convicted more largely by the existing state of public terror than by any actual evidence connecting them with the throwing of ANASTASI A — ANASTATIC PRINTING the bomb. The fact that the pardon of the three who escaped the gallows was petitioned for, after the terror of the time had died away, by some of the most prominent citizens of Chicago, is proof of the change the public mind under- went regarding the accused. The controversy over the justice of their conviction is still un- settled. With these acts of murder and ven- geance the purely economic doctrines of anarchism have of course no relation. "The prop- aganda of action" is repudiated by those who are sometimes termed "philosophical anarchists,* to distinguish them from the revolutionary wing. These are represented in this country by Benja- min R. Tucker, in France by Elisee Reclus, and in England by Auberon Herbert. ("It is a mis- take to believe that the anarchist idea can be advanced by acts of barbarity." — Elisee Re- clus.) This school regards force as fundamen- tally at war with their ideals. It does not be- lli ve that the social revolution can be accom- plished by the methods of Bakunin and his school. Proudhon never preached force. With the policy of "propaganda by action" in this country is linked the name of Johann Most, a former member of the German Reichstag ; in France, that of Charles Malato ("I love and admire Vaillant just as some English Republi- cans love and admire Cromwell, who was also a regicide" — Charles Malato); and in Italy, that of Enrico Malatesta, an anarchist, like Kropotkin, of noble family. ("It seems to me that in the natural order of evolution violence has as much a place as the eruption of a volca- no. All great progress has been paid for by streams of blood. I cannot see how the present conditions based upon force can be changed in any other way than by force, and so long as they use force against us we must in self-defense employ violent methods." — Enrico Malatesta.) As Proudhon was the father of anarchistic individualism, Kropotkin is as indisputably the father of anarchistic communism. Theoretic anarchism for some time subsequent to the ad- vent of its French founder was rigidly indi- vidualistic. Max Stirner, a follower of Proud- hon in Germany, whose philosophy was more of a blank negation than that of his master, pushed the ego to a point where it more resembles a caricature than a dogma, and Bakunin hated the idea of communism. But in Kropotkin it must be said that the idea of property has reached its disappearing point, and the ideal of anarchism is at the last purely communistic. Kropotkine's life and his romantic career, united with the vast store of knowledge he possesses, give to his professions of anarchism a fascination and a weight. And amiable as is his personality, he is not unsuspected of a sympathy with the Ba- kunin school of action. Among the works on anarchism not pre- viously mentioned are Kropotkin's 'Paroles d' tin Revoke' and 'La Conquete du Pain.' with a preface by Elisee Reclus, and the latter's 'Evo- lution et Revolution' ; 'The Individual and His Property 1 by Max Stirner; 'Societe Mourante' and 'Societe au Lendemain de la Revolution' ; 'Declarations' (Paris), by G. Eliivant, a work highly regarded by anarchists; 'Apres la Tem- pete,' by Herzcn ; magazine articles by Auberon Herbert; and 'Instead of a Book,' by Benjamin R. Tucker. 'Anarchism, Its History and The- ory,' by E. V. Zenker, is a work valuable for its thoroughness and its judicial impartiality; 'Die Theorie des Anarchisimus,' by Rudolph Stam- ler, may be consulted with profit for an exam- ination and refutation of the theories and argu- ments of anarchism. Among the works clo allied to anarchistic thought should be included the sociologic romance, 'Freeland, 1 by Theodor Hertzka, of Austria. JosEi'ii Dana Mii.i.er. Anastasia, Saint, the name of three Chris- tian martyrs. { i ) A virgin said to have been a pupil of SS. Peter and Paul, and slain under Nero (54-68 A.D.). She is commemorated 15 April. (2) "The Younger," martyred under Diocletian, 303; wife of one Publius, a pagan, who himself laid an information against her. Two alleged letters of hers in prison have been preserved. The Greeks commemorate her the jjd of December, the Latins the 25th. (3) A Greek maiden of Constantinople, whom Jus- tinian (about 597) sought as a mistress. To es- cape him she fled to Alexandria and lived there disguised as a monk for 28 years. She is com- memorated 10 March. Anastasius, the name of four Popes, the first and most eminent of whom held that of- fice 398-401. He enforced celibacy on the higher clergy and was a strong opponent of the Mani- ch.xans and Origen. Anastasius II. succeeded Gelagius I. in 496; d. 498. Anastasius III. filled the papal chair 911-913. Anastasius IV. was Pope 1 1 53-1 154. Anastasius I., an emperor of the East wtio succeeded Zeno, a.d. 491, at the age of about 55: b. about 438; d. 518. He distinguished him- self by suppressing the combats between men and wild beasts in the arena, abolishing the sale of offices and building the fortifications of Con- stantinople. His support of the heretical Eu- tychians led to a dangerous rebellion and his anathematization by the Pope. Anastasius II., an emperor of the East who was raised to the throne in 713. Attempt- ing various reforms, he was deposed in 716 and became a monk at Thessalonica. Anastasius, a romance by Thomas Hope, (1819). The author was known to have writ- ten some learned books on furnishing and cos- tume; but 'Anastasius' gave him rank as an accomplished painter of scenery and delineator of manners. Anastasius, the hero, a young Greek ruined by injudicious indulgence, is haled before a Turkish magistrate. Discharged, he fights on the side of the Crescent and goes to Constantinople, where he resorts to all sorts of shifts for a livelihood, — jugglery, peddling, nostrum-making; becomes a Mussulman, visits Egypt, Arabia, Sicily, and Italy, and finally dies young, a worn-out and worthless adventurer. The book has passages of great power, often of brilliancy and wit; but belongs to the fashion of a more leisurely day and is now seldom read. Anastatic Printing, a process by which a facsimile of a page of type or an engraving, old or new, is reproduced in the manner of a lithograph or page of letterpress. The print or page to be transferred is dipped in diluted ni- tric acid, and. while retaining a portion of the moisture, laid face downward on a polished zinc plate and passed through a roller-press. The zinc is immediately corroded by the acid contained in the paper, excepting on those parts occupied by the ink of the type or engraving. ANASTOMOSIS — ANATOMY The ink, while rejecting the acid, is loosened by it and deposits a thin film on the zinc, thus protecting it from the action of the acid. The result is that those parts are left slightly raised in relief, and the plate being then washed with a weak solution of gum, and otherwise treated like a lithograph, the raised parts, being greasy, readily receive ink from the roller and give off a facsimile impression of the original. Anastomosis, in anatomy the joining of the branches of a vessel with other vessels of the same or a different branch. Anastomoses are found in the arteries, veins, and lymphatics. Anastomoses of nerve and muscle fibres are also spoken of. An'atase, a mineral more correctly known as OCTAHEDRITE (q.V.). Anathema, a word used in a form of ex- communication from the Church. It is properly a Greek word, and was originally applied to an object set apart and devoted to a deity, such as a gift hung up in a temple (being derived from the Greek anatithemi, I lay up) ; but it gradu- ally came to mean separation from God and men, something accursed ; and latterly to pronounce an anathema, to anathematize, became much the same as to curse. Anathema occurs repeatedly in New Testament Greek, in the English ver- sion being generally rendered "accursed," but once the original word is retained (i Cor. xvi. 22) along with maranatha, the latter serving ap- parently to intensify the curse, though it is properly a Syriac expression signifying "the Lord will come." The Greek and Roman Cath- olic Churches both make use of the anathema. In the latter it can be pronounced only by a Pope, council, or some of the superior clergy. The subject of the anathema is thus declared an outcast from the Church. When councils declare any belief heretical the declaration is couched in the following form : Si quis dixerit, etc.. anathema sit, "If anyone says (so and so) let him be anathema." The anathema was thus pronounced by the Vatican Council against op- ponents of the doctrine of papal infallibility. In the Middle Ages the anathema was freely used. See Excommunication. Anathoth, a town in Palestine, assigned to the Levites. the birthplace nf the prophet Jere- miah and the home of Abiathar the high priest. It was about three miles northeast of Jerusalem, and the small village of Anata occupies its site. Anat'idae, a family of swimming-birds, in- cluding ducks, swans, geese, etc See Anseres. Anato'lia, the modern name of Asia Minor. See Asia Minor. Anatomy, literally a cutting up; but anat- omy usually signifies the special study of the structure of organic bodies, morphology (q.v.) and applies to both animals and plants. Animal morphology is the study of human or other animal forms, the study of the relationship be- tween the forms constituting Comparative Anatomy (q.v.). The study of the minute or mi- croscopical anatomy is termed Histology (q.v.). Developmental Anatomy is the study of the grad- ual growth of the animal, Embryology (q.v.). In the plant world there are also the correlated branches of Plant Morphology, Comparative Anatomy, Histology, and Embryology. The study of the microscopical structure of the sin- gle cell is termed Cytology ; of collections of re- lated cells and tissues constituting organs, Or- ganology; thus the study of the bony system is termed Osteology, of the structures of circula- tion Angiology, of nerve structures Neurology, of the muscles Myology, of the viscera Splanch- nology, etc. Each in its turn has its special departments of investigation. The study of anatomy may be approached from the purely descriptive side, Descriptive Anatomy, or may deal with the anatomy of re- lated organs in related animals, as Systematic Anatomy. Applied or Practical Anatomy, or that branch dealing with its study as an aid in the diagnosis and treatment of disease, may be designated as Medical or Surgical Anatomy. Regional and Topographical Anatomy deals with the study of special parts or the special re- lations to surrounding parts. The larger study of anatomy in its general philosophical relations to the general questions of structure is termed Philosophical or Transcendental Anatomy. History. — The beginnings of human know- ledge of the structure of organic bodies are preserved from the earliest times in fragments only, but there are very good reasons for believing that much more was known many thousands of years before the Christian era than there is written evidence to_ substantiate. The history of anatomical study is correlative with the history of medicine, and even in very early times inquiries were made concerning the structure of the human and animal body. It is usual to ascribe to the Greeks the first foundations of anatomical knowledge, but it seems that Chinese culture, which was highly developed when the peoples of Europe were in a very primeval condition, had a well system- atized medical lore that included much exact pharmacological knowledge, with some few ana- tomical facts, although the anatomy of the early Chinese was largely speculative. Section of the human as well as lower animal bodies was for- bidden by at least two of the religious sects of early Chinese culture, the Alman and Buddha worships. It is interesting to note that as early as 2838-2699 B.C., Shinnong was a half-mythical medicine man in China, and it is said that Chinese works on medicine were written as early as 2698-2599 B.C. (Hwang Ai). In India the sacred work of the Ayur Veda, supposed to date from between the 14th to the 9th centuries B.C., at least 100 years before the cult of ^Esculapius had begun, contains descriptions of the human body obtained from dissections, and it may be that Charaka and Susrutu, the earliest of Indian physicians, should be consid- ered the earliest anatomists. Egypt contributed somewhat to the knowledge of anatomy, and the Papyrus Ebers, 1553? B.C., is a monument of old Egyptian medicine. It is of interest to note that some of the Hippocratic nomenclature of anat- omv is of Egyptian origin. The influence of re- ligion, however, was very strong in the shaping of Egyptian medicine. Evisceration was largely practised and undoubtedly led to the collection of many anatomical facts the importance of which has become lost to students. It is certain, however, that the school of medicine situated in Greece, on the island of Cos, laid the firm foun- dations of our knowledge of anatomy. It was in Greece also that the physician"s profession was amply recognized. This early Hippocratic ANATOMY age Rave rise to a professional conscience, and the "Physician's Oath, 8 or the "Hippocratic Oath," "is a monument of the highest rank in the history of civilization." (Gomperz: "Greek Thinkers.') There were at least seven physicians with the name of Hippocrates who taught in the early times. Hippocrates II. (430 B.C.), how- ever, was the great Hippocrates, but the know- ledge of anatomy then possessed must be con- sidered as the accumulation of the school rather than the work of any one man, for, as has al- ready been pointed out, some of the Hippocratic nomenclature is Egyptian in origin, (v. Oefclc.) Inasmuch as the Hippocratic writings are partly preserved, a better idea of the anatomical know- ledge of the times may be gathered from them than from the mythical, traditional, and frag- mentary remnants left by other peoples. The school of Cos had a fairly accurate and exten- sive knowledge of the human skeleton, and they knew the general shapes and varieties of most of the internal organs. Their physiological hy- potheses, however, were crude but suggestive. From the time of the great Hippocrates the school of Cos seemed to deteriorate, although Polybus, the son-in-law of Hippocrates II., Syennesis, Diogenes, and Praxagoras, the last named being noted for his anatomical know- ledge, kept alive many of the traditions of the school. With Aristotle (384-323 B.C.) there came a period of more exact science and the dissection of the lower animals was practised, hence Aristotle may be termed the father of Comparative Anatomy. His researches in anat- omy were wide and deep and his work on animals contains much that is still taught. The Alexandrian period, 300 B.C., during which the culture of Rome and of Greece was encouraged in Egypt under the Ptolemies, shows as a bright spot in the history of anatom- ical science. With the foundation of the Alex- andrian Museum, the analogue of a modern university, the practice of human dissection be- came authorized. This period was a brilliant one in the history of medicine. Herophilus and Erasistratus were among the early leaders, the former making some noteworthy contributions to the knowledge of the anatomy of the brain. He maintained that it was the organ of thought and the origin of motion. He also described the lacteals and the lymphatics, and was an indefatigable searcher for the seat of the soul, which he placed in the floor of the fourth ven- tricle of the brain, the place now known to be the site of the cranial nerves, that are indispen- sable for the function of breathing. Herophilus also is credited with the destruction of the old doctrine that the arteries held air, hitherto the veins only having been thought to contain blood. Erasistratus first described the valves in the veins, made the general subdivision of sensory and motor nerves, and drew the generalization of the relation of the complexity of the brain convolutions and mental development. He also first suggested the thought of anastomoses be- tween the arteries and veins. Many others fol- lowed, but the rise of the Empirical school (q.v.) was the forerunner of the gradual decay of the Alexandrian school. It was to the newly arisen empire of Rome that the stream had turned, and until the time of Cato Greek physi- cians flourished in Rome. Asclepiades (126-56 B.C.) was one of the founders of the Atomic school at Rome, and Rufus (97 B.C.) of Ephesus, with A. Cornelius Celsus (25 B.C.-40 a.d.) were among those who have left definite anatomical landmarks. Celsus is known as a brilliant man, a compiler of the work of. his predecessors. His anatomical work was insignificant, but he contributed largely to therapeutics. The last dying ember of this Alexandrian transplanted school showed in Claudius Galen, a Greek from Pergamos, a town already noted for its ,1'srn- lapian temple. Galen was a man of great bril- liancy, an independent thinker, and it was to his literary efforts that much of the history and treatment of the Hippocratic school has been preserved to us. His works on anatomy alone were at least fifteen in number, nine of which are preserved. Galen systematized much of the anatomical knowledge of the time, anil although much of his data was drawn from the study of apes it was to pass muster in the service of human anatomy. He was perhaps the first to make any experimental physiological studies. His descriptions of the relations of the brain to the spinal cord and his knowledge of the cranial nerves were in advance of his predeces- sors. Galen's work stands out as the last sys- tematic work of the Greek period, and following his death began the dark era of the barbaric inroads of the northern races and the dispersal of the culture of the East. For a period of many centuries history is comparatively silent on the subject of medicine. No great schools arose, yet the doctrines of the ancient Greeks were kept alive in many places by obscure scholars and by many peoples, al- though it is known that the Saracens were largely instrumental in keeping intact that which Galen had handed down, without adding much, however, to his teachings. A flourishing intel- lectual development took place in the Byzantine countries, and many universities were founded by the Arabs, where the Roman-Hellenic cul- ture was mingled with the Christian-Oriental ideas to found a new culture. Among the most famous of the Oriental physicians was Sergios von Resaina (536). He translated both Galen and Hippocrates into Syrian. Orcibasios was also a commentator of the Greeks ; Aviccnna (980-1036) was the Galen of the Orientals. This period of medical history has been called the Arabic period, and not until the influence of the crusades commenced to make itself felt did the period of the Renaissance begin. The history of medicine (anatomy) now be- comes more and more multiplex; new schools begin to be founded. Salerno, Naples, Mont- pellier, Venice, Bologna, Prague, Vienna, and Oxford successively built universities and at- tracted the ablest minds in medicine. Scholars traveled from university to university to learn from a professor here and a professor there, and the fortunes of the universities rose and fell like the tides of the sea. In 1224 it is said that the University of Bologna alone had 10,- 000 students. Among the early names of this period of transition may be mentioned Lisfranc (1295); Mondino (1275-1327), who wrote the first anatomy since the time of Galen, and which reached 25 editions, — he also suffered persecutions for his zeal in dissecting; Linacre, (1461-1524) of England, was one of the earliest scholars to bring the results of the new awaken- ANATOMY-I. THE HUMAN SKELETON. ANATOMY ing to Oxford and to Cambridge; and Sylvius, or Jacques Dubois, a Frenchman, was another of these great early anatomists of the reconstruc- tion period. Sylvius first arranged all of the muscles of the human body and gave them the names which, for the most part, they now carry. Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564), a Belgian, first studied at Louvain, and later became a pu- pil of Sylvius at Paris. At the age of 22 he became professor of anatomy at Padua, and at 29 issued a monumental work on anatomy, the best that had been given up to that time. He corrected many of Galen's errors and had a checkered career. General gross anatomy under Vesalius, who was a son, grandson, and great- grandson of a physician, began to assume more definite shape. In his student days at Paris under Sylvius, anatomy was taught upon the animal cadaver. Sylvius", however, was an un- compromising Galenist, and, although he made dissections, he followed Galen's treatises in very servile fashion. He was practically the last of his school, and his doctrines were swept away by the light thrown by this indefatigable seeker after truth as drawn from nature rather than from books. "My study of anatomy," said he, "would never have succeeded had I, when work- ing at medicine at Paris, been willing that the viscera should be merely shown to me and to my fellow students at one or another public dissection by wholly unskilled barbers, and that in the most superficial way. I had to put my own hand to the business. 8 Human dissection was rapidly and superficially practised, but Ve- salius is known to have haunted cemeteries and gibbets to obtain human material. The results of his studies were published in 1543 in his masterpiece, 'De Humani Corporis Fabrica. Libri VII.,' the first of a long series of more distinct modern treatises on physiology as well as anatomy. Vesalius may truly be said to have been the founder of modern biological science. "He brought into anatomy the new spirit of the time, the young men of the time who listened to the new voice.* Of the contemporaries of Vesalius many were almost as famous as he. Eustachius at Rome, and Fallopius at Paris, Ferrara, and Padua corrected many of Vesalius's details, and Eustachius may be said to have been the first to call attention to the study of embryology as an aid in the interpretation of gross anatomy. Both Eustachius and Fallopius made note- worthy additions to the knowledge of the ear. These were the days of enthusiasm in the dis- covery of new facts, and so great was the striving for the new culture that it is said that criminals were utilized for purposes of experi- ment and dissection, probably after smothering. A large coterie of brilliant men lived at this time. Servetus (1509-1553), a Spaniard, first made out many of the true facts of the pulmo- nary circulation. Cassalpinus (1517-1603), a highly cultured scholar and a great botanist, was among the first to speak of the circulation of the blood. Varolius ( T 543 _ I5"5), furthered the knowledge of the anatomy of the nervous system. Spigelius (1578-1625) made note- worthy studies of the liver. Realdo Colombo ( 1494-1559), who succeeded Vesalius at Padua, and was subsequently professor of anatomy at Pisa, filled out the outline of Servetus. Some authorities claim that he stole the ideas and correctly described the pulmonary circulation, although he did not appreciate the corollaries of his discovery. He imitated Vesalius and his work in a bold reproduction of his friend's studies; and Fabricius (1537-1619), who suc- ceeded Fallopius at Padua, built a special ana- tomical amphitheatre where he taught anatomy to England's great anatomist Harvey. The time had now come for a mind who could take this accumulating mass of anatomi- cal facts, which after all were extensions in detail only of the old Hippocratic anatomy, and to discover new physiological principles, for it was noteworthy that although newer and better ideas of structure had been given, yet many of the old notions of function were still taught. This was done by William Harvey of Eng- land. He was born in 1578, studied at many universities, mainly at Cambridge and Padua, and in 1615 first clearly demonstrated the cor- rect action of the heart and interpreted the his- tory of the circulation of the blood. Harvey's old anatomical preparations of this age are still in existence. From this time onward newer interpretations were possible, and the study of anatomy and physiology, now correctly linked, made rapid strides. These newer vantage grounds of interpretation were further extended by the discovery of the microscope, and by this instrument the field of microscopical anatomy, or Histology (q.v.), was opened up, leading to far-reaching and important results to the wel- fare of mankind. The period of detailed and special advance may be said to have been fore- told in the newly revived study of physics by Borelli and his school, and the newer chemistry of Van Helmont won from the mysticisms of alchemy. These united to interpret the results of anatomical research, and the general history of the subject of anatomy widens out, fan-like, into its several specialties. The subject of anat- omy now becomes lost in the history of in- terpretations and applications, and the further developments of these are considered in these volumes under their special heads where the developments of the various branches of anatom- ical research are considered. Consult Anatomy, Comparative; Anthropology; Biology; Chemi- cal Physiology ; Cytology ; Embryology ; His- tology ; Pathology ; Physiology ; Surgical Anatomy - . Bibliography. — The most extensive of mod- ern works on the history of anatomy is found with complete bibliography in Neuburger and Pagel's 'Handbuch der Geschichte der Medi- an,' (2 vols. 1903). See also Buck's 'Refer- ence Handbook of the Medical Sciences' (nth ed. N. Y. 1902) ; Roswell Park's c An Epitome of the History of Medicine* (1897). Of de- scriptive anatomies there are many: Testut and Poirier in French; Bardelben and Spalteholz in German, the latter translated by Barker into English in 1903 ; Morris, Quain, Gray in English ; Leidy, Gerrish, and Huntington in America. The bibliography of the special subjects will be dis- cussed in their sections. See Medicine. History of. Smith Ely Jeliffe, M. D., Editor ^Journal of Nervous Diseases.'' Anatomy, Comparative, is that subdivision of the science of zoology which deals with adult forms and structures of animals with .1 view to determining their relationships. Comparative Anatomy and Embryology, the latter dealing ANATOMY With the immature forms and structures of ani- mals, constitute the science of Morphology, which treats of the structure, development, classifica- tion, and relationships of animals as contrasted with Physiology, which deals with their func- tions. In contradistinction to special anatomy, which has for its aim the description of all the structures and parts of any one animal, — for example, man, — the method of comparative anat- omy is to compare corresponding parts in many different species, noting their modifications and transformations with the ultimate purpose of determining the affinities or relationships of these species to one another. In the earlier his- tory of this science the expressions "relation- ship" or "affinity" were used in a metaphorical sense, signifying merely relative positions in a system of classification. With the growth of the evolution idea, however, they have acquired a new and literal meaning, since the aim of in- "lent morphology is to determine the genetic or hlood relationships of animals to one another and therehy to trace the evolution not only of the species but also of the various organs and parts. The great value of the comparative until, id in science is nowdiere better illustrated than in the study of anatomy. There are prob- ably not fewer than 1,000,000 known species of animals belonging to at least 10 or 12 distinct types. These animals exhibit the va- rious organs of animal life under a great variety of forms, and bv means of comparison it is possible to determine in each case what is universal and essential and what is merely local and accidental, and also to indicate the steps by which complexity of organization has been attained. Furthermore the comparative method throws a flood of light upon the significance of problematical and rudimentary structures such as the thyroid, the thymus, and pineal glands of man, the purpose of which so puzzled the earlier anatomists. In fact it may fairly be said that it is impossible to properly comprehend any structure of the human body without con- sidering it in relation to similar structures in other animals. I. Principles of Comparative Anatomy. — -It is obvious that in the study of animals various standards of comparison might be employed; for example, they might be compared as to color, size, or length of life, but it is at once apparent that such comparisons would bring together ani- mals of the most diverse characteristics in other respects. As contrasted with such a purely artificial classification it was long the aim of naturalists to find a natural system expressing the "affinity" between organisms which could frequently be better felt than described. It was the great merit of Cuvier, often called the found- er of comparative anatomy, that he insisted upon the importance of comparing the totality of the internal structures as well as the external char- acteristics of animals. By means of such compar- isons he reached the conclusion that there were four great independent branches or types of ani- mal organization, namely. J 'ertebrata, Mollus- ca, Articulate, Radiata, each consisting of forms fundamentally like one another but unlike those of other types. The principal criterion used by Cuvier for determining this fundamental like- ness or unlikeness was the relative positions of corresponding parts, particularly of the nervous system. "The type is the relative position of parts 8 (Von Baer). Richard Owen, a pupil of Cuvier, introduced the term homology to de scribe this fundamental likeness, defining it as "morphological correspondence in the relative po ition and connection of parts." He Contrasted with this physiological correspondence of parts, which he named analogy. In closely allied ani- mals, organs which are homologous are usually also analogous, but in less closely related ones this may or may not be the case. Organs having the same function may be structurally very un- like, for example, the wing of a bird and that of an insect: on the other hand, organs structurally similar may have very different functions, for example, the fore leg of a quadruped and the wing of a bird. This conception of homology lies at the very foundation of all morphological studies; it is the one criterion for determining likeness or unlikeness between organisms. Owen further distinguished between special and general homology, the former signifying fundamental likeness between corresponding parts of different animals, as in the case of the arm of man and the fore limb of a quadruped; while the latter refers to similar parts of the same individual, as in the case of the fore and hind limbs of a quadruped or the right and left sides of the body. Since the term general homology as used by Owen is liable to misinterpretation it would be well to replace it by the expression meristic homology (Bateson), signifying by this term morphological correspondence between parts of the same indi- vidual which may be repeated in any relation whatever. Meristic homology would thus in- clude correspondence between parts which are repeated in a series, for example, the vertebra; of the spinal column (serial homology, homody- namy), between parts repeated on the right and left sides of the body, for example, right and left limbs (lateral homology, homotypy) and between parts repeated in any other relations, for example, the fingers of one hand, upper and lower teeth, etc., (vertical homology, homo- nomy ) . Significance of Homology. — To Cuvier and his followers homology meant "conformity to type," to the "archetypal plan 8 established by the Creator. In the light of evolution, however, homologies are believed to be family or hered- itary likenesses due to inheritance from some common ancestor. For this reason special ho- mology might better be called homogeny (Lan- kester) or homophyly. Contrasted with this are such morphological resemblances as are not due to inheritance, but to similarity of environment acting upon forms of dissimilar descent; such false homology is called homoplasy (Lankester), homomorphy (Gcgcnbaur) or convergence. It is the task of comparative anatomy to apply to animal structures these criteria of likeness or unlikeness and to distinguish between these va- rious kinds of homology. These various forms of homology are summarized in the following table : Homology (Se- Special Homology (Homogeny, H o m o- P'W) [Homodynamy General Homology I T /' a '^ < Meristic Homology) i Homotypy (Lateral) Homonomy (Verti- raise Homology [ cal, etc.) (Homoplasy, Homo- morphy, Conver- gence) ANATOMY— II. THE MUSCLES OF THE HUMAN BODY. ANATOMY II. General Structures and Functions of Animals. — Although the differences between the highest and the lowest animals are enormous there are nevertheless certain structures and functions which are practically the same in all animals whatsoever. All animals and plants without exception are composed of cells, while all the functions of living things are the result- ants of the aggregate functions of the cells of which they are composed. The cell is thus the universal unit of organic structure and function (Cell Theory of Schleiden and Schwann), and has been defined as a mass of protoplasm enclos- ing a nucleus (M. Schultze). Protoplasm or living matter is a substance, usually semi-solid, of unknown but undoubtedly very complex chemical composition. It is probably composed of several complex compounds of C, H, O, and N, which do not form a mere mixture but are united in a definite and orderly way. Both the cell body and the nucleus are composed of pro- toplasm, though of very different quality in the two cases ; that which forms the chief mass of the cell, the cell body, is called cytoplasm, while that constituting the nucleus is known as karyo- plasm. At least these two kinds of protoplasm are found in every cell and are necessary to the continuance of vital activities. The cytoplasm and karyoplasm are each composed of two or more different substances of visibly different structure, and all these parts are put together in an orderly manner so that they bear definite relations to one another. The cell, therefore, no less certainly than a complex animal, shows or- ganization,, that is, differentiation of unlike parts and integration of these parts into a single and complete whole. As all organisms are composed of cells, so all living things have certain activities or functions in common. The most important of these are the following: (i) Metabolism, or the trans- formations of matter and energy within the living thing; this may be subdivided into anabo- lism, or the change of the matter and energy of food into the matter and energy of protoplasm ; and katabolism, or the destructive changes in protoplasm by which the living matter is trans- formed into less complex substances (secretions, waste products, etc.), while its energy appears in various forms (heat, motion, etc.). Metabo- lism therefore includes nutrition, growth, waste and repair, movement, secretion, and excretion. (2) Irritability, or the capacity of receiving, transmitting, and responding to stimuli. (3) Re- production, or the formation of new individuals from the substance of an old one. These general functions are characteristic of every living thing, plant or animal, simple or complex. From them all the functions of the most complex animal are built up, and as they are manifested in some de- gree by every cell it will be seen that the cell is the unit not only of organic structure but also of organic function. All animals begin their individual existence as a single cell, but while some remain in this condition throughout life, others by repeated divisions of this initial cell become multicellular; the former constituting the group Protozoa, the latter the Metazoa. Protozoa are animals in which the entire body consists of a single cell, which usually leads an independent existence, though in some cases several may be united into a colonv. In some forms the substance of this cell consists of protoplasm showing very little differentiation ; in others it is differentiated into many unlike parts, each with its own specific function. The most general differentiation, apart from that of nucleus and cell body, is into a superficial dense layer, the ectoplasm, and a more fluid, granular interior, the endoplasm. Further specializations are shown by the more complex forms in the formation from the ecto- plasm of contractile vacuoles, serving as organs of excretion ; of thread-like processes, serving as organs of locomotion (cilia, flagella) ; of con- tractile fibres (myophan striations) which act like muscle fibres; of stinging threads (tricho- cysts) which serve as organs of defense ; of a mouth and gullet through which food is taken into the interior of the cell, and of a calcareous or silicious skeleton, frequently of great com- plexity and beauty. All of these structures are differentiations of a single cell; they show how complex such a cell may become, and they indi- cate that the Protozoa are, in the words of one of the old zoologists, "perfect animals." In all Metazoa the body is composed of many cells differing among themselves in certain re- spects. These cells have all arisen from a single one, the egg, which by repeated divisions (cleav- ages) gives rise to a group of connected cells. In typical cases these become arranged in a single layer, forming a hollow sphere, the blastu- la, which then, by the migration of certain sur- face cells into the interior, becomes a two- layered sphere ; the gastrula, containing a central cavity; the archenteron, or primitive digestive sack, which opens at one place to the exterior by a pore, the blastopore or primitive mouth. The outer layer of the gastrula is called the ectoderm, the inner one the endoderm, while be- tween them a third layer, the mesoderm, usually appears, being derived from one or both of the primary layers. These three layers are known as the germ layers and from them all the organs of the adult metazoan are derived. The ecto- derm gives rise to the outer covering of the body, the nervous system, and sense organs; the endoderm to the alimentary canal and its out- growths, while from the mesoderm arise mus- cles, skeleton, circulatory, excretory, and repro- ductive systems. In all Metazoa the ectoderm and endoderm and frequently also the mesoderm consist of cells, flattened, cuboid, or columnar in shape, pressed together side by side into a layer. This simplest and earliest grouping of cells in the metazoan body is called epithelium. From one or more of these epithelial layers cells may escape into the space between the ectoderm and endoderm and there become branched and irregular in shape, forming a loose grouping of cells known as mesenchyme. Epithelium and mesenchyme are the primary tissues of the metazoan body. They are the first formed in the development, and from them all other tissues are derived. The cells of one or both of these primary tissues may under- go further differentiation into contractile or muscle cells and into irritable or nerve cells, while the mesenchyme cells may give rise to non-living cell products such as fibres, spicules, cartilage, bone, and fat. When cells of any one of these groups are united they constitute a tissue, so that in the body of a metazoan we recognize, in addition to epithelial and mesen- ANATOMY chymatous tissue, muscular, nervous, and sus- ten'.acular or connective tissue. Further consid- eration of these l iongs to Histology rather than to Comparative Anatomy. In all Metasoa two or more of these tissues may be united to form organs, which are structures of definite shape and individuality having for their purpose the carrying on of specific functions. Finally two or more organs may co-operate in a common function and are then known as an organ system. The principal systems of organs in the metazoan body are the following: (i) Integumentary: (2) Nervous; (3) Motor; (4) Skeletal: (5) Alimentary; (6) Respiratory; (7) Circulatory; (8) Excretory; (9) Reproductive. III. Fundamental Form of the Metazoan Body. — Although the forms of multicellular ani- mals are extremely varied they may all be re- ferred to a single ground form, the gastrula. From the egg stage to the gastrula all Metazoa travel essentially the same road in their develop- ment; beyond the gastrula stage they diverge in many directions. The gastrula is therefore the lat- est developmental stage common to all Metacoa and must he taken as the ground form from which they all have been derived. It is typically a double-walled sac surrounding the archenteron or primitive digestive cavity, which opens at one pole to the exterior by the blastopore or prim- itive mouth. It is radially symmetrical around an axis connecting the oral and aboral poles ; this i^ the primary or gastrular axis. In a few types — for example, sponges, hydroids, jellyfishes — this axis becomes the chief axis of the adult body; such animals constitute the group Protaxonia. In others (all bilateral animals) the chief axis of the adult lies almost at right angles to the gastrular axis, and it is derived in large part from one of the secondary axes of the gastrula ; these forms are known as Heteraxonia or Bilat- eralia. Among the Protaxonia the adult form is radially symmetrical and differs but little from the gastrula ; this is especially true of the this is the result not only of the change of axis just mentioned but also of the complication of the gastrular layers and the formation From them of complex organs and parts. In the change of axis it usually happens that the pri- mary axis becomes so bent that the oral and Fig. : Fie. 1. — Types of Protaxonia (= Ccelenterata) (from Hatschek). The chief axis of the gastrula coin- cides with that of the adult, the apical pole of the gastrula being indicated by the head of the arrow. — A, ground form of the Spongiaria. B, ground form of the Cnidaria. C, ground form of the Ctenophora. hydroids, some of which are practically gastrulas throughout life which are attached by the aboral pole and with a row of tentacles around the mouth. Among the Heteraxonia, on the other hand, the adult shows but little if any resem- blance to the gastrula from which it is derived; Fig. 2 Fig. 2. — Types of Heteraxonia (= Bilaterata). The gastrula axis becomes only in part the chief axis of the adult; the apical pole of the gastrula is shifted forward to the anterior end of the adult, while the oral pole of the former lies on the ventral side of the latter or near its anterior end, so that a more or less extensive bendinR of the gastrular axis occurs; in all cases the brain and eye arise at or near the original apical pole. — A, gastrula. B, C, larva and adult of flatworm. I>. larva of annelid (trochophorc). E, larva of gas- tropod (veliger). aboral poles approach each other while at the same time one of the secondary axes elongates, becoming the principal axis of the adult, and the body becomes bilaterally symmetrical with ref- erence to a plane passed through this axis and the original primary axis. The apical pole of the gastrula becomes the anterior pole of the adult ; since brain and sense organs usually develop at this pole it might also be called the sense pole. The position of the oral pole of the gastrula with reference to the adult axis shows considerable variation in different groups, but among invertebrates it generally lies on the ven- tral side, while in the case of the vertebrates it is dorsal. The chief axis of the adult connects the anterior and posterior poles and is therefore known as the antero-posterior axis. The side of the body generally directed downward, and at the anterior end of which the mouth usually lies, is ventral, while the opposite side is dorsal and the line connecting these two is the dorso-ventral axis. There are a few apparent exceptions to the rule that Heteraxonia are bilateral forms; some Heteraxonia are apparently radially symmetrical (starfish, sea-urchin), while others are asym- metrical (snails, amphioxus, flounders, etc.). The starfishes and sea-urchins are five-rayed ani- mals which were classed by Cuvier among the Radiata, but a careful study of the larval as well as the adult form show-s that they are really bilateral and that their radial structure has developed from a bilateral form, probably through the influence of peculiar life conditions, such as persistent attachment or fixation to foreign objects. Snails are generally spirally coiled and asymmetrical, but here also the study of their development shows that at an early stage they are bilateral, and even in the adult condi- ANATOMY lion the head and ventral parts of the body are usually bilateral ; the asymmetry of the dorsal part being due, perhaps, to its elongation and the shell formation covering it. In the case of other asymmetrical forms, like amphioxus, flounders, etc., it is certain that we are dealing with modi- fications of bilaterality due to peculiar conditions of life. Another modification of the original meta- zoan ground form, the gastrula, which almost all Metazoa show, is due to the formation and development of a middle layer in a space, the blastoccele or primary body cavity, between the ectoderm and the endoderm, namely, the meso- derm. In the lowest Metazoa this consists of branched cells (mesenchyme) which are loosely packed together and contain no considerable spaces, or if present these spaces are only parts of the primary body cavity. Among the higher Met- azoa the middle layer is usually divided into an inner portion lying next to the endoderm and an outer one next to the ectoderm. Between these two layers of mesoderm there remains a space which is the secondary body cavity or ccelom. This is lined by flattened mesoderm cells, the peritoneum, and is usually divided into right and left halves by two longitudinal partitions, the dorsal and ventral mesenteries, one of which lies dorsal to the alimentary canal and the other ventral to it ; in some animals one or both of these may be destroyed. In segmented animals- the coelom may be further divided into a series of chambers by transverse partitions, the dissepi- ments. The excretory and sexual organs are developed in large part from the walls of the ccelom and project into its cavity. The portion of the ccelom surrounding the heart is usually separated from the remainder of this cavity and is called the pericardium ; while in the highest vertebrates (mammals) the anterior portion of the ccelom which contains the lungs is separated by the diaphragm from the posterior part con- taining the abdominal viscera. A further complication of the metazoan body is introduced by the repetition of the principal organs of the body in a series, one behind the other ; such repetition is known as metameric segmentation, and each segment of the body is called a metamere or somite. Many of the high- er Metazoa (annelids, arthropods, vertebrates) show this form of segmentation. In the simplest cases each of these somites has its own section of the ccelom and its own sensory, nervous, muscular, alimentary, respiratory, excretory, and sexual organs, and each may bear a pair of limbs or locomotor organs. Each somite, in short, con- tains all of the important organs and may prop- erly be called a little body (somite). In more highly organized segmented animals the various segments are no longer alike (homonomous), but show physiological divisions of labor, some being differentiated for one function and some for another (heteronomous). In this way some of the organs named above disappear in certain segments while others become greatly enlarged or modified. Finally this specialization of the somites is carried one step farther in higher arthropods and in vertebrates in which we have an intimate fusion of metameres and coalescence of organs in certain regions such as to complete- ly mask the fundamental segmentation. This is especially true ot the vertebrates, the lower forms of which group show segmentation of the axial skeleton (vertebra and ribs) and attached muscles, of the nerves, of the gills and their hlood vessels, and of the excretory and sexual organs; while in the higher vertebrates (reptiles, birds, and mammals) segmentation is limited in the adult to the axial skeleton, muscles, and nerves. The fusion of somites is most pro- nounced at the anterior end of the body ; the head of insects contains three or four somites, while the vertebrate head is composed of not fewer than nine. Among arthropods the section of the body immediately behind the head and known as the thorax is composed of a number of fused somites, while in the posterior section of the body, the abdomen, the somites do not usually coalesce. Primitively the limbs are all alike and a pair is borne on each somite: how- ever in higher annelids and arthropods they disappear entirely from certain somites and in others undergo great modifications of structure to fit them for particular functions. In the case of vertebrates they are limited to but two pairs, and it is probable that these are derived from a continuous lateral fin by the suppression of in- tervening portions. The great modifications and complications which have here been briefly sketched lead far from the simple form of the gastrula, and yet comparative anatomy and em- bryology show that the gastrula is the ground form of all Metazoa and they indicate in many cases the steps by which these most complex parts have arisen. IV. Classification. — Although there is much diversity of opinion as to the number of types Fig. 3 Fig. 3. — Development of Amphioxus (from Claus after Hatschek), showing the derivation of the chordate from the gastrula. — A, blastula. B, C, D. ^as trulai. B, embryo. F, larva. — N, nerve-tube; Oe, its opening to the exterior; Us, mesoblastic somites; mf, mesoblastic fold; Ch, notochord; o, mouth; k, first gill-cleft; d, gut; Bl, ventral blood-vessel. ANATOMY or phyla in the animal kingdom it is certain that there are more than the four recognized by Cuvier, the number being probably not less than ten or twelve. The present tendency Fie. 4 Fig. 4. — Diagrams of body layers and cavities in A, ccelenterates; B. flatworms; C, annelids; D, verte- brates. — g. gastric cavity; g, cavity of gonad; a, primary body cavity (blastoccele) filled with branched cells (mesenchyme); c, secondary body cavity (coelom) ; d, dorsal mesentery; m, mesen- chyme filling space of original primary body cav- ity; w, nerve-tube. among zoologists is to increase this number rather than to reduce it ; but the absolute scpa- rateness and independence of these types is not now generally maintained. Many of them have important characters in common, and while suf- ficiently distinct to mark the primary subdivi- sions of the animal kingdom are yet evidently related to one another. The primary divisions or phyla which are now most generally recog- Fig. 5 Fig. 5. — Diagrammatic sections of an ideal vertebrate (after Parker and Haswell). — A, sagittal section showing the brain and spinal cord on the dorsal side of the notochord, and the alimentary canal and viscera on the ventral side of it. B, trans- verse section of the head, showing a gill-arch and filaments on the left and a gill-cleft on the right. C. transverse section of the trunk, showing the gut, the genital glands, and the excretory or- gans in the body cavity. D, transverse section of the tail. nized are the following: (1) Protozoa, (2) Spoagiaria, (3) Cnidaria, (4) Ctenophora, (5) Platyhelminthes, (6) Nemathelminthes, (7) Rotifcra, (8) Chtclognaiha, (9) Annelida, (10) Arthropoda, (11) Molluscoida, (12) Mollusco, (13) Echinodermata, (14) Clwrdata. Some forms cannot with certainty be assigned to any of these groups, and new phyla may need to be established for them; on the other hand fu- ture work may show that two or more of the groups named may be combined under a single phylum. The value of these phyla so far as the number and variety of animals included in them is concerned is very unequal, some of them including but a single order and but a few genera, while others include many classes, or- ders, and genera ; in fact, about one half as many species are known in a single order of the class Insecta as in all the remainder of the animal kingdom put together. A tabular classification of each of these phyla and of the classes into which it is subdivided is given on the three fol- lowing pages: V. Organ Systems. — When two or more or- gans are associated in carrying on a common function they constitute an organ system. Those systems most widely represented among ani- mals, and therefore the must important, arc those concerned with the general functions of all animals, namely, metabolism, reproduction, and irritability. The first of these consists of several distinct though related functions, each with its own system of organs; accordingly we recognize the following systems: (1) digestive, (2) respiratory, (3) circulatory, (4) excretory, (5) motor, (6) reproductive, (7) nervous, (8) sensory ; to these may be added those less im- portant systems which serve for protection and support, namely, (9) integumentary, (10) skele- tal. These organ systems will now be com- pared in broad outlines, with a view to show- ing their relationships in the leading phyla of the Mctazoa. For the sake of convenience the integumentary, skeletal, and motor systems will here be considered before any of the others. 1. Integumentary System. — In all animals the outer covering of the body consists of a lay- er of epithelial cells, the ectoderm. Beneath this layer a basement membrane is present, which in some animals is thick and serves for protection and support {Cnidaria, I'latoda). This epi- thelium is frequently ciliated and it always con- tains gland and sensory cells and in addition may contain nerve and muscle cells as well as stinging cells (Cnidaria) . In some animals the epithelium, which in these cases is called hypo- dermic, secretes on its outer surface a cuticular covering which may be a thin and flexible mem- brane or cuticle (hydroids, trematodes, cestodes, annelids, rotifers), or it may be thick and flexible (nemathclminths) or dense and inflexible ex- cept at the joints (arthropods). In other cases the epithelium secretes skeletal structures in certain regions only, thus giving rise to calcare- ous shells (corals, mollusks, brachiopods). In arthropods this epidermal secretion is particu- larly dense and tough and is known as chitin ; it may become calcified in certain portions. In mollusks the superficial epithelium remains naked except in a certain region, the embryonic shell-gland, where it first secretes a cuticnlar covering and then forms beneath this a dense calcareous layer, the shell ; at the margins of the shell-gland (mantle edges) the secretion of these layers continues throughout life. ' ANATOMY CHIEF SUBDIVISIONS OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. A. PROTOZOA: One-celled animals without gastric cavity, germ layers, or tissues. Class i. Rhicopoda: With streaming protoplasmic processes (pseudopodia). Example, Amceba. Class 2. Flagellata: With one or two vibratile protoplasmic processes (flagellar). Example, Monad. Class 3. Ciliata: With many vibratile protoplasmic threads (cilia) Example, Infusoria. Class 4. Sporozoa: Parasites without mouth or organs of lo- comotion. Example, Gregarina. B. METAZOA: Many-celled animals with gastric cavity, germ layers, and tissues. A. PROTAXONIA (=Ca-lentcrata) : Mctacoa with gastrula-like body, persistent gastrular axis, and radial symmetry. I. SPONGIARIA: Fixed aquatic animals with numerous pores in body wall through which water is drawn into the gastric cavity and thence expelled through a large open- ing, the osculum. Complicated colonies are formed by incomplete budding. Order (1). Calcarea : With skeleton formed of calcare- ous spicules. Example, calcareous sponge. Order (2). Non-calcareous: With silicious, fibrous, or gelatinous skeleton. Example, commercial sponge. II. CNIDARIA : Aquatic animals either attached (polyps) or free-swimming I Medusa) with stinging cells (cnidae). By incomplete budding the polyps may give rise to plant-like colonies (hydroids), or by complete budding to jellyfishes ( Medusa). Class 1. Hydrozoa: Gastric cavity without septa and without ectodermal oesophagus. Order (1). Hydromedusa? : Usually with alternation of hydroid (asexual) and medusoid (sexual) generations. Examples, hydroids, small jellyfishes. Order (2). Siphonophora : Floating colonies of many polymorphic zooids. Example, Portuguese man-of-war. Class 2. Scyphozoa: With radial septa in gastric cavity and with ectodermal oesophagus. Order (1). Scyphomedusa? : The solitary polyp divides into a series of jellyfishes with notched margins. Example, large jellyfishes. Order (2). Anthozoa: The polyps divide but do not form jellyfishes. Examples, sea-anemones, corals. III. CTENOPHORA : Two-rayed radiates with sense organ at apical pole of gas- trula, with mouth and ectodermal oesophagus at opposite pole and with eight meridional rows of vibratile plates which serve as locomotor organs ; without stinging cells. Example, the Venus girdle. B. HETERAXONIA (= Bilatcrata) : Animals in which the chief axis of the adult body is not that of the gastrula; symmetry bilateral. IV. PLATYHELMINTHES : Flatworms with mouth usually on ventral surface and with apical (sensory) pole of gastrula near anterior end of body ; primary body cavity filled with mesenchyme, no true coelom. i. Platoda : Gastric cavity, when present, with but one opening to the ex- terior, the mouth. Class 1. Turbellaria: Free living forms; body covered by cilia. Example, planarians. Class 2. Trematoda: Parasites without coat of cilia but with external cuticle: with suckers for attachment to host. Example, flukes. Class 3. Cestoda: Parasites without mouth or alimentary ca- nal ; with external cuticle, but without cilia : usually incompletely divided into segments (pro- glottides). Example, tapeworms, ii. Nemertinea : Free living worms with external covering of cilia: with mouth, alimentary canal, and anus: with protrusible proboscis at anterior end of body. Example, Cerebratulus. V. NEMATHFLMINTHF.S: Round worms, mostly parasitic, with long, unseg- mented bodies covered by a dense cuticle: with primary body cavity: without cilia, i. Nematoda: Thread worms without mesenteries or peritoneum: with nerve ring around oesophagus and dorsal and ventral nerve trunks Examples, pinworms, vinegar-eels. ANATOMY ii. GoRDIACEA: Hair worm- parasitic during part of life-; with mesenteries and peritoni inn ; with nerve ling and ventral nerve trunk. Example, horsehair worms. iii. A< w i iim i rii \i \: Internal parasites without alimentary canal; with proboscis and hooks for attachment to host. Example, Echino- rhynchus. VI. ROTIFERA: Wheel animalcules with body divisible into head (trochal disk), trunk, and tail (foot) ; with wheel or crown of cilia around head; with primary body cavity, and with grinding stomach (mastax). Example, wheel animalcules. VII. CH.ETOGNATHA: Small marine worms with three body segments, namely, head, trunk, and tail; with horizontal fins around tail and on sides of trunk; with bristles (chaetae) on sides of mouth; with true coelom (sec- ondary body cavity). Example, arrow-worms. VIII. ANNELIDA: Ringed worms with segmented bodies and true ccelom ; the segments (somites) are typically similar (ho- munomous) and each encloses a section of the cu'lom and of the vascular, excretory, and ner- vous systems. Class i. Cntetopoda: Worms with bristle-like appendages (chaetae), wdiich usually serve as organs of loco- motion, on every somite. Example, earthworm. Class 2. Gephyrea: Marine worms with few traces of seg- mentation; with crown of tentacle around month and with U-shaped alimentary canal, the anus opening near the mouth. Class 3. Hirudinea: Worms with flattened bodies and rudi- mentary ccelom, without chaetae, but with anterior and posterior suckers. Example, leeches. IX. ARTHROPODA: Animals with jointed bodies and legs; without cilia, but with the entire surface of the body covered by a coat of dense sub- stance, chitin. i. Branchiata : Aquatic animals with gills. Class I, Crustacea: With two pairs of antenna; (feelers) and usually with gills borne on the legs. Examples, lobster, crab. ii. Tracheata: Land animals with internal respiratory cavities (trachea:, lung books). Class 1. Onychophora: Worm-like animals with numerous short legs. Example. Peripatus. Class 2. Myriopoda: Animals with head and many-jointed body, every segment bearing one or two pairs of legs. Example, centipedes. Class 3. Insccta: Animals with body divisible into head, tho- rax, and abdomen; with four pairs of appendages on head, three pairs of walking legs on thorax, but without appendages on abdomen. Class 4. Arachnida: Body divisible into cephalo-thorax and ab- domen ; with six pairs of appendages on former, but none on latter. Examples, scorpions, spiders. X. MOLLUSCOIDA: Unsegmented animals, usually stalked and attached, living singly or in colonies; with a crown of ciliated tentacles around the mouth; generally with U- shaped alimentary canal and with anus opening near mouth Class 1. Phoronida: Single, stalked animals with body cavity partially divided into three portions. Example, Phoronis. Class 2. Brachiopoda: Single animals with calcareous shell consisting of dorsal and ventral valves. Ex- ample, brachiopods. Class 3. Polycoa: Stalked animals which usually give rise to colonies by incomplete budding. XL MOLLUSCA : L T nsegmentcd animals with reduced ccelom: differing greatly in form, but usually having a head, with tentacles and eyes; with a rasping organ (the lingual rib- bon or radula) in the mouth; with dorsal vis- ceral sac containing most of the viscera; with a free fold of the body wall, the mantle, which usually secretes a shell, and with a ventral mus- cular foot. Class 1. Pclccypoda: Bivalve mollusks without head or lin- gual ribbon; with filiform or plate-like gills. Ex- amples, clams, oysters. ANATOMY Class 2. Amphineura: Bilat'eral animals with paired nerve trunks. Example, chitons. Class 3. Gasteropoda: Unsymmetrical mollusks, with uni- valve shell, usually spirally coiled. Example, snails. Class 4. Scaphopoda: Small mollusks with tubular, uncoiled shells. Example, Dcntalium. Class 5. Cephalopoda: Active, predaceous mollusks with un- paired mantle and shell and with eight or ten arms which bear suckers. Example, squid octo- pus. XII. ECHINODERMATA: Five-rayed marine animals, with dermal skeleton of spines or plate ; with ambulacral system of tubes which are filled with sea-water. Class I. Holothuroidea: Soft, worm-like animals with re- duced skeleton ; the mouth surrounded by retract- ile tentacles. Example, sea-cucumbers. Class 2. Echinoidca: Spherical or oval forms with complete armor of dermal plates. Example, sea-urchins. Class 3. Asteroidca: With five arms radiating from a central disk ; with open ambulacral grooves on the oral side of arms. Example, starfishes. Class 4. Ophiuroidea: With arms and central disk, but with closed ambulacral grooves. Example, brittle stars. Class 5. Crinoidea: The cup-shaped body bearing many branching arms is usually attached by a stem. Example, stone-lilies. XIII. CHORDATA : Bilateral, segmented animals with an axial skeleton, the noto- chord, on the dorsal side of which is the tubular nervous system and on the ventral side the alimentary canal ; with gill slits opening laterally through the walls of the pharynx. i. Hemichorda : Worm-like animals which burrow in the sand. Example, Balanoglossus. ii. Urochorda: Sac-like animals enclosed in thick tunic (Tutiicata) in which are inhalent and exhalent openings. Example, sea- squirts, iii. Cephalochorda : Fish-like animals, pointed at both ends, which burrow in the sand; without skull or brain (Acrania). Example, Amphioxus. iv. Vertebrata : Chordates with skull and brain : with relatively few gill slits; the notochord serves as a foundation for the vertebral column; usually with two pairs of locomotor appendages, (a). Anamnia: Aquatic vertebrates with functional gills; without embryonic membranes. Class 1. Cyclostomata: Eel-like fishes without jaws, but with circular sucking mouths; with single olfactory organ ; without paired fins. Example, lamprey. Class 2. Pisces: Cartilaginous and bony fishes with movable jaws, persistent gill clefts, paired and median fins, and dermal exoskeleton of scales. Examples, sharks, fishes. Class 3. Amphibia: Vertebrates with pentadactyl limbs with gills and gill clefts in larval life which may be lost in the adult. Examples, frogs, newts, (b). Amniota: Air-breathing vertebrates in which the gills are never functional ; the embryo is always sur- rounded by embryonic membranes (amnion and allantois). Class 4. Reptilia: Body covered by horny scales or plates; heart usually three-chambered; one occipital con- dyle. Examples, snakes, alligators. Class 5. Aves: Birds with body covered with feathers and usually fitted for flight ; with four-chambered heart and single occipital condyle. Examples, sparrow, pigeon. Class 6. Mammalia: Animals with the body covered with hair ; with mammary glands for suckling the young : with four-chambered heart and with two occipital condyles. Examples, dog, horse, man. ANATOMY In reptiles, birds, and mammals the superficial epithelium (epidermis) becomes many layers thick, and the outer layers of cells the Utiles are the capillaries. Among the annelids there is a large dorsal vessel and a ventral one, which are connected in each somite I ■> c immissural vessels. The dorsal vessel is pulsatile along its whole length, and peristaltic contraction waves can be seen in a living worm Fig. 12 I'iG. 12. — Circulatory and respiratory systems of the crayfish (from Claus). — C. heart wuh three pairs of ostia; I's. pericardium; Ac, cephalic aorta; A. ul>, alidominal aorta; As, sternal artery. The arrows indicate the direction of the flow. to pass from the posterior to the anterior end; correspondingly the blood flows forward in the dorsal vessel, down through the commissural vessels into the ventral one, and then back- ward through the latter to the posterior portion of the body, where the blood ascends through commissural vessels to the dorsal vessel, after which the same circuit is repeated. Through- out this whole course the blood flows through vessels with definite walls, and the circulation is said to be closed. Among the mollusks and arthropods a heart is present which is more concentrated and complete than among the annelids. In the arthropods this consists of a thick-walled, pulsatile tube lying on the dorsal side "i lli. body ami extending through several somites; in each somite are a pair of openings, the ostia, which open into the heart from the peri- cardium, ami through which returning blood en- ters the heart. Among the mollusks the heart is also of a compact type and is divided into auricular and ventricular portions. Primitively two auricles are present, though in some gas- teropods this number is reduced to one; in all mollusks there is but one ventricle. In primitive arthropods and mollusks the blood flows out of the ventricle at both the anterior and posterior ends ; in more highly differentiated members of these phyla, out of the anterior end only. Among the arthropods the vascular system is very incomplete, the arteries soon end in lacunar spaces in the tissues, and from these spaces the blood is gathered into large sinuses and thence flows back to the heart. These lacunar spaces and sinuses arc not true vessels, since they do not have definite walls, but arc derived from the primary and secondary body cavities: the circulation is there- fore an open one. Among mollusks the vascu- lar system is more extensive than among ar- thropods hut lure also the circulation is open, the arteries being connected with the veins by a system of lacunar spaces instead of capillaries. Finally among the echinoderms and chordates the circulation is closed as among the annelids; that is. the blood throughout its entire circuit is contained within definite vessels. The manner in which blood is supplied to the respiratory organs is of great importance in explaining the structure of the circulatory or- gans in air-breathing vertebrates. Among an- nelids, arthropods, and mollusks the blood flows directly from the heart to all parts of the body. whence it is gathered into trunks which carry it to the gills; from these organs it is then re- turned purified to the heart. In the fishes the blood passes from the heart directly to the gills, whence it is gathered into the dorsal aorta and distributed to all parts of the body; it is then returned laden with waste product from the tissues to the heart. In these animals the heart consists of a single auricle and ventricle, essentially a simple tube more or less bent upon itself. In air-breathing amphibia a part of the blood passes directly from the heart to the lungs, whence it returns to the heart oxygenated, while a part of it goes at once to the body; the former is known as the pulmonary, the latter as the systemic circulation. In these animals the heart is incompletely divided by a partition which separates the auricular chamber into two auri- cles, but wdiich leaves the ventricle undivided. The blood returning from the body is carried into the right auricle, while that front the lungs goes into the left; in the ventricle both kinds of blood mingle to a certain extent, though by a peculiar arrangement of folds and valves the larger part of the oxygenated blood which en- ters the left auricle is pumped to the anterior part of the body, while the blood from the right auricle goes to the lungs and to the posterior Fig. 13 Fig. 14 Fig. 15 Fig. 13. — Heart and treat hlood-vessels of the turtle (from Claus). — Ad, right auricle; As. left auricle; ■ Ao, d. right arch of the aorta; Ao. s, left arch of the aorta; Ao, dorsal aorta; C, carotids; Ap, pulmonary arteries. Fig. 14. — Aortic arches of a mammal, and their rela- tions to the live embryonic arches (from Claus). — c, c' , carotids; A, aorta; Ap, pulmonary artery; Aa, great arch of aorta. Fig. 15. — Diagram of a heart completely divided into right and left halves, and of a double (systematic and pulmonary) circulation (from Claus). — Ad, right auricle; Vcs, anterior vena cava; Vex, pos- terior vena cava; I'd. right ventricle; Ap, pul- monary artery; V. lung; Vp. pulmonary vein; As, left auricle; i's, left ventricle; Ao, aorta; D, gut; L, liver; Vp, portal vein; Lv, hepatic vein. parts of the body. Finally in all birds and mam- mals and in the highest reptiles (Crocodilia) the heart is completely divided by a partition into two auricles and two ventricles, and a double circulation, systemic and pulmonary, is estab- lished. The blood from the left ventricle goes ANATOMY at once to all parts of the body, whence it re- turns to the right auricle; it then falls into the right ventricle and is pumped from that to the lungs; here it is oxygenated and returns to the left auricle, and then from the left ventricle is again sent out to all parts of the body. 7. Excretory System. — Excretion is the process of removing non-gaseous waste prod- ucts, particularly urea and allied compounds, from the body. These nitrogenous waste sub- stances are formed as the result of proleid combustion within the body, and as this form of metabolism is universal among animals nitro- genous waste substances are everywhere formed. With few exceptions all animals possess some form of excretory organ ; in fact this is one of the distinguishing characteristics of animals as contrasted with plants. Among the Protozoa the excretory organ is a pulsatile vacuole which gradually fills with fluid containing these waste products and then suddenly contracts, forcing this fluid out of the body. Among ccelenterates excretion is probably performed by isolated gland cells, so that no single organ exists for this function ; even among higher animals excretion is performed to a limited extent by individual cells or small glands; for exam- ple, the chlorogogue cells of annelids, the dermal glands of Crustacea, and the sweat-glands of mammals. In all higher animals a special ex- cretory organ exists ; this usually consists of minute tubules formed of cells which take up the waste substances and pass them into the tubule, whence they are carried to the exterior; such an excretory tubule is known by the gen- eral name of nephridium. The forms of nephri- dia differ considerably in different phyla, but two principal types may be recognized ; these are the protonephridium. or water vascular sys- tem, and the metanephridium (Hatschek). The protonephridium is found in the flat worms and rotifers ; that is, among worm-like animals with- Fig. 16 Fig. 16. — Structure of the protonephridium (excretory organ) of a flatworm (from Hatschek). — A, part of tile excretory apparatus of a tapeworm; R, edge of body; c, collecting tubules. — B. Terminal cells with flame of cilia. — C. Diagram of term- inal cell, excretory capillary, and canal. out a secondary body cavity ; it is also found as the larval excretory organ (head kidney) in annelids. It consists of a pair of more or less branched tubules opening at one or more places to the exterior, while the internal terminations of the tubules each end in a single large cell which closes (he end of the tubule and bears a tuft of long cilia projecting into its lumen. This tuft beats with undulatory movement and looks somewhat like the flickering flame of a candle, whence it is called a "flame" and the large cell which bears it a "flame cell." The tubule itself is usually composed of a single series of long glandular cells so perforated . U'tr Fig. 17 Fig. 18 Figs. 17, 18. — Diagrams of the excretory system in an annelid and in a shark (from Claus after Semper). — Ds, dissepiments; IVtr, ciliated funnels; Ug, segmental duct. that the lumen is intracellular. In larger branches of the protonephridium the walls of the tubule may be formed of many cells which are ciliated on the side next the lumen. These cilia as well as the flame drive fluids within the lumen to the exterior. It is probable that these fluids are transuded body fluids and that the excretion of the waste substances is brought about by the activity of the cells which form the walls of the lumen. The metanephridium is found among anne- lids, mollusks, molluscoids, prototracheates, and chordates, while a modified form of it exists in crustaceans. Typically it consists of a tubule opening to the exterior at one end and into the body cavity or some portion of it (pericardium or blood sinus) at the other. Where it opens into the body cavity the tubule is widened and covered with long cilia and is known as the ciliated funnel or nephrostomy Following this is the glandular portion of the tubule, consisting of a single series of perforated cells, or in other cases of an epithelium, composed of many cells, which forms the walls of the lumen. In either case these cells are glandular in character and are the real excretory cells, taking urea from the blood and passing it into the lumen of the tubule. The latter is ciliated throughout, and by the action of these cilia, together with those of the ciliated funnel, ccelomic fluid is drawn into the tubule through the funnel and driven to the exterior, thus flushing the tubule and carrying away the excreted substances. Finally the terminal portion of the tubule, which is de- rived as an invagination from the ectoderm, serves as a collecting tube or reservoir. Gen- erally a single pair of these tubules is found in unsegmented animals, such as Mollusca and Molluscoidea; this number may be redu ANATOMY however, as in the Polyzoa, where they are en- tirely lacking, or in certain Gasteropoda, where one of them is suppressed, or it may be increased as in the case of certain Cephalopoda (Tetra- branchia), where two pairs are present. In segmented animals, such as annelids, proto- tracheates, and chordates, it is probable that originally one pair existed in every somite, and this is still approximately the case in some of the simplest members of these phyla, while in higher forms they are limited to certain seg- ments and have disappeared from others. The segmental character of these organs is so char- acteristic in the phyla named that they are called "segmental organs." Among the Cltordata these organs undergo modifications which deserve especial mention. They lie at the dorsal side of the body cavity and on each side of the notochord. Only in Amphioxus do they open individually to the ex- terior ; in other chordates the peripheral ends of the tubules unite on each side into a duct which grows backward and opens into the cloaca near the anus; this is the segmental duct. This earliest system of segmental tubules in chordates is known as the pronephros, and it extends throughout the entire trunk region of the lowest vertebrates (cyclostomes), though in all higher forms it is limited to a few an- terior somites and is usually a purely embryonic organ. Among these higher forms longer and more complicated tubules are formed in the somites behind the pronephros, which also open into the segmental duct at one end and into the body cavity at the other; near the ciliated fun- nel a knot of blood vessels forms on the side of the tubule and projects into its lumen; this is the glomerulus or malpighian corpuscle. Many of the tubules in this region then lose their ciliated funnels and no longer open into the body cavity, the tubule being flushed out by transuded plasma from the glomerulus ; at the same time the single pair of tubules originally present in each somite may give rise to others by budding, so that several may be found in each somite. This second form of the nephn- dial system of vertebrates is known as the meso- nephros, and is the permanent excretory organ of fishes and amphibians, while only an em- bryonic organ in reptiles, birds, and mimmals. Finally, in the last named classes, the definitive kidney or metanephros appears in several of the somites posterior to the mesonephros. Its tubules, while similar to those of the meso- nephros, are still more complex, having no trace of a ciliated funnel, and by budding very many of them are formed in each somite. The duct into which they open, the ureter, is an out- growth of the segmental duct. It is thus to be seen that the very complex excretory system of vertebrates can be derived, step by step, from the simple nephridial system of such inverte- brates as the annelids. Finally, the nephridia may carry off from the body cavity not only ccelomic fluid, but also cells which are set free into this fluid ; some of these cells in the annelids may be loaded with urates which are thus carried to the exterior (chlorogogue cells), but the most important of the cells which thus escape from the coelom are the sex cells, ova and spermato- zoa. The nephridia may be especially modified for carrying off these sex cells, in which case they are known as gonoducts. Even among the vertebrates the oviducts and spermiducts (vasa defercntia) are derived from the nephric Fig. 19 Fig. 19. — Diagrams illustrating the development of the urino-gcnital organs of a vertebrate (after Parker and Haswell). — A, pronephros and segmental duct; B, atrophy of pronephros, development of meso- nephros; C. api»earance of Mullerian duct; P. development 01 metanephros, male type; E. the same, female type. The sex gland, ovary, or testis is obliquely shaded; phonephros and mesonephros unshaded; metanephros stippled; Mullerian duct heavily shaded. The large chamber to the right, into which these ducts as well as the intestine open, is the cloaca. system. The former in most vertebrates arises in the embryo as part of the segmental duct and opens into the body cavity at its anterior end through a pronephric tubule; the latter is the remainder of the segmental duct, and in animals above the amphibians, which have a metanephros and ureter, acts exclusively as a spcrmiduct. 8. Reproductive System. — Reproduction among animals is both sexual and asexual ; the former occurs among all animals, the latter is limited to the lower forms and to the constituent cells of higher ones. Sexual reproduction or amphigony consists in the union of two cells, the sex cells or gametes, to form a single cell of double origin, the oosperm or zygote, from which a new individual similar to the parental form develops. If the gametes are approxi- mately equal in form and size their union is spoken of as conjugation, if they are very unlike in these respects they are called ova and sperma- tozoa, and their union is known as fertilization. Both conjugation and fertilization occur among the Protozoa, whereas all Metasoa reproduce by means of differentiated sex cells, namely, ova ANATOMY and spermatozoa. In a few animals ova have the power of developing without previous fer- tilization, the process being known as partheno- genesis. If such development without fertiliza- tion occurs in larval forms which have not completed their development it is known as paedogenesis. In most animals the sexes are separate, — that is, ova and spermatozoa are produced by different individuals, males and females, and the species is dioecious ; in some cases, however, both kinds of sex cells are produced by the same individual, which is then said to be hermaphrodite, and the species to be monoecious. The essential reproductive organs are the gonads, or the glands which produce ova and spermatozoa, namely, the ovaries and the testes. In sponges the reproductive cells are scattered through the mesoderm so that in these animals ovaries and testes cannot be said to exist. In the lowest cnidarians (Hydrozoa) the sex cells are at first widely scattered in the ectodermal epithelium, but they actively migrate to certain portions of the hydroid stem where reproduc- tive buds are being formed, and, aggregating here, form gonads. In all higher animals definite gonads are present. No genital ducts are pres- ent in the ccelenterates, and none are needed, since the sex cells can escape directly into the water. In animals above the ccelenterates the sex cells are mesodermal in origin, and in most cases form a part of the epithelium lining the ccelom. In animals without a true ccelom the sex cells arise within tubes or glands the cavi- ties of which may perhaps represent the cce- lom. In flatworms the gonads occur in con- siderable numbers in a single individual. In roundworms they are limited to one or two tubes, in rotifers, mollusks, molluscoids, and echinoderms they are confined to one or at most a few sex glands, while in segmented ani- mals they are found in primitive forms in every body somite, though with advancing organization they become limited to a few segments or even to one. In most animals above the ccelenterates some form of duct exists for carrying the sex cells to the exterior ; among the flatworms, roundworms, and rotifers these ducts are never the excretory tubules, though they may possibly represent the ccelom of higher animals. In these higher forms they are frequently meta- nephridia. or modified excretory ducts. In many animals the ova and spermatozoa escape directly into the water, and there the eggs are fertilized and undergo development : it is probable that in these animals the escape of ova stimulates the males to eject spermatozoa so that both kinds of sex cells are shed at about the same time. In such cases enormous num- bers of sex cells are produced and very many are wasted. A slight advance over this con- dition is found in those animals (frogs, bony fishes, etc.) in which the openings of the male and female ducts are placed close together at the time of shedding the sex cells; this is known as external copulation. In other cases the spermatozoa only escape from the body, and by means of currents of water they are car- ried into the body of the female, where they fertilize the ova in situ, as in sponges, or in certain receptacles into which the eggs are col- lected, as in fresh-water mussels. In other ani- mals copulatory organs exirt which serve to in- tioduce spermatozoa into the sex ducts of the female, thus increasing the chances for the fertilization of the ova ; this is internal copula- tion. In many cases copulation occurs but once. and the spermatozoa are stored in a seminal receptacle which opens into or near the oviduct. Internal copulation is a necessity in all land animals and in parasites, and it also occurs in many phyla of invertebrates (flatworms, round- worms, rotifers, gasteropods, cephalopods, anne- lids, arthropods). In certain animals the sexes differ not only with respect to the sexual apparatus but also in many other regards ; when such differences are very marked they constitute what is known as sexual dimorphism. In such cases the male is frequently very degenerate in form, being sometimes not more than a hundredth part the size of the female and entirely lacking alimen- tary canal, sense organs, and nervous system (rudimentary males of rotifers, barnacles, etc.). Asexual reproduction, or monogony, consists in the formation of new individuals by division of an old one. In one-celled organisms and in the constituent cells of higher animals this takes the form of cell division. In the lower Metazoa asexual reproduction is not limited to cell division, but the entire body or portions of it may undergo constriction and subsequent division, thus giving rise to new individuals. This division may be into equal parts, in which case it is called fission ; or into unequal parts, when it is known as budding or gemmation. In animals which reproduce both sexually and asexually there is a more or less regular alter- nation of one method with the other; this is known as alternation of generations or meta- genesis. The alternation of amphigony with parthenogenesis is called heterogony. g. Nervous System and Sense Organs. — Sensation and co-ordination are manifestations of protoplasmic irritability, or that capacity of receiving and responding to stimuli characteris- tic of every cell. Animals, even the simplest, are sensitive to a variety of stimuli, among which may be mentioned mechanical, chemical, thermal, and electrical, as well as light, gravity, etc. These stimuli, acting on the organism, start changes in the protoplasm (impulst is i which are transmitted to portions of the body distant from the point first stimulated and call fcrth the co-ordinated activities of many dif- ferent parts. In higher animals there are spe- cial sense organs for receiving certain of these stimuli and specialized protoplasmic fibres (nerve fibres) for transmitting impulses, while nerve centres for co-ordinating activities ap- pear very far down in the animal scale. In the lowest animals, however, there are neither nerv- ous system nor sense organs, and yet through the irritability of the general protoplasm these functions are performed. A protozoan reacts to all stimuli in the same way, and it is probable that however different the stimuli may be they produce essentially the same changes in the protoplasm. The sensa- tions of Protozoa, if they can be said to have sensations, must be of the most general and indefinite sort, just as their responses to stimuli show the most monotonous sameness. The same thing is probably true of sponges, where none of the cells are differentiated for receiv- ing and transmitting stimuli. In nil other phyla, however, certain cells of the body are set apart for these particular functions, and ANATOMY the greater the differentiation in these respects the mere definite and varied arc the sensa- tions, the more swiftly impulses are transmitted to the motor system, and the more complicated are the responses. Nervous System. — The elements out of which the nervous system is built are nerve cells and fibres, the latter being merely outgrowths of the former. In practically all Metasoa these cells are derived from ectoderm, and in a good many animals the smse organs and entire nervo m remain throughout life a part of tin superficial epithelium which covers the body tlenterata, Chatognatha, certain Annelida, Molluscoidea, many Echinodermata, Balano- h a nervous system is said to be epithelial. In all other Metasoa the nervous system, though formed from epithelium, sepa- rates from it m the process of development, so that brain, ganglia, and nerve trunks come to lie somi i from the surface of the body; this is known as an epitheliogenous nervous system. In addition to the two classes just mentioned, which are based on the relations of the nerve cells to the body layers, four types of nervous system are found among Metasoa which are based upon the relations of the nerve cells to one another; these are (i) the diffuse type, i-M the linear type, (3) the ganglionic type, and (41 the tubular type. (1) A diffuse nervous system consisting of nerve cells and fibres scattered throughout the superficial epithelium is the simplest type known and is found among such animals as sea-anemo- nes (Actinosoa) : the nerve cells are here con- nected together by means of the fibres into a ganglionic plexus. (2) The next step in in- creasing complexity is represented by a linear nervous system such as is found in the jelly- fishes ; here many nerve cells and fibres are ag- gregated into a double nerve ring around the sense organ from which nerves radiate, is found at the apical pole, and in a great many of the higher animals the earliest formed and most widely represented portion of the nervous sys- Fic Fir.. 22 Fig. 23 Fie. 20. — Diagram of the nervous system of a starfish (from Claus). — N, nerve ring. Fig. 21. — Nervous system of a ftatworm (Mesostomum) . — G. cerebral ganglia and eyes; St, the two late- ral nerve trunks; I), intestine with mouth. Fig. 22. — Nervous system of the larva of a ladybug {Coccinella). — dfr. frontal ganglion; G, cerebral ganglia; Sg. suhecsophage.tl ganglion; G'- -G" p ganglia "f the ventral chain. Fig. 2.3. — N< 1 1 m of adult ladybug. — Ag, op- tic ganglion. margin of the umbrella, thus forming a cen- tralized nervous system; other nerve cells re- maining, scattered throughout the epithelium, s-rve to connect the ganglia with the muscles. (3) The ganglionic type. In ctenophores, a Fig. Fig. 24. — Diagrams of the vertebrate brain (after Parker and llaswell). — A, first stage, with three brain vesicles; B. second stage, four brain vesii li C, D, side view and sagittal section of fully formed brain without cerebral hemispheres. tern is a sense organ and ganglion which ap- pear at the apical pole of the gastrula, and becomes in the adult the cerebral ganglion or brain, lying on the dorsal side of the oesopha- gus. Nerve trunks are always given off from this ganglion, and very generally two of them run down on each side of the oesophagus to its ventral side, thus forming a circuni- resophageal nerve ring. In different phyla longitudinal nerve trunks may be given off from different parts of this ring; among annelids, arthropods, mollusks, and molluscoids from the ventral side, and in annelids and arthropods this forms the "ventral chain," which consists typically of a pair of ganglia in each somite con- nected with those in front and behind by nerve cords. The first one in the chain is the sub- cesophageal ganglion, connected with the cere- bral ganglion by the circumcesophageal com- missures. In the mollusks the nervous system consists of a pair of supra- and sub-oesophagi al ganglia (cerebral and pedal) which with their connectives form an oesophageal ring. To these is usually added a pair of pleural and 1 I parietal ganglia forming a loop which extend back into the body, while ventral trunks (pedal cords) may lie present in the foot. (4) The tubular type of nervous system is found only among the chordatcs ; here the nervous sysl< m develops from an epithelial plate (neural plate) on the dorsal surface of the embryo, which be- comes invaginated in such a way as to form a longitudinal groove, the neural groove. This then separates from the epithelium as a tube, which in all vertebrates is enlarged at its an- terior end to form the brain. This neural tube. ANATOMY while apparently a continuous structure, is really composed of segments, the neuromeres, one neuromere being found in each body somite ; the neuromeres are thus comparable to the ganglia of the ventral chain of arthropods and annelids. This segmentation of the central Fig. 25 Fig. 25. — Diagrams of vertebrate brain (after Parker and Haswell). — E — H, transverse sections of brain at different levels; E, of the cerebrum; F, of the 'tween brain; G, of the mid brain; H, of the hind brain; /, /, side view and sagittal section of a brain with cerebral hemispheres. nervous system of vertebrates is indicated even in the adult by the segmental arrangement of the spinal and cranial nerves. In the embryonic development of all vertebrates the brain con- sists of three enlargements or vesicles, the fore brain, mid brain, and hind brain ; the first gives rise to the cerebrum and 'tween brain of the adult, the second remains as the mid brain, while the third gives rise to the cerebellum and medul- la. The portion of the neural tube posterior to the brain becomes the spinal cord of the adult. With the differentiation of nerve cells and fibres in the walls of the neural tube these walls in- crease greatly in thickness, while the originally large cavity of the tube becomes restricted in size, forming in the adult the ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the cord. Fig. 26 Fig. 26. — Dorsal view of vertebrate brain with the cav- ities of the right side exposed (after Parker and Haswell). Sense Organs. — The simplest sense organs are the scattered sensory cells found in the superficial epithelium of many animals ; these may be solitary or aggregated into buds. They are elongated epithelial cells with a hair- like process at the free border and a fibre at the deeper end connecting with the branches of a ganglion cell. They are organs of general sen- sation, — that is, they are capable of receiving various kinds of stimuli, such as mechanical, thermal, electrical, and chemical, and are there- fore largely undifferentiated, though probably chiefly subserving the sense of touch. These integumentary sense organs are found in almost every group of animals. Among the verte- brates they are present in primitive form over the general body surface ; in the fishes and amphibia they are aggregated into buds, form- ing the lateral line organs, while among those vertebrates which do not dwell in water deeper- lying organs, of modified type, are found (tactile cells, corpuscles, and bulbs). In addition to these organs of general sensation, higher Mcta- zoa generally possess specific sense organs, name- ly, those differentiated for the reception of par- ticular kinds of stimuli. These are organs of (1) smell and taste, (2) equilibrium and hear- ing. (3) vision. ( 1 ) Organs of smell and taste are present in all vertebrates and in many invertebrates. Their structure is extremely simple, being but slightly modified from the type of the primitive organs described above. In fact the olfactory sense cells of vertebrates are merely scattered sensory' cells, while the organs of taste (taste buds) are simple aggregations of such cells. Through- out the Metazoa the organs of taste and smell are generally located in ciliated pits or depres- sions of the integument either on the head or at least near the mouth or respiratory organs. In these positions they serve in the one case to test food and in the other the quality of the medium used in respiration. Among fishes the olfactory organs are located in pits on the front of the head ; in all air-breathing vertebrates these open posteriorly into the mouth cavity or pharynx, and thus form the anterior part of the respiratory tract. The organs of taste are of course in or near the mouth. Among the mollusks a sense organ which is probably ol- factory in function, the osphradium, is located near the gills. Among the arthropods we find notable modifications of these organs owing to the fact that the entire body surface is there covered with an impermeable chitinous coat. These sense organs are here peculiar hollow tubes, the olfactory tubes or cones, which are borne on the anterior portion of the body, usu- ally on the antennae and mouth parts; these hairs are filled with fibrillar protoplasm which connects with sense cells at the base of the hair. (2) Organs of hearing and equilibration are very widely represented throughout the animal kingdom. It is advisable to consider these two organ systems together, since the two functions which they subserve are united in the same general organ in the vertebrates, while in lower forms it is by no means easy to distinguish be- tween the two. It has long been customary to speak of all vesicular sense organs containing free solid bodies as auditory in function, but it is much more likely that in the lower Mei they serve to acquaint the animal with its bodily positions, — that is. that they are organs of equil- ibration. In many respects the simplest type of organ of this class is found among certain jellyfishes. It here consists of a short tentacle situated in a depression of the ectoderm and bearing a solid body or otolith near its free end ; by the movements of the tentacle the ANATOMY hairs or protoplasmic processes of surrounding are generally found, owing to the fact that tin sensory cells are stimulated. In other Medusa the sensory cells may entirely enclose the ten- body is here covered by chitin and that the fine protoplasmic processes or cilia arc absent Among the crustaceans the auditory organ usually consists of a cavity in the basal joint "i the first antenna, which is open to the exterior and which contains water and grains of sand ; the wall of the cavity bears chitinous processes or auditory hairs which have a nervous conn< i tion at their base; these hairs are stimulated by the movements of the water and sand within tin auditory sac. Many insects have a true torn perceiving organ, the chordotonal organ ; in principle this consists of a few elongated cells, the chord, which are attached directly to the integument at one end and by a ligament to an opposite point of the integument : when this apparatus is thrown into vibration impulses are conveyed to the nerve cells attached to some portion of the chord. In other insects (Ortlio[>- I, iii ) a tympanal organ may be present, con- sisting of a vibrating membrane overlying a tracheal chamber; sense cells are present be- tween the membrane and chamber, and when the membrane is set into vibration by sound waves the sense cells are stimulated. Among aquatic vertebrates a system of integumentary Fie. 27 Fig. 27. — Auditory or equilibrative organs of jelly- fishes (from Hatschelc). — A. of Cunarcha. B. of Pectis. C. of Rlwpalonema. Ih of Cumarina. Ok, auditory tentacle; Ol, Otolith; Oh, auditory hairs; «. nerve. tacle, thus forming an auditory vesicle or oto- cyst. The auditory organs of most vertebrates, as well a- of most invertebrates, can be traced back to this simple type. The sensory cells forming the walls of the otocyst are similar to tactile cells. — that is. they bear processes projecting into the cavity of the otocyst. while the bases of these cells are connected with ganglion cells. By the movements of the oto- lith, usually a calcareous concretion, these cells Fig. 25. — Internal ear of different vertebrates. I, are Stimulated and the impulses thus generated r ' s , h «- ".. Birds. III. Mammals. (From Claus.) , , xu £l r\. — e/. utnculus with semicircular canals; .s. sac- Conveyed away by the nerve fibre. Otocysts of cu i us; vs. utriculus and sacculus; C. cochlear this type are possessed by mollusks, certain duct; L. lagena; Cr, canalis reuniens; 1\. recessus vestibuli. sense buds is found along the lateral borders of the body and over the head, which is known as the lateral line system. The function of these organs is not surely known, but it is probable that they are organs of touch and also of equilibration. In all vertebrates it is proba- ble that the auditory organs, as well as the or- gans of smell and taste, have been derived from integumentary sense organs homologous with those of the lateral line. In the process of development the car appears as a pit-like in- vagination of the skin which is then infolded to form a vesicle; this vesicle then becoming partially divided into two chambers, the utricle and the saccule. In most vertebrates the for- mer bears three pairs of semicircular canais which are organs of equilibration, while the latter gives rise to a recess, the lagena, which becomes the cochlear duct in mammals and is a true auditory organ. Calcareous concretions or Fig. 28 Fig. 28. — Auditory or equilibrative organs of mollusks (from Hatschelc). annelids, turbellarians, and brachiopods. In the case of arthropods organs of a different type ANATOMY otoliths are present in this much-folded and complicated otocyst. This sensory portion of the auditory organ is known as the inner ear ; Fig. 30. — A, section through the open eye-pit of a limpet (Patella); B, the two kinds of retinal cells, pigmented and sensory (from Hatschek). to this is added in all animals above the frogs and toads a middle ear or tympanum which transmits the sound waves from the surface to the inner ear. Finally, in the mammals there are folds of the integument around the tym- panic membrane which serve to collect sound waves and which constitute the external ear. (3) Visual Organs. — Animals without any trace of eyes are sensitive to light (certain Protozoa, Turbcllaria, Larva) , and it must there- fore be assumed that protoplasm may be di- rectly stimulated by light without the interven- tion of any special organ. In its simplest form an eye consists of one or a few transparent cells partially surrounded by pigment in the form of a cup, so that the light can enter only from one side; the pigment not only absorbs light rays, but it optically isolates the cells within from those without this cup (some Medusa, Turbcllaria, Annelida). The function of such an eye is probably to determine the direction of light, since.it could give no image of luminous objects. A slight advance over this simplest type of eye is found in the cup-shaped eyes of certain mollusks ; here certain superficial epithe- P9 ce I V - are the sensory cells and are connected at their bases with nerve fibres. If this cup-shaped eye becomes infolded still further and its open- ing grows smaller and finally closes altogether, it forms a vesicular eye such as is present in certain mollusks and annelids. The wall of this vesicle, which is turned toward the epithe- lium, is transparent and may become thickened to form a lens ; the opposite wall of the vesicle is pigmented and is known as the retina. In such an eye the free ends of the retinal cells are turned toward the cavity of the vesicle, while the opposite ends, which are directed away from the vesicle, are prolonged into fibres ; such an eye has a direct retina. This type of eye reaches its highest development among the cephalopods, where it bears a striking super- ficial resemblance to the vertebrate eye. A rudi- mentary eye of this type is present in all ver- tebrates as the pineal organ or gland. This is an unpaired structure on the dorsal side of the Fig. 31 Fig. 31. — Section through the eye of a water-beetle (Hydrophilus) (from Hatschek); /, chitinous lens; cv, transparent cells; pg, pigment cells; R, retina. Hal cells are infolded to form a cup ; in some cases deeply pigmented, while other intermediate cells remain clear and unpigmented. The latter Fig. 32 Fig. 32. — Section through the cup-shaped eye of a gasteropod (Haliotis) (from Hatschek). — e, epithelium covering body; cv, vitreous body; R, retina; .V. nerve. 'tween brain and in certain reptiles is plainly a vesicular eye with direct retina. The paired eyes of vertebrates are also vesicular, but in them the retina is inverse, — that is, the free ends of the retinal cells are directed away from the cavity of the vesicle, while the ends which bear the fibres are directed toward it. The explanation of this remarkable condition is found in the study of the development of these eyes. They arise as lateral evaginations of the walls of the embryonic fore brain, are then constricted from the brain, and become vesicles connected with the fore brain by only a stalk. At this stage the vertebrate eye is like the invertebrate one save only that it has arisen from the neural in- stead of the superficial epithelium. All the cells which form the vesicle have their free ends directed toward its cavity, while their basal ends are directed away from it. The outer wall of this optic vesicle is then infolded until it comes into contact with the inner wall, thus forming a cup open toward the skin. The ectoderm over ANATOMY OF MELANCHOLY; ANATOMY OF PLANTS FJo. 33 Fig. 33. — T.ongituelinal section through the pineal eye of a lizard (Sfhenodon) (after Baldwin Spencer), The eye is located in the middle of the dorsal side of the head and is covered by translucent scales. The outer wall of. the eye vesicle is thickened to form a lens, while the inner pigmented wall is the retina from which the nerve proceeds. Fig. 34 Fig. 34. — A. section through the compound eye of a crayfish (from Hatschck). — 1, cornea; 2. crystal- line cones; 3, rctinula;; 4, pigment cells; 5, cuti- cle; 6, epithelium; n, optic nerve, g, ganglia. ! ; V sing] ment fommatidium) from the com- pound eye of a crayfish. — 1, corneal lens; 2, cor- neal cells; 3. crystalline cone cells; 4, 5, outer and inner partr. of the crystalline cone; /». pigment cells; r, rctinula; K, rhahdomc; b, basement mem- brane. the opening of the oplic cup is then infolded to form the lens, which completely separates from the surface and Iks in the mouth >i ihe cup. The infolded wall of the cup alone forms tin- retina, and therefore the free enils of the retinal cells are directed away from the lens and the cavity of the cup. 1 he lens and optic cup arc then surrounded hy fibrou cular coats, the sclerotic and choroid; a chamber is formed in front of the lens which is filled with water or aqueous humor, while one behind the lens and in front of the retina is filled with vitreous humor. The compound eye is another type chiefly among arthropods. It 1 of a large number «it" closely-packed single eyes or ommatidia, each of which is surrounded hy pig- ment and is optically isolated from the others. Each ommatidium consists of (l) a hexagonal cornea at the surface, (2) a crystalline cone below this, and (3) the rctinula or group of retinal cells which are connected with nerve fibres. The cornea and crystalline cone are re- fractive and serve in the capacity of a lens, while the rctinula alone is the sensory element. Edwin Grant Conklin, University of Pennsylvania. Anatomy of Melancholy, The, a famous work by Robert Burton (1577-1(140). It was first issued in 1621 under the name 'Democritus Junior,' and was revised five times by the author before his death. It is divided into three sys- tematic sections devoted respectively to the causes and symptoms of melancholy, its cure, and of amorous and religious melancholy. It is in effect an omnium gatherum of all sorts of out-of-the-way lore, from diet to demonology, and its literary felicity and humor have aided in keeping it alive as genuine literature. Anatomy of Plants. The cell, the elemen- tary organ of plants and animals, was first ob- served hy the English micrographcr Robert Hooke (1667), who suggested the name "cell " because of its resemblance to the cell of a honey- comb. A few years later another English au- thor, Nehemiah Grew, extended this observation and published the' first work on plant-anatomy (1672), in which he described the minor struc- ture of leaves, stems, and roots, anil introduced several anatomical terms still in use. Grew- was soon followed by an Italian. Marcello M.tl- pighi. the author of the illustrious work, 'Ana- tome Plantarum' (1675). and these three men are thus the founders of the science of plant anatomy. Many years later Robert Brown (1833) detected the nucleus in the cell, and the German botanist Schleidcn (1838) pointed out the general occurrence of this new body within the cells of plants and its importance to the cell-division. These discoveries soon led to the apprehension of the cell as being the elementary organ of plants, and when the occurrence of nucleus had been proved also in the cells of animals the German naturalist Schwann (1839) advanced the important doctrine that bodies of animals and plants consist of cells and the products of these While the nucleus had thus been detected and described to some extent, there still re- mained a closer examination to he made of the other parts of the cell-content, which some of the earlier investigators had already observed and described as a soft, gritty matter, capable ANATOMY OF PLANTS of motion in the cell. This cell-content was studied by Mohl (1846), who gave it the name protoplasm. The constituents of the cell were thus properly defined as the cell-wall, the protoplasm, and the nucleus. Of these the protoplasm and the nucleus are the most essen- tial parts, since the wall is not always developed, but is totally absent in numerous animal-cells and also in those of several plants among the lower Alga and Fungi, at certain stages, for ex- ample. A completely developed plant-cell may for the most part be defined as a microscopical, closed vesicle consisting of a wall, and the con- tents, nucleus, protoplasm, and cell-sap. The shape of the cell presents a vast number of forms, generally referred to only two types: the parenchymatic and the prosenchymatic. Of these the parenchymatic is either isodiametric or elongated, but with blunt ends and usually thin-walled, while the prosenchymatic is mostly elongated with pointed or sharp endings, and is more or less thick-walled. A third type of cell may be mentioned, the "hypha" of certain Alga and Fungi, which is very thin, thread- like, and composed of a single cell or many. There are plants consisting of one cell only, but most plants are composed of an enormous number, which together constitute the so-called "cellular tissues," parenchyma and prosenchyma, in respect to the shape of the cells of which they are composed. The function performed by these tissues is very different, and the classi- fication as parenchyma and prosenchyma is thus not sufficient, since this only applies tD the external shape of the cells. In accordance with both structure and function the following tissues are observable in the higher plants : Epidermis, the mechanical tissue, the conductive tissue, and the fundamental tissue; the first and the last of these tissues being parenchymatic, the others prosenchymatic. The minor structure of these various tis- sues may be described as follow- : Epidermis. — This is the outermost cell- covering of a plant-organ, such as the leaf, stem. and root, and consists of at least one layer of cells. The outer cell-wall is often considerably thickened and invariably covered by a thin mem- brane, the so-called cuticle (c in Fig. 1) which tion of a leaf of aloe (Fig. 1) in which all three epidermal peculiarities are quite well de- veloped. The thick cuticle and cuticular layers Fig. i. — Epidermal cells of the leaf of aloe: cuticle; c.s., cuticular layers; b, cellulose. the is highly impermeable to water, and especially well-developed in land-plants; in submerged water-plants the cuticle is. on the other hand, much reduced. The epidermal system of plants has a threefold significance: it protects the more delicate parts of the organs against mechanical injuries, pressure, etc.; it forms a protection against evaporation by being im- permeable to water and water-vapor, and forms also a water-supplying system. These three functions are expressed by various development of the cells, which may he illustrated by a scc- Fig. 2. — a, simple hair of Mcrtensia: d, glandular hair of Saxifrage form an excellent protection against loss of moisture, while the thickening of the outer cell- wall and portion of the radial walls furnishes the mechanical support. Characteristic of epi- dermis, furthermore, is its covering of hairs, which present a number of forms, and of which the majority are developed from the epidermis itself. Some of them consist only of a single Fie. 3. — Branched hair of Croton. cell, hut usually they are composed of several. The hairs may be simple (Fig. 2. a) or branched ( Fig. .? ), and attain various forms from sharply- ANATOMY OF PLANTS pointed to globose, scale-like (Fig. 4) or star- shaped. The ordinary hairs contain only air, and when oecurring as a dense covering of the ing-hairs, — that is, hairs in the shape of hooks by which the weak steins of certain plants — for instance, hop, cleavers, etc. — are able to climb by attaching themselves to other plants. Finally to he mentioned are the stomata. If the epidermis be able to regulate the evapora- tion, it is readily understood that this tissue must be compact and without intercellular spaces unless these be capable of closing and opening themselves under certain conditions. Such intercellular spaces occur in the epidermis Fig. 4. — Scale-like hair of Tillandsia. plant-organ aid materially in the protection against loss of moisture, thus entering directly into the function of epidermis. Other hairs contain and secrete ethereal oils, the so-called glandular hairs (Fig. 2 d), which may serve for attracting insects to carry the pollen, or if the secretion is of a sticky consistence, the function may be to keep off injurious, crawling insects, less adapted for aiding in cross-fecundation. Several hairs contain poisonous matters and cause great pain when touched, as for instance the hairs of the common nettle, but the physiological significance of such and other hair structures is not satisfactorily explained. A very simple structure is possessed by the root-hairs, which consist of only a single epider- FlG. 6. — Epidermis, with stomata, of Commelina: g, guard-cell ; s, subsidiary cells. and were by De Candolle named "stomata." Each stoma consists of two crescent-shaped cells (g in Fig. 5), the guard-cells, which turn their concave faces against each other, thus forming an intercellular space leading into a wide cavity, the so-called air-chamber (ac in Fig. 7). Adjoining the guard-cells are usu- tp. Fig. 7. — Cross-section of a stoma from the leaf of Commelina : ac, the air-chamber; g, guard-cells; s, subsidiary cells. ally two or more epidermis-cells of a shape somewhat different from the 01 hers, and these have been called the subsidiary cells (s in Fig. 5) ; their number and manner of arrangement is often very variable in several orders of tin the phanerogams. The guard-cells are, as a rule, the only cells of epidermis which contain chloro- phyll and starch ; they have the power of closing mis-cell, and of which the function is to absorb or opening the orifice of the intercellular space, and conduct food substances in solution. A purely a phenomenon that has been studied and ex- mechanical function is exhibited by the climb- plained by Schwcndener. When moist these Fig. 5. — Epidermis, with etomata, of Medeola two guard-cells; *, the subsidiary cells. ANATOMY OF PLANTS cells become swollen, and, as they lengthen, curve outward in the middle so as to leave a free opening. An opposite movement takes place when they become dry : they are then shortened and straightened with their inner faces applied to each other, closing the orifice. Stomata occur as a rule on all green plant- organs, stems, and leaves, but lack in those that are constantly under water, and they are totally absent in the thallophytes. The location of the stomata varies somewhat, but they are more numerous on the lower face of the leaves than on the upper. Their position offers a number of variations and is sometimes de- pendent upon the nature of the surroundings, especially of the climate, the dryness of the air, etc. The guard-cells may be free, reaching above the surrounding epidermis (Fig. 7), or they may be sunk below this. A very peculiar arrangement is noticeable in Nerium, where the stomata are located, several together, in de- pressions of the leaf-surface. A modification of stomata are the so-called water-pores, ex- hibiting a like structure, but somewhat larger than these and unable to open or close them- selves. They are mostly located on the margins of leaves near the ends of the nerves. The Cork. — ■ While the epidermis is seldom of any long duration in plant-organs which Fie. 8. — Cross-section of the stem of Trifolium, show- ing the cork (c). persist for more than one season, another cov- ering becomes necessary and is represented by the so-called cork. This tissue may be de- veloped by the epidermis itself, but in most instances it originates in the parenchymatic lay- ers underneath the epidermis, or sometimes much deeper, in the innermost portion of the cortex, for instance. The cork is able to con- tinue its growth, following the increase in thick- ness of the stem, and consists of several strata of quadratic or rectangular cells, arranged in compact rows, vertical on the surface of the plant-organ (Fig. 8). The Mechanical Tissue. — The best known elements of this tissue are the so-called "stere- ome-cells," which are thick-walled, very long prosenchymatic cells, of which the walls have narrow pores and consist of cellulose. The stereome-cells are mostly arranged in strands and located in such portions of leaves or stems as are the most exposed to injury. The cells are very flexible, and the arrangement of the layers is remarkably well fitted for rendering the plant-organ the greatest possible support by means of the smallest quantity of material, as demonstrated by Schwendener. Besides this function the mechanical tissue is also observed to form protective layers around the mestome- bundlcs, especially near the leptome-elements. Another thick-walled but parenchymatic cell-form is the so-called sclerotic, occurring in the cocoa-nut, walnut, etc. The collenchymatic cells may be mentioned here: they are elongated, prismatic cells of which the walls are thickened only in the corners and consist mainly of cellulose. Collen- chymatic tissue is frequent in the periphery of stems of herbaceous plants, and in leaves, near the larger nerves of these. The Conductive Tissue. — This tissue is rep- resented by the so-called "mestome-bundles," or "vascular bundles" of earlier authors, which traverse the plant-organs mostly in a longitudi- nal direction ; they constitute a part of the nerves in leaves and of the wood in trees. Their composition is often very complicated, especially in stems and roots, where they are often asso- ciated with some of the other tissues, from which they are not always readily distinguished. At present "mestome," as proposed by Schwen- dener, comprises only two elements, "leptome" and "hadrome," of which the former conducts albuminous matters and contains the sieve- tubes and the medullary ray-parenchyma. The hadrome contains the vessels and the woody parenchyma and conducts the water. These terms, leptome and hadrome, are not identical with the "phloem" and "xylem" formerly sug- gested by Nageli, since this author included the mechanical tissue, the stereome, which is often developed in almost immediate connection with the true conductive tissue. Mestome-bundles, containing leptome and hadrome, are observable in all the higher plants : vascular cryptogams and phanerogams, but are not developed in any of the thallophytes (Fungi and Alga) or in the mosses. In re- gard to the various cell-forms represented in the conductive tissue or mestome, the so-called ves- sels play an important role by their characteris- tic structure. Vessels are tubes which have been developed from cell-rows whose transverse walls have either entirely or partially disap- peared, leaving ridges or rings, and of which the longitudinal walls are strengthened by va- rious thickenings. The so-called "tracheids" are somewhat modified forms of vessels, but hardly distinguishable from them except by their narrower width. Both vessels and tra- cheids occur under the same types as "spiral," "reticular," "scalariform" and "porous," in ac- cordance with the manner of thickening ob- servable in their walls ; of these the porous tracheids are particularly numerous. The wood of conifers consists exclusively of such porous tracheids, which are especially characteristic by the pores being bordered. The woody parenchyma and medullary rays resemble in structure those parenchymatic cells having numerous rounded, simple pores, but dif- fer in their position and arrangement : the former usually extending longitudinally in the shape of bands, while the medullary rays repre- sent radial bands or plates. Some distinction is also noticeable in the shape of these cells : that of the wood-parenchyma being elongated in the direction of the axis of growth, while the cell of the medullary ray is chiefly elongated in a radial direction. The leptome contains, as stated above, the sieve-tubes with the cambiform. This tissue differs widely from the hadrome in the great ANATOMY OF PLANTS softness and much narrower lumen of its in- dividual cells. The sieve-tubes are usually elongated cells of which the transverse walls exhibit a very distinct perforation, whence the term sieve-plate is generally given to this par- ticular cell-wall. The openings in the sieve- plates permit the circulation of undissolved al- buminous matters. The sieve-tubes and plates are often difficult to on account of their delicate structure and minute size; they are, however, well distinguishable in the stems of the grape-vine and "t' the Cucurbitacea. There is still a small conducting system, which may be mentioned here, although belong- ing either to the leptome or the hadrome. It is the lactiferous tissue, containing the so-called milk-tubes, often located in the neighborhood of the leptome. The cell-wall consists of cellu- : it is as a rule very thin and without pores or thickenings. The milk-tubes of certain spe- cies of Euphorbia differ from the type by being thick-walled and slightly porous. The content is a milky juice, mostly whitish, seldom yellow, as in celandine (Chelidonium) , or reddish as in bloodroot. Milk-tubes occur as "ducts" or "cells." and are developed in different ways. The "ducts" are formed by parencbymatic cells arranged in rows, and of which the radial cell- walls become dissolved entirely. The "cells* are, on the other hand, single cells, which grow out into long and branched tubes similar in some respects to the so-called "hyphx" of cer- tain fungi. The Fundamental Tissue. — This tissue com- prises all the other tissues of the plant not refer- able to the epidermis, the mechanical, or the conductive tissue, and is as a rule composed of thin-walled, parenchymatic cells with distinct intercellular spaces. Its function is principally to prepare and store nutritive matters, hence the chlorophyll, the starch, and similar matters are contained in this tissue. Several types of fun- damental tissue have been distinguished in the various plant-organs, such as the cortex in stems and roots ; the pith in stems, but only occa- sionally in roots; the mesophyll with the pali- sade- and pneumatic-tissue in leaves; and finally the parenchymatic sheaths, which often sur- round the mestome-bundles as the endodermis, the mestome-sheath, etc. The location of these various types of the fundamental tissue is as follows: The cortex, whose outermost layers are often designated as the "hypoderm," is in the stem located beneath the epidermis and borders inwardly on the mestome-bundles or on the mechanical tissue, supporting these. The cortex contains often ducts and cells with chrystals, and is in not a few instances traversed by acriferous lacuncs of quite considerable width, which prevail in aquatic plants. The cortex in the root occupies the same position, and its innermost layer is here constantly differentiated as an endodermis, bordering on the pericambium. The endoder- mis of both stem and root differs from the Other strata of the cortex by the cells being prismatic and often quite long, by the cell-walls sometimes attaining a prominent thickening, and by the corky substance of the cell-wall. In many respects the pith resembles the cor- tex, but is usually of a more regular and uni- form structure, as a rule constituting the inner- most portion of the central cylinder of stems. M. -tome-bundles, ducts, Iacunes, and chrystal- bearing cells may also be observed in the pith, but not so frequently as in the cortex. A tissue corresponding in many respects to the cortex is the chlorophyll bearing palisadi and pneumatic-tissue in leaves. I he cells of the palisade-tissue arc very thin-walled, rectan- gular, and placed vertically on the Upper surface < >f the leaves; tiny contain chlorophyll in abun- dance. The pneumatic-tissue is located under- neath the palisade-tissue and borders on the epidermis of the lower face of the leaf. It is of a very open structure on account of the fre- quently very irregular shape '>f the cells, winch may vary frum roundish to polyhedric Or even stellate, a structure corresponding well with its function and its location near the lower epider- mis, where the stomala are most numerous. These tissues, briefly described above, are the most characteristic ones of plant-organs, but their mutual position in these organs offers not a few variations, hence it will be necessary to present a discussion of their occurrence as constituting the structure of roots, stems, and leaves. The Anatomy of the Root. — The fact that the root is only slightly susceptible of modifica- tion in respect to its external structure is espe- cially expressed by the great uniformity that prevails in its internal structure. Roots, however, are not always quite as uniformly developed as generally described, but very few botanists have paid much attention to their structural peculiarities. Some types of roots have been suggested, — for instance "nutritive," "attach- ment," "contractile," and "storage," — all of which possess a somewhat modified structure corresponding to their functions. But common to all roots arc the following tissues; Epidermis, cortex, pericambium. and the conductive ti The epidermis is as described above, but lacks the cuticle, at least partly, and the only hair-formations that occur Inn 1 are the long, unicellular root-hairs, observable on nearly all young roots excepting at the apex of these, which is covered by the root-cap. The cortex consists of parenchymatic cells, frequently ar- ranged in regular concentric rings; the outer- most strata beneath the epidermis an' often differentiated as a more or less thick-walled and persisting hypoderm, while the inner ones are usually thin-walled and liable to collapse radially or tangcntially, thus giving rise to wide Iacunes. The innermost layer of the cortex differs from all the others and represents the endodermis (c in Fig. 9), whose structure offers several excellent characteristics for its distinction from the adjoining cortical parenchyma and the peri- cambium (/> in Fig. 5). Such characteristics may be expressed by the different manner in which the cell-walls are thickened, or by the presence of the peculiar dots named after Cas- pary. which are seldom lacking in thin-walled endodermis-cells. These dots, readily visible in transverse sections, are due to foldings of the cell-wall. Inside the endodermis is a layer, and commonly a single one, of usually thin-walled cells, called the pericambium or the pericycle. This tissue is a most important one, since it is capable of cell-division, and it is in this layer that all lateral roots of phanerogams become developed, and usually also the root-shoots. In ferns the lateral roots do not originate in this tissue, but in the endodermis. The pericam- bium surrounds the conductive tissue in roots ANATOMY OF PLANTS represented by strands of leptome and hadrome in alternation with each other, sometimes en- closing a central mass of conjunctive tissue, or a wide central vessel. The leptome is not as Fig. 9. — Cross-section of the root of Commelina: b, the cortex; e, endodermis; p, the pericambium; the six rays of vessels alternate with six groups of leptome. well differentiated as in the stem, and the vessels are arranged in radial groups of which the out- ermost are the oldest and generally known as the "proto-hadrome vessels." The position of the proto-hadrome is variable, since it is not unusual to observe some of the vessels border- ing on endodermis, having thus broken through the pericambium, a structure not uncommon in grasses and sedges. The normal position of these earliest developed vessels is, however, in- side the pericambium. But whatever the posi- tion may be of these primordial vessels, the development of the hadrome is in roots con- stantly centripetal in contrast to the stem ; the central arrangement of the conducting elements in the roots offers also an excellent distinction between root- and stem-structure, besides the tangential and alternating position of the lep- tome and hadrome. It is a well-known fact that roots of trees and certain herbaceous plants increase in thickness. This is due to the de- velopment of a cambium, a formative tissue, inside the leptome, but forming an arch outside the proto-hadrome. In general this cambium behaves like that of the stem, forming hadrome inwardly, leptome and mechanical tissue out- wardly, thus the structure of such roots becomes exactly like that of a stem unless the central portion is still preserved. For in the root the centre must be occupied by three or more ra- diating primordial vessels instead of a pith. The Anatomy of the Stem. — -The minor structure of the stem of the above- and under- ground differs materially from that described as characteristic of normal roots, even if the tissues themselves are much the same. There is an epidermis, a cortex, a mechanical- and conductive-tissue besides a pith, but no pericam- bium. The stem, however, exhibits a much larger plasticity than the root, and the numer- ous modifications that occur in respect to the mere external structure are usually accompanied by a corresponding variation in its interior. Marked distinctions are noticeable in stems when we compare the herbaceous with the woody, the annual with the perennial, the ter- restrial with the aquatic, and the aerial with the subterranean, — distinctions that have been very extensively studied and have rendered it possible to identify fragments of such stems merely by the aid of the microscope. When compared with the root, the presence of a pith is characteristic of the stem, while on the other hand a pericambium is observable only in roots. The minor structure of the stem is thus very variable, but may be described more generally as follows : The epidermis consists mostly of a single layer ; the outer cell-wall always possesses a more or less distinct cuticle, and the cells may be extended into hairs of very different aspect and functions as already described. When the epidermis is not sufficient to protect the inner tissues, — as, for instance, in perennial stems or such as increase in thick- ness, — >a cork develops either in the epidermis itself or in the cortical parenchyma. The cor- tex is often prominently represented by nu- merous layers of parenchymatic tissue in which bundles of stereome and mestome fre- quently occur, in addition to which lacunes and ducts are commonly observed. The inner- most layer of the cortex is usually modified as an endodermis (End, in Fig. 10), surrounding the central mass of conductive tissue. The mechanical tissue occurs either as isolated strands or as a partial or complete covering of the mestome-bundles. The arrangement of the mechanical tissue is extremely variable and the monocotyledonous plants are especially instruc- tive in respect to this particular tissue. The conductive tissue represented by the mestome- bundles contains the elements as described above, and most frequently each bundle consists of both leptome and hadrome, usually arranged radially with the leptome as the outermost. A very delicate tissue is observable between both Fig. 10. — Cross-section of the stem of Lobelia; Ep, epidermis; C, cortex; End. endodermis; L, lep- tome; Cb, cambium; //, hadrome. of these, the so-called cambium ( Cb in Fig. 10) which by continuous cell-division develops leptome outwardly and hadrome inwardly. The cambium is only characteristic of the dicotyle- ANATOMY OF PLANTS donous plants. When the cambium occurs be- tween the leptome and the hadrome it is called intrafascicular in contrast to the interfascicular, Fig. ii. — Cross-section of the leaf of Cypcrus, show- ing a mestome-bundle surrounded by palisade- tissue (FT): M, the mestome-sheath; I' the inner parenchyma-sheath; H, the hadrome; L, the lep- tome. located between the mcstome-bundles, thus the cambium in such plants constitutes a closed ring. The mestome-bundles do not always ex- hibit this radial structure where the leptome is located outside the hadrome, a type that is called collateral (Figs, ii and 12), but some modified structures have been described, namely the "bicollateral" and the "concentric." The bi- collatcral arc characterized by the presence of leptome on both sides of the hadrome, outside and inside, and this structure has been observed in several of the dicotyledonous orders, for Fig. 12. — Cross-section of a mestome-bundle from the leaf-stalk of a fern (Polypodium) : C, the inner- most layer of cortex; £, endodermis surround- ing the conductive tissue with the vessels in the middle. instance in the Cucurbitacca and Solanaeecc. The latter type, the concentric, represent a sin- gular arrangement of the leptome and hadrome, the one being surrounded by the other; when the hadrome surrounds the leptome the bundle is called "peri-hadromatic" (Fig. 13), while in the peri-leptomatic bundle the hadrome oc- cupies the central space (Fig. 12). These types of concentric bundles are not so very frequent, but the perihadromatic are, however, quite cha- racteristic of the rhizomes of the majority of the monocotyledons. The perihptomatic bundles are very rare among the phanerogams, but constitute the only form of mestome-bundles in ferns and lycopods. When we consider the general arrangement of the mcstome-bundles in transverse sections of mono- and dicotyledons, we notice a striking difference by the fact that in the former these bundles are scattered without any order, while they form concentric rings in the latter. While thus these systems of tissues exhibit many variations in the stems, the last tissue. the pith, is almost uniformly developed as a central parenchyma, and as a rule is always Fig. 13. — Cross-section of a mestome-bundle from the rhizome of a sedge (Carex incurva) : S, the stere- ome, surrounding the conductive tissue with the leptome in the middle. present in stems. The thickness of various un- derground stems, such as tubers, is due to the prominent development either of the pith or of the cortex, in which starch and similar nutritive matters may be stored. The Anatomy of the Leaf. — The manifold variation exhibited by leaves corresponds also with certain modifications of the internal struc- ture, but to a much less extent than observable in stems. The various functions performed by the leaves do not require such great internal modification as is necessary to the stem, even if the leaves exhibit a metamorphosis of no small importance. The stem-leaves and the floral leaves naturally show conspicuous anatomical distinctions, and the fleshy leaves of bulbs are of course very different in structure from the thin, scale-like leaves of tubers and stolons. However, the principal structure, such as is ex- hibited by the relative development and arrange- ment of the main tissues, for instance the meso- phyll (the chlorophyll-bearing parenchyma ANAXAGORAS; ANAXIMANDER including the palisade- and the penumatic-tis- sue), the stereome, and the conductive tissue, is not very variable in leaves when we consider the enormous variation in the shape and size of their outline. In the leaves the epidermis is perhaps the tissue that is subject to the most conspicuous modification, which is especially noticeable in the development of the cells when examined on both surfaces of the leaf, above and between the nerves. The various arrange- ments of the stomata often cause a modifica- tion of the surrounding strata, which is less pronounced in the stems. Thus the epidermis, when examined superficially, exhibits several distinct forms of cells, rectangular, polyhedric, or with the outline very prominently modulate (Fig. 5). The covering with hairs is especially characteristic of leaves, and several types of these may be found to occur on the same leaf. The cuticle is usually very distinct, and renders by its various consistence the most essential protection to the leaf while performing its func- tions. Besides the epidermis, corky layers may be developed, at least locally, in leaves which Fig. I4._ — Cross-section of the leaf of Obolaria: Ep, epidermis of upper surface; ep, epidermis of the lower; M, the mesophyll. persist for several seasons ; for instance, the evergreen, in which the outer cell-wall of epi- dermis often becomes very considerably thick- ened. The mesophyll is generally differentiated as a palisade- and a pneumatic-tissue, the former located on the upper face of the leaf, just beneath the epidermis, while the latter occupies the lower portion. In some leaves the meso- phyll is not differentiated into these two tissues, but only as a homogeneous (Fig. 14) tissue; such leaves are called "isolateral" in contradis- tinction to the others, the "bifacial." Otherwise the mesophyll possesses the same forms of reser- voirs, ducts, and lacunes as are characteristic of the cortex. The mestome-bundles are generally collateral with the hadrome located above the leptome, and we find in the leaves the same mechanical support as observed in the stem. But while the mestome-bundles of the stem may show such modifications as "bicollateral" or "concentric," they lose this peculiarity as soon as they enter the leaves, in which they occur only as col- lateral. , . Vol. 1—32 The leaf-structure thus possesses less varia- tion than that of the stem, if we compare the relative development and the arrangement of the tissues, especially of the mesophyll, the stereome, and the mestome. The main variation seems to lie in the epidermis, and becomes especially noticeable in the comparison of leaves of plants that grow under diverse conditions, — of terres- trial and aquatic plants, for instance. Among the former the desert-plants are known to possess highly complicated structures, which naturally are expressed by the epidermis and the meso- phyll rather than by the other elements. But considered as a whole, the leaves show less modification of the inner tissues than the stem, and when some prominent variations are found to occur in leaves these are generally observable also in the stems of the same plants. The object of the study of plant-anatomy is to ascertain the structure of the various plant- organs, and to bring this in connection with the functions performed by these, thus physiological botany must necessarily be preceded by anatom- ical studies. But in later years plant-anatomy has been extended still further, and a special branch of this science, "plant-anatomy," is now recognized as the "anatomical method" by which modifications in structure are brought in con- nection with the systematic position of the plants. And anatomical investigations have proved that certain precise characteristics do exist in most of the natural orders ; thus these, their genera, and in many instances even their species, may be distinguished simply by a few anatomical characters. This method was founded by the French botanist Mirbel, who was followed, but many years later, by Vesgne and Radlkofer, whose works constitute the real foundation of this particular branch of anatomy. In later years the arutomical method has been studied very extensively, but is of course of less importance than the former, where the structure is brought in connection with physiological problems, the life of the plant under various conditions of environment. Theo. Holm, Expert Botanist, Washington, D. C. Anaxag'oras, a Greek philosopher: b. in Clazomenae, in Ionia, about 500 B.C. ; d. in Lani- psacus, about 428. Settling at Athens, his pupils included Pericles, Euripides, and Socrates. In middle life he was publicly charged with impiety and condemned to death, but the sentence was commuted to perpetual ban- ishment. Anaxagoras held that there was an infinite number of different kinds of ele- mentary atoms, and that these, in themselves motionless and originally existing in a state of chaos, were put in motion by an eternal, imma- terial, spiritual, elementary being, from which motion the world was produced. Anaxarchus, a native of Abdera, who was a friend and counselor of Alexander. He was put to death by Nicocreon, prince of Cyprios. Anaximan'der, a Greek philosopher, math- ematician, and astronomer : b. in Miletus 611 B.C.: d. 547. The substance of his philosophical teaching is that the source of all things is an undefined substance infinite in quantity. Accord- ing to his theory the universe is a series of concentric cylinders surrounding the cylindrical ANAXIMENES — ANCHOR earth. Anaximander occupied himself much with mathematics and geography, and to him are ascribed the invention oi geographical maps, the first application of the gnomon or style fixed on a horizontal plane to determine the solstices and equinoxes, and the discovery of the ob- liquity of the ecliptic. Anaximenes of Lampsacus, a Greek histo- rian : 1). in Lampsacus, Asia Minor, about mo b.c. To him is attributed the 'Ars Rhetorica ad Alexandrum' found among the writings of Aristotle. Only fragments of his histories of Philip of Macedon, Alexander, and Greece re- main. Anaximenes of Miletus, a Greek philoso- pher: b. in .Miletus, and flourished about 550 B.C. He affirmed that air was the first principle of all things. Finite things were formed from the infinite air by compression and rarefaction produced by eternally existent motion; and heat and cold resulted from varying degrees of den- sity of the primal element. Anaya, a-na'ya, Pedro Maria, a Mexican commander: b. in Huichapan 1795; d. 1854. En- tering the army in 181 1 he attained the rank of brigadier general in iS.s.i. lie held several cab- inet positions, was acting president of Mexico for a few weeks in 1S47. and at the time of his death was postmaster-general under Santa Anna. Ancachs, a department of northern Peru, extending from the Andes to the Pacific: capital, Huaraz. Agriculture and cattle-raising are the chief occupations, the silver-mines in the moun- tains being but ineffectively worked. Area, 17,- 405 square miles. Pop. about 429,000. Ancaeus, the name of two of the Greek Argonauts, one the son of Poseidon and steers- man of the Argo, the other a son of the Ar- cadian Lycurgus. Each was killed by a wild boar. Ancelot, Jacques Arsene Francois Poly- carpe, a French novelist, dramatist, and poet: b. Havre. 9 Feb. 1794; d. Paris, 7 Sept. 1854. His tragedy, 'Louis IX..' brought him a pension in 1 S 1 < j. but he lost it through the revolution of 1830. He produced pleasing verses, epigrammat- ic satires; an epic. .Mane de Brabant' (1825); a novel, 'L'Homme du Monde 1 (1829), as well as other works, but "Louis IX' remains his most important achievement. His wife, Marguerite Virginie Chardon, b. Dijon, 15 March 1792; d. Paris, 21 March 1875. wrote novels and plays sometimes with him, but also independently, and won some attention as an artist. Ancestor, one who has preceded another in a direct line of descent; an ascendant, a former possessor; the person last seised. Termes de la Ley; 2 Shars. 131. Com. 201. In the common law, the term is understood as well of the immediate parents as of those that are higher; as may appear by the statute, 2$ Edw. Ill . De nalis ultra mart-, by the statute (1 Rich. II. c. 6, and by many others. But the civilians' relations in the ascending line, up to the great- grandfather's parents, and those above them. they term majores, which common lawyers aptly expound antecessors or ancestors, for in the de- scendants of like degree they are called pos- it riores. Gary, Litt. 45. The term ancestor is applied to natural persons. The words prede- cessors and successors are used in respect to the persons composing a body corporate. See 2 Bl. Com. 209; Bacon, Abr . ; Ayliffe, I'and. 58; Reeve, 1 lescents. Ancestor-Worship. See Max. Anchieta, an-shyi-ta, Jose de, a Portu- guese missionary in Brazil: b. Laguna, Teneriffc, '533; d. 159". He was a Jesuit and founded in Brazil the first institution for the conversion of the inhabitants. He was the author of 'Nat- ural Productions of Brazil.' Anchisaurus, a carnivorous dinosaur of the Triassic period. It has many primitive characteristics, notably small size, four com- plete toes in the hind foot and live in the fore foot. Anchises, a legendary hero of Troy, to whom Venus, in the guise of a Phrygian shep- herdess, bore a son, /Eneas. At the burning of Troy /Eneas carried his father away on his shoulders, and their voyage to Sicily is de- scribed in Virgil's '.V.neid." Anchitherium. See Fossil; Horse. Anchor, a heavy instrument of iron, in- tended to be dropped from a ship to the sea- bottom, to hold her in a desired position. It usually consists of a shank, having at one end a ring, to which the cable is fas- tened with a cross-piece or stock, and at the other end two arms with blades at the end, called ilukes. In one form of anchor the stock is not a cross-piece in the sense of lying transversely to the direction of the arms, but lies in the same direction. In the Homeric times large stones were used for anchors; afterward they are said to have been sometimes of wood loaded with lead. In some places baskets full of stones or sacks filled with sand were employed for the same use. All these were let down by cords into the sea, and by their weight stayed the course of the ship. Among the Greeks of later limes anchors were composed of iron. Some- times there was only one tooth or fluke, but generally there were two. Anchors with two Ilukes appear from ancient monuments to have been much the same as those used as present, but the transverse piece of wood fastened to the shank (the stock) is wanting in all of them. Every ship had several anchors, one of which, surpassing all the rest in bigness and strength, was peculiarly termed, in Greek, hiera, and in Latin sacra, and was never used but in extreme danger ; wdicnce sacram ancoram solvere is pro- verbially applied to such as are forced to their last refuge. When an anchor of the usual form is let fall from the vessel, it generally strikes the bottom with the crown or curve of the arms, and then falls over on one of the ends of the stock, the arms lying flat on the ground. In this position it cannot bite, so that it has to be canted or turned over till the stock lies flat, and the point of one of the flukes (the bill or peak) rests on the ground. The canting is effected by the vessel pulling at the cable, and the longer the stock and the shorter the arms the less is the force required to perform the operation ; for this reason the stock is always made longer than the arms. The anchor will now either drag or pen- etrate the ground, the readiness with which it does the latter depending on the sharpness of the bill, the angle at which the fluke rests on the ground, and of course the nature of the bot- tom. Formerly the arms used to be rigidly at- ANCHORAGE — ANCHOVY lached to the shank of the anchor; but in 1838 Mr. Porter took out a patent for an anchor of a new construction (though the principle was known before, however), in which the arms were movable around a pivot at the end of the shank, the plane of their movement being perpendicu- lar to the direction of the stock. The advan- tages of this anchor are, that there is almost no possibility of fouling it, — that is, of the cable becoming entangled with one of the arms; it can- not lodge on the stock end ; it presents no upper fluke to injure the vessel to which it is attached, or others, in shoal water (since the swivel move- ment enables the peak of the upper fluke to come close to the shank when the anchor is fixed) ; it is not so liable to break, is more conveniently stowed on board, etc. This form of anchor as improved by Trotman is now largely used in the merchant service. In the navies both of Great Britain and of foreign countries the an- chor perhaps most commonly employed is the admiralty anchor with fixed arms, the chief recommendation of which is the excellence of its proportions. Another favorite is Rodgers', the chief peculiarity of which is its small flukes. The inventor claims for this anchor that it holds the ground better than those with large flukes. Another excellent anchor is that patented by a Frenchman named Martin. In his anchor the stock lies in the same direction as the arms, the consequence of which is that when the anchor reaches the ground it inevitably falls flat, with both stock and arms resting on the bottom. The arms are capable of turning in a socket through an angle of ,30° in such a manner that when the anchor is lying flat on the ground the flukes of both arms may sink into the ground at an angle of 15°. The weight of the arms and the pull of the vessel cause them to do this. It will be understood that the flukes are not, as in other anchors, perpendicular to the direction of the arms, but lie in the same direction. Besides holding the ground more firmly than any other anchor of equal weight, this anchor has the ad- vantages of being free from liability to foul and easily stowed. The latter circumstance particularly recommends it for use in unmasted turret ships, almost all of which are equipped with it. The different anchors carried by a ship are called bower, sheet, stern, and kedge anchors. The bower anchors are so called from their be- ing stowed in the bow. When one bower an- chor is heavier than the other it is called the best bower and is stowed on the starboard side. Sheet anchors arc stowed in the waist of the ship as far forward as convenient. The stream anchor is used in a river or sheltered place where a large anchor is not required. The stern anchor is stowed in the stern, and is em- ployed with a bower anchor where there is no room for a vessel to swing with the tide. The kedge anchor is used to warp a ship from place to place; that is, the anchor is carried to a dis- tance in a boat, and the ship is then pulled up to it by means of the cable. A large ironclad carries eight anchors: two bower, two sheet, and two kedge anchors, with one stream and one stern anchor. The anchor is said to be a-peak when the cable is perpendicular between the hawse and the anchor ; and to come home when it does not hold the ship. To shoe an anchor is to fix boards upon the flukes so that it may hold better in a soft bottom. Riding at anchor is the state of the vessel when moored by the anchor or anchors. Dropping or casting anchor is letting it down into the sea. Weigh- ing anchor is raising it from the bottom. A mooring anchor is a stationary anchor in a har- bor or roadstead, with a buoy attached to it by a cable, enabling a ship to moor by simply fas- tening itself to a ring-bolt on the buoy. These anchors should not project above the bottom, or the ship may receive injury by grounding on them. Mooring anchors are of various kinds, and in some cases a heavy block of stone or cast iron serves as such. One of the most powerful mooring anchors yet invented consists of a wrought-iron shaft with a pointed screw end, and near the lower end a cast-iron screw flange y/2 feet in diameter. The anchor is screwed down into the solid ground, and its holding power is more than equal to that of a cast iron anchor weighing 7 tons. The making of anchors used to be a most formidable piece of smith work, but it has been much facilitated by the in- vention of the steam hammer. The shank of a large anchor, nearly 20 feet long and 10 or 12 inches thick, requires to be built up of a number of bars of iron which are then welded together. Crucible steel is now to some extent used for anchors. Anchorage, a suitable place for anchoring. A good anchorage should have a soft bottom and a depth of from 10 to 20 fathoms. When deeper than this the cable bears too nearly per- pendicular and is apt to drag up the anchor. The length of cable paid out by a ship in an- choring in ordinary weather is about three times the depth of the water. Anchorage also means dues paid by a vessel anchoring. As a rule a ship sheltering from stress of weather and not discharging cargo at the place where it anchors is not required to pay dues, but shore-dues are payable whether a ship anchors or not. Anchorite, Anchoret, or Anachoret, one who has renounced the world and retired into a seclusion remote from inhabited places. The desire is not distinctively Christian: it manifest., itself in all religions and in all ages. Anchorites of various Hindu ascetic sects are at present to be found among the jungles and hills of India, and the Orient has always been a land of them. The peculiarity of the ancient anchorites was that, though retiring for solitude to the wilderness, they lived there in fixed abodes, generally caves or hovels, in place of wandering about. When they did travel they slept wher- ever night overtook them, so lli.it visitors might not know where to find them. They were most numerous in the Egyptian desert, where they lived on roots and plants, believing that to af- flict the body was the best method of spiritually benefiting the soul. The most of them were laymen. There were also female anchorites. These first arose, it is said, about the middle of the 3d century; in the ;th the Church extended its control over them, ultimately throwing diffi- culties in the way of anyone who wished to adopt such a mode of life. Anchovy, an-cho'vi (of uncertain origin, perhaps literally a dried or pickled fish, from Basque, antsua, dry), a small, richly tl.i hernng-like fish (Engraulis encrasicholus), of the family Engrquliduitc. It is caught abundant- ANCHOVY-PEAR — ANCONA ly along the sea-coasts of southern Europe when coming in from the deep sea to spawn in early summer. The Mediterranean fishers in particular salt and dry it in large quantities for export. Closely allied species are found on the mi and western coast of America and off southern Asia. A Californian species (/:n- graulis mordax) is extremely abundant in large schools and is a valuable fond fish. In gen- eral, anchovies are 5 to 7 inches long, shaped like herrings, and have a pointed head and project- ing upper jaw. Anchovy-pear (Grias cauliftora), a tree of the natural order Myrtacee, found in moist dis- tricts of the West Indies. It grows to the height of 50 feet, has oblong leaves 2 or 3 feet long, and large white blossoms carried on short peduncles. Its fruit, somewhat larger than a Inn's egg. is pickled and eaten like the mango, which it strongly resembles in taste. Anchusa. See Alkanet. Anchylosis, an-kl-lo'sTs. See Joints. An'chylo'stomiasis, a disease due to the presence of an intestinal parasite, the Anchy- lostomum duodenale (Uncinaria ditodenalis). This parasite lives in the upper portion of the small intestine, where, by means of a series of tooth-like hooks about the mouth, it attaches itself to the mucous membrane. It is particu- larly prevalent among Italian and Polish labor- ers, especially among those who work in con- fined spaces, as mines, tunnels, etc. The chief symptoms are those due to the loss of blood which the worm constantly sucks from the wall of the intestine. Gastro-intestinal dis- turbance, progressive anaemia, diarrhoea, and colicky pains with shortness of breath and swell- ing of the limbs are among the important symp- toms. The diagnosis can be made by means of a microscopical examination of the faeces, in which the eggs are found, and also by the mi- croscopical examination of the blood. Careful attention given to the drinking water is one of the most important prophylactic measures. See Parasite. Ancient Demesne, a term employed in English law to denote ancient estates belonging to the crown. They are mentioned in Domesday Book as Terra Regis. Ancient Lights, a term denoting windows so long existent that they have obtained a right to the light entering them, and cannot be inter- fered with by the owner of the property whence the light enters. Rights of this nature cannot commonly be acquired by prescription in the United States. Ancient lights in England are now regulated by a statute calling for but 20 years' existence to create the right. Ancient Mariner, Rime of the, a cele- brated poem (1817) by Samuel Taylor Cole- It is one of the most original poems in the English language. A wedding guest on his way to bridal festivities is stopped by an old man, the Ancient Mariner. The Ancient Mar- iner describes his voyage, how his ship was locked in the ice, and how he shot with his cross-bow the tame albatross, the bird of good omen which perched upon the vessel. The en- tire universe seemed stunned by this wanton act of cruelty; and the albatross is hung around the neck of the Ancient Mariner. A spectre ship appears, and the crew die, leaving the gray- beard alone. After a time he is moved to prayer, whereupon the evil spell is removed. The albatross sinks into tin- sea, and the Mar- iner's heart is once again a part of the universal spirit of love. The weird ballad is capable of many interpretations, and in its small compass it contains a tragedy of remorse and of re- demption through repentance. Ancient Order of Hibernians. See Hiber- nians, Ancient Order of. Ancient Regime, The, an historical work by 11. A. Taine (1875), a masterly study of the France which, after 1.200 years of devel- opment, existed in 1789, of great value for the history of France and for judgment of the fu- ture of the French Republic. Taine's brilliant Style and picturesque narrative, his philosoph- ical contemplation of data, and his keen reason- ing, have never been more strikingly exhibited than here. Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries, an archaeological work by Ko- dolfo Lanciani : b. 184;. In his character of official investigator Prof. Lanciani has grouped in this volume various illustrations of the life of ancient Rome as shown in its recovered antiqui- ties. From these he reads the story of the wealth, taste, habits of life, ambitions, and ideals of a vanished people. Ancients, Council of, the upper one of two branches of the legislative body of France, I 795 _ 99- It included 250 members and its func- tion was to consider measures submitted by the r branch, the Council of Five Hundred. Ancile, a shield reported to have fallen from heaven in the time of Numa. It was be- lieved to be the shield of Mars; and as the prosperity of Rome was held to depend upon its preservation, 11 facsimiles of it were made, that anyone wishing to steal it might not know which to take. It is conjectured to have been originally a lump of meteoric iron. Ancillon, an'se'yon, Johann Peter Fried- rich, a German historian of French extrac- tion: b. Berlin, 30 April 1767; d. there, 19 April 1837. Besides 'Melanges of Literature and Phi- losophy* (1801) he was the author of a 'View of the Revolutions of the Political System of Europe since the 15th Century' (1803-5), which secured him the post of royal historiographer. From 1832 till his death be was minister of foreign affairs. Ancona, Allessandro d\ a prominent Italian critic and philologist : b. Pisa, 1835, and from i860 a professor of literature in the Uni- versity of Pisa. Among his many works are *I Precursori di Dante' (1874); 'Origini del Teatro in Italia' (1877); 'La Pocsia Popolare Italiana ) (1878) ; 'Varieta Storiche e Lettarie' (1883-5) : 'Studi sulla Letteratura Italiana de' Primi Secoli' (1884;. Ancona, an Italian province of the king- dom of Italy, between Pesaro cd Urbino on the north, Macerata on the south, and the Apennines and Adriatic on the west and east ; area, 736 square miles. It is a mountainous region watered by the rivers Cesano, Esino, and Mu- 9one, and produces grain, wine, oil, olives, silk, and fruit Capital, Ancona, Pop. (1894; 2/3,941. ANCONA — ANDALUSITE Ancona, an important Italian port on the Adriatic, the capital of the province of the same name. Its site is an amphitheatre between two headlands, and on its ancient mole, designed by Trajan, is a triumphal arch by Apollodorus. The modern mole is adorned by a triumphal arch by Vanvitelli. Among important buildings are the cathedral of St. Cyriac dating from the nth and 12th centuries, a 13th-century town hall, and a museum. Sugar-refining, ship- building, and manufactures of silk, paper, and sail-cloth are the main industries. A United States consul is stationed here. The city is said to have been founded by Syracusans fleeing from the persecutions of the Elder Dionysius. Pop. (1901) 57,000. Ancre, ax'kr, Concino Concini, Marshal and Marquis d', a Florentine who went to France in 1660, where he obtained rapid pro- motion, more especially after the assassination of the king (1610). Successively governor of Normandy, marshal of France, and last of all prime minister, he was thoroughly detested by all. At last a conspiracy was formed against him and he was shot dead on the bridge of the Louvre in 1617. Ancud, a Chilian port, capital of the province of Chiloe. It is situated on the island of Chiloe, about 580 miles from Valparaiso, a line of steamships connecting the two. First settled in 1768, it was the last place surrendered by the Spaniards to the Chilians in 1826. Pop. (1895) 3,182. Ancus Marcius, the fourth king of Rome: b. 638 b.c. ; d. 614 B.C. The son of Numa's daughter, he attempted to imitate his grand- father by reviving the neglected observances of religion. His peaceful pursuits were disturbed by the Latins, whom he subdued and caused to be brought to Rome, where he assigned them the Aventine to dwell upon. These conquered Latins, according to Niebuhr, formed the origi- nal plcbs. He fortified the Janiculum against Etruria, connecting it with the city by the wood- en bridge across the Tiber known as the Sub- lician; dug the ditch of the Quirites; con- structed the harbor of Ostia ; and built the first Roman prison of which there is any record. Ancy'ra. See Angora. An'da, a genus of plants of the natural order Euplwrbiacea:. The A. brasilicnsis, the single species, is an inhabitant of Brazil. The wood is spongy and light, the flower yellow and large, and the fruit a gray nut which en- closes two kernels in a double rind. The fruit is strongly purgative and is used by Brazilians as a remedy in cases of indigestion, jaundice, and other diseases. Oil is pressed from these kernels, with which the natives anoint their limbs. It is said to be a good drying oil and excellent for painting. The rinds of the fruit, thrown into ponds, destroy the fish. Andalusia, an'da-loo'zt-a (Spanish. Anda- lucia), a district of southern Spain, celebrated for its fertility and picturesque beauty ; bounded north by Estremadura and New Castile, east by Murcia, south by the Mediterranean Sea, and west by Portugal and the Atlantic. Length east and west about 310 miles; average breadth about 120: area about 33,650 square miles. It is traversed throughout its extent by ranges of mountains. The Sierra Morena runs along its northern border, and in the southeast rise the mountains of Granada and the Ronda, including numerous sierras, and among them those of the famous Sierra Nevada. Many summits of the latter ranges are covered with perpetual snow; the Mulahacen rising 11,678 feet, and the Pi- cacho de Veleta 11,378 feet above the sea. All the mountains abound with mineral wealth, yielding chiefly copper, cinnabar, and lead, as well as some silver, copper, and coal. Mines have been opened recently by English compa- nies, especially in the province of Huelva in the west, where the Tharsis and Rio Tinto copper mines are situated. The principal river of An- dalusia is the Guadalquivir, which rises in the east part of the province of Jaen, near Carzola, and thence flows west-southwest, and below Seville south-southwest, entering the sea at San Lucar. Its principal affluents are the Gua- dalimar, Guadiato, and Xenil. The rivers south of the Sierra Nevada are quite insignificant. The basin of the upper Guadalquivir lies at an elevation of from 500 to 1,500 feet, and con- sists mainly of saline wastes and other sterile tracts. The lower basin presents sharp con- trasts : around Cordova and Seville luxuriant gardens ; on the Xenil a desert without a drop of water ; on the left bank of the lower Guadal- quivir the extensive marshy district of Marisma ; and stretching from the mouth of the Guadal- quivir to that of the Rio Tinto. a sandy depres- sion (Arenas Gordas) partially clothed with pine-woods. The vegetation is of the character peculiar to the extreme south of Europe and the north of Africa. Wheat, maize, barley, many varieties of fruit, grapes, honey, silk, and cochineal form important articles of culture. A large portion of the soil is in pasture. The horses are the best breed in the Peninsula : the bulls of Andalusia are sought for bull-fighting over all Spain; sheep are reared in vast num- bers, and bear an abundance of good but not fine woo! : and the hogs reared on the acorns of the mountain forests furnish hams unsur- passed in any part of Europe. The chief manu- factures are woolens, silk, and leather, and are by no means extensive. The name Anda- lusia is commonly taken to have been originally Vandalusia, the land of the Vandals. The pop- ulation was in 1897 about 4.000,000. Andalu'site, a native anhydrous silicate of aluminum, first discovered in Andalusia. Its chemical formula is AUSiOs, and it crystallizes in the orthorhombic system. It usually occurs in coarse crystals, prismatic in form, and nearly square. Its hardness is 7.5. at least on the basal face, and its specific gravity about 3.18. Anda- lusite is commonly subtranslucent and varies greatly in color. Some specimens are strongly pleochroic. changing from olive green to blood red according to the angle at which the inci- dent light strikes them. A variety known as chiastolite contains carbonaceous impurities dis- tributed through the prismatic crystal according to a definite geometric plan, so that a trans- verse section of the crystal presents a curious tesselated or cruciform appearance. A variety from eastern Finland has been called (< malte- site." from the regularity of the Maltese cross it exhibits when seen in section. Andalusite is found in many parts of Europe, usually in schist or gneiss. Fine specimens also come from the province of Minas Geraes, Brazil. In the Unit- ANDAMANS — ANDERSON eel States it occurs in Maine New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Pennsyl- vania, South Dakota, and California. Andamans, an'da man/, a chain of volcan- ic lands cm thi ■■ of th. Hay of Bengal, isting of four principal is'ands called the North, Middle, South and Little Andamans, with a number of islets. Middle Andaman, the largest, is about 50 miles long and 15 or 16 miles id. North and South Andaman are each about 44 miles long, and the former has near a mountain called Saddle Peak, about 2,400 feet high. The vegetation on the islands is very luxuriant — so much so as to der parts almost impenetrable. The aborigi- nes, about 10,000 in number, are small (gen- 1 i.illy much lc" than 5 feet), will formed, and active, skilful in the use of the bow and in the management of their canoes, and excellent swimmers and clivers. These islands have been occupied -nice 1858 as a penal colony by the British government of India, the settlement be- ing at Port Blair on South Andaman, line cultivation has been introduced, rice, coffee, nut- megs, etc., being grown, and the neighboring hills now afford pasturage for numerous cattle. A _U' " "1 deal of thoroughly cleared land has been en over to ticket 1 d leave men to cultivate. The coffee produced is very well flavored, fruits thrive excellently, and the pineapples of Port Blair have already a good reputation in India. Edible birds' nests are found in large numbers. 1 he natives in the vicinity of the settlement have Imii taken under the protection of the govern- ment, and have become to some extent civilized. The climate is moist, but fairly healthy. Area, 2,700 square miles. Pop. of Port Blair settle- ment i 11)02; about 20,000, of which four fifths are convicts. Andersen, an'der-sen, Hans Christian, a Danish novelist, poet, and writer of fairy tales: b. in Odense, 2 April [80s; d. Copenhagen, 4 Aug. 1875. He learned to read and write in a charity school, whence he was taken when only nine years old, and was put to work in a manu- factory in urder that his earnings might assist his widowed mother. In his leisure time he erly read national ballads, poetry, and plays, and wrote several tragedies which In' tailed to get accepted. His abilities at last brought him under tin- notice of Councilor Collin, a man of considerable influence, who procured for him free entrance into a government school at Sla- gelse. From this school he was transferred to the university and soon became favorably known by his poems. His first considerable work. 'A Journey on Foot from Holmen's Canal to the East Point of Anger,' was published in 1828, the year of his admission to the univer- sity. Through the influence of Oehlenschlager he 111 rived a royal grant to enable him to travel, and in 1833 he visited Italy, his impressions of which he published in 'The [mprovisatoren' (1835), a work which ren- dered his fame European. The scene of his following novel, '(). T,,' was laid in Denmark, and in 'Only a Fiddler' he described his own early Struggles. In [853 appeared the first vol- ume of his 'Fairy 1 li ' of which succes volumes continued to he published year by year at Christmas, and which have been the most ilar and widespread of his books. Among his other works are ' Picture-books without Pic- tures, 1 'A Pint's Bazaar,' and a number of dramas. In 1845 he received an annuity from the government. He visited England in [848 and acquired such a command of the language that lus next work, 'The Two Baronesses,' was written in English. In 1853 he published an autobiography under the title, 'My Life's Romance,' an English translation of winch, pub- lished in 1871, contained additional chapters by the author, bringing the narrative to [867. Among his later works are, 'In Sweden' 1 [849) ; 'To Be or Not to Be' (1857) ; 'Tales from lutland' (1859); 'The Sand-hills of Jut- land' (i860): 'The Ice Maiden' (1803); 'In Spain' (.18031. Anderson, Edwin Hatfield, American libra- rian : b. Zionsville, lnd., 27 Sept. 1S01. II. was ted from Wabash College 1883; librarian Carnegie Free Library, Braddock, Pa., fur three years; organized and became first librarian of gie Library, Pittsburg, 1895. He is the author of numerous papers on library economy in 'Library Journal.' Anderson, George B., an American Con- federate soldier: b. Wilmington, N. C, 1831 ; d. 16 Oct. 1862. He was graduated from West Point in 1852, and in 1855 obtained his commis- sion as first lieutenant in the United States army, and served as regimental adjutant after 1858. Entering the Confederate service in 1861, he was made a brigadier-general and placed in command of the North Carolina coast defenses. While leading a brigade at the battle of An tietam, 17 Sept. 18(12, he received the wound which caused his death. Anderson, Henry John, an American edu- cator: b. New York. (1 Feb. 1799; d. Lahore, Hindustan, 19 Oct. 1875. Was graduated from Columbia College. [818; M.l). College of Physi- cians and Surgeons, 1823. Professor of mathe- matics and astronomy at Columbia, 1825-50; trustee 1851. and professor emeritus 1866; geol- ogist to the Dead Sea expedition under Lieut. Lynch; member of the scientific expedition to observe the transit of Venus, 1873. He died while exploring the Himalayas. He early be- came converted to the Catholic faith and was active in promoting its interests in New York city. The United States government published his 'Geology of the Expedition to the Dead Sea' ( 18481: Anderson, James, a Scottish agricultural economist: b, Hermiston, in Midlothian, Scot- land, 1739; d. Islcwort,,, 1808. When scarcely 20 years of age he invented the small two-horse plow without wheels, known as the Scotch plow. Four years later he left Hermiston and rented a large moorland farm of 1,300 acres in Aberdeenshire, where he devoted his leisure hours to writing on agricultural subjects, his first production being a series of essays on plant- ing contributed Pi the 'Edinburgh Weekly Mag- azine.' His principal works are, 'Encourage- ment of the National Fisheries' ; 'An Inquiry into the Nature of Corn Laws'; 'Observations mi Slavery.' and 'Recreations in Agriculture, Natural History, Arts, and Miscellaneous Liter- ature' (1799-1802). Anderson, John, a Scottish philosopher, founder of Anderson College. Glasgow: b. Rose- neath, Dumbartonshire, 1726; d. 1796. He stud- ANDERSON ied at the University of Glasgow, where he was afterward professor of Oriental languages, and later of natural philosophy. In addition to his usual class in physics he instituted one for ar- tisans, which he continued to conduct to the end of his life. In l"86 appeared his 'Institutes of Physics,' which went through five editions in 10 years. He invented a gun whose recoil was stopped by air condensation ; but having in vain endeavored to attract the attention of the British government to it. he went to Paris in 1791 and presented his model to the National Convention. It was hung up in their hall with tins inscription over it, "The Gift of Science to Liberty." When the allies had drawn a military cordon around the frontiers of France Ander- son suggested the expedient, which was adopted, of making small paper balloons, to which news- papers and manifestos were fastened and car- ried to Germany. Anderson by his will directed that his entire effects should be devoted to the establishment of an educational institution in Glasgow for the use of the unacademical classes. This college, opened with a single course of lectures, has now nearly 20 professors and lecturers ; courses of instruction are given in physical and medical science and in chemis- try ; mathematics, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, French, music, etc., are also taught. As a school of medicine in particular it possesses a high repu- tation. Anderson, John, Scotch physician and scientist : b. Edinburgh, 4 Oct. 1833 ; d. 1900. He obtained his medical degree at the University of Edinburgh, in 1862, and three years later was appointed superintendent of the Indian Museum at Calcutta, and was called to the chair of Comparative Anatomy in the Calcutta Medi- cal College. In 1868-69 and again in 1874-75 he accompanied expeditions to western China as scientific officer. In 1881 the trustees of the Indian Museum commissioned him to investi- gate the marine zoology of the Mergui archi- pelago, the results of his researches being pub- lished in 'Fauna of Mergui and its Archipelago' ( 1889) ; and also in the Journal of the Linnasan Society (vols. XXI and XXII). In 18S7 he re- tired from the service of the Indian Govern- ment. Among his writings, which are mainly reports to the government and scientific papers, the most noteworthy are: 'Mandalay to Mo- mien' (1875); 'Anatomical and Zoological Re- searches' (1878); 'Two Expeditions to West- ern China' (1876); 'Herpetology of Arabia,' also containing a list of Egyptian reptiles and batrachians (1896); 'Handbook of the Archae- ological Collections in the Indian Museum;' ' Catalogue of the Mammalia in the Indian Mu- seum,' etc. Anderson, John Jacob, an American au- thor and educator: b. New York, 30 Sept. 1821 ; d. 14 March 1906. Graduated at Normal School, Col- lege of City of New York, 1846. Teacher for 30 years in public schools of New York city; traveled oyer North and Central America, Europe, and Af- rica. He published a large number of text-books on history, chief of which are: 'Manual of General Hi^torv' (1867"); "School History of the United States' (1868); 'Manual of Mediae- val and Modern History'; 'History of France' (1877); 'Complete Course in Historv, Part 1' (1881). Anderson, Larz, an American diplomat: b. Paris, France, 15 Aug. 1866; d. 1902. Gradu- ated at Harvard, 1888 ; second secretary United States legation, London. 1891-3; first secretary, Rome, 1893-7; assistant adjutant general. United States Volunteers, during the Spanish-American war, 1898. Anderson, Martin Brewer, an American educator: b. in Brunswick. Me., 12 Feb. 1815; d. 26 Feb. 1890; was graduated at Waterville College, now Colby University, in 1840; became professor of rhetoric and organized and taught the course in modern history at Waterville; and was president of the University of Rochester, N. Y., 1853 to 18S8. Anderson, Mary Antoinette, American actress: b. Sacramento, Cal., 28 July 1859. She was educated at the Ursuline Convent and the Academy of the Presentation Nuns in Louisville. and when 13 years of age began to study for the stage. She first appeared at Louisville on 27 Nov. 1875, in the character of Juliet. Her suc- cess was immediate, and during the following years she played with increasing popularity in the principal cities of the United States in vari- ous roles. In 1883 she appeared at the Lyceum Theatre in London and opened the Memorial Theatre at Stratford-on-Avon in the character of Rosalind in 'As You Like It,' and speedily became well known in England. At the age of 28 she married Antonio de Navarro and retired from the stage. In 1896 she published a volume entitled, 'A Few Memories.' Anderson, Melville Best, American edu- cator and author: b. Kalamazoo, Mich. 28 March 1851. He was educated at Cornell Uni- versity (1870-74); the University of Gottingen (i87S-"6); and at the University of P.-ir^ (1876^77). Returning to the United States he occupied several professorships in some of the principal colleges, notably Butler University, Purdue University, the State University of low a. and in 1891 became professor of literature in Leland Stanford, Jr. University, which chair he has since occupied. He has translated and edited 'Paul and Virginia': Hugo's 'William Shakespeare'; Boissicr's 'Mine, de Sevigne' ; Caro's 'George Sand' ; Simon's 'Victor Cousin' ; Sorel's 'Montesquieu'; Say's 'Turgot'; Re- musat's 'Thiers' ; Joutel's 'Journal of La Salle's Last Voyage' (1896); Tonty*s 'Relation' (189S); 'Nicholas de La Salle's Narrative' (189S) ; 'Cavalier de La Salle's Discovery rj the Mississippi River' (1901), etc. He also edited 'Bacon's Essays, with Introduction and Notes' (1800); and wrote 'Representative Poets of the Nineteenth Century' (1896). Anderson, Rasmus Bjorn, an American author: b. Albion, Wis.. 12 Jan. 1846. Gradu- ated at Luther College, Iowa. 1866. and Univer- sity of Wisconsin, 1869. Professor of Scandi- navian languages and literatures in University of Wisconsin, 1875-83: L'mted States minister to Denmark. 1885-9. Author of 'America Nol Discovered bj Columbus 1 (1874); 'Norse' Mythology' (1875); 'Viking Tales of the North (1876); translator of Horn's 'Historj Literature of the Scandinavian North 1 ' (1884), of various stories by Bjomson, 'The Younger Fddas' (1880). and G. Brandes' 'Eminent Authors of the 19th Century' (1886). ANDERSON Anderson, Richard Henry, an American Confederate soldier: l>. South Carolina, 7 Oct. [821; d. Beaufort, S, C, 20 Feb. 1879. Gradu- ated from West Point in [842; served in Mexi- can war. In May [86) he resigned from the United States army to join the Confederate ser vice. lie assisted in the bombardment of I ort Sumter and distinguished himself for gallantry throughout the war, especially at Fair Oaks, Gaines Mills. Frazier's Farm, Bull Run, and Gettysburg, lie had the rank of major-general I and lieutenant-general (1864), command- ing the 4th corps of Lee's army in the last cam- paign. Anderson, Robert, Scotch biographer and critic: b. Carmvath, Lanarkshire, 7 Jan. 1750; d. jo Feb. 1830. In 1784 he became a resident and practitioner in Edinburgh, but soon after his marriage turned his attention to literary pur- suits and finallj ceased the practice of medicine altogether. lie became editor of the 'Edin- burgh Magazine.' wrote a "Life of Dr. Johnson,' and published 'A Complete Edition of tin' of Great Britain, with Prefaces Biographical and Critical' ( 14 vols. 1792-1807). Anderson, Robert, an American soldier: b. near Louisville, Ky., 14 June 1805; d. in France, 26 Oct. 1871. Graduating at West Point 1825, he entered the artillery as second lieuten- ant. He was on Scott's staff in the Seminole war. 1837-8: in the Mexican war was badly wounded at Molino del Rey. Commissioned ma- jor in [857, m i860 he was given command of the troops in Charleston harbor, with headquarters at Fort Moultrie. Threatened with attack, the fort untenable, and the Buchanan administration making no reply to his appeals for its strength- ening or for instructions, on 26 December he re- moved the garrison to Fort Sumter. An at- tempt of the government to provision it being assumed by the Confederates as a declaration of war, they invested it and compelled its surren- der by a bombardment, 12-13 April 1861 ; its commander leaving with the honors of war. Appointed brigadier-general, he was assigned to the department of the Cumberland; hut Ins health failing, he was relieved from active duty in October and retired in 1S63. Brevetted major-general in 1865, in 1S69 he went to Nice, France, for his health. lie wrote works on tac- tics, and was instrumental in organizing the Soldiers' Home at Washington. Anderson, Sir Robert, an Irish barrister and author: h. 29 May 184I. He was assistant commissioner of police in London, 1888-1901, and was knighted in the year last named. His published works include 'The Coming Prince'; 'A Doubter's Doubts about Science and Re- ; 'Human Destiny'; 'The Gospel and its Ministry'; 'Daniel in the Critics' Hen'; 'The Silence of God' (1807); 'The Buddha of 'Christendom' (1899) ; ( The Bible and Modern Criticism' ( 1902 1 . Anderson, Rufus, American Congrega- tional clergyman, and Secretary of the Ameri- can Board of Foreign Missions : b. North Yar- mouth. Me., 17 Aug. 1796; d. Boston, Mass., 30 May 1880. Having graduated at Bowdoin Col- lege in 1818, he studied theology at the Andover Theological Seminary, completing his course in 1822. In 1824 he became assistant secretary to the Board of Foreign Missions, serving as such till 1832, when he became full secretary. In this position he continued for 34 years, till [866, when owing to his advanced age and failing health he retired. lie inspected the missions in the Mediterranean in 1828-29 and again in 1843-44, the results of his tours of these years being chronicled in his 'Observations on the Peloponnesus and Greek Islands' (Boston, 1830). He also visited the Indian Missions in '854-55, and the Sandwich Islands in 1863. From 1867 to 1869 he was lecturer on Foreign Missions in the Andover Theological Seminary. lie with others founded the Mount Holyoke Female Seminary, at South lladlev. Mass., was for several years president of the hoard of trus- tees of Bradford Academy, Mass., and a mem- ber of the board of trustees of the Andover Theological Seminary. Besides his 'Observa- tions' he also wrote: 'The Hawaiian Islands, Their Progress and Condition under Mission- ary Labors' (1864); 'A Heathen Nation Civi- lized'; 'A History of the Sandwich Islands' Missions' (1870); 'History of the Missions of the American Board of Commissioners for For- eign Missions to the Oriental Churches' (3 vols., 1872-4), etc. Anderson, Ind., city and county-seat of Madison County; on the White River, 36 miles northeast of Indianapolis. It is the junction of four steam railroads, trunk lines, and is the centre of one of the most extensive systems of electric traction lines in the middle west. The power house is the largest in the State, gener- ating the power which carries cars to every im- portant city in northern and central Indiana. Industries. — Anderson lies in the centre of a rich agricultural region and is also an import- ant manufacturing centre. Here was established one of the first and largest tin plate mills, in- troducing that industry into the United States. Over 100 shops are engaged in industrial enter- prises where nearly every commodity known to trade is made. Chief among these are tin plate, glass, wire fence, steel springs, nails, automo- biles, carriages, shovels, files, wind pumps, steel tanks, shovel handles, carriage and buggy ma- terials, tools and tool workers' supplies, encaus- tic tiles, etc. Natural gas was discovered in 1887, and while the flow has diminished to some extent it is still sufficient in supply for heating and small manufacturing purposes. Banks, Public Works. Buildings, Etc. — The city has five banks, with a c?pitalization of $1,500,000, and deposits of $3,000,000; three daily papers; a city electric railway covering over 10 miles; 20 miles of brick paved streets; 50 miles of cement sidewalk ; an excellent fire department, and owns and operates its own water and elec- tric lighting plants. Among the prominent buildings are the Court House, erected in 1882 at a cost of $200,000, the Government building for postal service, a handsome public library, an Orphan's Home, and numerous hotels. There are many substantial school buildings, valued at $,100,000, with a school enumeration of 6.500 children. Nearly all religious denominations are represented and well housed in the city. History. Government, and Population. — The first settlement was 111 1822. when, as the home of the Delaware Indians, it was known as Ander- son's Town, the chief of the Delaware tribe being known as "Kik-tha-we-nund, or Ander- ANDERSON — ANDES son." Anderson's Town became a county-seat in 1827. The name was changed to Anderson by act of the Legislature in 1838, and in 1865 the city was incorporated. The city government is vested in a mayor and council, elected by the people. Pop. (1900) 20,178; (1905) 26,000. John L. Forkner, Mayor of Anderson. Anderson, S. C, city and county-seat of Anderson County, on the Charleston & West- ern Carolina, and Blue Ridge railroads ; 127 miles northwest of Columbia. The city was settled in 1827. It is in the centre of a large and fertile cotton-growing and agricultural re- gion. It contains the city hall, court house and other large buildings, and numerous churches and schools. It has cotton-seed oil, eight cotton mills, lumber, and flour mills, and manufactures of fertilizers, clothing, machinery, and numerous small manufactories. The city is supplied by a private corporation with light and power from an electric plant located on the banks of the Seneca River, 10 miles distant. The same company supplies the water supply for the city. The municipal government is vested in a mayor and a council, elected every two years, under a charter of 1882. Pop. (1890) 3,018; (1900) 5,498; (1904) 8,500. G. P. Browne, Publisher < Daily Mail? Andersonville, Ga., a village of Sumter County, 62 miles southwest of Macon, noted as the seat, during the Civil War, of a military prison of the Confederate States. This prison was established in November 1863, and con- sisted of an unsheltered enclosure containing at first 22 acres, an area subsequently increased to 27. It was commanded by Gen. W. S. Winder, but the superintendent was one Henry Wirz, a Swiss. It has been stated that Andersonville was selected as a suitable site because secure against Federal raiders and generally considered healthful; but that the laying waste of the fields of the South and the destruction of the means of transportation brought upon the Southern army and people great suffering, in which pris- oners of war necessarily shared. It is true that rations were meagre for Confederate soldiers, to whose fare such prisoners were legally en- titled. But evidence shows that the conditions which prevailed at Andersonville were due to mismanagement and cruelty ; such evidence in- cluding ample Confederate testimony, as for ex- ample, that rendered by Dr. G. S. Hopkins and Surgeon H. E. Watkins, constituting a Confed- erate medical commission (1864), and that by Colonel Chandler of the Confederate war de- partment in an inspection report (5 July 1864). Into the enclosure as many as 33,000 prisoners were at times crowded, for the most part com- pletely without shelter, and supplied with insuf- ficient and unsuitable food. Between February 1864 and April 1865 there were received at the prison 49,485 prisoners, of whom 26 per cent, or over 12,800, died there. In the autumn of 1864 the Confederate government removed many to Florence, S. C, and Millen, Ga., where they fared decidedly better. Wirz was convicted in 1865 by a military court under an indictment charging him with injuring the health and de- stroying the lives of prisoners, and was hanged ro November. The prison burying-ground was made a national cemetery. Consult : Stevenson. R. R., 'The Southern Side; or Andersonville Prison' (1876); Chipman, 'The Horrors of Andersonville Rebel Prison' (1891) ; Schouler, 'History of the United States,' Vol. VI. (1899). Andes, an'dez, or, as called in Spanish South America, Cordilleras (ridges) de los Andes, or simply Cordilleras, a range of moun- tains extending along the whole of the west coast of South America, from Cape Horn to the Isthmus of Panama and the Caribbean Sea. Sometimes it is spoken of as a continuation of the Rocky Mountains in North America, but there seems to be no reason for this other than the continuity of the two divisions of America, and the fact that both ranges lie in the west of their respective continents. There is a suffi- ciently marked break between the ridges of the Isthmus of Panama and the range of the Andes of South America, and a still more distinct hia- tus between the sierras of Central America and Mexico and the Rocky Mountains. The south part of this huge chain begins to be continuous about lat. 52 S., and from this point to about lat. 42° S., a distance of nearly 1,100 miles, the range presses close to the Pa- cific Ocean. Its average height in this part is only about 3,000 feet, though several summits rise some thousands of feet higher, namely. Mount Melimoyu, Yanteles (the highest, above 8.000 feet), and the volcanoes of Corcobado and Minchinmadiva. The width of the chain in the extreme south is about 20 miles, further north it increases to 40 miles, and it attains a still greater width before reaching lat. 42 S. About this latitude the chain begins to recede from the coast, leaving wide plains on the west 1,000 or 1,500 feet above sea-level. North of lat. 35 S. a double range may be traced, and the whole system of mountains widens out to about 130 miles. At about lat. 21° S. the direction of the chain, which up to this point is north and slightly east, begins to change a little to the west, and around this elbow, as it were, is a knot of mountains, partly in Argentina and partly in Bolivia, consisting of chains running in various directions, some of which are uncon- nected with the chain of the Andes. This knot forms part of the watershed dividing the rivers of the La Plata from those of the Amazon basin. Among the peaks, up to 21 ° S. lat., are the active volcanoes of Antuco, Maypu, and Tupun- gato; but the culminating point of this portion, and so far as is known of the whole Andes, is Aconcagua, rising to the height of 23,028 feet, and distinctly visible from Valparaiso, 100 miles distant. The Chilean Andes, under the 35th parallel of south latitude, are about 150 miles from the Pacific ; but this distance decreases to about 80 miles in the latitude of Valparaiso. At lat. 21 S. the Andes range bifurcates, forming two chains of great elevation, the Andes of Bolivia and Peru, enclosing the lofty table- land or longitudinal valley of the Desaguadero and Lake Titicaca. Of these two chains the western or Permian has the peaks of Sahama, Parinacota, Gualateiri, and Pomarape, above 21,000 feet in height; and the eastern or Bolivian (Cordillera Real) those of Illimani and Sorata or Illampu (21.484 feet). The highest seems to be Gualateiri, the loftiest active volcano in the chain. 21,960 feet in height. Sa- hama. another active volcano, is 21,054 feet. These parallel Cordilleras, the united breadth of ANDES which nowhere exceeds 250 miles, are united at various points by enormous transverse groups or mountain knots, or else by single ranges crossing lulu-tin them like dikes. The descent to the l'acitic is exceedingly steep; the dip is also very rapid to the east, whence offsets di- verge to the level plains. The tahle-land of the Desaguadero, thus enclosed, has itself an ab- solute altitude of 12,000 feet and an area of 150,000 square miles. A large eastern offset, the Sierra de Cochabamha, leaves the eastern Cor- dillera under the 17th parallel, bounding the rich plain of Cochabamha north, and ending nearly under the ('.id meridian of west longi- tude at Santa Cruz de la Sierra. The two main Cordilleras once more unite in the group of Vilcanota, in lat. 15 S., and the united range then runs about 280 miles northwest to about lat. io° S., where the Andes separate into three nearly parallel chains — the eastern, central, and western Cordilleras, which enclose between them the Iluallaga and Upper Maranon rivers; the western or coast Cordillera running north as far as the group of Loja, near the southern extremity of Ecuador. About lat. 6° S., opposite the Point Aguja, the Andes chain again takes a course north and slightly cast, forming, as in Chile, a single mass or rocky plateau, 80 miles broad, covered with a double series of highly elevated summits en- closing longitudinal valleys, one of which, that of Cuenca, in the group of Assouan, is upward of 15,000 feet high, or nearly within the region of perpetual snow. North of this point the chain again divides, the western range com- prising Mounts Chimborazo (21,240 feet), Ili- niza, and Pichincha; while on the eastern range arc the volcanoes Sangay, Tunguragua, Colo- paxi, Antisana (19,137 feet), and Mount Cay- ambc (19,535 feet). Shortly after entering New Granada, crossing the equator, the chain, in lat. 1° 5' N., again meets in the knot or plateau of Los Pastos, on which is the volcano of Cumbal (16,620 feet) ; but a little north of the city of Pastos it once more bifurcates, enclosing the mountain plain of Almagucr, comprising the volcano of Purace (17,034 feet) on its eastern branch ; and finally, somewhat north of the town of Popayan, the Andes separate into three- distinct ridges — the Sierra di Choco, running north to the Isthmus of Panama; the Sierra di Quindiu, running east of the Cauca River; and the Sierra Sunia Paz, extending east of the Magdalena to Lake Maracaibo and the city of Valencia in Venezuela. North of the fifth northern parallel the only summits within the snow line on these Cordilleras belong to the eastern chain, which also is very precipitous on its eastern slope. On the Quindiu or central chain is the volcano of Tolima (18,325 feet), in lat. 4 46' N. The Choco or coast chain is of comparatively small elevation, its highest point not exceeding 9.000 feet. The total length of the Andes has been estimated at about 4,400 miles. Passes, Roads, and Railways. — This gigan- tic mountain chain is traversed in its different parts by numerous roads or passes at heights almost equal to those of the extreme summits of the European ranges. Most of them are narrow, steep, and sometimes dangerous, pass- ing through gorges, across yawning chasms, and up nearly perpendicular rocks ; nor can they be attempted with success except by the active and well-practised native or the courageous and well-provided traveler. It is worthy of remark, likewise, that nearly all these roads cross the ridge transversely and direct, not, as is some times the case in the Alps, by a circuitous course through the longitudinal valleys. Sub- joined is a list of most of the known mountain passes, with their position, connected localities, and highest elevation, commencing with those on the south. 33° 33 Names Portillo, lat. 40' S Peuquenes, Lit 40' S Cumhrc, lat. 3.' 5-' S Pass of Tolapalca. Pass of Condur Pachcta Pass of Pacuani... Pass of Gualillas, lat. 17° 50' S... Pass of Chullun- quiani Pass of Alto tie To- ledo, lat. 16° 2' S. Angostura Pass 1>\- San M iteo, lat. u 48' S. Alto de Tacaibam- ba Pass Alto de Lachagual Pass Road over the Pa- ramo de Assuay Road over the Quin- diu r.-iss Feet I from Santiago to Estaca- ) da above 14,000 / from Santiago to Estai f da above 13,000 I from Valparaiso to Men* ) doza above 12,400 i from Potosi to Oruro.... ( above 14,000 /from Potosi to Oruro.... J above 14,000 i from La Paz to the Y.il- } ley of tlu- Beni.. .above 15,000 j from Arica to La Paz.... 14,750 (from Arica to La Paz.... above 15,000 (from Arequipa to Puno.... J above 1 5,500 j between Tacora & Lake 1 1 t ticaca above 10,500 c from Lima to Tarma and > Pasco above 15,700 (from Jauja to Huanuco.. J aoovc 1 5,000 (from Jauja to Huanuco.. ' above 1 5,000 (from Alausi to Cuenca.. J above 1 5,500 J from Alausi to Cartago. . . 11,502 Besides the routes just mentioned, a great commercial road runs longitudinally along the Andes the whole distance from Truxillo, lat. 8° 5' S., to Popayan, lat. 2° 25' N., in the valley of the Cauca, not much less than 1,000 miles, and attaining at its highest point, the Paramo de Bolicha, an elevation of 11,500 feet. Two railways across the Andes have already been completed, both in the republic of Pern. The first in operation extends from the port of Mollcndo, near the south of Peru, by Arequipa to Puno on Lake Titicaca, a distance of 217 miles. The eastern terminus of this railway is situated in a table-land 12,196 feet above the level of 'he sea. The first locomotive n the shores of Lake Titicaca on 1 Jan. 1S74. The other and more recent railway is from Lima to Oroya, a distance of 145 miles. The crest of the Andes is traversed by a short tunnel at an altitude of 15,645 feet above sea-level ; the steep and irregular slope up to this point being ascended by a series of sharp curves, and the ravines spanned by bridges. A transandean railway from Buenos Ayres to Valparaiso is nearly completed. Rivers and Lakes. — From the Andes rise two of the largest water systems of the world — the Amazon and its affluents, and the La Plata and its tributaries. Besides which, in the north, from its slopes flow the Magdalena to the Caribbean Sea, and some tributaries to the Orinoco, but no streams of importance flow from its western slopes. The number of lakes interspersed through this vast mountain system is not great, and in this respect it presents a striking contrast to the Swiss Alps. The MOUNT CHIMBORAZO IN THE ANDES 21.420 FEET HIGH A SOUTH AMERICAN INN. NATIVE HOTEL IN THE CORDILLERAS ANDES largest, and the only one worthy of notice, is that of Titicaca on the Bolivian plateau. Geology, etc. — In considering the geology of the Andes, the first fact that strikes the ob- server is the vast development of volcanic force along the whole length of the chain, which is continued north through Guatemala and Mex- ico. These volcanic vents occur in three linear groups, the extreme southern extending from the 42d to the 33d parallel of south latitude ; the next from the 27th to the 15th parallel, and the last ' from lat. 2° S. to about lat. 5° N. Mention has already been made of the principal volcanoes. Another striking circumstance in the geology' of this range is that it consists almost entirely of sedimentary rocks, showing that its highest parts must at one time have been submerged. Granite comes so rarely to the surface in the northern parts of the chain, that, according to Humboldt, a person might travel for years in the Andes of Peru without meeting this species of rock ; and he never saw any at a greater absolute elevation than 11,500 feet. Gneiss is sometimes found in con- nection with the granite ; but mica-schist is by far the commonest of all the crystalline rocks. Quartz is likewise extremely abundant, gen- erally mixed with mica, and rich in gold and specular iron. Vast tracts of red sandstone, with gypseous and saliferous marls, occur in Peru. Porphyry and greenstone abound all over the range at every elevation, both on the slopes and extreme ridges ; and trachyte is al- most as abundant as porphyry, both in Peru and Chile, great masses of it, from 14,000 to 18,- 000 feet thick, being visible on Chimborazo and Pichincha. As respects volcanic products, the western face of the Andes presents immense quantities of lava, tufa, and obsidian, none of which are found on the eastern side ; this ap- plies especially to that part of the chain lying between Chile and the equator. Fossil remains are by no means common ; but in the limestone strata of the coast toward the northern extrem- ity of the range Humboldt found many marine shells of the Silurian period, about 30 miles from the coast ; and Pentland observed others of the same era at a height of 17.500 feet on Mount Antakawa in Bolivia, as well as in sev- eral other parts. Earthquakes. — Many of the volcanoes, as be- fore observed, are in a state of either constant or occasional action ; it cannot, therefore, be matter of surprise that there should be fre- quent and violent earthquakes. All the districts of the Andes system, but Chile especially, have suffered more severely from these oscillations than any other part of the world ; and among the towns either destroyed or greatly injured by these visitations may be mentioned Bogota, Quito, Riobamba, Lima, Callao, Valparaiso, and Concepcion. In 1819 Copiapo was entirely overturned, not a house being left standing. Concepcion was twice destroyed — in 1730 and 1751 ; and in November 1822 an earthquake was felt on the same day at this town, in lat. 37 S., and at Lima in lat 12° N., more than 1,700 miles distant : it was on this occasion that Val- paraiso, Melipella, and Quillota were all but completely annihilated. This earthquake, too, had the remarkable effect of upheaving the land on the coast, upward of 100 miles in extent, to the height of three or four feet, and elevating a portion of the shore above high-water mark. These shocks continued at brief intervals till the autumn of 1823 ; and since that time the vol- canoes of Maypu, until then for many years quiescent, have had frequent eruptions. In Au- gust 1868 the towns of Arequipa, Iqulque, Tacna, and many other smaller towns in Peru and Ecuador, were destroyed. Earthquakes, slight or more serious, are of yearly occurrence, and faint oscillations of the soil are regarded with scarcely more attention than a hail-storm in the temperate zone. Mineral Productions. — The Andes are ex- tremely rich in the precious metals. In Chile, Bolivia, Peru, and Colombia gold is obtained. Silver occurs in Chile in the provinces of Co- quimbo and Atacama, and the mines of these districts are remarkable for the richness of their ores. The Peruvian Andes have numerous sil- ver mines scattered over their whole extent from the province of Caxamarca south to the confines of Chile ; but incomparably the richest are the mines of Cerro de Pasco, which have' been worked upward of two centuries. The mines of Chota likewise, which are situated on Mount Hualgayoc, are productive. The ore, which is richer even than that of Pasco, lies either on or very near the surface. Close to the Pacific, at Huantajaya, in the district of Arica, are sev- eral mines celebrated for the quantity of virgin silver found therein, sometimes in masses of great weight. The most famous mines are those of the Cerro de Potosi, in Bolivia, lat. IO ° 3°' S., which is perforated in all directions by thousands of openings, some of which are within 100 feet of the summit (16,000 feet). Quicksilver is found in several parts of the Andes, but in combination with sulphur, form- ing the red sulphuret of mercury commonly known as cinnabar. Copper is found both in the east and west Cordilleras of Peru ; but the eastern chain is too far from the coast to admit of mines being profitably worked. The copper mines of Chile are the most valuable. They are situated chiefly in the desert of Atacama. Tin also, wrought in Chile, forms an article of ex- port; but lead and iron, though plentiful, are not worked. Considerable platinum is ob- tained from the state of Choco in Colombia. Climate and Meteorology. — On the western side of the range little or no rain falls, except at the southern extremity ; and scanty vegeta- tion appears only in spots, or in small valleys, watered by streams from the mountains ; while on the opposite slope excessive heat and mois- ture combine to give the range a thick covering of tangled forest trees and dense brushwood. Currents of cold west and northwest winds blow nearly all the year from the ice-topped Cordilleras on the plateau beneath, daily accom- panied during four months by thunder, light- ning, and snow storms. Currents of warm air are also occasionally found on the crest of the Andes : they usually occur two hours after sun- set, being both local and narrow, like the hot blasts in the Alps, not exceeding a few yards in width. They run parallel to each other, and so closely that five or six of them may be passed in a few hours. They blow chiefly from south- southwest to north-northeast and are especially frequent in August and September. Notwith- standing the great number of snow-clad sum- mits, glaciers are of rare occurrence in the ANDES AND THE AMAZON — ANDOVER Andes, being found only, and then of but small extent, in the narrow ravines which furrow the sides of some of its Riant summits. I • fetation. — In the low torrid plains that flank the bases of the Andes reign the banana, cycas, plainlain, cassava, cacao, the cotton tree, indigo and coffee plant, and i cane, all of which are extensively and profitably grown be- low the altitude of 4,000 feet. Maize is like- wise plentiful, and may be said to form the bread of the Peruvians; it is of three different kinds, and, according to Humboldt, is cultivated 7,000 feet above the sea. Within the same lim- its also are found, either wild or cultivated, the pineapple, pomegranate, shaddock, orange, lime, lemon, peach, apricot, together with olives, aji or pepper plants, tomatoes, sweet potatoes, gum copal, copaiba balsam, dragon's blood, sar- saparilla, and vanilla. To these groups suc- ceed, in tin- humid and shaded clefts on the slopes of the Cordilleras, the tree-ferns, and cin- chona or cascarilla, whence we derive the febri- fuge bark and quinine. Between the heights of 6.000 and 9,000 feet is the climate best suited for the European cereals. To these may be added the quinoa (Chenopodium tiuinoa), a most useful production for domestic uses. In this region also, and a little above it, grow the putatu, indigenous to Chile and thence intro- duced into Europe, and various tuberose con- geners, all extensively used as food; and here likewise grow the chickpea, broad bean, cab- bage, and other European vegetables. Within the cereal limits are found the oak, elm, ash, and beech, which never descend lower than 5,500 feet, and seldom rise higher than 9,200 feel above the sea. Above this level the larger forest trees, except the pine, begin to disappear. Zoology. — The fauna of the Andes is still very imperfectly known. Among the carniv- orous animals the principal arc the jaguar, puma, ounce, ocelot, and wild-cat. There are also bears, tapirs, raccoons, wild hogs, foxes, and otters, with both red and roe deer. The characteristic animals of the Andes, however, are the llama and its different congeners — the guanaco, vicuna, and paco or alpaca. They are the chief beasts of burden on the Andes. The forests of the warmer regions abound with members of the monkey tribe, etc. Many vari- eties of serpents are found. Bats are numerous and of large size, the vampire bat being one of the most remarkable. The condor soars over the highest summits, making its nest among the highest and least accessible rocks ; other birds of prey are also numerous. Curassows, wild tur- keys, parrots, and parrakeets are common in the woods, and there are also a great many varieties of smaller birds. Makrion Wilcox, Authority on Latin-America. An'des and the Amazon, The, a volume of travels by James Orton (i8;o, enlarged ed. 1876). Under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution, the author, who for many years was professor of natural history at Vassar College, led an exploring expedition to the equatorial Andes and the river Amazon. Its experiences are set forth in this work. Andesine, an'dez-Tn, a triclinic feldspar, intermediate in composition between albite and anorthite. Albite and anorthite are isomor- pbous, and andesine includes those mixtures of the two in which the ratio of albite to andesine ranges from 1:1 to 3:2. Andesine may be de- scribed as an anhydrous silicate of sodium, aluminum, and calcium. Its hardness is from 5 to 6, and its specific gravity about 2.68. In color it is white, gray, greenish, yellowish, or pink. It was first found in the Andes (whence the name), but has since been observed in Alsace, in Iceland, and in other localities. In the United States it occurs at Sanford, Me. Andesite, an'dcz-It, a common volcanic rock, consisting of a triclinic feldspar (such as andesine) mixed with hornblende or augite and sometimes also with quartz. It varies in color from green to gray and occasionally has a purplish cast. It is difficult to define andesite accurately because basalt, andesite, and trachyte are similar in composition, and intermediate va- rieties exist, which, with the typical rocks of the three classes, form an almost continuous series. Andesite is more fusible than trachyte, but less fusible than basalt. Andigan, a'n'di-jan', a city of the Russian khanate of Khokandin, central Asia. It is the centre of an immense cotton-raising district, whence Russia received three fourths of all the cotton used in the empire. In 1002 the city was totally destroyed by an earthquake which killed over 5,000 of the 47,000 inhabitants. Andira, an-di'ra, a genus of leguminous typical American trees, with fleshy plum-like fruits. The wood is well fitted for building. The bark of A. inermis, or cabbage-tree, is narcotic, and is used as an anthelminthic under the name of worm bark or cabbage bark. The powdered bark of A. araroba is employed as a remedy in certain skin diseases, as herpes. Andocides, an'dos'T-dez, an Athenian ora- tor : b. 467 B.C. ; d. about 393 B.C. Active in public affairs, he was four times exiled; the first time along with Alcibiades, for profaning the Eleusinian mysteries. Three of his orations are extant. Andorra, an-dor'ra, a small republic in the Pyrenees between Ariege, a department of France, and Lerida, a province of Spain. It is only partially independent, being under the su- zerainty of both France and Spain. The town covers an area of 175 square miles and the in- habitants arc devoted chiefly to cattle-raising and iron and lead mining. The republic and its history have attracted much attention from stu- dents of governmental institutions. Pop. 6.000. Sec Tucker, 'The Valley of Andorra' (1882) : Deverell, 'History of the Republic of Andorra' (1885); Spender, 'Through the High Alps' (1898). An'dover, an English market town in Hampshire, 12 miles west of Winchester. Its large parish church was built about 1850 on the site of a Norman predecessor. The Massachu- setts Andover was named in honor of the Hamp- shire town. Pop. about 6,000. An'dover, Mass., a town in Essex County, on the Merrimac River and the Boston & M. R.R. ; 23 miles north of Boston. It is widely known as the seat of the Andover Theological Seminary fq.v.), the Phillips Academy for boys, and the Abbot Academy for girls, and has manu- factories of flax, shoes, and woolen goods, two national banks, Memorial Hall, and school libra- ANDOVER THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY — ANDRE ries, a free public library of over 12,000 volumes, and a property valuation of over $4,000,000. Harriet Beecher Stowe lived here many years, and it was long the home of Elizabeth Stuart Phelps Ward. It was first settled in 1646. Pop. (1900) 6,813. Andover Theological Seminary, Andover, Mass., one of the oldest and most famous theo- logical schools in the United States. It was founded in 1807, at a period when there was little provision for special education in theology, the Greek or Hebrew languages, Biblical criti- cism, etc. ; and it was usual for ministerial can- didates to study for a time under the private tuition of some noted divine. These private divinity schools were often very effective intel- lectually and practically, but could not supply the minute and accurate scholarship of regular institutions with longer set terms, the need of which was now sharply felt. At this time also, not only was New England divided into strenu- ous Calvinists and semi-Calvinists or outright Arminians, but the former were themselves di- vided into Calvinists proper and Hopkinsians, a more extreme type. Under a common alarm at the inroads of religious liberalism, however, the former drew together and united in up- holding a general theological seminary. This was founded by Samuel Abbot, a Boston mer- chant, who associated with him Phoebe Phillips, widow of the founder of Phillips Academy, and her son John ; and the three drew up a consti- tution for the seminary, submitted it to the General Assembly June 1807, and committed it to the board of trustees 31 Aug. 1807. The ar- ticles were rigidly drawn to prevent the teach- ing of anything but the especial form of Cal- vinism held by the founders, the endowment to be forfeited if these restrictions were dis- regarded. But no such provision could be enforced in an age of free thought and con- sequent flux of belief without shutting up the seminary. The trustees have had twice to choose between relaxing the iron-bound rules of the deed and closing the doors. By the irony of fate the defenders against assaults for heresy in the one generation were the chief prosecutors of it in the next. The seminary makes no charge for tuition or room rent, the endowment fund ($850,000 in 1901) providing for all ; and though under Congregational control it is free to all Protestants who can present a college diploma. The latter requirement can be waived by the trustees. The library contains over 30,000 vol- umes. In 1900 there were six professors be- sides five lecturers and tutors. President, Geo. Foot Moore, D.D. (For its foundation and history from a rigidly orthodox standpoint see Leonard Woods' 'History of Andover,' Boston, 1884.) An'dradite (named for the Portuguese mineralogist, dAndrada), the common or black garnet. See Garnet. Andral, an'dral', Gabriel, a distinguished French physician and pathologist : b. in Paris, 6 Nov. 1797; d. 13 Feb. 1876. In 1827 he was called to the chair of hygiene, in 1830 to that of pathology in the University of Paris. An- dral may be said to have been the first to apply an analytical and inductive method to pathology. His 'Medical Clinic' (1824) estab- lished his reputation, and his 'Summary of Pathological Anatomy' (1829) was equally suc- cessful. Other works of importance are his 'Essay on Pathological Hematology' (1843) ; 'Course in Pathology — Interne'; and 'Investi- gations into the Modification of the Relative Proportions of Haematic (Blood) Principles.' Andrassy, an'dra-shi, Julius, Count, Hun- garian statesman : b. Zempben, 8 March 1823 ; d. 18 Feb. 1900. He took part in the revolution of 1848 and was condemned to death, but escaped and went into exile. Appointed premier when self- government was restored to Hungary in 1867, he became imperial minister for foreign affairs in 1871 ; drew up the famous Andrassy note to the Porte in 1876 ; was a conspicuous member of the Congress of Berlin in 1878; negotiated the Ger- man-Austrian alliance with Bismarck in 1879; retiring the same year from public life. The Andrassy "Note" was a declaration relating to the disturbed condition of Bosnia and Herze- govina, formulated by the governments of Austria, Russia, and Germany, with the approval of England and France. It commanded the es- tablishment of religious liberty, the application of local revenues to local purposes, and other reforms, and was formally presented to the Porte, 31 Jan. 1876. Andre, an'dra, or an'dri, John, a British soldier: b. London, of Swiss-French parentage, 1751 ; executed at Tappan, N. Y., 2 Oct. 1780. His fate is peculiar; failure has given him a monument in Westminster Abbey from his own side, and undying romantic pity from the other, where success would have loaded him with in- famy from one, and made the other glad to for- get him. He entered the English army at 20, and was sent to Canada in 1774: November 1775 he was taken prisoner at St. John's by Mont- gomery's expedition and sent to Lancaster, Pa. Exchanged in December 1776, he was made cap- tain in 1777, aide to Gen. Charles Grey, major in 1778, and in 1779 aide to Clinton and adjutant- general of the forces in America. He owed this rapid advancement, as he has owed his en- shrinement by posterity, to his extraordinary and somewhat feminine charm of person and manner, which won the hearts not only of his chiefs and associates, but of the very officers who put him to death. He was full of wit and vivacity, a most entertaining companion, a good amateur musician and artist, and a fluent, pleas- ing writer, which, more than all else, made him Clinton's adjutant and secretary. He was also a fair society poet, known in London literary circles; and his casual ? !< i t ^ in verse, 'The Cow Chase,' 'Yankee Doodle's Expedition to Rhode Island,' 'The Affair Between Generals Howe and Gadsden,' etc., were great favorites in the English army. During that army's winter in Philadelphia, 1777-8, Andre was the promoter of and a chief actor in all the festal occasions and social events, including the 'Mischianza,' a pa- geant in honor of Howe on his departure. In 1780 it fell to his official duty to conduct Clin- ton's negotiations with Benedict Arnold (q.v.) for the betrayal of West Point, the key of the Hudson, whose command Arnold had solicited in order to betray it, with its magazines and the entire stock of powder of the American armv. Both sides were wary and suspicious of each other, and Clinton uncertain of his correspond- ent's identity or whether the affair might not be ANDRE — ANDREASBERG a trap. After various abortive attempts at a rel interview, Andre, on 19 September, went as "John Anderson" up the Hudson in the sloop- "i war Vulture, nearly to tbe American lines above Fort Montgomery. Tbe plan was to meet under a flag of truce, on pretense of arranging as to the confiscated property of tbe loyalist Col. Beverly Robinson, whose bouse was Ar- nold's headquarters; but this, too, failed, and finally on the night of 2] September Arnold in- duced a loyalist fanner, Joshua Sniitb, to carry a packet from Robinson to "Anderson" on the Vulture. Andre returned with Smith, was met on the shore by Arnold, and after a private con- ference tbe two went to Smith's bouse, where they spent tbe nigbt and part of tbe next day arranging the betrayal, which was fixed for the day of Washington's expected return. Ar- nold gave him six papers containing drawings of the West Point defenses and full information concerning them, and passes to return to New Vork either by land or water. He also sent Smith as escort, charged not to leave Andre till he bad readied the English lines in safety. But in the morning tbe American batteries bad fired on tbe Vulture and driven her so far down stream that tbe boatmen would not carry him to her. Andre, therefore, disguising himself as a civilian, set out on horseback, carrying the pa- pers in his boots. Smith, despite Arnold's in- junction, left Andre on tbe way. probably in fear for himself. About 9 A.M. of tbe 23d, near Tar- rytown, and almost in sight of the British lines, he was stopped by three patriot militiamen, John Paulding, David Williams, and Isaac Van Wart Supposing them to be Tory "cowboys," he told them he was an English officer, and offered them money. Finding that they were not loyalists, he offered more and his horse, showing also Ar- nold's pass. Their suspicions thoroughly aroused, they searched him, found the papers, and car- ried him to one Lieut-Col. Jamison, who, not suspecting treachery on Arnold's part, notified him of the capture and proposed to hand the prisoner over to him. The gleam of hope was delusive, and Andre was finally sent to Washing- ton, while Arnold fled to the Vulture and saved his own life. By military law Andre was, of course, subject to immediate hanging; but in consideration of his rank, Washington on 29 September convened a military court of six major-generals and eight brigadier-generals, with Gen. Nathanael Greene as president, who unani- mously convicted him of being a spy and sen- tenced him to death on 2 October. Clinton, of course, did his best to save Andre, protesting that he was not a spy because he was under a flag of truce (which was false), and that his movements were in obedience to the directions of Arnold, an American commander, — a grimly humorous defense under tbe circumstances; but Washington replied with firm courtesy that the circui lustified no exception to tbe rules of war. Andre died like a man, and need not be grudged our pity; but he was treated with a generous humanity curiously in contrast with the treatment accorded to Nathan Hale. A monument to Andre was placed in West- minster and in 1821 his remains were taken up and reburicd near it. See Sparks, n land, or on other organisms, while Others remain for long periods quiescent in comparative dryness. Many algae are abso- lutely isolated in the water, while others are more or less intimately fixed to some solid substratum. Fungi are very seldom found in water, and lichens are also emphatically terres- trial. Sonic liverworts, again, occur floating in lakes, but the majority grow in very damp places and mark the transition to the generally terrestrial life of mosses and ferns. Some rhiz- ocarps, such as Salvinia, are aquatic, with leaves rising to the surface, while others are land or marsh plants, like the higher horse-tails and club-mosses. Among the flowering plants, or phanero- gams, a return to aquatic life is exhibited by numerous though exceptional cases, while a very large number grow in moist situations and have a semi-aquatic habit. The simple monocotyledons, known as Helobia, or marsh lilies, are more or less strictly water-plants. The arrow-head (Sagittaria), and other Alisma- cca; the Butomis of the marshes; Hydrocharis, with floating kidney-shaped leaves; the water- soldier (Stratiotes), with narrow submerged leaves; and the Canadian pond-weed {Jiujcha- ris), which, though entirely flowerless in Eu- rope, threatens to choke some canals and lakes, arc familiar representatives. The little duck- weed (Lcmna), floating on the surface of stag- nant pools, is one of the commonest aquatic mon 11 ns; and the pond-weeds (Pota- jik'u) found in both fresh and salt water: the lattice-plant (Ouvirandra), with its skeleton leaves; various estuarine and fresh-water naia- daceous plants, — for example, Zostcra and .Xaias, are also common instances, while those grow- ing in marshy ground are far too numerous to mention. Among dicotyledons the white water- buttercup (Ranunculus aquaiilis'), with its slightly divided floating and much dissected submerged leaves; the yellow and white water- lilies (Nymphaa) ; the sacred lotus flower of the Ganges and Nile (Nelumbium) ; the gigantic Victoria rcgia of tropical South America; and the insectivorous bladderwort or b'tricularia, are among the more familiar aquatic forms. A'quatin'ta, the name given to a method of engraving or etching upon copper or steel, in- d bj I i prince in 1760. The outline of the subject having been etched and bit, the plate thoroughly cleansed, and a thin layer of etch- ing ground is again spread over it. When dry, the parts of the subject to be aquatintcd are carefully painted over with a mixture of olive oil, turpentine, and lamp-black; this fluid, laid on with a hair pencil, quickly dissolves the parts of the ground it covers, which are then wiped in plate is next dusted all over with a finely-powdered white resin or mastic, and when equally distributed the superfluous resin is shaken off, and the plate gently heated over a charcoal fire till the resin di olves and ad- heres to the bare metal. In dissolving, the grains of the resin run into small granule--, leaving minute and peculiarly shaped portions of the metal open to the action of the aquafor- tis, a weak solution of which is then poured over the plate. When corroded to the proper strength the subject has acquired what may he termed the first wash of color. I In- plate is then cleaned, re-covered with ground, and treat- ed as before, for the second tint. The process is repealed until all the deeper tones of shading are completed. These operations arc some- times reversed, the darkest shades being first bit in, and the lighter ones added by degrees. Aq'ueduct, a term denoting an artificial channel or conduit for the conveyance of water from one place to another ; more particularly applied to great architectural structures for conveying water from distant sources for the supply of large cities, until the recent develop- ment of water-ways on a large scale for irri- gation, mining, and power has brought this term into more general use. Works for supply- ing communities with water must have been constructed at a very early period. In China there are said to be aqueducts dating back to prehistoric times. In Persia and Assyria there arc structures whose remains indicate that they were used for aqueducts, hut their history is not clear. Recent excavations at Jerusalem have laid hare wells and channels cut in the solid rock, and indicate that the water supply of the city was brought from the neighborhood of Bethlehem and Hebron. These channels seem to have been composed of earthen pipes incased in stones and covered with rough rocks cemented together. It is supposed that King Solomon built aqueducts; others are ascribed to Rameses the Great, in Egypt, and to Semi- ramis in Assyria. There are also early remains at Palmyra in the wilderness. In the island of Samos have recently been discovered re- mains of a tunnel nearly a mile long and con- taining water-pipes about nine inches in diame- ter. These may have been built in 687 B.C. by Eupalinos of Megara. Water was brought to Athens from Mount Hymettos and Mount Pentelikon ; Thebes, Megara, Pharsalos, and other places also had aqueducts. In Patara, a city of Lycia. in Asia Minor, there is a very an- cient aqueduct consisting of an embankment of rough stone 250 feet high and 200 feet long, with an archway at the centre of the valley, al- lowing the stream to pass through it under- neath. The channels for the water consist of cubical stone blocks about a yard in dimension, with a hole 13 inches in diameter, the blocks being closely connected and cemented together. Roman Aqueducts. — While the Greeks devel- oped underground water-ways and canals, and followed simple methods, the Romans under their great engineers produced massive structures for carrying water at a high level across valleys and plains. At first Rome was satisfied with water from the Tiber, from wells, and the abundant springs which gushed forth within its precincts. Four hundred and forty-two AQUEDUCT years preceded the first aqueduct, which was the joint work of Appius Claudius Caecus and Caius Plautius Venox, censors in 312 B.C. Ap- pius Claudius built the conduit, Venox discov- ered the springs. The entire length of the aqueduct was 16,445 metres, or about 10 miles, and it furnished 115,303 cubic metres a day. The second aqueduct was begun in 272 B.C. by Manius Curius Dentatus, and was finished three years later. Its length was 63,704 metres, or about 45 miles, and it furnished 277,866 cubic metres a day ; it was not used for drinking, but for irrigating gardens and flushing drains. In 144 B.C. the Senate determined to repair the two old aqueducts and build a new one. This work was begun by Quintus Marcius Rex. The Marcian aqueduct brought the water from 36 miles away in the territory of Arsoli, and fed water to the highest platform of the capitol. It was restored in 33 B.C., and Augustine doubled the supply of water in 5 B.C. In 79 a.d. Titus repaired it ; in 196 Septimius Severus brought in a new supply for his baths; in 212-3 Cara- calla cleaned out the springs, added a new one, and restored the aqueduct, building a branch four miles in length for his baths ; in 305-6 Di- ocletian performed the same service. The via- ducts and bridges by which it crossed the high- lands are magnificent. There are seven bridges, some of them carrying four aqueducts. The Marcian reaches Rome at the Porta Maggiore, where no less than 10 water supplies met. It was restored as recently as 1869 and brings a water supply from the Sabine Mountains. The noble arches which stretch across the Cam- pagna for some six miles on the road to Fras- cati are a portion of this aqueduct. The Aqua Tepula and Aqua Julia, combined by Agrippa in 23 B.C., had a length, the one of 17.745 metres, or 10 miles, the other of 22.853 metres, or about 12 miles, and a combined flow of 104.- 300 cubic metres a day. Of the nine aqueducts which brought water to ancient Rome, three still supply the modern city, namely, the Aqua Virgo, now Acqua Vergine, finished by Agrippa, 27 B.c, and restored by Pope Nicholas V. in 1453; the Aqua Trajana, now Acqua Paolo; and the Aqua Marcia. The Romans also constructed important aqueducts for the cities throughout their em- pire. In 120 a.d. the emperor Hadrian con- structed the aqueduct of Saghuan, which sup- plied Carthage with water, bringing it by arched bridges of stone or concrete about 60 miles. This aqueduct still supplies Tunis with water. Hannibal is said to have erected an aqueduct at Martorell, in Spain. The aqueduct of Alcantara, also in Spain, stretches over the Tajo. and is 125 feet high, with a span of over 100 feet. There are other Spanish aqueducts at Chelves, at Merida, over the Albareges, and at Segovia. That at Segovia was originally built by the Romans, has in some parts two tiers of arcades 100 feet high, is 2.921 feet in length, and is one of the most admired works of antiquity. The one at Evora, in Portugal, is still in excellent condition. One of the finest aqueducts in Europe is the Pont du Gard, built in the 3d or 4th century, or possibly by Agrippa, 19 B.c, at Nimes, in southern France. It is still in a good state of preservation. It is higher than any about Rome itself, being fully 180 feet in height, and the length of its highest arcade is 873 feet. It is composed of three tins of arches, each less wide than the one below, and is admirably constructed of large stones, with no cement used except for the canal on the top. There is an aqueduct at Paris, built by Julian in 360 a. d., also a very important aqueduct at Constantinople, built by Hadrian and restored by Theodosius. Since 1S85 the water has been furnished the city by an aqueduct built by a French company, taking the supply from Lake Derkos, whence the water is pumped 358 feet into a reservoir. The ruins of an aqueduct exist at Mayence, and those of another near Metz, Germany. The aqueduct at Spoleto, Italy, is attributed by some to the East Gothic king Theodoric, in 500 a. a, and by others to Theodelapius, the third Duke of Spoleto, 604 a.d. It is built of brick and rests between two steep cliffs on 10 arches, and is 290 feet in height and 231 yards in length. The ground plan is apparently Roman, while the pointed arches indicate a restoration in the 14th cen- tury. Many important aqueducts are found in more recent times. One of the most remark- able rs that constructed by Louis XIV., in 1684, to convey the waters of the Eure from Point Gouin to Versailles. Troops to the number of 40,000 were employed in this great undertaking. Thousands of these men died during the pro- gress of the work, which was interrupted during the war of 1688 and never resumed. The bridge at Maintenon, forming part of this aqueduct, even in its incomplete state is, in point of mag- nitude, the grandest structure of the kind in the world. The remains consist of 47 arches, each 42 feet wide and 83 feet high. The piers are 25 feet 6 inches thick. The first important aqueduct in England was built in 1613, to conduct the waters of the New River to London, over a distance of 20 miles. Wooden aqueducts were first used, but were replaced by embankments. Very large works were constructed during several years, ending in 1877, to bring water from Longdendale. be- tween Sheffield and Manchester, to the latter city. In this instance the aqueducts consist for the most part of tunnel and covered conduit, but for eight miles the water is conveyed in large cast-iron pipes laid along or under the public roads. Before the Longdendale works were finished the question of a greater supply- had to be considered. This led to the adop- tion of the scheme for bringing water from Lake Thirlmere in Cumberland to Manchester. The length of the line is nearly 100 miles, and the works were carried out in 1885-94. A tun- nel, about three miles in length and 270 feet below the surface, forms the first part of the aqueduct. There are 13% miles of tunnels. 38 miles of shallow tunnels cut from the surface, and 44'< miles of siphon pipes of 40 inches diameter. The aqueduct passes under Dunmail Raise, north of Grasmere, Ambleside, Winder- mere, and Kendal, to the east of Lancaster and Preston, across the Rivers Lune and Ribble, past Chorley, and west of Bolton. The ultimate supply is 50,000.000 gallons daily: the cost, $21.- 500,000. In Scotland, the Loch Katrine aque- duct supplies Glasgow with water coming from a distance of 26 miles. An aqueduct was built in 1738, conducting water for a distance of about nine miles into the city of Lisbon. For a part of the way it is underground, but near the city AQUEOUS HUMOR; AQUEOUS ROCKS is carried over a deep valley for a distance of 2,400 feet, on several arches, the largest of which has a span of 115 feet, and is 250 feet high. The aqueduct of Caserta, in Italy, was built in 1573 by Vanvitclli, for the purpose of supplying the gardens of Caserta with water in. 111 Monte Taburno, a distance of 25 miles, h now conducts the water to Naples and crosses jo valleys; the last 15 miles the water is carried in iron pipes. The Canal dc Marseilles, in France, is 57 miles in length. It conveys water from the River Burance to Marseilles, and is a magnificent specimen of engineering. It was finished in 1847. At Roquefavour it crosses a valley on a bridge, the length of which is 1.290 feet. The Vienna aqueduct, nearly 60 miles long, was finished in 1873. At several places in its course there are extensive aqueduct bridges, built either entirely of stone or of stone and brick. This aqueduct supplies 20,000,000 gal- lons of water per day. In America are a num- ber of important aqueducts. For 125 years the city of Otumba, in Mexico, received its supply of water through the aqueduct of Zempoala, a canal 27 miles long, which, though said to be in almost perfect condition, has not been used since 1700. New York is supplied with water from the Croton River, which falls into the Hudson above Sing Sing. The first aqueduct, which was constructed between the years 1837 and 1842, at a cost of $12,500,000, is 38 miles long with a general declivity of 13^4 inches to the mile, and is eight feet five inches in height, and seven feet eight inches in greatest breadth. Stone, brick, and cement are used for the en- casing masonry. The conduit, where it crosses the Harlem River, was carried in iron pipes over a splendid bridge 150 feet above the river. Although an important and well-executed work this aqueduct was soon found to be inadequate for the greater city, and a new and larger reser- voir and aqueduct were put into service in 1890. The water-way is 33 miles long, 29 of which lies in a tunnel through rock, where a horseshoe- shaped brick, or stone and cement conduit 13!^ feet high is constructed. At the Harlem River this water is carried through an inverted siphon 300 feet beneath the river. The siphon has been used also to carry water under the Danube at Nansdorf, Germany. It replaces the old Roman arched water-way and is possible since the system of building ceiled conduits has come into general use. The first aqueduct for sup- plying Boston with water was built in 1846-8, 30 years later an aqueduct was built to carry water from the Sudbury River to Boston. This line crosses the Charles River on a larje stone arch known as Echo Bridge, and has a fine bridge also in the Waban valley. As the city demanded a still greater supply an immense reservoir was projected to retain 65.000.000,- 000 gallons of water in the Nashua valley near Clinton, Mass., from which the water is to be conducted to the Metropolitan district of Bos- ton. With this it is said the city will have a supply of 400.000,000 gallons of water daily. The cities on the Great Lakes require a peculiar system for supplying water. Tunnels are built out under the lakes (four miles at Chicago) to secure unpolluted water, and though of simple masonry, are difficult to construct. The great canals, such as the Suez, the projected Panama Canal, and the Chicago Drainage Canal are really aqueducts. The latter was completed in i8<)9 at a cost of $33,000,000. It carries 300,000 gallons of water per minute from the Chicago River and Lake Michigan to the Illinois River. A unique aqueduct was built in Pittsburg, Pa., in 1845. A canal was suspended from two cables across seven spans of 160 feet each. The demands of irrigation have required the con- struction of many aqueducts. In the western United States there are thousands of miles of canals, with dams, tunnels, and costly bridges. In British India, where the rainfall is uncertain, the government has constructed the Ganges Canal, which takes the most of the water from that river and distributes it over a vast area. In the development of water-power some large aqueducts have been constructed. At Niagara Falls a canal leading from the falls ha> been cut in solid rock. In the mining regions, water-ways and flumes arc constructed of con- siderable proportion, but generally of a very temporary character and hardly to be consid- ered as aqueducts. See Canals; Dams; Flumes; Irrigation; Water- Power; Water- Works. A'queous Hu'mor, the designation of the transparent lymphatic fluid in the anterior chamber of the eye, or that portion of the in- terior of the eye in front of the crystalline lens. In its chemical composition aqueous humor closely resembles the cerebro-spinal fluid. It is a clear alkaline liquid, specific gravity, 1003- 1009, and contains about one per cent of solids, one tenth of which arc proteids. These are fibrinogen, scrum albumin, and serum globulin. Traces of urea and sarcolactic acid are present. The secretion of aqueous humor is rapid. It is supposed that this fluid is derived from the posterior surface of the iris and the ciliary body. See Eye. A'queous Rocks, the title of a petrogra- phic division including all rocks that have been deposited under water. It is the most impor- tant class of the sedimentary series, and com- prises such common and widely distributed strata as sandstones, conglomerates, shales, and limestones, and many valuable products, as gypsum, salt, and coal. According to their man- ner of origin the aqueous rocks may be sub- divided into (1) mechanical deposits, (2) chemical precipitates. (3) organic accumula- tions. The mechanical deposits have been derived from the disintegration of pre-existing strata and the transportation of the materials by rivers, tides, and currents. They are being formed at the present time beneath the ocean and in rivers and lakes. Sandstone, conglomer- ate, clay, shale, and marl are the most important members of this subdivision. The chemical precipitates owe their origin to the deposition of materials from solution either as a re- sult of evaporation or by the action of precipi- tating agencies. Oolitic limestone, gypsum, rock salt, siliceous sinter, and many iron ores are included in this subdivision. The organic accumulations have been formed from ma- terials once belonging to living organisms. Limestones and chalk represent the comminuted and compacted remains of shells, corals, cri- noids, foraminifera, etc., while certain organ- isms secrete silica, and their casts have accu- mulated in the form of infusorial earth, chert, and fluid. Peat and the different varieties of AQUIFOLIACE.ffi — AQUINAS coal are deposits of vegetable matter which has been more or less completely transformed into carbon under the influence of pressure and sometimes also of heat. Aquifoliaceae, a'qui-fo-li-a'ce-e, the desig- nation of a natural order of plants, composed of shrubs with alternate or opposite persistent leaves, of thick texture and smooth surface, with a toothed margin, the teeth being some- times spinous. The flowers are solitary, or variously grouped in the axillae of the leaves. The fruit is always fleshy, containing from two to six indehiscent woody or fibrous nucules or minute nuts enclosing single seeds. The Amer- ican holly, Ilex opaca, has foliage less glossy, and berries less red than its European relative, Ilex aquifoliuin. Both are important commer- cially, being mostly used for decorative pur- poses. The genera are Ilex, Cassine, Myginda. The leaves of a species of Ilex afford the famous Paraguay tea. But one member of this order is found in Europe, the common holly (/. aquifolium). The other members are found sparingly scattered over different parts of the world, especially the West Indies, South Amer- ica, and the Cape of Good Hope. The Latin Ilex, the holm-oak {Quercus ilex), belongs to a different natural order from the holly, and to the same order as the oak (Corylacece). Aquila, a'kwe-la, one of the early Chris- tians associated with Saint Paul, was of Jewish origin and a native of Pontus. In the year 52, he with other Jews, was expelled from Rome by an edict of Claudius. He and his wife Pris- cilla went to Corinth, where they first became acquainted with Saint Paul. The apostle shared their lodgings, at the same time assisting them at their trade of weaving tent cloth. He was indebted to them for many acts of kindness and none of the Christians who aided him ever re- ceived such warm praise from his pen. See Epistle to the Romans xvi. 3. There are many references to Aquila in the New Testament: Acts xviii. 1-3, and 26-28; I Corinthians xvi. 19; 2 Timothy iv. 19. Nothing definite is known about the death of Aquila. Though he led a poverty-stricken life in Corinth and Ephesus, bet- ter days came to him ; for in the year 58 we again find him in Rome, where he and Priscilla kept a house on the Aventine, large enough to be used as a sanctuary by the Christians of Rome, to whom it was always open. Consult : Fouard's 'Saint Paul and His Missions' (Chap. vii.) and 'Saint Peter and the First Years of Christianity' (Chap, xviii). Rev. James Higgins, D.D., Long Island City, N. Y. Aq'uila, Johann Kaspar, a celebrated Ger- man Protestant theologian : b. in Augsburg in 1488: d. 12 Nov. 1560. After studying several years in Italy he was appointed pastor of Jenga, a village near Augsburg. Here he embraced the doctrines of Luther ; but his boldness and zeal in the cause of reformed faith led the bishop of Augsburg to order his arrest. Aquila passed the winter of 1510-20 in the prison of Dillingen. and from Dillingen he went to Wittenberg, where he became personally acquainted with Luther. He was subsequently appointed pro- fessor of Hebrew at Wittenberg, where he ren- dered valuable assistance to his colleague Luther in his translation of the Old Testament. In 1527 he became pastor, and the following year Protestant bishop at Saalfeld ; but his vehement opposition to the Interim of Charles V. in 1548 obliged him to flee. He was aopointed to the deanery of Schmalkalden in 1550, and restored two years after to his office at Saalfeld, where, without further molestation, he continued to discharge his duties till his death. Aq'uila, Ponticus, a native of Pontus. who flourished about 130 A.D., and is remembered for his exceedingly c'ose and accurate transla- tion of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek. See Burkitt, 'Fragments of the Book of Kings, According to the Translation of Aquila* (1897). Aquileja, a'kwe-la'ja, Aquileia, or Aglar, a town of Austria, 22 miles northwest of Trieste. Before the fall of the Roman empire it was the great emporium of trade between the north and south of Europe, and was often called the "Second Rome." Caesar Augustus frequently re- sided here, and several councils of the Church, the first in 381, were held at Aquileja. In the 6th century, the title of patriarch was taken by the bishops of Aquileja, who assumed second rank to the Pope. The town was destroyed by Attila in 452, when the inhabitants numbered 100.000. It is now a small fishing village con- taining a number of interesting remains of its ancient splendor, and often rewarding the re- searchers of the antiquary with relics of value. Pop. about 2,000. Aquinas, Thomas, a celebrated scholastic theologian, related by birth to several of the royal families of Europe : b. near Aquino in 1227 ; d. at Fossanora 7 March 1274. He stud- ied at the Benedictine monastery of Monte Casino and the University of Naples. About the age of 17 he entered a convent of Domini- cans, much against the wishes of his family. Partly to evade the endeavors of his family to recover him, and partly on account of the ex- traordinary aptitude he displayed for theolog- ical studies, his superiors sent him to Cologne to hear the lectures of the famous Albertus Magnus. He was so remarkable for taci- turnity, and the assiduity and apparent stolid- ity with which he pursued his studies, that he was known among his fellow-students as "the great dumb ox of Sicily." His teacher, how- ever, discerned his abilities, and is said to have foretold that "this ox would one day fill the world with his bellowing*. " In 1245 he visited Paris in company with Albertus. Becoming in- volved in the dispute between the University and the Begging Friars as to the liberty of teaching, he advocated the rights claimed by the latter with great energy, and, being called upon to defend his side in this controversy before the Pope, did so with complete success. In 1248 he returned with Albertus to Cologne, but re- visited Paris in 1257, when he received the de- gree of doctor from the Sorbonne and began to lecture on theology, rapidly acquiring the high- est reputation. The remainder of the life of Aquinas was one of the most varied activity. He was almost constantly engaged in lecturing and preaching, and was often sent on distant journeys in the service of his order. In 1263 he is found at the Chapter of the Dominicans in London. In 1268 he was in Italy, lecturing in Rome, Bologna, and elsewhere. In 1271 he was again in Paris iecturing to the students: in 1272 professor at Naples. In 1263 he had been of- fered the archbishopric of Naples by Clement IV., but refused the offer. A general council being summoned at Lyons in 1274 for the pur- AQUINAS pose of uniting the Greek and Latin Churches, Aquinas was called thither to present the coun- cil with a bonk which he had written on the subject, but died on the way. The honors paid to his memory were prodigious: besides the title of Angelic Doctor, bestowed on him after the fashion of the times, he was called the Angel of the Schools, the Eagle of Divines, and the Fifth Doctor of the Church; in 1286 he was made by the Dominicans the doctor of their order (doctor ordinis) ; at the request of the Domini- cans he was, 111 [323, canonized by John XXII., his tomb supplying the necessary testimony of miracles; and [567 was declared by Pius V. the "Fifth Doctor of the Church." The numerous works of Vquinas air all written in Latin. The most important of them is the ' Summa The- ologi.e,' which, although only professing to treat of theology, is in reality designed to form a complete and systematic summary of the knowledge of the time. All the minor works of Aquinas may be looked upon as preparatory to this gnat one. These are 'A Commentary on the Four Books of Sentences of Peter Lom- 1' ; 'Quodlibeta Disputata et Qu.-estiones Disputatx' ; the 'Catena Aurea,' or Golden Chain, in form of a commentary on the four Gospels, but in substance an exhaustive expo- sition of the cardinal doctrines in theology of the greatest fathers of the Church ; and com- mentaries upon Isaiah and Jeremiah, the Epis- tles of St. John the Divine, and the Psalms, as well as upon' Aristotle. His works were published in Rome in 1570-1 in 17 volumes, hut his 'Summa Theologiae' has passed sepa- rately through various editions. The resem- blance in thinking and writing between Augtis- tin and Aquinas is so marked, that it has been fancifully said that the soul of the one had passed into the body of the other. The disci- ples of Aquinas are called after him Thomists. See Werner. ay to the river Calle-Calle. The war was renewed never- theless, and went on a century and a third longer; till in 1773 the natives, weakened by war and social practices, were compelled to submit. They had not lost the memory of their past. however, and in 1861 a French adventurer named Antoine Tomiens, originally a provincial lawyer, bad himself elected king of Arattcania as Orelie Antoine I.; but the Chilean govern- ment conquered and deposed him and sent him back to France. In 1870 the Araucanians rec- ognized the sovereignty of Chile. Araucania occupies a great part of the province of Arauco in south Chile, and is divided into four parallel north-and-SOUth districts, each formerly gov- erned by a /.'(/ill whose rule had become heredi- tary before its extinction. '1 he inhabitants are now a mixed race with much Spanish hi 1. I 'in y number perhaps about 50.000, but are said to be decreasing, owing to smallpox, dys- entery, liquors, and polygamy. They are of a pale yellow color, and in character and life resemble the higher North Ameri- can plains Indians, such as the Navajos. They arc uncivilizable and unchristianized ; nomad herdsmen of horses, cattle, and sheep; despising agriculture, eating little but meat, and living in skin tents; but skilful wool- weavers, skin-dressers, and weapon-makers. Their language is so harmonious and flexible that an enthusiastic missionary student once at- tempted to introduce it into Europe to super- sede Latin. Their stock in Chiloe are called Chilotcs. Ar'auca'ria, the name of a genus of 15 species of lofty evergreen trees of the order Conifcnc, indigenous to Australia and South America. In general habit the species resemble the pines, but have broader leaves. In warm but not excessively dry climates they arc much planted for ornament, but in cool countries are grown in greenhouses on account of their ten- derness. They are propagated by seeds and cut- tings planted in good soil and grown in a cool greenhouse. A. excelso, Norfolk Island pine and its varieties, glauca and robusta compacta, unquestionably the most popular species grown in the United States, is imported to the extent of probably 250,000 annually, from Belgium, where it is grown in immense quantities. In Norfolk Island, its home, it often attains a height of 200 feet (too feet to the first branches) and a diameter of 10 feet near the base. The white, close-grained tough wood is so heavy that it barely floats in water. . /. cutminghamii, hoop pine, Morelou Pay pine, colonial pine, coo- nam, cumburtu, coonong, a native of New South Wales, is similar to the preceding, but some- what smaller, of less formal and symmetrical habit. Its lower branches are horizontal, its upper ascending; one of its varieties, however, is weeping. Its yell. .wish wood is highly val- ued for carpentry, shipbuilding, and furniture- making. It also furnishes a valuable resin. A. imbricata, Chile pine, monkey puzzle, a native of the western slopes of the Chilean Andes, at- tains a height of 150 feet, and is limbless ex- cept near the top. It furnishes an abundant supply of valuable white resin which smells like- frankincense. Its timber, which is used for ships' masts, is yellowish white, handsomely veined, heavy, and hard. Its huge cones, often eight inches in diameter, frequently contain sev- eral hundred seeds, which arc largely used as food, either raw, roasted, or boiled, by the Chil- eans, who also distil a liquor from them. A. braziliana, Brazilian pine, a native of southern Brazil, is a more spreading species than the above, which seldom greatly exceeds 100 feet in height. Its seeds are also used as food; its resin for mixing with wax in candle-making ./. Bidwellii, bunga-bunga, of Australia, at- tains a height of 150 feet and a diameter of four feet. It furnishes a less valuable timber than A. cunninghamti, an important resin, and every three years a crop of large seeds used by the na- tives as food. It rivals A. excelsa in beauty a? ARAUCO — ARAYAT 3 pot plant. A. cookii, named after Capt. Cook, the explorer, reaches a height of 200 feet, and A. pulei, both natives of New Caledonia, are useful for ornamental purposes and for their products of timber, resin, etc. In California and the southern States these trees have been found to succeed well as out-door specimens. For cultivation consult Bailey, 'Cyclopaedia of American Horticulture' ; Nicholson, 'Dic- tionary of Gardening' ; Von Mueller, 'Select Extra-Tropical Plants Readily Eligible for In- dustrial Culture.' Arauco, a-row'ko, the name of a province of Chile with an area of 4,248 square miles. It is but a strip of coast at present, but was for- merly much more extensive. Capital, Lebu. Pop. (1901) 75,000. Araujo de Azevedo, a-row'zho da a-za- va'do, a noted Portuguese statesman : b. in Sa, 1754; d. in Rio Janeiro, 1817. He became minis- ter of foreign affairs in 1803, but on the capture of Lisbon by Napoleon in 1807 accompanied the king to Brazil. At Rio Janeiro he founded schools of fine arts and medicine, introduced the tea culture into Brazil and was an active pa- tron of agriculture and other industries. In 1815 he was created Count of Barca. His liter- ary pretensions were not inconsiderable. Araujo Porto-Alegre, a-row'zho por'to- a-la'gra, Manoel de, a Brazilian poet and architect : b. Rio Pardo, 1806 ; d. 1879. He not only designed several important buildings in Rio Janeiro, but was the author of several com- edies, of 'Colombo,' an epic, and 'Brasilianas,' a collection of poems (1863). Arauna, ii'ra-oo'na, the name of a South American tribe whose home is on the borders of Peru and Bolivia, regarding whose appear- ance and customs travelers differ widely. Ac- cording to some accounts they are naked and ill-formed cannibals, while according to others they are light-colored, mild-mannered agricul- turists. Araure, a-row'ra, a town in Venezuela in the State of Lara, the centre of a fertile region producing coffee, cotton, and cattle. The battle of Arame took place near here, 4 Dec. 181 3. Pop. 4,000. Aravulli, ar'a-vul'le, or Aravalli, a moun- tain range in Hindustan about 300 miles in length. Its river system is extensive, but the valleys enclosed within the range are mainly sterile. Arawakan (a-ra-wa'kan) Stock (from the Arawaks below), the most widely diffused lin- guistic stock of South America, and originally forming a curious and significant link between the South and North American regional if not philological stocks. Their habitat reached from Bolivia and southern Brazil not only to the northern coast of Venezuela, but — while barred to the westward by the Colombian Chibchas or Muyscas of the Magdalena basin — occupied the entire West Indies and had an outlier of sev- eral villages in Florida. Just before Columbus' discovery, however, they had been expelled from the southern Antilles and part of the adjoining South American coast by the fierce Caribs (q.v.) from the lower Orinoco, who had seized their women for wives, most of the latter still speak- ing Arawal when the Spaniards found them. The larger Antilles were still Arawak, and the names given in the early West India voyages are intelligible in this set of languages yet. The Arawakans have neither the energy and co- hesiveness of the Araucans, the spUndid phy- sique and fiery vigor of the Caribs, nor the polit- ical development of the Quichuas in the past; they are below the medium stature, and of no great stamina. Yet they had, perhaps owing to this very lack of savage vigor, an intellectual and artistic development and a stage of culture above the surrounding tribes : they made fictile vases decorated with grotesques of men and animals, were skilful artisans in stone, gold, and wood, and excellent weavers; and the island Arawakans cultivated not only corn and manioc for food, but cotton and tobacco, whose use the Europeans took from them. There are probably a hundred or more different tribes of this stock scattered through Brazil, Bolivia, the Guianas, Venezuela, and Colombia. Among the chief, besides those mentioned below under Arawaks, are the Manaos near that city, at the junction of the Amazon and Negro ; the Waupes, Maipures, and Miranhas, in the extreme west of Brazil next to Colombia, on the llanos between the Negro and Amazon; the Goajiros on that penin- sula west of the Gulf of Venezuela ; the Piaroas on the Orinoco near its junction with the Meta; the Maneteneris in the northwest angle of Bo- livia; the Baures and the Moxos or Mojos in northeast Bolivia, next Matto Grosso ; and the Antas in extreme south Brazil, near Uruguay. Arawaks, a'ra-waks (name most improba- bly defined "meal-eaters" — that is, of cassava bread — from a Tupi word : not more descrip- tive of them now than the Tupis or any other South American race except the Araucanians, and they hunt and fish as well as raise corn and manioc. Their own name is Lokono or Lukkunnu, "men": cf. Illinois, Innuit, Muysca, Alemanni, etc.), a tribe of South American Indians living on the coast of British and Dutch Guiana, across the Corentyne and Berbice riv- ers, and taken as the type of the great Arawakan stock (above). They are not pure-blooded, however, being mixed with Caribs, etc., in a conglomerate of plantation laborers. The term is also used in a broader sense to include all the tribes of this stock in British Guiana and the neighboring corner of Brazil, with the ex- tension noted into Dutch Guiana : Tarumas and Atoradis of the upper Essequibo basin, Wapisian- as of the upper Rio Branco in Brazil, etc., as well as Arawaks proper. All these are in a very primitive stage of culture, making marriages by abduction after orgies on corn spirits, count- ing descent through females, having the clan system, and practising the couvade (q.v.). The Atoradis are almost white, or not duskier than South Europeans, with fine figures, especially the women having much beauty and dignity of appearance. The Wapisianas are browner and less graceful, but their language is so soft, sonorous, and vocalic that it is the general medium of communication for trade and other intercourse among all the tribes in this region, even the Caribs ; and the Atoradis have nearly abandoned their own for it. Arax'es. See Aras. Arayat, a-ri'at, a Philippine town on the island of Luzon, occupied by the American army 12 Oct. 1899. Pop. 14,000. ARBACES — ARBITRATION Arba'ceo, n Median general under Sardan- and the Founder of the Median empire in 876 B.C The dynasty founded by Arbaces ted till its overthrow bj Cyrus, 559 b.c. Ar balest. S Cro how. Arbe'la, now Arbeel, a small town in Asiatic Turkej which gave its name to a deci sive battle (ought by Alexander- the Great against Darius al Gaugamela, about 20 miles distant from it, 1 Oct. 33' B.C. There are sev- eral large mosques in the modern town. Pop. abi iut 6,000. Ar'ber, Edward, an English scholar, emeritus professor of English literature at Mason College, Birmingham. He is best known through the excellent reprints of which editor. These include 'English Reprints' 1 [868 71); 'Tyndale's New Testament of 1525' ( 1S71 ) ; 'A Transcript of the Registers of the Company of the Stationers at London' (1875) ; 'An English Garner' (1877-96); 'An English Scholar's Library' (1878-84); 'The First 'Jinn English Books on America' 1 1S85) ; 'The Story of the Pilgrim Fathers, 1606-23' (1897); 'Brit- ish Anthologies' (1899-1900). Arbitration, a term applied to mi adjudi- cation by persons, called arbitrators, appointed to decide a matter or matters in controversy by agreement of the disputants. Submissions to arbitration, however, should not he oral, because open to disputes, and in California and Louis- iana the submission must be in writing. 2 Cal. 92; S La. 133. Also in New York, Code Civ. Pro 2366. A sul ion to arbitration may be made at any time of causes not in court, and at common law, where a cause was pending, Submission might be made l>y rule of court he- fore the trial, or by order after it had com- menced, which was afterward made a rule of court. It differs from a reference made by the order of a court of law. The proceeding gen- erally is called a submission to arbitration; the parties appointed to decide are termed arbitra- tors, not referees; and their adjudication is called an award. This mode of settling dis- putes has been approved by legislatures at va- rious times, and there are statutes in a number of States regulating the proceeding. Legal Arbitration . — Infants and others not entitled to sue cannot submit controversies to arbitration. In general, where the owner of real estate is incapacitated in any way. and also in many cases of agency, the person having the legal control of the property may submit the matter ill dispute to arbitration. Such, for example, as a husband for his wife; a parent or guardian for an infant (not, however, a guardian appointed for some other special purpose); a trustee for his beneficiary; in some instances, an attorney for his client; an agent duly authorized so to do by his principal; an executor or administrator may submit to arbitration, but does so at his personal risk should his estate be improperly held liable. Tin- matters that may be submitted to an arbitrator are all personal disputes and differ- ences that might otherwise he made the subject of controversy in the courts of civil jurisdiction. The Xew York Code of Civil Procedure. § 2365, provides that a submission of a controversy to arbitration cannot he made (1) where one of the parties is an infant, or a person incom- petent to manage his affairs by reason of lunacy. idiocy, or habitual drunkenness; 1 _' ) where the controversy arises respecting a claim to an 1 tate in real property in fee "i for life. The second subdivision of this seel ion does not prevent the submission of a claim to an estate for years, or other interest for a term of years, or for one year or less 111 real property; or of a contro- versy respecting the partition of real property between joint tcnanis or tenants m common; or ol 1 controversy respecting the boundaries of lands or the admeasurement of .lower. Subject to the exceptions in this section, any contro- versy existing between two or more persons at the time of the submission may he submitted to arbitration. Thus breaches 01 contract gener- ally, breaches of promise of marriage, trespass, assaults, charges of slander, differences respect- ing partnership transactions, or the purchase price of a piece of personal properly, all may be referred to arbitration. Differences bet wren landlord and tenant, where no claim of title is interposed, and pure questions of law, may also be referred to the decision of an arbitrator. Actions at law and suits in equity may be set- tled by arbitration; and this kind of refen may be made at any stage of the proceedings, sometimes even afler the verdict, and probably, by analog)', after decree in equity. An agree- ment to refer future disputes will not be en forced by a decree of specific performance, nor will an action lie for refusing to appoint an arbitrator in accordance with such an agree- ment. (2 Bos. & P. 235; 6 Yes. Ch. 815 ; 15 Ga. 473; So N. Y. 250; 39 N. Y. 377; 35 Barb. N. Y. (kij; o State Rep. <><>>> It is well settled by authority that an agreement to refer all matters of difference or dispute that may arise to arbi tration will not deprive a court of law or equity of jurisdiction. The Test reason for the rule is an aversion of the courts, from reasons of pub- lic policy, to sanction contracts by which the protection which the law affords individual citi- zens is renounced. (50 X. Y 250 : 39 X. Y. 377.) A matter clearly illegal cannot he made the subject of a valid submission. Rut where transactions between parties have been brought to a close by general award, apparently 14 1. the courts have refused to reopen them on a sug- gestion that some legal item had been admitted in account. It is not the policy of law to refer to arbitration felonies and other criminal of- fenses of a public nature, because the public safety requires them to he punished, and for (his purpose they can he properly tried only in one of the ordinary courts of the country. Partners and corporations may make submission to arbitration. The arbitrator might to be a person who stands perfectly indifferent between the disputants; but there arc no other particular qualifications for the office, and the choice by parlies of the person who they agree shall de- cide between them is perfectly free, unless it is stipulated in the agreement to arbitrate that an arbitrator need not he sworn at common law. In various States of the Union, however, arbi- trators are required by statute to take an oath to hear faithfully and fairly, and examine the mat- ters in controversy, and to make a just award according to the best of their understanding, unless the oath is waived by the written con- sent of the parties to the submission, or their attorneys. (See N. Y. Code Civ. Proc. § 2369.) ARBITRATION; ARBOGA In matters ot complicated accounts mercan- tile men are greatly preferred. In other cases it is usual to appoint lawyers, who, being accus- tomed to judicial investigations, are able to estimate the evidence properly, to confine the examination strictly to the points in question, and, in making the award, to avoid those in- formalities in respect to which it might after- ward be set aside. Both time and expense are thus saved by fixing on a professional arbi- trator. Mode of Procedure. — • The proceedings be- fore an arbitrator are regulated generally ac- cording to the forms observed in courts of law. The arbitrator on the day appointed hears the case and makes his award, which need not be in writing at common law, for a verbal award is perfectly valid; but in practice it is usual for the arbitrator to make a written award. While at common law the award may be oral or in writing, this rule has been changed by statute in some States, and an award, to be legal in those States, must be in writing. It is provided by the New York Code of Civil Procedure, § 2372, that an award, to be legal, must be in writing. (See Award.) This award in its ef- fect operates as a final and conclusive judgment respecting all the matter submitted, and binds the rights of the parties for all time. Arbitra- tors are allowed the greatest latitude in investi- gating matters in controversy. They are judges of both law and fact and are not bound by the rules of practice adopted by the courts. (2 Johns. Ch. N. Y. 276, 368: 3 Duer, N. Y. 69; I E. D. Smith, N. Y. 85, 265.) Arbitrators cannot delegate their authority ; it is a personal trust. (7 Serg. & R. Pa. 228; 2 Atk. Ch. 401.) An award may be set aside on the ground of corruption and fraud in the arbitra- tor, and for any material irregularity or ille- gality appearing on the face of the proceedings, such as is beyond or not covered by the sub- mission. The interest of the arbitrator in the subject-matter of controversy, his relationship to one of the parties, business relations between an arbitrator and a party, or the expression of an opinion upon the merits of the controversy, if unknown to the party injured, will warrant the court in holding an arbitrator incompetent to make an award. But the tendency of the courts is to favor arbitration and maintain awards unless such serious grounds as are above referred to can be substantiated. Where there are two arbitrators the submission often provides that in the case of their differing in opinion the matter referred shall be decided by a third person, called an umpire, generally ap- pointed under a power to that effect by the arbitrators themselves. But they cannot make such appointment unless specially authorized so to do by the terms of the submission. This umpire rehears the case, and for this purpose is invested with the same powers as those pos- sessed by the arbitrators, and is bound by the same rules. It remains to be stated in general concerning arbitration that from the nature of the case there can be no appeal, on the merits of the dispute submitted, to any public tribunal whatever. In New York the proceeding to va- cate an award, and the grounds on which it can be made, are regulated by statute. Court of Arbitration. — By chapter 27S. laws of 1874, the legislature of New York established the "Court of Arbitration of the Chamber o? Commerce of the State of New York," defined its jurisdiction, and regulated its proceedings. Gov. Dix nominated, and the Senate con- firmed, the Hon. Enoch L. Fancher as the offi- cial arbitrator or judge of the court. Its work was chiefly confined to commercial matters and disputes of shipping merchants, though during its existence almost all subjects of controversy have been before the court and decided. There is no appeal from the decision of the official arbitrator ; though, where a defeated party de- sires it, a rehearing of the case is always granted. No costs or fees to attorneys or coun- sel can be recovered ; each party, whether de- feated or not, must bear his own costs and expenses. The London Corporation and the London Chamber of Commerce founded jointly in 1892 a chamber of arbitration, or tribunal of commerce, for settling trade and commer- cial difficulties ; and the great coal dispute and strike of 1893 led to a conference which secured a peaceful conclusion for the time and the foun- dation of a permanent "Board of Reconcilia- tion," consisting of representatives both of owners and of the miners. Diplomatic confer- ences, which often obviate war, belong to a different category. The Parliament of New South Wales has passed an act constituting an arbitration tribunal for the purpose of settling industrial disputes. This tribunal consists of a judge of the supreme court, a representative- appointed by the employers, and a representa- tive nominated by the employees. The court has jurisdiction in the case of industrial dis- putes, and a lockout or a strike before allowing time for reference to the court or pending the proceedings of the court is illegal. International arbitration has been discussed frequently and at length. It has been employed in matters of debate between nations more than a hundred times. As between the United States and Great Britain, the San Juan boundary ques- tion, the Alabama question, and the Bering Sea sealing controversy have been so arranged. The first general treaty of arbitration ever drawn between nations was signed 11 Jan. 18' 17. in Washington, by Richard Olney. secretary of state for the United States, and Sir Julian Pauncefote. ambassador of Great Britain to the United States, for Great Britain. This treaty was placed before the United States Senate. 1 1 Jan. 1897, accompanied by a special message from President Cleveland, but the Senate re- fused to ratify it. Since then similar treaties have been made and ratified between Italy and the Argentine Republic and between the Argen- tine Republic and Uruguay. The International Peace Convention at The Hague, in 1899. estab lished an international court of arbitration which has been ratified by the United States and other signatory powers. See Hague Court. Arbitration, International. See Arbitra- tion. Arbo'ga, ar-bo'ga, a Swedish city, once important commercially, but now only of his- torical interest from having been at one time a residence of the royal family of Vasa, the scene of Church assemblies and national diets, and for the antiquities in its neighborhood. Pop. (.1901) 5.250. ARBOLEDA — ARC Arboleda, ar'bo-la'fha, Julio, a South American poet and statesman: I), in Barbacoas, Colombia, g June 1817; <1. 1802. He was edu- cated in Europe, and on his return to Columbia engaged in journalism. In the various Colom- bian revolutions he was a liberal Conservative and more than ono d the vice-presidency of the republic. Hi poems are much esteemed in Spanish-American literature. Arbor Day, an annual tree-planting day appointed by nearly every State and Territory of the Union, sometimes as a legal holiday and sometimes merely advisory, to assist in forest- ing or reforesting scantily wooded tracts, or shading or beautifying towns, it is generally in special connection with the public schools, to impress children with the importance of forestry and natural beauty in our civilization. I he date depends on the climate of different sec- tions, and is absolutely fixed in but few; most Northern States hold it in April or early in May: Arizona, Texas, and Alabama in Febru- ary, the two lator on Washington's birthday; Florida in January, Georgia in December, and New Mexico in March; many make it optional cither with the State or with localities, ami West Virginia holds it twice a year, in spring and fall. It arose from the alarm felt by the most far-sighted public men over the rapid and reckless deforestation of many parts of the Union, and the prospects of its extending to all, the proof as seen abroad of what that deforesta- tion meant, and the example of their govern- ments in reforesting and conserving. (See Forestry.) Most civilized governments at dif- ferent times have looked after their forests to assure a supply of timber for naval construc- tion; New Hampshire and New York, even in the colonial period, felt it needful to check the inroads on them; the United State- government at the beginning of the 19th century bought timber lands, anil a quarter of a century later authorized tin Pri dent to take measures for their preservation; and about the same time the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agricul- ture offered prizes for forest planting. But the first widespread realization of its importance was caused in [864 by the notable book of George P. Marsh (q.v.)> the eminent American scholar and diplomat, entitled 'Man and Na- ture*; the chaptei o,, 'Tin Woods" aroused especial attention, rind in 1865 Birdsey G. North- rop, then secretary of the Connecticut Board of Education, suggested that Stales might profit- ably plant tree> everj Mar at the proper time. or supervise their planting. The subject brought out several books and many articles; the late Dr. Franklin li. Hough, the first forest com- missioner, publishing a work upon it as early as 1873. But the first to propose a regular Arbor Day for the purpose was J. Sterling Morton, late commissioner of agriculture, then of Nebraska, who in 1872 succeeded in inducing bis almost treeless State to set apart a day for the purpose. Great enthusiasm was aroused, and over a million trees were planted that \ In 1885 it was made a legal State holiday on _>_• April, Mr. Morton's birthday. The movement did not at first spread very rapidly, though some localities took ii up; the first States to copy the legal enactment were Kansas and Tennessee in 1S75. and the next year Minnesota. It was six years before another joined, Ohio in 1882, fol- low ed by West Virginia in 1883; then the tide began to rush in, and within five years z6 more- States and Territories had adopted the ob Servance. The only absentees now are Dela- ware, Utah, and Indian Territory, and even there- it is observed in some places. ('Arbor Day,' bulletin of the Department of Agriculture.) Ar'bore'tum (Latin arbor, a tree), a place set apart for the cultivation of different trees and shrubs for scientific or educational pur- po es. See Botanic Gardens; Forestry. Ar'boriculture. See Forestry. Arbor Vi'tae (Latin, "tree of life"), the designation of several trees belonging to the natural order Conifers, and allied to the cy- press. The genus consists of evergreen trees and shrubs, with flattened branchlets, and small, imbricated or scale-like leaves. The common arbor vita- (Thuja occidentalism is a native of North America, and reaches a height of 50 feet in favorable locations. The cones are small; the young twigs have an agreeable- balsamic smell ; the wood is soft and light, but tough and durable. There are 60 North American species, the principal one after /'. occidentals being T. pliiatii. found on the Pacific coast from the region of San Francisco Bay north to Alaska. The Chinese arbor vita; (T. orientalis) is also common in Great Britain. Its upright branches and larger cones easily distinguish it from the former. It yields a resin which was formerly thought to have medi- cinal virtues, like the wood and young twigs of the T. occidentals ; hence the name — arbor vita-. Arbutus, ar'bu-tus or ar-bu'tus, the desig- nation of a genus of about 20 species of shrubs, mostly evergreen and small trees of the natural order Ericacece, natives mainly of Furopc and North America. The species, many of which have smooth red branches, are often used for ornamental purposes, the smaller species in greenhouses as well as in the parks of warm temperate climates. ./. unedo, the strawberry tree, a species from southern Europe, is often planted in California, its profusion of white or rosy flowers and strawberry colored fruits which ripen during the blossoming period of the fol- lowing year being greatly admired. In Spain this fruit is used to make sugar and a kind of liquor. A. mensiesii, the madrofia, a native of the Pacific Coast States, attains a height of about 100 feet and is the hardiest and perhaps the handsomest species of the genus. .-/. ari- sonicus, another American species, which some- times reaches a height of 50 feet, has white bark on the trunk, red branches, pale-green leaves, loose panicles of white flowers, and dark orange-red fruits. Arbutus, Trailing, an evergreen creeping plant ( l : .fr skeen, from the Italian schicna, the back. The lowest voussoirs of an arch are called springers, or skewbacks, and the central one, the keystone. The under or concave side of the voussoirs is called the intrados, and the outer 01 convex one the extrados of the arch. A chord of the arch at its lower part is called its span, and a line drawn at right angles to this chord, and extending upward to the under side of the keystone, is called its rise. The impost of an arch is the portion of the pier or abutment whence the arch springs ; the thrust of the arch is its outward pressure against the abutments. The voussoirs are also called ring-stones. The spandrel is the part above the haunches, or, in a bridge, the part between the arch-ring and the roadway. If the height of the crown of an arch above the level of its impost be greater than half the span of the arch, the arch is said to be surmounted. If, on the contrary, it be less, the arch is said to be surbased. The curved arch was known to the Assyrians and the old Egyp- tians. Sir J. G. Wilkinson considers that it existed in brick in the reign of Amenoph I., about 1540 B.C., and in stone in the time of Psammetichus II., 600 B.C. The evidence is de- rived from the ruins of actual buildings, but paintings appear to carry the arch back to about 2020 B.c There is no mention of the genuine arch in Scripture, the term "arches," in Ezek. xl. 16, being a mistranslation. The round arch was brought into extensive use by the Romans, and prevailed everywhere until the 12th century a.d., when the arch pointed at the apex, and called in consequence the pointed arch — the one so frequently seen in Gothic architecture — ap- peared in Europe as its rival. The forms of both curved and pointed arches may be varied indefinitely. Of the former may be mentioned the horseshoe arch, a name which explains itself, and the foil arch, from Latin folium, a leaf, of which there are the trefoil, the cinquefoil, and the multifoil varieties, so named from the plant- forms after which they are modeled. Other arches are the equilateral, in which the centres of the circles whose intersection constitutes the pointed arch coincide with the angular points at the two sides of the base ; the lancet, in which the centres of the circles fall beyond these points ; the drop arch, where they fall within the base ; and the segmental arch, the sides of which constitute segments of circles containing less than 180 degrees. Besides these there are several other varieties of arch distinguished by their respective forms. The names applied to arches may be divided into several classes, as referring to geometric or familiar forms, style or position in the building. The following are different geometrical forms : The flat arch, with voussoirs radiating from one centre. Arches with one centre are : semicircular, segmental, horseshoe. Arches with two centres are; the equilateral pointed arch, wdiere the centres of the circles coincide with the angular points at the two sides of the base; the drop arch, where they fall within the base ; the lancet, where they fall outside of it, and the pointed horseshoe. The common three-centred arch is called basket- handled arch, this being the form generally used instead of an ellipse. Four-centred, six-centred, and other similar forms are occasionally used. The names horseshoe, lancet, basket-handled, etc., are given because of their resemblance to familiar forms. Gothic, Roman, and Moorish ARCH arches are names given because these forms wire used in those architectural styles. Certain nami n with reference to the position of the arch in the building discharging or relieving arch, where the arch is pi; over a lintel to carry pressure to the sidi Dples of arches are the Cloaca Maxima, built about 641 b.i .. with tl nl 1 ii 1 ings of voussoirs, inside diameter, 14 feel ; the Pont dtt Gard, built by Agrippa, tg B.C., which has semi circular arches, built of Pozzuolani concrete with stone or brick facing. The longest masonry 1 in Europe is the railway bridge over the Pruth, Jaremcze, Austria, 213 feet wide with a rise of 59 feet, and built in 1892. 'Ibis shows boll' Is, which are constructionally and artistically correct. The Cabin John Bridge, near Washington, D. C. which carries an aque- duct and highway, 220 feet, the largest masonry span in the world. The Wheeling, \Y. Va., Main Street Bridge, built in 1892, 159 feet long, 28 feet 1 eptive, as spandrels are hol- low, but appear to be olid. The great arch now built for the Cathedral of St. John the Divine, New York, is of masonry resting on the top of piers 86 feet high. The span is 114 feet from outside to outside of voussoirs. In 1896 was built the first large concrete arch in the United States, 40 feet span, 7 feet rise, all of concrete. This was for a highway bridge. There is also a 60-foot arch of Si eel-concrete in Franklin Bridge, Forest Park, St. Louis, Mo. "Con- crete reinforced" is the name given to the com- bination of concrete with steel or iron in build- ing. Steel concrete, armored concrete, beton armi, anient arme, are various terms for such truction, now coming into frequent use. The Melan arch system was developed by Prof. Joseph Melan, using stiff steel ribs or beams embedded in concrete to form the arch ring, following Austrian experiments. Exam- ples 11 -1 I in arch are found in Eden Park, Cin- cinnati, O., 70 feet span; railway bridge over Southern Boulevard, Detroit, Mich. ; road bridges over the Passaic, Paterson, N. J.: Kan- sas Ave.. Topeka, Kansas, this being the longest, having five arches, one of 12=; feet, two of no feet each, two of 97 feet each; Hyde-Park-on- llndson, for F. W. Vanderbilt, 7? feet span; a foot bridge in park, Stockbridge, Mass., 100 feet span, rise 10 feet, only 9 inches thick at enwn: three-hinged arch, Steyr, Hungary, span 137 feet, rise only 9 feet, or one fifteenth of span, In regard to the cost of arches compared with steel construction, a railway steel girder span 00 feet in length, with solid floor, costs about $1,600. The cost of maintenance and renewals italized amounts to about $400, giving total cost of about $2,000, while equivalent masonry arch would cost about $1,800. A concrete arch built in 12 hours, by 65 men, 39 feet span, 6V2 feet rise, Switzerland, cost, complete, $600. The Monier method is concrete with wire net- ting imbedded near the soffit. Arches of long span and slight rise in building construction are being made with the Guastavino system of co- hesive construction, which is practically a re- vival of ancient and mediaeval building meth- ods. See also Abutment; Arch. Memorial; Bridge; Buttress; Vault. Frank D. Bourne, Architect, Boston, .\fass. Arch, Memorial and Triumphal, a monu- mental structure erected in honoi ol omi prom- inent person or memorable event. In the cus- tom "i temporarily decorating th< gates of cities with garlands and trophies, on the return of a victorious general, we can find the origin of the triumphal arch. These are similar in form whether commemorating a peaceful event or a military triumph. In the time of the Roman republic, temporary arches were erected in hon- or of triumphant generals. At that period, also, memorial arches or fornices, were erected in memory of some individual or to ornament a city, but it was not until the time of the Empire that the triumphal arch, the arcus, came into use, to perpetuate the glory of a person who had obtained the honors of a triumph. Arches were often placed at the entrance of cities, becoming in such a position merely a monumental form of city gate. The usual form of triumphal or memorial arch employed a high and imposing semicircular arch as its central motive, resting on heavy piers, which were decorated generally with Corinthian columns and other architectural details, statuary, and bas-relief-. Above this was a heavy mass of stone-work or attic, on which was placed a suitable inscription. The arch of Titus, at Rome, is the most remarkable for its purity, the beauty of its sculpture, and tin- har- mony of its proportions. It was probably erect- ed by Domitian in honor of Titus to recall his conquest of Jerusalem. In panels on the inner sides of the piers are sculptured, on one side the triumphant Titus on his quadriga surround- ed by soldiers; on the other side the triumphal procession, with the spoils of the Temple, the sacred vessels and the seven branched candb ■ stick. At tin fi.oi of the Capitol, at the sidl of the Forum, is the arch of Septimius Severus, erected in honor of this emperor and his two sons to commemorate their victories over the Parthians and the Arabians. It has small side arches reached by a few steps, and a large cen- tral arch. The most important arch in Rome is that to Constantine, which is similar to that of Septimius Severus. It was erected by the Sen- ate and the Roman people in honor of Con- stantine. The arch of Trajan at Ancona was erected on a pier which serves as a base, and was a memorial of the completion of that port. It is said that another arch of Trajan at Bcnc- vento was erected to commemorate an extension of the Appian Way. In modern times the name triumphal arch is given to a structure of wood or staff decorated with flags, banners, ami tloral designs, as a part of some public celebration, or in honor of some person ; for example, the Dewey arch, in New York. This is an outgrowth of the old Roman idea. Modern history has illustra- tions of many examples of this form of arch. Albert I hirer has many engravings of the tri- umphal entry of the Emperor Maximilian, and of the arches erected in his honor. There are also illustrations of arches for Charles V. at Bou logne; to Henry lib, at I.ido, on his trip to Venice. Rubens made the designs for the tri- umphal arch for Ferdinand of Austria at Ant- werp, and a large arch was erected to Louis XIV. at the Barriere du Trone. There are also triumphal arches in Paris: the Arc du Carrousel near the Louvre, built by Napoleon I., now de- stroyed; Porte St. Denis, built by Louis XIV; the large Arc de l'fitoile, dedicated by Napo- ARCH^AN — ARCHAEOLOGY leon to his soldiers and sailors; and Porte St. Martin t,i°74) > m Berlin the Brandenburgerthor at the entrance of the Thiergarten. In the United States there are arches of this character in Brooklyn and Hartford, Conn., and the Washington arch, in New York. Among celebrated arches of this character, mediaeval and modern, may be named the fol- lowing gateways : At Naples, the Arch of Al- fonso of Aragon (1470), and the Porta Capu- ana ; at Burgos, the Santa Maria; at Montpcllicr, a 17th century memorial of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes; at Milan, Delia Pace; at Mu- nich, Sieges Thor (Victory Gate) (1850) ; and at London, the Marble Arch. See Arch ; Gate- way. Bibliography. — Bartoli, P. S. 'Veteres Arcvs Avgvstorvm Trivmphis Insignes ex Reliqviis qvae Romas adhvc Svpersvnt.' 46 pis. (Roma?, 1824) ; Beauvais, C. T. 'Monumens des Victoires et Conquetes des Francais.' (1822) ; Kinch, 'L'Arc de Triomphe dc Salonique' (1890); Knight, W. 'The Arch of Titus, and the Spoils of the Temple' (1867); Normand, L. M. 'Arc de Triomphe des Tuileries firige en 1806, d'apres les Dessins de MM. C. Percier et P. F. L. Fontaine' (1830) ; Piccioni, M. 'Sculpture of the Arch of Constantine and Trajan's Column' Roma, n. d. ; Reina, J. 'De- scription of the Arch of Peace in Milan (Milan, 1839); Reinach, S. 'L'Arc de Titus' (1800); Reland, 'De Spoliis Temple Hierosolymitani in Arcu Titans 1 ; Rossini, L. 'Gli Archi Trionfali, Onorarii e Tunebri degli Antichi Romani Sparsi per Tutta Italia' (1836). Archaean far-ke'an) Period, a term applied to the most ancient division of the geological time-scale. The rocks referred to this period underlie the oldest sedimentary and fossiliferous strata and hence are often called the fundamen- tal complex. They are entirely of crystalline character, consisting of granite and basic erup- tivcs, gneisses, and schists, all of which bear evidence of having undergone great disturbance and metamorphism, so that it is impossible to work out any order of strategraphic succession that will apply to different regions. Their great uniformity of composition over wide areas, their marked characteristics which differentiate them from all other groups of rocks, and their basal position in the geological scale have led many geologists to believe that the Archaean rocks represent a portion of the original crust of the earth as it solidified from molten magma. While this view has not found universal ac- ceptance, it is quite certain that if the first solidification of the earth is still preserved any- where, it is present in this formation. The Archaean rocks are known to occur in all of the continents, although in some regions they have been brought to the surface only after long pe- ril ids of erosion during which immense thick- nesses of overlying strata were removed. In North America they cover much of the region hit ween the Arctic Ocean and the Great Lakes, and are also found in the Adirondacks, along the Appalachians, and in the Rocky Mountains. They occur in many parts of Europe, especially in Scandinavia. France, Germany, and Austria. in eastern Asia, and in central Africa. See Geology. Archaeological (ar-ke-o-loj'i-kal) Institute of America, a society formed in [879 for the purpose of promoting and directing archaeo- logical investigation and research. Under its direction several important excavations were conducted on the site of the ancient - Assos. It publishes a bi-monthly 'Journal,' which is its official organ. It has a membership of 1,050. President, Prof. John Williams White of Harvard. Archaeology, ar'kc-ol'o-ji ("antiquity- study"), the history of antique human progress as inferred from relics of man's industry or pres- ence, apart from written records. It is thus identical with history where there are no such records, and supplementary material for it when they exist. It is distinguished from anthropol- ogy as concerned chiefly with industrial and artistic rather than social and political progress. But its limit neither of date nor of subject can be sharply fixed. The antiquities of a country are relative to its present and its records ; 400 years in Mexico brings us to pure archaeology, 2,000 in Greece and Rome is almost this side of it, all west-Asian history belongs to it. Even written records, if inscriptions on stone or brick. or papyri, are archaeological when pertaining to an extinct civilization ; if classical, they are his- tory, epigraphy, or palaeography. Nor can we wholly dissociate the biological study of the bones found in a prehistoric camp, river drift, or cave (palaeontology), from that of the flints, worked bones, drawings, etc., found with them, as evidences of mechanical and intellectual progress (archaeology), and the social organism implied by the camps, food, ruddle, etc. (an- thropology). The genesis of the science re- stricted the name at first to remains of classical art and architecture, still often regarded as its most important section, through its illumination of classic literature: but general archaeology does not merely supplement a developed history, it reveals the very existence of empires, nations, races, cultures, stages of human progress, other- wise unsuspected, and carries our knowledge far into the geological past. The classical branch, whose material was relatively accessible and its hearing obvious, naturally originated first in the 18th century; general archaeology is the creation wholly of the 19th century and has two independent origins. On one side it springs from the decipherment of the Egyptian hieroglyphs, unveiling a remote history implying a still more remote one, and making scholars realize for the first time how- futile were the distorted scraps of classical tradi- tion. This was followed by excavations in Mesopotamia which uncovered the remains of the Assyrian culture, and by the decipherment of the cuneiform characters. Here it wa realized that archaeology is the one branch of history (for numismatics is a department of archaeology) that absolutely settles his questions. A written statement may be a false- hood or mistake, but an inscription is conclusive as to its date and writer. On the other side. archaeology springs from the examination of relics of antique man in burial mounds, kitchen middens, lake dwellings, caverns, and river drifts, showing his co-existence with animals long extinct and in geologic ages long gone by. These two streams have graduallj r< suited it! a vast storehouse of verified knowledge, not onjj ARCHEOLOGY unsuspected, but revolutionary of truths pre- viously supposed axiomatic. Briefly, archaeology has shown that civilization is not a sudden mushroom growth of a few dozen centuries, f r. -iii a single centre and a highly develi ped ip, but a gradual evolution through enor- mous ages, in all pans of the world, from savagery. In place of the convenient division into "civilized, half-civilized, and barbarous." we have many Mages of culture, based on the knowledge of natural forces, the utilizing of natural products by art. and the co-ordination of social groups, in combination almost as endless as the notes of an organ, the same tribe being almost civilized on one side and wholly savage on another. The classification of these grades t^ somewhat different in archaeology and an- thropology. The latter, in Lewis II. Morgan's system (which needs much qualification) marks seven M;iy<-: tin first prior to the use of fire; the second marked by the discovery of fire and of catching fish; the third by the how and ar- row; the fourth by pottery; the fifth by the domestication of animals, or the use of irriga- tion, polished stone or bronze tools, and the occurrence of adobe or stone architecture ; the sixth by the use of iron; the seventh, or true civilization, by phonetic alphabets and written records. Archaeology, however, finds it con- venient to classify man wholly according to the material and construction of his implements, these having in fact accompanied and deter- mined with great accuracy a corresponding set of Changes in industrial arts and even social development Accordingly it divides human progress into the Eolithic ("Stone-Dawn 1 ' ), the Palaeolithic or Old Stone, the Neolithic or New Stone, the Bronze, and the Iron Ages; a portion of tl ■ till further subdivided. For vast epochs after the appearance of man upon the earth, no record of his presence exists or can exist except a palaeolontological one — his bones. He doubtless wrenched off tree- branches and threw or hammered with stones, like the higher simians, but we cannot prove a broken branch or scratches on a stone to be artificial, or due to man rather than to orang. When, however, a stone is rubbed, or evidently bruised from repeated use, still more when a number of these are found near together, we know that something more than casual use by an animal has produced the result ; but it may mark only the utterly unrisen savage, who lives on nuts and fruits and sleeps under any casual tree or bank, and has not thought of improving on nature. The first identifiable stage of real cul- ture is : Tin- Eolithic Age. — This probably began (probably elsewhere also) in Kent, England, where loose flints lay about or might be easily dug from the chalk. These were very roughly hammered into an edge that would bruise off a stick or into a grip for the hand: so roughly, indeed, that their having received deliberate art at all was long bitterly contested. They are found in river deposits on the top of hills 600 feet above the present stream-beds, which must therefore have been excavated since. Even in this remote antiquity man was no new organism on the earth, and this stage of culture, from the excessive slowness of progress in the early stages, must have lasted for a long period. The Paleolithic Age succeeded ; the formt. till recently was reckoned a part of n. It is now further divided into two chief periods, from the anthropological dii implied, thi the river gravels and of the cave-dwellers; and the latter again into three others, with well- marked stages of culture. More specifically: 1. River gravels up to 200 feet above present beds 1 "Achulcen" 1. The remains are massive flints scarcely less rude than the former, but unmistakably worked. They still antedate any permanent dwelling or shelter. 2. Cave-dwellers, Man has now a perma- nent though not artificial dwelling, and the germ of family life is born. (1) *Mousterien n : Flint flakes split off (the first true artificial tool), and massive flints hammered into definite shapes, with others rude like the former. ( .' ) "Solutrien": Flints carefully worked and finely shaped. (,}) "Magdalenien" : Well-shape, 1 flint tools, plentiful bone-working with them, and drawings on implements and the walls of eaves. All these remains have been found along with fossils of the mammoth, cave hear, cave-lion, sabre-toothed tiger, and other extinct forms, in ancient river deposits, deep under stalagmitic accumulations in caves, beneath American lava- beds, etc. The age assigned to these deposits by geologists is from 100,000 to 300.000 years. Another clue of the same significance is the cir- cumstance that in Egypt flints are found to- gether, of which the latest. Neolithic, were dug and worked fully 7.000 years ago, and are tinged only a faint brown, while others, Palaeolithic, have turned nearly black. The most conserva- tive estimate is ioo.ooo B.C. for the beginning of the Eolithic period; the Palaeolithic has not ended yet. but in the advanced regions it began to be displaced by the Neolithic perhaps 10.000 B.C. Roughly speaking, the Old Stone periods cover a space ten times as long as all those since put together, the latter succeeding each other with relative swiftness, as progress accelerates by its own development. In some respects the 19th century has shown more advance than all the previous half-million years of man's exist- ence. The rate of progress has depended great- ly also on the natural advantages offered: the flint mines of the English chalk hills with the early savage perhaps corresponded to the coal- and iron-mines of the present, producing rapid advance in skill and also competition of tribes, the stronger expelling the weaker from the coveted clistricts. On the other hand, the lack of domesticable animals in America had much to do with its slight progress under barbarism. The Neolithic Age is the evident beginning of modern life, made possible by improved work- ing tools. The remains of this period are not buried under geologic deposits, but lie on or near the surface. They are no longer merely ham- mered or chipped, but rubbed or ground to shape, giving a sharper edge and a smoother surface. There is a gradual advance in the best specimens to weapons and tools almost equal to metal, such as lance-heads, arrow-heads, knives, daggers, awls, chisels, and axes of razor- like sharpness, and needle points, serviceable for and accompanied by highly-developed arts and manufactures, agriculture, and navigation, of remarkable magnitude and variety. As timber could now be easily cut, men built large wooden dwellings and rowing galleys. Early in the ARCHEOLOGY period we find immense earthworks both for defense and for burial ; later, in the cities, brick architecture and fine engineering. The lake dwellings of central Europe and England belong to this period, and, being built on piles over the water, combined security against wild beast and animals with easy fishing, a fashion that spread widely and no doubt rapidly : indeed, some of them with their Neolithic inhabitants lasted into historic times. From these discoveries it is evident that man not only hunted and fished, but raised grain, vines, fruit, and flax, breeding domestic animals to draw the plow, another im- mense gain to agriculture ; spun and wove ; made pottery; and not only ornamented that but his tools as well, shaping them for beauty as well as use, thus showing development of aesthetic taste. Still more important was the social de- velopment. The large camps indicate a settled tribal society, the careful selection of material from considerable depths indicates combined labor in mining. Between this and the Bronze Age there ex- isted in some countries what is called by some archaeologists a Copper Age. where native cop- per was hardened with oxid or arsenic; but as it did not drive out flint tools, but only supple- mented them, it is hardly -entitled to be called an epoch, and is not accompanied by any iden- tifiable advance in general progress consequent upon it, like the others. The Bronze Age, however, was an enormous step forward. It was earlier in Assyria than Egypt, probably from the Armenian copper : the former introduced it by 5000 B.C. ; the latter not fully till about 3000, and did not use it freely till 1600, only 500 years or so before iron dis- placed it. And in all countries stone imple- ments were still used in sacrifices to the gods, who did not like new inventions. The hardness of the alloy of copper and tin seems to have been realized before its toughness and the many ad- vantages given by ability to cast it ; hence at first the stone tools and implements were simply copied in massive bronze, and were needlessly heavy and limited in pattern. But as its prop- erties became evident the tools were much light- ened, and made thin yet stiff with embossed patterns, and various kinds invented which could not have been made in stone, as the sickle, gouge, etc. The axe, or celt, was first made as a plain bronze wedge fastened by a thong, as with stone ; then cast with a socket for the helve, an extraordinary gain in efficiency. There were light cups and kettles, knives and chisels, spear- and arrow-heads, swords and daggers, and bronze-bound shields, and a mass of personal fastenings and adornments. Some of these were impossible in stone, as buttons, buckles, and pins, necklets, bracelets, rings, and earrings. A price- less collection of these objects was found at Bo- logna, Italy, in the shape of the abandoned stock of an ancient bronze founder. The industrial ad- vantage of this newly found hardness, tough- ness, and variety developed industries and trade immensely: it also made possible for the first time true stone architecture, and engineering of hewn and dressed stone. No small branch of business in stoneless Egypt was the quarrying and transportation of stone for the public works from the southern rockier regions. The Iron Age is the present (though the 19th century developed what is really a distinct era, the Steel Age, making possible many advances beyond the mere iron), and the most of its course belongs to history. It originated from about 1200 to 1000 B.C., — that strange period, in seeming the blackest in the calendar of the ancient world, when the old civilization of Meso- potamia had collapsed under the Semitic in- vaders, Egypt had sunk into decay, and barba- rism seemed to have reasserted its reign over both the Eastern and Western world: yet in which lies the birth of perhaps the three greatest factors of human progress in historic times, — the use of iron, the alphabet, and the Hebrew nation. The first is thought to have sprung from Armenia ; regarding the second, the Phoe- nician origin is still valid ; the third is a myste- rious gift of Arabia. Babylonia and Assyria. — The civilization of the Mesopotamian plain is not only the oldest in the world so far as known, but the first (unless with the possible exception of Egypt) where men settled in great city communities under an orderly government with a developed religion, practising agriculture by irrigation, erecting adobe buildings, and using a syllabified writing. All modern Western civilization is its direct descendant through Greek and Roman periods, so that in studying it we are studying our own ultimate intellectual and even religious pedigree. Its astronomers gave us the division of the year into months, weeks, and days, the signs of the zodiac, the constellations, the division of the cir- cle into degrees ; its art was the foundation on which Greek and Etruscan art was built ; its religious names, forms, and traditions are a deep element in the Hebrew, as in its cos- mogony and mythology and such forms as the Psalms, and hence enter into Christian thought. Nor are we the only beneficiaries. For some 6.000 years the cuneiform was the business and literary script of the whole civilized world, the one method of writing from the western Medi- terranean to India, and probably the origin even of the Chinese, as Mesopotamian civilization was the parent of Chinese civilization. The physical difficulties and dangers of ex- ploration in this district (once a garden and turned into a desert by Turkish misgovernment, a region without supplies or administrative or- der, and infested by hordes of dangerous Bedouin) , as well as the difficulty of obtaining justice or possession of one's goods from the Turkish authorities after finding them, have kept it far behind that of Egypt in thorough- ness ; but the results have been not less splendid in additions to our knowledge of the past. The earliest studies — those of J. B. Rich. Indian consul-general at Bagdad, in 1S1S-20. who col- lected sculptures and outlined Assyrian art : the excavations by the French consul Botta at Khorsabad in 1843. of Nimrud and Nineveh by Layard in 1845-51. and Hormuzd Rassam in [854 — were of relatively modern Assyrian sites. The first entrance on the ancient Babylonian civilization was made h (1840-52) by Loftus ; a further one by Sarzac in the impor- tant Tellr. excavations of 1876-81 ; but by far the most important was by the Americans, and Ilaynes. with Hilprccht. at Nippur from 1889 down. This was probably the first city foundation in the world, dating from about 7000 B.C., then a seaport and now 120 miles in- land ; and the great temple library has poured ARCHEOLOGY floods of light on the political and social condi ii'in oi this mother-land of modern culture. Next to this, our greatest source of information — fi ry almost the whole — has been the library of Nabonidus, the last king, at Babylon. The whole fabric of Assyrian chronology rests on his statement that Naram- Sin. the son of Sargon. lived .1.200 years before his time: a suspicious number, the dubiousness of which leaves half that chronology a thou- sand years or so doubtful. But the subject was practically sealed till the decipherment of the inscriptions gave the key; and this was im- mensely complicated by the fact that the cune- iform character, like the modern alphabet, did not imply any given language, but was used for all the tongues of the then civilization. I he first step was taken in 1800 by Grotefend, who identified Persian names and then applied the characters to other names, till he made out sev- eral Persian inscriptions, and Bournouf (1836) and Lassen (1836-44) worked out the rest of the Persian alphabet. But this was only a small part of the enormous Assyrian syllabary O signs. The task was finally accomplished by S:r Henry Rawlinson by means of the great trilingual Behistun (q.v.) inscription, in Assy- rian. Median or Yannic, and Persian: his know- old Persian gained from Zend and ikrij enabled him to identify the Persian words in Assyrian character, and thus, res the vast Assyrian syllabary. This has given the clue in turn to the Other languages written in the cuneiform: the old Sumerian, Median, etc. The general results are as follows: The earliest inscriptions show us a mixed people iking two languages: one certainly Semitic, the other either an archaic Semitic or Aryan (the Ural Altaic affinity is now discredited). The non-Semitic element, known as Sumerian (."river-men" ?) is believed to be Aryan, related to the Caucasian tribes, and to be the original settlers of the valley. Into this valley came, somewhere between 10000 and 8000 b.c. a Semitic invasion (Accadians, = "highlanders" ?) from the upper Euphrates-Tigris valleys, and by 5000 B.C. had developed, through the mixture of two powerful stocks, the wonderful civilization we know. The beginnings were in the Neolithic Age, but by 7000 B.C. the people were already organized into nations, and built fortified towns, the centre and heart of each being the temple of the local god, raised on immense piles of brick- work. They had finely colored and ornamented pottery, made with the potter's wheel. The principle of the arch was known as early as 5C00 B.C.; the architecture was careful and re- lated to the nature of material; drainage sys- tems were constructed to prevent soaking into the adobe. Several important centres existed by about 7000 B.C., including Nippur, Ur. Eridu, and probably Erech. When we first find in- scriptions, perhaps about 4000 B.C.. there had already been evolved from the old picture-writ- ing a system of conventionalized line-symbols, pure pictographs, some ideographs, some syllables; and while at first the writing was entirely votive or commemorative, and stone used as the material with straight lines, it was soon applied to business and record, the ever- present clay utilized, and the lines assumed the familiar wedge or cuneiform shape. Sculpture and the engraving of gems and gold were al- ready at a high level shortly after 4000. The historj will be found under Assyria and Babylonia. The great landmarks are the n of Sargon, the Charlemagne of the ancient world, who founded a huge west-Asiatic "em- pire" from north Arabia to Armenia and west to the Mediterranean; the second great Semitic invasion from Arabia about 2500 11. c. overrun- ning south Babylonia, and the l-'.lamite invasion from the Karun valley in Persia about 2,?oo B.C., subjugating the remainder; the expulsion of the Elamites about 2250 by Hammurabi ("Am- raphcl"). and the founding of Babylon, which became for 17 centuries the Rome of the Asiatic world, the political and religious centre at once; the first emergence of Assyria, on the Accadian highlands, about 1800; the Kassite invasion from the Persian highlands 17S2 B.C.. founding a dynasty which ruled Babylonia till 1207; their expulsion: the great double invasion of Semites from the south and Aryans from the north, which broke up the Hittite empire and whelmed Babylonia and Assyria in a common wreck: the collapse of the Old World civiliza- tion; the re-emergence of Assyria and its domination over Babylonia, from about goo; its eclipse by the growth of Armenia in the 8th century; its new and enormous power un< Tiglalh-Pileser II., who annexes Babylonia; the destruction of Babylon by Sennacherib, (>8c) B.C., and its rebuilding by his si ,n Esarhaddon; the rebirth of Babylonia under N'ahi the Chaldaean, who extinguished Assyria, 010 or 609 B.C., and, after a short, brilliant career, the end of the Babylonian-Assyrian power forever through its conquest by Cyrus. The relation of the Assyrian power to the Babylonian was much like that of Rome to Greece; though on a lower scale, for the Assyrians, though great war- riors, had none of the organizing and assimilat- ing power of Rome. Assyria copied laboriously, and on the whole clumsily, the literature and art of its intellectual masters, and produced no lit- erature proper of its own. But its libraries, copied from the Babylonian tablets with minute textual and critical accuracy, give it an im- perishable claim to our gratitude. Egypt. — The archxological history of pre- historic civilizations was studied in Egypt ear- lier, and has been studied there more fully, than elsewhere, from the accessibility of relics and safety of work, the involution of Egyptian poli- tics and history with records in a classic lan- guage through the existence of an Egyptian state under classic rulers, and the survival of a descendant of the Egyptian language to our own day. It was the latter which furnished the key to the decipherment of the hieroglyphic records. The Rosetta Stone (q.v.), discovered by the French in 1799, bearing a proclamation in hieroglyphic, demotic, and Greek, invited a textual comparison. An Englishman. Young. devised a correct principle, but had neither knowledge nor interest to apply it in full; Sir William Gcll utilized his knowledge of Coptic, and identified three fourths of the signs; Cham- pollion, the Frenchman, was a thorough Coptic student, and in 1821-32 worked out the entire system for use. This first made it possible to rescue Egyptian history in preclassic times from the fog of distorted Greek legends, 6craps of priestly record, and misapplied Biblical compari- ARCHEOLOGY sons, while the excavations at Thebes in 1820-30 opened up the Ramesside and neighboring pe- riods 1500-1000 B.C. Later, Lepsius and Mari- ette were foremost in revealing the period of the Pyramid-Builders, carrying us back to far past 3000. B.C. ; and still later Dr. Flinders Petrie has not only turned the First Dynasty and oth- ers still farther back, from myth into solid history, but has recreated the prehistoric world prior to the organization of the monarchy, about 4800 B.C., with a surety as great as that of writ- ten record. In the historic periods, the total lack of any chronological sense in the Egyptians, who in this respect were very different from the Assyrians, and the catastrophe of the Hyksos invasion, make its history in large portions less clear than the Babylonian ; but we know its gen- eral outline at worst, and the synchronism and variations of arts and industries often supply the lack of dated chronology. The oldest inhabitants of upper Egypt known were of the same race as the Algerian Kabyles of to-day, — a white-skinned, blond, blue-eyed, narrow-headed race, with a negro strain, allied to the south European races. They had ac- quired by 5000 B.C. the highest grade of Neolithic civilization ever reached in the world, so far as evidenced by tools and implements. — the finish of the flint-knives and lances being incompara- ble. — and were using copper ones also. They built brick towns, and carried on an active Medi- terranean commerce in large rowed galleys ; they made leather and woven linen clothes, beautiful and varied pottery without the wheel, perfect vases of the hardest stone without the lathe, applied colored glazes even to great rock carv- ings, manufactured ornaments of precious stones, metals, and ivory, ivory spoons and combs, games, etc. Their art, however, was very crude, and they had no system of writing whatever, though using marks. About 5000 B.C. a much more developed race invaded Egypt, — probably from Arabia, whence the Hyksos and the Hebrews and the other Semites came : a race which used metals more freely, had a sys- tem of writing, a better government organiza- tion, and higher artistic taste. Here, as in As- syria, the blending of two able but diverse strains made the great Egyptian type and civil- ization of the Old Kingdom, which we know from their monuments and achievements. They were a grand people in every way : active war- riors and administrators, firm in policy, fine mechanicians, adepts in organizing combined labor ; strong artists, with lofty conceptions ; withal a sensitive, kindly, sympathetic folk, with the least strain of ferocious savagery of any great people in history. This long era has left us the Pyramids and magnificent monumen- tal tombs, masses of grand and accurate archi- tecture, and noble sculpture. This great age could not last forever, and for some centuries after about 2500 B.C. it was in decline, to revive only less brilliantly in the Twelfth Dynasty about 2000 B.C., considered by Egyptian writers their Golden Age of art and literature. The tremendous catastrophe of the Hyksos invasion, already mentioned, took place probably about 1780 B.C., and the "Shepherd Kings" remained till about 1600. Their final expulsion opened a new and brilliant era, of expansion into and domination over west Asia, of the closest rela- tions with the Mediterranean countries, of a general spread of luxury through the people Egypt for the first time threw off its exclusion and became part of the current of the world's progress. In this period (about 1600-1200) we find, near the beginning, the great Thothmes III., whose exploits were exaggerated into the Sesostris of Greek tradition ; near the end the rather braggart King Rameses II., commonly identified with Joseph's Pharaoh, and his son Merneptah, often accredited as the Pharaoh of the Exodus. But the empire had the doom of all states which live on the tribute of foreign districts : the outside revenue stopped, the habits of luxury remained, and the nation declined. In the thousand years to follow before it was absorbed in Rome, it had much prosperity and some periods of brief glory, but the vital spirit had gone. Syria. — While the work of the Palestine Exploration Fund, from 1866 onward, has thor- oughly mapped out the surface of the country, relatively little has been done in excavation here or in Turkey; for political reasons (as before noted) mainly, as the interest in Biblical sites and classical remains is the keenest of all. The chief part thus far has been at Jerusalem and the Philistine cities, and in the north at Zin- jirli; but few inscriptions have been found even where the excavation has been done, and no very ancient ones. The most important his- torically is that of Mesha, king of Moab ( ? 896 EX.). It would seem that by the time the Jew- ish nation was advanced enough to make in- scriptions, its intellectual activity was drawn off in other directions, and the hope of finding masses of archaeological confirmation of or sup- plement to Biblical records has been disappoint- ed. The chief historical result of Syrian re- search has been to restore the Hittite empire (q.v. ) to history: formerly regarded as a Ca- naanitish tribe, it is now known to have been a powerful people from Cappadocia, which formed for a couple of centuries a strong state ruling north Syria and much of Asia Minor, with its centre at Carchemish. till broken up by the great southward Aryan movement of which the Do- rian invasion was a part. Its writing is almost undeciphered. Curiously enough, the most im- portant documents for ancient Syrian history have been found not in Syria, but in Egypt. — the Tel-el-Amarna tablets, containing a 15th cen- tury correspondence with Egypt in cuneiform. Classical Archeology. — Till the very recent excavations at Troy. Mycenae, etc., resulting from enthusiasm for the Homeric poems, archae- ological research in the classic lands was mostly confined to illustrating historical periods, and to a study of Greek and Roman art and archi- tecture : even now the light on prehistoric times is not from written records and inscriptions as in the East, but inferential from material objects. It has, however, in confirmation of Egyptian and other records, and by comparison of objects with those of known date in that country and Babylonia, given unmistakable proof of a hither- to unsuspected stratum of old Greek history. From foreign pottery found in Egypt. 5000-3000 B.C., Greece and Italy probably had a Neolithic pottery-making population at those times. But the first posi' ning of civilized settlement is in the lowest Tmy, dating certainly before 2000 B.C., and perhaps 3000: almost no metal is found there. Still before 2000 is another Troy, ARCHEOLOGY with fine vases and golden ornaments. This w.is contemporary with the supremacy of Crete, then the mistress of the seas, as the Etruscans and Phoenicians were later; and there was a direct connection between Crete and ["roy. 1 he legends of the great law-making Cretan kings and their suzerainty over Greece and exactions of tribute from it are doubtless based on fact; even the Labyrinth lias been uncovered, and a nucleus of fact in much of the old Greek lcg- endary lore made probable. Three times after this was Troy abandoned and rebuilt before the contemporary of the Mycenaean kingdom of about 1500 b.c. is reached. At this time the coasts of Greece and tile /Egean islands were the seat of a high culture radiating in all direc- tions, and even influencing the East, so that this has been styled the ".Egean Period" of civiliza- tion, ["here was a powerful and wealthy king- dom with its centre at Myceii.t, where we find magnificent domed tombs, fine jewelry and metal work, exquisite pottery and ornaments, etc.; as also at other great towns marked by lull for- tresses, Athens. Tiryns, and other place-.. ["hi rich and prosperous land trailed with all the Mediterranean countries, but chiefly with Egypt, in whose ruins are found hosts of Greek objects of this period. By 1 100 is.c. this civilization had begun to droop, and about 1000 the inva- sion of the barbarous Dorians from the north temporarily overwhelmed it on the mainland. But it was only for a time: even where the Dorians had conquered, the union of old and new flowered into richer bloom, and Athens, the chief city which they had not conquered, became the head and heart of a far more splen- did revival of every art and literature, the fore- most in the world to the present time. By the 7th century the immortals had begun to spring up: Archilochus and Sappho were islanders, and the great time of Alliens bad not yet Come, but the thronging masters show that society had become fairly settled once mori The development of civilization v. as very much later in Italy than in Greece, and more slowly affected by outside civilizations except on the southern coast. The Neolithic Age. with black pottery and lake dwellings, lasted down to nearly or quite 1000 B.C., the full development of the Bronze Age not taking place till about 800. The Etruscan invasion, which tradition brings from Asia Minor, cannot be dated, but was probably later than 1000 B.C. The art and religion of the Etruscans were entirely foreign, indicating rather a Northern than an Eastern origin ; but they were not an original people, and borrowed elements of civilization and art from every nation they came in contact with. — Italians, Greeks, Egyptians, and Assyrians. In this assimilativeness they remind one of the Northmen, and the tradition of their origin may be wholly wrong. The one great specialty of the Etruscans was engineering. Their history and affiliations remain a mystery chiefly because their language is such. Known since historic times, and in the last century thousands of in- scriptions in it copied, and even many words translated for us. the language remains an ab- solute secret to the laborious and penetrating scholarship directed on it. Archaeology, American. America's place in the world's history has been an abundant source of discussion among geologists and archa;ologists, and there exists still a wide range of opinion, particularly concerning the antiquity of man on this continent. There is uniformity ipinion as to the occurrence in definite supei ficial strata of trace- of man's handiwork, but the geological history of these strata has been variously Considered. It is now generally eon eluded, however, that they are a product of tin- concluding activities of die Glacial Epoch, ma- terial laid down by floods caused by the melting of the glaciers that tilled tin- valleys, and not improbably accompanied by rainfall far 111 ex- cess of any in post-glacial times. As yet the evidences of man's antiquity may be summed up in the discoveries made in the valley of the Delaware River (1872 1002) on the Atlantic slope, and the shell heap discov- eries (Dall) on the Pacific slope. In the in- terior of the continent there have been many reported discoveries of evidences of equal an- tiquity, but so generally were they open to possi- ble errors of observation, due to lark of. skill required in such investigations, that their acccpt- has not been general. Tin- i^ true even of the much-discussed Calaveras skull and Xampa image. This, however, i< not true of the human cranium known as the "Lansing skull," from Kansas, and the age of the deposit in which it was found only is in dispute. .Much more satis- factory is the result before mentii lined by Dall in his investigation of the Pacific Coast shell-heaps. Here we have evidence of a gradual change of habit, of a succession of oc- cupations of the region that enables us to deal with "time relative" if not "time absolute," and to feel assured that man's first appearance on the western coast of North America was in the extremely long distant past as measured by years. As shown that traces of man c>ccur in deposits on the Atlantic coast, notably in the valley of the Delaware River, the dual question arises just when and wli.net came man to the American continent '' It is inherently improba- ble that he did so while glacial conditions ob- tained in the northern half of the country, for m that case he would have confined himself to those unglaciated regions in the south, where the struggle for existence was reduced to its minimum. It is far more probable that his ar- rival on the continent was pre glacial and that when driven southward by the steady encroach- ment of the ice-sheet he lingered at its south- ward limit of extension and lived in a manner not essentially dissimilar to (hat of the present eal races, but more favorable in that the fauna was richer than that of the circumpolar regions of to-day. This is not to say that the glacial man of the Delaware valley and the I kimo of to-day were racially the same, but merely that similar physical conditions would produce essentially the same modes of living. It can scarcely be questioned that man origi- nally was a tropical animal, and the existence of boreal races indicates that primitive man was slowly differentiated and, spreading over the earth, so far changed in habit as the environ- ment required. Pre-glacial man — at least in North America — is yet to be demonstrated by unquestionable discoveries of his remains, but theoretically nothing can be more reasonable than the claim of his one-time existence. From what other continent man came to America is still an unsettled question. The ARCHEOLOGY necessity for an ultra-American origin is in- sisted upon, perhaps illogically, but, accepting the necessity, a migration route is fancied from the direction of Japan or directly across Bering's Strait from Siberia, and that North America was peopled by an incursion of wandering hu- manity into the northwest portion of the con- tinent, and thence followed down the Pacific coast and finally spread eastwardly until the Atlantic checked the movement. That the Jap- anese archipelago was the "home" of the first American is possible, so far as our present knowledge warrants our forming any opinion on this point ; but, accepting this or another Asiatic origin of this country's "first" people, it is clearly evident, from the traces of them that have been recovered, that the trans-Pacific mi- gration occurred in what we know as pre- glacial time, and so, so far in the past that race- differentiation had not progressed to an extent at all comparable to what has since occurred. The pioneer invaders of the American continent were doubtless much the same as folk wherever found at that time : in other words, still very near to that primitive condition in which man remained so long after losing all visible traces of its pithecoid ancestry. If such was his con- dition, man might well have wandered over a wide territory, tracing each river's valley, up or down, as the case might be, and, depending upon his physical strength and the simplest of weap- ons, it is little wonder that no recognizable traces of him should be found. His inventive ingenuity was subsequently developed, and it is in tracing this from its humblest manifestations to the de- gree of skill in tool-making ultimately acquired, that the archaeologist is able to demonstrate that man in the lowest state of savagery originally peopled this continent, and that there has been here a growth or development of human facul- ties which may be considered strictly indigenous. This advance toward what we call "civilization* reached its highest point in Mexico, in Central America, and in Peru. That it was influenced in Mexico and Central America, if not else- where, by an occasional influx of Asiatic people who had outreached their distant cousins, is per- sistently claimed : and certainly, if at a far more remote period an Asiatic savage had reached this country, it is not improbable that such an occurrence should happen in later time, when savagery had given way to a higher cult and travel by land and water was a less formidable undertaking. Such influence may have been im- pressed at times upon the growing American civilization, but never to such a degree as radi- cally to change its character. The American race was too firmly fixed to be wholly altered, and whatsoever reached it from the East in re- cent times — geologically speaking — made but an inconsiderable impression. Dating, then, the appearance of man on this continent at the close of the Glacial Epoch (q.v.). and inferring only that his career really commenced in pre-glacial time, we find him a rude chipper of flint-like stone, fashioning im- plements so nearly identical with the palaeolithic forms of other continents that it is logical to assume that his general mode of living and men- tal attainments were the same as those of the river-drift man of Europe. This, when the ac- tivities of glacial conditions were at their height : but as these waned, slowly a change took place. Vol. i— 41 Faunal changes certainly occurred, and these may have been the direct cause of the alterations in implement forms ; for it is at this time that the more specialized and smaller objects, in- tended for smaller game, appear ; among them the arrow-head. These are found in the alter- nated layers of sand and clay that overlie the coarse gravels due to the torrential floods that marked the beginning of the close of the great Ice Age. These stone implements are almost wholly made of argillite — laminated slates that have been fused by volcanic heat — and are the traces of an intermediate period between palae- olithic man proper and the historic Indian. This intermediate period was one of immensely long duration ; one during which the surface was but sparsely clad with vegetation, and tree- growth limited to coniferous forests that had grown for ages beyond the reach of the en- croaching glaciers. It was during this time that the bow came into use, and there was a faint foreshadowing of the manifold activities of later date, but as yet no pottery. It was now that the surface soil began accumulating, here and there in favorable spots, and finally until the old half-barren sands were covered. With this change vegetation increased until the flora was what we now find it. Deciduous trees grew where the soil was moist, and at last the country was concealed by forests. It was not until then that the Indian occupation of the country really commenced. As we know him, he is strictly a creature of the soil and not related to any of the older, underlying sands. He is a man of history, and of that misty borderland of history and geology known as prehistoric time. That there was an interim, when the "argillite" man was absent and the flint-chipping, pottery-mak- ing Indian finally appeared, has not been dem- onstrated, but is probable. It has been sug- gested by Hrdlicka that if the argillite man was in possession of the land when the later Indian arrived, there would be found a modi- fication in skull type resulting from the ab- sorption of one race by another. As yet such crania have not been discovered. This is nega- tive evidence, and it is offset by the fact that skulls have been discovered in undisturbed gla- cial strata that are of wholly different type from that of the Indian. How far we can be guided by craniology alone has yet to be determined, but taking in this case all conditions under consideration, in the Delaware valley, where exhaustive researches have been made (Yolk), there is evidence that can scarcely be disputed that man was here to witness the closing acts of the ice-drama — if not its entire progress — and continued to live in this river valley during the subsequent centuries that bring us to the confines of historic time. What relation he bore to the Indian who succeeded him has yet to be determined. The appearances to-day of the soil and underlying sands, each with its imperish- able traces of man, suggest continuous occupa- tion of the region, but do not prove it. How- ever this may be, it does not affect the sequence here given of man's career on the Atlantic slope of North America : A. Paleolithic Max. B. Post-paleolithic Man. C. Historic Indian. The so-called Indian of this continent has been so closely studied, and his handiwork. whether of stone, bone, metal, or clay, scruti- ARCHEOLOGY nized so exhaustively by ethnologists that every- thing relating to him is familiar to all. But our knowledge is not as definite and free from contradiction as might be wished. Theories be- yond count have been elaborately set forth, each claiming to fix finally the career of these people. The literature of the subject is enormous and stands quite as much a monument to our ignor- ance as to our erudition. That the Indian is a descendant of the man who reached the con- tinent in pre-glacial time or during an imme- diately succeeding period is in all probability true. That the variations in his degree of cul- ture and all that he has succeeded in accom- plishing is due to his environment on this con- tinent ; is an unfolding of his faculties unin- fluenced except by Nature, — may be accepted as in all probability true of him; even such ad- vanced outreaching toward our own concep- tion of civilization as was found in Mexico, Central America, and in Peru does not call for the incoming of a superior people. The Indian of North America, in possession when the coun- try was invaded by the European, has been de- nied any significant antiquity, and not a trace of his labors, whether earthwork, shell-heap, or deeply-buried implement has been admitted to possess an age at all suggestive. All the "mounds" have been declared to be of Cherokee origin, and not one dating so far back that the years may not be easily counted. Here the pen- dulum swung too far toward the craze for mod- ernity. As well confuse the Aztec and the Eski- mo. There are mounds and mounds. — mounds proper, the history of which had faded from the traditions of the Indians; and earthworks that were not beyond the capabilities of the various tribal groups or tribes known to the Jesuit fathers who saw the people to such excellent advantage. It is to the careful examination of our sea- coast shell-heaps that we must look for those evidences of prolonged occupation of the coun- try which admit practically of no dispute. These accumulations of clam and oyster shells in many localities show that they were begun when the shore level was not what it now is ; the base of the heaps being now several feet below the water's surface at low tide. These shell-heaps are to be judged by the traces of handiwork found in them and likewise by a careful study of the shells themselves. The im- plements and pottery have been found in some instances to be of the rudest description, while in others the traces are of workmanship that was reached only in the palmiest days of Indian time. This might prove a snare to the archaeol- ogist if all considerations were not kept in view, for not a one-time village site in the land but shows a curious commingling of crude and elab- orate implements, weapons, and ornaments; but it has been found — on the North Atlantic coast, at least — that the shell-heaps that are appar- ently tin- older are really such from the fact that argillite implements, and no pottery, are found in them. This significance of argillite unassociated with objects of other material has already been pointed out. But more full of meaning than all else is the fact that the same species of mollusk has gradually undergone a change during the time that elapsed between the laying down of the base of the shell-heap and the day of its final abandonment. Evolution is as slow as it is sure, and the change mentioned is alone sufficient to indicate beyond cavil the antiquity of the sea-coast dweller, who must be considered strictly post-glacial, but impress- ively prehistoric. An overlooked feature of the subject is that of the marked difference in the traces of man found in different village sites scattered over a limited area, as of 10 or 20 square miles. It has not infrequently happened that traces of human occupation have been brought to light wherein nothing but the rudest forms of implements and coarsest grade of pot- tery occur. Such have been found, too, remote from present watercourses, deeply buried, and the spot still retaining evidences of bring heav- ily forested after the site was abandoned by man. No one can unearth such evidences of one-time human presence without being im- pressed with their antiquity as counted by years; but of far greater significance is the occurrence of such a village site finally abandoned, over- grown, and buried by drifting sands, and then, when not a vestige of it remained visible, the spot being reoccupied by an Indian of greater skill in handicraft. Exposing the relics of the two occupations and placing them side by side, the difference is eloquent of the lapse of time beyond the skill of pen to picture. That a family likeness should be traceable among the native races of the Americas is not remarkable and as yet there has been no suffi- ciency of evidence to lead us to the conclusion that the so-called "Indians" are referable to diverse origins. The cranial differences are of degree only, and when a number of skulls are brought together, the extremes are united by a series of gradations that stamp them all as one in anatomical essentials. Yet, viewing the vast territory as a whole, we find wide differences among these people, differences which may In- explained, however, by the wholly dissimilar environment ; this not including the strictly boreal people, though their variations from the typical Indian are not, perhaps, so great as has been asserted. The marked feature of the handi- work of Arctic man is skill in carving ivory and very strikingly etching it in such a manner that frequently the fauna of the region and modi 1 of life of the inhabitants are most cleverly deputed. But considering that bone and ivory take the place of stone so largely, and that there is so much enforced idleness during the long Arctic winter, this artistic taste has been most naturally developed. There must of necessity be some occupation, and the artistic instinct is common to all mankind. Whether or not it flourishes — is a vigorous or a stunted growth — is, again, a matter of environment only. The compara- tively few stone implements found in the far North are not noticeably well-fashioned, and the majority of their patterns are to be dupli- cated in the one-time Indian village sites of the temperate regions. The purported Indian etchings on slate are not as artistic in any instance as those on ivory made within or near the Arctic circle, and it is possible that all or nearly all of them should be ruled out of court. They usually tell too much, when they pass from series of "tally marks" or merely ornamental zigzag lines, which may or may not have had a significance beyond the fab- ricator's idea of decoration. The tablets from Iowan mounds and the remarkable Lcnape ARCHEOLOGY stone (q.v.) from eastern Pennsylvania stand out so prominently among the Indian relics of their respective neighborhoods, and especially the latter, that an unqualified acceptance cannot be accorded them. If they were the culmina- tion of artistic effort on the part of the Indians of the central west and Atlantic seaboard respec- tively, the question arises where are the pictured tablets of lesser degree of merit. There is too great a difference between the notches, straight or zigzag lines and the thrilling scene of battling with a mastodon that finally is stricken by lightning. If all this ever occurred we have not evidence that any Indian of that day had the skill to tell the story in this manner. The same is true of the Iowan tablets. That the Indian had not knowledge of the mastodon we do not claim, for there is every reason to believe that it became extinct in comparatively recent times; probably not more than 25 centuries ago. The conditions under which its bones have been found and the instances of association of human and elephantine bones show that before this country's "autochthonic hunter, Behemoth melt- ed away.* What the Indian was at the time of the Co- lumbian discovery has a distinct bearing on the archaeology of the country he occupied, inas- much as an agriculturist he was in possession of maize and grew it extensively. This plant had become during that time a product of arti- ficiality or cultivated growth, so modified that but for man's care it would be lost. Whatever the plant from which it originated there is no resemblance to it now. To effect such a change calls for an immense lapse of time. Other prod- ucts of agricultural skill were as carefully grown and the impression that the results of the chase were the main food supply is not a correct one. The researches of Carr on this subject show how methodical these people were as tillers of the soil and that great suffering fol- lowed when their crops failed. The Indians did not come to America as agriculturists ; of that we can be very sure, and to pass from the hunter- stage of life to that of cultivator of the ground is not conceivable as a sudden transition ; but is intelligible as a slow evolutionary process. This development, in no mean stage as finally reached, shows the upward tendency of the In- dians in given areas over what is now the United States, and how much beyond the status gained they would have progressed had not European invasion checked their career is conjectural. Herbert Spencer believes they had reached the full limit of their capabilities, but among such a people as these Indians in the 15th cen- tury it is conceivable that superior intellects might appear occasionally and such men would have their following. If such men are philoso- phers and not fanatics, a distinct gain is the re- sult. When it is considered that people with merely a novel view and usually an absurd one become prominent for a day and have a host of applauders, it is not unreasonable to suppose that among the Algonkins or Iroquois there might have risen those who saw the folly of war and set forth convincingly the manifold blessings of peace; who realized the advantages of agriculture over the difficulties attending hunting and so brought into existence a train of thought that would influence the people who gave them a hearing. Attracted first by the novelty of the suggestion, they would later see the logic of the argument, if such existed, and a distinct gain be made. That their growth toward our civilization would ever have been equal to our own is quite improbable, as these people have been as long upon the earth as any other race and America offers opportunities for in- tellectual growth equal to Asia or Europe. What does appear is that the upward growth was in existence when the blight of European contact fell upon them. Certainly the savage of ten thousand years ago was far lower in skill, in handicraft, and culture generally than the men who witnessed the landing of the Norse- men. Then, or about that time, a fatal scourge seems to have raged along the Atlantic seaboard and the natives suffered a serious check, the re- sult of which appears to have lowered their status, as smallpox and syphilis, introduced by Europeans later, largely decimated their num- bers. The Indians for a time were driven to the dire necessity of daily struggle for bare ex- istence, and many of the better things of which they were capable fell into disuse. So, at least, it seems most rational to explain the fact that these people, when European contact became permanent, were not what they had been. They had not been able wholly to recover from one disaster before another overtook them ; the last, Spanish, French, and English invasion, proving as destructive as fire upon the dry prairie. The accounts of what the Jesuit fathers saw and the records of Kalm, Loskiel, Hxckwclder, and many others, make no mention of many forms of implements, ceremonial objects, and talismans, that are now familiar objects in all considerable collections of Indian antiquities; but the simpler forms, as the grooved axe, the polished celt, the arrow-head, flake-knife, and pottery are not only referred to definitely, but the method of manufacture given in considerable detail. Their hunting and agriculture are made plain, and we know with what tools they sought their game and tilled the soil, and more prom- inent than all else, the culture of tobacco, and the pipe in which it was burned, figure in the pages of the early travelers. Not less con- spicuous as objects were more than one form of wrought stone implements to which no refer- ence is made. It is inconceivable that they wire successfully hidden, and we can only conclude that they had passed wholly out of use. As- suming that all the products of the Indian's skill in shaping stone, of which we now know noth- ing, were wholly in disuse and either inten- tionally hidden or effectually lost, it is strange that the pioneer explorers should have had so little of the archaeological instinct as not to have detected traces of them. Had more interest been taken in the Indian's physical welfare, which was important, and less in his spiritual condition, which needed no repairs, we should not now be groping in darkness as to the origin and antiquity of the original, if not autochtho- nous American. With so great an extent of country and such diverse physical and climatic conditions, it is obvious that what were originally one people, should by force of environment become widely differentiated in habits of life, and what are now the almost tropical regions of Arizona, New Mexico, and Southern Colorado have been long peopled with Indians that superficially ARCHEOLOGY differ widely from those of the more northern >ns. Their cliff dwellings, rock shelters, and well-built permanent dwellings oilier than tl on the fares of cliffs; their pottery, winch they had learned to color: their weaving, ba making, and skill in stone chipping and polish- ing, all point to a distinct advance over the more northern nomadic tribes. It is practically demonstrated, in the judgment of those who have most exhaustively explored this south- western region of the United States, that when the country was first occupied by the ancestors of the present Pueblo Indian, the physical con- ditions and climate were more favorable for human occupation than at present; a fact that has its significance, for the antiquity of man in America is one that has been long disputed; at least an antiquity at all comparable to that of man in Europe. Wandering along our Atlantic coast and laboriously picking from the umulated shells that have almost hardened into rock, trilling potsherds or a rude arrow- point; or inland, walking over a newly-ploughed held, we gather a grooved stone axe. a celt, spear-head, arrow-point, skin-scraper or a drill ; some one or two or perhaps all of these in the course of a morning, we are enabled at best to picture man in but an humble way and think of him as almost one with the wild beasts of the forest on which he preyed — an erroneous, but common impression- — then, transplanted quickly to the vast southwest, note the substantial dwell- in:,' and skilful products in many lines, it is, at first, difficult to think that these people are hut as hranches of the same tree. The contrast is impressive ami by just so much is it mis- leading. Step by step the gradations may be traced and when familiar with the handiwork of early man everywhere in North America, the relationship is quite apparent. The need of foreign influence to produce the differences, im- pressed here and there and again and again, is not apparent. Mexico and Central America present prob- lems that are not yet solved. Here we are brought face to face with what may be dignified as a real civilization, and so far as its genesis and continuance have been determined, it is essentially a thing of itself and points to no influences other than those that the country might exert. That a foreign element gained lodgment here and through intellectual supe- riority gained control over and finally absorbed a pre-occupying people has not been demonstrat- ed. So far as we now know of it, it is not a civilization beyond the reach of a native Amer- ican race. All that is in it that resembles the culture in other continents is far more likely to he coincidence than a transplantation. That essentially the same ideas in given lines may independently arise is beyond dispute. So much more impressive is all that remains of ancient Mexican centres of population that attention has been called to the subject for more than a century and the literature of the subject is enormous, and not free of the curse of undue hi te in reaching a conclusion. The Aztec has not been shown to be other than an American Indian, but one advanced beyond the "hunter stage" and so with a fixed habitation. He dwelt where his forefathers had lived and so a more rational, that is. truthful form of tra- dition was preserved. They were mechanics and artists. They "made useful implements and weapons and high-grade ornaments and jewels i seines, obsidian, and metal (copper, tin, lead, silver, gold); made paper and dyi md e far advanced in weaving, embroidery and feather-work." (Hrdlicka.) They knew well the properties of clay and ramie skill was highly developed. With these accomplishments, it is not to lie wondered at, that they were also skilled in architecture and erected not dwellings merely, but temples on an elaborate scale and carved their surfaces in most intricate manner. I lie advanced artisan is always an aspirant and not satisfied, as he might will he. with the ac- quirements of reasonable creature comfort; in this instance of the Aztec, be devised an intri- cate form of government and formulated a re- ligion, polytheistic and including "the cull of the sun, moon, and stars; hut with this there- was a well-defined belief in a single Supreme Deity." (Hrdlicka.) This Aztecan civilization was not alone in America. The Mayans of Yu- catan were equally advani i -1 a architects, as artisans, and with society established on an elaborate and intricate hasis. If their red have been read aright, they reach back for some seventy-five or more centuries, and grant- ing this as approximating the truth, and claim- ing the culture existing as an indigenous growth. the date of man's appearance on the continent is carried so far into the past that we must reckon by centuries and not by years. Pure-blooded Aztecs still survive, but the glory of their culture as it blossomed in pre-conquest times, is a matter of history. How great, how far comparable this civilization was to our own can be judged by the exhaustive studies of Madam Zelia Nuttall, in her work. 'The Fundamental Principles of Old and New World Civilizations' (Peabody Museum Memoirs 1901). There is nothing suggestive of the "Indian" as we know him in all these pages. .Astronomy, mathemat ics, and abstruse philosophical disquisition are dealt with and we find, not unnaturally, that in striving to compass the unknowable, they wen- led to the most extreme cruelty through that anthropomorpnic idea of Deity which universal- ly has proved a curse to mankind. The conclu- sion reached by Mrs. Nuttall is directly the op- posite of what has been held in this article as almost if not quite demonstrable; the home, origin, and growth of what has been revealed by archaeological research. She writes: "I can but think that the material I have collected will also lead to a recognition that the role of the I uci-nicians. as interim diarii - of ancient civiliza- tion, was greater than has been supposed, and that it is imperative that future research be devoted to a fresh study and examination of those indications which appear to show that America must have been intermittently colo- nized by the intermediation of Mediterranean sea-farers." Southward, when the adjoining continent is reached, we find in tin- vast plains, forests, and following the wonderful rivers of that region, savages that have not as high a standing as those of the temperate regions of North Amer- ica. The struggle for existence has been, in the tropics, and is, too keen to give opportunity to a mental growth not directly concerned with the bodily passions and demands. Above all else, the savage must eat, and if the food supply ARCHEOLOGY is to be had without effort, the result is bodily inactivity and mental stultification. If the food required must be struggled for, then the body only is excited to vigor, and food obtained, the body is too fatigued to follow physical exertion by mental. This is the result in the ex- tremes of tropical conditions and it is not sur- prising that man shows to more advantage as the climate becomes more temperate. Mind and body seem then to have more equal chance and the same unevenness of development is found among South American Indians that originally obtained in North America. The differences are those that the different physical features of the country suggested. As Mexico stands to the coun- try north of it, the favored spot wherein flowered and fruited the native civilization of that conti- nent ; so in Peru, we find a people who aban- doned the more primitive features of a nomadic life, and establishing cities, organized govern- ment, society, gave such attention to art, agri- culture, and skill in varied handicraft, that they stood apart, finally, from the other peoples of South America. Compared with the advanced civilization of to-day it may seem crude indeed, but if we take their products of handicraft sepa- rately into consideration, we shall find that they made most excellent thread and dyed it so honestly, that to-day, many a fabric a thousand or more years old has not lost its brilliancy of color. They were honest workmen as well as artists. It has often been asked would this culture in the interior of Peru have gone on developing, had not it been snuffed out by a really as savage but more powerful a people. It cannot be determined, but as civilization is merely evolution, there is no logical reason why the potter in Peru should not finally have vitri- fied and glazed his wares, and the metal workers have wrought even greater wonders with the product brought to them by miners who knew their work. Peruvian products in pre-Colum- bian time, never found a foreign market, but it is rash to say they never would have found it, had they not been molested and their career de- stroyed for all time by the infamous invader. Whether in North, Central, or South Amer- ica, there were centres where things higher than mere animal wants found chance to flourish and the upward growth toward rational rather than mere physical man took place, and all about these centres, roamed those out-lying people, who were not degenerates, but the as yet un- advanced descendants of that original people of the early stone age to whom it fell to populate these two continents. See also Mound Build- ers. Bibliography. — The bibliography of Ameri- can archaeology is more extensive than compre- hensive and much more theoretical than prac- tical. The 'Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge' (Washington, D. C, 1847-1000) contain many important monographs ; also the 'Annual Reports' of the same insti- tution. The volumes of the 'Antiquarian Society of Worcester,' Mass., of the now non- existent American Ethnological Society, also, are valuable; likewise the 'Annual Reports of the Regents of the State University,' Albany, N. Y. The Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, D. C, has issued an annual volume of inesti- mable value for many years ; and the publications of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology, Cam- bridge, Mass., and certain of the bulletins of the American Museum of Natural History, New York, are authoritative and necessary for a full understanding of the subject. The separate works that have been published are of less importance. Those prior to 1850 are purely of a speculative character. Of later date, the works of Brinton are of most importance; not- ably his 'American Race' ; 'Essays of an Amer- icanist' ; and 'Notes on the Floridian Peninsu- la.' Of equal importance is Bancroft's 'Native Races of the Pacific Coast.' See also, Dellcn- baugh, Moore, Jones, and Mercer, for resume of subject covering North America, Florida, the Southern States, and valley of the Dela- ware River, in the order named. Mexico.— Kingsborough 'Antiquities'; May- er 'Mexico as It Was and Is' ; Humboldt 'Vues des Cordilleres' ; and the publications of Zclia Nuttall in the series issued by Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass., notably 'The Fundamental Principles of the Old and New World Civiliza- tions.' See also Stephens, 'Yucatan.' Peru. — Transactions of the Ethnological So- ciety of London ; biennial reports of Internation- al Congress of Americanistes ; von Tschudi 'Peru.' Brazil. — Bates 'Naturalist on River Ama- zons' (1863) ; Agassiz 'Journey in Brazil' (1868); Kidder and Fletcher 'Brazil and Bra- zilians'; R. F. Burton 'Explorations in High- lands of Brazil (1869). Patagonia. — Dobrizhoffer 'Abiponer' (1822) ; Muster's 'At Home With the Patagonians' ; and for South America generally, transactions of learned societies in Europe, — German, French, and English. Charles Conrad Abbott, M.D., Archaeologist. Archaeology, Christian. See Christian Ar- cheology. Archasopteryx, ar'ke-op'te-riks, an extinct bird exhibiting many reptilian characters, es- pecially in having jaws provided with teeth and a long tail of many vertebne ; and it constitutes a link between birds and reptiles. It lived dur- ing the Jurassic period, and is by far the most ancient bird known. Its distinctness from all other birds is expressed by placing it by itself in a separate sub-class, the Archaeornithes bird* are the rarest of fossils, and this one is known only from two skeletons and a single feather, all preserved in the lithographic limestone quar- ries of Solenhofen, Bavaria. The skeletons, one in the British, the other in the Berlin Museum, are wonderfully well preserved in the fine smooth-grained stone, and have the impressions of the feathers in their natural position. They show that the Archaeopteryx had short wings with primary and secondary feathers arranged much as in modern birds ; but the bones of the wing are not so specialized for their peculiar use as in modern birds; the metacarpal bones are separate, and the digits free and complete, each with a claw on its tip. while in modern birds the first and third digits are rudimentary and the metacarpals fused into a single bone. The long tail of 23 separate vertebrae has the feathers arranged in pairs springing from the sides of each vertebra except toward the tip ; in modern birds the tail-feathers spring from a triangular bony plate at the end of the short ARCHANGEL — ARCHDALE rudimentary tail. (See Birds.) The teeth are like those of many lizards, sharp, conical, each set in a separate socket, and there is no horny bill as in modern birds. The extinct Dinosaurs are the reptiles which come nearest to Archaeopteryx, and it is prob- able that they are descended from a common stock, the ancestors of the birds becoming arbo- real and acquiring rudimentary wings to as-Nl them in leaping from tree to tree. A somewhat analogous case is seen in the fold of skin and hair which the modern flying squirrels have developed for the same purpose; if further developed and specialized this would enable them to accomplish true flight. In Archxop- teryx the wings are short and the attachments for the breast muscles (those chiefly used in flight) are small in comparison with those of modern birds, so that the creature must have had very limited powers in this direction. Archangel, ark-an'jel, a seaport, capital of the Russian government of same name, on the right bank of the northern Dwina, about 20 miles above its mouth in the White Sea. The port is closed for six months by ice. Arch- angel, founded in 1584, was long the only port which Russia possessed. Pop. 21,930. The province contains 331,490 sq. miles; pop. 348,500. Arch'angel, an angel of superior or of the highest rank. They are seven in number, of which Michael, Gabriel, and Raphael are men- tioned in Scripture. Archbald, Pa., borough in Lackawanna County, 10 miles northeast of Scranton, on the Delaware & Hudson and the New York, On- tario & Western Railroads. It wa., first settled by Welsh miners in 1831 and is to-day essen- tially a mining town. It has 5 churches, 6 schools, and several imposing public buildings. 1 wo silk mills give employment to 350 persons. Over 3,500 men and boys are employed in coal mining. Population (1890) 4,032; (1900) 5,394. Archbishop, arch'bish'up, a chief bishop. The attentive reader of the Acts of the Apos- tles, noting that nearly the whole missionary energy of St. Paul was expended upon the cities and chief towns rather than on the villages and the country districts, will be prepared to learn that there were flourishing churches in the lead- ing centres of population, while, as yet, nearly all other parts remained pagan. So strong, however, was the evangelistic spirit prevailing, that a number of younger and less powerful congregations were called into being. The pastors of these new churches being called bishops, that term no longer appeared a dignified enough appellation for the spiritual chief of the mother church, and, about a.d. 340, the Greek title of archicfiscopos was introduced An archbishop is often called a metropolitan. He exercises a certain supervision over the bishops of his province, who are called his suffragans ; convenes and presides over them in provincial councils, receives appeals against their decisions in matters of discipline, and. in the event of the death of one of them, provides for the administration of the dioceses. In the United States, the Roman Catholic Church is the only one which has dignitaries of this rank, and in 1900 the entire country comprised 14 archdio- ceses, Baltimore, as the first established see, having the dignity of prim In England the early British churches were, in large measure, swept away by the Anglo- Saxon invaders, who were heathens, and the country consequently required to be reconv. rted. The great southern centre from which this was done was Canterbury, then the capital of Kent, where King Egbert gave Augustine, the chief mi ionary, a settlement. In the north, York, the chief town of Northumbria, where King Edwin built a shrine for Paulinus, became the great focus of operation for that part of Eng- land ; hence the two archbishoprics now existing are those of Canterbury and of York. Tin- pre- late who occupies the former see is Primate of all England, while his brother of York is only Primate of England, the superiority of the see of Canterbury, long contested by that of Y'ork. hav- ing been formally settled in A.D. 1072. The for- mer is the first in dignity after the princes of the blood ; the latter is not second, but third, the Lord Chancellor taking precedence of him in official rank. In Ireland the same distinction holds for Armagh and Dublin, When the Catholic hierarchy was established in England in 1850 Westminster was constituted the metropolitan see. Archdale, arch-dal. John, American colo nial governor: b. Buckinghamshire, England, probably about 1635. Ferdinando Gorges, the last proprietor of Maine, married his sister Mary in 1660, and in 1664 sent him to Maine- to set up Gorges' government afresh in opposition to Massachusetts, under whose protection the settlements there had placed themselves. (See Gorces. ) They resisted Archdale so fiercely that the next year he sailed for home, entirely baffled. In May 1681 he acquired a dubious title to a share in the proprietorship of the Carohnas, and in 1682 the proprietors commis- sioned him to come over and receive their rents from "Albemarle" (North Carolina). He was there by 1683, with the intention of settling permanently (as his daughter did) — perhaps drawn by a liking for the Quakers in the colony, he having been converted by George Fox. A few years later, however, he returned to Eng land, and was one of the chief managers of the proprietary affairs. In 1688 he appears on di positions in the Gorges matter, private claims being still unsettled; but there is no evidence that he visited Maine again. In 1694. the Caro- lina proprietors needing some manager on the spot he was induced to become governor of South and North Carolina by the title of "land- grave* and the attendant barony of 48,000 acres; but it was not till 17 Aug. 1605 that iie assumed the government at Charleston, and he retained it but a year, then turning it over to a deputy and returning to England again. The complimentary address of the Assembly on his departure has been taken literally as a proof of influential and pregnant statesmanship; but in fact he dissolved his first Assembly in haste from a quarrel over abatement of quit-rents, compromised with the second, left the Hugue- nots unenfranchised and the unsatisfactory In- dian trade as it was and made no strong im- press. His spirit was good, however : he treated the Indians with humanity and modified some hard restrictions on them, drew up a militia act (into which the Assembly unanimously re- ARCHDEACON — ARCHER fused to put a clause exempting the Quakers), and established a bureau of public charities. He is also credited with having introduced rice culture into the Carolinas, through a bag of rice which a merchant vessel brought from Madagascar and he distributed among his friends. In 1698, elected a member of Parliament, he refused to take the oath but only to affirm, and was not permitted to take his seat. In 1707 appeared ( A New Description of that Fertile and Pleasant Province of Carolina,' by him, a vindication of his administration, of little value except for some original documents. Archdeacon, rirch'de'kun, an ecclesiastical dignitary next in rank below a bishop, who has jurisdiction either over a part of or over the whole diocese. He is usually appointed by the bishop, under whom he performs various duties, and he holds a court which decides cases subject to an appeal to the bishop. The dignity is still maintained in the Anglican, but not in the Roman Catholic Church, the canons or rural deans exercising the same functions as archdeacons. Archduke, arch'duk', a duke whose author- ity and power is superior to that of other dukes, a title in the present day assumed only by the princes of the imperial house of Austria. In France, in the reign of Dagobert, there was an Archduke of Austrasia ; and at a later period, the provinces of Brabant and Lorraine were termed archduchies. The Dukes of Austria assumed the title of archduke in 1156; but the dignity was not confirmed till 1453- Archegosaurus, ar'ke-go-so'riis, a fossil saurian reptile, found in 1847, in large concre- tionary modules of clay-ironstone, from the coal field of Saarbriick. Four species have been described. Prof. Owen makes it a connecting link between the reptile and the fish, and on these grounds: it is related to the salaman- droid-ganoid fishes by the conformity of pattern in the plates of the external cranial skeleton, and by the persistence of the chorda dorsalis, as in the sturgeon, while it is allied to the reptiles by the persistence of the chorda dorsalis, and the branchial arches, and by the absence of the occipital condyle or condyles, as in Lepid- osiren, and by the presence of labyrinthic teeth, as in Labyrinthodon, which, however, also ally it to the ganoid Lepidosteus. See Stegocelpha- lia. Archelaus, ar'ke-la-us, the name of several personages in ancient history, of whom we need mention only Archelaus the son of Herod the Great. This prince received from Augustus, with the title of Ethnarch, the sovereignty of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea. His reign is de- scribed as most tyrannical and bloody. The people at length accused him before Augustus, who, after hearing his defense, banished him in A.n. 10 to Vienne, in Gaul, where he died. To avoid the fury of Archelaus. Joseph and Mary, with the infant Jesus, retired to Nazareth. Archenholz, lir'Hen-holts, Johann Wilhelm von, a German historian: b. 5 Sept. 1743; d. 28 Feb. 1812. He took part in the closing cam- paigns of the Seven Years' war and retired as captain. 1763: traveled extensively in Europe, lived in England the greater part of 1769-79, and settled in Hamburg in 1792. His book on 'England and Italy' (1785), extensively trans- lated, obtained a phenomenal success. A sequel to it was 'Annals of British History' (1789- 98, 20 vols.). His 'History of the Seven Years' War' (1789; augmented 1793, 13th ed. 1892) is still the most popular account of that war. Arch'er, Belle, actress: b. Easton, Pa., i860 ; d. 1890. Her maiden name was Arabella S. Mingle; married Herbert Archer, 1880, and was divorced from him, 1889. She made her debut in Washington, D. C, with Win. Florence in 'The Mighty Dollar,' and later played lead- ing parts in 'Pinafore,' 'Hazel Kirke,' 'Lord Chumley' (1888), and Tennyson's 'Foresters.' For a time she was leading woman with Sol Smith Russell. Arch'er, Branch T., Texan revolutionist: b. Virginia, 1790: d. Texas, 22 Sept. 1856. He studied medicine in Philadelphia, practised many years in Virginia, and was repeatedly a member of the legislature. In 1831 he removed to Texas, and was one of the leaders in preparing for the revolution determined upon far in advance of the actual crisis. On 3 Nov. 1835 he presided over the celebrated ''consultation" of the Amer- ican settlers concerning independence, and im- mediately after was one of three commissioners — the others being Stephen Austin and N. H. Wharton — to solicit aid from the United States. Thje next year he became speaker of the House in the first Texan Congress ; and he was secre- tary of war for Texas 1839-42, when bodily infirmity compelled him to retire from public life. Arch'er, Frederic, organist and musical director: b. Oxford, England, 1838; d. Pittsburg, Pa., 1901. Educated at Oxford, London, and Leipsic, and held important positions as organ- ist in Oxford, London and Glasgow, 1852-79. Organist Plymouth Church, Brooklyn, N. Y., 1880-85; conductor Boston Oratorio Society, 1887 ; founded Pittsburg Symphony Orchestra, 1896 ; organist Church of the Ascension, Pitts- burg, 1899-1901. He gave recitals and lectured on musical subjects throughout the United States and Canada. Founded and edited 'The Keynote' (1885). Arch'er, John, physician: b. Harford County, Md., 6 June 1741 ; d. there, 1810. Grad- uated at Princeton. 1760, and in 1768 received from the Philadelphia Medical College the first medical diploma issued in America. He raised and commanded a military company during the Revolution, served several years in State Legis- lature, was a presidential elector in 1801, and member of Congress 1801-7. He made several discoveries in medicine which have been adopt- ed by the profession. Arch'er, Thomas, an English novelist and essayist. His works deal with the conditions of the working classes and with social evils. Among the best known are: 'A Fool's Para- dise' (1870); 'Profitable Plants' (1874). Arch'er, William, an English author and critic: b. Perth, Scotland, 23 Sept. 1856. Edu- cated at Edinburgh University : became barris- ter. Middle Temple. 1883. Went to London 1S7X, became dramatic critic of the Figaro, 1879-81, and London World since 1S84. In 1899 he visited the United States to study American theatres. He has edited and translat- ARCHER-FISH — ARCHIDAMUS ed Ibsen's 'Prose Dramas' (5 vols.); and with his brother translated Ibsen's 'Peer Gynt.' He has written 'Life of Macready' (1890); 'Eng- lish Dramatists of To-day' (1882); 'The Theatrical World' (5 vols. 1893-97); 'Study and Stage' (1899); ' America To-day' (1900); 'Poets of the Younger Generation' (1901) ; •Masks or Faces: a Study in the Psychology of Acting.' Arch'er-fish, a fish reputed to be able to shoot drops of water from its mouth at insects in the air above, thus bringing the insects down where they can be seized. The name is most frequently applied to a single species, Toxotcs jaculator, a fish six or seven inches long, a native of Java and the neighboring islands, which represents an aberrant group of chaeto- donts, or coral fishes (q.v.). This, however, is an error of identification, the true fish with this habit being a related small coral fish ( Chelmott tratus) of India. This genus has its mouth nded into a tube-like snout, forming a sort of nozzle. When it perceives an insect perched on a plant over the water, it swims to within a distance of from four to six feet, and then with surprising dexterity will eject a single drop of water with so true an aim as to knock the insect into the water where it is instantly seized. Captives will do this in a tank or aquarium; whereas experiments show that the Toxotes never does such a thing for which its mouth is entirely unfitted. Arch'ery. Ages after the bow and arrow had disappeared in general use from Europe and many other countries, it was the universal arm both for war and sport in the Americas, from Patagonia to the Arctic Circle, and its use lingered on the borders of advancing civilization till within the memory of thousands living. It may indeed be considered the most characteris- tic American weapon, yet the practice of arch- cry as a recreation is limited. A few societies of Toxopholites exist and hold monthly meetings ?nd annual contests. The principal clubs are in the neighborhood of Washington, D. C, and of Cincinnati. A faithful band, too, of whom the late Maurice Thompson, the author of 'Alice of Old Vincennes,' was the exponent, have continued into this _>oth century to take the bow and arrow into field and forest, and to live while in camp by the product of their skill in its use. Several charming pen pictures may be found in the pages of 'Scribner's,' 'Harper's,' 'Outing,' and the 'Badminton' magazines, relating their hunts after turkeys, herons, wild duck, wood-duck, and squirrels, and even fish, in Florida, Georgia, Illinois. Indiana, and other States. For practi- cal purposes, however, the attention may be confined to archery as popularly understood : that is, shooting at the target as a recreation and to acquire skill. This form of its use continued long after gunpowder had become common : in fact the first book of instruction in archery, that of Roger Ascham, the teacher of Lady Jane Grey, and professor of Greek at Cambridge, 'Toxophilius. or the Schole of Shooting,' was published in 1571, when the bow had practically become obsolete as a weapon of offense. The bow used for recreation is the long-bow and not the arbalest or cross-bow which was used by William Tell. That style of the bow was never popular in England. As gunpowder came more and mon in -port-., the interest in the bow and arrow faded. About the year 1760 the possibilities of archery as a builder up of the body and the eyesight were rediscovered, and from thenceforward it had a lusty growth and lias always had a con- siderable following of devotees both in England and America. Bow- .11 •■ made either of piece of wood, or two or more strips glued to gether, preferably of yew. A man's how is about six feet in length, and a woman's some half a foot shorter. A man's bow requires a pull of from 40 to 50 pounds, a woman's about half that amount. The distance shol varies with the kind of contest: a Potomac round consists of 24 arrows at So yards, -'4 at 70 and 24 at (o. A double Columbia round of 48 arrows at 50 yards, and 48 at 40. A double York round of 144 arrows at 100 yards, 96 at 80 and 48 at 60. A double National round of 06 arrows at 60 yards and 48 at 50, and a double American round of 60 arrows at 60 yards, 60 at 50 and 60 at 40. The arrow's shape and feathering is a matter of personal inclination. The target- are four feet in diameter, made of banded straw with a canvas front painted in five concentric rings, the centre gold, then red, blue, black and white; the value in counting shots being, re- spectively, 9, 7. 5. 3 and I. There are in the National meet also competitions for longest flight and annual team competitions of 96 arrows at 60 yards for men and 96 arrows at 50 yards for women. Arch'es Court, the chief and most ancient consistory court, belonging to the Archbishop- ric of Canterbury, for the debating of spiritual causes. It i-. named from the church in Lon- don, St. Mary le Bow. or Bow Church (so called from a fine arched crypt), where it was formerly held. Archibald, Sir Adams George, Canadian statesman: b. Truro, Nova Scotia, 18 May 1814; d. Halifax, 14 Dec. 1892. He was secretary of state for the Dominion of Canada, and lieuten- ant-governor of the Northwest Territories, and .Manitoba, later; and later held the same office in Nova Scotia. He was knighted in 1885. Archidamus, ar'kl-da'mfis, the name of several kings of Sparta. I. The son of Anaxidamus, who lived during the Tegeatan war. which broke out soon after the termina- tion of the second Messenian war, in the year 668 B.C. II. The son of Zeuxidamus, and succeeded to the throne in the year 469 B.C. In the fifth year of his reign there was an earth- quake in Laconia which almost destroyed Sparta. In that trying period the foresight of Archidamus probably saved the surviving citi- zens from being massacred by the Helots. In the discussions at Sparta and Corinth, which preceded the rupture with Athens, he acted a prominent part, and always as the advocate of peace and moderation. He survived the out- break of the Peloponnesian war about five years, during which time he had the conduct of tliree expeditions against Attica and one against Platxa. Archidamus died in the 42d year of his reign, 427 B.c. III. Son of Agesilaus II. While yet a boy he prevailed on his father to pardon Sphodrias, who had dared to make an irruption into Attica at a ARCHIL — ARCHIMEDES time of profound peace. In 371 B.C. he was sent to the relief of his countrymen who had been vanquished at Leuctra. In 367 B.C. he defeated the Arcadians and Argives in what the Spar- tans termed the «scarless battle," because they had won it without the loss of a single man. Archidamus III. appears to have been a war- like prince, but he was neither a great general nor a great statesman, and makes but a poor figure in either capacity after such kings as his father and grandfather. IV. Son of Euda- midas I. and grandson of Archidamus III., was king of Sparta in 296 B.C. V. Son of Eudami- das II. Archidamus V. was the last king of the Eurypontid race that reigned in Sparta. When he was killed the rights of his children were dis- regarded and his crown was given to a stranger. Archil, ar'kil, or Orchil, or'kil, a coloring matter obtained from various kinds of lichens, the most important of which are the Roccella tmcturia and the R. fuciformis. The Lecanora tartarca, or cudbear, is another of the same nature ; orchella-weed and dyer's-moss are common names for them. The R. tinctoria, or archil plant proper, is abundant in the Ca- naries and Cape Verde Islands, and in the Levant; the R. fuciformis also grows chiefly in warm climates, as the coasts of Africa (Angola) and Madagascar. The lichens, which are chief- ly collected from rocks near the sea, are cleaned and ground into a pulp with water, after which some ammoniacal liquor is added, when the coloring matter, red, violet, or purple, is evolved and falls to the bottom. The red coloring mat- ter of Lecannra tartarra produces litmus when lime or an alkali is added. Archil has a beauti- ful violet color. It is used for improving the tints of other dyes, as from its want of per- manence it cannot be used alone. Archilochus, ar-kil'o-kus, a Greek poet, classed by Cicero with Homer and Sophocles: b. in the Island of Paros, flourished between 720 and 660 B.C. While a resident of Thasos, he incurred disgrace by throwing away his shield in a battle. He was the inventor of iambics. His terrible invective is said to have caused several suicides. A hymn to Hercules was the most esteemed of his poems, and used to be sung three times in honor of the victors at the games. Archimandrite, ar'ki-man'drlt, in the Greek Church, an abbot or abbot-general, who has the superintendence of many abbots and convents. Archimedes, ar'ki-me'dez, one of the most celebrated among the ancient physicists and ge- ometricians ; b. at Syracuse, about 287 B.C. Though, according to some accounts, a relation and certainly a friend of King Hiero, he ap- pears to have borne no public office, but to have devoted himself entirely to science. We can- not fully estimate his services to mathematics for want of an acquaintance with the previous state of science; still we know that he enriched it with discoveries of the highest importance, upon which the moderns have founded their admeasurements of curvilinear surfaces and sol- ids. Euclid, in his Elements, considers only the relation of some of these magnitudes to each other, but does not compare them with surfaces and solids bounded by straight lines. Archi- medes has developed the propositions necessary for effecting this comparison in his treatises on the sphere and cylinder, the spheroid and conoid, and in his work on the measure of the circle. He rose to still more abstruse consid- erations in his treatise on the spiral, which, how- ever, even those acquainted with the subject can with difficulty comprehend. Archimedes is the only one among the ancients who has left us anything satisfactory on the theory of mechan- ics, and on hydrostatics. He first taught the principle "that a body immersed in a fluid loses as much in weight as the weight of an equal volume of the fluid, and determined, by means of it, that an artist had fraudulently added too much alloy to a crown which King Hiero had ordered to be made of pure gold. He discov- ered the solution of this problem while bathing ; and it is said to have caused him so much joy, that he hastened home from the bath un- dressed, and crying out, Eureka! Eureka! "I have found it ; I have found it !" Practical me- chanics, also, received a great deal of attention from Archimedes. He is the inventor of the compound pulley, probably of the endless screw, etc. During the siege of Syracuse he devoted all his talents to the defense of his native coun- try. Polybius, Livy, and Plutarch speak in de- tail with admiration, and probably with exag- geration, of the machines with which he repelled the attacks of the Romans. They make no mention of his having set on fire the enemy's fleet by burning-glasses, — a thing which is in itself very improbable, and related only in the later writings of Galen and Lucian. At the moment when the Romans, under Marcellus, gained possession of the city by assault, tra- dition relates that Archimedes was sitting in the market-place absorbed in thought, and contem- plating some figures which he had drawn in the sand. To a Roman soldier who addressed him, he is related to have cried out, «Disturb not my circle!" but the rough warrior little heeded his request, and struck him down. The con- quest of Syracuse is placed in the year 212 B.C. On his tombstone was placed a cylinder, with a sphere inscribed in it, thereby to immortalize his discovery of their mutual relation, on which he set particular value Cicero, who was ap- pointed quaestor over Sicily, found this monu- ment in a thicket which concealed it. Of the works of Archimedes there are extant a treatise on 'Equiponderants and Centres of Gravity.* in which the theory of the lever and other me- chanical problems are treated; on the 'Quadra- ture of the Parabola' ; on the 'Sphere and Cylinder 5 ; on the 'Dimensions of the Circle' : on 'Spirals' ; on 'Conoids and Spheroids' ; the 'Arenarius,' a speculative treatise intended to refute the popular notion that the number of grains of sand on the seashore is infinite by showing that a definite number might be as- signed to a quantity of grains sufficient to fill the sphere of the fixed stars, remarkable as containing an anticipation of the modern dis- covery of logarithms; on 'Floating Bodies': a treatise called 'Lemmata,' of doubtful authen- ticity, on plane geometry. A very complete and splendid edition of the works of Archimedes issued from the 'Clarendon Press,' at Oxford, in 1792. Other editions appeared in 1S81, and 1897. Archimedes, Principle of. See Archimedes. ARCHIMEDES' SCREW— ARCHITECTURE Ar'chime'des' Screw, a machine invented by Vrchimedes while studying in Egypt. Ob serving the difficulty of raising water from the Nile he is said to have designed this screw as a means of overcoming the obstacle. It con sists of a pipe twisted in a spiral form around a cylinder, which, when at work, is supported in an inclined position. The lower end of the pipe is immersed in water, and when the cylin- der is made to revolve "ii us own axis, the water is raised In mi Iiend t<> bend in the .spiral pipe until it Sows out at the top. The Achi- median screw is still used in Holland for rais- ing water, and draining low grounds. The Dutch water-screws are mostly of large size, and are moved by the wind, one windmill fur- nishing sufficient motive power to keep several screws going at once. Archipelago, ar'ki-pel'a-go, a term origi- nally applied to the .tga-an, the sea lying be- tween Greece and Asia Minor, then to the nu- merous islands situated therein, and latterly to any cluster of islands. In the Grecian Archi- pelago the islands nearest the European coast lie together almost in a circle, and for this rea- son are called the Cyclades ((jr. kyklos, a cir- cle) ; those nearest the Asiatic, being farther from one another, the Sporades ("scattered"). (See these articles, and Cyprus; Negropont; Rhodes; Samos; SciO, etc.) The Malay, In- dian, or Eastern Archipelago, on the east of Asia, includes Borneo, Sumatra, and other large islands. See Malay ARCHIPELAGO. Architecture, skilful, or at least careful, building; and it is in this sense that we speak of military architecture, naval architecture (qq.V.), and the like. In a general sense, build- ing which has been made interesting by artistic consideration, the proportions of the structure having been considered, its details treated in a deliberate way, ornamentation applied whenever practicable, and the whole structure imbued with the artistical spirit. Of course architecture in this sense cannot exist without civilization, and the beginnings of civilization are commonly marked by an artistic treatment of buildings, such as huts for residence and larger cabins for the meeting of a tribe or its chief men. Build- ings dedicated to religious purposes always ap- pear early in the advance toward higher civiliza- tion: and it is mainly in temples and churches that architectural development appears, in any age. In this article it is intended to describe and analyze the architecture which has given rise to European styles, and those European styles themselves, from the commencement of history until the close of the 19th century. For the architecture of the Far East such as India, Far- ther India, China, and Japan, and for the prim- itive architecture of America, see separate head- ings. The most primitive races using architecture of wdiich we have any knowledge, are those of the Pacific islands in our own time. In New Zealand especially the large huts have much decorative woodwork combined in an intelligent way to produce a general effect. Again in the islands of Micronesia the larger residences and the buildings of the community are designed ac- cording to a very strict and semi-religious tradi- tion. Mow this same kind of tradition, more or less closely united with the pious beliefs of the people and with the teachings of their priest- hood, is found to have existed in Egypt at a time not exactly prehistoric, because \. gradually approaching to an accurate knowledge of the dates, but of an epoch not as yet exactly fixed — an epoch at least 5,000 years n.C. From that time on for many centuries the plan of a palace, or of a temple, or of one of those great buildings in which palace and temple seem to have been united, was a thing almost absoluti ly fixed in advance; and moreover the external ordonnance, the succession of pylons, the colon- naded porches, would be unchanged except as to minor considerations. One temple would have colossal statues backed up by the piers of the facade; another would have a row of col- umns with enriched capitals and sculptured drums: all these changes would find their ex- planation in the changing fashion of the time; but the general disposition of the covered build- ings alternating with open courts and cul- minating in a shrine accessible only to the few, would be unchanged. The origin of the forms ol i gyptian architecture is undoubtedly to be found in the building with a light skeleton of reeds daubed with mud, but this structure left only its superficial appearance to the stone tem- ples which were to succeed it. In actual building no race was ever more thoroughly skilled in quarrying, cutting, transporting, and combining blocks of limestone, and more rarely of harder rocks. These materials they used chiefly to provide themselves with broad surfaces — some- times flat, as of a sloping wall, sometimes rounded, in an approximately cylindrical way, as in a huge column ; and these surfaces they enriched by sculpture in low relief and especially in that coelanaglyphic relief in which the back- ground is not cleared away?; and these reliefs they painted richly in brilliant colors. At a later time and especially for interiors the paint- ing was done upon smooth walls and ceilings, and a whole school of flat pattern designing was developed, equal in effectiveness to any deco- rative painting of more recent times. The culmination of Egyptian architectural art is to be found at a very early date. Many persons will think that it never again attained the dignified splendor of that which dates from the 25th century B.C. One thing at least, is cer- tain — technical perfection has never, in any land, surpassed that with which huge blocks of granite, squared and polished and inscribed with complicated patterns, were used in buildings of that time. Still the 17th and 18th dynasties, wdiich are now dated 1610 to 1320 B.C. (Flinders Pctrie), will seem to most students the time of the greatest Egyptian architecture, for it was then that the great buildings at ancient Thebes were built, including temples and palaces, where now stand the modern villages of Karnak and Luxor, on the right bank, and, on the left bank, Dahr-el-Medinah and Medinet-Habu, with all the remains of the great necropolis. All of the buildings here named or included by implication were really for residence or ceremonial, except- ing the tombs, the interiors of which are of surprising beauty of decoration. The famous Pyramids, whether the great ones of Gizeh, which are the oldest, or the much smaller ones of later times, are not architecture in the nesthetic sense except as they are carefully wrought, the slopes of their sides accurately de- HATHORIC COLUMN, TEMPLE OF DINDERA ( Restored! ARCHITECTURE termined, their placing by the points of the com- pass very precise, and the whole structure in- vested with a quasi-religious character. Artistic design is hardly to be assigned to them ; indeed the great pyramids are nothing but cairns, that is to say, heaps of stone within which a couple of chambers have been carefully laid out ; technical excellence is never at fault, and some astronom- ical knowledge is evident in the placing and shaping of the structure, but this does not con- stitute artistical building. The architecture which was contemporary with this in Syria and Mesopotamia is hardly known to us as yet ; the results of it are trace- able in the buildings of Nineveh, dated the 8th and 7th centuries B.C., but even this has per- ished so generally that there has been much dispute as to the manner of roofing the palace halls. The decision of recent archaeologists is that these halls, long and narrow, and enclosed by walls of unburned bricks but of enormous thickness, were roofed with wagon vaults, also of unburned brick, curious devices being em- ployed to let in the breeze sweeping over the low, flat land bordering the Tigris, while ex- cluding the burning sun. The decoration of these buildings must have been largely by means of sculpture, flat slabs of alabaster which lined the walls being exquisitely carved in low relief with subjects of war and hunting, or of the king doing worship to his gods. Much more massive sculptures were carved in great blocks of limestone for the gate-posts, such as the huge winged lions and winged human-headed bulls of which specimens have been brought to the Louvre and to the British Museum. The characteristic of these palaces was their position upon the flat tops of the somewhat broad artifi- cial terraces paved at a height of 25 or 30 feet above the country around, from which pavement arose the principal rooms of the residential build- ings and the more tapering mass of the great temple. These temples were apt to be built with steps, but were otherwise pyramidal in form. They never reached a height approaching that of the Pyramids of Egypt, nor were they of anything like the same solidity of structure, be- ing generally built of unbaked clay in cast blocks, such as we call crude bricks, and faced with burned bricks. Such a structure crumbles into mud or dust when neglected, and the huge mounds along the Euphrates and the Tigris which have been opened and within which the treasures of Babylon and Nineveh have been found, are made up of this debris. The architecture of ancient Persia dates from about 500 B.C., as far as our knowledge goes. From this time on until the conquest by Alex- ander, 334 B.C., that ancient Persian art which we call Persepolitan from the famous ruins at the site of ancient Persepolis controlled all that inland country of Asia which lies immediately east and north of Mesopotamia. It was an architecture of terraced palaces and halls of many columns, but the terraces and platforms rot being needed in a hilly country, were much lower, evidently serving merely for splendor, as the European palace is often raised upon an architectural basement. The chief value of this art to European students is in the beginning of that wonderful system of decoration by means of colored patterns, both flat and in slight relief, in which for two thousand years the Persians were the masters of the world, teaching the races of Asia as well as of Europe what pat- tern-making and the application of brilliant col- ors to a fiat surface might produce. Contemporary with the latest Assyrian work were the beginnings of Grecian architecture, and contemporary with Persian work as above al- luded to, came the culminating period of Greece. There had been at a previous time the strange Mykensean art which cannot be dated with any accuracy, and which is far more Asiatic than Greek, and which as we now know, was more fully developed in Crete and perhaps in Cyprus than in the mainland of Greece. Of this art we have little in the way of permanent buildings. But with the year 600 B.C. the beginnings of the Doric style appear, the quarries of marble and of softer stone are worked in an intelligent way and the round column with the square abacus is used to form colonnades. The tem- ple of those early days was that which it con- tinued to be till the fall of all Grecian civilization came at the close of the classical epoch. It was a shut-up room without windows, divided, when . very large, with columns in two rows, and per- haps lighted from above either by sky-lights or by some system resembling that of the mediaeval clearstory, but of this we have no knowledge. The great eastern and western doorways were the only means of admitting daylight to which we can certainly point. Only a few temples had a colonnade on every side as had the Parthenon, the so-called Temple of Theseus at Athens and other buildings in Greece and in the colonies. By far the greater number had a portico at one end, the east, or one at each end ; the wall of the enclosed chamber or naos (called cella by the Romans) showing at the northern and southern sides between the porticoes at the ends. Of other buildings than temples we know- only porti- coes, roofed, but open on at least one side. Otherwise we have no knowledge of Grecian buildings. Gate- way buildings (propylaia) were roofed in part but served merely as passageways: when enclosed rooms were attached to them, these are ruined, and we know nothing of their ordonnance. There w-as also the meeting hall at Eleusis with many columns supporting the roof, but what its interior disposition was we do not know at all. So with dwellings, some little is known of the plan of a Grecian house, but no one has ever a reasonable theory as to its architectural treatment. The reason why Grecian architecture has obtained such a prodigious hold upon the im- agination of Europe is the control which its beauty and refinement, when in their full glory, exercised over the intelligence of the great Ro- man Empire. From 200 B.C. at least until 350 A.D., all the world which was destined to become European in feeling and much that has not re- tained that European character, was largely con- trolled by the great influence spreading from the city on the Tiber ; and this influence, so far as it was artistical. was derived in its turn from the cities of Greece. It was the mission of the Roman Empire to spread and perpetuate Hellen- ism, and it is to that combination of influences that the tradition and the learning of Europe are what they are in contradistinction to that of India, China, and the other ancient lands of Asia. The peculiar charm of Greek art was in its extreme subtlety of proportion, and in the ARCHITECTURE grace and refinement of its details; but in gain- ing these advantages it lost variety, movement and life, and deliberately shut itseli off from much that is absolutely essential to the modern world. Thus no man can build a w in the Greek style because he is absolutely ig- norant of what a Greek would have done with a large hall, or with a group of five or a dozen small rooms and passages. He does not know how a Greek would have made a window; he has no knowledge at all of how a Greek would have put one story upon another; in other words, Grecian architecture remains for us as an astonishing piece of perfection of limited range and small adaptability. The artists and the engineers of the great Roman Empire inherited the Etruscan notion of building with the round arch built of vous- soirs or wedge-shaped slabs — a thing never used by the Greeks in architecture. The Ro- man commonwealth at its commencement was as much Etruscan as Latin, and this use of the t, together with the free employment of glazed and painted earthenware for the interiors of buildings was perhaps common to both races, but was certainly familiar to the people of Etruria. Helbig points out that the boast of Augustus of "having found Rome a city of brick and leaving it marble" had a more exact signifi- cance than appears on the surface, for the Rome of the days of Julius, the Rome which Oc- tavianus must have seen as a child, was really a city of brick houses with terra cotta ornaments. But tin- Greek invasion had begun earlier than the days of Julius, and be himself was destined to be the great introducer of the refined columnar architecture of Greece into his native city. Au- gustus and the following emperors and their ad- mirers and followers within and without the Imperial City took up this mode of building with the long rows of marble columns, and from London and the Strait of Gibraltar east- ward to the sands of the Arabian Desert, the common style of beautifully ordered pillars car- rying roofs light in proportion to the substruc- ture made the cities splendid. The cities of the East were particularly famous for their colon- naded streets, and those of Palmyra, Gerasa and Antioch were unsurpassed except in the Im- perial City itself. The Romans developed also a totally non- Greek system of building with small stones laid in quantities of rather liquid mortar, making of this masonry very heavy walls, which were faced and rendered smooth by brickwork of thin, hard-baked tiles, laid also in mortar. These halls and passages they vaulted in the same materials, and made them solid and im- movable. They desired, of course, to combine their great porticoes with their vaulted interi- ors, and great ingenuity is shown in reaching an approximate success in this matter. See Roman* Imperial Architect ire. These two traditions struggled together in the work of small communities, the impoverished states which grew up over the ruins of the Em- pire. Christian churches had to be built in the East as in the West. It is curious to note that the West took up the colonnaded style and built what we call basilica churches, that is, buildings whose plan is a long parallelogram divided by rows of columns lengthwise through it ; while in the East the vault generally prevailed, and gave birth to what we call Byzantine architecture. The fact of tins Eastern preference for the vault- ed system point-, to what has been thought the probable origin of tin Roman vaulting, namely, in Alexandria and other cities of the Macedo- nian Empire, as divided into the kingdoms oi the Diadochi. the successors of Alexander tin I No traces of it have, however, been identified. Round and polygonal churches were not un- known in the West. Basilica churches also ex- isted in the East, but very few, and of very early times, the 5th and 6th centuries; but the Byzantine style, based entirely upon vaulting of great boldness, but lighter and far less enduring in appearance than the Roman work, wa tincd to be, from that time on, the characti of Christian architecture of the Levant and also to be the inspiring thought at the bottom of the architecture of the Mohammedan conquerors, The first perfectly realized Byzantine building is also the greatest — the Church of Saint Sofia in Constantinople was finished between 5.SJ and 537 A.D., but partly rebuilt in 563. It may well lie thought the most beautiful of churches, but in saying this one has in mind the interior only. All church building, even the latest and richest Gothic, has the exterior for its chief splendor. It is only true that the exterior is more entirely disregarded by the Byzantines and apparently no thought whatever given to the effect of the external shell. The style invented in this way at a single effort (a result not known to have been achieved anywhere else in the his- tory of art) has prevailed ever since over all the lands from the Red Sea northward and even over all the plains of Russia, if we are considering church architecture alone. The more recent buildings of Asia Minor, Armenia, The Cau- casus, Moldavia. Greece and Russia to the Bal- tic, may be without direct reference to Byzantine systems of design so long as they are merely low walled residences, or if larger and built of tim- ber; but the church is everywhere Byzantine. The boundary between this and the Romanesque art of western Europe runs along the eastern frontier of Dalmatia and then eastward some- where near the Danube; for Hungary is gen- erally western in its church architecture, while the Balkan Peninsula is Byzantine. The Romanesque of western Europe is a style almost wdiolly based upon church building and characterized by an effort to be as Roman as possible under changing conditions. From the first the struggle to vault every nave and aisle and sanctuary in the classical Roman way is obvious, but also it is obvious that the small means and the poor skill of the people held them back all the time. Under these conditions there grew up in Italy a Latin style, partly the result of copying classical basilicas and partly of copy- ing the interiors of great Roman houses which had often been the refuge of a poor and timid congregation of Christians. This style is best known also from the churches of Ravenna and the oldest churches of Rome. There was also a Lombard style in the north of Italy, partly the result of the invasion of barbarians, partly of Byzantine invasions coming from the East. Again there grew up slowly the beautiful Pisan style of central Italy : and all these styles may he included in the general term Romanesque. In the north of Europe nothing earlier than the oth century is accurately known to us, and even of that epoch the buildings which we know ARCHITECTURE— I. ffi= E &J ARCHITECTURE.-II. 2=SSfc. - ~^ ^%m$&&&^&&r t'RA, E ■■ THE FART:: ARCHITECTURE are few in number and often greatly rebuilt. Sucb a building is the church at Aix-la-Chapelle in Rhenish Prussia, the cathedral built by Char- lemagne himself, but it has been altered out of recognition. There is a conventual church at Hechingen, near Stuttgart, and at Quedlinburg in Prussian Saxony, and these churches are marked by a beautiful system of quasi-classical sculpture with scroll-work and elaborate mold- ings, and by a system of vaulting with groined vaults very effective but not allowing of very great variety of structure. The vaults are low and narrow, and even under these conditions the history of every great church is a record of constant accidents befalling the vault. The noble cathedral of Speyer, the capital of Rhenish Bavaria, and the church at Gernrode belong to a later period, namely, the 12th century, and of the same time or a very little later are the church of St. Godehard and the church of St. Mi- chael at Hildesheim, the Cathedral of Mainz (Mayence), of Braunschweig (Brunswick), and the Cathedral at Worms. These great churches have held their own, unchanged in important details, since the time of their first building, and but for these and a few more we should not know how interesting and on the whole efficient a style the northern Romanesque could be. On the other hand the churches of middle France are more rich in sculpture. Nothing can exceed the splendor and, in a limited sense, the beauty of such fronts as the Cathedral at Angouleme, and Notre Dame la Grande at Poitiers. The Cathedral at Le Puy has also much beautiful sculpture, but is especially famous for its sur- prisingly picturesque situation and design, and its very beautiful polychromatic exterior. The Church of La Madeleine at Vezelay, and that of Notre Dame du Port at Clermont, are great steps in the development of the Romanesque churches leading to the Gothic style : and in the far south the churches at Aries, Saint Gilles, and Saint Saturnin at Toulouse, are examples of a rich and brilliant Romanesque quite different in character from anything in the north of France, or in Germany. France has also a great number of domed churches partaking strongly of the Byzantine character. There is beautiful Romanesque also in Eng- land, where the nave of Peterboro and_ that of Winchester are splendid examples ; and in Spain some of the richest churches in Europe are of this style. The far North — Denmark and the Scandi- navian Peninsula — have also beautiful Ro- manesque, as in the Cathedral of Lund in Sweden ; but the characteristic architecture of Norway is a style depending upon wood for its structure and upon elaborate carving for its dec- oration. The above considerations bring us to the mid- dle of the 12th century and at this point it be- comes necessary to consider the works of the Mohammedan nations, who were following in the main the Byzantine style. Some of the earliest of these Mohammedan churches have a disputed date; thus the famous Mosque of Omar in Jerusalem has always been a point of dispute, some historians putting its structure as early as the beginning of the 8th century. It is known that the early mosques at Cairo, such as that of Ibn Tulun were built in the 9th century. The architecture of a later time is more splendid if less massive and constructional. The Moslem architecture spread east and west in the trail of the conquering armies, and there is a Moham- medan style in India of extraordinary splendor, its chief epoch being between 1180 and 1600 a.d. (See India, Architecture of.) The conquest of northern Africa and of nearly all the Spanish Peninsula gave rise to what we call the Moorish style, never equal in dignity or beauty to the architecture of Cairo and Damascus, but en- riched with elaborate but fantastic carving, and also plaster work modeled and stamped, and all richly painted. The most celebrated buildings of this style are the Mosque of Cordova and the Palace of the Alhambra on the hill near Grenada. The tendency of the Eastern mind is seen in rich chromatic decorations, not only in paintings but also in rich enameled tiles with which large sur- faces of wall are adorned, and also at least in the wealthier cities, with exquisite inlays of col- ored marble. In the middle of the 12th century, the peo- ples of what we now call France, western Ger- many, England, and Belgium were building skil- fully and intelligently in their Romanesque style, but were still much harassed by the difficulty of the round arched vault. This difficulty was pe- culiarly great when it became necessary to carry a deambulatory like an aisle around a semicir- cular apse. All the ingenuity of the builders was put into this, and without perfect satisfac- tion to them. There was then taken up a device which seems simple and rather obvious, the de- vice of springing a narrow arch of very solid material from one pier or column or corbel to another, and building as many such arches as the space to be filled made necessary — then fill- ing up the resulting spaces with light vaulting which rested upon these cut-stone arches. To take the simplest case, if a parallelogram of 000 square feet were to be filled, it would take a fairly good builder to make a groined vault stand ; but any beginner could build four nar- row arches on the four outlines of the square and two other arches diagonally dividing it into four panels, each of about 200 square feet. Any- body could fill one of these with a thin shell of vaulting: and it is out of this simple device that there grew the great Gothic architecture. The diagonal arches met in the middle at a kind of boss. We may then consider those diagonals as consisting of four half arches meeting in the middle. Looked at in that way, irregular spaces could be vaulted without trouble and the plan of the church might be as elaborate and compli- cated as bishop or master builder might desire. Constructional Gothic architecture is merely Romanesque with this rib-vaulting and the re- sulting lightness and freedom added ; but deco- ratively there came into it a great enlargement and enrichment of the Romanesque sculpture. The carvers grew wonderfully more learned in their knowledge of anatomy, and of the human figure in movement and in repose, and they learned to cast drapery in the most effective way, so that the culminating sculpture of the 13th century may rank with the architectural sculpture of Greece in beauty. Representing this perfection of the style we have the Cathe- drals of Reims, Bourges, Amiens, the north and south flank of Chartres (for the west end is partly of earlier, partly of later epochs) and a vast number of smaller churches and fragments of churches; thus one of the finest apses in the world is that of Le Mans. The Gothic style is ARCHITECTURE French in its origin and development, but the ili took u over at a very early date and built the lovely cathedrals of Salisbury and Lin- coln and the still earlier east end of Canterbury. In fact, English Gothic is of the most fascinating character, though without the vastness and dig- nity of the French and without it? logical perfec- tion. There is splendid Gothic architecture in Spain very closely copied from the French, and in Germany the succeeding French styles are ontinually reproduced with modifications — the Germans very properly clinging to their noble Romanesque and only in part accepting Gothic achievement. The early development of Gothic architecture was checked by the civil wars in what is now France — the quarrels between great nobles and the invasion of the English kings, Edward III. and Henry IV. claiming the crown of France. In this way the century from 1345 to 1453 was a time of almost continual disorder, and but little architectural change took place during that time. What little was built in the 14th century is of , .iieme interest, such as the Church of Saint Ouen at Rouen in Normandy, marking the very culmination of formal and regulated Gothic. In England, too, the Gothic style worked out its own evolution with singular results. The re- markable nave of Lincoln Cathedral and that of Litchfield were built with vaulting a little artifi- cial in that many more ribs were put in than were needed, and this led immediately to what we know as fan tracery, which marks the close of the 14th and the first half of the 15th cen- tury. The most splendid specimens of this are of the 15th century, but its earlier examples, such as the cloisters of Gloucester Cathedral, are contemporary with the English perpendicular Gothic and belong to the last few years of the 14th century. Gothic art was also introduced into Italy ; but it had no complete mastery there. Its nature was hardly understood by the Ital- ians, but beautiful and highly decorative churches and city houses resulted from their work with it. With the close of the Hundred Years' War there appeared all over northern Europe the style which we call Florid or Flamboyant archi- tecture, but it is to be noted that the glory of this style is almost exactly contemporary' with the rise of the classical Renaissance in Italy. From 1453 till 1525 the Florid Gothic was in the main undisturbed in France, and a similar style prevailed almost undisturbed in Germany, Flan- ders, the Low Countries and England ; but all this time the buildings of Italy were without ex- ception built in what was intended to be the classical Roman style of architecture. This period, which should be called by the Italian name, the Risorgimcnto, is therefore to be studied by itself in Italy, and the style of the Risorgimcnto, beautiful in itself and full of in- terest, has this further hold on our notice that it was destined to prevail over all local styles and to turn the people of Europe toward the imi- tation of Greco-Roman art. The classical style of Italy has, of course, the fault of being a deliberate re-study of a style long before for- gotten and abandoned — that is to say, it did not grow naturally from the study by each mas- ter builder of the buildings of his predecessors and contemporaries — it was studied deliberately because it was felt that the remains of the great civilized empire of Rome must be better than iin work of the comparatively disorganized and cattered peoples of mediaeval Europe, ["his fault disappeared, however, after the first few years of hard and persistent work, by so _ many artists all working together; and yet it is ccr t:iin that ill architecture there was less of i success achieved than in other forms of decora- tion, ami in painting and sculpture conducted with the purpose of recording expression. What we call the Renaissance architecture of Europe was not destined to develop any new :■ tern 0.1 building nor any system of sculptured or paint) 1 decoration except as it offered room for 1 ful separate works of art to be put into pi; its walls and in its niches. The Italian in- fluence reached tile North early in the Kith cen- tury and by 1525 it wis established in France. The important buildings of this neo-classic style were in Italy very largely ecclesiastical. There had not been during the 13th century such a wonderful building of churches in Italy as in the North, and so when the new style came in there was room for more. Of the early date are such churches as Saint Zaccaria and Saint 1'an- tino in Venice, the church at Montepulciano and the similar one at Cortona on the hillside, and the church of Saint Andrea at Mantua. There were also a number of city residences of the nobles, buildings which we call palazzi, and ome of these, such as the Palazzo Rucellai, the Pa- lazzo Riccardi, the Palazzo Strozzi, and the Palazzo Pitti in Florence, with some of the most exquisite private ' houses in the world on the canals of Venice vie with the most impor- tant churches of the period. Again in the [6th century the architecture, though less varied and natural, seeming also comparatively cold and bard, as if the delight in it had gone out of its creators, is full of excellent examples for all students. In the North great country mansions were the first to receive and show the Italian influence, and very splendid buildings of this sort were built in France during the reign of Francis I. and Henry II.; while in England dur- ing the contemporaneous reigns, the curious Tudor and the still more interesting Eliza- bethan style were not showing marked Ital- ian influence and yet were evidently not sim- ply the development from the latest English Gothic. It is curious, however, that the use of Gothic details and even of Gothic building lasted in England far into the 17th century, though it was then not very general. By 1650 all marked separation of style be- tween the countries of western Europe had dis- appearcd. All the peoples were building alike in the modified Roman style, with classical columns or studies made from them, and with complete abandonment of all medi- ,-eval forms. The great influence over taste of the brilliant court of Louis XIV., the building of Marly and Versailles, had _ a -till greater influence over the capital cities and royal palaces of Europe, for every sovereign prince (and there were hundreds of them at this period) felt himself obliged to try to build a little Versailles for himself. In this way the universality of the later neo-classic was estab- lished; and this prevailed continuously down to the outbreak of the French Revolution. It is not meant that there were no changes nor that there was a lack of intelligence and thought, for there were architects of real merit and there ARCHITECTURE— II!. I AF.CH OF TITUS, ROMK. . I C P. AT F S R iMINi ■ ARCHITECTURE were modifications of style so decided that there is no difficulty in dating a good piece of archi- tecture; but the curious fact that this univer- sally prevalent architecture observed two rules and not one, gave it in all its forms a marked characteristic. In every other strong and prevailing style that the world has known, tradition and the handing on of rules from master to pupil was the one cause of uniformity and the one route of change ; but now for the first time there was a body of ancient learning and often of misinformation about the Greco- Roman past to which every one referred as to an authority greater than that even of his mas- ter and of his contemporaries. Since the close of the Napoleonic wars in 1815 there has been throughout Europe and in the lands settled by Europeans an architectural situation altogether unique in history. There has been no universal and no generally preva- lent style except that the later neo-classic in one form or another has been continually in use. Every other imaginable attempt has been made ; and there have been earnest and resolute studies in Romanesque, Gothic, Mohammedan and even Byzantine art, and experiments have been made in Egyptian, Persian and other far removed styles. The early Renaissance, too, both that of Italy which we called above that of the Risorgimento, and the Renaissance proper of France; and the English Elizabethan and Ja- cobean, and the spirited and picturesque German Renaissance of the 16th century, all have been tried. Modern architects have not merely sought inspiration in the buildings and in draw- ings and photographs of the buildings, but they have tried to copy them either complete or in great part, large details and small, and it is largely true that the 19th century was so poor a time for decoration because all the designers had their portfolios full of examples of old work finer than anything they could produce. They were trained to copy and adapt, and in this way prevented from trying to design in a natural way. In Bavaria the traveled and studious prince who was afterward King Ludwig I. (de- throned 1848) built a whole series of palaces and official buildings in the capital city, Munich, and in its neighborhood, trying in turn to repro- duce Byzantine, German Gothic, Florentine Renaissance, Greco-Roman and Greek as nearly as he dared. These buildings are permanent and solid structures, and a serious attempt was made to build up in this way a museum of archi- tectural art, a thing absolutely inconceivable to a sovereign in the days of living architecture. There has been a German classical school, of which the chief centre was Berlin, and there have been several picturesque or semi-Gothic schools, but none of them permanently success- ful. During the last 20 years of the 19th cen- tury two influences were seen side by side, the one a determined effort to revive the latest neo- classic — the Barock of the German iSth cen- tury ; and the other a very realistic study of the requirements of the building and of natural form for its ornamentation. In this last mentioned style very beautiful effects have been produced by means of stucco relief combined with the stuccoed brick front of the large city houses and public buildings, and also great boldness in the way of wrought-iron work used as an impor- tant part of the facade. In Belgium, especially in Antwerp, this use of wrought iron is very noticeable and effective. In England the Gothic revival which began as early as 1845 had largely a religious foundation, and in part a mistaken national feeling behind it ; but in the main it was a protest against what was thought the artificial style de- rived from the teachings of Palladio and his latest imitator, Sir William Chambers, and a de- sire to return to a constructional art. It failed of success because at no time did it command the adhesion of more than a certain large frac- tion of the whole number of architects, and also because its advocates themselves did not agree as to the style which they were to de- velop. Great freedom was shown in adapting motives from different countries and different epochs. Thus the Italian Gothic, with a free use of color in external and internal design, was followed with great energy, sometimes in the way of close copying, sometimes in the way of bold adaptation. This resulted in admirable single buildings, but it added to the confusion of aim and purpose and prevented the building up of a consistent school of design. This curious architecture, with pointed arches, colored material used in stripes and pat- terns, shafts of polished marble or granite, and architectural sculpture of very naturalistic qual- ity, has been called the Victorian style, or Victorian Gothic. One of its earliest examples, was the London church in Margaret Street, Cavendish Square. But the masterpieces of the Gothic revival are such buildings as the Cathe- dral of Truro in Wales, and that of Adelaide in South Australia, which are really Gothic buildings though built in a modern way to meet modern requirements. In France the tradition of the reigns before the revolution and of the brief empire of Napoleon were so strong and were represented by so many highly trained architects, sculptors, decorative painters, wood-carvers, and stone-cutters that no serious attempt was ever made to change the style of the whole country. Individual architects and archaeologists preached the glory of the French mediaeval tradition and occasionally a great convent would build its church in a really vigorous and well-understood Gothic manner, but in general the style of the epoch was developed according to the teachings of the central school in Paris, so that while the long rows of handsome dwelling houses and the stately Prefectures and Mairies of France were built in what might be called an orthodox French neo-classic style, the exceptional build- ings are, in a curious way, harmonious with the general result. Thus the famous building on the Trocadero Hill has largely a Byzantine character, and yet does not strike one as wholly out of keeping with the neo-clnssic house-fronts near. The great Hotel de Ville of Paris, built after the destruction of the former one in 1871, is of French Renaissance, or rather of its modifications under Henry IV., hut carried out consistently; and yet this building also harmonizes well with what is near. It is only now and then, in a great columned building like the theatre at Bordeaux, and the Bourse (Stock Exchange) in Paris, that there seems to be a wholly different style employed, for Gothic build- ings are so very unusual in the cities that they do not count at all upon the modern aspect of the town. Much of this tendency in France is due ARCHITECTURE to the learned character of the criticism there, much less sentimental, much l< wayed by general theories of what is right and wrong, far more traditional and kept in place by the social unity which marks French thought. As regards the rest of Europe, the same tenden- cies are visible which n more plainly in the I'nitcd State-;, to which we must devote the remainder of our space. Russell Sturgis, F.A.I.A., Author of 'Dictionary of Architecture.'' Architecture. American. — The establishment on a firm basis of the present national gov- ernment at Washington is nearly contempo- raneous with the beginning of the 19th cen- tury, and before many years had elapsed the Federal buildings in Washington attracted the attention of historians. Congress met in Washington in Nov. 1800. as if with ex- pressed determination to be in session there when the new century should begin. At that time, though the capital city had been for 10 years decided on and its exact loca- tion determined, the only buildings which the Federal government found ready for its use were a part of one wing of the Capitol and as yet incomplete buildings for the Treasury De- partment and War Department. The White House was not yet ready for its proposed use as a residence. Nor did these buildings make very good progress, and when they were burned bv the British army in 1813 but little loss was suffered. After the war with Great Britain, the Capi- tol was rebuilt rapidly, and completed in its original form, as many men now living remem- ber it, with a low central dome over wdiat were then the wings occupied by the Senate and the 1 louse of Representatives. The White House also was finished in its present form, though the completion of the portico lingered for a time. The "Octagon House," now occupied by the American Institute of Architects, is reputed to have been used by the President during the building of the White House; the building is not octagonal, however, but of an ingenious and unusual plan well calculated to provide an agreeable residence. Otherwise, throughout the United States there was but little change or development in the line of architectural art. The Georgian epoch of design had passed, except in the con- struction of dwelling houses. A Greek taste prevailed, and an ambition to produce Grecian architecture was uppermost in the minds of all who undertook public buildings. The lyceums or town halls throughout the country, the city halls and court houses, and State houses or capitols, were generally designed with colon- nades. Of this nature is the principal build- ing of the college designed under the auspices of Thomas Jefferson, if not by that statesman himself; of this character is the old custom 1 use (now the Sub-Treasury) in New York, which is a very faithful copy of a hexastyle Doric temple ; and of this character are the Nashville State house, the capitol at Montgom- ery, and a great number of buildings, large and small, in the North as well as in the South, erected at all periods up to the middle of the century, /t the same time, however, the dwell- ings were much more commonly in the grave and decent style whhh wc have generally called "Old Colonial architecture. 8 In this respect New York city was peculiarly fortunate. Whole tpiarters of the city were thickly built up with houses of the most satisfactory style which has vet been employed iii domestic architecture in the United States — or, at least, which has re- ceived general acceptance. Many single blocks or isolated buildings throughout that part of the city which lies south of Bleecker Street still remain in their original condition, and in these is to be seen the original American domestic architecture of the time before 183;. Of the same years are many interesting houses in the New England towns, as well as in Maryland and Virginia. These houses of the 19th cen- tury are often confused with the much older houses which are properly "Colonial." and. in- deed, are distinguishable only by the student wdio will observe the architectural details with some care. The taste for Greek architecture is, it is true, traceable in them in the rather fre- quent appearance of a colonnade of four or six or, as in one well-known case in Farmington, Conn., of five columns — a nearly unique archi- tectural device. At any time between 1820 and 1850, if a wealthy man wished to build himself a house of unusual stateliness, he would turn the simple domestic "piazza" into a portico of Grstco-Roman dignity. Thus in Charleston the Ficken mansion has a hexastyle portico at least as dignified and nearly as large as that of the custom house, and a large mansion on South Battery has a Corinthian portico of four col- umns serving as its entrance porch. With the years beginning with [835 the houses of the cit- ies became more often large than handsome, with costly mahogany doors, large rooms di- vided by colonnades of white-painted wood, and very ample and easy staircases — all of them features known to the country mansions but hardly to city life till that time. Here again New York city is the most important centre of interest, for the houses of Washington Square and those in West 8th Street (Clinton Place). Hast oth Street (Brevoort Place), and East 8th Street (St. Mark's Place) are very gen- erally of this type, and never since that time have rows of street houses been so well handled or their interiors so well understood. The houses of Boston at this time were as good internally, and had certain peculiarities of plan recommend- ing them to the student, such as the use of the al- ley passing through and under the house to the back yard, of the utility of which plan much might be said; but their exteriors were'generally less noticeable. The narrow and crooked streets and something in the popular taste almost for- bade external display or even elegance. In Phil- adelphia, on the either hand, severity was caused rather by the strong Quaker influence than by anything in the external character of the town, while the easy access to white marble in con- siderable quantities made this a favorite mate- rial. I knee arose the well-known type of the Philadelphia house, with walls of red brick, white marble lintels, sills, and doorsteps, and, as the houses were built close to the sidewalk, without areas and with the entrance nearly on a level with the street, a display of solid white- painted wooden shutters which carried out the chromic effect to the full. The cities of the South' were less crowded, less busy, more decidedly marked by the distinc- ARCHITECTURE tion between elegant and humble dwellings. In Mobile, Charleston, and Savannah, the charac- teristic dwelling was rather a more stately man- sion standing free or nearly so, and having broad verandas or "galleries" which, however, were not turned toward the street, but sidewise upon gardens. Savannah, however, has a very unusual plan: a succession of square, open "places" from each of which four streets lead in four directions, giving a series of square corners and allowing of an irregularity of shape in the house-lots which is not known in our other cities. It is a matter of regret that this plan is not preserved in the newer quarters. The residences in Savannah commonly have windows along their sides opening upon a gar- den, which, if small, is private, made so by brick walls of sufficient height. The Gothic revival made itself manifest in the United States at an early date. Few care- fully designed buildings in the mediaeval styles had been built even in England, when, in 1839, Richard Upjohn took charge of the work on Trinity Church in Xew York, his task there passing almost immediately into the designing of a wholly new structure, which was finished in 1846. At about the same time the Church of the Holy Trinity in Brooklyn, which still stands unaltered, was built by Lefevre. whose name is almost forgotten because of his death soon after the completion of this one important work. These buildings were carefully studied from the English Perpendicular style; and as English Gothic hardly included vaulting as a necessary feature, this was wholly omitted in the American examples, though unfortunate afterthought caused some poor imitations of vaulting in woodwork and plaster. Apart from this the churches were solidly built and w r ith attention to the archaeological propriety of every part; the inevitable slips in this direction be- ing caused by the great lack of recorded and accessible knowledge in those pre-archaeological days. No form of Pointed style was in common use for any other buildings than churches ; the same architects who did their best to build Gothic churches preferred to design private and business dwellings of different aspect, though there appeared a few buildings which, like Harvard College Library and Yale Col- lege Alumni Hall, were reminders of English collegiate Tudor architecture. Upjohn, apart from his Gothic proclivities, was rather famous for his small Italian villas, some of which were of singular grace of design ; and A. J. Downing, the landscape gardener, though he occasionally put pointed arches and a steep gable roof to a cottage, carried his Gothic efforts no further than this, and seems to have preferred Eliza- bethan or some other semi-classic style for the numerous country houses which he designed. The public buildings of the time just preceding the middle of the century (nearly always of pseudo-Greek style, as has been said above) were unimportant, and have been, in the main, replaced by more impressive structures. The country houses were also, as a general thing, without marked character, and the rows of street fronts in New York. Philadelohia. and Boston, and in the newer and rapidly growing cities of the West, were unmarked by architec- tural intelligence. Vol. 1 — 42 In a very few cases a larger house was de- signed with some faithfulness, preserving a little of the simplicity of the bygone Georgian period, or carefully studied from French Pa- risian building, or the more tranquil and sim- ple city fronts of Italy. Still, the arrival of the year 1850 found no important architectural movement existing in the country; nor was this year followed by any very marked development. Two or three years later J. Wrey Mould came from England and began to build the Unitarian church in New York at the corner of Fourth Avenue and Twentieth Street. His design in- cluded a lofty and slender campanile, which has never been built ; and the church was marked by a character of architectural and sculptured detail and by logical solidity of structure that are even now not very familiar to American designers. This, however, was Mould's only great chance ; his other buildings were comparatively unimportant, and his work in the adornment of Central Park in New York is (indistinguishable from that of other arti-ts employed upon the same terraces and bridges. St. George's Church in New York was com- pleted, except for the spires, in 1853. under the direction of Leopold Eidlitz, who succeeded to his former partner and. perhaps, the first de- signer of the church. This church has since been injured by fire, and altered; but the origi- nal scheme, with an undivided and unbroken interior, and a roof supported by carefully de- signed timber trusses of two patterns, alternat- ing one with another, was one of the boldest and most satisfactory buildings in the United States. The spires were built by Mr. Eidlitz a few years later, and were remarkable as the only pierced spires of Romanesque design known to students ; but, unfortunately, the poor quality of the stone caused their removal. The above-mentioned buildings had architectural character, but the greater part of even the respectable and useful structures of the time were comparatively de- void of it. The Boston Athenaeum, with its good plan and really excellent reading room ; the New York Astor Library, the Boston Pub- lic Library on Boylston Street, finished about 1858, and some smaller buildings which the Eastern cities managed to pay for during the decade from 1845 to 1855, were generally as de- void of individuality as were the stone- faced hotels and State houses of the time. During the years from 1845 to i860 the building of the Southern cities and their immediate neighbor- hood was carried on much in their old lines — the lines of the Georgian architecture. What deviation there was from this was still rather in the direction of the supplying of obvious needs. Thus, the houses of Beaufort and of other seaside summer resorts were not unlike English Georgian manor ho-.i^es. with this peculiarity, that they were large with a few spacious, open rooms and wide halls, giving the idea of small and simple English manor houses increased in scale — a scheme very appropriate to the low latitude and the steadily warm summer weather New Orleans, most conservative of American cities, showed no change in its outward aspect The Western cities had received the inoculation of the very evil system of irrational ornamenta- tion which marked also the buildings of the East, as will be stated farther on ARCHITECTURE About 1855, Richard Morris Hunt, having returned from Paris, where he had been a student and also assistant to a prominent Paris architect, built tin- Studio building in West 10th Street, and the since-destroyed private house on the north side of West 38th Street, putting into these something of that French completeness of plan and of exterior disposition of parts which the country had hardly known before. Hunt also 1 hed an atelier on the Paris plan; and half a dozen of the architects most successful and most reputed between 1870 and the dose of the century were for a time inmates of that studio. Experiments were tried in those days — experiments both in materia] and design — which it is -ad to see were wholly abandoned during the years which followed. Thus, when Upjohn built Trinity Building in New York, a business building, a mere investment for Trinity parish. In- used terra-cotta for the cornice, and la this means obtained a boldness of overhang which he would hardly have dared to give in stone. Terra-cotta had to be imported in those days, or, if not imported, then made by means of a special plant and fired in furnaces erected for the occasion. It is easy to see why the ex- periment had no immediate results. So in de- sign the churches on Fifth Avenue — that of the Ascension, at the corner of 10th Street, and the Presbyterian church 300 feet farther north, together with the church at University Place and 10th Street — were all of about this period, and in them was more intelligent designing than generally in the civic buildings of the time; but there was room for more originality in the latter, and the buildings by Hunt above named and a bank in Wall Street by Detlef Lienau held out more promise. Other business buildings of great importance date from this time ; two of them were built by Eidlitz in the business sec- tion of New York, both of singular solidity and of thoughtful design, which cannot now be judged, as one has disappeared and the other lias been altered out of recognition. The war came, and while some important enterprises took form during those lour years of excitement and rapid thought, but little of importance was brought to perfection. The con- ditions were peculiar; many of the architects and many of their possible employers were in tli.- army ; but those who were at home, although often for a short visit only, were full of ambi- tion. So it happened that both industrially and artistically the years immediately following the war were very active. In the Eastern cities, the domain of business began to encroach rapidly upon that which had been the residence portion, and whole streets were built up with buildings of somewhat pretentious character as to their iles, the masons and stone-cutters making fortunes out of the simpler work upon so many precisely similar fronts; the residence streets were lined with buildings of constantly in- creasing cost, and also the construction of coun- try houses became an important employment for the builders in the smaller towns. A few years were still to elapse before the more im- portant public and private buildings took shape; this was the epoch of much building of less pretension. The result of the mingling of styles and the clashing of different tastes and fancies was very curious. Philadelphia buildings kept nearer to their old type of red brick and white marble and simple design ; Boston buildings were far more often designed by architect-, employed, each one for a separate building by the owner of the soil. New York, following its unfortunately deeply-rooted habit, built itself up in long rows of stores and houses, each for sale to any pos- sible buyer, and therefore of necessity deprived of individual character. And yet the difference in architectural merit of the buildings in the three cities was not so great as might be assum- ed. The critical students of 1865 abhorred the New York brownstone front, with its high stoop and its exaggerated affectation of Corinthian elegance, and they envied Boston her intelligent Harvard graduates who owned lots and would build houses for themselves, and who employed other Harvard graduate- to design those houses. But Philadelphia and New York, slicking to their traditions, produced at least less that was monstrous and impossible than Boston. There was more intelligence in the Boston buildings, but there was also more whim. The dreadful heresy of eclecticism got hold of a few of the Boston men, and the Gothic buttress topped by an Ionic pilaster, a motive which passed into a proverb, was only an extreme case of what was a serious injury to architectural growth. The Gothic revival in the hands of Peter B, Wright, J. Cleveland Cady, Calvert Vaux, Fred- erick Clarke Withers, and John Sturgis, led to the erection of some important buildings; the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, fronting on Cop- ley Square, being the most florid of these, and embodying the English terra-cotta building of the day. The Academy of Design in New York was the only building ever erected in America in which a serious effort was made to design an abundant sculpturesque decoration on the principles of the more advanced preachers of the gospel of medievalism. The labor and thought required for such work prevented any immedi- ate following of this example, and it soon ap- peared that the taste for Gothic buildings was not deeply rooted among the architectural stu- dents of the time. Good buildings were de- signed by the men who have been named, and Richard Upjohn's admirable Trinity Chapel should be added to the list of Gothic churches deserving special praise; but the general effect of the taste for pointed windows and for the ornamentation supposed to belong to them was very unfortunate. It had much to do with what was certainly the most unsatisfactory epoch in American architectural designing. The years from 1865 to 1875 saw the erection by the hun- dred of the most insufferable country houses that could be imagined. All architectural sense seemed to have gone out of the designers. The posts of the verandas were cut into shapes sug- gested by nothing in the world except children's toys ; window-heads of hitherto unknown form were put into woodwork, into cast-iron, and even into stone ; a variety of roof known throughout the country as the French roof, and consisting of a lower slope so steep as to be almost a vertical wall, and an upper slope so flat as to be a mere "deck," produced the ugliest skylines conceivable. The country was full of carpenters and masons who thought themselves architects because they had purchased and stud- ied some book containing plans and elevations of famous buildings. These men were trying ARCHITECTURE. "FLATIROV BUILDING. NEW YORK, IN COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION. ARCHITECTURE. COPYRIGHT 1902, BY C L. RIT7MANN. "FLATIRON" BUILDING. NEW YORK. ARCHITECTURE for originality ; but this search, difficult and dangerous even among men who have had pre- vious training in artistic designing, becomes ruin- ous when followed by the men of an epoch and a country as devoid of artistic sense as those which we are now considering. Buildings were planned without any artistic perception of the necessities of the plan ; a room was thrust out to the east and another to the south and another to the west, these different wings having no re- lation to one another or to the central mass, which, indeed, they might entirely conceal or even destroy. The same incongruity of design affected even the public buildings of the time. These were the days of Harvard Memorial Hall, of the first ind accepted design for the capitol at Albany, of the United States government buildings, in- cluding the post-office and court rooms in the same huge mass, which were erected in many of the cities of the land, and of very numerous buildings which the designers, if now living, would with perfect propriety disclaim, classing them as the w r ork of their salad days. Men who have since proved themselves capable of much better thines produced the most unfortunate de- signs during those hurried years. The Tribune building in New York, the Boston city hall and court house, the earlier public buildings of Chi- cago, the Connecticut State house or capitol at Hartford, may all be named with those cited above as specimens of what ought not to be done in architecture, and yet as the build- ings of men who have since proved themselves capable and dexterous. It is, indeed, true that a flood of bad taste covered the land, and that few detached monuments of some little archi- tectural merit could be seen above it. A more promising condition of things was seen to exist when the third quarter of the cen- tury was completed. In 1875 the older men who were still busy had learned a great deal by ex- perience and by their own blunders ; the younger men began to come in, more or less well taught in Paris — at all events certain of the fact that there was such a thing as 19th-century archi- tecture and that as yet the United States had hardly achieved it. Henry Richardson was busy as early as 1875, and a very few years later he took up definitely that Romanesque style which he had studied in central France — took it up, and built thereafter according to its doctrine, without forsaking it for a moment. Trinity Church in Boston, partly studied from Spanish models, was one of his Romanesque buildings — perhaps the earliest of them. Nearly contem- poraneous with this were three important churches in Boston, one of them by Richardson himself, the others by the younger Upjohn and Cummings and Sears ; and several large churches of considerable merit were built in different mediaeval styles in New York. The older Up- john, the designer of Trinity Church 35 years before, made of St. Thomas's Church, when re- built on Fifth Avenue, his crowning labor. The present writer built many college buildings between 1870 and 1880, and, in connection with George Fletcher Babb. built Battell Chapel of Yale College and a bank building in Albany, each of these in a modified Gothic style. Other college buildings, by George B. Post for Prince- ton College, by H. H. Richardson for Harvard University, and by J. Cleveland Cady in several parts of the country, assisted greatly the advance of style ; and Trinity College, near Hartford, was begun on a great scale and in a consistent English Gothic style from the designs of Wil- liam Burges of London. The admirable build- ings of Columbia College it 49th Street, New York, were built by C. C. Haight at a later time, and the same architect built theological seminaries and hospitals in and near New York, all in some form of English Collegiate Gothic. Of younger men. the firm of McKim, Mead & White, who had built the large and interesting buildings known as the Tiffany house and the Villard-Reid house in New York, designed also the Newport Casino, and in doing this helped much toward a development of country house architecture which, indeed, has constituted the most important artistic result of the quarter century. The American frame house, sheathed with clapboards or shingles, is. in the hands of architects of taste, the best thing we have yet to show. A few years later the firm of Carrere & Hastings designed the spirited Spanish-look- ing palaces used as hotels in St. Augustine. All these buildings had character ; but there were still traces enough of the old unarchitectural designing, and this especially in the more im- portant buildings, as is natural. The original designs for the Albany capitol and for the Philadelphia public buildings were nearly as devoid of architectural merit as if they had been built 40 years earlier. Since 1885 there have been many more build- ings of cost and of great pretension — many more buildings which in scale reached the standard set by the continental nations of Europe — than at any previous time. Club houses of great im- portance, dwellings of such cost and dignity that they are really and in every sense of the word palaces, and national and municipal buildings, into the design of which some architectural am- bition has found its way, are now so common that even a bare list of them would fill more space than can here be given. If the progress of architecture since that time has not been all that could be hoped, this fact is to be ascribed to the rapid increase of new demands upon the architect's attention. New problems have de- veloped themselves much more rapidly than the comparatively small number of intelligent archi- tects could work them out. The common use of the elevator made 10-story buildings as easy to administer as the four-story buildings of old time, and the hotels and business buildings were at once changed in this radical way ; whereupon it was found that the design which had served for a four-story building was not capable of ready adaptation to the new conditions. Hardly had this been realized and the prob- lem fairly got in hand when the introduction of the steel-cage form of construction revolu- tionized anew half the building of the American world, and the 10-story front had to be recon- sidered for 16, 18, or 20 stories. Moreover, while the 10-story building, like its predecessors, had been a structure of solid walls, carrying iron-framed floors, the steel-cage building was felt to be a totally different construction. Here was a skeleton of uprights and horizontals, and no thoughtful architect could jacket such a struc- ture with a thin stone-faced or brick-and-stone- faced wall without feeling that this was a mere simulacrum of building and that the real secret ARCHITECTURE OF TRANSITION of the new design had not yet been discovered. So, too, with ihc churches, although they were not required to be of unusual height, and al- though the steel-frame structure hardly sug- gested itself as lit for them, tluir condition was felt to be changed by the monstrous height of their neighbors, the insurance buildings, the hotels, the apartment houses. A church with a 200-1 le and a 70-foot high roof-ridge made but a poor show alongside of a tower-like mass as large horizontally at top as at bottom, and carrying a level cornice higher than the steeple-cross of the church. Moreover the archi- tects whose work was of such quality as to please greatly the more instructed part of the community — a community full of a kind of lit- erary intelligence, but without much training in the arts winch address themselves to the eye — those architects found themselves overwhelmed with work. It is not in human nature to refuse a $20,000 or $40,000 commission ; it is not in human nature to confess the impossibility of doing so much work and doing it well. The re- sult is a general tendency toward a method of design which, in the best instances, is markedly controlled by good taste, by the abstention from incongruities and ill-considered details, but which may be almost devoid of the evidences of thought. The colonnade taken bodily from an ancient building, or a theoretical plate in an old book, the evenly spaced windows capped by a little delicate sculpture, the roof either invisible or of low pitch and masked by a balustrade copied from an Italian palazzo — these and other such architectural members are united without shock and without repulsive incongruity in buildings which do their appointed work quite well — which accommodate a family or a congre- gation, or which prove to be paying investments — and the community is fairly well satisfied. The extreme rarity of anything novel in design goes with this abrupt explanation of our present state as an architectural community. Louis Sul- livan of Chicago is left alone in his serious and repeated efforts to design the exteriors of lofty steel-framed buildings according to their nature and the requirement of the law and modern cus- tom. A. Page Brown, recently dead, was alone in having a separate and little-known national Style in which to build his California College buildings. Heins and La Fargc are almost alone in having a large church (the Cathedral of St. John the Divine) put into their hands to be slowly elaborated and perfected in design, even as the preparatory work progresses. Shepley, Rutan. and Coolidge of Boston are almost alone in having a chance to build a costly and massive structure (the west portal of Trinity Church), with an abundance of representative and ideal figure sculpture forming an essential part of the architectural design. Wilson Eyre has few to help him in his gallant effort to create a truly decorative system of sculpture for buildings which can have but little of it. Sculpture is, in- deed, added to a few of our buildings of neo- classic design, just as mural painting is used within, but this without modifying the architec- tural character of the structure. The conclusion seems to be that while the artistic mind of the country has well outgrown the period of callow haste and of ill-bred ugli- ness, it has hardly as yet entered upon a true architectural progress. The possibilities of such progress are evident ; moreover, there are artists enough who feel the need of it ; but whether the mind of the community, giving its best energies to money-making, will in the course of the next century apply itself with serious 1'iirpose to architectural art is, perhaps, as uncertain now as it was in 1850. - ELI , Stlrgis, I" A. I. A., Author of ^Dictionary of Architecture} Architecture of Transition, that which shows somewhat rapid change from oim impor- tant style to another. Strictly speaking, the architecture of all periods before the wars of the French Revolution was continually in a state of transition, though since that time it has been in- fluenced rather by sudden attempts at reviving styles long since forgotten. A natural transi- tion was always going on; but there were epochs when the changes in progre-^ were ol a cially radical character. Such a time was that when the more stately architecture of the city of Rome and those towns and lands which de- pended upon it, was undergoing a change from the columnar character given u bj the Greeks, to the vaulted and arcuated character resulting from the introduction of Eastern methods into Italy. This subject is treated in the general article Architecture, and under Roman- Em- pire, Art of; but it may be pointed out that the exact time of the transition cannot be fixed. The famous Pantheon in Rome, a round build- ing of immense solidity roofed by a cupola, hemispherical as seen from within, but low as seen from without, was long supposed the earli- est specimen of solid masonry building. The walls and the dome alike were built of rubble- stone laid in strong cement mortar, but without much reference to the curvature of the vault or the preparation for the different openings — doors, windows, archways. These were built up and the building outlined in the first place, by means of brickwork of very bard and perfect material and workmanship; then the great weight of the wall and vault was added, and the resulting building, with rough surfaces of stone and mortar without comely or orderly arrange- ment, was faced up, finally, with stucco or with slabs of marble within and without, and according to the place of each member in the completed building. The Greek columnar sys- tem, and especially the Corinthian order, was used as pure ornament, and for the interior alone; the marble columns carried no weight except that of the slight entablature put in place merely to complete the order and to give a finished architectural look to the whole. This building was long supposed to be the historically celebrated Pantheon of Agrippa, and to have been built during the princi- pality of Augustus about 25 B.C. It is now known that only the portico can be of that time and that the round building dates from the reign of Hadrian and is of about 120 .vi>. We have no knowledge as to the chronological or- der of other early buildings of the same charac- ter. The thermx at Caracalla were built about 215 A.D., the thcrtna? of Diocletian about 290 a.d., the basilica of Maxentius and Constantine about 310-20 A.D. ; and all these buildings have their great halls vaulted with groined vaulting as massive as the cupola of the Pantheon ana built of masonry in a similar fashion. No one can fix the beginning of this system, nor is it poscihlc to say what buildings in the Oriental ARCHITECTURE OF TRANSITION provinces of the empire gave rise to the new structure. Etruscan example can hardly be thought very influential in this. It has been suggested that the lost architecture, at Alexan- dria and other great towns of the East of the time of the successors of Alexander the Great, would, if it could be explored, reveal this se- cret. All that we can say is that the chief build- ings of the empire from about loo a.d. until the fall of the western empire in 475 a.d. were vaulted structures adorned by pseudo-Greek col- umns and pilasters, grouped in screens or used in couples or singly as apparent support for the vaulted structure, and the surfaces of masonry adorned with marble or with stucco in figured bas-relief, and with painting and gilding. It is possible, however, to mark out the close of this period of transition. The palace of Diocletian at Salona, where now is the town of Spalato, was built after 305 a.d., and that building is Romanesque in its character. This means that here are seen arches springing from the capitals of columns, exactly as they were to be built during the next 1,200 years, without the necessary interposition of the classical entabla- ture. It means also that the classical ordonnance and proportions, inherited from the Greek artists 600 years before, had finally lost their hold. Buildings of the same epoch and others a little later in Syria, are of even less classical charac- ter, and even more decidedly Romanesque (see Christian Architecture). The recently ex- plored ruins in North Africa are frequently of the same style of design, with completely Ro- manesque treatment of arch and abutment. This character is seen, too, in buildings as early as the Arch of Hadrian at Athens, and the arches at the two ends of the famous bridge at Saint Chamas in southern France. In each of these the great arch springing from the abutment on either side is not in any way subordinated to a pair of columns or a pair of pilasters; columns are used, indeed, but only to adorn the outer edge of the piece of walling, in much the same way as the angle shaft of the 12th and 13th centuries was to be used. Now, this early Romanesque of the 4th and 5th centuries is the organized style to which the great thermae and basilicas named above are the transition. The building first named above, the Pantheon, may be taken as a type of this transitional archi- tecture. An interesting art of transition is that which marks the growth of the Gothic style out of the Romanesque. The date of this may be set at 1150-70 a.d. and the place as northern France — the country around Paris. In some of the provinces buildings even later than 1170 appear as transitional, for it took a quarter of a century before the people of the Rhine, of northern Spain, or, indeed, of the far south of France, had fully absorbed the new ideas of building. The famous Church of S. Remi at Reims may be looked upon as a type of this transitional archi- tecture, and large parts of the still better known Church of S. Denis near Paris are of this char- acter. These are the buildings in which the ribbed vault has been adopted once for all, and the pointed arch with it, as an almost necessary part of the actual structure, but where the round arch is still used for many of the open- ings in the walls and where the flying buttress is as yet far from oomolete. The most important style of all those which may be called Transitional is that of the close of the Gothic epoch. The Hundred Years War in France and Flanders came to an end about 1435. There had been but little important work done on the continent during the 14th century, but in England the very curious Perpendicular style was developed, one in which the mullions of the windows were carried through until they nearly met the intrados of the arch above, so that the windows seemed divided up into series of vertical panels almost unbroken from top to bottom. The churches in this style are known by their very low roofs, nearly flat, so that they do not show above whatever little parapets may be erected upon the wall. The towers are square and generally flat-topped, with very sel- dom any spire or lantern and with pinnacles at the four corners. This style was continued into the period of which we now have to treat; and the transitional art in England, reaching even to the accession of Elizabeth (1558), is Perpen- dicular in its general character. Very differ- ent was the Florid Gothic of northern France. The Church of Notre Dame de l'£pine near Chalons-sur-Marne, and that 'of S. Jacques des Vignes et Soissons (ruined) are of this style, but are not its best specimens. For the full beauty of the style which we call Flamboyant, we must go to the Cathedral of Evreux and that of Narbonne. The beautiful tower of Saint- Pol- de-Leon, the great churches of S. Wulfram at Abbeville and S. Maclou at Rouen, the still more characteristic church at Saint Riquier, the west front of the Cathedral of Tours — all these are the faultless buildings of the Flamboyant style. They date from the years between 1450 and 1500; but the style continues into the 16th century. Parts of the Church of S. Maclou, named above, are as late as 1535, and that is about the date of the Palais de Justice, in the same town. The south transept of Beauvais Cathedral may be even later than this, and the famous Church of Brou near Macon in Bur- gundy of the years 1510-36. The reader must constantly recall the fact that during these years the classical revival in Italy was at its very height (see Architecture and Renais- sance). The strange thing is the complete re- jection or ignoring of the classical feeling by the northerner, the complete adoption of it south of the Alps. The Flamboyant Gothic is not as strictly log- ical as the true Gothic of the 13th century, though the interior of a great church like one of those named above is apt to be as straight- forwardly built and as sincerely designed as at any epoch. The change is most marked in a cer- tain fantastical character given to the uncon- structional part, the window tracery, the para- pet, and the sculpture; but in England the extraordinary fan-vaulting, first seen in the clois- ters of Gloucester Cathedral, but carried on in the Divinity School at Oxford (1450) and in the Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick (1460), reached its culmination in the three famous buildings which we always think of when fan- vaulting is named. These are the Chapel of S. George at Windsor Castle, the Chapel of Henry VII. at Westminster Abbey, and. the most per- fect of all, the magnificent Chapel of King's College at Cambridge, finished about 1510 and embodying in itself nearly all that the Florid ARCHITECTURE, EDUCATION IN architecture of England lins to show. The in- terior is one unbroken hall lighted l>y huge windows on both sides, and by still larger win- dows at the two ends. It is 78 feet high inside, a considerable height for an English church; about 45 feet wide and about 315 feet in length: so that it has the characteristics of the best English interiors — great length as compared witli height and width. The proportions are of extraordinary beauty, and there is in no place outside of France a more splendid ecclesiastical interior. This fine Late Gothic of England passed into the architecture which we call Tudor, from the Tudor sovereigns, Henry VII. and his succcs- sors. <>f this the most interesting development is that which we call the Elizabethan style, best known in the splendid country houses which were built during Elizabeth's reign in different parts of England. The architecture of some great college buildings in Oxford and in Cam- bridge is also of this character, — with low (four- centred), pointed arches, and generally with low-pitched roofs: but these roofs are often splendidly designed within, with elaborate tim- ber-work forming a design even more varied and rich than the vaulting of the continent. Clas- sical details, columned porches, and the like, were introduced from Italy, and many of the other- wise picturesque and semi-Gothic houses of the period have these curious "Italianate" features. This architecture continued into the reign of James I. and disappeared in the political con- fusion of the time, to be succeeded by a classical Style brought fresh from Ttaly when the condi- tions which ensued allowed of costly building once again. The Florid Gothic of France and the neigh- boring countries of the continent is accepted by the French writers as a part of the northern Renaissance; but we have to separate it very carefully from the Risorgimcnto or classical revival beginning in Italy about 1420. The reign of Louis XII. in France (1498-1515) is the time when we see, struggling with one an- other in the North, the classical influence from Italy, then nearly a century old in the land of its origin, and the Florid Gothic of France. Thus, at the famous Chateau of Blois, the wing named after Louis XII. is literally half way be- tween Gothic and classical. Arches are three- centred and therefore without points ; pillars arc either round or square in section, with pan- eled sides, or, as at the great driveway of entrance, are combinations of square and round forms; and all these pillars have fully organ- ized capitals of semi-classical character ; but the roof is steep and is adorned with high chimneys and very elaborate dormer windows, and the de- sign is picturesque rather than symmetrical. A square tower stands at either end of this build- ing, of Louis XII., and each of these towers remains rather Gothic than classical to the hasty observer, although the avoidance of the chief forms of Gothic art is very marked. Al- most adjoining this stretch of building is the front named after Francis I. and built only 25 years later than the building described above. This is not Gothic at all. The windows are all square and the walls have pilasters in regular ordonnance, while yet the lofty roof, the pictur- esque dormers, and the high chimneys remain to express the transitional character of the whole. The Church of Brou, already mentioned, is ex- ceptionally late for a building which is entirely Gothic in style, without classical motives of any sort. Russell Sturgis. Architecture, Education in. Training. — The ideal architect is an artist who employs structure as his medium of expression, — whose function it is to produce beautiful buildings. That this ideal is realized by relatively few of those who are called architects in our day is due to the fact that its embodiment under modern conditions involves the correlation of activities of very diverse nature; and few there are who display in just proportion the capaci- ties these diverse activities involve. These may be placed in three great groups, and the archi- tect's training may be correspondingly consid- ered under three headings, namely, his artistic education, his technical education, his business education. The student who hopes to be an artist-archi- tect must train himself somewhat as do all artists in all other fields. Yet he cannot with his own hands bring into existence the building his imagination pictures; he is compelled as no other artist is, to rely upon the work of others in the realization of his artistic creations. Hence it becomes very important for him to gain a very special technical training in order ( 1 ) that he may learn how to indicate to his artisan helpers the nature of the work to be done, and (2) that he may become acquainted with the methods proper to these artisans in the accomplishment of their several tasks. But beyond this the architect who would reach the highest goal should prepare himself for a business career. For unlike other artists he is usually unable to express himself in his chosen medium unless others entrust to him the expenditure of large sums of money. And if he is to be thus trusted he must exhibit executive ability, a knowledge of men and capacity to manage them, and at the same time he must possess unquestioned reliability and business sa- gacity. In this connection it may perhaps be well to note that in our time there are not a few men who are counted as successful architects who are really merely good business men working in a special field, men without high artistic ideals or susceptibilities, and who gain such success as they attain by the mere direction of hired designers, and by the careful management of the business of their clients. The education of such men involves only such general training as is required by other business men, with the addition of such studies as will give them a knowledge of the architectural forms current in our time, and such a superficial acquaintance with the principles of architectural design as will enable them to choose as employees de- signers whose work will satisfy the average taste of their clients. We need not concern ourselves, however, with business men of this type, for they will not be looked upon as architects by those to follow us unless they combine with their busi- ness skill the other qualities demanded of the ideal architect, to the consideration of whose training we may now turn our attention. ARCHITECTURE, EDUCATION IN Apprentice System. — As is indicated by the etymology of his name, the architect was orig- inally a master workman; one who had arisen from the ranks because he had evinced skill and imagination in guiding the construction of buildings after the methods current in his time, and who through the exercise of this skill and imagination had produced buildings which were looked upon as beautiful by his fellows. The methods employed by the architects of antiquity are little known to us, yet as the work under their control became more complicated they must have found it necessary to employ assistants who at first were without doubt merely trade apprentices, and from among these the architects of the next generation would most naturally be chosen. In modern times, as the use of complicated drawings has become more and more impor- tant, the architect has found it necessary to use his assistants on special work which does not involve the skill acquired by arti- sans in construction; and thus the type of man serving as the architect's apprentice has changed. While not an artisan himself he has learned his master's methods, and presently we find men thus trained assuming the function of the architect without any preliminary practice as constructors. The apprentice system of education for the architect as thus developed was not unlike that adopted in the earlier days in the training of artists in other fields, and with such modifi- cations as are natural in relation to the com- plexity of modern life it has persisted even to our day in many lands. In England a large proportion of the eminent architects of the day have been educated in this manner, and until within a generation in this country no other system of training for the architect was avail- able. A similar apprentice system obtained in the training of lawyers and doctors until a late period when special schools of law and medicine became established. The success of these schools called attention to the fact that, from a certain point of view, the architect is as clearly a professional man as the doctor or law- yer, and that the weaknesses in the training of doctors and lawyers under the apprentice sys- tem, which had led to the establishment of their special schools, existed also in connection with the study of architecture. These weaknesses need but to be stated to be apparent to all. Evidently the teaching a busy architect can give to his pupil must vary greatly in quality and amount as the demands of his practice vary. Evidently his teaching is likely to be unsystematic ; and it is certain to be biased by his individual taste, a matter which is of importance in relation to certain subjects, to be referred to below, where the broadest catho- licity is of importance. Thus following the example set in other professions, there have been established schools of architecture in which an effort is made to give the student a systematic training which shall not vary in quality and amount from year to year, and which shall avoid the unfortunate influences which are liable to obtain under the apprentice system. It will be generally con- ceded that the schools as a rule have been rea- sonably successful in this effort, if general re- sults are considered, if particular instances are not over emphasized. But the abandonment of the apprentice sys- tem of training in the law and medicine car- ried with it a loss which was generally over- looked. The newer method tended to minimize if not to eliminate the inspiration which comes to the student as the result of contact with the living master in the active practice of his pro- fession. Nowadays students in law and med- icine appreciate this loss and are supplementing their school training with practice under the guidance of men of reputation in their special fields. But the loss to the student of architecture who fails to come under the influence of a prac- tising master can scarcely be overstated. For the artist such an influence is of vital im- portance ; under it he will absorb, as it were, stores of lore peculiar to his art which can never be expressed in the alien words of the lec- turer, or upon the pages of a text-book. Fortu- nately the architects themselves are beginning to see that in one way or another the archi- tectural student must be brought to feel this influence. What was valuable in the apprentice method of education, and has been in many cases lost, must be regained. In no inconsider- able measure it has been regained in the atelier system as developed in the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris, and fortunately a distinct move- ment in the same direction is noted in the later developments of the schools existing in this country. Granting then that there is a vital something of supreme importance to the architectural student which the school training cannot give, let us ask what he can gain in the schools, with economy of his time and labor, in connection with the training which we have seen to be desirable in the three directions above spoken of, which for convenience we shall treat in re- verse order. Business Training.— -The architect's business training cannot be materially advanced in the architectural school. The general education, and the influences which produce the reliable, accurate, and farseeing business man, can best be gained quite apart from the school course, in the practising architect's studio. In this connection it may be noted that, while the artistic side of the architect's life must always be first considered, it is easy to underestimate the importance of his business career. The student fresh .from the schools too often thinks that he may at once undertake important commissions without the business experience which a long established practice brings. He will tell you that this can be purchased ready made by the employment of others to attend to this drudgery so repugnant to a man of artistic temperament. But in this view there lurks a hidden danger to the art of architecture itself. As has been said above, the confidence of the client must be obtained by the man who is to spend the cli- ent's money, and if the skilled designer is not one who inspires this confidence the control of great constructions will surely go to men of less artistic ability, and the skilled designer will find himself directed, rather than the director of the work necessary to the embodiment in - form of the ideas which his imagination cre- ates. Nothing can be more dangerous to pro- ARCHITECTURE, EDUCATION IN gress in architecture as an art than the estab- lishment of a belief that the architect's {unction ends with the creation of designs on paper; his art product is in the constructed building, and if effective artistic result is to be gained he uld actually direct the construction in all particulars and to the very end, and should train himself to assume all the labor and re- sponsibilities mis direction involves. Technical Training. — We may now turn to the consideration of the architect's technical training, which in the first place must result in the master-.' of methods of representing his con- cept' ' at they may be undersl 1 by his clients, and comprehended by the workmen who are t" 1" d to embody them in material form. This means in the main the attainment of skil', in technical draughting: and this can irery i learly be better and more quickly gained by the concentrated effort possible in a school than in the course of the routine work in an litect's office. The student should be warned, however, that a danger is connected with the attainment of this skill if he comes to look upon his drawings, which are no more than tools of his trade, as works of art in them- selves ; for these drawings are necessarily on plane surfaces, and if he gives too much thought to their perfection he is liable to over- look the importance for him as an architect of thinking in solid dimensions. The general principles governing the repre- sentation of details of, and the writing of specifi- cations descriptive of. the work to be done can also be learned in the schools, but little more than these general principles ; the student must not hope to gain facility in these important mat- ters without the experience of actual office practice. Artistic Training. — It is true of all artists, as it is of poets in particular, that they are born and not made ; and surely unless ail op- portunity is lacking the born architect of genius will show his power whatever bis training may be. Nevertheless there are certain matters which even the genius must learn by his own often bitter experience, or else from those who have practised his art before him; and these matters may in some particulars be learned most quickly and surely in a school. It will be agreed for instance that each artist should un- derhand well the nature of the medium in which he is to express his measure of genius. The medium of the artist-architect is construc- tion in masonry, in iron, and in wood ; and a thorough knowdedge of the principles of con- struction is most important to his progress. This knowdedge is the ground work of engineer- in l;. and clearly can best be gained in a school. In relation to this special study it may be said, on the one hand, that the most thorough train- ing in engineering cannot injure an architect provided it does not take from the time to be given to other equally important matters to be referred to below. On the other hand it must not be forgotten that the architect's func- tion is not merely building as such, but build- ing in a manner that shall stimulate in his fel- lows the sense of beauty. This molding of constructional forms into shapes wdiich are beautiful is a matter of difficulty which has been attained by architects in the past only through numberless trials, with their failures and successes; through the elimination of the ugly, and the repetition with ever incrc.^ improvement of that which has shown itself to be pleasing. The architect has thus always worked with, and upon, established modes of construction, anil he always will: and this dis- tinguishes his work from that of the engineer, whose function it is to devise special mode structure to mee) special structural demands. It is apparent then that the training of the architect in relation to his structural medium differs from that to be given to the engineer, in that the architect does not need to gain more than a thorough understanding of the princi- ples of structure which he is to use in his work, and this does not necessarily involve so pro- longed or detailed a study of the sciences a- is il for the engineer. The Architect as a Designer.— We may now turn to the consideration of what is of the high- est importance to the architect, namely, his training as a designer. As we have suggested above, no amount of training can give to a man that measure of genius which constitutes him an artist. None the less the greatest genius will gain much if he learn the lessons taught by the experience of the masters of the past, and the man who is less than a genius were stupid if he did not welcome this teaching. The mas- ters of architecture of the past have left us a record of the forms and relations of parts which after long scries of studies and experiments they have found to be most beautiful. This rec- ord is not found in written word, but in the great monuments wdiich have been left to us ; and the study of these monuments after a cer- tain method constitutes the history of architec- ture. The student should gain as thorough a knowledge as possible of tin with es- pecial reference to the vital development of the various greater and lesser iving particular attention to those forms in which the highest perfection has been attained in the past, and making a special study of those forms which appeal to him as most likely to be of service to him under the conditions which sur- round him. He should also gain a considerable acquaintance with the other arts, especially with those most closely related with architecture, namely, sculpture and painting. Evidently a large part of the information just referred to can be gained through text- books and illustrated lectures given in the schools. But as clearly is it important for the architect to study the art products themsel' and this can only be done satisfactorily by travel in the Old World, where the great archi- tectural monuments of the past exist. Where such travel is impossible, he may gain something approximating to it by studying such models of masterpieces of the past as are available in museums, and by the thoughtful use of photo- graphs of existing masterpieces. In all this, however, the student will have been merely sharpening his tools for his life work : all this is but preliminary to practice in design. Here he cannot properly content him- self with mere study of the works of other masters. For the conditions under which each generation works are always in some respects new, and architecture as exemplified in his work can only be a living art if the architect, while taking advantage of the artistic expert- ARCHITRAVE — ARCHONS ence of those who have preceded him, builds to meet the new conditions in which he finds himself placed. In these studies in design he will necessarily employ drawings very largely, but he should never allow himself to forget that these draw- ings are merely symbols of the art product he aims to produce ; he should use every effort to avoid thinking of his design on paper as the end of his endeavor ; he should strenuously train himself while he works on a plane sur- face to translate into the actual material sub- stance of the building he is projecting; that is, to design and think in the solid. To this end the student should give considerable attention to modeling in clay, and he will find it most valuable to cultivate the habit of rapid and accurate sketching in perspective, and to acquire deftness in making simple small scale clay models of his projets. It is in connection with this study of design that the architectural student will find it to his greatest advantage to work under the inspiring influence of a practising architect whom he rec- ognizes as a master of his art; and it is most encouraging to note, as has been remarked above, that those who guide the best of our modern architectural schools are recognizing this fact, and are aiming in one way or another to regain the benefit to the student in this regard which was connected with the old ap- prentice system so carelessly laid aside in most of the schools as first established. It must be apparent to the reader of what has preceded this that no student should under- take the practice of architecture without facing the fact that he has before him a long road, and a life of arduous effort. In the view of the writer no young man should undertake this work unless he feels within him a very power- ful inclination to it. The modern world is all too full of those who choose the architect's life because they think it relatively easy and es- pecially delightful. The latter it surely is ; but the former it as surely never is. Conclusions. — The conclusions reached may now be summarized in a few words. Beyond such general culture as he may be able to gain, the most desirable special training for an archi- tectural student will be given by certain stud- ies which can best be taken in established ar- chitectural schools, supplemented by careful observations of monuments of architecture in the course of travel in Europe, and by work in the studio and business office of a skilled practi- tioner who is a masterful artist. It were well if life were so ordered that the acquisition of technical facility, and the study of design under a master, could begin in early youth, and continuing could fill the leisure hours of the student while gathering the store of gen- eral information which tends to broaden his life; but under existing conditions such an order of work is difficult to arrange. If choice is to be made among the archi- tectural schools, the one chosen should if possi- ble be one situated in a city where building operations are proceeding on a large scale, and especially one in which design is taught by mas- ters of architecture who are in active practice. Finally the student would do well who could manage to obtain a position in the draughting room and business office of some architect in active practice during a large proportion of the long school vacations so generally given during the summer season. See Painting, Education in; Sculpture, Education in. Henry Rutgers Marshall. Architrave, ar'ki-trav, in classical archi- tecture and imitations of it, the part of an en- tablature which rests immediately on the heads of the columns, being the lowest of its three principal divisions ; also the molded enrichment on the faces of the jambs and lintels of a door- way or window, this being a part of the en- tablature carried around the opening and mitred at the upper corners. Archives, ar'kivz (Latin archivuni), a room or building in which are kept the records, char- ters, and other papers belonging to any State, community, or family. Very frequently the name is applied to the documents themselves. The archives of the United States are now su- perintended by the heads of departments. Archivolt, ar'ki-volt, in architecture, the ornamental band, often of moldings, on the face of an arch and following its contour. Arch of Con'stantine. See Arch, Memorial. Arch of Septi'mius Seve'rus. See Arch, Memorial. Arch of Titus. See Arch, Memorial. Arch of Trajan. See Arch, Memorial. Archons, ar'k5nz, the highest magistrates in Athens. There was for a long period only one archon, who possessed for life all the power and dignity of a king, and was chosen from the royal race of Codrus. In 752 B.C. a change was introduced, and the tenure of the archonship was restricted to 10 years, the person appointed be- ing still a member of the royal race. In 714 the latter condition was abolished, and the ar- chonship thrown open to all the Eupatrids or nobles; and in 683 a still greater change was introduced, the office being now made annual, and its functions distributed among a body of nine. The reforms of Solon threw the archon- ship open to all who possessed a certain amount of property, whether noble by birth or not ; and in 477 Aristides made it accessible to all Athenian citizens, without distinction. Until 508 the mode of election was by suffrage of the nobles ; election by lot was then introduced, and the person elected had to undergo a scrutiny before the senate and before the Agora in order to show that his ancestors had been citizens for three generations, and had to swear to obey the laws. The first of the nine archons was called "the archon," and sometimes the Archon Epo- nymus. because he gave his name to the year in all public records. He had the care of minors and orphans, and had to superintend some of the festivals. Tin- second archon was called the King Archon. Upon him chiefly devolved the care of the religious concerns of the people, in connection with which he had to act as prosecu- tor of murderers and offenders against religion. The third archon had the name of Polemarch, and was originally entrusted with the super- intendence of military matters, though in later times his duties were chiefly confined to the protection and superintendence of the resident ARCHYTAS — ARCTIC REGION aliens. The rest of the archons were called Thesmothetse, and exercised a general supervi- sion over the laws of the state. Archytas, ar-ki'tas, an ancient Greek, a native of Tarentum, a famous Pythagorean phi- losopher, renowned also as a truly wise man, a great mathematician, statesman, and general. He was the contemporary of Plato and flour- ished about 400-365 B.C., but the dates of his birth and death are unknown. The invention of the analytic method in mathematics is ascrihed to him. as will as the solution of many geometri- cal and mechanical problems. He constructed various machines and automata, among the most celebrated of which was his living pigeon. Plato is said to have borrowed some of his opinions from Archytas. and Aristotle also is said to have hmi indebted to him for the idea of his cate- gories and some of his ethical opinions. These opinions, however, appear to depend on spurious writings, the real remains of Archytas being of inconsiderable value. Horace mentions him in one of his poems (Carm. i. 28) as having been drowned on the coast of Apulia. Arcif'era (Latin, arcus, bow, + fcrre, to hear, carry), a division of Anura, including the toads. Arcis-Sur-Aube, ar'se'su'rob', France, a town of the department of Aube on the river Auhc. It is the birthplace of Danton, to whom a monument was erected here in 1886. In 1814 a battle was fought here between Napoleon and the allies in which the latter, with a much su- perior force, had the advantage and afterward marched to Paris. Pop. 2,841. Ar'co, Austria, a town in the Tirol, not far from the Lake of Garda, on account of its situation and mild climate a favorite winter re- sort of invalids. Pop. 3,782. Arcole, ar'ko-la, a village in North Italy, in the province and 15 miles southeast of the town of Verona, on the left hank of the Alpone, celebrated for the battles of 15, 16, and 17 Nov. 1796, fought between the French under Bona- parte and the Austrians in which the latter were 1 i ated with great slaughter. Arson, ar-sori, Jean Claude Eleonore d', a French military engineer: b. Pontarlier, 1733; d. 1 July 1800. He was received into the mili- tary school at Me/ieres, 1754, and in the Seven Years' war he highly distinguished himself, particularly at the defense of Cassel in 1761. In 1780 he invented the floating batteries for the attack of Gibraltar, which, however, were de- stroyed by the red-hot shot of the besieged. At the invasion of Holland under Dumouriez (in 171)3) be took several places, including Breda. He then went into retirement, where he wrote his important 'Considerations Militaires et Poli- tiques sur les Fortifications' (1795). Arcona. See Arkona. Arcos de la Frontera, iir'kos da la fron- ta'ra. a town in Spain in the province of Cadiz, on the right bank of the Guadalete, which is here crossed by a stone bridge. The sandstone rock on which the town, in form of a bow, is placed, rises 570 feet above the level of the river, which surrounds it on three sides. The houses are mean looking; the streets paved, but gener- ally steep and narrow : and the ancient walls and defenses are in a ruinous state. On the highest part of the rock stands the castle of the dukes of Arcos, partly in ruins. Pop. (1900) 15,700. Ar'cot, ar-kot', the name of two districts and a town of India within the presidency of Madras. North Arcot is an inland district with an area of 7,256 square miles. The country is partly flat and partly mountainous. Pop. 1,817,- 814. South Arcot lies on the Bay of Bengal, and has two seaports, Cuddalor and Porto Novo. Pop. 1,814,738. The town of Arcot is in North Arcot, on the Palar, about 70 miles wesl-by- south of Madras. There is a military canton- ment 3 miles distant. The town contains hand- some mosques, a Nawab's palace in ruins, and the remains of an extensive fort. Arcot played an important part in the wars which resulted in the ascendency of the British in India. It was taken by Give, 31 Aug. 1751, and heroically defended by him against an overwhelming force under Rajah Sahib. Pop. 11,000. Arctic, a term applied to the North Pole, or the pole raised above our horizon, from tl>e proximity of the constellation of the Bear, in Greek called arktos. The Arctic circle is an imaginary circle on the globe, parallel to the equator, and 23 28' distant from the North Pole, from whence its name. This and its opposite, the Antarctic, are called the polar circles. With- in these circles the sun does not set during a part of the year, and during a corresponding part does not rise. Arc 'tic Charr. See Trout. Arctic Re'gion, the name given to the region of land and water surrounding the North Pole, reaching on all sides to lat. 66° 32' N. The Arctic or North Polar circle touches the northern headlands of Iceland; cuts off the southern and narrowest portion of Greenland; crosses Fox Strait north of Hudson Bay, whence it goes over the American continent to Bering Strait. Thence it runs to Ohdorsk at the mouth of the Obi ; then, crossing northern Russia, the White Sea. and the Scandinavian peninsula, re- turns to Iceland. Climate. — The most important facts now as- certained respecting the climate of the Arctic regions are, that the main line of extreme cold extends across the Polar Sea from the meridian of 90° W. to that of 130 E., reaching much far- ther on the Asiatic than on the American side, so that the winter temperature of Yakutsk (lat. 62 2') is 7° F. lower than that of Rensselaer harbor, in Smith Sound (lat. 78 37')- But the American limit of cold oscillates much less than the Asiatic, the summer temperature at Rvnsse- laer harbor being but 62 , while at Yakutsk it is 95° F. above that of winter. This difference is due to the absorption of summer heat by the comparatively dry plains of Siberia, while on the North American continent the numerous lakes and inlets moderate the climate throughout the year. To this it may perhaps be added that Greenland, owing to its peculiar constitution and position, is to North America a source of re- frigeration which has no counterpart in the east- ern continent. This circumstance, and the hu- mid atmosphere maintained by the numerous lakes, somewhat moderates the severity of the cold, but at the same time renders it somewhat more constant. Arctic Ocean. — In its widest sense that por- tion of the ocean which extends from the Arc- c ARCTIC REGION tic Circle (lat. 66° 32' N.) to the North Pole, or more restrictedly from about lat. 70° N. As- suming the former limit, the Arctic Ocean is found entering deeply, in the form of gulfs, bays, etc., into the northern parts of the continents of Europe, Asia, and America. The principal of these indentations are the White Sea in Eu- rope; Kara Sea, Gulfs of Obi and Yenisei in Siberia ; and Baffin Bay in North America. It is united to the Pacific by Bering Strait, and to the Atlantic by a wide stretch of sea extending from Greenland to Norway. Among the princi- pal islands of the Arctic Ocean are Greenland (at last proved to be an island) and east of Greenland the extensive group known under the name of Spitzbergen, the small island of Jan May en, and Iceland. West of Greenland and divide from it by Davis Strait and Baffin Bay there are a considerable number of islands of great size but little interest. North of Europe are the islands of Nova Zembla ; and north from these Franz Josef Land, an archipelago as yet imperfectly known. The water of the Arctic Ocean is extremely pure, shells being distinctly visible at a great depth; it also presents rapid transitions of color, chiefly from ultramarine to olive-green, the latter variations of color being produced by myriads of minute animals belong- ing for the most part to the Ccelcnteraia and Mollusca classes. Many have adopted the be- lief in the existence of an open polar sea about the North Pole. But this belief is not supported by any positive evidence. Ice is nearly con- stant everywhere between Spitzbergen and the southern point of Greenland. This is called the main north ice. East of Spitzbergen and near Nova Zembla the sea is always beset, if not completely barred, by ice. In Baffin Bay and thence west to Bering Strait numerous expe- ditions have had a perpetual struggle with ice. The expedition of 1875-6 under Captain Nares, members of which reached a point 30 miles further north than had ever previously been attained, proceeding by way of Baffin Bay and Smith Sound, found no indications of an open polar sea. On the contrary the explorers found north of 82 27' a sea consisting of one unbroken sheet of old ice of immense thickness, which effectually barred the further progress of the vessels, while the ruggedness of the ice rendered it impossible to reach the pole by sledge. Nansen more recently found abundance of ice in the tract of sea crossed by him. Arctic Current. — It seems certain that a current sets into the polar basin along the coasts of Norway and Lapland. It is probably the effect of prevalent southwest winds, though some call it a branch of the Gulf Stream. There is also a strong current running in at Bering Strait. On the other hand, along the east coast of Greenland and in Baffin's Bay the movement is generally south. In the numerous channels between Baffin Bay and Bering Strait the tides are regular but feeble ; indeed, it seems possible to trace across Barrow Strait the line of neu- tralized or no tide, and this, there is reason to suspect, is also the line of comparatively perma- nent ice. Minerals. — Valuable minerals, fossils, etc., have been discovered within these Arctic regions. In the archipelago north of the American conti- nent excellent coal frequently occurs. The mineral cryolite is mined in Greenland and car- ried to the United States. Among other fossils the remains of large saurians are found in the Lias, which extends widely over the northern archipelago, and ammonites collected in abun- dance prove that in lat. 73 north there was once a tropical temperature. The group of islands opposite the mouth of the Lena, in lat. 73 , are little more than accumulations of fossil remains carried down by the river, and are annually visited for the purpose of digging fossil ivory. Vegetation. — The plants peculiar to the frigid zone are stunted more by the dry winter winds than by short growing seasons and long winters. The reduction is confined to the limbs, as roots are as long and penetrate as far as in more temperate climates. The vegetation is widely distributed, the species found in North America being practically the same as those found in Europe and Asia, and since trees be- come more and more scarce as the Pole is ap- proached, the prevalence of the tundra forma- tion is characteristic of the region. In respect to distribution, arctic plants differ from alpine plants (q.v. ) which though otherwise simi- lar, especially in the census of cushion and rosette plants and plants with thick-skinned evergreen leaves, include many endemic species. Arctic perennials are noted for the high per- centage of species that develop wintering flower- ing buds which burst into bloom early in the spring. In the Arctic zone, less than two thousand species have been described, among them very few trees. These are mostly stunted willows, junipers, and birches, and beyond their northern limits flowering plants, grasses, mosses, and lichens extend as far as man has penetrated. Commonest among the flowering species are crowfoots, potentillas, poppies, saxifrages, whit- low grass (Draba) and scurvy grass (Cochlea- ria). Thyme and angelica, growing in shel- tered spots, are the only perfume-bearers. The English expedition of 1875-76 found 20 or 30 species of phanerogamous plants between lat. 82 and 83 . From Churchill River on the west side of Hudson Bay (lat. 53° ). the line lim- iting the forest runs constantly to the north of west till it reaches Norton Sound, a little south of Bering Strait, larch and poplar making their ap- pearance as we go west. In Siberia, where the summer heat is greater, woods flourish to a much higher latitude within the Polar Circle. In the Scandinavian peninsula the red pine reaches lat. 69°, the Scotch fir 70°, the birch 71 . Ani- mal life is by no means deficient within the Polar Circle. Species indeed are few. but the individ- uals are extremely numerous. The proof of this is to be found in the immense number of skins of fur-bearing animals, eider ducks, seals, wal- rus, etc., annually supplied to commerce. Recent expeditions have found the usual arctic quadru- peds and birds as far north as the land extended. How far north the cetaceans reach is doubtful. See Distribution of A mm vls. Notwithstanding this apparent abundance, the human being has in general a severe struggle for subsistence beyond 64 N. lat.. although traces of Eskimos have been found as far north as 8i° 52'. The Eskimos who inhabit Greenland and the extreme north of America have a hard life of it. often pressed, and not seldom cut off. by famine. Under their rigor- ous skies the resources derivable from the sur- rounding abundance of animal hfe can support ARCTURUS— ARECIBO only a handful of men. Even in Siberia, whi the reindeer trained to the sledge, and the great river-, frozen throughout the winter, add so greatly to the facilities of intercourse or emi- tion, whole communities are frequently cut off by famine or di ea i Sfel we see Euro- pi i! ettled under the parallel of 73" at Uper- navik in Greenland, of 72 2' at Ostyarsk in Sibei 40' at Hantmerfest in Nor- way, and Europeans have wintered far north of tins The settlements in Greenland, north- ern Siberia, Kamchatka, and the Hudson Bay territories are all more or less connected by- trade with southern countries, winner they de- rive their power of endurance; and from the constant care required in order to guard against the consequences of the severe climate it is evident that to man the support of life within the Polar Cirele must ever he difficult and pre- carious. Nevertheless, owing to the abundance of lower animal life, men have visited these regions for centuries to gather the exceedingly rich harvests of furs and oil. tic Exploration. — See Polar Research. I he following are tie farthest points of north latitude reached by Arctic explorers up to the present date: 1607, Hudson, 80° 23'; 1773, Phipps, 8o° 48'; 1806, Scoresby, 81° 12' 4-'"; 1827, Parry, 82 50' ; 1874, Meyer (on land), 82 ; 1875, Markham and Parr ( Nares' expe- dition), 83° 20' 26"; 1876, Payer, 83° 07'; 1884, Lockwood (Greely's party), 83° 24'; '896, Nan- sen, 86° 14'; 1000, Aliru/zi, 8d" 3i'. Bibliography. — Conway. 'The First Cross- ing of Spitsbergen' ; Greely, 'Arctic Service'; 'Handbook of Arctic Discovery'; and 'Report on the Proceedings of the United States Ex- pedition to Lady Franklin Bay'; Haves. "Arctic Boat Journey'; Jackson, 'A Thousand Days in the Arctic'; and 'The Great Frozen Land'; Jones, T, 'Natural History, Geology, and Phys- ics of Greenland and Adjacent Regions' ; Kane, 'Arctic Explorations, the Second Expedition in Search of Sir John Franklin'; Nansen, 'Far- thest North'; Peary, 'Northward Over the Great Ice'; Ray, 'Report of the Expedition to Point Harrow'; Wright. 'Greenland lee Fields and Life in the North Atlantic.' Arctu'rus, a fixed star of the first magni- tude in the constellation of Bootes, and thought by some to he one of the largest of the fixed stars. It has a large proper motion, and is a noticeable object in the northern heavens. Ar'cus Seni'lis, a term applied to a white or grayish white rim on the outer edge of the cornea, due to the infiltration of a finely granu- lar hyaline substance, heretofore thought to be a form of f itty degeneration. This is probably not the case, since the infiltration material has no relation to the corneal cells. It is more prob- ably a condition due to changes in the blood vessel- of the cornea and is frequently a re- sult of old age. It is a normal phenomenon, however, occurring sometimes in perfectly healthy people, and there is no invariable rela- tionship to fatty degeneration of the blood ves- sels, heart, or other organ. Ardagh, ar'da, Sir John Charles, an Eng- lish military officer: b. 1840. lie entered the Royal Engineer Corps in 1859; and became major-general in 1898. He attended the Con- ference of Constantinople, Congress of Ber- lin, Bulgarian Boundary Commission, and the Peace Conference at I he Hague, in [899, and was for man; years director of military intelli- gence in the British war office. Ardahan, ar'da-han', a villi. por- tion of I uiki-.li Armenia ceded in 1X7X to Rus- sia, 35 miles northwest of Kars, It- position gives it strategic importance. Its fortress was dismantled by the Russians in the war of 1X54-6; in 187S the Berlin Congress sanctioned the ces- sion to Russia ,,f Ardahan, which had been cap- tured early in the war. Arditi, ar-de'te, Luigi, an Italian musician and composer: b. Piedmont, [6 July [822; d. Hove. Sussex, I May 1903. Famous first as a violinist, then as a conductor, he went to London in i8s", and from that year till 1878 was musical director at Her Majesty's Theatre. He has conducted Italian opera and concerts in places as remote from one another as New York and Constantinople; has published the operas '[ Briganti' (1841); and 'La Spia' (1856) ; and is known as author of much popular music-- songs, violin duets and wait such as '11 Bacio ' lie published his 'Remin- iscences' in 1896. Ard'more, Indian 'Territory, a city of the Chickasavvs, on the Gulf, Colo. & Santa Fe, and Choctaw, Okla. & Gulf R.R.'s. about 20 mile. north of the Red River. It is the seat of Har- grove College. Its commercial interests are cot- ton, coal, and asphalt. Pop. (1900) 5,681. Are'ca, the designation of a genus of palms, possessing pinnate leaves, a double membranous sheath containing its bunches of (lowers; fruit a one-seeded berry or drupe, with a fibrous rind. 'To this genus belongs the betel-nut ir pinang palm (A. cathecu), a native of the East Indies, and cultivated there in many va- rieties. It is a very beautiful palm, with a slen- der stem often 40 or 50 feet high. Its nuts, called betel-nuts, are rolled into a leaf of the betel-pepper along with a little lime, and are then chewed. 'The nut contains at least four alkaloids, Arecoline. Areca'idinc, Arecaine. and Guvacine, the former alone having known active properties. Arecoline is an active taeniacide and is widely used in veterinary practice for the treatment of tape worms. It is also an active cathartic and mydriatic. In the latter a e it is extensively used as a stimulant. An- other palm of this genus is the cabbage palm {A. oleracca), one of the most beautiful and stately of the palm tribe, with a stem ri often'to the height of 200 feet, terminated by a graceful plume of waving feathery foliage. It 1. a native of Jamaica and other West India 1 lands. The so-called cabbage is the terminal leaf-bud. which is very tender and delicious, either raw or boiled. Its removal, however, kills the tree. Arecibo, a'ra-se'bo, an important commer- cial town of Porto Rico ; on the northern coast ; facing the Atlantic Ocean; 50 miles west of San Juan. It resembles ordinary Spanish towns in having a plaza, surrounded by the church and other public buildings, in the centre, with streets running from it in right angles, forming regu- lar squares. The buildings are of wood and brick. 'The harbor is poor, being exposed to the full force of the ocean, and having no nat- ARENACEOUS ROCKS — AREQUIPA ural or artificial protection. Imports and ex- ports can be handled only by twice lightering. Tributary to the town is a district of about 30,000 inhabitants. Pop. (1903) about 12,000. Ar'ena'ceous Rocks, the name applied to a petrographic division including loose sands and gravels, sandstone, conglomerate, quartzites and such rocks as are mainly composed of quartz particles. They are of mechanical origin, being derived from disintegration of pre-existing strata and removal and deposition of the materials by wind or water. The grains are generally water- worn and rounded ; in some cases, however, they are more or less angular, or rounded and angu- lar grains occur commingled. In older deposits, the grains of sand are bound together by sili- cious, calcareous, argillaceous, or ferruginous ce- ments. It is seldom that a rock is composed of quartzose materials alone; grains or particles of other mineral substances are frequently mingled with the grains of quartz. Silvery flakes of mica are seldom absent; often occurring in layers par- allel to the planes of stratification, thus causing the rock to split into thin slabs, and exposing a glittering surface. These are called micaceous sandstones. When grains of feldspar occur, the rock is a feldspathic sandstone. Often large quantities of calcareous matter, either as cement or as distinct grains occur; and these are called calcareous sandstones. In like manner we have silicious and ferruginous sandstones, when sil- ica and oxid of iron are conspicuously present as cementing or binding materials. Clay and carbonaceous matter, when plentifully diffused through the rock, give rise to argillaceous, car- bonaceous and bituminous sandstones. Green- sand, or glauconitic sandstone, is a rock contain- ing abundant grains of the dirty greenish min- eral called glauconite. Arkose is a sandstone composed of disintegrated granite ; volcanic sandstone, trappean sandstone, etc., being com- posed of disintegrated igneous rocks. The presence of lime can always be detected by the effervescence which takes place on the applica- tion of hydrochloric or other acid. A sandstone of homogeneous composition, which may be worked freely in any direction, is called free- stone or liver rock. Flagstone is a sandstone capable of being split into thin beds or flags along the planes of deposition. When the sand- stone is coarse-grained, it is usually called grit. If it contain, more or less abundantly, grains large enough to be called pebbles, the sandstone is said to be conglomeratic ; and if the pebbles or stones be angular, the rock is described as a brecciiform sandstone. Coarse-grained grits and pebbly or conglomeratic sandstones pass into conglomerate or puddingstone, which consists of a mass of various sized water-worn stones. Brecciiform sandstones frequently pass into breccia, an aggregate of angular and sub-angular fragments. Graywacke is an argillaceous sand- stone, more or less altered and sometimes semi- crystalline, met with among palaeozoic forma- tions. Arenales, a'ra-na'les, Juan Antonio Alva- rez de, a Peruvian patriot: b. 1775; d. 1825. When the Spanish army invaded Peru, Arenales led a body of troops against them by a long cir- cuitous route, and defeated Marshal O'Reilly, whom he made prisoner, 6 Dec. 1820. Ar'ena'ria, the name given to a genus of plants of the sandworts, of the Caryophyllacaxa or pink family. They number upward of 200 species, and are usually low-tufted herbs with white flowers. They are very common along the American sea-coast and in sandy places through- out the States north of the Ohio River. Several species are alpine or sub-alpine in habit and are found on the summits of the Eastern Appala- chian. Of these the mountain sandwort {A. Groenlandria) is best known. Areng' Palm, the name of a palm, for- merly called Arcng saccharifera, but now more generally denominated Sagucnis saccharifer. It belongs to the section Cocoina, grows wild in the islands of southern Asia, and is cultivated in India. It furnishes sago and wine, while its fibres are manufactured into ropes. Ar'eop'agus, the designation of the oldest Athenian court of justice. It obtained its name from its place of meeting, on the Hill of Ares (Mars), near the citadel. Its establishment is ascribed by some to Cecrops, by others to Solon ; from the latter, however, it seems to have only received a better constitution and more impor- tant privileges, and it is probable that it existed from very remote times. Of how many mem- bers it consisted is not now known. A seat in it was held for life. The members were men who in their former capacity of archons had rendered themselves worthy of this honor by the honest and diligent execution of their of- fice, and whose character and conduct had been subjected to a particular examination. Aristides called the Areopagus the most sacred tribunal of Greece, and Demosthenes assures us that they never passed a sentence in which both parties did not concur. Crimes tried before this tribunal were wilful murder, poisoning, robbery, arson, dissoluteness of morals, and innovations in the state and in religion ; at the same time it took care of helpless orphans. The other states of Greece sometimes submitted their disputes to the judgment of the Areopagus. Its meetings were held in the open air and in the night time. After the investigation of a case the votes were col- lected. In the time of Pericles its political in- fluence was materially lessened, but it continued a much venerated assemblage, and in Roman times its decisions still commanded respect. The Apostle Paul is sometimes thought to have been brought before this ancient court, but it is more likely that his famous address on Mars Hill was before an asemblage of philosophers there. See Botsford, 'The Athenian Constitution* (1893). Arequipa, a'ra-ke'pa, a city of Peru, the capital of a department of the same name. It lies in a fertile valley 200 miles south of Cuzco, at the height of 7,850 feet above the sea. Prior to the earthquake of 13 Aug. 1868, which did not leave a single house habitable, it was one of the best-built towns of South America. Be- hind it rise three lofty mountains, one of which, called the volcano of Arequipa, or Peak of El Miste, is one ot the must elevated summits of the Andes, having a height which Pentland estimates at 20,32s feet. It contains a cathe- dral, a college, a hospital, nunneries, convents, etc. Near at hand Harvard University has an observatory, at an altitude of over 8,000 feet. It is subject to frequent earthquakes, Inn this evil seems to be overbalanced by the mildness of the climate, and the beauty and fertility of ARGALL — ARGENTINA the country round about. Islav was formerly the port of Arequipa, but it lias been superseded by the neighboring port of Mollcndo, connected by railway with Arequipa. Top. (1901) 3S. 000 - Argall, Sik Samuel, seaman and American colonial official : b. Wahhamstow, Essex, Eng- land; d. 24 Jan. 1626. He was a type of the founders of English colonial dominion- — ener- getic, resourceful and masterful ; his further re- pute as a sort of unprincipled buccaneer and tyrant is due to sentiment and partisanship. In May 1609, he was sent with a small barque to the new settlement at Jamestown, Va., to trade and fish on behoof of the owner. He seems to have found a shorter route than usual, and soon established a reputation for unprecedentedly quick passages. The next year he took out Lord Delawarr to Jamestown, arriving just in time to prevent the entire colony, with the governor, Sir Thomas Dale, leaving for Newfoundland to avoid starvation. He was sent to the Bermudas for swine to replace those the colonists had eaten up, but was driven by storms to Cape Cod, where he found good fishing and returned in Au- gust ; established a corn trade with the Indians above Jamestown, and early in 161 1 returned to England with Delawarr, whose health was bad. In September 1621, he was again at Jamestown after the then swift passage of 51 days, and the rest of the year he and Dale spent in corn- hunting among the Indians. Powhatan had a number of English prisoners in his hands, and a quantity of weapons and implements ; and Argall, hearing that the chieftain's daughter Pocahontas was with her uncle "Powtownec" (Potomac), had the happy thought of securing her to ex- change against them, a feat accomplished by threats and the offer of a copper kettle to her un- cle. The stock denunciation of him for this "ne- farious treachery" is best answered by the fact that no one was harmed, all parties were bene- fited, and a most desirable aim was achieved. Pocahontas herself considered it a piece of rare good fortune, would not leave the whites, and soon after married one of them, while the pris- oners were released, and peace restored to the colony. Argall handed her over to Sir Thomas Gates and explored the east shore of Chesapeake Bay, fishing and trading. Later in the year he was sent with a vessel of 14 guns to destroy the French settlements on the north coast, regarded as infringing on the Virginia patent. He cap- tured Mount Desert. St. Croix, and Port Royal (N. S.), carried off the settlers as prisoners to Jamestown, and on the way forced the command- ant at New Amsterdam to recognize English suzerainty by hauling down the Dutch flag and running up the English. In 1614 he sailed for England, and was put on his defense for these high-handed acts, but completely justified him- self. In May 1 <>i 7. he was made deputy-gover- nor of Virginia, and remained two years in a broil with part of the citizens, but justified by others. He was accused of illegal trade with the West Indies, and repeatedly ordered to re- turn to England for trial, a command which he ignored for a time, possibly in reliance on the Earl of Warwick, who financed and shared his ventures. In 1620 he served against the Algerine pirates with a 24-gun merchant vessel, under Sir Robert Mansell. He was knighted in 1622. In 1625 he was admiral of a squadron cruising after a hostile Dunkirk fleet, and took some prizes. On 3 October of that year he embarked with the .Iron in the expedition against Cadiz under Lord Wimbledon, with Lord Essex on board as vice-admiral and commander of land forces; Argall's flagship was the Swiltsure. He report- ed the fortress too strong to be taken without a siege, the merchant vessels were ill supplied and unpaid, and after waiting till December for re- lief from Charles I. they went home. Argall died the next month, it was said from a broken heart because the captain of the Swiftsure was "very backward and cross" to him. (Argall's own narrative comes down to 12 May 1613.) Argenteuil, ar-zhan-te-y, a town in France, on the right bank of the Seine, seven miles below Paris. It supplies much wine, fruit, and \' tables for the Parisian market. The famous Heloise was abbess of its now ruined priory from 1 120. Pop. (1896) 15,126. Argentin-, ar'jcn-te'na, or the Argentine REPUBLIC, the second in size of the South Am- erican countries, extends from Bolivia, in the torrid zone, to Cape Horn, in the frigid zone. A just idea of its great length and climatic range may be given by comparison with the United States. The distance from its northern boun- dary to the equator is much less than from the equator to Florida; the territory of Tierra del Fuego is as near to the South Pole as Prince of Wales Island, Alaska, is to the North Pole. In its tropical north are valuable mines and forests of hardwoods; in the extreme south the col- lecting and storing of natural ice is a profitable industry. All the central provinces and terri- tories have the climate of the temperate zone. and lie in one vast plain stretching from the Andes to the Atlantic. Above Buenos Ayres, however, the eastern limit of Argentina is not the ocean, but a river system exceeding in vol- ume that of the Mississippi, — the Parana and Uruguay rivers furnishing an outlet for the products of the region bordering on Uruguay, Brazil, and Paraguay, and finally uniting in the great Rio de la Plata. History. — A Spanish captain named Juan de Solis discovered the Rio de la Plata several years before Magellan saw it (1520), and, ac- cording to the account of Pigafetta, one of Magellan's companions, the "gigantic natives called canibali ate De Solis and 60 men who had gone to discover land, and trusted too much to them.* Again, in 1535, the Indians destroyed a colony that Pedro de Mcndoza attempted to establish on the site of the modern city of Buenos Ayres, no permanent settlement being made at that place before 1580. In 1661 the king of Spain created a high court in Buenos Ayres, and appointed a governor and captain- general for the provinces of the Rio de la Plata. The provinces increased in importance to such an extent . during the century which followed that in 1773 the King's representative became a viceroy. British forces, sent to capture Buenos Ayres in 1806 and 1808, were defeated by the natives, unaided by the viceroy ; the resignation of the latter was demanded on 25 May 1810, and the patriotic movement did not cease until independence was achieved. A junta composed of nine members, assuming the reins of gov- ernment, despatched revolutionary expeditions into Paraguay, the northern provinces of Ar- gentina and Alto Peru (now Bolivia) ; for it was evident not only that the power of Spain c ARGENTINA could not be broken without the united efforts of the patriots who were scattered throughout the southern portion of the continent, but also that Argentina was the natural leader in such enterprises. During seven years the issue remained in dcubt: all the advantages that the Argentine general, Belgrano, gained at first seemed to be lost when he suffered defeat at the hands of Gen. Peguela in Dec. 1813. But six months afterward the nearest and most threatening Spanish stronghold, the fortress of Montevideo, was captured. Independence was declared, 9 July 1816, at a congress representing the dif- ferent provinces; then Gen. San Martin led across the Andes a force of 5,000 Argentina sol- diers recruited largely from the hardy plains- men and cowboys (gauclws). His little army of "rough riders," by defeating the Spanish troops in the battle of Chacabuco, gave inde- pendence to the Chilean people. San Martin was also successful against the Spaniards in Peru, entering Lima as a liberator in 1821. Though urged to accept the civil government of the countries he had freed, this soldier of splen- did ability refused the rewards, honors, or offices in civil life, which those men fulfilling similar missions in other lands have almost without ex- ception consented to receive. Moreover, the attitude of the Argentine revolutionists in gen- eral was characterized by disinterestedness in this crisis ; and subsequently, when Brazil sought to annex Uruguay, Argentina appeared as the champion of the smaller state. A war lasting three years (1825-8) was required to convince Brazil that Uruguay's independence must be guaranteed by both her great neighbors. But the bright prospects of Argentina herself suffered eclipse from 1829 to 1852. Juan Man- uel de Rosas succeeded in establishing a virtual dictatorship, maintaining himself in power de- spite repeated attempts to oust him, until the year last mentioned, when he was defeated by Gen. Urquiza in the battle of Caseros. Taught by experience, the people now resolved to safe- guard their rights and privileges for the future. A constitution closely resembling that of the United States (though president and vice-presi- dent hold office for six years, and senators for nine, and other interesting adaptations were made) was promulgated 25 May 1853. In 1862-8 we see Argentina, allied with Brazil and Uruguay, engaged in resisting Paraguay's claim to ownership of the territory El Chaco. The allies were successful in the field ; nevertheless the dispute was referred to the President of the United States, Mr. Hayes, as arbitrator. Such respect for law, as superior to force of arms, was shown during Gen. Bartolome Mitre's term of office. Significant administrations were those of Seiior Sarmiento, who succeeded Gen. Mitre, of Seiior Avellaneda, and of Gen. Roca. The first of these was familiar with the United States, where he had resided as Argentina's diplomatic representative, and the efforts he made to bring the institutions of his own coun- try into harmony with those he had studied at Washington — especially in the matter of pop- ular education — helped progressive Argentina to earn the title of the "Yankee-land of South America.® General Roca. as minister of war during Avellaneda's presidency, extended the routhern frontier so that it included a large part of Patagonia ; his first term of office as President is memorable on account of the ex- tension of the railway system, the erection of many public school buildings, the formal selec- tion of the city of Buenos Ayres as the capi- tal of the republic, and the foundation of the city of La Plata (1882). A financial crisis that afflicted the country caused the resignation of President Celman, who succeeded Gen. Roca in 1886. The people, convinced that the Presi- dent's policy was 'responsible for the "hard times," practically forced him out of office by the pressure of public opinion. This may be regarded as a striking demonstration of the power of unfeigned and non-partisan disap- proval, inasmuch as a revolutionary movement was first attempted and proved a failure. Vice- President Pelligrini brought so much skill to the tasks thus devolving upon him as Cel- man's successor, that he guided the country safely out of its troubles. The question of lim- its with Bolivia, Chile, and Brazil continuing to occupy the attention of the Argentine foreign office during the presidency of Pena (suc- ceeding Pelligrini, 12 Oct. 1892), the pref- erence for deciding boundary disputes by arbi- tration without a preliminary war, was strongly manifested, as was but natural after the El Chaco affair. President Roca (re-elected) was able to report the satisfactory financial condi- tions in 1902, to which reference will presently be made ; also the decision of the question of the boundary between the Argentine Republic and Chile by the award of the arbitrator. King Edward VII., dated at the court of St. James, 20 Nov. 1902. Immigration and Population. — The Consti- tution of Argentina provided that "The federal government shall encourage European immigra- tion, and shall not restrict . . . the entry . . . of foreigners who come for the purpose of engaging in the cultivation of the soil," etc. The greater part of the land of the republic be- ing devoted to grazing and the production of live stock, while its value for agricultural pur- poses is still greater, immigrants have been at- tracted by a liberal policy which both the federal and provincial governments adopted : the for- mer, in addition to free grants of land, has advanced capital (oxen, tools, etc., to the value of $1,000 for each farmer) to be paid back in five years. There were 125.951 immigrants in 1901, the nationalities represented being as follows : Italians, 58,314; French, 21.788; Spaniards, 18,- 066; Austrians, 2,714; Syrians, 2,159; Russians (chiefly Poles), 2,086. The area of lands under cultivation shows such an increase as might be expected — 17,174,250 acres in 1902, as against only 7,478.700 acres in 1880. The total population of the Republic 1 Jan. 1902, was 4,749.149- The city of Buenos Ayres, with 821,291 in- habitants, ranks as the eleventh city of the world in respect to population. Education. — For both boys and girls between the ages of 6 and 14 years education is com- pulsory and gratuitous. There is one school for each 1,000 inhabitants. Cordoba and Buenos Ayres have universities. Military and naval academies, a national observatory, trade schools, and an academy of mining engineers, have al- ready been established, and it is the govern- ment's purpose to add to these nractica.' ARGENTINA schools for the instruction of laborers in rural industries and forestry near the capital or prin- cipal city of each province. Primary education is under tile directum of a national board of education, which has practically lull control of the public schools and enjoys an income oi its own. I he matriculates in different grades in 1901 numbered (• hardness is from 2 to 2.5, and its specific gravity is about 7..?. Argentite occurs in many countries and when found in quantit) is a valuable ore of silver. It occurs in crystals (often distorted), massive, in crusts, in thread-like aggregates. Choice specimens •ir in the silver mines of Joachimsthal, emia, and Freiberg, Saxony; in Bolivia, Chili, and Peru, and notably at P.atopilas, Mux- also in many silver mines in Colorado, Nevada, and elsewhere in the United States. . ntite is often called "silver glance" by miners. Argentoratum, an Old Celtic word, mean- ing "atones "f Argantos," the Old Roman name fir Strasburg. Argillaceous Rocks, a petrographic divi- sion including tho e n.cks that are largely com- po ed of clay. They owe their origin to the disintegration and decomposition of 1 ither rocks and hence are always of secondary nature. Among the common varieties belonging to this class are ordinary brick-clay, fire-clay, potter's- clay, kaolin, mudstone, shale, and marl (qq.v.). Clay rocks are easily influenced by inctamorphic gencies, yielding shale, mica-schist, graywacke, and other "hard rocks. See Sedimentary Rocks. Arginusae, ar'jI-mVse, the name of several small islands southeast of the Island of Lesbos, a province of Asia Minor. In their vicinity the Athenians, under Conon, 406 B.C., defeated the Spartans under Collicratidos, in a hard-contested naval battle. Ar'gives, or Argivi, the inhabitants of Argos ; a term used by Homer and other ancient authors as a generic appellation for all Greeks. Ar'go, the important southern constella- tion of the Ship, which is nearly 75 degrees in length, and contains over 800 stars visible to the naked eye. Ar'go. See Argonauts. Argob, the name of a district in Bashan, referred to in Dent. iii. 4, as the kingdom of Og, and containing threescore walled cities. It- precise location has not been determined. Ar'gol (origin of the word unknown), a term applied to the crude acid tartrate (or bi- tartrate) of potassium, as deposited on the side of the vats in which wine is fermenting. It exists in the grapes from which the wine is made, but is precipitated from solution in the vats by the alcohol formed during the fermen- tation. Like many other precipitates, argol brings down more or less of the coloring matter in the solution from which it is deposited, and it is white 01 red, according to the color of the wine from winch it 1- formed, When purified by re-crystallization from its solution in hot water, argol is known in commerce as "cream of tartar." ["he purified salt is extensively used in baking powders and to a lesser extent in medicine. Ar'golis, a peninsular state of ancient Greece; between the bays of Nauplia and .Kgina, now forming with Corinth, a monarchy or de- partment. Argolis was the eastern region of Peloponnesus, and its inhabitant wen often called Argives. According to the monuments of Greek mythology, Argolis was peculiarly rich, and early cultivated. Here reigned I '.lops. an emigrant from Asia Minor, from whom the peninsula derives its name. It was afterward the seat of government of Atreus and Agamem- non, Adrastus, Eurystheus, and Diomedes. In the earliest times it was divided into the small kingdoms of Argos, Mycenae, Tiryns, I roezene, Hermione, and Epidaurus, which afterward formed free States. The chief city, Argos. has retained its name since 1800 B.C. Its inliali itants were renowned for their love of the fine arts, particularly of music. Some vestiges re- main of its ancient splendor, and it has at present about q.000 inhabitants. Near il is the capital of Argolis, Nauplia, or Napoli di Ro- mania, with an excellent harbor, and the most important fortress of the peninsula. On the site of the present village qf Castri, on the .l-'.gran Sea, formerly lay the city Hermione; opposite is the island of Hydra. Pop. of prov- ince of Argolis and Corinth (1896) 157,578. Ar'gon (Greek, "inactive," in allusion to its entire lack of chemical affinity), a gaseous substance, presumably an element, discovered in the earth's atmosphere 111 [894 by Lord Ray- leigb anil Prof. William Ramsay. For some years previous to this discovery, Lord Kay- leigh had been engaged in a careful determina- tion of the densities of certain gases, and con- sistent results had been obtained for all of them save nitrogen. This gas, when prepared from air by the abstraction of all other known components, was found to be heavier by about one part in 200, than the nitrogen prepared from ammonia. There could be no doubt about the reality of the difference, because the same experimental methods, when applied to other gases, gave results that were consistent with one another to about one part in io.ooo. In studying the cause of the discrepancy, Lord Ravleigii prepared nitrogen from ammonium nitrite, from urea, and from nitric and nitrous oxides : and found that all specimens of the gas that were prepared from nitrogen com- pounds agree with one another in density, but that the specimens of nitrogen that he pre- pared from air were uniformly and consistently heavier, by the same constant amount of one part in 200. Provisionally, therefore, he recog- nized two kinds of nitrogen, which he called "chemical nitrogen" and "atmospheric nitrogen," respectively, to indicate the sources whence they wire obtained. He then published a letter in 'Nature.' narrating these facts, and calling for suggestions from chemists as to the cause of the systematic difference in density. No ideas of value were elicited. The possibility that ARGON "chemical" nitrogen might be contaminated with hydrogen, and that the experimental methods failed to eliminate the last traces of this very light gas, was tested by adding hydrogen to "atmospheric" nitrogen, and then submitting the mixture to the same process employed for re- moving any hydrogen that might have existed in the "chemical" nitrogen. If the hydrogen theory of the discrepancy had been true, it would have been found that "atmospheric" nitrogen, when treated in this way, would ultimately agree in density with "chemical" nitrogen; but the test showed that "atmospheric" nitrogen, after the addition and subsequent removal of hydrogen, returned to its original state of higher density, thus proving the adequacy of the experimental methods, and disproving the hypothesis that the difference in density was due to hydrogen. The suggestion was also made that the "atmo- spheric" nitrogen had partly polymerized into an allotropic state analogous to ozone, or that the "chemical" nitrogen had partially dissociated into monatomic molecules. These possibilities were tested by subjecting both kinds of nitrogen to the action of the silent electric discharge, in an apparatus designed for the production of ozone from oxygen. It would certainly be ex- pected that the difference in density would partially or wholly disappear under this treat- ment if there were any basis to the polymeriza- tion or dissociation hypotheses; but it was found that both kinds of nitrogen retained their initial densities, so that the original differ- ence persisted undiminished in amount. Fur- thermore, if the lightness of "chemical" nitrogen were due to a partial dissociation induced by the method of preparation, it would be reason- able to expect that the molecules would re-com- bine in time with a resulting return of the density to that observed in "atmospheric" ni- trogen. Specimens of "chemical" nitrogen that were allowed to stand for eight months, how- ever, were found to retain their characteristic lightness. At this stage in the investigation, Prof. Ramsay asked permission to co-operate in the investigation, and his services were gladly accepted. The hypothesis was made that "chem- ical" nitrogen contains an unknown gas, lighter than true nitrogen ; or that "atmospheric" nitro- gen contains some similar gas that is heavier than true nitrogen. In spite of the many analy- ses that had been made of the air, it was thought more probable that the unknown gas would be found in "atmospheric" than in "chemical" nitro- gen ; and hence the experimenters turned their attention to the problem of removing "true" nitrogen from the "atmospheric" nitrogen, with the idea of obtaining a possible residuum, which would at least contain the unknown gas in concentrated form. For this purpose it was proposed to take advantage of the known fact that at a red heat nitrogen will combine with metallic magnesium, with the formation of mag- nesium nitride. "Atmospheric" nitrogen, care- fully freed from all known impurities, was therefore passed through a long tube of hard glass filled with magnesium shavings and heat- ed in a furnace. The first experiment of this sort was made in May 1894, and gave encour- aging results, the "atmospheric" nitrogen show ing a slight but unmistakable increase in den- sity. A more elaborate experiment of the same sort followed, in which "atmospheric" nitrogen was caused to pass over hot magnesium for more than two weeks. By this means its den- sity, originally about 14 (that of hydrogen being 1), was increased to 19.09, and the bulk of the gas under examination was diminished until not much mure than one per cent of it remained. Plainly a great concentration of the unknown gas has been effected. To remove the last traces of true nitrogen, pure oxygen was next added, and the mixture exposed to a rain of electric sparks in the presence of caustic soda. When so treated the experimental gas contracted, in- dicating that the nitrogen was being withdrawn in the form of nitrate of sodium. When con- traction was no longer noted, the nitrate of sodium and the excess of oxygen were re- moved, and it was found that the remaining gas had a density about 20 times as great as that of hydrogen. When subjected to the electric spark and examined by the spectro- scope, this residual gas was found to exhibit certain characteristic groups of red and green lines that did not correspond to any element previously known. The experimenters, there- fore, felt reasonably sure that a new element had been discovered, and this conclusion has been borne out by all subsequent investigations. The discovery of this element (to which the name "argon" and the chemical symbol "A" have been assigned), was formally announced to the public in Aug. 1895, and for it Lord Rayleigh and Prof. Ramsay were awarded the Hodgkins prize and also the grand prize of the Smithsonian Institution. See Air. As it was found that air contains 0.937 of one per cent (by volume) of argon, it is nat- ural to ask wdiy the new element had escaped detection in the vast number of air-analyses that have been made in the past. The answer is that argon shows no chemical affinity whatever, and as nitrogen is also inert in comparison with most elements, the two were very easily confused. Chemists have almost invariably esti- mated the nitrogen of the air "by difference 8 ; that is, by removing all such constituents as oxy- gen, carbon dioxid, and ammonia, and taking it for granted that the inert remainder is nitrogen. It might be thought that the spectroscope would betray the presence of argon, when the spectra of "atmospheric" and "chemical" nitrogen were compared ; but the curious fact has been estab- lished that when argon ami nitrogen are mixed, the argon does not reveal itself to the spec- troscope unless the mixture contains at least 37 per cent of argon. Upon looking over the work that had been previously done upon air, it was found that Cavendish had isolated nearly pure argon as long ago as i;,X;, but without ni/ing its real nature. Thus, knowing that air contains a considerable quantity of nitrogen, he raised the question whether all of the ap parently nitrogenous part of the air "could be reduced to nitrous acid, or whether there »;^ not a part of a different nature from tin rest which would refuse to undergo that change. 11 To decide this point he added excess of oxygen to air and passed electric sparks through the mixture (precisely as Rayleigh and Ramsay did) until no further diminution of volume occurred. He then removed the excess of oxygen, together with the oxids of nitrogen that had been formed, and found that only a small bubble remained unabsorbed, which, he says, was not more than ARGONAUT one one hundred and twentieth of the bulk of the original nitrogen. The bubble that he thus obtained and whose nature he did not further question must have been nearly pure argon. Argon having been discovered, chemists at once undertook to ascertain its chemical propcr- ties, but here they met with an obstacle that has not yet been overcome, and which constitutes one of the strangest facts known to chemistry. It was found, namely, that argon cannot be made to enter into chemical combination with any substance whatsoever. Thus Rayleigh and Ramsay have stated that "argon does not com- bine with oxygen in presence of alkali under the influence of the electric discharge, nor with hydrogen in presence of acid or alkali, nor when sparked, nor with phosphorus at a bright led heat, nor with sulphur. Tellurium may be distilled in it and also sodium and potassium. Red hot sodium peroxid has no effect. Persul- phids of sodium and calcium have no effect at a red heat. Platinum sponge docs not absorb it. Aqua regia, bromine water, bromine and alkali, and potassium permanganate are all without in- fluence. Mixtures of metallic sodium and silica, or of sodium and boric acid, are likewise with- out influence, and hence also nascent silicon and boron. 1 ' Moissan further found that fluorin does not act upon it at any temperature. In short, it may be said that every reagent that the previous experience of chemists indicated as likely to combine with argon has been tried without success, and hence the chemical proper- ties of the clement (if, indeed, it has any such properties), are as yet quite unknown. Several announcements of the existence of compounds of argon have been made, hut no really con- vincing evidence of such combination has been given. For example, Berthollet --ubjected a mix- ture of argon and benzene to the action of the silent electric discharge for a long time, and observed a diminution in the volume of the argon, which he attributed to its combination with the benzene. Benzene when treated in this way forms a resinous mass, which coats the walls of the tube, and it is not improbable that the small quantity of argon which disap- pears is held mechanically by the gummy de- posit, either in solution or by absorption. At all events the original quantity of argon is re- stored, unchanged, by heating the resin. It cannot be positively affirmed that no compound of argon exists, but there is no previously known element (not even the metals of the platinum group) that could withstand the ac- tion of the substances whose activity has been exerted without effect upon argon. The only promising result that has yet been reached is that announced by Villard, who states that at 32 F., and at a pressure of 150 atmospheres, ar- gon forms a crystalline hydrate with water, which dissociates again into argon and water at a pressure of 105 atmospheres. Even this result requires confirmation, since Villard did not really prove the presence of argon in the crystals that he obtained. Until some compound can be formed we shall therefore have to infer the atomic weight of argon from determinations of the density of the gas, taken in connection with Avogadro's law. The best determinations made up to the present time indicate that the density of argon is 19.80 times that of hydrogen. If the molecules of argon are diatomic, then 19.80 is the atomic weight of the element, but if they are monatomic, we must double this estimate and conclude tlial the atomic weight is 30.00. (Sec Atomic Theory; also G\sfs, Kinetic Theory of.) To settle this doubtful point experiments were made to find tin- ratio of the two specific heats of the gas. and it was found that the specific heat of argon al constant prcs-urc is about 1.(15 times as great as the specific heat at constant volume. This indicates that the molecule of the gas contains but one atom, and hence it is necessary to con- clude that the atomic weight of argon is 39.60, the atomic weight of hydrogen being taken as I. Argon has been liquefied and solidified. Its critical temperature is 179 F. below zero, and its critical pressure is about 52.9 atmospheres. Liquid argon boils (under ordinary atmospheric pressure) at about 303° F. below zero, and at about 306 below zero it freezes. The density of liquid argon is about 1.212 times as great as that of water. Four other elements, associated with argon in the air and closely resembling it in properties, have been discovered as the re- sult of researches suggested by the discovery of argon. They are called, respectively, helium, neon, krypton, and xenon (qq.v.). Hundreds of papers dealing with argon and the other gases just mentioned have appeared in the scien- tific periodicals, so that no bibliography of tin- subject can be attempted here. Ram-ay's 1 k, 'The Gases of the Atmosphere' (1890) gives an excellent account of the chemistry of tin- air, from the earliest times down to 1896. It must be remembered, however, that our knowledge of argon and its allies is growing rapidly, so that some of the statements that Ramsay makes can be no longer admitted to he true. For example, he states that helium (which had already been discovered when his book was written) docs not occur in the air, but it has since been shown that it is a component of the air, forming from one to two one millionths of its bulk. Travcrs' 'The Experimental Study of Gases' may also be consulted with advantage. Ar'gonaut, the appellation of an eight- armed oceanic cephalopod, closely allied to the octopus, and having the same power of swim- ming backward by forcing water through its funnel. Though called "paper nautilus" is is en- tirely different from the true nautilus (q.v.), and although, since the earliest days, it has been said to sail upon the surface of the ocean, in its shell as a boat, with two web-like arms for sails, this belief is pure fable. Argonauts re- main in deep water except in spawning season, and then come to the surface only at night. The male is a naked octopod, and the "boat/ of the female has no organic connection with her body, but is a mere receptacle for holding eggs, re- tained in place by the two dorsal arms, which are membranous and secrete it from their inner surfaces. It is not chambered like that of the true nautilus, but has a radially fluted, semi- transparent spiral shell, enveloping the body as far as the base of the tentacles, increasing in size with the growth of the animal, and attain- ing a length of six inches. The male is only about an inch in length ; one of its very short arms is specialized into an organ of genera- tion, called a "hectocotyle," which detaches it- self from the male body, and, having independ- ent locomotory powers, attaches itself to the ARGONAUTS; ARGONAUTS OF '49 female, and in some manner unknown fertilizes the eggs. Only a single species is known (A. hians), representing the family Argonautidce. See Nautilus. Argonauts, the name given in Greek legends to the sailors, who, in a ship called the Argo, made a hazardous voyage to Colchis un- der the leadership of Jason, in quest of the gold- en fleece. Jason's uncle Pelias had usurped the kingdom of Iolcos and would resign it only on condition that Jason should first bring from Colchis the golden fleece suspended in a conse- crated grove at Colchis. Among Jason's com- panions were Hercules, Castor and Pollux, Peleus, Admetus. Meleager, Orpheus, Telamon, Theseus, and his friend Pirithous, Hylas, and Lynceus. Having sailed from the promontory of Magnesia, in Thessaly, they reached the har- bor of Lemnos, where they remained two years. The women of Lemnos, instigated by the of- fended Aphrodite (Venus), had slain all the males among them, except Thoas, and they detained among them the welcome strangers. At length they proceeded to the Troad. where Hylas and Hercules were left behind. After various adventures they approached the dreaded Symplegades, rocks which closed together and dashed in pieces vessels passing through them. According to instructions previously received, they caused a dove to fly through before them, and followed, rowing with all their strength, while Orpheus played on his lyre. The rocks stood firm, and the danger was escaped. The last adventure awaited them at the Island of Aretias. Here they found the Stymphalides, birds which shot their feathers like arrows, and from which the heroes could only protect them- selves by a violent clashing of weapons. On their arrival at Colchis King ."Fetes did not re- fuse absolutely to deliver the golden fleece, but charged Jason with three dangerous labors, thus hoping to destroy him. Jason was to yoke the two fire-breathing bulls of Hephaestus to a ploughshare of adamant, and to plough with them four acres of land consecrated to Ares (Mars), and never before turned up. He was then to sow in the furrows the remaining ser- pents' teeth of Cadmus, in the possession of /Eetes, and to kill the armed heroes which they produced : at last, to fight with and slay the dragon that guarded the golden fleece. All three labors he was to accomplish in a single day. With the help of Medea, the daugh- ter of yEetes, these tasks were accom- plished and the fleece obtained. Jason then fled with Medea, but the fugitives were pursued and on the point of being overtaken when Medea averted the danger by killing her brother Absyrtus, and strewing on the road his mangled limbs. The unhappy father quitted the pursuit to collect the bloody limbs of his son and the fugitives escaped. The return of the Argonauts is variously told, but after many perils they reached Iolcos and gave the fleece to Pelias. Argonauts of '49, a literary name (the colloquial one being "Forty-niners") applied to the California pioneers. The first discovery of gold was in January 184S, but it was not gen- erally realized till April ; from thence till the following winter California itself (recently ob- tained by the United States from Mexico) was partially depopulated outside the mining camps, even soldiers and sailors deserting in great num- bers and rushing to the mines, while execu- tive authority was paralyzed. These local changes of place, however, did not constitute a "voyage for the Golden Fleece" from far distant regions, which is what the term im- plies. The excitement, spread by official reports and intensified by journalistic inventions, had fully roused the East by winter ; from January onward the great sea routes were thronged. By the end of the year the new province (it never was organized as a Territory, entering the Union as a State from a condition of legal nullity or permitted trespass) contained toward 100.000 people. The imperfect State census of 1852 snowed 264,435, nearly all Ar- gonauts proper. Much the greater portion came by sea ; the favored route being by the Isthmus of Panama. The passengers landed at Chagres, took boat up that river to Cruces, then crossed over by horse or mule conveyance to Panama, where they took such coasting steamers or sailing craft as came along. The crowds which flocked thither by all sorts of Atlantic vessels far outran the Pacific fleet's capacity, and large numbers had to wait many weary weeks for a passage. At one time 3.000 were collected at Panama, so wild with impatience that several small companies unsuc- cessfully attempted to make the voyage to San Francisco in the natives' log canoes. An as- semblage of several hundred to a thousand was common ; and at one time they enlivened the tedium by issuing a newspaper. But a far more terrible foe than ennui had to be faced : the cholera and Panama fever, which carried off great numbers of the emigrants and a quarter of the inhabitants of Panama. Before the ex- citement had begun, two new steamers, the Cali- fornia and Oregon, were assigned to this route to run monthly. The fare was $300, and the competition for space was so great that double price was sometimes paid. The California reached San Francisco on her first trip 28 Feb. 1849. When she came up the west coast after rounding the Horn to reach Panama, the gold fever had just reached Peru, and 75 Peruvians took passage. This preoccupation of space so enraged the 1.000 or so of waiting Americans that they induced the commandant of the United States forces in California, who was waiting with them, to issue a proclamation ejecting the Peruvians as intending trespassers on United States public lands not yet opened for settle- ment. As they refused to go, however, no one dared use force. In one case some 300 intend- ing passengers drew lots for the 52 steamer tickets on sale. Many gold-seekers crossed at Nicaragua, at the isthmus of Tehuantepec, or at central Mexico. Many thousands, however, chose the cheaper and unbroken but time-wast- ing sailing voyage of several months around Cape Horn. The vessels on this route were miscellaneous and often unfit and ill manned; the food was poor and insufficient, and the voy- age full of hardship. There was also a large overland emigration across the plains, through the Great Basin and its alkali deserts, and over the Coast Range. This journey, too. was full of suffering from lack of food, lack of water, lost trails, and exhaustion : and sometimes after a summer of endurance to the last gasp, the ARGONNE— ARGUMENT pilgrims saw the snows close up the mountain them, and either wintered or died on the eastern flank, or lost themselves trying to penetrate through the snow. This overland body had two strongly distinguishing marks from the immigrants by sea. First, it contained nearly all the families among the Argonauts, as distinguished from the solitary masculine ad- venturers; and therefore nearly all the women. Second, it was nearly all a Northern and free- labor element — an important point in the strug- gle to make new States free or slave then going on between the sections. I he characteristics of the Argonauts as a body were these: First, they were mostly men, with a few low-caste women, and their moral sense was not therefore quickened by the nee and needs of family life; though fami- lies and reputable women were by no means so utterly absent as the exaggerated myths of the old-timers would make it appear. Second, feu- intended to remain lunger than was needed to acquire a fortune and return East This did not make their settlement in the least less en- during or desirable; but with the paucity of family life, it prevented them for some time from feeling a proper responsibility for public order and the creation of solid institutions, and spasms of illegal violence were expected to do the work of steady legality. Third, they were from all sections of the country, at a time when North and South were daily Incoming hostile races. Though the free-State people were largely in the ascendant, the Southerners were the political leaders and the Stale was steadily Democratic. Yet the former class had no idea of letting sectional politics rule their general action: home issues wire too pressing and na- tional ones too academic; and while California as a free State sympathized with and furnished splendid help to tile Union, her politics have never been affected by the issues either of slavery or of reconstruction. Fourth, along with men of character and ability, since prominent as busi- ness and professional men, State officials, edi- tor-,, etc., there were of course great numbers of blacklegs, desperadoes, and refugees from jus- tice. These not only defied all law in their re- lations with each other, but frequently outraged, plundered, and murdered the native Spanish in- habitants, and required an amount of time and effort to keep them in order, which the decent element — who were in a great majority — were unwilling to give. Hence society again and again seemed on the verge of being dominated wholly by its criminal classes, and the fear of an occasional uprising of the orderly element did not countervail its being only occasional and the chance of escaping it. (See Vigilance Committees.) But the best praise which can given to the essential soundness of the Ar- gonauts is that in a remarkably short time they rose to the same sense of their responsibilities as ol.hr commonwealths, and the California of i860 was not inferior to any of its companions. See Royce, History of California' (1891); H. H. B tory of California,' 4 vols. (1884-90); Shinn. 'Mining Camps' (1885); Bayard Taylor, 'Eldorado' (1850); Burnett, 'Reminiscences of an Old Pioneer' (1880). Argonne, ar'giin', a district of France, now contained in the departments of Marne and Ardennes. The wood of Argonne is celebrated for the campaign of Dumouriez against tho Prussians m 1 792, and was also the scene eral events in tin Franco-Prussian war. Ar'gos, an important city of ancient Greece. The conquest of Argos by the Dorians forms the first really authenticated event in its history. ArgOS was now a Doric city, though it retained with part of its Achaean population some of its ancient habits, particularly the worship of Hera (Juno). It had also a temple of pe- culiar sacredness to Apollo. It was long the first Dorian city in Greece, Sparta being the second, and Messene the third. From the time of the ascendency of Sparta, Argos wa divided between a democratic and an oligarchic party, the former of which inclined to the Athenian, the latter to the Spartan alliance; but the gen- eral piril of the city tended toward enmity to Sparta. In 362 Argos fought with Thebes against Sparta and Athens. ["hi Cel< bratcd Pyrrhus was killed in an invasion of Argos in 272. In -•_'') Argos joined the Achaian League, to which ;i continued to adhere till its over- throw by the Romans. The town of Argos is a straggling modern place, with houses mostly Surrounded by Hardens, and few buildings of importance. The chief relic of the ancient city is the theatre. There is an acropolis, 1,000 feel high, crowned by a ruined castle. Pop. 10,000. Argostoli, ar'gos-to'le, an important city of the Ionian Islands, the capital of Cephaloiiia. Its harbor is considered the best in the Ionian Islands, and there are excellent quays. The town is the residence of a Greek bishop. Pop. (1890) 9.241. Argot, ar'go', a French term denoting the jargon, or peculiar phraseology of a class or profession. It originally referred to the con- ventional slang of thieves and vagabonds, in- vented for the purpose of disguise and conceal- ment. Argout, ar'^oo', Antoine Maurice Apol- linaire, Count d', a French statesman and financier: b. in Iserc in 1782: d. in 1858. He was governor of the Bank of France, 1834-48. Arguelles, ar'ga'lyas, Augustin, a Spanish statesman: b. m Kivadisella 111 Asturias in 1776; d. in Madrid. 23 March 1844. On the outbreak of tin 1 war of independence in 1808 he attached himself to the patriotic party, and, as representa- tive of his native province in the Cortes, gained a high reputation for eloquence (1812-14). On the restoration of Ferdinand VII., Arguelles was arrested, and suffered several years' im- prisonment in the galleys till the revolution of 1820 restored him to freedom. On the fall of the Constitution (1823) he lied to England, where he remained till the amnesty of 1832. On his return to Spain, being nominated to the Cortes, he was repeatedly made president and vice-president of the Chamber of Deputies, and always showed himself a moderate but unwaver- ing reformer. Ar'gument, a term sometimes employed as synonymous with the subject of a discourse, but more frequently appropriated to any kind of method employed for the purpose of confuting or at least silencing an opponent. Logicians have reduced arguments to several distinct heads, of which the only one that can be said to have truth only for its object is the argumen- ARGUMENT — ARGYRODITE turn ad judicium, founded on proof and ad- dressed to the judgment. See Logic. Ar'gument, a legal term applied to an ad- dress by counsel to the court or jury in which the merits of the client's case are set forth with reference to effect upon the verdict or decision which is to follow. See Trial. Argun, ar-goon', a river of northern Asia, an affluent of the Amur, and about 1,100 miles long. Ar'gus, a personage represented in Greek mythology as having ioo eyes, or as having his whole body covered with eyes, half of these be- ing always awake while the rest were closed in sleep. The jealous Hera made him keeper of the unhappy Io ; but Hermes lulled him to sleep with the sound of his flute, and cut off his head. Hera afterward took his eyes to adorn the tail of the peacock. Argus was once considered a desirable name for a watch-dog. Ar'gus Pheasant. See Pheasant. Argyle, ar-gil', Campbells of, the designa- tion of a distinguished Scottish family. Among its most noted representatives are: Archi- bald, the second Earl, who was killed at the bat- tle of Flodden, 1513. Archibald, fifth Earl, at- tached himself to the party of Mary of Guise, and was the means of averting a collision be- tween the reformers and the French troops in 1559. He was commissioner of regency after Mary's abdication, but afterward commanded her troops at the battle of Langside, and died in 1575. Archibald, eighth Earl and Marquis, b. 1598, was a zealous partisan of the Covenan- ters, and was created a Marquis by Charles I. It was by his persuasion that Charles II. visited Scotland, and was crowned at Scone in 165 1. At the restoration he was committed to the tower, and afterward sent to Scotland, where he was tried for high treason, and beheaded in 1661. Archibald, ninth Earl, son of the pre- ceding, served the king with great bravery at the battle of Dunbar, and was accordingly ex- cluded from the general pardon by Cromwell in 1654. On the passing of the Test Act in 1681 he refused to take the required oath except with a reservation. For this he was tried and sentenced to death. He, however, escaped to Holland, whence he returned with a view of aid- ing the Duke of Monmouth. His plan, however, failed, and he was taken and conveyed to Edin- burgh, where he was beheaded in 1685. Archi- bald, tenth Earl and first Duke, son of the pre- ceding, died in 1703. He took an active part in the revolution of 1688-9, which placed Wil- liam and Mary on the throne, and was rewarded by several important appointments and the title of Duke. John, second Duke and Duke of Greenwich, son of the above, was born in 1678 and died in 1743. He served under Marlbor- ough at the battles of Ramilies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet. and assisted at the sieges of Lisle and Ghent. He incurred considerable odium in Scotland for his efforts in promoting the union. In 1715 he fought an indecisive battle with the Earl of Mar's army at Sheriffmuir, near Dun- blane, and forced the pretender to quil the king- dom. He was long a supporter of Walpole, but his political career was full of intrigue. He is the Duke of Argyle who appeals in Scott's 'Heart of Midlothian.' George John DOUGLASS Campbell, eighth Duke, Baron Sundridge and Hamilton, was born in 1823 and died 24 April 1900. He early took a part in politics, especially in discussions regarding the Presbyterian Church of Scotland. In 1852 he became lord privy seal under Lord Aberdeen, and again under Lord Palmerston, in 1859; postmaster-general in i860; secretary for India from 1868 to 1874 ; again Lord privy seal in 1880, but retired, being unable to agree with his colleagues on their Irish policy. He was the author of 'The Reign of Law' (1866); 'Primeval Man' (1869); 'The Bur- dens of Belief (1894); 'Organic Evolution' (1878). John Douglas Sutherland, ninth Duke, eldest son of the preceding, was born in 1845. He married Louise, the fourth daughter of Queen Victoria, in 1871, and as Marquis of Lome was governor-general of Canada 1878-83. He succeeded to his present title in 1900. He is the author of 'A Trip to the Tropics' (1867); 'Guido and Lita' (1875) ; 'The Psalms Literal- ly Rendered in Verse' (1877); 'Canadian Pictures' (1885); 'Imperial Federation' (1885). Argyllshire, ar-gil'shir, an important county in the highlands of Scotland, consisting partly of mainland and partly of islands belonging to the Hebrides group. The area is 3,213 square miles, or 2.056.400 acres. The greatest length of mainland is about 115 miles. From the windings of the numerous bays and creeks with which the land is everywhere indented it is supposed to have more than 600 miles of sea-coast. The chief towns are: the capital, Inverary. Campbel- town, Oban, Dunoon, Lochgilphead, and Tober- mory. For a long time this county scarcely formed part of the kingdom, being subject to the Macdonalds of the isles, who assumed regal and independent sway over it. The estates, ti- tles, and jurisdiction of the latter, however, sub- sequently fell to the Campbells, whose present representatives, the Duke of Argyle and the Earl of Breadalbane. are the chief landed pro- prietors. The chief articles of export are sheep, cattle, horses, fish, slate, and granite. One of the most important branches of industry is the fishing of herring, cod, and ling, which abound on the coast and around the islands. The principal manufactures are whisky and coarse woolens. A great impulse has been given to the prosperity of the county by the extension of steam navi- gation. Among the antiquities of Argyllshire are the celebrated monastery of Iona. and the remains of a Cistercian priory in Oronsay. The most noted of its natural curiosities are the basaltic columns and cave of Staffa (q.v.) Pop. (1901) 73.665- Argy'ria, or Silver Poisoning. See Toxi- cology. Argyro-Castro, ar'ge-ro-kas'tro (Turkish Ergree-Kastree), a town of Albania. 50 miles northwest of Janina. It is picturesquely situated on an elevated rocky site intersected by deep ravines and overlooked by a dilapidated castle. Turkish snuff is manufactured here. Argyr'odite (Greek, "like silver"), a min- eral first observed at Freiberg, Saxony, and found upon analysis to contain a previously unknown metallic element, to which the name "germanium" has been given. Argyrodite has the formula 4AgiS.GeS s , and crystallizes in the isometric system. It has a hardness 2.5 and a specific gravity varying from 6.08 to 6.26. It has ARI THORGILSSON — ARIEGE a metallic lustre, and fresh fractures show a gray color tinged with red or violet. Its crystals are usually small and it also occurs massive. Large crystals have been found in Bolivia. Ari Thorgilsson, a're-tor'gel-son, the father of Icelandic literature: b. in 1007; d. in 114K. lie was the first Icelander to use his mother tongue as a literary medium. His 'Is- lendingabok, 1 a concise history of Iceland from its settlement (about 870) until 1 120 is preserved only in an abstract. Later Icelandic writers modeled their style upon his. Aria, a're-a or a'ria, a term in music. See Aik. Ariadne, the daughter of Minos, king of Crete, who, having fallen in love with The when engaged in his attempt to destroy the Minotaur, gave him a clue of thread, which served to guide him out of the labyrinth after having slain the monster. Theseus, on leav- ing the island, took with him Ariadne, but de- serted her on the Isle of Naxos. A'rianism is the name given to the doc- trine m|" the person of Christ advocated by Arius and his followers. It contained nothing essen- tially new, but it crystallized certain modes and tendencies of thought which had been more or less prevalent in the Church for three or four generations. (See Christology.) The views of Alius and the strict Arian party may he summarized as follows: (1) The Son was created out of nothing, and is therefore different in essence from the Father. He is Logos, Wis- dom, Son of God. but so only by the grace of God and not in and of himself. (2) There was (before lime began) when he was not; that is, he is a finite being. (3) He was created be- fore everything else, and through him the uni- verse was created and is administered. (4) The Logos became the soul of the historical Christ, and the human elements in the character of Jesus belonged t" the Logos. (5) Although the incarnate Logos is finite and hence is not God, he is to he worshipped, since he is exalted far above all other creatures, and is both Ruler and Redeemer. I he discussions at the Nicenc Council re- vealed the fact that there were three parties pres- ent : the strict Arians, the semi-Arians, and the Alexander-Athanasian party. The latter party with the help of Constantine and the western bishops, secured the adoption of a creed I Creeds) which no strict Arian could subscribe to, since it declared that the Son is identical in moousian) with the Father. The semi-Arians, although they maintained that the Son was not identical in essence, hut of similar essence (homoiousian) with the Father, finally constrained to sign the document. Soon after the closing of the council the semi-Arians began to assail the Nicenc creed, and finally. through the influence of Eusebius (q.v.), they secured the recall of Alius and his companions and the deposition and banishment of Athan- asius. The sons of Constantine continued to favor the semi-Arian party, which included a large majority of the eastern bishops; hut the western churches generally adhered to the Ni- cen'e creed. But the death of Constantius II. in 361, and the accession of Julian left the Arian party without imperial support, and Athanasius and his followers regained considerable influence 111 the east. The accession of Yalcns in 363, however, reversed the governmental policy and lrd io the fanatical persecution of the Nicenes. Hut the distracted condition of the Orient, due to the war with Persia, and the demoral state of many of the bishoprics under Arian leadership, made it relatively easy for Theodo- sius the Great to espouse and support the Xi cene party. A second oecumenical council held at Constantinople iii 381 reaffirmed the Nicene creed with slight additions and curtailments, thus completing the victory of Nicara in favor of the full deity of the Son. Arianism was soon suppressed within the empire, but it continued for a long time to prevail among the barbarians. The conversion of Clovis, king of the Franks, to the orthodox faith in 496 was followed by a rapid decline of Arianism among the Teutonic peoples. See Ann EnwtN Knox Mitchell, Hartford Theological Seminary. Ariano, a're-a'no, an Italian town in the province of Avellino, 44 miles northeast of Na- ples, in one of the most frequented passes of the Apennines. It is the seat of a bishop, and con- tains a handsome cathedral. Pop. (1901) 17,650. Arias, a'ri-as, Montanus Benedictus, an Oriental scholar: b. Ferexenal. Spain, in 1527; d. there in 1598. He accompanied the Bishop of Segovia to the Council of Trent, and on his re- turn secluded himself in a cloister among the mountains of Andalusia. Philip II. drew him forth from his seclusion to prepare a new edi- tion of the Polyglot Bible, printed at Antwerp by the celebrated printers Plantin. Of his nu- merous writings the best known is his 'Jewish Antiquities,' attached to the Polyglot, and also published separately. Arica, a-re'ka, a seaport of Chile, 30 miles south of the town of Tacna, with which it is connected by railway. It i^ -till a port of some consequence, but has suffered much from earth- quakes. During the war between Chile and Peru it was bombarded by the Chilean forces, and it passed into the possession of Chile in 1883. The chief exports are silver and silver ore, copper, bark, chinchilla skins, and alpaca wool. From this port the silver from the mines of Potosi used to be shipped for Europe. Pop. about 4,000. Arimathea, a town in Jttdea and, accord- ing to Saint Jerome, not far from Lydda. It is mentioned in the Gospels as the home of Joseph, a member of the Sanhedrin, wdio had the honor of giving the burial place for the body of the crucified Christ. Joseph of Arimathea is also mentioned in the Arthurian legends as hav- ing brought the Holy Grail from Jerusalem. Ar'icite, a mineral more correctly known as Gismondite (q.v.). Arid Lands. Sec Deserts. Ariege, a're-azh', a French department, separated from Spain by the Pyrenees. The arable land is small in quantity, but a consider- able number of sheep and cattle are reared. The manufacturing industry is considerable, but lead, copper, etc., arc abundant The chief town is Foix. Area, 1890 square miles; pop. O901) 210,527. ARIOSTO — ARISTOPHANES Ariosto, Ludovico, an Italian poet: b. Reg- gio 8 Sept. 1474; d. Ferrara 6 June 1533. His father, who was commander of the citadel of Reggio, proposed that he should study law, but, as he showed no indication of being fitted for this profession, he was finally permitted to fol- low his own inclinations. These led him to the study of literature, especially the classics, and he soon developed so much ability as a poet that, as early as 1495, he wrote several comedies. Two of them were acted about 15 12, and they attracted the attention of Cardinal Ippolito d' Este, who sent him as an ambassador to the court of Pope Julius II. In 1517 he offended the cardinal by refusing to accompany him to Hungary, but he immediately entered the service of Alfonso, Duke of Ferrara, by whom he was appointed governor of Garfagnana, a position which he filled successfully for several years. The last years of his life were spent in writing comedies and in completing his principal work, a romantic epic, 'Orlando Furioso,' which has been called "the greatest poem of its kind in any language." His 'Satires' in the Horatian style were not published until after his death. Ar'isti'des the Just, an Athenian states- man : b. near the middle of the 6th century B.C. ; d. about 468 b.c. He was one of the ten gen- erals of the Athenians when they fought against the Persians at Marathon, 490 B.C. According to the usual arrangement the command of the army was held by each of the generals in rota- tion for one day. But Aristides prevailed on his colleagues each to give up his day to Mil- tiades ; and to this, in a great measure, must be ascribed the victory of the Greeks. Aristides, Quintilianus, a famous Greek grammarian of the 1st century whose treatise on music is esteemed the most valuable of all ancient writings upon that theme. Aristip'pus, a disciple of Socrates, and founder of a philosophical school among the Greeks, which was called the Cyrenaic, from his native city Cyrene, in Africa ; flourished 380 B.C. His moral philosophy differed widely from that of Socrates, and was a science of refined volup- tuousness. His fundamental principles were — that all human sensations may be reduced to two, pleasure and pain. Pleasure is a gentle, and pain a violent emotion. All living beings seek the former and avoid the latter. Happiness is nothing but a continued pleasure, composed of separate gratifications. Aristolochia, a-rls'to-lo-ki'a, a term denot- ing the type genus of plants of the natural order Aristolocliiacccc. The order includes nearly 200 species, mainly shrubs (some climb- ing), and herbs, natives of warm countries and especially numerous in tropical South America. A. Si[>ho {macrophylla of some botanists), the Dutchman's pipe or pipe vine, a native of the southeastern States, is perhaps the best known species grown in America. It is hardy as far north as Detroit. A. californica, a silky-haired Californian species with U-shaped flowers, and A. tomentosa, a small very hairy species with yellow flowers, found from North Carolina to Missouri and southward, are also grown out of doors to some extent. A. clematitis, the com- mon birthwort, a perennial herb, is a European common weed as far north as latitude 50 , and, like A. rotunda and A. longa, two other herba- ceous species, native to southern Europe, was formerly believed to In- of service in childbirth, and the latter are still believed to be valuable as emmenagogues. Ar'istoph'anes, the greatest of the Greek comic dramatists: b. in Athens probably about the year 448 B.C. ; d. about 385 B.C. He appeared as a poet in 427 B.C., and having indulged him- self in some sarcasms on the powerful dema- gogue Cleon was accused by the latter of having unlawfully assumed the title of an Athenian citizen. The same accusation was twice re- newed against him, but he succeeded in repelling it both times. In 424 he again attacked Cleon in his comedy of 'The Knights,' in which he him- self acted the part of the Athenian demagogue, because no actor had the courage to do so. The earliest of his extant plays was 'The Achar- nians,' which was brought out in 425. Aris- tophanes was distinguished among the an- cients by the appellation of "The Comedian." as Homer was by that of "The Poet." Of 54 comedies by him only II remain; but in order fully to enjoy them, and not to be offended by the extravagances and indecencies with which they are bound, we must be intimately acquainted with ancient customs and opinions. The purity and elegance of his language, which is regarded as a model of the Attic Greek dialect, the skill and care displayed in the plan and execution of his pieces, the wealth of lyric power displayed in his choral odes as well as the overflowing rich- ness of his comic genius, and the various other excellences of his dramas, have gained for Aris- tophanes the fame of a master. His wit and humor are as inexhaustible as his boldness un- restrained. The Greeks were enchanted with the grace and refinement of his writings ; and Plato, the comedian, said the Graces would have chosen his soul for their habitation. On both political and moral grounds he was a strong advocate for ancient discipline, manners, doc- trines, and art; hence his sallies against Soc- rates in 'The Clouds,' and against Euripides in 'The Frogs' and other comedies. The freedom of ancient comedy allowed an unbounded degree of personal satire, and nothing which offered a weak side escaped his ridicule. He feared the Athenian populace so little that he personated them under the figure of a wretched old man called Demos. He incessantly reproached them for their fickleness, their levity, their love of flattery, their foolish credulity, and their readi- ness to entertain extravagant hopes. Instead of being irritated, the Athenians rewarded him with a crown from the sacred olive-tree, at that time considered an extraordinary mark of dis- tinction. Aristophanes produced, under the name of his eldest son, the 'Cocalus.' his last play. With this what is known as the "middle 1 comedy began, to be followed afterward by the "new." The names of his extant plays are 'The Acharnians' (425 B.C.) : 'The Knights' (424) ; 'The Clouds' (42O ; 'The Wasps' (422) : 'The Peace' (421); 'The Birds' (4141: 'Lysistrata' (411); 'Thesmophoria/us.T.' 'The Fro--' (405); ( Ecclesiasuzse> (393) ; fPlutus' (388). Among editions of his comedies may be men tioned those of Rergk (1867) : Blaydes (1886) : Holden (1887). English translations of excel- lence are those by Frere, Mitchell, Rogers, and Kennedy. ARISTOPHANES OF BYZANTIUM — ARISTOTELIANISM Aristophanes of Byzantium, Greek gram- marian: b. about 262 b.c; d. about 185. He was educated at Alexandria, and became the chief librarian of the great Alexandrian library. Ancient critics rank him among the most cele- brated critics and grammarians, lie deserves great credit for bis services to the Greek lan- guage and literature. With Aristarchus, he was the principal expert in determining the so-called Alexandrian canon of the classical writers of Greece. He invented a series of critical signs, and greatly improved the notation employed in prosody, including accent, quantity, and breath- ing. His publications include important critical editions of Greek writers, particularly of Homer — the first of its kind — Hesiod, and the lyri- cists A Ictus and Pindar. For the plays of the tragic and comic poets he wrote introductions. Little of what he wrote is extant, save frag- ments in the scholia of the poets, some argtt menta to the dramatic writers, and a part of the A^feis ('Glossary'). Consult Nauck, ' Aristoph- anis Byzantii Fragmenta' (1848). Aristophanes (The English), a name fre- quently applied to Samuel Foote (q.v.), also called "The .Modern Aristophanes," because of bis abundant good spirits and skill in unsparing ridicule. Garrick was a common object of his wit. Aristophanes (The French), a name sometimes applied to the French dramatist, J. B. I'. Moliere (q.v.). Aristophanes' Apology, a poem by Rob- ert Browning (q.v.), published in 1875; the title being in full. 'Aristophanes' Apology; Including a Transcript from Euripides: Being the Last Adventure of Balaustion.' It is a sequel to the poem ' lialaustion's Adventure.' A long work in blank verse, it commemorates the defence made by Aristophanes of his comic art, on learning through Sophocles of the death of Euripides, the tragedian. An extensive article on it may be found in Berdoe's 'Browning .edia' (1892), with a glossary of terms, etc. Aristotelianism. Aristotle is the first : hilo ophical writer to make a strict separation of the branches of philosophy. His writings, in terms of their subject matter, fall into tin fol lowing groups: Logic, Metaphysii . Phj ii F.thics, Politics, and the philosophy of Art. A classification made by Aristotle, but not ap- plied to the arrangement of his writings, is: (1) theoretic philosophy; (2) philosophy of conduct; (3) philosophy of production, that is, of art. The analysis of the problems and subject matter of philosophy and science begins with him. In Plato's writings the various problems are fused together and treated integrally and synthetically in an ethico-metaphysical system. Logic. — For Aristotle logic is a methodology of science, a propedeutic to the other disciplines. It is not strictly a science, because science has some essence or aspect of reality for its subject matter, while logic is concerned with the forms of knowing. Formal logic was founded by Ar- and almost completely developed by him. Its chief feature is the doctrine of the Syllogism, the process nf reaching scientific or apodictic con elusions. The syllogistic process is a deductive process, that is. it derives particular conclusions from general principles or accepted premises. The possibility of deriving such conclusions rests upon the axiomatic principles of contradiction and the excluded middle, that is. two contradicto- ries cannot at the same tune and in the same ref- erence be true; and of two contradictory proposi- tions, one must be true and the other false, and a third intermediate proposition is excluded. The logical treatises wi re grouped togethei by Aristotle's successors and called the Organon or instrument of science. 'I be several treatises con- sist of the Categories, the Hermcnctitics, tin- An- alytics, and the Topics. The Categories discuss simple term- ; the I Icrmaneutics dlSCUSS tin- D >m- bination of terms with a predicate, that is, the judgment or proposition; and the Analytics and Topic- discuss tin- comb mat ion of propositions in the syllogism. The syllogistic conclusion is the derivation of one judgment from another by means of a middle term. The notion, judgment and conclusion are the three elements with which formal logic Operates. The categories, or gen- eral notions under which reality is viewed are enumerated by Aristotle as substance, quantity, quality, relation, place, time, position, possession, action, passion. These ten categories are evi- dently not derived from any single principle and are neither exhaustive nor mutually exclusive Aristotle's main interest is in the syllogism; simple terms or notions and the judgment are scantily treated. His treatment of the syllogism is practically exhaustive. Modern logic has sup- plemented his work by adding to his theory of the categorical conclusion, which was his chief interest, the theory of hypothetical ami disjunc- tive conclusions; further, by adding a fourth figure to his three, and lastly by developing the theory of inductive logic and the method of the sciences. Aristotle regards deductive loijic as the only method thai can furnish demonstration or apodictic conclusions. Science, howi would not he possible with syllogistic demonstra- tion alone, for if all our premises had to be proven we should be forced into an endless re- gress. Therefore, science must accept certain fundamental principles as its axiomatic postu- lates. From these accepted postulates scientific proof proceeds by deduction. In addition to tin- Aristotle mentions the further method of induc- tion without elaborating it, saying, however, that universal principles are secured by it from par licular instances and that it has the advantage Over deduction by being nearer to our sense ex- perience and therefore more generally intelli- gible. On the other hand, he insists that a com- plete knowledge of particulars is necessary to a completely certain induction and this, owing to the multiplicity of particulars, being rarely pos- sible, induction lacks in its conclusions the co- gency of the deductive syllogism. Metaphysics. — First Philosophy (the term Metaphysics is not used by Aristotle, but is a word applied to the First Philosophy on account of its being placed after the treatises on Physics by the early editor of the works) is the philoso- phy of first principles as such ; second philosophy or physics is the philosophy of these princi- ples applied to concrete phenomena, the phe- nomena of motion and matter. Aristotle is a disciple of Plato and. like his master, he viewed the world from the standpoint of teleology. The cosmic proccsse are determined by final causes. He makes more of facts than Plato does, has a much larger mass of empirical data for his constructions and is more catholic in his scien- tific interests. His metaphysics, however, like ARISTOTELIANISM Plato's, is based on high speculative ideas and he explains the world-order by means of these general and ultimate principles, so that he is not a realist in the sense of confining reality merely to particular facts. Like Plato, he sought the es- sence of phenomena in the concept and law, but unlike Plato he sought it in a concept given in the phenomena as their inner principle of de- velopment and not in a transcendent principle. If there is no concept or universal there can be no scientific knowledge. The concept is not, how- ever, an idea isolated from particular things, but as the universal reality it is immanent in par- ticulars (ituivcisalia in re not ante rem), the in- dividual being the only self-existent real. Against Plato's doctrine of ideas Aristotle brings the following criticisms : (i) The Platonists fur- nish no adequate proof of the existence of ideas as hypostasized entities; (2) The Platonic ideas, because transcendent, cannot explain the phe- nomenal world, which is left without a principle of motion: (3) The world of ideas is only a reduplication of the world of sense in its generic aspect; (4) The explanation of the relation of the ideal to the sensible world by the terms archetype, pattern, image, etc., is only meta- phorical. The universal is real as the formative principle in things, giving to them their generic character, while matter is the principle of indi- viduality. Form and matter are explanatory of genus and individual. In every particular thing, with the exception of God or the Prime Mover (who is pure form), the two principles of form and matter are present ; form making the class- ification of things and scientific knowledge pos- sible, and matter making possible the concrete- ness of objects. Form and matter are two as- pects of individual things and are not really, but only notionally, separable. Everything is both form and substrate, idea and matter, significance and Stuff, soul and body, with the single excep- tion of the Supreme Being. Form is the moving principle of development and matter is the pas- sive potentiality. Plastic stuff or matter is moulded after generic patterns. In nature's processes Aristotle calls them energy and poten- tiality. The real is an explication of a prior potential. The transition of a thing from a con- dition of potentiality to a condition of actuality is accomplished by some form of motion. Mo- tion in turn (which is of several kinds: spatial, that is, locomotion ; qualitative, that is, transmu- tation of substances; quantitative, that is, growth) implies a moving cause, and any given moving cause an antecedent cause and so the caudal regress would be endless, were we not to posit a Prime Mover or uncaused First Cause. Tin' First Cause is the origin and source of all motion and life. As motion is eternal, so the Prime Mover is eternal; it is also immaterial, passionless, and motionless, for the Prime Mover causes motion merely as an ideal toward which matter strives in the processes of nature, analogously to the power of attraction in beauty. The activity of God is pure thought or thought turned up >n itself, which theoretic life is for Aristotle the perfect type of life. Between God, as pure form, and matter, as formless stuff, — the extreme cos- mic principles. — Aristotle places the world of natural phenomena, which are all composites of the two principles. His doctrine of the Prime Mover is a direct nroduct of his philosophy and is the first attempt to found a theistic theory on a philosophical basis. Aristotle specifies as the four causes operative in nature the formal, final, efficient, and material. But as form contains within itself the principles of efficiency, purpose, and meaning, these four causes are reducible to his dualism of form and matter. As an exam- ple of his application of the four causes, a statue presupposes: (1) matter, for example, clay, wood or marble; (2) a form or idea in the artist's mind; (3) an efficient cause, such as the energy applied to tools; (4) a motive or purpose. Physics. — While the metaphysics treats of being as such, of the unconditioned, of the ulti- mate principles explanatory of reality, Physics treats of the contingent, the conditioned, and of the quantitative and qualitative relations of things. In the philosophy of nature's phenom- ena, the concept of motion plays the chief role, effecting the transition of potentiality to actual- ity and having its ultimate source in the Prime Mover. The whole of growth and development proceeds from one form of being to another form of being, but not from nothing to something, or from non-existence to existence. For Aristotle as for all the Greek philosophers the maxim holds: ex nihilo nihil fit. Inert matter is the most formless element in nature and man is the stage in which the highest form manifests itself. Between these nature exhibits a graded scale of development, that is, from the most inor- ganic to the highest organism. This scale itself is static and not a scale of evolution in the modern sense. The scale of beings is a fixed cosmic hierarchy, not determined by protoplas- mic conditions plus environment. The Aristo- telian world is a teleological system, the eternal forms working themselves out in plastic and contingent matter with reference to fixed final goals, the whole exhibiting plan, not planless, as Aristotle says, " like a bad tragedy." As the Prime Mover is perfect so the world shows that degree of perfection which is possible with the contingency and imperfection of matter. God is both in the world and outside of it as the trans- cendent cause of its order, just as the discipline of an army is in the army and outside of it in the person of the general. The universe is con- ceived by Aristotle to be spherical in form, not infinite. Its periphery consists of the region of the fixed stars, which revolve in a perfectly cir- cular motion. They do not move freely in space, but are attached to the ethereal body of the outer heaven and move as a rider in a chariot. Their motion is caused immediately by the Prime .Mover and being nearest to him, their motion is most perfect. The earth is at the centre of the universe and is fixed. Between the centre and the circumference are the seven planets, includ- ing the sun and moon. The motion of these, although concentric with the circumference, is less perfect, deviating from an exact circle. The earth is the region of rectilinear motion. The general presuppositions of motion are space and time. Space is, in Aristotle's conception, strictly speaking, only place, that is, it is the room occu- pied by body, and time is the measure of motion with reference to earlier and later. Motion being endless, time as the measure of its discrete moments is infinite. Space is finite, for there is no space outside the corporeal world. The ele- ments in the cosmos are fire, earth, air, water, and ether. Of these the first four are sublunary. The celestial spheres consist of pure ether. Psychology, — Aristotle defines soul as the ARISTOTELIANISM "complete realization of a body endowed with the capacity of life." Every body, therefore, that has life, has soul, and psychology in the narrow sense would be a branch of biology. The physical world, according to Aristotle, is di- vided into two realms, the inorganic and the or- ganic. The characteristic mark of the latter is the possession of life, or " soul." Soul is syn- onymous with the principle of life, by virtue of which a thing is endowed with the power of self-movement. Life is the universal form of organic activity, feeling and reason are specific ms of the same power. The highest manifes- tation of psychical activity is rational thought. There are four mam forms in which life mani- fests itself: (i) Nutrition, growth, decay and the power in things to reproduce, each after its kind, whereby the continuity of life is main- tained: (j) locomotion; (3) sensation; (4) rea- son. These various types of life are forms of self-movement. The first form is found in the plant world as well as in the animal world, the i three only in the animal world. Soul as life is found in every part of the body, to which it is related as form to matter. The heart as the anatomical and physiological centre is also the life-centre. The heart, therefore, and not the brain, is the organ of consciousness, for con- msness is one of the forms of life. The pro- cesses of knowing or conscious lifeare developed in these stages: (1) sensation; (2) imagination, the power of using images of absent objects, combined with memory; (3) rational thought. Reason, according to Aristotle, is twofold, crea- tive and passive. All knowledge, in the last analysis, is derived from sense-perception. The mass of sense-perceptions which are held to- gether by memory and stored in the central sense (sensorium) are the passive reason, that is, they constitute the matter which the creative reason transforms into conceptual knowledge. The two stand related to each other, therefore, as form to matter, actuality to potentiality. Ethics. — The ethics of Aristotle consists mainly in a theory of the final end of conduct or the summum bonum and an account of the indi- vidual virtues. The chief good is happiness (well-being), which is defined as "activity of the reason in accordance with virtue in a com- plete life." This conception of happiness as consisting in theoretic activity is based on the pe- culiar function of man. Reason being the differ- ential mark of man. his peculiar good should be discoverable in the activity of reason. Further, the good consists in the realization of the ra- tional self in an ethical life that is complete and not of fragmentary duration, for "one swallow does not make spring. 8 The virtues of an indi- vidual are divided into ethical and dianoetic. The ethical virtues are liberality, temperance, justice, courage, friendship, high-mindedness, gentleness, veracity. The dianoetic virtues are wisdom, art, insight, cleverness, and such excel- lencies as attach to the theoretic activity, while the moral virtues are reasonableness expressed in action. Virtue is the power or persistent quality in an individual which enables him to perform his function well. Aristotle otherwise defines it as a "moral habit based on a life of deliberation, and expressed in the observance of a rational mean." The connecting link between ethics and politics is found in the social virtue of friendship. Politics. — Aristotle gave to politics the posi- tion of an independent science, which he based 011 the study of over 150 actual Constitutions. Tolitics, as the architectonic science, considers the complete good of man, for it is only in the State that man's full realization is attained, and man is by nature a "political animal." Ethics is, therefore, a branch of politics. Although the state is notionally prior to the household and village, it is preceded by them in the order of develop- ment. The state is such an aggregation of house- holds and villages as to he self-sufficing. While it comes into being primarily for the sake of life. its growth is determined by the interests of a good and complete life. The individual is not self-sufficient. The end of the state is not power, nor the protection of life, property or industry, but the promotion of noble life in its citizens and of the happiness that springs from such life. The function of the state is educa- tional and moral. One has to keep in mind that the Aristotelian state is a city-state and not an empire. The various forms of good constitu- tions are: royalty (rule of one), aristocracy (rule of few), polity (rule of the entire people). The corresponding corrupt forms are tyranny, oligarchy and democracy. The best constitution under most actual conditions is the polity, a con- stitutional democracy, which more than any form of government embodies the principle of the mean and on the average best meets the demands of the greatest number. Under completely ideal conditions monarchy is the best form of govern- ment. Art. — Art has for its function partly the sup- plementing of nature and partly the imitation of nature. Nature has left man naked and defense- less, but provided him with the "tool of tools, 11 a hand. The useful arts serve the interests of life, imitative and decorative arts serve the ends of noble pleasure and relaxation. The Aris- totelian exposition of the philosophy of art is confined almost entirely to the extant fragment of the Poetics, in which scarcely more than the theory of tragedy has survived. The function of tragedy is described as catharsis. The conclu- sion of a tragic representation that is true to the principles of art has the cathartic effect on the spectator of purifying his emotions by the instru- ments of pity and fear. History of Aristotelianism. — Aristotelianism was continued in the peripatetic school (the name peripatetic came from Aristotle's method of giving instruction while walking, or from the walks — lrcptTraToi — in the Lyceum's grounds) down to 529 a.d., when the Emperor Justinian closed all the Athenian schools. During the early Middle Ages it was kept alive by the works of Boethius and the Isagoge of Porphyry. Later by its fusion with the theology of Thomas Aquinas it became practically the offical philoso- phy of Roman Catholicism, which it still con- tinues to be. The Arabs in Spain were the hearers of Aristotelianism to mediaeval Europe, and by 1220 almost all of Aristotle's works had been translated from the Arabic into Latin. A little later, by the efforts of Thomas Aquinas, they were translated from Greek originals, and Aristotle's authority in science became well-nigh absolute. With the rise of Humanism Aristo- telianism began to wane, and with the develop- ment of modern science and the Cartesian phi- losophy his influence outside the Catholic Church was to a large extent nullified. Within the ARISTOTLE Church, however, during the last quarter of a century, through the efforts of Leo XIII., the influence of Thomism and Aristotelianism has increased. Bibliography. — Stahr, 'Aristotelia' (2 vols., 18^0-2); Grote, 'Aristotle' (2 vols., 2d ed., 1880) ; Grant, 'Aristotle' (1874) ; Lewes, 'Aris- totle, a chapter from the History of Science' (1864): Siebeck, 'Aristoteles' (1899); Prantl, 'Geschichte der Logik im Abendlande' (4 vols., 1855-70) ; Zeller, 'Aristotle and the earlier Peri- patetics' (2 vols., 1897). William A. Hammond, Professor of .-Indent and Mediaeval Philosophy, Cornell University. Aristotle, Greek philosopher, and one of the greatest thinkers and scientific investigators and organizers the world has ever seen. Life. — Aristotle was born in 384 and died 322 B.C. His birthplace was Stagira (hence he is often called "the Stagirite"), a city on the Thracian peninsula known as Chalcidice, which was at that time a thoroughly Hellenic coun- try, enjoying all the advantages of Greek cul- ture. His father, Nicomachus, was the court physician and friend of the Macedonian king Amyntas. The medical profession is said to have been hereditary in his family, and the sci- entific and medical atmosphere in which he grew up probably helped to form his mind in those habits of accuracy and exactness for which he is famous. Both parents having died, his edu- cation was directed by Proxenus of Atarneus. In 367 B.C., when in his 18th year, Aristotle came to Athens, and became a member of the Academy, the school of Plato (q.v.). Here he remained until the death of Plato, 20 years later. Before this time, he had become re- nowned for his scholarship and brilliant writ- ings, as well as through his public lectures on rhetoric. Doubtless he had also already devel- oped to some extent his own philosophical views. There seems to be no truth in the charges that were brought against Aristotle by later writers, that he was guilty of ingratitude and active hostility toward his teacher, Plato. As we have seen, he remained a member of the Academy until Plato's death, and in his later writings, although criticising with keen insight certain Platonic doctrines, he speaks of his master with the greatest reverence and affec- tion (cf. Zeller, 'Aristotle and the Earlier Peri- patetics,' Vol. I., Chap. I.). After Plato's death, Aristotle resided for three years at the court of Hermias, ruler of Atarneus, who had been at one time a member of the Academy, marrying there Pythias, the niece, or, as some say, the daughter of the prince. Hermias, however, was treacherously put to death by the Persians, and Aristotle withdrew to Mitylene. Soon after (343) Aris- totle was called by Philip of Macedon to under- take the education of his son Alexander, the future conqueror of the world, then a boy of 13 years. Nothing is known regarding the nature of the education which Aristotle gave to his distinguished pupil. The regular instruction of the prince must have ceased three years later when he was made regent by his father and entrusted with military duties. Aristotle re- mained in the north engaged in scientific work, though probably still retaining some connec- tion with the prince and the Macedonian court. When Alexander set out upon his campaign in Asia, Aristotle went to Athens and founded there his school. Its place of meeting was the Lyceum, a gymnasium attached to the temple of the Lyceian Apollo. He was accustomed to talk to his pupils as he walked to and fro in the gardens of the Lyceum, and from this cus- tom the school became known as the "Peripa- tetic" (Trepnrareip, to walk up and down). Here Aristotle taught and directed the vari- ous scientific activities of the school for twelve years (335-323). This school was not merely an institution for imparting instruction. It was also an intimate association of scientific workers, many of them, like Theophrastus (who succeeded Aristotle in the leadership), mature men and ripe scholars. The organization and direction of the investigations as well as the fruitful utilization of materials and synthesis of results were, however, the work of the master. During these years, Aristotle systematized the knowledge of the past, and thus defined the limits and laid the foundations of the sciences of the western nations. But he did more. He carried on investigations and extended the boundaries of knowledge in almost every field. In logic, metaphysics, ethics, and politics, he reached conclusions that are of great and per- manent significance for all time. Moreover, in psychology, zoology, physics, astronomy, aes- thetics, and also in his historical investigations, his work is of the greatest value and impor- tance for all the subsequent developments of these sciences. See Aristotelianism. After the death of Alexander the Great, the Greek states, with Athens at their head, at- tempted to free themselves from the Macedo- nian power. Aristotle's former relation to Alex- ander, and his friendship for Antipater, the Macedonian governor, made him at once an object of attack. The charge of Atheism was brought against him, as it had formerly been brought against Anaxagoras and Socrates, and he retired to Chalcis in Eubcea, where, in the following year (322), he died. Writings. — The writings that have come down to us under the name of Aristotle do not by any means represent his complete literary activity. It is nevertheless known that the writings of Aristotle which were lost included: (t) Certain popular works published by Aris- totle probably during the time of his connec- tion with the Academy. He himself refers to these as the "exoteric," or popular writings. They were written generally in dialogue form. and modeled, both in subject matter and st after the works of Plato. (2) Compilations of scientific, historical, and political materials. which were used by Aristotle as data in the preparation of his theoretical works. To this class belongs the 'Constitution of Athens.' for- tunately discovered in nearly complete form a few years ago and published in 1S91 (English translations, by F. G. Kenyon and E. Poste. both London. 1891). The works which have survived are those which set forth Aristotle's system in more com- plete and systematic form, and which were used within the school. The writings which have been known to tradition as those of Aristotle, appear to have come essentially from the edi- tion of Aristotle's works prepared and arranged ARISTOTLE'S LANTERN — ARISUGAW A bj Andronicus of Rhodes about the middle of the ist century B.C. Of present-day editions of Aristotle's works that of the Berlin Academy (1S31-70) may be mentioned. These writings may be classified in the following way: (n) Treatises on Logic— These wire later collected under the title of the This included the 'Categoric-.' ( De [nterpreta- tione' (on the parts and kinds of propositions) ; the 'Analytics,' prior and posterior (consisting of two books each, and developing the doctrine of the syllogism and dealing with scientific methods in general) : the 'Topics' (dealing with probable conclusions); and on 'Sophistical Elenchi' (which discusses certain fallacies and the ways of refuting them). The Bohn Library gives an English translation of these works in two volumes by O. F. Owen. (!<) The '■Rhetoric'' and the < Poetics.'— The former consists of three books, of which only the first two are regarded as genuine. (English translation by T. Buckley in Bohn Library.) The 'Poetics' has been preserved only in a very incomplete and fragmentary condition. An Eng- lish traii-latiou is given in S. H. Butcher's "Aristotle's Theory of Poetry and the Fine Art-' (3d ed., 1002). (c) The Work 'On the First Philosophy* — our 'Metaphysics' — which Zeller describes as a torso arbitrarily bound up with a number of other fragments, some genuine, some spuri- ous. ( English translation in Bohn Library, by I. 11. McMahon, 1889.) (rf) The Works on Natural Science. — To this class belong (1) the 'Physics,' with the connected works, 'On the Heavens,' 'On Growth and Decay,' and the 'Meteorology'; and (2) the zoological treatises, 'The History of Animals,' 'On the Parts of Animals.' 'On the Movement of Animals,' and 'On the Gener- ation of Animals' ; (3) the psychological writ- ings, including the d dying in the service. His portrait appeared on the first memorial postage stamps ever issued in Japan. Arita, a-re'ta, a Japanese town in the west- ern part of Kyushu, famous for its pottery works, dating from the end of the 16th century. The Arita porcelain is highly esteemed. Arithmetic. This word has been and still is used in two quite distinct senses. It for- merly signified merely the science of numbers (see Arithmetic, History of), and treated such numeral properties as seemed mysterious or peculiar. With the invention of algebra it was often taken to include such portions of that science as referred to the operations and to the number theory. In this sense it is still used in Germany and France to-day, the art of com- pulation being indicated by the names Redl- ining and Calcul. In English, however, the term early came to be applied to both the sci- ence of numbers and the art of computation. As the former branch developed the advanced portion was given the distinctive name of The- ory of Numbers (q.v.), leaving the name Arith- metic to apply to calculation and its application to business problems. With the recent relega- tion of the progressions and the roots to algebra, this is the sense in which the word is used in the United States to-day. With this under- standing of the term, the leading topics relating to the subject will be considered. /. Notation and X itineration. — The former, referring to the number symbols, is from the mediaeval Latin notce, meaning the numeral characters (see Numerals), and the latter, re- ferring to number names, is from Humerus, number. The distinction between the terms is coming, however, to be less marked than for- merly, the word numeration being used for both. The writing and reading cf numbers gen- erally refers to positive integers, common frac- tions (or vulgar fractions, so called to distin- guish them from the fractiones physica or astronomies, the old sexagesimal fractions still met in angle measure), decimal fractions, com- pound numbers, and surd numbers. Of these the positive integers are known as natural num- bers, the others as artificial numbers. Negative numbers, also belonging to the artificial group, have until recently been excluded from arith- metic. They have, however, so many practical applications that they are beginning to find a place, and in time they will probably be treated in arithmetic so far as necessary for cases in- volving numbers of opposite nature, like debt and credit, opposed forces, and contrary direc- tions. The distinctive feature of our present nu- meral system (see Numerals) is its place value. The characters for 5 and 1, written in juxtapo- sition, indicate addition in the Roman system (VI.); but in the Arab-Hindu notation (51) they indicate 5 tens and I unit, the 5 having a place value showing that it represents tens. Thus by means of only 10 characters we are able to write numbers of any desired magnitude, and by means of the simple device of decimal fractions we are also able to represent any numbers, however small. //. Scales. — Because man has a natural counting apparatus in his 10 fingers (see Finger Notation) the world has come to write num- bers on a scale of io, and to give them names based upon a decimal system. We might use other scales, and the duodecimal (scale of 12) would be better on several accounts, although a change is not practicable. There has always been sojne tendency to use the scale of 12, as is seen in such tables as 12 in. = 1 ft., 12 oz. = 1 lb. troy. The superiority of the duodecimal over the decimal scale lies in the fact that 12 has more exact divisors than 10 has. Therefore the frac- tions most commonly employed could better be represented on the scale of 12, as is here shown: Scale of 10 Scale of 13 V2 0.5 0.6 'A 0.333... 0.4 Yi 0.666... 0.8 'A 0.25 0.3 Y\ 0.75 0.9 V* 0.125 0.16 V11 0.08333... 0.1 In the tables of denominate numbers the tendency formerly was to adopt a varying scale, but at present it is entirely toward a uniform scale, as in the metric system (q.v.) : Uniform scale Varying scale 10 mills=i cent 2 pints=l quart 10 cents=i dime 8 quarts=i peck io dinies=i dollar 4 pecks=i bushel ///. The Fundamental Operations. — These are now commonly considered as four in num- ber, although formerly as many as nine species, atti, or passioni, as they were called, were given. They sometimes included doubling (duplatio), because a common method of multiplication was by successive duplations. They also included halving (mediatio), this operation being often used in effecting a division. The Rule of Three, Evolution, and Progressions were also commonly included. The fundamental opera- tions may more scientifically be classified as follows, each direct process having two in- verses : Direct Inverse Addition: 2+3=5. Subtraction: 5 — 2=3, „ 5—3=2. Multiplication: 2X$3=$6. Division: $6-=- 2=53. Involution: 2 3 ^=8. Evolution: [ '. Logarithms: 3=log 2 8. Of these the primitive one is addition, mul- tiplication by a positive integer arising when the addends are equal, and involution to a positive integral power arising from multiplica- tion when the factors are equal. Arbitrarily, elementary arithmetic has usually excluded evo- lution beyond the cube root, and logarithms. It is now tending to relegate cube root to algebra on account of its difficulty and lack of applications. The exclusion of logarithms (q.v ) is due to their relatively late invention, since, if the theory of their computation is ex- ARITHMETIC eluded, the Sub tuple of presentation and valuable in application. From the primary operations with natural numbers have been derived operations, desig- nated by the same names and subject to the same laws, involving the artificial numbers. For example, 2X^ = $6 means that $3 is taken 2 times as an addend, thus : $3 + $3- But } X ? cannot mean that '■ is taken as an addend $ of a time. It menus that $ of * is taken, or that i of tj is taken 2 times. It is, however, con- venient to broaden the definitions so as to use the same phraseology and symbols as in the case of positive integers. Similar considerations fix a meaning for — 2 X — 3 = + 6, V2 X V3 = y/t, and j/-2 X i/-3 = — V&- In certain cases an operation is so difficult that it is more con- venient to substitute for it another which gives the same result. This is seen in the case of the division of fractions, where to divide J by \ it is easier to multiply \ by \ than to reduce to a common denominator as was for- merly done, and then divide, thus: 5 -+■ \ = »-*-¥=- . ,,.. . Of tlie four common operations, addition is the simplest of comprehension, although not in actual work. In fractions it is usually easier to multiply than to add, as in the case of \ X 1 ' compared with i + >.i. With inte- gers, "both addition and multiplication require the learning of 45 combinations of numbers (1+2, 1+3 1X2, 1X3 ....), and the mere memorizing of these facts is as easy in one operation as the other. Subtraction does not require memorizing a table, since it is merely the inverse of addition, and if taught by the "making change" method it uses the addition table, as division uses that of multiplication. IV. Checks. — An important consideration in all computations is the checking of the work, to be reasonably sure that no error enters. Checks should be applied at every opportunity so that an error may be discovered as soon as it is made, and not vitiate the further work. The most important check in addition is the repeat- ing of the work in the opposite direction, adding lownwards if the first addition was upwards. The psychological reason for this is that like stimuli tend to produce like reactions, and if an error has been made it is liable to be made again if the numbers are soon met in the same order. Hence the order is reversed to counter- act this tendency. In subtraction the best check is that of adding the subtrahend and remainder. If the remainder was obtained by •lie "Austrian" or "making change" method, this addition should be performed in the opposite direction as in the check for addition. The best check for multiplication and division is that of "casting out nines." This ancient Oriental method was of especial value when the sand- board form of the abacus (q.v.) was used, since the numbers were so frequently erased as to render a general review of the work impossible. This check has gone out of use in American schools, but it is so simple and valuable that it will probably be revived. The check depends upon two propositions: (1) The excess of 9's in a number (that is. the remainder arising from dividing a number by 9) is the same as the excess in the sum of the digits. In the case of 1247 the sum of the digits is 14. and this divided by 9 gives a remainder of 5. It is customary to cast out the 9's as the digits are added, thus: 7 + 4=11; cast out 9 and 2 is left; 2 + 2+1=5, the excess. ,, 47 I he excess of 9's in the prod 21 net equals the excess in the prod- 1247 \/ 5 tict of the excesses of the factors. _2 4 ''4_ 3 /6\ In the case here given, the ex- 2*187 cesses in the factors are 5 and 3, indicated in the right and left angles of the cross. The excess in their product (15) is 6, indicated in the upper angle. The excess in the product, 26187 is 6, indicated in the lower angle. The upper and lower numbers in the cross are the same, showing that the result is probably correct. In division, the excess of 9's in the dividend equals the excess in the product of the excesses of the divisor and the quotient, plus that in the remainder. Of course, the check of 9's fails to detect an error involving a multiple of 9. There is a somewhat similar check by casting out us, requiring slightly longer time, but in some re- spects more liable to detect errors. / '. Short Processes. — There are numerous short processes of performing operations, or rather of securing results by substituting simpler operations than those to be performed. Thus to multiply by 12'.. it is often easier to annex two zeros (or move the decimal point two places to the right) and divide by 8. In the same way it is easier to multiply by 100 and divide by 4 than to multiply by 25. Such processes depend upon simple number relations of the following kind: i2i = ".'\ 2?=";", ^' -'■:-, i2^'-r\ r ^° — \, 125% = lj, 66;;% = 3. '1 he publication of extensive tables and the perfecting of calcu- lating machines (q.v.) have rendered obsolete most of the short processes involving other kinds of multipliers and divisors. VI. Compound Numbers. — The four funda- mental processes with compound numbers were formerly considered of much importance, since before the introduction of decimal fractions most tables of denominate numbers were on a vary- ing scale. Within a century, however, the metric system (q.v.) and various monetary ta- bles have so decimalized denominate numbers as to take from compound numbers most of their former importance. The only case in which several denominations are commonly used in writing a number to-day is that of English money. In most countries the whole subject is obsolete. The United States still uses the British system except in the monetary table, but it has greatly simplified it, rarely using more than two denom- inations in the same number. Indeed, within a single generation the metric system has come to be used exclusively in this country in scien- tific laboratories, and the efforts now being made to secure a large foreign trade will make the system more and more known in commercial and industrial affairs. VII. Methods of Snking Problems. — There are five general methods of attacking an ap- plied problem, as follows : (1) We may study typical problems and thus acquire the habit of solving others of the same nature. This is the oldest method, and was practically the only one in use before the 17th century. At present it is coming into renewed prominence in American schools, the type problem being attended (as was not former- ly the case) by a large number of exercises. (2) We may commit to memory rules for ARITHMETIC all general classes of problems liable to be met. Historically, this is the second method of attack, and it characterizes the American text-books until nearly the close of the 19th century. The rules were usually inductively inferred from type problems, and pupils committed them to memory. Since in practical life we never de- pend upon a verbatim rule, this method is rapidly becoming obsolete. In mediaeval times there was much effort expended in searching for a general rule that would solve all arithmetical problems. Hence arose the Rule of Three (see Arithmetic, History of), the Rule of False Position, and other rules of less importance, all of which lost their chief value when algebraic symbolism was invented. Of these general rules only the Rule of Three has survived, being now recognized in the form of Proportion. (3) We may learn formulas instead of rules. This method was received with some favor for a time, but it has been discarded as a general plan. It has all of the defects of the method of rules, with the added difficulty of an unnecessarily confusing algebraic symbolism. (4) We may analyze each problem as it arises, simply applying common sense to the solution. When problems are, as they always should be, properly graded to the understand- ing of the pupils, this plan is better than any of the preceding ones. It establishes a habit of independence and of confidence that is wholly wanting in the older methods. (5) We may bring u) the aid of analysis the representation of the unknown quantity by the familiar algebraic symbol x. This material- ly simplifies the analysis, and most writers on arithmetic at the present time advocate the plan. The concept of the linear equation with one unknown is a very simple one, and it greatly clarifies the analysis in many cases. VIII. Xature of the Problems in Arithmetic. — The interests of the ancient and mediaeval philosophers were not at all commercial. These men were attracted rather by considerations of the properties of numbers and by puzzles which were imagined to sharpen the wit. The ri-e of commerce in the later Middle Ages and at the time of the Renaissance, brought into the science a large number of applied problems representing actual business conditions. Princi- ples of conservatism have tended to keep these ancient problems from generation to generation, strengthened by the feeling that mental dis- cipline was as well secured from an obsolete as from a modern problem. It is therefore only recently that the question has arisen. What should be the nature of the problems set for children studying arithmetic? In answer to this question teachers seem to be tending to observe the following principles: (1) A problem that pretends to set forth a business custom should state the real business conditions of the present. This excludes obso- lete business problems, it being the opinion that better mental discipline can be secured from a question relating to genuine commercial matters of the present, than from one relating solely to forgotten customs. (2) Problems should appeal to the interests and understanding of the children in their re- spective school years. Arithmetic was formerly taught only to boys who could read and write and who were preparing for business. When Vol. 1 — 44 the subject found its way into the earlier school years it carried many difficult problems of busi- ness down to immature minds. The modern tendency is to replace such problems by others that relate to children's interests. Thus in the primary grades there should be the study of home purchases, of the application of number to the large interests of the country, especially such as appeal to a child's love of nature and of the heroic, and such as relate to the sources of food and clothing. Later, the problems should refer to the more detailed features of the national and world life, to the great industries, trades, and transportation facilities. Finally they should relate to the details of the industrial and commercial life, thus preparing both the boy and the girl for earning a livelihood. In all this there should be an effort to make arithmetic interesting, since when the interest of the pupil is secured the work is prosecuted with mi re zeal and is attended with better and more per- manent results. (3) In the effort to modernize the problems care must be taken to avoid the extreme of withdrawing from arithmetic all topics involving effort, thus making the subject insipid from its very lack of fibre. IX. Sequence of Topics. — Formerly arith- metic was taught from a single book, each im- portant topic being met but once. Then came the two-book series, the second book covering the ground of the first, but with more difficult examples, thus forming a spiral of two revolu- tions. In this way there arose the so-called Spiral Method of treatment, which certain dev- otees have carried to the extreme of return- ing to each topic every few days. Between the older topical method and the radical spiral meth- od there has been considerable strife. The lat- ter asserted that the former encouraged fi r- getfulness because of a lack of review, while the former asserted that the latter gave the pupil no feeling of mastery of any subject. The result has been a compromise, as is seen in all modern American courses. Such important top- ics as percentage are treated several times, with progressive difficulty, applications like simple interest offering new features on each succeeding occasion. On the other hand, such relatively unimportant chapters as that on longitude and time (semigeographical) are met but once. In the same spirit, the fundamental operations with integers, decimal fractions, and those common fractions often met in business, are frequently reviewed, while compound numbers and frac- tions involving unusual numerators and de- nominators are less emphasized. The techni- calities of business, including the study of investments, insurance, banking, and exchange. are reserved until the last years of the grammar school, when a child beginning to look forward to being self-supporting is prepared to under- stand them. X. Methods. — Various methods have been suggested for presenting arithmetic to children, especially in the primary grades. The serious consideration of this phase of the subject be_ towards the close of the 18th century, particular- ly in Germany and Switzerland. With it are connected such names as Trapo. von Bus-r Kranckes, Pestalozzi, Tillich. Grube, Tanck, Knilling, and Kaselitz. Each of these writers stood for some principle which he carried to ARITHMETIC, HISTORY OF such an extreme as to render the method gen- erally unusable. Pestalozzi, for example, did great good in his judicious use of objective illustration, hut he went to an unwarranted ex- treme in his emphasis of the unit and in his devotion to abstract work. Tillich suggested a valuable sel of number blocks, hut his follow- ers went to the extreme of eliminating all other material. Grube wrote a condensed manual for teachei . and systematically treated numbers in concentric circles of progressive difficulty, hut he went to several extremes that made the Sys- tem so absurd that it is now nearly forgotten. On the other hand, every prominent writer of this class has usually suggested some slight im- provement which has gradually worked its way into the schools. It has been the universal ex- perience that no advocate of a single method lias been able to impress this method on any considerable number of followers. The 1" t teacher has been the one who, being interested in the subject, has imparted that interest to the pupils, who has not been limited to any one set of objects or to any peculiar device, who has made arithmetic modern in its applications, and who has followed the besi curricula of the day. A7. Time Required for the Subject in the Schools. — There has been a gradual diminution in the time allowed to arithmetic in American schools for a number of years past, on account of the demands of more modern studies for a place in the curriculum. As a result there has been decreased attention to the subject, there is hxs ability on the part of pupils to grapple with problems, and the question has arisen as to the amount of time necessary to secure a reasonable facility in the arithmetical processes. Although the textbooks and the teaching have both im- proved, the curtailment of time and the scatter- ing of the pupils' attention over more subjects have left the results far from satisfactory. It has even been urged that arithmetic be not taught before the third nor after the seventh school year, thus allowing five instead of eight years to the subject. But although it is true that the necessary parts of arithmetic can be covered in five school years, it is equally true that the child has as much delight in his work with numbers in his first school year as he has in the other subjects studied, and quite as much need for this work. It is also true that the number facts are more easily impressed on the memory if the work is begun, as Pestalozzi ad- vised, when a child first enters school. It is therefore better to allow arithmetic to extend throughout the elementary grades, combining with it. if the class is well advanced, some con- structive geometry and the first steps in algebra in the eighth school year. Bibliography. — Smith, 'The Teaching of El- ementary Mathematics* (New York 1900); 'The Outlook for Arithmetic in America' (Bos- ton 1004); Brooks, 'The Philosophy of Arith- metic' (Philadelphia. 2d ed., iooi ) ; Unger, -. M< ■ 111,724 21 21 1,170 27 128,000 *3t 20 2,11 j 25 3 126,000 Episcopalian list S 10 1,680 9 (Southern ). . 11 10 757 «3 42,200 Lutheran** 2 58 3 Disciples of Christ 5 2 300 4 8,000 13 18 567 14 IS.550 * Including cathedral at Tucson. There is also an acad- emy, hospital, and sanitarium at Tucson. t Returns incomplete. * Also five missions. ** Among Apache Indians only. Cliaritable. Penal. — The Territory maintains an asylum for the insane near Phoenix, a peni- tentiary at Yuma, and an industrial school for juvenile offenders at Benson. Population and Divisions. — The first separate census was taken in 1S70. giving, exclusive of 1 ns, 9,658; in 1SS0, 40.440; in 1800. (excluding tribal Indians but including 1.326 others) ; in 1900, total, 122.931 (71,795 males. 51,136 females. 98.69S native born. 24,233 foreign born, 26,480 Indians, 1.84S negroes, 1.419 Chinese. 281 Jap: The principal Indian tribes are: Navaho, about 16.000; Papago. 3.900; Pima. 4,400; San Carlos Apache. ^.^\2; White Moun- tain Apache, 1.952: other Apache. 600; Mohave. 2,635; Hopi, 1,841; W'alapai. 573; Maricopa, 350; Chemehucvi, 250; Havasupai, 243. There are ARIZONA, UNIVERSITY OF — ARK 13 counties in the Territory, as follows, with their county seats, population, etc.: 1 Area c 5|. Assessed vulii.it i. .n 3 2 a. a. 1903 Apache. . . . >o.736 8,*)7 ' Cuchisc ... 9.=5« Coconino... 5.514 4.973 Graham . .. 0,500 Maricopa... 8,3 1 6 20.457 10.315,111 Mohave i3.4-'i 3.420 ■ . 9.S26 8.820 1,387,960 14,689 3.898.347 7.779 1,653,971 Santa Cruz. ■i.545 1,560,307 \ avapai . . . 7.363 »3.799 5,801,017 9.787 4. '45 ■.-77.57' ■ Indian 3.065 c County scat H a. - : it. Johns. . 1 imbstone 646 1 staff.. M 1 . -• 7 1 ".495 vitle 629 Phoenix . .. 5.544 Kingman . . Ho]or«".t, . I ncson. .. . 7.53' Florence . . N Dgales . . . 1,761 Prcscott... 3,559 l,5'9 • Area included in that Gila, Graham, and Navajo counties. In addition to the towns above named. Je- rome, in Yavapai county, is a flourishing mining settlement of 2,86l inhabitants. History. — The first white men to enter Ari- zona were probably Juan de la Asuncion and Pedro Nadal, two friars of whom little is known, who penetrated the region in 1538. Fray Marcos of Xiza and his negro companion Este- vanico, in 1539, journeyed from Mexico to the sources of the Rio San Pedro, thence across the southeastern part of the present Territory to the Province of Cibola. (Sec New Mexico.) In the following year Niza served as guide to Fran- cisco Vasquez Coronado, who, with a considera- ble force, visited Cibola and sent two small ex- peditions which discovered the Ilopi villages (called Tusayan) and the Grand Canon of the Colorado. Meanwhile other parties went from the settlement which Coronado e tablished on the Rio Sonora, northwestern Mexico, explored the region, later known as the Papagueria (from the Papago Indians), to the mouth of the Colo- rado, where letters had been buried by Hernando de Alarcon who commanded a joint expedition by sea and went up the Colorado for 8$ leagues. Antonio ile Espejo visited the Hopi villages in the northeastern part in 1583. as did Juan de Oriate, the first governor and colonizer of New Mexico, in 1508. the latter also passing entirely across the Territory to the mouth of the Colorado and back in 1604-5. The first missions were estab- lished among the Hopis by Franciscans in the summer of 1629, which, barring the killing of e of the missionaries by the Indians, were successfully continued until Aug. 1680, when, in a general uprising of the Pueblos, the mission- aries were murdered and little effort made thenceforth to introduce Christianity. From 1687 the Jesuits, particularly Padre Eusebio Kino, made various journeys into southern Ari- zona, establishing the missions of San Xavier del r 1700, and that of Guevavi in 1732. I he present church of San Xavier was begun about 1783 and finished in 179;. In 1752 a pre- sidio was established at Tubac. but in 1776 it was removed to a ranchena of about So families of Pima. Papago, and Sobaipuri Indians, known as San AgUStin de Tucson (the present Tucson} a few miles northward, at which a few Span- iards may also have settled after 1763. The mis- sions and their zisilas lead a precarious exist- ence after 1750-3, during which years the Pimas were at war against the Spaniards, killing cral priests and plundering the missions, in- cluding that of San Xavier. The Jesuits were expelled in 17(17 and were followed by Francis- cans, who rehabilitated the mission settlements and conducted explorations in unknown or for- gotten regions. For many years before and after, the Apache tribes were at almost constant war with the more sedentary Indians of southern Arizona, raiding their settlements, killing the men and carrying off the women ; nor did the white settlements fare much better, notwith- standing the presence of the presidios. At the time of the conquest of New Mexico in 184(1 by Gen. S. \Y. Kearny. Arizona formed a part of that territory. Ry the treaty of Guadalupe Hi- dalgo in 1848 the section north of the Gila was ceded by Mexico to the United States, while that south of the river was obtained through the Gadsden Purchase (q.v.), approved in 1854. Raids continued, various military expeditions were conducted and outposts established, and rich mineral deposits were discovered during the next few years. By act of 1 approved Feb. 24, 1803, Arizona was erected into a sep- arate Territory, and on Dec. 29 it was formally organized at Xavaho Springs. The withdrawal of troops from the frontier at the beginning of the Civil War left the country practically at the mercy of Apaches, who continued their depreda- tions ; mines were abandoned and settlements deserted, but with the re-establishment of the military posts the development of the Territory was renewed and has since continued. Strenu- ous efforts have been made for several years toward the admission of Arizona as a state, but thus far without success. Throughout Arizona are the remains of pueb- los and cliflf and cave dwellings which were occupied in prehistoric times by the ancestors of the present Pueblo Indians or allied tribes. Noteworthy among the pueblo ruins is the famous Casa Grande in the Gila Valley, near Florence, which was in much its present condition when Father Kino said mass within its walls in 1694. In the northeast, especially in the Canon de Chclly, are numerous cliff dwell- ings, remarkably well preserved. F. \V. Hodge. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. Ar'izo'na, University of, a co-educational institution in Tucson, established by act of legis- lature in 1885, but not opened till 1891. In 1901 its grounds and buildings were valued at $160,- 000: its library contained 6,000 volumes and its income from the United States government and the Territorial government was $55,000. Ark, (1) the vessel in which Noah and his family were preserved during the deluge; (2) a term applied to a chest for the safe keeping of valuables. The Ark of the Covenant, in the Jewish synagogue, was the chest or vessel in which the tables of the law were preserved. This was 3 feet 9 inches in length, 2 feet 3 inches in breadth, and the same in height. It was made of shiuim wood, overlaid within and without with gold. ARKANSAS Arkansas, ar'kan-sa, "The Bear State." a south-central State of the United States (No. 12 in order of admission) ; bounded north by Missouri, south by Louisiana, east by Missis- sippi River, west by Indian Territory, south- west by Texas ; a block 3 30' north to south, about 250 miles land measure, breadth 175 to 275 miles; area 53,850 miles (.No. 23 in United States), 805 water; pop. 1,311,564 (No. 18 in United States), or 24.7 to square mile (No. 29 in density). White, 944,580; colored, 366,984. Topograpliy. — The eastern side is the Mis- sissippi alluvium, swamps, "lakes," and bayous, overflowed by the rises of the great river despite a vast system of levees or dikes ; in the centre it slopes west and south to the rolling uplands and the many east-and-west divisions of the Ozark Mountains (q.v.) — a broken range of low hills with some peaks as high as 3,200 feet, as, for instance, Magazine Mountain, in Logan County. This and other mountains, including the Ouachita Hills, are in the southern part of the State. The most extensive range is that known as the Boston Mountains, in the north- western part of the State. The upper mountain- ous, forest, and mineral lands may be separated from the northeast corner of the State to Little Rock, thence south 100 miles, thence to the southwest corner of the State. East of this line the country is hilly, thickly covered with pines, oaks, and other trees until the alluvial soil is reached, extending from the Mississippi west- ward from 40 to 50 miles in width. River Systems. — The State is evenly divided by its great name-river (q.v.). Just above its mouth and connected with it by a bayou through the bottoms, the White River, 800 miles long, ' also enters the Mississippi; rising in northwest Arkansas, it flows through southern Missouri and returns to its own State, receiving at. Jack- sonport the Black of 400 miles, and near Claren- don the Cache. Farther north the St. Francis of 450 miles comes from Missouri, winds through the delta plains for a long distance nearly paral- lel to the Mississippi, and enters it just above Helena ; the space between them is a mass of cypress swamps and bayous. The southern half is drained by the Ouachita of 500 miles, feeding the Red in Louisiana, and in the extreme south- west by a bend of the Red. Climate and Sanitary Conditions. — The east- ern river bottoms are hot and malarious ; but the rest of the State is unsurpassed for health- fulness, and the Ozarks are a noted sanatorium for lung diseases. Mean winter temperature about 38.5 ; summer, 80. Mean rainfall, in the centre, 50 to 60 inches ; in the extreme west, 46.5 inches. The drouths of the farther West and the severe northers of Texas are alike un- known. Geology, Minerals, and Mining. — The Ozarks are the western extension of the Appalachian system, formed at the same time by the same forces : their basis is Palaeozoic. — Lower Silu- rian in the north, Sub-Carboniferous on the south, — with a patch of Cretaceous in south- west. The southern portion of the State, a part of the great Atlantic belt of coastal plain, lies upon a foundation of Tertiary, overlaid with Quaternary sands and clays. The former make the State one of remarkable richness in mineral wealth. The Ouachitas furnish the silicious novaculite, whence are made the famous "Ar- kansas" or "Ouachita" oilstones, the finest for sharpening tools in the world; quarried in Hot Springs, Garland, and adjoining counties since 1840; the coarser grades of which and quartz- itcs supply common whetstones, grindstones, burr millstones, etc. They also contain bauxite, a granular clay-ore now the principal source of aluminum, used also for alum and crucibles; building, porcelain, and fireclays. In the north- west are quarried limestone for lime, quartz sand for glass, building sandstone, granite, and slate; and a valuable pink marble called 'St. Clair limestone." In the north centre around Batesville, manganese ore is mined for eastern steel works. There is a rapidly increasing pro- duction of semi-anthracite coal, which, almost neglected prior to 1885, had risen to $1,687,000 in 1900 ; lignite has been found, and petroleum, and natural gas. Phosphates, mineral ochres, and salt are found. There are large deposits of marble of many colors in the north part of the State. A railway will soon make these, as well as zinc extracted from valuable and numerous mines in the same section, extensive articles of commerce. There are also in the southern por- tion of the State large deposits of asphalt, graph- ite, and inexhaustible deposits of that species of chalk from which Portland cement is made, which is now manufactured on an extensive scale. Zinc ore is an article of some export, and galena, gold, copper, and nickel exist in some quantity, as well as limonite iron ore and salt. More valuable at present are the mineral springs, of which those at Hot Springs have developed a celebrated sanatorium and town. Soils, Agriculture, and Forests. — Agricul- turally the most valuable soil is found in the river bottom-lands, and as the surface rises from these the soil becomes less productive. There are large submerged tracts that only require proper drainage to make them valuable to the farmer. The extreme fertility of the soil in most parts renders agriculture highly profitable. A raw, sparsely settled State at the time of the war, with less than a third its present popula- tion, and that mainly along the great navigable streams, most of it had no old industrial system to be wrecked and remade, but was virgin soil; hence it recovered much faster than other south- ern States, and when railroads opened it up. the new free-labor system developed it with few ob- stacles, and the improved farm land has in- creased from about one twentieth to about one fifth of the entire area, or from some 1,700,000 to close on 7,000,000 acres, one eighth of it in the last decade ; two fifths of the State is in farms and half of their acreage improved. It has been a growth almost wholly in small farms ; from an average in i860 of nearly 250 acres, it has sunk in 1900 to 93. A part of this is no doubt due to the small patches rented by the negroes. whose farms average only half the size of the whites, and who comprise one fourth of the farmers. The northwestern Ozark region has a thin, sandy soil, poor relatively to the rest, which range through the clays and loams of the lime- stone uplands, the sandy loam of the western Arkansas valley, and the clay and sand of the eastern valley, to the deep black soil of the bot- toms, the famous buckshot soil (the incredibly fertile cotton land), and the sticky red "gumbo* ARKANSAS clay of the Red River valley. Yet the first- named section is a superb fruit district, two northwestern counties raising in 1890 [,173,642 of the total 2,811,182 bushels of apples (an al- most fourfold increase in the decade), and 3.500,- 000 of the 44,000.000 bushels of corn, and two others (one the same) more than half the 12,667,- 74' quarts of strawberries. Of the other fruit crops for which the State is becoming famous, the peach crop of 333,642 bushels was raised in the southwest, over one sixth in one county just below the Ouachitas; the same counties chiefly grew the plums, prunes, and grapes, the latter 3.621,000 pounds. Dried and canned fruits amounted to 2,045.910 pounds. Potatoes and sweet potatoes are grown all over the State, but about one fourth came from three counties in the western Arkansas valley. But of course the chief crop is cotton, grown mainly in the south, and of which the crop was 705.928 bales in 1899, and 819,000 in 1900, making the State No. 5 in the United States. Hay and forage play a con- siderable part ; these imply animals, and nat- urally horses, asses, and mules, for farm work, have multiplied rapidly with the farms: swine also have increased, but neat cattle, milch cows, and sheep have fallen off. Sorghum, though still a considerable crop, has diminished two fifths in the decade. An important industry is rose-culture for perfume, and flowers for seed. The forested area of the State is three fourths its entire surface — more than 40.000 of its 53,850 square miles, and of a vast variety of hard and soft woods: dense tracts of pine, white and other oaks, hickory, black walnut, horn- beam, locust, pecan, ash, elm, willow, papaw, etc. The St. Francis valley, once a continu- ous swamp, has been reclaimed and is covered with a heavy growth of cypress, gum, oak. hickory, and sycamore. In the Ar- kansas valley are red cedar. Cottonwood, maple, and various oaks. In all forest products the State has a great industrial future: the value of raw and manufactured forest products in 1900 was about $28,700,000. Manufactures. — Though this branch of in- dustry is relatively small in Arkansas as yet, its rapid increase, — more than doubling in the dec- ade, from $17,275,192 in 1890 to $37,006,409 in 1900, — and the great forest and mineral basis for it, foreshow a great future. Naturally, over two thirds of it was of wood products; $23,959,- 983 in lumber and timber, $2,266,522 in planing- mill stuff, sash-and-blind work, wheel parts, staves, shingles, cedar posts, etc. These were but $8,943,052 and $1,761,932 in 1890. Next to this is the group of cotton industries, — ginning, and making cottonseed oil and cake; the latter produced a value of $2,874,864, against $1,881,- 668 in 1890, the former of $1,261,097. though in 1890 only $153,226. Flouring and grist-mill products were $3,708,709, against $2,498,168 in 1890; steam-car construction and repair-shop work, $2,095,447, against $1,299,558. Brick and tile formed another important item. There were altogether 4,794 establishments, employing 28,- 150 persons, paying $9,937,387 in wages, and having an output of $45,197,731. The internal revenue collections on taxable manufactures now amount to about $300,000 per annum. Commerce and Navigation. — The immense extent of its internal waterways, in which it exceeds every other State, compensates Arkan- sas for lack of a seaboard. The Mississippi is equal to one, however, giving it deep-water com- munication with the ocean and with the other States of the valley. ["he Arkansas is navigable its entire course in the State, some 400 miles ; the White for 250 miles or so to Jacksonport; the Ouachita and the Red rivers also afford navigation. The real port of Arkansas is New Orleans, and its exports are lumber and cotton, Railroads and Street Railways. — The slen- der population of Arkansas and its concentra- tion along the rivers made railways long un- necessary and undesired, ami the first one was under construction when the Civil War broke out, with only 38 miles built ; in 1870 there were but 256, in 1880 859. The next decade was its real creation as a serious system, and in 1890 it had risen to 2,203.44; slackening for a few years, — 2,439.20 in 1895, — it was 3,082.27 in 1899, and in the nexl two years 158 more were built, making 3,240.33 in 1901. There are 39 lines in the State, or one to every 16 square miles and 310 people. The rates are controlled by a State railroad commission. There are five lines of street railway oper- ating 200 miles of track. Banks. — In 1902 there were seven national banks in Arkansas, with $1,070,000 capital, $336,- 000 outstanding circulation, $3,108,000 deposits; $1,003,000 reserve; 39 State banks with $1,243,000 capital. $0,004,000 assets, and $4,464,000 deposits. There is one clearing-house in the State at Lit- tle Rock; exchanges in 1901, $34,808,284. Finances. — The assessed valuation in 1901 was $127,062,903; in 1897, $117,873,253. Annual tax rate. 1.19 mills. Recognized public debt, $1,271,000 at 3 per cent, of which $1,113,000 is permanent school fund, not properly an indebt- edness as it can never be paid ; unrecognized, $8,- 706,773. In 1900 a twenty years' dispute with the United States over its holding of Arkansas bonds, to which the State claimed an offset of damages by failure of the United States to patent 273,000 acres of swamp land to it. was settled by paying to the United States $160,000 and guaranteeing titles to settlers. Education. — The interest on the permanent school fund (see preceding paragraph), a 2-mill State school tax, and other revenues, amounted in 1900 to about $500,000, the district taxes to $805,000, and the poll tax to $163,000; total, to- ward $1,500,000, of which only $1,369,000 was ex- pended. There are upwards of 5,000 schools, with over 7,000 teachers, three fifths males, the largest percentage in the United States. But the support is inadequate, the terms average only 70 days yearly. — among the lowest in the coun- try.— and there is no general school superin- tendence, each locality managing its own and the quality fluctuating, with its wealth and pub- lic spirit. The almost wholly rural character of the population, here as everywhere, makes the school problem difficult from the dispersion of the pupils. From all these causes, in 1900, of 319.742 white children from 5 to 17, only 185,- 490 attended school even for the short terms ; and of 123.242 colored children, only 50,386. Yet Arkansas has 10 other States below it in illiteracy. There are 48 public high schools and 24 private secondary schools, besides 7 pri- vate normal schools (there are no State ones), and 9 universities and colleges, some co-educa- tional, as follows : Arkansas College, Presby- c ARKANSAS terian (1872) ; Arkansas Industrial University, n.-s. (1872; ; Philander Smith College, Metho- dist (1877) ; Hendrix College, Southern Meth- odist (1884) ; Ouachita College, Baptist (1886) ; Arkadelphia College, Methodist (1890), Arkan- sas Cumberland College, Presbyterian (1891) ; Mountain Home College, Baptist (1893) ; and Central Baptist College for Women, at Conway. Churches. — The Methodist, Roman Catholic, Episcopalian, Presbyterian, and Baptist are the leading church bodies in Arkansas, as in most other southern States. Charitable and Penal Institutions. — The only ones of the first class are a lunatic asylum and a deaf-mute school ; of the latter, a penitentiary in Pulaski County. There is no reform school for juvenile offenders, who are confined with the older criminals. Post-offices and Periodicals. — There were 1,859 post-offices of all grades in 1900, and 259 periodicals, 21 daily, 212 weekly. State Government. — The Constitution is of 1874, amended 1893. Suffrage requires a year in the State and payment of poll tax. Office- holding and being witness in court require belief in God. The governor, State officers, and State representatives hold for two years. The gov- ernor has $3,500 salary ; his veto is overruled by a majority in each House ; if he dies within a year from election a fresh one is held, if later the president of the Senate fills out his term. The legislature meets biennially, session limited to 60 days, — but a two thirds vote of each House may extend it, and the governor may call a spe- cial session ; the representatives must be at least one from each county, and not exceed 100; the Senate has 30 to 35 members (at present 32), four-year terms ; both receive $6 a day and mile- age. The Supreme Court has five members elected for eight years ; there are circuit courts with judges elected for four years: and the usual county and probate courts. The legislature has power to establish new ones or extend the jurisdiction of old. State Militia. — -There are 1,900, 1,600 being infantry. No county may have over four com- panies. Representatives in Congress. — There are sev- en, under the apportionment of the census of 1900, previously six. Politics. — The State is overwhelmingly Dem- ocratic. Population and Divisions. — At the first cen- sus, of 1820, Arkansas had 14,273 people ; 1830, 30,388; 1840, 97,574; 1850, 209,897; i860, 435,- 450; 1870, 484,471; 1880, 802,525; 1890, 1,128,- 179; 1900, 1,311,564. The colored population of 366,984 has increased 75 per cent since 1880, against about 60 per cent for the white. The foreign population is inconsiderable. Only 6.9 per cent of the people live in towns of 4,000 and over, and only 9 per cent in those of 2,000 and over. There are 75 counties in Arkansas, as fol- lows, with their county seats : Mississippi, Osceola. Monroe, Clarendon. Montgomery, Mi. Ida. Nevada, I'rescott. Newton, Jasper. Ouachita, Camden. Perry, Perryville. Phillips, Helena. Pike, Murfreesboro. Poinsett, Ilarrisburg. Polk, Mena. Pcpe, Russellvillc. Prairie. 1 U sarc. Pulaski, Little Rock. Randolph, Pocahontas. St. Francis, Forrest City. Saline, Benton. Scott, VValdron. Searcy, Marshall. Sebastian, Greenwood. Sevier, Locksburg. Sharp, Evening Shade. Stone, Mountainview. Union, Eldorado Van Buren, Clinton. Washington, Fayetteville. White, Searcy. Woodruff, Augusta. Yell, Danville. Arkansas, Dewitt. Ashley, Hamburg. Baxter, Mountainhome. Benton, Bentonville. Boone, Harrison. Bradley, Warren. Calhoun, Hampton. Carroll, Berryville. Chicot, Lake Village. Clark, Arkadelphia. Clay, Corning. Clebourne, Hebcr. Cleveland, Rison. Columbia, Magnolia. Conway, Morrillton. Craighead, Jonesboro. Crawford, Vanburen. Crittenden, Marion. Cross, Yanndale. Dallas, Princeton. Desha, Arkansas City. Drew, Monticello. Faulkner, Conway. Franklin, Ozark. Fulton, Salem. Garland, Hot Springs. Grant, Sheridan. Greene, Paragould. Hempstead, Washington. Hot Springs, Malvern. Howard. Centerpoint. Independence, Batesville. Izard, Melbourne. Jackson, Newport. Jefferson, Pine Bluff. Johnson. Clarksville. Lafayette, New Lewisville. Lawrence, Powhatan. Lee, Marianna. Lincoln, Star City. Little River, Richmond. Logan, Paris. Lonoke, Lonoke. Madison, Huntsville. Marion, Yellville. Miller, Texarkana. Chief Cities. — There are only eight places of 4,000 and over, the three largest being on the Arkansas. The one considerable city is the capital, Little Rock. 38.307 ; a manufacturing and railroad centre, on the first high ground above the Arkansas bottom lands. The chief of the remainder are Fort Smith, 11,587, where the river emerges from Indian Territory; Pine Bluff, 11,496, half way from Little Rock to the mouth of the river ; Hot Springs, 0.973, a noted sanatorium, in the western centre just north of the Ouachita; Helena, 5,556, on the Missis- sippi below Memphis; and Texarkana, 4,914, in the southwest on the border of Texas. History. — It has almost none till the 19th century. De Soto's expedition furnished the first white men to set foot on it, and De Soto himself was not improbably buried in Arkansas River. The first French explorers found here an In- dian tribe called the Arkansaw, which they spelled in French fashion. Arkansas. In 1685 Bienville's Frenchmen camped for a while at Arkansas Post, in the Arkansas River bottoms near the White and the Mississippi. In 1720, as part of John Law's famous "Mississippi scheme," he was granted by the Regency 12 square miles on the Arkansas River, on condi- tion of settling 1,500 Germans there and pro- tecting them against the Indians ; but the scheme ended with Law's failure, and the few who did come settled elsewhere. The district when finally dotted with a few settlements was in French hands till the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, of which it formed part; in 1812 it was made part of Missouri Territory, ami in i8ig organized as Arkansas Territory, which includ- ed Indian Territory. At this time the entire population, including Indians, was not al 10.000; yet in November 1S19 the Arkansas Ga- zette was founded at Little Rock ; and settlers began at once to flow in. On 15 June 1836 it was admitted to the L T nion as a slave State, paired witli Michigan as a free State, though the biter's formal admission was a few months later. Though slave and of southern settlement, the hill-cmuitry farming divided it in sentiment in [860, and there was a violent struggle between the Lmion and secession element; but in Janu- ary 1861 the latter succeeded in calling a se- cession convention, by 27,412 to 15.826. The ARKANSAS CITY — ARKWRIGHT State officers anticipated them by securing Fort Smith, and the Federal arsenals at Napoleon and Little Ruck; but un Lincoln's call for troops, ihc convention met and on 6 May passed a se- cession ordinance. In iSiij the Confedei ite were defeated al Pea Ridge, 6-7 March, and Prairie Grove 7 Dec; Helena and Arkansas Posl fell into Union hands, and 4 Sept. 1863, Little Rock was captured and the Stale reclaimed for the Union. The loyalists tlicn held a con- vention in January 1S04, framed a constitution, adopted it by a purely loyalist vote, elected con- gressmen and Slate officers, and organized a reg- ular gov. 111:11. nl ; but Congress refused to accept it or admit the State again. Under the Recon- struction Act of 1867, a constitution was adopt- ed in .March 1868, and the Slate readmitted 22 June. Several counties were again put under military rule in 1808. The anarchy under the carpet-bag regime culminated in a civil war in April 1874, in which the United States was in- voked. A new constitution was adopted in 1874, under which the State now works. U. M. Rose, Ex-Presideni American Bar Association. Arkansas City, Kan., a city of Cowdey County, near the southern border of the State, on Arkansas River, near the Walnut River, and furnished with water power by a canal uniting them. It was settled 1870, and incorporated 1872. It manufactures agricultural implement?, windmills, wire mattresses. Sour and lumber; and has a large trade with Indian posts and agencies in Oklahoma and Indian Territory. It contains a United States Indian School. Pop. (1900) 6,140. Arkansas Post, Ark., a village in Ar- kansas County; on the Arkansas River; 117 miles .southeast of Little Rock. It is on a high bluff and was the site of the first settlement made within the present limits of Arkansas by French missionaries in 1685. Its elevated location gave it considerable military importance during the Civil War. The Confederates established strong works here, which were reduced by a combined assault of a portion of the Federal army, un- der (ion. MeClernand, and a naval command under Admiral Porter, on 11 Jan. 1863. Ar'kansas River, the largest affluent of the Mississippi save the .Missouri; length, nearly 2,000 miles: area of basin, 189,000 square miles; mean discharge, 63,000 cubic feet. It rises in the central Colorado; flows east with a rapid cur- rent through deep, narrow canons, and over a rocky bed till it emerges on the naked, arid plains of eastern Colorado and western Kansas; runs east several hundred miles in Kansas, and turn- ing southeast leaves it near Arkansas City. It then cuts a cantle off Oklahoma and Indian Ter- ritory, — where it receives the Cimarron and the broad shallow Canadian from the west, with the Verdigris and Neosho from the north, — and be- comes navigable 650 miles to its mouth in Ar- kansas (which it bisects). Ar'kansas Stone, a name given to the oilstones made from two grades of novaculite quarried in Hot Springs, Garland County, and also in adjoining counties in Arkansas. The rocks cover a large area and yield the finest whetstones. From them the highest grades of both whetstones and razor hones are made. Ar'kansas, University of, a State institu- tion organized in [872, with academic and tech nical departments in Fayetteville ; law and medi- cal departments in Little Rock, and a normal ol for colored students in Pine Bluff, At the close of 1901 it had ^y prof.- ors and in- structors, 1.150 students and 68] graduates. It has a library of 10,000 volumes, and an inc., me of $70,000, while its grounds and buildings are valued at $300,000. Ark'low, Ireland, a town in the county of Wicklow, 14 nuKs south-southwesl of the town of that name, on the right bank of the Avoca, winch falls into the sea about 500 yards below the town, and is here crossed by a bridgi of to. arches. It is inhabited principally by fishermen. There are remains of an old monas- tery, and of the castle of the Ormonds, the lat- ter destroyed by Cromwell in 1040. llrrc in 1798 the United Irishmen suffered a defeat. Pop. (1901) 4,172. Arko'na, the northeast promontory .if the German island of Rugen, in the Baltic. Its chalk cliffs rise to a height of 177 feet, topped with a lighthouse, built in 1827, from which the Danish island of Moen, 33 miles north- west, can be seen. Here stood the famous for- tification (Slavonic, Urkan) so long impregnable, and the temple of the Wend deity Swantewit, the most sacred sanctuary of the Slavs of north- ern Germany. Arkose. Sec Sandstone. Ark'wright, Sir Richard, a famous Eng- lish inventor: b. in Preston, Lancashire, 23 Dec. 17.?- ; d. 3 Aug. 1702. Ik- was the youngest of 13 children, and was bred to the trade of a bar- ber. His residence in a cotton-spinning district (Bolton), drew his attention to the operations of that manufacture; but he was 35 before he de- voted himself to consideration of the subject. I he spinning-jenny, invented in 1707 by Har- greaves, gave the means of .spinning 20 or 30 threads at once with no more labor than had previously been required to spin a simile thread ; but the thread spun by the jenny could not, how- ever, be used as warp, being destitute of the firm- ness required. Arkwright supplied this defi- ciency by the invention of the spinning-frame, which spins a vast number of threads of any de- gree of fineness and hardness, leaving the oper- ator merely to feed the machine with cotton, and to join the threads when they happen to break. His invention introduced the system of spinning by rollers, the carding, or roving as it is technically termed (that is, the soft loose strip of cotton), passing through one pair of rollers, and being received by a second pair, which are made to revolve with three, four or five times the velocity of the first pair. By this contriv- ance the roving is drawn out into a thread of the desired degree of tenuity, a twist being given to it by the adaptation of the spindle and fly of the old flaxwheel to the machinery. The precise- date of his invention is not known; but it is most probable that the idea of spinning by roll- ers had occurred to his mind as early as the pe- riod when Hargreaves was engaged in the inven- tion of the jenny. He removed to Nottingham in 1768, in order to avoid the attacks of the law- less rabhle wdio thought his machines would deprive many workmen of a livelihood. Ark- wright erected his first mill, which was driven SIR RICHARD ARKWRIGHT. FAMOUS FOR INVENTIONS IN COTTON SPINNING. ARLBERG — ARM by horses, at Nottingham, and took out a pat- ent for spinning by rollers, in 1769. He built a second factory on a much larger scale at Cromford, in Derbyshire, in 1771, the machin- ery being turned by a waterwheel, and having made several additional discoveries and im- provements, took out a fresh patent for the whole in 1775, thus completing a series of in- genious and complicated machinery. When the importance of his inventions became known ef- forts were made to have the patent set aside, and in 1781 Arkwright commenced actions against a number of persons for invading his patent. Only one cause was tried, that against Col. Mordaunt in the Court of King's Bench in July 1781 ; and in that the verdict went against Arkwright on the ground of defective specifica- tion. In February 1785, a second action was tried in the court of common pleas, in which Arkwright brought a number of persons to prove that they could make machines from his specifications, in consequence of which he ob- tained a verdict in his favor. This producing great alarm among many who had erected ma- chines for cotton spinning, and from whom a royalty was demanded, in order to settle the dis- pute a suit was brought against Arkwright in the Court of King's Bench, in which the whole question was argued, not only as to the intelligi- bility of his specification, but on the less techni- cal and more important ground of his not being himself the inventor of the machines for which he had obtained a patent. After a long and ably-conducted trial a verdict was given against Arkwright, and in November 1785 the patent was cancelled. None of Arkwright's most in- timate friends, or those best acquainted with his character, ever had the slightest doubt with re- spect to the originality of his invention. In 1786 Arkwright received the honor of knight- hood from George III., and unlike many invent- ors, he amassed a large fortune by his inven- tions. Arlberg, a mountain pass between the Rhaetian and the Lech Alps, in the west of Ty- rol ; between it and Vorarlberg, pierced by the third longest railway tunnel in the world. It is six and one half miles long, was finished in No- vember 1883, and connects the valley of the Inn with that of the Rhine, and the Austrian Railway system with the Swiss railways. Aries (ancient, Arclatc), a town in France on the Rhone, about 25 miles from its mouth. It stands on a rocky limestone eminence, slop- ing to the river, and has irregular streets, presenting many interesting features. In a large square is an ancient granite monolith, and among other remarkable objects are the Ro- manesque Cathedral of Saint Trophimus, with a fine portal and some good paintings and sculptures ; and especially numerous ancient re- mains, of which the most conspicuous arc those of a Roman amphitheatre, which accommodated 24,000 spectators, and those of a Roman the- atre. It has railway workshops, but its manu- factures are unimportant, though its trade is important. Aries was founded several centuries before the Christian era and was the chief col- ony of Massilia (Marseilles). In the 41I1 and 5th centuries several church councils met here. From 807 to 1150 it was the capital of a kingdom bearing its name. Pop. (1901) 15,506. Arlincourt, ar'lah-koor', Charles Victor Prevot, Vicomte d\ a French poet and novel- ist: b. in 1789; d. in 1856. His chief poetical work is 'Charlemange, or the Carolcid' (1S18), an epic; and of his novels the most successful was ( Le Solitaire' (1821), which was trans- late! into all European languages. Among sev- eral pamphlets, written in support of the Legi- timist cause in 1848, one entitled 'God Wills It' went through 64 editions. Arlington, Henry Bennet, Earl of, an English politician: b. in 1618; d. in 1685. He was a member of the "Cabal" ministry and as Secretary of State was of much influence in public affairs. Arlington, Mass., a town in Middlesex County, about seven miles northwest of Boston. It contains several fine buildings, among which is a library given to the town by Mrs. Eli Rob- bins at a cost of $200,000. The town has elec- tric lights and car service to Boston. It was settled about 1650 and received its present name in 1867. Pop. (1900) 8,603. Arlington Heights, a range of hills in Fairfax County, Va., on the Potomac, opposite Washington. They were strongly fortified dur- ing the Civil War. Gen. Robert E. Lee's es- tate here is now the site of a national soldiers' cemetery. Arlon, ar'lori, a town in Belgium, the capital of the province of Luxembourg, in the midst of the woods and mountain ridges of the Ardennes. It is a thriving place, with manu- factures of ironware, leather, tobacco, earthen- ware, and clay pipes. It appears in the Antonine Itinerary, and from the coins, inscriptions, and other antiquities found, must have possessed some importance even in the time of the Ro- mans. It is mentioned under its present name in 870, in connection with the partition of Lor- raine. Pop. (1899) 7,997. Arm, a term technically applied to that portion of the upper extremity of the body ex- tending from the shoulder joint to the elbow, but popularly used to denote both arm and fore- arm. The arm proper has one large and strong bone, the humerus, covered by strong muscles, which protect the blood vessels and nerves. The upper end of the humerus fits into the head of the scapula and with the clavicle forms the shoulder joint. The head of the humerus is held in the joint partly by ligaments, but mainly by the muscles attached to it. The motions of the arm are many. Those muscles that move the aim inward toward the chest are known as the adductors. These are the pectoralis major, cora- co brachialis, which also flex the arm. and the latissimus dorsi and teres major, which also ex- tend the arm. The arm is moved away from the body by the deltoid, a large muscle on the outer side, and the supraspinatus, a smaller mus- cle going from the scapula. The arm is ro- tated outward by the infraspinatus and the teres minor, and rotated inward by the subscapularis. All of these muscles are fastened about the upper part of tlie humerus. The greater mass of the muscles of the arm are those that go to the forearm and that move that member. Those that flex the forearm, or bend the el- bow, are the biceps, the brachiates and the brachio-radialis. the former being the most im- portant. It also aids in turning the forearm, ARMADA — ARMADILLO palm downward. The muscles that extend or tch the forearm are the triceps and the an- us. There are other movements of the fore- arm. The arm having two bones, the radius and ulna, one turns on the other and the move- ments of pronation and supination are produced. Pronation is accomplished by two muscles, the pronator teres and the pronator quadratus; the supinator makes the movement outward. The movements of flexion and extension take place in the elbow joint, which is hinged like those of pronation and supination, just below the elbow joint, the radius moving on the ulna. [he union of the radius and ulna with the bones, of the wrist make a hinge-like joint, the wrist joint Movements at the wrist are in four direc- tions, flexion and extension, abduction and ad- ducti"!). These movements, as well as those of the fingers, are made by a large group_ of mus- cles some 20 in number. There are in all 48 muscles concerned in the movements of the arm, forearm, and hand. The blood supply of the arm is derived from the brachiocephalic of the right side and from the arch of the aorta on the left (see Aorta) in a single main trunk that divides at the bend of the elbow. The first por- 1 is called the subclavian and is not in the arm proper, the axillary, or second portion, be- gins at the outer border of the first rib and be- comes the brachial just about the armpit, where it may be felt and compressed. The brachial artery is the great trunk of the arm. It may be felt just inside of the inner edge of the biceps muscle about the middle and there may be read- ily compressed in case of hemorrhage. At the bend of the elbow the brachial artery divides into the radial and ulnar, which supply the outer and inner sides of the forearm respectively. The radial artery is the one most frequently felt in determining the pulse; the ulnar may be used but as it lies deeper it is felt less easily. In the hand these arterial branches anastomose to form a superficial and a deep palmar arch from which branches go to supply the fingers. Hemorrhages in the palm of the hand can be controlled therefore only by controlling both radial and ulnar arteries, or better, by con- trolling the brachial just above the bifurcation in the elbow. This may be done by strongly flex- ing the forearm or something held against the artery. The principal veins of the forearm are the ulnar, the median, and the radial ; of the arm the cephalic and the basilic. These empty into the axillary vein, and this into the sub- clavian. The nerve supply of the arm is de- rived from the spinal cord from the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth cervical, and the first, second, and third thoracic nerves. These form a com- plex plexus, the brachial plexus. The main branches going to the different muscles and supplying the skin areas are the median, ulnar, musculo spiral, musculo cutaneous, and circum- flex. Their distribution is extremely complex. Armada, ar-ma'da or ar-ma'da, the Span- ish name for any armed force, especially a naval force. The term Spanish Armada is applied to that great naval armament which Philip II.. in 1588, fitted out under the command of the Duke of Medina-Sidonia and Martinez de Recaldo, against Queen Elizabeth, with the view of con- quering England, which Pope Sixtus V. had bestowed upon Spain. The fleet consisted of 131 great and many smaller ships of war, and car- ried 19,000 marines and 8,000 sailors. The ships had scarcely quitted Lisbon on 29 May 1588 when they were scattered by a storm and had to be refitted in Corunna. Advancing in the form of a half-moon of seven miles in extent, it came in sight, off Plymouth, of the English fleet, scarcely numbering 80 sail, and com- manded by Lord Howard, who, endeavored by dexterous seamanship, and the discharge of well- directed volleys of shot at alternately long and short distances, to damage the vessels of the en. my. Some of these, including the galleon laden with treasure, fell into the hands of the English or were destroyed. Arrived at length off Dunkirk, on the 7 August the armada was becalmed and thrown into such confusion by the arrival in the fleet of eight fire-ships sent by the English admiral, that on the morning of the 8th Lord Howard was enabled to at- tack it on several sides. Notwithstanding a brave resistance, many of the Spanish vessels were destroyed or fell into the hands of the English and Dutch, and in consequence the Duke of Medina-Sidonia resolved to abandon the enterprise, conceiving the idea of conveying his fleet to Spain by a voyage round the north of Great Britain. A hurricane which now broke forth with tremendous violence on the already dispirited Spaniards, scattered their ships in all directions. Some went down on the cliffs of Norway, others in the open sea, and still others on the Scottish coast. About 30 vessels reached the Atlantic Ocean, and of these several were driven by a west wind on the coast of Ireland and wrecked. In all, the armada is said to have lost in the open sea 72 large vessels, ex- clusive of smaller craft, and 10,185 men, while every family of distinction in Spain had to mourn the loss of one or more of its members. Only about 50 vessels reached Spain on the return voyage. Bibliography. — Corbett, 'Drake and the Tu- dor Navy'; Creasy, 'Fifteen Decisive Battles'; Fronde, 'The Spanish Story of the Armada' ; Gardiner, 'Historical Biographies: Drake'; Green, 'History of the English People' ; Mot- ley, 'History of the United Netherlands.' Ar'madale, the title of a novel by Wilkie Collins (1866). The plot of this, like that of 'The New Magdalen,' and other of its au- thor's later novels, is a gauntlet of defiance to the critics who had asserted that all the interest of his stories lay in the suspension of know- ledge as to the denouement. The machinery is in full view, yet in spite of this disclosure, the reader's attention is held until he knows whether the villain or her victims will come out victori- ous. Armadillo (Sp. dim. of armada, armed, referring to its bony shell). I. A. edentate mammal of the family Dasypodida, found in South and Central America and notable for its defensive armor. This armor consists of small roundish bony plates, ossified within the skin, and united to form solid shields, one over the shoulders, one over the haunches, and, between these two, transverse bands of movable plates, which protect, but leave freedom of motion, to the trunk of the body. These plates are over- laid by a thin, horny pellicle, and between them grow hairs varying in length and amount with the species, from almost none in some to a coat in others, hiding the shell; and the unarmored ARMADILLOS AND ANT-EATERS. i. Pangolin (Mams pentadactyla). 2. Three-handed Armadillo (Tolypeut 3. Aard-Vark (( trycteropu I lamydophorus truncatus), 1 1 Lin and u a tetradactyla). it Ant-Eater 1 M\ rme< phaga jubata). ARMADILLO — ARMATOLES ventral surface is also hairy. The head is pro- vided with a shield entirely separate from that of the shoulders, and in some species even the tail is protected by bands of plates. The various forms of armadillos are distinguished largely by the number of movable thin bands of plates lying between the large fixed anterior and pos- terior shields, up to as many as a dozen in the cabassous (Xcnurus). This armor serves the purpose of defense, and some of the tribe (only those of the genus Tolypcutes, however), in- crease its value by exercising the power of roll- ing themselves up into a ball so that the tender under parts of the body may be completely pro- tected. This ability depends upon the number of bands in the central portion of the armor-case. Although true Edentates, these animals have a few small, useless teeth, without true roots ; the tongue is covered with a sticky fluid like that secreted by the tongue of an ant-eater, but it is not protrusile. The armadillos are timid, nocturnal animals, living on insects, carrion, and vegetable matter ; their legs and claws are adapted to burrowing, and, when pursued, they usually bury them- selves more quickly than the pursuer can follow them. Only one species (Dasypus villosus) is sufficiently adaptable to hold its own when a wild region is settled ; the others soon disappear. One of the most interesting of them all is the pichichago (Chlamydophorus truncatus), found in Argentina, which lives entirely under- ground like a mole, and exhibits a peculiar structure in many ways, the body having an appearance of truncation, as if the hinder part had been cut squarely off, instead of ending in curved lines. It is very small, only five to six inches long, while the giant armadillo (Priodon gigas) measures three feet, exclusive of the tail. Some of the armadillos range north and south as far as Texas and Argentina ; among these is the peba, or nine-banded armadillo ( Tatusia novemcincta) . The family is divided into sev- eral genera and the species are numerous and are known as peludos, cabassous, apars, etc., elsewhere described. They are eaten by the South Americans and even esteemed delicate, but their flesh is usually so flavored by the insects and decayed matter which they eat that only a few vegetable-eating species are inoffensive to an unaccustomed palate. Many forms of fossil armadillos are known from both North and South America, a fossil species of Dasypus having been six feet long. Another genus was Eutatus, which had a shield formed of 36 distinct bands, of which the last 12 were soldered together. These lead back to the large group Gravigrada. (See also Glyptodon ; Mylodon.) Good accounts of the armadillos are given in both the 'Standard' and the "New (Royal)' Natural Histories. Consult also Hudson's 'Naturalist on the La Plata* (1892) ; Alston's 'Biologia Americana Centrali' ; 'Mammals', (1879-82), with colored plates; Azara's 'Historia Natural de los Paxaros del Paraguay' (Madrid, 1805) ; 'Mammals of Uru- guay' in the Proceedings of the Zoological So- ciety of London for 1894. Ar'madil'lo, in entomology. See Wood-lice. Armageddon, ar'ma-ged'don. the great battlefield where occurred the chief conflicts be- tween the Israelites and their enemies. The name was applied to the tableland of Esdraelon in Galilee and Samaria, in the centre of which stood the town Megiddo, on the site of the modern Lejjun; used figuratively in the Apoca- lypse to signify the place of "the battle of the great day of God." Armagh, ar-ma', a county of Ireland, in the- province of Ulster. The northern part of the county, bordering on Lough Neagh, con- sists principally of extensive bogs of great depth, with a remarkably black soil. The manufacture of linen is carried on very extensively. The chief towns are Armagh, T.urgan, Portadown, and Newry. Armagh is the county town. Pop. (1901) 125,238. Armagh, a city of Ireland, capital of the county of Armagh. It contains two cathedrals, a Protestant and a Roman Catholic; county court-house, prison, infirmary, lunatic asylum, linen hall, music hall, a public library and an observatory. In the Middle Ages Armagh was an extensive and populous city, and celebrated for its learning, having at one period, according to Irish historians, 7,000 students at its college. It is the see of an archbishop of the Anglican Church, who is primate of all Ireland. Pop. (1901) 7,438. Armagnac, ar'ma-nyak', Counts of, an an- cient French family, said to have sprung from a branch of the Merovingians. Many of its members hold a prominent place in the history of France. One of the most celebrated was Bernard VII., son of John II., surnamed the Hunchback. He succeeded his brother, John III., in 1391, and greatly extended his terri- tories by the most unscrupulous means, putting several of his relations to death because they stood in the way of his ambitious schemes. An- other of the family, John V., grandson of the above, who succeeded his father, John IV., in 1450, made himself notorious for his crimes. On a pretended dispensation from the Pope he married his own sister, by whom he had three children. Ar'magnac', the title of a former district of France now included in the department of Gers. Its inhabitants figured largely in the wars of the Middle Ages, one of their contests being known as the "Armagnac War." in which the Armagnac mercenaries of the Emperor Fred- erick III. were defeated by the Swiss, 26 Aug. 1444. See Berthault's 'L'Armagnac' (1S99). Armagnac War, The (Bellum Armenia- cum; in German called frequently Armegeckeu- krieg), the struggle between the Swiss and the Armagnac mercenaries of Frederick III. in 1444. The war was concluded by the defeat of the Armaguacs at Saint Jacob on the Birs 26 Aug. 1444. See Asmagnacs, The. Armagnacs, The, mercenary bands, de- rived chiefly from the district of Armagnac in southern France, and largely trained in the army recruited in 1410 by Count Bernard of Armagnac for his contest with the Duke of Bur- gundy. They made themselves extremely op- pressive in France through their plundering; and when the Emperor Frederick III. requested auxiliary troops from Charles VII., to assist in the conquest of the Swiss, the latter gladly de- spatched the Armagnacs. Doubtless the king believed he might at the same time be able to ARMANCON — ARMAMENT OF THE WORLD gain control of territory on the left bank of the Upper Rhine. What is known as the Armagnac war ensued. In Germany the word Armagnac was converted into armer Gcck ("poor fool"), and the war frequently styled Armegeckenkrieg. One band of 20,000 Armagnacs proceeded by way of Lorraine, another of 30,000 to southern Alsace, whence it marched against the Swiss. At Saint Jacob 011 the Birs, 26 Aug. 1444, it was badly defeated, with a loss of 6,000, by 2,000 Swiss. It then retired to Alsace, and on 28 Oc- tober a treaty (that of Ensishcim) was con- cluded between France and the Swiss Confed- eration. The Armagnacs continued for a time to work havoc in Alsace and Swabia, where the peasantry retaliated by condemning to death an Armagnac whenever they caught one. In 1445 the remnant was in part dismissed by Charles VII., in part incorporated with other companies of soldiery. Consult the article by Barthold in Raumer's ' llistorisches Tascberbuch,' 2d series, Vol. III. (1842); Wiilcker. 'Urkunden und Schreiber, Betreffend den Zug der Armagna- ken> (1873). Armangon, a river of France, in the Seine basin. It rises about 3 miles south of Pouilly- en-Auxois (Cote-d'Or), flows about 170 miles in a general northwesterly direction, and empties into tin- Yonne at La Roche. From Buffon it is followed by the Burgundian Canal. Its trib- utaries are the Brenne and the Armance. Armament of the World. Arrange- ments made for defense with small arms and artillery belong to what is termed the armament. With small arms it is complete when the ban- quette and the interior and superior slopes are properly arranged to enable the soldier to de- liver his fire with effect, and to mount on the parapet to meet the enemy with the bayonet. The armament with artillery is, in like manner, complete when suitable means are taken to allow the guns to fire over the parapet or through openings made in it, and when all the required accessories are provided for the service of the guns. The manner of placing artillery and its employment must be regulated by its relative importance, under given circumstances, with re- spect to the action of other arms. In the de- fensive, the principal part is usually assigned to the artillery, and the positions taken up by the other arms will, therefore, be subordinate to those "f this arm. In offensive movements, the reverse generally obtains. Unless the batteries are on points which are inaccessible to the en- emy's cavalry and infantry, they must be placed under the protection of the other troops, and be outflanked by them. Preparations should be made to receive the enemy on every point ; the kilteries must be distributed along the entire front of the position occupied, and on those points from which they can obtain a good sweep over the avenues of approach to it ; the guns being masked, when the ground favors, from the enemy's view, until the proper moment ar- rives for opening their fire. Field artillery, used in the operations of an army in the field, must have the essential quality of mobility. The light pieces are constructed to follow the rapid move- ments of light troops and cavalry. The heavy pieces are employed to follow the movements of heavy troops, to commence an action at long distance, to defend field-works and important positions on the field of battle, etc. Field artil- lery is used in combination with infantry and cavalry, or with both to augment their tire and to weaken that of the enemy. It prepares the way for subsequent operations by it > tire upon the enemy before be comes within reach of other weapons; it supports the movements of the various arms, and forms points of support and assembly for troops when driven back. The armament, small arms and field artillery, in the various countries, now used or, at this time, commended and undergoing experiment with a view to adoption, is set out in detail in this article. Austria-Hungary. — The infantry is armed with the model 1895 repeating rifle. The tech- nical troops, the field ami foot artillery, and the enlisted personnel of the subsistence branches, carry the model repeating carbine ( Repetier- StUtzen). The cavalry has the model 1895 re- pealing carbine (Repetier-Karabiner). All these arms are of the Mannlichcr system and have a caliber of 8 millimeters. The Hungarian Hou e of Representathcs recently passed a law to aim the landsturm with 8 millimeter repeating rilles. The officers, cadets, and sergeants of the pio- neers are armed with revolvers and are inde- pendent and capable of defending themselves. Experiments are now being made with the Roth automatic pistol with a view to its replacing the repeating revolver, model [898, at present in use in the infantry. This pistol is provided with a hammerless firing mechanism and a breech clos- ure composed of two rigid and symmetrical locking lugs and can receive 10 cartridges. The cavalry is partly armed with the model 1S70-74 revolver, of the Gasser system, and partly with the model 1898 revolver transformed, this latter being adopted experimentally. Trials have taken place in Austria of machine guns for use with cavalry and for mountain warfare. The gun for the cavalry has a wheel mounting, drawn by a horse. In the mountain section the gun is car- ried by mules, one animal for the gun itself and two for the ammunition and mounting, and 111 action is used upon a tripod, variable in height and having a seat for the gunner upon the leg behind the breech. The mountain guns are upon the Maxim-Nordenfelt system, and fire the ordinary infantry cartridge with a rapidity of 500 rounds per minute, and sights graduated from 200 to 2,000 metres. The supply of ammu- nition carried with the two guns upon the mules provides for 11,000 rounds. Austria-Hungary is experimenting with new artillery material. The long recoil system has been adopted on principle, but the special model has not yet been decided upon. Some batteries of guns submitted by Ehrhardt and Skoda are at present in the hands of the troops. The type of the carriage and whether the caisson should be armored, are two questions now being carefully considered. The gun has been determined to be of 75 mm. cali- ber, with long recoil on the carriage, and is provided with shields and hinged portions and the interrupted-screw fermeture. With regard to the carriage, very complete and satisfactory tests have held with telescope-trail carriages of the Ehrhardt-Mannesmann system, and with carriages of the Skoda system. Both of the models have been modified and highly improved in the course of the experiments. It is believed that the Austrian War Department, adopting the idea that in battle the caissons will be under cover in rear of the line of pieces in battery, will ARMAMENT OF THE WORLD give up the idea of introducing armored cais- sons. Belgium. — The infantry, technical troops, cav- alry, and civil grades are armed with the 7.6- millimeter, model 1S89, Mauser rifle. The non- commissioned officers and trumpeters of the mounted arms and the drivers of the field artil- lery have the Nagant revolver. The officers of the entire army and the noncommissioned officers, "brigadiers," and enlisted men of the gendarmerie carry the Browning automatic pis- tol. The field artillery consists of 34 regular and 6 reserve batteries, all with 6 guns. They are divided into field and horse artillery bat- teries. The field batteries, armed with 8.7-cm. guns, are attached to the army divisions ; the gorse artillery batteries accompany the cavalry divisions and are armed with 7.5-cm. guns. The first and third field artillery regiments each consist of a staff of 8 regular and 1 reserve bat- tery, plus another reserve battery for furnish- ing 3 ammunition columns and a depot. The second and fourth regiments each consist of a staff, 7 regular field and 2 regular horse artillery batteries ; of 2 reserve field batteries, plus I re- serve battery, for providing 3 artillery ammuni- tion columns and a depot. Up to the present the Belgian field artillery has consisted of guns of the 1878 Krupp model of 2 calibers — one of 2.95-inch for the horse artillery, and one of 3.42 for the foot artillery. At the beginning of 1900 a committee was formed to decide on the best type for new guns, and as a result of the com- mittee's deliberations a battery of guns of a new type was ordered from the John Cockerill Nordenfeldt Company, at Seraing, in order that the guns might be put to the test of actual use in the army. In these guns the barrel and car- riage form, for the purpose of firing, one rigid piece; and this type of gun would probably have been selected for the Belgian artillery had not the new French gun prevented the committee from coming to a final decision. The principle of the French gun is the very opposite to the Cockerill gun, as in its case the barrel slides backward and forward on the carriage. Brazil. — At the present time the troops carry the 7 millimeter, model 1893, Mauser rifle. Ex- periments are going forward with a view to par- tial rearmament, particularly with a view to the adoption of an automatic pistol. Competitive trials were held in 1902 between the Krupp and Creusot types, and according to Brazilian reports these tests have demonstrated the superiority of the German model. Further trials, however, of other types are in progress. Creusot, Krupp, Vickers, and Ehrhardt being in competition. Bulgaria. — The infantry is armed with the 8-mm. Mannlicher rifle of the 1888 patterns. Each rifle is supplied with 200 cartridges, 100 being carried by the soldier, 50 in the regimental, and 50 in the artillery park transport. Officers and sergeant-majors are all armed with the Smith & Wesson revolver and a Russian-pattern sword. The militia are armed with Berdan rifles and have 80 cartridges per rifle. The cav- alry is armed with the Mannlicher carbine and a Russian dragoon sword. Each carbine has 60 cartridges. The Parabelhmi automatic pistol, model 1903, is being substituted in place of the Smith & Wesson revolver, for officers. Bulgaria has taken no recent steps for rearmament of her artillery. The present field artillery has S.7-cm. Krupp guns with 120 shots per gun. The re- serve artillery has 75-111111. guns with 149 shots per gun, and 90-mm. bronze Russian guns. The mountain artillery has 75-mm. guns with 133 shots per gun. The gunners are being armed with carbines. Chile. — Like Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia and Uruguay, the troops are armed with the 7-milli- meter, model 1893, Mauser rifle ; but experiments are now going forward with a view to partial rearmament. Chile seems content with its pres- ent field artillery material. This is a light field gun of the Krupp system, with elastic trail- spade, and is well adapted to the local condi- tions of the country. Denmark. — The troops are armed with the 8-millimeter, model 1889, repeating rifle of the Krag-Jiirgensen system. During the course of 1901 the Copenhagen militia was armed with 8-millimeter, model i88g, rifles, having hitherto had the models 1867-96 breech-loading rifles. A machine gun, invented by a Danish lieutenant and adopted in the Danish army and navy, has a caliber of 6.5 millimeters and a weight of 6 kilograms ; the initial velocity is 720 meters. The rapidity of fire is attained by means of a loading frame holding 30 cartridges, which can be fired in two seconds. The rate of fire is thus 300 rounds per minute, including the time re- quired to substitute full loading frames for the empty ones. Experiments of new field guns have been completed, and the firm of Krupp has been commissioned to deliver the new ma- terial, excepting the ammunition. The gun is 75 mm. caliber, on the "Rohrrucklauf" carriage, with shield. The weight of the projectile is 6.75 kgs. ; initial velocity, 500 meters per sec- ond. Rapidity of fire, 15 to 20 shots a minute. Weight of carriage is 1,000 kgs. Weight of gun, including ammunition and limber (44 rounds), 1,800 kgs. The ammunition carts are armored. France. — The troops are armed with the 8- millimeter, models 1886 and 1893, rifles and car- bines. At the normal firing school of the forti- fied camp of Chalons-sur-Marne experiments were made in the summer of 1902 for the pur- pose of improving the firearms of the infantry. The object was to do away with the exceedingly sensitive repeating mechanism and to substitute for it a loader which, without impairing the rapidity of fire, would preclude any possibility of the weapons being rendered unserviceable. The latest invention, which is said to have at- tained good results, is a new projectile called "bullet D." Very satisfactory experiments were carried out with this bullet. Preparations arc being made for the manufacture of 30,000 car- bines of a new model for the colonial army. It is intended to substitute this new weapon for the models 1886-93 rifles and the model 1892 carbine in the colonial infantry and artillery. The rifle has proved too heavy and cumbersome for the difficult and fatiguing service which these troops have to perform on their extensive expeditions. The old carbine has not shown itself equal to requirements. Not to mention its heavy recoil, in certain cases it does not pro- duce sufficient intensity of fire and therefore does not inflict as heavy losses on the enemy as are necessary. It has. therefore, been decided to adopt a mixed model in which the ballistic qualities of the Lebel rifle and the present cartridge are retained but a different repeating mechanism is used. The experiments with au- ARMAMENT OF THE WORLD tomatic rifles are being continued uninterruptedly in France. In the > | > r 1 1 1 .u "I 1902 experiments were made with the Mondragon automatic rule and carbine on the firing grounds of Hotcbkiss & Co., at St. Denis, and gave complete satis- faction and proved the superiority of the weapon over all others tested theretofore. However much opinions may differ regarding the military utility of automatic rifles, there is certainly a manifest tendency toward increas- ing the rapidity of fire of small arms to cor- respond with the improvements that have re- cently been made in rapid-tire cannon. The automatic rifle bids fair to become the weapon of the future. Germany and Italy already have a model which is by no means inferior to the Mondragon rifle as a military weapon. These models, however, are being carefully preserved in arm depots. The authorities are ready to begin their manufacture and to arm the troops with them as soon as France has set the ex- ample. Most foreign officers have acknow- ledged the superiority of the automatic rifle, but its adoption is being indefinitely deferred because it would entail an enormous burden on the military budgets of the European countries. The French field batteries have been armed with the new 75 mm. rapid-fire material since 1897. This is a long recoil field gun with pro- tective shields and was manufactured with great secrecy in the government work shops at Brouges. Although the secret of the details of construction is not divulged, it is nevertheless known that this gun possesses great ballistic power, and that its projectiles weigh somewhat more than those of similar guns constructed elsewhere. Its only disadvantage appears to be the weight of gun and carriage. Criticism has also been made of the shields used, as present- ing rather a reduced amount of surface for the protection of the cannoneers. The pneumatic recuperator is about to be given up for a light rapid-fire gun suitable for the horse artillery. Germany. — The marine infantry, the infantry regiments of the East Asiatic brigade of occu- pation, the guard corps, and parts of the first to seventh, ninth, eleventh, twelfth, fourteenth, and eighteenth army corps, and of the non- commissioned officers' schools are armed with the model 1898 rifle. The issue of the model 1898 carbine has been begun. A new weapon (a sort of carbine) will be purchased for the foot artillery after the rearmament of the in- fantry is completed. All the remaining organ- izations of the German army now carry the model 1888 rifle or carbine. The small-arms and ammunition factory of Adolph Loeschc at Magdeburg, has placed a target rifle on the market which is in use in several Infantry regi- ments with great success. Three kinds of cartridges are adapted to this rifle. Experi- ments are now in progress with the Borchardt, Mauser, Mannlicher, Parabellum and Browning automatic pistols. Germany is now inclining to the new long recoil system in artillery. Although the minis- ter of war maintains his opinion before the reichstag of the superiority of the German elas- tic trail-spade type over the French long recoil, Germany, nevertheless, continues the process of transformation or suppression of the model 1896. The necessity for rearmament is appre- ciated and desired, but such haste was made in adopting the model 1896 material with elastic trail-spade that financial considerations prevent Germany from undertaking at present a com- pletely new rearmament of the field artillery. The result is that trials are now going on to change the field guns, model 1S96, into long recoil guns by an adaptation of recoil on the carriage to the present gun, that is to say, while keeping the gun itself, a carriage has been de- signed with a cradle for the piece. The carriage has also been fitted with protective shields. The guns thus modified do not possess the double- laying arrangement applied to the cradle or top carriage. The gun itself retains the rear sight and fore sight, and the changes that have been made affect principally the carriage. According to the German press, the results have been sat- isfactory both in regard to acting during firing and in maneuvering facilities. In spite of the added weight of the shields, the total weight does not exceed the usual limits. Thirty-six of these altered guns are in the hands of troops, attached in part to the guard at Berlin, three batteries, and in part to the Field Artillery Shooting School at Juterbog. Five batteries have taken part in last autumn's maneuvers and have given satisfaction. In addition to the foregoing, Germany is also engaged in con- ducting trials of new long recoil types. The Ehrhardt new model, 1899, has been found in- adequate and Krupp's model, 1900, has proved better. Two of these guns were tested in 1902 by an artillery commission and resulted in or- ders being given for seven trial batteries, which were thoroughly proved under service condi- tions in 1903, and were found to be very satis- factory, but the design was modified slightly and submitted for further test. The Krupp gun chosen is similar in all particulars to that adopted by the Swiss, and like that model con- stitutes one of the best of the recently con- structed rapid-fire systems. Great Britain. — The European and the great- est part of the Indian native troops carry the 7.7-millimeter Lee-Metford rifle, model 1889-91, and the models 1895 Lee-Enfield rifle ; the remainder of the Indian native troops are still armed with various old models, among which are the Martini-Henry and Snider rifles, while certain select corps and the military police on the northwest frontier carry Mauser rifles captured in South Africa. The unmounted officers of the foot troops carry the Lee-Enfield carbine, while the other officers are armed with the revolver. The contemplated improve- ments in the Lee-Enfield rifle shown to be necessary in the South African war appear to be essentially as follows: The barrel will be shortened by 127 millimeters and will thus be the shortest barrel possessed by any rifle yet adopted. In order to compensate for the de- creased stability of the projectile caused by this shortening of the barrel, the seven rifling grooves are to be given a somewhat higher pitch, so that the trajectory will remain similar to the previous one. The Mauser breech-clos- ing mechanism has been adopted, with some improvements enabling it to be taken apart without the use of a screw-driver. It will be fed by means of a loading clip containing five cartridges. The sight has been improved and provides for an allowance for wind and tem- perature. A triangular dagger bayonet 35 cen- timeters long and slightly heavier than the present one has been adopted. In order to ARMAMENT OF THE WORLD lighten the weapon holes are bored longitudi- nally through the handguard and transversely through the stock, the butt plate being of alu- minum. The total reduction of weight amounts to .530 kilogram, leaving the weight of the rifle 4.12 kilograms. Experiments with the Ross straight-pull breech closure, the Harris maga- zine, and the Hylard rifle do not appear to have resulted favorably. Canada has, however, de- cided to adopt the Ross rifle, and both rifle and ammunition are to be manufactured in the gov- ernment factory at Quebec, the number of rifles to be turned out yearly being from 12,000 to 15,000. The length of the Ross rifle without bayonet is I.22 meters, and with bayonet 1.44 meters ; the weight without bayonet is 3.43 kilo- grams ; with bayonet 3.74 kilograms. The Aus- tralian colonies appear to have decided to adopt the Ross rifle. Major Woodgate, of the Brit- ish army, has recently invented a new system of automatic rifle, which is very simple and capa- ble of adjustment to rifles already in service, in- cluding the Lee-Enfield. The chamber of this rifle has a capacity for 20 cartridges (10 being the normal number), so that the number of rounds per minute can be brought up to 200. In artillery England has 18 batteries of Ehr- hardt rapid-fire guns, of 3-inch caliber, firing a projectile weighing 14 pounds 15 ounces. The carriage has a hydraulic buffer with spring re- cuperators for returning the piece in battery, and a telescopic trail. After several years of experiment, a long recoil gun, combining the best qualities of recent designs by Armstrong and Vickers, and much superior to the former 15-pounder, has been adopted. The new gun is exceptionally powerful and efficient. The improved time fuse permits of effective shrap- nel fire at a range of 6,000 yards, an enormous advance on anything possible with the old type of field gun. There are four special points in which the new type surpasses the old. These are simplicity of the breech action, in which the interrupted screw is abolished, increased range, vastly increased rapidity of fire, and perfect absorption of the recoil. In the old type of gun a coned steel block carrying an in- terrupted screw thread was used to close the breech, and intricate and comparatively delicate mechanism was necessary to work it quickly, ■while the danger of barring or injuring the screw threads when inserting the shell necessi- tated an amount of care which materially in- terfered with the loading of the gun. Greece. — The infantry is armed with the 11-millimeter, model 1871, Gras rifle; but ex- periments are in progress to decide upon a re- armament with a small caliber rifle. For finan- cial reasons, Greece has not made any decision as regards the rearmament of field artillery. Italy. — All the infantry of the line and the mobile militia are armed with the model 1S01 rifle, the cavalry with the model 1891 carbine, and the special arms with the model 1891 car- bine (Stutzen), all of the 6.5 millimeter caliber. The territorial militia carries the modified Vet- terli rifle, caliber 10.4 millimeters. A new pis- tol, embodying all the latest improvements, has been adopted for the officers of the army in place of the 10.35-millimeter, model 1889, re- volver. It has an automatic mechanism, is of small caliber, and fires smokeless powder. The loading is done in the same manner as the model 1891 rifle. The field gun question in Vol. 1 — 45. Italy has long been a subject of controversy. Discussion of the question of the proper type of new material has been vigorously conducted on both sides by critics and leading military writ- ers, but the Italian army, it seems, is the one that has remained for the longest time averse to the idea of a field gun with long recoil on the carriage. As is known, the Italian field artil- lery consisted of two calibers of guns, the 87 mm. B, of steel, forming the armament of the larger part of the batteries, and the 75 mm. B, of bronze. In 1896 and 1897 when France and Germany effected the transformation of their field material a partial transformation was de- cided upon in Italy. For the material 87 mm. B, the cast-iron shrapnel was retained, and the changes made were confined to limiting the re- coil of the piece by the addition of a trail-spade, and to increasing the rapidity of loading by improvements in the breech mechanism. Japan.— All the infantry is armed with the 6.5 millimeter 30 Meiji rifle, and the cavalry with the Meiji carbine. The weight of pro- jectile of the new rifle is 10.3 grams, and the velocity of the bullet at 25 meters from the muzzle is 706 meters. The Mourata guns of the 1880 and 1887 types arm the troops of the second line. The new gun of Col. Ansaka, model 1897, manufactured at the Tokio works, like the Russian gun, is a repeater of small calibre (.25 inch) with a central magazine for five cartridges It belongs to the Mauser tvpe. The barrel is 31 inches in length and is provided with six grooves turning from left to right. The breech sight is mounted upon it by means of a long sleeve, the upper part of which, flattened and hollowed, forms its foot. The prismatic muzzle- sight is secured to a small hoop surrounding the barrel. The movable breech is of the bolt system, and turns back upon the side. The magazine, closed at its lower part by a cover, contains an elevating plate actuated by a spring. The recharging is done by means of a brass charging plate provided with five cartridges. The breech sight, without steps, is graduated from 400 to 2.000 yards. A sabre-bayonet hav- ing a 21-inch blade, with bevelled and hollowed sides, is attached in the usual manner. The cartridge weighs 336 grains. The initial ve- locity is 2,378 feet and the pitch of the trajectory is 387 feet at 500 yards. The gun, with the bayonet, is 5.44 tret and weighs 9.6 pounds. The Japanese foot soldier carries 120 cartridges, partly in two cartridge boxes and partlv in boxes in the knapsack. Japan seems very well satisfied with their Arisaka gun for artillery use, and nothing has appeared of any steps being taken towards the introduction of a new material. Mexico.— The infantry is armed with the 7-milhmeter, model 1893, Mauser rifle, and the cavalry with the 7-millimeter Mauser carbine. 1 here are probably about 10,000 modified Rem- ington rifles (arranged for Mauser ammunition) and 15.000 Remington rifles of larger caliber on hand. It is doubtful whether the rifle, which was first manufactured in the French rifle fac- tory at Saint Etienne, reallv possesses thi ities attributed to it, name! v. absolute reliabil- ity, accuracy, and a rate of fire of 60 rounds per minute when used automatically. Accord- ing to trustworthy reports a rate of tire of 13 to 15 shots per minute was attained during ex- ARMAMENT OF THE WORLD perinients made in Mexico with the Mondragon rifle used as a repeater in aimed fire; in filling the magazine the marksman had to place the rifle against his thigh, probably in order to overcome a strong resistance of the lock mech- anism. When used as an automatic arm a rate of 31 shots per minute was attained only once, which resulted in injuring the breech mechan- ism. The latter is said to get out of order very easily, and, moreover, the muzzle jumps at every shot, so that the accuracy cannot be very great during automatic rapid fire. In ar- tillery Mexico has carried out long competitive trials and at their conclusion, after having or- dered four batteries of guns from Creusot in 1002, asked Saint diamond in 1003 to submit a model of the Saint Chamond-Mondragon type modified according to the desires of the Mex- ican commission. If this type proves satisfac- tory, eight batteries are to be ordered at once. Montenegro. — This principality has 30.000 Russian three-line repeating rifles and 80,000 rifles of various other systems, principally Ber- dan and Werndl rifles. The enlisted men of the first seniority are armed in peace with one new and one old rifle each. The field artillery consists of the Krupp steel gun, caliber 75 mm. Netherlands. — All troops are armed with the 6.5-millimeter, model 1895, Mannlicher rifle and the 9.4-millimeter, model 1873, revolver, Chame- lot-Deloigne system. The 6.5-millimeter rifle fires a bullet weighing 10.15 grams with an in- itial velocity of 723 meters. The present field artillery dates from 1878, and no longer fulfills the ballistic and other technical requirements of the present day. The necessity of rearmament was taken under consideration in 1001 and mod- els were entered by Ehrhardt, Schneider-le- Creusot and Krupp. It has been determined that Krupp's 75 mm. long recoil gun deserved the preference and the same has been recently recommended for adoption and a contract for 204 field guns of this type is now pending. The adopted type is the Krupp nickel-steel field gun with long recoil on the carriage : its length is 30 calibers, and it is provided with nickel-steel shields 3 to 4 mm. thick. It fires shrapnel and explosive shell weighing 13.2 pounds, fixed ammunition being used. The muzzle velocity is 1,640 f. s., rapidity of fire 20 shots per minute. The shrapnel contains 270 bullets, each weighing 11 grams. The extreme range is 7,000 yards, and that for shrapnel with time fuse 6,125 yards. The unlimbered gun weighs with shields and complete equipment not quite 2,200 pounds. Each gun with its limber and 3 caissons counts 336 rounds. The introduction of this material will be completed by the end of 1906. Norzt'Ciy. — The infantry is armed with the 6.5-millimeter, model 1894, Krag-Jorgensen rifle, which fires the model 1896 cartridge. Experi- ments, concluding in 1891, were made with models of long recoil guns from Armstrong, Hotchkiss, Nordenfelt-Cockerill, Saint Chamond, Schneider-le-Creusot, and Ehrhardt, and finally gave preference to the last named. The pro- gram of the tests was very thorough and severe. It included firing 350 rounds from each gun, transportation over long distances both by rail and in ordinary carts over mountainous coun- try, in which the material received much rough treatment, more firing tests and finally a long march over difficult country and under varied conditions. The final firing showed that the material was in good condition, all the parts functioned well, and the hydro-pneumatic brake was in perfect order. Norway has obtained 132 guns of the Ehrhardt system and 72. cais- sons. As in the case of France, the adopted gun has the disadvantage of being rather heavy, 2,209 pounds, without any shields. The ques- tion of shields has only been considered after the guns were ordered, so that its weight makes the problem of providing it with shields a dif- ficult one. Portugal. — The infantry of the active army and of tlie first reserve is armed with the 6.5- millimeter, Mannlicher rifle; the infantry of the second reserve is armed with the 8-millimeter, model 1886 Kropatschek rifle ; and the colonial infantry and artillery and the cavalry carry the 6.5-millimetcr Mannlicher carbine. The only modern field artillery Portugal possesses are two horse batteries having guns with elastic trail-spade carriages. The government sent a special commission some time ago to different countries to gather information from the promi- nent gunmakers. This commission has sub- mitted its report, on the strength of which it has been decided to make conclusive trials in Portugal with some proposed constructions by Krupp and Schneider. Russia. — The active and reserve troops are armed with the three-line ritle (7.62 milli- meters), model 1891, and the cavalry with the 7.62-millimeter, model 1896, Cossack carbine. The 7.62-millimeter Nagant six-shooter, non- gas-leaking revolver has been officially adopted and is manufactured in the Belgian arm-factory by Leon Nagant at Luttich. The extensive small arm factories in Russia are those of Tula, Sestrorietsk, and Ijevsk. They not only manu- facture rifles, but all other kinds of war stores. The 3-line (.275-inch) gun of the 1891 model is the invention of Col. Mossine of the Rus- sian artillery and is a repeating arm with a central magazine for five cartridges. The bar- rel has four grooves directed from left to right and is 30 inches in length. The breech box, screwed to the rear of the barrel, is provided on the side to the left with a piece that acts as cartridge shell ejector and isolator. The movable breech is of the bolt type and swings back at the side. The magazine contains the elevating mechanism, formed of a lever joined to the cover and a plate jointed to the lever. It receives a loader provided with five car- tridges. The breech sight is stepped and pro- vided with a slider, which is held in place by a spring and serves for indicating distances. The bayonet comprises a quadrangular blade and remains fixed to the end of the barrel, even during firing. The cartridge weighs 590 grains. The initial velocity is 2,035 feet and the pitch of the trajectory at 1,970 feet is 72 feet. The length of the gun with bayonet is 5.7 feet and weighs 9.5 pounds. The Russian soldier car- ries 120 cartridges, partly in two cartridge boxes and partly in the knapsack. After protracted experiments Russia has provisionally chosen for the field artillery a type of gun and carriage designed by General Engel- hart. A large part of the Russian field artil- lery has been armed with this new gun con- structed at the Poutilov works. The gun, together with the cradle that supports it, re- coils on the lower carriage, and the recoil is controlled by a glycerine brake, and a column ARMAMENT OF THE WORLD of rubber buffers fitted in the trail. These rub- ber cushions act as return springs to return the gun in battery. This gun is of great ballistic power, but the same objection is raised against it as in the case of the French and Norwegian material, its great weight. Nor is the carriage provided with shields. Whether the caissons are to be armored is not known, though the regulations prescribe placing them beside the pieces in action. Servia. — The infantry carries the "-milli- meter, model 1899, Mauser rifle, and million rounds of ammunition for this rifle has been purchased. The engineers, fortress artillery, and militia have a reserve of Berdan and Pea- body rifles. The cavalry carry Mauser-Kota carbines and swords. The artillery is armed with 80 mm. de Bange guns, and has, in addi- tion, 60 Krupp and 40 mountain guns. The gunners are armed with the same rifle as the infantry. The siege artillery has 90 guns of six different types, and in the fortress artillery the difference of the systems is even more marked. Up to the present time, the trials contemplated in Servia have been only with a battery of Skoda guns. They were being begun at the time of the assassination of King Alexander. Additional trials are now contemplated. Spain. — The Spanish army is armed with the 7-millimeter Mauser rifle. In artillery Spain after prolonged trials ordered three years ago from Saint Chamond and from Krupp 120 guns of a transition type. The carriages are equipped with hydraulic brakes, have a trail-spade, and there are spring recuperators under the body of the carriage. This material was delivered about two years ago. At about the same time 24 field pieces with long recoil on the carriage were ordered from Creusot, which were ac- cepted only after much delay due to the failure of the material to meet the requirements of the Spanish artillery. Recently the Spanish gov- ernment opened a new competition for guns with long recoil on the carriage, but it seems that no decision has been arrived at as to the type to be adopted for the field artillery. It is reported that the idea of experimenting at home has been given up, and a special board of in- formation has been sent to France, England and Germany. Sweden.— The infantry is armed with the 6.5 millimeter, model 1896, rifle, and the cavalry with the model 1896 carbine, both of the Mauser system. In order to replenish the sup- ply, 350,000 rifles and 50,000 carbines of the above-mentioned models are to be purchased for the Swedish army. When recent artillery trials began in Sweden, Cockerill and Krupp were the only competitors. The two French firms, Schneider and Saint Chamond, found it impossible to fill the specifications as to the weight of the unlimbered gun. The Krupp long recoil material was adopted for the field artillery, and Sweden has ordered 132 guns and 66 caissons from Essen. For the horse ar- tillery the Krupp short recoil material was chosen, and 24 guns with elastic trail-spade have been bought from the Krupp works. Sn-itzerland. — The infantry has the 7.5-milli- meter, model 1889-96, Schmidt-Rubin rifle; the cavalry carries the 7.5-millimeter, model 1893, rifle, with Mannlicher breech closure : the posi- tion artillery, fortress troops, telegraph com- panies, balloon company, and cyclist detachment are armed with the 7.5 millimeter, model 1889-1900, short rifle ; the cadets have the 7.5- millimcter, model 1897, cadet rifle; the officers carry the 7.65-millimeter, model 1900, pistol ; the noncommissioned officers and buglers of the elite cavalry and artillery are provided with model 1882 revolvers ; the remainder have the model 1878 revolvers. A spirited con- troversy has arisen in regard to the qual- ities of the recently adopted model 1900 automatic pistol (Parabellum). The arguments advanced are specially worthy of interest as affording an idea of how the Parabellum pistol behaves in actual service, Switzerland and Bel- gium being the only countries that have thus far adopted an automatic pistol to any great extent. The general impression gained is that in changing from a revolver to a pistol the troops did not perhaps receive adequate instruc- tions as to the management of the latter, so that a number of accidents occurred which were rather due to the ignorance of the posses- sors regarding the weapon than to any inherent defect in the weapon itself. From a circular is- sued by the chief of artillery forbidding the making of any changes in the pistol by private armorers it appears probable that the accidents which have occurred are attributed to such changes. In the recent Swiss trials of artillery nearly all the leading gun factories of Europe competed and Cockerill, Ehrhardt, Krupp, Schneider and Skoda furnished their latest models. Saint Chamond accepted the invita- tion to compete, but did not deliver its gnu in time and did not participate in the trials. Later on this gun was inspected at Saint Chamond but without result. In fact, the artillery com- mission on field artillery rearmament has dur- ing the last six years submitted all the models that it has been able to procure and experiment with, to most searching examination and most thorough tests under all conditions. The final trials commenced in 1901, and in March 1903 the commission submitted its report declaring that the Krupp 75 mm. long recoil model was not only the most satisfactory in all respects and the best of all the models tested, but that it was the best adapted for service in the field. The Federal Council addressed a message to the Federal Assembly on I May 1903, deciding on the adoption of the new gun, and in that year the Swiss government ordered from Krupp 288 guns, with which it is proposed to arm 72 bat- teries of 4 pieces each. This docs not include reserve material and that for instruction pur- poses. The material adopted, officially desig- nated "field artillery material, 1903," is Krupp's latest design of long recoil field gun with spring recuperator and shields. The question of ths exact dimensions of the shield is deferred for the time being; the size may be reduced and the. side wings dispensed with. It was decided by the commission to armor the caisson bodies. Fixed ammunition is used. The larger part will consist of shrapnel with combination fuses, that being considered the principal projectile, but the batteries will also be provided with ex. plosive shell with percussion fuses. All pro- jectiles will have the same weight. The ammu- nition supply will be 800 rounds per gun. The commission also studied the question of field howitzers, making trials of different models sub- mitted by Krupp and Skoda, and decided in favor of one of 12 cm. caliber, but the particular ARMAMENT OF THE WORLD model is still to be selected. The commission was of the opinion that the introduction of a howitzer for the Swiss artillery should not be made at the price of reducing the number of field guns. It estimated that there was neces- sity for the purchase of 8 batteries of 4 pieces each, constituting 4 groups of 2 batteries. For the howitzers, the ammunition supply will be 500 rounds per gun. In regard to mountain guns, the commission has conducted several tests of a Krupp gun of a system similar to that of the field material, 1903. Although the re- sults obtained thus far have been satisfactory, it has been thought best to continue the experi- ments with two pieces in which certain modifica- tions of details have been made. Turkey. — The cadres of the European army corps (first, second, and third) are armed with the 7.65-millimeter Mauser rifle, the fourth corps (Asia Minor) has the 9.5-millimeter Mauser magazine rifle, and the troops of the other corps carry the 1 1. 4-millimeter Martini- Henry and Peabody rifle. The manufacture of the 7.65-millimeter Mauser rifles in Turkish shops has encountered difficulties, for, accord- ing to authentic reports, 200,000 rifles of caliber 7.5 mm. were ordered in Germany at the end of 1902. The Turkish field artillery consists of 248 batteries, of which 18 are field, 178 horse, 46 mountain, and 6 howitzer_ batteries. It is said that 9 more batteries are in course of for- mation. Without having any recent trials at home, Turkey has ordered from the Krupp works 184 guns with which it is intended to equip 16 batteries of 6 pieces each, and 22 bat- teries of 4 pieces. These guns are of the mod- ern long recoil system. The order included all accessories, caissons, battery wagons, ammuni- tion and harness. The government is now urg- ing the delivery of the first six batteries con- structed. Turkey has in the past sent several delegations to Essen and on two occasions also to other workshops. A military commission of prominent officers of the sultan's army is now in France visiting the establishments of Creusot and Saint diamond in order to study the most recent models of long recoil rapid-fire guns. United Stales. — The new Springfield maga- zine rifle, possessing numerous improvements on the Krag-Jorgensen rifle, is now under construc- tion and will be placed in the hands of all troops, regular army and National Guard, as rapidly as possible. The principal points of its difference from the Krag-Jorgensen are the use of two lugs instead of one for holding the bolt against the rearward pressure of the powder, with resulting increase of strength sufficient to enable a velocity of 2,300 feet per second to be lined; the housing of the magazine in the stock directly below the chamber instead of having its project to one side. In addition to these there are various changes of details which both improve the rifle and cheapen and acceler- ate its production. The arm is supplied with a cleaning rod which can be partially pulled from its place below the barrel and held with a catch so as to form a bayonet. Its great ad- vantage is that it lightens the weight made up of the gun, bayonet, and bayonet scabbard, and by dispensing with the latter two as separate articles to be carried permits the soldier to carry with him an intrenching tool of sufficient size and weight to be serviceable. There are differences of opinion as to the value of the rod bayonet ; although less effective as a bayonet alone than the one now in use in the service, it is undoubtedly of some value in converting the musket into a pike, and in view of the increas- ing prominence of the intrenching tool and the decreasing occasion for the use of the bayonet its experimental substitution is in line with ap- parent progress in subordinating the latter to the former. The piece is centrally fed by means of clips, each of which holds five cartridges. H has a caliber of .30 inch, and the rilling is made up of four grooves of a depth of 0.004 inch, the twist being one turn in 10 inches. The bullet weighs 220 grains, which is the same as that of the Krag-Jorgensen, but the powder charge has been raised from 37.6 to 43.3 grains. In spite of the considerable increase in its power the weapon has been greatly reduced in weight ; for while the Krag-Jorgensen rifle weighs 10.64 pounds, the Mauser 10.5 pounds, and the Ger- man military rifle 11.54 pounds, the new weapon weighs only 9.47 pounds. It follows, as a mat- ter of course, that, with such high velocity and fairly heavy bullet, the trajectory is correspond- ingly flat, the maximum ordinate of the 1,000- yard trajectory being only 20.67 feet as against 25.8 feet for the Krag-Jorgensen gun, a very material difference. The cartridge for the .30 caliber arm consists of the case, bullet, primer and charge of smokeless powder. The case has a flanged head, primer seat, conical body, shoul- der, cylindrical neck, and is made of brass. The bullet is lubricated, and has a core of lead and tin composition jacketed with cupro-nickel ; it has three grooves, and the mouth of the case is crimped into the front groove to secure the bullet in place. The core is composed of I part of tin and 25 parts of lead by weight; this pro- portion is varied slightly in order to keep the weight of the finished bullet constantly at 220 grains. The primer is composed of a cup, made of cartridge copper and containing the compo- sition, a water-proofed paper disk, and a brass anvil. In plan, the anvil is a circle with two small semicircular portions removed from op- posite sides ; these two openings form vents for the passage of the flame from the composition to the powder. The powder is of the nitroglycerine type. Up to the present time three different powders have been used (Peyton, Du Pont and Laflin & Rand, W. A.). The charge varies with the powder used from 35 to 42 grains. The primer composition is known as H-48, and con- sists of 8.63 per cent sulphur, 25.12 per cent antimony sulphide, 49.61 per cent potassium chlorate, and 16.64 per cent glass crystals. The weight of the cartridge complete varies from 435 to 442 grains. The standard instrumental velocity, at 53 feet from the muzzle, of this am- munition in the rifle, is 1,966 feet per second, with an allowed variation of but 15 feet per second on either side of the standard. This in- strumental velocity at 53 feet corresponds to a muzzle velocity in the rifle of about 2,000 feet per second. The velocity in the carbine is 80 feet per second less than in the rifle. Experi- ments with automatic pistols and their trial in the hands of troops are in progress, but the con- flicting reports of the advantages and disad- vantages of the weapons issued for trial have not been such as to warrant the abandonment of the present service revolver for any of the types tried. ARMAND — ARMATOLES Work upon the lately adopted 3-inch field artillery material is progressing rapidly. There are under construction 25 batteries for the regu- lar service and 16 for the militia. The caisson for the material differs from that in use with the 3.2 inch B. L. rifle in being a metal fabrication, and in having a single chest, instead of two, upon the caisson body, and the omission of means for carrying spare wheels, these latter being transported on the combined forge and battery wagon. The manufacture of 90 moun- tain guns, carriages and pack outfits of the Vickers Sons & Maxim system, with several suggested improvements, is in progress. The aparejo to be used is a modification of the for- mer regulation pattern, with a view to facilitat- ing packing and general adaptability. Experi- ments and investigations are now active with a view to bettering the mountain, field, and siege artillery, and machine and automatic guns, of which the famous Galling is the pioneer. The models in use at the present time are the 1.456-inch (37-millimeter, i-pounder) automatic gun, 1.50-inch revolving cannon, 1.65-inch B. L. mountain gun, 2.95-inch Vickers-Maxim moun- tain gun, 3-inch Hotchkiss mountain gun, 3.2- inch B. L. rifle, 3.6-inch B. L. rifle, 3.6-inch B. L. mortar, 5-inch B. L. siege rifle, 7-inch B. L. howitzer, and 7-inch B. L. mortar, together with a variety of pieces used for saluting purposes and for firing the morning and evening guns at posts. These latter are nearly all of the old 3-inch, wrought-iron type, or 12-pounder bronze smooth-bores. Sea Coast Artillery. — It is only recently that we have become accustomed to the term "Sea Coast Artillery." A few years ago all guns were comparatively small, using the same pro- pelling agent and firing spherical projectiles. Not long ago, any siege gun would have been serviceable against the wooden ships of the day. To-day, all countries have sea coast guns to resist naval attacks and siege guns for the reduction of fortified positions. It is not im- probable that the United States may be soon called upon to use sea coast guns, while it is difficult to imagine circumstances under which we might employ our siege artillery. In Europe — that is, on the continent — sea coast artillery is unimportant ; for there, war con- sists practically of land fighting and conse- quently the field artillery comes prominently forward. France and other countries have a mongrel lot of obsolescent guns in their shore defences, while they have recently _ spent mil- lions of dollars for rapid-fire field pieces of the latest designs. Twenty-five years ago the pro- pelling agent was black powder ;_ and. in load- ing, the powder charge, the projectile and the primer were separately put in place. _ Now these are in one piece, smokeless powder is used, and great improvements in the breech mechanism have wonderfully increased the rate of aimed fire. The control of the recoil and the universal use of shrapnel is a great step toward the possi- bility of disabling an antagonist before he can fire a shot in return. The rapid fire and sea coast guns of the United States, at present in use. many of which are almost obsolete, are the 6-pounder Amer- ican Ordnance Company gun. the 6-pounder Driggs-Seaburv gun, the 15-pounder gun. the 4-inch Driggs-Seabury gun, the 4.72-inch Arm- strong gun, the 6-inch Armstrong gum the 5-inch Ordnance Department gun, the 6-inch Ordnance Department model 1897 gun, the 6-inch Ordnance Department model 1900 gun, the 8-inch B. L. R. gun, the 10-inch B. L. R. gun, the 12-inch B. L. R. gun, the 12- inch B. L. M., cast-iron body gun, and the 12- inch B. L. M. steel gun. These guns, together with several experimental, including the 10- and 6-inch Brown segmental tube wire guns, the 6-inch wire-wound gun (Ordnance Department design), and a 6-inch Bofors R. F. gun with semi-automatic breech action constituting our coast armament of to-day, are far from satisfac- tory and invite the development and substitu- tion of new features. The 16-inch gun, called for by the Fortification Board in 1885, has been recently constructed. As no gun of this power has heretofore been built, and as a special pow- der had to be made for it, the test was watched with much interest. It was designed to fire a 2,400-pound projectile with a muzzle velocity of 2,300 feet per second and a powder pressure n"t exceeding 38,000 pounds per square inch. The proof firing was attended with entire success. At the fourth round with a charge of 640 pounds of Du Pont's smokeless powder and a 2,400-pound projectile, a velocity of 2,317 feet per second with a pressure of 36,700 pounds per square inch was attained. That the design and construction of such a huge weapon should be successfully accomplished without a mishap of any kind, and that the calculated ballistic results should be so accurately verified, are subjects of gratification. The use of smokeless powder in such large charges was beyond the experience of the world, and the demonstration that it would when so used follow the same law of burning as with charges of the size previously employed is a service to the art of the con- struction of ordnance. Whether this gun will be reproduced for use in sea coast fortifications is a matter still to be determined; there are at present no plans calling for its installation, but it is satisfactory to know from the results of actual trial that, in considering at any time the desirability of employing guns of greater power than those of the caliber, 12 inches, now consti- tuting our most powerful weapons, the subject need not be complicated by the question of practicability. Capt. Edward S. Farrow, Late Assistant Instructor of Tactics at the United States Military Academy. Armand, Sr'man, Charles Teffin, a French soldier: b. in 1753; d. in 1793. Coming to America in 1777. he was given a colonel's com- mission in the American army, succeeded Pulas- ki in command of the "Pulaski Legion," in 1770. and became a brigadier-general in 1783. Returning to France he was active on the Roy- alist side in the French Revolution. Armande, ar-maiid', an elder sister of Henriette in Moliere's -inch rifle and of the Woolwich 81- ton gun marked the final supremacy of the gun. Wrought iron armor had then reached its high- est development on the British ship Inflexible, which was protected by two layers of 12-inch plates with 11 inches of teak between them and backed by 6 inches of teak and two 1-inch skin plates. Compound armor, composed of a hard steel face welded upon a wrought iron back, next came into general use, but homogeneous steel, first made in the form of heavy plating by Schneider & Co. of France, disputed with it for the palm and finally proved its superiority. In 1890 nickel steel had its first public trial, on the United States naval proving ground at Annapo- lis, Md., in competition with compound armor and with homogeneous steel ; and in the same year a steel plate hardened on one face was also tried at Annapolis and showed phenomenal re- sistance to perforation. Further tests demon- strated the decisive superiority of the surface- hardened steel plates, called Harveyized from the inventor of the process, and in a very short time they were universally adopted for armoring ships. The following briefly describes the method of manufacturing this armor. The ingot, of approximately rectangular cross sec- tion and about twice the weight of the fin- ished plate, is made of open-hearth steel, suffi- cient nickel being added to the furnace charge to give about 2>V\ P er cent > n the casting. Af- ter cooling, the ingot is stripped, reheated, and forged to nearly the required thickness, being handled by a porter bar forged from the upper end, and the entire forging operation usually requiring several heats. In the early days of steel armor manufacture immense steam ham- mers were used for forging, but now hydraulic presses are preferred. After forging, the upper end of the plate is cut off under the hammer or press, and the remainder, after cooling, placed in the Harveyizing furnace with its back and sides well protected by refractory materials and its face covered with a carbonizing mixture, where it is raised to a high temperature and left to soak for several days. When the carbon has penetrated sufficiently into its face, the plate is removed from the furnace and given a sec- ondary forging which reduces it to the required thickness, after which it is trimmed to size in a planer and its face is cleaned. The next opera- tion consists of heating the plate and chilling its surface with a spray of cold water, which hardens the highly carbonized face but leaves the body of the plate still soft. If the plate is to be bent or curved this operation is performed under a press after the carbonizing but before the final heating for hardening the face. The final operation is boring and tapping the bolt holes in the back of the plate. If holes are required for structural purposes in the hard ARMORED TRAIN face of a plate, it is softened at the proper places by means of an electric current, since otherwise it will resist any tool. Within the last few years improvements upon the Harvey process have been developed by Krupp at Essen, and the Krupp process is now widely used. The details are kept secret, but it is probable that the essential feature is the use of chrome as well as nickel in the steel, this alloy permitting the chill to be carried deeper into the plate than when steel containing nickel only is used. The supercarbonization, though brought about by the use of a hydrocarbon gas, is the equivalent of ordinary cementation, and the usual cold spray is used to chill the surface. Kruppized plates offer some 20 per cent more resistance to or- dinary armor-piercing projectiles than Har- veyized plates, but when attacked by the capped projectiles now coming into general use the gain in resistance is much less. Their freedom 1 1. in cracking is a further point of superiority. The armor applied to the protection of ships is also used on coast and frontier defenses, but another armor, ill adapted to naval use on ac- count of its weight, has also been developed. Chilled cast iron was first tested as armor in Prussia in 1868, and then and in many subse- quent trials showed remarkable resistance to gun-fire. The Grason system, in which ellip- soidal-shaped turrets are built up of very heavy iron castings, chilled on the outer surface, and fitted together without bolts, has been largely used for land fortifications in Europe. Backing and Fastenings. — Armor was first applied to wooden ships, and when iron and steel ships succeeded these it was found neces- sary to interpose wood between the skin-plating of the ship and the armor to provide a surface which could be trimmed to fit the latter, and to decrease the injury caused to the ship's side by the impact of shot. East India teak is used for armor backing, but the modern tendency is to reduce its thickness as far as is practicable, and even to dispense with it entirely in above- water structures. Through bolts were first used for fastening armor to ships, but they caused leaks, besides weakening the armor, and the bolts now used only screw a short distance into the backs of the plates, being set up with nuts on their inner ends. They are made of forged steel ; have shanks of reduced diameter to pre- vent breaking at the threads ; have packing to prevent leakage around them ; and usually have rubber washers under their nut heads. One bolt is used to about every 4 x /i square feet of plating, and their diameters are from lYz to J,Vi inches according to the thickness of the armor. Disposition and Uses. — When sea-going ar- mored ships first began to be built it was possible to completely cover them with armor then im- penetrable, but the increasing power of guns soon made it necessary to restrict the defended area if it was to be given complete protection. In the hopeless attempt to secure invulnerability armor was gradually stripped from other por- tions and concentrated over parts considered vital. The restriction of batteries to a few heavy guns, mounted in turrets or a central citadel, allowed the thickness of armor protect- ing men and guns to be greatly increased, with a corresponding reduction in its extent, and at the same time water-line armor was made thick- er and thicker and of less and less area. Of late years, however, there has been a growing tendency to return to the early practice of expanding armor over a large area. Great are the displacements of modern battleships it is not deemed wise to attempt to secure complete protection for any one portion of them ; it is recognized that armor can only be expected to furnish a reasonable amount of security to what it covers; to keep out all small projectiles; and above all to keep out explosive shell with large bursting charg lling resort to ar- mor-piercing shell. Modern battleships often carry as much as 4.000 tons weight of armor. The principle of inclining armor so as to cause it to deflect projectiles is largely used in pro- tective decks covering the propelling machinery, and also to some extent in shields for the de- fense of guns' crews. Hard faced armor plates of as great weight as 50 tons and of as great thickness as 18 inches have been applied to ships, but in the best present practice a thickness of 12 inches is seldom exceeded. A width of about 9 feet and a length of about 18 feet are the limiting sizes of armor plates now made. Modern naval guns, firing capped projectiles, will more than overmatch the best armor plate, of thicknesses equal to their respective calibres, up to 3,000 yards' distance, provided the impact be normal to the plate's surface, but the fact that in actual battle most impacts will be at some inclination to the surface struck adds greatly to the real value of armor. There are two great plants in the United States for the manufacture of armor — the Bethlehem Steel Co. at Beth- lehem, Pa., and the Carnegie Steel Co. at Pitts- burg. The greatest foreign plants are at Sheffield, England, at the Creusot and the St. diamond works in France, and at Krupp's works in Germany. Philip R. Ai.ger, U. S. Naval Academy, Annapolis. Armored Train, a modern instrument of war severely tested in the American operations against Filipino insurgents in 1898-99, and in those of the British against the Boers in 1899- 1900. Credit has been given to Admiral Fisher of the British navy for the first use of the armored train in war. when, in 1882, he covered a locomotive with boiler plate and equipped cars, similarly protected, with field guns and put them to effective practical use. But the germ of the idea was of earlier date. When the Ger- mans invested Paris, the French made frequent sorties from the city, and in many of these attacks were assisted by field guns mounted on wagons and carriages. Later they were mount- ed on railroad cars, which were protected in their vital points against the enemy's guns. Since 1882 most of the military powers of Eu- rope have been experimenting in this direction and Great Britain has now probably the most complete and efficient armored trains in the world. The best that the British army possesses is the engine and train of the First Sussex Ar- tillery Volunteers. The model design was made from special designs for war purposes. The protected engine carries a Maxim gun, and the protected cars have heavy field guns, operated by machinery, so that any part of the surround- ing country can quickly be covered. Arrange- ments are made to compensate for the recoil, and also to give steadiness and stability to the cars. This latter is accomplished by an arrangement ARMORER — ARMS AND ARMOR for clamping the truck to the rails by strong screw clips whenever the gun is fired. There are also several steel-plated vans accompanying the train, in which horses and soldiers can be safely conveyed. This type of movable fortress performed notable achievements in South Africa, and in the sorties from Ladysmith and Kim- berley was the chief implement that forced the Boers back. With machine guns and field pieces the moving train becomes a valuable offensive apparatus, being able to move up close to the enemy's lines or retreat to a point beyond the range of small arms. The rapidity with which the train can change its base of action renders it a difficult object for the batteries of an enemy to hit, and almost the only way to defeat its operations is to wreck or derail it ; it then becomes a helpless target for long-range guns. Probably the first attempt in the United States to provide an armored car was that made by the Michigan Central Railroad Company, on the order of the American Express Company, for the purpose of protecting the valuable articles carried on its special express trains. These armored or "arsenal cars" were so constructed as to make the centre of them with its steel plating a thoroughly bullet-proof room, with apertures so disposed as to enable the guards within to resist an attack by thieves from any quarter. During the remarkable dash of the American troops in the Philippines into the northern part of the island of Luzon, in search of the fugitive insurgent leader Aguinaldo, in 1899. much effective work was accomplished by an improvised armored train. Ar'morer, a term formerly applied to a maker of arms and armor, a very important handicraftsman in the Middle Ages and down to the end of the 16th century and even later. (See Arms and Armor.) At the present day the term denotes persons employed to keep the arms of the soldiers in repair, or the custodian of an armory. On board a man-of-war the ar- morer is a petty officer appointed to keep the small arms in complete condition for service. Armor'ica, the country of the Armorici. The name was formed from two Celtic words signifying "upon the sea," and was apparently applied in ancient times to the whole northern and western coast of Gaul. It was afterward confined to the province of Brittany. Ar'mory, a building, or military station appropriated to the storage of arms, or the use of troops. In the United States the term is generally applied to the headquarters of the local militia, and signifies almost the equivalent of a club house, to which is added a drill shed, for military manoeuvres. Ar'mour, Herman Ossian, an American merchant : b. Stockbridge, N. Y., in 1837. After several years spent in the grain commission bus- iness in Chicago he became in 1865 the New York representative of the Milwaukee packing firm of Armour, Plankinton & Co.. which re- tained the firm name of H. O. Armour & Co. until 1870. The name was then altered to Armour & Co., which is now the most im- portant provision firm in the world. Ar'mour, Philip Danforth, an American philanthropist: b. Stockbridge, N. Y., 16 May 1832 ; d. 6 Jan. 1001. He was a miner in Cali- fornia in 1852-56, but engaged in the com- mission business in Milwaukee in 1856-63 ; and later became the head of the pork packing firm of Armour, Plankinton & Co., Chicago. He founded the Armour Mission and the Armour Institute of Technology (q.v.), both in Chicago; the former at a cost of about $250,000, and the latter with an endowment of $1,500,000, subse- quently increased. Ar'mour Institute of Technology, an American co-educational institution, founded in Chicago, 111., by Philip D. Armour, in 1893. Its scheme includes ( 1 ) The Technical College ; (2) The Department of Commercial Tests; (3) The Armour Scientific Academy. The institu- tion had 666 students in 1901 and 38 professors in its faculty. Its property was valued at $4,- 560,000. Arms and Armor. The earliest arms were everywhere made of stone. Stone was succeeded by bronze in the manufacture of weapons of war. The commonest warlike relics of the bronze age that have come down to us are daggers and spear-heads. From the descrip- tions of Homer we know that almost all the Grecian armor, defensive and offensive, in his time was of bronze, although it is evident that iron was sometimes used in the time of Homer for making weapons, from the fact that he oc- casionally uses the Greek word for iron (si- dcros) for a sword. Not the sword, however, but the lance, spear, and javelin, were the prin- cipal weapons of this age among the Greeks. The bow is not often mentioned, although a bow belonging to Pandarus is described in the Iliad, and in the Odyssey Ulysses is represented as very expert in the use of this weapon. Among the most ancient nations the Egyptians seem to have been most accustomed to the use of the bow, which was the principal weapon of the Egyptian infantry. The Egyptian bow was somewhat shorter than the height of a man ; the arrow was usually made of reed, the head of bronze, but sometimes of flint. Peculiar to the Egyptians was a defensive weapon the ob- ject of which was to catch and break the sword of the enemy. With the Assyrians also the bow was a favorite weapon ; but with them lances, spears, and javelins were in more com- mon use than with the Egyptians. Most of the large engines of war, chariots with scythes projecting at each side from the axle, catapults, and ballistae, seem to have been of Assyrian origin. All of those mentioned can at any rate be traced back to the Assyrians, to whom the invention of the catapult and the ballista was at- tributed by classical writers. During the his- torical age of Greece the characteristic weapon was a heavy spear from 21 to 24 feet in length. The sword used by the Greeks was short, and was worn on the right side. The Roman sword was of Spanish origin, from 22 to 24 inches in length, straight, two-edged, and obtusely point- ed, and as by the Greeks was worn on the right side. It was used principally as a stabbing weapon. On the Trajan column, belonging to 114 A p., the sword appears considerably longer than that used at an earlier period. The Roman sword was originally of bronze, but like all other offensive weapons among the Romans was always of iron in the time of Polybius (2d century B.C.), when bronze continued in use only for defensive armor. The characteristic weapon of the Roman soldier was the pilum, a kind of ARMS AND ARMOR pike or javelin, about 5 or 6 feet in length, with a wooden shaft and an iron bead, the latter of which was about one third of the length of the whole. The pilum was sometimes used at close quarters both as an offensive weapon and as a means of parrying blows, but more commonly it was thrown along with the other javelin, which every Roman spearman (hastarius) car- ried when within 10 or 15 paces of the enemy. The pilum, when thrown from this distance, would fix itself in the enemy's shield, where- upon the Romans would rush up, and seizing hold of the shafts of their pila draw down the shields in which they were fixed, and follow up the attack with their swords. In addition to tin- large engines of war that have been al- ready mentioned as of Assyrian origin (scythe- chariots, catapults, and ballista?) the Romans made use of battering-rams for making breaches in the walls of fortified places. The Greeks are said to have used a sort of cannon made on the principle of the modern air-gun. The Romans also employed caltrops to embarrass the move- ments of an enemy's cavalry. The principal pieces of defensive armor used by the ancients were shields, helmets, cuirasses, and greaves. No shields were carried by the Egyptian archers ; but the Egyptian spearmen had large shields, rectangular below and semi- circular at the top, and with a round sight-hole in this semicircular part. In the heroic age of Greece the shield is described as of immense size, so as to be capable of defending the whole body. In the early monuments the shield is still large, though not so large as it appears to have been in the heroic age. In shape it is round or oval, with a very considerable degree of convexity. At the time of the Peloponnesian war a still smaller shield came into use. The Romans had two sorts of shields — the scutum, a large, oblong, rectangular, highly convex shield, carried by the legionaries — and the par- ma, a small, round or oval, flat shield, carried by the light-armed troops and the cavalry. In the declining days of Rome the shields became larger and more varied in form. The helmet was a characteristic piece of armor among the Assyrians, Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans. Like all other body armor it was usually made of bronze. The Assyrian helmet was frequently conical. Sometimes it had the form of a trun- cated cone, and sometimes the pointed extremity was curved forward. The helmet of the his- torical age of Greece was distinguished by its lofty crest, which tapered downward to the back of the neck. The Etruscan helmet was also very high crested and sometimes had a wing ris- ing to a considerable height on either side from points near the summit. The Roman helmet in the time of the early emperors fitted close to the head and had a hollow neck-guard and hinged cheek-pieces fastened under the chin, and a small bar across the face for a visor. The neck-guard and cheek-pieces were not peculiar to the Roman helmet, but were in common use wherever the helmet was worn. In later days the helmet of the Romans had a higher crown than that of the early emperors. The cuirasses of the Assyrians were close-fitting tunics made of several layers of flax plaited or interwoven and glued together. This kind of cuirass was introduced into Greece during the Pelopon- nesian war and was sometimes used even by the Romans. Before the Peloponnesian war the dmks had the upper part of their body defend- ed by bronze cuirasses. The defensive body armor of the Egyptian archers consisted of a quilted coat. The Egyptian spearmen had cui- rasses of bronze scales or quilted with bands of metal. Under the Roman republic all the le- gionaries wore a bronze cuirass, consisting of a breast and back plate, with a border of pendent leather straps defending the lower part of the body. On the columns of Trajan and Antonine this cuirass is given only to officers, the legion- aries wearing at that period only leather or linen cuirasses, on which circular plates of metal and metal shoulder-pieces were sewed, and to the lower border of which were attached oblong plates which served the purpose of the leather straps of the other cuirass. In the time of Tra- jan and Septimius Severus a flexible cuirass was added to the equipment of the Roman knight or horseman. This was made either of scales (lo- rica squamata) or of chains (lorica hamuta). One of the latter kind has been found at Avenches in Switzerland, and is there exhibited. Greaves do not seem to have been worn by any of the eastern nations except the Persians, wdiose defensive armor resembled pretty closely that of the Middle Ages. The greaves of the Greeks (knemides) were made in two pieces which were fastened together by clasps. The Roman greaves (ocrea) were made in one piece and were often worn only on one leg. The Samnite practice was to wear the greave upon the left leg, which is the leg advanced in fighting with a shield on the left arm; but Vegetius mentions that the greave was worn by the Roman legionaries upon the right leg. The greave reached only from the knee to the ankle. The Roman soldiers had their feet protected by shoes set with nails (caliga). The favorite weapons of the Germanic races, by which the ancient civilization of Rome was to a large extent overthrown, were the battle-axe, the lance or dart, and the sword. Their defen- sive armor consisted almost exclusively of a shield made of plaited osier covered with leather and generally 8 feet by 2 in size. Afterward it was made round and bound with iron, and had several prominent bosses on its surface. The Frankish form of the German battle-axe was called francisca (francisque), and was the cha- racteristic weapon of that tribe. It had a broad single-edged blade and a short haft, and was often used as a missile. The lance or dart of the Franks, called augon, closely resembled and was used exactly in the same way as the Roman pilum. The sword among the Franks was only a horseman's weapon. The shield of the Franks was round. Hardly any body armor (scarcely even a helmet) was used by them until the Car- Iovingian days. Swords belonging to the early iron age in Scandinavia are frequently found in the mosses of Schleswig. They are long, straight, two-edged, and often richly dama- scened. Shields belonging to the same district and epoch were made of wood, and were flat, round, and from 22^2 to 44 inches in diameter. They were bossed and otherwise mounted, gen- erally in bronze, sometimes in iron. The com- mon arms of the Anglo-Saxon infantry were a spear, an axe, and a scramasax (a heavy single- edged knife). With the Anglo-Saxons as with the Franks the sword was especially a horse- ARMOR. 1. French Foot Soldier. Eisrhth Centurv. 2. Polish Knight, end of Fifteenth Century. 3. French Soldier, about 1120 A. D. 4. Battle of Askalon ( 1099) from a Window In the Church of St. I.ouis, Paris 5-6. German Full Armor, of the time of Maximilian I. A. Mottled or Striped Armor. B. Ringed Armor. C. Fettered Armor. D. Shield Ornament. E.Plate Armor. F. Chain Armor ARMS AND ARMOR. m 13 9 3*"* - = -3 = a £ — - a. :-pa H : i3Lfi° 55 - — -s - — V z -a o3 < z < — a ffgirsS aa'JOMMrt odes d — " r-i co to 5 a £ a B« g c . C £ ~ S.ojQ w c 5 — i-^: «- otgE -": C — _' -r-- = : -7" s tM cc 'r»o XII. at Amboise in 1502. There is a fine collection at Die-den. be- gun in 1553. Among others may be mentioned the Ambras collection, commenced in 1570, now at Vienna, and those at Turin, Sigmaringen, 1 sarsko-selo, St. Petersburg, Madrid, and in the Tower of London. The last mentioned was classified by Dr. Meyrick, and catalogued by J. Hewitt. The Antiquarian Museum of Edin- burgh is rich in weapons of the stone and bronze periods, but has few specimens of arms and armor of more modern tunes. Of works specially devoted to the subject of arms and armor the most worthy of mention are: Grose, 'Treatise on Ancient Armor and Weapons' (1785-6; Supp. 1789; afterward annexed to the second edition of the same author's 'Military Antiquities, 1 1801), and Meyrick's 'Critical In- quiry into Ancient Armor as it existed in Eu- rope, but particularly in England, from the Nor- man Conquest to the reign of King Charles II.' (1824). An excellent compendium on the sub- ject by Auguste Denimin was published in 1869 in French, English, and German. The title of the English edition is 'Weapons of War' ; it gives a history of arms and armor from the earli- est period to the present time. See Armament. of the World. Arms, Stand of, the outfit of arms neces- sary for the equipment of a single soldier. Armstead, Henry Hugh, a noted English sculptor: b. in 1828. He executed many alle- gorical groups on the Albert Memorial, London, and several fine recumbent effigies in Westmin- ster Abbey. Arm'strong, Sir Alexander, an English physician: b. in Ireland about 1820; d. 5 July 1899. He was educated at Trinity College, Dub- lin, and at the University of Edinburgh ; and became widely known as an explorer. Entering the British navy at an early age, he served in many parts of the world, took part in an expe- dition to Xanthus in Syria ; spent five consecu- tive years in the Arctic regions, searching for Sir John Franklin; and circumnavigated the , American continent, in which voyage he became one of the discoverers of the Northwest Pas- sage. For several years he was director-general of the medical department of the British navy. His publications include (1836). Arm'strong, Samuel Chapman, an Ameri- can educator : b. Wailuku, Maui, Hawaii, 30 Jan. 1839; d. Hampton, Va., 11 May 1893. He was a son of Richard Armstrong, one of the earliest American missionaries to Hawaiian Is- lands and founder of their educational system. The son was educated at Oahu College, Hono- lulu, till i860, and graduating from Williams College in 1862, at once entered the Union army. He served till the end of the Civil War and was mustered out with the rank of briga- dier-general of volunteers. In 1866 Gen. O. O. Howard, who had noted Armstrong's interest in the colored troops, induced him to take a posi- tion with the Freedman's Bureau, where he was charged with the oversight of all colored people in 10 Virginia counties. After two years of successful administration, during which he had worked out a careful plan of negro education, he enlisted the aid of the American Missionary Association and personal friends in the North, and founded the Hampton Normal and Agricul- tural Institute. Its object was to give the ne- groes practical education, to train teachers, and to render its graduates self-supporting. For 10 years the students were negroes exclusively : then (1878) the United States government, at- tracted by Armstrong's success, arranged to have Indian children taught there. This experiment has also proved successful. Gen. Armstrong de- Vol. 1—46 voted his life to the school and made it the best known and studied one of its kind in the world. At his death it had 100 teachers and employees, 200 Indian and 600 colored students. Arm'strong, William George, Baron, an English engineer and mechanical inventor: b. Newcastle-on-Tyne, 10 Nov. i> was the first to use horse artillery. The dividing of artillery into batteries is of about the same ARMY date, but is due to a Frenchman named Gri- bi auval. Since the lime of Frederick the Great a great change has taken place in the composition of armies through the reintroduction of the principle of the universal liability of all men capable of bearing arms to military service, or, in other words, through the raising of armies by a general conscription, now practised in every European country except England. Conscrip- tion was first adopted by France in 1798, and it was by means of it that Napoleon was able to raise the large armies with which he overran and conquered a great part of the Continent. In 180S it was adopted by Prussia, by which power it lias been applied with greater rigor than by any other. In Prussia it was combined with the short-service system, a mode of train- ing tin- population to arms suggested by Napo- leon's attempt in the Peace of Tilsit to limit the Prussian army to a certain strength. This system consists in requiring those serving in the active army to remain under arms for a com- paratively short term (in Prussia three years), during which they become thoroughly trained soldiers ready for active service on any emer- gency. Every year a certain number return from the army to civil lite, and are replaced by others who are subjected to military training for the same term. By this means Prussia, while never maintaining a larger active army than that prescribed by the Peace of Tilsit, was able to train its whole able-bodied male population to arms, and that without allowing the fact to be discovered until it was made manifest by the war of revenge in 1813. In other countries where the principle of conscription had been adopted its operation was greatly weakened by the numerous exemptions that might be ob- tained, and especially by allowing those required to serve to obtain exemption by paying for a substitute. Especially was this the case in France, where, under Napoleon III., the army had again become to all intents and purposes a professional one. In army organization the principal change that has been made since the introduction of conscription has been the estab- lishment of army corps (corps d'armee), that is, divisions of an army composed of all arms (in- fantry, cavalry, and artillery), and placed under the command of a single general. These divi- sions were first established by Napoleon, who placed them under the command of his mar- shals. Tin- division was afterward adopted by Prussia and extended to the German empire, where the further improvement is made of local- izing each army corps in a certain province or member of the empire, in which it is reunited, and in which are kept all the arms and other equipments necessary for its mobilization. In the Prussian army the cavalry are very numer- ous, and are used principally on the march, when they are sent in front to cover the advance of the main body of the troops, and to collect information. In all armies considerable changes in tactics have resulted from the increased range, precision, and rapidity of fire of the im- proved artillery and musketry now in use. In most nations, will now be found an army of reserve, intended to augment the standing army from a peace to a war strength, and con- sisting of two classes — those waiting an imme- diate call to arms, if required, and those con- stituting the militia — the entire effective mili- tary power of the state. It may be of interest h( re to mention certain distinctions in the appli- cation of the word army. A covering army is encamped for the protection of the different passes or roads which lead to the town or other place to be protected. A siege army is ranged around or in front of a fortified place, to capture it by a regular process of besieging. A blockad- ing army, either independent of, or auxiliary to, a siege army, is intended to prevent all ingress and egress at the streets or gates of a besieged place. An army of observation takes up an advanced position, and by celerity of movement keeps a close watch on all the mamctfvres of the enemy. An army of reconnaissance has a more special duty at a particular time and place, to ascertain the strength and position of the enemy's forces. A flying column is a small army carrying all its supplies with it, so as to be able to operate quickly and in any direction, independently of its original base of opera- tions. Armies of the World. — The following table shows the armed strength of the military na- tions of the world as reported in 1900: Argcnti)ie Republic. — Regular army, 945 offi- cers and 312.073 men; national guard, 480,000 officers and men. Austria-Hungary. — Peace footing, 24.583 of- ficers and 333,628 men ; war footing, 45,238 offi- cers and 1,826,940 men; levy in mass, over 4,000.000. Belgium. — Peace footing, 3,419 officers and 48,014 men; war footing, 4,466 officers and 143,- 628 men; Garde Civique, 42,827 officers and men. Bolivia. — Peace footing. 1.021 officers and 2,000 men ; war footing, 82,000 officers and men. Brazil. — Peace footing, 4,000 officers and 24,- 160 men; gendarmerie, 20,000. British Empire. — Regular army, 8,109 com- missioned officers, 1,087 warrant officers, 17,100 sergeants, 3.941 musicians, and 150,267 rank and file ; reserves, regular, first and second classes, 83,000 officers and men, militia, 138,961, yeoman- ry, 11,891, volunteers, 263,963; total home and colonial forces, 669,259; regular forces on In- dian establishments, 73,162; grand total, 742,421 officers and men, of whom 664.189 were classed as effectives. Owing to the war in South Africa these numbers were increased considerably dur- ing the early part of the year. Chile. — Regular army, 623 officers and 29,- 282 men; national guard, 512,700. Cliina. — The Eight Banners, about 300.000 officers and men: Ying Ping (national army) from 540.000 to 600.000 men ; active armies of the Centre, Manchuria, and Turkestan, number unknown ; total land army on peace footing about 300.000; on war footing, about 1,000.000. Colombia. — Peace footing fixed at 1,000, in 1898; war footing fixed by Congress as circum- stances may require. Costa Rica. — Peace footing, 600 officers and men, and 12.000 militia; war footing, 34,000. Denmark. — Peace footing, 800 officers and 9,000 men; war footing, 1,350 officers and 58,600 men. Ecuador. — Peace footing, 3,341 officers and men : war footing, 30,000. Egypt. — Regular, about 100 English officers ARMY AND NAVY and 18,000 men. The English army of occupa- tion numbers 5,553 officers and men. France. — Peace footing, 26,849 officers and 520,666 men, with 140,912 horses; in Algeria, 2,195 officers and 55,122 men; in Tunis, 560 offi- cers and 13,455 men. Active army and its re- serve, 2,350,000; territorial army, 900,000; terri- torial reserve, 1,100,000; total, 4,350,000 men of whom about 2,500,000 were effectives. German Empire. — Peace footing, 23,176 offi- cers and 562,277 men, with 98,038 horses ; war footing, strength not officially published, but estimated at over 3,000,000 trained officers and men. There are 494 field batteries, of which 47 are mounted. Greece. — Peace footing, 1,880 officers and 23453 me" : war footing, about 82,000 men ; ter- ritorial army, about 96,000 men. Guatemala. — Peace footing, about 7,000 offi- cers and men ; war footing, 56,900 men. Haiti. — Peace footing, 6,828 officers and men, and special guard of 10 officers and 650 men. Honduras. — Peace footing, 500 officers and men ; with 20,000 militia. Italy. — ■ Permanent army, under arms, 14,324 officers and 237,660 men; on unlimited leave, 556,984 officers and men ; mobile militia, 475,972 officers and men ; territorial militia, 10,793 offi- cers and 2,003,474 men ; total officers and men, 3,299,439- Japan. — Imperial Guard, 370 officers and 10,- 843 men ; 6 divisions, 2,745 officers and 73,606 men ; reserves, 696 officers and 82,384 men ; Yezo militia, 95 officers and 4,482 men ; the gendar- merie, 51 officers and 1,0 11 men; territorial army, 357 officers and 104,597 men; total strength, 4,760 officers and 279,981 men, with about 29,000 horses. Kongo Free State. — Peace footing, 234 Eu- ropean officers and 173 sergeants, and 15,580 native troops. Korea. — An army of 5,000 officers and men. Madagascar. — An army of 191 officers and 5,508 men. Mexico. — Peace footing, 2,068 officers and 30,095 men ; war footing, including reserves, 151,500 officers and men. Montenegro. — No standing army; all males physically able are liable to military service-, there are about 100,000 rifles in the country. Morocco. — Peace footing, about 12,000 offi- cers and men, and 18,000 militia ; war footing, in addition, about 40,000. Netherlands. — Peace footing, 1,466 officers and 40,195 sub-officers and soldiers; war foot- ing, indefinite. Nicaragua. — Peace footing, 2,000 officers and men ; war footing, in addition, 10,000 reserve and national guard, 5,000. Nonvay. — Troops of the line and reserves, 900 officers and 30,000 men ; not over 18,000 troops can be put under arms, even in war, without consent of the Storthing. Orange Free State. — Standing army, 150 of- ficers and men, and 550 artillerymen, as a re- serve; available war strength, 17,381. Paraguay. — Standing army, 82 officers and 1,345 men; every male 20 to 35 years old is liable to war service. Persia. — Standing army, 24,500; nominal, 105,500; liable to service, 53.520. Peru. — Peace footing, 3.157 officers and men with a police force of from 2,000 to 3,000. Portugal. — Peace footing, 35.337 officers and men; war footing, 160,000; colonial forces, 0.47S officers and men, the greater number being na- tive troops. Rumania. — Peace footing, 3,478 officers, 448 employees, and 56,489 men, i_>,'>75 horses, and 390 guns ; territorial army 75,000 men, and 8,050 horses; war footing, indefinite. Russia. — Peace footing, 30.000 officers and 860,000 men ; war footing, 63,000 officers and 3,440,000 men. Salvador. — Standing army, 4,000 officers and men ; militia, 18,000. Santo Domingo. — Small army and reserve at the capital of each province, every physically able male liable to service. Servia. — Standing army, 160,751 officers and men : war footing, 353,366 officers and nun. Siatn. — Standing army, 12,000; no armed militia; all males liable for war service. South African Republic. — No standing army; males liable for war service, 26,299. Spain. — Peace footing, [28,559 officers and men : war footing, 183.972 officers and men. Sweden. — Standing army, 1,946 officers and 37,175 men. Switzerland. — No standing army ; war effec- tive, Elite. 147.191 officers and nun; Lander- wehr, 83.283; Landstrum, 271.780. Turkey. — Standing army. 700,62c officers and men ; war footing, 900.000. United States. See Army of United States. Uruguay. — Permanent army. 233 officers and 3,222 men; armed police force, 3,200; national guard, 20.000. Venesuela. — Standing army. 3,600 officers and men; national militia (males 18 to 45 years old), 60,000 men. Army and Navy, Mutual Relations of. The campaign of the United States army and navy in the Caribbean region, while instructive from many points of view, has especial value at the present moment to the people of the United States, as illustrative of certain necessary out- lines of our future naval and military policy. Estimating at the lowest the permanent results of the late war, the nation finds itself charged with valuable transmarine possessions, which have not merely to receive the local defence which is — or should be — common to the coun- try in general, but must also, for the welfare of the Commonwealth, be knit to the home body by the only military bonds that can cross the stretch of the seas. Local protection is indeed imperative; but from the military point of view, national defence, in any real sense, cannot be said to exist when the localized defences are not knit together and co-ordinated into a system, which insures freedom of communication and thereby mutual support. Gibraltar and its rock are the proverbial synonym of impregnability : yet Gibraltar in its time not only has fallen by local neglect, but has more than once narrowly escaped a like fate through inferiority of naval force — through severance of communications with the body of which it is a member. The fortified places upon which a system of defence rests are stationary. They contribute to the general safety, directly, only so far as their guns can range, or as conducive to delay in case of attack: but when to them is added a mobile force, which either issues from them to assume the offensive, or which, in its move- ARMY AND NAVY ments, in the open, knows that in them security can be found in case of reverse, the various members are brought into a living union, where- in each contributes its proportion to the strength of the whole. On land such mobile force is represented by the active army in the field ; at sea by the fleet. Both need the support of sta- tionary fortifications; and both, as has just been said, are essential in turn to the fortresses themselves. Jomini has truly said, "When a state depends wholly upon fortified places (that i-., upon mere defence) for its safety, it has touched the verge of ruin." It may be deemed fortunate, that at the moment of starting upon a new career, the United States received an ob- ject lesson in the mutual relations of army and navy, of stationary defences to mobile force; a dramatic presentation of the part played by each, not only on the field of battle, but in the general maintenance of national security and power. Upon this living picture the eyes of the whole nation were fixed, with the vivid in- terest which always follows the progress of arms. The campaign against Cuba — and espe- cially against Santiago — by sea and by land, has for us the particular value that it lies wholly within our own experience, and speaks to us therefore with the force which belongs to experience alone among the teachers of man- kind. It is wise, says an old proverb, to learn from one's enemy. Let us, for our instruction, turn our eyes for a moment ufon our recent enemy, upon him who 400 years ago, in the heyday of Europe's adolescence, went forth, a youth among other youths, to possess the land, and who now returns a discomfited prodigal, abandoning the last of the fair heritage upon which he, favored above his fellows, then en- tered. It is not indeed admissible in a short article, dealing avowedly with a particular brief episode of history, to attempt to trace the gen- eral causes of Spain's downfall. Suffice it to note, in pursuance of our previous allegory, that from the beginning Spain's ideas, both in- dividual and national, carried within them the seeds of inevitable and early blight. She shared with her contemporaries the restless ebullience of early manhood, as the nations were breaking out of the nursery of tradition and authority ; but she went forth imbued, not with principles of action, but with mere habits of thought, ex- ternally imposed, and accepted without the self- questioning that comes from the collision of mind with mind. So, while the world was growing, Spain grew not. A century after America was discovered, she was in thought and method just where Ferdinand and Isabella were ; as it is recommended to us now to re- main just where Washington or Jefferson, under different conditions, stood 100 years ago. The colonial system of Spain, which gasped its last this year, continued essentially the same from the beginning to the end; even as we are told by foreigners familiar with the peninsula that people there live for the most part in the ideas of centuries ago. Shock after shock failed to loosen the hold of tradition, and it may be doubted whether even the final crash will pene- trate through men's ears to the brain. One thing Spain has never been since the time that the unity of the peninsula was achieved — a maritime nation. Seamen, doubt- less, she has had ; it would be rash indeed to deny that name to the men who accompanied Columbus, although the great adventurer was himself Italian ; but for all that, as a nation, the heart of Spam has never turned to the sea. Yet Great Britain herself was scarcely more favorably situated for the development of mari- time instincts and maritime power. Like France, Spain borders the Atlantic and the Mediterranean ; but above France she possessed the advantage that her only land frontier (leav- ing little Portugal out of account) was a lofty and difficult mountain range. Like the United States of to-day, which borders the Atlantic and the Pacific, Spain was practically an insular power ; for, unlike the United States in the days of Washington, she had no dangerous con- tinental frontiers. In this security from attack by land, in the power of her sovereigns, un- rivaled in the 16th century, in her remoteness from the turmoil of central Europe, and in the one single danger to which she was exposed — the ravaging of the coasts by the .Mohammedan pirates — was found a combination of circum- stances, which, so far as external pressure molds character, should have made Spain a respectable, if not a great, naval state. From the resources and exposure of her extensive and lucrative colonies there arose an additional incentive to commercial and naval development ; but none followed. The root of the matter was not in her. What she was, that she remained. Often rebuked by disaster, she hardened her- self against change; until, in the end, she has suddenly been . destroyed, and that without remedy. Yet no people more than the Spaniards un- derstood and practised the art of fortification as it existed in the days of their power. It was not lack of local defences that enfeebled the colonial empire of Spain, and so often caused particular localities to fall before an invader. It was the lack of control over the communications — over the sea, by which alone communication could be had — which permitted the enemy to assemble his forces with impu- nity, and prevented the Spaniards from reinforc- ing where needed ; in a word, it was defect in the sea power, which insures mutual support and the possibility of offensive action. Defence, whether greater or less, only imposes delay; and delay must be improved, or it is useless. Like a burglar at a safe, so is the besieger ; except that interruption may come, the time more or less does not matter. The essential thing for the party who, as regards the war, is on the defensive — who has the most to lose — is to retain in his hands the power to move at will and rapidly from point to point ; not merely to defend locally, but to attack the assailant either in transit, or at his point of destination; or, it may be, even by offensive operations on the enemy's own coasts. Such power — sea power — Spain has never had. The material elements she did indeed from time to time cre- ate. <( I never saw finer ships," said Nelson a century ago. a The Dons make fine ships ;_ they cannot, however, make men." This manifests again the impotence of mere government, or ex- ternal compulsion, to impress upon man or people qualities which find within no root of life, native or implanted. In the inward realm of ideas, diffused among the people, is the true strength of nations to be found. May we heed the warning. The history of four centuries only repeats itself in miniature when the final scene in the ARMY AND NAVY long drama of Spain's colonial history is crit- ically regarded. The last Cuban revolt had continued already three years when the United States intervened. During that period, Spain had sent over 200,000 soldiers to her colonies, and had incurred an extraordinary expenditure of some $400,000,000 for the campaigns ; an im- mense effort, whether regarded in itself alone, or relatively to the resources of the mother- country. Yet, although the mutterings that ran throughout the United States were audible in Europe, and it could have been plainly recog- nized that behind a mere political bluster there was unquestionable popular impulse — a most dangerous condition — no important addition was made to the fleet. Even the vessels on hand, antiquated though some were, were not brought up to the full efficiency they might have received. Cervera sailed with but four ships. Not till six weeks later was Camera able to get away, and then there went with him only two armored vessels. The inference is reasonable that such others as there were — and there were others — could not be got ready ; that even the nominal force was not available. Yet one thing demonstrably certain is, that had the Spaniards maintained a navy superior to our own, the expense of which would have been far less than the cost of their troops in Cuba, it would have excluded us from the island, which otherwise its fortifications and armies could not do. It may be assumed, indeed, that had the Spanish navy been decisively superior to our own we would have refrained from war, unless determined to it by the loss of the Maine ; for nothing so certainly maintains the peace as the evident readiness of the enemy. This the great armies of Europe now show. As it was, when Cervera was shut up in San- tiago, we dared to send 15,000 men a thousand miles by sea, to land at the very mouth of the harbor ; and after this squadron was destroyed we were quite at our ease as regards the rest of the task. Utterly undeveloped as our military preparations were, we could take our time. The Spanish force in Cuba must waste ; ours could not but increase. The end was thence- forth predetermined, and Spain wisely asked for peace. Yet while this lesson is clear, and in the opinion of the writer is the one of primary im- portance to ourselves — as to any nation under- taking to have colonies — it would be a most incomplete and misleading view did we not further recognize the complementary element of land forces and fortifications in deciding the issue of the war. Had there remained to Spain a fleet — a "fleet in being," to use a phrase now widely accepted as technical — at all equal to our own, and able shortly to get to sea, our advantage at Santiago would have been but momentary and indecisive. The presence of the Spanish army, 100,000 strong, of as good fighting quality as the Santiago garrison is said to have shown, while it would not have con- trolled the whole island, would have effectually excluded us from the more important part, until the Spanish navy, temporarily eliminated by Cervera's defeat, could have again been brought into play. The co-ordinate value of mere de- fence would have received conspicuous illustra- tion. The Spanish army in Cuba, and its forti- fications of even,' kind, seacoast or otherwise, were, as regards the general war, strictly lim- ited to the defence of the island. The com- munications between it and the United States — the roads — were in our hands, to transport troops as we pleased ; but only temporarily so, on the present hypothesis, namely, that Spain had still a fleet which, upon arrival in the Caribbean, would have a fighting equality or superiority to ours. The question therefore at such a stage would be one of delay. Can the Spanish army keep the field until its fleet ap- pears and exclude us from the control of the vital centre of the island? Failing this, can it even, by retiring to its fortresses, preserve its integrity, and prevent our obtaining that essen- tial foothold for maritime enterprise, a fortified seaport close to the scene of operation — a bridgehead for entrance when ready? If so, it secures the necessary delay until the all-im- portant decisive factor in maritime wars, the navy, can make itself again felt. It is clear, therefore, that while an incon- testable and inalienable primacy belongs to the navy in all cases of transmarine warfare, the maintenance of an adequate territorial army, resting upon proper fortified bases, is likewise indispensable, if secondary. And indeed, this hypothetical case, of a fleet remaining to Spain after Cervera's mishap, was the actual condi- tion before that event ; to the extent at least of our certain knowledge of what the Spanish navy might, or might not, be able to do. Had the enemy had no army in Cuba, and had he pursued his proper course by recalling Cer- vera from the Cape Verde Islands to Spain, as a preliminary to sending the concentrated fleet across the ocean, we might have sent troops to seize and strengthen themselves in Cuba's stra- tegic ports; but, in the face of the then Spanish army, it was not possible to do so to any good effect. Consequently, we did not attempt it, until Cervera was cornered. Probably our people at large are conscious that colonial possession involves a colonial army. This the experience of Great Britain tells us may be largely, though not wholly, aborig- inal : and that the less developed the civilization of the natives, the greater the proportion of the latter may be to the whole force. But it is doubtful whether the general acquiescence in the necessity of such an army is accompanied by an exact understanding of the part it plays in maintaining possession ; what its strength is, and what its weakness, considered, not in itself alone, but in relation to the whole problem of national and colonial defence. _ The function and effect of the Spanish army in Cuba illus- trate this, and therefore are important to be understood, for the appreciation, not of recent history only, but _ of the necessary future policy of the United States as well. The navy binds all together; without it each falls in time, isolated and unsupported. In 1762, as in 1898, in one twelve-month Spain lost both Manila and Havana, and for the same reason — defective sea power. But in order that the navy, the mobile force, may as- sure the whole, it is necessary that each part be able to resist attack during a measurable period, exactly as a fortress on any scene of warfare. Each colony, until it becomes self- supporting and fit for independence, is an ex- posed garrison. They are plausibly right, there- fore, who argue that as a general rule a country does not consult its immediate interests by acquiring colonies. Their error is in failing to ARMY CORPS — ARMY RESERVE recognize that immediate self-interest is not al- ways the sole lest, although it furnishes us a very adequate reason for taking Hawaii. It may be a duty to accept a responsibility which is not to one's convenience, For what other reason than duty is civic activity immediately incumbent on the well-to-do? It is interesting to find the same conditions revealing themselves in the minutiae of specific instances as truly as in broad generalizations. In the broad history of policy we shall find illustrated the mutual dependence of the active army and navy, of seacoast fortification and the fleet It is a curiously ironical comment upon human foresight that the issue of the war turned upon the tenure of that one of the great Cuban ports, which at the first certainly seemed least likely to be involved, as a scene of actual conflict. From Spanish sources we learn that Cervera entered the port because it was the only one available. If such was actually the reason for this seemingly fortuitous step, he acted under a misapprehension of our disposi- tions. Until he had so entered, however, his squadron was the controlling factor in the gen- eral situation. The navy of the defence, though locally much inferior to its opponent, was yet too strong to justify our exposing troops upon the maritime high roads; and it rested also on several fortified ports, from any of which it might issue to attack our interests, and in which it might find refuge, when pressed for supplies or by our ships. The Spanish tenure of Santiago made the squadron therein secure ; and although a singular lack of enterprise, as yet unexplained, paralyzed it as an active factor, the mere possibilities of offensive movement open to it imposed upon us its neutralization and, if feasible, its destruction. The former was insured to the utmost degree practicable when our fleet had been concentrated before the port ; but from direct attack it was pre- served by the territorial arm)', supporting the permanent fortifications and the lines of tor- pedoes. These cannot be overcome by ships alone, unless the assailant is able to throw away not only lives of men, who may be replaced, but ships which cannot. Those who can recall con- ditions at the time, not only as regards our im- mediate enemy, but the rumored dispositions of other states reported to be unfriendly toward us, will understand that the preservation of our navy in undiminished force was a political consideration of paramount importance. We could not afford then to lose ships, unless at the same time we diminished by at least an equal amount the naval force which might yet be ar- rayed against us. Our army, therefore, was called upon to make untenable the refuge which sheltered the hostile fleet. That we were able to move our troops to the scene of action with perfect as- suredness was due to the fact that our navy had established its predominance in the local waters ; and conversely, Spain suffered invasion of her colony because she had lost control of the sea. Our troops, when landed, depended for their security and for their supplies upon the continuance of this maritime condition ; the sea, in short, was its line of communica- tions, which the navy protected. On the other hand, unless Cervera were forced to quit the port by famine, produced by the blockade — a not impossible contingency — the navy could not get at his ships to destroy them without the aid of the army ; and destruction was neces- sary, for, as the French proverb say>, "It is only the dead who do not return" inconven- iently. The army's aid might be extended in one of two ways. Either it might — if it could — get possession of the town by its own un- aided efforts, or by establishing a dominant position overlooking it; or it might direct its attempt, aided by the navy, upon the works commanding the harbor's mouth. These re- duced, the navy would be able to remove the torpedoes, enter the port, and engage the hos- tile squadron. These details of comment, however, do not at all affect the general propositions upon which the writer has sought to fasten the attention of his readers ; the mutual dependence of army and navy, in the attack or defence of maritime regions, and the primacy therein of the navy, which represents both the communications and the offensive element of the war upon the sea. By the neglect of these considerations Spain lost her colonial empire. By the observance of them Great Britain has preserved hers, and the English-speaking race dominates the sea. In this predominance, further, are involved the issues of that mysterious future, the movings of which we are now beginning to discern, as in a glass darkly ; and which the race holds within its grasp, if only through wise guidance of popular thought by those who have time to think, it can find its way, not by formal alli- ance but by political comprehension, to com- mon action and to mutual support. A. T. Maiian, Author of 'Influence of Sea-Power,* Etc. Ar'my Corps, a term denoting one of the largest divisions of an army in the field, com- prising all arms, and commanded by a general officer ; but subdivided into divisions, which may or may not comprise all arms. Ar'my Hospital Train, a railway contriv- ance for military purposes, introduced by the surgeon-general of the United States army dur- ing the war with Spain, in 1898, for the purpose of conveying sick and wounded soldiers, on their arrival from Cuba, at Florida ports, to various military hospitals in the United States. This train had a full staff of physicians, surgeons, and trained nurses, and was completely equipped with everything necessary for medical and sur- gical treatment of soldiers. It is believed to have been the first train service completely or- ganized for such purpose. Ar'my Register, an annual publication of the United States government giving personal, regimental, and other details of the regular arm v. and corresponding to the British 'Army List' Ar'my Reserve, in most European armies, a force consisting of a first and second class army reserve and a militia reserve. The first class army reserve consists: (1) Of men whe have completed their period of seven years in the active army, and of men who, after having served not less than three years in the active army, have been transferred to the reserve tc complete the term of their engagement ; (2) of soldiers who have purchased their discharge and enrolled themselves in the reserve for five years. ARMY SCHOOLS — ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES In time of war or when the country is threat- ened, the men of this class become liable for the same services as the active army. The sec- ond class army reserve is made up of enrolled pensioners, and is liable only for service at home. The militia reserve is composed of men belonging to the militia who voluntarily enroll themselves in this reserve for a period of six years, thus rendering themselves liable to be drafted into the regular army in case of war. In the United States there is no Federal army reserve, but each State maintains a militia force under the command of the governor, principally to aid the legal authorities in maintaining peace within its limits. In emergencies threatening the whole country, and where the regular army is insufficient, the President calls for .volun- teers, apportions the number needed among the several States, and asks the governors to sup- ply the determined quotas. The bulk of the volunteer army is thus drawn from the miltia. Army Schools. See Army War College; Military Schools. Army of the United States, The. The Con- stitution gives to Congress the power to provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States, "to declare war," "to raise and support armies," and " to make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces." The responsibility, therefore, for the common defense rests with Congress, for all the power essential to meet it is vested in the legis- lature of the nation, which has supreme control. During the War of the Revolution General Washington was unanimously elected 15 June I 77S> " to command all the continental forces raised or to be raised, for the defense of Amer- ican liberty," but on assuming command, he found an heterogeneous and undisciplined force, and immediately took measures to bring order out of confusion ; and the General having recom- mended to the Congress and pointed out the necessity for a war office, that body, on 13 June 1776, created a Board of War, composed of its own members, which body was the germ of the War Department of our Government. Dur- ing 1 781 the Continental Congress, having under consideration a plan for the arrangement of the civil executive departments, established among others the office of Secretary of War, to which Major-General Lincoln was elected, and at this juncture several acts were passed defining the duties of the office, organizing various of the Staff Corps, and providing for a military es- tablishment. From that period, although Congress has made appropriations for the support of the army, and passed laws for its better efficiency, the evolution of organization and equipment and of the general (administrative and supply) staff has only been accomplished through ten- tative measures, and to meet emergencies. It is of little interest, therefore, to review its history in this respect, for the past few years have brought about a complete revolution in the organization, equipments, tactics, and arma- ments of an army. From the early history of our country the sentiment of the people as expressed through the Congress, has always been opposed to a stand- ing army in time of peace, but the Constitution itself declares that " A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed." It has been the con- tinuous policy of the government to maintain only a small army, and to rely in any great war upon the volunteers, and after each, to disband the citizen soldiery and reduce the regular es- tablishment to a peace basis. With the exception of periods of actual war- fare, the functions of the regular army are to man the seacoast fortifications, which protect our harbors and great cities from hostile attack, and to garrison the outposts on the western frontier, and at such strategic points as Con- gress determines to be suitable ; to be always ready to fight for the country in any sudden emergency which may come upon it before there is time to raise a volunteer force, and during the time such a force is being raised; to constantly study, and experiment upon, and exercise in, all the improvements in military science, both in arms, ammunition, equipment, supplies, sanitation, transportation, drill and tactics; to furnish a nucleus of officers and men thoroughly familiar with the business for strengthening and ready instruction of the vol- unteer army. Strength and Organization. — The following table shows the authorised strength of the regu- lar army under the various acts of Congress from 1789 to 1901 : Acts. Officers. Enl. Men. Sept. 29, 1789 46 840 April March 30, 1790 57 1,216 3, 179: 104 2,128 March 5. 1792 258 5.156 May 30, 1796 233 3.126 April May 27, 1798 289 3,870 27, 1798 303 10,000 July 16, 1798 783 13,638 March 3, 1799 2,447 49.244 May 14, 1800 3l8 4,118 March 16, 1802 241 3,046 April 12, 1808 774 9.147 June 26, 1812 >,657 34.095 March 3. 1813 3,260 54.091 March March 30, 1814 3.495 59.170 3. 181S 674 11.709 March 2, 1821 589 5.586 April 5 , June 15, 28, 1832 540 6.540 March 2, 1833 599 6.595 May 23 and July 4, 1 836 647 7.310 July 5 and 7, 1838 735 1 1,804 May and June, 1846 775 17,020 Feb. 1 and March 3 1847 ■ •353 29,512 Aug. 1 i, 1848 882 9.435 June 1 7, 18500 889 11,000 March 3, i855* 1,040 16,882 July 2c and Aug. 3, 1861 2,009 37.264 July 28, 1866c 3,036 51.605 March 3, 1869 2,277 35,036 July 1. , 1870 2,264 30,000 J.ine r March 5, 1874 2,151 25,000 8, 1898 2,137 26,610 April 2 6 and July 7, 1898 2,43a 63,106 March 2, 1899 1901a 2.585 65,000 Feb. 2, 3,860 60,450 a By the Act of 17 June 1S50 the President is au- thorized to increase the number of privates in each of the companies of the army, serving, or which may hereafter serve, at the military posts of the western frontier, and at remote am! distant stations, to any number not ex- ceeding 74, which if all had been serving at distant stations would have made the total maximum enlisted strength 13,8s?, the minimum being 0,385 enlisted men. b The minimum authorized enlisted strength under the Act of 3 March 1855, was 11,658, and the maxi- mum 17,278. c The Act of 28 July 1866 fixed the minimum en- listed strength at 51,605, and the maximum at 77, d The Act of 2 February 1901 fixes the minimum Strength at 59,131 enlisted men and the maximum at 100,000, the number of officers remaining the same. ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES The regular army on I Jan. 1898, just prior to the declaration of war with Spain, consisted of 2,157 officers and 25,350 men, all told. War being imminent, the Congress dur- ing March and April, 1898, passed certain acts for the better organization of the line of the army, which authorized a maximum enlisted strength of 65,000 men ; increased the artillery by two regiments ; added to each infantry regi- ment a third battalion of four companies each ; provided for additional non-commissioned offi- cers for the regiments, squadrons, and battal- ions, and for the troops and companies ; and the enlisted strength of each unit was consider- ably augmented. By an act approved 22 April 1898, the Con- gress made provision for accepting into the service the militia (National Guard organiza- tions) and volunteers from the various States, and made the following declaration with respect to the National forces : All able-bodied male citizens of the United States, and persons of foreign birth who shall have declared their intention to become citizens of the United States . . . between the ages of 18 and 45, are hereby declared to constitute the National forces, and with such exceptions and under such conditions as may be prescribed by law, shall be liable to perform military duty in the service of the United States. That the organized and active land forces of the United States shall consist of the army of the United States and of the militia of the several States when called into the service of the United States: Provided, that in time of war the army shall consist of two branches which shall be designated, respectively, as the regular army and the volunteer army of the United States. That the regular army is the permanent military establishment, which is maintained both in peace and war according to law. That the volunteer army shall be maintained only during the existence of war. or while war is imminent, and shall be raised and organized (as prescribed by the statute) only after Congress has, or shall have authorized the President to raise such a force or to call into the actual service of the United States the militia of the several States. The law authorized enlistments to be made for the term of two years, unless sooner termi- nated, and that all officers and men composing the volunteer army should be discharged when the purposes for which they were called into service were accomplished, or on the conclusion of hostilities. The law further prescribed that the President should issue his proclamation, when it became necessary to raise the volunteer army, stating the number of men desired (within the limits prescribed) ; enjoined the Secretary of War with the duty of examining, organizing (as prescribed for in the regular army), and receiving into the service the men called for, and as far as prac- ticable these troops were to be accepted only in proportion to the population of the several States and Territories. The law also required that the organizations of the volunteer army should be maintained as near their maximum strength as was deemed necessary by the Presi- dent, and prohibited the acceptance of new organizations unless those already in service from the States were kept fully recruited. The law also authorized (in addition to those already provided for by law) the appointment of general, and general staff officers of volunteers, sufficient for the proper command of the com- bined forces, and permitted of regular officers holding volunteer commissions without preju- dice to their regular army status. Of this army, three regiments of engineer troops, three of cavalry, and ten of infantry were United States volunteers recruited from the nation at large — all of the officers being commissioned by the President. As fast as the State troops were presented properly organized, they were mustered into the service of the United States. The total number furnished for the war with Spain was 10.017 officers (387 offi- cers of the regular army received volunteer com- missions) and 213,218 enlisted men. The close of the war brought into operation the provisions of the acts of 22 April and 26 April 1898, which required that at the end of the war the entire volunteer forces should be dis- charged and the regular army reduced to a peace basis, thus making necessary the discharge of about 35,000 regular troops, 1 10.000 volun- teers, and substantially all of the 5,000 volun- teer line and staff officers. The act of 2 March 1899, was passed in view of the insurrection in the Philippine Islands, and gave authority to again increase the regular army to a strength not exceeding 65,000 men, and to raise a force of not more than 35,000 volunteers to be recruited from the country at large — the field officers being appointed from among the officers of the regular army, 233 officers holding such commissions. All the vol- unteers authorized by this act were recruited and forwarded to the Philippine Islands by January 1900, and there actively employed in military operations. During that year about 42.000 men of the regular army and 31,000 of the volunteers were in service in the Philippine archipelago. This act contained the provision that all general staff and line officers appointed, and the volunteer troops raised, under its pro- visions, should be discharged not later than 1 July 1901 and the regular army reduced to the number as provided by law prior to 1 April 1898, exclusive of the addition made to the artillery; but the Congress, recognizing the ne- cessity for a larger and more perfectly organ- ized army, passed a law, which was approved 2 Feb. 1901, providing for an increase of line organizations from 25 regiments of infantry to 30, and 10 regiments of cavalry to 15, and from 7 regiments of artillery, including 14 field and 2 siege batteries, to the equivalent of 13 regi- ments (organized into 30 batteries of field ar- tillery and 130 companies of coast ar- tillery), and 5 companies of engineers to 12 companies, representing 3 battalions. The min- imum and maximum numbers of enlisted men for the different arms were established by the same statute, so that the total number of en- listed men might be varied by the President according to exigencies from a minimum of 59,131 to a maximum of 100,000 (including a corps of Philippine Scouts, which is limited to 12,000), the commissioned personnel remaining the same. The regular army is recruited (through the agency of recruiting officers maintained in the principal cities and towns) in times of peace and war by voluntary enlistments (term of ser- vice three years) from among citizens of the United States, between the ages of 18 and 35, of good character and temperate habits, able- bodied, free from disease, and with educational capacity to speak, read, and write the English language. The native born constitute about 90 per cent of the enlistments in the army. INSIGNIA UNITED STATES ARMY. Arranged by Harold L. Crane, N. Y. City. i. Judge- Advocate General's 1 >epartt. ent. 2. Infantry. 3. Inspector General's Stall'. 4. Pay Department. 5. Engineer Corps. 6. Subsistence Department. 7. Quartermaster's Department. 8. Cavalry. >3- 14. Signal Corps. Medical Department. Coat of Arms. i Ordnance Department. Field Artillery. Adjutant General's Department Coast Artillery. ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES In addition to the pay ($13.00 per month for the private being the minimum), all soldiers re- ceive from the government, rations, clothing, shelter, medicine and medical attendance, and certain increases in the fixed pay for continuous service. Soldiers can deposit their savings with the paymasters, and are allowed four per centum per annum thereon on final discharge. For those who have served honestly and faithfully 20 years, or who have been discharged for wounds received or disease incurred in service, a com- fortable home is maintained in the city of Washington, toward the maintenance of which each soldier contributes 12Y2 cents per month from his pay, and all court-martial fines and forfeitures and pay due deserters go to the home. In addition to the combatant force proper, the law authorizes the enlistment of musicians; for the cavalry troops, cooks, blacksmiths and farriers, saddlers and wagoners ; for the artil- lery corps, electricians, cooks, mechanics and artificers ; and cooks and artificers for the in- fantry. Special technical skill is required for enlistment in the engineer, signal and hospital corps. Officers: Appointment to, Advancement in, and Retirement from the Military Service. — The power to make appointments is vested in the President and the Senate of the United States, acting concurrently, within the limits of the enactments of Congress, which do not encroach upon the prerogatives of the executive, who, under the Constitution is the Commander- in-Chief of the army and navy of the United States. The army is officered, (1) from the gradu- ates of the Military Academy, to which young men may be admitted between the ages of 17 and 22. Candidates must be free from any infectious or immoral disorder, and any defi- ciency which may render them unfit for the military service, and must be possessed of a good elementary education ; the examination for entrance being made to conform to the courses of study ordinarily covered in the high schools and academies of the country by boys of aver- age age of appointees, and they may be admit- ted upon certificates from educational institu- tions. Two cadets-at-large are allowed each State (designated by the respective Senators), and one for each congressional district, Terri- tory, and the District of Columbia. In addition to this number the President is allowed a num- ber of appointments, which are usually made from among the sons of officers of the army and navy. The commanding officer of the academy, who has the title of Superintendent, is detailed from the army and has the temporary rank of colonel. For the purpose of discipline and tactical in- struction, the cadets are organized as a battalion of four companies, with officers and non-com- missioned officers selected from among their own numbers. The corps is commanded by an officer having the temporary rank of lieutenant- colonel. He is also an instructor in drill regu- lations of the three arms of the service. An officer of engineers and of ordnance are detailed as instructors of practical military engineering and of ordnance and gunnery, respectively. The heads of the other departments of instruction have the title of professors. They are selected generally from officers of the army, and their positions are permanent. The officers before mentioned and the professors constitute the academic board. The military staff and as- sistant instructors are officers of the army. The course of instruction covers four years, and, is very thorough. Theoretical instruction com- prises mathematics, French, Spanish, English, drawing, physics, astronomy, chemistry, ord- nance and gunnery, art of war, civil and mili- tary engineering, international, constitutional, and military law, history, and drill regulations of all arms. The practical instruction com- prises service drills in infantry, cavalry, and ar- tillery, surveying, reconnaissances, field engi- neering, and gymnastics. The discipline at the academy is very strict — more so than in the army. In addition to a training and education fitting the cadets for the military service, the aim is to inculcate habits of prompt and cheer- ful obedience to lawful authority, of neatness, order, and regularity, and of thoughtfulness and attention to the discharge of duty. A scrupu- lous regard for truthfulness is also required. Upon graduation commissions for the rank of second lieutenant are usually conferred by the President, and the graduates are given a choice as to the arm of service and regiments, as far as practicable, those graduating at the head of the class having preference. The military academy, on 1 1 June 1902, celebrated with appropriate ceremonies the completion of one hundred years of honorable and useful service ; and liberal appropriations by Congress for rebuild- ing and extending the institution will enable it to begin its second century with the well- founded hope of larger and long-continued use- fulness. In the event of remaining vacancies in the grade of second lieutenant in any year further appointments are made, (2) from among the enlisted men of the army who are authorized by law to enter a competitive examination, after two years' service, provided they be between the ages of 21 and 30, unmarried, and physically and morally qualified. To obtain a commission the candidate must pass an edu- cational and physical examination before a board of officers. The board also takes into consider- ation the character, capacity, and military rec- ord of the candidate. Many well-educated young men, unable to obtain appointments to West Point, enlist in the army for the express pur- pose of becoming officers through this medium. And (3) civilians are appointed to vacancies that may be left when the two first classes have been exhausted. To be eligible for appointment the candidate must be a citizen of the United States, unmarried, between the ages of 21 and 27 years, and must be approved by an examin- ing board as to habits, moral character, physical ability, education, and general fitness for the service. Although the military academy has in the past supplied a majority of the officers entering the service in each year, the partial increase of the army in 1898 by reason of the breaking out of hostilities with Spain, and resulting casual- ties, and its re-organization with increased num- bers on the disbandment of the volunteer army called into service during the Spanish-Ameri- can war, has necessitated the appointment of a large number of officers from among the enlisted men, volunteers, and civilians. Of the ap- ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES poinltnents to the line of the army in the four years following the Spanish-American War, about one-sixth were supplied by the military academy ; the others having been appointed from die ranks, civil life, and from the vol- unteers of the war with Spain and in the Phil- ippines. The volunteers and enlisted men had acquired useful experience and were selected on the ground of their military conduct and intel- ligence, yet this considerable influx in the com- missioned personnel had not permitted of a systematic military education. To overcome this deficiency, and with a view to maintaining a high standard of instruction and general train- ing of the officers of the army, and to keep pace with the difficulties of the problems involved in transporting, supplying, and handling armies of modern times, and for caring for and rendering effective the increasing complexity of tin- machines and material used in the defense of the coast fortifications, a system of military instruction is required, and accomplished through officers' schools at each military post, for elementary instruction in theory and prac- tice, and at special service schools — (a) The Artillery School at Fort Monroe, Va. ; (b) The Engineer School of Application, Washington Barracks, D. C. ; (c) The School of Submarine Defense, Fort Totten, N. Y. ; (d) The School of Application for Cavalry and Field Artillery at Fort Riley. Kansas; (e) The Army Medical School. A General Service and Staff College is also maintained at Forth Leavenworth ; and a War College, at the city of Washington, for (he most advanced instruction in the military art and science. The Congress has made pro- vision for the maintenance of these schools, and given its sanction to the general system of mil- itary education prescribed therein. Promotions in the line are made through the whole army by seniority, in the several arms, namely, artillery, cavalry, and infantry, re- spectively, between first lieutenant and briga- dier-generals, relative rank being determined by length of service as an officer of the United States either in the regular or volunteer forces. Promotions among officers of the staff holding permanent commissions are made in like man- ner in the several departments and corps, re- spectively. Educational and physical examinations are required of officers of the line upon promotion between the grades of first lieutenant and ma- jors. In every service, to maintain a reasonably low age among the persons actively employed, it is essential that some scale be fixed for the retirement of old and worn-out officers, and those incapacitated for active military service. When an officer in the line of promotion is re- tired from active service, or in the event of casualties, by reason of retirements, resigna- tions, or deaths, the next officer in rank is pro- moted to his place, and the same rule of pro- motion is applied successively, to the vacancies consequent upon such casualties. The laws for the retirement from the mil- itary service provide : (i) If an officer has had 30 years' ser- vice (and makes application therefor), or if he has reached the age of 62, he may be placed on the retired list. (2) If an officer has been borne on the army register for 40 years (and makes application therefor), or if he has reached the age of 64, he shall be retired from active service. (3) An officer may also be retired on ac- count of disability contracted in the line of duty; or, wholly retired, if his incapacity is not the result of an incident of service, and his name dropped from the rolls of the army. 14) In like manner enlisted men of the army may be retired after 40 years of service. Officers and enlisted men on the retired list receive 75 per cent of the pay of the rank held upon retirement, hut they are withdrawn from command and promotion, except, that officers may be assigned to duty as military instructors at colleges, and at the Soldier-,' Home (I). C), They are, however, amenable to the rules and articles of war, and subject to trial by court- martial for a violation thereof. The Staff of the Army. — The Secretary of War is the head of the War Department, and performs such duties as are required of him by law, or may be enjoined upon him by the Pres- ident concerning the military establishment and administers its affairs and promulgates- the or- ders and directions of the President through a chief of staff, who has, under the Secretary of War, supervision of all troops of the line and of the administration of the several staff de- partments. The Secretary of War is charged with the supervision of estimates of appro- priations, of all purchases of army supplies, of all expenditures for the support, trans- portation, and maintenance of the army; and such expenditures of a civil nature as may be placed by Congress under his direc- tion. He also has supervision of the Military Academy and of military education in the army, of the Board of Ordnance and Fortification, o{ the various battlefield commissions. He has charge of all matters relating to national de- fense and seacoast fortifications, army ordnance, river and harbor improvements, etc. He also has charge of the establishment or abandon- ment of military posts, and of all matters re- lating to lands under the control of the War Department. His duties also embrace all mat- ters pertaining to civil government in the island possessions subject to the jurisdiction of the War Department. But twice in the history of military legisla tion has provision been formally made for the office of Chief of Staff of the Army: (1) in the act of 3 March 1813, which has never been re- pealed in express terms, and (2) in the act of 3 March 1865, repealed by the act of 3 April 1869. While legislative sanction is not required to enable the President to assign an officer to duty as Chief of Staff, a position demanded by the necessities of the service, Congress, by the act of 14 Feb. 1903, formally authorized the office and declared that under the direction of the President or the Secretary of War, that the Chief of Staff shall have supervision of all troops of the line and of the Adjutant-General's, Inspec- tor-General's, Judge Advocate's, Quartermas- ter's, Subsistence, Medical, Pay and Ordnance Department, the Corps of Engineers, and the Signal Corps. It is required of the general staff under the law, to prepare plans for the national defense ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES and for the mobilization of the military forces in time of war ; to investigate and report upon all questions affecting the efficiency of the army and its state of preparation for military opera- tions; to render professional aid and assistance to the Secretary of War and to general officers and other superior commanders, and to act as their agents in informing and co-ordinating the action of all the different officers who are sub- ject to the supervision of the Chief of Staff and to perform such other military duties, not oth- erwise assigned by law, as may be, from time to time, prescribed by the President or the Secre- tary of War. With respect to the staff the tendency has been to fill its offices from the line, and this pre- vails at this day, except in the Medical Depart- ment (which is open to appointment from civil life, after examination as to professional ca- pacity) and the chaplains; but since 1851, when the regular law of promotion was secured to each of them, it has been necessary that a new- comer should enter at the foot of the list, ex- over all the troops within the limits of the de- partment. The commander is assigned to duty by the President, who alone can relieve him, and who also fixes the limits or boundaries of the command. In time of war, military forces are organ- ized into armies, corps, divisions and brigades ; and for each (as well as the commander of a military department) is provided a competent administrative staff, which is allied in its per- sonnel and duties to the staff for the whole army, which is outlined below : * Sec. 26 of the act of 2 Feb. 1901, provides, " that so long as there remain any officers holding, permanent appointments in the Adjutant-General's Department, the Inspector-General's Department, the Quartermaster's Department, the Subsistence Department, the Pay De- partment, the Ordnance Department, and the Signal Corps, including those appointed to original vacancies in the grades of captain and first lieutenant under the provisions of sections sixteen, seventeen, twenty-one, and twenty-four of this act, they shall be promoted ac- cording to seniority in the several grades, as now pro- vided by law, and nothing herein contained shall be deemed to apply to vacancies which can be filled by such promotions or to the periods for which the officers ORGANIZATION OF THE STAFF OF THE U. S. ARMY. ■r. - U C a V a ■~ U c U c c « C V 3 "J u c V bf u y. W V >l in "i p c Pi H 6 , but when the attempt was made to represent the composition of benzene by a "structural formula," numerous difficulties were encountered. For example, benzene behaves like a saturated compound in most respects, yet it contains eight atoms less of hydrogen than the saturated paraffin "hexane" (CoH„) containing the same number of carbon atoms. Again, any or all of the hydrogen atoms in benzene can be replaced by other monovalent elements (or radicals) ; and the persistence of the group Co in the derivations of benzene, even when all the original hydrogen H atoms have been replaced by other elements or radi- cals, indicates that CH the carbon atoms in that body are intimately related to one another, in some manner. CH Furthermore, it has been proved by experiment j} that the hydrogen atoms in benzene are "of equal value," so that it makes no difference, in form- ing a substitution compound, which atom of HC HC HC HC hydrogen is replaced, and this fact indicates that the hydrogen atoms should occur in the struc- tural formula symmetrically. To reconcile these considerations (and many others) Kckule, in 1865, proposed for benzene the structural for- mula preceding. The symmetry of the body with respect to hy- drogen is here evident, and the persistence of the group Co is explained by assuming the six carbon atoms to be united to one another in the form of a closed chain, supposed to possess sufficient chemical strength to maintain its own integrity, save under exceptional circumstances. The closed ring of six carbon atoms is the "benzene nucleus," referred to above, which con- stitutes the distinctive feature of the aromatic compounds as a class. It will be observed that in Kekule's structural formula the carbon atoms are all tetravalcnt, just as the carbon is in carbon dioxid (CO;), and that three of the four valen- cies of each carbon atom are satisfied by the va- lencies of other carbon atoms, while the fourth is satisfied, in each case, by a hydrogen atom. Von Baeyer has proposed a slightly different structural formula for benzene, even more sym- metrical in appearance than Kekule's, but which raises certain questions that are not yet an- swered. His formula is as shown herewith. The closed carbon chain is present here also, but only three of the valencies of each carbon atom are definitely pro v i d e d for, and it is as- sumed that the six remaining valencies (one to each carbon atom) are satisfied by a sort of "central linkage," whose pre- cise nature is no' determined or de- fined. It is customary, at the present time to express the structural formula of benzene it the simple form with- out attempting any explanation of the fact that the carbon atoms are here ap- parently trivalent. Much thought has been expended upon this matter, and the constitution of ben- zene is one of the most interesting prob- lems in the realm of organic chemistry. The structural formu- las presented above are not to be taken in any sense as pictorial representations of the actual geometrical configuration of the benzene mole- cule. We know nothing at all about the shape of a molecule, nor sbout the way in which its parts are associated with one another, in space. The structural formulas employed in chemistry are mere empirical diagrams, for representing, to the eye, the chemical properties and relations that have been observed in the laboratory. Compounds have been prepared which con- tain closed rings of three, four, and five atoms of carbon, respectively, but these are not classed as aromatic compounds. They are intermediate. CH CH C H CH AROMATIC COMPOUNDS H »C HC CH CH N in general properties, between the aromatic se- ries and the fatty series, but resemble the latter more closely. Compounds are also known in which the chain is closed by an atom of Oxygen, or of sulphur, or of nitrogen. Thus the struc- tural formula of pyridine is as shown herewith. Such substances could be classed as "aro- matic compounds" by an extension of the definition of the aro- matic group, but are usually regarded as outside of the limits of that group. The aromatic compounds are so numerous, and include so many substances of tech- nical importance, that only the merest outline of their general character can be given in this place. In general it may be said that they are derived from benzene by replacing one or more of its typical hydrogen atoms by an equal number of monovalent radicals (either simple or com- pound). The essential features of these substi- tutions may be illustrated by considering the chlorobenzenes. By the action of chlorine upon cold benzene, several substitution products are formed, having the formulas GHsCl, CeHj.Cl2, GJT.Ch, etc., according to the number of atoms of hydrogen that are replaced by the chlorine. The first of these substitution products, CoHs.0, is called simply "chlorobenzene," and it is to be noted that since the hydrogen atoms in the orig- inal benzene are all "of equal value" (that is, all involved symmetrically), it makes no differ- ence which hydrogen atom is replaced by the chlorine ; hence only one chlorobenzene having the formula CeHr.Cl is possible. But when a second atom of hydrogen is replaced by chlorine, the resulting compound, CeHt.CU (known as di- chlorobenzene), can exist in no less than three distinct isomeric forms, according to the rela- tive positions of the chlorine atoms in the ben- zene ring. For let the structural formula of chlorobenzene (GHs.Cl) be represented by the skeletonized scheme the numbers represent- ing the several groups of CH, in one of which the hydrogen is to be replaced by a further substitution of chlorine. It is evident that the next chlorine atom may replace a hydrogen atom at any one of the five vertices to which numbers have been attached; but it 3 is also evident from symmetry that the two positions numbered "i" must be considered as essentially identical, so far as the product re- sulting from a substitution is concerned, and the same is also true of the two positions marked a 2." Only three essentially different ways of substituting the second chlorine atom need there- fore be considered. When the second chlorine atom is situated at an angle adjacent to the first, the product is known as orf/io-dichlorobenzcne; when the second chlorine atom is separated from the first by one vortex which still retains its hydrogen, the product is known as meta-dichlo- robenzene; and, finally, when the two substituted atoms of chlorine are opposite one another, the product is known as />ara-dichlorobenzene. The three different dichlorobenzenes thus shown by the structural formula to be possible, are actual- ly known. All aromatic compounds having the general formula CoH 4 Y 2 (where Y is a monova- lent radical) occur in three isomeric series, just as the chlorobenzenes do, and the separate com- pounds are distinguished, as already explained in the case of dichlorobenzene, by the prefixes ortho-, meta-, and para-. These prefixes are frequently abbreviated to single letters, in works on chemistry. Thus p- dihydroxybenzene is of- ten written in the place of the full name, "para- dihydroxybenzene." This particular substance (used in photography and commonly known as "hydroquinone"), as its name implies, is formed by the substitution of two molecules of hydroxyl (HO) for two atoms of hydrogen in the ben- zene ring, the hydroxyl molecules being opposite each other (as indicated by the prefix para-). Its structural formula, therefore, is as below. The ortho- compound having the same com- position (except that its two hydroxyl molecules are in the "ortho" positions), is a different substance, known more familiar- ly as catechol, or pyrocatechin, and the meta- compound (where the two mole- cules of hydroxyl are in the "meta" positions) is quite different from either of the others, and is known as resorcinol. The substitutions of monovalent radicals for the hydrogen atoms in benzene are by no means limited to two, nor need the radicals that are substituted be alike. Thus the pyrogallic acid so extensively used as a developer in photogra- phy is obtained from benzene by the substitu- tion of three molecules of hydroxyl for three molecules of the benzene hydrogen : and it there- fore has the formula CoH.,.(OH)j. Vanillin, now largely used in the place of extract of vanilla for flavoring confectionery and ices, is benzene in which three atoms of the original hydrogen have been replaced, respectively, by the groups (CHO), (OCH,), and (OH). On ac- count of the typographical difficulties involved in printing the structural formulas of the aro- matic compounds, chemists often specify the constitution of these compounds by numbering the original hydrogen atoms of the benzene from 1 to 6, and then specifying by number, which hydrogen atom has been replaced by each of the substituted radicals. Thus vanillin (re- ferred to in the previous paragraph) consists of benzene in which CHO has been substituted for the first hydrogen atom, OCH, for the third, and OH for the fourth; and with this conven- tion the constitution of vanillin may be ex pressed thus: CHO : OCH. :OH = i':.; : 4. The existence of tertiary (and higher) sub- stitution products of benzene makes it possible to identify the ortho-, meta-, and para- di-substi- C.OH AROMATIC COMPOUNDS tution compounds, so that the proper designation can he attached to each of them. The di-bromo- benzenes afford a good example oi the way in which tins is accomplished. The three essen- tially different compounds obtained by substitut- ing bromine for two of the hydrogen atoms in benzene are (according to the notation just given) Br : Br = i : 2, Br : Br= I : 3, and Br : Br = 1 : 4, these being ortho-dibromobenzene, uicta-dibromobenzene and para-dibromobcnzene, respectively. Now if an atom of hydrogen in the first of these be replaced by another atom of bromine, it is evident that the new bromine atom may have the position 3, 4, 5, or 6; hut the compounds in which the bromine occupies the positions 1:2:3 ar >d 1:2:6 must be regarded as identical, as will be seen by constructing the diagram ; and, similarly, those in which it occu- pies the positions 1:2:4 an d 1:2:5 must be considered identical. Hence the further intro- duction of bromine into ortho-dibromobenzene can give rise only to the two distinct tri-bromo- benzenes 1:2:3 an d 1:2:4. If the remaining dibromobenzenes be examined in the same way, it will be found that meta-dibromobenzene can yield (upon further bromination) the three dis- tinct tri-bromobenzenes 1:2:3, 1 : 3 '• 4, an d 1:3:5. Finally, it will be found that para-di- bromobenzene can yield only one tri-bromo- benzene; namely, 1 : 2 : 4. The identification of a di-substitution bromobenzene as ortho-, meta-, or para- is therefore seen to be equivalent to determining how many different tri-bromo- benzenes the given di-bromobenzcne can yield. This problem has been fully worked out in the case here taken as an illustration, and it has been shown that of the three known di-bromo- benzenes, the ortho- compound is the one boiling at 435 F., the meta- compound is the one boil- ing at 427°F., and the para- compound is the one melting at 180 F. The mode of identifica- tion here discussed in detail for bromine sub- stitution products can be applied in other cases also, but the labor involved in the operation is so great that it is usually easier to ascertain the proper prefix for a new di-substitution com- pound by noting which of the bromo-substitu- tion products must be used as a starting point, in the synthesis of the proposed compound. There is usually but little difference in the boiling points of ortho-, meta-, and para- com- pounds, but the para- compounds have the highest melting points. The benzene ring of ortho- compounds is liable to be broken up by oxidation, while in the other two classes the ring usually persists. The following general law appears to hold true of di-substitution aro- matic compounds: When a radical is introduced into a benzene ring in which one hydrogen atom has already been replaced by a radical, the second radical will take a position "meta 8 to the first one, provided the first was COOH, SO.H. NO,, or (probably) CN, CHO, or CO.CH3. In most other cases the second radical will mainly take the "para" position, though some of the "ortho" compound is almost in- variably produced at the same time. The aro- matic bodies include many acids, the simpler of which may be conveniently classified according to the number of molecules of carboxyl (COOH) that they contain, and according to the number of hydrogen atoms that have been displaced in the original benzene ring. The simpler and more familiar aromatic acids mostly contain one carboxyl group, and are therefore said to be "mono-carhoxylic." In the inono- carboxylic group, benzoic acid, CI I .('()( >1 1, is "mono-hydric" ; salicylic acid, CJI..OH. COOH, is "di-hydric"; proto-catechuic acid, C,II a .(OII)2.COOH, is "tri-bydric"; and gallic acid, C.H., (OH), .COOH, is "tetra-hydric." Numerous substances classed by the chemist as alcohols also occur in the aromatic group. The simplest of these (and the only one containing only six atoms of carbon) is phenyl alcohol, which is also known as phenol, and as carbolic acid. This substance is formed when benzene is oxidized by peroxid of hydrogen, in accord- ance with the equation. C.H, + H.O, = CJIr,.OII + H.O. Benzene. Hydrogen Phenyl al- Water peroxid. cohol. Phenol is called an alcohol on account of its chemical structure (see Alcohol), but it differs widely from the alcohols of the fatty series, since it does not yield an aldehyde, an acid nor a ketone, and it is not easily oxidized. Other aromatic alcohols may be prepared by replac- ing a hydrogen atom in benzene by one of the alcohol radicals ( C n H ; ,n + 1 ) of the fatty series, and then substituting an OH group for one of the hydrogen atoms in the compound so formed. The resulting substance has widely different properties, according to the position of the OH group so introduced. If the OH replaces a hydrogen atom in the alcohol radical, the final compound is called an alcohol; but if it replaces a hydrogen atom in the original benzene ring, the final compound is more ac- curately classed as a phenol. For example, if CHj be substituted for an atom of hydrogen in benzene, toluene (CoHs.CHa) is formed. If, now, OH is substituted for a hydrogen atom in the CH S , the resulting substance, CjHj.CHiOH, is known as benzyl alcohol; while if the OH is substituted for an H in the original ring, we have C«H ( . (OH).CH«, a substance known as cresol, and more properly described as a phenol than as an alcohol. One of the most important members of the aromatic group is amido-ben- zene, or aniline (q.v.). A. D. Risteen, Ph.D., Editorial Staff, 'Encyclopedia Americana.'' Ar'omat'ics, plants (sometimes animal and other substances) which have a spicy odor and pungent taste and are used in medicine, cookery, and perfumery. They are largely employed to disguise the taste of drugs, are usually reputed stimulant, antispasmodic, and. if bitter, tonic and vermifuge; externally they are applied as anti- septics, local anaesthetics and counter-irritants. Their active principles are volatile oils obtained by distillation ; but some contain camphor-like substances, such as turpentine ; others are bitter like tansy; still others contain an odorous resin, for example, myrrh and benzoin ; and lastly there are those with a musky odor, such as the musk plant (q.v.). Among aromatics and the families to which they belong are : peppermint, thyme, lavender, of the Labiata — the whole plant, especially the leaves; caraway, dill, anise, of the Umbelliferce — the seeds or seed capsules; ginger, Zlnglbcraccw — the root-stocks; cinnamon, cassia, of the Lauracca: Myrtacete — the bark; cloves, Myrtacea — the flower buds; and va- nilla, of the Orchidacca: — the fruits. AROMATIC VINEGAR — ARRACK Ar'omat'ic Vinegar, a liquid consisting of strong acetic acid, and obtained by distilling crystallized diacetate of copper. Its aroma is due to the presence of acetone, but it is also usually highly flavored with preparations, such as cloves, calamus, etc. It has a pleasant per- fume, and its vapor, when inhaled, has a power- ful effect on the nostrils, and acts as a strong excitant on the whole system. The liquid is highly corrosive. Arona, a-ro'na, Italy, an ancient town near the southern extremity of Lago Maggiore. In the vicinity is the colossal statue of San Carlo Borromeo, 70 feet high, exclusive of the pedes- tal, 42 feet high. There are silk, cotton, and metal works here. Pop. (1901) 4,700. Aroo. See Arru Islands. Aroostook, a-roos'tiik, a river in Maine. It rises in Piscataquis County, Me. ; flows more than 120 miles in a circuitous course, and enters the St. John River in New Brunswick. It was an important factor in the settlement of the long-pending dispute concerning the boundary between the United States and British America. Aroostook, Lady of The, the title of a book written by W. D. Howells in 1879 — one of the author's early works. The Aroostook is a trading vessel, and the lady of the story is the sole woman passenger in a voyage across the Atlantic. The story is strong and interesting, and contributed greatly to the early reputation of Mr. Howells. Arouet, a'roo-a'. See Voltaire. Around the World in Eighty Days, a noted romance by Jules Verne. Phineas Fogg, an English gentleman, wagers that a man can travel around the world in 80 days. He wins his wager, after a series of exciting adventures. Around-the-World Records. Many years have elapsed since Mr. Phineas Fogg, M. Jules Verne's mythical hero, accomplished the sup- posedly impossible task of circumnavigating the globe in 80 days, a feat which won for him a wager of $100,000, and incidentally, a wife. Since that time, however, so many improvements have been made in methods of transportation, sn many new routes — like that of the Trans- Siberian Railway (q.v.) — have been completed that Mr. Fogg's once remarkable trip now ap- pears in the light of an extremely commonplace achievement. In fact the person who, to-day, could not travel around the world in less than 80 days would be regarded as a very inex- perienced globe-trotter. The first serious at- tempt to lower Jules Verne's imaginary record was made in 1800, when Miss Nellie Bly, who represented the New York World, made the trip around the world against time. She was fol- lowed by the late George Francis Train, and both succeeded in accomplishing the tour in less than 70 days. Ten years later Mr. Genrge Grif- fith, of Chiswick, England, established a new record at 64^2 days, but this record stood for less than a year, it having been reduced, in 1001, to 60 days and \y/ 2 hours, by Charles CV Fitz- morris, who made the trip at the request of Hearst's Chicago American. The success of Fitzmorris was the means of inspiring many persons to participate in this unique form of record breaking, among the contestants there being several journalists, the representatives of Vol. 1— 48 European and Canadian papers. All attempts to lower this last record were unsuccessful, how- ever, until December 1903, when Mr. James Willis Sayre of Seattle, Wash., earned the hon- ors for record breaking by girdling the globe in 54 days, 9 hours and 42 minutes, an achievement that lowered the Fitzmorris record by more than 6 days and 3 hours. Mr. Sayre's itinerary was as follows : From Seattle to Yokohama, Japan ; thence by rail to Kobe, Moji, and Nagasaki, Japan ; then by steamer to Dalny, Manchuria, and so on to Liverpool by what was practically an all-rail journey of 7,600 miles. At Liverpool he boarded a steamer for New York, and, two hours after his arrival in America, he was on a train hound west, for Seattle. This feat of lowering the world's record for globe-girdling was accomplished without the use of special trains^ or boats, or any other method of travel beyond the means of the ordinary tourist. Arpad, iir'pad, the conqueror of Hungary, and founder of the Arpad dynasty, which reigned till 1301. He was born in the second half of the 9th century; died in 907. He was the son of Almus, whom the seven Magyar clans dwelling in the steppes northeast of the Caspian Sea had elected their hereditary chief about 889. Thus united into one nation, the Magyars, mus- tering about 25,000 warriors, crossed the Car- pathians and conquered Hungary, when Arpad was elected their prince. Arpeggio, ar-pej'o (Italian, from Arpa, a harp), in music, the playing of a chord on a keyed or stringed instrument by sounding the notes, not together, but in rapid succession. Arpino, ar-pe'no (ancient Arpinum), a town of southern Italy, celebrated as the birth- place of Caius Marius and Cicero. It is situated on a rising ground near the river Garigliano, was originally founded by the Volsci, and be- came a municipal town under the Romans. It is still a place of some importance, possesses a royal college and several churches, and manu- factures woolens. Pop. (1900) 10,607. Arquebus, iir'kwe-bus, an ancient species of firearm resembling a musket. It was fired from a forked rest, and sometimes cocked by a wheel, and carried a ball that weighed nearly two ounces. A larger kind used in fortresses carried a heavier shot. See Ordnance. Arracacha, ar'ra-ka'cha, or Aracacha, a genus of umbelliferous plants of Southern and Central America. The root of A. esculcnta is divided into several lobes, each of which is about the size of a large carrot. These are boiled like potatoes and largely eaten in South America. Ar'rack, or Rack, a name applied by Orientals to a strong spirituous liquor distilled from rice, from the juice of the cocoanut, date, and other palms, or from molasses. The arrack of Goa and Colombo in Ceylon is distilled from palm-juice alone, after being allowed to fer- ment; that of 1 '.ataxia and Jamaica from rice and molasses. The rice is turned into malt by being soaked in water and allowed to sprout, after which the arrack is distilled from it on fermen- tation taking place in the same way as whiskey from barley-malt. The rice is also often used without being malted. The distillation of the fermented liquor affords the third or worst sort of arrack; this mixed with a little water anil ARRAGONITE — ARREST OF JUDGMENT again distilled gives the second best sort ; a third distillation produces the best sort, which is sel- dom exported. The arrack sold in Europe is -i Idom genuine. Pure arrack is clear and trans- parent, with a yellowish or straw color, and a pe- culiar but agreeable taste and smell ; it contains at least 52 to 54 per cent of alcohol. Not much of it is imported into England, but it is largely drunk in India and the East generally, the In- dian and Pacific Islands, Africa, and South America. The arrack of Japan is known as saki. Arragonite, a common but erroneous spelling for the mineral Aragonite (q.v.). Ar rah, a town of British India, in Bengal. The surrounding country is fertile and well cul- tivated, and near the town is a large . 1 beau- tiful lake. It was rendered famous du ng the mutiny of 1857 by the heroic resistance o a body of 20 civilians and 50 Sikhs, cooped up within a detached house, to a force of 3,000 sepo; who were ultimately routed and overthrown v the arrival of a small European reinforcement. Pop. 47,000. Arrah Na Pogue, eir-ra na pog, a pla by Dion Boucicault. (q.v.). Arraignment, in the practice of criminal law the calling of a prisoner by his name to the bar of the court to answer the matter charged upon him in the indictment. His innocence be- ing presumed, it is the law, and is so laid down in the most ancient books, that, though charged upon an indictment of the gravest nature, he is entitled to stand at the bar in the character of a free man, without irons or any manner of shackles or bonds, unless there be evident danger of his escape, or of violence at his hands. Arran, ar'an, an island of Scotland, in the Firth of Clyde, 20 miles long, and 10 miles wide, with an area of 165 square miles. The island attains its loftiest summit in Goatfell, which is 2,900 feet high. The southern portion is rather hilly than mountainous, and contains several arable tracts of considerable extent and toler- able fertility. The geology of Arran has at- tracted much attention, as furnishing within a comparatively narrow space distinct sections of the great geological formations. The botany possesses almost equal interest, both in the variety and the rarity of many of its plants. Among objects of historical interest are the cave of Drumidoon, relics of Danish forts, and Druidical stones. Pop. (.1900) °.°°°- Consult ), a famous work by Horace. This is not the name given it by its author, who called it merely a ART UNIONS — ARTEDI 'Letter to the Pisos.' Horace treats of the unity that is essential to every composition, and the harmonious combination of the several parts, without which there can be no lasting success. In the second part, the poet confines himself to the form of the drama, the principles he has already established being so general that they apply to every class of composition. Art Unions, a name applied to associa- tions for the encouragement of the fine arts by the purchase of works of art out of a common fund raised by small subscriptions or shares, and their distribution by lot. The first art union was started in France ; but the Munich art union was the first of importance. Berlin and other towns of Germany soon followed the example of Munich, and the first art union was founded in Edinburgh in 1834, and proved a complete success. The art union of London soon followed that of Edinburgh. Arta, ar'ta, the name of a gulf, town, and river. The gulf (ancient Ambracius Sinus), an arm of the Ionian Sea, between Greece and Al- bania, is about 20 miles long by 10 miles broad. Near its entrance the battle of Aclium was fought. The town, called also Narda (the an- cient Ambracio), about six miles north of the gulf, stands on the river, which is here about 200 yards wide, and begins to be navigable. It carries on a considerable trade in wine, oranges, and tobacco. Pop. (1896) 7,582. Ar'taba'nus IV., the last of the Parthian monarchs, who 217 a.d., escaping with great difficulty from a perfidious massacre begun by the Romans under Caracalla, mustered an army, and engaged his foes in a battle which lasted for two days. Peace was then concluded, but Ar- tabanus afterward incited his subjects to revolt, and in a battle, in 226, was taken and put to death. Ar'taba'zus, the name of several distin- guished Persians under the dynasty of the Achsemenidae. When Xerxes advanced against Greece, an Artabazus led the Parlhians and Chorasmians. Another Artabazus was general under the Persian king, Artaxerxes II., and af- terward revolted against Artaxerxes III. He was forgiven through (he exertions of his brother-in-law, Mentor, a favorite and staunch supporter of the next king, I larius. whom Artaba- zus faithfully attended after the battle of Arbela. Alexander rewarded his fidelity by appointing him satrap of Bactria. Artagnan d', diir'ta-nyan', the hero of Dumas' 'Trois Mousquetaires,' Vingt ans aprcs, and Le Vicomte de Bragelonne.' He is a Gas- con adventurer, very popular among heroes of romance. There was, however, a Count d'Artag- nan (b. about 1612; d. 1673), who was an officer of musketeers, and fell in the siege of Maes- tricht. Artasires, (ar'ta-vas'dez) the last Arsacid monarch of Armenia. He was placed on the throne by Bahrain V. of Persia, who afterward deposed him and annexed his dominions to Per- sia, under the name of Persarmenia, 248 B.C. Artavasdes (iir'ta-vas'dez) I., a king of Ar- menia, who succeeded his father Tigranes. He joined the Roman forces commanded by Crassus, but deserting to the enemy, caused the defeat of the Romans, and the death of Crassus. He simi- larly betrayed Mark Antony when engaged against the Medes; but afterward falling into Antony's power, was taken with his wife and children to Alexandria, where they were dragged at the victor's chariot wheels in golden chains. After the battle of Actium, Cleopatra caused his head to be struck off and sent to the King of Media. Artax'ata, the name of the ancient capital of Armenia, the refuge of Hannibal when for- saken by Antiochus. Its ruins are now known as Ardashir. Artaxerxes, ar'taks-erks'ez, the name of several Persian kings: (1) ARTAXERXES I., sur- named Longimanis, because his right band was longer than his left, the second son of Xerxes, escaped from Artabanus and the other conspira- tors who had murdered his father and elder brother Darius, and in 465 B.C. ascended the throne. He conquered the rebellious Egyptians, terminated the war with Athens by graining freedom to the Greek cities of Asia, governed his subjects in peace, and died 425 B.C. (2) Au- taxekxes II., surnamed Mnemon, from his strong memory, succeeded his father, Darius II., in the year 405 B.C. After vanquishing his broth- er Cyrus he made war on the Spartans, and forced them to abandon the Greek cities and islands of Asia to the Persians. He favored the Athenians, and endeavored to foment dissen- sions among the Greeks. His last days were embittered by the unnatural conduct of his son Ochus, who, to secure the crown to himself, caused the destruction of two of his brothers. On the death of Artaxerxes Mnemon, 359 B.C., Ochus ascended the throne under the name of (3) Artaxerxes Ochus. After having subdued the Phoenicians and Egyptians, and displayed great cruelty in both Egypt and Phoenicia, he was poisoned in 339 by his general, Bagoas. (4) Artaxerxes Bebegan was the first king of Per- sia of the race of Sassanides. He was a shep- herd's son; hut his grandfather, by the moth- er's side, being governor of a province, he was sent to the court of King Ardavan. On his grandfather's death, Artaxerxes, exciting the people to revolt, defeated and slew Ardavan and his son, and assumed the title of King of Kings. He made vast conquests, and wisely adminis- tered the affairs of his kingdom. Artedi, ar-ta'de, Peter, an eminent Swed- ish naturalist: b. Anund, 22 Feb. 1705; d. Amsterdam, Holland, 27 Sept. 1735. He went in 1724 to Upsala, and turning his attention to nat- ural history, soon rose to considerable emi- nence, particularly in the department of ichthy- ology, the classification of which he reformed upon philosophical principles. This arrangement added greatly to his reputation as a nat- uralist at the time, and afterward became popu- lar over Europe. In 1728 his celebrated country- man, Linnaeus, arrived in Upsala, and a lasting friendship was formed between the two men. In 1732 both left Upsala — Artedi for England, in pursuit of his favorite study ; and Linnaeus for Lapland, to examine its natural productions ; but before parting they reciprocally bequeathed to each other their manuscripts and books upon the event of death. According to agreement his manuscripts came into the hands of Linnaeus, and his 'Bibliotheca Ichthyologica' and ' Phi- lcsophia Ichthyologica,' together with a life of ARTEMIA — ARTERIES the author, were published at Leyden in the year 1738. Linnaeus named a genus of umbelliferous plants Artedia, in memory of his friend. Arte'mia. See Brine-Shrimp. Ar'temido'rus, a Greek geographer: b. in Ephesus, who flourished about 100 B.C. His 'Geographoumena' in clever books was an ex- haustive work on the various features, geo- graphical, physical, historical, and political, of the larger part of the then known world, found- ed on the writer's own investigations and the works of preceding writers. Only fragments of his work are extant. Ar'temis, a Greek goddess, identified with the Roman Diana. She was the daughter of Zeus (Jupiter) and Leto or Latona, and was the twin sister of Apollo, born in the island of Delos. She is variously represented as a hunt- ress, with bow and arrows; as a goddess of the nymphs, in a chariot drawn by four stags ; and as the moon goddess, with the crescent above her forehead. She was a maiden divinity, demanding the strictest chastity from her wor- shippers, and is represented as having changed Actseon into a stag, and caused him to be torn in pieces by his own dogs, because he bad se- cretly watched her as she was bathing. The Artemisia was a festival celebrated in her honor at Delphi. The famous temple of Artemis at Ephesus was considered one of the wonders of the world, but the goddess worshipped there was very different from the huntress goddess of Greece, being of Eastern origin, and regarded as the symbol of fruitful nature. Artemisia I., ar'te-mTzh'i-a, or mish-i-a, a queen of Caria, who lived in the 5th century B.C., and assisted Xerxes in person against the Greeks, and behaved with such valor that the Athenians offered a reward for her capture, and the Spar- tans erected a statue to her. Artemisia II., a queen of Caria, who flourished about 350 b.c. She was the sister and wife of Mausolus, whose death she lamented deeply, and to whom she erected, in her capital, Halicarnassus, a monument reckoned among the seven wonders of the world. The principal architects of Greece labored on it. Bryaxis, Scopas, Leochares, and Timotheus made the decorations on the four sides of the edifice ; Pythcs, the chariot drawn by four horses, which adorned the conical top. Vitruvius thought that Praxiteles was also employed on it. After the death of Artemisia the artists finished it with- out compensation, that they might not be de- prived of the honor of their labor. It was an oblong square, 411 feet in compass, and 130 feet high. The principal side was adorned with 36 columns, and 24 steps led to the entrance. Artemisia, a genus of aromatic, acrid, and bitter flavored herbs and shrubs of the natural order Composites, mostly natives of the northern hemisphere and especially abundant in arid re- gions. The species are characterized by alter- nate often deeply-lobed or divided leaves, and numerous small and generally inconspicuous heads of yellow or whitish florets. The culti- vated species, of which there are many, are read- ily propagated by division and succeed even on poor dry soils. A. dracunculus, tarragon or estragon, is a Siberian perennial, long and widely cultivated in Europe, but little in America, for its leaves, which are used to season dressings, pickles, and other culinary preparations. (See Tarragon.) A. absinthium, wormwood, a na- tive of Europe and Asia, is a spreading and branching perennial herb, 2 to 4 feet tall, with its two- or three-parted silky-downy leaves, and its flower-heads in axillary panicles. It is widely grown in Europe for the manufacture of absinthe (q.v.). A. abrotamim, southernwood, old man, is a shrubby species, 3 to 4 feet tall, a native of middle Asia and southern Eu- rope, and is often grown for its pleasant-smelling foliage, which is used among clothing as a moth repellant, and in parts of Europe in the manu- facture of some kinds of beer. A. pontica, Roman wormwood, another European species, re- sembles A. absinthium in properties and is simi- larly used. A. vulgaris, mugwort, is a native of Europe and northern North America, grown f< >r its pleasant-smelling ornamental foliage, which in some varieties is golden or variegated. Its young shoots and leaves are used in German cookery, and like A. absinthium, in domestic medicine. A. stelleriana, old woman, a native of northeastern Asia and common on the Massa- chusetts coast, is a useful border plant on ac- count of the whiteness of its foliage. A. arbus- cula, a species seldom more than one foot tall, and A. tridentata. which though usually low growing, occasionally reaches a height of twelve feet, are representative of the many species known as sage brush (q.v.) in the arid districts of the western United States, where they fur- nish valuable forage for cattle and especially sheep. A. mantima and several other species are grown for their flower heads, which are used in medicine as a vermifuge and sold under the name of worm seed or as santonine, the colorless crystalline active principle. ./. moxa, .1. chinen- sis, and other species furnish moxa, a cottony material obtained from the leaves which are covered with down, used by the Chinese for cauterizing. Numerous other species are em- ployed in the manufacture of absinthe, for culi- nary, ornamental, and medicinal purposes in vari- ous parts of the world. For physical action and toxicology, see Absinthe. Artemisium, ar-te-mlsh-T-um, a promon- tory in Eubcea, an island of the ^Egean, near which a great naval battle between the Greeks and Persians was fought, 480 B.C. It was named from a temple to Artemis situated here. Ar'temus Ward. See Browne, Chaki.es Farrar. Arte'rial Pressure. See Blood Pressure. Ar'teries, the vessels in the human body that carry arterial, or oxygenated blood away from the heart. The old name, signifying car- riers of air, is retained, although the ancient be- lief has been laid aside. The arteries spring from the heart, as the aorta (q.v.) and by the branch- ing and division of the main branches of this large arterial trunk, are distributed in successive- ly finer branches to all parts of the human body. The blood supply for the head is mainly derived from the carotid arteries, the superficial, or ex- ternal carotid, supplying the outer structures, and the deep or internal carotid that gives nour- ishment to the brain and deeper lying parts. '1 here are numerous anastomoses between the branches of the carotid arteries. The main sup- ARTERIES — ARTESIAN ply of the arm has been described under the head aorta (q.v.)i as well as the branches that supply the viscera and the lower limbs. Arteries become smaller and smaller as they approach the periphery of any organ and arc finally con- verted into capillaries which anastomose with the capillaries of the veins; these carry the blood back to the heart and thus the circle is complet- ed. The minute structure of the arteries is well adapted to the varying functions that these ves- sels perform. In every large and medium-sized artery, three distinct layers or coats may be dis- tinguished under the miscroscope. The inner coat, or the tunica intima, is thin and smooth, and consists of an inner layer of flat plate-like endothelial cells that are continuous throughout the entire system of blood vessels. This endo- thelial layer by its smoothness reduces friction of the flowing blood to a minimum. Surround- ing it are two layers of fibrous elastic tissues. The middle coat of the arteries is the tunica media and is composed mostly of smooth muscle lil nes, with some fibrous tissue. These muscle fibres are arranged in a circular manner about the arteries. The outer coat, or the tunica adven- titia, is made up of white fibrous tissue. Thus the arteries have elastic and fibrous tissues in each coat. The outer layer is extremely tough and thus strengthens and protects; the middle layer by means of its elasticity permits the artery to return to its average diameter after it has been dilated or contracted by the muscular layer. In the larger arteries the yellow fibrous tissue pre- dominates, while in the smaller arteries there is a relatively larger amount of muscle fibre. The large arteries are thus more elastic and less con- tractile, while for the smaller arteries the reverse is true. The muscle fibres are under the control of the sympathetic nervous system nerve fibres. In the capillaries the artery is reduced to its single endothelial layer, and has neither elastic fibres nor muscle fibres. Arteries, Diseases of. The arteries are subject to a number of diseases which may be classed as (i) due to infectious micro-organ- isms, (2) degenerations with increase of con- nective tissue, (3) aneurisms. Of the acute infectious diseases, tuberculosis and syphilis, par- ticularly the latter, are important. Syphilis is one of the most important causes of arterial de- generation. Acute arteritis is a definite disease, although the great pathologist, Virchow, taught that it was a secondary affection. Recent bac- teriological studies, however, have shown that bacterial infection of the arterial walls is a fun- damental and important process. It is frequently the cause of an arterial thrombus and often de- velops into a true arteriosclerosis. Under the general head arteriosclerosis is classed a dif- fuse or circumscribed thickening of the arte- rial walls, especially of the tunica intima, sec- ondary to inflammatory or degenerative changes in the tunica media. When occurring in the large arteries, the term atheroma is used. Ar- teriosclerosis is sometimes found in the young, but is usually a disease of later life. Among the causes favoring its development are: (1) changes in the composition of the blood, such as toxins from bacterial infections (syphilis, rheu- matism), metallic poisons, alcohol, and the dis- turbed metabolism of gout, Bright's disease, etc., and (2) changes in the tension of the blood vessels. These occur as a result of excessive and prolonged muscular exertion and intense emotional activity. Arteriosclerosis may be cir- cumscribed or diffuse. It may show irregular plaques of a transparent or gelatinous character which at a later period become bard and firm, or even calcified with the formation of brittle or pipe stem arteries. Sometimes the arteries un- dergo a fatty degeneration. There is a prolifera- tion of the connective tissue and a degeneration of the elastic tissue. The arteries thus become less responsive to control and so interfere with the nervous impulses. In the diffuse form the proliferation and degeneration is more uniform. Arteriosclerosis is one of the most important of all diseases since by its interference with the proper blood supply of an organ, it may occa- sion disease in that organ. In pronounced e, 1 n eralized arteriosclerosis all of the organs of the body suffer. Arteriosclerosis is one of the most important elements in the production of cerebral hemorrhage, one of the forms of apoplexy. Aneurisms have already been considered under that heading. Arte'riosclero'sis. See ARTERIES, I IISEASESOF. Artesian (ar-te'zhan) Wells, borings of considerable depth which tap a subterranean stream or sheet of water. The name is derived from artois (Latin arlesium), a province in France where the first deep borings in Europe were made. Strictly speaking the term artesian is applicable only to such wells as discbarge water at the surface under natural conditions (that is, self-flowing wells), but in America the term is commonly applied to any wells of more than ordinary depth. As the latter type of wells does not possess any features of special interest the term will here be used in its limited sense. The conditions which determine the presence of artesian water in a region relate to the geologi- cal structure of the underlying strata. It is es- sential in the first place that a pervious stratum enclosed above and below by impervious layers be present. The pervious bed, usually sand- stone or sand, serves as a reservoir for the ac- cumulation of water, while the impervious beds prevent this water from escaping either upward or downward. The second requisite is that the strata have a gentle pitch toward the site of the well and that they outcrop at some place above the mouth. The distance of the outcropping edges, which receive the water supply from rains, is sometimes very great, and is immaterial if the enclosing beds are perfectly impervious, except as it modifies the resistance offered to the pas- sage of the water. Owing to this friction the water column of the well never reaches the level of the outcropping source. The conditions for artesian water are particularly favorable when the strata are arranged in the form of a geo- logical basin dipping in all directions toward the well, as there then is no opportunity for the water to escape at a lower level. From these considerations it is evident that the discharge from an artesian well depends upon the rainfall of the region and upon the area of the exposed porous stratum. At first the discharge is usually very abundant owing to the long accumulation, and unless this drain is constantly supplied the flow will gradually decrease until a balance is established. When several wells are bored in the same vicinity, the flow from each may be di- minished, but the total discharge will increase until the limit of supply is reached. This is ARTEVELD — ARTHRITIS well illustrated in the wells bored in the Lon- don basin which in 1838 gave a total daily sup- ply of 6,000,000 gallons; in 1851 with a larger number of borings the supply was about doubled, while the force had diminished very markedly. Artesian water is valuable not only for domestic use, for which it is usually adapted by its purity, but it is also extensively employed in the irri- gation of arid regions. Some parts of the Sa- hara Desert have been reclaimed by making use of the subterranean stores of water, and recent investigations have shown that there are many areas which may yet be brought under cultiva- tion. It is, however, in the United States that irrigation by artesian waters has reached its greatest development. Special surveys of the Great Plains region have been undertaken by the United States Geological Survey for the purpose of defining the areas where successful borings may be made, and artesian wells are now largely employed for irrigation in Kansas, Iowa, Colorado, Montana, and Texas. The supply is drawn mostly from the Cretaceous sandstone, which is reached at a depth varying from less than 100 to more than 1,500 feet. When the flow of water is sufficiently strong it may be utilized for power purposes as is done in some parts of Europe. In Wiirtemberg a supply of warm water is applied to the heating of build- ings. The depth at which artesian water may be found depends entirely upon local conditions. In the Paris basin the water-bearing stratum is usually encountered at a depth exceeding 1,500 feet. The famous well at Crenelle, near Paris, was begun in 1833, and operations were con- tinued until 1841 when at a depth of 1,797 feet the water poured out with great force at the rate of 500,000 gallons per day. Another well was sunk near by at Passy, which yielded 5,600,000 gallons daily, the water rising to a height of 54 feet above the mouth. This well was 1,923 feet deep and had the unusual diameter of 2 feet 4 inches. A well at Kissingen, Bavaria, furnishes a supply of saline water from a depth of 1,878 feet. The deepest well in the world is at Schladenbach, near Leipsic, 5,735 feet. In the United States there are many notable examples of artesian wells. The first boring of great depth was made at St. Louis in 1S49-54; a flow of 75 gallons per minute was obtained from a depth of 2,200 feet, but the water was so heavily charged with sulphuretted hydrogen and mineral matter as to be unfit for domestic use. Another boring was subsequently made to a depth of 3,843 feet. A well at Louisville, Ky., is 2,086 feet deep and yields 330,000 gallons per day. Among other noteworthy wells are the following: Columbus, O. (2,775 feet) ; Galves- ton, Tex. (3,071 feet) ; Charleston, S. C. (1,250 feet) ; Pittsburg, Pa. (4,625 feet) ; and Chicago (710 feet). A great many wells have been bored in recent years within the Atlantic Coastal Plain, especially in New Jersey, and many cities have thus obtained supplies of pure water. The cost of sinking artesian wells varies with the depth and the character of the strata encountered. Up to 500 feet the cost commonly ranges from $1.50 to $3.00 per foot, but below this limit the cost increases in proportion to the depth. The ap- paratus used in boring does not differ from that employed in sinking for petroleum. The first artesian borings were probably made by the Chinese. In the upper basin of the Yang-tse- Kiang there are wells 1,500 to 3,000 feet in dtpth from which brine for salt manufacture is obtained. This industry has been carried on since a very early period and is an illustration of the comparatively advanced state of progress at- tained by this people long before the western nations had developed the mechanical arts be- yond the crude stage. Deep wells have been found also in Egypt which are thought to have been the work of the ancient Egyptians. A well bored in the year 1126 at Lillers, department of Pas-de-Calais, France, is still flowing. Arteveld, ar'te-vel'de, or Artevelde, the name of two men distinguished in the history of the Netherlands. (1) Jacob van, a brewer of Ghent, b. about 1290; d. 17 July 1345. He was selected by his fellow townsmen to lead them in their struggles against Count Louis of Flanders. In 1338 he was appointed captain of the forces of Ghent, and for several years exer- cised a sort of sovereign power. A proposal to make the Black Prince, son of Edward III. of England, governor of Flanders, led to an insur- rection, in which Arteveld lost his life. (2) Philip van, son of Jacob: b. 1340; d. 27 Nov. 1382. At the head of the forces of Ghent he gained a great victory over the Count of Flanders, Louis II., and for a time assumed the state of a sovereign prince. His reign proved short-lived. The Count of Flanders returned with a large French force, fully disciplined and skilfully commanded. Arteveld was rash enough to meet them in the open field at Roose- beke, between Courtrai and Ghent, in 1382, and fell with 25,000 Flemings. See Ashley, 'James and Philip van Artavelde* (1883); Hutton, 'James van Artavelde' (1882). Artevelde, Philip van, the title of a trage- dy by Sir Henry Taylor, published in 1834. It is one of the best of modern English tragedies by an author distinguished for his protest, in the spirit of Wordsworth, against the extreme sen- timentalism of Byron. In this play with admira- ble power he brings back the stress and storm of 14th century life. The father of Philip, the great Jacob van Artevelde, an immensely rich brewer, eloquent and energetic, had played a great part as popular leader at Ghent, 1335-45 ', a "d it fell to his son to figure similarly in 1381, but to be slain in a great defeat of the forces of Ghent the next year. Taylor's tragedy recalls the events of these two years. Art'ful Dodg'er, The, the nickname of John Daukins, a young pickpocket in Dickens' 'Oliver Twist.' Arthralgia (Neo.-Lat. from Gr. apdpov, joint, + a'Xyos, pain), pain in a joint; used more specifically of neuralgia in a joint. It is synonymous with arthrodynia. Arthri'tis, an acute or chronic inflamma- tion of the joints, usually due to bacterial in- fection. Such infection may follow a wound, a perforating injury, an operative incision, or the micro-organisms may come to the joint through the blood stream, as in rheumatism, gonorrhoea, typhoid, or pyemia. In some cases of arthritis the causes seem to be resident in defective meta- bolism — gout is an illustration of this type of arthritis. In acute cases there are pain, swelling, heat, and occasionally suppuration. In the chronic forms the main symptoms are pain and ARTHRITIS DEFORMANS stiffness. The treatment should include rest, counter-irritation, and, in the suppurative cases, prompt surgical attention. In the more chronic cases counter-irritation, dry, hot air, static elec- tricity, and potassium iodid are of service. See Anthritis Deformans; Gout; Joint; Rheu- matism. Arthritis Deformans (rheumatoid ar- thritis, or osteo-arthritis), a chronic progressive disease of the joints, chiefly affecting the articu- lar cartilages, hones, and synovial membranes, and producing loss of function and great defor- mity from ossification of some parts of the joint and atrophy of others. Its origin is not definitely known. Though it is sometimes spoken of as rheumatic gout, it is believed to have noth- ing in common with rheumatism or gout, but may co-exist with either. It is very rare in children, occurs occasionally in old age, is more common between 25 and 50, and in females than in males. It most often appears after the menopause, though it may oc- cur earlier, as when following parturition. It is doubtful whether the disease is hereditary, al- though several cases may occur in one family. Exposure to inclement weather, dietetic errors, injuries, etc., have less causative influence than in gout or rheumatism, but poor food, debility, anae- mia, and cold and damp increase the severity of the disease. Mental strain precedes many cases and adds very much to the severity of the disease. There are two theories as to the immediate cause of the affection. The first, the nervous or neuropathic theory, is based upon the symmet- rical distribution of the joint-lesions, the trophic changes in the skin, nails, etc., the frequent pre- existing mental disturbances, shock, grief, worry, and the like, the disproportionate muscu- lar atrophy, and the similarity of the lesions to those of locomotor ataxia and other affections of the spinal cord. The second or infectious theory is derived from the facts that micro- organisms have been found in the fluids and tissues of the joints, that the disease sometimes begins with an acute onset, as do many of the infectious diseases, and that enlargement of the spleen and lymph-glands is found in some cases. It is difficult to say which tissue is primarily at fault, but sooner or later nearly all are involved. The synovial membrane inflames, and papillary outgrowths and cartilaginous nodules form upon it. These last may undergo fatty degeneration, or they may ossify. They may slip into the joint-cavity. If serous effusion occurs it is ab- sorbed early in the disease. The cartilages lose their cells, become fibrillated and soft, and are removed by friction and absorption. The ends of the bones (the interarticular cartilages being absorbed ) by friction become smooth, rounded, and shiny, like polished ivory (eburnated). The eburnated surfaces, by attrition, become grooved, and minute perforations of the Haversian canals result. Deposits 01 new hone form around the margins of the joints, and may be often felt ex- ternally. The muscles atrophy and are of a brownish color. Fibrous adhesions and bony anchylosis occur. Some of the small joints of the fingers, for example, may move a little, but the knees, etc., may be interlocked, by reason of the rims of bony material deposited. Dis- location or subluxation may result. The perios- teum along the shafts of the bones may thicken or ossify in nodules. The acute form of the general or multiple progressive type is rare after 40. Smaller joints become simultaneously painful, tender, and swollen, but not red as in rheumatism ; there is no migration from joint to joint, the affected joints are inflamed, while others are becoming diseased. Patients are anaemic, mentally de- pressed, and complain of headache and malaise. Fever seldom goes above 102°. Temporary im- provement occurs, but the disease advances. The chronic form of this type is insidious and more common. One joint (of finger or toe) is involved ; the disease affects the corresponding joint, and then other joints; pain may be mild or very severe; there are delusive intervals while the disease marches on. After months, or it may be years, all or nearly all of the joints are thickened, rigid, and distorted. The hands are bent toward the ulnar side, fingers strongly flexed, nails in the palms of the hands. The thumbs, though drawn in, may be used. The knees are generally crossed. The general health through it all may be fair, as visceral lesions are uncommon. In the monarticular or localized type, the disease is usually confined to one or two of the larger joints, occurs mostly in men, and after 50. The knee, shoulder, elbow, or hip is gen- erally affected, but the vertebrae may be, the en- tire spinal column becoming rigid. Motion of affected joints often produces a creaking or grating sound. The pathological appearances are similar to those of the general type of the disease, but joint-injuries are more often an ex- citing cause. The joint becomes stiff, sore, and painful, and there is absorption of the ends of the bones, dislocation, and deformity. Heberden's nodes or nodosities, described by him in 1805, are small exostoses ("small hard knobs"), seldom larger than peas, which form on either side of the distal joints of fingers. They may be present in either type of the dis- ease, at first are tender and swollen, but later on apparently cause little discomfort. Some- times the bone-enlargement surrounds the joint. Arthritis deformans in children, although not frequent, is more acute, and is more influenced by poor food, cold and damp, etc. There is fever, sometimes a chill. The swelling, stiff- ness, and tenderness seem to be more in the soft parts than in harder tissues. The fingers are flexed and overlapped, the feet are strongly extended, and the joints are rigid. The diagnosis of arthritis deformans must be made from subacute and chronic rheumatism; gonorrheal rheumatism, gout, progressive mus- cular atrophy, Charcot's disease, etc. Recovery is impossible, but the disease is not directly dangerous to life. Treatment for relief is hygienic and dietetic, a warm, dry, equable climate, dry. healthful quarters, change of scene, freedom from anxiety, shock, etc., woolen underclothes, flannel nightgowns or pajamas, and ample diet. Malt extracts, iron,' and cod-liver oil are of service. Locally there should be application of massage, friction, elec- tricity, douching, hot air in so-called hot-box, guiacol and glycerine in equal parts, or bella- donna ointment, cotton, and oil-silk. Residence at one of the spas, with appropriate care and K treatment, will relieve suffering and prolong life. See Arthritis; Gout; Joint; Rheumatism. ARTHROCACE — ARTHROPODA Arthrocace (Neo.-Lat. from Gk. ipepov, joint + "a.K-/i, evil ), a disease of the joints in which the hone is disintegrated and carried away piecemeal. See Caries. Arthro'dia. See Joint. Arthrodynia (Xeo.-Lat. from Gk. SpOpov, joint -f- 65uv7), pain), pain in a joint; prac- tically synonymous with arthralgia. Arthrogastra (Neo.-Lat. from Gk. UpSpov, joint + ya.arijp, abdomen), a divi- sion of the insect class Arachnida (q.v.), hav- ing the abdomen annulated, and including the scorpions (see Scorpion), etc. Arthromere (Gk. &p6pov, joint + M<^°s. part), one of the series of segments of which arthropoda (q.v.) are composed. Arthropathia Tabidorum, a disease of the joints in connection with spinal disease {tabes dorsalis), very similar to arthritis deformans (q.v.). The destruction of the ends of the bones in the joint concerned takes place with great rapidity and painlessly ; there is no fever nor appearance of inflammation, even when the bones are fractured. Arthrophragm ( Gk. ipBpov, joint + (ppaypLa, fence), a partition between certain articulations, as, for example, in the crayfish (q.v.). Arthropleure (Neo.-Lat. Arthropleura, from Gk. dpBpov, joint -f- T\evpi, side), the lateral portions of the arthroderm, or crust, of articulated animals. See Articulata. Arthrop'oda, a phylum comprising those articulated animals which have jointed append- ages, such as antennae, jaws, maxillae (or ac- cessory jaws), palpi, and legs, arranged in pairs, the two halves of the body thus being more markedly symmetrical than in the lower ani- mals. It is by far the most numerous in species of any in the animal kingdom, the insects alone probably numbering upward of a million spe- cies ; other representative or typical forms are the trilobites, king crabs, scorpions, spiders, and myriopods. The skin is usually hardened by the deposition of salts (carbonate and phosphate of lime), and of a peculiar organic substance called chitine. The segments (somites or arthro- meres) composing the body are usually limited in number, 20 (or 21) in the crustaceans and insects ; while each arthromere is primarily di- vided into an upper (tergum), lower (sternum), and lateral portion (pleurum). These divisions, however, cannot be traced in the head of either the crustaceans or the insects. Moreover, the head is well marked, with one or two pairs of feelers or antennae, and from two to four pairs of biting mouth-parts or jaws, and two com- pound eyes ; besides the compound eyes there are simple eyes in the insects. The germ is three-layered, and there is usually in the more specialized forms a well-marked metamorphosis. The Arthropoda are most nearly related to the worms, certain annelides, with their soft-jointed appendages (tentacles as well as lateral cirri) and more or less definite head, anticipating or foreshadowing the arthropods. On the other hand, certain low parasitic arthropods, as lingua- tula, have been mistaken for genuine parasitic worms. Segmentation of the Pody. — The segments (somites, metameres) ire merely thickenings of Vol. 1 — 49 the skin connected by a thin intersegmental membrane, so that the segments can telescope into each other, or extend, thus lending the greatest freedom of motion to the trunk as well as to the appendages ; otherwise a rigid chitinous skin would not permit of any movement. As in the annelid worms, this segmentation of the in- tegument is correlated with the serial repetition of the ganglia of the nervous system, of the ostia of trie dorsal vessel, the primitive dispo- sition of the segmental and reproductive or- gans, of the soft, muscular dissepiments which correspond to the suture between the segments, and with the metameric arrangement of the muscles controlling the movements of the seg- ments on each other ; and this internal segmenta- tion or metamerism is indicated very early in embryonic life by the mescblastic somites. While we look upon the dermal tube of worms as a single but flexible lever, the body of the arthropods, as Graber states, is a linear system of stiff levers. We have here a series of stiff, solid rings, or hoops, united by the inter- segmental membrane into a whole. When the muscles extending from one ring to the next behind contract, and so on through the entire series, the rings approximate each other. The origin of the joints or segments in the limbs of arthropods was probably due to the mechanical strains to which what were at first soft fleshy outgrowths along the sides of the body became subjected. Indeed, certain anne- lid worms of the family Syllida have segment- ed tentacles and parapodia, as in Dujardinia. We do not know enough about the habits of these worms to understand how this metamer- ism may have arisen, but it is possibly due to the act of pushing or repeated efforts to sup- port the body while creeping over the bottom among broken shells, over coarse gravel, or among sea-weeds. It is obvious, however, that the jointed structure of the limbs of arthropods, if we are to attempt any explanation at all. was primarily due mainly to lateral strains and im- pacts resulting from the primitive endeavors of the ancestral arthropods to raise and to support the body while thus raised, and then to push or drag it forward by means of the soft, par- tially jointed, lateral limbs which were armed with bristles, hooks, or finally claws. By adap- tation, or as the result of parasitism and con- sequent lack of active motion, the original number of segments may by disuse be dimin- ished. Thus in adult wasps and bees, the ln-t three or four abdominal segments may be nearly lost, though the larval number is ten. During metamorphosis the body is made over, and the number, shape, and structure of the seg- ments are greatly modified. History and Present Classification. — The group or sub-kingdom (phylum) of Arthropoda was founded _ in 1S4S by Siebold. It has been supposed until recently to be a natural group. In 1893 Kingsley, and also Kennel, first sug- gested doubts as to the homogeneity of the group, and in the same year Packard published the view that there are f^ur independent lines of development in the Arthropoda, and in 1894 Kingsley divided the group into three subphyla, Laurie and Pocock also considering that the group is polyphyletic. In iSoS Packard stated : "It is becoming evident, however, that there was no common ancestor of the Arthropoda as a whole, and that the group is a polyphyletic one. ARTHROSTRACA — ARTHUR Hence, though a convenient group, it is a some- what artificial one, and may eventually be dis- membered into at least three or four phyla or branches." The four phyla as afterward proposed by Packard are, beginning with the most primitive: ( i )PaUsostraca, embracing the classes of ird- obtta; (_') Merostomata {Limulus) , and Arach- nida; (3) Pancarida {Crustacea); (.4^ Prosogo- neata, including three classes: Pauropoda, Dip- lopoda, and Lymphyla (Scolopendrella) ; and (5) Entomoplera, comprising the Chilopoda and Insecta; the great majority of the group being winged insects. Each of these phyla represent independent lines of development, judging by their structure and what we know of their de- velopment, and have no genetic connection be- yond the theory that I hey each have descended from one or more annelid worms. A. S. Packard, Laic Prof. Zoology, Brown I 'niversiiy. Arthrostraca, crustacea of the sub-class Malacostraca in which the first, sometimes the second thoracic segment is fused with the head and bears maxillipedes ; the remaining seven bring free and bearing legs. The eyes are usual- ly sessile. The group is divided into the Am- phipoda (q.v.) and Isopoda (q.v.). Common examples are pill-bug, wood-louse, etc. Ar'thur, king of the Silures in the 6th century, an ancient British hero, whose story has been the theme of much romantic fiction. lie is said to have been the son of Uthyr, chief commander of the Britons, and to have been born about 501. In 516 he succeeded his father in the office of general, and performed th'ise heroic deeds against the Saxons, Scots, and Picts which have made him so celebrated. He married the celebrated Guinevere belonging to the family of the dukes of Cornwall ; estab- lished the famous order of the Round Table; and reigned, surrounded by a splendid court, 12 years in peace. After this, he is reported to have conquered Denmark, Norway, and France, .slain the giants of Spain, and journeyed to Rome. From thence he is said to have hastened home en account of the faithlessness of his wife, and Modred, his nephew, who carried on an adulterous intercourse, and stirred up his sub- jects to rebellion; to have subdued the rebels, but to have died in consequence of his wounds, in 542, on the island of Avalon, where it is pretended that his grave was found in the reign of Henry II. The story of Arthur is supposed to have some foundation in fact, and it is generally believed that he was one of the last great Celtic chiefs who led his country- men from the west to resist the settlement of the Saxons in southern Britain. But many au- thorities regard him as a leader of the Cymry of Cumbria and Strath-Clyde against the Anglo- Saxon invaders of the east coast and the Picts and Scots north of the Forth and the Clyde. In our own day the interest of the old legends has been revived by the works of Lytton and espe- cially Tennyson. See Skene, "Four Ancient Books of Wales 1 (1868) ; Stuart-Glennie, 'Jour- ney through Arthurian Scotland 1 (1867); and •Arthurian Localities' (1869) ; Rhys, 'Studies in the Arthurian Legend' (1891) ; Sommer, ' Morte d'Arthur' (3 vols. 1880-01) ; Brown. 'Twain: A Stiuly in the Origin of Arthurian Romance' (1902). See Arthurian Legends. Ar'thur, Prince. See Duke of Connaught. Ar'thur, duke of Brittany, the grandson of King Henry II. of England: b. 1187; d. 120.5. On the death in 1199 of his uncle, Richard I., who had declared the boy his heir, Arthur was proclaimed king of England by the nobles of Anjon, Touraine, and Maine, while the English lords decided in John's favor. King Philip of France supported the claims of Arthur, but a peace being presently concluded between John and Philip, Arthur came later into the hands of his uncle, King John, and soon mysteriously disappeared. According to general belief Ar- thur was murdered by command of his uncle. The story of Arthur forms a portion of Shake- speare's 'King John.' See John. Arthur, Chester Alan, the 21st President of the United States: b. Fairfield, Yt., 5 Oct. 1830; d. New York, 18 Nov. 1886. He gradu- ated from Union College at 18, was principal of an academy at North Pownal, Yt., and in 1853 began the practice of law in New York, where he argued several important legal cases in behalf of the colored people. Through these and other cases he became noted in his profes- sion, and he was also prominent as a Republican politician. In April 1861 Gov. E. D. Morgan made him acting quartermaster-general, and la- ter he was made full quartermaster-general. For the next decade he was a successful and widely known practising lawyer, anil a leading Repub- lican politician of New York, chairman of the Grant Club in 1868, and of the executive com- mittee of the Republican State committee in 1869. He was appointed by President Grant, 20 Nov. 1871 to the highest office in the State patronage, the collectorship of the port of New York, which he held till 11 July 1878. His business conduct of the office was not impeached, and he was retained by President Hayes for over a year after his accession; but he was first of all a political manager, in open hostility to civil service reform. As a matter of actual practice and not theory, however, Mr. Arthur produced figures to show that the annual percentage of removals under him for all causes had been only 2>)4 per cent, as against an annual average of 24 per cent since 1857. In 1S80 he was nomi- nated for the vice-presidency, chiefly to concili- ate the Grant section of the Republicans, sore at the defeat of the third-term project, and was elected with Garfield. In place of the custom- ary dignified nullity of his office, he remained an active party leader in the patronage contest of his State, between the "Stalwarts" or Grant section led by Roscoe Conkling (q.v.), and of which Mr. Arthur was chief lieutenant, and the "Half-Breeds" or more independent wing which Garfield was trying to build up. Conkling soon resigned his seat in the Senate, declaring that Garfield had broken his promises to him, and the Garfield party for the time was triumphant ; but the assassination of Garfield, shortly after, re- versed the situation. The open lamentations of the press at the prospect of the accession of so convinced a spoilsman as himself deeply hurt Mr. Arthur, who felt that he was misjudged, and determined on the most admirable revenge, that of disappointing their prophecies of evil, lie did so; not only was his term of office mea- surably free from the dominance of patronage, hut he extended the civil service rules and kept faith with them. In other respects his ad- CHESTER ALAN ARTHUR. 21>l PRESIDEN1 OF 1 HE UNITED STATES. ARTHUR — ARTHURIAN LEGENDS ministration was so excellent that the leading Independents had announced their intention of supporting him for President if nominated in 1884. Its most notable incident was the ap- pointment of a commission to revise the tariff, which, though composed of strong Protection- ists, reported that the tariff should be reduced 20 per cent all around, a recommendation un- heeded by Congress. Several commercial trea- ties were passed, however. He vetoed a Chinese immigration bill as inconsistent with treaty obli- gations ; favored the stringent laws passed against polygamy, appointing a Utah commis- sion to supervise their enforcement ; managed Indian affairs wisely, promoting Indian educa- tion and the breaking up of the tribal system; extended postal facilities ; took measures to in- creas t the navy, improve its discipline and effi- ciency and provide for coast defense ; supported the improvement of Mississippi River navigation, etc. The attempts at remonetizing silver, and at forcibly abrogating the Clayton-Bulwer treaty to build a Nicaragua canal, were in accordance with general party feeling at the time. The lingering scandal of the Star Route frauds, however, in- jured the party somewhat, and its policy and methods were gravely disapproved of by the Independents ; but this was much more than counterbalanced by distrust of the Democratic party for its alliance with the Greenback ele- ment. Mr. Arthur's defeat for the nomination was not caused by any demerits of his own, still less by desire to conciliate the Independ- ents, but by the personal ambitions of Repub- lican leaders, which, justly or unjustly, had aroused and exasperated the Republicans of the State of New York, causing the defeat of C. J. Folger for Governor, and resulting in the nomi- nation of Blaine in 1884. Arthur, although a close adherent of Conkling, supported Blaine. Ar'thur, Joseph Charles, an American bot- anist: b. Lowville, N. Y., 11 Jan. 1850. lie was graduated from Iowa State College in 1872, and subsequently studied at the universities of Johns Hopkins, Harvard, and Bonn. Germany. He was instructor in the universities of Minnesota and Wisconsin ; botanist at the Experiment Sta- tion. Geneva, N. Y., and is now professor of vegetable physiology and pathology, Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind. Arthur, Julia, the stage name of Ida Lewis, an American actress : b. Hamilton, Out., 3 May 1869. She made her professional debut at the age of 14 as the Prince of Wales in 'Richard III.' Her first New York success was in 'The Black Masque.' She made her London debut February 1895 in Henry Irving's cempany, play- ing roles next to Helen Terry, both of whom she accompanied to Amenca in 1896. Since then she has starred chiefly in the United States. She is the wife of B. P. Cheney. See Strang, 'Famous Actresses of the Day in America' (1899). Arthur, P. M., American locomotive engi- neer: b. Scotland 1834; d. Winnipeg. Manitoba, 16 July 1903. He came to America in childhood and as a young man was at first a blacksmith's helper in the employ of the New York and Harlem Railroad Company and later an engineer on the New York Central railroad. In 1873 he became the grand chief of the American Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers, which post he filled at the time of his death. Ar'thur, Timothy Shay, an American author: b. Newburg, N. Y., 1809; d. Philadel- phia, 6 March 1885. In 1852 he founded 'Ar- thur's Home Magazine.' He was a voluminous writer of moral and domestic tales. His works are over 100 in number, and have had a large sale in England as well as in the United States. His most popular work was the famous 'Ten Nights in a Bar-Room.' Among his other pub- lications were 'Tales for Rich and Poor,' 'Tales of Married Life,' and 'Lights and Shadows.' Arthu'rian Leg'ends, a scries of Celtic romances, which for nearly a thousand years have furnished unlimited literary material, not to English poets alone, but to the poets of all Christendom. These Celtic romances, having their birthplace in Brittany or in Wales, had been growing and changing for some centuries, before the fanciful 'Historia Britonum' of Geoffrey of Monmouth, flushed them with color and filled them with new life. Through his ver- sion they soon became a vehicle for the dis- semination of Christian doctrine. By the year 1200 they were the common property of Europe, influencing profoundly the literature of the Middle Ages, and becoming the source of a great stream of poetry that has flowed without interruption down to our own day. Sixty years after the 'Historia Britonum' appeared, and when the English poet Layamon wrote his 'Brut' (a.d. 1205), a translation of Wace, as Wace was a translation of Geoffrey, the theme was engrossing the imagination of Europe. It had absorbed into itself the elements of other cycles of legend, which had grown up independ- ently; some of these, in fact, having been at one time of much greater prominence. Finally, so vast and complicated did the body of Arthurian legend become, that summaries of the essential features were attempted. Such a summary was made in French about 1270, by the Italian Rusti- ghello of Pisa ; in German, about two centuries later, by Ulrich Fiiterer; and in English by Sir Thomas Malory in his 'Morte d'Arthur,' fin- ished 'the ix. yere of the reygne of kyng Ed- ward the Fourth," and one of the first books published in England by Caxton, "emprynted and fynysshed in th' abbey Westmestre the last day of July, the yere of our Lord MCCCCLXXXV." It is of interest to note, as an indication of the popularity of the Arthurian legends, that Caxton printed the ' Morte dAr- thur' eight years before he printed any portion of the English Bible, and 53 years In-fore the complete English Bible was in print. It has been said that the original legend absorbed into itself the elements of other cycles of legend. The most important of these was 'The Holy Grail' (q.v.). At once a new spirit breathes in the old legend. In a few years it is become a mystical, symbolical, anagogical tale, inculcat- ing one of the pro roundest dogmas of the Holy Catholic Church, a bearer of a Christian doctrine engrossing the thought of the Christian world. In addition to the mystical and religious char- acter of the transformed legend, the spirit of the chivalry of the Middle Agc^ embodied in it, furnishes an admirable transcript of the social ideal of the times, which thus moulded the older and ruder materials into a more gracious form. The knightly ideals of loyalty, obedience, the re- dressing of wrongs and especially the veneration of womanhood are distinctively portrayed. ARTHUR'S SEAT — ARTICLE Throughout the Middle Ages it was «our 1ady,» the Virgin Mother, who embodied and repre- sented to all men and women, from prince to peasant, their ideals of womanhood and lady- hood. And it was the transference of these Christian ethics into the practice of common daily, worldly life, in rude times, which we owe to the institution of chivalry, nowhere better reflected than in the Christianized Arthurian legends. From about 1200, innumerable poets, wiih diverse tastes, set themselves to produce new versions of the legend, engrafting up' mi tin- general theme many diverse stocks. Dante in the 'Divine Comedy) speaks of Arthur, Guine- vere, Tristan, and Launcclot by name, and Boi- ardo, Ariosto, and Tasso in Italy, Hans Sach in many, Spenser, Shakespeare, Milton, and Drydcn in England, all made use of the same material. Of the poets of the present generation, Ten- nyson has treated the Arthurian poetic heritage as a whole. Phases of the Arthurian theme have been presented also by his contemporaries and successors at home and abroad — by Wil- liam Wadsworth, Lord Lytton, Robert Stephen Hawker, Matthew Arnold, William Morris, Al- gernon Charles Swinburne, in England ; Edgar Quinet in France ; Wilhelm Hertz, L. Schnee- gans, F. Roeber, in Germany; Richard Hovey in America. There have been many other approved variations on Arthurian themes, such as James Russell Lowell's 'Vision of Sir Launfal,' and Richard Wagner's operas, 'Lohengrin,* 'Tristan and Isolde,* and 'Parsifal.* Of still later ver- sions, we may mention the 'King Arthur' of J. Comyns Carr, which has been presented on the stage by Sir Henry Irving; and 'Under King Constantine,' by Katrina Trask, whose hero is the king whom tradition names as the successor of the heroic Arthur "Imperator Dux Bellorum." Ar'thur's Seat, a hill overlooking Edin- burgh, Scotland, said to have been so called from a tradition that King Arthur surveyed the country from its summit and defeated the Sax- ons in its neighborhood. It is a steep, and in some places precipitous, rock, exhibiting on the south side a range of perpendicular basaltic col- umns, called Samson's Ribs. The highest point is 822 feet above sea-level. From hence may be seen a wide expanse of sea, the course of the Forth, the distant Grampians, etc., and a large portion of the most populous and best cultivated part of Scotland, including the picturesque city of Edinburgh and its castle. On the north side are the ruins of a chapel and hermitage, dedicat- ed to St. Anthony, and a fine spring called St Anton's Well. A carriage road called the Queen's Drive goes round its base. Ar'tichoke, two species of the natural order Composite?. The true, sometimes called French, artichoke (Cynnara Cardunculus — scalymus of some authors), a native of the Med- iterranean region, is a coarse, stout, perennial, thistle-like herb, 3 to 5 feet tall, with rather spiny leaves, the lower of which are often 3 feet or more long, and large terminal heads of blue or white flowers. It is cultivated for the edible thickened outer scales and "bottoms 8 (recep- tacles) of the flower heads which sometimes exceed 4 inches in diameter without becoming loo old for eating raw as salad, pickled, or cooked like cauliflower. Sometimes the young Stems and leaves are blanched like cardoon, with which some botanists consider it to be identical. lit Europe many varieties ore popular; in Amer- ica tlir ghihe variety is planted almost to the exclusion of others, with the result that this variety has almost become united tu the name in popular usage. The cultivation of this spe- cies in America is confined mostly to the south- ern States, few gardens in the North being sup- plied with it. Since the plant is rather tender, winter protection must be given where the ground freezes. If planted in rich soil and set four feet apart the plants will yield two or three crops before a new plantation should be made; if allowed to stand longer the yield gradually diminishes. New plantations are made either with seedling or sucker plants. Most of the artichokes offered in the northern mar- kets of the United States come from France and Louisiana. The Jerusalem artichoke (Hclianthus tubcr- osus), a native of North America, is a perennial sunflower-like herb, 5 to 12 feet tall, with rough leaves 4 to 8 inches long and many yellow ter- minal flower-heads often 2 to 3 inches in diame- ter. The edible pear-shaped purplish, red, white, or yellow tubers for which the plant is often cul- tivated are numerous, seldom more than 3 inches in diameter, rather watery but of pleasant flavor especially when prepared like cauliflower, with a white sauce. Perhaps no vegetable is of eas- ier cultivation. For home use the tubers are generally planted in well-drained soil in some out of the way corner of the garden and allowed to take care of themselves from year to year, the few tubers and pieces of root left after dig- ging sufficing to re-stock the bed. In field cul- ture the methods are like those practised with the potato except that the tubers may be left in the ground over winter and dug when needed. They are not injured by frost if in the soil, but if frozen after being dug they spoil quickly. If desired they may be dug and stored in pits like turnips, but with a somewhat lighter cover- ing of straw and earth. The usual yield is from 200 to 500 bushels to the acre but 1,000 bushels are sometimes obtained. When land becomes infested, as it sometimes does, with the plant, pigs, for which the tubers make valuable food, may be turned loose upon the field. The tubers resemble potatoes in composition and like them are used largely in Europe for the manufacture of alcohol. The young plants are sometimes used as cattle food and the dry stalks for fuel. Consult 'Bur or Globe Artichoke* in United States Department of Agriculture Year Book, 1899; Circular 31 (1899); Bailey, 'Cyclopaedia of American Horticulture* (1900-02) ; Vilmorin, 'The Vegetable Garden,' translation by Robin- son (1885). Ar'ticle, in grammar, a part of speech used before nouns to limit or define their ap- plication. In the English language a or an is the indefinite article (the latter form being used be- fore a vowel sound) and the the definite article. The English indefinite article is really a modified form of the numeral adjective one; so the Ger- man cin and the French tin stand for the numeral and the article. There are traces in various lan- guages showing that the definite article was originally a pronoun; thus the English the is closely akin to both this and that. The Latin language has neither the definite nor the in- definite article; the Greek has the definite; the ARTICLES Hebrew and Arabic definite article was prefixed to its noun, while, on the other hand, in the Syriac and Chaldaic it was affixed to the noun, as it is in the Icelandic. In the Scandinavian language the definite article is appended to the end of the word as lius-et, the house. Ar'ticles, divisions of a printed or written document or agreement. A specification of dis- tinct matters agreed upon or established by authority or requiring judicial action. In chan- cery practice articles are a formal written state- ment of objections to the credibility of witnesses in a cause in chancery, filed by a party to the pro- ceedings, after the depositions have been taken and published. The object of articles is to en- able the party filing them to introduce evidence to discredit the witnesses to whom the objections apply, where it is too late to do so in any other manner (2 Daniel Chan. Pr. 1158), and to notify the party whose witnesses are objected to of the nature of the objections, that he may be pre- pared to meet them. Upon filing the articles a special order is obtained to take evidence. The interrogatories must be so shaped as not to call for evidence which applies directly to facts in issue in the case. 3 Johns. Ch. N. Y. 558. The objections can be taken only to the credit and not to the competency of the witnesses. 3 Johns. Ch. N. Y. 558; 3 Atk. Ch. 643. and the court are to hear all the evidence read and judge of its value. 2 Ves. Ch. 219. Articles of Agreement. — A written memoran- dum of the terms of an agreement. They may relate either to real or personal estate, or both, and if in proper form will create an equitable estate or trust such that a specific performance may be had in equity. The articles of agreement should contain a clear and explicit statement of the names of the parties, with their additions for purposes of distinction, as well as a designation as parties of the first, second, etc., part ; the sub- ject-matter of the contract, including the time, place, and more important details of the manner of performance ; the covenants to be performed by each party; the date, which should be truly stated. It should be signed by the parties or their agents. When signed by an agent the proper form is, A. B., by his agent( or attorney), C. D. Articles of Confederation. — The title of the compact which was made by the 13 original Stales of the United States of America. It was adopted and carried into force 1 March 1781 and remained as the supreme law until the first Wednesday of March 1789. Articles of Faith. — Summarized statements of religious views relating to the central doc- trines of a theological system. Protestant di- vines divide these into fundamental and non- fundamental articles. Familiar examples of articles of faith are the Nicene, Apostles', and Athanaisan creeds, the Thirty-Nine Articles, the Westminster, Augsburg, and Helvetic Confes- sions. See Creed. Articles of Impeachment. — A written articu- late allegation of the causes for impeachment. Blackstone calls them a kind of bill of indict- ment, and they perform the same office which an indictment does in a common criminal case. They do not usually pursue the strict form and accuracy of an indictment, but are sometimes quite general in the form of their allegations. They should, however, contain so much cer- tainty as to enable a party to put himself on the proper defense, and in case of an acquittal 10 avail himself of it as a bar to another impeach- ment. Additional articles may perhaps be ex- hibited at any stage of the proceedings. The answer to articles of impeachment is exempted from observing great strictness of form, and it may contain arguments as well as fact-;. A full and particular answer to each article of the ac- cusation should be given. Articles of Partnership. — A written agree- ment by which the parties enter into a partner- ship upon the conditions therein mentioned. The instrument should contain the names of the contracting parties severally set out ; the agree- ment that the parties do by the instrument enter into a partnership, expressed in such terms as to distinguish from a covenant to enter into a partnership at a subsequent time ; the date and necessary stipulations, some of the more common of which follow. The commencement of the partnership should be expressly provided for. The date of the articles is the time, when no other time is fixed by them. The duration of the partnership should be expressly stated. It may be for life, for a limited period of time, or for a limited number of adventures. When a term is fixed it is presumed to endure until that period has elapsed, and when no term is fixed, for the life of the parties, unless sooner dissolved by the acts of one of them, by mutual consent, or oper- ation of law. The duration will not be pre- sumed to be beyond the life of all the partners, but provision may be made in the articles for the succession of the executors or administrators or a child or children of a deceased partner to his place and rights. Where provision is made for a succession by appointment and the partner dies without appointing, his executor or administra- tors may continue the partnership or not at their option. A continuance of the partnership be- yond the period fixed for its termination, in the absence of circumstances showing intent, will be implied to be upon the basis of the old arti- cles (15 Ves. Ch. 218), but for an indefinite time. The nature of the business and the place of carrying it on should be carefully stated. An injunction will be granted by a court of equity when one or more of the partners endeavors, against the wishes of one or more of them, to extend such business beyond the provision con- tained in the articles. The name of the firm should be ascertained. The members of the partnership are required to use the name thus agreed upon, and a departure from it will make them individually liable to third persons or to their partners in individual cases. The man- agement of the business, or of some particular branch of it, is frequently entrusted by stipula- tion to one partner, and such partner will be protected in his rights by equity, or it may be to a majority of the partners, and should be where they are numerous. The manner of fur- nishing capital and stock should be provided for. When a partner agrees to furnish his propor- tion of the stock at stated periods, or pay by installments, he will, where there are no stipula- tions to the contrary, be considered a debtor to the firm. Sometimes a provision is inserted that nal estate and fixtures belonging to the firm shall be considered as between the partners, not as partnership, but as individual property. In cases of bankruptcy, this property will be treated ARTICLES — ARTICULATA as the separate property of tlio partners. The apportionment of profits and losses should be provided for. The law distributes these equally, in the absence of controlling circumstances, with- out regard to the capital furnished by each. Periodical accounts of the property of the part- nership may be stipulated for. These, when set- tled, are at least prima facie evidence of the facts they contain. The expulsion of a partner for gross misconduct, bankruptcy, or other specified causes may be provided for, and the provision will govern when the case occurs. A settlement of the affairs of the partnership should always be provided for. It is generally accomplished m one of the three following ways: First, by turn- ing all of the assets into cash, and after paying a 11 the liabilities of the partnership, dividing such money in proportion to the several interests of the parties ; or, second, by providing that one or more of the partners shall be entitled to pur- chase the shares of the others at a valuation; or, third, that all the property of the partnership shall be appraised, and that after paying the partnership debts it shall be divided in the proper proportions. The first of these modes is adopted by courts of equity in the absence of ex- press stipulations. Submission of disputes to ar- bitration is frequently provided for, but such a clause is nugatory, as no action will lie for a breach. „ , , . Articles of IVar.— A code of laws for the reg- ulation of the military forces of a country. In the United States the articles of war form an elaborate code, thoroughly revised in 1880, but subject at all times to the legislation of Congress. Those of Great Britain and Ireland were issued prior to 1879, in pursuance of the annually re- newed mutiny act. In 1879 the army discipline act consolidated the provisions of the mutiny act with the articles of war. This act was amended in 1881, and now the complete military code is contained in the army act of 1881. Ar'ticles, The Six. In English Church his- tory these were articles of faith imposed by the Act 31 Henry VIII. cap. xiv., passed by Par- liament in 1539, and known as the Six-stringed Whip or Bloody Statute, from the merciless per- secutions to which it gave rise. They are sup- posed to have been the composition of King Henry himself, and they had no formal authority from the Church. They enforced belief in tran- substantiation ; declared communion in both kinds unnecessary; the marriage of priests was unlawful; that vows of chastity or widowhood were absolutely binding; and that private masses and auricular confession were expedient and ne- cessary. The severity of the act was soon miti- gated, and it was finally repealed in the first year of Edward VI. Ar'ticles, The Thirty-nine, of the Church of England, a term applied to a body of divinity, chiefly founded on the formulary of Forty-two Articles compiled by Archbishop Cranmer in 1551, in obedience to the command of Edward VI. 'and the privy council, who instructed him to "frame a book of articles of religion, for the preserving and maintaining peace and unity of doctrine in this Church, that, being finished, they might be set forth by public authority." Several of these articles ( the 1st, 2d. 25th, and 31st) were drawn directly from the Augsburg Confession, and the 9th and 16th are traceable to the same source. During the reign of Mary the Articles were suppressed, but the accession of Elizabeth offered an opportunity of drawing up a fresh for- mulary. In 1562-3 a convocation was held, in the course of whose sitting King Edward's Ar- ticles were carefully considered and revised As the result of this revision (mainly the work of Archbishop Parker, assisted by Bishops Grindal, Horn, and Fox), four of the original 42 articles were omitted, namely, the 10th, null, inth, and 41st, and articles 5th, 12th, 29th, and 301I1 were newly introduced; 17 other articles wire more or less modified. On a further revision articles YAh, 40th, and 42d were struck out, and some slight changes made in several others. These 39 articles were drawn up and ratified in Latin, but when printed both in Latin and English the 29th was omitted and the first clause of the 20th struck out. The 39th was, however, restored on a final revision by Parker in 1571, and then im- posed on the clergy for subscription. Tiny were ratified anew in 1604 and 1628. All candidates for ordination must subscribe these articles, but subscription is no longer necessary on matriculat- ing or taking a degree at Oxford or Cambridge. This formulary is now accepted by the Episco- palian Churches of Scotland, Ireland, and America. The first five articles contain a profession of faith in the Trinity, the incarnation of Jesus Christ, his descent to hell, and his resurrection, and the divinity of the Holy Ghost. The three following relate to the canon of the Scripture;. The 8th article declares a belief in the Apostles', Nicene, and Athanasian creeds. The oth and following articles contain the doctrine of original sin, of justification by faith alone, of predes- tination, etc. The 19th, 20th, and 21st declare the Church to be the assembly of the faithful, and that it can decide nothing except by the Scriptures. The 22d rejects the doctrine of pur- gatory, indulgences, the adoration of images, and the invocation of saints. The 23d decides that only those lawfully called shall preach or ad- minister the sacraments. The 24th requires the liturgy to be in English. The 25th and 26th de- clare the sacraments effectual signs of grace (though administered by evil men), by which God excites and confirms our faith. They are two: baptism and the Lord's Supper. Baptism, according to the 27th article, is a sign of regener- ation, the seal of our adoption, by which faith is confirmed and grace increased. In the Lord's Supper, according to article 28th, the bread is the communion of the body of Christ, the wine the communion of his blood, but only through faith (article 29) ; and the communion must be administered in both kinds (article 30). The 28th article condemns the doctrine of transub- stantiation, and the elevation and adoration of the Host; the 31st rejects the sacrifice of the mass as blasphemous ; the 32d permits the mar- riage of the clergy; the 33d maintains the effi- cacy of excommunication. The remaining arti- cles relate to the supremacy of the king, the con- demnation of Anabaptists, etc. Artk'ula'ta, a name given by Cuvier to a branch of the animal kingdom embracing the worms (Annulata) and Arthropoda. The group is not now considered a natural one, and has been subdivided into several branches or phyla. ARTICULATION — ARTIGAS Ar'ticula'tion. See Joint. Artificial Camphor, a product manufac- tured from turpentine. The sap of the pine tree after it is distilled and purified is the turpentine of commerce. A couple of thousand pounds of this material is placed in great steam reaction tanks ; these are covered with asbestos to retain the heat. A quantity of oxalic acid, which is rich in oxygen, is likewise placed in the reaction tanks, together with the turpentine, and when the chemical action resulting from the union has been completed two new chemicals are formed and are known as pinol oxalate and pinol formate, respectively. These are in liquid form and are conveyed to a set of distilling tanks by means of a force pump ; in these tanks a new element is introduced in the form of an alkali, and when mixed with the liquid live steam is turned on. After distillation camphor results, together with some of the essential oils, such as oi! of lemon and others, but these are dissolved in the reaction products, which also contain a kind of campl.ir termed borneol. Ar'tifi'cial Flow'ers, flowers manufactured from cloth or other substances in close imita- tion of natural flowers, for purposes of orna- ment. The leaves and petals are generally made of silk or cambric punched out to proper shapes and sizes. These are tinted with a brush and color, and if necessary glazed with gum or sprinkled with fine flock to imitate the glossy or velvety surface of natural flowers. The ribs, where present, are indented with a warm iron. The stamens and pistils are formed of wire cov- ered with silk and dipped in gum-water to form the anthers. The stalk is then made of wire, coated with green paper, and fixed to the stamens and pistil, around which are attached the petals, and lastly the calyx. Buds are made of cotton or glass balls covered with cambric of a proper color. This industry has been success- fully carried on in the United States, where a large number of women are constantly employed in making artificial flowers. The coloring mat- ter, however, used for these articles is often nothing less than the deadly poison arsenic. Hoffman and other chemists have shown that the most terrible effects may spring from the use of these arsenical compounds. Ar'tifi'cial Limbs, substitutes for human arms and legs and parts thereof, the manufac- ture of which has received the attention of sur- geons and mechanics from a very early date, in the great work on surgery by Ambrose Pare, in 1579, he refers to and gives detailed illustra- tions of an artificial arm and leg, and although the construction was of a rude character they showed a very good attempt to conceal the mu- tilation. In 1606 an artificial leg was invented by Vcrduin, a Dutch surgeon. It was composed of a wooden foot, to which was fastened two strips of steel extending up to the knee. To these strips was riveted a copper socket to re- ceive the stump: a leather for lacing around the thigh was connected to the socket by tun steel side-joints, thus dividing the points of support between the thigh and stump. The construction jnf this leg was improved later by Prof. Serre of Montpelier. Improvements and new limbs were more recently introduced into England and France by Fred. Martin. M. Charri-ere, AIM. Mathieu and Bechard, but these were mostly unprotected by patents. Thomas Mann secured patents for artificial limbs 20 Jan. 1790, and 1810. James Potts of England patented a new leg 15 Nov. 1800. This soon became celebrated as the "Anglesea leg," because it was so long worn by the Marquis of Anglesea. An improvement on this leg was patented by William Selpho, who was the first manufacturer of note in New York, where he established himself in 1839. Other in- ventors and manufacturers soon took a great in- terest in the business — so many, in fact, that the American patent office shows a record of about 150 patents on artificial legs, or more than double that of all European patents on limbs. The Civil War, which caused the mutilation of so many soldiers and sailors, and the liberality of the government in supplying their losses with arti- ficial limbs, naturally stimulated the efforts of inventors in producing such substitutes as would be accepted. These soldiers and sailors are sup- plied once in every five years, and to this de- mand is added that of those who have lost limbs from disease or accident, making in all about 100,000 in the United States who have to be sup- plied with new limbs on an average of about once in every five to eight years. The perfection to which limbs have been brought is wonderful and very interesting. A person with two arti- ficial legs can walk so perfectly as to avoid de- tection, and a person with a single amputation can almost defy detection. Notable improve- ments in artificial limbs, and more particularly in legs, were made by C. A. Frees of New York. One of these improvements, and one of the most important, consists in the movements of the knee and ankle joints, by which the whole limb is strengthened and made more durable. An im- portant feature of this piece of mechanism con- sists in the introduction of a universal motion at the ankle-joint, imitating the astragalus move- ment with an additional joint, and thus produc- ing a most perfect artificial substitute. Another of his improvements of equal importance, is in the knee-joint of the leg for thigh amputation, which is so arranged that when in a sitting posi- tion the cord and spring are entirely relaxed, relieving all strain and pressure; and when ris- ing to an upright position the cord and spring are again brought into proper position without strain or unnatural movement, no extra attach- ments being required. Artificial arms and exten- sion apparatus for short legs are also wonderful examples of American ingenuity. Ar'tifi'cial Respira'tion. See Asphyxia; Drowning (Treatment) : Respiration. Artificial Stone, a combination of hydrau- lic cement, broken stone, sand. etc.. cemented together. There are many varieties, some of which are exceedingly valuable for building purposes, especially in localities where building- stone is not readily obtained. Cements thus made increase in strength and solidity for an indefinite period. This stone is in constantly in- creasing demand. For the various kinds and uses see Ckment. Artigas, ar-te'gas, Fernando Jose, a South American soldier, dictator of Uruguay: b. Mon- tevideo, 1755: d. in 1851. ' In [8ll lie joined the revolt of Buenos Ayres against Spain, whose troops he repeatedly defeated; but acting for himself was outlawed by the insurrectionary junta, whoso troops in turn he routed and com- pelled it to cede Uruguay to him in 1814. Me then assumed the dictatorship, but in 1820 was ARTILLERY defeated and fled to Paraguay, where the dic- ta ii Francia banished him to Candelaria, Thereafter he devoted himself to agriculture and philanthropy. Artillery (a restricted use of a word properly meaning simply "works of skill," "clev- er inventions") : (i) All firearms too heavy to be carried in the hand and therefore rested on carriages or masonry foundations; (2) the divi- sion of army or navy which uses such arms; (3) the science treating of their theory and practice. The first is divided into horse artillery, — light guns mainly for cavalry use, with mounted gun- ners, and much the same as Hying artillery, for rapid evolutions in the field, whose gunners are either mounted or ride on the gun-carriages of ammunition wagons when moving; field artillery, for general infantry service, — sometimes used to include the foregoing, but commonly specialized to mean the same as foot artillery, with un- mounted gunners; (light artillery includes both these classes, as distinguished from the follow- ing) ; and heavy artillery, — all that is not mo- bile enough for field evolutions, — divided into siege or garrison artillery, for breaching the walls of fortresses or defending field works, and coast artillery, for permanent works, with carriages too heavy for transport, classed as siege, case- mate, barbette, and mortar carriages. A park of artillery is a complete set of artil- lery equipment. — • including the guns, carriages, caissons (see Ammunition, under "ammunition wagons"), repair outfit, harness, field forges, etc., — gathered in one spot, in barracks or in action; in the latter case the reserve equipment is "parked* out of range of the enemy's fire. A train of artillery is a certain number of pieces mounted on carriages and with all their furni- ture, ready for marching. "Artillery carriages" means either wagons for carrying ammunition or supplies, as above ; or gun-carriages, to draw the guns with or fire them from, which may be cither stationary as for coast service and per- manent works, or movable as in field service. The part which rests on the ground in firing is called the trail; the detachable pair of wheels by which it is drawn about, in addition to the fixed pair, is called the limber, and the gun is said to be "unlimbered" when they are taken away to let the gun be served, and "limbered up" when they are attached. The old word "cannon" is not now used by professionals, but "gun" instead. The volume of a gun's service is defined either by the diameter of its bore, as 6-inch, 12-inch, etc.; or by the weight of the spherical iron solid shot it holds, as 12-pounder, 18-pounder, etc. (often abbre- viated to 12's, 18's, etc.). The latter character- ization has long been used to denote calibre only, without reference to the actual weight of the pro- jectile it fires: thus, a 12-pounder may fire a 30-pound conical shell. This is necessarily so since the entire disuse of spherical shot (see Ammunition). The relation of artillery to small-arms was es- sentially the same before the invention of gun- powder as afterward : hand-arms, as arrows, darts, slings, swords, etc., corresponded to small- arms and the bayonet; while the artillery con- sisted of machinery too heavy to be held up, for throwing large projectiles, the power being springs, levers, or weights. Midway between them, however, — as the matchlock arquebuse, rested on the ground to fire, was between small- arms and artillery, but a far more efficient weapon, — was the crossbow or arbalist : a heavy bow with steel or horn frame, stretched by a winch or in its larger sizes by a windlass, and shooting a notched quarrel (that is, a quadrate or square-headed bolt), or sometimes stones or balls of lead. It could be carried by a hunter, or fixed on field or deck; could penetrate armor, and was so destructive as to be prohibited by the Church except in war against the Infidel ; and in the early Middle Ages was as decisive in naval or siege warfare, when well handled, as modern artillery, winning many important sea fights and others; but in the field it was too slow for the highest efficiency, as it could be fired only twice a minute. Its larger sizes were true artillery in the modern sense ; and like it, but heavier, were the ballista, springal, and onager, which threw stones from a bucket or bag, also beams and masses of inflammable material, at or over walls of besieged places. The catapult, mangonel, and trebuchet (the latter a machine of surprising accuracy and power, as proved by an experimen- tal model made by Prince Louis Napoleon in 1850, and used to breach walls) threw the same missiles by means of a spring lever balanced by a heavy weight, and held down by a windlass. The introduction of modern gunpowder ar- tillery is clouded by unverifiable legends and confused with the use of explosive mixtures to make a terrifying noise, and with the throwing of inflammable materials by the machines above mentioned. If the Chinese invented it, as al- leged, they did it so ineffectively that the great progressive military genius Timur (1333-1405) did not think it wortli using; and if the Spanish Saracens used it in Spanish sieges in the 12th century, they did not employ it against Northern foes, nor did the latter borrow it; whereas within a few years of the first verifiable European notice we have it, — a Florentine order of 1326 relat- ing to the manufacture of cannon and iron balls, ■ — it had gone over Europe like wild-fire. The Germans used it at Cividale, Italy, in 1331 ; Ed- ward III. by at least 1338; the latter formed a regular artillery train of iron and brass cannon in 1344 (in which year also Petrarch speaks of it as familiar and common), and employed it at Crecy in 1346, though ineffectively. Naturally cannon came before small-arms : even so, the first were excessively clumsy in size and construction, — bell-shaped tubes with a touchhole for a train of priming powder set off by a fuse or red-hot in hi above; made of iron bars hooped together, or of hand-hammered and bored iron, copper, or brass cylinders ; and supported on immense plat- forms drawn by scores or even hundreds (as with Mohammed II. 's cannon at the siege of Con- stantinople in 1453) of draft animals, or of men. Sometimes they were not even closed tubes, but open at breech as well as muzzle, the shot being wedged in ; sometimes they had no carriages, but were rolled into position and wedged or blocked there. They were mortars rather than cannon in the modern sense, being short and wide-mouthed, and sending off their halls or stones at a great elevation, and were known as bombards or vases. They were of use mainly in siege work : and it was not till toward 1500 that field artillery in its modern sense came into much use, Charles VIII. ARTILLERY DRILL — THE FORMATION OF THE HOLLOW SQUARE. ARTILLERY DRILL. ARTILLERY DRILL — PREPARING TO MOVE GUNS. AS III I IKY DRI1 I.. ARTILLERY of France utilizing it in his Italian campaigns from 1488 onward. There was no permanent artillery organiza- tion : the gunners were detailed from garrisons, and disbanded and sent back there as soon as the campaign was over; and in England the com- mand in the field was by the Master of the Ord- nance, an artillery commissary-general in effect. The transport cattle were hired or impressed, and the drivers of gun-carriages were ordinary teamsters hired by contract or secured for the occasion. Curiously, these last did not form a part of the military body till Napoleon's time. The 16th century developed this arm greatly in volume, but not so much in science: projectile mathematics were rudimentary, and the imperfect mobility of the guns crippled their usefulness in battle — once they had fired a few rounds in ad- vance of the troops to clear a path and cow the enemy, their service was nearly at an end, as they could not fire when their own troops were in front of them nor move in front or flank to avoid them (the battle of Pavia was lost by this) ; and were regularly captured and retaken as either side gained ground. Francis I., how- ever (1515-47), lightened their make and took care to secure the best draft horses, and won Marignano (1515) with them; Louis XII. (1498- 1515J owed much of his success in the Italian wars to this arm: and Charles V. (1519-55) shared in its development, his Netherland sub- jects being so forward in it that Henry VIII. employed Dutch gunners to instruct his men. The use of cast bronze, giving surer bore and calculability, as well as lightness for a given power, became common ; the bell-shaped mortars gave place to 18-pound culverins for siege work, and to 2's, 4's, 6H's, and 8's (called falcons, falconets, and sakers) in the field. The great difficulty of carriages also, — ■ to find one easily drawn yet stable enough to fire from, — was par- tially surmounted ; and in Holland the miscel- laneous calibres and classes of cannon were re- duced to four — 6's, 12's. 24's. and 48's. The Dutch and Huguenot religious wars in the latter part of the century developed the rudiments of a genuine system of artillery tactics, the use of the arm in connection with other arms as part of a tactical whole. The first half of the 17th century is the first great landmark in the history of artillery. Henry IV. of France in his later years (d. 1610) occupied himself greatly with it; his minister Sully was master-general of artillery, and turned out over 400 pieces ; and Maurice of Nassau (1584-1625), son of William the Silent, was much concerned with it. But its re-creator was Gustavus Adolphus (161 1-32), who made it almost the centre of his system of warfare. Seeing that weight of ball was of minor con- sequence with the human body as a target, or length of range at close quarters, he devoted his whole attention to securing mobility and rapidity of fire. The former he obtained by putting nothing above a 12-pounder into the field, and by having a very light gun constructed, the fact that it would bear but a small charge being immaterial : it was made of a "thin cylinder of beaten copper, screwed into a brass breech, strengthened with four iron bands." the whole covered with mastic, cords, plaster, and finally boiled and varnished leather. It was called the kaltcr or the "leather gun," and could be drawn about by the two gunners who served it. But the light charge it could bear made its range too short for the best results, and later it was replaced by a four-pound iron cannon, drawn by two horses. He had also heavier guns to beat down defenses, which in retreat he protected by the lighter ones. Rapid fire he secured by inventing the cartridge instead of pouring in powder, and his cannon could be fired faster than the ordinary musket. The kalter guns were first introduced during his Polish wars; in the Thirty Years' war his success was greatly helped by his improved artillery against the Im- perialists' clumsy weapons and methods. At Breitenfeld (1631), Tilly's guns were mainly 24-pounders requiring 20 horses each and 12 for the wagons, could hardly be moved in ac- tion, and were almost at once silenced by the advance of their own troops; at the Lech (1632) Gustavus converged 72 pieces on the enemy at the river bend and make a crossing practicable ; at Liitzen (1632), Wallenstein's batteries were practically stationary, Gustavus had heavy ones on his wings and centre and moving with them. He attached two guns to each regiment, under the colonel's orders — the "battalion system," but whose defect of dispersion of guns he cor- rected by also massing strong batteries to con- centrate a crushing fire where needed ; and he raised the total proportion of guns to 6 per 1.000 men, fully double that of any other nation. He also first saw that field and garrison service were essentially distinct, and separated the two branches of artillery not only in material but men. In England during this century, though the leather guns were used by the Scotch in 1640 on the invasion of England, and the Par- liamentary army was crushed at Roundway Down (1643) by artillery, it remained in a comparatively undeveloped state, owing to the lack of the constant wars of the Continent ; the complaint was made that there were no expert gunners in England. In the latter part of the century, the perpet- ual wars of Louis XIV. led to a still further de- velopment of this arm. Even in the first part of his reign it was in a very primitive condition. The artillery officers had no functions whatever in time of peace, their nominal offices being pure- ly titular ; Vauban protested against this, but it was not remedied till Valliere's reforms of 1732. In 1671, however, Louvois first established a per- manent organization for it, creating a regiment of artillerymen consisting of gunners and work- men, and establishing schools of instruction. The calibres were reduced in number and made uni- form — those left (4's. 6's, 8's, 12's, 18's, 24's, and 32's) remain in use still, some of them rifled ; bronze and iron were both used ; car- riages were much improved, made of wrought iron and provided with limbers, a special one invented for coast artillery, and platform wag- ons introduced. The development under him, however, was more in siege than field artillery. The Dutch and English introduced howitzers (a gun with a powder chamber smaller than the bore, for horizontal shell-firing, combining some- thing of cannon accuracy with mortar calibre), mortars, and explosive shells, both hand and gun : and used canvas cartridges and grape-shot (several iron balls in a canvas case). The Woolwich arsenal was established in 1672. In 1682 the gunners were for the first time put un- ARTILLERY dcr military discipline, their function being pre- viously considered that of civil artisans, and in- deed the master gunners were carried on the civil establishment till 1783; in 1794 it was still thought needful to give the ordnance officers express authority over the gunners, by com- mission. William III. (1(180-1702) formed the first English regimental artillery establishment! in place of detailing men from other arms as needed. England, however, was relatively back- ward. The first half of the 18th century saw great extension of the specializing in this arm, and the quality of its items; but not very much invention. In France, Valliere the elder, a practical artillery general of immense ability, made great improvements; he reduced the cal- ibres to five ; lengthened the pieces, on the ground that short ones had less range and less accuracy, less ricochet and greater recoil, took more munitions and transport for equal service, and could not be used in sieges ; he also greatly extended the training schools, and the continued practice of the arm in time of peace. Less use- fully, he fought with success against separating the field artillery from the engineers, as involv- ing two artillery trains instead of one. In Eng- land. Marlborough used it with effect as it was; the "Royal Regiment of Artillery" was formed in 1716 (the present body in 1722), and in 1741 the Royal Military Academy was instituted at Woolwich. The manufacture and service were both greatly improved ; the English artillery was noted "for its lightness, elegance, and the good quality of its materials." The guns in use at the middle of the century were 24's. 12's, 6's, and 3's, in "brigades" (batteries) of four, five, and six guns, divided into light and heavy brigades; each field gun drawn by four horses, the two leaders driven by artillerymen. In Frederick's wars, the English artillery won great distinction. Frederick himself hardly valued this arm at its full value till the melting away of his trained soldiers compelled him to rely upon it more and more. This was perhaps rather from the ex- tremely poor state in which his father left it, than from lack of understanding; that he real- ized at least a part of its defects and its im- portance is shown by the fact that finding the gunners and engineers mostly mechanics of in- ferior grade, he at once drafted the worst of them into garrisons, replacing them with men of competence and position ; and as they had no commissions, and were consequently scorned by the other arms of the service, he gave the officers commissions and extra pay, and ranked them with officers of the guards. But his father had given all his attention to the drill and discipline and physical magnitude of his soldiers, to the neglect of the artillery, which at his death con-i sisted of only one battalion of field and one of garrison, of six and four companies respectively; and Frederick inherited his general policy, though with a larger mind. His artillery was vastly nferior to the Austrian, raised to a pre- eminent position by Prince Lichtenstcin. There were two pieces to a battalion, directed by a cor- poral without independent authority, and the battalion commander had enough on his mind without attending to artillery, which were ex- pected always to keep a certain distance in ad- vance of the troops, thus scanting their time to fire during an advance, and were usually cap- tured in a sudden retreat from lack of time to limber up. Still they did good service at Koss- bach, Hochkirchen, and Leuthen; and Freder- ick raised the proportion of guns to men, and in 1750 formed the first battery of horse artil- lery, of 6-pounders and 7-pound howitzers — placing great reliance on howitzers, making much use of them against intrenchments, and after the war attaching 40 heavy pieces to each corps. With only 2 l / 2 or 3 guns per 1,000 at the outset, he ended with 5 or 6 ; he created a horse artillery almost as rapid as cavalry ; and although at the beginning of the Seven Years' war he had made the error Gustavus avoided, of using too heavy pieces in the field, he grew to appreciate mobility better, and gradually replaced them by lighter ones, saving the others for siege and garrison guns. His wars made three important changes in artillery tactics; the distribution of small bat- teries at important points in place of concen- trating large ones on centre and flank; the preparation for an advance and the protection of deploying columns by light guns; and the rapid change in position of batteries, made possible by the horse artillery. The latter was employed by the Russians also, each regiment having three howitzers with mounted gunners. The greatest artillery result of Frederick's wars, however, was in France. This country had been very backward in that arm since Louis XIV. 's time, ammunition and transport being es- pecially crude. In 1765 Gen. Gribeauval, termed the "father of the modern artillery system," — who had held an artillery command under Lich- tenstein in the Seven Years' war, and admired the efficiency of the Austrian system, — under- took to reconstruct the French one from the bot- tom ; for many years the fierce resistance he encountered made it impossible, though he suc- ceeded in reorganizing the personnel ; but in 1776 he became inspector-general of artillery, and carried through the rest of the most far-reaching reform ever effected in this arm, much of it per- manent to this day. He divided it into field* siege, garrison, and coast artillery, with a sepa- rate class of material and separate personnel for each. For all material a uniform construction was adopted, tables of construction drawn up. and all possible parts made interchangeable. For lightness and consequent mobility, he made the pieces perfectly plain, reduced the length and weight of field pieces, which he restricted to 12's and under (guns in embrasures or behind parapets, of course, could not be shortened ). re duced the charge, and therefore the necessary windage (the difference between the diameter cf the projectile and that of the gun-bore). Field guns were limited to 4's, 8's, and 12's, and 6-inch 'howitzers. In ammunition the old grape and case shot were replaced by sheet-iron canisters \ holding cast-iron balls. Accuracy of fire was I vastly improved by elevating screws and tangent scales, the latter based on the mathematical dis- covery that the path of a projectile is not flat. For siege and garrison guns he adopted at first the 12's and 16's, 8-inch howitzer, and 10-inch mortar; in 1785 the 8-, 10-, and 12-inch "gomer 9 mortar (with conical bore). The carriages were strengthened, lightened irr draft, and improved in mechanism, and ammunition chests affixed; trun- nion poles and the prolonge rope (to unite limber with trail, for firing in slow retreat) introduced, and the horses harnessed in pairs instead of tan- ARTILLERY dem ; and the bricole devised — a collar with rope and hook to which the gunners and foot-soldiers harnessed themselves. A new ammunition wagon carrying fixed ammunition was built. Siege carriages had shafts in place of the field carriages' poles ; garrison carriages, wheels in front and a truck in the rear; for coast service there were traversing platforms, with bolt in front and truck in rear on a circular racer. The field artillery was divided into regimental guns and corps or reserve artillery ; the latter was subdivided into divisions of eight guns of the same calibre, and a company of artillery as- signed to each brigade of four battalions. Eight pieces were also attached to the centre and to each wing. Horse artillery was not introduced till 1791, and horsemen and gunners were com- bined, each learning the other's work. In the wars of the French Republic, in 1793, when the divisional organization was adopted, guns were attached to the divisions as well as to battalions; in 1796 Napoleon withdrew them from the latter and abolished the old "battalion system," to the great advantage of both arms, the infantry regiments being impeded by the guns and the guns ill served by the divided com- mand. In 1800 he took the last step in profes- sionalizing the arm, by establishing a driver corps of soldiers in place of outside teamsters. His only change in guns was substituting the 6-pounder of the 8's and 4's, and the use of a 24-pound howitzer, but his tactical im- provements were great. He employed with enor- mous effect the modern system of massing gun- fire on selected spots, and could not have won his prodigious victories without it, and like Frederick, as his soldiers were swept away he increased his artillery force, rising from 2^2 to about 4 per 1,000. His tactics are still part of the instruction of all soldiers. The British began their long struggle against France very ill-equipped in all military points, and in none more so than artillery ; guns, am- munition, transport, were alike crude and ill arranged, the whole equipment hardly able to move faster than foot pace. The field artillery was simply garrison artillery drafted into the field. Field and siege guns were intermingled, in batteries of 12, each battalion having two; the horses were in tandem of three, the drivers carters on foot. In the years before the Penin- sular war (1808-14), however, Major Spear- man had transformed it. Horse artillery was introduced in 1793; a battery consisting of two 9's and three 6's (later of 9's wholly), and a 5^2-inch howitzer. A driver corps was formed in 1794, consisting of a few subalterns, non- commissioned officers, artificers, civilian drivers and horses — divided into "troops," one added to each company of foot artillery'- Battalion guns were abolished in 1802, and six-gun field batteries organized, each of five 6 to 12-pound- ers and a 55^-inch howitzer ; the drivers were to be soldiers ; the horses were teamed in pairs, drivers on the off ones, and eight gunners car- ried on the limbers and wagons. The equipment was lightened and simplified, and ammunition well packed instead of flung into rough boxes. Excellent additions were made to material by the invention of shrapnel shell by Major Shrap- nel in 1803. and by the development of the an- tique rocket from a mere fire-signal to a power- ful engine of destruction, by Sir William Congreve in 1S06 — the latter first used at Cop- enhagen in 1807, employed with great efficiency at Leipsic in 1813, in the Peninsular war at the Adour, and in the War of 1812 at Bladensburg. Between 1815 and the Crimean war, the most considerable changes in material were the in- vention of a powerful 12-pounder howitzer weighing only 220 pounds, for mountain ser- vice, used with great effectiveness in the French campaigns in Algeria, the gun-carriage and am- munition going on muleback ; the introduction in 1852 by Louis Napoleon — a hereditary artil- lery student, and the great work on artillery under his auspices is still a standard — of a 12- pounder to fire either solid shot or shrapntl, known as the "12-pounder Napoleon," and made the sole equipment of a set of field batteries, which did great service in his war of 1859 with Austria; and the application of rifling, though not efficiently developed till later, its use at Sebastopol being a failure. Carriages and am- munition wagons were also improved so that the gunners could ride on them, much increasing mobility; the trail was strengthened; and am- munition was carried in boxes on the limber. French field batteries, from 1827, consisted of four 12's and two 6-inch howitzers, or four 8's and two 24-pound howitzers. In England in 1820 the horses for guns and wagons were in- creased from six and four to eight and six re- spectively. In 1822, and in 1829 in France the driver corps was abolished, men being enlisted as "gunners and drivers.*' and distributed among the battalions; naturally it worked ill, few men being adepts in gunnery and horse management at once. In 1848 in England, the horse artillery was raised from the two guns, to which it had been skeletonized after 181 5, to four, and in 1852 to six, as was the foot artillery; and 20 batteries were formed, several more being added in 1855. Even so, this arm was badly under- manned, and deficient in both number and weight of guns, in the Crimean war. where it was organized in position batteries, with iS's and 8-inch howitzers; heavy field, with 12's and 32-pounder howitzers ; field, with 9's and 24- pounder howitzers ; horse, with 6's and 12- pounder howitzers; and mountain, with 3's and 4-inch howitzers — each field and horse battery having a rocket section. The French organiza- tion was horse artillery, with mounted gunners; line or field, with gunners riding on the ammu- nition chests; and siege or reserve, with gunners on foot. As the war consisted mainly of the siege of Sebastopol, the field artillery had little scope, though used with notable effect at the Alma and Inkerman, and mortar fire causing p. frightful destruction in the Redan at the end; and the relatively great increase of range and accuracy in small arms over that of artillery (not then effective at more than a mile) was making the heavier arm subordinate. Later in- ventions have restored the balance. Breech-loading and rifling now come into prominence. The earliest cannon were breech- loaders, a system quicker to charge, easier to dean, and more accurate in adjustment of mis- sile to 1. .re, and thus needing less windage than muzzle-loading. But till lately, mechanical sci- ence was not equal to its requirements of nice adjustment, and muzzle-loading superseded it. The defect of smooth-bores, with their straight projectile motion, is inaccuracy at long ranges: ARTILLERY since, as a projectile's centre of gravity rarely ides with its longitudinal axis, the farther it goes the more its unevenness of mass carrii it out of the initial path. A whirling motion cor- rects this by constantly restoring the balance and carrying it the other way; and this is provided by spiral grooving of the gun channel, which was invented by a German early in the 16th century, but like the other system, was in ad- vance of mechanical development. In 1846 it was for the first time practically applied to ord- nance, and rifled siege guns were used against Sebastopol, but they were still too imperfect for efficiency. In 1858 rifled 12's and 4's were adopt- ed by France, and in the Franco-Austrian war of 1859 were used with great effect, increasing the accurate range from 1,450 to 2,500 yards, or nearly double ; while the Austrians, for genera- tions pre-eminent not only for handling but material, had only smooth-bore 6's and 12's, and 32-pounder howitzers, with the lesser range. The nature of the country stinted the service of artillery, but it was well developed at Solferino and brilliantly handled by the French at Medole. In i860 the introduction of the Armstrong rifled breech-loader, first used in the Anglo-Chinese campaign of that year, led to a transformation of English artillery equipment : 7-inch guns, 82 hundredweight, for siege and garrison service, 40's for position batteries, 20's for same or heavy field, 12's of 8 hundredweight for light field, q's of 6 hundredweight for horse. Field car- riages were provided with a gun-metal "saddle» worked by lever and hand wheel, with elevating screw. Ammunition wagons were replaced by separate ammunition columns. At the outbreak of the American Civil War, the United States, largely owing to Lieut. Rod- man of the Ordnance Department, — inventor of the Rodman gun, whose casting by interior cool- ing and consequent density of channel metal, and its thickness at the seat of charge, enable it to bear a heavier charge without bursting than any other, — headed the world in artillery ma- terial: both quality and manufacture were un- surpassed. In 1861 it cast a 15-inch Rodman, the most powerful weapon known ; and a 20- inch smooth-bore firing a 1,080-pound shot. Otherwise its equipment was: — Field: wrought- iron rifled 3-inch, range 2,800 yards ; bronze 6's and 12's ; «Napoleon M 12's, range 1,500 yards, used very effectively within it all through the war; howitzers — 12's, 24's, and 32's, and moun- tain 12's. Siege and garrison: Cast-iron rifled, 4j4-inch ; 12's, 18's, and 24's ; howitzers, 24's and 8-inch ; mortars, 8-inch, 10-inch, and bronze Coehorn (a small light mortar for throwing grenades). Coast (most of it at once turned into field batteries): 32's; 8-, 10-, and 15-inch Columbiads (for both shot and shell, like the Napoleons) ; 10-inch and 13-inch mortars. There were 18 calibres altogether — 7 of "guns," 3 of Columbiads, 4 of howitzers, 4 of mortars. Eastern armies began with four 6-gun batteries to each division, about half of them being used as a corps reserve w r hen corps were formed ; later the batteries were reduced to four, and in 1863 taken from the divisions as formerly from the battalions, being formed into artillery brigades of 4 to 12 batteries. In the Western armies each infantry brigade had a battery of artillery till 1863, when as in the East a massing system was begun. In the Confederate armies each division had an artillery battalion of four batteries, and each corps two battalions as a reserve. This ci unbilled system has been substantially adopted by other powers. The Civil War greatly ad- vanced the importance of artillery, and developed the Napoleonic massing system. The short Austro-Prussian war of 1866 gave no time for new developments in military sci- ence, and in artillery service the victorious Prus- sians were as usual far behind the Austrians, the nigh their material was better. They used for the first time steel breech-loading rifled guns, nominally 6's and 4's, but using 15-pound and 9-pound oblong shells with percussion fuse; the Austrians had muzzle loading rilled 8's and 4's, in batteries of eight, employing the brigade sys- tem and rocket batteries for the last time. Af- ter this war they adopted breech-loading guns, and armed themselves from Krupp's factories. By the time of the Franco-Prussian war in 1870 the Prussians had made great advances in artillery, and owed a part of their success to their superiority to the French, lxith in numbers, power, and tactics of this arm. They disused re- serve artillery, attaching the batteries to divi- sions and corps entirely; each cavalry division had two batteries of horse artillery; they pushed their guns well in advance, preparing the way for infantry movements by concentrated fire on an objective point, and firing with deliberation at ranges from 650 to 3,300 yards ; while the French wasted their fire at too long ranges, held it too long in reserve, and used it in small batteries in- stead of masses. Their mitrailleuses, first em- ployed in this war, were a disappointment, though they inflicted great losses on the Prus- sians in carrying positions, especially when suc- cessfully masked, and clearly marked out the great future of machine guns ; but for offensive work against field artillery they were not fitted. The Prussians used steel breech-loading g's and 4' s > 3-7 guns per 1,000; the French, muzzle-load- ing 8's and 4's, with some "Napoleon" 12's, 3 to 1,000. In the Russo-Turkish war of 1878 nothing new of any sort was brought forward. The Turks had the better guns, the Russians much the greater number; the former used Krupp's steel breech-loaders of 3.2 and 3.5 inches, 2.2 per 1,000 men, the latter bronze breech-loading 9's and 6's, 3.9 per 1,000. In the Spanish-Ameri- can war of 1898 there was little use for artillery; and the only novelty was the furnishing of smokeless powder after Santiago, when it was no longer needed. A 3.2-inch steel breech-loader and a 3.6-inch field mortar were used. As the siege train was not used, its composition is im- material. In the Philippines and China 3.2-inch field and mountain guns were used. In the Boer war, owing to the nature of the country and the operations, artillery played but a small part, and developed no new weapons ; the Boers, however, had for years laid in a stock of much more improved material than the English. See Armament of the World; Army; Army of the United States: Ordnance; Pro- jectiles. For ammunition see Ammunition'; Explosives; Gunpowder. For the relations of the artillery arm to other services see Coast Defense; Fortification; Siege Works; Tactics. ARTILLERY COMPANY— ARUNDELIAN MARBLES Artillery Company, The Ancient and Honorable, a military organization of Boston, Mass. It was copied from that of London, was formed in 1637, and was the first regularly or- ganized military company in America. Artillery Company, The Honorable, the oldest existing body of volunteers in Great Britain. It was instituted in 1585, and com- prises six companies of infantry, besides artil- lery, grenadiers, light infantry, and yagers. It furnishes a guard of honor to the sovereign when visiting London. Artillery Corps, the official name of the entire artillery service of the United States army. Artillery Schools are institutions estab- lished for the purpose of giving a special train- ing to the officers, and in some cases the men belonging to the artillery service. An artillery school at Fort Monroe, Va., first established in 1823, discontinued, and re-established in 1867, gives instruction, both theoretical and practical. The artillery regiments of the regular army have each one foot-battery at the school. The course of instruction is one year, beginning 1 Septem- ber, and it includes such subjects as ballistics, sea-coast engineering, electricity, mines and mechanisms, artillery, coast-defense, chemistry, explosives, etc. In Great Britain the artillery schools are at Woolwich and Shoeburyness. The Department of Artillery endeavors at Woolwich to give artillery officers the means of continuing their studies after completing the usual course at the Royal -Military College, and of qualifying for appointments requiring excep- tional scientific attainments. The school of gun- nery at Shoeburyness gives instruction in gunnery to officers and men and conducts all experiments connected with artillery and stores. See Military Schools. Artist's Letters from Japan, An, a work by the noted American artist, John La Farge. The drift of the book is toward a purer art ; but it contains much lively matter — accounts of the butterfly dance in the temple of the Green Lotus, and of fishing with trained cormorants. A thread runs through the letters, tracing the character and progress of the usurping Toku- gawa family, from the cradle of their fisherman ancestors to the graves of the great shogun and his grandson in the Holy Mountain of Nikko. Ar'tocar'pus, the generic name of the bread-fruit tree (q.v.). Artois, ar'twa', the name of a former province of France anciently one of the 17 provinces of the Netherlands. It was bounded on the south and west by Picardy. on the east by Hainault, and on the north by Flanders. It is now almost completely included in the depart- ment of Pas de Calais. Artois is a fertile re- gion, producing grain and hops. Its capital was Arras. Ar'totype. See Photography. Arts, the designation of branches of study in the Middle Ages, originally called the liberal arts to distinguish them from the servile arts or mechanical occupations. These arts were usually classed as grammar, dialectics, rhetoric, music, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy. Hence originated the terms "art classes," "de- grees in arts," "master of arts," still in common use in universities, the faculty of arts being dis- tinguished from those of divinity, law, medicine, or science. Aru. See Arru Islands. Aruba, a-roo'ba, an island belonging to Holland, off the north coast of Venezuela. It is a dependency of Caracao and is about 30 miles long by 7 broad. The climate is healthy. Pop. about 7,700. Arum, a small genus of tuberous tropical and subtropical perennial herbs (commonly called callas) of the natural order Aracea, with simple leaves and diversely colored convolute spathes, for which they are cultivated either un- der glass or, in the case of some hardy species, in the open air, as ornamental plants. The naked topped spadices bear staminate flowers just above the pistillate ones at the bases. The tender species are managed like the fancy-leaved caladium (q.v.) : the hardy must be planted in rich soil in cool, moist situations and must be well mulched during the winter. A. maculatum, lords-and-ladies, cucoo-pint, wake-robin, from Europe, is, with its many cultivated varieties, perhaps the best known hardy species grown in America. The leaves and corms are acrid ; but the latter when ripe contain starch which may be extracted and used as a food. In places where it abounds it has long been converted into a kind of arrow-root and has been proposed as a substitute for the potato, but the corms are too small for profitable culture. Some closely re- lated native American plants of somewhat simi- lar habit are skunk cabbage (q.v.), water calla (see Calla), Indian turnip (see Jack-in-the- Pulpit). Anthurium, a well-known genus of greenhouse plants, is also nearly allied. Arundel, ar'un-del, Thomas, an English prelate, third son of Richard Fitz-Alan, Earl of Arundel : b. in 1352 : d. Canterbury, 19 Feb. 1413. He was Chancellor of England and Arch- bishop of Canterbury. He concerted with Boling- broke to deliver the nation from the oppressions of Richard II., and was a strenuous opponent of the Lollards and followers of Wyclif. Arundel, Thomas Howard, Earl of. See ASUNDELIAN MARBLES. Arundel, a small town in Sussex. England, famous as containing Arundel castle, the fam- ily seat of the dukes of Norfolk. It is on the small river Arun and has a showy Roman Cath- olic cathedral erected by the Duke of Norfolk. Pop. (1001) 2,738. Arundel Society, a society instituted in London in 1848 for promoting the knowledge of art by the publication of facsimiles and pho- tographs. It was named for the collector of the Arundelian Marbles. Ar'undelian Marbles, a series of sculp- tured marbles discovered by William Petty, who explored the ruins of Greece for Thomas How- ard. Earl of Arundel, in the reign of the first Stuart kings. James I. and Charles I., and de- voted a large portion of his fortune to the col- lection of monuments illustrative of the arts, and of the history of Greece and Rome. These mar- bles arrived in England in the year 1627, with many statues, busts, sarcophagi, etc. John Sel- den published some of the inscriptions which he thought most interesting, under the title of ARUSPICES — ARYAN RACE 'Marmora Arundeliana' (1628). Henry How- ard, Duke of Norfolk, grandson of the collector, presented them in 1007 to the University of Ox- ford, where they still remain. The whole col- lection of inscriptions was published by Hum- phrey Prideaux in [676; by Michael Maittaire in 1732; by Chandler in 1703. These inscriptions are records of treaties, public contracts, thanks of the state to patriotic individuals, etc., and many of a private nature. The most curious and interesting is one usually known by the name of the Parian Chronicle, from having been kept in the island of Paros. It is a chronolog- ical account of the principal events in Grecian, and particularly in Athenian history, during a pe- riod of 1318 years, from the reign of Cecrops t 1450 B.C.) to the archbishop of Diognctus (264 B.C.). The authenticity of this chronicle has been called in question, but has been vindicated by many of the most learned men. Arus'pices, Roman priests and prophets, who foretold events from inspection of the en- trails of sacrificed animals. They observed, too, all the circumstances which accompanied or hap- pened during the sacrifice ; for example, the flame, the mode in which the animal behaved, the smoke. The origin is to be sought for in Etruria. They were introduced into Rome by Romulus, where they flourished till the time of the emperor Constantine (337 a.d.), who pro- hibited all soothsaying on pain of death. Arus'pices, On the Reply of the, an ora- tion by Cicero. After Cicero's recall from exile different prodigies alarmed the people of Rome. The aruspices being consulted, answered that the public ceremonies had been neglected, the holy places profaned, and frightful calamities decreed in consequence. Thereupon Clodius denounced Cicero as the cause of the misfortunes that men- aced the city, and on the following day the ora- tor replied in the Senate to the attack. The speech takes rank among the greatest of Cicero's orations, though he had little time for prepara- tion, and suffered under the disadvantage of ad- dressing an audience at first openly unfriendly. Aruwimi, a'roo-we'me, a river of equato- rial Africa having its source in the hills to the west of Albert Nyanza and tributary to the Congo. Its length is a little over 800 miles and its breadth at its confluence with the Congo is about a mile. It is navigable up to Yambuya, but beyond that place there are many rapids. In its upper course it is called the Ituri. Stan- ley discovered its mouth in 1877 and traced a considerable part of its course in his search for Emin Pasha in 1887. Arve, iirv. a river tributary of the Rhone, which it enters near Geneva after a course of about 50 miles. It flows through the valley of Chamouni, and many of the most famous re- sorts of Switzerland are found in its vicinity. Aryabhatta, Hindu astronomer and math- ematician of the 5th century : b. 476 a.d. His only known work, the 'Aryabhattiya,' is a mathematical treatise in verse: frequent refer- ence is made to his writings by later Hindu scholars. In the solution of quadratic equations and the application of algebra to geometry and astronomy, he anticipated some of the discov- eries of modern algebra. He also announced the correct theory of the diurnal rotation of the earth, and the correct explanation of solar and lunar eclipses. See Algebra, History of. Aryan (ar'yan, or ar'i-an) Languages, an important language family frequently styled the Indo-European or Indo-Germanic family of tongues. They have reached a higher develop- ment than those of the second great family, the Semitic, and are far in advance of the next one — that comprising the Turanian tongues. Like the Syro-Arabian forms of speech they are inflectional ; while those of Turanian origin are only agglutinate. Max Midler separates the Aryan family of languages primarily into a southern and a northern division. The former is subdivided into two classes: (1) The Indie: and (2) the Iranic ; and the latter into six: I 1 ) The Celtic; (2) the Italic; (3) the Illyric ; (4) the Hellenic; (5) the W'imlic : and (6) the Teu- tonic. It is often said that Sanskrit, spoken by the old Brahmins, is the root of all these classes of tongues. It is more correct to consider it as the first branch and assume the existence of a root not now accessible to direct investigation. As an illustration of the affinity among the Aryan tongues the common word daughter may be instanced. It is in Swedish, dottcr; Danish, dattcr; Dutch, dochter; German, tochter; Old Hebrew German, tohtar; Gothic, dauhtar; Lith- uanian, duktcrc; Greek, thygater; Armenian. dustr; Sanskrit, duhitri; the last-named word signifying primarily "milkmaid," that being the function in the early Brahman or Aryan house- hold which the daughter discharged. Not only are the roots of very many words akin through- out the several Aryan tongues, but (a more im- portant fact) so also are the inflections. Thus the first person singular of a well-known verb is in Latin, do; Greek, didomi; Lithuanian, dumi; Old Slavonic, damy ; Zend, dadhami; Sanskrit, dadami; and the third person singular, present indicative of the substantive verb is in English, is; Gothic, ist; Latin, est; Greek, esti ; Sanskrit, asti. Ar'yan Race, a name sometimes applied to that particular ethnological division of man- kind otherwise called Indo-European or Indo- Germanic, but more properly to the Indo-Iranian group alone. The Indo-European division in- cludes two branches, the western, which com- prises the inhabitants of Europe, with the ex- ception of the Turks, the Magyars of Hungary, the Basques of the Pyrenees, and the Finns of Lapland, and the eastern, which comprehends those of Armenia, Persia, Afghanistan, and northern Hindustan. From a multitude of de- tails it has been established that the original mother tongue of all these peoples was the same. It is supposed that the Aryan nations were at first located somewhere in central Asia, probably east of the Caspian and north of the Hindu Kush and Paropamisan mountains. From this centre successive migrations took place toward the northwest. The first swarm formed the Celts, who at one time occupied a great part of Europe ; at a considerably later epoch came the ancestors of the Italians, the Greeks, and the Teutonic people. The stream that formed the Slavonic nations is thought to have taken the route by the north of the Cas- pian. At a later period the remnant of the primitive stock would seem to have broken up. Part passed southward and became the dominant ARZACHEL — ASBEN race in the valley of the Ganges, while the rest settled in Persia and became the Medes and Per- sians of history. It is from these eastern mem- bers that the whole family takes its name. In the most ancient Sanskrit writings (the Veda) the Hindus style themselves Aryas, the word signifying "excellent," "honorable," originally "lord of the soil." Ar'zachel, a Jewish astronomer: b. in Spain about 1050. He discovered the obliquity of the ecliptic and compiled certain astronomical tables known as the "Toledo Tables." Arzamas, a Russian town, the capital of a district of the same name, 340 miles east of Moscow. It possesses brickyards, tanneries, and tallow factories, and in the earlier half of the 19th century was distinguished for a school of painting which furnished the greater part of Russia with ikons or sacred pictures. As, a word which the Romans employed in three different ways: to denote (1) any unit whatever considered as divisible; (2) the unit of weight, or the pound (libra) ; (3) a coin. The as, whatever unit it represented, was divid- ed into 12 parts, or ounces (uncia). Scholars are not agreed on the weight of a Roman pound, but it was not far from 237.5 grains avoirdupois, or 327.1873 grammes, French measure. In the most ancient times of Rome the copper coin which was called as actually weighed an as, or a pound, but in 264 B.C. was reduced to 2 ounces, in 217 to 1 ounce, and in 191 to % ounce. In 269 B.C., when silver money was first struck by the Romans, the as was superseded as a money of account by the sestertius coined from the more precious metal. As It Was Written, the title of a romance by Sidney Luska (Henry Harland), the scene of which is laid in modern New York. Sombre and tragic though it is, the romance shows un- usual vigor of conception and execution and extraordinary intuitive knowledge of the psy- chology of the Jewish race. As You Like It, the title of one of Shake- speare's comedies. Its realism lies in its gay, riant feeling, the fresh woodland sentiment, the exhilaration of spirits that attend an escape from the artificialities of society. The characters all meet in the forest of Arden, where "as you like it" is the order of the day. A'sa, the third king of Judah. During the first 10 years of his reign his kingdom enjoyed peace and prosperity, but in the nth year he was attacked by the Ethiopian king Zerah at the head of a vast army, which he completely routed. On his triumphant return Asa was met by the prophet Azariah, who encouraged him to per- severe in the extirpation of idolatry. In the 36th year of Asa's reign Baasha, king of Israel, occupied Ramah, and proceeded to fortify it as a frontier barrier. Asa called in the aid of Benhadad, king of Syria, and recovered the city, but incurred the rebuke of the prophet Hanani for seeking help elsewhere than from the Lord. The incensed king threw the prophet into prison. He died after a prosperous reign of 41 years. Asaba, a-sa'ba, a town in west Africa, on the Niger River, 150 miles from the coast. It is the seat of the supreme court, and contains the central prison, civil and military hospitals, and other public buildings. It is a place of large present importance, and in the evolution of new English interests in Africa may become still more conspicuous. As'afcet'ida is a gum resin obtained from the root of Ferula fwtida. Although the United States pharmacopoeia limits the pro- ducing plant, it is quite probable that asafcetida is obtained from two or even three or four species of Ferula, F. narthex, F. fcctidissima, F. jaschkeanum. The main sources, however, are F. fcctida and F. narthex. These are coarse herbs of the Umbellifera family distributed throughout the eastern Asiatic provinces from Persia, Turkestan, Afghanistan. The root is cleaned from the leaves and while growing is cut off close to the ground. This is then covered with leaves and in five or six weeks a slice is cut off, and from the cut surfaces the juice exudes. This on thickening forms the asafoetida of commerce. The chemical composi- tion is complex. It consists of resin, gum. ethereal oil. vanillin, .and ferulic acid. Asafce- tida is highly prized in the East as a seasoning. In medicine it is stimulant to the sympathetic nervous system and is an excellent carminative. and stimulant of unstriped muscle fibre. It is particularly valuable in expelling flatus from the peristalsis it induces. It is also used in hysteria. Inn in an empirical fashion. Its further study is desirable. Asa'ma-Yama, a-sa'ma-ya'ma, an active volcano of Japan about 50 miles northwest of Tokyo, 8,280 feet high. Its latest destructive eruption was in 1783. A'saph, the Levite and psalmist whom David appointed as leading chorister in the tem- ple. It is supposed that his office became heredi- tary in his family, or that he founded a school of poets and musicians called, after him, "the sons of Asaph." As'arabac'ca, a European herb. See ASARUM. As'arum, a small genus of herbs of the natural order Aristolochiacea, widely distributed in rich, shady woods throughout the northern hemisphere. They have odd chocolate or pur- plish, bell-shaped, three-lobed perianths con- taining 12 horned stamens. The flowers which are borne close to or upon the ground are hid- den by the kidney-shaped or heart-shaped leaves. A. canadense, wild ginger, or Canada snake-root, is warmly aromatic and is sometimes used as a spice. It is common in the eastern United States and is often cultivated in wild gardens as are also the following species: A. virgini- cutn, A. arifolium, both common from Virginia southward: A. caudatum, a Pacific coast species, A. lemmoni and A. hartwegii, both of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, the last found at al- titudes of 4,000 to 7,000 feet ./. europaum is also cultivated. It was formerly used as an emetic, a role now played by ipecacuanha. Its leaves are still made into snuffs and are deemed efficacious as counter-irritants. Asben, as-ben', a kingdom of Africa, in the Sahara, with an area of about 49.000 square miles. It consists of a succession of mountain groups and valleys and attains in its highest summits a height of over 6,000 feet. The val- leys, though separated by complete deserts, are very fertile. The climate is on the whole ASBESTOS healthy, and not unsuitable for Europeans. The principal vegetable productions are millet, wine, dates, senna, indigo, and various kinds of vege- tables. Asbestos, one of the most remarkable substances found in nature. It is a peculiar spe- cies of the hornblende family of minerals. Its composition is chiefly silica, magnesia, alumina, and ferrous oxide, and consequently uncon- sumable, hence its name. The fibres formed by the chemical combination above given are per- fectly smooth, and in this respect are different from all other known fibres. Paradoxically, it is the link which completes the chain between the vegetable and mineral kingdoms, and is in fact a mineralogical vegetable possessing the curious properties found in both, for it is at once fibrous and crystalline, elastic and brittle, heavy as a rock in its crude state, yet as light as thistledown when treated mechanically. Added to this, its fibres, soft, white, and delicate, have, by their inherent quality of indestructibility, withstood the action of the elements since the world began; and through all the countless ages, during which the hardest rocks surrounding it have been reduced, this mineralogical mystery has remained intact, having successfully resisted the assaults of fire, acids, and time. Asbestos is found widely distributed throughout the world, although the principal supply of crude asbestos suitable for the manufacture of fire- proof cloths and curtains comes from Canada, about 75 miles from Quebec. The Italian min- eral has a fine, silk-like fibre, but is lacking in the essential characteristic of strength. The product obtained from South Carolina has a soft, woody, yellowish fibre, which quickly powders under pressure. The South African asbestos, as one might naturally infer, is of a dark slate or black color, with exceptionally long, strong fibres, but owing to its stiff and horny texture, it cannot be manufactured into a fine fabric, hence the superiority of the Canadian asbestos, and its large consumption in the United States. The mining of asbestos differs radically from the mining of other minerals, since no shafts are sunk, but excavations are made in the open, somewhat after the manner of a stone quarry. Canadian asbestos, however, is found in narrow veins or seams about an inch and a quarter in thickness, and embedded in rock which is easily severed from it. The strata of asbestos, which may be vertical or horizontal, are found in prac- tically detached deposits, and are as elusive as those of zinc-bearing ore, and can only be de- termined by exploring for them. The rock to which the mineral is attached shows on fresh fracture a serpentine mineral of a green shade containing finely divided particles of chromic and magnetic iron. The asbestos on cleavage presents a brilliant, dark-green surface by re- flected light, but the fibres after they are de- tached are perfectly white. The act of separat- ing the mineral from its matrix of rock is termed "hand cobbing," and after this process the mineral is shipped to various factories in the United States. The process of manufacture begins by plac- ing the asbestos mineral in a chaser mill, a machine comprising a rotating edge-wheel re- volving at the end of a radial arm in a trough, which crushes the mineral, dividing the fibres without destroying them. The result is a snowy mass of mineral wool ready for winnowing, a method of removing the minute particles of rock still clinging to the fibres very much like the winnowing of grain; this is dune by means of a blast of air, which separates and blows away the foreign matter, leaving the fibres in a re- fined state and in proper condition for the third stage of manufacture. This is termed air fibre raising, and as the name implies, the fibres are raised by a current of air produced by a blower of large dimensions through a vertical pipe in- clined at a small angle. The object of this pro- cedure will be obvious, when it is stated that the air blown across the fibres causes those of coarser texture to be deposited in a compart- ment near the bottom of the pipe. The medium fibres will be projected a little higher, and these will fall into a second compartment. The finer fibres will he blown to a higher point, and there collected, while the dust will be carried to the top and deposited. The fibres are in this way sorted into different lots according to their tex- ture, and are ready to he made into articles for which they are best adapted. The fluffy stuff now goes to the carding room, just as though it were genuine wool sheared from a sheep or pure cotton fresh from the plant on which it grows, instead of a mineral substance that in its original state was mined like a lump of an- thracite coal. A carding machine, similar to that employed in preparing wool, cotton, or flax fibres before spinning, has been adopted by the manufacturers. The problem of mechanically enmbing these fibres was no small one, and the carding takes place in a machine having a large central rotating cylinder covered with card clothing, that is, strips of leather set with pro- jecting wires termed teeth. Around the main cylinder there are a number of smaller cylin- ders, also provided with card clothing, which engages the teeth of the central cylinder rotating in the reverse direction. This machine straight- ens out the fibres and lays them parallel; after passing through the first breaker, they are fed into a second carding engine or breaker, which is set to a finer gauge than the preceding. A third and last carding process takes place in a machine called a finisher or condenser, when all the irregularities are eliminated, and the fibres are stripped from the final cylinder by means of a fly-comb and are converted into unspun threads, when they are delivered on a traveling apron or endless band, and are gath- ered into rows by reciprocating scrapers ; they are then condensed, and the process is continued in the coiling cans. In spinning the yarn, the rovings are delivered to the spindles on a car- riage, which then recedes, when the fibres are twisted, and returns when the spun asbestos yarn is wound on the spindles. The spinning frames do not draw the yarn, and no strain is placed on it until after it is twisted. This brings the manufacture of the fireproof material to a point where it is to be woven into cloth, packing, or other forms ; for asbestos is used for divers other purposes than those appertaining to theatres. While adulterated asbestos may be used in siime of the mechanical arts, for theatrical hang- ings its purity should be ioo per cent ; it then forms one of the safest barriers against the calamity of fire. As a matter of fact, much of that which is termed commercially pure asbestos cloth contains from 5 to 20 per cent of com- bustible matter, but absolutely pure Amcr- ASBjSRNSEN — ASCENDANTS ican-made cloth may be obtained, where price is not a primary consideration. Not only is purity essential in asbestos cloth where used for protection against fire, but strength as well; and after asbestos is subjected to a high temperature, it has a tendency to powder, when, owing to its weight, it may break through, and its utility be impaired. One of the leading manufacturers has made an improvement in weaving asbestos cloth for theatre curtains ; it consists of two strands of asbestos spun around a strand of high-tempera- ture-melting brass wire, so that the wire is completely embedded and concealed. These as- bestos metallic strands form the warp, so that the threads run the long way of the cloth when finished. The weft, or filling-in cross threads, is made of plain, pure asbestos. Such a curtain will stand well under a severe high-tempera- ture test without breaking. Not only the- atre curtains, but set scenery of all kinds may be constructed of asbestos. Scenic artists find it more difficult to paint, but the finer textures may be utilized for this purpose ; and although asbestos cloth does not take colors as satisfactorily as cheese cloth and burlap, yet its use should be provided for wherever audi- ences are to be assembled. Flooring and wood- work in general may be easily replaced by com- pressed asbestos fibre board, and it has been shown that the latter may be stained, polished, and finished to as high a degree as wood. All the upholstery should be of pure asbestos cloth, and carpeting is also made to take the place of the combustible vegetable a.nd animal fibres now used so extensively. One of the peculiar prop- erties of asbestos carpeting is that the longer it is in service, the tougher it becomes. Asbestos is utilized in the arts in many other forms than cloth ; it may be worked into a pulp, and a fireproof paper is obtained. This paper is now used on roofs, between walls, flooring, etc. Fireproof rope three eighths inch in diameter for the suspension of curtains and other uses is made, having a tensile strength of 1,650 pounds per foot. High-grade asbestos plaster is fire- proof, soundproof, and hangs together with great tenacity when subjected to water. Asbes- tos mineral with rock as it comes from the mine costs $200 per ton, but after it is stripped the long fibres are worth $1,500 per ton. When these are made into cloth it sells for $3 per square yard ; when made into curtains, the sew- ing is done with asbestos thread. Asbjornsen, as-byern'sen, Peter Kristen, a Norwegian folklorist: b. in Christiania, 15 Jan. 1812; d. there, 6 Jan. 1885. While pursuing botanical and zoological studies, and subse- quently during various travels at government expense, he collected folk tales and legends, aided by his friend Jorgen Moe, with whom he published 'Norwegian Folk Tales' (1842-4) ; and 'Norwegian Gnome Stories and Folk Legends' (1845-8; 3d ed. 1870), pronounced by Jacob Grimm the best fairy tales in existence. Asboth, osh'bot, Sandor (Alexander), a Hungarian-American soldier: b. in 1811; d. in 1S68. He came to America with Kossuth in 1851, and became a United States citizen, serv- ing in the Civil War in the Federal army, at- taining the rank of a brevet major-general. He was United States minister to Argentina at the time of his death. Vol. I — 50 Asbury, az'bdr-i, Francis, the first bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States. He was born in Handsworth, Stafford- shire, England, in August 1745 ; d. in Spottsyl- vania, Va., 31 March 1816. He joined the local ministry of the Methodists at the age of 16, the itinerant ministry six years later, and was sent by John Wesley as missionary to America at the age of 25. In 1772 he was appointed by Wesley general superintendent of the connec- tion in America, the duties of which office he exercised through the entire period of the Amer- ican Revolution. Until the termination of the war, the Methodists of America had called them- selves members of the Church of England, and their ministers laymen. They now considered the political changes of the country as separating them from that Church, and therefore estab- lished an organization for themselves. Francis Asbury was constituted the first bishop of the new Church (1784), which office he held till his death. During the 30 years of his episcopal labors he traveled annually from the Andros- coggin to the Gulf of Mexico, and from the Atlantic to the Mississippi, ordained not less than 3,000 preachers, and preached about 17,000 sermons. Identified with the religious interests of this country through the two great struggles which have so greatly modified our political and social character, he became eminently American in his sympathies and character, and left the mark of his native enthusiasm and energy upon the ecclesiastical history of the United States. As'bury Park, N. J., a city and popular summer resort in Monmouth County, on the Atlantic Ocean, six miles south of Long Branch and 40 miles south of New York city. It is on the line of the Pennsylvania R.R. and the Cen- tral R.R. of New Jersey. It adjoins Ocean Grove on the north, being separated from it by Wesley Lake. It was founded in 1869, and given a city charter in 1897. It contains many hotels and boarding-houses, attractive summer dwellings, electric lights and street railways, a national bank, etc. It has a property valuation of more than $3,000,000; and is rapidly becom- ing nearly as popular a winter as a summer resort. Asbury Park and Ocean Grove were originally laid out by members of the Methodist Episcopal Church for camp meetings and other purposes. Pop. (1900) 4,148; in summer, 25,000 and upward. As'calon, a ruined town of Palestine, on the sea-coast, 40 miles west-southwest of Jeru- salem. It was noted during the Crusades, God- frey de Bouillon gaining here a great victory over the Egyptians in 1090. Its site is now a complete scene of desolation. Asca'nius, a son of .Eneas and Creusa, who accompanied his father to Italy. He sup- ported .Eneas in his war with the Latins, and succeeded him in the government of Latium. His descendants ruled over Alba for 420 years. He is known also as lulus. As'caris. See Round-worms; Thread- worms. Ascend'ants, in law, the opposites to de- scendants in succession. When a father suc- ceeds his son or an uncle his nephew, etc.. the inheritance is said to ascend or to go to ascend- ants. ASCENSION — ASCHAFFENBURG Ascen'sion, an isolated volcanic island, near the middle of the South Atlantic Ocean, about lat. 7° 55' S. ; Ion. 14 21' W. ; area about 34 square miles. It belongs to Great Britain ; is the sanatorium for the British West African squadron. There are about 400 inhabitants, mainly government employees and their families. Ascension is celebrated for its turtle, which weigh in many cases from 500 to 800 pounds. This island was discovered on Ascension Day, 1502, by the Portuguese, and hence its name; but it was never formally occupied by any na- tion till Great Britain took possession of it in 1K15, after the transportation of Napoleon to St. Helena. Ascen'sion, Right, a term employed in as- tronomy in allusion to the position of a star or other heavenly body. Such position is known when we know the right ascension and declina- tion, these terms corresponding respectively to longitude and latitude as applied to the position of places on the globe. Right ascension is mea- sured on the equinoctial or celestial equator, the first point of Aries being taken as the starting- point ; and the right ascension of any star is the distance measured eastward along the celestial equator from the first point of Aries to the pi lint where an hour-circle, passing through the star, cuts the equator. The right ascension is easily found by means of the sidereal clock, which, when the first point of Aries passes the meridian, gives the time as o hours, o minutes, o seconds. By noting on the clock the time at which the body is on the meridian, we obtain the right ascension in time, which may be converted into degrees, minutes, and seconds at the rate of one hour to 15 . Ascen'sion Day, a religious festival of many churches in commemoration of the ascen- sion of the Saviour. It is a movable feast, always falling on the Thursday but one before Whitsuntide. It was first observed about the 4th century. Asceticism is the exercise of the faculties in moral and religious practices, the application of St. Paul's comparison between an athlete's and a Christian's life (1 Cor. ix. 24, 27). It is negative, when the object of this exercise is to avoid evil, to curb vicious tendencies, moderate excessive passion, and deny the soul and body any indulgence which might become inordinate or unlawful, and whenever it implies active measures against such disorders as gluttony, sloth, anger, pride, and lust, by abstinence, fast- ing, watching, self-restraint, modesty, and habits conducive to continence. It is positive, when its object is the exercise or training in the virtues which perfect life, and the cultivation of the means most efficacious for this end, such as devout reading, especially of the scripture, meditation, prayer, examination of conscience, exertion, and sacrifice for the good of others, zealous promotion of good enterprises ; in a word, anything that can help one to do what is best, constantly, unhesitatingly, and with facility. This is the aim of all true asceticism, whether based on the principles of natural or of positive and revealed law. This aim, as well as many of the means above numerated, is found to some extent in Pagan and Jewish, as well as in Christian asceticism. The latter employs additional means of inculcating and developing the habit of virtue, >-nch as the religious life, divine worship, and in particular the sacramen- tal system of the Church. Asceticism has some part in every rightly regulated life, even in one based on purely ethical principles; but in Chris- tian life it is most systematic and far-reaching. The whole Christian economy depends on self- denial and the active pursuit of virtue accord- ing to fixed principles. Every sincere Christian is. accordingly, an ascetic, some are professedly so, men and women, whether in the conventual cloister or domestic circle, who strive to acquire by daily practice habits of virtue, and to advance in holiness. Naturally counsel and direction are needed in a matter so difficult, and it is for want of due attention to these that asceticism is often misunderstood, and is regarded by some as grotesque, a shield for certain excesses and extravagances, associated often with the external observances of communities like the Essenes, with the singularities of some hermits and anchorites, the frenzy of fanatics like the Flagel- lants, the exclusivencss of the Brahmins, the ablutions of the Mohammedan, the dream of men like those composing the Brook Farm Com- munity. To appreciate asceticism in its normal exercise, one must study it in the examples of men and women noted for its exercise, or in the books whose guidance they followed, in works of the great ascetical and sermon writers. but chiefly in scripture, and in the life of Christ and of persons distinguished for holiness. See Kempis, 'Imitation of Christ' ; Rodriguez, 'Christian Perfection'; Scaramelli, 'Ascetical Directory.' Ascet'ics, a name anciently given to those Christians who devoted themselves to severe ex- ercises of piety, and strove to distinguish them- selves from the world by abstinence from sensual enjoyments and by voluntary penances. Hence those writings which teach the spiritual exer- cises of piety are termed ascetic writings. Even before Christ, and in the time of the early Christian Church, there were similar ascetics among the Jews, such as the Essenes, also among the philosophers of Greece, and in particular among the Platonics. The expression is bor- rowed from the Greek word askesis (exercise), used to signify the spare diet of the athlcta?, who, to prepare themselves for their combats abstained from many indulgences. Asch, ash, a manufacturing town in the extreme northwest corner of Bohemia. It con- tains a large Protestant and a newly-erected Roman Catholic Church, a real-school, schools of design, weaving, etc. The inhabitants are mainly employed in cotton, woolen, and silk manufacture, bleachfields, and dye-works. Pop. (1900) 18,700. Aschaffenburg, a-sha'fen-burg, a town of Bavaria, 26 miles east-southeast of Frank- fort. The chief edifice is castle of Johannisberg, built in 1605-14. There is also the Pompeianum, an edifice built by King Louis of Bavaria, in imitation of the Casa del questore (commonly called the Castor and Pollux House) at Pom- peii. The principal industries are the manu- factures of colored paper, tobacco, and liquors. There are also large breweries, and an extensive trade is done in wine and timber. Aschaffen- burg long belonged to the archbishops of Mainz. Pop. (1900) 18,091. ASCH AM — ASCIDIAN Ascham, as'kam, Roger, an English scholar: b. Kirby, Wiske, Yorkshire, 1515; d. London, 30 Dec. 1568. While still a child, he was taken into the family of Sir Anthony Wing- field and educated with the latter's children. He made rapid progress in English and classical studies, and was taught archery by Sir Anthony himself. The same generous patron sent him in 1530 to St. John's College, Cambridge, where he read nearly all extant Latin literature, ac- quiring an elegant Latin style that proved most useful to him later, and developed an especial aptitude for Greek, which he taught to students younger than himself. Besides this, he paid some attention to mathematics, became an ac- complished musician, and acquired remarkable skill in penmanship. He received his B.A. de- gree in February 1533-4, and became a Fellow of his college. His reputation for Greek learning soon brought him many pupils, several of whom later rose to distinction, and students from other colleges attended his lectures. In five years, he afterward said, Sophocles and Euripides had be- come at his college as familiar as Plautus had been previously, and Demosthenes was as much discussed as Cicero. The beauty of his hand- writing and the purity of his Latin led to his being employed to write the official letters of the university. He took an active part in the controversy as to the correct mode of pro- nouncing Greek, opposing Sir John Cheke's sys- tem, but later adopting it. In 1543-4 he wrote his famous treatise on archery, 'Toxophilus,' and in person presented a copy of it to Henry VTIL, who so approved of the work that he gave the author an annual pension of iio, which was renewed by Edward VI., whose Latin secre- tary Ascham became. In 1548 he was appoint- ed tutor to Princess Elizabeth. He read with her all 'Cicero,' the greater part of 'Livy,' the "New Testament,' in Greek, ( Isocrates,' 'Soph- ocles,' and portions of 'Cyprian' and 'Melanc- thon.' Two years later he was nominated secre- tary to Sir Richard Morysin, ambassador to the Emperor Charles V. Their headquarters were ;ii Augsburg, but Ascham made trips to Louvain, Halle, Innspruck, Venice, and Brussels, visiting famous teachers and scholars. He lived on ex- cellent terms with Sir Richard, reading Greek with him five days in the week. The death of Edward caused the recall of the embassy in 1553. Ascham became Latin secretary to Queen Mary and gave proof of his industry by writ- ing for her within three days 47 letters to persons of high rank, of whom cardinals were the lowest in degree. With the accession of Elizabeth, he was continued in bis offices and became in addition private tutor to the queen, reading several hours a day with her in the learned languages. She bestowed on him the prebend of Wetwang in York Cathedral 5 Oct. 1559. His last years were filled with anxiety and care due to domestic afflictions and pe- cuniary embarrassment. Between 1563 and his death he found relief in the composition of his best known work, 'The Scholemaster,' of which he completed two books. The first is a general discussion of education with arguments in favor of inducing a child to study by gentleness rather than by force. The second is an exposition of his famous method of teaching Latin, by means of "double translation," etc.. a method which has received high praise from all subsequent writers on the theory and methods of education. When Queen Elizabeth heard of Ascham's death, she is said to have exclaimed that she would rather have cast £10,000 into the sea than to have lost her tutor, Ascham. Scholars in England and on the Continent mourned for him, and ex- pressed their grief in stately Latin verses. In English literature Ascham has a secure place on account of the strength and vigor of his English prose, highly Latinized though it was in con- struction and vocabulary. In an age when seri- ous literary composition in English was culti- vated but little, and regarded less, the famous words in his dedication of 'Toxophilus' to Henry VIII. sounded a noble and patriotic note. "Althoughe to have written this boke cither in Latin or Greeke . . . had been more easier and fit for mi trade in study, yet nevertheless, I supposinge it no point of honestie, that mi com- rr.odite should stop and hinder ani parte either of the pleasure or profite of manic, have writ- ten this Englishe matter in the Englishe tongue, for Englishe men." His style is without the tricks that Lyby introduced, and has an easy flow and straightforwardness. Bibliography. — By far the best edition of Ascham's writings is 'The Whole Works of Roger Ascham . . . with a Life by Dr. J. A. Giles' (3 vols, in 4 parts, Lond. 1864-5). This edition includes 295 Latin and English letters, many printed for the first time. 'Toxophilus' was first published in 1545 ; other editions ap- peared in 1571, 1589, 1788, 1821, 1865 (by J. A. Giles), 1868 (by E. Arber). 'The Schole- master' was first issued 1570, and was followed by editions in 1571, 1572, 1573, 1579, 1583, 1589, 1711, 1743. Prof. J. E. B. Mayor published best modern edition in 1863, and E. Arber reprinted the first edition in 1870. The best exposition of Ascham's educational system is in R. H. Quick's 'Essays on Educational Reformers' (1868). Cf. also article by Sidney Lee in 'Dictionary of National Biography.' Aschersleben, a'sher-la'ben, a town of Prussian Saxony, in the district of Magdeburg. It is walled and entered by five gates, and con- tains several churches, a synagogue, and a real- school of the first class. There are manufactures of woolen goods, paper, sugar, artificial manures, earthenware, etc. Among several interesting ruins in the vicinity is the old castle of Askanien, the cradle of the house of Anhalt. Pop. ( 1900) 27,245. Ascid'ian, a marine animal, so called from Ascidia, a genus of Tunicata. Ascidians were once regarded as mollusks, and afterward as worms, but when their embryology and early stages were studied and it was found that tiny passed through a tadpole-like stage, in which the tail is supported by a notochord, and that in other respects they approached the vertebrates, they were placed with the vertebrates in the group Chordata. The simple ascidians attain to a large size, A. callosa being about two inches in diameter, quite round, and in shape and color much like a potato. The "sea-peach" {Cynthia pyriformis) is of the size and general shape of a peach, with its rich bloom and reddish tints. It is common at a depth of 10 to 50 fathoms on both sides of the north Atlantic. While other forms, as Boltenia, are stalked and fixed to the bottom, certain pelagic forms, as Pyrosomo ASCLEPIADACE.K — ASELLIO and Salpa (q.v.), are free-swimming. The compound ascidians, such as Amar&cium, grow in white or reddish masses on sea-weed^, rocks, shells, etc., the individual animals being minute. The interesting form Perophora grows in hunches on piles and wharves on the southern coast of New England; it is perfectly trar lit. so that the heart and circulation of the blood can readily he observed under the micro- ti pe. The heart is a straight tube, open at each end: after beating for a number "f times. throwing the blood with its corpuscles in one direction, the beatings or contractions are regu- larly reversed, and the blood forced in an oppo- site direction. For a general account of the anatomy, development, and metamorphoses of these animals, see TuNICATA. Ascle'piada'ceae, a natural order of more than 200 genera and 2,000 species of dicotyledon- ou herbs and shrubs, most of them with milky juice and many of them twining. The species are widely distributed in the temperate and tropical zones of both hemispheres and are es- pecially abundant in Africa. They differ greatly in their characteristics and uses; some, like Stephanotis Aoribunda, are delightfully fra- grant ; others, like Stapelia gigantca, carrion flower, are repellantly odoriferous. Some spe- cies yield a fibre from their stems or their pods ; some are used in medicine ; others are planted for ornament. They are characterized by op- posite or whorled, seldom scattered, entire leaves without stipules; umbels of symmetrical flow- ers, without calyx and with a five-parted corolla wiili often rellexcd lobes; five stamens attached to the corolla and more or less united around the stigma; pollen grains more or less coherent; 1 In ovary composed of two carpels; style short; stigma discoid; fruit a follicle or pod; seed flattened, with long silky hairs, which buoy it up in the air for dispersal; cotyledons flat. In the United States Asclepias (q.v.), or milkweed, is the principal genus. The more important genera are grouped as follows: Tylophorek, Mars- dinio, Stephanotis, Cereopcgia, Stcphclia, Hoya; Gonogi "i 1 . 1 . Gonoglobus; pERlPL0CH.fi, Periplo- cha, Streptocaulon; Asclepiad.e, Asclepias, Cy- nanchum, Vincetoxicum. Asclepiades, as'kle-pi'a-dez, the name of several ancient Greek writers ■ — poets, gram- marians, etc. — of whom little is known, as well as of several physicians, the most celebrated of whom was Asclepiades, of Bithynia, who ac- cptired considerable repute at Rome about the beginning of the 1st century B.C. Ascle'pias, milkweed, silkweed, swallow wi'ii. the type genus of about 125 species of the natural order Ascle piadacea (q.v.). the spe- cies of which are mostly North American erect perennial weeds with thick, deep roots common in pastures and waste places. Some furnish a fibre strong enough for ropes, and the silky down attached to which is useless for spinning, is often used for stuffing pillows, etc. The young shoots of some species are occasionally cooked like asparagus, which they are said to re- semble somewhat. A. tubcrosa, butterfly-weed, pleurisy runt, common in dry banks and fields from Ohio to Georgia, is very showy and seems to deserve a place in the flower-garden. Other wi 11-known American species are A. rubra, A. purpurascens, A. syriaca, etc. The few species cultivated fur ornament in America arc mostly foreign. The genus is named in honor "i the Greek god Asclepine, since some of the species arc reputed carminatives, sudorifics, and expec- torants. Medicinally the milkweeds are of sec- ondary value only. They are irritants, and cause nausea, vomiting, and diarrhcea. They also cause diuresis and diaphoresis, but their exact action is in need of investigation. The eclectic school have lx-en the chief investigators. Ascoli, as'ko-le, or Ascoli Piceno, as'ko-le pecha'no (the ancient Asculum), an Italian town, 90 miles northeast of Rome. The town, one of the most ancient in Italy, is well built, and contains many handsome edifices and noble mansions, and the remains of an ancient theatre, temples, etc. It has manufactories of woolen cloths, leather, hats, cream of tartar, china-ware, sealing-wax. paper, and glass. It has an active trade, and its port, at the mouth of the river Tronto, is much frequented by coasting vessels. Pop. (1901) 28,882. Ascoli Satriano, as'ko-le sa'tre-ii'no (anc. Asculum .Ipi'iluiu). a town of southern Italy, 20 miles south of Foggia. Pop. (1901) 8,550. As'comyce'tes, a large and important group of fungi, so called from their spores be- ing contained in asci or sacs. This group in- cludes mildews, rusts, smuts, the truffle, the morel, and (according to Schwendener and oth- er authorities) the lichens. See Engler and Pranll, 'Die Natiirlichcn Pflanzenfamilien.' Sec Fungi. Asco'nius (QuiNTUS A. Pedianus), a Ro- man historian of the 1st century A.D., wdio wrote a life of Sallust, a reply to the critics of Virgil, and valuable commentaries to Cicero's orations, seme of which are extant. As'cot, a celebrated English race-course near the southwest extremity of the Windsor park. The annual races, which lake place in the sec- ond week in June, are attended by the fashion- able and sporting public. From the accounts of the Master of Horse for the year 1712, it would appear that they were instituted, not in 1727, as is commonly supposed, but by Queen Anne on 6 Aug. 171 1. Ascutney, as-kut'm, an isolated granitic mountain on the boundary between Windsor and Weathersfield, Vt. Its summit is 3.320 feet above tide- water; and from it is presented an ex- tensive and beautiful prospect of the valley of the Connecticut. As'dood, or Asdoud, a seaport of Pales- tine, on the Mediterranean, 35 miles west of Jerusalem. It was the Ashdod of scripture, one of the five confederate cities of the Philistines, and one of the seats of the worship of Dagon (1 Sam. v. 5). It occupied a commanding posi- tion on the high road from Palestine to Egypt, and was never subdued by the Israelites. It sustained against Psammetichus a siege of 29 years; was destroyed by the Maccabees, and restored by the Romans. It is now an insignifi- cant village, from which the sea is constantly receding. Aselli, a-sel'lee, Gasparo, a famous Ital- ian physician: b. Cremona about 1580; d. 1626. He was professor of anatomy and surgery at Padua, and in 1622 discovered the lacteal vessels, which he seems, however, never to have ASELLUS — ASH understood or described with complete accuracy. He left a treatise, r such uses its only important rival in America is the hickory. When gnarled, as it occasionally is, it is pre- pared like "curly" maple for cabinet work and furniture, specially tine-grained specimens being used as veneer. The bark is used to some ex- tent in leather tanning. A large number of cul- tivated varieties have been produced, among which the most remarkable are: MonophyUa (erroneously raised by some botanists to the rank of a species), with simple instead of com- pound leaves or with only one or two small leaf- lets at the base of the main leaf-blade; al marginata, the leaflets of which are bordered with white; albo-variegata, with mottled white and green leaflets; aurca. yellow branched; aurea-pendula, drooping yellow branches: pen- dula, one of the best weeping trees; crispa, with curled and twisted very dark green leaves. The American or white ash ( F. atne r icana) . a very variable species common from Xew Brunswick to Florida and westward to M and Texas, but rare south of New Jersey, attains about the same size as the preceding species, but has lighter bark and leaves. The leaflets have short stalks and are entire. In rich, moist, dense woods the trunks often attain a height of 40 feet without a branch, thus furnishing valuable timber, which is used for the same purpose- that of the preceding species. There arc many varieties which more or less resemble those of the common ash. The black or water ash ( F. nigra), common in swamps and upon stream ASH banks from Nova Scotia to Minnesota and southward to Missouri and Virginia, often at- tains a height of So feet. Its wood is softer than that of the preceding, lmt, being tough and easily separable longitudinally into layers, is largely used for veneer, baskets, barrel staves and hoops. The name / ; . sambucifolia, by which this species is sometimes called, was given it because the bruised leaves smell like those of elder. The red ash (F. pubescens or F. penn- syhanica) is common in low ground from mari- time Canada to Florida, being especially abun- dant in the swamps of Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia. It is rare west of Ohio, though found as far west as Dakota and Minnesota. It resembles the American ash in uses and in gen- eral appearance. The interior of the outer hark of the branches is cinnamon color or red when fresh. The blue ash ( /•'. quadrangulata) , com- mon in rich, dry, or moist woods from Michigan and Minnesota to Tennessee and Arkansas, and especially abundant in Ohio and Kentucky, at- tains a height of 80 to 120 feet. Its branches are more or less four-angled, hence the spe- cific name, and the membranes which give the smaller branches this form are specially no- ticeable on the young shoots. The inner bark yields a blue color when steeped in water, hence the common name. The green ash (F. viridis), a species very widely distributed over Canada and the United States from ocean to ocean, is so called from the brilliant green of its young shoots. It is extensively planted to form wind- breaks in Minnesota and the Dakotas on account of its extreme hardiness and because it is easily propagated by seeds and also because it grows very rapidly. It is less valued for its wood than the white ash, but is useful for fuel. The Carolina or water ash (F. caroliniana, also re- ferred variously to F. platicarpa and F. amcri- cana) seldom exceeds 40 feet in height, but is noted for its very large leaflets. It is distributed from Virginia to Florida and westward to Ar- kansas and Texas, being most plentiful in swamps, along water courses and in damp, rich woods. Its wood is used like that of the white ash. F. cuspidata, a native of the southwestern United States and northern Mexico, is a shrub or small tree wdiich seldom exceeds 20 feet in height, and on account of its conspicuous pani- cles of fragrant flowers is often planted in tem- perate climates for ornamental purposes. F. velutina, also sometimes referred to F. pistacitr- folia, another species of the same region, sel- dom attains a height of SO feet, and not being hardy is confined to southern planting. The manna or flowering ash (F. Ornus or Ornus curopaa), a native of southern Europe and western Asia, is a small tree 25 feet tall which resembles the common ash. It furnishes manna (q.v.), as does also F. rotundifolia, which by some botanists is considered a variety of F. Ornus. It is a native of Greece. Many other species are of botanical, economic, or ornamen- tal interest, but probably none of as much im- portance as the species mentioned. The moun- tain ash (q.v.), a member of the natural order Rosacea, obtains its name from its ash-like leaves. Consult: Nicholson, 'Dictionary of Garden- ing' (1SS8) : Bailey and Miller, 'Cyclopaedia of American Horticulture' (1900-2). Ash, or Ash'es, the fixed residue obtained by burning any part of an organized substance in air. Ash usually contains the following, or some of the following, metallic and non-metallic elements: Metals Non-metals Pot Bsium Sodium Calcium Barium 1 run Manganese Aluminum Copper Zinc Chlorine lln. mine Iodine Phosphorus Sulphur Silicon Carbon These substances are combined in various forms in the living body of the plant or animal. They are derived from the soil in the case of plants, and chiefly from plants in the case of animals. Different parts of the animal or vege- table frame are characterized by differences in the ash wdiich they leave when burned; thus ash of bones consists largely of phosphate of cal- cium; the animal fluids and the juices of plants contain chlorid of sodium; sea-plants leave an ash rich in alkaline carbonates and also charac- terized by the presence of bromids and iodids of the alkalies. (See Barilla; Kelp.) Many grasses contain large quantities of silica, which appears in the ash of these plants. An examina- tion of the ash of plants often leads to impor- tant conclusions as to the most suitable manure to employ for enriching the soil in which the plants are to be grown. Ashes. — The non-volatile, inorganic portion of an animal or vegetable substance left behind after incineration. Ashes consist of the most part of carbonates, sulphates, sulphids, silicates and phosphates of potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, manganese, and iron, with occa- sional admixture of unusual elements such as aluminum. In certain seaweeds iodin is a prom- inent constituent of the ash, and silica occurs in many rushes. The solid matters taken up by plants are not absorbed in anything like the proportions in which they occur in the soil whence they are derived. This is well illustrated by analyses of the ashes of different plants, growing side by side in the same soil. Thus Kerncr gives four such analyses, made on the ashes of (1) the water-soldier (Slratitocs clo- nics) ; (2) the white water-lily (Nympltcca alba) ; (3) a stonewort (Chara fectida), and (4) a reed (Phragmitcs communis). The re- sults, so far as potash, soda, lime, and silica are concerned, are as follows: PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF ASH. Water soldier Water lily Stone- wort Reed 30.8 2.7 ■3 H4 29.7 18.9 05 0.2 0.1 54-8 0.3 8.6 Soda 0.4 5-9 7i-5 These four plants grew close together and the soil from which they drew their supplies was identical, so far as could be discovered. The stonewort. it will be seen, contained a very large quantity of lime, and barely a trace of potash, soda, or silica; while nearly three quarters of the ash of the reed consisted of silica, and there \ 3 1 1 (Fraxinus excelsior). i. 2. The unfolding of the bud, 3. A shoot in flower. 4. 5,6. Andr< gynous flower, from dirTer- ent sides. 7. The stamen, exposed with two anthers on their filament. S. The pistil. 9. The seed-pod, exhibiting the hanging seeds. 10. Section of the seed-pod. 11. Spray of hanging fruit. 12. Fruit laid open, exposing seed. 13. The two lobes of the seed, showing inner and outer side. 14. Seedling plant. ASH-FLY — ASHANTEE was less than one ninth as much lime as was found in the stonewort. If we pass from the consideration of different plants growing in the same soil to that of the same plant growing in different soils, the results are equally surprising. Thus Kerner gives analyses of the ash obtained from the foliage and branches of the yew tree (Taxus baccata), the specimens analyzed being taken from soils rich in serpentine, limestone, and gneiss, respectively. The results are pre- sented in the accompanying table. It will be seen that there are some slight differences in composition, but when the wide difference in the soils is taken into account it is remarkable that the proportions are so nearly alike. Nature of Soil Substance Found Serpen- Lime- tine stone Silicic Acid 3-9 3.6 37 i-9 1.6 1.9 8-3 5.5 4-2 2.1 1-7 Potash 38.8 28.6 41.2 21.8 27.6 14. i 23-1 24.4 One feature that was prominent in the analyses of the yew-tree ash has been purposely obscured in the table by counting the lime and magnesia together. It appears that when a plant needs a certain substance for its growth it will sometimes make use of another substance whose chemical properties are closely similar, provided the more desirable one cannot be had in sufficient quantities. Thus the ash of the yew- trees growing over limestone contained 36.1 per cent of lime and 5.1 per cent of magnesia; and that of the trees growing over gneiss contained 30.6 per cent of lime and 5.7 per cent of mag- nesia. The serpentine soil, however, was much poorer in lime than either of the others, — ser- pentine being composed almost entirely of mag- nesium, silicon, and oxygen, — and the trees growing upon this soil, being unable to obtain the necessary quantity of lime, accepted, in the place of the lime, an equal weight of magnesia, which strongly resembles lime in its chemical properties ; the observed quantity of lime in these trees being only 16.1 per cent, while mag- nesia was present to the extent of 22.7 per cent. The ashes of plants show that in certain cases the plants from which they are obtained possess a wonderful power of collecting large amounts of some particular substance, even when this substance is present in the soil or water in which they are growing in such minute quantities that it can barely be detected by the most delicate chemical tests. For example, the sea-weeds of the North Sea are so rich in iodin that their ashes formed the chief supply of this substance for years, — in fact, until the extensive South American deposits of sodium iodid were dis- covered. It would naturally be inferred that the North Sea contains considerable quantities of soluble iodids ; but the fact is, that no trace of iodin or of iodids has yet been detected in it, by the most delicate tests. Wood ashes have long been used as a source of potash, this sub- stance being readily obtained from them by mere leaching with water. The greater part of the potash of commerce is now obtained from other sources, but the leaching process is still in use in country places where wood ashes are plentiful, the potash so obtained being chiefly used for the manufacture of soap. Wood ashes are also valu- able for fertilizing purposes, on account of the potash and phosphorus they contain. Ash'-fly, the gall-fly of the oak (Cynips quercifolia) . See Galls; Gall-fly. Ash'-leaved' Ma'ple. See Box Elder. Ash'- Wednesday, the first day of Lent. The name is derived from the ancient custom of putting ashes upon the head as a symbol of humble repentance for sin. In the Roman Cath- olic Church it is part of the religious service on this day for the priest to put ashes on the fore- head of each worshipper while kneeling at the altar rails. In the English Church and in the American Episcopal Church the day is observed with especial solemnity as the opening of the penitential season, and also in the Unitarian "King's Chapel," in Boston, Mass. Ashantee, a-shiin'te, a negro kingdom of western Africa and practically a part of the British colony of the Gold Coast. Its bounda- ries cannot be stated with any definiteness, but its area may be roughly estimated at 10,000 sauare miles. It is in general hilly and is largely covered with forests. It is well watered and extremely fertile, but the climate is un- healthy. Among the trees are the baobab, palms, and cotton trees. The crops are chiefly rice, corn, sugar-cane, and yams, the last forming the staple vegetable food of the natives. The domes- tic animals are cattle, horses of small size, goats, and a species of hairy sheep. The larger wild animals are the elephant, rhinoceros, buffalo, lion, hippopotamus, etc. Birds are numerous and crocodiles and other reptiles abound. Gold is obtained, being found either in the form of dust or in nuggets. The Ashantees long made them- selves well known as being warlike and fero- cious, with a love of shedding human blood amounting to a passion. Human teeth and jaw- bones were worn as personal ornaments, and human sacrifices used to be frequent. On the death of a king or chief enormous numbers of victims were slaughtered with circumstances of revolting cruelty, and there were regularly re- curring periods, at intervals of 18 or 24 days, called the great and little adai, when human sacrifices were made. Notwithstanding this there exist among the Ashantees certain of the arts of civilization. They excel in the manufac- ture of cotton cloths and in the fabrication of articles in gold; they make good earthenware, tan leather, and make sword-blades of superior workmanship. The native government is a mon- archy. The chief town is Coomassie or Kuniasi. The British first came in contact with the Ashan- tees in 1807, when a treaty was concluded by the governor of Cape Coast with the king of Ashantee, acknowledging the sovereignty of the latter by right of conquest over the coast, includ- ing Cape Coast Castle. In 1823 war was pro- claimed by the Ashantees against the British, and they succeeded in the following year in de- feating a small body of troops led by the gov- ernor, who perished with almost all his officers; but in 1826 the Ashantees were completely de- feated near Accra. At the close of another war, in 1831, the river Prah was fixed as the bound- ASHBURNER — ASHEVILLE ary between the Ashantec kingdom and the protected by Great Britain, but the Ashan- te< soon began to interfere beyond the boun- dary. Early in 1873 the Ashantees again in- vaded the territory protected by Great Britain, and Gen. Wolseley (subsequently Viscount Wolseley) was now sent against them. I he \ h: niter general Amanquantia had concentrated his troops, 20,000 strong, at Amoaful, 20 miles from Coomassie. The British general led to the attack 1.4X1 English and 708 native troops, whom he formed into a square. The battle be- gan on 31 January, on which day Amoaful was taken. The British continued to advance fight- ing, the enemy at the same time attempting to break in u|hmi their rear by attacking the troops left at Fommanah. On the 4th Coomassie was entered. The loss of the British in killed and wounded was 300, and a large number ultimately Succumbed to the climate. As the king refused to enter Coomassie to sign a treaty, the British set fire to the town and began their return march on the 6th. The treaty signed soon after stipu- lated that the king of Ashantee should renounce his claims to the protectorate over the allies of Great Britain ; that free trade and open commu- nication should be established with the coast, and that the king should pay an indemnity of 50,000 ounces of gold. The last condition was not faithfully observed, but the result of the war was greatly to weaken the power of the Ashantees. The conduct of King Prcmpeh, a successor of King Koffee, led to the dispatch of another British expedition, which in 1896 en- tered Coomassie without resistance, and received the abject submission of the king, who was taken and sent into banishment. A British resident has since been stationed in the country, which is now a British protectorate, subordinate to the governor of the Gold Coast, and will no longer be the scene of human sacrifices and slave trad- ing. In June 1898 an agreement was arrived at between Great Britain and France with regard to the boundaries between their respective terri- i.mes here. The population of Ashantec is es- timated at from 1,000,000 to 3,000,000. Ash'burner, Charles Albert, an American geologist: b. Philadelphia, 9 Feb. 1X54; d. Pitts- burg, 24 Dec. 1889. He graduated at the head of his class at the University of Pennsylvania, and was appointed assistant State geologist in 1875. He originated a method of surveying and representing the geology of the anthracite coal fields which received the approbation of mining engineers throughout the world. He was also an accepted authority on the natural-gas fields. In 1X86 he entered private practice as an expert and became closely associated with the Westing- house intere 1 lie prepared over 20 of the Pennsylvania State geological survey reports, and contributed to scientific and technical jour- nals. Ash'burnham, Sir Cromer, an English military officer: b. 1X31. He served with dis- tinction in the Indian Mutiny campaign, Afghan- istan campaign, the Boer war (1881), the Egyp- tian, and eastern Sudan campaigns; and was subsequently governor of Suakim. Ash'burton, Alexander Baring, Lord, an English statesman and financier: b. London, 27 Oct. 1774; d. 13 May 1848. He was the second son of Sir Francis Baring, and the affairs of the famous mercantile house established by his father kept him employed in Canada and the United States for many years. In 1X10 he be came the head of the house of Baring Brothers, and in 1812 sat in Parliament for Taunton, lie was created Baron Ashburton in 1835. 1 lc was appointed special ambassador to the United States in 1X42 to settle the Northwestern boun- dary question and other matters in dispute be tween England and America. A street in Bos ton, known as Ashburton Place, was named in his honor. Ash'burton River, a stream in western Australia Sowing 400 miles and emptying into the Indian Ocean, lat. 22° S. ; Ion. 1 15° \Y. Ash'burton Trea'ty, a treaty concluded at Washington in August 1X42 by Alexander Bar- ing. Lord Ashburton, and the President of the United States. It defined the boundaries be- tween the United States and Canada. Ash 'by. Turner, an American soldier: b. 1824; d. June 1862. He entered the Confed- erate army in 1861 and became a brigadier- general. He was especially distinguished for his gallantry. He was killed in a skirmish at Harrisburg. \'a. Ashby-Sterry, Joseph, a well known Eng- lish writer on the staff of the Daily Graphic. He is novelist and poet, as well as journalist, and among his published books arc: 'Nutshell Novels' (1890); 'The Lazy Minstrel,' a collec- tion of brilliant verse (1892) ; 'Naughty Girl, a Story of 1893' (1893) ; 'A Tale of the Thames in Verse' (1896) ; ( The Bystander, or Leaves for the Lazy' (1900). Ashby-de-la-Zouche, ash'M-de-la-zooch', a market town in Leicestershire. England, on the borders of Derbyshire. 17 miles northwest of Leicester. It has wide, well-paved streets, a.'d its parish church of Saint Helen is a handsome building with stained-glass windows, carvings, and monuments. The Ivanhoe baths attract vis- itors, the waters being beneficial for some ail- ments. The ruins of Ashby Castle, well known to readers of 'Ivanhoe,' which received Mary Queen of Scots as a prisoner, are still visible. Pop. (1901) 4,700. Ash'dod. See Asdood. Ashe, ash, John, an American soldier: b. in North Carolina, 1720; d. 24 Oct. 1781. lb- was a member of the first Provincial Congress and served in the American Revolution as a brigadier-general of North Carolina troops. Asheville, N. C, was called in his honor. Ash'er, the name of the eighth son of Jacob. He founded the tribe called after him, which occupied a fertile territory in Palestine along the coast between Carmel and Lebanon. Asheville, ash'vil, N. C, a city and county- seat of Buncombe County, on the Southern R.R., near the French Broad River; ..75 miles west of Raleigh. It is in a tobacco-growing region; has manufactories of cotton goods, shoes, ice, to- bacco, and Hour; and is widely famed as a win- ter and summer resort. The city is 2,350 feet .il'"\c the level of the sea and is surrounded by impressive mountain scenery. It has the Ashe- ville College for Young Women, Bingham Mili- tary School, Asheville School for Boys, Normal College and Collegiate Institute for Young ASHEVILLE COLLEGE — ASHLEY Women, Home Industrial School for Girls, Asheville Farm School for Boys, Industrial School for Colored Youth, an auditorium cen- trally situated seating 2,000, and free to conven- tions, weather bureau, three national banks, and nearly 50 hotels and boarding-houses. It has modern sewerage, electric light and gas plants, a water supply by 17 miles of pipe line from trout streams on the water shed of Mt. Mitchell, and an electric street car system with a trolley road to Sunset Mountains. In the suburbs are the grand estate of -Biltmore, established by George Vanderbilt of New York city ; one of the finest botanical gardens in the world ; Pisgah forest, a hunting preserve of 84,000 acres ; Riverside Parks; and Mount Beaumont, 2,800 feet high. Pop. (1900) 14,694. Ashe'ville College, a non-sectarian edu- cational institution for women, in Asheville, N. C. It was organized in 1842, and at the end of 1899 had 17 professors, 135 students, and grounds and buildings valued at $100,000. Ash'ford, a market-town in Kent, Eng- land, pleasantly situated on the river Stour. There are corn and cattle markets, and the Southeastern Railway Company have their prin- cipal locomotive and carriage establishments here. Pop. (1901) 12,808. Ash'hurst, John, an American surgeon: b. 1839; d. 1900. He was graduated at the Uni- versity of Pennsylvania in 1857 ; served as an army surgeon in the Civil War; became sur- geon of several Philadelphia hospitals after his return ; and was made president of the College of Physicians in Philadelphia in 1898. He held surgical chairs in the University of Pennsyl- vania ; was a member of the principal medical and surgical associations of the country ; and besides many individual publications edited the 'International Encyclopaedia of Surgery' (1881- 1886) ; and ( Lippincott's New Medical Diction- ary.' He was the author of 'Injuries of the Spine' (1867); and 'Principles and Practice of Surgery' (1871). Ashikaga, a'she-ka'ga, a town in Japan, 17 miles by rail from Tokyo. From the 9th to the 17th century it was of much importance as a seat of learning. It is now noted for its trade in silk and cotton. Pop. (1898) 21,348. Ash'kelon. See Ascalon. Ash'land, Ky., a city of Boyd County, sit- uated on the Ohio River; on the Chesapeake & Ohio, Norfolk & Western, and other railroads. It was chartered as a city in 1870. Its manufac- tures include cut and wire nails, steel billets, sheet steel, leather furniture, etc., and it is a shipping point for iron ore and coal. Pop. (1900) 6,800. Ash'land, Ky., an estate in the suburbs of Lexington, famous as the home of Henry Clay. It consists of about 600 acres, 200 of which form a park similar to the large private parks of Eng- land. The house in which Mr. Clay lived was a plain structure, two stories in height. After his death the property passed by public sale into the hands of his eldest son, James B. Clay, who took down the old house and rebuilt it. Ash'land. Ohio, a town and county-seat of Ashland County; on the Erie R.R., 65 miles southwest of Cleveland. It has important manu- factures, large trade, a national bank, and sev- eral newspapers, and is the seat of Ashland Uni- versity, a non-sectarian institution, founded in 1878. Pop. (1900) 4,087. Ashland, Ore., city and county-seat of Jack- son County ; situated in the extreme southern part of the State, on the Southern Pacific Rail- road, 341 miles south from Portland, and 431 miles northerly from San Francisco. Ashland is the seat of the Southern Oregon State Nor- mal School, and has three public school buildings and eight church buildings. The city has an ex- cellent municipal organization and police regula- tion. Ashland owns its own water system. There is an extensive electric-light and power plant, flour-mill, ice plant, sash and door factories, box factory, quartz-mill, foundry and machine shops, and three newspapers. The Southern Oregon Chautauqua Association is located here. There are valuable gold mines in the mountains near by, some of them almost within the city limits. In the vicinity are found great varieties of other valuable minerals, such as cinnabar, kaolin, mar- ble, sandstone, etc. In the vicinity are many mineral springs, whose waters contain much in the way of medicinal properties. Pop. (1902) 4,000. Ash'land, Pa., a borough in Schuylkill County, in the valley of the Mahanoy, and on several railroads ; 12 miles northwest of Potts- ville. It is in the centre of the great anthracite coal field, has extensive mining industries, large machine shops, foundries, and factories, and contains the State Miners' Hospital, a national bank, public hall, and several churches. Pop. (.1900) 6,538. Ash'land, Va., a town of Hanover County, situated on the Richmond, F. & P. R.R.. 17 miles north of Richmond. It is the seat of Ran- dolph-Macon College. It was the scene of sev- eral battles during the Civil War. Henry Clay's birthplace is within seven miles of the town. Pop. (1900) 1,147. Ash'land, Wis., a city and county-seat of Ashland County, on Chequamegon Bay, Lake Superior, and several railroads ; 80 miles east of Duluth. It has one of the finest harbors on the lake, and beside its general lake traffic is a ship- ping port for the hematite ore of the great Gogebic Iron Range. To accommodate its iron interests it has a number of enormous ore docks. Other important interests are lumber and brown stone. It has very large charcoal blast furnaces, used for the manufacture of pig iron, and since 1885, when the real development of the Gogebic iron mines began, the city has grown rapidly. Near by is the group of Apostles' Islands. The institutions include the North Wisconsin Academy, Sisters' Hospital (Roman Catholic), and Rhinehart Hospital. Pop. (1900) 13,074. Ash'lar. See Masonry and Building. Ashley, Anthony Evelyn Melbourne, an English statesman: b. 1836. He is the fourth son of the seventh Earl of Shaftesbury, and in 1882 succeeded Mr. Courtney as under-secretary of state for the colonies. Ash'ley, Lord. See Shaftesbury. Ash 'ley, William James, an Anglo-Ameri- can economist : b. London. England. 25 Feb. i860. He was graduated from Balliol College, Oxford, in 1S81 : \va< Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford ; lecturer in history in Lincoln and Cor- ASHMEAD-B ARTLETT — ASHTAVAKRA pus Christi, 1885-8, and professor of political economy and constitutional history at the Uni- versity of Toronto, Canada, 1888-92. He has been professor of economic history at Harvard University since 1892. He has written 'James and Philip van Artevclde' (1883) ; 'Introduction to English Economic History and Theory' (1888- 93) ; 'Surveys, Historic and Economic' (1900) ; edited 'Economic Classics' ; translated Schmol- ler's 'Mercantile System,' and has contributed a large number of articles to English and Ameri- can economic journals. Ash'mead-Bart'lett, Sir Ellis, an English politician: b. Brooklyn, N. Y., 1849; d. London, England. 19 Jan. 1902. He was educated at Christ Church College, Oxford, and admitted to the bar in 1877. He was examiner of the educa- tion department, 1874-80 ; Conservative member of Parliament from Suffolk, 1885, and from Sheffield, 1885-1902; civil lord of the admiralty, 1885, 1886; and was knighted in 1892. His pop- ularity with political audiences in the early 8o's was second only to that of Lord Randolph Churchill, but he lost much of this influence in later years owing to his association with the Turks and Swazis — a connection which sub- jected him to considerable ridicule in the House of Commons and the press. His chief literary production was 'The Battlefields ofThcssaly' (1897), a record of his experiences in the last war between Greece and Turkey. Ash'mole, Elias, a celebrated English anti- quary: b. Lichfield, 1617; d. 1692. He prac- tised as a chancery solicitor till the breaking out of the Civil War, when he retired to Oxford and entered himself of Brasenose College, and en- gaged in the study of natural philosophy, math- ematics, and astronomy. At the Restoration he received the post of Windsor herald and other appointments, both honorable and lucrative. In 1672 appeared his 'History of the Order of the Garter.' Other works of his are: 'The Anti- quities of Berkshire' (1719) and his 'Diary' (1717). He presented to the University of Oxford his collection of rarities, to which he afterward added his books and MSS., thereby commencing the Ashmolean Museum. Ashmolean Museum, a museum at Oxford University, founded by Elias Ashmole (q.v.) in 1679. The building was erected by Sir Christo- pher Wren in 1682. Ash'mun, George, an American lawyer: b. Blanford, Mass., 1804; d. 1870. He served for several years in the legislature of his native State and was prominent in Congress in 1845- 50. He presided over the Chicago Conven- tion which in i860 nominated Lincoln for the presidency. Ashmun, Jehudi, an American mission- ary: b. Champlain, N. Y., April 1794; d. Boston, Mass., 25 Aug. 1828. He prepared for the Con- gregational ministry, and became professor in Bangor Theological Seminary. Later he joined the Protestant Episcopal Church and edited one of its periodicals, 'The Theological Repertory.' He discovered his true vocation when he became an agent of the American Colonization Society and took charge of a reinforcement for the colony of Liberia in 1822. He found the colony utterly disorganized, but in six years his energy and ability had thoroughly reorganized it and he left it in a prosperous and orderly condition. He died soon after his return to the United States. He wrote 'Memoirs of Samud Bacon' (1822), and his own life was written by R. R. Gurley (1839). Ashochimi, ash-6-che-me, or lVuft>o. A tribe of North American Indians who formerly ranged in California from the geysers to Cal- istoga hot springs and in Knight's Valley. Ashraf, a-schraf, a town in Persia, near the southern coast of the Caspian Sea, 56 miles west of Astrabad. It was a favorite residence of Shah Abbas the Great, and was adorned by him with splendid buildings, of which only a few miserable ruins now remain. Ashtabu'la, Ohio, city in Ashtabula County, on Lake Erie, at the mouth of the Ashtabula River; S4 miles east of Cleveland; on the New York, C. & St. L, the Pittsburg, Y. & A., and the Lake Shore & M. S. R.R.'s. It is the centre of an extensive agricultural and dairying re- gion, and has large manufactories of leather, woolen goods, and farm implements. It has a Carnegie public library, three national banks, city hospital, and numerous large buildings. Its extensive railroad and lake commerce makes it an important transfer shipping point, espe- cially for iron and coal. The city was first set- tled in 1801, was organized as a township in 1805, and incorporated as a city in 1892. On 29 Dec. 1876, a railroad accident here at a high bridge over the river resulted in the loss of over 100 lives. The city is governed by a mayor and city council elected biennially. Pop. (1890) 8,338; (1900) 12,949. Ash'taroth, a goddess anciently wor- shipped by the Jews. Ashtaroth is the Astarte of the Greeks and Romans, and is identified by ancient writers with the goddess Venus (Aphro- dite). She is probably the same as the Isis of the Egyptians. In Scripture she is almost al- ways joined with Baal, and is called god, Scrip- ture having no particular word for expressing goddess. She was the goddess of the moon ; her temples generally accompanied those of the sun, and while bloody sacrifices or human victims were offered to Baal, bread, liquors, and per- fumes were presented to Astarte. Ashtavakra, ash-ta-va'kra. In Hindu leg- end, the hero of a story in the Mahabharata. His father, Kahoda, devoted to study, neglected his wife. Ashtavakra, though still unborn, re- buked him, and the angry father condemned the son to be crooked (hence the name, from Ash- tan, eight, and vakra, crooked). At the court of Janaka, king of Mithila, Kahoda was defeated in argument by a Buddhist sage and was drowned in accordance with the conditions. In his 1 2th year Ashtavakra set out to avenge his father, and worsted the sage, who declared him- self to be a son of Varuna sent to obtain Brah- mins to officiate at a sacrifice. Kahoda was re- stored to life, and commanded his son to bathe in the Samanga River, whence the boy becomes perfectly straight. In the Vishnu Purana some celestial nymphs see Ashtavakra performing pen- ance in the water and worship him. He prom- ises them a boon and they ask the best of husbands. When he offers himself they laugh in derision at his crookedness. He cannot re- call his blessing, but condemns them to fall into the hands of thieves. ASHTON — ASIA Ash'ton, John, an English antiquarian: b. London, 22 Sept. 1834. He has published a long list of works on history, chap-books, leg- ends, ballads, manners, and customs, caricature and satire, among which are 'Social Life in the Reign of Queen Anne' (1882) ; 'History of the Chap-books of the 18th Century' (1882); 'So- cial England under the Regency' (1890) ; 'When William IV. was King' (1896); 'Gam- bling in England' (1898) ; 'Florizel's Folly' (1899). Ashton, Lucy, the heroine of Sir Walter Scott's novel, 'The Bride of Lammermoor.' Engaged to a man she loves, she is forced to marry another, and dies a maniac on her wed- ding day. Ashton'-in-Mak'erfield, a town of Lanca shire, England, 15 miles from Manchester, and noted for its potteries, collieries, and cotton- mills. Pop. (1901) 18,700. Ash'ton-Un'der-Lyne, a market-town of Lancashire, England, 6 miles east of Manchester, on the north bank of the river Tame. It was an ancient Saxon town ; the most interesting building is the parish church built in the reign of Henry V. Since 1769 it has grown rapidly through the extension of the cotton manufacture, both the spinning of cotton yarn and the weaving of calicoes being carried on in the town to a great extent. Upward of 20,000 work people are employed in factories. There are also col- lieries and iron-works in the neighborhood which employ a great many persons. Pop. (1901) 43.900. Ashura'da, a small island in the south- east corner of the Caspian Sea. It is occupied by Russia as a naval and trading station. Asia, the largest of the five continental divisions of the earth, lying eastward of the Eu- ropean and African continents, and separated from the American continent by Bering Strait and the Pacific Ocean. It is bounded north, east, and south, respectively, by the Arctic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans, with their various branches and inlets ; it is divided from Africa on the south- west by the narrow isthmian Suez Canal ; and is connected with Europe on the northwest across the whole breadth of that continent. The nat- ural western boundaries are the Ural Mountains, the Caspian Sea, Caucasus Mountains, the Black Sea, /Egean Sea, the Mediterranean and Red Seas. The sinuosities of the Asiatic coast are very extensive ; on the south the chief ocean in- lets are the Gulf of Aden ; the Arabian Sea with its inlets, the Gulf of Oman, the Persian Gulf, and the Gulfs of Cutch, Cambay, and Manar ; and the Bay of Bengal containing the Gulf of Martaban. On the eastern or Pacific coast pro- ceeding northward the principal indentations are the China Sea with the Gulfs of Siam and of Tonkin ; the Tung-hai or Eastern Sea ; the Hwang-hai or Yellow Sea with the Gulf of Pechili and Korea Bay; the Sea of Japan with the Gulf of Tartary; "the Sea of Okhotsk; and Bering Sea with the Gulf of Anadyr. On the north or Arctic coast are the Nordenskjold Sea and the Kara Sea with the Gulf of Obi. The coast line is about 35,000 miles, giving a pro- portion of one mile of coast line to 496 square miles of surface. From the extreme southwestern point of Arabia, at the Strait of Bab-el-Man. leb to the extreme northeastern point of Cape Deshnef or East Cape, the length of Asia is about 6,900 miles, its breadth from Cape Chel- yuskin or Northeast Cape in Siberia to Cape Romania, the southern extremity of the Malay Peninsula, is about 5,300 miles. The total area is estimated at 17,296,000 square miles. The most prominent features of the southern coast are the three great peninsulas of Arabia, India, and the Indo-Chinese Peninsula. The east coast is also flanked with insular and peninsular pro- jections, 'forming a series of sheltered seas and bays. A series of large islands extends to the southeast of the continent, forming a connection with Australia; while a multitude of smaller is- lands are scattered over the Pacific and Indian Oceans. The principal peninsulas on the east are Kamchatka and Korea. The larger islands, proceeding from the northeast coast, are Sagha- lien, the Japanese Islands, the Philippine Is- lands, Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Celebes, the Mo- luccas, Papua or New Guinea, which, however, is Australasian rather than Asiatic, and lastly Ceylon at the southeastern extremity of the In- dian Peninsula. The Kurile Islands, between Kamchatka and Japan, the islands of Loo Choo, Formosa, and Hainan on the Chinese coast, and the Andaman and Nicobar islands in the Indian Ocean, may also be noticed. On the west or Mediterranean coast the principal islands be- longing to Asia are Cyprus and Rhodes. The northern coast, from East Cape or Deshnef, in Bering Strait, and on the Arctic Circle, to the Yalmal Peninsula, in the extreme northwest, is almost entirely contained within that circle. The highest point, Cape Chelyuskin, is about 78 N. The largest group of islands on the north coast is the Liakhov Islands (New Si- beria) ; the largest indentation is the Gulf of Obi, which reaches below the Arctic Circle, and receives the river Obi about that latitude. Mountains. — The mountain systems of Asia are of great extent, and their culminating points are the highest in the world. There are also vast plateaus and elevated valley regions, but large portions of the continent are low and flat. Such are the greater portions of Siberia, from the Ural Mountains across the north of the continent, and the western central region of the continent, where an area of great depression culminates in the Caspian. The greatest moun- tain system in Asia, and so far at least as alti- tude is concerned, of the world, is the Hima- layan system, the principal mass of which lirs between Ion. 65° and 1 10° E. and lat. 28° and 37° N. It thus occupies a position nol vi ry far from the centre of the continent, though nearer the southern edge than the northern. It ex- tends, roughly speaking, from northwest to southeast, its total length being about 2,000 miles, while its breadth varies from 100 to 500 or 600. Different names have been given to dif- ferent portions of the system, such as Hindu Kush (the northwestern extremity), Karako- ram, and Kuen-Lun, while Himalaya is more especially confined to the portion forming the northern barrier of Hindustan; but all these are really portions of the same connected moun- tain mass. The Kuen-Lun simply forms the northern flank of the mass, and is not, as it has been represented, a distinct chain : while the Karakoram Mountains have so little to dis- tinguish them from the rest of the elevated mass ASIA to which they belong that they may be crossed without the traveler being aware of it. The broadest part of the system, the elevated table- land of Tibet, lies between the Himalaya proper and the Kuen-Lun. The Tibetan Mountains are connected on the east with the mountains of China and with those that spread to the south- east over the Indo-Chinese Peninsula. The I hian-Shan is another .ureal mountain system of Central Asia connected with the Himalayan system by the important Pamir Plateau or "roof of the world" in Ion. 70°-8o° ' east ; kit. 37°-40° north. The point of junction forms "a huge boss or knot," from which the Thian- Shan runs northwestward for a distance of some 1,200 miles. Between these two systems, which curve round it on the west, lies eastern Turkestan, right in the centre of Asia. The greatest elevations of the Himalayan system are to be found among the Himalayas proper, where is Mount Everest, J0.002 feet high, Kun- chinjinga, 28,156, etc. The principal passes here, which rise to the height of 18,000 to 20,000 feet, are the highest in the world. The Kuen-Lun summits reach a height of 22,000 feet. The Himalayas descend by successive slopes to the plain of northern India, which has an elevation of about 1. 000 feet above the level of the sea. The Vindhyas cross the peninsula, dividing northern from southern India; the latter is further bounded by the eastern and the western Chats, which run along the coasts; while the interior consists of elevated table- lands rising toward the south, where they attain in the neighborhood of the Nilgiri Mills an elevation of 7,000 feet. The Him- alayas are not only connected with the moun- tains in the interior of India, and with ramifications into China and the Indo-Chinese peninsula, but on the west with the mountains of Baluchistan and Afghanistan. The Suliman and Hala ranges bound India on the west, and unite with the mountains of Baluchistan; while the Hindu Kush, passing westward through the north of Afghanistan, has continuations more or less distinct through Persia to the Elburz range south of the Caspian, and so onward to Mount Ararat. From this point again it forms connec- tions with the mountains of Armenia, with the Caucasus, with the Taurus range in Asia Minor, and with the mountains which run to the south of Persia. The mountains belonging to this series form the boundaries of an elevated plateau extending from the Mediterranean to the Indus. On the north they are frequently of great elevation. Mount Dcmavend in the El- burz range reaching the height of 18,460 feet, while Ararat is nearly 17,000. The Thian-Shan system is continued to the northeast by the Altai and Sajansk ranges, the whole separating the Chinese Empire from Russian Turkestan and Siberia. Tengri-Khan in the Thian-Shan Moun- tains is estimated to have a height of 21,320 A line of moderate elevation extends from the Altai westward to the Ural Mountains. To the east of the Sajansk range the Yablonoi .Mountains run northeast toward the coast, along which they arc continued northward under the name of Stanovoi to Bering Strait. Table-lands, Plains, and Deserts. — Tibet forms the most elevated table-land in Asia, its mean height being estimated at 15.000 feet. Its surface is very rugged, being intersected by a number of mountain ranges running generally in an easterly and westerly direction. On the east it is bounded by lofty mountains which separate it from China. Some of the largest rivers of southern and southeastern Asia have their origin in Tibet, including the Indus, the Brahmaputra, the Yang-tse, and the Hoang Ho, In this region, a numerous series of lakes run in a chain parallel to the Himalayas. Another great plateau, much lower, however, than that of Tibet, is the plateau of Iran, occupying a large portion of western Asia, extending from the Indus to the Mediterranean, and from the Persian Gulf to the Caspian Sea. It comprises the countries known as Afghanistan, Baluchi stau, Persia, Armenia, and Asia Minor. It lies at altitudes varying from 2,000 to 8,000 feet above the sea. The eastern half of it consists to a large extent of unproductive wastes. Of great political and strategical importance at the junc- tion of Turkestan, Afghanistan, and India, is the Pamir Plateau, already alluded to, called by the natives "the roof of the world." Its valleys are at an elevation of from 11,000 to 13,000 feet above the sea. Another table-land of smaller extent and elevation is the Deccan Plateau, In- dia, south of the parallel of lat. 25° N. 1 lie principal plain of Asia, as already mentioned, is that of Siberia, which extends along the north of the continent and forms a vast alluvial tract sloping to the Arctic Ocean, and traversed by large rivers, such as the Obi, the Yenisei, and the Lena, that convey its drainage to that ocean. Vast swamps of peat-mosses called tundras cover large portions of this region. Southwest of Siberia, and stretching eastward from the Caspian to the Thian-Shan .Mountains, is a low-lying tract, consisting to a great extent of steppes and deserts, and including in its area the Sea of Aral, Bokhara, Khiva, and other districts. This is a region of internal drainage, the rivers, among which arc the Amu Daria and the Syr Daria, either falling into the Sea of Aral or into other smaller sheets of water. In the east of China there is an al- luvial plain of some 200,000 square miles in ex- tent, most of it productive and highly cultivated ; in Hindustan there are plains extending for 2,000 miles along the south slope of the Hima- layas: and between Arabia and Persia, watered by the Tigris and Euphrates, is the plain of Mesopotamia or Assyria, one of the richest in the world. Of the deserts of Asia the largest is that of Gobi, which is hounded on the north by the Yablonoi and Thian-Shan Mountains, on the south by Tibet, on the east by the Khiu- gan Mountains 1,11 the borders of China: while in the west it extends into eastern Turkestan. Large portions of it are covered with nothing but sand or display a surface of bare rock. This desert forms a large part of the country known as Mongolia, the whole of which forms an area of internal drainage, deficient in rainfall. There are also extensive desert tracts in Persia, Ara- bia, and Hindustan. An almost continuous des- ert region may be traced from the African desert through Arabia, Persia, and Baluchistan to the Indus. Rivers and Lakes.— Asia contains some of the largest rivers in the world. It is remarkable among the continents for the number of its rivers, some of them of large size, that never find their way to the ocean, their waters cither 5ss2aijffi:" : - ASIA being lost in the sand or falling into lakes that have no outlet. The chief rivers in western Asia are the Tigris and Euphrates, that rise in the Armenian plateau and fall into the Persian Gulf; the Indus, from the Tibetan plateau, flows through northwestern Hindustan and falls into the Arabian Sea; the Ganges, which rises in the Himalayas and flov ward through northern Hindu-tan. and the Brahma- putra, which rises in Tibet and flows through Assam and Bengal, both enter the Bay of Bengal : the Irrawaddy and the Salwen, rising in the mountains of the Indo-Chinese Peninsula, and both flowing through Burma, likewise en- ter the Bay of Bengal ; the Mekong or Cam- bodia, the largest river of this peninsula, has its sources in the same mountains, and flowing southeastward enters the South China Sea ; the Yang-tse and the Hoang-Ho, the two great rivers of China, rise in the Tibetan plateau ; and enter the ocean after a winding easterly course ; the Amur, the only other great river of eastern Asia, ri>es in Mongolia, and after a circuitous course niters the Sea of Okhotsk; the great rivers of northern Asia, the Lena, Yenisei, and Obi, have already been mentioned. The Yenisei is believed to have a length of 3,400 miles, the Yang-tse of at least 3,000, the Lena of 2.770, the Hoang-Ho of 2,600. The basin of the Obi, including of course those of its tributaries, the Tobol and the Irtish, is believed to be the largest of any river in the world, except the Amazon and the Mississippi, being considerably over 1,000,000 square miles in area. The largest lake of Asia is the Caspian Sea, which, however, is partly in Europe, its largest tributary being the Yolga. The chief Asiatic rivers falling into this sea are the Kur from the Caucasus, the Aras from Armenia, and the Atrek from northern Persia — the river Ural being partly European, partly Asiatic. The Cas- pian lies in the centre of a great depression, being 83 feet below the level of the Sea of Azof. East from the Caspian, as already men- tioned, is the Sea of Aral, which, like the Cas- pian, has no outlet, and is fed by the rivers Amu Daria and Syr Daria. Its area is esti- mated at 27,000 square miles. Still farther east, to the north of the Thian-Shan Mountains, and fed by the Hi and other streams from this sys- tem, is Lake Balkash, a somewhat crescent- shaped sheet of water, with an area of 8,400 square miles. The lake has no outlet: its water is clear but very salt and disagreeable. There are also several other smaller lakes in this re- gion, such as Issik-Kul, Kara-Kul. Ala-Kul, Baratala, etc. In the south of Siberia, between Ion. 104° and 110° E., is Lake Baikal, a moun- tain lake from which the Yenisei draws a por- tion of its waters; its area is estimated at about 12,500 square miles. In the very centre of the continent is the Lob Lake, or Lob Nor, to which all the drainage of eastern Turkestan converges, being conveyed to it by the Yarkand, Kashgar, and other streams. These unite to form the Tarim River, which, from the source of the Yarkand, has a total length of over 1,200 miles. Loh seems to he rather a swampy tract than a lake proper. On the borders of Afghan- i-tan, Persia, and Baluchistan, is a similar swampy lake that receives the Ilelmund and other streams from Afghanistan. Of the nu- merous lakes in Tibet Dangra-yum Nor and Tengri Nor seem to be the largest ; the former is 45 miles long and 25 broad. — Though in population and history the most ancient continent, geologically speaking Asia is considered, as regards its present aspect, to be one of the newest. The principal moun- tain chains are composed largely of granitic rocks. The Himalayan range of mountains bears a striking resemblance in geological structure to the Alps ; they are composed of granite gneiss and mica-schist, with syenite and am- phibolites or trap-rocks, particularly primitive greenstone; the Altai Mountains contain granite in layers without alternation of gneiss, argilla- ceous schist in contact with greenstone, and containing augite, jasper, calcareous rocks, ar- gentiferous lead ore, and copper. The ramifica- tions of the Altai into Russian Asia contain also coal-grit, schists, quartz, and greenstone, rich with lead, silver, and auriferous sand. The lower ranges are covered with transported layers of rolled stones of granite, gneiss, and porphyry, in which are found agates, carnelians, and chalcedonies. In the Kuen-Lun group are found rubies, lapis-lazuli, and turquoises. In thi ern part of the Urals the granite, of which the chain is composed, along with gneiss and other rocks, is extremely rich in iron and copper. 1 he Caucasus contains granite, argillaceous schist, and basaltic porphyry. The great plains of northern India, Mesopotamia, central Asia, and Siberia are regarded as of very recent geo- logical origin. From various indications many geologists are of opinion that the greater part of western Asia was occupied at no very distant period by an ocean, of which the Caspian and Aral Seas are the remains. It is also conjec- tured that a continental area extending across the Indian Ocean united Asia during the Per- mian period to Africa and Australia. Siberia is supposed to have been twice submerged during the Palaeozoic and the later Tertiary period. A line of volcanic action extends on the eastern coast from Kamchatka through the Philippines and the Malay Archipelago to Araean in the Bay of Bengal. In Kamchatka there are eight or nine active volcanoes : in the interior of the continent there appear to be none at present active. Climate, Soil. etc. — The size of Asia, the gnat altitudes and depressions of the continent, along with the variations of latitude and the dis- position of sea and land, etc.. afford an inex- haustible source of complexity in the variety and distribution of climate. In Tibet, with a mean elevation of about 15,000 feet, the climate is us, combining gi I with drought; vegetation is scanty, trees almost absent, and the population mostly nomadic; except in the lower valley-, where there is an agricultural population, it is very sparse. The climate of central Asia generally presents extremes of heat and cold, and great deficiency of rain. It has accordingly a deficient d a scanty nomadic population. The great region of Si- beria, which, as already mentioned, is a level or slightly undulating plain, lying wholly within the temperate and frigid zones, has a climate which generally resembles that of similar lati- tudes in Europe, with the exception of greater heat and drought in summer and greater cold in winter. The rainfall is very moderate, but the drainage is deficient and the soil often becomes ASIA swampy. The vegetation is scanty, consisting mostly of grasses ;ind shrubs in the plains and pine fen sis on the mountains. There is very little land under cultivation and the population is very thin. The northern part of China to the cast of central Asia has a temperate climate with a warm summer, and in the extreme north a severe winter. It is well watered and wooded, possesses a fertile and well-cultivated soil yield- ing the usual products of temperate regions, and is thickly peopled. The district lying to the smith of the central region, comprising the two Indian peninsulas, southern China, and the ad- jacent islands, presents the characteristic climate and vegetation of the southern temperate and tropical regions. Here, however, the modifying effects of altitude come most largely into play, and every variety of climate and form of vege- tation is to be found on the slopes of the Himalayas, and the mountains and plains of southern India and of the eastern peninsula. The part of Asia south of the Himalayas, though not all lying within the tropics, is all subject to tropical influences. Among the principal of these may be reckoned the effects of the tropical heat upon the air-currents. To this cause are due the trade-winds, which, carrying the mois- ture of the southern seas to the continents to be condensed by the mountain masses against which they strike, by determining the rainfall of the various continental districts, and affecting the size and course of the rivers, produce so many climatic effects. More local in their ef- fects as well as arbitrary in their occurrence, and consequently fatal in their violence, are the cyclones, or circular storms, common in the Bay of Bengal and the China Sea. The normal di- rections of the monsoons are northeast and southwest ; the northeast monsoon begins in April and the southwest in October; but the direction, duration, and intensity of these winds are greatly modified, especially on land, by lo- cal circumstances. The soil of the southern regions is usually good, and where moisture is sufficient vegetation is rich and even exuberant. The soil of India is so finely comminuted that it has been said it is possible to go from the Bay of Bengal to the Indus and return again to the sea without finding a single pebble. The rainfall in those regions is extremely irregular. There are belts where hardly any rain falls at all, others of moderate, and others of very heavy rainfall. On the Khasia Hills, to the northeast of the delta of the Ganges and Brahmaputra, the heaviest rainfall in the world takes place, the average fall observed being 550 inches a year. The principal period of rain is during the south- west monsoon. On the mountains which direct- ly face the winds, charged with vapor as they come from the sea, the rain will fall in abun- dance, while they pass over intermediate plains without parting with their moisture. The rain- fall, the course of the rivers, and the irrigation and fertility of the plains of India is accordingly determined by the position of the Himalayas, the Ghats, and other mountain ranges. The high plateau which extends from Asia Minor to the Indus has a temperate climate, with some extremity of heat in summer and cold in winter. Rain falls chiefly in winter and spring. The eastern part of this plateau is deficient in rain, and the soil is poor and unproductive, the west- ern portion, consisting of Asia Minor, is more favored of nature. The desert character of large parts of Arabia, Persia, and Baluchistan has already been alluded to. Some parts of the coast of Arabia, as Yemen and Oman, are fertile, but the greater part, especially on the Red Sea, is barren and desolate. A desert belt surrounds an interior plateau of 1,000 to 3,000 feet in height, and of moderate fertility. Syria is divid- ed between hilly and fertile and low desert tracts. The Japanese Islands, which are tra- versed by mountains of considerable elevation, and extend over about 15 of latitude, experi- ence a great variety of climates. In the north the climate is rigorous, owing to the Siberian winds; in the south it is mild. The eastern coast is milder than the west, being sheltered by the mountain ranges from the cold winds of the continent. The country generally is fertile and populous. The character and productions of the other islands are mostly tropical. A greater extreme of cold is reached in North America than in northern Asia, the mean temperature of the east coast of Siberia being above the zero of Fahrenheit ; and the heat of southern Asia is less than that of Africa, which has more land lying within the tropics. In Si- beria the extremes of temperature are great, ex- ceeding 100° between the mean of the hottest and coldest month on the coast, and being commonly over 6o° throughout the country. As the equator is approached the extremes of tem- perature diminish till at the southern extremity of the continent they approach within 5°. The highest temperature attained in southern Asia is about 112 , the highest mean about 82°. The summers of the northern latitudes, though short- er, attain a maximum of heat not much short of the tropics, the greater length of the day compensating for the less intensity of the mid- day heat. On the Persian plateau the summer heat is increased by the want of rain, and the severity of the winter by the elevation. Vegetation. — The plants and animals of northern Asia generally resemble those of sim- ilar latitudes in Europe, though the extremes of climate are greater. The plateau extending from Asia Minor to the Himalayas resembles southern Europe in its productions, and the desert belt of Asia has an affinity to the African desert. The characteristic types of Siberia are continued to the high regions of central Asia. The community of type with European forms also extends to North China, where is developed besides a relation with the types of North Amer- ica. The whole of northern Asia differs from Europe more in species than in genera of veg- etable productions. Oaks and heaths are absent in Siberia. The principal mountain trees are the pine, larch, and birch ; the willow, alder, and poplar are found in lower grounds. The culti- vated plants of Asia Minor and Persia resemble those of southern Europe. In the central region European species reach as far as the western and central Himalayas, but are rare in the east- ern. They are here met by Chinese and Japanese forms. The lower slopes of the Hima- layas are clothed almost exclusively with trop- ical forms ; higher up, between 4,000 and 10.000 feet, is the region of forests and cultivation, producing all the types of trees and plants that belong to the temperate zone, and having ex- tensive forests of conifers ; in the east forest trees are met with at a height of 13,000 feet ASIA Rhododendrons extend to 14,000 feet, and pha- nerogamous plants are found at the height of 111,500 feet. The southeastern region, including India, the Eastern Peninsula, and China, with the islands, contains a vast variety of indigenous species, varying with the humidity of the climate and the elevation, the forms of higher latitudes being represented on the mountains. In this region we find growing wild a number of plants that have become of the utmost importance to man, such as the sugar-cane, rice, cotton and indigo, pepper, cinnamon, cassia, clove, nutmeg, and cardamons, banana, cocoanut, areca and sago palms ; the mango and many other fruits, with plants producing a vast number of drugs, caoutchouc and gutta-percha. The forests of India contain the oak, teak, sal, deodar, and other timber woods, besides bamboos, palms, sandal-wood, laurels, fig-trees, etc. The Malay Peninsula contains dense forests of similar kinds. The cultivated plants of India include wheat, barley, rice, maize, millet, sorghum, tea, indigo, jute, opium, etc. North of the tropic wheat is sown in November, and reaped early in April, and a crop of rice or other tropical cereal is sown in June and July, and reaped in September and October. Wheat and barley do not grow in southern India, the winter not be- ing sufficiently severe to prepare the ground for them. Cotton, indigo, sugar, tea, tobacco, coffee, pepper, plantains, mangoes, etc., are cultivated in China. Of the Chinese flora the larger por- tion resembles the Indian, while much is local. In North China, the country between it and the Amur (Manchuria), and the Japanese Islands, large numbers of deciduous trees occur, such as oaks, maples, limes, walnuts, poplars, and willows, the genera being European but the indi- vidual species- Asiatic. Among cultivated plants are wheat, and in favorable situations rice, cot- ton, the vine, etc. Japan and the northern parts of this region are rich in species of the pine tribe. According to elevation the islands of the Asiatic Archipelago display an equal diversity with the mainland, the more tropical types being represented on the lower elevations, the more northern on the higher. Coffee, rice, maize, etc., are extensively grown in some of the islands. A line of demarkation called Wallace's line has been drawn at the Strait of Macassar, at which the flora and fauna of Australia begin to appear, and gradually become more pronounced as the distance from Asia and the proximity to Austra- lia increases. The variety of plants of the desert region of Arabia, Persia, and Baluchistan is comparatively small. The predominance of a few species gives character to the whole region. Vegetation is most abundant in spring, when herbaceous and bulbous plants, which extend through this region from Syria to the Hima- layas, are abundant. In Arabia Felix, and the warmer valleys of Persia, Afghanistan, and Baluchistan, where the hills are high enough to afford a sufficient rainfall, aromatic shrubs are abundant. Wheat, barley, cotton, and indigo are cultivated in Arabia, and the date-palm flourishes in the desert. On the mountain slopes of western Arabia (Arabia Felix") the coffee- plant, which has probably been derived from Africa, is cultivated. Gum-producing acacias are, with the date-palm, the commonest trees in Arabia: the latter also extends through Persia, and even reaches the shore of the Caspian. Fleshy plants are characteristic of the most arid portions. In the higher parts of Persia and Afghanistan numerous forms of L'mbellifera of great size, as well as thistles and the borage tribe, are abundant. African forms are found not only extending from the African desert along the desert region of Asia, but from south Africa to Ceylon. The Caspian lowlands is the tract where the saline vegetation that is spread over the whole region of steppes and deserts has its greatest development. This region is regarded as the native country of the melon. Zoology. — There is a still closer resemblance in the fauna than in the flora of northern Asia to that of Europe. Asia south to the Hima- layas, together with Europe and North Africa, forms a continuous region, which Dr. Sclater has designated as the Pakearctic; southeastern Asia, with Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and the Phil- ippines, he calls the Indian region; Africa south of the Atlas, with Arabia, Palestine, South Per- sia, the dry part of Baluchistan and Sind. form the Ethiopian region ; Celebes and the other is- lands beyond Wallace's line, with Australasia, the Australian region. Nearly all the mammals of Europe occur in northern Asia, with numer- ous additions to the species. Quadrumana are rare, Carnivora numerous, especially bears, wolves, and weasels. Moles, shrews, and hedge- hogs are common among Inscctivora. Rodents are represented by marmots, the pika, jerboas, rats, mice, etc. There are numerous species of wild sheep, antelopes, and deer. Of the last, the musk and many others are characteristic. In the Indian region there are several peculiar genera of the Quadriunana or monkey tribe. Among the distinctive forms of this region is the elephant, the Asiatic species being distinct from the African. The lion, tiger, leopard, which are considered as Ethiopian forms, the bear, civets, ichneumons, and other carnivorous animals are found. The lion inhabits Arabia, Persia, Asia Minor, Baluchistan, etc., and ex- tends as far east as India, being now, however, confined to Guzerat. The tiger is the most characteristic of the larger Asiatic Carnivora. It extends from Armenia across the entire con- tinent, being absent, however, from the greater portion of Siberia and from the tableland of Tibet ; it extends also into Sumatra, Java, and Bali. The horse, ass, and camel have their true home in Asia. In the Indian region we also find the rhinoceros, buffalo, ox, deer, squirrels, porcupines, as well as various species of Eden- tata. The ornithology of Europe and northern Asia are identified to a still greater extent. A large number of European species extend over northern Asia as far as Japan. In the Malay Archipelago marsupial animals first occur in the Moluccas and Celebes, while various mammals common in the western part of the archipelago are absent. A similar transition toward the Australian type takes place in the species of birds. Of marine mammals the dugong is pecu- liar to the Indian Ocean ; in the Ganges is found a peculiar species of dolphin. In birds, nearly every order except ostriches is represented Among the most interesting forms are the horn- bills, the peacock, the Impey pheasant, the trago- pans, and other gallinaceous birds, the pheasant family being very characteristic of the region. The pheasant proper in the wild state is peculiar ASIA .o northern Asia, the golden pheasant and sev- eral other species of pheasants to the northeast. The genera and species of passerine birds are very numerous. The desert region, extending from Arabia to Sind, is chiefly distinguished by the absence of many Indian forms and the pres- ence of some African ones, which, however, are not widely spread, most of them being limited to Arabia and Syria. The chief haunts of the Rep- tilia of Asia are the northern portion of Hindu- stan, the southeastern peninsula, China, and the islands of Ceylon, Sumatra, and Java. At the head of the reptiles stands the Gangetic croco- dile, frequenting the Ganges and other large rivers; the helmeted crocodile and the double- crested crocodile are numerous in various quar- ters, both insular and continental. Among the serpents are the cobra da capello and the Ceylon- ese tic-palonga, both among the most deadly snakes in existence; there are also very large pythons, besides sea and fresh-water snakes. There are also a number of species of frogs and toads and of fresh-water tortoises, as well as many terrestrial and aquatic lizards. The seas and rivers of Asia produce a great variety of fish. The Salmonida are found in rivers flowing into the Arctic and North Pacific oceans, but not in southern Asia. Large numbers are caught. Trout are found in the feeders of the Indus and the Caspian. Sturgeons abound in the Black Sea and the Caspian. Two rather remarkable kinds of fishes are the climbing perch and the eriapthalmus. The well-known gold-fish is a native of China. Asiatic Races. — The Mongolian race is the most numerous in Asia. It occupies the Chi- nese empire, Tartary, and probably Japan, with part of the Indo-Chinese Peninsula. It is part- ly settled, as in China, Japan, and the peninsula ; partly nomadic, as in Tartary and Mongolia. The Aryan is the next in numbers, and the most civilized of the Asiatic races. It was until the Mohammed conquest the dominant, as it is still the most numerous, race in India. It also pre- vails in Persia and in the middle region from Afghanistan to Asia Minor. The Semitic race is widely spread in southwestern Asia, and for- merly at least extended to Africa. The Dravid- ian race in South India, the Malays in the eastern peninsula, and other races locally dis- tributed, have no well-defined relation with the larger races. The Dravidians are variously associated with the Mongols and the Australians. The latter theory is connected with the hy- pothesis of a southern continent, which also con- nects these races with Africa. See Ethnology. Political Divisions. — A large portion of Asia is under the dominion of European powers. Russia possesses the whole of northern Asia (Siberia) and a considerable portion of cen- tral Asia, together with a great part of ancient Armenia, on the south of the Caucasus; Tur- key holds Asia Minor, Syria, and Palestine, part of Arabia, Mesopotamia, etc. ; Great Britain rules over India, Ceylon, a part of the Indo- Chinese Peninsula (Upper and Lower Burma), and one or two other possessions ; France has acquired a considerable portion of the Indo- Chinese Peninsula (Cochin-China, Anam, Ton- kin, Cambodia), and has one or two small settlements besides, while to Holland belong Java, Sumatra, and other islands or parts of is- lands in the Asiatic or Malay Archipelago. The chief independent states are the Chinese empire, much the most populous of all; Japan, Korea, Siam, Afghanistan, Persia, and the Arabian states. The total population of the continent is estimated at 905,000,000. Religions. — Asia lias been the birthplace of religions; the Jewish, Buddhist, Christian, and Mohammedan having their origin in Asia, where they grew up under the influence of still older religions, the Babylonian and that of Zoroaster, both also of Asiatic origin. At present the inhabitants of Asia belong chiefly to the Buddhist religion, which has 530,000,000 to 560,000,000 of followers, that is, marly one third of mankind. The old faith of Hinduism has 187,000,000 of followers in India. Must of the inhabitants of western Asia, as also of part of central Asia, follow the religion of Islam; they may number about 90,000.000. The Chris tians number about 20,000,000 in Armenia, Cau- casus, Siberia, and Turkestan. Jews are scat- tered mostly in western and central Asia. A few fire-worshippers, Guebers or Parsi of India and Persia, are the sole remnant of the religion of Zoroaster ; while vestiges of Sabaeism are found amidst the Gesides and Sabians on the Tigris. Civilisation. — There are to be found in Asia all varieties of civilization, the primitive tribes of northeastern Siberia, the confederations of nomadic shepherds, and great nations in pos- session of a common stock of national customs, beliefs, and literature, like China ; the tribal stage; the compound family, forming the real basis of China's social organization; the rural community, both of the Indian and Mussulman type; the loose aggregations of Tchuktchis, hav- ing no rulers and no religion beyond the wor- ship of forces of nature, but professing with re- gard to one another principles of morality and mutual support often forgotten in higher stages of civilization; and despotic monarchies with a powerful clergy. So also in economic life. While the tribes of the northeast find their means of subsistence exclusively in fishing and bunting, carried on with the simplest imple- ments, among which stone weapons have not yet quite disappeared, and the tribes of central Asia carry on primitive cattle-breeding and lead a half-nomadic life, others are agriculturists, and have brought irrigation (in Turkestan) to a degree of perfection hardly known in Europe. Internal Communication. — Caravans of cam- els are the chief means of transport for goods and travelers in the interior ; donkeys, yaks, and even goats and sheep are employed in crossing the high passages of the Himalayas ; horses are the usual means of transport in most parts of China and Siberia, and in the barren tracts of the north the reindeer and, still farther north, the dog, are made use of. Fortunately the great rivers of Asia provide water communication over immense distances. The deep and broad streams of China, allowing heavy boats to penetrate far into the interior of the country, connect it with the sea ; a brisk traffic is carried on along these arteries. In Siberia the bifurcated rivers supply a water- way, not only north and south along the course of the chief rivers running toward the Arctic Ocean, but also west and east ; thus a great line of water communication crosses Siberia, and is, with but a few interruptions, continued in the east by the Amur, navigable for more ASIATIC ART. i. Dancing Staff from Sumatra. 2. R *etich from Nias. 3. Aino Shuttle. 4. Bashkir Ornament. 5. Bronze Buddha. 6. Helmet. 7. Gauntlet, 8. Japanese Kettle, Silver and Bronze. tlese Work. ASIA than 2,000 miles. In the winter the rivers and plains of Siberia become excellent roads for sledges, on which goods are still chiefly trans- ported. Rail-ways. — In 1900 the lines in existence had a total length of about 30,000 miles, of which two thirds belonged to British India. The portions of the trans-Caspian and trans- Siberian railways already constructed had a length of 3,200 miles. A number of European syndicates held concessions for 3,600 miles of railroads in China, which will traverse regions rich in minerals and agriculture ; many of these lines were then in process of construction. The Chinese government owned about 300 miles of railway. The lines are very remunerative, espe- cially that from Peking to Tien-Tsin. Japan is well provided with railroads ; the length being 3.200 miles. French Indo-China had only 120 miles, but the French possessions in Cochin- China, Anam, and Tonkin are expected soon to have 2.400 miles, which will greatly help to develop their mineral and agricultural resources. The Dutch Indies are well supplied. Java alone has 1,000 miles. There are as yet no railroads in Persia of any consequence ; but Turkey oper- ates 1,500 miles in Asia, and 600 miles more are in construction or projected. Telegraph communications are in a much more advanced state than the roads. St. Peters- burg is connected by telegraph with the mouth of the Amur and Vladivostock (on the frontier of Korea) ; while another branch, crossing Turkestan and Mongolia, runs on to Tashkend, Peking, and Shanghai ; Constantinople is con- nected with Bombay, Madras, Singapore, Saigon, Hong-Kong, and Nagasaki in Japan ; and Singapore stands in telegraphic communi- cation with Java, and Port Darwin in Australia. Finally, Odessa is connected by wire with Tiflis in Caucasus, Teheran, and Bombay. Trade. — Notwithstanding the difficulties of communication a brisk trade is carried on be- tween the different parts of Asia, but there is no possibility of arriving at even an approxi- mate estimate of its aggregate value. The mari- time exports to Europe, the United States, and overland to Russia, have an annual value of about $900,000,000, and the imports of about $750,000,000. Asia deals chiefly in raw mate- rials, gold, silver, petroleum, teak, and a variety of timber-wood, furs, raw cotton, silk, wool, tallow and so on ; the products of her tea, coffee, and spice plantations; and a yearly in- creasing amount of wheat and other grain. Steam industry is only now making its ap- pearance in Asia, and, although but a very few years old, threatens to become a rival to Euro- pean manufacture. Indian cottons of European patterns and jute-stuffs already compete with the looms of her European sister countries. Several of the petty trades carried on in India, China, Japan, Asia Minor, and some parts of Persia, have been brought to so high a perfection that the silks, printed cottons, carpets, jewelry, and •-utlery of particular districts far surpass in their artistic taste many like productions of Europe. The export of these articles is steadily increas- ing, and Japan supplies Europe with thousands of small articles — applications of Japanese art and taste to objects of European household furniture. History — The origin of the name Asia is in- Vol. I— si volved in obscurity, and it is not certainly known whether it arose among the Greeks or was borrowed by them from some Asiatic peo- ple. The Greeks seem to have applied it origi- nally only to Lydia, the part of the continent with which they first became acquainted. Mod- ern scholars are inclined to believe that the name Asia is connected with the Sanskrit ushas, the dawn, as Europe may be connected with the Hebrew ereb, the west or the sun- setting. The oldest historical documents are of Asiatic origin, and next to the immediately contiguous kingdom of Egypt Asia possesses the oldest his- torical monuments in the world. The oldest historical monuments in Asia are those of Assyria (see Assyria), and with them are associated traditions which carry us back to a remote and indefinite antiquity. A similar vague antiquity belongs to the historical tradi- tions of India and China. Criticism, however, reduces all these claims to moderate dimensions, and assigns to the oldest ascertained facts a period not more remote than some 4,000 years from the present. The earliest facts in the history of Asia, apart from documents and monuments, consist in the migrations of races, the evidence of which is de- rived from tradition, from language, from cus- toms, and from religion. The earliest known seat of the Aryan race was on the banks of the Oxus. Hence probably from the pressure of the Mongolian tribes to the north they spread themselves to the southeast and southwest, pressing upon the Dravidian inhabitants of In- dia and the Semitic races of southwestern Asia. Finally they drove the Dravidians to the south of India and occupied Persia and other parts of western Asia, spreading into Europe. It is a remarkable circumstance that in this invasion the Aryans appear to have acquired the use of letters from the peoples with whom they came in contact, the Dravidian letters being borrowed in India and the Semitic in Persia as the origi- nal basis of the Sanskrit and Zendic alphabets. At a later period the Greeks likewise adopted a Semitic alphabet from the Phoenicians. The Semites have spread within historical times into northern Africa, and their migrations had prob- ably taken a similar course before they were re- corded in history. A large portion of the Mon- gols are still, as they have always been, a nomadic race, and their migrations, carrying everywhere the terror of predatory arms, have spread from the settled part of their own race in China along the north of Asia into northern Europe. The early religion of the Aryan race, — a nation of shepherds, — divided itself after their separation into two related but widely different developments, Brahmanism and Zoroastrianism. (See India (Religion); Zend-Avesta.) The former became rich in mythological, theologi- cal, and philosophical literature ; but historical literature properly so called is wanting, and consequently there is a great absence of cer- tainty with regard to the dates of early events. The war which the Mahabharata (see San- skrit Language and Literature) professes to narrate is believed to be the earliest event in Indian history that can be regarded as historical, and probably took place about 1200-1400 B.C. In China authentic history extends back prob- ASIA ably to about noo B.C., with a long preceding period of which the names of dynasties are pre- served without chronological arrangement. The kingdoms of Assyria, Babylonia, Media, and Persia, alternately predominated in southwest- ern Asia. The arms of the Pharaohs also ex- tended into Asia, but their conquests there were short-lived. From Cyrus ( n.c. 559), who ex- tended the empire of Persia from the Indus to the Mediterranean, while his son, Cambyses, added Egypt and Libya to it, to the conquest of Alexander (b.c. 330), Persia was the dominant pi.wer in Asia. The administration 01 Persia was not without vigor and policy, yet the Mace- donian conquest was an event of great impor- tance to Asia, bringing it, along with northern Africa, into closer relation with the more ad- vanced and progressive continent of Europe. The division of Alexander's empire led to the protracted struggle between the Greek dynasties of Egypt and Syria, which ended in the absorp- tion of both kingdoms in the Roman empire. After the unfortunate issue of the second Punic war Hannibal took refuge with Antiochus the Great of Syria, who, in the course of his con- quests, had come in contact with the Romans, and was at length incited to try his strength with them. In the course of the war with An- tiochus L. Scipio, together with his brother, the conqueror of Carthage, passed into Asia. The kingdom of Antiochus was spared after his overthrow ; but in B.C. 65 Syria became a Roman province. The Roman empire ultimately ex- tended to the Tigris. The knowledge of Asia possessed by the Greeks and Romans was at its widest extent very limited. The countries with which they were best acquainted were naturally in the west. China they knew as the country of the Seres or Sin.-e. and the northern portions of the con- tinent, inhabited by predatory Mongol tribes, were vaguely designated as Scythia. Of India the northwestern and western parts were known, and Ceylon likewise, under the name of Tapro- bane. The country traversed by the Hindu Rush, and the sources of the Oxus. was known as Bactria ; that between the Oxus and the Jax- artes as Sogdiana ; a large and vaguely defined central district, including Persia, was known as Ariana. Ptolemy had some acquaintance with the Indian Peninsula, with the table-land of cental Asia, with the Himalayas (Imaus) and China. The better known countries of the southwest comprised Asia Minor. Armenia, Arabia. Persia. Media, Parthia, Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Assyria, Syria. Soon after the most civilized portions of the three continents had been reduced under one empire the great event took place which forms the dividing line of history. Christianity spread rapidly in the Roman empire: but Armenia was the first country which received it as a national religion. In A.n. 226 the Parthian monarchy which had arisen in eastern Persia about b.c. 250. and had disputed the empire of Asia with the Romans, was overthrown by the revived Persian dynasty of the Sassanidx. The empire of Asia was now disputed with the Romans by the Persians. In the revived Persian empire the Magian religion was restored, and after the establishment of Christianity in the Roman em- pire religious jealousy embittered the feud be- tween the two powers. The possession of Ar- menia was the subject of a protracted struggle between them; but its religion inclined it to the Roman alliance The Tigris formed the most permanent boundary between t lie two empires, neither being able long to maintain any con- quests beyond it. Christianity was persecuted in the Persian empire, and could not extend itself freely beyond the Roman limits. After the division of the Roman empire (A.n. 364) the struggle continued between the eastern and the Persian empires until the rise of a new power destined to absorb them both. While the East- ern empire was struggling more and more feebly with the Persians the Mongols, and the bar barians of Europe, a new religion arose in Ara- bia (a.d. 622), which gathered around it a band of enthusiasts, small at first, but inspired with the most ardent zeal of prosilytism. The cen- tral tenet of the unity of God gave- them the sympathy of the Monophysite sect, which, per- secuted in the empire, was powerful in Egypt, Syria. Mesopotamia, and Armenia. Arabia, the country of the Prophet, soon gave its adherence to the new faith. The sword was consecrated as the instrument of its propagation. Persia was the first great conquest of the Arabians. Syria and Egypt soon fell before their arms, powerfully aided by the defection of the heretics of the empire, and within 40 years of the cele brated tlight of Mohammed from Mecca, which constitutes the era of his followers, the sixth of the Caliphs, or successors of the Prophet, was the most powerful sovereign of Asia. He- raclius, one of the most warlike, and in the early part of his reign one of the most success- ful of the eastern emperors, had succumbed to this torrent of conquest, and his successors trembled at the names of their rivals. The suc- cessors of Mohammed were at first austere and simple in their manners, and narrow and zealous in their religious faith ; but from the accession of Moawiyah (a.d. 661), the time when the seat of empire was transferred first to Damascus and subsequently to Bagdad, the throne of the Ca- liphs was as splendid as it was powerful. The generous blood of Arabia, nourished by more genial climes, showed an aptitude for all that is great, not only in military achievement, but in learning, science, literature, and art. The em- pire was soon divided, but wherever the Arab sway prevailed a liberal patronage of learning and toleration even of speculative inquiry dis- tinguished it. The career of conquest was not soon ended. It spread with astonishing rapidity over Africa and Europe, and was finally cheeked only by the fatal divisions which originated in the disputes between the descendants of the Prophet and the dynasty of the Ommiades, de- scended from his mortal foe and tardy convert, Abu Sophian. Among the alternate protectors and op- pressors of the eastern Roman empire were the various Mongol' tribes, whose predatory course led them to the west. In these also the Arab rulers found dangerous converts, who first sup- plied the place of their own troops, grown ef- feminate with luxury, and then supplanted them- selves in the throne of which they had superseded the natural defenders. While the Caliphs of Bagdad still held a nominal sway, subject to the dictation of their Turkish guards, Mahmud, the Mongolian Mohammedan ruler of Ghazni, asserted his independence (999), con- ASIATIC AK 10. Dancing St.iif fr» ii. Hc.nl Covering I roi 12. 1! xj-i {.Articles Islands. it. Bashkir < Irnamcnt. 18. Suii \ 1 ». \r \ Q •' N! acquei 22. Japanese Wai ASIA; ASIA MINOR qucrcd India, and established the Mogul dy- nasty. Another revolt from the empire of Mah- mud founded the Scljuk dynasty, which estab- lished itself in Aleppo, Damascus, Iconium, and Kharism, and which was distinguished for its struggles with the Crusaders. Othman, an amir of the Scljuk sultan of Iconium, established the Ottoman empire in 1300. About 1220 Gen- ghis Khan, an independent Mongol chief, made himself master of central Asia, conquered north- ern China, overran Turkestan, Afghanistan, and Persia; his successors took Bagdad and extin- guished the remains of the Caliphate. In Asia Minor they overthrew the Seljuk dynasty. His grandson, Kublai Khan, conquered China in 1260. The successors of Genghis Khan also in- vaded Russia, and the Christian empire estab- lished by Vladimir was overthrown by the Gold- en Horde, led by his grandson Batu (1240). Timur or Tamerlane, who professed to he a de- scendant of Genghis, carried fire and sword over northern India and western Asia, defeated and took prisoner Bajazet, the descendant of Oth- man (1402), and received tribute from the Greek emperor. The Ottoman empire soon re- covered from this blow, and Constantinople was taken and the Eastern empire overthrown by the Sultan Mohammed II. in 1453. China re- covered its independence about 1368 and was again subjected by the Manchu Tartars (1618- 45), soon after which it began to extend its em- pire over central Asia. Siberia was conquered by the Cossacks on behalf of Russia (1580-4). The same country effected a settlement in the Caucasus about T786, and has since continued to make steady advances into central Asia. The discovery by the Portuguese of the passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope led to their establishment on the coast of the peninsula (1498). They were speedily followed by the Spanish, Dutch, French, and British. The struggle between the two last powers for the supremacy of India was completed by the de- struction of the French settlements (1760-65), and from that time the conquest of India by the British progressed with uninterrupted success. In 1858 India came directly under the British crown. The extension of the influence and pos- sessions of European powers, especially Russia, Great Britain, and France, has latterly been a most striking fact in Asiatic history. For par- ticular phases of the modern history of Asia see China; Korea; Japan; Manchuria; Rus- sia and Turkey. Also Boxers and Triple Alliance. A'sia, Central, a designation loosely applied to ' Asiatic territory east of the Caspian, also called Turkestan, and formerly Tartary. The eastern portion belongs t < • China, the western now to Russia. Russian central Asia comprises the Kirghiz Steppe (Uralsk, Turgai. Akmolinsk, Semipalatinsk, etc.), and what is now the government-general of Turkestan, besides the territory of the Turkomans, or Tanscaspia and Merv. The entire area is about 1,350,000 square miles. See Bouvalot, 'Through the Heart of Asia' (1889); Phibbs, 'Central Asia' (1899). Asia Minor (Asia the Less) is the extreme western peninsular projection of Asia, forming part of Turkey in Asia. The name is not very ancient ; originally the Greeks seem by Asia to have meant only the western part of Asia Minor, but with their geographical knowledge the scope of the name Asia gradually widened. The late Greek name for Asia Minor is Ana- tolia — Anatoli, "the East, 8 whence is formed the Turkish Anadoli. Asia Minor includes the peninsula ; the eastern boundary, somewhat ar- tificial, being a line from the Gulf of Skan- deroon to the upper Euphrates, and thence to a point east of Trebizond. The area of the peninsula exceeds 220,000 square miles. It con- stitutes the western prolongation of the high table-land of Armenia, with its border mountain ranges. The interior consists of a great plateau, or rather series of plateaus, rising in gradua- tion from 3,500 to 4,000 feet, with bare steppes, salt plains, marshes, and lakes ; the structure is volcanic, and there are several conical moun- tains, one of which, the Ergish-dagh (Argxus), with two craters, attains a height of 11.830 feet, towering above the plain of Kaisarieh, which has itself an elevation of between 2,000 and 3,000 feet. The plateau is bordered on the north by a long train of parallel mountains, 4.000 to 6,000 feet high, and cut up into groups by cross valleys. These mountains sink abrupt- ly down on the northern side to a narrow strip of coast; their slopes toward the interior are gentler and bare of wood. Similar is the char- acter of the border ranges on the south, the an- cient Taurus, only that they are more con- tinuous and higher, being, to the north of the Bay of Skanderoon, 10,000 to 12.000 feet, and farther to the west, 8.000 to 9,000 feet. The western border is intersected by numerous val- veys opening upon the archipelago, to the north- ern part of which Mounts Ida and Olympus be- long. Between the highlands and the sea lie the fertile coast-lands of the Levant. Of the rivers the largest is the Kizil Irmak (Halys), which, like the Yeshil Irmak (Iris), and the Sakaria (Sangarius) flows into the Black Sea; the Sarabat (Hermus) and Meinder (Maean- der) flow into the ^Egean. The climate has, on the whole, a southern European character; but a distinction must be made of four regions. The central plateau, nearly destitute of wood and water, has a hot climate in summer, and a cold one in winter ; the southern coast has mild winters and scorching summers; while on the coast of the /Egean there is the mildest of climates and a magnifi- cent vegetation. On the northern side the cli- mate is not so mild, but the vegetation is most luxuriant. In point of natural history, Asia Minor forms the transition from the continental char- acter of the Fast to the maritime character of the West. The forest-trees and cultivated plants of Europe are seen mingled with the forms characteristic of Persia and Svria. The central plateau, which is barren, has the charac- ter of an Asiatic steppe, more adapted for the flocks and herds of nomadic tribes than for agriculture; while the coasts, rich in all Euro- pean products, fine fruits, olives, wine, and silk, have quite the character of the south of Europe, which on the warmer and drier southern coast shades into that of Africa. The inhabitants, some 7,000.000 in number, consist of the most various races. The dom- inant race are the Osmanli Turks, who number about i,200/ooo, and are spread over the whole ASIARCH — ASKEW country; allied to these are the Turkomans and Yuruks, speaking a dialect of the same language. I he latter are found chiefly on the table-land, leading a nomadic life; there are also hordes of nomadic Kinds. Among the mountains east of Trcbi/ond are the robber tribes of the Lazes. The Greeks and Armenians are the most progressive elements in the population, and have most of the trade. While the Greeks monopo- lize the professions, the ownership of the land is largely passing into the hands of Greeks, Armenians, and Jews. Administratively the country falls into eight vilayets or governments, with their capitals in Brusa, Smyrna, EConieh (Iconium), Adana, Sivas, Angora, Trebizond, and Kastamuni respectively. In ancient times the divisions were Pontus, Paphlagonia, Bi- thynia, in the north; Mysia. Lydia, Caria, in the west ; Pisidia with Pamphylia, and Cappadocia, in the south ; and Galatia with Lycaonia and Phrygia. in the centre. The Turkish islands of the archipelago belong, most of them, to Asia Minor. I hre, especially in Ionia, was the early seat ■ if Grecian civilization, and here were the coun- ters of Phrygia, Lycia. Caria, Paphlagonia, Bithynia, Lydia, Pamphylia, Isauria. Cilicia, Ga- latia. Cappadocia, etc., with Troy, Ephesus, Smyrna, and many other great and famous cities. Here, from the obscure era of Semira- mis (about 2000 B.C.) to the time of Osman (about 1300 a.d.), the greatest conquerors of the world contended for supremacy; and here took place the wars of the Medes and Persians with the Scythians; of the Greeks with the Per- sians; of the Romans with Mithridates and the Parthians; of the Arabs, Seljuks, Mongols, and Osmanli Turks with the weak Byzantine empire. Here Alexander the Great and the Romans suc- cessfully contended for the mastery of the civil- ized world. But notwithstanding all these wars the country still continued to enjoy some mea- sure of prosperity till it fell into the hands of the Turks, under whose military despotism its ancient civilization has been sadly brought to ruin. Recently, considerable portions of Arme- nia have been absorbed by Russia. In 1878 Great Britain made a secret engagement to guarantee against Russian aggression the Asi- atic dominions of the Porte. In Asia Minor an extensive system of rail- roads has long been under consideration. The first survey for this proposed trunk line was made as far back as 1874, and was from An- gora to Bagdad. The financial crisis of 1875 resulted, however, in the abandonment of the scheme, but it was again considered in 1888 by foreigners interested in railroad enterprise in Asia. The Suitari-to-Angora line was conceded in October of that year to the Bank of Berlin, and on 27 Nov. 1892 the first train was run. A branch line was shortly after built between Eski- Schehir and Konia and connected with the line to Smyrna. The success of this undertaking influenced the Sultan's desire to have the line extended to Bagdad across Mesopotamia, and the German syndicate was instructed accord- ingly. The survey was made in the winter of 1899-1900 by a commission under the presidency of the German consul-general at Constantinople. Matters were hastened by the request of the Emperor William that the work be pushed for- ward as rapidly as possible. Asiarch, a'shi-ark, a Roman officer ap- pointed as director-general of religious ccre- monies in the province of Asia. Th< > epi sion occurs in the Greek Testament, Tines e transplanted at least eight inches asunder, and grown a second year in a nursery bed. In the permanent bed the plants should stand at least two feet asunder in rows not less than four feet apart. Five or even six feet for the larger growing varieties is much better. Staminate plants are more productive of shoots than pistillate, hut are difficult to recognize until the plants flower. The furrows are plowed six inches deep or deeper, the plants set in the bottom, but at first covered with only about two inches of earth. After growtli starts the trench is gradually filled by cultivation which must lie thorough, both among the plants and between the rows. Not before the second spring after planting in permanent quarters should any shoots be gathered. At the time of planting a liberal dressing of some slowly de- composing fertilizer, such as ground bone, should be given in the drill, and in the spring of each year complete fertilizers should be applied lib- erally. (See Fertilizers.) In addition to such applications many growers spread stable manure upon the bed in the autumn after the tops have been removed, a necessary prac- tice to prevent the scattering of the seeds upon the bed. In the spring as soon as the soil can be worked the land is either plowed shal- low or cultivated deeply to bury the manure. Since the plants are gross feeders there need be little fear of fertilizing too heavily. Methods of gathering depend somewhat upon whether the stalks are to be blanched or left green. Blanching is done by ridging the soil 13 inches deep above the crowns. Stalks so produced are gathered as soon as the tips appear above the soil ; green stalks are cut when about nine inches long, in- cluding the base of two or more inches below the surface of the ground. In each case the stalk may be cut with an asparagus knife or preferably snapped near the crown, or at least at the proper depth, if blanched, by plunging the hand down in the loose soil beside the stalk and severing it with the fingers. By the latter meth- od there is less danger of injuring other shoots. All cutting should cease when green peas, grown in the same locality, are ready for the table, because the plants must be given opportunity to store up food for the following year. The stems are usually sold in hunches of various sizes, the grade depending upon the length and ASPARAGUS-STONE; ASPASIA number of stalks in the bunch. The hunch com- monly sold is eight and one half inches long, weighs about two pounds, and contains 30 spears. As a rule, the thicker the spear the better. First class spears are three quarters of an inch thick or thicker. Every care must be taken in hand- ling to prevent bruising', since a gummy juice collects in the broken cells, and the injured stalks spoil by heating. After washing, the stalks should be dried and kept cool. If to be shipped long distances, their butts should rest in damp sphagnum moss or similar material. In the home garden, where horse cultivation is not practicable, the plants may be set even as close as 18 inches by two feet, but the manur- ing, cultivation and other care must be in- creased in order to obtain choice shoots. Each spring the very liberal dressing of manure ap- plied the previous autumn should be forked, not dug, in, and a lavish amount of commercial fer- tilizer, rich in potash, phosphoric acid, and ni- tiogen, applied. Soap suds may be emptied upon the bed ; they have more or less potash in them. Asparagus sometimes is forced in hot beds, un- der greenhouse benches, in cellars, etc., by set- ting mature crowns (plants) close together and supplying heat and moisture. A large amount o"f light is not essential. It is also forced in the field by covering the beds with cloth and ap- plying heat by means of portable steam pipes, either in or upon the ground. In the former case the roots are ruined by the process ; in the latter, they are not, but should be given one or more years to fully recuperate. (See reports and bulletins of Cornell Experiment Station and of Missouri Experiment Station). Several other species furnish edible shoots ; for example, A. acutifolius, A. albus and A. tennui- folius, all European species. The tubers of A. lucidus are eaten in China and Japan, where the species is indigenous. The shoots of A. scaber, which resemble those of A. oihcialis, are inedible because bitter. Enemies. — Asparagus has only two impor- tant enemies, and when compared with other general crops, long cultivated, only a few less serious ones. Asparagus rust (Puccinia as- paragi) has been known for about 100 years, but only during the last decade of the 19th century did it do serious damage. In a badly infested field the plants as a whole seem to be maturing very early, their deep green having been replaced by a tawny brown. The stems examined closely, show a blistered and ruptured skin, beneath which are brown masses of spores or in late autumn, almost black winter spores. In the spring the "cluster cup" is the form ob- served. The most effective control is the resin- Bordeaux mixture, made by adding to each 48 gallons of standard Bordeaux mixture two gal- lons of resin stock solution, made as follows : Heat five pounds of resin and one pint of fish- oil in a kettle until the resin is dissolved. If very hot, allow to cool somewhat. Then slowly stir in one pound of potash lye and heat again till the mixture becomes the color of amber, when five gallons of water must be added. If the potash be added while the resin is too hot, the mixture may ignite. This solution increases the adhesiveness of Bordeaux mixture. (See Fungicide.) With the mixture 50 per cent greater yield has been obtained in unfavorable seasons, and 70 per cent in favorable. Growers cutting 800 bunches or more per acre find that thorough spraying each week for four, five or even more weeks pays well. For detailed ac- count of this disease and specific methods of control, see New York Experiment Station Report (1901). The asparagus beetle (Cn'o- ccris asparagi), a European insect introduced about 1856, the only seriously injurious insect pest, is about one quarter of an inch long with black and yellow or red wing-covers. It be- longs to the Chrysomclidw. It appears as the adult in spring, and lays eggs on the shoots. In a few days grayish-green grubs appear and gnaw the green parts of the plants. When full grown they burrow in the ground to pupate for a short time. The broods succeed each other at intervals of about a month, if the weather be fa- vorable. Their natural enemies are lady-bird beetles and soldier beetles. The popular reme- dies are the corralling of chickens, ducks, and turkeys in the plantation ; cutting all volunteer plants in waste places ; cutting new shoots daily ; allowing spindling shoots to remain in alternate rows for the insects to deposit their eggs upon and burning the shoots not less often than once a week ; dusting with air-slaked lime or road dust while the dew is on ; brushing the grubs to the hot ground from the full grown plants, the middle of the day being chosen for this opera- tion ; spraying with arsenitcs, hellebore or other stomach poisons; etc. A case of fight early and fight late ! The 12-spotted asparagus beetle (Crioccris 12-pnnctatus) , about the same size as its relative just described, but orange red with black dots, has a similar life history, and may be controlled in the same way but is not yet seriously troublesome, except in a few localities. Several plant bugs, moth larvae, beetles and ap- hids also feed upon asparagus, but have not be- come serious pests. Consult: Year-book United States Department of Agriculture ( Washington, 1896), and Bulletin No. 10 (1898). See In- secticides. For fuller details of asparagus culture con- sult : Hexamer, 'Asparagus Culture* (1901); Bailey and Miller, 'Cyclopedia of American Hor- ticulture' (1900-02). In the latter will also be found specific instruction for the cultivation of ornamental asparagus. Asparagus-stone, a variety of apatite, found in Murcia, Spain, in the form of small, transparent, yellowish-green crystals. Aspasia, as-pa'shf-a, a celebrated woman of ancient Greece : b. in Miletus in Ionia, but spending a great part of her life in Athens. Her house was the general resort of the most virtu- ous, learned, and distinguished men in Greece. She inspired the strongest and most enduring af- fection in the heart of Pericles, who had separat- ed from his own wife and united himself to As- pasia as closely as was permitted by the Athenian law, which declared marriage with a foreign woman illegal. When the Athenians were dis- satisfied with Pericles, instead of attacking him they persecuted the objects of his particular favor, and accused Aspasia of contempt of the gods. Pericles defended her in the Areopagus, but it required all his influence to procure her acquittal. After his death (B.C. 429) Aspasia is said to have attached herself to a wealthy but obscure cattle-dealer, of the name of Lysicles, whom she soon made, however, an influential ASPECT -ASPHALT citizen in Athens. She had a son by Pericles, who was legitimated by a special decree of the people. As'pect, a term in astronomy and astrol- ogy, denoting the situation of the planets and stars with respect to each other. There are five principal aspects: (i) sextile aspect, when the planets or stars are 6o° distant, and marked thus, *: (2) the quartile or quadrate, when they arc 90 distant, marked D ; (3) trine, when 120° distant, marked A; (4) opposition, when 180 distant, marked § ; and (5) con- junction, when both are in the same degree, marked d- Kepler added eight more. It is to I" observed that these aspects, being first intro- duced by astrologers, were distinguished into benign, malignant, and indifferent; and Kepler's definition of aspect, in consequence, is "Aspect is the angle formed by the rays of two stars meeting on the earth, whereby their good or bad influence is measured." The aspects now in use are conjunction, opposition, and quadrature. As'pen, Col., a city and county-seat of Pitkin County, on the Roaring Fork of Grand River, and the Colorado Midland, and the Den- ver & R. G. R.R.'s ; 30 miles west of Lead- villc. It was incorporated in 1883; and has since become the centre of one of the rich- est mining sections in the country. In the city and vicinity are more than jo mines, for which there are a number of silver, zinc, and lead ore mills. While the smelting and con- centrating of ores is the distinctive industry, the city has several minor factories, and it is also the principal mining trade centre of the Roaring Fork Valley. Pop. (1900) 3.303. As'pen, tremulous poplar, a tree of the order Salicacea and genus Populus, native of the cooler parts of Europe and Asia, and succeeding best upon moist, gravelly soils. It grows quickly ; usually attains a height of 50 to 60 feet, sometimes even 100 feet; has light, small, thin-toothed leaf-blades upon long, slen- der, flattened petioles which permit the blade to flutter with the least breeze, hence the specific name P. tremula, tremulous. The wood being white, light, soft, and porous, is not a valuable fuel, but is useful for making charcoal for the manufacture of gunpowder, and for turning, often being employed for making bowls, trays, troughs, and pails. The wood may be made harder and thus rendered useful for interior work in houses by peeling off the bark and al- lowing the stem to dry before felling it. In places where this tree abounds, and other timber is scarce or expensive, this method of hardening is very useful. The bark is rich in a glucoside called salicin and used in leather tanning. In the United States the tree is best known as an ornamental one, its variety, pendula, with grace- ful drooping sprays, being perhaps the best weeping poplar. The male plants are preferred because of the abundance of their catkins which appear in early spring before the catkins of American species blossom. The American aspen (Populus tremuloides) , very generally distributed from Alaska to Labrador and south- ward to Pennsylvania and California, and. in the mountains to Mexico, so closely resembles the preceding species that many botanists consider it merely a variety. Its light-gray branches render it conspicuous in clearings where it is one of the first trees to appear. It is said to attain a height of 100 feet when grown in the forest. This tree, like the following, is widely used in the manufacture of wood pulp. The large-toothed aspen (Populus grandtden- tala) is a large American species found from Nova Scotia to Minnesota and southward to Tennessee. It is a tall tree, often reaching 75 feet, and has bluish or rusty-white leaves thicker and larger and with more spreading teeth than the former two species. Except its drooping varieties, it is rarely used as an ornamental tree. See Poplar. Aspern, as-pern, anil Esslingen, two vil- lages a few miles east of Vienna, on the oppo- site bank of the Danube, celebrated for the bat- tle fought 21 and 22 May 1809, between the Archduke Charles and Napoleon I. After the fall of the capital the Austrian general re- solved to suffer a part of the enemy's forces to pass the Danube, and then to surround them with his own army and drive them if possible into the river. Everything depended on the possession of these two villages : Aspern was at first taken by the Austrians, again lost and re- taken, till they at length remained masters of it: from Esslingen they were continually re- pulsed. The battle was renewed on the 22d ; the French army being now increased so as at least to equal the Austrians in number. Thou- sands of lives were sacrificed in vain attempts to capture the villages. Aspern continued to be the stronghold of the Austrians and Esslingen of the French. When the army of Napoleon gave up all hopes of gaining the victory by for- cing the centre of the Austrians, Esslingen served to secure their retreat to the island of Lobau. The loss of the Austrians in killed, wounded, etc., was estimated at less than a third of the whole army; that of the French at half. The latter lost on this occasion Marshal Lannes. The Austrians had 4,000 men killed and 16,000 wounded, the French 8,000, 30,000 wounded. By the French the engagement is known as the bat- tle of Essling or Esslingen, but the Austrians style it the battle of Aspern. Asphalt. The general term asphalt is applied to the several varieties of hydrocarbons of an asphaltic base which exist in all condi- tions from the liquid to the solid state. It is more specifically employed to include the purer forms of hard and soft bitumen, such as elater- ite, albertite, gilsonite, nigrite, wurtzilite, brea, etc. The term bituminous rock includes sand- stones and limestones impregnated with bitu- men or asphalt. This rock, usually shipped without previous refining, is used principally for street pavements and is mixed with other in- gredients at the place of use. The importation of asphalt into the United States is chiefly from the Island of Trinidad, off the coast of Venezuela. Other imports are made from Bermudez and Venezuela. Bitu- minous limestones are imported from Neuchatel and Val de Travers, in Switzerland, from Seys- sel in France, and in small quantities from Germany. Italy, Russia, Austria-Hungary. Spain, Turkey in Asia. Great Britain, the United States of Colombia, Canada, the Netherlands, Cuba, and Mexico. The total imports from Trinidad and Venezuela in 1000 amounted to 134,189 long tons, and at the present time the value of our ASPHALT domestic product is about equal to that of the imported asphalt, at the point of shipment. The Island of Trinidad, one of the British West Indian possessions, is, next to France, the largest producer of asphalt in the world. The deposits are operated by an American corpoiation under a concession from the British government, and, also, independently, from land not belonging to the crown, acquired by purchase. The chief source of supply is a lake of pitch filling the crater of an extinct volcano. This lake lies 138 feet above sea-level, and has an area of about 1 14 acres. The supply is partly renewed by a constant flow of soft pitch into the centre of the lake from subterranean sources. The shipments of this lake pitch average over 80,000 tons per year, and the flow into the lake is at the rate of about 20,000 tons per year. The depth of this lake is about 135 feet at the centre. Distinct from the lake pitch is what is known as "land pitch," the overflow in past times of pitch from the lake, and deposits of similar nature. During recent years strenuous efforts have been made to discredit all asphalt mined from properties lo- cated outside of Pitch Lake. These efforts seem to have failed, however. Careful analyses of samples of asphalt taken from different parts of Pitch Lake, from deposits outside the lake and from the district of La Brea show that these asphalts are so similar in composition that for practical purposes they may be considered as identical in quality. The samples have a com- mon origin, for the presence of mineral matter in these asphalts cannot be regarded as ad- ventitious, since it is thoroughly incorporated with the bitumen in the same proportion and has the same percentage of composition, as regards the relative proportions of matter soluble in water, in acids and insoluble substances. There is no doubt that the pitch found in the deposits outside the lake has been divided from the lake itself by the subterranean flow of pitch to the viscous condition, a condition rarely assumed under the combined influence of heat and pres- sure. It is true there is a difference in the crude materials in these asphalts ; one is softer than the other, because of containing more volatile oils. Nature simply began on the asphalt out- side the lake ; it being more exposed to the rays of the tropical sun, the process of refining it drove those volatile oils off, a necessary accom- plishment to make the material fit for paving purposes. It would appear, therefore, that a part of the labor of refining has been done on the land or overflow asphalt which remains to be done with the lake asphalt. In 1875 the asphalt paving industry was in its infancy in the United States. In 1903 there were about 42,000,000 square yards of asphalt, sheet and block, which has been laid at a cost of about $110,000,000. These pavements are fre- quently called bituminous pavements, inasmuch as bitumen is the largest constituent of the asphalt, frequently running as high as 9 per cent. Asphalt is manufactured into a cement by mixing it with other forms of bitumen, and this cement is in turn used to bind together particles of sand and limestone in the asphalt pavement. No two asphalts are alike. The life of the pavement depends upon the crude bitumen used, the skill in its manufacture into bituminous cement, the proper proportioning and mixing of the cement with the sand and dust and in the selection of the mineral aggregate. In 1870, Prof. E. J. Smedt, a Belgian chem- ist, laid the first sheet asphalt pavement in this country, in Newark, N. J. Prior to this date, coal tar had been used as the cementing mate- rial, but with little satisfaction. In 1876 Con- gress appointed a commission, consisting of Gens. Horatio G. Wright and Quincey A. Gil- more, of the corps of engineers, and Edward Clark, architect of the capitol, to select the best pavement for Pennsylvania Avenue in Wash- ington. Forty-one proposals, for stone, macad- am, tar and asphalt pavements, were received. The commission selected two, and decided to use Neuchatel rock asphalt, and De Smedt's artificial Trinidad mixture, in the proportion of two to three. The artificial Trinidad mixture has been most satisfactory. When it was de- cided, in 1889, to repave Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, the entire avenue was relaid with it, and the Neuchatel was discarded. Trinidad Pitch Lake has furnished over 85 per cent of the asphalt used in the United States. The liquid asphalt passing through clay saturates it or carries it in suspension and be- comes a brown, earthy, non-viscous substance, chemically composed as follows: Bitumen 47 per cent Infusorial earth 28 per cent Water 25 per cent The water is evaporated in refining and the residue (approximately one third clay and two thirds hard asphalt) regains some of its viscosity and requires the admixture of some flux or softening agent to give it the proper consistency for paving operations. Samples taken at 100 and 150 feet deep at the centre of Pitch Lake do not differ in composition from those taken on the surface near the shore, show- ing the homogeneousness of the entire mass. The surface is in constant motion, and gradually lowers as the asphalt is removed. Refined as- phalt is shipped from Trinidad to Mexico. South America and other foreign countries : but, owing to the very high duty on refined asphalt coming into the United States, it is cheaper to refine here. In 1892, the New York and Bermudez Com- pany began the importation of a very pure and hard asphalt from a deposit in the State of Ber- mudez, Venezuela, and up to the present time about 3,000,000 square yards of pavement have been laid with this material. The Bermudez Asphalt Lake, covering an area of about 1,000 acres, lies about 20 miles from the Gulf of Paria, in a straight line. There are many springs of soft asphalt or maltha, the largest being about 7 acres in area. Outside of the springs, where new material is constantly exud- ing, the surface of the lake is covered with veg- etation and trees, which must first be cut off to reach the asphalt. The quality of the asphalt varies from maltha or liquid asphalt exuding from the springs, to a hard glance pitch. The crude Bermudez asphalt contains on an average about 31 per cent of water, which is present as a mixture and not as an emulsion, and about 66 per cent of bitumen. This asphalt is softer and more brittle than Trinidad, but possesses all es- sential cementitious qualities. As early as 1879 asphalt found in Southern California was laid at an intersection on Market Stnet, San Francisco, which is the heaviest traveled street in that city. In 1884 the late Jesse Warren reported on these California ASPHALT PAINTING — ASPIDIUM asphalts, the only indications of which were slight surface exudations of liquid asphalt and large hanks of bituminous sandstone (.sand sat- urated with asphalt). In 1895, the Alcatraz Company successfully laid two streets in New York city and acquired a high standing for the California product which was subsequently con- trolled by the Asphalt Company of America. It has been laid in many Eastern cities, under the trade name of "Alcatraz," "Standard," "Ven- tura," etc., and has been uniformly successful when refined, mixed and laid intelligently, by men experienced in handling asphalt in all its stages. Shortly after the organization of the Asphalt Company of America, beds of very pure, high grade, liquid asphalt were discovered in Southern California. This bring a nearly pure, viscous bitumen, it does not require a softening agent or flux, nor the admixture of other bitumi- nous material, to make it of the proper con- sistency for paving. Asphalt Painting. Asphalt was once largely used in painting, especially in the old Dutch school. It was dissolved in spirits of wine to ensure greater permanence. Because of its unreliability it ceased to be used. Asphalt Process, a photographic process devised about I014 by J. N. Niepce (q.v.). He coated a plate of polished metal with asphalt varnish, and then placed it with a drawing in a camera obscura for from 4 to 6 hours. The parts of the asphalt which had been acted upon by the light became insoluble. The parts of the asphalt film that had been protected were dis- solved by essential oils, and thus a copy of the drawing was brought out. The "heliographs" thus made were not particularly successful. This method has been modified in the asphalt process of photo-mechanical printing. See Photo-Engraving. Asphaltic Coal, coal-like substances which though they have sometimes been classi- fied as coals, differ from all the true coals in respect to both their geological position and their composition. They do not occur in strata, uut occupy cavities and fissures, into which they appear to have flowed when plastic. They have been found in Devonian, Carboniferous, and Tertiary rock. The regions in which they are principally mined are Albert County, New Brunswick (albertite), the Uinta Mountains, Utah (gibsonite and uintahite), and Colorado, West Virginia, Texas, and Mexico (grahamite). Wurtzilite is found also in Utah. Their chief u~.es are as a basis for varnishes, and as insu- lators. Consult: Rlake, "Uintahite. Albertite, etc.' ; 'Transactions' of the American Insti- tute of Mining Engineers, Vol. XVIII. (1890). As'phodel, a •small genus, Asphodelus, of hardy annual and perennial fleshy-rooted herbs, natives of the Mediterranean region, belonging to the natural order Liliacea, but by some bot- anists made the type genus of the natural order Asphodelte, A. luteus, Intra, king's spear, or yellow asphodel, the true asphodel of the an- cients, attains a height of two to four feet, has numerous long (3 to 12 inches) narrow rough- margined leaves which embrace the stem, and in early summer yellow flowers in long racemes (6 to 18 inches), and large persistent membra- nous bracts, ./. albus, branching or white aspho- del, which has radical leaves, blossoms about the same time as the preceding species, and pro- duces its white funnel-shaped blossoms in branched clusters. Both species arc readily propagated by division and arc of easy cultiva- tion in any soil. They thrive fairly well in partial shade, but do better when more or less exposed to the sun. A. ramosus, a species which by some botanists is made to include ./. albus and many other species, is cultivated in Algeria and some other countries for its starchy roots which are used to make alcohol. The refuse from this manufacture, together with the leaves and stems, is employed in paper and cardboard-making. Several other related plants are often called asphodel, among which are Narthecium ossifragum, bog asphodel, common on European moors; A', amcricaitum, by some botanists considered a form of the preceding, and A. califomicum, similarly called in America. False asphodel is a name given to several spe- cies of Tolfiedia. The asphodel of the poets is Narcissus pseudo-narcissus. Asphyxia, ctymologically, pulselessness, but literally a condition of partial or complete loss of consciousness because id' defective oxida- tion of the blood. The symptoms may be de- veloped rapidly or slowly. In sudden occlusion of the air passages, such as caused by a foreign body in the larynx, or compression of the throat as in hanging, there is usually a quiet period of from 20 to 30 seconds after which respiratory movements, both of inspiration and of expira- tion, follow. These gradually increase in fre- quency and depth until in about a minute pow erful expiratory convulsions occur; convulsive movements of inspiration are also produced, hut these arc usually milder in character. A period of exhaustion sets in, the respiratory movements become slower and more irregular, and grad- ually cease. During this period the face has be- come pallid, and then deeply cyanosed and flushed, the lips blue to purple, and the body temperature, at first increased, gradually dimin- ishes. The blood pressure is at first increased, and then falls gradually to zero. Unconscious- ness develops about a minute after the occlusion, although there is great individual variation, the sphincters relax and the urine and fajces are passed. There is a loss of muscle-tone, and the reflexes arc abolished. In asphyxia both lack of oxygen and increase of carbonic-acid gas in the blood are important factors. Asphyxia may re- sult from an excess of carbonic-acid gas with a normal amount of oxygen, and may be pro- duced, if the amount of oxygen is diminished one half, with no variation of the carbon diox- ide. For treatment, see Drowning. As'pic, a dish consisting of a clear, savorv meat jelly, containing fowl, game, fish, etc. Aspid'ium, a widely distributed genus of ferns, numbering upward of 500 species, of which more than a dozen are found in the United States, including the male and shield ferns. Their only economic use is in medicine. The active principles in this and allied species are filicic acid, aspidin and other phloroglucin- like bodies. The action is largely on the tape- worm, for which parasite this drug is given. Poisonous symptoms sometimes are produced. These are pain, muscular weakness, purging, collapse, and even death. Temporary blindness has been produced by male fern. ASPINWALL — ASS As'pinwall, William, an American physi- cian: h. Brookline, Mass., 23 May 1743: d. 16 April 1823. He studied medicine in Phila- delphia, and practised in his native town. He served as surgeon with the Revolutionary army, and later became interested in the subject of vaccination and established that preventive in American practice. As'pinwall, William H., an American con- structor of railroads : b. New York city 16 Dec. 1807 ; d. 18 Jan. 1875. He was for many years a partner in a large shipping firm in New York, but retiring from it in 1850, turned his attention to building the Panama Railroad, whose eastern terminus of Aspinwall is named in his honor. He was likewise prominent in forming the Pacific Mail Steamship Company. Aspiroz, as-pe'roth, Manuel de, Mexican soldier, statesman, and diplomat : b. Puebla 9 June 1836; d. Washington, D. C, 24 March 1905. He graduated from the University of Mexico in 1855, was licensed to practise law in 1863, but upon the French invasion entered the army. In the Juarez insurrection of 1863 against Maximilian, he served in the insurgent army with great distinction, rising from 2d lieutenant to colonel. After the fall of Quere- taro he was appointed judge-advocate of the military court which sentenced the emperor to death, thereby incurring the lasting hatred of the imperial house of Austria, of which Maxi- milian was a member. In 1867 Aspiroz became assistant secretary of state for foreign affairs in the new republic ; in 1872 did much to settle amicably the claims between the United States and Mexico, which dated from the Mexican war in 1845 : in 1873-5 was consul at San Fran- cisco ; and in 1875 was elected senator from his native province to the Mexican national con- gress. In 1881 he left the senate to become a member of the commission appointed to make treaties with the powers of the world ; was law professor in the College of Puebla from 1883 to 1890, when he was again appointed by President Diaz assistant secretary of state, serving in that capacity until appointed, in 1899, first Mexican ambassador to the United States, a position he held till his death. In 1900 he was the Mexican representative at the Hague tribunal ; was a member of several scientific organizations, a knight commander of the military Order of Our Lord Jesus Christ of Portugal, and had been presented by the Shah of Persia with the dec- oration of the Order of the Lion and Rising Sun, and by the dowager empress of China with the insignia of the Order of the Dragon, in both cases in appreciation of his services in negotiating treaties between their respective countries. He published: ( C6digo de extran- jeria de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos* (1876) ; and ( La libertad civil como base del derecho internacional privado' (1896). Asple'nium, a genus of about 200 species of small ferns of world-wide distribution, be- longing to the sub-order Polypodiacete, char- acterized by free veins and elongated sori covered by an indusium. Many of the species are very beautiful and are consequently favorites with cultivators whose space is limited. .-/. viride, A. adiantum-nigrum, A. trichomanes, and other species are commonly called spleemvort from their formerly supposed efficacy in internal medicine. The two last-mentioned species also bear the name of maiden-hair, but are not the true maiden-hair fern (Adiantum). In the eastern United States a dozen or more species are to be found growing wild, among which the more common are A. thelypteroides, A. angusti- foliutn and A. felixfamia, which reach a height of from one to four feet. In cultivation, slight shade is almost essential, as is also abundant water at the roots, but the air must not be very moist else the leaves will turn brown. The plants thrive in peaty soil. See Ferns. As'quith, Herbert Henry, an English statesman: b. Morley, Yorkshire, 12 Sept. 1852, and educated at Balliol College, Oxford. He studied law and was admitted in the bar of Lincoln's Inn in 1852. He entered Parliament in 1886 as member for East Fife, and was re- elected in 1892 and in 1895, and was home sec- retary in Gladstone's last cabinet. He was con- spicuous as a debater during the Home Rule discussions, and in 1894 drew up the Welsh Church Disestablishment Bill. In December 1905 he was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer in the Liberal cabinet of Sir Henry Campbell- Bannerman. Ass (As. assa, Goth, asilus, Rus. osclu, Lat. minus, probably of Eastern origin ; cf. Heb. atlion, she-ass) or, when domesticated. Don- key. A member of the family Equida and usually placed in the genus Equus, with the horse, though sometimes made the type of a separate genus Asinus. There are at least three species, one Asiatic, and the others African. From the North African species the domesti- cated ass or donkey has probably descended, although many of its characteristics, particularly its spirit and bearing, are greatly altered. In size, in the short hair and terminal tuft of the tail, and in the fact that only the fore-legs present callosities, the ass resembles the zebra rather than the horse ; and although not striped like the zebra, it has a varying tendency to stripes on the legs. The Asiatic ass ( Equus hemionus) is divided into three local varieties, of which the one found in Persia and Syria must be that which the Old Testament writer- used as a type of unhampered wildness. Of the oth- ers, the kiang, koulan, or dziggetai of Thibet, is the largest and most strikingly colored. Its height is sometimes four feet at the shoulders. Like all asses, it is pale underneath, but the color above is a dark red with a narrow black stripe along the mane and backbone from head to tail. The third variety, the onager or ghorkhar, like the first, is smaller and paler: sometimes it is even silvery, and its dorsal stripe is broader in proportion than that of the Thibetan ass. It in- habits the plains of northwestern India, Afghan- istan, and Beluchistan. Unlike the donkey, these wild asses are so extremely swift, enduring, and agile that on the plains they cannot be over- taken by a single horseman. In the mountains they are less shy, and sometimes voluntarily approach travelers. Wild asses are hunted for sport, and it is said of their flesh, that, while resembling venison, it has an even finer quality. The asses of the plains migrate to the hills in summer when the plains are dry. See Kiang; Onager. The African ass (Equus Africanus) differs widely from the Asiatic, being larger and hav- ing a bluish tint rather than a tendency to red. ASS — ASSAM It is sometimes as much as 14 hands high, and has the very large ears which characterize the donkey. The dark stripe on the back begins only at the shoulder, but extends from the tail down the withers; the hair of the mane and tail is short, and varies little from that of the body in color. It is found in all the open re- gions of northeastern Africa, and westward through the Sahara and Sudan. Like the Asiatic ass, it is extremely wild and fleet. A second species of African wild ass (Equus somul- icus) was found in Somaliland a few years ago I e Proc. Zool. Soc. of London, 1884. p. 540), which is distinguished by its grayer color, and faintness of its stripes; it also has smaller ears and a more flowing mane. Living examples have been kept in London. The leading authorities on these animals are Blanford and Tegetmeier, the latter the author of 'Horses, Asses, and Zebras' (1895). The donkey, or domestic ass, was probably first tamed in Egypt, where it was known before the horse, and has always been much used; some of the Eastern breeds of the donkey are far larger and finer than those commonly seen in Europe, though in Spain and Italy, where they are more used, they are superior to those of other European countries. In England they are little employed, but in America are kept by stock raisers in the Middle and Southern States for the breeding of mules and hinnies. (See Mule.) Their milk is recommended in cases of consumption and dyspepsia, and their skins furnish the leather called shagreen, besides an excellent shoe-leather and the covering of drums. Ass, Feast of the, a mock ceremony ob- served in northern France in the Middle Ages. It was originally a good-natured parody on the church service without intentional irreverence, but degenerated into an indecent performance. It was in substance a brief farce in which Balaam's ass appeared before the church altar to prophesy the coming of Christ. Assab, as-sab', an Italian trading station on the coast of the Red Sea, 40 miles from the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb. The neighboring dis- trict with an area of 243 square miles, was sold in 1870 by some Danakil chieftains to an Italian steamship company for a coaling station on the road to India. In 1880 it was taken over by the Italian government, which, since 1884, has im- proved the harbor and erected a lighthouse. Assai, as-si', a food made from the fruit pulp of various species of Brazilian palms closely allied to the cabbage palm (q.v.) and largely used in the lower Amazon region. The principal species are Euterpe edulis and E. Ca- tinga. The first species grows in tide-flooded swamps, where it may attain a height of 90 feet with a diameter of only four or five inches. It produces upon branched spadices an abun- dance of small pea-like purple fruit with a thin firm pulp and a hard seed. These fruits are kneaded in warm water to produce the thick purplish assai which is generally eaten with starchy foods. The terminal bud of this species is eaten like that of its close relative, E. oleraeea, the cabbage palm, and its stems are used as rafters and poles. The other species grow on dry, sandy, upland soils, its smaller quantity of fruit furnishing a sweeter assai. Assai, as-sal', a large salt lake in the dis- trict of Adal, in eastern Africa, near the i". 1-1 of the Bay of Tajura. It is nearly (100 feel below the level of the sea. Abyssinian caravans resort to Assai for the purpose of carrying off the salt, thickly encrusted on its shores. Assam', a chief-commissionership of Brit- ish India, situated mainly between Upper Bur- ma and the Himalayas, with an area of 52.078 square miles. It may be considered as a Ion- series of fertile valleys watered by the Brah- maputra and its tributaries. The valley of the Brahmaputra consists of rich alluvial plains, either but little elevated above the flood-level of the Brahmaputra and its feeders, or so low that large extents of them are flooded for three or four days once or twice in the year. The Surma valley is even more subjected to inunda- tions than the plains of the Brahmaputra, but the Surma and its tributaries having more per- manent banks, the shifting is trifling compared with the banks of the Brahmaputra. In Assam are found the valuable teak and sissoo trees, date, and sago palms, the arcca palm (the betel- nut-tree), the Indian fig tree, etc. But the ar- ticle of most commercial importance grown in Assam is tea. The plant was discovered grow- ing in this region in 1823, but not till 1838 did the first shipment reach England. The plant producing it, though not regarded as specifically distinct from that of China, is much larger and more vigorous. There are now about 300,000 acres under tea; the yield is about 100,000,000 pounds annually. Rice covers a large extent of the cultivated soil, occupying about 1,500.000 acres. The other crops include maize, pulse, oil seeds, sugar-cane, hemp, jute, potatoes, etc. In the jungles and forests roam herds of ele- phants, in the dense and swampy parts of the forests the rhinoceros is met with, and tigers and wild buffaloes abound: leopards, bears, and wild hogs are numerous, and among other animals are jackals and foxes, goats, deer, and the veno- mous cobra. Coal, petroleum, limestone, and iron are found, and gold-dust is met with in many of the rivers. The coal-beds are sup- posed to be co-extensive with the main valley, but coal is only worked to the south of the Brahmaputra. The inhabitants are mostly en- gaged in agriculture. There is no Assamese nation proper, various ethnical groups being represented. The people seem to be contented, good-natured, and indolent, and have few wants beyond what can be easily supplied from their fertile fields, for which they pay but a very small rental. Great respect is paid to the aged ; parents, when no longer able to work, are supported by their offspring; they are ten- derly attached to their children, kind to their relatives, and hospitable to people of their own caste. Assam, known in ancient Indian history as Kamarupa, formed in the 7th century a.d. a powerful independent kingdom under a Brah- man sovereign, but in the 15th century it broke up into 12 separate states, which, in spite of their numerous internal struggles, were gener- ally able to resist the attacks of the powerful Mogul emperors. Late in the 18th century its condition encouraged the Burmese to make the country a dependency of Ava, but the Burmese encroachments on the territory of the East In- dia Company brought about war with the British. In 1826 Assam became a possession of Great ASSAS — ASSAULT Britain under the administration of the lieuten- ant-governor of Bengal, and in 1874 was erected into a chief-commissionership. There are no towns properly so-called, but some large vil- lages. The seat of administration is Shillong. Pop. (1901) 6,122,201. Assas, as'sa, Nicolas, Chevalier d', a French officer, celebrated for an act of patriot- ism which cost him his life. He was captain in the regiment of Auvergne when the French army was stationed near Gueldres, in 1760, and on 15 October, while engaged in reconnoitering, was taken prisoner by a division of the enemy advancing to surprise the French camp, and threatened with death if a word escaped him. He shouted, "A moi, Auvergne, voila les cnne- mis!" and was instantly struck down. An an- nual pension was allowed to his descendants. Assas'sina'tion, a term denoting the mur- der of any one by surprise or treachery. It is commonly applied to the murder of a public per- sonage by one who aims solely at the death of his victim. In ancient times, assassination was often even applauded, as in the Scriptural in- stances of Ehud and Jael, and in the murder of Hipparchus by Harmodius and Aristogeiton ; but assassination by enthusiasts and men devoted to an idea first became prominent in the religious struggles of the 16th and 17th centuries. To this class belong the plots against the life of Queen Elizabeth ; while the succession of assas- sinations of Roman emperors is but a series of murders prompted by self-interest or revenge. Omitting these last, the following list includes the most important assassinations, arranged in chronological order. Fuller accounts of the per- sons mentioned will be found under their par- ticular headings : Philip of Macedon B.C. 366 Julius Ca-sar Mar. 15 B.C. 44 Thomas Becket Dec. 29, A.D. 1 1 70 Alhert I. Emperor of Germany May I, 1308 James I. of Scotland Feb. 21, 1437 Alessandro de Medici Jan. 5, 1537 Cardinal Beaton May 29, 1 546 David Riccio Mar. 9, 1566 Lord Da'rnley Feb. 10, 1567 James, Earl of Murray, Regent Jan. 23, 1570 William of Orange July 10, 1584 Henry III. of France Aug. 1-2, 1589 Henry IV. of France May 14, 1610 Yilliers, Duke of Buckingham Aug. 23, 1628 U'allenstein Feb. 25, 1634 Archbishop Sharp May 3, 1 679 C-ustavus III. of Sweden. Mar. 16; d Mar. 29, 1792 Marat, by Charlotte Corday July 13, 1793 Gen. Kleber at Cairo June 14, 1800 Paul, Czar of Russia Mar. 24, 1891 Spencer Perceval, premier May it, 1812 Kotzebue, the dramatist Mar. 23, 1819 DucdeBerri Feb. 13, 1820 Charles III., Duke of Parma, Mar. 26; d... Mar. 27, 1854 President Abraham Lincoln, April 14; d. . .April 15, 1865 Michael, Prince of Servia June 10, 1868 Marshal Prim. Dec. 28; d Dec. 30, 1870 Georges Darboy, Archbishop of Paris May 24, 1 87 1 F.arl of Mayo, governor-general of India. .. Feb. 8, 1872 Sultan Abdul-Aziz June 4, 1876 Alexander II., Czar of Russia Mar. 13, 1881 President James A. Garfield, July 2; d. Sept. 19, 1881 Lord Frederick Cavendish and T. H. Burke. in Phtrnix Row, Dublin May 6, 1882 President Sadi Carnot. France June 24, 1894 Ex-Premier Stefan Stambuloff, Bulgaria, July 15; d July 18, 1895 Premier Canovas del Castillo, Spain April 22, 1897 President Juan Idiarte. Uruguay Aug. 25, 1897 Empress Elizabeth of Austria, in Geneva. .Sept. 10, 1898 President Ulisses Heureaux, Santo Domin- go July 26, 1899 King Humbert of Italy July 29, 1900 President McKinley. Sept. 6; d Sept. 14, 1901 Alexander of Servia June 11, 1903 Many attempts at assassination have been unsuccessful. Among those within the last cen- tury may be named : Against Alexander III. of Russia, repeatedly; Alfonso XII. of Spain, 1878 and 1879 ; Amadeus of Spain, 1872 ; Due d'Au- male, 1841 ; Prince Bismarck, 1866 and 1874; Francis Joseph of Austria, 1853 ; George III. of England, 1786 and 1800; George IV. (when Re- gent), 1817; Humbert I. of Italy, 1878 and 1897; Isabella II. of Spain, 1847, 1852, and 1856; Louis Philippe, six attempts, from 1835 to 1846; Lord Lytton, viceroy of India, 1878; Napoleon I., by infernal machine, 1800; Napoleon III., twice in 1855, and Orsini's attempt in 1858 ; Queen Victoria, 10 June 1840, 30 May 1842, 3 July 1842, 19 May 1849, and 2 March 1882; William I. of Germany, 1861, 1875, an d twice in 1878; Presi- dent Diaz of Mexico and President Morales of Brazil, both in 1897; and the Prince of Wales in 1900. Assas'sins, a term applied to a secret order of religious fanatics who flourished in the nth and 12th centuries. They derived their name of assassins originally from their immod- erate use of hasheesh, which produces an in- tense cerebral excitement, often amounting to fury. Their founder and lawgiver was Has- san-ben-Sabah. to whom the Orientals gave the name of Sheikh-el- Jobelz, but who was better known in Europe as the "Old Man of the Moun- tain." Their principal article of belief was that the Holy Ghost was embodied in their chief, and that his orders proceeded from the Deity. They believed assassination to be meritorious when sanctioned by his command, and courted danger and death in the execution of his orders. They were frequently styled Ismaili. A feeble residue of the sect, from whom proceeded the Druses, about a.d. 1020, has survived in Persia and Sy- ria. The Syrian Ismaili dwell around Mesiode, and on Lebanon. They are under Turkish do- minion, with a sheik of their own, and formerly enjoyed a productive and flourishing agriculture and commerce. Since the war with the Nas- sarians, 1809-10, they have dragged out a miser- able existence, but are commended by modern travelers for their hospitality, frugality, gentle- ness, and piety. Assault'. In law, an assault is a move- ment virtually implying a threat to strike, as when a person raises his hand or his cane in a menacing manner, or strikes at another but misses him. It is not needful to touch one to constitute an assault. When a blow actually takes effect, the crime is not simple assault, but assault and battery. Assault, however, is usual- ly coupled with battery, and for the reason that they generally go together; but the assault is rather the initiation or offer to commit the act of which the battery is the consummation. An assault is included in every battery. An aggra- vated assault is one performed with the inten- tion of committing some additional crime, such as an assault with intent to commit rape, assault with intent to murder, an assault with a deadly weapon, an indecent assault. The defenses usu- ally interposed in cases of assault are self-de- fense, recapture of property, ejectment of tres- passers, defense of property, defense of family, accident, etc. A person assaulting another may be prosecuted by him for the civil injury, and also be punished by the criminal law for the in- jury done to the public. ASSAYE; ASSAYING In military language an assault is a furious effort to carry a fortified post, camp, or fortress, where the assailants do not screen themselves by any works. It is the appropriate termination of a siege which has not led to the capitulation of the garrison. To give an assault : To attack any post. To repulse an assault : To cause the assailants to retreat ; to beat them back. To carry by assault : To gain a post by storm. In fencing, an assault of arms is an attack on each other (not in earnest), made by two fencers to exhibit or increase their skill. (Sometimes it is used in a wider sense for other military exer- cises.) Assaye, as-si', a village in southern India, where Wellington gained a famous victory in [803. With only 4.500 troops at his disposal he completely mined the Mahratta force of 50,000 men and 100 guns. The victory, however cost him the loss of more than a third of his men. Assaying, the art of testing ores or al- loys, for the purpose of determining the amount of some particular metal that is present in the material analyzed. Assays may be made by "wet" or "dry" methods, and will vary greatly in detail, according to the metal to be determined. The present article will be chiefly devoted to the usual process of estimating gold and silver in the "dry" way. The mode of procedure is sub- stantially the same, whether the assay is made upon ore or upon bullion, except as to the method of obtaining the sample to be examined. If the material proposed for the assay is bul- lion, or any metallic alloy, the sample for exam- ination is obtained by drilling into the specimen in different places, and mixing the borings. In the case of an ore, the usual method of obtaining a sample for assaying is by "quartering." If this is done by hand, every tenth shovelful of the ore to be examined is thrown upon the floor, until a conical heap containing perhaps tni tons has been accumulated. This heap is next flattened somewhat, and divided into four quarters, as nearly equal as possible. Two of the diagonally opposite quarters are thrown back into the main body of ore, and the remaining two quarters are thoroughly mixed, spread out into a second pile, and "quartered" again in the same manner. The process is continued (the ore being crushed in the meantime as often as ap- pears necessary ) until the original sample has 1m 1 11 reduced to from one to three pounds, after which it is ground line, and the specimens desired for examination are made up by random selec- tions from the final pulverized product. More commonly, ores are sampled by mechanical or semi-mechanical methods, and the sampling is not done by the miner, but by a "campling mill," which acts as the agent both of the miner and of the smelling works. In such cases the ore is first shipped to the sampling mill, where it is unloaded, weighed, crushed, and passed through a chute, in which one quarter is mechan- ically selected and passed into a separate bin. The quarter thus mechanically reserved is next thoroughly mixed, after which the "cutting down" is commenced. This consists in remov- ing the ore from the floor by means of a spe- cially-constructed sampling shovel which catches about half of it, and lets the remainder fall into a barrow. The ore retained by the shovel is thrown into three buckets, in rotation, and the contents of the buckets are then coned up in one pile, and divided again in the same manner. The ore is then further crushed, and the process is continued until, finally, three samples, weigh- ing about ten pounds each, are obtained. Tart of each of these is sent separately to the as- saycr, who assays all three. If the results are not adjudged to be sufficiently accordant, the sampler concludes that the mixing was not well done, and the operations described arc repeated. But if the three samples agree fairly well, their average is taken as representing the value of the ore; and on this basis the sampler settles witli the miner, and afterward with the smelter, thus acting as a middle-man in the sale of the ore. The specimen of ore received by the as- sayer is ground fine enough to pass through a oo-mesh or a loo-mesh screen, any "mctallics'' (or particles of metal that will not pass through the screen being carefully collected and reserved for a separate assay. If the ore is new to the assayer, his next step is to examine it micro- scopically, and to apply various preliminary tests, so that the general nature of the ore may be known before the quantitative work begins. If assays of the same material have been made before, and the only object is to as- certain the richness of this particular lot of ore, he may proceed directly to the process of "scoriticatioii," by which the gold and silver present in the ore are obtained in the form of a metallic button. The scorification process de- pends for its success upon the fact that when an ore of gold and silver is strongly heated with metallic lead in the presence of air, the baser metals that are present will oxidize, and the lead oxid that is also formed will dissolve the silica (or quartz) that is present; while the gold and silver will not oxidize, but will be left in the metallic state, alloyed with that por- tion of the lead which remains unoxidized. To apply this principle, 50 grains or so of the ore arc mixed with some 500 grains of granu- lated lead, and placed in a sort of crucible, called a " scorifier." Another charge of 500 grains of lead is spread evenly over the mass, and a few grains of borax are sprinkled upon the top. The crucible and its contents are next heated for about three-quarters of an hour in a muffle to which a small amount of air is ad- mitted, after which the melted mass in the cru- cible is poured into a mold to "set," or cool. When the mold is cold, it will be found to contain a button of metallic lead (in which the gold and silver originally in the ore are concentrated), and also a considerable amount of slag, consisting of oxid of lead, oxids of the base metals that arc present in the ore, and silicates of lead, derived from the combina- tion of the melted lead oxid with the quartz of the ore. The slag is readily detached from the metallic button by taps with a hammer. The next step is to "cupel" the button, so as to obtain the gold and silver in a pure state. Cupellation is based upon the fact that when an alloy of gold, silver, lead, and base metals is heated in a current of air, the lead and the other base metals will oxidize, and the melted lead oxid ("litharge") will retain the other oxids in solution. Moreover, if the crucible in which the operation is carried out is porous, the melted lead oxid will soak into it, carry- ing the base oxids with it, and leaving a button of pure gold and silver behind. 1 Humid Assay for Silver. J Muffle Fur-nice* for Fire As^av. B Weighine Room. * Pressing the Assay Sample 6 Melting Gold Bullion. 6 Extracting the Silver with boiling Acid. ASSAYING GOLD AND SILVER BULLION AT THE NEW YORK ASSAY OFFICE. ASSAY OFFICES — ASSEMBLAGES The "cupel* in which this is performed is made of bone-ash, and after the button left from the scorification process has been heated in the cupel for a short time, the process indi- cated above takes place, its completion being indicated, to the practised eye, by a play of ir- idescent colors on the cupelled button. The button is finally allowed to cool, and after it has been taken from the cupel, any small parti- cles of bone-ash that remain adhering to it are removed by a brush. If the original ore contained no silver, the assay is now completed, and it only remains to weigh the gold button, and compare its weight with that of the sample of ore used in the assay. But if silver is present, one other process, known as "parting," must be carried out, in order to separate the gold from the silver. Parting depends upon the fact that nitric acid will dissolve the silver out of an alloy of silver and gold, provided the weight of silver present is at least 2.5 times as great as the weight of the gold. In order to ensure the fulfillment of this necessary condition, the button, as it comes from the cupel, is melted with 2.5 or 3 times its own weight of silver that is known to be free from gold, and the alloy so formed is flattened out into a thin plate or ribbon, which is then rolled up into a little spiral, or "cornet," and boiled in nitric acid. The cornet is next washed in dis- tilled water, and boiled again in nitric acid, to remove the last traces of silver; after which it is thrown into a crucible and melted into a but- ton, for weighing. The button obtained by this final process consists of pure gold. Assay Offices in the United States are gov- ernment establishments in which citizens may de- posit gold and silver bullion, receiving in re- turn its value, less charges. The offices are in New York city ; Boise City, Ida. ; Helena, Mont. ; Denver, Col. ; Seattle, Wash. ; San Francisco, Cal. ; Charlotte, N. C. ; and St. Louis, Mo. The assay office in New York was estab- lished by law in 1853, and was opened in the autumn of 1854. The first assayer of the New York assay office was Dr. John Torrey of Co- lumbia College, who was appointed in 1854 and held his position till 1873. On his death he was succeeded by his son, Herbert Gray Torrey, who has been in the office for 40 years. The su- perintendent of the assay office is Andrew Mason, who was appointed to his present posi- tion in 1883, having previously been assistant assayer and melter and refiner. While holding the latter office he substituted the use of sul- phuric for nitric acid in the refining process, thus saving this one assay office $100,000 per annum. The United States assay office is in a build- ing located beside the more imposing sub- treasury building, at the intersection of Wall and Broad streets, which marks one of the most historic spots in the country, namely, the site of the old Federal Hall, where Washington took the oath as first President of the United States. Although the building is small, yet it only masks a really large, inner building sur- rounded on all sides by office buildings and the sub-treasury. The assay offices, and particu- larly this one, have an important position in the world of finance, for here the precious met- als — gold and silver — in all forms and con- ditions of fineness are assayed and refined. In brief, the work of this office consists in assay- ing or determining the value of gold and silver, in whatever form presented, as coin, jewelry, or in any other shape. Any one wishing to have gold or silver assayed in quantity or wishing to sell to the government, may present his property at the assay office, where he may have the metal reduced and made into bars, or if he prefers, he may sell his bullion to the gov- ernment. The charge for doing the work is merely nominal, and based on the actual cost. Millions of dollars are stored at all times in the vaults. When the metal is received, the first step consists in weighing the coin, bars, jewelry, or tableware. This is done with great exact- ness and a receipt is given. Each person's hold- ings are placed in a box and are taken to the melting-room, where they are placed in cruci- bles with a flux and smelted and cast in ingot molds, the pouring being a highly picturesque operation. A small chip is taken from the bar for assay. See Coinage. If the depositor wishes to part with his bullion, the government pays for it at the pre- vailing price and proceeds to separate or part the gold from the silver. The price of gold never varies, costing $20.67 a fine ounce. Sil- ver fluctuates with the market. The importance of the assay office in its rela- tion to the financial world, the treasury, and the mint cannot be overestimated. During the fis- cal year ending 30 June 1900, the fineness of 11,802 melts of gold and silver deposits, 993 melts of fine gold and silver, also 1.050 melts of mixed metal, about 500 special deposits, 350 barrels of sweeps, 83,178 gold and silver bars were estimated, and about 60,000 cupels and the necessary "proof" gold and silver were made. Assay Offices. See Assaying. Assegai, as'se-ga, a short spear employed as a weapon among the Kaffirs of South Africa. It is made of hard wood tipped with iron, and used for throwing or thrusting. Assemani, as'se-ma'ne, (1) Joseph Si- mon, a famous Orientalist: b. of a Maronite family in Tripoli, Syria, 1687; d. Rome, 14 Jan. 1768. He traveled on the Pope's com- mission through Egypt and Syria, collecting many Oriental manuscripts and coins for the Vatican library, of which he was appointed keeper. Of his numerous learned works, the most important is "Bibliothcca Orientalis,' is- sued by order of Clement XI. and containing (in manuscript form) the Vatican codices in Syriac, Arabic. Persian, Turkish, Hebrew, Sa- maritan, Armenian, Ethiopian, Greek. Egyptian, Iberian, and Malabaric. (2) Stephen Epho- nii s (1707-82), also a learned author of books on Oriental learning. He was titular archbishop "t" Apomaca, Syria. Yet another nephew and Orientalist was (3) Joseph Aloysius (1710-82), professor at Rome. (4) Simon', a relative of the preceding, b. in Tripoli 1752; d. Padua 8 April 1821. He filled the chair of Oriental languages at Padua. He wrote an important work on ancient coins. 'Museo Cufico Naniano Illus- trato' (1787-8). Assemblages, General Theory of. The doctrine variously entitled Mengenlehre and Mannigfaltigkeitslehre by the Germans. Theorie des ensembles by the French, and sometimes re- ferred to in English as the theory or doctrine of ASSEMBLAGES manifolds or aggregates or by other analogous n. itnms Main of its ideas an- at least as ancient as historical thought and have ligurcd in important ways in logic, philosophy and mathematics steadily from the earliest times. On the other hand, many of the chief concepts involved in it. its characteristic notions, and their organization into a distinct and self- supporting body of coherent doctrine, may he said to constitute the latest great mathemati- cal creation. Indeed the majority of the founders and builders of the doctrine, including Georg Cantor as easily the primate of them all, are .nil among the living As mathematics is the most fundamental of the sciences, tin- thei >ry semblages seems destined to be regarded, if it In- nut already regarded, as the most fun- damental branch of mathematics. Viewed in retrospect, it appears as an inevitable product of the modern critical spirit. Already it is seen to underlie and interpenetrate both geometry and analysis. Its connection with mathemati- cal logic is most intimate, often approximating identity with the latter; and even philosophy is surely, if but slowly, beginning to recognize in the theory of manifolds her own most inviting and promising field. The Notions, Assemblage and Element. — Roughly speaking, any collection of objects or things of whatever kind or kinds is an assem- blage. Each object in the collection is called an element of the assemblage. An assemblage, to be mathematically available, must be de- fined, or, as usage has it. well-defined (wohlde- finirt, bien defim). An assemblage is defined when, by the logical principle of excluded middle, it can be n -aided as intrinsically deter- mined whether an arbitrarily given object is or is not an element of it. Means may or may not be known for making the determination actual or extrinsic. Thus if the elements of the assemblage be completely tabulated, the deter- mination can lie actually effected by comparing the given object with the elements of the table. Again, if an assemb'age, such as that of the endless sequence i, 2, 3, . . . of integers, be given i definite law of formation of its elements, the law will generally enable one to determine actuallv whether any given object, as 5 or J or an apple or a sunset, is an element of the assemblage or not. But the possession of such means is not essential to the notion of defined assemblage A real * number is called algebraic or transcendental according as it is or is not a 1 of an equation of the form, a„.v» +a,.v»- 1 + 1J..1-™- 5 + . . . +a n -iX + a n =0, Inning integral icients. Any real number, no matter what its origin or definition, is cither algebraic or transcendental; it cannot be both and it cannot be neither. Hence the real algebraic numbers constitute a defined assemblage, and so, too, the transcendentals Nevertheless no means is known for ascertaining in every case whether a given number is algebraic or not. It was reallv a great achievement when the transcen- dental character of the long familiar classical numbers e and - was proved, for e by Hermite in 1.S7 1 and for - nine years later by Lindemann. Even the existence of non-algebraic numbers * The exigencies of the present undertaking demand the !iia drawn from the Theory of tin- Real Variable (which see)a 1 other theories, although these are themselves branches of assemblage theory. was unknown till it was proved by I.iouville in 1 S 5 1 . Depiction and Correspondence \ eml will be denoted by large and elements by small letters. If, in any way, each element a oi 1 is associated with an element /' of /;, .1 is said to be depicted on /; The- />'s so used are the pictures of the o's. If all the b's are thus made pictures, B is also depicted on .1 and the ,j's aie pictures of the /''s If an a is a picture of a b and reciprocally, and if this relation 1 for all the .is and /''s, so that there is a one- to-one correspondence between them, the de- piction is called similar. Obviously an assem- blage can be depicted either similarly or dis- similarly on itself, generally in more than one wav, often in an endless variety of ways. The Concept I 'hain. — If the elements of .1 are elements of H . .1 is part of H. If in this case not all i>'s are u's. A is proper pari of /; Any assemblage is part, but not proper part, of itself. One of the most important ideas con- nected with that of the depiction of an assem- blage on itseli is the notion of chain: if .1 be depicted on itself in any definite way, then any part of .1 that is thereby depicted on itself is a chain. In case of a giver depiction of an A "ti itself, the must important of the chains so arising is that one that is composed of the 1 |i ments, each taken but once, of all the chains having in common a previously chosen part of .1. There is always one such special chain for a given part and given mode of depiction, but it changes with the part anil with the mode independently. The theory of chains, due to Dedekind, has fundamental bearings in logic (see Induction, Mathematical). The Concept oj Equivalence and Sameness 0} Power. — If .1 and B are such that each may be similarly depict ed mi the other, i.e., if a one-to- one correspondence can be established between the elements of .-1 and those of /.'. .1 and B arc said to be cijuiixiloit or to have the same po • 1 (Mdchtigkeit), a relation symbolically expressed by writing . 1 — B or B--~A. Thus if .1 denote the assemblage of positive integers and B denote, say, the even positive integers. . 1 — //, I ir plainly one may pair 1 with 2, 2 with 4, 3 with 6, and so on. Other ways of pairing .1 and B in this case will readily occur to the reader. Distinction 0) Finite and Infinite. — An assem- blage is finite or infinite according as it has not or has the same power as some proper part of it- self. Thus A of the last example is infinite. So, too, is B, for it is easily seen that if A--—B and if either . 1 or B is infinite, so is the othei Also, if A—*B and if .1 or B is finite, so is the Other. The foregoing definition of infinite is one of the most fruitful of modern concepts. It is due independently to Dedekind and Georg Cantor. Sometimes an infinite assemblage is defined to be one that cannot be exhausted or emptied by removing from it one element at a time. It has been proved that the two definitions are logically equivalent. But for the purposes of investigation, the former is found to be by far the better instrument. An infinite assemblage is often described as tr.in- finite. Denumer ability. — Let A denote the assem- blage of positive integers. Any assemblage li such that B-—A is said to be dtwumerable or to have the power of the denumerahle asseml I: As .1 — .1, .1 is itself denumerable, and it serves conveniently as the type of denun erable assem- ASSEMBLAGES blages. The domain of such assemblages is exceedingly rich and is replete with surprises. For example, though the rational fractions, that is, fractions having integral terms, are so numer- ous that between any two of them, however near to each other in value, there is an infinity of others, nevertheless the assemblage of rational fractions including the integers is denumerable. Of this the reader can quickly convince himself by reflecting that there is but a finite number of such fractions of which each has a specified integer n for sum of its terms. Thus, if 11=2, one has 1 or {; if w = 3 , one has \ and f; if »=4, i, 1. *■' an d so on. Some are repeated; repetitions may be kept or rejected. Keeping them, the required equivalence is seen in the pairing: (1, 1); (2, «, (3, f ) ; (4, }), (5, f), (6, ");... . In ordinary speech one is justified in saying that rational numbers are neither more nor less numerous than the integers or than the odd or the even integers. It is plain that the classic axiom, the whole is greater than any of its parts, is not valid for infinite assemblages. For finite assemblages it Is valid absolutely, but for none other. For another example, consider the algebraic numbers, before mentioned. These include the rationals and infinitely many besides. Nevertheless the as- semblage of all algebraic numbers is denumer- able. The proof is too long to insert here. Yet more astonishing is the theorem that an assem- blage composed of all the elements of a denu- merable infinity of denumerably infinite as- semblages is denumerable. The Power of the Continuum. — At this stage the query is natural: is every possible assem- blage denumerable? The answer is negative. The assemblage of all real numbers, i.e., of all rationals and irrationals, is said to con- stitute a continuum. So, too, the assemblage of points of a straight line is a continuum, in particular a linear continuum. The last two assemblages are in fact of the same power, but neither is denumerable. This is demonstrated by letting a x , a 2 , . . . , a„. . . . represent any demimerable assemblage of real numbers and then proving that between any two arbitrarily assumed numbers a and ,9 there is one number and therefore an infinity of numbers not in the given sequence. From this proposition of Cantor's the existence of transcendental num- bers, which had been otherwise previously proved by Liouville, follows as a corollary. Any assemblage equivalent to that of the real num- bers or to that of the points of a straight line is said to have the power of the continuum. The assemblage of points of any line-segment how- ever short or, what is tantamount, the assem- blage of numbers between any two numbers however nearly equal, has the power of the con- tinuum. Indeed, either of these assemblages is a continuum. But an assemblage may have the power of the continuum without being a continuum. For example, the assemblage of transcendental numbers, though it is not a continuum, has the power of a continuum. In fact, the assemblage left on suppressing from a continuum any denumerable assemblage of elements is equivalent to the original assem- blage. This hist is a special case of the proposi- tion : ii .4 be infinite, and if the remainder A' on suppressing a denumerable part of A be infinite, then A'^.l. As above seen the power of the continuum is higher than that of the Vol. 1 — 52 denumerable assemblage, but whether it is the next higher is an outstanding question. There are higher powers than that of any given power (unless this last be that of the assemblage of all things, a concept whose admissibility is ques- tioned), but no assemblage of points has a power higher than that of a continuum. On the con- trary, it is one of the most marvelous of known facts that the assemblage of points on a line- segment however short is equivalent to the assemblage of all the points of space, nay, is equivalent to all the points of a space having not merely, like our own, three dimensions, but a denumerable infinity of dimensions. Limit- points. Dense and Derived Assemblages. — The neighborhood or vicinity of a point p is a region 5111a// at will taken about p. If p be in space, the neighborhood may be a sphere having p as center; if p be in a plane or in a line, the neighboihood will naturally be a circle or a line-segment. The following discussion, con- ducted for assemblages of points of a straight line, is readily extensible to other point assem- blages. Denote by P any given assemblage of points of a line. If there be a point p, m P or not, such that in the neighborhood of p there is one point (and hence an infinity of points) of P, then p is a limit- point of 1>~_ If p be in P but not a limit-point, p is an isolated point of /'. The assemblage of all the limit- points of P is the first derived assemblage P<» of P. The first derived of P<» is the second derived of P. namely, P <2> ; and so en. If P be finite, its P ( » contains no points, it is empty. If P be infinite and in a segment, /'"> contains at least one point — a proposition 1 f exceeding importance in function theory. Ii the nth derivative /''"> be empty and the pre- ceding derivative contains one or more points, P is said to be of first genus and nth speeies. If P ln> contain points for every positive intecral value of n, P is said to be of second crenus. Every point of a given derivative of P is appoint of each preceding derivative, but P may contain points not in any of its derivatives. If some or all of the points of P are in an interval (a . . . /?) and if every sub-interval of the given one contains a point or points of P, P is said to be dense throughout the given interval. For example, the assemblage of points whose dis- tances from a fixed point of the line are rational numbers is dense throughout every interval. If P be dense throughout a given interval, so is every derivative; in fact, each derivative in such case contains all points of the interval. and conversely. Hence one might define: P is dense throughout an interval when and only when P' l > contains every point of the interval. Obviously, if P is dense throughout an interval, P is of second genus, and so, too, are its deriva- tives. It follows that if P or one of its deriva- tives be of first genus. P is rtot dense in any interval. But it is not true that every P of second genus is dense throughout some interval. Greatest 1 'ommon Divisor, Least Common Mul- tiple. — The equation P = (J will signifv that the point assemblages /' and Q are identical Two assemblages having no element in common are said to be without connection If P contains all and only the points of the assemblages /' P, every two of the latter being without connection, the fact is expressed by writing Ps(Pi, I\, . . .). A part of /Ms called a div of it, and P is a multiple of each of its divisors. ASSEMBLAGES The symbol, D(P,, P», . . .). is rc:l<1 greati I common divisor of Pi, P 2 , . . . and is the- assem- blage of their common points. M(P X , l\, . . .) is read least common multiple of Pi, P 2 , . . . and is the assemblage of all the different points of the P's, it being understood that the latter have no common point. To express that P is empty, one may write P = o. If and only if P and Q arc without connection, P(l', (J) = o. Bach derivative of P is a divisor of every pre- ceding derivative. If P is of second genus, then P"» = ((J, R). where (J is the assemblage of those points of j" ( " that are not common to P"\ P<» and K is the assemblage of those that are common. Transfinite Derivatives. — R is therefore de- fined by the equation R=D(P< 1 \ P">. . . .) or by RsD(P«l, P <3) ,...), or by R=D(P<- n '), P^" 2 * ,...), where Hi, n 2 , . . . are a denumerably infinite assemblage of increasing positive in- tegers. R is obviously a derivative of P, but the order of the derivative is not expressible by a number of the sequence 1,2,3,...; these numbers are finite, the order of the derivative is transfinite, is denoted by w, and one may write RsP M . The first 'derivative of I' ( '"' is denoted by P<<"+'>, and the ullt by /'<«•+»>. If P (w) have a derivative of transfinite order id, it is denoted by P <2l ">. Continuation of the process yields PM, PW) = D(P<"> , P (•"■), P("< 3 ), . . .), pta"'"), and so on endlessly. For any assemblage /' of first genus, P (a,) =o, an equation serving to characterize assemblages of first genus. Assemblages of second genus are definable for which the derivative of any given transfinite order shall consist of a single speci- fied point. If 1)(P. P ( ")=o, P is an assemblage of isolated points. From any assemblage /'. an assemblage Q of isolated points is obtainable by suppressing from P the assemblage /'(/', P u> ), and one may write Q =P -I i(P. '/'">). It is known that if P be an assemblage of isolated points, it is denumerable, though, as above noted, the converse is not true. Also, if P u> is denumerable, so is P; but not conversely, for, for example, the assemblage of rational fractions is denumerable, while its first deriva- tive is a continuum, namely, the assemblage of real numbers. Again, if P be of second genus, and if /''*'', « being finite or transfinite, be denumerable, so, too, is P denumerable. A very remarkable theorem is the following: if P lie in any given interval and if P"> be de- numerable, the points of P can be enclosed in a finite number of sub-intervals having a sum less than any prescribed length. Perfect Assemblages. — If P and P (1> coincide, P is called a perfect assemblage; in the contrary case, imperfect. For example, if P is the assem- blage of points of the interval from p, to p 2 , including p, and p 2 , P is perfect; but if P in- cludes only the points between p, and p 2 , P is imperfect, for clearly P"* includes p, and p 2 . The definition just given is Cantor's. Another current definition is that by Jordan : P is perfect if it includes P (,) . It has been proposed to distinguish the two by describing an assem- blage, if perfect in Cantor's sense, as absolutely perfect, and, if perfect in Jordan's but not in Cantor's sense, as relatively perfect. It has been proved that if P be relatively perfect, the assem- blage R which results on suppressing P (1) from /' is denumerable. Rut it is not true that every absolutely perfect assemblage is decomposable into a relatively perfect assemblage and a denumerable assemblage. The theory of per- fect assemblages, though exceedingly subtle, is far simpler than that of imperfect assemblages. Every derivative of P is relatively pel feet . There are absolutely perfect assemblages not dense in any interval. Measure and Measurable Assemblages. — An assemblage /' of all the points [n a denumerable infinity of intervals that do not overlap and win ise total length is v is saiil to have the measure s. If P and /" be without connection and have measures .9 and .•>', the measure of Mil'. I") is s + s'. If S and s' be the measures of /' and /", and if J" be a divisor of /', the measure of P — I" is s -s'. The measure <>f an assemblage is always eero or positive. The measure of any denumerable assemblage is zero, but zero may be the measure of a non-denunicrable assem- blage, and an assemblage is non-denumerable if its measure be not zero. An assemblage is said to be measurable only in case the foregoing definitions associate with it the notion of meas- ure A restri, ted or limited assemblage is 1 me such that the distance between every pair of its points is less than a prescribed number. It has been proved that every restricted assemblage that is perfect relatively or absolutely is measurable. The doctrine of the measurabihty and content of assemblages is of great importance, but it cannot be further entered into here. Improper Infinite and Proper Infinite, or Trans- finite. The ordinary notion of mathematical infinity is that of a finite variable, such as tan a, which can lake a finite value greater than any previously specified finite value; ami such an equation as tan qo° = oo is underst I by mathematicians to be a kind of short hand for saving that, by taking « near enough to go°, tan (i can be made to exceed any preassigned finite number, and it does not mean that s. is a value that tan a may assume. Similar illus- trations abound. Such a variable as thus remains always finite but may be made large at will is sometimes described as an Infinite (variable) in analogy with the reciprocal notion of Infinitesimal, a variable that remains always finite but may be made small at will. Such infinites are described by Cantor as improper infinites. On the other hand both geometry and analysis have long recognized another sort of infinite, viz., one that is not variable but is ,.')islant. Such an infinite, for example, is the distance from any finite point of a range (see Projective Geometry) to the point common to the range and any parallel range. Another example is the distance from any finite point of the complex plane and the "infinite point* of the plane (see Complex Variable). Such infinites are styled by Cantor proper infinites, or transfinites. The examples just given of transfinites are transfinites just beyond the border of the finite. Cantor has generalized the generalization, and by one of the boldest. procedures in the annals of mathetic genius he has created higher and higher classes of trans- finite assemblages and numbers and subjected them to a logically consistent system of laws of operation. Of tfiat procedure and of its results a brief account will now be given. Principles of Number Generation, or of Defini- tion of Classes. — These principles are three in ASSEMBLAGES number: (r) adding unity, or i, to a number already formed; (2) in case 0} any given endless succession of integers having among them no greatest, positing a new integer thai shall be the first greater than each integer of the succession; (3) the imposition on numbers gcnerablc by (1) and (2) of the condition that the succession of numbers pre- 1 eding any given number so generated shall have the power of a class ofnumoers already defined. The last is known as the principle of arrest or limita- tion. Cantor names the principles "the three log- ical moments" , an ideally improper designation, for the applications of the principles are precisely Hie points in his procedure where it transcends logic and rises to the level of the creative or generalizing will. Generalization is neither logical nor illogical, it is always superlogical, an act of will directed by immediate perception The first class (I) of integers is the denumer- ably infinite assemblage of finite integers 1, 2, 3, ... v, ... ; generated or generable by (1). (I) contains no greatest and no last. By (2) the number to is given to be the first integer greater than every number of (I). Combina- tion of (1) and (2) yields w + i, 10 + 2, ... , 2", C, . . . have 110 common clement, and if A-— A', /-,'-/>", t'— C then 1. /;.(',.. .)—(.!', B', C, . . ,),and the cardinal numbers of these composite assemblages are equal, or the same. Notion of Greater and Less Powers or Cardi- nals. — If A and B arc such that .1 has no part equivalent to B and that B has a part equiva- lent to A, the cardinal number of A is said, to be less than that of B, that of B greater than that of A ; symbolically, A A. If re, (i, r are cardinal numbers, and ii «/?, excludes the other two. But it does not follow that every pair of cardinals re and fi must satisfy one of the three relations, though they in fact do. This last proposition belongs to the theory of well-ordered assemblages, a term explained at a later stage of this writing. Addition of Powers or Cardinals. — If re and fi be the cardinal numbers of .4 and B, A and B having no common element, and if j be the power of (-4, B) ; then a +/?=?-. Such is the definition of addition. As a power is an order- less assemblage, a+fi = f) + a, and, in case of any three powers, a + (fi + r) =(a + fi) + r: that is, addition of powers is commutative and asso- ciative. Multiplication. — Let A = \a\ and B = \b\. Associate each a with each b. Consider each pair (a, b) as an element. The assemblage of these is denoted by (A-B). Hence (A ■ B) = I (a, b)\. The power ;- of this last obviously de- pends only on the powers re and fi of .4 and B. Hence the definition of product: a- f3 = r. As the power, or cardinal number, of an assemblage is orderless. it is readily seen that re-/3=/?-re, and that, for any three powers. «•(/?■ 7-) = (a-p)-r. a-(8 + r) =a-f}+ a-r; that is. multiplication of powers is commutative, associative, and distribu- tive. Involution. — If with each a ot .4 a b of B be associated, any a and the associate b will be a pair. The same b may enter two or more pairs. The assemblage of all the pairs resulting from any such definite association is called a covering of .1 with B, and is denoted by /(.4). A different covering results if with any a there be associated a b not associated with it before. The assem- blage of all possible coverings of A with B is denoted by (B|.4); then (B\A) = \}(A)\ . The power r of (B|.4) depends only on the powers a and fi ot A and B; hence the definition: aP = r. It is readily seen that, if a, fi, r denote any three powers, a° • a T = aP+ r , a T -fi r = (a-fi) r < and (aV = «" -r . It is an interesting fact that by means of the foregoing definitions of power, and addition, multiplication, and involution of powers, the definition and the fundamental properties of the ordinary (finite) cardinals 1, 2, 3, . . . , v . . . can be rigorously deduced. The Smallest Transfinite Cardinal. — The car- dinal number of the assemblage \v\ of finite car- dinals is denoted by N„, alef-nuH. Symboli- cally, N = |v|. The transfinite number N, has the properties: N n + i=N„; N„> /<, where /< is any finite cardinal; N (1 i 4- 1/1 is less than p 2 +q 2 , and if p x +q l = />, + , and b 2 in B. then .1 and B are said to be similar, and to be depictable on one another. This definition of similar and depictable, it is noteworthy, are more re- stricted than that above given. The simi- larity of two similar simply ordered as- semblages .1 and /)' is expressed by writing A—B. If A is simply ordered, A^iA , and if B and C are simply ordered, and if A^sC and B^C, then .1^/j'. It is plain, too, that either of the relations, .-1 =B, A—Ii, implies the other. To every order-type, or ordinal number, corresponds a power, or cardinal number. Thus to A corresponds .4. The distinction of ordinal and cardinal is of no importance for finite assemblages, but is absolutely indis- pensable in the doctrine of transfinites. All order-types corresponding to a finite cardinal a are similar, but those corresponding to a translinite cardinal present a countless variety and are said to constitute a type-class [a]. To every translinite cardinal corresponds such a type-class. Any type-class is itself an assem- blage, namely, of order-types, and as such has its own cardinal number, which may be shown to be greater than that of each of the order- types involved. Addition and Multiplication of Order-types. — If A and B are simply ordered, it will be'um In- stood that in their union (.1, B) the elements of A have the same rank relation as in .1, that the like is true of B, and that every a is of lower rank than every b. Hence (.1, B) is simply ordered. If A' and B' are simply ordered and if .L-^.l' and /■;-/>", then (.-1, B)~(A', B'). Hence the order-type of (A,B) depends only on a=A and p =B. Hence the definition of addition: a + /? = (.4, B). Here a is the an and j3 the addend. If a, {1, r be any three types, a 4-(i?4-r) = («+/?) 4-r; i-c, addition oi ordinals is associative; but, unlike cardinals, ordinals do not in general obey the committal!. \- law. For example, if to=E, wheie R denotes <■,, c 2 iv, . . . , 1',. I (V+i, and if / be any new element, then 1 + to does not equal to + 1 , fur (j.E) and {li,}) are not similar, the latter having a last clement, while the former has not. Next from the simply ordered assemblages .1 and B, form the assemblage S by replacing each b by an assemblage .1(^.-1. It is easily seen that the order-type of 5 depends only on a=.l and (1 = H. _Hence the definition of mul- tiplication: «-/?=S. Here « is multiplicand ami ft is multiplier. It is readily proved, in respect to three types a, /?, r, that (a-,9) -r = a-(p-r) and that a-(/?4-r) =a-ji + a-y. That is, multi- plication of ordinals like that of cardinals is a . iative and distributive. But in general ordinals do not obey, while cardinals always obey, the commutative law. The reader can easily 1 vince himself that, for example, to- 2 ?± 2 • to. Order-type of Rationals. — Denote by R the rational numbers greater than 1 and less than zero, taken in natural order. Let tj=R. Ob- viously r; belongs to the type-class [K ], for we have seen that R is denumerable. Moreover, R is dense and has no element of lowest rank and none of highest. By these three properties, R is completely characterized; that means that if .1 is simply ordered, dense, denumerable, and has neither lowest nor highest element, A and R are similar, and ij=A. It follows that r) + t)=i), i)-r) = i), (1 4- r))i) = t), (7 4- 1)1) =7, (1 4- ., 4- i)r) = jj, but ri 4- 1 ^ 1 4- j), and, though 9 4- 1 4-1} = 7), Jj-+-w + ij?^ij.if v> 1. Order-type of Linear Continuum. — Denote by the order-type of the linear continuum X = \x\ , where o<*rs. The advanced condition of the As- syrians in various other respects is sufficiently evidenced by the representations on the sculp- tures, and by the remains discovered among their ruined buildings. We now know that they un- derstood and applied the arch ; that they con- structed tunnels, aqueducts, and drains; that they used the lever and the roller; that they engraved gems in a highly artistic way: that they understood the arts of inlaying, enamelling, and ASSYRIOLOGY overlaying with metals: that they manufactured porcelain, and transparent and colored glass, and were acquainted with the lens; that they pos- sessed vases, jars, and oilier dishes, bronze and ivory ornaments, bells, gold earrings and brace- lets of excellent design and workmanship. Their household furniture also gives us a high idea of their skill, taste, minuteness, and accuracy. The cities of Nineveh, Assur, and Arbela had each their royal observatories, superintended by as- tronomers-royal, who had to send in their re- ports to the king twice a month. At an early date the stars were numbered and named : a calendar was formed, in which the year was di- vided into 12 months (of 30 days each) called after the zodiacal signs, but as this division was found to be inaccurate an intercalary month was added every six years. The week was divided into seven days, the seventh being a day of rest : the day was divided into 12 easbu of two hours each, each casbu being subdivided into 60 min- utes, and these again into 60 seconds. Eclipses were recorded from a very remote epoch, and their recurrence roughly determined. The prin- cipal astronomical work, called the Illumination of Bel, was compiled for the library of Sargon of Agane : it was inscribed on 70 tablets, and went through numerous editions, one of the lat- est being in the British Museum. It treats, among other things, on observations of comets, the polar star, the conjunction of the sun and moon, and motions of Venus and Mars. The study of mathematics was fairly advanced, and the people who were acquainted with the sun- dial, the clepsydra, the pulley, and the lever must have had considerable knowledge of me- chanics. See ASSYRIOLOGY. Government. — Like all the ancient monar- chies which attained to any considerable extent, Assyria was composed of a number of separate kingdoms. In the East conquest has very sel- dom led to amalgamation, and in the primitive empires there was not even any attempt at that governmental centralization which we find at a later peril 11I iii the satrapial system of Persia. The Assyrian monarchs reigned over a number of petty kings, the native rulers of the several countries, over the whole extent of their domin- ions. These native princes were feudatories of the Great Monarch, holding their crowns from him by the double tenure of homage and tribute. This system naturally led to the frequent out- break of troubles. See Cuneiform Writing; Nineveh ; Nippur. Bibliography. — Botta and Flandin, 'Monu- ments de Ninive' (1847-50): Layard. 'Nineveh and its Remains' (1849); Oppert, 'Histnire des Empires de Chaldee et d'Assyrie' (1866) ; Raw- linson, 'Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient World' (second edition, 1871) : Lenormant, 'Let- tres Assyriologiques' (1871-3); George Smith. 'Assyrian Discoveries': 'Assyria.' and 'The Assyrian Eponym' (1875) ; Duncker's 'History of Antiquity' (1882) ; Sayce, 'Ancient Empires of the East' (18,84): his 'Assyria: its Princes, Priests, and People' (1885), and his 'Fresh Light from the Ancient Monuments' (1886) ; Jastrow, 'Religion of Babylonia and Assyria' (1898); Maspero, 'The Dawn of Civilization' (1894). Assyriology. Assyriology may be defined as that department of study and investigation which embraces within its realm the country, peo- ple, languages, literature, and history of ancient Mesopotamia, Babylonia, and so much of adjoin- ing countries as shared in the life of the Semitic valley-peoples prior to 538 B.c. The term is often popularly employed to cover a study of those languages written in the cuneiform script. or its immediate antecedents, the linear and picture methods of writing, current in primaeval times in this great river valley. Such a delim- itation of our theme would include a study of early Babylonia, Assyria, somewhat of F.lam, and a mention of later Persia. Assyriology, therefore, deals with an antiquity which was centred in the great Babylonian valley, and em- bodied in the cuneiform langu.i Age. — This is a comparatively new depart- ment of research. It has been built up upon the basis of the discoveries of antiquities wdiich have been made during the last three quarters of a century in the countries tributary to the Persian Gulf. The tentacles of this department reach out into every phase of ancient Oriental life and knowledge, and require of the modern investigator a comparatively comprehensive understanding of the complexities of that prim- itive life. This department includes in its sphere some of the most important of all branches of ancient lore. Among these we note especially Semitic philology, general archaeology, architecture, sculpture, history, legend, so-called science, and religion. Assyriology has already taken its place as one of the great departments of human knowledge and research. The results of its investigations must now he reckoned with in any estimate of early Semitic legends, tradi- tions, or history. Its importance to the student of the Old Testament is assuming greater pro- portions with each old site overturned by the spade of the excavator. The great museums .,f Europe and America count among their chief treasures the magnificent colossi, bas-reliefs, slabs, statues, and tablets that belong to the department of Assyriology. Names. — The oldest of the governments rep- resented in Assyriology is thai centred in the Babylonian valley. Its earliest known mention at the beginning of the last century was that found in Genesis x. 10, where the beginning of the kingdom of Nimrod is said to have been Babel ( Hebrew. 733 ). probably the city of Baby- lon, "in the land of Shinar" (Hebrew "IJ»IS>), a name for lower Babylonia. In post-exilic times the country was designated Chaldea, or "land of the Chaldeans" ( Hebrew, 0n\BO pK),Ezelc i. 3. Classical writers named this country after Baby- lon, that metropolitan city of their day, Baby- lonia, and this name is attached to it to the present time. The next great country covered by Assyri- ology is Assyria. The Hebrews called it (Gen. x. 11) A'sshur (llt?K), either the name of a per- sonage or of a country, probably the latter. The translators of the Scptuagint called it aaoovp and aaavpiot, while Joscphus, a couple of centuries later, refers to it as Avavpla. The Aramaeans named it Atlnir, or Athuriya. Boundaries. — The territory covered by an- cient Babylonia was delimited on the west by the Arabian Desert, on the south by the Persian Gulf and Arabian Desert, on the east by Elamite territory backed up by the Zagros Mountains, and on the north by the uplands of Assyria. Assyria proper, in its early unexpansive period, was delimited on the east by the mountains of RELIEFS ON THE BLACK OBELISK OF SHALMANESER II. (860-825 b. c.) (FOUND BY LAYARD AT NIMROUD, NOW IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM) SECOND TIER REPRESENTS JEHU, KING OF ISRAEL, RENDERING SUBMISSION TO SHALMANESER II. (ABOUT 843 B. C.) EXCAVATIONS BY THE FRENCH AT TELLOH THE FOUNDATIONS or IHK PALACE OF klNr, UR-NINA ' l»> SOUTHEAST FACADE ASSYRIOLOGY Kurdistan, on the north by those of Armenia, on the soutli by Babylonia, with an ever-shifting boundary line, and on the west by the western limits of the Tigris valley and plain. In a word, Assyria was anciently seated in the upper Tigris valley, in possession of several great city-centres. These two important countries were thus largely guarded by nature from foes on the south and southwest, but were always open to the intrigues of invaders from the east, north, or northwest. The historical records of these lands confirm this statement. Description. — The great valley of Babylonia derives its marvelous fertility from its two notable rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates. Both have their rise in the mountains of Armenia, and both have their debouchement in the Per- sian Gulf. The Tigris, from its source, flows directly in a southeasterly and southerly course, cutting through the uplands of Assyria, and along the eastern side of the Babylonian valley, until, mingling with the waters of the Euphrates, it falls into the Gulf. The Euphrates, from its source, flows toward the southwest and bends southward within ioo miles of the Mediter- ranean Sea, and thence in general toward the southeast and south until, in union with the Tigris, it pours into the Gulf. These two arterial streams are the life of this great lower valley. By irrigation they were made to fertilize all their adjacent lands, and thus placed these among the richest countries on earth. In addi- tion to water these streams bring annually from the mountains of Armenia great quantities of alluvia and deposit it in the lower valley. Geol- ogists estimate that the shores of the Persian Gulf have been pushed southward, by deposits of this alluvia, fully 125 miles since the earliest periods of Babylonian history. In other words, the Tigris and Euphrates rivers that now enter the Gulf as one stream forming a vast morass, formerly had separate mouths, about 125 miles north of their present outlet. If this estimation be correct, the ancient Ur of the Chaldees (modern Mugheir~) was practically a seaport city. The Tigris, being the shorter river, has a very swift current, and is less valuable for navigation than the Euphrates. Upon this latter stream vessels of profitable draft may ride to a distance of 800 miles above its mouth. The territorj of Mesopotamia proper is watered by the Balikh and Khabur, two rivers that flow southward, empty- ing into the Euphrates. The region of Baby- lonia proper, though a waste to-day, shows marks of having supported a dense population in antiquity. References to Ancient Peoples. — Present day students and scholars inferred from frequent references in the Old Testament and in the compiled works of Berosus, Manetho, Joscphus, and others that this valley had been the head- quarter's of mighty nations. Classical writers carry echoes of an ancient glory won by great armies and powerful monarchs from the Ea^t. whose records were otherwise unknown, and whose mighty deeds seemed as unreal as fiction. The rise, conquest, and reign of these giant figures aroused the enthusiasm of every student of ancient history. The far-reaching influence and power over neighboring kings of these mon- archs, dimly outlined in the vague second-hand records, set scholars to work. It drove them to search far and wide for other traces of peoples who had completely perished from the face of the earth, and who had, so far as they could see, left no story of their achievements. The reports of travelers who had passed through and spent some time in those countries attracted their attention. Ancient Remains. — The entire territory drained by the two great rivers, Tigris and Eu- phrates, was found to be dotted by extensive mounds, ruins of ancient walls, piles of disin- tegrating towers, beds of ancient irrigating canals, and other marks of a once elaborate civilization. Travelers had often picked up near these mounds little bits of antiquities, bricks, tablets, and cylinder seals, that carried on their surfaces many curious wedge-shaped characters, which they regarded either as writing or orna- mentation. These miscellaneous curios were thought to represent the civilizations of an un- known past, of peoples who occupied this terri- tory in the days when prosperous cities and fruitful fields filled this great valley. Earliest Excavations. — The first persons to take an active interest in the ruins of Babylonia and Assyria were Englishmen resident in some one of the chief cities of the country. C. J. Rich, a resident at Bagdad (1808-21), carefully examined and described several mounds, and some inscriptions, in small works published during his residence. The first systematic ex- cavations within this valley were undertaken by P. E. Botta, French consul at the time in Mosul, a modern city of some commercial and polit- ical importance on the upper Tigris River, in 1S42-5. He began work on the colossal mounds opposite Mosul on the east bank of the Tigris River; but he had little success until he transferred his force to the mound Khorsabad, about 14 miles north-northeast of the first site. Khorsabad proved to be an immense treasure- house of antiquities. Here he uncovered the stupendous royal palace of Sargon II. (722-705 B.C.), with a mass of inscriptions and antiquities of various kinds. This splendid find was greeted with enthusiasm by the scholarly world, and set minds to thinking and wills to acting to uncover other antiquities representing such a marvelous past. In 1845-7, A. H. Layard, an Englishman, began to dig at Nimroud, the ancient Calah, a mound about 20 miles south of Mosul, on the east bank of the Tigris. Persevering through almost indescribable difficulties, Layard finally succeeded in bringing to light the palaces of Assurnatsirpal (884-860 b.c), Shalmaneser II. (860-825 b.c), and Esarhaddon (681-668 B.C.). In 1849-51 this same intrepid excavator burrowed into the mound Kouyunjik, one of the mounds of ancient Nineveh, and lay bare two more great palaces, that of Sennacherib (705- 681 b.c), and that of Assurbanipa] (668 B.C.). Botta's finds, so far as transportable, were taken to Paris and deposited in the Mu- seum of the Louvre : those of Layard to the British Museum in London. In this same period. Rassam. trained under Layard, made some valuable discoveries (1851-4) at Kouyunjik for the English: and Place at Khorsabad and Fresnel and Oppert at Hillah for the French. In most of the work under- taken by the English, Henry C. Rawlinson was a close adviser and an enthusiastic promoter. Later Excavations. — The next 20 years ( 1S54-73) were a period of cessation of exca- vations of any note. An occasional traveler or explorer found a lew specimens of antiquities and ASSYRIOLOGY di.l a little desultory work. This 20 years, how- ever, saw the publication of many notable works by Botta, Layard, Place. Oppert, and Rawlinson on the results of the active work of excavating and of inscriptions previously gathered out of the mounds. The second period of excavations began in 1873, when George Smith, of the Brit- ish Museum, was scut by the London Daily Telegraph to the site of ancient Nineveh to find oilur fragments of the famous deluge tab- let. Smith's phenomenal success in finding Assurbanipal's 30,000-tablet-library gave new life to archaeological research, and sent him alto- gether on three expeditions, on the last of which he succumbed to a fever at Aleppo, 19 Aug. 1875. Smith's genius had presented to the world such representations of the important discov- eiies made by himself and others that the con- tagion spread, and other centres of scholarship t nriied their eyes toward the mounds of Baby- lonia and Assyria. Rassam was again called into requisition, and in 1877-8 gathered rich spoils on the site of old Nineveh, at Nimroud, and at Balawat, where he found the remains of the bronze doors of Shalmaneser II. (860-825 B.i I. In 1X78-0 and 1880-1 he also found valu- able relics on Babylonian ground. From 1878 to the present day the French government has conducted excavations inter- mittently at Telloh, in lower Babylonia, for more than 20 years under the superintendence of F. de Sarzcc, and recently under Capt. Cros- man. This mound has yielded a rich store of antiquities, consisting of many thousands of tablets, of Several beautiful diorite statues, of friezes, of palace plans, and of cylinders, many of which are deposited and mounted in the su- perb collection in the Louvre in Paris. The accompanying illustration presents two views of a part of the mound Telloh, where such notable discoveries have been made. The same govern- ment inaugurated and carried on excavations at Susa under M. and Mine. Dieulafoy (1884-6) ; and latterly under M. J. de Morgan, and has thus opened up new volumes on the history of ancient Elam, and its relations with adjoining countries. A few broad-minded gentlemen, under the leadership of E. W. Clark, of Philadelphia, provided the means for the organization and prosecution of an expedition to Babylonia under the auspices of the University of Pennsylvania. This expedition was duly organized and equipped, and prosecuted work under the direc- tion of John P. Peters, during 1888-90 at the mound Nififer, about 30 miles southeast of Babylon, Since that time the same institution has carried on work intermittently on this site, under supervision of H. V. Hilprecht, and, for the most part, under the field directorship of J. II. ITayiKs, has brought to light thousands of inscriptions and other antiquities. These have made the University of Pennsylvania the richest Babylonian-Assyrian museum in America. Within the last decade German archaeologists have joined the ranks of excavators, and have done some thorough work on several sites in the Babylonian valley, but chiefly at Babylon. The full results of their activity are still un- known to the public, as little has been published. In 1904, the Oriental Exploration Fund of the University of Chicago was organized, and an expedition sent out under the direction of Robert Francis Harper, to excavate on the old site Bismya, in lower Babylonia. The first mi's work justifies the hope that this may prove to be a fruitful mound, belonging to a high antiquity. Outside of Babylonia proper, some notable discoveries of cuneiform inscriptions have been made by explorers. A stele of Sargon II. was found in the island of Cyprus in 1845. There were found at Tel-el-Amarna. in Egypt, in 1887, more than 300 cuneiform tablets, which proved to be correspondence between the kings of Egypt and their Asiatic underlords and ruins in the 15th century B.C. Even Palestine has pro- duced a couple of tablets in its excavated cities. Luschan found at Zinjirli, Asia Minor, among a host of Hittite antiquities, a statue and inscrip- tion of Esarhaddon (681-668 B.C.). Decipherment of Inscriptions. — The neat lit- tle wedge-shaped characters, put together in so many combinations to form individual signs, very early attracted the genius of the linguist As early as 1801, Grotefend, a German, discov- ered the significance of some of the old Persian cuneiform characters; and other scholars, fol- lowing in his wake, likewise made some advance in identification of those old characters. But the long and sure step ahead was not made until Henry C. Rawlinson took up the problem. As an officer in the Persian army about 1835, he had unusual facilities for examining ancient ruins in that country. He observed at Behistun, in the Zagros Mountains, a rock stretching up almost 1,700 feet above the plain, and at about 350 feet above its base a large space carefully smoothed off. L'pon this space was inscribed a mass of writing, distributed in several col- umns of varying length. After years of toil at intervals, he succeeded in copying the en- tire set. In a study of them he soon found that they contained three languages. The first, the Old Persian, through his knowledge of modern Persian and other related tongues, after years of study, he was able to decipher, and sent his translation to London, where, in 1847, it was published in the 'Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.' Rawlinson's success was epochal, for it broke the seal into the hidden treasures of the cuneiform languages of Baby- lonia. His decipherment of one of the tri- lingual inscriptions opened the door into the next, the Susian. These two deciphered, schol- ars were soon able to penetrate the mysteries of the third language, the Babylonian-Assyrian. These triumphs extended, roughly, over the years 1845-55. In 1857 the British Museum made a test of scholars' ability to decipher the Assyrian tongue. Four men, H. C. Rawlinson, Edward Hincks, Jules Oppert, and H. F. Tal- bot, were given a fine copy of a long historical inscription of Tiglathpileser I. (iuo-noo B.C.), and were requested to make each an independent translation of the text and report on their re- sults. At a given time these scholars reported: and to the amazement, one should say, of all concerned, their translations were in substantial agreement from first to last. This was the crowning triumph of all in the eyes of other departments of learning. It showed that the riddle had been solved, that the Babylonian valley would henceforth speak for itself through its multitudes of ancient records. Furthermore, this triumph of philology sue- ASSYRIOLOGY reeded in placing in the galaxy of ancient na- tions some of the most powerful of peoples. Babylonia. Assyria, and Elam henceforth became the early home of vigorous nations, well-organ- ized governments, conquering armies, and world- wide rulers. The ruin-covered wastes were suddenly transformed into fertile fields and prosperous cities, occupied by peoples whose influence touched the horizon of civilization in every direction. In short, this triumph of philology opened a door to a new world in southwestern Asia, prior to, and contemporane- ous with, the times of the Hebrew kingdom. Language. — The language in which this new- old material is preserved is the so-called Baby- lonian-Assyrian wedge-writing. Although the Old Persian is alphabetic, the Babylonian-As- syrian is a sign and syllable tongue. Each sep- arate wedge ( Y ), or each combination of wedges (e*f )> constitutes a sign. This language was written by pressing the wedges with an instrument into clay or cutting them into stone or metal, for they never appear in relief. The primitive signs were probably rude pictures, which gradually grew through use into the form of curved and straight lines ; these lines soon took on the artistic form of wedges. This evolution is seen in the fact that a large number of the signs possess merely an ideographic value ; for example, we find a sign for the idea "land" ( & ), K sun» ( «f )■ "male" (Y ), "female" ( jL ), «make,» "fish, 9 "king," etc. Some of these signs possess a syllabic value, as da, ra, la, mat. lak. rid, zun, pad, etc. Quite a number possess several sylla- bic values, the context being the reader's only guide as to which should be used in any given case. The reader's trouble's are still more aggravated by the fact that the same sign some- times has both ideographic and syllabic values. In this, as in the preceding case, the reader's tact must find in the context the reason for the reading which he should adopt. There are about 600 independent and entirely distinct signs formed by combination's of any- where from 2 to 30 wedges set together at dif- ferent angles, or paralleled, or inserted within other combinations. But the great difficulties arise when we find that there were almost num- berless combinations of anywhere from two to six different ideographic signs to express other and often compound ideas. There are nearly 20,000 such combinations known to-day to As- syriologists. This Babylonian-Assyrian language is Se- mitic in character, though its soil is thought, by a large group of English, German, and French scholars, to be a non-Semitic tongue, the so- called Accadian or Sumerian. This question is prominently in the foreground to-day, due to the large accession of new material gathered at Telloh and Nippur, written in this ideographic tongue. The Babylonian-As- syrian tongue is a half-sister to the Hebrew of the Old Testament, and has already proved its real value in the interpretation of that lunik. '".V People. — The peoples nest known to A;syriology are Semites. The primitive inhab- itants of Babylonia, the predecessors of the Semitic population of Babylonia and Assyria, were probably a mixture of various nationalities, *..'. I— si with Semites in the lead. The group of schol- ars referred to in the preceding paragraph main- tain that the predecessors of the Semites were Sumerians or Accadians, the inventors of the ideographic cuneiform language of those coun- tries. We know, at least, from inscriptions found at Nippur, that the Semitic language was in use in Babylonia as early as the fourth millennium B.C. The population of Babylonia ami Assyria in historic times was Semitic. Their location made them warriors, for they had to be perpetually on the defense. The Babylonians cultivated the peaceful arts and were wide awake to the best things of life in their time and day. The Assyrians, on the other hand, built up an engine of warfare, a tremendous military machine, that, under powerful leaders, beat down and overthrew nations on everv hand. Some one has compared Babylonia and Assyria to Greece and Rome respectively, as fostering and furthering different elements of national life and character. The Civilization. — One of the marvels of these ancient people's was their advancement in all that counts for civilization. Their govern- ments were monarchical and well organized, with standing armies for their immediate pro- tection. Their civil courts were provided with ample laws for the regulation of society and of trade. Their cities were advantageously built, and surrounded with walls of a magnitude sufficient to withstand any ordinary attack. Their schools were carefully fostered and occupied a first place in their peaceful life. They cultivated the arts with assiduity and attained a notable degree of perfection in some lines. Their architecture and 'sculpture, their language and literature, are marks of a people high in the scale of Oriental civilization. Of religious ritual and all its ac- companiments and organization, we have a de- tailed description, which exhibits this as a favorite side of that early Semitic life. Their industry and trade activities were such as to place them in the front rank of commercial peo- ples. Their amusements and sports were of that adventurous and daring kind that bespeak the virility and strength of character found only among a hardy and vigorous people. Their political and commercial relations with their neighbors were such as mark an advanced stage in cordial international affairs. Their methods of warfare, and their treatment of their subjects, while often cruel and inhuman, were distin- guished by a high grade of intelligence, and more than ordinary genius. Natural Resources. — The wasteness and bar- renness of modern Babylonia give little intima- tion of its early resources. Its flora was quite varied and useful. Its plains were plentifully supplied with fruit trees of various kinds, such as fig-, olive-, date-palm-, vine-, and various nut-trees. On the mountain sides were found the oak, plane, and pine trees of different vari- eties. By cultivation the land produced wheat, barley, sesame, millet, hemp, and other cereals and articles of commerce. The date-palm was their universal utility article, for from it they seem to have manufactured honey, flour, vinegar, wine, and raw material for wickerwork. The reed that grew with such luxuriance on the hanks of the rivers and canals was utilized for a number of purposes. It served for building huts, weaving mats, and for boat-building, and ASSYRIOLOGY for layering mortar in the construction of walls. The absence of stone and minerals in the basin of the valley was partially compensated for by their proximity to the mountains on the north and east, though clay bricks, sun-dried and burnt, were always their chief building ma- terial. When marble, alabaster, diorite, or any of the precious metals were used they were brought cither from their mountain borders or from distant lands. Stone was used for colossi, statues, wall decorations, bas-reliefs, and some inscriptions. The precious metals were em- ployed for making jewelry, ornaments, service- able utensils, decorations on buildings and gates, and for tablets upon which inscriptions were engraved. The list of the fauna of the country is made quite complete by the pictures found on the walls of the old palaces and temples, and by the catalogues of names preserved in their litera- ture. These reveal to us a great variety of valuable animals. Among them we find the lion, the favorite game hunted by kings, the panther, the wild ox, the fox, the wild boar, wild asses, and camels — especially in later periods of his- tory. There were also several kinds of gazelles and antelopes that played about on the border hills and mountains. Of domestic animals, there were the horse in later time's, the ass, the camel, the cow, sheep, goat, and dog. Of wild birds, the inscriptions mention most frequently the eagle and the owl ; also the swallow, dove, raven, geese, and other waterfowls. Cities. — There is no more notable index of a great people than the number and magnitude of its great cities. Babylonia-Assyria, through the decipherment of the monuments, is seen to have been well dotted over with prosperous cities. Beginning in the south and proceeding northward, we find in that ancient day, Eridu, Ur, Erech, Larsa, Lagash, Nisin, Nippur, Bor- sippa, Babylon, Cutha, Sippar, and Agade ( !) — all famous cities in the Babylonian kingdoms and empires of four millenniums ago. The earliest civilization of that valley was centred in these cities, most of which seem to have been orig- inally capitals of districts. There are other mounds in considerable quantity that have not been identified, but which doubtless cover still other cities that played an important role in the life of early Babylonia. As we advance into the territory occupied bv Assyria great cities present themselves in a formidable array. The ancient mother city of Assyria was Ashur, located on the right bank of the Tigris, near the modern Kalat Sherkot, now being excavated by a German expedition. As we pass up the Tigris River of that day the next city of importance that one meets is Calah, or Nimroud, on the left bank of the river, just above the junction with the Tigris of the Upper Zab River. This was a palatial city, first un- earthed by Layard, and then by Rassam, contain- ing at least three royal palaces already men- tioned. Off to the east of Calah, on the east bank of the Upper Zab. was Arbela, a minor city of importance. Nineveh, whose mounds stand on the eastern bank of the Tigris opposite the modern Mosul, was a very ancient city. The small stream or river Khosr, passing between the two great mounds Kouyunjik and Nebi Yunus, that represent the remains of Nineveh, empties into the Tigris. Sargon II. (722-705 B.C.) built for himself at Khorsabad, north of Nineveh, a veritable royal city, the most mag- nificent building of which was his palace, un- covered by Botta and Place. Its name, l)ur- Sargina, "the wall or fortress of Sargon, 9 designates sufficiently its significance for his reign. To the southeast of Nineveh we find another city of especial significance in the reign of Shalmaneser II. (860-825 B.C.), Imgur-Bel, on the site of the modern Balaivat. Adjacent to this valley were such mighty cities and fortresses as Susa in Elam, Harran and Reshini in upper Mesopotamia, and Car- chemish, with other cities on its western frontier — all evidence of the thrift and permanency of the civilization of 3.000 and 4.000 years ago. Architecture. — The buildings of Babylonia- Assyria were modified architecturally, no doubt, by the character of the material accessible for their construction. Throughout this entire val- ley the absence of stone led to the use of clay bricks, sun- and kiln-dried, for building ma- terial. This, of course, necessitated a plainness of form that admitted of little exterior decora- tion. The walls were often built very thick, of sun-dried, with a veneer of kiln-dried, bricks. This veneer was a protection against the ravages of the weather, and the depredations of rob- bers, who could readily dig through a thick wall of merely sun-dried bricks. The strength of a sun-dried brick wall was sometimes in- creased by inserting between the courses of bricks layers of reeds. The entire structure was built on an artificially raised mound, primarily to lift the building above the danger of the overflowings of the rivers, but later apparently because of the age-long custom of placing it on an eminence. The entrances to the palaces and temples were usually guarded by great mono- lithic colossi, human-headed bulls or lion's, standing on each side and facing outward. Within were courts of different sizes that served the royal personages or their attendants. In immediate connection with each palace or group of royal buildings, particularly in Babylonia, was the tower or temple. It was a structure that towered above everything else, and rose from its base to its summit in a series of stages, sometimes seven, or steps, by which one ascended. On the top of this massive pile one would find the image of the god held in partic- ular reverence, or to whom the tower was dedi- cated. There are several remains of these sacred structures found in Babylonia to-day. Their ability to withstand the ravages of time is due to the hard burnt bricks with which they were constructed. The remains of the tower at Mugheir, the ancient <( Ur of the Chaldees," was built, according to its present indication, upon a platform 20 feet above the plain; its base was a parallelogram about 200 feet by 135 feet. One of the niceties of these constructions was their adaptation to the necessities and com- forts of the people. There was an admirable system of drainage, of hydraulics in general, that embodied some of the best principles of modern sanitation. The arch contributed no little to the construction of some of the prim- itive royal buildings of the 20th century B.C. Sculpture, Engraving, etc. — The most pre- cious contents of the temples and palaces were the statues of ths gods and kings, respectively. BLACK. DIORITE STATUE OF 6UDEA FROM TELL OH irate) (about 2800 B.C.) (now in the louvre, i ASSYRIOLOGY They are the best specimens of the sculpture of the Babylonian-Assyrian peoples. These works of art were often chiseled out of diorite, as those found by the French at Telloh, out of alabaster, as many of the giant colossi, or out of a basaltic rock, or black marble. The sculptors, even as far back as 3000 B.C., executed some wonderful work. Even more striking and complicated were their bas-reliefs, found so numerously on the walls of the palaces of the Assyrian kings. In this species of art there is often superb genius displayed in the introduction of many figures, of warriors, war-chariots, cavalry charges, battle scenes, sieges and captures of cities, and divinities of various grades. But in all these representations the modern student must not be disconcerted because of the lack of perspective. This is one of the charac- teristics of all early relief work and painting, and must be reckoned with in our study of those times. Besides the large and imposing works of art, there were numerous small objects that occu- pied large attention and revealed some real artistic skill. There were the silver vases of the time of Entimena (about 3800 B.C.), ivory objects showing exquisite workmanship, gold ornaments, cylinder seals reaching back to 4000 B.C., of many precious stones whose intaglio work would be a credit to this day. The method of executing such fine work on the hardest of precious stones is still a puzzle to modern en- gravers. The decorations of Assyrian and Per- sian palaces include also painting, though of a kind that reveals more crudeness than the speci- mens of the engraver's art. Literature. — The discoveries of the last three quarters of a century have opened for us the doors to a new library of ancient Oriental literature. These clay and alabaster volumes cover a large range of subjects, and treat them in a manner entirely unique. The first that attracted attention was, of course, the immense amount of historical matter, found mainly in the ruins of Assyria. Another large element in these tablets, particularly in Babylonia, is the poetry, pure Semitic poetry, or interlineated with so-called Sumerian poetry, whose character is determined by the presence of parallel members. This poetry contains hymns to the gods, peni- tential psalms, incantations, magical formulae, and even epics of surprising strength. Exam- ples of this poetry in Assyria were copied from Babylonian originals, as Assyria was notably weak in its literary ability. Then there are legends, mythology, and popular treatments of technical subjects. We find also treatises that are geographical, biological, geological ; tablets that are commercial in character, recording loans, deeds, rent's, and trades ; long lists of matter that is purely linguistic, for it deals with signs and their values ; a codified system of laws that touched almost every complication in the complexities of Babylonian life; letters, domestic and international, that reveal both the home cus- toms of the nation and their foreign relation- ships and authority. Myth and Legend. — The poems that are some- times called epic, in the literature of Babylonia, are based upon events that are usually termed mythical. The epic and mythical elements are so thoroughly commingled that the entire narra- tive may be termed mythological. The scenes depicted are those between gods and gods, and between gods and men, and other creatures. The most famous stones classified as mythology are the so-called creation epic, the epic of Gil- gamesh, of which the eleventh tablet or poem is the Babylonian story of the deluge. There are several legends and fragments of legend? which have received careful study in recen* years, whose matter is arranged on the custom- ary Babylonian poetical plan. Some of these are, the descent of Ishtar into the world of de- parted spirits, the Namtar legend, the Adapa and Etana legends, and legends of various god? Some of these entertaining literary stories take their place for real merit and interest beside the best legendary lore of ancient Greece. Their archaeological value is often considerable, and their relation to the religious life of Babylonia- Assyria immeasurable. Religion. — The primitive religion of Baby- lonia was doubtless the worship of the different powers of nature. These became personified and everything that took place in the world was simply the result of the action of some particular god, who stood above man in the scale of being, and executed all movements in the especial sphere where he was supreme. The representa- tives of these divinities on the monuments are seen sometimes to be men, and at other times to be part man and part beast and bird. Those in the form of men possessed attributes like, but far superior to, man. Since they represented different powers in nature, none of them was all- powerful. Their functions lay in special lines, and for these they were worshipped. In Assyria, the gods as a whole were practically bor- rowed from Babylonia. But Asshur, the great divinity of Assyria, stood alone, unique in all the Mesopotamia!! pantheon, and supreme in Assyria. The chief gods of Babylonia, those that were supreme in its pantheon, were three, Ami, the god of heaven, Bel, the god of the earth, and Ea, the god of the abyss and of secret knowledge. These great three were followed by another triad, who regulated light and the weather, namely, Shamash, the sun-god, Sin, the moon-god, and Ramman, the weather-god. These six divinities were localized, in that each was the patron deity of some city. For example, Anu was the patron deity of Erech, Bel of Nip- pur, Ea of Eridu, Shamash of Larsa and Sippar, and Sin of Ur (of the Chaldees). There is a long list of other gods and goddesses, who were doubtless related to the two chief triads, but up to the present time this relationship in all cases cannot be determined. Slightly aside from the lists already named we find the great goddess Ishtar, one of whose feats is described in the legend, "Descent of Ishtar.' Worship. — The cities of Babylonia-Assyria were well supplied with temples, in which the gods were devotedly and assiduously worshipped. Indeed, this worship was an essential element in the life of the Babylonians, to a greater ex- tent than among the Assyrians. The temples were the most elaborate buildings of Babylonia, and were under the immediate direction of the priesthood, the most powerful class of men, next to the king, in the nation. Babylonian inscrip- tions, particularly, enumerate many temples in the chief cities that were dedicated to the patron deity of each several city. Each temple had an organization of official priests, whose duties ASSYRIOLOGY •were the preservation and propagation of the worship of the god of that temple, and the ritual and traditions thereof. The king was the great overlord' or guardian of the temple, and spared no means to keep it in a thoroughly good state of preservation, and to increase its popularity among his subjects. The support of the priest- hood was provided for by revenues produced by the lands attached to the temple, or belonging thereto, supplemented by regular offerings. These priests, as those in Egypt, were the most influential men in the kingdom, for they con- trolled the religious life of the community, and had no small part in the affairs of political and civil life. They were probably the best educated men in the nation, and by their learning tilled the offices that required a somewhat broad train- ing, such as scribes, historians, and librarians. The regular duties of the priests in connec- tion with the temple service were (i) to offi- ciate at all the regularly appointed services of the temple, including the monthly and annual set feasts, and (2) to carry out the worshipful desires of any individual worshipper. The minutiae of conditions regnant in temple service are voluminous, and touch almost every condi- tion of life. Some of the incantations and psalms, already referred to, preserve the peti- tions that must be recited by the suppliant. Other tablets enumerate the great variety of offerings that must be presented to the gods to secure their good-will and blessings. The multiplicity of such requirements easily kept an army of priests busy in the great temples of the principal cities of Babylonia-Assyria. Sources of Babylonian- Assyrian History. — Before the excavations of the last 75 years in the ruins of Babylonia-Assyria, the two main sources of the history of the peoples and coun- try in our theme were (1) the books of the Old Testament, and (2) the second-hand narratives of Berosus, Manetho, and Josephus, with a few scattered statements and some questionable nar- rative in Greek and Roman writers. The dis- coveries in the ruins of Mesopotamia have now given us first-hand information of the best kind, narratives just as they were written down by the original scribes, and not copies made from age to age, as are the works above referred to. These clay, stone, and metal records stretch not continuously as yet, but with breaks here and there, from at least 4000 B.C. down through the fall of Babylon before the army of Cyrus 538 B.C. Of course, they cannot be regarded as in- fallible, but are still for our purpose reasonably reliable. They give us, at least, a new pano- rama, of the most vivid kind, of the great na- tions that moved down the avenue of time in Babylonia for nearly 4,000 years. Chronology. — The chronology of Babylonia must be described in part separately frr>m that of Assyria. The early Babylonians reckoned events from some great calamity or occurrence, such as the destruction of a city, the dedication of a temple, or the opening of a new irrigating canal. Later down in the history they counted time by the years of a reigning king. The "List of Kings," a list of the kings (not complete) of Babylon from about 2400 B.C. to 625 B.C., by dynasties, with the length of reign of each king and of each dynasty, and the so-called "Baby- lonian Chronicle," consisting of a record of events in Babylonia and Assyria from about 745 B.C., early in the reign of Nabonassar, to 669 B.C., the beginning year of the reign of Shamash- sbum-ukin are valuable documents. The Ptol- emaic Canon, which has some reliable fea- tures, also begins with Nabonassar's reign. Besides these guides there arc references here and there that both serve as checks and give us fixed points from which and toward which we may figure. One of the most striking is that mentioned by Nabonidus ( 555— 5,58 B.C.) on one of his cylinder inscriptions. He there states that an inscription of Sargon which he found in the corner-stone of a temple had been deposited in its hiding place 3,200 years before his day, or about 3750 B.C. The mere we find of ancient Babylonian facts the more probable the correctness of this date seems to be. Then there arc chronological notes and hints, such as the statement that Burna-buriash lived 700 years after Ham- murabi, that Marduk-nadin-akhe defeated Tig- lathpilcser I. 418 years before Sennacherib conquered Babylon. Each such hint furnishes a valuable check on the whole chronological scheme, and aids the scholar in his construc- tion of a valid and reliable list of rulers and events, even though for the present there are some wide and embarrassing gaps in the period covered by Babylonian history. Assyrian chronology follows a unique plan. It names the years after certain officers, termed eponyms, whose term of office extended over but one year. Lists of these eponyms have been found stretching from 893 B.C., during the reign of Adad-nirari II. (gi 1-890 B.C.) down to Assurbanipal (668-626 B.C.). On some of these lists we find merely the name of the eponym, on others there is found the name of the king in authority, in fact he usually was an eponym at some time during his reign, and some of the chief events of each year. The succes- sion of events between the limit years mentioned above is now positively known. To verify our calculation that these Assyrian records are cor- rectly poised in time, we find that in the month of Sivan, year of eponymy of Pur-Shagalti, there was a total eclipse of the sun in Nineveh. Astronomers have located this same eclipse on 15 June 763 B.C., thus giving us a fixed point for our calculations, and for settling specifically the dates of the entire Assyrian eponym lists. Historical Periods — Babylonia. — The history of Babylonia may be roughly divided into three periods: (1) That stretch of time reaching from the remotest recorded events down to the time of the consolidation of the kingdoms of Babylonia under Hammurabi at Babylon, about 2250 B.C. ; (2) the time included between Ham- murabi's supremacy and 626 B.C., the death of Assurbanipal, last great king of Assyria, and the rise of Nabopolassar. first king of the new Babylonian kingdom; (3) beginning of Nabo- polassar's reign (625 B.C.) to the fall of Babylon before Cyrus (538 B.C.). First Period — Babylonia. — The beginnings of this period are enveloped in fog. Scattered fragments of antiquities and archaic inscriptions tell a broken tale of a very remote antiquity. Telloh, Nippur, Babylon, and Susa have yielded to the excavator many evidences of an extreme antiquity, and have put into our hands materia' for beginning to estimate some of the elements of such early civilizations. Some of tie earliest ASSYRIOLOGY kings were those who ruled over Erech and Lagash, which occupied territory apparently on the north and south side, respectively, of the irrigating canal, Shatt-el-Hai, connecting the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Other kingdoms in this early period, apparently earlier than 4000 b.c, were Kish and Ur. The formal name of a governor in this earliest age was patesi. Lugal-zag-gi-si, however, king of Erech, appar- ently a Semitic name, designates himself "king of Erech, king of the world," but calls his father Ukush, "palest of Gishban." Other kings of this very early period were Ur-Nina, the foundations of whose palace at Telloh are to be seen in the first illustration, and E-dingirrana- du. E-dingirrana-du was a patesi of Lagash and a victorious ruler, who seized and main- tained authority, among others, over Gishban, Kish, Erech, Ur, and Larsa. These events must have occurred about 4000 B.C. About 3750 B.C., according to the reckoning of Nabonidus, already mentioned, we find Sar- gon I. in power, swaying his sceptre to the westward as far as the shores of the Med- iterranean Sea. His son, Naram-Sin, carried on the extensions of his father's kingdom until he included in his realm northern Syria, northern Arabia, Mesopotamia, and Elam. He designates himself, therefore, "king of the four quarters of the world. 8 There is a break in the records at this point. The next ruler, rather patesi, of Lagash apparently inaugurates a new reign, that enfolds within its borders the sway of all southeastern Babylonia, including also Elam. This patesi was Gudea, one of the most famous rulers of this valley, at about 2800 B.C. The accompanying cut represents one of his inscribed statues of block diorite found at Telloh, around which we find 366 lines of writing very artistically cut into this hard stone. On the lap of the statue there is a plan of a building, designed in exact proportions, reveal- ing the measurements current in Gudea's day. His numerous inscriptions tell us of his world-wide commercial activity, though his political power may not have included more than Elam outside of Babylonian territory. The power of the patesis of Lagash stretched over some time, and was a distinct force in the civil- ization of lower Babylonia. We have also the names of several kings of Ur, of Nisin, of Erech, of Larsa, and of some smaller cities, whose exact location in the chain of history is not as yet fixed. Second Period — Babylonia: First to Third Dynasties. Beginning of Assyria. — The isolated kingdoms of Babylonia had already existed for centuries, with here and there a ruler who had been able to gain the supremacy o\ it one or more of his neighbors for a time. But the man above all others who unified these scattered realms under his own sceptre, with Babylon as a centre, was Hammurabi, whose long reign of 55 years began about 2285 B.C. He greatly improved the internal condition of his own country, both materially and politically, and carried his conquests to Elam, as had Sar- gon I., his predecessor by 1500 years. Ham- murabi's influence and power for the welfare of his subjects have been brought out anew by the discovery at Susa, in December 1901-Jan- uary 1902, by M. J. de Morgan at the head of the French expedition, of a code of laws which had been compiled under his direction and or- ders. This remarkable document shows that Hammurabi's government was thoroughly reg- ulated, for it provides laws now intact to the number of 243 to govern the complexities of commercial, social, and official life. Succes- sive kings of this first dynasty, founded about 2400 B.C. by Sumuabi, are known as yet but slightly, though many contract tablets belonging to this period have been found. The second dynasty in the "List of Kings'* consists of 11 rulers, about whom we know nothing. It is thought that during their reign the Kassites made their way into Babylonia from the countries of Media and Elam and secured a hold on the throne. The third dynasty in the "List of Kings" is made up of 36 kings, but only a few names at the beginning and at the close are preserved. The "Synchronous History," however, supple- ments this lacuna in some respects, and gives us an idea of the relations of this dynasty to Assyria. In fact, early hi this dynasty the former little colony of Assyria, which had mi- grated from Babylon some time about 2500-2300 B.C., rebelled against its mother-country, Baby- lon, and secured its independence. Its first king of whom we know the name was Bel-Kapkapu, mentioned by Adad-nirari III. as an early king on the Assyrian throne. Ashur-bel-nishishu is the first king about whom we know anything of value. He ruled about 1480 B.C. and was on friendly terms with Kara-indash, a king of the third Babylonian dynasty. Several successive Assyrian kings seem to have perpetuated this friendship, but jealousy and hostility sprung up and there were, repeatedly, clashes of arms, in which, on the whole, the young and vigorous Assyrian kingdom was victorious. One of the notable Assyrian kings of this period was Shal- maneser I., who ruled about 1330 B.C. His great campaigns against the territory northwest of Assyria are celebrated in the records of Assurnatsirpal (884-860 B.C.). Second Period — Babylonia: Fourth (.'.V:'- enth Dynasties. Assyria, X12O-I075. — The fourth Babylonian dynasty is called the dynasty of Pashe. We are not aware of the name of its founder. The "List of Kings" is, unfortunately, mutilated so that we have only portions of the names of the last three king';. The "Synchronous History" fills part of the gap by giving some of the relations between Babylonia and Assyria during the life of this dynasty. These rela- tions were hostile in some of its earlier years, when Nebuchadrezzar I. was on the throne, and the battle went against the Babylonians. Then Marduk-nadin-akhe, a Babylonian king, wrested victory from the Assyrians. Tiglathpileser I. ( [120 B.C.), king of Assyria, on the other hand, completely routed the same Babylonian king, captured a number of cities in North Babylonia, and even Babylon itself. Succeeding kings of this Babylonian dynasty and of Assyria made treaties of peace, and for the time being ceased their wasteful warfare. Of all the Assyrian kings wdio reigned in the time of this Babylonian dynasty. Tiglathpileser I. was the most vigor- ous, aggressive, and successful. His example furnished an inspiration for all succeeding As- syrian rulers, and his conquests, related in full in his cylinder inscription, give us a fine speci- men of early Assyrian historical writing. ASSYRIOLOGY The fifth Babylonian dynasty (about 1050 8.C.) com 1 ted of three kings and was very short. It lias been called the "Sea-land" dynasty, be- cause it is thought probable that the Chaldeans about the head of the Persian Gulf were the occupants of the throne. At least, it is probable that the country was in political confusion dur- ing the life of this dynasty. The sixth dynasty (about 1025 B.C.) was that of Bazi, and, like its predecessor, had just three kings, (if whose acts very little is known. A gap of about 100 years is found at this place in our sources, a part of which is attrib- uted to the unknown seventh dynasty — possibly an Elamite, which is said to have ruled six years. Assyrian history likewise has a gap of more than 100 years (1070-950 B.C.). The "Synchro- nous History" leaves us in the dark in this period. Second Period — Babylonia: Eighth Dy- nasty. Assyria about 930-783 B. C. — The eighth dynasty of Babylon is supposed to have been native Babylonian, and occupied the throne from about 1000 to 800 B.C. The kings who ruled in Babylon during these 200 years fought a losing battle with the Assyrians, for in al- most every clash the Assyrian was victorious. Though the names of the early kings of this dynasty are lost, we know those of the kings who waged war with Assyria during the larger portion of the life of the dynasty. With this dynasty the "Synchronous History" closes. The Assyrian records, the "Eponym Canon," begin in this period, at 893 B.C., and give us a continuous annual list down to 666 B.C. One of the most notable Assyrian kings of this period who have left us their records was Assurnatsirpal (8S4-860 B.C.). This king was one of the most energetic and aggressive mon- archs of Assyria. He established Assyria's au- thority in every direction, even to the coasts of the far-off Mediterranean Sea. His reign was vigorous, cruel, and even barbaric. Locally, he built a great palace at Calah, and one at Nin- eveh, and restored the temple of Ishtar at the latter place. His son, Shalmaneser II. (860- S_s B.C.), still further extended the limits of his paternal realm by including lakes Van and Urumiyeh, in Armenia, and becoming protector of Babylon. To students of the Old Testament his reign assumes more than ordinary impor- tance, for he was the first Assyrian king to come into contact with the Hebrew nation of Palestine. He mentions "Ahab of Israel" and "Jehu, son of Omri," both of whom became his subjects in the Westland. The accompanying illustration presents four of the five reliefs on one of the four sides of the famous Black Obe- lisk of Shalmaneser II. These four represent the tribute paid by four foreign countries to the Assyrian king. The inscription over the first relief reads: "Tribute of Sua of the land of Guzan, silver, gold" ; over the second : "Tribute of Jehu, son of Omri. silver" ; over the third : "Tribute of the land of Mutsri. double-humped dromedaries" ; over the fourth : "Tribute of Merodach-abil-utsur of the land of the Sukhites." These four reliefs and inscriptions are only the first of four, the other three being found on the other three sides of the obelisk. Shalman- eser's son, Shamshi-Adad II. (824-812 B.C.), succeeded him on the throne, and rescued the kingdom from a rebellion which had been stirred up by a brother. His only notable conquest was over Babylon under command of King Marduk- balatsu-ikbi. The next king of Assyria was Adad-nirari III. (812-783 BC )» son and successor of his father. I lis was a prosperous reign, reaching to Tyre, Sidon, Palestine, and Philistia. Even Mari', king of Damascus, yielded submission to his sway. As in Babylonia, so the next rulers in As- syria, three in number, amounted to little. Assyrian Supremacy: Tiglathpileser III. Babylonian Subjection. — Assyria's three lethar- gic rulers between 783 and 745 left no records that deserve mention. But their great suc- cessor, Tiglathpileser III. (745-727 B.C.), re- deemed the ancient reputation of the empire. This new king, although a usurper, revolution- ized the policy and methods of the Assyrian empire. He pushed out the boundaries of As- syria farther than any predecessor on the throne. He completely subdued Syria, Palestine, and Philistia. According to his own records, he, more than any other Assyrian monarch, came into close contact with the Hebrews. He men- tions Menahem, Pekah, and Hoshea, kings of the northern kingdom, and Uzziah and Ahaz, kings of the southern kingdom. To him also is to be attributed the policy of deportation of captives from a given district, and importation into that same district of peoples from distant districts, in order thereby to prevent the possi- bility of uprisings and rebellion. He also in- augurated a kind of local self-government, or provincial districts, as parts of his adminis- trative policy, thus making a decided advance over the reign of his predecessors. The next Babylonian king of whom we know anything of consequence is Nabonassar (747 B.C.), mentioned in the Canon of Ptolemy, as well as in the "List of Kings" and the "Baby- lonian Chronicle." But from this time down to the rise of the new Babylonian empire, Baby- lon was everywhere practically in the hands of Assyria, though there were some sanguinary struggles for the supremacy. Sargon II. (722-705 B. C). — riglathpileser's successor was Shalmaneser IV. (727-722 B.C.). about whom we know little, as none of his in- scriptions have been found. His one act of note was the siege of Samaria in 724 B.C. His successor was Sargon II., whose first act was the capture of Samaria in 722 and the deporta- tion of the Jews to various parts of his empire. This Sargon was a master ruler, who not only subdued and held in subjection the peoples on the east coast of the Mediterranean Sea, but also with indefatigable skill put down Mero- dach Baladan of Babylon and his attempted conspiracy (cf. Isa. xxxix.). Sargon's great home achievement was the construction of that colossal palace at Khorsabad, just north of Nineveh, that was first discovered by Botta in 1842. as already described. Sennacherib. 705-681 B. C. — Sargon II. was assassinated in his new palace at Khorsabad in 705 B.C. and was succeeded by Sennacherib, his son. This vigorous ruler conducted at least three successful campaigns: (1) against the Westland: Syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine (701 B.C.), when he overran Judah, carried off 200,150 captives, threatened Jerusalem, making Heze- ASSYRIOLOGY kiah his subject, and met and, according to his own records, defeated an Egyptian army at Elteku; (2) in an expedition against Elam (693 B.C.) he was only partially successful, not quite reaching the capital, Susa ; (3) in 689, he sacked, burnt, and practically destroyed the city of Babylon, in revenge for the rebellious acts of its former ruler and inhab- itants. Sennacherib removed the capital from Calah to Nineveh, and erected for himself a magnificent palace in that newly made capital of the unified Assyrian-Babylonian empire. Other public works of an extensive nature, such as arsenals and water supply, were the objects of his energy. Sennacherib was murdered by one of his sons, according to the "Babylonian Chronicle," and was succeeded by Esarhaddon, his son, who was not engaged in the conspiracy. Esarhaddon, 681-668 B. C; Assurbanipal, 668-626 B. C. — Sennacherib's son, Esarhaddon, carried on a successful warfare against the mountaineers to the north and northeast, and was the first Assyrian ruler to carry his con- quests into Egypt. In 671 B.C. he crossed the frontier of that age-old land, took Memphis, and carried his arms as far as Thebes, driving the Ethiopian monarch of Egypt, Tirhakah, back into his homeland. He was the first king of Assyria who could add to his title, Egypt, Paturisi (biblical, "Pathros") and Kus (biblical, "Cush," "Ethiopia"). In his list of 22 tribute- paying kings of the Westland, we find "Manas- seh of Judah." He was succeeded by his son, Assurbanipal (the "Sardanapalus" of the Greeks, and "Osnappar" of Ezra iv. 10). Egypt had revolted about the time of the death of Esar- haddon, and thus necessitated the early attention of Assurbanipal to hold it. He was completely successful, driving back the rebel Tirhakah, and re-establishing his authority over the whole land. A second expedition was required again in 663 B.C., when the land was completely re- conquered and Assyrian authority re-established. Very soon, however, Psamtik of Egypt, with the help of foreign troops, threw off the yoke of Assyria. Assurbanipal's great work was the conquest of Babylon and his rebellious brother Shamash-shum-ukin in 647 B.C.; and, after sev- eral terrific battles, the crushing of the power of the Elamites in 640 B.C., by the capture and destruction of their great capital, Susa. These colossal military achievements marked the cul- mination of Assyria's career, for henceforth there was a rapid decline. Assurbanipal's nota- ble contribution to the history of literature was his causing to be collected and copied for his royal library at Nineveh many of the most fa- mous pieces of literature found in the libraries of Babylon. The last years of his reign are wrapped in obscurity. Third Period — Babylonia: Rise of Baby- lon, 62$ B. C. Fall of Assyria, 606 B. C. — Al- most simultaneously with the death of Assur- banipal (626 B.C.) we find one of his former generals, Nabopolassar, a Chaldean by de- scent, securing the throne of Babylon for himself (625-605 B.C.). While he was develop- ing and extending his influence and grasp over the territory that was naturally tributary to Babylon, momentous events were occurring in the north country, in and about Assyria. The growing Median power threatened its very life. Two sons of Assurbanipal, Assur-etil-ilani and Sin-shar-ishkun, occupied the Assyrian throne, the former about four and the latter about seven years. The waves of the Umman-Manda, peoples to the north and northeast of Nineveh, were rolling over the mountains of eastern Armenia and northern Media. According to an inscription of Nabonidus, written about 553 B.C., these mountaineers finally succeeded in overwhelming Nineveh, the last hiding-place of the Assyrian tyrant and oppressor, in 6c6 B.C. : this was done probably with the direct or indi- rect support of Nabopolassar of Babylon. Nebuchadrezzar II. 604-561 B. C. — Simul- taneously with the fall of Nineveh we find an Egyptian army under Necho encamped in north- ern Syria, in full possession of the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea. In a crushing defeat Nebuchadrezzar overthrew and pursued the Egyptian invaders, and secured that terri- tory for the new Babylonian empire. Within the 44 years of his reign, Nebuchadrezzar made Babylon the up-to-that-time greatest of em- pires. His authority extended, on biblical evi- dence, even into Egypt, and his activities were something phenomenal. In fact, the larger part of his inscriptions already found are devoted to his immense building projects, including temples, palaces, streets, embankments, and walls. Babylon was built in great magnificence, and in every important aspect did credit to the enter- prise and genius of Babylonia's greatest monarch. His own records thus far found do not give us any account of his dealings with the Jews, either at Jerusalem or those in exile, — de- scribed in the Old Testament. After a long and prosperous reign he was succeeded on the throne by his son, Evil-Merodach. This king was assassinated after a reign of two years (561-560 B.C.), by Neriglissar, his brother-in- law. This usurper ruled four years (559-556 B.C.), and spent most of his time, according to his inscriptions, in building operations. At his death, his son, Labashi-Marduk, not yet of age, succeeded him, but fell under the assassin's knife within nine months. Nabonidus, 555-538 B. C. — By some mach- inations of the priesthood, apparently, the new king, Nabonidus, was a native Babylonian and not a Chaldean as was the dynasty of Nabo- polassar. He was an enthusiastic religionist and antiquarian. He built and rebuilt many temples in the principal cities of his kingdom. He was the discoverer, in the foundations of a temple, as already stated, of an inscription of Sargon I., which had been placed there 3,200 years before his day, making the date of said Sargon about 3750 B.C. Nabonidus' enthusiasm carried him too far, for he attempted to centralize in Babylon the re- ligion of the kingdom. In doing this he alienated the priesthood, and even aroused their active opposition. For throughout the history of Babylonia each city had had its own patron deity, to whom its temple was dedicated and its people devoted. The images and shrines of these various divinities were collected in Babylon. This act, with others of similar of- fense to the priests paved the way for his down- fall before a mightier power. Cyrus, 538-520 B. C. — Cyrus, an Elamite and Persian by descent, began an active career as a conqueror in 558 B.C. He conquered suc- cessively the Medes under Astyages (550 B.C.), ASSYRIOLOGY Croesus and Asia Minor (547 u.r.), and then moved against Nabonidtis, who had allied him- self against this new conqueror. The Babylonian army was probnbly under the command of Na- bonidus' sun, Bclshazzar. Suffering a defeat at Opis, the army of Babylon later scarcely offered resistance. Cyrus marched, almost without fur- ther opposition, to the gates of the capital city. The outraged priesthood and citizens, in open defiance of their own kins, flung open the gates and welcomed the new and liberal conqueror to authority over them. Cyrus restored the gods In their cities and shrines, and permitted en- forced exiles to return to their native places and lands. Besides, he became one of the ardent worshippers of the gods of the land, and established himself as a liberty-loving, peo- ple-serving pi itentate. The fall of Babylon before the advance of Cyrus meant the fail of Semitic sway in Baby- lonia, and the rise of Aryan power. The cunei- form tongue served the purpose of a language in Babylonia for long years after this revolu- tion. In fact, throughout the Persian and Greek periods, this same language was used in Babylonia, particularly in writing contract tab- lets. There are some inscriptions dating from the Parthian era, due doubtless to the enthusi- astic support of the priesthood of those times. Thus for nearly or quite 4,000 years the cunei- form language was the vehicle of expression for the peoples of Babylonia. Bibliography. — The literature on Babylonia- Assyria has already become voluminous. Con- sequently, in a limited bibliography, only selec- tions will be given. These will cover the following departments of study: (1) Explorations and Discoveries. — These include the early works of C. J. Rich, J. E. Taylor, A. H. Layard, P. E. Botta, Felix Jones, W. K. Loftus, and J. Oppert. Since 1870 the most important works are those of Geo. Smith, H. Rassam, E. de Sarzec, John P. Peters, H. V. Hilprecht, and M. J. de Morgan, freely cited in all works on discoveries in those lands. (2) Inscriptions and Texts. — Cuneiform texts began very early to be published. The first notable publication was Rawlinson's text and translation of the Bchistun Inscription in the 'Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society' (Vol. X„ 1847). Botta, Layard, and Oppert also published inscriptions as a result of their explor- ations and excavations. H. C. Rawdinson edited (1861-84) for the trustees of the British Mu- seum five standard volumes of texts under the title 'Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia.' Many minor series have appeared since that date, such as 'Assyriologische Bibliothck' (188 1— ), edited by Delitzsch and Haupt; 'Babylonian Expedition of the University of Pennsylvania,' by H. V. Hilprecht (1893 — ) ; 'Cuneiform Texts in the British Museum' (189c) — ), by officials of that museum: (1887); C. P. Tiele, 'Geschielite d. aegyptische u. d. babyl.-assyr. Religion' (1895) ; M. Jastrow, Jr., 'Religion of Babylonia and Assyria' (1898, new revised ed., 1905. appearing in German); H. Zimmern, 'Beitnige zur Kenntniss der Babylonischen Religion' (1901); Perrot and Chipiez, 'Histoire de l'art dans l'antiquite,' Vol. II.: 'Chaldee et As- syrie' (1884); older works, such as those of Botta, Layard, and Place, are of value chiefly for their illustrations. (6) History and Archeology. — Some of the most recent works superseding the large work of George Rawlinson are G. Smith, 'History of Babylonia,' edited by Sayce (1877); G. Smith. 'Assyria from the Earliest Times to the Fall of Nineveh' (1875); F. Hommel. (1853). Several species are cultivated in greenhouses for orna- mental purposes and specimens as large as 10 feet tall often bear fruit. For culture, consult : Bailey and Miller, 'Cyclopedia of American Horticulture 1 (1900-2). As'trolabe (from Greek astron, a star, and lambano, I take), the name given by the Greeks to any circular instrument having one or more graduated circles. In modern astronomy this in- strument is no longer used, because wholly superseded by the sextant. The first application of the astrolabe to navigation was made by the physicians, Roderich and Joseph and Martin Behaim of Niirnberg, when John II., king of Portugal, desired them to invent a method of preserving a certain course at sea. Angles of altitude were found by suspending the astro- labe perpendicularly. Astrology, the science which pretends to foretell future events, especially the fate of men, from the position of the stars. Originally, that is, among the Greeks and Romans, the word had the meaning of "astronomy," and, as in the case of alchemy and chemistry, the pseudo- science and the real science had the same origin. In early times, when the earth was regarded as the centre of the universe and as that to which all else was somehow tributary, it was a not unnatural hypothesis that the changing configu- rations of the heavenly bodies might be indica- tive of human destiny, or might influence human character. Hence, the Chinese, the Egyptians, the Chaldseans, the Romans, and most other an- cient nations, with the honorable exception of the Greeks, became implicit believers in astrol- ogy. It was partly the cause and partly the ef- fect of the prevalent worship of the heavenly bodies. The "star-gazers," sarcastically re- ferred to in Isa. xlvii. 13, were perhaps astrolo- gers ; so also may have been what are called in the margin "viewers of the heavens 8 ; but the Hebrew word rendered "astrologers" in Dan. 1. 20 ; ii. 2, 27 ; iv. 7 ; v. 7, is a much vaguer one, meaning those who practise incantations, with- out indicating what the character of these in- cantations may be. The later Jews, the Arabs, with other Mohammedan races, and the Chris- tians in mediaeval Europe were all great culti- vators of astrology. Some of the greatest as- tronomers, among whom was John Kepler, who knew very much better, were accustomed to "cast horoscopes," and to receive large fees for so doing. The ordinary method of procedure in the Middle Ages was to divide a globe or a planisphere into 12 portions by circles running from Pole to Pole, like those which now mark meridians of longitude. Eacli of the 12 spaces or intervals between these circles was called a "house" of heaven. The sun, the moon, and the stars all pass once in 24 hours through the portion of heavens represented by the 12 "houses." Every house has one of the heavenly bodies ruling over it as its lord. The houses symbolize different advantages or disadvantages. The first is the house of life; the second, of riches ; the third, of brethren ; the fourth, of parents ; the fifth, of children ; the sixth, of health; the seventh, of marriage; the eighth, of death ; the ninth, of religion ; the tenth, of dignities; the eleventh, of friends; and the twelfth, of enemies. The houses vary in strength, the first one, that containing the part of the heavens about to rise, being the most powerful of all ; it is called the ascendant, while the point of the ecliptic just rising is termed the horoscope. The important matter was to ascer- tain what house and star was in the as- cendant at the moment of a person's birth, from which it was deemed possible to augur his for- tune. It followed that all people born in the same part of the world at the same time ought to have had the same future, an allegation which experience decisively contradicted. Even apart from this, astrological predictions of all kinds had a fatal tendency to pass away with- out being fulfilled ; and when, finally, it was dis- covered that the earth was not the centre of the universe, but only a planet revolving around an- other body, and itself much exceeded in size by several of its compeers, every scientific mind in Europe felt itself unable any longer to believe in astrology, which has been in an increasingly languishing state since the middle of the 17th century. It still flourishes, however, in Asia and Africa, and is a means of livelihood to many charlatans who prey upon the ignorant classes in all countries. As'tronom'ical and As'trophysi'cal Soci- ety of America, a national society whose mem- bers must possess technical knowledge of astm- nomical and astrophysical science. Membership (1903) 180. Astronomy. Astronomy is that branch of science which treats of the heavenly bodies — including practically all the bodies of the uni- verse. The great advance which our times have witnessed in the methods of research has made it one of the most progressive of the sciences, while it is, at the same time, the oldest of all. The vast extent of its field, including the entire universe within its bounds, leads to its having ASTRONOMY a number of different branches. There is, first, a branch which embraces our general know- ledge of the heavenly bodies, their motions, aspects, and physical constitution. This branch is commonly termed descriptive or general as- tronomy. It is now recognized as having two divisions, one relating principally to the mo- tions, mutual relations, and general aspects of the heavenly bodies ; the other to their physical constitution, considered individually. The for- mer division is sometimes termed astrometry, because it is principally concerned with mea- surements of position, motion, mass, etc. The other branch is termed astrophysics, and is that which has received its greatest development in recent times. There is also a branch which teaches the methods of observing the heavenly bodies, including the instruments used in ob- servation and measurement, and the principles governing their use, as well as the practical computations incident thereto. This branch is termed practical astronomy. Another branch is the mathematical one, which determines the orbits and motions of the heavenly bodies by deductive methods, taking as a basis the facts of observation and the laws of motion, espe- cially that of gravitation. This branch treats of the orbits of the heavenly bodies and of the methods of computing the effects of their mu- tual attraction. It is commonly termed theo- retical astronomy, while the more purely mathe- matical theory is known as celestial mechanics. The subject of astronomy is treated in the present work on the following plan : We begin with a brief but comprehensive survey of the universe, referring to special articles — Stars, Universe, Nebulae, Solar System, etc., for de- tails. This survey will be followed by reviews of Practical Astronomy, Theoretical Astron- omy, and of the historical development of the science. Descriptive Astronomy. — Considered as to their nature, the heavenly bodies may be divided into two great classes ; the one, incandescent bodies which shine by their own light; the other, opaque bodies which are visible only by re- flecting the light of some incandescent body in their neighborhood. Examples of the first class are the stars which stud the heavens at night ; examples of the second are the planets, of which our earth is one. From the very na- ture of the case, little can be learned of the possible number of opaque bodies which may exist in the universe. There may be some rather uncertain ground for inferring that they are less massive and less numerous than the incandescent bodies ; but it is sometimes sup- posed that they may far outnumber the latter without our being aware of the fact. The stars are scattered through the wilderness of space at distances which baffle all our powers of conception. Light moves with such speed that it would make the circuit of the earth seven times in a single second. But the cases are rather exceptional when a star is so near one of its neighbors that light would not take years to travel over the distance which separates them. Indeed, the only known exceptions belong to the class of double or multiple stars — two or more such bodies forming a system by them- selves. There is only one star so near us that its light would reach us in four years, and the same is probably true of most other stars. That the universe of stars extends to distances which light would require several thousand years to travel, is certain ; but no well-defined limit has yet been set to its extent. Our sun is one of the stars, and is the one of which we know most because of our proximity to it. It is the centre around which eight great planets and a number of other bodies perform their revolutions. On one of these great plan- ets, the third in the order of distance, we dwell. Our knowledge of the heavens is largely con- ditioned by our residence on this planet. We see the other planets by the light of the sun, which they reflect. They present to the naked eye the appearance of stars ; and it is only when scrutinized with the telescope that they are found to have a measurable apparent size. Vast indeed is their distance from the sun when measured by our standards. Yet, the dimensions of our solar system are very small when compared with the distance which sepa- rates the stars. Light passes from the sun to the outer planet, Neptune, in about four hours, while, as we have said, it requires years to reach any star. The nearest star is therefore thousands of times farther than the most distant planet. A most interesting question is whether other stars have systems of planets revolving round them, as our sun has. This is a question which it is impossible to answer conclusively. Planets revolving round the stars would be ab- solutely invisible through the most powerful telescope that man can ever hope to construct. In special cases, however, evidence on the sub- ject is afforded by the spectroscope, which shows that great numbers of stars realiy have one or more dark bodies revolving around them. But, in order to be observable with the spectro- scope, these bodies must be vastly larger than the planets which revolve round our sun. The existence of a planet like that on which we dwell could not be determined even with the best spectroscope. The bodies of the solar system are bound together by the law of gravitation. Were it not for the attraction of the sun each planet would fly off in a straight line through space. Through the attraction of the sun all the planets are kept in their several orbits. Every con- sideration leads us to believe that gravitation extends from one star to all the others, but diminishing as the inverse square of the dis- tance. But its effect on bodies so distant as the stars is too minute to be observed. Re- volving double stars, however, show that in these exceptional cases, systems of two stars in proximity to each other are subject to the law of mutual attraction. The three fundamental facts which deter- mine the great phenomena of astronomy, as we observe them in the course of our lives are (i) the globular form of the earth on which we dwell; (2) its diurnal rotation on its axis; (3) its annual revolution round the sun. The first of these facts is so familiar to all that we need not discuss it. Out of it grow the general phenomena of the sky. The heavenly bodies surround us in every direction. They are really as numerous by day as by night, only in the former case they are blotted out by the brightness of the sky. To imagine the heavens as they really are we must fancy stars as al- ways visible in every part of the sky. Then, by day, we should see the sun among the stars, and perhaps the moon also. Mere observation ASTRONOMY of a heavenly body gives us no idea of its dis- tance. By looking at a star we cannot tell whether its distance is to be measured by hun- dreds of miles, by millions, or by thousands of millions, which it actually is. Hence, all the heavenly bodies appear to us to be at the same distance, as if they were set upon the interior surface of a stupendous sphere in the centre of which we seem to be placed. This imaginary form is called the celestial sphere; it is one of the most ancient conceptions of astronomy, and it is used in the science to the present day to represent the appearance of the heavens. It is divided into two hemi- spheres, a visible and an invisible one. The visible hemisphere is the half which is above the horizon, which we call the sky and can always see, except so far as obstructions _or inequalities of the ground may prevent. The other half is below the horizon, and is hidden from our view because the earth is opaque. Were the latter transparent, we should see the heavenly bodies in every possible direction. The revolution of the earth on its axis pro- duces the phenomena of day and night, and the apparent rising and setting of the heavenly bodies. This is known as the diurnal motion. The latter may be considered in two aspects, either as the real revolution of the earth on its axis, in a direction always toward the East, or as an apparent revolution of the heavens in the opposite direction, due to our being uncon- scious of the motion of the earth. In conse- quence of the diurnal motion the celestial sphere, Miming to our eyes to carry the heav- enly bodies on its interior surface, appears to us to make a daily revolution on its axis. The two opposite points of the celestial sphere situated on the prolongation of the earth's axis are called the celestial poles. On these poles as pivots the celestial sphere seems to turn. They are called north or south ac- cording to the direction. Their apparent po- sition in the sky depends on the latitude of the place where the observer is situated. A heavenly body situated at either pole does not i i in tii have any diurnal motion. This is nearly the case with the pole star, which dwell- ers north of the equator can always see at an altitude above the northern horizon equal to their latitude. A voyager into the southern hemisphere sees the pole star set when he crosses the equator. Then, the south polar star would be visible if there were one. But it happens there is no bright star very near the southern prolongation of the axis. In the United States, say from 30 to 45° of latitude, tl:e pole star is at a corresponding altitude above the horizon, and all the stars in its neigh- borhood appear to make a diurnal rotation round it, without changing their form or posi- tion, and without ever setting. Any one who chooses can verify this fact by noting the ap- pearance of the northern sky about the end of twilight, and then looking at it again two or three hours later. He will then see that stars below the pole have moved toward the east ; those on the east side of it have risen higher, and those on the west side are lower, while those above have moved over toward the west. For us, therefore, the sphere of the heavens may be divided into three parts; a circle round the north celestial pole within which stars never set ; a corresponding circle round the south pole, the stars in which never rise above our horizon, and a broad middle region where they rise and set. To represent the positions of the stars, as- tronomers imagine circles on the celestial sphere corresponding to the circles of longitude and latitude on the earth. As we imagine north and south meridians drawn on the earth from one pole to another, to measure terrestrial longitudes, so we imagine in the heavens cir- cles drawn on the sphere from the north celes- tial pole to the south one. As the longitude of a place 011 the earth is expressed by the angle which its meridian makes with the meri- dian of Greenwich, so the corresponding quan- tity for a star is the angle which the circle through it makes with a certain prime merid- ian on the celestial sphere. This quantity for the stars is not called longitude, but right ascension, and the celestial meridians which de- termine it may be called hour circles. In the same way as we have on the earth a great circle spanning it, everywhere equally distant from the two poles, and called the equa- tor, so we imagine a circle spanning the heavens, everywhere equally distant from the north and south celestial poles, which is called the celestial equator, or the equinoctial. At any one place this circle will be apparently fixed in its position, always intersecting the horizon at its east and west points, and, in our lati- tudes, intersecting the meridian south of the zenith by a distance equal to our distance from the equator. For example, to a dweller in latitude 40", the highest point of the celestial equator will be 40 from the zenith, and 5c. above the horizon. From this point it spreads toward the east and west until it intersects the horizon as just stated. As a traveler journeys south, the position of the celestial equator be- comes more and more nearly vertical ; at the equator it rises vertically and passes through the zenith ; south of the equator it passes north of the zenith. As the latitude of a place is measured by its angular distance from the equator north or south, so the corresponding number for a star is measured by its mean angular distance from the celestial equator, whether north or south. This is called the star's declination. Thus the right ascension and declination of a star deter- mines its position on the celestial sphere just as longitude and latitude determine the position of a city on the earth. We now have to consider the effect of the annual motion of the earth round the sun. If we watch the heavens at a certain hour every evening, say eight o'clock P.M., we shall find that the stars are every night a little farther advanced in their diurnal motion then they were the night before. If they are in a certain posi- tion at eight o'clock on one evening, they will pass the same position four minutes before eight on the next night, eight minutes before eight on the next night, and so on. In the course of a year these continually accumulat- ing changes make up the whole 24 hours, so that a star which is in the zenith this evening will be on the meridian at eight o'clock in the morning six months hence, while at eight in the evening it will be at its greatest distance below the horizon. If we could see the sun among the stars, what we should notice would be that our luminary always forges a little ASTRONOMV farther east day after day, and in the course of a year seems to make a complete revolution among the stars. The result is that while the sun rises and sets 365 times, the stars rise and set 366 times. Since the latter are always in the same absolute direction, and seem to rise and set in consequence of the earth's rotation on its axis, we infer that the direction of the sun from the earth goes through a complete revolution in the course of a year. In other words, the sun appears to us to make an annual revolution around the celestial sphere among the stars. Since the time of Copernicus it has been known that this appearance is due to the actual revolution of the earth around the sun. The apparent path of the sun among the stars can be mapped out by astronomical ob- servation. When carefully observed, it is found to be a great circle of the sphere, called the ecliptic. We thus have two imaginary cir- cles of fundamental importance spanning the heavens. One is the celestial equator, the other the ecliptic in which the sun seems to travel. These circles do not coincide, but intersect each other at two opposite points at an angle of 2354°. This is called the obliquity of the eclip- tic. The result of it is that during one half the year the sun is south of the celestial equa- tor, and during the other half is north of it. In the northern half of its course we have summer in the northern hemisphere and winter in the southern : in the southern half we have summer in the southern hemisphere and winter in the northern. Thus the changing seasons are due to the obliquity of the ecliptic. If the latter coincided with the equator, we should have no such annual round of seasons as that with which we are familiar. There are two opposite points on the celes- tial sphere at which the equator and the eclip- tic intersect. These are called equinoxes be- cause, when the sun crosses them, the days and nights are equal all over the earth. That equinox which the sun passes toward the north is called the vernal equinox, because the crossing marks spring in the northern hemisphere. The other is called the autumnal equinox for a similar reason. Observations continued through many centuries show that the equinoxes are not fixed, but travel slowly along the ecliptic at such a rate that they make a complete revolution from the east toward the west in about 26,000 years. This motion is called the precession of the equinoxes. Its existence shows that the direc- tion of the earth's axis is slowly changing, and hence the position of the celestial pole is chang- ing also. Since the equator is defined by the condition that it spans the heavens midway between the celestial poles, this change in the poles causes a corresponding change in the equator. The actual motion of the pole is at the rate of about 20" per year. The smallest visible object that can be seen to be anything else than a point of light subtends an angle of about I 1 or 60". It follows that the pole moves through this smallest visible space in three years. In a long life of 90 years the change would be about equal to the diameter of the sun or moon. The centre of the motion is the pole of the ecliptic which is distant from that of the equator by about 23j4°. Owing to the smallness of the obliquity, the equinox travels along the ecliptie at more than twice the rate of the pole, or about 50" per year. It has therefore changed about 30 since its motion was first noticed, about 2,000 years ago. It is found that the planets describe their course around the sphere in circles which do not de- viate greatly from the ecliptic. A belt of the heavens extending ii° on each side of the eclip- tic will include all the planets visible to the naked eye. This belt is called the zodiac. Be- ginning at the vernal equinox it is divided into 12 portions, of 30 each, known as the signs of the zodiac. In former times great stress was laid upon the entrance of the sun into these several signs, which entrances occurred about a month apart. They now occur about the 20th of every month. In our times, when the super- stitions connected with this subject have van- ished, the entrance of the sun into the signs is no longer of importance. (See Zodiac.) There are also 12 constellations, beginning with Aries, and ending with Pisces, which have the same names as the signs of the zodiac, and are scattered along its course. Two thousand years ago these constellations coincided pretty closeiv with the signs. But now, in consequence of the precession of the equinoxes, the two no longer correspond. The sign Aries is now lo- cated in the constellation Pisces ; the sign Tau- rus in the constellation Aries, etc. The Time of Day. — It is in its relations to times and seasons that the results of astro- nomical science come into every household. Our daily round of activity and rest is deter- mined by the earth's rotation on its axis, alter- natingly bringing us under the sun, and then carrying us around until it is hidden from our sight. A century ago people used to set their clocks at 12 when the sun crossed the merid- ian. This moment, being the middle of the day, is noon properly so-called. But if a good clock is exactly regulated, and kept going all the time, it will not show noon at the true time. The reason is that the intervals of time between one noon and the next are not exactly the same. See Time. Bibliography. — The most extended general treatise on astronomy for the use of the general reader is 'Chambers' Astronomy* (3 vols., 8 vo., London) ; briefer is Newcomb's 'Astronomy for Everybody': Ball, 'Story of the Heavens'; Flammarion, 'Popular Astronomy*; etc. Simon" Newcomb, LL.D., Washington, D. C. Astronomy, History of. We may recog- nize four great periods in the history of as- tronomical knowledge. The first and most an- cient is that in which no accurate observations were made, but in which men had a general knowledge of the apparent annual revolution of the sun, of the constellations, and of the re- lation of the sun's annual course to the changes of the seasons. The next period was that of the celebrated Alexandrian school, so-called because Alexandria was the principal seat of its activ- ity. This period was distinguished as that at which the first attempts were made at precise observation and measurement. It began three or four centuries before Christ. It is very re- markable that, at so early a period as this, men to whom all our modern science was com- pletely unknown, had so far advanced in as- tronomical observation as to measure the ob- liquity of the ecliptic, determine the times of the equinoxes, and detect their precession. The latter was done by a comparison of two meth- ASTRONOMY ods of determining the length of the year, as measured by the sun's apparent revolution around the celestial sphere. Timocharis, who flourished about 300 B.C., determined the mo- ment at which the sun crossed the equinox by means of an east and west line on the level sandy plains of Egypt, showing exactly where the sun rose or set. The day on which the point of settting in the west was exactly oppo- site that of its rising in the east marked the equinox, which could thus be determined within a few hours. The annual course of the sun can also be determined by the time which it takes to return to the same position among the stars after an annual apparent revolution. As the stars and sun cannot be seen at the same time, the adopted plan was to measure the dis- tance of the sun from the moon before sunset, and after dark to measure the distance from the moon to some bright star. Allowing for the motion of the moon during the interval, the distance of the sun from the star would be known. In this way the curious discovery was made that the year as determined from the equinoxes was several minutes shorter than that determined from the stars. This discov- ery was made by Hipparchus through a com- parison of his observations with those of Ti- mocharis about 150 years before. Erastothenes, who flourished just before Timocharis, was enabled to estimate the size of the earth. This he did by noting that at the ancient town of Syene, in central Egypt, the sun was exactly in the zenith at the time of the summer solstice, so that it illuminated the bot- tom of a well, while at Alexandria it was 1/50 of a circumference south of the zenith. He therefore concluded that the circumference of the earth was 50 times the distance between Alexandria and Syene. The latter being 50,000 stadia, it followed that the circumference of the earth was 250,000 stadia. Hipparchus was considered as the greatest astronomer of antiquity. He made more ac- curate observations than any of his predeces- sors upon the courses of the sun, moon, and planets, determining their times of revolution with extraordinary exactness. Unfortunately none of his works survive, and our knowledge of them is derived mainly from Ptolemy's 'Al- magest.' Ptolemaic System. — Ptolemy (130-150 A.D.), besides being a practical astronomer, was ac- complished as a musician, a geographer, and a mathematician. His most important discovery in astronomy was the evection of the moon. He also was the first to point out the effect of re- fraction. He was the founder of the false system known by his name, and which was universally accepted as the true theory of the universe until the researches of Copernicus ex- ploded it. The Ptolemaic system placed the earth, immovable, in the centre of the universe, making the entire heavens revolve round it in the course of 24 hours. The work by which he is best known, however, is the collection and systematic arrangement of the ancient observa- tions in his great work, the 'Megale Syntaxis,' which gives a complete resutni of the astronom- ical knowledge of the day. This work was translated into Arabic in the first part of the 9th century and was called by the Arabs the "Almagest," and by this name it is known to- day in its various translations into Greek and Latin. The most important part of it is the seventh and eighth books, which contain the catalogue of stars which bears Ptolemy's name, though it is only a compilation of the catalogue of Hipparchus with the positions brought up to the time of Ptolemy. The advance of astron- omy almost ceased, after the death of Ptolemy, and his 'Almagest,' together with the false sys- tem of the universe which it taught, continued to be the recognized authority in Europe for the next 14 centuries. With the death of Ptolemy, everything in the way of actual progress in astronomical theory appeared to cease. The Arabians con- tinued astronomical observations from time to time, and made or proposed many improvements in the ancient astronomical instruments, but they slavishly followed the system of Ptolemy, and made no attempts to penetrate the mystery of the celestial motions. They had little ca- pacity for speculation, and throughout held the Greek theories in superstitious reverence. The most illustrious of the Arabian school were Albategnus, or Al Batani (880 a.d.), who dis- covered the motion of the solar apogee, and who was also the first to make use of sines and versed sines instead of chords ; and Ibn- Junis (1000 a.d.), an excellent mathematician, who made observations of great importance on eclipses of the sun and moon and the motions of Jupiter and Saturn, and who was the first to use cotangents and secants. Likewise, at about the same time, Abul Wefa discovered the third inequality in the moon's motion, the vari- ation, and determined its amount. About four centuries later, in the first half of the 15th century, lived Ulugh Beigh, a Tartar prince, who made important additions to astronomical knowledge. The third period commenced when Coper- nicus, in 1543, first demonstrated the true theory of the universe to his fellow men in his great work 'De Revolutionibus Orbiiim Ccelestium,' His two fundamental principles were that, in- stead of the diurnal motion of the heavens being real, it was only apparent, being due to the revolution of the earth on its own axis ; and that the apparent revolution of the sun around the sky was, in the same way, due to the actual revolution of the earth around the sun, which latter remained at rest. Centuries of observation have shown that these two prin- ciples explain so exactly every detail of celes- tial phenomena that they are subject to no more doubt than our conclusions as to the arrangement of streets and houses in a city which we see every day of our lives. Half a century after the death of Copernicus flour- ished Galileo and Kepler, of whom the first invented the telescope, while the second demon- strated the correctness of the Copernican the- ory, and also showed that the planet Mars revolved around the sun in an ellipse with the sun in its focus. The invention of the telescope added another proof to the Copernican theory, and also en- larged our views of the universe by showing that Jupiter and his satellites formed a minia- ture solar system on the Copernican plan ; that the planet Venus had phases like the moon; that the moon itself had a variegated surface apparently similar to that of our globe, and that the wonderful Milky Way was composed of innumerable stars too faint to be seen «ep- ASTRONOMY arately by the naked eye. The spots on the sun were also discovered, and the rotation of our central luminary on its axis made known. Such enormous advances were too great for the human mind at once to grasp, and the generation in which Galileo lived had to pass away before the Copernican theory was uni- versally accepted by the learned world. To this same period belong the observations of Tycho Brahe on the motions of the sun, moon, and planets, which were, most unfortunately, made just before the invention of the tele- scope, and so failed of the precision which would have been gained by the use of that instrument. But, as it was, they were the basis on which Kepler founded his celebrated laws of planetary motion. The fourth and last period began when Newton showed that all the complicated phe- nomena of the celestial motions — the revolu- tion of the planets in elliptic orbits, and the revolution of the satellites around their pri- maries, were all due to the mutual gravitation of these bodies, and took place according to the same laws which govern the motion of matter around us on the earth. As in the case of the Copernican theory, it took the learn- ed world a whole generation to grasp the idea of Newton as to the theory of gravitation. The progress made in our knowledge of the celestial motions during the two centuries since Newton's time have all rested on the principle which he discovered. Toward the end of the 18th century. Sir William Herschel, then in the zenith of his fame, was interesting the whole world by his wonderful discoveries. With his great reflec- tors he made a step forward in the size and power of the telescope greater than any before or since. Although his greatest and best in- strument would be considered extremely imper- fect at the present time, those which it super- seded were hardly more than what we should now call spy glasses. Herschel was so far the greatest figure of the time in astronomical science, and his work so overshadowed that of his contemporaries on the continent, that the work of everyone else at the time seems unim- portant in comparison. Yet not only were great successors of Herschel coming on the stage, but important additions to our knowledge of the heavens were being made outside of Eng- land. William Herschel's son, John, was a lad of eight years. In France, Arago, a boy of 14. was fitting himself for the ficole Polytech- nique. At Paris, Lalande, the leading astrono- mer of France, was actively preparing a cata- logue of the fainter stars with an instrument which would now be consigned to the junkshop. But it was the first attempt that had ever been made to determine accurately the positions of the many thousand telescopic stars invisible to the naked eye, and in consequence the 'Histoire Celeste' is still one of the classics of the astro- nomical investigator. In Germany, Olbers com- bined the professions of physician and astron- omer, and Bessel, a youth of 16, was clerk in a mercantile house. The first day of the century was marked by a discovery of capital interest and importance. The wide gap between the planets Mars and Jupiter had been a source of wonder, and the conviction that there must be a planet in it had become so strong that an association of astron- omers was formed to search for it. But, on 1 Jan. 1801, before they got to work, Piazzi, the Italian astronomer of Palermo, found Ceres. The year following Olbers discovered Pallas, and propounded his celebrated theory that the newly formed bodies were fragments of a shat- tered planet, more of which might be found. This anticipation was amply justified by the result, though the theory of a shattered planet has long been rejected. By 1868 the number reached 100. When the sky was systematically watched 100 more were found. When the process of photographing the stars was perfect- ed, so many new ones were found on the photo- graphic plates that it is almost impossible to follow them up. About 450 have had their orbits mapped out. See Astekoids. In this country, David Rittenhouse, almost the only American of Revolutionary times who has a place in scientific history, had been dead four years when the century began, and there was no one to take his place. He was one of the committee of the American Philosophical So- ciety that made an extensive and well-planned set of observations on the transit of Venus in 1769. The first American after the Revolu- tion to acquire eminence in any department of astronomical science was Nathaniel Bowditch. A Boston ship-captain by profession, he first prepared his 'Navigator,' the standard work of the sailor through most of the century. He mastered the great work of Laplace, and made it accessible to students by a translation and commentary explaining the processes in detail. So far as practical astronomy was concerned, it might be regarded as non-existent among us during at least the first third of the century. We know little more of it than that Robert Treat Paine, grandson of the signer of the Declaration of Independence, used to compute eclipses and publish the results in the 'Amer- ican Almanac,' and the Boston Advertiser. About 1840, Dr. Lardner paid a visit to this country and remained several years, delivering public lectures, which, though not of a high order when measured by the standard of to-day, were much above any which Americans had then heard. During the first half of the century, the ad- vance of astronomical science consisted princi- pally in a form of development which goes on without any striking discovery, and has there- fore little interest for the general public. When bright comets appeared they were carefully studied by observers, at the head of whom were Bessel and Olbers. It was thus found that the tail of a comet was not an appendage carried along with it, like the tail of an animal, but merely a stream of vapor arising from it and repelled by a force residing in the sun. The discovery of telescopic comets by observers, here and there, continually added to the num- ber of these bodies known. Most of them were found to be moving in such orbits that they would require thousands of years, perhaps tens of thousands, to return to the sun, if, indeed, they ever reappeared. But this, though the general rule, is far from being universal. From time to time comets were found moving in closed orbits and performing their revolution in periods of a few years, mostly between 3 years and 10. One of the noteworthy discoveries of the third quarter of the century was that of the ASTRONOMY IiI?tion between comets and shooting stars. The first discovery of this relation came about in a curious way. The researches of H. A. Newton and others had made it quite clear that shooting stars were due to the impact of countless minute bodies revolving around the sun in various or- bits and now and then encountering our at- mosphere. It was also known that the great November meteoric showers must be due to a stream of such bodies. One astronomer com- puted the orbit of the November meteors ; and another quite independently published the orbit of a comet which appeared in 1866. A third astronomer, Schiaparelli, noticed that the two orbits were practically the same. The conclu- sion was obvious. The minute bodies which caused the shower moved in the path of the comet and were portions of its substance which had from time to time separated from it. The disappointing failure of the shower in 1899 and 1900 can have but one cause — a small change in the orbit of the meteoric swarm caused by the attraction of the planets. Nor has the comet associated with them shown itself; it was per- haps dissipated like that of Bicla's. Apart from this, the question of the constitution of comets is still an unsolved mystery. Their spectrum is that of a body which shines by its own light. But no one can explain how a body in the cold and vacuous celestial spaces can so shine. The brighter comets may have a more or less mass- ive nucleus. Yet it is not certain that the nu- cleus is entirely opaque. In 1882, the astrono- mers at the Cape of Good Hope enjoyed an opportunity which no one of their brethren ever enjoyed before or since; that of seeing a comet enter on the disk of the sun. Unfor- tunately, the sun disappeared from view a very few minutes afterward. But not a trace of the comet could be seen on the sun as a spot. It was seemingly quite transparent to the solar rays. That the fainter comets have no nucleus and are merely composed of a collection of foggy particles seems certain. How are these particles kept together through so many revo- tions? This question has not yet been satis- factorily answered. See Comet. The Greenwich Observatory was taken in charge by Airy in 1834. He immediately insti- tuted a great improvement in its organization and work, but it was not till 1850 that he ac- quired for it new instruments of great impor- tance. He was the founder of what has some- times been called the Greenwich system : the astronomers of an institution taking a part like those of soldiers in an army, making all their observations on a plan prescribed by the author- ity and rarely using their own discretion in any way. The mathematical theory of the motions of the planets, and especially the moon, re- ceived its greatest improvement from the hands of Hensen, born about 1795. He may fairly rank as the greatest of celestial mechanicians since the time of Laplace. Toward the middle of the century, he prepared the first tables of the moon which could satisfy the requirements of modern astronomic theory. These were published by the British government in 1857, and have now formed the basis of astronomical ephemerides for nearly half a century. The nmst striking event of the mid-century period, and one which in the popular mind must long hold its place as among the greatest of intel- lectual achievements, was the computation by Leverrier of the position of an unknown planet from its attraction on Uranus. The speedy discovery of the planet on the very night it was first looked for was, for the public, a proof of the absolute correctness of gravita- tional theories that surpassed all others. It was as a first and bold attempt to sail into an unknown sea: yet, as in the case of Colum- bus and the Atlantic, its repetition would not now be generally considered a difficult mat- ter. With the discovery of Neptune and with the advance in the art of astronomical observa- tion, improvements in the theories of the move- ments of the planets were necessary. The greatest step forward in this direction was taken by Leverrier. Among the results of his work was the discovery that the perihelion of Mercury moves more rapidly than it should under the influence of gravitation. This excess of movement has been abundantly proved by observation since his time, but its cause is still one of the greatest mysteries of gravita- tional astronomy. As a general rule, it may be said that during the last half century the Ger- mans have been the leaders in astronomical re- search. Their work on the subject has been more voluminous than that of any other nation. The leading astronomical journal of the world is still that of Germany. But when we consider not quantity of work, but the special impor- tance of particular works, precedence has, from one point of view, passed to America. While, perhaps, we still have fewer students pursuing astronomy in the United States than in Ger- many, the number of men among us who have acquired the highest distinction and most skil- fully made applications of this science is greater than in any other country. The rapidity of progress from small beginnings is very remark- able. In 1832, Professor Airy delivered, before the British Association for the Advancement of Science, an address on the progress of astron- omy, which soon acquired celebrity. The state of astronomy in different countries was re- viewed. America was dismissed with the re- mark that he was not aware of any observatory existing in that country. In the revival of as- tronomy among us and its advance to its present position in popular favor, one agency has not been esteemed so highly as it deserves. Con- temporaneous with the visit of Dr. Lardner were the lectures of Prof. Ormsby M. Mitchel. \\ ith unsurpassed eloquence he explained the wonders of astronomy to audiences intensely in- terested in the novelties of the subject. From a scientific point of view the lectures were probably not of a high order, nor could it be said that Mitchel himself, active and enthusias- tic though he was, was a profound astronomer. Yet it may well be said that to him is due the ability of our astronomers since that time to secure the public support necessary to the erec- tion of the fabric of their science. A few years after Airy's address small college observatories were founded at Williams College and at the Western Reserve College, Ohio. These were doubtless a stimulus to students, but can hardly have added to astronomical science. When the Wilkes Exploring Expedition was being organ- ized, it was found necessary to have a contin- uous series of observations made at home during the absence of the expedition which, com- pared with those made on the ships, would en- ASTRONOMY able the navigators to determine the longitudes of the lands they discovered. A little wooden structure, erected by Captain Gilliss for this purpose, on Capitol Hill, Washington city, was in some sort the beginning of our National Observatory. The actual foundation of the lat- ter was almost contemporaneous with that of the Harvard Observatory, both being com- menced about the year 1843. The Harvard Observatory was placed under the direction of William C. Bond, who had, for many years, made observations, first at his own house in Dorchester, and then on top of a house at Cambridge. At Washington the Naval Observ- atory was placed under the charge of Lieut. Maury. After getting its instruments in opera- tion, he devoted himself almost entirely to those researches on ocean currents, which, so long as the commerce of the world was carried on mostly in sailing vessels, were of the first importance. But the institution soon acquired astronomical celebrity in other ways. Here Sears Cook Walker made the first thorough in- vestigation of the orbit of Leverrier's newly discovered planet, and showed that it had been twice observed by Lalande as far back as 1795, but without its character being suspected. Here also the device of recording the transits of stars by means of the chronograph and determining the longitude of places by telegraph found their first application. New observatories, some founded in connection with colleges, others by private individuals, now sprang up rapidly among us in every quarter. Twenty-four were enumerated hy Loomis in 1856. What figure the number has now reached it is impossible to say. Whatever it may be, it marks rather the interest taken by the intelligent public in as- tronomical science than the actual progress of knowledge. The number of these institutions which have actually made important contribu- tions to astronomical knowledge is naturally very small. It is to a few leading ones that most of the progress is due. Two of these have put almost a new face upon astronomical science. These are the Harvard Observatory at Cambridge and the Lick Observatory of California. The former, while a respectable institution from its founda- tion, and made famous by the works of the Bonds, had never commanded the means neces- sary to prosecute astronomical research on a large scale. When Pickering assumed the di- rectorship in 1875, he devoted his energies to those branches of research which are now known under the general term of astro-physics, being concerned with the physical constitutions of the heavenly bodies rather than with their motions. The extension of his work was made possible by very large additions to the endow- ment of the observatory. It thus became one of the best-supported institutions of the kind in the world. Photometry and spectroscopy have been its main subjects. With the aid of a branch established in Arequipa, Peru, the mag- nitudes of all the stars in the heavens visible to the naked eyes, as well as many fainter ones, have been determined. Among its remarkable discoveries have been those of new stars. It was formerly known that at long intervals, sometimes more than a century, sometimes less, stars apparently new blazed out in the sky. Really the star was not new, but was an old and very small one of which the light was tem- porarily multiplied hundreds of thousands of times. A system of constantly photographing the heavens showed that such objects appear every few years, only they do not generally at- tain such brilliancy as to be noticed by the un- assisted eye. The succesc of the Lick Observa- tory in a different, yet not wholly dissimilar, direction must be regarded as one of the most extraordinary developments of our time. Com- mencing work about the beginning of 1888, under the direction of Holden, and supplied with the greatest telescope that human art had then produced, the observations of Burnham and Barnard excited universal interest, both among astronomers and the public. The dis- covery of a fifth satellite of Jupiter, perhaps the most difficult object in the heavens, was made there by Barnard in 1892. Later, the optical discovery of the companion of Procyon, an object known to exist from its attraction on that star, was made by Schaeberle. But its most epoch-making work is due in still more recent years to Campbell, by measurements of the mo- tion of stars in the line of sight with the spec- troscope. The possibility of measuring such motions was first demonstrated by Huggins, some thirty years ago, and was applied both by him and by the observers at Greenwich. Then a great step forward was made by photographing the spectrum instead of depending on visible observation. This step was mostly developed by Vogel, at the Potsdam Observatory, near Berlin. In the case of the variable star, Algol, Vogel was thus enabled to show that the fad- ing away of its light at regular intervals of something less than three days was really a partial eclipse of the star by a dark body re- volving around it. He also showed that three other bright stars varied in their motions to and from the earth in a way that could arise only from the revolution of massive but invisible bodies around them. Now, at the Lick Ob- servatory, Campbell, armed with the best spec- trograph that human art could make, the gift of D. O. Mills, has, by the introduction of every refinement of his method, brought into these measures a degree of precision never before reached. The cases of variable motion, as found by him, are so numerous as to indicate that iso- lated stars may be the exception rather than the rule. It is true that up to the present time he detects variation in only about one star out of thirteen which he observes. But it is only in the exceptional cases, where the planet is al- most as massive as the star itself, that the mo- tion can be detected. It is not at all unlikely that, for every spectroscopic binary svstem (as these pairs of objects are now called) we can detect, quite a number may exist in which the revolving planet is too small to affect the mo- tion of the star. With the beginning of a new century, astronomy, the oldest of the sciences, seems to be entering upon a new career, with a prospect of a life before it the end of which no man can foresee. Bibliography. — In French, we have the monu- mental works of Delambre ; in English, Agnes M. Clerke., 'History ..f Astronomy in the 19th Century'; Berry, 'History of Astronomy.* Simon Newcomb, LL.D., Washington. D. C. Astronomy, Practical. The instruments of observation used by the working astronomer are made up mainly of various combinations ASTRONOMY of three appliances. These are the telescope, the graduated circle, and the clock. (For the principles of the first see Telescope.) With the clock is associated the chronograph as part of a combination for measuring time. Many auxiliary appliances are also brought into use of which the micrometer and the spirit level are the most important. The usefulness of tho telescope in measurement does not arise solely from its enabling the observer to see objects F n — h TJc use of the telescope is that when this occurs, the star is apparently situated exactly on a straight line passing through the cross threads, and the centre of the object glass. This line is called the line of sight of the telescope. Now, let the observer move the telescope until he finds another star, whose image he brings upon the cross threads. The angle through which he has moved the telescope from one star to the other, supposing the two stars to be at rest, will then be precisely the angle between the rays of light coming from the two stars. If, then, any system is adopted of de- termining through how many degrees, minutes, Fig. i. otherwise invisible. A telescope with no mag- nifying power at all would still enable him to determine the directions of the heavenly bodies at any moment with greater accuracy than would otherwise be attainable. The principle on which the telescope is used in celestial mea- surement will first be explained. Let Fig. I represent the section of a telescope ; A B being the object glass, and C the eye-end, where the rays from a star are brought to a focus. The lines converging to the plane E F represent the rays of light from a star reaching the focus. Here they form an image of the star, which the observer sees by looking into the eye-piece at C. The plane, of which the dotted line E F is a section, passing through the focus at right angles to the telescope, is called the focal plane. By changing slightly the di- rection in which the telescope is pointed, the rays may come to a focus on any point in this plane not too far from the axis or central line of the telescope. In the focal plane is placed a system of very fine threads which the ob- server sees when he looks into the eye-piece. These threads are generally made of fibres of spider-web, a substance so well adapted to this purpose that nothing better has yet come into use. To fix the ideas we shall suppose several cross threads ; then the observer by looking into the telescope may see the stars and the Fig. 2. cross-threads as represented in Fig. 2. Here we have the images of two stars quite near the crossing point of the threads. The observer moves the telescope until one of the stars is seen exactly at the point of intersection of the two threads. The fundamental principle in the 270 etc., the telescope has moved, the angular dis- tance between the stars is known. The studious reader will remark that, owing to the rotation of the earth, the image of a star seen in a fixed telescope is continually moving across the field of view. To explain the principle we must, however, leave this motion out of account, or suppose it allowed for. We have next to show how a large angle through which the telescope may be moved is measured. This is done by means of the grad- uated circle, a representation of which is shown in Fig. 3. It will be seen that the rim of the ASTRONOMY circle is divided up into degrees by fine lines as represented in the figure, where, however, only every fifth degree is marked. In the in- struments actually used in astronomy, not only is every degree marked, but in the circles for the finest observations, the degrees are still farther sub-divided into spaces of 5', 3', or even 2'. Since there are 360° in a circumference, it follows that in a division to 2' there will be 10,800 of these graduations, or fine marks, on the circle. These marks must all be as nearly equi-distant as human art can make them, and the problem of doing this, together with that of making them so fine and sharp that they A , B E "X H J \ S F _/ c Fig. 4. can be used in the most precise measurement, is one of the most difficult with which the in- strument maker has to deal. The way in which the divided circle is used to measure the angu- lar motion of the telescope is shown by the dotted outline of the latter. The circle is at- tached to it so that both move on an axis con- centric with the circle and perpendicular to its plane. Then, when the telescope is turned on this axis, the circle turns with it as a grindstone does on its axis. The distance through which telescope and circle are turned is then measured by means of the graduations. To show how this is done, other appliances must be described. Instead of two stars being far apart, so that the telescope has to be moved, they may be The Filar Micrometer. — This adjunct is so called because an essential part of it consists in fine threads of spider lines stretched across the field of view, as already described. The aim of its construction is to admit of these threads being moved in a direction at right angles to their length, by a very fine screw, so that the space over which they pass may be measured by the turns of the screw. The principal appliances for effecting this are a fixed frame, A B C D, Fig. 4, in which slides another frame, E F G, moved by a fine screw at S. Across this inner frame is stretched the spider line J, and across the fixed one the spider line H. To the head of the screw is attached a cylindrical rim, which has 100 or some other number of divi- sions cut upon it. An index mark serves to show how far the screw is turned. An apparatus for measuring the number of turns of the screw is attached, but need not be described here. Then when the observer turns the screw, the mov- able frame of the spider lines is slowly carried along with it. The position of the spider lines as they move is then shown at every moment by the number of turns of the screw and the fractions of a turn. To show the accuracy with which this can be done, we remark that the screws used by astronomers may have 100 or even 125 turns to the inch. Then, each revolu- tion of the screw, as read off on the head, measures to a motion through this space. There being 100 graduations on the head, each grad- uation may measure the motion of 1-10,000 of an inch. But the observer may estimate the tenths between the divisions, thus carrying his mea- surements down to the 1-100,000 of an inch. Beside the movable spider line across the frame, fixed spider lines may also be stretched across the fixed frame. Then we shall have two sys- tems of spider lines, one movable and the other fixed. The relation of each to the other is mea- sured by the turns of the screw. To determine the exact position of the grad- uated circle, a filar micrometer O is attached to a microscope of the form shown in Fig. 5, and the latter is finally fastened to a fixed frame in such a position that, when the ob- Fig. 5. alongside of each other, as in Fig. 2; then, the server looks into the microscope, he sees the observer, by moving the cross-threads from one graduations on the circle magnified as many star to the other, and measuring the amount of times as necessary, and also the threads of the the motion, can determine the angular distance micrometer. The microscope being fixed re- between the stars, and their relation to each mains at rest while the circle turns. If the other. This is done by a micrometer, one kind instrument were geometrically perfect in every of which will now be described. respect, one reading microscope would answer ASTRONOMY the purpose; but, as the circle cannot be cen- tred with mathematical exactness, pairs of mi- croscopes are used which are at opposite ends of diameters of the circle. For example, when the graduation 15 20' is brought under one microscope, the graduation 195 15' would be under the opposite one. It is customary, for greater precision, to have two such pairs at right angles to each other, or four microscopes in all. To determine the position of the circle, and hence the direction in which the telescope at- tached to it points, the observer looks into one of the microscopes and fixes upon some grad- uation of the circle, turns the micrometer screw till a spider line, or the middle of a pair of lines is central on the graduation, and then reads the indication of the head of the screw. It will be noticed that in Fig. 5 the mark 21° is central under the microscope. By point- ing his telescope on one star after another and reading the microscope in this way, noting on each occasion what graduation is read, the dis- tance through which the telescope is moved, and therefore the angles between the stars, are measured with the highest precision. The Clock. — The astronomical clock does not differ greatly in its construction from the ordinary clock. Its arrangement and the num- bers on its face are, however, adapted to the measures of time used by astronomers. Mean solar time, which is the time we make use of in the affairs of daily life, is also used by the astronomer with a slightly different arrange- ment. Instead of the hours being designated as a.m. and p.m., the astronomer counts through the whole 24 hours. Moreover, the count does not begin at midnight, but at noon, which is therefore the commencement of the astronom- ical day. For purely scientific purposes this is the natural time to begin the day, because it is determined by the passage of the sun across the meridian. Therefore, any day of the month, as used by the astronomer, continues until noon of the following day, when a new day begins. For this reason the hour hand of his clock only makes one revolution in the 24 hours, the hours being numbered from O to 23. The as- tronomer makes use of a second system of time, entirely different from that used in daily life, bring based on the apparent diurnal movement of the stars. We have explained, in the pre- ceding article (Astronomy) that the time be- tween two passages of the same star over the meridian of a place is not quite 24 hours, but nearly four minutes less. This is the true time of rotation of the earth on its axis, because, in consequence of the advance of the earth in its orbit it must go through a little more than its, true revolution in order that the meridian of any place on its surface — that of Washington fur example — may again pass directly under the sun. The astronomer therefore uses a "sidereal day,* which is shorter than the day determined by the sun in the proportion 365.24 :366.24. This day is divided into 24 sidereal hours, and each hour into sidereal min- utes and seconds, according to the usual system. A sidereal clock is regulated so as to gain about 3 m. 56 s. every day on our ordinary clocks and, in this way, keep time with the apparent diurnal movement of the fixed stars. It is so set that it shall read h., o m.. o s. at the moment when the vernal equinox crosses the meridian. As any of us, by looking at the clock, can tell, by the time of day, whether the sun is in the east, south, or west, so the astronomer, by his sidereal clock, can tell in what part of its apparent diurnal course any star may be situated. For examples, at 5 h. he knows that the constellation Auriga is on the meridian, and at 18 h. 30 m. that the beautiful Lyra is crossing the meridian. The Chronograpli. — There are two systems by which the astronomer notes the time of oc- currence of an instantaneous phenomenon to a fraction of a second. On the older system, which is not without its advantages, the ob- server, looking at his clock, counts its beats until the occurrence of the phenomenon he is to observe. We may take, as an example, the oc- cultation of a star by the moon. He sees the limb of the moon approaching the star until it is clear that, in a few seconds, it is going to pass over it and hide it from view. Then, looking at the clock, he listens to the seconds, mentally counting the number of each beat. At length, there is a certain beat of the clock when the star is not yet hidden, while before the next beat the star has disappeared from view. He estimates how many tenths of the interval between the beats of the clock had elapsed when the star disappeared, and records the hours, minutes, seconds, and tenths in his note-book. The skilled observer will seldom be more than a few tenths of a second in error in this estimate. It requires long practice, and much natural aptitude, to be able to make an accurate observation in this way. The method has also the inconvenience that there is no per- manent record except that which is written down at the moment, so that, if the observer has made an error of any kind, he has no direct way of detecting it except by subsequently dis- covering that something must be wrong. This difficulty is avoided by means of a chronograph. In the form commonly used, the chronograpli consists essentially of a cylinder, generally about eight inches in diameter and one or two feet in length, revolving on its axis by clock work at the rate of one turn a minute. Around the cylinder is stretched a sheet of paper, which is carried with it in its motion. The sheet is pressed by a pen, pencil, or other point, so as to leave a mark on the paper as the cylinder revolves. The pen is carried by a little carriage moving slowly forward from one end of the cylinder to the other at a rate of about one tenth of an inch, or a little more, in a minute. Consequently, the point describes a spiral line on the paper as the chronograph goes through its successive revolutions, until the pen arrives at the farther end of the cylinder. This may take a period of two, three, or four hours, ac- cording to the adjustments. The pen is con- nected with an electro-magnet, the current around which passes through the works of the clock. The arrangement is such that at every beat of the clock, or sometimes at every alter- nate beat, the electric current is either closed or broken. With each closing or breaking of the current a slight motion is given to the pen so that the seconds are marked on the paper on the revolving cylinder. The same or another current also passes through a key held in the hand of the observer. When the latter sees the moment of the phenomenon he is to note approaching, he holds the key in his hand, and presses it at the exact moment to be recorded. A motion is thus given to the pen, and the posi- ASTR( INOMICAL INSTRUMEN1 S ujd gggl r* \ff^ PPC> iff— - t? * ^^^^^^S5^ ■tedL-JL \1 V^ ^T^T JTT \ r 55 ^ ' ~ S^ i'"M i ASTRONOMY tion of the signal on the paper among the on the horizontal pivots of the instrument of signals given by the clock shows the moment observation. The true horizontally of the to a fraction of a second at which the signal pivots is tested by reversing the level end for was given. end, reading the position of the bubble at each Fig. 6. Different systems are used based on this gen- eral principle. There are various ways in which the pen marks the clock beats on the paper. In that mostly used in this country the pen is not raised from the paper, but is given a sud- den lateral jerk, producing a notch in the line, as shown in Fig. 6, which is a copy of a small portion of a chronograph record. On another system the pen simply makes dots on the paper at each beat of the clock. Sometimes the cur- rent passes around the electric magnet all the time except at the instant a signal is made. Then one and the same electric circuit is used for both the clock and the observer. Some- times the clock only makes the circuit at the moment of its beat ; then the circuit at the com- mand of the observer is a second one, which he makes by pressing the key. The main point in all systems is that the beginnings of the minutes all come under each other so that, by taking the sheet off of the cylinder, and spreading it out, writing in the minutes and the lines of seconds, the observer can determine the exact moments at which every one of any number of signals were made while the chronograph was running. For example, in Fig. 6 it will be seen that the ob- server pressed the key at 12 m. 3.5 s. and again at 13 m. 2.4 s. The Spirit Level. — Another appliance much used in astronomy is the spirit level. It serves to set the axis of an instrument exactly hori- zontal. It consists of a glass tube, generally six or eight inches long, of which the rounded surface is not a perfect cylinder, but is formed by the revolution of the arc of a very large cir- cle around its chord. The tube is therefore of the shape shown in Fig. 7, slightly larger in the middle part than at the two ends. The amount of bulging is, however, so slight that the eye cannot perceive it. In the most delicate levels, a section of the curved surface is an arc of a circle perhaps half a mile, more or less, in diameter. The tube is nearly filled with chloroform or ether. Water, or even alcohol, m Illllllltlll llllll iT-r in- Fig. 7. is not liquid enough for the purpose. A small vacant bubble is left at the top of the cylinder, as shown at A B in Fig. 7. When this bubble is in the middle of the tube, the axis of the level is perfectly horizontal. The remainder of the level is sketched in Fig. 8, which shows the level completely mounted, so that it can be set Fig. 8. setting. Details need not be entered into at present, as we only wish to make the principle of the instrument clear. Nearly all instruments for astronomical measurement are made by putting together some combination of the de- vices we have described. The two combina- tions most used in astronomical observatories are the Meridian Circle or Transit Circle, which are the same in principle, and the Equatorial Telescope. The Meridian Circle. — This instrument is used for two distinct purposes. One is the de- termination of the right ascensions of the heavenly bodies ; the other the determination of their declinations. It will conduce to clearness to consider these two functions separately and begin with the instrument as adapted to the first purpose. In this form it is called the tran- sit instrument and is shown in Fig. 9. It con- sists essentially of a telescope, mounted on a Fig. 9. horizontal east and west axis P Q, the hori- zontality of which is tested from time to time by a spirit level. As thus mounted it will be seen that the telescope cannot move out of the meridian ; by turning it on its axis, its line of sight marks out the meridian. Consequently, if an observer looking into it sees a star, or ASTRONOMY other heavenly body, he knows that the star must he near the meridian. To make the ob- servation more exact, a system of spider lines, shown in Fig. 10, is stretched across the focal Fig. to. plane, as already described. The middle line is so adjusted as to mark the meridian with the greatest possible exactness. The result is that the observer, looking into the instrument, sees these spider lines, and he may also see a star moving toward the meridian by virtue of its apparent diurnal motion as shown in the figure, where it is about to cross the meridian line. Watching it with a key connected with the electric circuit of the chronograph in his hand, he taps the key at the moment the image of the star crosses each of the lines. The middle line marks the passage across the meridian. The other lines are used in order to secure greater exactness by taking the mean of all the transits across the separate lines. Thus, by pointing his instrument into any part of the meridian, the observer may determine the times by his sidereal clock at which any number of stars crossed the meridian of his place. In order that the line of sight of the in- strument may describe the true meridian, it is necessary that, when the instrument is turned in the proper direction, the line shall pass \ \ / / S through the celestial pole. This is effected by the following arrangement : In the course of its apparent diurnal motion, a star near the pole will cross the meridian of any place twice in the course of a sidereal day, first above the pole and then below it. Let the dotted circle in Fig. u be its apparent diurnal circuit around the pole P. Let the vertical line M R be the true merid- ian passing through the pole, and the other line A B that marked out by the line of sight of tin transit instrument, supposed not to be exactly in the meridian. Then the star will take a less time in passing around from A to B on the left than in the other part of its course from B to A. Therefore by observing the tran- sit both above and below the pole, across the middle thread of the instrument, the observer determines whether the line of sight of the in- strument passes east or west of the pole and may adjust it accordingly. It may be said that, in astronomical practice, no instrument is ever assumed to be perfectly adjusted. The clock of the astronomer is never assumed to be correct, nor his transit instrument to be in the true meridian. What he does is, assuming them wrong, to make his observations, determine the errors, and correct his observations accordingly. This is called "reducing" the observation. We have already explained that, when a star is ex- actly in the same hour circle with the vernal equinox, its right ascension is o h., o m., o s. Since the clock, assumed to be correct, then reads exactly o h., it follows that the star in question will cross the meridian at this time by the clock. Then, as the sphere revolves, the right ascensions of the stars are all equal to the sidereal time at which they cross the merid- ian. Thus the observer by noting these times, measures the right ascensions of the heavenly bodies. This system of using the clock instead of a divided circle for determining right ascen- sions constitutes one of the greatest advances ever made in astronomical measurement. It de- pends upon the perfect uniformity of the earth's rotation and the excellence with which a clock can be made. The Meridian Circle is the transit instru- ment, just described, with one or two graduated circles on its axis of rotation. The method of using it, and determining the arc through which the circle has moved at any time has already been explained. The inquiring reader may wish to know how, by such readings, the astronomer can determine the declination of stars. If the celestial pole were a visible point in the heav- ens, this would be very simple ; the observer would turn his instrument until it pointed exact- ly at the pole, and then read his microscopes. Then as one star after another crossed the meridian, he would make a similar pointing, reading his microscope for the transit of each star. The difference between the reading on the pole and that on the different stars, would show their distances from the pole. Subtract- ing each of these from on" would give the declination of the stars as seen in the instru- ment. But, unfortunately, the pole is not a visible point. The observer has therefore to refer his position to the direction of gravity, which is done by a very ingenious use of a basin of quicksilver. The basin is set on a firm sup- port on the ground under the telescope, and the latter is pointed directly downward. The observer, by mounting up to the eye-piece and looking down, is looking perpendicularly into the basin of mercury. A combination of reflec- tors is then arranged in the eye-piece of the ASTRi IN( IMICAL [NSTRUMEN I 3 ASTRONOMY telescope so that lie can, at the same time, see the threads in his eye-piece and the images of these threads as reflected from the basin of mercury. When a telescope is so adjusted that the image and the thread coincide, he knows that the line of sight of his telescope is truly vertical. He then reads the microscope of his circle and so determines what the reading of his circle is for the vertical position. He knows that if the telescope is pointed at the zenith, the reading will be different by exactly 180°. He thus determines the exact distance at which the heavenly bodies crossed the meridian north or south of his zenith. From this, the determina- tion of the declination is, in principle, a simple matter. The Equatorial. — One of the most impor- tant arrangements of nature with which the astronomer has to deal is the diurnal motion. This takes place so slowly that, in looking at the stars, we do not notice it unless we watch for some time. But, if we point a telescope at a heavenly body, it magnifies the diurnal mo- tion as much as it does the object. The result is that such a body, seen in a fixed telescope, is continually traveling across the field of view, and the instrument has to be continually moved to keep up with it. ... In order to avoid this inconvenience, it is necessary that, if measures are to be made upon the body, or if it is to be continuously studied, the telescope must move to correspond. This is brought about by mounting it upon an axis parallel to that of the earth, and therefore ob- lique to the horizon, called the polar axis. The inclination to the horizon must be equal to the latitude of the place. All great telescopes are thus mounted. The way in which this is done will be seen by the accompanying picture of the great telescope mounted at Pulkova, Russia. In order to keep the telescope pointed at the object, it must be turned upon the polar axis by clock work, moving it steadily at a rate equal to the diurnal motion of the object ob- served. In reality, the telescope is then pointed in a fixed direction, the motion of the earth being simply neutralized by the clock work of the telescope carrying the latter in the opposite direction. The equatorial telescope must also have a second axis, called the declination axis, in order that it may be pointed at stars in differ- ent declinations. The direction is determined by circles attached to the telescope, which show, at any time, to what declination on the celestial sphere the instrument is pointed. By a com- bination of contrivances, the astronomer can point his telescope by day at any star bright enough to be visible in it ; or, by night, at any object invisible to the naked eye, of which he knows the right ascension and declination. He first turns his telescope until one divided circle corresponds to the declination of the star, and then clamps it in that position. Then, looking at his sidereal clock, and taking the difference between the sidereal time and the right as- cension of the star, he turns his telescope on the polar axis until the other circle shows the correct pointing. Then he starts the clock work which sets the telescope in motion, and looking into the eye-piece, sees the required object. Every large telescope is also supplied with a finder This consists of a smaller tele- scope fastened to the larger one in such a way that the centre of the field of view is the same in both. But the finder has a lower mag- nifying power, and therefore a much larger fi;Id. Looking into it, and recognizing the object he wishes to observe, the observer moves the tele- scope until the object is seen on the cross threads of the finder. Then he knows that it is in the field of view of the large telescope. Application of Photography to Astronomy. — From the time that photographic methods were introduced, the idea of taking pictures of the heavenly bodies by such methods must have occurred to astronomers. About the year 1840, Prof. J. W. Draper of New York put this method into practice by taking a daguerreotype of the moon. Shortly after our present system of photography was devised, several American astronomers carried the experiment yet farther. Notable among these were G. P. Bond, first as- sistant and afterward director of the Harvard Observatory; and L. M. Rutherfurd of New York, who was the possessor of an excellent telescope, and brought the method to a high state of perfection. The principle on which a photograph of a heavenly body is taken is extremely simple. A telescope is pointed at the body so that the image of the latter is formed in its focus. A sensitized plate is placed in the focus and ex- posed for the necessary time. This may be only a fraction of a second, or it may be sev- eral hours. Unless the exposure is very brief, it is necessary that the telescope shall be kept in motion, so as to follow the object in its apparent diurnal course. When the exposure is completed, the image is developed in the us- ual way. In photographing, the ordinary tele- scope, as used for eye observations, is not well suited to the purpose, for the reason that the chromatic aberration is not the same for the visual and for the photographic rays. It is nec- essary to have a somewhat stronger crown lens, or a weaker flint lens, if a telescope is to be used in photographing, than if it is to be used by the eye. But the necessity of having tele- scopes of the two kinds is now, to a certain extent, done away with by the use of sensitized plates which are especially sensitive to the visual rays. By putting in an absorbing screen, through which the rays must pass before they reach the focus, and which allows only the visual rays to pass, very accurate photographs can be taken by the plates. This defect is felt only in the refracting telescope. A reflecting telescope brings all the rays, of whatever color, to one and the same focus, and therefore may be used either for photographing or for seeing. Improvements made in recent times in the sen- sitiveness of photographic plates have given an enormous extension to this method in astron- omy. It is now found that celestial objects completely invisible to ordinary vision can be photographed. While only a few thousand neb- ula; have been catalogued as visible to the naked eye, it is found that there are hundreds of thousands which admit of being determined by photography. The latter is now employed for two distinct purposes. The first is simply that of forming a picture of the sky, or rather of the stars in the sky. For this purpose the best telescope is one as large as can conveniently be obtained, hut of short focal length. A great enterprise in this direction was started in 1887 by an association of astronomers who met at the Paris Observatory, and put into operation a plan of photographing the entire heavens on from 10,000 ASTRONOMY to 20,000 plates, each two degrees square. .This work is now approaching completion, and is in- tended to form a permanent record of the starry heavens, as they are seen in our times. A similar object is reached on a different system at the Harvard Observatory. There photographs are being constantly taken with telescopes much shorter than those used for the international chart. In this way new stars are from time to time discovered, and variations in the light of different stars are brought out. The other purpose is that of exact measurement. When the astronomer had to determine the respective distances of stars in the same field of view, he has hitherto generally depended on the filar or other micrometer. The use of this instru- ment is laborious. When the photographic method is used, he simply takes a picture of the stars he wishes to measure, and, at any convenient time, places it under a measuring engine supplied with sliding microscopes, and measures off the distance on his negative. The result of these two applications is that pho- tography is now slowly supplanting eye ob- servations in an important fraction of the as- tronomical work of the world. Simon Newcomb, LL.D., Washington, D. C. Astronomy, Theoretical. This branch of the science grows out of the great discovery of Newton, that the motions of the heavenly bodies, especially those of the solar system, are determined by their mutual gravitation. The re- sults of this theory are now worked out by purely mathematical methods with a degree of precision scarcely attainable in any other branch of science. The adopted method consists first in expressing the attraction or pull experienced by each body from all the others in the form of differential equations. These equations ex- press, in the most general way, the acceleration which the planets experience at every moment from the attraction of the other bodies. We do not write them because they would be under- stood only by a reader expert in the calculus, who, if he desires to be acquainted with them, will consult special treatises. It will suffice to say that there are three differential equations for each planet, which express the attraction, and its effect on the motion of the planet at any instant, in the direction of three co-ordi- nates. The problem then becomes the purely algebraic one of integrating these equations. The result of this process is that the effect of the attraction or pull upon the body, through a pe- riod of days, years, or even centuries, is summed up with great exactness, so that the motion of the body through the whole period can be expressed by algebraic equations. The simplest case occurs when there are only two bodies. The integration shows that, in this case, the bodies revolve round their common centre of gravity in orbits each of which is an ellipse. Commonly it is necessary to consider only the motion of the smaller of the two bodies, the mo- tion being defined as if the larger were at rest. This is the case of a planet revolving round the sun, or of a satellite round its primary. It is then found that the orbit described by the revolv- ing body round the great central body is an ellipse having the latter in one of its foci. The motion is also found to be subject to two other laws which bear the name of Kepler, their first discoverer. One of these is that the radius vector, that is to say, the line drawn from the central body to the other sweeps over equal areas in equal times. The result of this is that if A B be the orbit having the sun, S, in the Fig. 12. focus ; and if we mark on the orbit the points o, b, c, etc., which the planet passes through at any equal intervals of time, and then draw lines from each of these points to the sun, the areas included between these lines will all be equal to each other. A glance is sufficient to show that the nearer the body is to the sun the more rapidly it must move. The position- of the orbit and the place of the body in it are determined by six quantities called dements. Two of these elements express the position of the plane in which the ellipse lies, and therefore in which the planet moves. These are the inclination of the plane of the orbit to some other plane taken as that of reference. For the latter is commonly adopted the plane of the ecliptic, in which the earth revolves round the sun. When the inclination of the orbit of any other planet is spoken of, the astronomer means the angle which the plane of its orbit makes with the plane of the ecliptic. The other of the two elements expresses the line passing through the sun along which the two planes intersect. This is called the Line of Nodes. The position of the node is defined by the angle, as seen from the sun, between the ver- nal equinox and that node where the planet crosses from the south to the north side of the ecliptic. Three other elements determine the size and form of the elliptic orbit, and its posi- tion in its plane. The semi-major axis, A B, of the ellipse is called the mean distance of the planet from the sun, it being half the sum of the greatest and least distances. The other of these elements is the eccentricity of the orbit, which is equal to the quotient ob- tained by dividing the distance of the sun, O S, from the centre of the orbit by O A, the semi- major axis. These two elements completely de- termine the ellipse. The exact position of the ellipse in the plane may then be defined by the angle which the semi-major axis, O B, makes with the line of the nodes. It will be seen that the point B is that at which the planet is ASTRONOMY nearest to the sun. This is called the perihe- lion of the orbit if the central body is the sun ; if the earth is the centre, the perigee. The opposite point, A, where the planet is most dis- tant, is called the aphelion, or apogee. Finally, the sixth element defines the position of the planet at some given moment of time, The time of revolution of the planet is given by Kepler's third law, which is that the squares of these times are proportional to the cubes of of the major axes of their orbits. For example, let one planet be four times as far as another from the sun. The cube of 4 is 64. The square root of this is 8. It follows that the planet which is four times as far will be eight times as long in completing its circuit. If the outer planet went as rapidly as the other, it would be only four times as long. Its orbital motion is therefore, on the average, only about half as rapid. In theoretical astronomy a unit of distance is necessary. Our ordinary units do not well serve the purpose of the astronomer for two reasons. They are too short for the great distances he has to measure, and the mag- nitude of the heavens in terms of miles is not known with sufficient exactness to make that measure convenient. What the astronomer does therefore is to take the mean distance of the earth from the sun as his yardstick, and to express the distance of all the bodies of the solar system, both from the earth and from each other, the moon sometimes excepted, in terms of this unit. From the laws of motion based on gravita- tion may be derived several interesting theo- rems. Finally, suppose, that at some point in the solar system, — we may take, to fix the ideas, a point at the mean distance of the earth from the sun, — a number of bodies are pro- jected in different directions, but all with the same velocity. Then, the equations of motion show that the major axes of the orbits which these bodies describe will all be equal. Then, from Kepler's third law it follows that the times of revolution will also be equal. Con- sequently, at the end of a certain period the bodies will all return at the same moment to the point from which they started. This period will depend only on the velocity with which the body is projected. There is a certain velocity, called the circular velocity, which is such that if the bodies are projected in a direction at right angles to that of the sun, they will de- scribe circular orbits. If all the bodies are pro- jected in different directions with this same velocity, they will all be exactly one year in getting around and returning to the starting point. Now suppose that, instead of the bodies being projected with this circular velocity, which is very nearly that of the earth in its orbit, they are projected with a somewhat smaller, velocity. Then, the less the velocity the less the major axis of the orbit, and the greater the velocity the greater the major axis. A body projected with a speed one-third greater than that of the earth would fly out beyond the orbit of Jupiter. A slightly greater speed would carry it beyond the orbit of Neptune, the reason being that, as the body recedes, the attraction of the sun diminishes at so rapid a rate that the weak attraction left is not sufficient to overcome the slight surplus velocity. Finally, if the speed is equal to that of the earth mul- Vol. I — 55 tiplied by the square root of 2, that is to say, about 26 miles per second, the body will never return. The ellipse in which it should move is stretched out into a parabola, still having the sun in its focus. If the velocity is greater than this, the parabola will be still farther changed into a hyperbola. Then the body would fly out into the stellar spaces, perhaps in the course of millions of years reaching some other sun, but would certainly never return to our system. Another theorem is that the velocity, no matter what the form of the orbit, dimin- ishes as we go out from the sun in proportion to the square root of the distance. This we have already seen by Kepler's third law, when we found from that law that a planet four times as far from the sun would move only half as fast. Thus the parabolic velocity is less the farther a body is from the sun. At the planet Uranus it is less than six miles per second; at that of Neptune, about five miles per sec- ond. Still another theorem is that if a planet moving in a circular orbit were stopped at any point of its motion, and then were allowed to drop toward the sun, the time of reaching the sun would be equal to that of revolution divided by the square root of 32. It follows that if the earth should be stopped in its motion, it would drop to the sun in a number of days found by dividing 362.24 by the square root of 32. This would be nearly 64 days. The orbits of most of the large planets are nearly circular. For particulars relating to them see Solar System. The orbits of comets are, however, mostly parabolas, or ellipses which cannot be distinguished from parabolas when the comet is near enough to the sun to be visible. It is probable that many of those orbits which are ellipses have become so through the comet at some time in its history passing very near a planet. (See Comet.) One of the prob- lems of theoretical astronomy which the astron- omer often meets with is that of determining the orbit of a newly discovered body of the solar system. Three complete observations of such a body, that is to say, three observations each of which determines exactly the apparent posi- tion of the body on the celestial sphere, enable the astronomer to determine the orbit in which it is moving round the sun. The calculation requires from five to ten hours' work by an expert calculator having at his command the necessary tables. The first orbit thus com- puted may be considerably in error, because the effect of errors of observation is multiplied many fold, unless the planet has moved through a considerable arc of its orbit between the times of observation. But the longer the planet is observed, the more exactly the elements of its orbit can be determined. It is found that when two stars are so near each other as to be kept together by their mutual attraction, they revolve around each other in an elliptic orbit. It fol- lows that the law of gravitation extends to these systems. Thus the calculations of the theoret- ical astronomer are not confined to the solar system, but may be extended to the fixed stars. In all that precedes we have considered only the motion of two bodies, the smaller of which moves around the larger in an elliptic orbit. But. as a matter of fact, every planet of the solar system is acted upon not only by the great central body, but by every one of the other ASTRONOMY planets. The result is that the actual orbit, although very nearly an ellipse, deviates slightly from it, and the motion is not exactly in accordance with Kepler's laws. The problem of taking account of these additional forces is an extremely complicated one, in which success has been reached only by successive generations of the ablest mathematicians devoting long years of study and calculation to the subject. While the solution, even to-day, is far from complete, it has been so far advanced that it is possible to prepare tables of the motions of the planets which shall hold good for genera- tions, and even for centuries. The method in which the problem can best be solved was devised by Lagrange, who flourished in France toward the latter part of the 18th century. The fundamental idea of his method was that the motion of the planet at every instant should be represented by an ellipse, but this ellipse con- tinually changes its form and dimensions so as to fit in with the actual motion of the planet under the influence of the attraction of all the other planets. Some idea of the case may be imagined by supposing a cord of some light material made into an ellipse very nearly a circle, and left to float on the waves of the ocean. Then we should see the cord, while still remaining almost in its original shape, continually bending and twisting as it was moved by the waves. So does the variable ellipse in which the planet moves. It is exactly defined by supposing that, at any one instant, the attraction of all the other bodies, the sun excepted, ceases. Then the planet would move in a fixed and unchangeable ellipse. This ellipse is taken as that which corresponds with the motion of the planet at the instant. At a sec- ond instant the planet would actually have deviated slightly in consequence of the attrac- tion of the other planets, but there would still be a corresponding ellipse, but somewhat differ- ent. So the ellipse goes on changing contin- ually. When these changes are subjected to the rigor of mathematical formula, it is found that they nearly, but not quite, compensate each other in the long run. Let us take, for example, the eccentricity of any one orbit. This will vary in the course of every revolution of the planet, and may come back to its original amount any number of times. But, if we watch it revolution after revolution, we shall find that, in the long run, it continually increases or diminishes. It is thus found that the eccentricity of the earth's orbit has been diminishing through all historic times, and this diminution will go on for 43.000 years to come. More- over, the general rule is that the peri- helion of the planet is gradually moving forward. In the case of the earth's orbit the motion is such as would carry it all the way round the circle in 200,000 years. The inclina- tions and longitudes of the nodes are also varying in the same way. These variations, which go on century after century, are called secular variations, while those which are com- pensated from time to time are called periodic. Now, the most interesting and important ques- tion of celestial mechanics is whether the secu- lar variations will continue forever in the same direction. The profound analysis of Laplace and Lagrange shows that such will not be the case so far as the eccentricities are concerned. At the end of immense periods the direction will be reversed. It is now known that the diminu- tion of the eccentricity of the earth's orbit after continuing for about 43,000 years will change to an increase for a certain period. It is thus with all the orbits; the motions go through a series of oscillations having periods of hun- dreds of thousands of years — like "great clocks of eternity which beat ages as ours beat seconds." The precision with which the astronomer is now able to predict the motions of the heavenly bodies is reached by a combination of mathe- matical computations of the most difficult and complicated character, with the most refined observations upon the positions of the moon and planets, year after year. The most complex of all the problems is that of the moon's motion around the earth, of which we shall mention some features. In this case the central body, the earth, is vastly smaller than the sun. But, owing to the great distance from the sun and the consequent small difference in the force of its attraction upon the earth and moon, it happens that the moon revolves around the earth in an orbit which approximates to an ellipse. But the changes and motions in this ellipse are much larger and more rapid than in the case of the planets. For example, the perigee of the moon's orbit makes a revolu- tion round the earth in eight years, while the node on the ecliptic makes a revolution in 18.6 years. The moon also makes two swings back and forth during the space between two full moons, and the eccentricity and perigee both make an annual swing, all owing to the action of the sun. See Moon. The principles of theoretical astronomy, and the operations of practical astronomy are com- bined in one of the greatest achievements of the human intellect — that of measuring the heav- ens and weighing the planets, and, in a few cases, even the fixed stars. The distance of the moon is determined in two ways, the results of which agree within the necessary range of uncertainty of the meth- ods. One is by the measurement of the moon's parallax, taking as the base line two distant observatories, Greenwich and the Cape of Good Hope. (See Parallax.) The other method consists in determining exactly what ought to be the size of the moon's orbit in order that she may make her revolution around the earth in the time that she actually does. The probable error of the distance of the moon at any time, as determined in this way, is not more than 40 or 50 miles. The proportions between the orbits of the several planets are known with the greatest ex- actness from their observed times of revolution, and from Kepler's third law. It follows that if we can get the exact distance of any one planet at any one time, all the other distances in the solar system may be derived by the known pro- portion. The fundamental quantity which is used as a unit of measure is the distance of the sun. This distance has been determined by four completely separate and independent methods, the agreement between which illustrates the great exactness of astronomical theory. The first method is by measures of parallax. The application of this method is fully described in the article Parallax. It requires that the apparent direction of a planet among the stars ASTRONOMY be observed with great exactness from two far distant points of the earth's surface, or at two times of day during the interval between which the observer is carried around by the rotation of the earth. These observations have to be on a planet and not on the sun, because the latter, owing to the brilliancy of its light, cannot be measured with the necessary precision. The most celebrated way of determining parallax has been by observing transits of Venus (q.v.). But these occur at such rare intervals, the last having been in 1882, and there being no other to occur during the 20th century, that the meas- ures have to be made on other planets which approach nearest to the earth. For this pur- pose Mars has sometimes been used, because it occasionally approaches us within less than half the distance of the sun. But the most exact observations can be made on some of the minor planets at the time of their nearest approach. The second method is by the velocity of light. This method is, in principle, the most simple and elegant of all. It rests on the fact that it is possible, by two kinds of observation, to determine how long it takes light to pass from the sun to the earth, or to cross the earth's orbit. If then we can determine by measures on the earth's surface how fast light travels, it follows that by multiplying this velocity by the time it takes to travel from the earth to the sun, we shall have the distance of the sun. The velocity of light has actually been determined with great precision by means of the revolving mirror. (See Light, Velocity of.) The result is a speed of 186,300 miles per second. The time required for light to cross the earth's orbit is much more difficult to determine. The only way in which a direct determination can be made is through observations of the eclipses of Jupiter's first satellite. By comparing the times of these eclipses through a long series of years when Jupiter is at various distances from the earth, it is found that the eclipses are seen later, the farther Jupiter is from the earth at the time. This is because light requires time to travel over the different distances. But the determinations made in this way are not very exact, because such eclipses take place so grad- ually that it is impossible to fix upon a precise phase without a possible error of several sec- onds. All we can say as a result of this method is that it takes about 4 m. 20 s. for light to pass from the sun to the earth. A more exact result is reached by measuring the displacement of the fixed stars produced by aberration. As the earth makes its annual course around the sun, the position of every star in the heavens is, at every moment, slightly displaced toward the direction in which the earth is, at the moment, moving. This is due to the proportion between the velocity of light and the speed of the earth in its orbit. Unfor- tunately, the speed is so great that the displace- ment in question is only about 20.5" ; an arc too small to be determined with the precision that is desirable. Still, the observations avail- able are so numerous that the result, 20.525", found by Chandler, is probably within one, or, at most, two hundredths of a second of the truth. Accepting Chandler's number, light requires 500 seconds to pass over the distance which sepa- rates the sun from the earth. Multiplying this by the speed of light, we have, for the distance of the sun 186,300X500 = 93,150,000 miles a* the distance of the sun. The third method is a very recondite one, because it rests on the mathematical principles of celestial mechanics, applied to the case of the earth's motion around the sun. It requires, in advance, an exact determination of the ratio of the mass of the sun to that of the earth. This is best found by observations of Venus, which now extend through more than a century and a half, by which the motion of the node of Venus on the ecliptic is determined. This motion is due principally to the attraction of the earth ; and from it the proportion between the mass of the earth, and that of the sun is deter- mined. The next step requires a comparison between the distance which a body falls at the surface of the earth from its own gravitation, and the fall of the earth toward the sun as shown by the curvature of its orbit. By combining these various ratios, the distance of the sun is calculated. The fourth method also rests the theory of gravitation. One conse- quence of the sun's action on the moon is that the latter falls behind about two minutes in its monthly course near the time of the first quarter, and is ahead by the same amount near the last quarter. Knowing the exact amount of this swing, the distance at which the sun must be placed in order to produce it is deter- mined. Each of these four methods has its strong and its weak points ; and there is no one of them so much better than all the others that we can rely upon it exclusively. Still, their agreement affords a remarkable proof of the ac- curacy of astronomical theory, and of the pre- cision with which astronomical measures are made under such difficulties as the observer and computer have to encounter. The astronomer does not use the distance of the sun in his computations, because, as already remarked, this is simply his unit of length. What he actually uses is the sun's parallax ; this is equal to the angle which the equatorial radius of the earth subtends when seen at a distance equal to that of the sun. The latest results for this parallax from the four methods are the following. First method, parallax, 8.802". Second method, light, 8.779". Third method, mass earth, 8.762", Fourth method, moon, 8.773". The general conclusion which we reach is that the distance of the sun is very nearly 93,- 000.000 miles, probably a little more, rather than a little less. What may seem a yet more wonderful result of celestial measurement is the weighing of the planets and other heavenly bodies. This re- quires very complex mathematics. But, after all, the principles on which the method rests can readily be made clear. In the case of the planets, there are two methods, one of which can be applied only when a planet has a satellite moving around it. We have already seen that the motion of every planet which, were there no other planet, would take place in an ellipse having the sun in a focus, is changed by the attraction of the other planets. The observa- tion of the deviations, when carefully measured through many revolutions of a planet, enable the mathematical astronomer to compute the ratio of the mass of each attracting planet to that of the sun. This ratio is all that the astronomer requires for his ordinary work. ASTROPHYSICS When the planet has a satellite, its mass can be determined with much more ease and sim- plicity. The measurement of the distance of the satellite fmm the planet, carried through a great number of revolutions of the former, enable the astronomer to determine the ratio between the distance of the satellite from the planet, and that of the earth from the sun. Combining this with the time of revolution of the planet, a proportion is shown between the mass of the planet and that of the sun by a law of the same form as the third law of Kepler. The masses determined by astronomical methods are all ex- pressed by taking the mass of the sun as the unit. To translate the result into our ordinary measures of weight, we must know the mass of some one body, say the earth, in pounds or kilograms. How this is done is set forth in the article Gravitation. Simon Newcomb, LL.D. Astrophysics, or the new astronomy, has revealed in a remarkable manner, through its discoveries during the past quarter of a century, the wonderful ability and resourcefulness of the human mind, making evident that man is almost an infinite being. From this earth of ours, which astronomy teaches is such an insignificant speck among the countless orbs of the universe, we have been able by means of the spectroscope to investigate the physical constitution of the sun, planets, comets and far-off stars ; it has be- come possible to measure motions, not athwart the sky as the older astronomy was able to do, but in the line of sight ; and it has been possible to arrange the stars in orderly series, tracing their evolution from the primeval nebula, till now we are well on our way toward the solu- tion of the grandest problem of human investi- gation, whence came we and whither are we going. Since its birth in 1859, when Kirchhoff discovered the principles of spectrum analysis, astrophysics has advanced by leaps and bounds. This rapid progress was due in a large measure to the improvement of instruments and to the photographic plate. This important acquisition lias a two-fold advantage over the human eye: the eye can receive and retain an impression for a small fraction of a second, the photographic plate accumulates impressions, no matter how faint, with the result that by long exposures there is brought to view objects the eye could never hope to see, and secondly, the photograph gives a permanent record that can be examined and studied at leisure. These improved methods of research have made possible a great increase in precision till at the present time, astrophysics is no whit less precise than its older sister, astronomy, the "most exact of all the sciences." A great change has come over our ideas of wave-length. Formerly, the wave-length was looked upon as an invariable property of a line in the spectrum, unalterably fixed by nature, and consequently it was thought that a wave- length determination would give a standard measure of distance more reliable even than that obtained by the use of the International Meter (Michelson, 'Astronomy and Astro- physics, ' XIII., 92, 1894). But we now know that the position of the lines in the spectrum may vary with the pressure of the gas in which they are produced, and, moreover, single lines, by the action of a magnetic field, have been sep- •ated into as many as nine different com- ponents. There seems to be some law regulat- ing the orderly arrangement of the lines in the spectrum in series, and the complete under- Standing of this law will he one of the impor- tant discoveries of the future. The shift of the lines of the spectrum due to motion in the line of sight, which has been shown experimentally in the laboratory, has given rise to many inter- esting developments in astrophysics, the discov- ery of an entirely new class of bodies called spectroscopic binaries, the measurement of the axial rotation of the sun and Jupiter, and has confirmed in a magnificent manner the meteoric constitution of Saturn's rings. Instruments. — The vast increase in accuracy of spectroscopic work was rendered possible by the manufacture of Rowland gratings. Gratings were used as early as 1815 by Fraunhofer and were made by winding fine wire over two ex- actly similar screws. Rutherfurd of New York ruled some very satisfactory gratings on specu- lum metal, but these were surpassed in perfec- tion by Rowland's. The invention of the con- cave grating gave a spectroscope without collimator or objective, thereby eliminating the aberrations brought in by these two lenses. The formula for resolving power which is defined as X r = , where d\ j s the difference of wave- d\ length of two lines of mean wave-length X which can just be divided, can be easily ex- pressed for gratings, and is the product of the total number of lines of the grating and the order of the spectrum. Ordinary six-inch Row- land gratings have a resolving power of about 400,000. This vast increase in accuracy, coupled with other properties of the grating, namely, normal spectrum, overlapping spectra and astig- matism, whereby comparisons are rendered easy by coincidences, have wonderfully aug- mented the power of the astrophysicist to de- termine accurate wave-lengths. The precision of wave-lengths has been still further increased by the use of interferometers. Four different kinds have been invented by Michelson, Perot and Fabry, Hamy, and Lummer. Michelson has been able with his interferometer to compare directly the wave-lengths of the prominent cad- mium lines with the International Meter, and has separated lines less than 0.1 tenth-meter apart which appear single with the most power- ful gratings, while Perot and Fabry have ob- served interference with the green mercury line at a difference of path of 790,000 wave-lengths. Spectra of the Elements. — The invention of the concave grating and the manufacture of nearly perfect gratings, plane and concave, by Rowland enormously increased the accuracy of the wave-lengths in the spectra of the elements. The chief investigations in this field have been carried on by Rowland and his assistants, by Kayser, Runge, Paschen, Hasselberg, Liveing and Dewar, Fder and Valenta, Exner and Has- chek, Hartley and Adeney, Trowbridge, Ames, I-ockyer, Deslandres, Lohse and others, most of the wave-lengths for which may be found in Watt's 'Index of Spectra.' Accurate measures were made possible by the use of concave grat- ings and photographic plates. Rowland's 'Table of Solar Spectrum Wave-Lengths' is based on Bell's determination of absolute wave-length ('American Jour. Sci.,' XXXIII, March 1887). ASTROPHYSICS For a discussion of methods of determining wave-lengths, see Perot and Fabry, 'Ann. (him. et Phys.,' ser. 7, XV., 1899, also XXV., 1902 and Bell, 'Astroph. Jour.,' XV, 157, 1902. The in- fra-red spectrum of the elements has been inves- tigated by prism and concave grating with the help of bolometer and radiomicrometer by Snow, Lewis, Rubens, Paschen, Julius, Nichols, and others. Short wave-lengths are absorbed by even a few centimeters of air, but Schumann ( CIL, Abtta. 2a, 1893), has greatly increased our informa- tion of this region of the spectrum. By means of a spectroscopic apparatus in a vacuum with lenses and prisms of fluorite, and photographic plates prepared by himself, a wave-length of Xi.ooo was supposed to be reached. More ac- curate wave-lengths have been determined by Lyman using a concave grating ('Astroph. Jour.,* XIX., 263, 1904), who measured lines in the ultra-violet as far as X 1,033. Line Scries. — That there is some orderly arrangement in the lines of a spectrum was shown by Balmer's law for the hydrogen lines in 1885, and by the presence of numerous trip- lets in the spectra of magnesium, calcium, and zinc. Further researches by Kayser and Runge, Rydberg, and Schuster with the development by them of empirical mathematical formula;, have led to a great deal of interesting information regarding these series of lines. The interde- pendence of astronomy and physics was clearly demonstrated, when Pickering in 1897 discov- ered a new series of lines in the spectrum of the star f Puppis. This was found to be one of the series due to hydrogen produced under con- ditions not realized in the physical laboratory. However, in a great majority of the elements, the series already discovered comprise only a small percentage of the total number of lines. The exact meaning of these series is as yet unknown, although several very promising at- tempts have been made to explain them from theoretical considerations. The chief among them may be mentioned those of Julius, Ames, Kovesligethy, and Stoney. Stoney ('Trans. Roy. Soc.' Dublin, 1891) has sought to explain multiple lines from dynamical considerations, comparing the motions of the molecule with those of the bodies of the solar system whose motions in ellipses are perturbed by the pres- ence of other bodies. Stoney, moreover, shows that the conclusions drawn by these dynamical methods may also be considered valid under the electromagnetic theory of light, a statement which receives support from Preston's observa- tions of the Zeeman effect ('Phil. Mag.,' XLVIL, 176, 1899). For detailed information on spectral series, see Kayser's 'Handbuch der Spectroscopic' Vol. II. Change in Physical Conditions. — The early idea that the position of a line of a spectrum was the result of chance is still further modified by the change of the wave-length of a line resulting from a change in the physical conditions. Jewell noticed while measuring solar spectrum photographs that the arc lines of the compari- son spectrum did not in many cases exactly correspond with the lines in the sun. This led to the investigations of Jewell. Humphreys, and Mohler ('Astroph. Jour..' VI.. 169, 1897), on the spectra of an arc under pressure of from one to 15 atmospheres. From measurements of the spectra of 53 elements, it was shown that the lines are shifted by pressure toward the red end of the spectrum, the amount of the shift being directly proportional to the increase of pressure, but being independent of the tempera- ture. For a given element, the shifts of similar lines are proportional to their wave- length, hut lines of different series, principal, first and sec- ond subordinate, are shifted in the ratios of I :2:4. The appearances of lines in a spectrum are greatly altered by other physical conditions. Eder and Valenta have found that argon gi\r~ three distinct spectra under different electrical conditions, Schenck that the spark line of Mg at X4481, which has so often been con- as a sure sign of a high temperature, vanishes if the electrodes become so hot that they glow and begin to melt. Locker has made a great number of investigations on "enhanced" lines, or those which are brighter in the spark than in the arc. He explains their meaning on the assumption that the spark is hotter than 'he arc, an assumption which is hard to reconcile with other observed phenomena. In this con- nection, Kayser, in his excellent 'Handbuch der Spectroscopic,' Vol. II., p. 181, says: "We can- not assume any connection between the spectrum and the temperature of the body producing it, and all conclusions which are based on the tem- perature at which a line or band will appear are quite unsound. 8 Enhanced lines are found in the spectrum of certain stars like a Cygni, and also in the flash spectrum taken at the time of a total solar eclipse of the sun. The pres- ence of these lines is important, but it is difficult at the present time to tell their exact meaning Solar Spectrum. — The infra-red solar spec- trum has been investigated by Becquerel and Lommel to *950O by using phosphorescent screens, by Abney to *27,ooo, who photographed with a special emulsion of silver bromide and collodion, and by Langley by the use of the bolometer to ^53,386. Rowland's 'Photo- graphic Map of the Normal Solar Spectrum' (Baltimore, 1888), made with a powerful con- cave grating extending from X 3,000 to X6,95o, and his 'Table of Solar Spectrum Wave- Lengths' (Chicago, 1898), which contain ac- curate measures of some twenty thousand lines. give the most accurate information we possess of the solar spectrum, and have been accepted by all astrophysicists as the common standard of reference. Rowland's determination of relative wave-lengths leave little to be desired in ac- curacy. Measures were made by the method of coincidences which is rendered possible by the use of concave grating which permit two over- lapping spectra to be photographed on the same plate without change of focus. However, tin- standard lines of the spectrum have not had their wave-lengths determined with equal ac- curacy, and they have not been quite properly spaced throughout the spectrum, with the result that at the Saint Louis Conference, 1905, a redetermination of Rowland's standards was re- garded as one of the present greatest needs in astrophysics. Eclipses have furnished interesting develop- ments in the history of spectrum analysis. The spectroscope was first used at the eclipse of 1868 by Janssen in India, when it was shown that the prominences give bright line spectra, ASTROPHYSICS thus showing they are masses of hydrogen gas. The lines were so bright that Janssen looked for them the next day without an eclipse, and found them readily enough. In 1869, the green "coronium" line was discovered; in 1870, Young discovered the "Hash spectrum," which was photographed Eor the first time by Shackleton in 1896. At the eclipses of 1898, 1000, and 1901, Evershed, Lockyer, and Mitchell gave accurate determinations of wave-lengths from these re- versed spectra, those of Mitchell being obtained by the use of a grating. Stellar Spectra.— Modern stellar spectro- scopes arc best represented by the Mills spec- trograph of the Lick Observatory (Campbell, 'Astroph, Jour.,' VIII., 123, 1898), by the Bruce spectrograph of the Yerkes observatory' (Frost, 'Astroph. Jour.,' XV., 1, 1902), and that of the Astrophysical Observatory of Potsdam (Hart- mann, "Zeitsch. fiir Instrum.,' December 1901). The spectrographs are similar in having the slit placed at the focus of the great telescope, and a dispersion of three prisms giving a total devi- ation of 180 . By means of a guiding eye-piece, it is possible to keep the star's light centrally on the slit during the exposure. Since this ex- posure may last for four or five hours, it i3 necessary, in order to have perfect definition, to keep the temperature constant. This is ac- complished by means of an automatic tempera- ture control which will keep the prisms of the spectrograph within 0.1 C. during an exposure, when outside in the dome the temperature may change by several degrees. A stellar spectrum is pbotographed alongside a comparison spec- trum in order to determine wave-lengths more accurately, and to give measures of the motion in the line of sight, the most important work of stellar spectroscopy. The spectrograms are most readily reduced by the Hartmann-Cornu formula : X = X + — , .s - S , where X , c, and s a are constants and s is the scale reading of the line whose wave-length is desired. The motion in the line of sight in kilometers per second corresponding to the displacement AX is given by Vi AX V s = - X where Vs is the desired velocity of the star, and Vl the velocity of light in kilometers. The mosl prominent workers in radial velocity have been Campbell, Vogel, Duner, Frost, Keeler, Ilartmann, and Belopolsky, who have pretty thoroughly surveyed the northern hemisphere. Wright of the Lick Observatory has gone to Santiago, Chile, for similar work in the southern heavens. The observers in this field have en- tered into co-operation in order to observe the same stars at certain times for the purpose of determining thoroughly the constants of the spectrographs used. Campbell has discovered many stars with variable radial velocities, thus showing they are accompanied by #ie or more companions. At the present time there are nearly a hundred spectroscopic binaries known with periods which range from a few days to two and a half years. According to Doppler's principle of motion in the line of sight, the lines will be shifted toward the red end of the spectrum if the dis- tance between the source of light and the ob- server is increasing, but toward the violet end if this distance is decreasing. The grandest ap- plication is seen in Keeler's proof ('Astroph. jour.,' I., 416, 1895) of the meteoric constitution of Saturn's rings. If meteoric, the linear mo- tion of the rings will be greatest nearest the planet and decrease outward, if solid the rings will rotate as a whole, all particles having the same angular motion, the linear speed increas- ing from centre to circumference. With solid rings, and a slit placed across the planet's equa- tor, the lines on the side moving toward us would be shifted toward the region of short wave-lengths, the shift being proportional to the linear motion. While for the side moving away from us the lines would be shifted in the opposite direction. Thus, on account of the gradual increase in linear motion from centre to circumference, the lines would be gradually shifted, in the complete spectrum having the effect of lines slightly inclined. Such, however, is not the appearance of the lines photographed by Keeler, and these can be explained only un- der the assumption that the rings are a collec- tion of small satellites, giving, therefore, a di- rect confirmation of the mathematical theory of Maxwell. An important application of line of sight measurements is in determining the motion of the solar system through space. The "apex of the sun's way'* may be found from proper mo- tion determinations, or from line of sight meas- urement used separately, but in a more satisfac- tory way by applying both methods of research. The right ascension and declination of the point toward which the sun is moving is found from recent measures to be o =280°, 5 =35° north. This point is situated in the constellation Lyra about 4 from the first-magnitude star Vega, Campbell's determination of the velocity is 19.89 ±1.52 kilometres per second, a speed which would carry our system over almost ex- actly four radii of the earth's orbit in a year. When more information is received from the line of sight measurement of the southern hemis- phere, a better redetermination of this problem will be possible. The spectra of stars naturally fall into sev- eral types. Secchi's classification is as follows : Type I. — White or blue stars, the spectrum characterized by the breadth and intensity of the hydrogen lines with metallic lines very faint. This type includes more than half the stars. Type II. — Yellow stars like our sun, with spectra resembling that of the sun very closely, consisting of a great number of fine dark lines. Type III. — Red and orange stars, including most of the variables. The spectrum is crossed by numerous dark bands or flirtings, which are sharply defined on the blue side and shade off toward the red. o Orionis, Antares, and Ceti are good examples. Type IV.— Deep reddish stars, all faint. The spectrum resembles that of Type III., but the flutings are reversed in direction, being sharply defined on the red side. 152 Schjellerup is the best example. Pickering has suggested a fifth type to in- clude many stars having bright lines in their spectra, and the planetary nebulae. ASTROPHYSICS Other classifications are due to Vogel, Lock- yer, and Miss Maury of the Harvard College Observatory. One of the grandest problems of scientific research is undoubtedly the question of stellar evolution. By common consent the nebula is regarded as being the primordial matter. The first stage of development is represented, ac- cording to Huggins, 'Atlas of Representative Stellar Spectra' (London, 1899), a masterpiece with superb illustrations, by a star like A of Ononis, one of the stars of the great nebula. Orion and helium stars are followed in devel- opment by the white stars of Secchi's first type. Evolution can be traced step by step, through stages like those represented by the stars " Lyrae, Sirius, Castor (fainter star), a Aquilx, Procyon, 7 Cygni, till we come to the fully developed second type star like Capella and the sun. Increased absorption at the violet end of the spectrum give the red stars of Secchi's third and fourth types, which, according to Huggins, develop in parallel lines. The period of increas- ing old age is evident from the carbon absorp- tion bands, and it is easy to imagine this ab- sorption increasing in amount till the whole light of the star is cut off. But even at this stage, when the star gives no light, the spectro- scope is not powerless to follow, for if the dark star accompanies a bright one, its presence is revealed through a change in the motion of the line of sight. There has been quite consider- able discussion as to which star, Sirius or the sun, is in the hotter stage of development. The color of Sirius, and the maximum in its spec- trum being more toward the violent end than in the case of the sun, would seem to indicate a higher temperature. Huggins and a great many astronomers think that the sun is in the hottest state, but that the great absorption in its atmosphere compared with that of Sirius, makes the color of the sun yellow The spectrum of the sun is almost identical with that of Capella, which shows that the sun is a star, rendered brighter and bigger on account of its nearness. The stellar magnitude of the sun is — 26.4 on the same scale that Sirius is a star of magnitude — 1.4. Thus, according to Newcomb, 'Stars,' p. 27, the sun gives us : 10,000.000,000 times the light of Sirius. 91.000,000,000 times the light of a star of magnitude 1. 9,100,000,000,000 times the light of a star of magnitude 6. The square roots of these numbers show the number of times we should increase the actual distance of the sun in order that it might shine as a star of the corresponding magnitude. Un- der these conditions, the distance and parallax of the sun would be : Sirius; Distance, 100,000: Parallax, 2". 06 Mag. 1; Distance, 302,000: Parallax, o".68 Mag. 6; Distance, 3,020,000: Parallax, o".o7 From the large size of the parallaxes, it is evident that the sun must be a very small star in the heavens. But its nearness renders it a very important star, one in which we can study the second stage of stellar development in all its details. Interesting work has been done by Hale in this field by the application of the spectro- heliograph invented by himself. With the 12- inch telescope of the Kenwood Observatory, the prominences and the surface of the sun have been photographed in monochromatic light. More remarkable results have been obtained with the spectroheliograph and Yerkes' tele- scope ('Astroph. Jour.,' XIX., 41, 1904). Its great focal length of over sixty feet gives a solar image about seven inches in diameter, an increase in size which permits a more detailed study of the sun's surface. A photograph can be taken with the slit of the spectroheliograph at the centre of the K line at ^3933.8, another with the slit moved a trifle to ^3932, and still others with th e slit at \3929 and ^3924. These photographs show bright calcium patches on the face of the sun which Hale has called "flocculi," and the four of them not only differ from photographs taken with the calcium H and hydrogen F lines, but differ materially among themselves. These photographs are explained as being due to a difference in level of the gases, and from these and other results it seems prob- able that the calcium flocculi are in general made up of a series of columns, which expand as they reach higher levels, and in many cases overhang laterally. Astrophysical work along entirely different lines has been carried out at the Astrophysical Observatory of the Smithsonian Institution. Langley's bolometer used in connection with a sensitive galvanometer, perfected in the hands of Abbot, can give an automatic record of the energy received from the sun. These holo- grams and simultaneous observations made with the actinometer or pyrheliometer, permit an elimination of the variable absorbing effect of the earth's atmosphere, thus giving a measure of the energy from the sun that reaches the outside of the earth's atmosphere, or in other words, the "solar constant." Langley's deter- mination made on the top of Mt. Whitney placed the value of the solar constant at 3.0 calories. Recent observations at Washington ('Astroph. Jour.,' XIX., 305, 1004) show that this number is probably too high, and also that the value is not a constant, but varies alto- gether about 10 per cent. Another research carried on at the Smithsonian, has been for the purpose of investigating the absorption of the solar envelope, by means of a long focus tele- scope and bolometer, with the result that it has been shown that likewise this absorption varies in amount. The most interesting part of the whole work has been the comparison with ter- restrial temperatures rendered possible by the International Dekadenberichte. With tempera- ture records from 85 localities in the north tem- perate zone, it has been unmistakably demon- strated that when the solar constant has a very low value terrestrial temperatures are below their average, and at the same time absorp- tion in the solar envelope is large in amount. The interdependence of these variations brings to view one of the most important developments of astrophysics. That terrestrial temperatures should be shown to be closely connected with variations in the sun's heat is very remarkable ; it would be still more startling if it should fol- low that we can forecast great temperature changes — a result which is not impossible. Literature. — The best books on this subject are Kayser's 'Handbuch der Spectroscopic' and Scheiner's 'Astronomical Spectroscopy' (Frost's translation^ S. A. Mitchell, Department of Astronomy, Columbia Univer- sity. ASTRUC — ASYMPTOTE Astruc, as'truk', Jean, French physician : b. 19 March 1684; d. Paris, 5 March 1766. He acquired high reputation as an anatomist, and was the author of 'Venereal Diseases' (1736), and other medical works. The work, however, which has immortalized him is purely theological and is entitled 'Conjectures as to the Original .Materials of Which Moses Seems to Have Availed Himself in Composing the Book of Genesis' (1753). In this he divides the book of Genesis into two parts, on the ground of the use of Elohim (God) or Yahveh (Jehovah). He holds that these two names for the Deity point to the fact that Genesis was compiled from two parallel, independent documents. His memoir forms the origin of modern criticism on the Pentateuch. As'trup, Eivind, Norwegian explorer : b. Christiania, 1870; d. 1896. He was a member of the first and second Peary expeditions, 1891 and 1893, and made the first survey of the northern coast of Melville Bay. He perished while on a snowshoe expedition from Dovre, Norway. Astura, as-too'ra, a maritime village of Italy, 40 miles from Rome. In its little harbor a high tower is said to stand on the site of the villa of Cicero, where Cicero was slain by order of Antony 43 B.C. Asturias (as-too'ria). The, a former princi- pality of Spain. To this mountainous country of the north of Spain the Goths retreated in the 8th century before the sword of the Sara- cens. The inhabitants of Asturia are said to be less industrious than the Galicians, and less so- ciable than the Biscayans. The hereditary prince of Spain has borne since 1388 the title of Prince of Asturia, or of the Asturians, accord- ing to the obsolete division into Asturia de Oviedo and Asturia de Santillana, Oviedo and Santillana being the two chief cities of the prin- cipality. Since 1838 the principality has been officially known as the province of Oviedo. See Oviedo. Asty'ages, the last' king of Media, reigned 594-559 B.C. In the latter year he was dethroned by Cyrus, who, according to Herodotus, was his grandson. Cyrus revolted in 559, and defeated Astyages, whom he took prisoner, but after- ward appointed governor of Hyrcania. Astyanax, sometimes known as Scamandrius. A Greek legendary character, the son of Hector and Andromache. Asuncion, a-soon'the-on, or Nuestra Se- nora de la Asuncion (in English, Assump- tion), the capital of Paraguay, on the river Paraguay. The principal edifices are the cathe- dral, several other churches and convents, the president's palace, house of congress, arsenal, custom-house, a college, hospital, railway sta- tion, etc. The trade of the town is in Paraguay tea, tobacco, fruits, hides, timber, provisions, manufactured goods, etc. Steamers and sailing vessels ply on the river. The town was founded on the feast of the Assumption in '537, hence its name. Pop. (1900) 51,700. Asurnazirpal, a'soor-na'zer-pal, a king of Assyria from 881 B.C. to 860. He was one of the most warlike of Assyrian kings, and in numer- ous campaigns enlarged his empire, especially toward the westward, extending it from Leba- non to the Tigris. lie also rebuilt Calah, his capital, and left a record of his achievements in the so-called 'Standard Inscription.' Aswal, as'wal, a Hindu name of the sloth- bear. See Bears. Asy'lum, a place where persons flee for protection. Under the Mosaic dispensation cities of refuge were set apart to which the slayer might flee so that innocent blood should not be shed, in case the person was not worthy of death — that is, in case the act was accidental and not malicious. But among the ancients, outside of the Jews, it seems that temples, statues to the gods, and altars particularly consecrated for such purposes, constituted places of refuge for per- sons generally, and it was deemed an act of im- piety to remove, forcibly, one who had fled to such an asylum for protection. However, Tibe- rius abolished all asylums except the temples of Juno and j-Esculapius. These asylums finally passed over to the Christian world, and under Constantine the Great, all Christian churches were made asylums for all those who were pur- sued by officers of justice or the violence of their enemies, and the younger Theodosius, in the year 431, extended these privileges to all courts, gardens, walks, and houses belonging to the Church. In the year 631 the Synod of Toledo extended the limits of asylums 30 paces from every church, and this privilege afterward pre- vailed in Catholic countries, and it is said to have been a strong armor of defense against the wild spirit of the Middle Ages, and not without good consequences at the time when force often prevailed against justice. But in later times as other and better systems of pro- cedure in the administration of justice became adopted, asylums were abolished in most coun- tries. This seems to have been the origin, na- ture, and object of asylums, and such the com- mon acceptation of the term, but more recently in some countries, the name has been given to institutions for the protection and care of the poor, blind, deaf and dumb, and lunatics who are incapable of taking care of themselves. Asy'lum, Right of, in international law, the right which forbids one government to ap- ply its laws to its own or its enemy's subjects when they are within the jurisdiction of an- other government. Most commonly this right is accorded to a foreign legation to shelter per- sons subject to the jurisdiction of the State where the legation is situated. It is universally conceded that the right of asylum is not to be applied in the case of ordinary criminals, but it is usually made use of for the protection of political offenders. Asymmet'ric (as-i-met'rik) System, in crystallography, the crystal form now more commonly called "triclinic." It was called asymmetric because it has no plane of symme- try. See Crystal. Asymptote, as'Im-tot (from three Greek words, meaning "not to fall with" or coincide), a term used in geometry to designate a line which continually approaches another line, but never meets it, however far either of them may be prolonged. At least one of the lines must be a curve. Though the very existence of such a line seems paradoxical, it can be demonstrated AT ODDS — ATACAMITE on the strictest mathematical principles, as in the case of the hyperbola and its directrix. The term first occurs in the conic sections of Apol- lonius. At Odds, the title of a novel by the Baron- ess Tautphcens (1863), dealing with the vicis- situdes of a Bavarian family during a stormy epoch from Hohenlinden to Wagram. It is told with a happy ease and directness; and if it has not the brilliancy of 'The Initials,' is not less clever as a study of character. Atacama, a'td-ka'ma, the name, formerly, of two South American provinces: (1) A northern province of Chile^ with an area of 28,- 380 square miles, and a population (1895) of 59.7 r 3- About 1,000 silver and 250 copper mines are worked, and gold is also found in considerable quantities. Salt deposits cover sometimes 50 square miles. Copper, to the value of over $7,500,000 annually, is the chief export to England. Capital, Copiapo. (2) A Bolivian Department, which formerly extended as far north as Peru, and east to Argentina. All that part of the district west of the Andes was ceded, in 1884, to the Chileans, and formed into the Department of Antofagasta, with an area of 60,770 square miles. The recently discov- ered mines of Caracoles are said to be the most productive silver mines in the world. The former capital, Cohija (pop. 2,380), was long the only port in the district ; but the rival port of Antofagasta, founded in 1870, had by 1894 at- tained a population of 7.946. A'taca'ma, a desert region on the west coast of South America, formerly belonging partly to Bolivia, partly to Chile, but now be- longing wholly to the latter. It lies between the Andes and the sea and much of it at the height of 3,000 to s.ooo feet above the sea. The des- ert of Atacama proper, a tract almost entirely destitute of water and vegetation, lies partly in the Antofagasta territory of Chile, partly in the province of Atacama. The soil consists of stones and gravel, and the surface is diversified with many mountains. The Salina of Atacama, a salt morass, mostly dried up, has a surface of 1,084 square miles, and lies at the height of over 7.000 feet. Atacamite, -tak'-, a mineral, originally found as sand in the Atacama provin northern Chile. It is essentially a hydroxy- chlorid of copper, having the formula CuCl=.3Cu(OII)2. It crystallizes in the ortho- rhombic system, and has a hardness of from 3 to 3.5, and a specific gravity of 3.76. Atacamite is green in color, and commonly occurs either massive or in the form of sand. A coating having the same chemical composition is formed on metallic copper, as the result of prolonged exposure to sea-water or air. Atacamite ex- ists in considerable quantity in various parts of South America, and in Australia; and has been used to some extent as a source of copper. In the United States it is found at Jerome, Arizona. LIBRARY UNTVERST-^Y OF RNlA SAXTA BARBARA fcgr/t ( WVjjtd mXt ^flf mmam i n'lBUaflV '■ n't mi flfl B$&f m/BnI f ^"m(m. ' t»Iii FOR REFERENCE NOT TO BE TAKEN FROM THE ROOM 3D 23 012